Canopies and Corridors - International Fund for Animal Welfare

Eds: Rahul Kaul, Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Sunil Kyarong, 

Ritwick Dutta and Vivek Menon 

Government of Meghalaya

CANOPIES AND CORRIDORS 

Conserving the forests of Garo Hills with elephants and 

gibbons as flagships 

Garo Hills 

Autonomous 

District Council 

Eds: Rahul Kaul, Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Sunil Kyarong, 

Ritwick Dutta and Vivek Menon

The International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) works to improve the welfare of wild and domestic animals 

through out the world by reducing commercial exploitation of animals, protecting wildlife habitats, and assisting 

animals in distress. IFAW seeks to motivate the public to prevent cruelty to animals and to promote animal 

welfare and conservation policies that advance the well-being of both animals and people. 

Wildlife Trust of India (WTI), is a non-profit conservation organisation, committed to help conserve nature, 

especially endangered species and threatened habitats, in partnership with communities and governments. Its 

vision is the natural heritages of India is secure. 

Suggested Citation: Rahul Kaul, Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Sunil Kyarong, Ritwick Dutta and Vivek Menon (Eds). 

Canopies and Corridors- Conserving the forests of Garo Hills with elephants and gibbons as flagships, Wildlife 

Trust of India. 

Keywords: Garo Hills, elephant, gibbon, Balapakram National Park, Nokrek National Park, Meghalaya, Siju, 

Selbalgre, GHADC, Garo Hills Autonomous District Council, sacred groves, forest management. 

The designations of geographical entities in this publication and the presentation of the material do not imply the 

expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the authors or WTI concerning the legal status of any 

country, territory or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. 

Copyright © WTI 2010 

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this publication for educational or any noncommercial 

purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided 

the source is fully acknowledged and appropriate credit given. Reproduction of material in this information 

product for or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. 

Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Executive Director, Wildlife Trust of India or 

by e-mail to info@wti.org.in 

Photo credits: 

Sunil Kyarong: Front Cover, Pg. 68, 108, 110, 114 (top), 115 (top right) and 116 (top & bottom) 

Ritwick Dutta: Back cover, Pg.112 (bottom left) 

Sandeep Kumar Tiwari: 9, 11, 45, 51, 74, 75, 78, 91, 93, 107, 109 top,112 (bottom right),113,114(bottom), 

115 (top left & bottom), 121, 128 

Jayanta Das: Title page 

J Dutta: Pg.46 and 47 

O.P Tripathy: Pg.62, 66 and 67 

Bulbully Marak: Pg. 109 left bottom 

Cover design: Jan Mohammad 

Layout: Moeen Aijaz/John Kunjkunju 

Printed at : Summit Advertising, New Delhi

CONTENTS 

FOREWORD 4 

PREFACE 5 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 6 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7 

CHAPTER I Introduction 8 

Rahul Kaul and Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

CHAPTER II A brief profile of Meghalaya 12 

Kiranmay Sarma 

CHAPTER III Forest and wildlife conservation in Garo Hills autonomous district 

council- a policy analysis 23 

Ritwick Dutta 

CHAPTER IV Forest resources and management in Garo Hill districts 44 

Kiranmay Sarma and Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

CHAPTER V Land use/land cover and community structure of major forests type in 

Garo Hill districts 52 

Kiranmay Sarma, O. P. Tripathy and Krishna Upadhyay 

CHAPTER VI Natural resource extraction and utilization by the people of 

Garo hills, Meghalaya 69 

Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Rahul Kaul, Susenjit Nath Choudhury, 

Siddhartha Bhattacharjee, Satadal Acherji and Prabal Sarkar 

CHAPTER VII People's perception of forest management and conservation in Garo Hills 80 

Susenjit Nath Choudhury, Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Rahul Kaul, 

Siddhartha Bhattacharjee and Satadal Acherji 

CHAPTER VIII Conservation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Meghalaya 91 

with special reference to corridors 

Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Vivek Menon, Sunil Kyarong and Rahul Kaul 

CHAPTER IX Joining the Gibbon canopies to restore the Nokrek landscape 112 

Sunil Kyarong, Rahul Kaul, Vivek Menon and Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

ANNEXURES 117 

OTHER WTI PUBLICATIONS 166

FOREWORD 

February 12, 2008 

Forests are the most important natural resources available to mankind and afford a wide range of socioeconomic 

benefit as well as environmental values and services. However the balance between resource 

availability and utilization of these valuable natural resources has been threatened by the continuing abuse, 

deforestation and degradation of the forest. This trend needs to be contained and action plan prepared based on 

the principle of sustainable development and general human wellbeing. 

Meghalaya has a large area under the control of the community and private persons and less than 10% is under 

the control of government. By virtue of the fact that Meghalaya is a VI th Schedule area, the management of all 

forests other than government reserve forest and protected Areas are under Autonomous District Council 

Councils. 

The Garo hills comprising of the district of East, West and South Garo Hill is within the jurisdiction of Garo Hills 

Autonomous District Council (GHADC) and supports a rich biodiversity in terms of flora and fauna. This is also 

an important Asian elephant habitat and majority of the elephants of the state are concentrated here. However, 

jhum cultivation, unplanned mining and other developmental activities have led to fragmentation and 

degradation of elephant habitats threatening their existence. This has also increased the conflict with humans in 

recent time. It thus bestows considerable responsibility upon the GHADC to effectively protect the forests and 

wildlife under their control to mitigate conflict and protect and conserve the wildlife. 

This publication on biodiversity conservation through awareness and capacity building of the local tribal council 

in Garo Hills is thus a significant contribution to forest and wildlife conservation in Garo Hills. Similar exercises 

should also be initiated in other Schedule VI areas to strengthen conservation initiatives. The publication is an 

outcome of concerted efforts by the Wildlife Trust of India and support of Garo Hills Autonomous District 

Council, State Forest department and other individuals involved in conservation. 

The effort of Wildlife Trust of India to conserve the elephants in the state by identifying and securing the elephant 

corridors and other landscape will definitely contribute to mitigating human-elephant conflict and afford greater 

protection and conservation of elephants in Meghalaya. 

The publication is a unique example of bringing in the administrators, policy makers, land planners, scientists and 

conservationists under one umbrella to protect and nurture the rich conservation tradition of the Garos. The 

publication I am sure will significantly contribute to achieving sustainable conservation practices in the region. 

A. N. Prasad 

Inspector General Forests & 

Director Project Elephant

PREFACE 

The Balphakram and Nokrek National Parks are the only two protected areas for wildlife in the 

Garo Hills. Yet, the entire spine of the Garo Hills still has large potential as wildlife habitat 

and unlike the other districts of Meghalaya still harbours fairly good wildlife population. The 

connectivity of this landscape for elephant and gibbon, tiger or peacock pheasant lie through akhin 

lands, privately owned clan lands, much of which is still under forest. Extensive jhuming has cut 

through a lot of this, but Balphakram National Park and Siju WLS are connected to Nokrek through 

Rewak and Emangiri RFs and the akhin lands. WTI started a project here to try and secure the 

connectivity between these two important parks for elephants as part of its elephant corridors 

project sponsored by the World Land Trust. Soon however, the creation of the Selbelgere reserve for 

gibbons, a district council initiative supported by WTI (through its British High Commission 

sponsored district council project) had expanded the concept to include other species as well. 

This report chronicles the first three or four years of this project. It is a fascinating chronicle of 

conservation in this region, particularly as the conservation of private forests in Meghalaya is so 

unlike any other part of India. Community conservation takes a whole new meaning in this state 

where the forest department and the government control only a fraction of the forests and wildlife 

that exists in the region. The district council project of the BHC was an attempt at doing just this; 

assessing the status of forests and wildlife in four selected district councils and advising these local 

governments in ways to protect forests under their own rules and regulations. Many of these may 

rely on traditional and community based means of protection but many are powers vested under 

the sixth schedule listing of these lands in the Indian constitution. Despite this, local councils had 

not taken the issue of wildlife conservation seriously in most part. 

It is extremely heartening to note that in this short period, two relatively large areas of Selbelgere 

and Aretika have been declared village reserves by the Garo District Council. Full credit must be 

given to the council leaders and akhin nokmas for coming forward and transcending decades of 

mistrust of authorities by participating in these conservation measures to such an extent. While the 

role of the WTI team in the area is laudatory, they have acted only as catalysts and the credit for 

securing these lands goes to the local government. This example also acts as a pioneer step for other 

district council, autonomous councils and tribal councils to emulate and declare their own 

conservation reserves. The Wildlife Protection Act in its latest amendment recognized the power of 

local community protection by creating community reserves as an option of protection. Creation of 

village reserves or other similar local government protected areas can be a first step towards such 

protection or logically even devolution of the same idea to an even more local level. Such 

conservation measures can only be good for the threatened biodiversity of the area. 

Canopies and Corridors 

Vivek Menon 

Executive Director 

5

The report is an outcome of relentless effort of a 

large number of individuals and organizations. 

We express our heartfelt gratitude to Mr. E. A. 

Sangma, Chief Executive Member Garo Hills 

Autonomous District Council (GHADC) for 

extending all help to the team while conducting 

survey in the area. This report would not have been 

possible without the cooperation and support of over 

500 individuals and gaun burahswho answered to all 

our queries during survey and offered us food and at 

times shelter to successfully complete the survey. 

We are thankful to Mr. V. K. Nautiyal, Principal 

Chief Conservator of Forest, Meghalaya and Mr Sunil 

Kumar, Chief Wildlife Warden, Meghalaya for the 

permission to undertake the elephant corridor 

identification in the state, securing of Siju-Rewak 

elephant corridor and for all the assistance extended to 

WTI team during the course of survey and 

groundtruthing. We express our sincere thanks to Mr. 

A. N. Prasad, Director Project Elephant and Mr. S.S. 

Bist, former Director Project Elephant for their constant 

encouragement and support while groundtruthing the 

corridors and securing of Siju-Rewak corridor in 

Meghalaya. We are also thankful to Mr. T.T.C. Marak, 

former CCF, Social Forestry and Environment and 

currently the Chairman Meghalaya Board of Secondary 

Education who helped us a lot in completing the 

corridor identification process and subsequent 

initiatives in securing Siju-Rewak elephant corridor. 

We are also thankful to Mr. Robin Shullai, CF, Mr. 

P.R. Marak, DFO East and West Garo Hills, Mr. R. 

Thiek DFO, South Garo Hills; Mr. T. Wananniang, 

ACF, South Garo Hills; Mr. P. H. S. Bonney, former 

DFO Khasi Hills Wildlife Sanctuary; Mr. James 

Pohsngap, DFO Jowai; Mr. S.N. Sangma, ACF, East 

and West Garo Hills Wildlife Division, Mr. J. Dutta 

DFO Social forestry Tura for their constant help, 

support and cooperation in successful groundtruthing 

of the corridors and securing of Siju-Rewak corridor. 

We are grateful to Mr. Alphonse A. Sangma, 

member District Council, Mr. Pittor R. Marak, Nokma 

Siju and Chairman, Village Reserve Committee, Mrs. 

Sanilla A. Sangma, Nokma , Mr. Jahil R. Sangma, Vice 

Chairman, Mr. Elzin R. Marak, Secretary, Mr. 

Wenithson Momim, Joint Secretary and Mr. Witha A. 

Sangma, Treasurer, Village Reserve Committee and 

Mr. Selbalson Sangma, Mr Jenura D. Sangma, Mr 

Silchang A. Sangma, Mr. Nirena Sangma, Mr Dalne 

D. Shira, Mr Puttu A. Sangma, Mr. Laming Sangma, 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

and villagers of Aritika for their help, cooperation and 

protecting the Siju-Rewak elephant corridor. We are 

also thankful to Mr .Ronatson Momim. Range Forest 

Officer, Baghmara (GHADC), Mr. Leonidas Momim, 

Ms Bulbuly Marak, Tourist Officer, Baghmara for 

their help and to Dr. Jaseng N. Sangma, Baghmara 

Health Centre and Dr. Smita Sangma, Baghmara 

Health Centre for voluntarily helping WTI organize 

health camp in Arthika. 

For the Selbalgre Village Reserve, we extend our 

thanks to Mr. Piletson Sangma, Nokma and 

Chairman, Mr Mijan CH. Marak, Nokma and vicechairman, 

Mr Saljensing CH. Marak, Secretary, Mr. 

Krenithson Sangma, Joint Secretary, Mr. Ballison 

Sangma, Treasurer of Selbalgre Village Reserve 

Committee and Mr. Mingjin Marak, Mr. Chirok 

Marak, Mr. Jengnang Sangma, Mr. Balmen Marak, 

Mr. Dalmen Marak, Mr. Miksong Marak and Mr. Puri 

Marak executive members and all the villagers of 

Selbalgre for taking the bold initiative of keeping 

apart forest for future generation and declaration of 

Selbalgre Village Reserve. 

We are also thankful to all the members of 

GHADC for extending their assistance and support 

for protection and notification of Selbalgre Village 

Reserve and Siju-Arthika Village Reserve Forest. 

Our thanks also go out to our present and former 

colleagues from Wildlife Trust of India, Dr. P.C. 

Bhattacharjee (Excutive Trustee, WTI and Professor, 

Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Assam), 

Dr. P.S. Easa (former Director), Mr. Aniruddha 

Mookherjee (Senior Director), Dr Ujjal Sarma 

(Programme Officer), Mr Govindan Kutty (former 

Programme Officer), Mr Vyom Raghuvansi (Legal 

Intern), Mr. John Kunjukunju (Executive Assistant), Mr 

Biswajit Saikia (consultant), Mrs Daizy Khan 

(consultant) for their constant support, advice, 

encouragement and assistance during the entire period 

of our conservation effort in Garo hills and preparation 

of this report. 

We wish to thank British High Commission, New 

Delhi, World Land Trust, US Fish and Wildlife 

Services (USFWS) and International Fund for Animal 

Welfare (IFAW) for their financial support and their 

role in successful implementation of the projects and 

contributing to the forest and wildlife conservations 

in Meghalaya. 

6 Canopies and Corridors

The sixth schedule of the constitution of India 

provides the tribal people of northeast India a 

role in planning and development of the area, 

free of external influences or pressures and also in 

accordance with local traditions and needs. Forest is a 

“transferred” subject to the tribal council and lends 

considerable responsibilities upon these councils to 

effect conservation of forests and wildlife within their 

jurisdictional areas. 

Although the district councils have laws to manage 

the forests, there appears to be no mechanism for the 

protection of wildlife. Moreover, the status vis-à-vis 

wildlife conservation as a subject matter within the 

district councils appears vague and without any 

mention. The state is effecting wildlife protection 

within the National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and 

Reserve Forests under their custody but who protects 

wildlife within the jurisdiction of the district council? 

Further, do the present laws and also the resources 

permit the district councils to take the necessary steps 

for initiating and achieving wildlife conservation and 

if they do, do the district councils have the capacity 

and the infrastructure to undertake all of this? 

With these questions in mind, the Wildlife Trust of 

India initiated a project in 2005 in four district councils 

of Northeast India, two each in Assam (Karbi-Anglong 

and Bodoland) and Meghalaya (Garo hills and Khasi 

hills). This was important to chart a roadmap for 

conservation activities in tribal council areas. 

The Garo Hills in Meghalaya has a typical system of 

forest management wherein local communities and 

private persons own majority of the land. Less than 

10% area comprising of Reserve Forests, National 

Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Protected Areas is 

controlled by the state and remaining land is under 

the jurisdiction of the district council. In addition, the 

local communities also have their traditional 

customary laws, which work in conjunction with the 

laws made by the district councils. 

This project on the Autonomous District Councils has 

revealed many interesting aspects on their working 

vis– a– vis forests and wildlife. For one, only the Garo 

Autonomous District Council continues to function in 

a manner originally prescribed in the Constitution of 

India. The Bodo Territorial Council is a recent creation 

with greater control and authority over Forests and 

Wildlife. The project has made certain suggestions 

with respect to Central Statutes and policies so that 

they are more in tune with the Constitutional 

responsibilities vested in the District/ 

Territorial/Autonomous Councils. These suggestions 

assume importance in view of the fact that legal 

developments in the field of conservation and 

protection of forests, wildlife and biodiversity has 


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

failed to take into account the crucial role of these 

Councils in managing, conserving and use of these 

resources. The project therefore charts out a course for 

legal and policy changes and development. 

Wildlife Trust of India has also mapped the forest 

cover of the area using satellite images which was 

then ground truthed to know the distribution of the 

forest resources and extent of different type of forest. 

The dependency of the people on forest resources and 

perception of the households, gaonburah and members 

of district council towards forest and wildlife 

conservation in all the three districts of Garo Hills has 

also been assessed through a questionnaire survey. 

This was important to assess the understanding of the 

people so that it can be communicated to community 

leaders and policy makers for appropriate 

conservation planning and awareness. 

Meghalaya supports the second largest elephant 

population in Northeast, the majority of which are 

concentrated in the Garo Hills. However, jhum 

cultivation, unplanned mining and other 

developmental activities have led to fragmentation 

and degradation of elephant habitats threatening their 

existence. This has also increased the conflict with 

humans in recent time. To minimize human-elephant 

conflict and ensure long term conservation of the 

elephants in Garo Hills, it was thought prudent to link 

the fragmented patches of habitats. Thus in 2001, 

Wildlife Trust of India groundtruthed the elephant 

habitat and identified six elephant corridors in the 

state, of which five are in Garo Hills. One of the most 

vital of these is the Siju-Rewak corridor connecting the 

elephants of the Balpakram NP and Siju WLS with 

Rewak, Angratoli and Imangiri Reserve Forest and 

Nokrek National Park. WTI is working with the local 

community, forest department and GHADC to secure 

this corridor and a remarkable outcome of this has 

been the declaration of about 200 hectares of the 

corridor forest as Siju-Aretika Village Reserve forest. 

Thus a major part of the corridor has been secured 

and other impediments are being worked upon to 

totally secure the corridor. 

Wildlife Trust of India is also working with the local 

community of Selbalgre village and GHADC in West 

Garo Hills and has been able to notify about 200 

hectares of Aking land as Village Reserve forest. This is 

an important Hoolock gibbon habitat and also harbours 

other wildlife. Efforts are being made to add more areas 

with a view to join the small patches of forest separated 

by fallow jhum land between Rongram and Nokrek. 

Thus, by protecting the gibbon habitat in Rongram- 

Nokrek landscape and elephant habitat between 

Nokrek-Balpakram landscape, efforts are being made to 

improve the wildlife habitat that can facilitate 

unhindered movement of animals and minimize 

encounter with human and reduce conflicts. 

7

The sixth schedule of the constitution provided 

some tribal people of northeast India a role in 

designing the development of their land. This 

was to ensure that the development happened free of 

external influences or pressures and also in 

accordance with the local traditions and needs. 

Forests is a “transferred” subject to the tribal councils, 

bestows considerable responsibilities upon these 

district councils and therefore to effect conservation 

of forests and wildlife within their areas in northeast 

India. 

Northeast India, comprising of the states of Assam, 

Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, 

Auranachal Pradesh, Tripura and Sikkim is regarded 

as one of the 34 Biodiversity Hotspots in the world 

(Mittermeier et al., 2005). It is designated as one the 

important eco-regions i.e. Northeast India-Myanmar 

pine forests (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998) and has more 

than 50% forest cover (Forest Survey of India 2001). 

These forests, hold for example, species like tiger 

(Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), 

Greater One-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), 

Leopard, (Panthera pardus) Clouded leopard (Neofelis 

nebulosa), Takin (Budorcas taxicolor), Golden Langur 

(Trachypithecus geei), Slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) 

and Phayre’s leaf monkey (Trachypithecus phayeri) 

which are on the IUCN Red list of Threatened 

Animals 2000 (IUCN 2002). 

Societies of this region are pre-dominantly 

agrarian and their dependence on forests for 

sustenance and livelihoods is heavy. Being relatively 

under-developed compared to other regions of the 

country, opportunities for alternative livelihoods are 

limited. Peoples’ dependence on forests and also on 

CHAPTER I 

Introduction 

Rahul Kaul and Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

meat (Hilaluddin et al.,2005) is taking a heavy toll on 

these natural resources. This is apparently more so 

after a ban was imposed on the felling of trees, 

curtailing further, any opportunities to earn 

livelihoods. 

Northeast India also has a typical system of forest 

management, wherein the local communities manage 

large areas of forests. This is more so in the states 

under Schedule VI of the Constitution i.e. Tribal areas 

of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura. By 

virtue of this schedule, the management of all forests 

other than government reserved forests and Protected 

Areas are under autonomous District Councils. The 

District Councils are constitutional bodies with a large 

degree of functional autonomy which has its own 

administrative apparatus for the management of 

forests. For example in the state of Meghalaya the 

government controls only 725.13 Km 2 of the total of 

9506 Km 2 forest area which includes the Reserve 

Forests, National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and 

protected areas. The rest is under the jurisdiction of 

the district councils. In addition, the local 

communities also have their traditional customary 

laws, which work in conjunction with the laws made 

by the district councils. 

Although the district councils have laws to 

manage the forests, there appears to be no mechanism 

within the district councils for the protection of 

wildlife. The nature of forest management in 

northeast India is quite different from the rest of the 

country and involves people down to the village 

levels in determining the land use. However, the 

status of wildlife conservation as a subject matter 

within the district councils appears vague and

Fig 1. WTI and GHADC officials discussing conservation strategies in Tura 

without any mention. The state is effecting wildlife 

protection within the National Parks, Wildlife 

Sanctuaries and Reserve Forests under their custody 

but who protects forests within the jurisdiction of the 

district council ? Further, do the present laws and also 

the resources at their disposal allow the district 

councils to take the steps necessary for initiating and 

achieving wildlife conservation and if they do, do the 

district councils have the capacity and the 

infrastructure to undertake all this ? These are some 

of the questions we wanted answers to when we 

initiated this project. 

It was imperative therefore that these doubts are 

cleared so that a roadmap for initiation of 

conservation activities in the district councils could be 

charted. A full review of the prevailing laws and their 

origins was conducted. This also involved meeting 

with members of the executive council to understand 

their views on the subject and also the constraints they 

faced in initiating wildlife conservation in their 


respective areas. There were also certain issues with 

the central laws on forests and wildlife and their 

applicability in the district councils. In the case of the 

Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC), the nomenclature 

used was different from that of an ‘Autonomous 

District Council as in Garo Hills or the ‘Autonomous 

Council’ as in Karbi-Anglong. Was this a difference in 

nomenclature only or did this imply differences in the 

way each functioned and how these then translated to 

initiating and achieving conservation ? 

We initiated work in the Garo Hills Autonomous 

District Council (GHADC) area with three predetermined 

activities. i) It was important to know the 

state of forests in the Garo hills and thus maps were 

generated using satellite images which were then 

ground truthed. This provided us a distribution of the 

forest resources within the GHADC and the extent of 

different types of forests available. ii) We also wanted 

to know how dependent the local people were on the 

forest resources and a questionnaire survey was 

9

conducted covering the whole of the Garo area to 

address issues of energy, wildmeat, incomes etc. iii) 

We studied peoples, perception on the issues of 

wildlife conservation and governance so that these 

could be communicated to the community leaders 

and policymakers. For this a questionnaire survey 

was undertaken. 

To understand the efforts of GHADC to conserve 

the forest and wildlife, existing policies and 

constraints faced by the Council, a formal meeting 

was organised on June 30, 2006 attended by over 25 

members of the District Council (MDC) and five 

officials of WTI. The meeting was a forum to discuss 

the conservation of wildlife in ADC control led areas. 

A wide range of issues viz., awareness, potential 

threats to forests and wildlife in Garo Hills, 

identification of ecologically sensitive area and 

financial issues were discussed. One of the major 

outcomes of this and that of a subsequent meeting 

has been the formation of a Wildlife Monitoring 

Committee for the forest areas under their 

management and control (vide notification No. 

CF.430/CW/ADC/06/3252-58, dated 21.12.2006). At 

the request of WTI and working with the local people, 

GHADC has also declared a part of the A’king forest 

at Selbalgre as Village Reserve forest. 

Wildlife Trust of India has been working in the 

Garo Hills since 2001 when it first provided antipoaching 

and enforcement training for the forest staff 

of Garo Hills and equipped them with basic kits for 

effective management of Protected Areas and Reserve 

forest. In 2002, to address the issues of elephant 

habitat fragmentation and shrinkage and its negative 

effect on elephant conservation and as part of the 

National Project to identify and groundtruth the 

elephant corridors, all the elephant habitats of the 

state were intensively surveyed and the status of the 

corridors identified. This was documented in the 

report published in 2005 entitled “Right of Passage: 

elephant corridors of India”. 

One of the crucial bottlenecks in the Garo Hills 

Elephant Reserve for the movement of elephants is the 

narrow passage across the river Simsang that connects 

Siju Wildlife Sanctuary on the east bank of the river to 

the Rewak Reserve forest on the west. This facilitates 

the movement of elephant from Balpakram NP and 

Siju WLS to Rewak, Angratoli and Imangiri Reserve 

Forest and Nokrek National Park (Williams & 

Johnsingh,1996, Gurung and Lahiri-Choudhury, 2000, 

Tiwari et al, 2005). Realizing the importance of this 

corridor and potential threats, Wildlife Trust of India 

initiated a project in 2003 to secure the corridor by 

working with the local community. The positive 

efforts of the local people, forest department, GHADC 

and WTI have resulted in securing the major part of 

this corridor. 

Thus, in collaboration with the Garo Hills ADC, 

forest department, local people, Nokmas and other 

NGOs working in Garo Hills, Wildlife Trust of India 

is making an effort to restore the landscape between 

Nokrek (including fringe areas) and Balpakram to 

afford a better habitat for wildlife and help reduce 

human-wildlife conflict. 

This compilation comprises of chapters dealing 

with all the above matters. The first section deals with 

trying to understand the powers of the GHADC in the 

administration of its wildlife thereby bringing into 

discussion, provisions of all the central acts like the 

Wildlife (Protection) Act, the Forest Conservation Act 

and the Bio-diversity Act. This section also makes 

references to certain landmark decisions affecting 

forest conservation and their possible impacts on 

conservation in the region. 

The next section deals with the surveys on forest 

availability through forest type and land use maps 

generated from satellite images. This section provides 

an insight into the extent of forests left and their 

distribution. The resource extraction chapter deals 

with how forest resources are utilized by local people 

and how dependent they are on the forests followed 

by perception of the local people and policy makers 

on wildlife and forest conservation. 

The last section deals with protecting the Nokrek- 

Balpakram landscape by securing the elephant 

corridors to facilitate movement of elephant and other 

wild animals between the major habitats and joining 

the small patches of forest fragmented by jhumming 

and other activities. 

The joint partnership between Wildlife Trust of 

India, the Garo Hills Autonomous Council, the 

Meghalaya forest department, British High 

Commission and World Land Trust, who provided 

financial assistance for these projects, has made an 

effort to complement the rich conservation traditions 

of the Garos. This is a small step in achieving 

sustainable conservation practices in the region but 

many more steps need to be taken to make this 

happen. 


Forest Survey of India (2001). State of Forest Report. 

Forest Survey of India. Ministry of 

Environment and Forests, Govt. of India. 

Dehra Dun. 

Gurung, S. and Lahiri Choudhury, D.K. (2000). Project 

Elephant-human conflict in Asia state report on 

Meghalaya, India. Part-I. Asian Elephant 

Research and Conservation Centre 

Hilaluddin, Kaul, R. & Ghose, D., 2005. Conservation 

implications of wild animal biomass 

extractions in Northeast India. Animal 

Biodiversity and Conservation, 28.2: 169–179. 

Mittermeier, Russell A., Patricio Robles Gil, Michael 

Hoffman, John Pilgrim, Thomas Brooks, 

Cristina Goettsch Mittermeier, John Lamoreux, 

and Gustavo A. B. da Fonseca (2005). Hotspots 

Fig 2. Garo girls in traditional attire 


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Conservation Biology 12:502-515. 

Tiwari, S.K., Karyong, Sunil S., Sarkar, P., Choudhury, 

A. U. and Williams, A.C (2005). Elephant 

Corridors of North-eastern India. In. Menon, 

V., Tiwari, S.K., Easa, P.S. and Sukumar, R. eds. 

Right of Passage: Elephant corridors of India. 

Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi. 

Williams, A. C. and Johnsingh, A. J. T. (1996). 

Threatened elephant corridors in Garo Hills, 

north-east India. Gajah 16 : 61-68. 

11

Geographical location 

The state of Meghalaya lies between 25°47' to 

26°10'N latitudes and 89°45' to 92°47'E 

longitudes in the northeastern state of India. 

This land locked plateau has a highly dissected and 

undulating topography, especially in the western and 

the northern side. However, the southern side is 

characterized by continuous escarpments with steep 

slopes. The state has a 496 km long international 

boundary with Bangladesh in the south and west 

while northern and eastern sides are bordered by the 

state of Assam (Fig.1). Meghalaya was carved out of 

Assam as an autonomous state on April 2, 1970 and 

Table 1 Summary of state statistics 

CHAPTER II 

A brief profile of Meghalaya 


{Souce : Directorate of Economic & Statistics 2002} 

was declared a full-fledged state of the Indian Union 

on January 21, 1972. The state of Meghalaya comprises 

of the Khasi, Garo and Jaintia hills. A summary of the 

demographic profile is given in Table 1. 

The Garo Hills of Meghalaya consist of three 

districts viz., East Garo Hills, West Garo Hills and 

South Garo Hills (Fig. 2). The highest point of Garo 

hills is the Nokrek peak with an altitude of 1412m 

above msl. The total area of Garo Hills districts is 

8,167 km 2 , which is 36.4% of the total area of the 

state. The areas of East, West and South Garo Hills 

districts are 2,603, 3677 and 1,887 km 2 , 

respectively.


Fig.1 Map of the state of Meghalaya 

13

Fig. 2 Map of the three Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 


Climate 

The climate of the Garo Hills is monsoonal and is 

directly influenced by the south-west monsoon. On the 

basis of climatic conditions the year may be divided 

into summer, rainy, autumn and winter seasons. The 

summer season (April to mid May) is characterized by 

relatively high temperature, occasional thunderstorms 

and high velocity winds. In this season, the average 

maximum temperature goes upto 30.7º C. The rainy 

season commences with the onset of the south-west 

monsoon in mid May and lasts upto September. This is 

the wettest period of the year and about three fourths 

of the total annual rainfall is received during this 

period. The mean annual rainfall is 2400 mm. The 

ambient temperature is close to that of the summer 

season. The rainy season is followed by a brief autumn 

(October and November) which is characterized by a 

sharp decline in rainfall and lowering of temperature. 

This is a transitory period between rainy and winter 

seasons. The winter season (December to March) is the 

coldest period of the year. Morning fog and dry 

weather are the characteristic features of this season. A 

few intermittent light showers are also received during 

this period. The mean temperature goes down to 7.5ºC 

during mid winter i.e., December/January. 

Soil 

The soil of Garo Hills district varies from dark brown 

to dark reddish-brown in colour and its texture varies 

from loamy to fine loam. The soil is poor in silica but 

rich in clay forming materials. The soils are rich in 

organic matter and nitrogen but deficient in 

phosphorous and potassium. The soil of the district is 

acidic in nature (Sarma, 2002). 


Demography 

Demographic statistics 

The tribal population of Garo Hills districts is 97.3% 

against the state tribal population of 80% (2001 State 

Census). The decennial growth rate of the tribal 

elements in Garo Hills districts is 24.50% against the 

state growth rate of 29.40%. The male-female 

population, decadal growth rate, sex ratio and density 

are given in Table 2 and details of the area, rural and 

urban, child male-female population are given in 

Table 3. 

Literacy 

East Garo Hills district has maximum literacy 

(61.70%) followed by South Garo Hills (55.82%) and 

West Garo Hills districts (51.03%). The literacy rates of 

the Garo Hills districts and the state is shown in Table 

4. The literacy rate is lower in the Garo Hills as 

compared to the state average. 

People 

The Garo Hills districts is dominated by the Garo 

tribe, while other tribes like Hajong and Rabha are 

also found in small numbers in isolated pockets, in 

areas bordering Assam. The matriarchal law of 

inheritance, by which custody to property and 

succession of family position runs through the 

female line passing from the mother to the youngest 

daughter, is a common cultural tradition of Garo 

tribes. Christianity, Animism (the worship of 

nature deities and other spirits), Hinduism and 

Islam are the main religions. Traditional customs 

are maintained, and religious festivals include 

Table 2 Population, decadal growth rate, sex ratio and density - State and Garo Hills Districts, 2001 

Source: Census of India 2001 

15

Table 3 Population, child population (age-group 0 -6 Years) in different Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 

Table 4 Literates and literacy rates in different districts of Meghalaya 

varied forms of dance and are an important element 

in the local culture. Wangala is the prominent 

festival of the Garos and is dedicated to the Sun 

God. The area is rich in tribal culture and folklore. 

Drinking and dancing to the accompaniment of 

traditional music, bamboo flutes, and drums are an 

integral parts of religious ceremonies and social 

functions. The advent of Christianity in the mid- 

19th century, along with its strict morality, has 

somewhat weakened many of the tribal institutions. 

[Source: Census of India-2001] 

[Source: Census of India-2001] 

The Garo Group is a part of the greater Bodo-Kachari 

family both by ethnic group and language. Their present 

location enabled them to maintain many of their traits and 

characteristics. Significant changes came only after the 

British colonization of the area in the first half of the 

nineteenth century. However, the inhabitants of the 

frontier regions, displayed significant influences of the 

East Bengal Province and Assam. Geographically, the Garo 

tribes have two divisions viz., those living in the plains and 

those living in the hills. There are twelve main divisions of 


the Hill-Garos and about six of the Plain-Garos. The Garos 

are mainly divided into three ‘exogamous’ clans called 

‘Katohis’: the Momins, the Maraksand Sangma as well as the 

subdivision known as the Machong. Exogamy is a 

marriage rule that requires an individual to marry outside 

a specific social group of which he or she is a member. 

The Garo tribal groups consist of the following 

sub-tribes. 

Ambeng – in the western part including Tura 

Atong – in the lower Simsang valley 

Matchi – in the upper reaches of Simsang valley 

Dual – in upper Simsang valley 

Akawa – in the north-eastern parts extending upto 

Goalpara and Kamrup in Assam 

Chibok – in upper Bhugi valley 

Ruga – in lower Bhugi valley 

Chisak – north of Matchi and Dual in the central 

highlands 

Garo - Ganching– in the southwestern parts and 

west of Atong 

Kotchu - in the eastern parts 

Koch - in the southwestern parts 

Besides these there are other sub-tribes like the 

Megamo in the mid-western parts and the Dikos. 


Hajongs: The Hajongs seem to have their original 

home in the Garo Hills. They belong to the Dravidian 

Group of Indo-European family of races. In ancient 

times, the Hajongs as a clan had a matrilineal 

organization known as ‘Nikini’. According to their 

legends, they descended from the Himalayan 

Mountains. 

The Hajongs call themselves Hindus. They are 

divided into two groups, viz., ‘Boyabochari’ 

(Sakta) and ‘ Parmathy’ (Vaishnab). They are 

further sub-divided into several exogamous 

groups. Durgaand Kali are their principal deities. 

Administrative units 

Districts and headquarters 

Table 5 Area, population, number of township and headquarters of districts 

The Garo Hills comprising of three districts i.e., East, 

West and South are further divided into Community 

Development Blocks (Fig 3). The geographical area 

and the headquarters of the districts and CD blocks 

are shown in Table 5. 

[Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics-2002] 

17

Fig. 3 Map showing blocks of the Garo Hills districts 


Table 6 Administrative Units 

Apart from the district administration and 

headquarters, the functional units of the districts are 

given in Table 6. 

Forest institutions 

Two major modern institutions responsible for forest 

management in Meghalaya are the State Forest 

Department and the Autonomous District Councils. 

The Forest Department of Meghalaya encompasses 

within its jurisdiction, all forested areas of the state 

excluding those areas vested with the District 

Councils. The Forest Department started with two 

forest divisions, the United Khasi and Jaintia Hills 

Division and the Garo Hills Division. However, at 

present the forest department has 17 divisions and 3 

more divisions, are likely to be established. The 

present thrust of the forest department is on all 

round restoration of the forest ecosystem. The action 

plan envisages creation of public awareness and 

greater involvement of people in afforestation 

programmes. 

The Autonomous District Council encompasses 

within its jurisdication, all areas outside National 

Parks, Sanctuaries and Reserve Forests and mainly 

comprises of Community and private forests. 

Forest Administration 

Meghalaya has an estimated forest area of 9,506 sq. 

km, of which only 725.13 sq. km. (7.6%) is under the 

control of the State Forest Department. The 

remaining forest areas are under the direct/indirect 

control of Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills 

Autonomous District Councils. The management of 

reserve forests is through the working plans 

prepared by the State Forest Department. The 

protected forests are maintained to preserve the 

catchments areas. 


Types of Forests under the jurisdiction of 

the District Councils 

There are three kinds of forests under the jurisdiction 

of the District Councils: 

i) Old un-classed State Forests, which are under 

the direct control of District Councils 

ii) Clan/Community forests and 

iii) Private forests 

The control of District Councils on second and 

third categories of forests is limited only to the 

collection of royalty on the timber exported by the 

owners, outside their own area of trade. 

Land use 

Land use classification 

[Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics-2002] 

The land use and ownership varies from society to 

society depending on their cultures. The beliefs, 

traditions and taboos also determine the land 

utilization pattern in the region. However, spatial 

and temporal variations in physical environment, 

climate, soil conditions, topography and natural 

vegetation play a significant role in deciding the 

type of use a land is put under. For example, the 

land on hill slopes is either covered by forests or 

has been brought under shifting agriculture, while 

settled agriculture is practiced on the plain lands 

in the valleys. The land categories are shown in 

Table 7. 

The land under forests was 42.4% (9500.0 km 2 ) 

during 1997-99. The lands available for agriculture 

include the current fallow land, old fallow lands and 

the net sown area. The total area available for 

agriculture was 22% (4944.3 km 2 ). The other 

19

Table 7 Classification of area under different land uses in Meghalaya 

cultivable land excluding fallow land includes the 

land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves and 

the cultivable wasteland. The area under 

miscellaneous tree crops and groves was 7% (1550.25 

km 2 ) during the year 1998-99 while the area under 

cultivable wasteland was 20.8% (4656 km 2 ) during 

1998-99. The land not available for cultivation is 

categorized as non-agricultural land, barren and 

uncultivable land. 

Land ownership patterns of Garos 

The UNO report on progress in land reform (1970) has 

given the definition of ownership of land as “the right to 

use land, together with the right to transfer that right to 

others. Both of these rights are more or less 

circumscribed by national or local laws, so that the exact 

context of ‘ownership’ varies from society to society”. 

The pattern of land ownership plays an important 

role in land use and agricultural planning. An 

understanding of the land ownership and related 

laws gives an insight into the problems faced by the 

[Data source: Directorate of Agriculture, Government of Meghalaya, 2001 

society in implementing agricultural development 

and land use planning. The form of land ownership 

and the accompanying laws in Meghalaya are quite 

different from those in other parts of the country. 

Even in Meghalaya these differ from place to place 

and from tribe to tribe. Land ownership in 

Meghalaya is broadly of two types, viz. 1) Riotwary, 

and 2) Customary. The principle of Riotwary system 

is that the government deals directly with the actual 

landholder without the intervention of 

intermediaries. Customary land tenure system is 

totally different from Riotwary system. In customary 

land tenure, the right to use or to dispose of use right 

over land depends on whether such rights have been 

recognized as legitimate or not by the community. 

The rules governing the transmission of these rights 

are usually explicit and generally known. 

In the Garo Hills, the Riotwary system is 

prevalent in the mauzas with plain lands, and the 

customary land tenure system is prevalent in the hill 

mauzas. The existing pattern of land ownership in 

the Garo Hills is related to the type of cultivation 


practiced in the area. Everybody has the usufructary 

right on land, i.e., they have the right to use land 

without possessing the actual ownership. But with 

the introduction of wet-rice cultivation that makes 

private ownership of the land essential, therefore, 

private ownership is on the increase. In many cases 

private ownership is associated with permanent 

holdings. But unlike other peasant societies in the 

plains elsewhere in India, the Garos, even if they 

possess some sort of permanent holding, cannot 

transfer it to outsiders (non-natives) if the holding, is 

a part of Aabhang land, i.e., the village territory under 

a Chief. 

Forest 

Meghalaya is a treasure house of vast natural 

wealth. Forests of different type viz., tropical, subtropical 

and temperate forest occur. Varied 

topography, climatic and edaphic conditions of the 

state favour the diversity of vegetation. Soil 

characteristics which affect the distribution, variety 

and richness of species, varies from place to place. 

However, wanton destruction of forests, like in most 

other parts of the country, has diminished the state’s 

natural wealth. 

According to the State Forest Report (FSI. 2001) 

the forest cover of the state was 15, 584 . km 2 This 

accounts for around 69.5% of the state’s total 

geographic area. Per capita forest area in the state 

was 0.64 hectares compared to the national average 

of 0.11 hectares. The Reserved Forest, Protected 

Forest and National Parks under the control of the 

state government cover only 1124 km 2 while 8372 

km 2 is Un-classed Forest, managed by Autonomous 

District Councils and private owners. 

Agriculture 

Almost the entire state has been or is being 

influenced by shifting cultivation, except for some 

pockets of valley bottomlands, and reserve forests. 

Shifting cultivation is a type of agro forestry, and is 

the most widespread farming system involving 

sequential rotation of forest vegetation and 

cultivated crops. It is characterized by clearing a 

patch of forest by slashing and burning vegetation, 

before planting crops for a year or two, and then 

leaving the land fallow for a long period to allow the 

forest to regenerate. There are wide variations in 

this general pattern. This farming system has been 

an object of continual reproach by agricultural 

experts and development agencies for supposedly 

being destructive of the forest and soil fertility. 


Those who are not aware of their complex social 

mechanisms of preventing despoliation of forests 

tend to explain their practice of periodic forest 

clearance as an example of ‘the tragedy of the 

commons’. However, in the face of all opposition 

from agricultural experts and in spite of 

governmental programmes to phase it out, shifting 

cultivation (Jhum) has remained popular among 

most hill tribes in the humid tropics. The system 

persists because local farmers find it more 

productive than any other farming system on the 

hill slopes. 

Scientific literature has generally condemned 

Jhum as destructive to the soil, forest and 

biodiversity. This is sometimes also upheld as an 

evidence of how indigenous peoples have blindly 

destroyed their environment. Agricultural experts 

allude to the presumed un-sustainability of this 

type of primitive agriculture to justify agricultural 

modernization and development. However, 

several studies have shown that traditional 

methods of shifting cultivation causes the lowest 

amount of soil erosion, even on steep hill slopes, 

compared with any other land clearing and tillage 

system (Lal, 1987; Ramakrishnan, 1992; Forsyth, 

1994 ). Soil erosion is minimized by a brief period 

of exposure of the soil after burning, mulching, 

negligible or no tillage and traditional preventive 

measures like horizontal placing of unburnt logs 

across the slope (Mertz., 2002). The environmental 

impact of shifting cultivation depends more on the 

length of fallow and the pace of regeneration of the 

forest during fallow period than on the standard 

slash and burn activity. The jhum cycle in the past 

varied from 20 to 30 years but due to the increase in 

population the jhum cycle has now been reduced to 

around 3-5 years. 

In Meghalaya, 760 km 2 land is under shifting 

cultivation and about 14% of the population of the 

state is involved in this activity. The practice of 

shifting cultivation is highly prevalent in the Garo 

Hills. Of the total number of house holds engaged in 

shifting cultivation in Meghalaya, 74% are from the 

Garo Hills alone (Table 8). Jhum is practiced at 

altitudes between 100 and 1600 m. 

Cropping pattern 

Mixed cropping is a common feature in shifting 

agriculture. Yam, cucumber, watermelon and other 

vegetables are commonly grown during the kharif 

season while during the rabi season beans, cabbage 

and mustard are grown in the same plot of land. The 

21

Table 8 Number of jhumias in Garo Hills districts and the state 

main crops under jhum cultivation are rice, maize, 

millets, oil seeds and cash crops. About 40 to 71% of 

the area of different districts of the state is utilized 

for cultivation of rice, 8 to 16% area for other food 

crops, 0.3 to 8.0% for oil seed crops and 14 to 40% for 

cash crops. Wheat and small millets are grown in 

Forsyth, T. J. 1994. The use of cesium-137 

measurements of soil erosion and farmer’s 

perceptions to indicate land degradation 

amongst shifting cultivators in Northern 

Thailand. Mountain Research and Development 

14: 229-244. 

Lal, R. 1987. Need for approaches to and consequences 

of land clearing and development in the 

tropics. pp. 15-27. In: IBSRAM, Tropical Land 

Clearing for Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings 

of an IBSRAM Inaugural Workshop (Jakarta and 

Bukittingi, Indonesia, 27.8 – 3.9. 1985). 

IBSRAM. Bangkok. 

22 

[Source: Soil & Water Conservation Department, Government of Meghalaya, 2000] 

References 

East and West Garo Hills districts and potato is 

grown only on 1-2% of land. In the Garo Hills, 

tapioca, jute, mesta, cotton and banana are the major 

cash crops. Seasame, rape and mustard are the 

major oil seeds grown in jhumlands. 

Mertz, Ole 2002. Rethinking the fallow-yield 

relationship in shifting cultivation. 

Agroforestry Systems. 55: 149-159. 

P.S. Ramakrishnan, 1992. Shifting agriculture and 

sustainable development: An interdeciplinary 

study from northeastern India, MAB Series, Vol 

10, UNESCO, Paris 

Sarma, K. 2002. Coal mining and its impact on 

environment of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, 

Meghalaya. Ph.D Thesis. North-Eastern Hill 

University. Shillong. India. 

Canopies and Corridors

Introduction 

In 1996, the Supreme Court of India suspended the 

felling of all trees from all forests across the 

country and specifically in the North East. The 

Supreme Court clarified that the order would be 

applicable to all forests irrespective of ownership and 

classification and that it would also apply to forests 

under the Control and management of Garo 

Autonomous Council and other Autonomous 

Councils. The Supreme Court’s order had far reaching 

implications on the management of forests by the 

Garo Autonomous Council and District Councils and 

perhaps for the first time, attention was focused on 

the role played by the District Councils in the 

management of forests. For many observers and even 

ecologists, it was a surprise that vast areas of forests 

were not under the control of the forest department of 

the State Governments but rather vested with tribal 

bodies, communities as well as individuals. 

The Supreme Courts’s order met with mixed 

reaction. It did, however, raise fundamental questions 

about the nature in which the forests were being 

managed by District Councils. An offshoot of this order 

was that if there was lack of management of forests, 

what was the condition of ‘wildlife’ since even the 

Supreme Court order did not cover the crucial aspect of 

wildlife conservation, though one can argue that if 

forests are adequately protected, the wildlife will also be 

protected. 

It is ironic, that despite large areas of forests being 

under the control of District Councils, the 

Constitutional and Legal framework does not provide 

any role for the District Councils in the protection and 

conservation of wildlife. 

CHAPTER III 

Forest and wildlife conservation in Garo Hills autonomous 

district council- a policy analysis 

Ritwick Dutta 

However, despite this Constitutional reality, legal 

and administrative policies have failed to focus on 

this crucial role of District Councils and seem to 

proceed with the assumption that all lands are 

managed by the State Governments. Different policies 

and action plans such as the National Wildlife Action 

Plan, 2002 also makes no mention of the role of the 

Councils despite the fact that some of the most 

important wildlife sanctuaries, national parks as well 

as tiger reserves are under the control of these 

councils. Recent amendments in the Wildlife Act have 

provided greater space for NGOs, Communities and 

Members of legislature but unfortunately provide no 

direct role for these councils. 

The aim of the present work is to identify gaps in 

the existing conservation laws and policies in order to 

ensure a meaningful and effective role of Garo 

Autonomous Council. The aim is to provide specific 

areas of concern which need to be addressed through 

policy, legal and administrative changes. 

The present study aims at the following: 

Outline the gaps in existing laws with respect 

to the role and responsibility of the Garo 

Autonomous Council in conservation of 

wildlife and forests 

Share the experiences of the Garo 

Autonomous Council in managing forests 

and wildlife. 

To identify as to whether there is any ‘role’ 

envisaged in law and policy for Garo 

Autonomous Councils and especially in the 

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, the Forest 

(Conservation) Act, 1980 and the Biological 

Diversity Act, 2002.

To make recommendation for changes within 

the existing laws and policies or to make use 

of existing spaces so that the purpose of 

wildlife conservation is achieved. 

The purpose of the study is not to make a wish list 

of all that is desirable but rather a realistic suggestion 

which is reasonably achievable within the existing 

political, administrative and constitutional framework. 

District councils 

The District Councils are a creation of the Constitution. 

It is peculiar to the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution 

and has no parallel in any other provisions including 

the Fifth Schedule which concerns the Tribal areas in 

regions excluding the North East. The Sixth Schedule 

has been termed as a “Constitution within a 

Constitution”. There were lengthy debates in the 

Constituent Assembly when the question of providing 

a proper constitutional set up for the tribal areas of 

North East was debated. A Sub Committee headed by 

Shri Gopinath Bordoloi, the Premier of Assam was 

formed on 27th February, 1947. The Committee made 

field visits to different parts of Assam and once the 

report was laid before the Constituent Assembly, 

serious opinions were expressed both for and against 

the need for autonomous councils. According to Dr. 

Ambedkar, the Chairman of the Constituent 

Assembly, the tribal people of Assam differed from the 

tribals in other other areas. Their laws of inheritance, 

laws of marriages, custom etc were quite different 

from that of the Hindus. He felt that the position of the 

tribals in Assam was somewhat analogous to that of 

the Red Indians in the United States who are a 

Republic by themselves in that country and were 

regarded as a separate and independent people. He 

agreed that Regional and District Councils be created 

on the lines which were adopted by the United States 

for the purpose of the Red Indians. 

Originally, the Constitution provided only for 

District Councils in the Tribal States of the North East. 

At present the following situation exists with respect 

to the Sixth Schedule: 

In case of Meghalya, “Autonomous District 

Councils” (ADC’s) exist. The ADC’s in Meghalaya 

retain almost the same powers and functions as were 

conferred originally in the constitution. In comparison 

to the other Tribal Councils, the ADC’s of Meghalaya 

have the least number of subjects allocated to it. It also 

does not exercise executive powers with respect to 

Reserved Forests, National Parks and Sanctuaries 

within its domain. 

Despite all the Councils been constituted under the 

Sixth Schedule, the powers and functions differ 

considerably. 

(Note: for a sake of uniformity, in this work a common 

word “Tribal Council” is being used for Autonomous 

Councils, Autonomous District Councils or Territorial 

Councils) 

Conservation laws and Garo 

Autonomous Council 

The conservation laws of India are essentially a post 

independence development. Although there were a 

range of laws on forests as well as wildlife, there were 

none dealt in a holistic way with the issue of 

conservation and protection of the natural ecosystem. 

The enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 

(‘Wildlife Act’ for short) was the first important 

milestone in the development of conservation laws in 

India, when for the first time a comprehensive law to 

provide for protection of wildlife on a national level 

was enacted. The enactment of the Wildlife Act 

reflected a strong commitment and willingness on 

the part of the political leadership to deal with a crisis 

which had emerged in the country after Independence 

due to lack of regulation of hunting as well as well as 

a breakdown of customary and traditional norms 

under the influence of both democracy as well as the 

growing level of industrialization. 

From 1972 to the next two decades there were 

significant legal developments in the field of forests and 

wildlife. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 was 

enacted which aimed to regulate the diversion of forest 

land for non forest activity. The Environment 

(Protection) Act, 1986 was enacted to deal with a range 

of environmental issues. In 2002, the Biological Diversity 

Act, 2002 was enacted which provided not just for 

conservation but also for sustainable use as well as 

benefit sharing of the biological resources. An interesting 

point that emerges after perusal of these laws, is that 

although Municipal bodies, Panchayats and even NGOs 

have important role in the implementation of these laws, 

the very mention of District Council is not evident. The 

legal regime seems to have been based on the model of 

Central, State as well as local bodies which are mostly 

confined to Panchayats. This omission in the original 

law as well as subsequent amendments seriously 

undermines the importance as well as powers and 

functions conferred on the Tribal Councils. 

Since 1996, the Supreme Court has played a major 

role in ensuring that the laws enacted for the 

protection of forests and wildlife are implemented in 

letter and spirit. This was possible due to two 

significant cases viz. The Centre for Environmental Law 


Vs Union of India (W.P (c) 202 of 1995 and the T. N 

Godavarman Thirumulpad Vs Union of India. (W.P (c) No 

202 of 1995). Significantly, the Supreme Court 

recognized the importance as well as the crucial role 

played by the Tribal Councils and clarified in its order 

that in respect of its orders passed with respect to the 

protection of forests the word “State Government’ 

will include ‘District Councils’ 1 . 

A perusal of the provisions of the different 

Conservation as well as natural resources law vis a vis 

the role of the Garo Autonomous Council will reveal 

gap areas which needs to be addressed and at the 

same time identify areas where the Garo Autonomous 

Council can play a role in protecting forests and 

wildlife within the framework of the existing laws. 

This section also focuses on the role of the Garo 

Autonomous Council in creation of Protected Areas. 

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, was enacted 

initially for the purpose of protecting wild animal and 

birds. The scope changed over time and now much 

wider, ensuring the environmental and ecological 

security of the country. Unfortunately, despite the 

wider scope, the protection remains mostly 

concentrated in Protected Areas i.e national parks 

and sanctuaries and its scope for protection of wildlife 

outside the Protected Areas remains extremely 

limited. 

The Wildlife Act has been amended several times, 

the most recent being in 2006. New Authorities and 

Boards have been set up and new categories of 

Protected Areas such as Community Reserves and 

Conservation Reserves have been included. However, 

there is no direct mention of the Tribal Councils in any 

of the recent amendments. 

‘Wildlife’ occupies a rather anomalous position 

with respect to the Garo Autonomous Council. 

Originally ‘Wildlife’ as a subject did not exist as a 

subject either in the state list or the concurrent list and 

therefore the lack of mention of ‘Wildlife” in the list of 

subjects over which the Garo Autonomous Council 

could make laws was understandable. However, the 

42 nd Amendment of the Constitution led to the 

insertion of ‘Wildlife’ as item 17 A in List III of the 

Constitution i.e a subject on which both the Centre 

and the State could legislate. Yet, no specific changes 

were made in the provisions of the Sixth schedule to 

accommodate these changes and thus it came to be 

understood that Garo Autonomous Council had no 

1 Order dated 15-1-1998: T.N Godavarman Thirmulpad Vs Union of India 


role vis-a-vis wildlife. The subsequent amendments to 

the Sixth Schedule as well as changing nature of 

Autonomy of the Tribal Council specially in the case 

of Garo Autonomous Council also focus on ‘Forest’ as 

subject on which the Council have legislative, 

administrative and executive functions. 

The Garo Autonomous Council has never enacted 

any laws to protect wildlife since they have been 

constitutionally given the power to make laws with 

regard to forests only. The non-entrustment of the 

power to make laws by the Garo Autonomous 

Council for the protection of wildlife in the Sixth 

Schedule by the Constitution makers can be explained 

by the fact that when the Constitution was enacted 

there was hardly any knowledge or awareness about 

the ‘value’ of wildlife. However, it is unfortunate that 

even after the enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) 

Act, 1972, no amendment has taken place to allow the 

Garo Autonomous Council or any other District 

Council to make laws with regard to the protection of 

the wildlife. Also the various Government policies, 

projects and legislation with regard to wildlife have 

simply assumed that most of the forest lands and 

wildlife habitat in the country is under the control of 

the State Forest Department and has overlooked the 

unique circumstances prevailing in the North Eastern 

region. 

The analysis of the Wildlife Act is being done vis a 

vis the Garo Autonomous Council in three respects: 

The Role of Garo Autonomous Council in the 

different authorities and bodies such as the 

State Board for Wildlife and National Board 

for Wildlife; 

The Garo Autonomous Council and its 

relation with the Chief Wildlife Warden; 

The role of Garo Autonomous Council in the 

creation of Protected Areas viz. National 

Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserve and 

Community Reserve. 

Authorities and boards 

State board for wildlife 

Sec. 6 of WPA, 1972, provides for the provision to 

constitute State Board for Wildlife with the following 

duties to perform:- 

(a) In the selection and management of areas to 

be declared as protected areas; 

(b) In formulation of the policy of protection and 

conservation of Wildlife and specified plants; 

25

(c) In any matter relating to any schedule;in 

relation to the measures to be taken for 

harmonizing the needs of the tribals and 

other dwellers of the forest with the 

protection and conservation of wildlife; and 

(d) in any matter that may be referred to its by 

the State Government 

SCOPE: 

State Board of Wildlife has got crucial responsibilities 

regarding creation, management and protection with 

respect to protected areas. The State Board comprises 

of over twenty members including members of 

Legislative Assembly as well as NGOs. However, no 

representation either in the form of elected members 

of the Garo Autonomous Council or of officers of the 

Garo Autonomous Council are mentioned. Given, the 

pivotal role of the Garo Autonomous Council 

specially in respect of administration of National 

Parks, Tiger Reserves and Sanctuaries under their 

control, the representatives from the Council should 

be included not only with a view to ensure 

representation in the board but also with a view to 

fulfill the Constitutional scheme. 

National board for wildlife 

The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) was the 

predecessor of the National Board for Wildlife. 

However, the crucial and most significant difference 

is the fact that while the NBWL is a statutory board, 

the IBWL was not. The NBWL headed by the Prime 

Minister has vast powers, the most significant being 

the power to alter the boundaries of National Parks 

and Sanctuaries. Like the SBWL, the NBWL also has 

wide representation from different sectors. 

Unfortunately, no mention is made of the Garo 

Autonomous Council. 

The chief wildlife warden 

Under the provisions of the Wildlife Act, the Chief 

Wildlife Warden (CWLW) is a crucial authority. By 

virtue of Section 33, the ‘Chief Wildlife Warden shall 

be the authority who shall control, manage and 

maintain all sanctuaries. A plain reading of this 

section seems to imply that the powers under Section 

33 can be exercised only by the CWLW and nobody 

else. However, Section 5 allows for the delegation of 

all powers (except powers under Section 11 (1) (a) 

which deals with hunting of Schedule I Species) by 

the CWLW with the approval of the State 

Government. Thus, the authority to control and 

manage Sanctuaries and National Parks and other 

protected areas can be delegated by the CWLW to the 

concerned functionaries of the Garo Autonomous 

Council. Further, sub section (3) of Section 5 provides 

that in situations wherein the powers of Chief Wildlife 

Warden are delegated, then the person so authorized 

will exercise those powers in the same manner and to 

the same effect as if they have been conferred the 

power directly and not by way of delegation. 

One aspect on which the Chief Wildlife Warden 

will continue to exercise control over Garo 

Autonomous Council areas is in the respect of 

permission for hunting under Section 11 (1) (a) of the 

Wildlife Act for species listed in Schedule I of the Act 

in exceptional circumstances i.e when the wild animal 

is diseased or disabled so as to be beyond recovery or 

has become a danger to human life. Thus despite the 

legal as well as Constitutional provision providing for 

delegation of administrative and executive functions, 

the role of the CWLW in Garo Autonomous Area is 

predominant. 

Creating protected areas in Tribal Councils 

Conservation Reserve 

Purpose 

Protection of landscapes, seascapes, flora and 

fauna and their habitat particularly: 

(i) Those adjacent to National Parks and 

Sanctuaries. And; 

(ii) Also areas that link one Protected Area with 

another. 

“Protected area” has been defined in the Act to 

mean a National Park, a Sanctuary, a conservation 

reserve or a community reserve notified under Section 

18, 35, 36 A and 36 C of the Act. 

In the selection of an area as a Conservation 

Reserve, the choice is not to be exclusively limited to 

those areas which meet the above criteria but also 

other areas. 

Statutory Provision 

Section 36 A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 

as amended in 2002. 

Power to declare conservation reserve 

State Government has been vested with the power 

to declare areas as Conservation Reserves. [Section 

36 A]. No corresponding power has been vested 

either on the Central Government (as is the case of 

National Parks or Sanctuaries) or any other 

authorities. However, if the land in question is 


owned by the Central Government, the prior 

concurrence of the Central government has to be 

obtained by the State Government before making 

any declaration. Since the executive power with 

respect to ‘Forests’ is vested with Garo Autonomous 

Councils, in such a situation a declaration should be 

made by the Council since declaration of a 

Conservation Reserve is an executive function and 

not a legislative function. Thus, the Tribal Councils 

are very much within their right to declare 

Conservation Reserves 

Criteria to be followed in declaring an area 

as conservation reserve 

The land proposed to be declared must be 

owned by either the State Government or the 

Central Government. 

A Single notification has to be issued 

specifying as nearly as possible the situation 

and limits of such area. It shall be sufficient to 

describe the area by road, rivers, ridges and 

other well know or readily intelligible 

boundaries. 

Unlike a Sanctuary (other than those created 

out of Reserve Forests and Territorial Waters) 

and a National Park, no detailed procedure is 

stipulated for the declaration of a 

Conservation Reserve. 

Prior approval of the Central Government will 

be required if the land in question is owned 

by the Central Government. 

In selection of areas as Conservation Reserve, 

priority has to be accorded to: 

(a) Areas adjacent to National Parks and 

Sanctuaries. 

(b) Areas that link one Protected area with 

another. 

Consultation with local communities. 

Setting up of Conservation Reserve Management 

Committee (CRMC) for the respective Conservation 

Reserve for the purposes of advising the Chief 

Wildlife Warden for conservation, management and 

maintenance of that Conservation Reserve. 

Rights of local communities 

Since the land to be declared as Community 

reserve has to be Government owned land, the 

nature and extent of pre-existing rights will be 

subject to the restrictions as are applicable to a 

Conservation Reserve. The WPA does not envisage 

the setting up of Conservation Reserves in private 

or community land. 


Nature of restriction after declaration of an 

area as a conservation reserve 

The nature of restrictions is similar to that of a 

Sanctuary. 

1. Every person shall, so long as he resides in a 

Conservation Reserve be bound [as far as may 

be] abide by the following : 

a) to prevent the commission, in the 

Conservation Reserve, of an offence 

against this Act; 

b) where there is reason to believe that any 

such offence against this Act has been 

committed in such Conservation Reserve, 

to help in discovering and arresting the 

offender; 

c) to report the death of any wild animal and 

to safeguard its remains until the Chief 

Wild Life Warden or the authorized 

officer takes charge thereof; 

d) to extinguish any fire in such 

Conservation Reserve of which he has 

knowledge or information and to 

prevent from spreading, by any lawful 

means in his power, any fire within the 

vicinity of such Conservation Reserve 

of which he has knowledge or 

information; and 

e) to assist any Forest Officer, Chief Wild 

Life Warden, Wild Life Warden or Police 

Officer demanding his aid for preventing 

the commission of any offence against this 

Act or in the investigation of any such 

offence. 

f) No person shall, with intent to cause 

damage to any boundary-mark of a 

Conservation Reserve or to cause 

wrongful gain as defined in the Indian 

Penal Code, 1860 (45 of 1860), alter, 

destroy, move or deface such boundarymark. 

g) No person shall tease or molest any wild 

animal or litter the grounds of 

Conservation Reserve. 

h) Causing fire prohibited - No person shall 

set fire to a sanctuary, or kindle any fire, or 

leave any fire burning, in a sanctuary, in 

such manner as to endanger such 

sanctuary. 

e) Ban on use of injurious substances. - No 

person shall use, in a Conservation 

reserve, chemicals, explosives or any 

other substances which may cause injury 

to or endanger, any wild life in such 

sanctuary 

27

Management and administration of 

conservation reserve 

The management and administration of the 

Conservation Reserve vests in the Chief Wildlife 

Warden. A Conservation Reserve Management 

Committee (CRMC] has to be constituted for each 

Conservation Reserve, The task of the CRMC is to 

advise the Chief Wildlife Warden with respect to the 

following functions with respect to the Conservation 

Reserve 

Conservation; 

Management; and 

Maintenance. 

The function of the CRMC is thus advisory in 

nature. 

Composition of the CRMC 

One representative of each Village Panchayat 

where the Conservation Reserve is located. 

Three representatives of NGO’s working in 

the field of Wildlife Conservation. 

One representative from the Department of 

Agriculture 

One representative from the Department of 

Animal Husbandry 

One representative of the Forest or Wildlife 

Department 

The representative of the Forest or Wildlife 

department shall function as the Member 

Secretary of the Committee. 

Duties of the Chief Wildlife Warden 

(CWLW) 

The CWLW on the advice of the CRMC will conserve, 

manage and maintain the Conservation Reserve. 

The CWLW (On the advise of the CRMC) shall 

take such steps to ensure the security of wild 

animals in the Conservation Reserve and the 

preservation of the sanctuary and wild life, as he 

may consider necessary for the improvement of any 

habitat. 

Procedure for alteration of boundaries 

No procedure has been stipulated in the WPA. 

However, the provisions of the Forest (Conservation) 

Act, 1980, will be applicable if any non forest use is 

contemplated. 

Comments and notes 

Conservation Reserve has been introduced as a new 

category of protected area in the WPA, through the 

amendment in 2002. The statement of Objects and 

Reasons of the Amendment Act, 2002 states that 

“Conservation Reserve” would be an area, owned by 

the State Government adjacent to National Parks and 

Sanctuaries…”. The statutory provisions however do 

not restrict it only to these categories and includes 

wider categories of areas. Conservation Areas more or 

less follows the legal regimes as are applicable to 

National Parks and Sanctuaries. Although, a 

representative body in the form of a Conservation 

Reserve Management Committee is established under 

the WPA, it role is essentially advisory and the final 

authority still rests with the Chief Wildlife Warden of 

the State Government. The WPA envisages 

declaration of only government owned areas as 

Conservation Reserves and this in terms restricts the 

applicability of this PA category. 

The process of declaration is relatively simple, 

mainly due to the fact that the land in question is 

government owned. The WPA does not however 

provide for any system of inquiry and settlement nor 

compensation for those who depend on such 

government owned land and there is no procedure for 

the proclamation as is followed in the declaration of a 

sanctuary or national park. A single government 

notification results in the declaration of a 

Conservation Reserve and in that respect follows the 

procedure of declaration of sanctuary out of an area 

comprised of a reserve forests. 

Conservation reserves and Garo 

autonomous council 

The moot question is whether the Conservation 

Reserve is a viable option for the Garo Autonomous 

Council? It can be stated that broadly, the problem is 

that there seems to an excessive emphasis on the role 

of the Chief Wildlife Warden which can be in conflict 

with the ‘autonomous’ character of the Garo 

Autonomous Councils. However, the ease of 

declaration and simplicity of legal procedures in 

comparison to conventional national parks and 

sanctuaries are positive factors. The fact that the 

powers and functions of the CWLW can be delegated 

if the need is felt can help to resolve the issue with 

respect to any fear of usurpation of the powers of the 

Garo Autonomous Council. As on date, no 

Conservation Reserve have been declared by Garo 

Autonomous Council and therefore remains an option 

that needs to be explored specially in context of 

reserved forests as well as other government owned 


areas which serve as important habitats of wildlife or 

even serve as corridors for wildlife. 

Community reserve (Section 36 (c)) 

Purpose 

Protecting fauna, flora and the traditional or cultural 

conservation values and practices in situations where 

either an individual or the community has 

volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat in 

areas that are not within any category of protected 

areas or government owned land. 

Statutory provision 

Section 36 C of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 

as amended in 2003. 

Power to declare community reserve 

State government has been vested with the power 

to declare areas as Conservation Reserves. [Section 

36 A]. Neither can the central government nor can 

any other authority including the local community 

by themselves declare an area as a community 

reserve. However, since in most instances by 

virtue of accords signed as well as the provisions 

of the Sixth Schedule, the executive power extends 

to the subjects entrusted, the Garo Autonomous 

Council have power to declare Community 

Reserves. 

Criteria to be followed in declaring an 

area as community reserve 

The land proposed to be declared must be 

either a community owned land or under 

private ownership. 

The land should not be a part of a national 

park, sanctuary or a conservation reserve. 

The community or an individual should have 

volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. 

A notification has to be issued specifying as 

nearly as possible the situation and limits of 

such area. It shall be sufficient to describe the 

area by road, rivers, ridges and other well 

know or readily intelligible boundaries. 

A Community Reserve Management 

Committee has to be constituted by the State 

Government. 


community reserve 

CRMC shall be the authority that shall be responsible 


for conserving, maintaining and managing the 

community reserve. Unlike the conservation reserve, 

it is not the CWLW who manages the community 

reserve rather it is the CRMC. The role of the CRMC is 

thus not just advisory. 

Composition of the CRMC 

Five Representatives nominated by the 

Village Panchayat 

In the situation where no Village Panchayat 

exists the five representatives are to be 

nominated by the Gram Sabha. 

One representative of the forest or wildlife 

department under whose jurisdiction the 

community reserve is located. 

Function of CRMC 

CRMC shall be the authority that shall be 

responsible for conserving, maintaining and 

managing the community reserve. 

Preparation of management plan for the 

community reserve 

Implementation of the management plan for 

the community reserve. 

Nature of restriction after declaration of an 

area as a conservation reserve 

The nature of restrictions is similar to that of a 

sanctuary. It is stated that every person shall, so long 

as he resides in community reserve be bound [ as far 

as may be ] to follow the restrictions as stipulated for 

sanctuaries under the Wildlife Act. It is pertinent to 

point out that it is clearly mentioned that the above 

provisions shall “as far as may be apply to a community 

reserve as they apply in relation to a sanctuary”. It is 

therefore important to remember that all these 

restriction will not automatically extend to a 

community reserve. 

Procedure for alteration of boundaries and 

other changes 

After the issue of the notification constituting an area 

as a community reserve any change in the land use 

pattern of the reserve will require the following 

procedure 

A resolution to that effect has to be passed by 

the CRMC. 

The state government approval to the said 

resolution passed by the CRMC. 

29

Notes and comments 

The statement of objects and reasons of the Amendment 

Act, 2002 states that the state governments are 

empowered to declare areas which are under private or 

community ownership as community reserves 

provided the members of the community or individuals 

concerned are agreeable to offer such areas for 

protecting the wildlife together with the associated 

traditions, cultures and practices. The declaration of the 

community reserve involves one single notification. 

Unlike a Conservation Reserve, no change in land use is 

permitted once a notification has been issued under 

Section 36 C (1) of the WPA. However, similar to the 

case of conservation reserve, no legal provision exists 

for the denotification or alteration of the boundaries of 

the community reserve. Although, some restrictions as 

are applicable to sanctuaries are also applicable in a 

community reserve, however, the exact nature will 

depend on the guidelines and other working Rules that 

will be prepared by the CRMC. Unfortunately, despite 

more than five years having passed since the 

amendment Act has come into force, no guidelines have 

been issued thus rendering the provisions largely 

redundant. The community reserve has the potential to 

be more socially acceptable since it is not expected that 

the restrictions which are applicable to a sanctuary will 

also be applicable to a community reserve, since the 

essential purpose of community reserve is not just the 

protection of wild flora and fauna but also to preserve 

the traditional conservation values and practices. As 

such, community reserves are not envisaged as a “No- 

Use Zone” rather as stated in the “Objects and 

Reasons”: areas which are to be managed on the 

principles of sustainable utilization of forest produce. 

The community reserve is a viable option for areas 

important from the viewpoint of wildlife and where the 

community is willing to part with its land such as the 

Nokma and Akhing land in the Garo hills of 

Meghalaya. However, a uniformly composed 

Community Reserve Management Committee may not 

be suited for all local cultural and political situations. It 

is thus of utmost importance that the Wildlife Act 

provides for spaces for local level indigenous 

institutions to functions as basic units for wildlife 

governance rather than imposing a structure which 

might be out of tune with the ground realities. 

Judicial orders and its implication 

In addition to the statutory laws, decisions of the 

Supreme Court also determine the management and 

administration of protected areas. The most 

significant of all the orders related to national park 

and sanctuaries is the order dated 14/02/2000 in W.P 

202 of 1995 wherein the Supreme Court restrained the 

State Governments from ordering the removal of 

dead, deceased, dying or wind fallen trees, drift wood 

and grasses etc from any national park or sanctuary. It 

also stated that that if any order to the contrary had 

already been passed the operation of the same would 

be stayed. 

The Central Empowered Committee in its letter 

dated 2nd July 2004 explained that this provision 

includes 

activities such as grazing 

and collection of NTFP from protected areas. 

The MoEF through a circular issued to the State 

Governments further clarified that all rights, 

privileges and concessions in national parks & 

sanctuaries must also cease. 

The Supreme Court by its order dated 25th 

November 2005 clarified that activities which are 

undertaken as per approved management plan and 

were consistent with the provisions of the Wildlife 

Protection Act, 1972 & The National Wildlife Action 

Plan as well as other such guidelines issued from time 

to time were permissible in respect of national park 

and sanctuaries. These restrictions come into play 

even if final notification for the national park and 

sanctuary has not taken place. 

It has to be empirically checked as to the ground 

level situation with respect to protected areas in the 

State of Meghalaya and Assam specifically in the 

context of the pre and post 14/02/2000 order. Existing 

information does not reveal much difference in the 

situation although it needs to be more carefully 

verified. 

Recently, Supreme Court by its order dated 

14.9.2007 further clarified that the following activities 

are also permitted:- 

(i) laying of underground drinking water 

pipelines up to inch diameter; 

(ii) laying of 11 KV distribution lines for supply 

of electricity to rural areas; 

(iii) laying of telephone lines or optical fiber for 

providing communication facilities in rural 

areas; 

(iv) wells, hand pumps, small water tanks etc. for 

providing drinking water facilities to 

villagers, who are yet to be relocated from the 

protected area. 

In addition to the above, the Anganwadis, 

government schools and government dispensaries 

which are essential for the inhabitants of people who 

are nearer to these forest areas shall continue and the 

government may carry out construction activities in 


the forest area for the said purposes without there 

being any cutting or felling of trees. 

They further stated that following activities were 

expressly prohibited:- 

(i) felling of trees and their removal; 

(ii) removal of bamboo or grasses for any 

purpose whatsoever; 

(iii) removal of corals and other living forms from 

marine national parks/sanctuaries; 

(iv) construction of tourist complexes, hotels and 

restaurants, zoos and safari parks or any 

other building not for direct use for protection 

and management of wildlife and its habitat; 

and other non-forest activities. 

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (the “BDA” for 

short) has been enacted with the objective of 

conservation of Biological Diversity, sustainable use 

of its components and fair and equitable sharing of 

the benefits arising out of the use of biological 

resources and knowledge. The BDA is unlike the 

Wildlife Act for it recognizes the important role of 

local bodies in the implementation of the Act. 

Garo Autonomous Council has wide scope in 

execution and implementation of various provisions 

of Biological Diversity Act, 2002. It comes under the 

purview of the term ‘local bodies’; which has a major 

role in implementation of the provisions of said Act. 

According to Sec. 2(h) ‘local bodies’ means 

Panchayats and Municipalities, by whatever name 

called, within the meaning of clause (1) of article 243B 

and clause (1) of article 243Q of the Constitution and 

in the absence of any Panchayats or Municipalities, 

institutions of self-government. Since, District 

Councils come under the purview of ‘institutions of 

self- government constituted under any other 

provision of the Constitution or any Central Act or 

State Act’; it fulfills the definition of ‘local bodies’ 

hence it can be covered under the Biological Diversity 

Act, 2002. 

Unfortunately, the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 

has not been implemented by any of the Tribal 

Councils, whether of the Khasi, Garo, Karbi as well 

as Bodo, despite these areas being biodiversity 

hotspots. 

National biodiversity fund 

In chapter VII Finance, Accounts and Audit of 

National Biodiversity Authority, Sec. 27 deals with 

Constitution of National Biodiversity Fund. 


As per Sec 27 (2), the fund shall be applied for:- 

(a) channeling benefits to the benefit claimers; 

(b) conservation and promotion of biological 

resources and development of areas from 

where such biological resources or knowledge 

associated thereto has been accessed; 

(c) Socio-economic development of areas 

referred to in clause (b) in consultation with 

the local bodies concerned. 

SCOPE: Sec 3(1) of the Sixth Schedule empowers Garo 

Autonomous Council to make laws with respect to, 

the management of any forest apart from reserve 

forest. The management of forest also includes 

‘conservation and promotion of biological resources’. 

Garo Autonomous Council is also responsible for the 

socio-economic development of the area, so the 

National Biodiversity Authority should disburse the 

National Biodiversity Fund in consultation with them. 

State biodiversity fund 

Similarly, in Chapter VIII Finance, Accounts and 

Audits of State Biodiversity Board, Sec 32 deals with 

the Constitution of State Biodiversity Fund. 

As per Sec.32 (2) The State Biodiversity Fund shall 

be applied for- 

(a) the management and conservation of heritage 

sites; 

(b) compensating or rehabilitating any section of 

the people economically affected by notification 

under sub-section (1) of section 37; 

(c) conservation and promotion of biological 

resources; 

(d) socio-economic development of areas from 

where such biological resources or 

knowledge associated thereto has been 

accessed subject to any order made under 

section 24, in consultation with the local 

bodiesconcerned; 

(e) meeting the expenses incurred for purposes 

authorized by this Act. 

SCOPE: Garo Autonomous Council being a local 

body, here also State Biodiversity Board should 

disburse its State Biodiversity Fund in consultation 

with them. 

Biodiversity heritage sites 

The State Government, in consultation with the local 

bodies can notify in the official gazette, the areas of 

biodiversity importance as biodiversity heritage sites. 

(SEC.37 (1)) 

31

Purpose 

Conservation and protection of areas of 

biodiversity importance. Biodiversity is defined as: 

“Biological diversity means the variability among living 

organisms from all sources and the ecological complexes 

of which they are a part and includes diversity within 

species or between species and of ecosystems” 

Statutory provision 

Section 37 of the Biological Diversity 

Act, 2002 

Power to declare biodiversity heritage sites : 

State Government has been vested with the power 

to declare areas as Biodiversity Heritage Sites. 

Criteria to be followed in declaring an Area as 

Biodiversity Heritage Site 

The areas should be important in terms of 

biodiversity. 

Consultation with local bodies. Local bodies 

refers to Panchayat and Municipalities, by 

whatever name called, within the meaning of 

Clause (1) of article 243-B and clause (1) of 

article 243 Q of the Constitution and in the 

absence of any Panchayat or Municipalities, 

institutions of self government constituted 

under any other provision of the Constitution 

or any Central Act or State Act. 

After consultation, a Notification in the 

Official Gazette specifying the limits and 

extent of the area. 


the heritage sites 

The management of the Biodiversity Heritage sites 

may be done as per rules framed by the State 

Government in consultation with the Central 

Government. 

Notes and comments 

The BDA, does not provide for an elaborate process 

for the declaration of an area as a Biodiversity 

Heritage Site. A notification is to be issued only after 

consultation with the local communities. Thus a 

Single Notification is required for designating the 

Biodiversity Heritage Site. 

Power of Central Government to notify 

threatened species 

Chapter IX deals with Duties of the Central and State 

Government. The Sec. 38 of the Act provides power to 

Central Government, to take all the necessary steps to 

preserve species by notifying them as a threatened 

species. 

SCOPE: The Central Government takes steps in 

consultation with the concerned State Government. 

Since, the local bodies (Garo Autonomous Council) 

are involved in preservation and management of 

biological resources at both National and State level, 

they should also be included as a consulting body. 

Biodiversity management committees 

Chapter X deals with Biodiversity Management 

Committees. 

Section 41 states that every local body can 

constitute a Biodiversity Management Committee 

within its area. The purpose of such Committee is to 

promote conservation, sustainable use and 

documentation of biological diversity including 

preservation of habitats, conservation of land races, 

folk varieties and cultivars, domesticated stocks and 

breeds of animal and micro-organisms and 

chronicling of knowledge relating to biological 

diversity. 

SCOPE: Here, Garo Autonomous Council being a 

local body can constitute a Biodiversity Management 

Committees within its area and execute all the duties 

of the Committee stipulated in the Act. 

Local biodiversity fund 

Chapter XI deals with Local Biodiversity Fund. 

According to Sec. 43 of the Act, a Local 

Biodiversity Fund can be constituted at every area 

notified by the State Government where any 

institution of self-government is functioning. 

SCOPE: Garo Autonomous Council is covered under 

the phrase ‘any institution of self government’, hence, 

a local biodiversity fund can be constituted in this 

area. 

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 

Of all the laws on natural resources, the law which 


seem to have had the maximum impact is the Forest 

(Conservation) Act, 1980 [‘FCA’ for short], which 

was enacted to check excessive deforestation 

throughout the country. Initially, the Garo 

Autonomous Council and other Tribal Councils took 

the position with the support of both the State as 

well as Central Government that they were beyond 

the scope of the Act. This changed in 1996, with the 

Supreme Court holding that the provisions of the Act 

would apply to forests under the management of the 

Tribal Councils also. 

The statement of object and reason of the act states 

that, ‘deforestation causes ecological imbalance and leads to 

environmental deterioration. Deforestation has been taking 

place on a large scale in the country and it has caused wide 

spread concern.’ The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 

(‘FCA’ for short) extends to the whole of India except 

the State of Jammu & Kashmir. The FCA was 

amended in 1988. Section 2 of the FCA, forms the core 

and stipulates that no state Government or authority 

shall make, except with the prior approval of the 

Central Government, any order directing; 

1. That any reserved forest (within the meaning 

of the expression “reserved forest’ in any law 

for the time being in force in that state) or any 

portion thereof, shall cease to be reserved; 

2. That any forest land or any portion may be 

used for any portion thereof may be used for 

any non-forest purpose; 

3. That any forest land or any portion there of 

may be assigned by way of lease or otherwise 

to any private person or to any authority, 

corporation, agency or any other organization 

not owned, managed or controlled by the 

Government; 

4. That any forest land or any portion thereof 

may be cleared of trees which have grown 

naturally in that land or portion, for the 

purpose of using it for reforestation. 

Section 3(1) (b) of the sixth schedule deals with the 

power of Garo Autonomous Council and other 

Autonomous Councils to make laws with respect to 

“the management of any forest not being a reserved 

forest”; whereas the executive power of the District 

Council in paragraph 6(2) extends to “any other 

matter to which the executive power of the State 

extents”. It is pertinent to note that although District 

Council cannot make a law on Reserve Forests it does 

not mean that it cannot have any executive power 

with respect to the management of a reserved forest. 

However, such executive power of the District 

2 Hills Syndicate v. North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council, AIR 2001 Gau 83. 


Council is subject to the limitations indicated in 

Article 162 of the Constitution, namely, such power 

will be subject to the provisions of the Constitution 

and limited by the executive power expressly 

conferred by any law made by the Parliament upon 

the Union or authorities thereof. Such Executive 

power of District Council is further subject to two 

other limitations; 

Firstly subject to the provisions of any existing 

law or any other law relating to reserved 

forest made either by Parliament or by the 

State Legislature or by both, and 

Secondly subject to the conditions, if any, 

imposed by the Governor while entrusting 

the executive function in relation to forest or 

Reserved Forest under paragraph 6(2) of the 

Sixth Schedule. 

Thus the executive power of District Council is 

subject to provisions of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 

1980 and the Assam Forest Regulation, 1891 2 . 

It was generally followed that the provisions of the 

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 was applied only in 

respect of the Reserved Forests declared by the State 

Government. 

With respect to this, following were the 

shortcomings:- 

The saw mills and other wood based units 

were regulated under provisions of the 

respective Forest Act of the District Councils 

and the rules framed there under. 

The system of working plans did not exist for 

forests beyond the working plan. 

The easy process of obtaining approval has 

led to the large scale felling of trees in an 

unsustainable manner. 

The rules regarding transit were not 

strong enough to protect and conserve the 

forests. 

Mining activities in forest areas outside 

Reserve Forests also continued without 

approval from the Ministry of Environment 

and Forest. 

Hence the end result was large-scale destruction of 

forests which was repeatedly pointed out in different 

State of the Forest Reports. It became clear that as far 

as the management of forests was concerned, the pre 

1980 situation and the post 1980 situation was not 

very different. Broadly, the situation vis a vis the FCA, 

can be summed up as follows: 

33

FCA was not applied to forest land other than 

government Reserved Forests. 

The District Councils and the forests within 

its control were also outside its scope. 

The forests were managed in accordance with 

customary practices as well as statutory laws. 

No working plan existed for forests which 

were under the control of the District 

Councils as well as privately held or jointly 

held by Clans and sub clans. 

No prior approval for ‘Non Forest use’ of 

forest land were sought by the District 

Councils from the State Government who in 

turn had to seek clearance from the Central 

Government. 

Through judicial intervention, Supreme Court of 

India passed various orders for the implementation of 

the Forest Conservation Act uniformly. The scope, 

implications and meaning of forest, forestland and 

forest conservation were reinterpreted by the Apex 

Court. These have lead to significant changes in the 

manner in which the law was followed since its 

inception in 1980 and more importantly it 

fundamentally affects the operation of the various 

state laws on forest as well as other natural resources 

law. Of particular significance was its impact on the 

forest management systems in the Northeast 

specifically those under the control of the 

Autonomous District Councils. Although, the 

Supreme Courts order covered almost all the states of 

the country, the North East received a special focus in 

view of the fact that it is a biodiversity hotspot and 

having a high rate of deforestation. 

The changes in the interpretation, implementation 

and understanding of the FCA took place in view of 

the various orders passed by the Supreme Court in 

T.N.Godavarman v. UOI W.P. (C) No. 202 of 1995. 

The most important order passed in the last 12 years 

since the commencement of the Godavarman Caseis the 

order dated 12/12/1996 and in the context of Northeast 

it was followed by the order 15/01/1998. This order 

clarified that the provisions of the FCA for the 

conservation of forest must apply to all forests and 

therefore expanded vastly the scope of Forest 

Conservation Act. In view of this order the FCA was not 

to be limited to areas recognized/ declared/ classified 

as forest in Government records but also to include all 

areas so far as they satisfied the dictionary sense. 

Further, the Court issued various directions 

specifically with respect to North East Region. The 

main highlights were: 

All non-forest activities with in any forest in 

any state through the country with out the 

prior approval of the Central Government 

must cease forthwith. Every State 

Government must promptly ensure cessation 

of all such activities forthwith. 

The felling of trees in all forest is to remain 

suspended except in accordance with the 

working plan of the State Government as 

approved by the Central Government. 

A complete ban on movement of cut trees and 

timber from any of the seven North Eastern 

States to any other State of the country. 

The provisions on the use of forestland for 

non- forest purpose applied uniformly to all 

areas, which can be regarded as forest. 

Further, the Supreme Court made it 

mandatory to seek Central Government 

approvals for all working plans. In order to 

identify areas which can be regarded as 

forests the Court ordered for Constitution of 

expert committees with the specific task of 

identifying areas which are forest irrespective 

of whether they are so notified, recognized or 

classified under any law an irrespective of the 

ownership of the land of such forests. The 

Committee was also to identify areas, which 

were earlier forest but stand degraded, 

denuded or clear. 

The Constitution of the Expert Committee was a 

very significant step in the sense that the criterions 

adopted in regarding an area as a forest would be 

differing from state to state as well as within the 

State. In addition to this expert committee the State 

Governments were also directed to file issues on 

issuing concerning sawmills, veneer mills and 

plywood mills operating within each state. It is 

interesting to note that Court took a realistic 

approach in directing that the particulars of the ‘real 

ownerships of the sawmills be provided to the Court. 

This was mainly in recognition of the fact that in 

large parts in North Eastern India the legal owners 

were not the actual owners of saw mills, which were 

mainly operated and controlled by non-locals or 

non-tribals. 

Despite the order clearly stating that the word forest 

would be applicable to all forest areas irrespective of 

ownership and classification there were still 

misconception regarding its applicability to the 

Autonomous District Councils. It was therefore clarified 

in a subsequent order dated 4.3.1997 that the order date 

12/12/1996 will apply to all Autonomous Hill Councils. 

In order dated 15.1.1998, much emphasis was laid 

on the North Eastern States. By this order, it was 


clarified that the orders passed by Supreme Court in 

Godavarman case with respect to North Eastern States 

are also applicable to District Council. In this order, 

the Supreme Court stated that even though 

proliferation of wood based industries has been the 

main cause of degradation of forest in the North East, 

considering the extent of forest and the dependence of 

local people on the forest region resources in the 

region it is neither feasible, nor desirable, to ban 

completely either the timber or running of wood 

based industries. It was emphasized that the number 

and capacities are to be regulated in relation to the 

sustainable availability of forest produce. Most 

significantly it emphasize that industrial requirement 

have to be subordinated to the maintenance of the 

environment and ecology as well as bonafide local 

needs. 

The major highlight of the order with respect to the 

District Council was that the Forest under it should be 

worked in accordance with working schemes, which 

shall specify both the programme for regeneration 

and harvesting and whose period shall not be less 

than five years. It was, however, clarified that the 

plantation schemes raised on private and community 

holdings shall be excluded from these requirements 

but shall be regulated under respective state rules and 

regulations. 

The Supreme Court by its order dated 8.1.2001 in 

I.A. No. 424 in T.N. Godavarman vs U.O.I W.P. (C). 

202 of 1995 emphasized on the partnership of all the 

States to ensure the maintenance and improvement of 

the forest cover and provided forest compensation to 

the forest-rich States. The Court observed, “It is to be 

borne in mind that taking an overall view it is 

important for the country that in certain areas where 

natural forest exist, the same should be preserved. 

The political boundaries are drawn for various 

considerations but as far as the environment is 

concerned, one has to take a holistic view and in that 

view of the matter one cannot overlook the fact that 

even though the national average of the forest cover is 

low, even that low figure is there because of the 

higher percentage of the forest cover in the Hill States 

and in the State of Madhya Pradesh and in North 

eastern States. Majority of the States in India fall short 

of national average as far as the forest cover is 

concerned. For the benefit of the said States also - nay 

for the benefit of the whole region, it is important that 

there should not be any further depletion of the forest 

cover in these sensitive areas of Madhya Pradesh and 

in the Himalayas and the other sensitive areas like the 

Western Ghats etc. In order to ensure the 

preservation and regeneration of forests in these 

areas, the Central Government should consider 


whether the deficient States should not be asked to 

contribute towards the preservation of the existing 

forest cover and compensation/incentive given to the 

forest-rich States to preserve and regenerate forest: In 

a sense, there should be a partnership of all the states 

to ensure the maintenance and improvement of the 

forest cover. This suggestion should be considered by 

a Committee of the Secretary (Finance) and Secretary, 

Ministry of Environment & Forests in consultation 

with the Chief Secretaries of all the states and a report 

submitted preferably within eight weeks. Although, 

most of the forest deficient states expressed their 

inability to ‘compensate’ the forest rich states, the 

Supreme Court directed that in the absence of the 

States willing to part with their money, the Central 

Government should devise a scheme to compensate 

the forest rich states. 

This order was complied by the State and the 

Supreme Court by its order dated 26.9.2005 in T.N. 

Godavarman vs U.O.I W.P. (C). 202 of 1995, took 

notice of the compensation given to the forest rich 

states to preserve and regenerate forests and held, 

“It would also be useful to make a mention of the 

order dated 22nd September, 2000 passed by this 

Court which led to grant of sanction of rupees 1,000 

crores for maintenance of forest under the 12th Finance 

Commission (2005-2010). The said order took note of 

the fact that felling of the trees is far in excess of what 

would be justified with reference to regeneration, and 

the main cause is non-availability of sufficient funds. 

It also notices that even with regard to the felling of 

trees as per working plans in the last three years, the 

corresponding prescription for regeneration has not 

been implemented. It further notices that there cannot 

be any felling without regeneration because that will, 

over a period of time, only result in forest vanishing. 

Further, the order says that the shortfall of 

regeneration which has resulted in depletion of forest 

cover has to be made up. The court took note of the 

suggestion that for regeneration there should be a joint 

venture between State of Madhya Pradesh, a state 

having a large forest area, and the Central 

Government whereby the working capital, in whole 

or substantially the whole, can be provided by the 

Central Government and the regeneration of 

degraded forests carried out. Taking an overall view, 

it is important for the nation that in certain areas 

where natural forest exists, the same should be 

preserved and at the same time the Central 

Government should consider whether the deficient 

States should not be asked to contribute towards the 

preservation of the existing forest cover and the 

compensation/incentive given to the forest rich States 

to preserve and regenerate forests. In a sense, there 

35

should be a partnership of all the States to ensure the 

maintenance and improvement of forest cover. It was 

observed that this suggestion should be considered by 

a Committee of Secretary (MOF) and the Secretary 

(MOEF) in consultation with the Chief Secretaries of 

all the States. 

Para 14.25 of the 12th Finance Commission Report 

deals with maintenance of forest. Noticing that several 

States have represented that subsequent to the 

restrictions placed by this Court on exploitation of forest 

wealth, the forests have become a net liability for the 

States rather than a source of revenue and maintenance 

of forest has become a problem due to financial 

constraints, these States pleaded that separate grant 

should be provided for maintenance of forest. 

Recognizing that forest are a national wealth and the 

country as a whole has the responsibility in preserving 

the said national wealth, the Commission decided to 

recommend a grant of rupees 1000 crores spread over 

the award period 2005-2010 for maintenance of forest. 

This would be over and above what the States have been 

spending through their forest departments. The amount 

was distributed among the States based on their forest 

area, to be spent for preservation of forest wealth. In this 

light, it is not open to the State Government to contend 

that the amount of NPV paid by the user agency shall be 

handed over to them. 

Reference may also be made to report of the Planning 

Commission (Chapter IX) relating to forest 

environments in Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) which 

has taken note of the fact that sustainability is not an 

option but imperative since without it environmental 

deterioration and economic decline will be feeding each 

other leading to poverty, pollution, poor health, political 

upheaval and unrest. Environment cuts across all 

sectors of development. The rapid increase in green 

house gases in the atmosphere, land degradation, 

deteriorating conditions of fragile ecosystems, 

deforestation, loss of biodiversity and environmental 

pollution have become subjects of serious global 

concern. The overall impact of these phenomena is 

likely to result in depletion of ozone layer, change of 

climate, rise in sea-level loss of natural resources, 

reduction in their productivity ultimately leading to an 

ecological crisis affecting livelihood options for 

development and over all deterioration in quality of life. 

From the above report, it follows that the deterioration 

and consequently preservation of eco-systems cannot be 

area or state specific and that utmost attention is 

required to be accorded to conservation of natural 

resources and for improvement of the status of our 

environments. The report notices the need to tackle the 

environmental degradation in a holistic manner in order 

to ensure both economic and environmental 

sustainability. Forests play an important role in 

environmental and economic sustainability. It takes 

note of the forests being consistently and seriously 

undervalued in economic and social terms. It recognizes 

that the economic value of the eco-system services of the 

forests is vast though it is extremely difficult to quantify. 

It takes note of the fact that generally much of the landuse 

decision that presently drives forest change takes 

relatively little account of these values. The country's 

forest resource is under tremendous pressure. Note 

has been taken of the fact that India's biological 

diversity is reflected in the heterogeneity of its forest 

cover. It is one of the 12 'mega-diversity' countries of 

the world. India is also at the meeting zone of three 

major zones of three major bio-geographic realms, 

namely, the Indo-Malayan (the richest in the world), 

the Eurasian and Afro-tropical. India also has the two 

richest bio-diversity areas, one in the northeast and the 

other in the Western Ghats. The biological diversity is 

being conserved through a network of biosphere 

reserves, national parks and sanctuaries, however, the 

challenges for conservation emanate from population 

pressures, adverse impacts of industrialization and 

intensifying threat from illegal trade.” 

The decision of the Supreme Court and the 

subsequent implementation of the same through the 

Finance Commission allocation is a significant step in 

recognizing the need to compensate those states 

which are maintaining a high forest cover. However, 

the Finance Commission seems not to have 

recognized that within the Forest rich states of the 

North East, there are Tribal Councils which are more 

forest rich in comparison to other regions of the state 

and therefore system needs to be have been put in 

place which ensures that the allocation reaches the 

concerned Tribal Councils. 

The sixth schedule and Garo 

autonomous district council 

Like many other provisions of the Constitution, the 

Sixth Schedule of the Constitution has undergone 

many amendments mainly as a result of the changing 

aspirations as well as based on the practical 

experiences and difficulties. 

Meghalaya 

Meghalaya is the only state whose entire area is 

governed by the provisions of Sixth Schedule (except 

Cantonment and Municipality of Shillong). 

Meghalaya was originally a part of the State of Assam 

and a separate state of Meghalaya was formed under 

the Assam Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act, 1969. The 


new state of Meghalaya comprised of United Khasi- 

Jaintia Hills District and Garo Hills Districts. 

In the Constitution of the India, the table appended 

to paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule was divided 

into three parts. Part II of the table covered the tribal 

areas of the State of Meghalaya as under: 

1. United Khasi- Jaintia Hills District 

2. Jowai District 

3. Garo Hills District 

Paragraph 12A was inserted by the Assam 

Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act, 1969 with the 

formation of Autonomous State of Meghalaya within the 

State of Assam making special provision with respect to 

application of laws in Meghalaya. As per sub Paragraph 

1(a) if the laws made by the District Council under 

paragarph 3(1) (b) (the management of any forest not 

being reserve forest) and under paragraph 3(1) (c) (the 

use of any canal and water course for the purpose of 

agriculture) is repugnant to any law made by the Assam 

Legislature “with respect to any project declared by the 

legislature of that State to be of State importance” then 

the law made by the District Council to the extent of 

repugnant shall be void. Sub paragraph 1(b) provided 

for supremacy of the law made by the Meghalaya 

Legislature over the laws made by the District Council in 

matters specified in paragraph 3(1)(b) (the management 

of any forest not being reserved forest), paragraph 3(1)(c) 

(the use of any canal or water course for the purpose of 

agriculture) and paragraph 3(1)(f) (any other matter 

relating to village and town administration, including 

village and town police and public heath and sanitation). 

Sub paragraph (2) and (3) empowered the legislature of 

Meghalaya to make laws on any subject covered by 

paragraph (3) if so requested by two or more District 

Council or Regional Councils in Meghalaya. Under sub 

paragraph (4), the Governor was given power, with 

respect to any Act of the legislature of Assam, and the 

president was given power, with respect to any Act of 

Parliament, to issue notification, directing that the any 

Act will not apply to Meghalaya or shall apply with such 

exception or modification, as may be specified in the 

notification, with prospective or retrospective effect. 

There are 3 District Councils in the State of 

Meghalaya:- 

1. Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council 

2. Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council 

3. Garo Hills Autonomous District Council 


Khasi Hills autonomous district council 

On the 26th January, 1950 when the Constitution came 

into force, the ‘United Khasi Jaintia Hills District’ was 

formed as one of the tribal areas of Assam being 

mentioned at item No. 1 of Part A of the table 

appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule. This 

area comprised of the Khasi States and the other areas 

of the Khasi-Jaintia Hills District excluding any areas 

for the time being comprised within the cantonment 

and Muncipality of Shilong, but including so much of 

the area comprised within the municipality of Shilong 

as formed part of the Khasi State of Mylliem. Under 

paragraph 2 (4) of the sixth Schedule the 

administration of the United Khasi Jaintia Hills 

District vested in the District Council, which started 

functioning w.e.f 17.6.1952. 

The Governor of Assam vide notification dated 

23.11.1964 created a new Autonomous District to be called 

the Jowai District by excluding the Jowai Sub division of 

the United Khasi Jaintia Hills District. The Khasi Hills 

District was divided into two districts viz. West Khasi 

Hills and East Khasi Hills w.e.f. 28.10.1976. Subsequently, 

in 1992 Ri Bhoi District was carved out from the East 

Khasi Hills. However, the Khasi Hills Autonomous 

Councils continued to exercise jurisdiction over all the 

three districts namely (i) West Khasi Hills District, (ii) East 

Khasi Hills District and (iii) Ri Bhoi District. 

Garo Hills autonomous district council 

Under the Constitution, ‘Garo Hills’ was specified as 

one of the tribal areas being mentioned at item No.2 of 

Part A of the table appended to paragraph 20 of the 

Sixth Schedule. The Garo Hills District was divided 

into two districts viz. the West Garo Hills District and 

East Garo Hills District in October 1976. The erstwhile 

West Garo Hills district was further divided into two 

administrative districts, viz West Garo Hills and South 

Garo Hills in June 1992. The Garo Hills Autonomous 

Councils continued to exercise jurisdiction over all the 

three districts namely, (i) West Garo Hills District (ii) 

East Garo Hills District and (iii) South Garo Hills. 

The Sixth Schedule, as originally framed, was 

applicable only to the tribal areas of the State of Assam 3 

by virtue of Article 244(2) and 275(1) of the Constitution 

of India. Table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth 

Schedule defined the tribal areas of the State of Assam. 

It contained two parts, namely Part A and Part B as 

follows: 

3 State of Assam in 1950 included the areas presently comprising in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland. 

37

PART A 

1. The United Khasi-Jaintia Hills District. 

2. The Garo Hills District 

3. The Lushai Hills District. 

4. The Naga Hills District. 

5. The North Cachar Hills District. 

PART B 

1. North East Frontier Tract, including the 

Balipara Frontier Tract, the Tirap Frontier 

Tract, the Abor Hills District and the Mishimi 

Hills District. 

The Naga tribal area 

Paragraph 1 provided for an Autonomous District for 

the tribal area in each item of Part A of the table 

appended to the paragraph 20. 

With regard to areas of Part B of the table, the 

Governor was authorized under paragraph 18(1) to 

apply all or any of provision of Sixth Schedule to the 

said area by issuing public notification subject to 

previous approval of the President. 

The provisions of the Sixth Schedule were never 

extended to Part B areas and these areas continued to be 

administered by the Governor as the agent of the 

President under paragraph 18(2) till such time these areas 

were excluded from the purview of the Sixth Schedule. 

Analysing Forest Acts of Khasi Hills 

District and Garo Autonomous 

Councils 

A critical analysis of the Forest Acts of the Khasi Hills 

District Council and Garo Autonomous Council 

together with the manner in which the laws are 

implemented will make it clear to a very large extent 

why there has been a gross mismanagement of forests 

under the control of the District Council resulting in 

its alarming depletion. 

The Forest Acts of the Khasi Hills 

District Council 

The enactment of the laws for the control and 

management of forests by the District Council of 

Khasi Hills did not however result in the end of the 

customary pattern of management of forests. The 

United Khasi-Jaintia Hills Autonomous District 

(Management and Control of Forests) Act 1958, has 

given formal recognition to the various customary 

categories of forests and entrusted on them statutory 

obligations and have also endowed the managers of 

them with statutory powers. 

The United Khasi Hills-Jaintia Hills Autonomous 

District Council (Management and control of Forest) 

Act, 1958 has specific laws for each category of forests. 

The various categories of forests to which the Forest 

Act apply are; Private Forests, Village Forests, Raid 

Forests, Protected Forests, Green Block, District 

Council Reserved Forest, Sacred Forests and Un 

classed Forests. 

The study of the laws applicable to the Private, 

Sacred and Community Forest together with its 

implementation will give a broad idea of the way the 

forests are being managed. 

Private forests 

In the District Council Forest Act of 1958, “Private 

Forests” have been classified as: 

(a) Ri Kynti – These are forests belonging to an 

individual, clan or joint clan. 

(b) Law Ri Sumar – These forests belong to 

individual clan, joint clan that are grown or 

inherited by him in a village. 

Clause (a) of Section 4 of the Act, states that the 

Private Forests shall be looked after by the owner, 

subject to the rules that may be framed by the 

Executive Committee from time to time. A major 

shortcoming of the said Act is that the manner in 

which these forests are to be “looked after” has not 

been mentioned in the Act of 1958. Though, clause (a) 

of Section 4 of the United Khasi Hills-Jaintia Hills 

Autonomous District (Management and Control of 

Forests) Rules 1960 has various rules for the 

management of forests. However, a critical look at the 

rules reveal that actually there are not rules for the 

management of forests but rather deal with the 

various formalities that the private owner has to fulfil 

before making commercial transaction of timber and 

other forest produce. What is absent in the rules is a 

“working plan” for the management of forests. 

The importance of a working plan need not be over 

emphasized. Development of forests largely depends 

upon the quality of working plan and the various 

prescriptions that are to be undertaken in the 

particular forest division. The forests are important 

not only for their productive functions but also for 

environmental and protective function. It is therefore 

essential that the harvesting of timber be done in a 

planned and scientific manner so as to cause 


minimum harm to the environment and to ensure 

regeneration of cleared forests. 

The absence of a working plan for the private 

forests can be regarded as one of the major reasons for 

its depletion. This is evident from a note that was 

prepared by the State Forest Department and 

submitted to the “Commission of Inquiry on 

Autonomous District Administration in Meghalaya” 

in 1984. It stated that the District Council has only a 

national right over the management of such (Private) 

forests. The owners exploit the forests as they like and 

pay royalty to the District Council on timber taken out 

for trade. The private forests in the Khasi Hills, it is 

said, has come under unplanned excessive 

exploitation during the past decade or so the owners 

of private forests often lease out their forests to timber 

contractors who exploit the forests to their maximum 

benefit without caring for the future. Some 

unscrupulous timber traders buy out forest operation 

rights from the owners of private forests in 

anticipation of construction of roads to such areas and 

when the roads are constructed they carry out wanton 

felling of trees in the forests. 

‘Raid’ forest (community forests) 

The fact that at times, the enactment of a statutory law 

overpowering the customary law of the tribals can 

lead to confusion as well on conflict is best 

exemplified by the manner in which the `Raid Forests’ 

are being managed by the Syiems. 

The institution of Syiemship is in fact one of the 

most important element that held in Khasi society 

together, since they were the traditional rulers of the 

Khasi Hills. The Syiems however lost their political 

importance to the British but retained their position as 

an administrative entity with a focus on perpetuating 

cultural and customary practices of the Khasis. 

With the enactment of the Constitution of India 

the position of the Syiems has changed and their 

status has been reduced to that of officials and 

functionaries of the District Council. Thus, as per the 

law, the Syiems are treated as administrative officers 

by the District Council. However, in practice, they 

continue to function as if their status has not 

changed and this illusion is also presented to the 

common man by the manner in which they manage 

the Raid Forests in complete violation of the laws of 

the District Council. 

Under customary laws, the Syiems managed the 

`Raid Forests’ and collected royalties on timber. 


However, once the District Council has made laws for 

the management of such forests, as authorised by the 

Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, the customary law 

under which the Syiems managed the Raid Forests 

became abrogated . So, the Syiems derived their right 

of management from the law made by the District 

Council. 

The District Council has made laws with regard to 

Raid Forests. Clause VI of Section 3 of the United 

Khasi Hills Autonomous District (Management and 

Control of Forest) Act, 1958, defines Raid Forests as: 

“These are forests looked after by the head of the Raid 

and under the management of the local administrative 

head.” The District Council has made rules under 

which the Syiems should remit a portion of the 

royalties collected by them to the Council. In reality, 

the Syiems ignore all the rules made by the Council, 

they in fact have their own Forest Department which 

deals with the issuing of permits, settlement of 

disputes and control of forests. The District Council 

has not converted or treated the Syiemship as 

administrative units nor entrusted them with specific 

function. Yet the Syiems continue to function 

according to customs and traditions. 

Just as the manner in which the “Private Forests” 

are to be looked after” has not been provided in the Act 

similarly there is no provision either in the Act of 1958 

or in the rules made thereunder, as to how the Raid 

Forests are to be “looked after”. That is, there are no 

proper and scientific working plans, to be made by the 

administrative head. The Commission of Inquiry on 

Autonomous District Administration, 1984, noted that 

the general practice has been that the Syiems sell 

timbers from the Raid Forests appropriating the money 

and there is no supervision by the District Council, 

whose authority is not recognised by the Syiems. The 

Commission noted that the Syiems have become the 

de-facto owners of the Raid Forests, as a result of which 

they have become depleted. The Commission therefore 

suggested that there should be rules for supervision of 

Raid Forests by the District Council and these must be 

some plans for afforestation of these forests so that they 

may not be depleted. However, these 

recommendations of the Commission were ignored 

and the Syiems continue to manage the forests as 

before. 

One of the most important facts highlighted by the 

Commission was that contrary to what is believed, the 

Syiems have never been the owners of the Raid 

Forests which in reality belong to the people. Any 

assertion of ownership right by any Syiem over a Raid 

forest therefore, cannot be sustained. 

39

Sacred groves 

The sacred groves are a unique feature of the Khasi 

and Jaintia Hills. These are scattered at different 

places and generally found below the hill brows. 

These forests are a relict of the original forests and are 

a storehouse of a variety of plant genetic resources. 

The District Council has entrusted the 

management of sacred groves i.e. Law Lyngdoh, Law 

Kyntang and Law Niam to the Lyngdohs and other 

such religious priests. The sacred groves however are 

also getting destroyed and mismanaged, similar to 

that of private forests and Raid Forests. The reason for 

the destruction and mismanagement of sacred groves 

is however different from that of Raid and private 

forests. Since the major reasons for its destruction is 

the loss of ‘sanctity’. 

In the past, the sanctity of the groves were 

honoured and nothing in this category of forests was 

removed except for religious purposes. Anyone guilty 

of sacrilege is believed to fall under the curse of the 

deity and faces dire consequences such as premature 

death, sickness, poverty etc. 

In the present times however the situation has 

changed and sacred forests are losing their status on 

account of a growing population and a more 

materialistic younger generation together combined 

with the fact that those tribals who converted to 

Christianity do not subscribe to such beliefs. The idea 

of sanctity is thus, increasingly failing to save the 

sacred forests. Consequently, many groves have been 

totally destroyed whereas in others the frequency of 

cutting down trees and tendency to violate the 

customs are on the rise. 

Another reason why the destruction of sacred 

forests are taking place is the fact that neither the 

Forest Act of 1958 or any rules made thereunder has 

any provision for those violating these customs. 

Clause (b) of Section 4 of the Management and 

Control of Forest Rules 1960, which deals with the 

management of sacred groves simply deals with the 

procedure through which timber can be removed 

from such forests for religious purposes, and there 

exists no penal sanction, either in the form of 

imprisonment or fines for those violating the rules. 

General comments on sacred groves 

The Sacred groves of Meghalaya, may not, at the first 

glance appear to be of much importance in terms of 

biodiversity, since the bulk of them are quite limited 

in their extent. Besides the sacred groves are far too 

scattered to be regarded as one viable unit from the 

conservation point of view. A large number of sacred 

groves are also in a degraded state. Studies have 

concluded that only 1% of the total area of sacred 

groves is undisturbed. The bulk of the sacred groves 

are subjected to various degrees of disturbance. 

However, despite such a bleak scenario, the sacred 

groves are among the last treasure houses of 

biodiversity in the region. The sacred groves most 

often represent the relict vegetation of a region. The 

very weak network of Protected areas in the state as 

also of Reserved and Protected forest means that the 

sacred groves are the only patches where many 

endangered species find refuge. The sacred groves are 

also spread over a wide range of bio-geographical 

areas and hence have a high rate of species diversity. 

The special Constitutional provisions applicable to 

this region also means that addition of more PAs will 

not be an easy task. 

There can be no debate on the subject of the 

ecological importance of the sacred groves. What 

however can be debated is the strategy that needs to 

be undertaken to conserve the unique institution of 

sacred groves. As we have seen, sacred groves in 

Meghalaya owe their origin to religious beliefs and 

sentiments and not to any idea of natural resource 

conservation. The multiple social processes of 

modernisation, urbanisation, rationalisation together 

with changes in the belief system have in varying 

degrees contributed to the decrease in the 

"sacredness" attached to these groves. Since it is 

purely religious sentiments that have protected these 

groves, a strategy to revive the religious sentiments, 

beliefs and myths in the modern world is neither 

possible nor desirable. What may hold the key would 

be to reeducate the people about the values of the 

sacred groves. The "value" could be explained in 

terms of its botanical wealth viz., medicinal plants 

wealth, the rare and endangered species etc. The other 

important functions of sacred groves in terms of 

serving as a safety reserve in cases of emergency and 

its soil conservation functions also needs to be 

emphasised. 

It has been suggested that the sacred grove be 

brought under the protected area (PA) network. 

However it is pertinent to remember some of the 

pitfalls of bringing the sacred groves under a PA 

network. It has to be emphasised that it is the 

"sacredness" that is the most distinguishing feature of 

a sacred grove. The entire grove is believed to be under 

the control of the guardian spirit. It is this spirit that 

reigns over the sacred grove. Nothing is to be done 

without the permission of the head priest and that too 

for specified purposes. The establishment of protected 


area network would mean the substitution of the 

traditional authority of the priest/village chief etc. by 

a rational - legal authority represented by the forest 

department of the government. A possible 

consequence would be the decrease in whatever 

sanctity is left in the sacred groves. A scenario, which 

could be suicidal since only a fragment of the total area 

of the sacred groves in Meghalaya, is undisturbed. 

A strategy for conservation should be adopted 

which takes into account the following conditions: 

Unique condition prevailing in a particular 

sacred grove. 

The beliefs and practices prevailing among 

the people and whether the religious rituals 

related to the sacred groves are being 

practiced or not. 

The status of forests and vegetation around 

the sacred groves - This is an important factor, 

for there is bound to be pressure on the sacred 

grove if people are to depend on the sacred 

grove for meeting their biomass requirement. 

The religion followed by the people in the 

vicinity of the sacred grove - However, this is 

quite a complicated issue and depends on a 

multiplicity of factors. As we have seen in 

areas where the people have converted to 

Christianity, the belief in the sacredness is on 

the decline. However, there are many 

instances where the even the Christians 

subscribe to the beliefs, myths and legends 

associated with the sacred groves. Besides 

there are groves which are well preserved 

even when the bulk of the people around the 

sacred grove are Christians, since the Chief of 

the village still adhere to their traditional 

religion. 

The sacred groves may have lost their importance 

in terms of their religious significance, however the 

high rate of deforestation in the state has only 

increased their value in terms of harboring the last 

remnant biodiversity in the region. The traditional 

patterns of beliefs of the people served the latent 

function of protecting the forests. The recognition of 

this latent function as opposed to the manifest 

function of the sacred grove is what might hold the 

key to the survival of the sacred groves in Meghalaya. 

Forest acts of the Garo Hills 

district council 

The District Council of Garo Hills has for the 

management of forests other than Government 

controlled forests enacted the Garo Hills District 


(Forests) Act, 1958. This Act differs from the Forest 

Acts of the Khasi Hills since it is shaped according to 

the Assam Forest Regulation Act, 1891. 

An important provision in the Garo Hills District 

(Forests) Act, 1958 is the setting up of a Council 

Reserved Forests (S.3). The procedure for constituting 

a Council Reserved Forests is similar to the procedure 

for setting up a Government Reserve Forests as given 

in the Assam Forests Regulation Act, 1891 (which in 

turn was structured in accordance with the Indian 

Forest Act, 1878). The only difference being that 

instead of a Government appointed Forest Settlement 

Officer there is a Council Settlement Officer for the 

settlement of rights etc. 

However no forest has been designated as Council 

Reserved Forest, and a possible answer to it could be 

the past experience of the Garos with Reserve Forests. 

Just as the Jaintia Hills District Council has 

adopted in toto the Forest Act of the Khasi Hills 

District Council, similarly the Garo Hills District 

Council has adopted many provisions of the Assam 

Forest Regulation Act 1891, mutatis mutandis for the 

Garo Hills. Thus Section 20 of the Garo Hills (Forests) 

Act 1958 applies chapter IV, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X and XI 

of the Assam Forest Regulations, mutatis mutandis 

for the management of District Council Forests and 

levy and collection of forests revenue. Thus the 

District Council of Garo Hills has not made any effort 

to bring out legislation keeping in view the specific 

requirements of Garo Hills. 

The confusion that arises because of the 

simultaneous operation of the customary laws of the 

tribal and the statutory laws of the District Council is 

also evident in the Garo Hills, similar to what prevails 

in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. In the plain areas of the 

Garo Hills district which comprise roughly 5.75% of 

the total area the Assam Land and Revenue Regulation 

Act 1866 is applicable, whereas in the hilly lands the 

customary laws govern the system of land tenure. 

Most of the land in the hilly portion of Garo Hills 

(where also the bulk of forests exists) belongs to one 

clan, or the other, and in known as a "A' Khing land". 

The A khing land belongs to the clan but is under the 

control of the head of the clan known as “Nokma”. 

Even though theoretically a female is a “Nokma”, but 

in actuality the Akhing land is managed and 

controlled by her husband on her behalf. 

As Akhing land is clan- land any member of the 

clan can cultivate a portion of it without payment of 

any fees to the Nokma. However if a member of 

41

another clan wants land, then the Nokma can give 

him land if available and also realizes a small amount 

of fees which is called “A wil”. The District Council 

has however passed the Garo Hills District (A Wil 

Fees) Act, 1960, for the regulations, collection of “A’ 

Wil” fee in the District. In this Act “A’Wil” fee in 

described not only as fees paid by any outsiders who 

is allowed to Jhum in a particular A’Khing, but also as 

fees assessed on timbers or other forest produce 

extracted from the A’Khing. Under Section 5 of the 

Garo Hills District (A’Wil Fees), Act, 1960, the Nokma 

of the A’Khing gets 25% of it, and 75% goes to the 

District Council. 

The A’ Wil fees, which has been made applicable 

to timber and other forest produce, is a major factor 

contributing to the depletion of forests in the Garo 

Hills. This is because both the District Council and the 

Nokma, derive monetary benefit if trees and other 

forest produce are exploited by people who are not 

members of a particular class to which the land 

belongs. 

Under customary law, A’ Wil fees was levied only 

on the tribals who were not clan members and that to 

for cultivation. The District Council has, by making 

A’wil fees applicable to any person, other than those to 

whom the A’Khing land belongs, in fact has legitimised 

the exploitation of forests by tribals, who have turned 

into professional timber contractor and traders. 

Another major reasons for the mismanagement of 

forests in the Garo Hills is the confusion that arises 

because of the overlapping authority of the Nokmas 

and the District Council. 

As has been said earlier, most of the land in Garo 

Hills belong to one clan or the other (under the control 

of the Nokma) in accordance with the customary law. 

However, under the Sixth Schedule of the 

Constitution, all forests other than Government 

Reserved Forests, are to be managed by the District 

Council. Since the bulk of the forests are in the hilly 

region of the district where the customary law on land 

is applicable this has led to confusion, as it is difficult 

for the District Council to effectively manage the 

forests, if the land on which the trees exists are not 

under its control. 

The District Council has sought to end this 

confusion through a Rule, according to which, even 

though the Nokma has the right to grant permission 

for felling of trees, however until the District Council 

approves it, the permission given by the Nokma has 

no validity. 

But in actuality the District Council has no proper 

mechanism to see whether the number of trees felled 

are in accordance with the permit granted. This is 

borne out by a note prepared by the State Forest 

Department and submitted to the Commission of 

Inquiry on Autonomous District Administration – 

1984. It was stated in the note that :- 

“In the Garo Hills the timber traders obtain permission 

from the Nokmas for extraction of timber from the clan 

forests under its custody. The contractors then obtain 

timber operation permits from the District Council on 

the strength of the Nokmas consent letters. Because of 

the lack of adequate field supervision the contractors 

operate many more trees than are authorised by the 

permits. The District Council has to remain satisfied in 

the collection of revenue at forest depots. This practice 

has resulted is systematic and ruthless removal of all 

marketable trees from the forest forests under the control 

of the Garo Hills District Council”. 

Conclusions 

The above analysis of the District Council laws on the 

management and control of forests brings us to the 

following important conclusions: - 

(1) All the laws together with the subsequent 

Rules with regard to forests have been made 

keeping in view the requirements of trade 

and commerce and looks at forests as a source 

for generating revenue for District Councils. 

This is exemplified by the fact that in the 

United Khasi-Jaintia Hills Autonomous 

District (Management and Control of Forests) 

Rules 1960, “Forests” have been defined as – 

“An area shall be deemed to be a forest if there are a 

reasonable numbers of trees, say not less than 25 trees 

per acre or any forest produce growing in such area, 

which are capable of being exploited for the purpose of 

business and trade”. 

(2) Even though the District Councils have been 

constitutionally given the power to manage all 

forests other than Government Reserved 

Forests, in actuality it has only a notional 

control over most of the forests. This is most 

acute in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Thus the 

District Council has failed to assert its 

authority as the sole manager of forests, and as 

such a large percentage of forests are managed 

in accordance with the customary laws. 


(3) There has been a gross mismanagement of 

forest by the District Council, and one reason 

for this mismanagement is the absence of a 

working plan. The mismanagement of forests 

due to the absence of a working plan, results 

not only in the rapid depletion of forests, but 

also generates less revenue for the owners. 

Thus, even though the forests under the 

control of the District Councils have been 

ruthlessly exploited as compared to those 

under the control of the State Forest 

Department, yet the Commission of Inquiry 

in 1984 found out that whereas, the State 

Forest Department has control over only 10% 

of the total forest area in the State, it earns 

about a crore of rupees, whereas the three 

District Council with over 90% of the total 

forests earn much less. 

(4) Most of the laws enacted by the District 

Councils for the management of forests are 

not comprehensive and adequate to deal with 

the unique circumstances prevailing in a 

particular Autonomous District. Thus, the 

Jaintia Hill District Council has applied the 

Forest Acts of the Khasi Hills mutatismutandis, 

whereas the Garo Hills District 

Council has applied various provisions of the 

Assam Forest (Regulation) Act, 1891 mutatismutandis. 

(5) The District Council has modified some 

customary laws on forests so that more 

revenue can be generated in total disregard to 

its consequence on the forests. Thus, whereas 

previously in the Garo Hills, A ‘Wil fees was 

applicable to only those who cultivated in a 

land which belongs to another clan, the 

District Council of Garo Hills has made the 

levy of A’Wil fees applicable to the removal of 

timber and other forest produce and this levy 

of A’Wil fees has contributed in a major way 

to the depletion of forests. The reason being 

that since forest products used locally by the 

people cannot be taxed, the District Council 

makes no effort to stop the indiscriminate 

felling of trees and their transportation to 

outside markets since that alone constitutes 

the largest source of revenue for the District 

Council. 


There exist certain other factors, which have 

contributed to the depletion of forests under the 

control of the District Council, which are to a large 

extent common to all the three District Councils. 

Firstly, in spite of the constitutional status of the 

District Council, there is no mandatory financial 

provision to cater to their administrative needs, either 

through plan or non-plan. If financial assistance is 

made available from the State Government, it is mostly 

in the form of grant-in-aid and for limited purposes. 

Thus for example the Khasi Hills District Council is left 

to fend for itself for financing its whole administrative 

set-up with whatever resources it has. Hence the 

contention of the District Councils is that it has no 

choice but to depend heavily on revenue from forest 

resources. Of the entire receipt of the Khasi Hills 

District Council in 1990, revenue from timber exports 

alone accounts for 70%. This amount is used to finance 

the entire District Council administration comprising 

of the executive, the legislature and the judiciary and 

no allocation could be made for afforestation. 

Secondly, whereas various provisions of the Forest 

Acts of the District Councils are penal in nature. 

However, the District Councils have no machinery to 

enforce these laws e.g. the village courts set up by the 

District Council has no means to compel the 

attendance of the accused before it. As such the village 

courts generally makes a request to the police to get 

the accused arrested, however the police treats the 

requests as a F.I.R. and gets the accused arrested, but 

produces them in the District Magistrates Courts and 

not the Village Courts. Hence the village courts are 

unable to do their duty of administering justice. 

Finally, the entire administrative structure with 

regard to forest structure the District Council is highly 

“bureaucratic” in nature and not much different from the 

State Forest Department. Thus an elaborate hierarchy of 

posts exists such as Chief Forest Officer, Assistance Forest 

Officer, Forest Ranger, Deputy Forest Ranger, Forest 

Guard etc. Thus whereas the Constitution makers had 

given the District Council the right to make laws and 

manage forests in the manner best suited for the tribals, 

the District Council have created an administrative 

structure which was alien to the tribals and similar to the 

administrative structure of the Government. 

43

Meghalaya, with its diverse habitats and large 

area under forest supports an array of fauna 

and flora. The state has about 5538 known 

species of fauna comprising of 139 species of 

mammals, 540 species of birds, 94 species of reptiles, 

33 species of amphibians and 152 species of fishes 

(Alfred, 1995). Of these, Garo Hills has 79 species of 

mammals, 206 species of birds, 50 species of reptiles, 

14 species of amphibians and over 100 species of 

fishes. The floral diversity is equally rich and harbors 

about 3128 species of flowering plants and 

contributes about 18% of the total flora of the country, 

including 1237 endemic species. About 40% of the 

total flora of the state is endemic (Khan et al 1997; 

Anon 2005). 

Forest Types 

Following is a brief classification of forests of 

Meghalaya with the respective species composition, 

which is based on Haridasan and Rao (1985). 

A. Tropical Forests 

i. Tropical evergreen forests 

ii. Tropical semi-evergreen forests 

iii. Tropical moist and dry deciduous forests 

B. Sub-Tropical broad leaved forests 

C. Sub-Tropical Pine forests 

D. Bamboo forests 

E. Grasslands and Savannas 

A. Tropical Forests: 

These forests are found up to an elevation of 1200 m and 

CHAPTER IV 

Forest resources and their management in 

Garo Hill districts 

Kiranmay Sarma and Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

in areas, which receive an average rainfall of about 

1000-2500 mm. 

i. Tropical evergreen forests: 

These forests usually occur in high rainfall areas and 

near catchment areas. They seldom form continuous 

belts due to various exogenous factors, but still 

harbour very rich species diversity. The trees exhibit 

clear zonation with dense, often impenetrable, 

herbaceous undergrowth. 

The top canopy is composed of trees like Mesua ferrea, 

Castanopsis indica, Dysoxylum gobara, D. binectariferum, 

Talauma hodgsoni, Bischofia javanica, Sapium baccatum, 

Terminalia citrina, T. belerica, Xerospermum glabratum, 

Cynometra polyandra, Elaeocarpus robustus, E. rugosus, 

E. floribundus, Polyalthia cerasoides, Pterospermum 

acerifolium, Lannea coromandelica, Eriobotrya bengalensis 

and Acrocarpus fraxinifolius. 

The second storey, which is almost obscure, is 

composed of trees like Garcinia paniculata, G. cowa, G. 

pedunculata, Syzygium operculatum, Vitex glabrata, 

Premna bracteata, Sarcosperma griffithii, Ficus racemosa, 

Turpinia pomifera, Nauclea griffithii, Saraca asoka, 

Dimocarpus longan, Pterospermum lanceaefolium, 

Stercularia roxburghii, S. hamiltonii, Mangifera sylvatica, 

Ostodes paniculata, Antidesma acuminatum, Knema 

linifolia, etc. 

Smaller trees of the third storey consist of Oreocnoide 

integrifolia, Ficus lamponga, F. clavata, Alchornea 

tiliaefolia, Sarcochlamys pulcherrima, Boehmeria 

hamiltoniana, Antidesma bunius, Macropanax dispermus, 

Ixora subsessilis, Trevesia palmate, Brassaiopsis glomerata,

Fig.1 Forest cleared for slash and burn (Jhum) cultivation in Garo Hills 

Premna barbata, Saprosma ternatum, Leea umbraculifera, 

Goniothalamus simonsi, etc. 

The shrub layer is comprised of Draceana elliptica, 

Canthium angustifolium, Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus, 

Ardisia thomsonii, Lasianthus hookeri, Hyptianthera 

stricta etc. Grasses and a number of perennial herbs 

and some emergent ferns occasionally cover the forest 

floor heavily covered by humus and litter. Wood 

rotting fungi are abundant on fallen tree trunks and 

branches. 

Climbers and lianas are also present in large numbers 

in these forests. A few important lianas are: Hodgsonia 

macrocarpus, Beaumontia grandiflora, Gnetum scandens, 

Ventilago madraspatana, Cayratia pedata, Chonemorpha 

fragrans, Ampelocissus latifolia, Phanera nervosa, P. 

khasiana, Lasiobema scandens, Combretum roxburghii, 

Entada purseatha, Schefflera venulosa etc. These climbers, 

which intertwine with each other and entangle trees, 

render the forests almost impenetrable. Some ferns 

obviously epiphytic ones, perch over these giant lianas 

at intervals. A few climbers like Thunbergia glandiflora, 

Gouania tiliaefolia, Adenia trilobata, Solena heterophylla, 

Pegia nitida, Desmos longiflorus etc. that are associated 

with lianas, give the forest margins and openings a 

closed cascade-like appearance. The high reaches of the 


lofty trees are often blanketed by a lush growth of 

epiphytic orchids like Pholidota imbricata, Dendrobium 

sp., and other species such as Hoya parasitica, Asplenium 

sp., Aeschynanthus suparba, etc. imparting colour and 

elegance to the canopy while in bloom. Wherever the 

canopy is slightly open, ascending epiphytic climbers 

mainly of the Araceae, such as Raphidophora decursiva, 

R. lancifolia, Pothos scandens etc. completely mask the 

tree trunks. 

Even though there is no uniformity in the distribution 

of dominant tree species in these forests, yet in some 

places their dominance can be marked. For example, 

Sapium baccatum in Umsalem, Baghmara, Rongra, 

Balpakram, etc. and Xerospermum glabratum in 

Rongrengiri. Along river courses, Duabanga 

grandiflora is more prevalent with under storey trees 

like Vatica lanceaefolia. 

ii. Tropical semi-evergreen forests: 

These forests occupy the northeastern and northern 

slopes in the state, typically up to an elevation of 1200 m 

and where annual rainfall is 1500-2000 mm with a 

comparatively cooler winter. The number of species is 

fewer than that of the evergreen zone. There are also a 

few deciduous species in these forests such as Careya 

45

Fig. 2 Tiger in Balpakram National Park 

arborea, Dillenia pentagyna and Callicarpa arborea. Further, 

there is a clear stratification of the trees in these forests 

as well. 

The top canopy includesElaeocarpus floribundus, Dillenia 

pentagyna, D. indica, Hovenia acerba, Ehretia acuminata 

and Lithocarpus fenestratus. The second storey is 

composed of Micromelum integerrimum, Garcinia 

lanceaefolia, Sapindus rarak, Symplocus paniculata, Rhus 

acuminata, Dalbergia assamica, Bridelia monoica, Vernonia 

volkameriaefolia and Ficus hirta. 

The shrub layer is not very dense. The common 

shrubs are Randia griffithii, Boehmeria sidaefolia, Ardisia 

thomsonii, A. floribunda, Clerodendrum bracteatum and 

Eriobotrya angustissima and the common perennial 

herbs are Costus speciosus, Curcuma domestica, C. 

zedoaria andHedyotis sp. 

iii. Tropical moist and dry deciduous Forests: 

This type of forests occurs at comparatively low 

elevations where annual rainfall is below 1500 mm. 

Typical natural deciduous forests do not occur 

anywhere in Meghalaya. They are only sub-climax or 

man-made forests (Tripathi, 2002). These forests are 

characterized by seasonal leaf shedding and profuse 

flowering of the trees. Recurrent forest fires are a 

common phenomenon here. Deciduous forests are 

much more extensive in their distribution in the 

state. They include a host of economically important 

trees like Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Terminalia 

myriocarpa, Sterculia villosa, Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, 

L. parvifolra, Morus laevigatus, Artocarpus chaplasha, 

Gmelia arborea, etc. in both natural forests and as a 

plantation. Schima wallichii, Artocarpus gomeziana 

Tetrameles nudiflora, Lannea coromandelica, Salmalia 

malabarica, Erythrina stricta, Premna milleflora, Vitex 

peduncularis, Albizzia lebbek, A. lucida and Terminalia 

belerica are abundant in these forests. The trees of the 

deciduous canopy are tall, straight-boled and with 

spreading crown. 

A distinct second storey can usually be observed in 

these forests and this zone is composed of Aporosa 

roxburghii, Croton joufra, C. disperma, Mallotus 

tetracoccus and Glochidion lanceolarium. These trees, 

which are smaller than the canopy trees, are laxly 

branched and have a narrow crown. 

The shrub layer is often gregarious and forms an 

impenetrable thicket during rainy season with 

profuse growth of stragglers and spreading shrubs 

interwoven by slender annual climbers. The main 


components of this layer are Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus, 

Desmodium pulchellum, Flemmingia macrophylla, 

Holarrhena antidysenterica, Costus speciosus, Leea crispa, 

L. indica, Glycosmis arborea, Allophyllus cobbe, Licuala 

peltataetc. 

Lianas are fewer but scandent shrubs like Bridelia 

stipularis, Combretum roxburghii, Mussaenda glabra, 

Hiptage benghalensis, Aspidopteris elliptica and Pottsia 

laxiflora are frequent. However, lianas like Spatholobus 

roxburghii, Phanera nervosa, Entada purseatha etc. make 

their way high up the canopy and become spectacular 

but often deform the main trees. The epiphytic flora is 

extremely low when compared to the other types of 

forests. However, massive growth of epiphytic orchids 

like, Pholidota imbricata, Dendrobium moschatum, D. nobile 

which bloom during rainy season, and Papilionanthe 

which densely infest trees giving them a pink mosaic 

appearance during summer are quite common. The tree 

trunks also provide a favourable habitat for the growth 

of ferns like, Drymaria sp.,Microsorum sp., etc. Chain-like 

growth of Hoya lanceolata or Dischidia nummularia is also 

encountered. Terrestrial ferns are rather rare except 

Pteris sp. that often dominates the ground vegetation. 

The undergrowth of these forests varies from one 

locality to another. For instance, in Sonsak area it is 

dominated by Leea crispa whereas it is Desmodium 

pulchellum in Tasek, Licuala peltata in Darugiri, and 

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus in Lailad. Man-made forest 

fires kill much of the undergrowth during dry period 

(December-April). Only the hardier species such as 

Eupatorium spp. , Lantana camara, etc., manage to 

thrive. With the constant occurrence of fires and 

human interference, particularly the practice of 

shifting agriculture with a short jhum cycle, vast 

forests in this belt are in a much degraded state. In 

such degraded forests, trees like, Bauhinia purpurea, 

Macaranga denticulate, Callicarpa arborea, Emblica 

officinalis, Careya arborea, Grewia microcosm, Holarrhena 

antidysenterica and Zizyphus oenoplia are commonly 

seen. 

B. Sub-Tropical broad-leaved forests: 

These forests occur at higher elevations (above 1000 

m), mostly along the southern slope of Khasi, Garo 

and Jaintia hills. The rainfall here is very high (2000- 

5000 mm) with a winter during November-March. 

Ground frost is also common during December- 

January. 

These climatic climax forests are usually found in 

isolated pockets along valleys, slopes, rivers and 

streams. Tree species in general show bushy and 

stunted habitat. They form a dense canopy with 


Fig. 3 Top & bottom Asian elephants in Baghmara 

reserve forest 

Lithocarpus fenestratus, Castanopsis kurzii, Quercus 

griffithii, Q. semiserrata, Castanopsis armata, Schima 

khasiana, Myrica esculenta, Symplocos glomerata, Photinia 

arguta, Syzygium tetragonum, Ficus nemoralis, Saurauria 

armata, Echinocarpus dasycarpus, Elaeocarpus prunifolius, 

E. acuminatus, Mangleitia insignis, M. caveana, Ilex 

venulosa, I. umbellata, Exbucklandia populnea, Lindera 

melastomacea, Engelhardtia spicata, Betula alnoides and 

occasionally, Schima wallichii andWendlandia sp. etc. 

in varied associations. 

A well-developed impenetrable shrub layer can be 

seen in these forests. This layer includes Mahonia 

pycnophylla, Daphne papyracea, D. involucrate, Polygala 

arillata, Myrsine semiserrata, Baliospermum micranthum, 

Maesa chisia, Ardisia thomsoni, Randia griffithii, 

Viburnum foetidum, V. simonsii, Helicia nilagirica, 

Symplocos paniculata, S. chinensis, Ixora subsessilis, 

Goniothalamus sesquipedalis, Camellia caudata, C. 

cauduca, Neillia thyrsiflora and Lyonia ovalifolia among 

others. 

In open places and streams, particularly during rainy 

season, a well marked herbaceous layer comes up, 

which includes mostly annuals like Houttuynia 

cordata, Adenostemma lavenia, Myriactis nepalensis, 

Begonia palmata, Didymocarpus palmata, Elatostemma 

rupestra, Impatiens sp., Sonerila sp., Disporum sp., 

47

Ainsliaea latifolia, Panax pseudo-ginseng and members 

of Commelinaceae and Arecaceae families. Some 

saprophytes like Monotropa unifloraare also present. 

These forests are exceptionally rich in epiphytic flora. 

Almost all tree trunks and branches are heavily 

plastered with a layer of epiphytes. The fern flora is 

more characteristic and takes dominance over others. 

A few important ferns found in these forests are: 

Asplenium nidus, A. normale, Loxogramme involuta, 

Ploypodium argutum, Vittaria elongata, Lepisporus spp., 

Pyrrosia sp. Coelogyne punctulata, Pleione precox, 

Dendrobium sp., Agapetes obovata, A. verticillata, 

Vaccinium donianum, Rhaphidophora decursiva, R. 

lancifolia, Aeschynanthes sp., and Hoya sp. are also quite 

characteristic and abundant in these forests. 

Climbers are usually few and less frequent and most 

of them are only scandent shrubs like Aspidopterys 

indica, Rourea minor, Rosa moschata, Kadsura heteroclite, 

Eleagnus pyriformis, Ficus laevis, Hedera nepalensis, 

Codonopsis javanica, Porana racemosa etc. Occasionally 

Gnetum scandens, and Osmanthus fragrans, Jasminum 

dispermum, Clematis loureiriana, Passiflora nepalensis 

and others are also seen. 

C. Sub- Tropical Pine Forests: 

The pine forests in Meghalaya are confined to the 

higher reaches of the Shillong plateau in Khasi and 

Jaintia hills. Pinus kesiyais the principal species, often 

forming pure stands. 

The pine forests of Meghalaya are, however, not a 

climax type, but represent late secondary successional 

community. These pine forests are interspersed with a 

few broad-leaved trees such as Schima wallichii, Acacia 

dealbata, Erythrina arborescens, Myrica esculenta etc. 

Lyonia ovalifolia, Gaultheria fragrantissima, Eupatorium 

adenophorum andRhus sp. are common shrubs in these 

forests. During rainy season there is profuse 

herbaceous undergrowth of Anemone rivularis, 

Ranunculus cantonensis, Potentilla fulgens, Artimesia 

nilagirica, Agrimonia nepalensis, Elsholzia blanda etc. 

Much of the herbaceous flora is killed or lies dormant 

during winter, giving a barren look to the ground 

layer. Eupatorium adenophorum and E. riparium form 

the only undergrowth in certain places in these pine 

forests. Aeginetia indica, a member of Orobanchaceae, 

makes its appearance in some forests among pine 

litters during August-October. 

Moderately shaded areas and slopes support grasslegume 

associations, which are subjected to grazing. 

The common legumes are Indigofera dosua, Desmodium 

heterocarpum, Priotropis cytisoides, Smithia blanda etc. 

These are associated with grasses like Sporobolus 

fertilis, Paspalum dilatatum, Eragrostis nigra, Panicum 

sp. etc. Several terrestrial ferns form gregarious 

patches. Mention may be made of Dicranopteris 

linearis, Pteridium aquilinum etc. Epiphytic ferns like 

Lepisorus excavatus, Pleopeltis kashyapili, P. loriformis, P. 

thunbergiana, Pyrrosia manii, and P. mollis are also 

noticed on pine trees. 

D. Bamboo Forests: 

Bamboo forests are not natural but appear in 15-20 

years old jhum fallows. These forests at places, form 

pure stands. The common bamboo species in 

Meghalaya are Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. giganteus, 

Bambusa bambos, Chepalostachyum latifolium, 

Chimonobambusa khasiana and Melocanna bambusoides. 

Bamboos, also appears in comparatively older forests 

where there are some gaps in the canopy. These 

bamboo forests are commonly noticed in Lailad, 

Umsalem, Tasek, Darigiri, Bonsamgiri, Rongra, 

Bokmagiri and Dinadubi areas. 

E. Grasslands and Savannas: 

Grasslands and savannas in Meghalaya have 

developed as a result of removal of natural forest 

cover. Large areas are covered with rolling grassland 

and can be seen throughout the Shillong plateau, 

around Riangdo, Ranikor, Weiloi, Mawphlang, 

Mawsynram, Cherrapunjee, Shillong-Jowai sector, 

Jarain and Sutnga in Khasi and Jaintia hills and in 

major parts of West Garo hills. 

The dominant grasses are Saccharum spontaneum, S. 

arundinaceum, Neyraudia reynaudiana, Thysanolaena 

maxima, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Narenga porphyrocoma, 

Panicum atrosanguineum, P. khasianum, Setaria glauca, S. 

palmaefolia, Oplismenus burmanii, Axonopus compressus, 

Imperata cylindrical, Paspalum dilatatum and 

Arundinella brasilensis. These grasses are associated 

with sedges like Mariscus sumatrensis, Fimbrystylis 

dichotoma, Cyperus zollingeri, C. tuberosus, Scleria 

terrestris and Eriocaulaceae members such as 

Eriocaulon cristatum and E. brownianum etc. A few 

scattered trees belonging to Emblica officinalis, Helicia 

nilagirica, Schima wallichii, Engelhardtia spicata etc. are 

also noticed in certain places in these grasslands. 

Apart from giving a green look to the barren hills, these 

grasslands also support other dicotyledonous species 

like Eriosema chinensi, Polygonum bistorta, Trifolium 

repens, Centella asiatica, Hypochaeris radicata, Sonchus 

asper, Centranthera grandiflora, Hemiphragma 

heterophyllum, Eusteralis linearis, Plectranthus ternifolius, 

Osbeckia stellata, O. glauca, Impatiens chinensis, I. radicans, 


Table 1 Forest Type classes of different districts of Garo Hills (in km 2 ) 

Table 2 Reserved Forests in Garo Hills 

A. East Garo Hills 


Source: Official website of Govt. of Meghalaya - http://meghalaya.nic.in/naturalres/ forest.htm 

49

B. West Garo Hills 

C. South Garo Hills 

Drosera peltata, Utricularia striatula, U. bifida and ferns 

like Pteridium aquilinum, Dicranopteris linearis and 

Lycopodium sp. Apart from these, in sub-tropical zones 

Inula eupatoriodes, Butea minor etc. form gregarious 

patches as seen in Jowai-Garampani, Jowai-Jarain, 

Nongstoin-Riangdo sectors. 

Protection Measures 

Table 3 National Parks and Sanctuaries of Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 

[Source: Tiwari et al., 1996] 

To conserve the unique biodiversity of the state, the 

forest department has notified several sanctuaries 

and national parks: the Balpakram and Nokrek 

National Parks are of national importance due to 

their enormous wealth of endemic flora, and rare 

and endangered fauna. Table 3 lists these parks and 

sanctuaries notified in the state. 

[Source: B.K. Tiwari et al., 1996] 


Alfred, J.R.B (1995): Fauna of Meghalaya, Part I: 

Vertebrate. Zoological Survey of India, 

Pp679 

Tripathi, O.P. 2002. Study of distribution pattern 

and ecological analysis of major forest 

types of Meghalaya. Ph.D. Thesis. North- 

Eastern Hill University. Shillong, India. 


References 

Khan, M.L., S. Menon and K.S. Bawa. 1997. 

Effectiveness of the protected area network 

in biodiversity conservation, a case study 

of Meghalaya. Biodiversity and 

Conservation 6: 853-868. 

Anon 2005: State of the Environment Report, 2005: 

Meghalaya. Department of Environment 

and Forests, Government of Meghalaya 

2005 

Fig. 4 Machan used by villagers for guarding their crops from wild animals 

51

Introduction 

There is an increasing need to be able to precisely 

describe and classify land use systems that are 

best suited for each location. Technological 

advances such as remote sensing data are now 

available from earth observation satellites and make it 

increasingly possible to map, evaluate and monitor 

land use and land cover over vast areas. Remote 

Sensing is a powerful technique for surveying, 

mapping and monitoring earth resources. Land cover 

has visual effects, visible by the remote sensor, as it 

covers the land at the time of satellite observation. 

This technology combined with GIS, which excels in 

storage, manipulation and analysis for geographic 

information, provide for a wider application. Land 

resource and environmental decision makers, natural 

resources conservators both in terms of fauna and 

flora require quantitative information on the spatial 

distribution of land use types and conditions. Here, 

an attempt has been made to classify the satellite 

imageries covering the Garo Hills districts of 

Meghalaya into different land use and land covers. 

Methodology 

Supervised classification was carried out to delineate 

different land uses viz., dense forests, open forests, 

bamboo brakes and non forest areas. Supervised 

classification can be defined normally as the process 

of samples of unknown identity and are those pixels 

located within the training sites. In this type of 

classification, spectral signatures are developed from 

specified locations in the image. These specific 

locations are given a generic name ‘training sites’ and 

are defined. These training sets help in developing the 

CHAPTER V 

Land use / land cover and community structure of 

major forest types in Garo Hill districts 

Kiranmay Sarma, O. P. Tripathy and Krishna Upadhyay 

outline areas. Multiple polygons are created for each 

land category to delineate relevant land use type. 

These signatures are then used to classify all pixels in 

the scene. Sufficient Ground Controlled Points (GCP) 

are taken to confirm the different land use types. 

Nearest Neighbour Analysis is done for post 

classification smoothening. To delineate shifting 

cultivation areas from the non forest areas visual 

interpretation technique is used (Garg et al., 1988; 

SAC, 1999). Similar technique is applied to delineate 

the plantation areas from the classified dense and 

open forests areas. 

Forest type and different 

land uses 

The Garo Hills district occupies an area of 8,167 km2 which is 36.4% of the total geographical area of the 

state of Meghalaya. Out of this, 4,688 km2 (57.40%) is 

under forest cover (dense forest, open forest and 

bamboo brakes). The vegetation of Garo Hills is 

represented by either tropical moist and dry 

deciduous or sub-tropical broad-leaved forests. The 

area under dense forest cover is 4.23 percent (which is 

345.50 km2) while open forest covers an area of 

4,255.60 km2 (52.11%) of the total area of Garo Hills. 

An area of 37 km2 (0.45%) is occupied by plantations 

of Cashewnut, rubber, teak, areca nut and coffee. The 

areas under bamboo brakes is about 50 km2 which is 

6.1% of the total area. The remaining area of 3,479.1 

km2 which is 42.60% of the total Garo Hills area is not 

under forest. Out of the total non-forest areas, 208 km2 (2.55%) is under current shifting cultivation. The 

remaining non-forest areas include abandoned 

shifting cultivation grasslands, degraded lands,

settlement, permanent agricultural lands, roads, 

mines, water bodies, rivers and sand bars (Fig.1). 

The present study covered all the three Garo Hills 

districts of the state. The East Garo Hills district 

occupies an area of 2,603 km2 out of which 1,464.44 

km2 areas are under forest. The percentage of forest 

cover is 56.26%. Dense forest covers an area of 130.67 

km2 (5.02%) while 1,304.94 km2 (50.13%) area is 

covered by open forests. The plantation area of the 

district is 16.86 km2 . The areas under non-forest are 

1,062.09 km2 (40.84%) and shifting cultivation area is 

76.46 km2 (2.94%) (Fig.2) (Table 1). 

An area of 2,156.19 km2 is under forest cover in the 

West Garo Hills district which is 58.64% of the total 

geographical area of the district. Dense forest covers 

108.84 km2 (2.96%) area while open forest occupies 

1995.50 km2 (54.27%). The area under plantation is 

12.15 km2 which represents 2.14 % of the total 

geographical of the district. The remaining 1,520.81 

km2 area is under non-forest which is 41.36% of the 

total area of the district. Shifting cultivation occupies 

78.71 km2 (2.14%) (Fig.3) (Table 2) 

The total area of South Garo Hills district is 1,887 

km 2 of which 1,075.03 km 2 (56.97%) area is under forest 

cover. Dense forest occupies 100.20 km 2 (5.31%) and 

Table 1 Different land uses in East Garo Hills district of Meghalaya 

Table. 2 Different land uses in West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya 


open forest covers 966.48 km 2 (51.22%) of the total area 

of the district. The plantation area is 7.97 km 2 which is 

0.42% of the total geographical area of the district. The 

area under non-forest is 759.14 km 2 which is 40.23% of 

the total area. The area under shifting cultivation area 

is 7.97 km 2 (0.42%) (Fig. 4) (Table 3). 

Forest Type and Different Land Uses 

under Government and the control of 

District Council in Garo Hills 

In Garo Hills district only 6.8% of the total 

geographical area is under the control of forest 

department. The areas under government control are 

in the form of reserve forest or national park. The total 

area under reserve forests is 288.13 km 2 while national 

parks consist of 267.48 km 2 . There are 16 reserve 

forests in the district viz., Chimabangshi, Dhima, 

Dilma, Rajasimla, Iidek, Darengiri, Rongrengiri, 

Dambu, Songsak, Dribru Hills, Tura Peak, Baghmara, 

Angratoli, Rewak, Emanggiri and Siju Reserve 

Forests. The two national parks are Nokrek National 

Park and Balpakhram National Park. The rest of the 

areas are controlled either directly or indirectly by the 

District Council (Fig. 5). 

The reserve forests have 54.6% areas under forest 

cover. Bamboo brakes cover an area of 0.25%, dense 

53

Fig.1 Landuse map of Garo Hils districts 

Fig. 2 Land use map of East Garo Hill district 


Fig.3 Land use map of West Garo Hill district 


55

Fig. 4 Land use map of South Garo Hill district 

Table 3 Different land uses in South Garo Hills district of Meghalaya 

forests 5.07% and open forests 49.28%. The percentage 

of national park areas covered by forest is 85.18. 

Bamboo brakes have an area of 0.07%, dense forests 

28.51% and open forests 56.60%. The percentage of 

non forest areas in reserve forests and national parks 

are 45.4 and 14.82 %, respectively (Fig. 5) (Table 4 and 

Table 5). 

Community structure of major 

forest types of Garo Hills 

district 

Tropical and subtropical forests have attracted the 

attention of large number of workers all over the world, 

who have carried out comprehensive studies on their 

community organization and dynamics, and have 

estimated species richness, biomass, productivity and 


Fig. 5 Map showing the reserve forests and national parks of Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 

Table 4 Different land uses in Reserve Forests of Garo Hills district of Meghalaya 

Table 5 Different land uses in National Parks of Garo Hills district of Meghalaya 


57

Fig 6 Map showing areas under different forest types and land covers within the reserve forests and national parks 

of Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 

their role as a major carbon sink in the global carbon 

cycle. In Asia, such forests occupy much forested area of 

India and dry areas of Southeast Asia, which have 

pronounced periodicity of temperature and dry and 

wet seasons. These forests are best developed in parts of 

India, Myamnar, Thailand and Malaya that experiences 

monsoonal climate.. The subtropical forests found in 

India have been termed as montane subtropical forests 

by Champion and Seth (1968). Undisturbed forest 

patches are mainly confined to inaccessible hill slopes 

and valleys along the banks of rivers and streams or in 

the form of protected forest. Understanding the 

consequences of human disturbances on forest 

dynamics is fundamental for the proper management of 

forest ecosystems. 

The primary reason of forest destruction is 

habitat destruction, their overexploitation for 

medicinal and ornamental purposes and 

encroachment in forested area for cultivation and 

mining. Therefore, understanding the regeneration 

status of some of the important trees is a prerequisite 

for their conservation. 

Methodology 

Various representative forest patches of tropical 

dense and open forests, plantations and bamboo 

patches were selected in all the three Garo Hills 

district of the state of Meghalaya to characterize its 

structure and floristic composition. Ten quadrats of 

10 m x 10 m size were placed randomly in each of 

the tropical dense and open forests. All woody 

individuals were recorded and identified following 

regional floras (Balakrishnan 1981-1983, Haridasan 

and Rao 1985-1987). Frequency, density, basal cover 

and importance value index was calculated 

according to Misra (1968) and Mueller-Dombois and 

Ellengberg (1974). Density-diameter distribution 

pattern was also studied to understand the 

population structure of the forests. 


Sub-tropical broad-leaved forest 

Subtropical forests occur above 1000 m msl where 

average annual rainfall ranges between 300-500 cm 

and temperatures show noticeable differences 

between summer and winter season. Forest patches 

of varying sizes are located in the upper ridges of 

Tura and Siju reserve forests, Damalgiri and southern 

parts of Garo Hills districts. Forests are found mainly 

on inaccessible hill slopes and valleys along the banks 

of the rivers and streams. The subtropical forest is 

more rich in species than the tropical moist deciduous 

forest in the Garo Hills. 

Tree diversity 

A total of 35 and 81 woody species representing 38 

and 63 genera and 26 and 36 families were recorded 

from the sampled area of open and dense forest 

stands, respectively (Table 6). There were tropical, 

temperate, and Sino-Himalayan, Burma-Malaysian 

and Malayan elements in the forest. Besides that taxa 

belonging to primitive families like Annonaceae, 

Ranunculaceae, Piperaceae, Menispermaceae, 

Lauraceae and Myricaceae and primitive genera like 

Myrica were also present in the dense forest. 

The trees of the dense forest were distributed in 

three distinct strata viz., canopy (>20 m height), subcanopy 

(10-20 m) and tree-let (2-10m) layer. 

Elaeocarpus rugosus, Dysoxylum gobara and Engelhardtia 

spicata in the dense forest were among the dominant 

canopy tree species of the region. Lauraceae (11 

species) and Euphorbiaceae (6 species) were the 

dominant family in the dense and open forest stands, 

respectively. A large number of families were 

monospecific in these forest stands. 

In terms of importance value index, Vitex vestita, 

Callicarpa arborea, Citrus hystrix and Macaranga indica 

in dense forest and Castanopsis indica, Artimisia 

nilagirica, Dysoxylum gobara, Kydia calycina, and Maesa 

indica in the open forest areas were among the 

dominant tree species (Table 6). Dominancedistribution 

pattern among the tree species showed 

log normal distribution pattern (Fig. 8), signifying 

high equitability and low dominance in the 

community in the dense forest. However, it resembled 

the broken-stick model in the open forest which could 

be attributed to lesser number of species occurring in 

this forest and also due to stressed environment at 

which they are exposed. Majority (57-79%) of trees 

were contagiously distributed and only a few species 

showed regular distribution. 


Stand density and diversity indices 

The density of woody species was comparatively 

more in the dense forest than the open forest. In terms 

of density, Callicarpa vestita, Citrus hyxtrix and 

Castanopsis indica in dense forest, and Castanopsis 

indica, Kydia calycina and Maesa indica in the open 

forest were among the most dominant of woody 

species. They together constituted 15% and 28% of the 

total stand density. 

The stand density was comparatively high in the 

open forest than the dense forest stand which could be 

due to existence of trees of middle age. Distribution of 

stand density in different girth classes revealed that 

trees of young individuals accounted for 67% and 35% 

of the total stand density in dense and open forest 

areas, respectively. Trees beyond >95 cm girth class 

accounted for only 3% and 9% of the total stand 

density of the above stands. 

Fig. 7 Girth-class distribution of woody species in the 

open and dense stands of subtropical forest of Garo 

Hills districts of Meghalaya 

There were differences in the floristic composition 

and community characteristics observed in open and 

dense forest stands and these could be attributed 

mainly due to disturbances. Majority of species in 

both the forest stands had low frequency and showed 

contagious/clumped distribution therefore, making 

the community highly heterogeneous and patchy. The 

lognormal dominance-distribution curves, as found in 

three stands of present study, signify equitability and 

59

Table 6 List of woody species and its importance value in open and dense forest stands of subtropical 

forest of Garo hills districts of Meghalaya 



61

Fig 8 Dominance-distribution curves of the woody 

species in the open and dense stands of subtropical 

forest of Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 

stability of the community (Magurran, 1988). It also 

indicates the maturity and complexity of the natural 

community. 

The results presented in the foregoing pages 

clearly indicate that these forests represent 

subtropical broad-leaved forest and are similar to 

other species rich tropical rain forests. The open 

forest is subjected to deforestation and forest 

fragmentation due to large scale forest land clearing 

by slash and burn agriculture, mining, extraction of 

forest resources such as timber, fuel-wood and 

collection of medicinal plants. These human activities 

resulted in shrinkage in the forest cover of the region 

and has also altered the micro-environmental 

condition and structure of the forest ecosystem which 

has ultimately resulted in change in species 

composition. Therefore, plant diversity status and 

community structure of these forests is needed for 

conservation management. 

Tropical moist deciduous forest 

Tropical forest occurring below 1000 m may be either 

evergreen or semi-evergreen depending upon the 

dominance of evergreen and deciduous trees in the 

canopy. This forest type is represented by sal bearing 

forests at low elevation in Rongregiri, Songsak, 

Darenggiri and Baghmara areas of Garo Hills where 

annual rainfall is less than 150 cm. Along with Shorea 

robusta, other tree species like Tectona grandis, 

Terminalia myriocarpa, Sterculia villosa, Picrasma 

javanica and Mallotus phillipensis are also present. 

These forests are best developed in monsoon areas of 

India, Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia (Puri 1960). 

The undisturbed forest patches are mainly confined to 

inaccessible hill slopes and valleys along the banks of 

rivers and streams or in the form of protected forest. 

The primary reason of forest destruction is habitat 

destruction, overexploitation for medicinal and 

ornamental purposes and encroachment in forested 

area for cultivation and mining. Therefore, 

understanding the regeneration status of some of the 

important trees is a pre-requisite for their 

conservation. 

Fig. 9 A view of tropical open forest 

Fig. 10 A view of tropical dense forest 


Tree diversity 

A total of 23 and 52 woody species were recorded 

from the sampled area of open and dense forest 

stands, respectively (Table 7, 8). The trees of the dense 

forest were distributed into distinct strata viz.,canopy 

(>20 m height) and sub-canopy (2-20 m) layer. 

Terminalia myriocarpa, Schima wallichii and Toona ciliata 

in the dense forest were among the dominant canopy 

tree species. In terms of importance value index, 

Terminalia myriocarpa, Schima wallichii and Toona 

ciliata in dense forest and Albizia lebbeck, A. procera, 


Callicarpa arborea, Schima wallichii Shorea robusta, Eurya 

auminata, Mangifera sylvestris and Phoebe goalparensis in 

the open forest areas were among the dominant tree 

species (Table 7). Dominance-distribution pattern 

among the tree species was log-normal distribution 

pattern in the dense forest and it was towards brokenstick 

model in the open forest (Fig. 8), signifying high 

equitability and low dominance in the community of 

the dense forest. However, this could be attributed to 

the lesser number of species occurring in this forest 

and also due to stressed environment at which these 

species are exposed. 

Table 7 Community characteristics of woody species of the subtropical forest 

Table 8 List of woody species and its importance value in open and dense forest stands of 

tropical forest of Garo hills districts of Meghalaya 

63


Fig. 11 Dominance-distribution curves of the woody 

species in the open and dense stands of tropical moist 

deciduous forest of Garo Hills district of Meghalaya 

Stand density and diversity indices 

The stand density of woody species followed a 

similar trend to that of the subtropical forest 

where density was comparatively more in the 

dense forest than the open forest. In terms of 

density, Schima wallichii, Barsubreadth, Terminallia 

myriocarpa, Syzygium species and Eurya acuminata 

in dense forest, and Callicarpa arborea, Albizia 

species, Shorea assamica and Emblica officinalis in 

the open forest were among the most dominant 

woody species. A large number of individuals 

were represented by low densities in both the 

stands and have a low basal cover contribution 

due to their age structure. 

The stand density was comparatively high in the 

dense forest than in the open forest stand which 

could be due to existence of young and middle aged 

trees in the former stand and also due to its 

accessibility and low level of disturbance. 

Distribution of stand density in different girth 

classes revealed that young trees accounted for 64% 

and 70% of the total stand density in dense and open 

forest areas, respectively. Trees beyond >115 cm 

girth class contributed only 10% and 5% of the total 

stand density of the above stands. Shannon 

diversity index were comparatively high in the 

dense forest, while Simpson dominance index 

showed a reverse trend. 


Fig 12: Girth-class distribution of woody species in 

the open and dense stands of tropical moist 

deciduous forest of Garo Hills districts of Meghalaya 

Increased biotic pressure has resulted in opening 

and shrinkage of forest cover due to selective feeling 

of trees. Subsequent secondary regeneration has 

revived the forest but has altered the forest structure 

in favour of fast growing species as indicated by 

dominance of young girth class of selected species, 

thereby altering the micro habitat. 

Shifting cultivation 

About 85% of the population of the state is rural and 

they depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Of the 

total geographical area, about 13% is under shifting 

cultivation. This practice is locally known as ‘Jhuming’ 

and is practiced extensively on the hill slopes in all 

parts of the Garo Hills except at low elevation. Here 

they have some permanent agricultural land (villages 

like Garobandha, Jalgaon etc.,) especially in the 

western, southern and eastern parts bordering 

Bangladesh and Assam. Because of the hilly terrain, 

settled cultivation is practiced only in a small portion 

of the total cultivated land, mostly confined to the 

valleys. Because of the high labour cost and energy 

input involved in terrace cultivation, and in the 

absence of other viable alternatives, the majority of 

the population continues to depend on shifting 

cultivation for their subsistence needs. The Jhuming 

cycle was about 20 years but has now reduced to 3-5 

years in the western part and 1-3 years in the central 

and eastern parts of the state. Jhuming has resulted in 

large-scale deforestation, soil erosion, nutrient loss 

65

and invasion of weedy and other species. These 

activities have ultimately affected biodiversity to a 

large extent. 

Fig 10 A view of Jhuming in Garo Hills 

The general process involved in Jhuming 

includes slashing of vegetation during November- 

December, burning in February-March and then 

sowing of seeds by dibbling method. Major crops 

are cereals, vegetables and oil seeds. The practice is 

to continue cultivation for a few years and then 

abandon the land and shift to a new site; later 

returning to the same site for shifting cultivation. 

Frequent shifting from one land to other has 

affected the natural forest caused forest 

fragmentation and disappearance of local species 

and invasion of weedy species. Shifting cultivation 

is largely practiced on lands owned by 

communities, clans and also on lands under the 

administrative control of the Autonomous District 

Councils. A small area in some reserve forests and 

protected forests are also affected by this practice. 

Fig 11 A view of early abandoned Jhum 

About 208 km 2 area is under shifting cultivation in 

all the three districts of the Garo Hills. The age of the 

abandoned field ranges from 2-15 years. These 

abandoned fields are covered by fast colonizing 

species like Acaranga denticulate, Callicarpa arborea, 

Schima wallichii, Bauhinia varigata, Albizia procera, A. 

lebbeck, Mikania micrantha, Eupatorium odoratum, 

Thysolaena sp., and bamboo species. 

Fig. 12 A view of late abandoned Jhum 

Plantation 

The major plantation in the Garo Hills districts 

includes Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Areca nut 

(Areca catechu}, Anacardium occidentale, Coffee (Coffea 

arabica) and Haevea brasilensis. They are located 

especially in the western parts of West Garo hills, 

central parts of East Garo Hills and southern parts of 

the South Garo Hills district. Sal and Teak forests are 

protected by the forest department of the state, 

however, Cashewnut and Areca nut are under the 

control of local people (land owners). It was, 

therefore, very difficult to classify and calculate the 

areas under each kind of plantation. The various types 

Fig 13 Shorea robusta(Sal) plantation 


Fig 17 A view of Anacardium occidentale plantation 

Fig 18 Hevea brasiliensi(Rubber) plant 

were thus covered under a general head of plantation 

which covers an area of about 37 km 2 . 

Sal and Teak plantation: These forest patches are 

seen in the entire Garo hills district especially in areas 

like Amongpara, Barengpara, Baghmara reserve 

forest, Songsak, Dodedare. Sal and Teak forests are 

mostly dominated by Shorea robusta and Tectona 

grandis, and a few scattered trees like Embelia 

officinalis, Terminallia arjuna, Melia azadirichita, Bombax 

cieba, Cleirodendron sp., Cassia sp., Quercus sp., 

Artocarpus sp. Mangifera sylvestris, Erythrina stricta 

and Schima wallichii. 

Rubber plantation: Soil Conservation 

department of the forest department have 

introduced rubber and coffee plantation in a few 

places like Songsak, Baregpara, Gangichetrigre, etc. 

of the Garo hills. In these areas, rather than Havea 

brasilensi species such as Callophyllum polyanthum, 

Mangifera sylvestris, Paedaria foetida were also 

recorded. 

Cashewnut plantation: Cashew plantations are 

present in both wild and managed forms and it 

covers more or less as much area as the sal and teak 


plantations. These patches are best seen in areas like 

Gingichekre, Gangichetgire Balamagire, Tikriop, 

Baregpara, Baghmara. There were various other 

species like Melia azadirichta, Bombax cieba, 

Artocarpus sp., Cassia sp., Tectona grandis, Shorea 

robusta, Alstronia sp., also recorded from these 

plantation. 

Bamboo brakes: Pure and large continuous 

bamboo forests cover an area of about 0.61 km 2 in 

the Garo Hills district. There could be more areas 

covered by the bamboo forests but were so small 

that it was difficult to identify and estimate. They 

are located in places like Amongpara, Kherapara, 

Tikriop, Jakopara, Sankhan and Japanapara. There 

are many varieties of bamboo species and some are 

like terai bamboo, Wathri, Wakanta and Wagi etc. 

Some scattered trees and shrub species like Michelia 

sp., Melastostema sp., Cleirodendron infortunatum, 

Albizia lebbeck, A. procera , and Ficus sp. were also 

recorded from the field. 

Fig 19 A view of the bamboo forest 

Fig 20 A view of rubber plantation 

67

Balakrishnan, N.P. 1981-83. Flora of Jowai and Vicinity. II 

Vol. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 

Garg, J. K.; Narayan, A. and Basu, A. 1988. Monitoring 

environmental changes over Kudremukh iron ore 

mining areea, India using remote sensing 

technique. Proceedings of the Indo-British 

workshop on remote Sensing of Environment in 

Mining field. ISM. Dhanbad. pp. 41-47. 

Haridasan, K. and Rao, R.R. 1985. Forest Flora of 

Meghalaya (Vol. I), Bishen Singh Mehendra Pal 

Singh, Dehradun 

References 

Misra, R. 1968. Ecology Work Book. Oxford-IBH 

Publishing Company, Calcutta. 

Mueller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H. 1974. Aims and 

Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley and 

Sons, USA. 

SAC (ISRO). 1990. Impact of mining activities and 

superthermal power stations on environment, 

Project Report No RSAM/SAC/ENVN/PR/08/90. 

Fig 21 Restoration of degraded habitat through natural regenation and plantation in Selbalgre 


Introduction 

Meghalaya is predominantly an agrarian 

economy with agriculture and allied 

activities engaging nearly two-thirds of the 

total work force. The state also has a rich base of 

natural resources that includes minerals such as coals, 

limestone, silimanite, kaolin, granite, etc and a wide 

cover of forest that occupies over 42.4% of the 

geographical area of the state (FSI, 2001) supporting a 

rich diversity of flora and fauna. 

The availability of natural resources and a 

sustainable pattern of their utilization are critical to 

the development. However, over-exploitation of the 

forest resources creates an imbalance between 

productivity and use leading to degradation and 

shrinkage of habitat (Lanly, 1983; Kerr and Currie, 

1995; Barthakur, 1998; Mckinney, 2000; Wakermagel et 

al, 2003 and Kumar et al, 2006 ). 

Benefits accruing to people from forests have been 

seldom estimated, and in most cases only partially 

done. Therefore, there is an urgent need to assess 

tangible and non-tangible benefits a society derives 

from the forests. This is essential for demonstrating 

the actual contribution of forests to society and also to 

plan for sustainability of such extractions. 

Conservation of the depleting natural resources 

has been a challenging task for the land planners, 

policy makers and foresters, especially in the existing 

socio-political milieu. Solutions addressing the issue 

can only be devised provided sufficient information is 

available on the extent of resource exploitation and 

sustainability of such extractions which unfortunately 

CHAPTER VI 

Natural resource extraction and utilization by the 

people of Garo hills, Meghalaya 

Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Rahul Kaul, Susenjit Nath Choudhury, Siddhartha Bhattacharjee, Satadal Acherji and Prabal Sarkar 

is lacking. Quantitative data on forest biomass 

removals by local communities has remained 

fragmentary (Appasamy, 1993; Goday et al., 1995; 

Hedge et al., 1996 and Amacher et al., 1996) in spite of 

the fact that millions of people extract forest products 

throughout tropics (Malhotra et al.,1991). Further, the 

sustainability of these removals has hardly been 

attempted. Such information form northeast India in 

particular are lacking except few studies of Barthakur, 

1998; Kumar et al.,2002; Marcot et al 2002; Kumar et al., 

2006 and Bera et al., 2006. A study was therefore 

initiated to find out the how local communities are 

dependent on the forest resources around their 

settlements, what is the contribution of each resource 

to the society and the threats on these resources. 

This study aimed at assessing: 

1. the sources of energy for heating and lighting. 

2. cause of forest degradation. 

3. causes of man – animal conflict. 

4. level of extraction and utilization of bio– mass and 

fauna. 

5. land use pattern and extent of land being 

possessed and owned. 

6. livestock owned & feeding method to assess 

impact on forest. 

7. level of people’s participation in forest 

management. 

Methodology 

Survey Design 

A stratified two-stage design has been followed for 

the survey. Villages listed in the Census (2001) were

the first stage sampling units and households were 

the second unit that was surveyed. 

Of the three administrative districts a total of 58 

villages were selected at random, assigning 

Table 1 List of villages surveyed 

probability proportional to the village size of the each 

stratum (district). Out of these 58 villages, 464 

households were selected at random for detailed 

enquiry. Tippet’s random number series were 

consulted for random selection. 



71

Survey 

Survey was conducted on the basis of a pre-formatted 

data sheet and answers to questions pertaining to the 

following were sought: 

a) Socio-economic status 

b) Forest resource and its utilization 

c) Land holding and resource availability 

d) Animal wastes and resource utilization 

Community composition of people 

interviewed 

A total of 464 families were interviewed during this 

study comprising of approximately 96.5% Schedule 

tribe (ST), 0.4% Schedule caste (SC) and 3.02% other 

communities (mainly Bengalis and Assamese) (Fig. 1) 

Fig. 1 Social structure of the people surveyed 

Number of people interviewed in different districts 

varied, depending upon the population size of district 

and location from forest. Random number series was 

used to select the villages for the survey. In West Garo 

hills, 216 families from 29 villagers under seven blocks 

were surveyed. In East Garo hills, the people surveyed 

were 144 families from 18 villages under four Blocks 

and in South Garo hills 104 families from 11 villages 

under three Blocks (Fig. 2). The sex ratio of people 

interviewed in different districts are shown in Fig. 3. 

The survey was conducted between June – August 2006. 

Fig. 2 Blocks, villages and families surveyed in the 

three districts 

Fig 3 Sex composition of the people survey 

Results 

Age- sex class of the population 

Survey of the Garo hills indicated no clear bias in 

favour of either gender and the overall sex ratio of 

Garo hills was found to be 1.06:1 (M:F) which is 

completely in line with the male and female ratio 

reported during the state census of 2001. Around 

46.5% of the population was of 18 yrs and below. 

Almost a similar percentage (45.8%) was found to be 

in the age group of 18-50 yrs. This indicates that a 

major part of the population is young and in a 

growing phase and only 7.74% of the population was 

found to be old (Fig. 4). 

Education status of the people 

William Nagar 

Fig. 4 Sex ratio of people interviewed in different districts 

of Garo Hills 

The survey also assessed the education level of 

populace. As can be seen in the Fig. 5 about 30.8% of 

the population was illiterate and another 30.5% of the 

population had only informal education. Only 25.5 % 


Fig 5 Age-sex class of the people surveyed in all the 

districts of Garo Hills 

of the population had primary education and less 

than 10% had secondary level of education. This is a 

major concern as less than 15% of the population were 

found to have secondary or higher level of education 

which determines job opportunities (Fig. 6). Decrease 

of job opportunities could lead to increased 

dependence on natural resources for sustenance. 

Fig. 6 Education status of the people surveyed in 

Garo Hills 

Occupation of the people 

The survey also looked at the primary and subsidiary 

occupation of people in the Garo Hills to understand 

the livelihood of the people and level of dependency 

on forest for livelihoods and sustenance. Almost 52% 

of the people surveyed were principally self 

employed in agricultural and plantation (cashew, 

oranges, arecanut and rubber) activities. About 21.3% 

people were wage and salaried employed. About 

12.3% of the people were self employed in nonagricultural 

activities. Only 2.37% of the people were 

principally engaged in collecting forest resources . 

About 69.7% of the people apart from their 

principal occupation also had subsidiary occupations. 

Of these 12.93% were engaged in collecting forest 

resources, 6.25% were self employed in agriculture 

and 8.8% self employed in non-agricultural activities. 

About 16.81% were engaged in domestic activities. 


Districtwise variation in occupation was also 

analyzed for both principal and subsidiary 

occupations among the peopled interviewed. In the 

East Garo hills, almost 93.1% of the people with 

principal occupation also had some subsidiary 

occupation as seen in Fig.7 Of this, the majority 

(30.5%) were engaged in collecting forest resources 

and 19.5% in non-agriculture based activities and 16% 

in agricultural activities. 

Fig. 7 Principle and subsidiary occupation of the 

people survey in east Garo Hills 

Legends 

1 = engaged in forest resource 

collection 

2 = Self employed in agriculture 

3 = Self employed in non-agriculture 

4 = Wages & salaried employment 

5 = engaged in domestic duty 

6 = engage in domestic & other duties 

7 = student 

8 = other economic activities 

9 = other non-economic activities 

10 = others 

Suprisingly, in the West Garo hills, only 50.6% of 

the people were involved in subsidiary occupations. 

More than 50% of people with subsidiary occupations 

were engaged in domestic duties and about 11% in 

forest resource collection (Fig 8). 

In the South Garo hills, about 77% were involved 

in subsidiary occupation. Of this, only 3.85% were 

Fig. 8 Principle and subsidiary occupation of the people 

survey in west Garo Hills 

73

engaged in forest resource collection. Majority of them 

(23%) were involved in other economic activities and 

about 32% in domestic and other activities (Fig 9). 

Fig. 9 Principle and subsidiary occupation of the 

people survey in south Garo Hills 

Forest resources collected by people 

About 57.4% of Garo Hills is under forest cover. Of 

this, less than 7% is under the control of the forest 

department and rest are either privately owned, 

community owned or under un-classified forest. The 

forest contributes significantly to the local economy 

and people are dependent on it for fire-wood, timber, 

bamboo, grasses, canes, medicinal plants, broom stick, 

bay leaves and other minor produce. Fire wood was 

used by almost all the people surveyed, timber by 

74.8% people, bamboo by 86.5% of the people, grass by 

27.4% of the people, cane by 6.9% of the people, 

medicinal plants by 26.7% of the population and other 

forest resources by about 10.8% by the people (Fig 10). 

Apart from plant based resources, various animal 

resources are also extracted from the forest. This 

includes mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, honey, etc. 

Approximately 88.8% of the people surveyed 

consumed mammals hunted in the wild, 87.2% birds 

and 79.5% fishes. 

Plant resources 

The study indicates that about 74.9% of the sample 

collected plant resources freely from the forest in the 

Garo Hills for self use and also for sale. Only 16.5% of 

the people purchased plant resources from the market 

(mainly probably extracted from the forest) and only 

3.24% grew it on their land. The rest 6.4% of the 

people depended upon a combination of free 

harvesting, purchase and home grown resources (Fig 

11). 

Fig. 11 Plant recourses collected from forest by the 

people surveyed in Garo Hills 

i) Fire wood: 

Approximately, 2.43 quintals of fuel wood was required 

per family per month in the surveyed area. This varied 

from 3.17 quintals/family/month in East Garo Hills, 

2.72 quintals in South Garo hills and 1.8 quintals/ 

family/month in West Garo Hills (Fig. 11). Most of the 

fuel wood (89.2%) was collected by the people freely 

Fig. 10 Broom sticks collected from forest areas in 

South Garo Hills Fig. 11 Fire wood collected from nearby forest area 


from the forest and some people (3.6%) purchased it 

from the market. Less than one percent grew it at home. 

Some people (1.7%) met their fuel wood requirements 

either by freely collecting from forest and partially 

purchasing from market and the other 4.5% by partially 

collecting from forest and partially growing at home. 

The demographic profile of the families surveyed 

indicates that about 5.9 members per family which 

when extrapolated for the population of Garo Hills 

comes to approximately 1,47,450 families. This means 

that about 3,58,302 quintals of fire wood is needed for 

Garo Hills per month. This is a substantial 

requirement and about 90% of it is extracted from the 

forest, free of cost. 

ii) Timber 

On an average about 6.13 poles of timber were 

extracted per family every month and varied from 8.63 

poles (less than 30 GBH) per family per month in South 

Garo Hills to 5.99 in West Garo Hills and 4.53 in East 

Garo Hills. Most (55.2%) of the timber is extracted free 

of cost by the people from the forest and only 12.7% of 

the sample is purchased from the market. Only 1.7% of 

the people met their timber requirement from wood 

grown by them. Approximately 4.31% of the people 

met their timber requirement by partially collecting 

from the forest and partially purchasing it from the 

market. 

iii) Bamboo 

Bamboo contributes significantly to the local economy of 

Fig. 12 Non-timber forest product being collected by 

the villager 


the Garo hills and is extensively used for construction of 

houses, paper and handicrafts industry. A large part is 

also exported to the neighbouring state of Assam. On an 

average each family extracts about 130.9 bamboos per 

month which varies from 177.9 bamboos per family per 

month in West Garo Hills to 92.9 bamboos in East Garo 

Hills and 85.9 bamboos is South Garo Hills. 

Of the 86.42% of the people extracting bamboo, 

almost 58.8% collects them free of cost from the forest 

and another 14.4% purchase from the market (Fig. 12). 

Almost 7.1% of the requirement is met by bamboo 

grown by people. Another 4.74% of the people 

partially collect from forest and partially purchase, 

from the market. 

Other plant resources are also collected by people 

like canes (6.9%), grasses (27.4%), medicinal plants 

(26.7%) and other minor species (10.78). 

Value of the plant resources extracted 

People collect forest resources for self use or for sale to 

to generate revenue. On an average the value of plant 

resources extracted per family every month was Rs 

1,656 of which plant resource worth Rs 1485 was for 

consumption at home and only a small amount of Rs 

171 was earned per month by selling a part of the 

resource collected (Fig. 13). 

Fig. 13 Value of plant based resources used from forest 

Of the total resources collected per family per 

month, timber contributed to about Rs 582, fire wood 

Rs 463, bamboo Rs 311 and canes, medicinal plants 

and grass contributes about Rs 301. 

Animal resources 

Animal resources are used in most part of Northeast 

India (Hilaluddin et al., 2005) and also by the Garo 

people to supplement their protein requirements. These 

include species, mostly mammals, birds and fishes. 

Some people also consume reptiles and honey. About 

88.8% of the people surveyed consumed mammals, 

75

87.2% birds and 79.5% fishes. Only about 5.17% people 

consumed reptiles and 9.7% honey (Fig. 14). 

Fig. 14 Animal resources used by the people in Garo Hills 

On an average, animal resources worth Rs 6256 

were consumed per family every year. Of this 

mammals contributed to Rs 2852.5, birds Rs 1448, 

reptiles Rs 115, fishes Rs 1779, honey Rs 54 and others, 

approximately Rs 8 per annum. Of all the resources 

collected from the forest, less than 7% were sold in the 

market. 

Source of energy 

At the village level, all the villages reported the use 

of wood as source of fuel along with kerosene (89.6%), 

electricity (44.8%), LPG (6.9%) and bio gas (Fig. 15). 

Fig. 15 Source of energy used by the people in Garo 

Hills for heating and lighting 

Land holding status of the people 

On an average, each family possessed about 1.67 

hectare of land but owned only about 1.07 hectares of 

land probably implying that a part of the land was 

encroached (Fig. 16, 17 & 18). 

Resource from agriculture residue and 

animal waste 

Agriculture residue 

Fig. 16 Land owned and possessed by the people in 

Garo Hills 

Fig. 17 Land owned by the people in Garo Hills 

Fig.18 Land possessed by the people in Garo Hills 

The use of agricultural residues were also assessed to 

understand their contribution to the earning of a 

family. About 53 % of the people used rice bran and 

only 11% used straw and 3.66% oil cakes. Straw was 

generally used to either feed the cattle or thatch for the 

roof of their huts. 

Animal residue 

The only animal residue collected by the people in 

Garo Hills was cow dung and was used by about 

75.6% of the people. Most of it (42.7%) was from 

own cattle and the remaining 26.7% was collected 

freely from other places. The market value of the 

dung collection was about Rs 1,165 per annum per 

family. 


Livestock 

It is important to look at the livestock possessed by the 

people and evaluate their grazing requirements to 

understand their possible affect on forests. Cows, goats, 

pigs and birds were the most important livestock 

possessed by the people here. Of these pigs and cows 

were the most preferred ones. About 55% of the people 

possessed one or more livestock. Almost all the 

livestock, 98.25% of goats and 95.35% of cattle were let 

out for grazing. 

Conclusion 

Meghalaya has a rich forest cover and although 

agriculture forms the backbone of its economy, mineral 

wealth is a premier revenue earner. More than 55% of the 

land cover in Garo hills is under forest. Although the 

Supreme Court of India’s ban on tree felling in 1996 has 

been able to check the rapid decline of forest cover, there 

has been a gradual decline in the forest cover due to 

increased jhumming and unplanned and non-scientific 

mining especially for coal and limestones (Tiwari et al., 

2005). The state earned a total revenue of Rs 3980.32 lakh 

from mineral sector during 1997-98 

(http://meghalaya.nic.in/ natural-resources/mineral.html). The 

rich deposits of minerals in south and east Garo hills and 

the absence of a scientifically based land-use and 

Fig. 19 Map showing mineral resource distribution in Meghalaya 


environmental management plan could lead to a further 

deterioration in coming years. With very little area (less 

than 7%) under control of state forest department, the 

management of forest has been a daunting task. 

Though the majority of people surveyed have 

alternative sources of energy (kerosene 89.6%, 

electricity 44.8% and LPG 6.9%), almost all people 

surveyed depend on fire wood. This is because it can be 

obtained free of cost from the forest or even if it is to be 

bought from the market, is cheap to buy. With the 

current rate of about 243 kg of fuel wood extracted per 

family every month (which when extrapolated for the 

entire Garo hills is about 3,58,302 quintals per month), 

the pressure on forest is immense and could further 

degrade and reduce the forest cover. Suitable 

alternatives need to be provided but as long as wood is 

available free of cost, people will consider that as their 

prime option. 

Besides fire wood, large scale extraction of timber and 

bamboo has also contributed to the degradation and loss 

of forests. About 75% of the people in Garo hills are 

involved in extraction of timber from the forest and on an 

average about 6.13 poles of timber is extracted by each 

family per month. Almost 55% of the timber is extracted 

directly from the forest. Along with timber, bamboo is 

another important resource used by the people for 

construction of houses and in paper and handicraft 

77

industry. A large part of bamboo is also exported to 

Assam and Bangladesh. 86.4% of the population use 

bamboo and the average extraction per family is about 

131 bamboos per month. 58.8% is directly extracted by 

the people from the forest and only 7.1% is grown by the 

people. Although a part of the extraction is naturally 

regenerated, but at this rate of timber and bamboo 

extraction, the loss of forest is quite inevitable. 

Apart from the plant resources being extracted by the 

people, animal resources are also substantially used to 

supplement the protein requirement. Like other tribal 

people, the Garos are also involved in hunting of wild 

animals. However, less than 10% of the people extract wild 

animals from the forest and the meat is then either 

distributed to those who do not hunt free of cost or for 

money. 

Large scale dependency on forest can also be 

related to the socio-economic status and the ethnobehaviour 

of the people. The survey found that almost 

30.8% of the people were illiterate and another 30.5% 

had only informal education. Because of the low 

literacy levels, most people are still unaware of the 

importance of forest and the need for future 

conservation and protection of wildlife and forest. 

Only about 21.3% people were salaried. A decrease of 

job opportunities due to low literacy could also lead to 

increased dependence on natural resources for 

sustenance. 

As already mentioned, Meghalaya is mostly an 

agricultural state. Almost 52% of the people surveyed 

Fig.20 Bamoo Shoots being collected by local people 

was principally employed on their own in agricultural 

and plantation activities and another 21.3% of people 

were salaried. 12.3% of the people were self 

employed in non-agricultural activities. On an 

average, each family in the Garo Hills has 1.67 hectare 

of land but owns only about 1.07 hectares. Of this only 

about 0.7 hectares is cultivable land and another 0.75 

hectares plantation land used mainly for areca nut 

plantation. Recently, however, in some areas cashew 

and rubber plantation also have come up. 

Traditionally, the hill societies have been largely 

dependent on forests for sustenance but this has 

changed somewhat with economic development. 

However, in the Garo hills such opportunities are less 

and coupled with low agricultural yields from the 

farmlands, people are forced to follow their traditions 

and also harvest surpluses for sale. Hence, there is a 

greater dependence on forest for food and other 

needs. This has to be urgently addressed and 

alternative livelihood options explored. 

Thus, a multi pronged approach to address the issue 

of literacy, population growth, scientific extraction of 

minerals in a planned and ecologically sensitive manner 

is the need of the hour. Reduced dependency on forest 

for energy and sustenance by providing alternate 

energy source (LPG, solar panel, bio gas) and 

livelihoods along with proper enforcement can halt the 

declining trend of forest and improve the overall 

lifestyle of people. The autonomous district councils can 

play a major role here. 


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Bera S.K., Basumatary S.K., AgarwalA. and Ahmed, 

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50: 243–251. 

Hilaluddin, Kaul, R. & Ghose, D., 2005. Conservation 

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References 

Kumar,A., Gupta, A.K., Marcot, B.G., Saxena, A., 

Singh, S.P. and Marak, T.T.C (2002). 

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Area (GCA). WII-USDA Forest Service 

Collaborative project report, Wildlife Institute of 

India, Dehradun, 206p 

Lanly, J.P. (1983)Assessment of the forest resources of the 

tropics. Commonwealth Forest Bureau review 

article, forest products abstract. Vol 6, 137-162 

Malhotra, K.C., Deb, D., Dutta, M., Vasula, T.S., 

Yadav, G. & Adhikari, M. 1991. Role of nontimber 

forest products in village economy: A 

household survey in Jamboni Range, 

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Marcot, B.G., Kumar, A., Roy, P.S. and Sawarkar, V.B. 

(2002). Towards a landscape conservation 

strategy: Analysis of Jhum landscape and 

proposed corridors for managing elephants in 

south Garo Hills and Nokrek area, Meghalaya. 

Indian Forester 128(2): 207-216 

Mckinney, M.L. (2001). Role of human population size 

in raising bird and mammal threat among 

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Tiwari, S.K., Karyong, Sunil S., Sarkar, P., Choudhury, 

A. U. and Williams, A.C (2005). Elephant 

Corridors of North-eastern India. In. Menon, V., 

Tiwari, S.K., Easa, P.S. and Sukumar, R. eds. 

Right of Passage: Elephant corridors of India. 

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A.C., Jenkins, M., Kapos, V., Monfreda, C., 

Loh, J., Myers, N., Norgaard, R., and Randers, 

J. (2002). Tracing the ecology overshoot of the 

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79

Introduction 

Forest resources play an important role in 

providing sustenance and livelihoods to a high 

proportion of human population around the 

world (Pimental et al., 1997 and Mahapatra and 

Mitchell, 1997). However, people’s dependency on 

forest varies depending upon the availability of 

resources in different regions that leads to varying 

ethnological use patterns. The northeast India is predominantly 

occupied by tribal people who are 

traditionally dependent on forests. A number of 

earlier studies have covered ethnological use of 

different flora (Arora, 1980; Haridasan et al.,1990) and 

fauna (Borang, 1996; Solanki, 2002; Solanki and 

Chutia, 2003; Kumar and Solanki, 2004) by different 

ethnic groups of people in northeast India. 

Majority of their forest in Garo Hills is under 

control of the local community and a significant 

proportion of them are dependent on forests for 

their livelihood and sustenance. The role of local 

people in natural resource conservation of such 

areas is thus vital and any policies aimed at 

conserving forest resources must take into account 

the people who are reliant on the resources. 

Further, it is important to know and understand 

their perception of conservation in general and the 

initiatives taken for conservation of these resources 

so that any suggestions emanating from the 

custodians of these resources can be taken on 

board.. It is also very important to know if people 

are aware of their rights for only then can benefits 

of conservation percolate down to the grassroots. 

They must be aware of the policies, rules and laws 

and it is only then can effective enforcement 

happen. 

CHAPTER VII 

People's perception of forest management and 

conservation in Garo Hills 

Susenjit Nath Choudhury, Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Rahul Kaul, Siddhartha Bhattacharjee and Satadal Acherji 

We therefore initiated a survey to seek answers to 

these questions so that the perception of the people 

could be communicated to the policymakers to help 

them understand issues better so that they maybe able 

to plan in a more efficient manner. 

Methodology 

Data was collected through a questionnaire survey 

and recorded on a pre-formatted data sheet. A set of 

questions were asked from the target group to 

generate answers to their general perceptions on forest 

resources, causes of depletion, governance etc. 

The survey was conducted at three levels - (i) 

District Council Members, (ii) Gaon-bura (Village 

headman) and (iii) Household. 

(i) District Council Members:11 members of Garo 

Hills District Council were interviewed. 

For Gaon-buras and households, two stage 

stratified random sampling method was followed. 

Garo Hills area was divided in the existing three 

administrative districts and 58 villages (Census, 2001) 

were selected at random, the size of the sample for 

each district being in accordance with its size (Table 1 

& 2) . 

(ii) Gaon-Bura: All Gaon-bura’s were interviewed 

for the selected 58 villages. 

(iii) Households: 232 households were selected at 

random from selected 58 villages. 

(4 households from each village) 

The survey was conducted during the month June – 

August 2006.

Table 1 List of Villages Surveyed 


81



Table 2 List of Gaon-buras interviewed 

83

Profile of the Sample 

Age-sex composition of the people 

interviewed 

All the Gaon buras and Garo Members District 

Councils interviewed were males. The 232 people 

interviewed from the household survey included 

92.2% males and 7.8% females. About 24.14% of the 

Gaon buras, 27.28% of Garo MDC and 43.05% of the 

people interviewed were in 20-40 years age category 

and 46.55% Gaon buras, 72.7% MDC and 45.25% of 

the people from households interviewed were in 40- 

60 yrs age class (Fig. 1) 

Education status of the people interviewed 

About 24.1% of the Gaon burasinterviewed were illiterate 

and 15.5% had informal education. About 36.2% had 

primary and 20.7% had secondary level education. Only 

3.5% of the sample had higher secondary education and 

there were no gradates or above. 

Fig. 1 Age-sex class of the people interviewed 

All the MDC members interviewed were literate. 

About 36.4% had education till higher secondary and 

27.3% were graduates (Fig. 2). 

Among the people interviewed at household level, 

30.17% were illiterate and 12.8% had only informal 

education. About 36.2% had primary education, 


14.2% secondary, 5.60 higher secondary and only 

1.72% were graduates. 

Fig. 2 Educational status of the peoploe interviewed 

People’s perception towards 

forest resource and conservation 

Survey indicated a wide variation in the perception of 

the people towards forest ownership, forest - extent, 

type and category, management status and 

responsibilities and other issues. 

Ownership of the forest 

Majority of the forest area in Garo Hills is either 

under the control of the community, privately owned 

or are un-classified forests. Only about 7% of the land 

is under the control of state forest department. 

However, 15.4% Gaon burahsopine that the forest 

is under the control of state forest department, 56.4% 

feel that it is under the control of community and 

28.2% said that it was privately owned. The 30.4% of 

the district council members interviewed however 

felt that the forest land was under state forest 

department; almost 61% said that it was under 


community and only 18.6% said that it was privately 

owned. At household level, 29.3% of the respondents 

thought that the forests were under the state forest 

department, 40.1% felt that it was under the control of 

communities and 24.6% thought that it was privately 

owned (Fig. 3). 

Fig. 3 Extent of forest controlled by different 

people/organisations 

Decision makers in forest conservation 

Fig. 4 Perception of people of who are responsible for forest management 

The state forest department takes care of about 7% of 

the forest cover and the remaining forest is either 

owned by local community, individuals and the 

district council. People’s perception regarding who 

managed the forest land varied. About 9% of the 

MDC, 6.9% of the Gaon buras and 6.36% of the 

households surveyed believed that state forest 

department was responsible for managing the forest 

lands. However, 53.2% of the people at house hold 

level, 58.6% of the Gaon burasand 18.2% of the MDC 

felt that forests were managed by the village council. 

About 9.1% of the MDC, 3.5% of Gaon burasand 3.2% 

of the households believed that the forest was jointly 

being managed by forest department and village 

council (Fig 4). 

85

Initiatives for the conservation of forest 

A majority of the people opined that no initiatives are 

being taken to conserve the forest in Garo Hills. Only 

7.38% people believed that state forest department 

was taking initiatives to conserve the forest and 

another 7% felt that district council had taken 

initiatives for forest conservation. But more than 

11.1% believed that individuals and nongovernment 

organizations had taken initiatives to conserve the 

forest. Overall only 8.5% people thought that some 

initiatives were being taken by state/district/private 

individuals or organisations to conserve the forest. 

However, an high 56.2% people believe that no 

initiatives are being undertaken. More than 35% have 

no view on this aspect (Fig 5). 

Fig. 5 People’s perception of intiatives taken by 

various agencies for conservation of forest. 

a) Initiatives of the government agency 

Only 7.4% of the people interviewed suggested 

that the state forest department had taken proper 

initiatives to protect the forest. But a majority of the 

people (63.5%) felt that no initiatives had been taken 

by these agencies and another 29.1% had no opinion 

on this aspect. Looking across the spectrum of people 

interviewed, very few Gaon buras (7.1%) and 

households (6.03%) felt that the state government had 

initiated proper measures to conserve the forest. 

However, more than one-third of the MDC (36.4%) 

appreciated the initiatives taken by the state forest 

department in protecting the forest. More than 67.2% 

households, 36.4% MDC and almost 42.9% Gaon buras 

believed that no initiatives had been taken by the state 

government (Fig. 6). One reason for less positive 

opinion of most people could be the fact that since the 

state forest department controls less than 7% of the 

forest area, their presence and localized intervention 

is not felt is most places. 

Fig. 6 Forest department initiatives for conservation of 

forest 

b) Initiatives of the Garo District Council 

Only 6.7% of the people interviewed showed 

that the District Council has taken sufficient 

conservation measures in the area for protection of 

forest and wildlife. Almost 42.3% people feel that 

no initiatives have been taken and about half (50%) 

the people surveyed had no view on this (Fig.7). 

Fig. 7 People’s perception on initiative of District 

Council for forest conservation. 

c) Initiative of the non government agencies 

Almost 17.4% of the people interviewed opined 

positively towards the initiatives taken by the nongovernment 

agencies including private forest owners 

and planters, individual initiatives of the Nokmas and 

some people working for wildlife & forest 

conservation. This view was uniformly echoed by 

MDC (18.2%), Gaon buras (25%) and households 

(9.05%). However, a large majority (44.6%) felt 

against and about 38% had no view on this aspect 

(Fig.8). 

Change in forest cover 

Almost 87.7% of the people interviewed echoed the 

opinion that there had been a reduction of forest 

cover in Garo hills. However, about 3.23% of the 

people interviewed thought that the cover had 

increased (Fig.9). 


Fig. 8 People’s perception on initiative for conservation 

by non-government agencies 

Fig. 9 Perception about change of forest cover of the 

people interviewed 

Status of the forest cover 

Both in terms of quality and extent, the forest in Garo 

Hills has deteriorated over the years. This is also 

reflected in the forest cover surveys conducted by 

Forest Survey of India. Almost all MDC members, 

31.03% of Gaon buras and 27.06% of the households 

believed that the forests had degraded over the years. 

In fact, 46.55% of Gaon buras and 52.7% of the 

households believed that forest had become much 

degraded. Only 13.8% of the Gaon burasand 11.47% of 

the households believed that the forest cover was good 

(Fig 10). This clearly reflects that majority of the people 

believe that forest has degraded over the years. 

Cause of forest destruction 

One of the major causes of destruction of forest 

resources has been the over extraction of resources by 

people (84.5%). However, 10.1% of the people said 

that both over exploitation by people and 

developmental activities had contributed to the 

decline and degradation of forests in Garo hills. 


Fig. 10 Perception of the people towards contition of 

the forest 

Looking across the sample, almost 80% of the Gaon 

buras, 63.6% of the MDC and 86.5% of the people at 

house level suggested that over extraction of 

resources by people was the main cause of forest 

destruction. Developmental activities like roads, 

houses and mining had also contributed to forest 

destruction as opined by 36.4% of MDC members and 

3.6% of people at household level. Another 20% of 

Gaon buras and 9.4% of the people at the household 

level felt that both over extraction of resources and 

developmental activities had contributed to 

destruction of forest (Fig 11). 

SE = Self over extraction of 

forest resource 

GE = Govt over extraction of 

forest resource 

DA= Developmental activities 

Fig.11 Perception of the people towards cause of 

forest destruction 

Cause of reduction of fauna 

A wide variety of faunal resources are hunted by the 

local people. These include mainly wild boar, deer, 

monkeys, bear, etc. About 55% of the people interviewed 

implicated hunting as the main cause of reduction of 

fauna in Garo Hills apart from degradation of habitat. 

87

Laws for legal protection of forest and 

wildlife 

a) Implementation of law 

Most people (85.7%) interviewed said that customary 

laws were being used to manage the forests. Only 6.5% 

felt that central laws were used while the rest (7.72%) felt 

that both central and customary laws were being used 

for forest management. Over 81% of the MDC felt that 

customary laws were the major law that was being used 

to manage forests and the rest 18.2% felt that both central 

and customary laws were used to manage the forests. 

However, 7.14% of the Gaon buras felt that central laws 

were used in the local forest management but the 

majority (82.1%) said that customary laws were being 

used to manage forest. Majority of the household level 

(86.5%) had a similar view in favour of customary law 

(Fig. 12). 

Fig.12 Perception of the people towards laws used for 

managing forest 

b) Response on ban of tree feeling by Supreme 

Court 

Almost 76.4% of the people interviewed were aware 

of the ban on tree felling but a large proportion was 

unaware of the agency responsible for the ban, 

especially the people at household level. About 62.1% 

of the Gaon buras, 100% MDC and 67.2% of the people 

at household level were aware of the ban (Fig. 13). 

Fig. 13 People's knowledge about ban on tree feeling 

c) Impact of tree feeling ban by Supreme Court 

i) Impact on forest 

The impact of ban on tree feeling on forest has been 

really encouraging as opined by majority (72.7%) of the 

people surveyed. A small proportion (1.8%) still felt that 

the ban had negatively affected the health of the forest. 

About 25.5% are unaware of the impact (Fig. 14). 

Fig.14 People opinion on the effect on tree felling ban 

on forest 

Almost 85.7% of the Gaon buras, 63.6% of MDC and 

71.55% of the people at household level indicated that 

the ban had improved the forest cover and overall 

health of the forest. However, 9.09% of the MDC and 

1.7% of the people at the household level were not in 

favour of the above view and opine that it had 

negatively affected the forest. 

ii) Impact on livelihood 

The overall response (50.2%) of the ban imposed on 

tree felling on the local livelihoods has been quite 

positive and according to the respondents had not 

affected their livelihood significantly. Although 

earning from timber had reduced but the ban had 

resulted in better environment, fuel wood availability 

and other forest resources for the people and better 

protection of water catchments. However, 22.1% of 

the people felt that it had affected their livelihood and 

had made many unemployed. The remaining 27.7% of 

the respondents were unaware of its impact (Fig. 15). 

Almost 81.8% of the MDC members, 49.6% of 

people at house hold and 42.9% Gaon buras felt that 

the ban had not affected their livelihoods. Others 

however felt that it had (24.1% people at household 

level and 14.3% at the Gaon bura level). 

d) Justification of the ban 

Almost 92.5% of the people opined that the ban was 


Fig. 15 People opinion on the effect on tree felling ban 

on livelihood 

justified and had resulted in betterment of the forest 

cover. This is also justified by the fact that more 

than 50% of the people interviewed felt that the ban 

had not affected the livelihood of the people as 

mentioned above. However, 7.5% of the people 

have a contradictory view. Almost 94.8% 

household, all MDC members and 82.8% of the 

Gaon buras also justified as correct the ban on tree 

felling (Fig 16). 

Fig. 16 People opinion on justification of ban on 

tree felling 

Need to regulate hunting 

As mentioned earlier, about 55% of the people felt that 

hunting was the major cause of decline of faunal 

resources. However, only about 37% people thought 

that there should be some regulation on hunting while 

over 60% of the people were not in favour of any 

regulation. 

Regarding enforcement, majority of the people 

(74.5%) were aware of the central laws that prohibit 

hunting and also that this was a criminal offence. 

However, 23.8% of the people said that there were 

customary laws that prohibited hunting. 


3.10. Resource sustainability 

Majority (67.3%) of the people were pessimistic about 

the future of the forests and felt that at the present rate 

of extraction, the forests would not last more than 10 

years. About 21.6% felt that it would last for another 

50 yrs and only 9.6% felt that the resource was infinite 

and can be harvested as much as possible (Fig. 17). 

Fig. 17 People opinion on resource lasting at current 

rate of extraction 

The perception on forest resource lasting showed 

similar trend across the sample. Thus majority of 

people are of the opinion that urgent management 

measures need to be undertaken to stop complete 

depletion of forest resource. 

Conclusion 

The long-term sustenance of forest area depends on 

how well planned conservation measures are and 

the success of such conservation measure depends 

upon how aware the people are to laws and 

policies. In Garo hills, a major proportion of forests 

are under private or clan ownership and a very 

small part under government control. The Garo 

Hills Autonomous District Council manages the 

majority of forest area and is responsible for its use 

and up keep. This understanding is more or less 

clear among the people, however, the extent varies. 

Majority of people felt however, that not much is 

being done to effectively manage the forest 

resources either by the state government or by the 

District Council which is a cause of concern. One 

reason for this could be the fact that since forest 

department owns less than 7% of the forest area, its 

initiatives and presence is localized and so are the 

impacts. District Council, with a very small 

workforce has not been able to take up initiatives 

that are urgently required. On the other hand some 

private individuals and non-government agencies 

89

have done good work for forest conservation but in 

localized areas. 

The survey was remarkable in bringing out a 

few important perceptions which would have a 

bearing on the over all conservation scenario of the 

region. The overall opinion is that the forest cover 

has reduced over the years and also felt that over 

extraction of resource by people as the main cause 

of forest destruction. Hunting was also felt as a 

cause of decline of faunal resources. This 

realization needs to be channalised for forest 

conservation involving the locals by making them 

aware of the adverse impacts of such loss and at 

the same time reducing their dependency on forest 

for energy needs and sustenance. This can be 

facilitated by providing them alternate source of 

energy like solar energy, LPG and bio gas. The 

level of education also needs to be improved as 

illiteracy has resulted in lesser job opportunities for 

locals and making them more dependent on forest 

for sustenance. 

People support the tree felling ban probably 

because it secures the forests for their use as at a local 

Arora, R.K. (1980). Nature food plants of Northeastern 

tribals. In : Jain, S.K. (ed) Glimpses of Indian 

Ethnobotany. Oxford and IBH publication, New 

Delhi, Pp 91-136. 

Borang, A. (1996). Studies of certain ethno zoological 

aspects of Adi tribes of Siang District, A.P., 

India. Arunachal Forest News, 19 (1-2) : 43-82. 

Haridasan, K., Bhuyan, L.R. and Deori, M.L. (1990). 

Wild edible plants of Arunachal Pradesh. 

Arunachal Forest News, 8 (1-2): 1-8. 

Kumar, A. and Solanki, G.S. (2004). Ethno-sociological 

impact on Capped langur (Trachypithecus 

pileatus) and suggestions for conservation: A 

case study of Reserved Forest in Assam, India. J. 

Nat. Con., 16 (1) : 107-113. 

Mahapatra, A. and Mitchell, C.P. (1997). Sustainable 

References 

level, they continue to subsist on it. Most people opine 

that customary laws are the most appropriate law to 

manage the forest indicating greater confidence in 

their traditional systems and probably less confident 

of centralized laws. 

But the most remarkable finding of the study has 

been the cordial relation and faith of the people on 

both the state forest department and District council 

which can actually be translated into meaningful 

conservation initiatives. However, lack of a proper 

land-use and scientifically based environmental 

management plan has resulted in rampant mining 

and developmental activities which needs to be 

seriously considered by the local administration. 

People should also be made aware of the negative 

impacts of the loss of forest and relate this to the 

current water crisis in Garo hills. Since most of the 

forest is under the control of community and private 

people and their livelihood directly or indirectly 

dependent on the forest, a conservation approach 

involving the local people and better employment 

opportunity are the most viable approach to the 

conservation of the forest. 

development of non-timber forest products: 

implication for forest management in India. Forest 

Ecology and Management, 94(1-3):15-29 

Pimental D., J. Houser, E. Preiss, O. White, H. Fang, 

L.Mesnick, T. Barsky, S. Tariche, J. Schreck and S. 

Alpert (1997). Water resources: agriculture, the 

environment, and society 

Solanki, G.S. (2002). Socio cultural and funal diversity 

of Arunachal Pradesh. Himalayan J. Env. And 

Zoo.,, 16 (2): 159-170. 

Solanki, G.S. and Chutia, P. (2004). Ethno Zoological 

and Socio-cultural aspects of Monpas of 

Arunachal Pradesh. J. Human Ecol., 15 (4) : 

251-254. 

Census of India, 2001. Povisional Population Totals, 

District Totals, Series-1, India. 


The northeastern region of India supports about 

35% (about 26,500 elephants) of India’s total 

elephant population and also provides shelter 

to about 55% of the roughly 3500 captive elephants of 

the country. More than 50% of the estimated 9200 wild 

elephants of northeastern India are harboured by 

Assam followed by Meghalaya (1860) and Arunachal 

Pradesh (1600). The remaining elephants are found in 

the states of Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur 

and northern West Bengal. 

In Meghalaya, elephants are mainly distributed in 

Garo and Khasi Hills and include the district of Rhi- 

Bhoi, West Khasi Hills, East Garo Hills, West Garo 

Hills and South Garo Hills of Meghalaya. A small, 

isolated population also occurs along the southern 

end of Jaintia Hills (adjacent to Cachar hills of Assam) 

(Choudhury, 1999; Gurung & Lahiri-Choudhury, 2001; 

Marak, 2002; Talukdar, 2005; Tiwari et al., 2005; 

Williams & Johnsingh, 1996). Majority of the habitat is 

hilly and the forest type is mostly tropical moist 

deciduous and tropical semi evergreen. Tropical wet 

evergreen forest occurs along the narrow river valleys. 

The state has about 9500 km 2 of potential elephant 

habitat and harbours about 1860 elephants 

(Meghalaya elephant census, 2002; Marak, 2002). 

About 10% of the elephant habitat is under the control 

of state forest department and the remaining is under 

the control of clan, community and private people. 

Majority of the elephants in Meghalaya (1,047) are 

concentrated in the Garo Hills. 

For the conservation of elephants in the Garo Hills, 

the forests of almost the whole of South Garo Hills 

district and southern part of East and West Garo Hills 

CHAPTER VIII 

Conservation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Meghalaya 

with special reference to corridors 

Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Vivek Menon, Sunil Kyarong and Rahul Kaul 

have been constituted into Garo Hills Elephant Reserve 

spread over 3500 km 2 including Balphakram National 

Park, Siju Wildlife Sanctuary, Baghmara Reserve Forest 

(RF), Reawak and Emangre RF, Angratoli RF, Nokrek 

National Park and Rongrengre RF interspersed with 

buffer areas of mostly secondary forests of Akhing 

lands. It is estimated that the male— female ratio of 

elephants in Meghalaya is approximately about 1:1.9. 

Meghalaya is predominantly an agrarian economy 

with agriculture as the main occupation of its 

population. Agriculture in Meghalaya is mainly jhum 

based (slash and burn cultivation) and with 

decreasing jhumming cycle of three to five years 

(http://www.megsoil.gov.in/shifting_cul.htm). 

More and more areas are continuously being cleared 

off for jhumming(Fig.1). About 51428 families practice 

Fig. 1 Forest cleared for jhumming

92 Canopies and Corridors 

Fig. 2 Forest Map of Meghalaya showing forest cover, reserved & protected forests and protected area network 

(Source: Remote Sensing Cell: Forest & Environment Department Meghalaya http://www.megforest.gov.in)

jhum in Garo Hills and annual area under jhum is 

approximately about 340.5 km 2 (Soil & Water 

Conservation Department, Government of 

Meghalaya, 2000; http://www.megsoil.gov.in/ 

shifting_cul.htm). Large natural forests have also been 

cleared off for commercial plantations like cashew, 

oranges, arecanut and rubber. The state also has rich 

deposits of minerals including coals, limestones, 

silimantite, etc. However, in absence of a detailed 

land-use and environmental management plan for 

sustainable mining and scientific mining, large scale 

mining of coal and limestone, especially in South and 

East Garo hills has fragmented and degraded the 

elephant habitat threatening the elephant population. 

Coal and limestone mining in Darengiri area has 

already caused fragmentation of the habitat and 

hindered the movement of elephants between 

Angratoli RF and Imangiri RF. A big limestone 

mining operation for a cement plant was planned 

near Siju WLS which could have threatened the 

movement of elephants between Balpakram National 

Park and Nokrek National Park. This was stopped 

through a PIL filed in Supreme Court of India. 

However, there are other artifacts threatening this 

corridor. Human settlements, New NEHU campus, 

fishery pond, 2 nd police battalion camp, heavy traffic 

on Guwahati-Tura road and agricultural activities, all 

have threatened the elephant movement between 

West Garo Hills and Nokrek National Park (Fig. 3). 

Fig. 3 Coal mining in south Garo Hills 

Human-elephant conflict in Garo Hills 

There has been a gradual decline in the forests of 

Meghalaya from 73.4% in 1987 to 69.5% in 2001. More 

than 340 sq km is annually jhummed and more area is 

cleared every year (Fig. 4). This coupled with increase 


in human population and unplanned mining for coal 

and limestone has degraded and fragmented the 

elephant habitat and created a mosaic of secondary 

(bamboo and degraded scrub) forests interspersed 

with cultivation and primary forests. Since jhum 

settlements are interspersed with forest areas, 

elephants encounter and raid crop with regularity. 

This results in large scale crop depredation and 

sometimes loss of human life and property when crop 

protection against elephant is attempted. As 

retaliatory actions, many elephants are also killed by 

electrocution and other means by the aggrieved 

public. 

Fig. 4 Forest cleared for jhumming 

Human-elephant conflict is a major problem in 

Garo Hills (Gurung & Lahiri-Choudhury, 2001; 

Marak, 2002; Marcot et al, 2002; Talukdar, 2005; 

Tiwari et al, 2005; Williams & Johnsingh, 1996). 

Between 2000-2001 and 2005-06, approximately 4136 

cases of crop depredation were reported in Garo Hills. 

However many more go unreported so the number of 

cases might be actually much higher (Fig 5). Of the 

crop depredation reported in Garo Hills, most of these 

have been reported from West Garo Hills where the 

rate of land use conversion to such forms that is 

incompatible for long-term survival of elephants has 

increased over the years (Bera et al., 2006). 

Fig. 5 Elephant depredation cases reported in Garo Hills 

93

The conflict has also resulted in injury and death of 

people in of the Garo Hills every year. Between 2000- 

2001 and 2005-2006, 22 people have lost their life and 

39 injured due to elephants at an average of 3.67 and 

6.5 of human death and injury every year respectively. 

The conflict scenario is worst in West Garo hills where 

11 people lost their life and a minimum of 25 were 

injured during the above period (Fig. 6). As retaliatory 

actions, many elephants are being killed by 

electrocution and other means by the aggrieved 

public. Between 2001 and 2007, about 36 elephants 

have lost their lives in Garo hills of which almost 61% 

died due to electrocution. About 58.3% of the reported 

elephant mortality is from West Garo hills. Most 

(77.3%) of the electrocution deaths are reported from 

Fig. 6 Human casualty due to elephants in Garo Hills 

West Garo Hills which also has an equally high 

human casualty and crop depredation rate (Fig. 7). 

This indicates an alarming situation of humanelephant 

conflict in the region that needs to be 

urgently tackled. Failure of this could result in 

increased conflict and reduced tolerance towards 

elephant its conservation. 

To minimize human-elephant conflict for 

ensuring long term conservation of elephants in 

Garo Hills, it is important to link different patches of 

habitats. A proposed method for moderating the 

negative effects of habitat isolation is the 

preservation and restoration of linear landscape 

(corridors that structurally link otherwise isolated 

habitats) (Saunders and Hobbs, 1991). These 

corridors are meant to increase landscape 

connectivity by facilitating movement of organisms 

between habitat fragments and thus minimize the 

Fig. 7 Elephant mortality due to various reasons in 

Garo Hills 

risk of inbreeding and extinction, increase local and 

regional population persistence and facilitate 

colonization (Doak and Mills, 1994, Fahrig and 

Merriam, 1994; Sjorgen, 1991; Simberloff, 1988). 

Wildlife Trust of India took the initiative of 

identifying and verifying the elephant corridors of the 

country in 2001 with support of wildlife and forest 

departments of the concerned states. In Meghalaya, 

together with wildlife and forest department officials 

and researchers, WTI initiated an exercise of 

groundtruthing the elephant corridors in 2002 and an 

initial list of corridors and their status was prepared. 

In Guwahati, a discussion meeting of people with 

knowledge on elephant habitats was organized on 1st 

and 2 nd August, 2003 and a final list prepared after 

incorporating the suggestions and comments 

advocated by the people present. 

Six corridors were identified in the state of which 

five are present in Garo Hills and one in Jaintia hills. 

The corridors identified are as follows: 

1. Ranggira - Nokrek 

2. Nokrek - Imangiri 

3. Rewak - Imangiri 

4. Siju - Rewak 

5. Baghmara - Balpakram 

6. Saipung - Narpuh 



RANGGIRA- NOKREK 

Ecological Priority: Medium Conservation feasibility: Low 

Elephants from Ranggira, Sanchangiri and Galwang village Reserve Forest area use this corridor to move on 

to Nokrek National Park area via Bismagre, Bibragre, Sakalgre and Mandalgre private forest. Human settlements, 

North Eastern Hill University (NEHU) campus, fishery pond, 2 nd police Battalion campus and other artifacts 

along the Tura-Rongram road obstruct their movement. 

Forest Division :Garo Hills 

Connectivity :Elephant population of West Garo Hills with Nokrek National Park thus leading to South Garo Hills 

Geographical coordinates : 

Latitude 25º31'-25º34' N 

Longitude 90º12'-90º17' E 

Length: 7-8 km Width: 1.5-2 km 

Forest type/ Vegetation:Tropical moist deciduous forests 

Nearest PA:Nokrek National Park 

Legal status of the corridor:Clan land (Akhing land) 

Major land-use:Forest, plantation, settlement, agriculture and NEHU campus 

Major habitation/settlements in corridor: Chasingre, Phagugre, Chibragre, Ganol Sangma, 2nd police 

Battalion campus and Boldorenggre 

Corridor dependent villages:Chasingre, Phagugre, Chibragre, Ganol Sangma and Boldorenggre. 

Human artefacts on the corridor:NEHU campus, 2nd police Battalion campus, fishery pond and road (Tura- 

Guwahati) 

Frequency of usage of the corridor by elephants: Regular and seasonal; used mostly in October-February 

Threats to the corridor: 

1. Expansion of human settlement and Jhum cultivation. 

2. NEHU campus, especially fencing of the land 

3. 2 nd police Battalion campus 

Conservation plan: 

1. Declaration, demarcation and legal protection of the corridor under various laws appropriate for the state 

2. Negotiation with NEHU authorities to spare the main corridor area for elephant movement. 

3. Prevention of new settlements in the corridor area 

4. Exploring the possibility of establishing a Community Reserve 

95

Fig. 8 Map of Ranggira- Nokrek elephant corridor 



NOKREK - IMANGIRI 

Ecological Priority: Medium Conservation feasibility: Low 

The corridor connects a large stretch of forest in and around Imangiri Reserve Forest with Nokrek National 

Park and adjacent areas. Due to inaccessibility of the corridor area by road and comparatively low human density 

in the area, the corridor is safe. However, coal and limestone mining are threats to the area. 

Forest Division :Garo Hills 

Connectivity :Imangiri Reserve Forest and Nokrek National Park 


Latitude 25º20'–25º25' N 

Longitude 90º30'–90º35' E 

Length: 10 km Width :3–4 km 

Forest type/Vegetation:Tropical evergreen forest along the southern boundary of Nokrek National Park and 

moist deciduous with patches of degraded secondary forest in and around Imangiri Reserve Forest 

Nearest PA:Nokrek National Park 

Legal status of the corridor:Private land (Akhing land) 

Major land-use: Forest, settlement and jhum cultivation 

Major habitation/settlements in corridor: Dadugre, Rekmangre, Nepali khunti, Pharamgre, Dobagre and 

Iman Asakgre 

Corridor dependent villages: Dadugre, Rekmangre, Nepali khunti, Pharamgre, Dobagre, Iman Asakgre, 

Arukgre, Jetragre and Iman Durabanda 

Human artefacts on the corridor:Road (Kharukhol-Chokpot) 

Frequency of usage of the corridor by elephants: Regular 


1. Present small scale coal mining and associated temporary roads opening up in the habitat is a threat 

2. Limestone mining 

3. Mining road (Kharukhol-Chokpot) 



2. Checking destructive developmental activities in the area 

3. Prevention of large scale coal and limestone mining 


97

Fig. 9 Map of Nokrek - Imangiri elephant corridor 



REWAK - IMANGIRI 

Ecological Priority: Medium Conservation feasibility: Medium 

The corridor connects Rewak Reserve Forest with Imangiri Reserve Forest and passes through Akhing (clan) 

lands and settlements. There is no immediate threat to the corridor except human settlement and jhumming. 

Forest Division : Garo Hills 

Connectivity : Imangiri Reserve Forest with Rewak Reserve Forest 


Latitude 25º 18'–25º22' N 

Longitude 90º 35'–90º39' E 

Length: 8–9 km Width: 2.5 km 

Forest type/ Vegetation:Tropical evergreen forest 

Nearest PA:Siju Wildlife Sanctuary 

Legal status of the corridor:Clan land (Jadigittim Akhing land) 

Major land-use:Forest, settlement and jhum cultivation 

Major habitation/settlements in corridor: Tholigre, Nakatagre, Jadigittim, Depri Khosigre, Garengre and 

Damukgittum. 

Corridor dependent villages:Tholigre, Nakatagre, Jadigittim, Depri Khosigre, Garengre and Damukgittum. 

Human artefacts on the corridor: Nil 

Frequency of usage of the corridor by elephants: Regular; used by bulls and herds 


1. Expansion of settlements and jhum cultivation 


1. Declaration, demarcation and legal protection of the corridor under various laws appropriate 

for the state 

2. Preventing the expansion of settlements towards the corridor 


99

Fig. 10 Map of Imangiri -Rewak elephant corridor 



SIJU-REWAK 

Ecological Priority: Medium Conservation feasibility: High 

This narrow corridor connecting Siju Wildlife Sanctuary with Rewak Reserve Forest is a very important 

passage for elephants and helps in maintaining habitat continuity between Balpakram-Siju-Rewak and Nokrek 

National park. Elephants cross the Simsang River through the sandy stretches in the corridor area. Elsewhere, the 

river is bound by steep limestone cliffs and large boulder formations along both the banks 

Forest Division :Balpakram National Park 

Connectivity : Siju Wildlife Sanctuary with Rewak Reserve Forest 




Length: 2 km Width: 3.5 km 

Forest type/ Vegetation: Tropical evergreen forest with plantation and jhum land 

Nearest PA: Siju Wildlife Sanctuary 

Legal status of the corridor: Clan land (Akhing land) 

Major land-use: Forest and settlement 

Major habitation/settlements in corridor: Aretika village with about 23 families and 125 people 

Corridor dependent villages: Aretika, Siju and Rewak 

Human artefacts on the corridor: Baghmara-Siju-William Nagar road 

Frequency of usage of the corridor by elephants : Regular; used by bulls and herds of 10–30 


1. Slash and burn (Jhum) cultivation 

2. Aretika village in the corridor area and their biotic pressure 

3. Monoculture plantation of arecanut 



2. Prohibiting destructive developmental activities in and around the Siju Wildlife Sanctuary. 

3. WTI is currently running a project seeking alternatives for reducing the dependence of Aretika village 

on the forests. 

4. Improving forest cover in and around corridor 


101

Fig. 11 Map of Siju -Rewak elephant corridor 



BEGHMARA-BALPHAKRAM 

Ecological Priority: High Conservation feasibility: Medium 

This corridor connecting Balpakram National Park with Baghmara Reserve Forest is vital in maintaining 

habitat contiguity of about 600 km2 of elephant habitat. Elephants, during their movement, generally pass 

through Dambuk, Jhongkhol, Dambuk Atong and Hathibhel villages. Presently, the corridor is safe but due to 

rich deposits of coal in this area, the corridor could be affected in future. 

Forest Division :Balpakram National Park 

Connectivity : Balpakram National Park with Baghmara Reserve Forest 




Length: 6 km Width: 4.5 km 

Forest type/ Vegetation: Tropical evergreen forest with plantation 

Nearest PA: Balpakram National Park 

Legal status of the corridor: Clan land (Aking land) 

Major land-use: Forest, plantation and agriculture (jhum) 

Major habitation/settlements in corridor:Halwa Atong (80 houses; one school), Dambuk Jongkhol (6 houses), 

Dambuk Atong (19 houses), Chitmang Gonggrot (60 houses) and Hatibhel (Agachikona) (21 houses, 1 school) 

Corridor dependent villages: Halwa Atong, Dambuk Jongkhol, Dambuk Atong, Chitmang Gonggrot and 

Hatibhel (Agachikona) 

Human artefacts on the corridor: Road {Baghmara to Rongru Asim village (western side) and the road from 

Rongara town on the eastern side} 

Frequency of usage of the corridor by elephants: Regular; used by bulls and herds 


1. Slash and burn (jhum) cultivation 

2. The possible mining of a rich deposit of coal 

3. Expansion of villages in the corridor forest 

4. Destruction of natural forest for plantation, more rapidly in recent years 



2. Preventing the villagers from further forest destruction for monoculture plantation 

3. Prohibiting the destructive developmental activities in the area 

4. Prevention of potential mining of the area for coal 


103

Fig. 12 Map of Siju -Balpakram elephant corridor 



SAIPUNG - NARPUH 

Ecological Priority: Low Conservation priority : Medium 

The corridor connects Saipung Reserve Forest with Narpuh II Reserve Forest and is bordering North Cachar 

Hills of Assam. Lynju and Sumleng rivers drains the corridor area. This habitat supports very few elephants. The 

land is owned by two village Chiefs (Dolloi) viz., Saipung elaka and Sutnga elaka. At present the land is leased 

to Biate tribe, a sub-tribe from Mizoram. 

Forest Division : Jaintia Hills 

Connectivity : Saipung Reserve Forest with Narpuh II Reserve Forest 




Length: 10–11 km Width: 5 km 

Forest type/Vegetation: Tropical evergreen and moist deciduous with jhum patches 

Nearest PA: Barail Wildlife Sanctuary 

Legal status of the corridor: Private forest. 

Major land-use: Agriculture (jhum) and settlements 

Major habitation/settlements in corridor: Khoingoi, Mulchang, Saitwal and Bombaithal with total of 40 

bamboo houses and a human population of 250 

Corridor dependent villages: Khoingoi, Mulchang, Saitwal and Bombaithal 

Human artefacts on the corridor: Nil 

Frequency of usage of the corridor by elephants: Occasional. About five to nine elephants use this corridor 

(A total of 11 elephants were counted in this corridor during the State Forest Department census of 2002) 


1. Expansion of villages. There are about 40 houses with about 250 people 

which is not a major threat at present but can lead to one if not checked. 

Conservation plan : 


2. Seeking alternatives for the four villages (Khoingoi, Mulchang, Saitwal and Bombaithal) 


Remarks: The Wildlife Division of Meghalaya has already proposed to acquire the corridor land which 

can serve as an elephant corridor by notifying Saipung Reserve Forest, Narpuh Reserve Forest and the 

corridor area into a sanctuary. 

105

106 Canopies and Corridors 

Fig. 13 Map of Saipung- Narpuh elephant corridor

Securing the Siju – Rewak elephant 

corridor 

One of the crucial bottlenecks for the elephant in the 

Garo Hills Elephant Reserve is the narrow passage 

across the river Simsang that connects Siju Wildlife 

Sanctuary on the east bank of the river to Rewak 

Reserve Forest situated on the west bank (Williams & 

Johnsingh, 1996; Gurung and Lahiri-Choudhury, 

2000; Tiwari et al; 2005). 

The corridor is about 3.5 km long and two km 

wide. Elephants can cross the Simsang river only 

at three or four places where there are sandy 

stretches along the river; elsewhere the river is 

bounded by steep limestone cliffs and large 

boulder formations along both the banks (Williams 

& Johnsingh, 1996). Only a part of the corridor 

forest is controlled by the forest department; the 

rest is under control of community. This corridor 

is an important passage for elephants from south 

Garo hills elephant range (Balpakram NP and Siju 

WLS) to Rewak Reserve Forest and then Imangiri 

Reserve Forest & Angratoli RF- Nokrek National 

Park ranges. In between the reserve forest are 

community forests and private lands (refer to fact 

sheet given above). 

A view of the corridor forest 

The major impediment in this corridor is the 

Arthika village (with 25 families) that lies in the 

corridor area across the eastern side of Simsang river 

and southern end of Siju WLS. With over 150 

individuals and increasing demand of land for 

agriculture, plantation and settlement, a large forest 

area has been cleared off hindering the movement of 

elephants and other animals. Currently the elephant 

mainly moves from Siju WLS through Rongjak forest 

and crosses the Arthika village on its southern side 

(partly through Siju and partly Rewak Aking) before 


crossing the Simsang river and entering the Rewak 

Reserve Forest. 

A cement plant was planned near the corridor area 

way back in 1996 covering 14 km 2 area with annual 

output of 573000 tonnes. This was stayed by the Hon. 

Supreme Court of India based on a PIL (Public 

Interest litigation). 

Realizing the importance of this corridor and 

potential threats to the corridor, Wildlife Trust of 

India initiated a project in 2003 with an aim to secure 

the corridor by working with the local community. 

The approach included: 

Protecting the Rongjak forest under the 

control of community 

Acquiring land in the bottleneck (between 

Arithika village and Simsang river) to 

completely secure the corridor 

Working with the community to reduce their 

dependency on forests 

Monitoring the corridor for usage by 

elephants and other animals 

Protecting the Rongjak forest under the 

control of community 

The connectivity between Siju Wildlife Sanctuary and 

the corridor land near Arthika village is maintained 

through Rongjak forest area (Fig-8) Rongjak forest has 

mixed vegetation with dense undergrowth and serves 

as ideal passage for elephants. For the long-term 

conservation of this corridor, it was essential that 

some legal protection is provided to Rongjak. With 

this objective, discussion was initiated with the people 

of Arithika village and the Siju Nokma (Aking head) 

along with officials of state forest department. The 

villagers agreed in principle to protect the Rongjak 

forest to facilitate movement of animals but were 

initially quite reluctant to bring it under legal 

protection as they felt that it could curtail their right 

on the forest for future use. Various rounds of 

discussions were held with the villagers and Nokma 

which were also facilitated by the local member of 

District Council (MDC). A formal request was also 

put before the chairman and other members of the 

Garo Hills Autonomous District Council (GHADC) in 

a workshop organized on June 30, 2006 where the 

members agreed to help WTI in protecting the 

elephant corridor and conservation of elephants in 

Garo Hills. Concomitantly, the Wildlife Trust of India 

also worked with the villagers from Arithika to 

reduce their dependency on forests creating 

awareness about the importance of this corridor and 

its role in reducing human-elephant conflict in the 

107

area. The Nokma and local community finally agreed 

to our proposal of legally protecting the Rongjak 

forest. After completing all formalities, the GHADC 

formally notified the Rongjak forest as Siju-Aretika 

Village Reserve Forest vide letter CF.332/Vill- 

PF/87/1042-46 dated September 03, 2007 (Annexure- 

VIII). The total area registered as Reserve is approx. 

200 hectares. The Village Reserve Committee formed 

for the management of the Village Reserve along with 

Wildlife Department and Wildlife Trust of India has 

also adopted a strong resolution to protect this 

corridor for long-term conservation of elephants in 

the Garo Hills. Acquiring the land in the bottleneck 

(between Arithika village and Simsang river) will 

completely secure the corridor 

The land south of Arithika village between 

Rongjak forest and Simsang river has land occupied 

by four families. This is the land through which 

elephants pass after moving from Siju WLS and 

Rongjak forest to Rewak Reserve forest. Of these, 

three areas originally belong to the Nokma (Village 

Head) but under the occupancy of three families of 

Aretika village and the forth land legally (patta land) 

belongs to a local person. 

Wildlife Trust of India is in consultation with these 

people and many of them have agreed to vacate the 

land provided they area appropriately compensated. 

However, the elephants can still move further south 

of Aritika through the degraded forest patch and all 

efforts are being made to secure this patch of forest 

partly belonging to Siju Nokma and partially Rewak 

Nokma. WTI is also in consultation with and 

negotiating for land. 

Working with the community to reduce 

their dependency on forest 

The sustenance of people of Aretika is mostly forest 

based. Fishery also forms an important source of 

livelihood. More than 50% of the population is 

illiterate. Only 1.5% of the population have studied till 

class IX and 33% (above 5 yrs) has primary education. 

Almost 80% of the working people are involved in 

agriculture and horticultural activities. Of the 

remaining population, 15% work as mining labourers 

and 5% in other industries. With increased mining in 

the region, the quality of water in Simsang river has 

also deteriorated and fish catch has reduced. 

For successful implementation of any conservation 

action and its long-term sustainability, it is very 

important that a holistic approach aimed at wildlife 

conservation as well as improving the living 

conditions of local people and reducing their 

dependency on forest is initiated. To strengthen the 

bond and assist the villagers of Arithika towards 

better life, WTI initiated the following measures that 

not only inspired them towards wildlife conservation 

but also helped them in improving their lifestyle. 

a) Medical camp 

Lack of medical facilities is a major problem in the area 

Fig. 14 Consultative meeting with Siju Nokma, villagers of Aritika, forest officials and WTI representatives 


Fig. 15 Villagers signing resolution to protect the 

corridor forest 

where many people suffer from cerebral malaria 

(caused by Plasmodium falciparum), polio, tuberculosis 

(few cases) and few other diseases/ disorders. There is 

a Health Care Centre in Siju village which is about 

seven 7 km from the village and on other side of 

Simsang river with very basic medical facilities. During 

monsoon it becomes practically impossible to reach the 

health centre and this is also the time when cases of 

malaria are on rise. The villagers are also not fully aware 

of the latest family planning methods. Being a 

matriarchal society, proper guidance and assistance to 

the women folks would contribute in checking the 

population and reducing the expanding human 

pressure on the corridor and nearby forest. Thus, to 

improve the overall health of the people, two health 

camps were organized in June 2006 and June 2007 

where doctors from Tura volunteered their services. 

The overall health profile of about 70 people examined 

Fig. 16 Medical camp organised for Aritika Villagers 


during the camp indicated that most people were 

infected with malaria. Other ailments affecting the 

population include hookworm infection, gastritis, 

peptic ulcer and dermatitis (Fig. 17). 

Fig. 17: Health profile of the people in Arthika village 

Many of the villagers were given medication for 

minor ailments and those with chronic problem were 

advised future course of treatment. The health camp 

has really helped in reinforcing the faith of the 

villagers in WTI’s concern for the community while 

conserving the elephant corridor. 

b) Repair of school building and 

teaching aids 

Proper educational infrastructure is also lacking in the 

village. There is a two room school and that too in a 

dilapidated condition. WTI believes that education 

and general awareness of the people can only 

contribute to long-term conservation of forest and 

wildlife. As such financial assistance was provided 

and the school building was repaired and teaching aid 

provided. 

c) Livelihood support to reduce the 

dependency of local community on forest 

Various options were discussed with the villagers to 

support their livelihood and reduce dependency on forest. 

While exploring these options, it was very pertinent that 

the skill of the people is kept into consideration and so as 

their liking. Most of the people are in favour of piggery 

and WTI has planned to provide them with piglets, sty 

and feed. Other options are also being explored. 

109

Fig. 18 Piglets distributed among Aritika villagers to 

reduce dependency on forest 

Monitoring the corridor for usage by elephants 

and other animals 

Siju Wildlife Sanctuary with an area of 5.18 km 2 

characterized by dense semi-evergreen forests is home 

to a large variety of animals. Along with Balphakram 

National Park (which is contiguous with Siju WLS), the 

area supports the highest concentration of elephants in 

the state (Gurung & Lahiri Choudhury, 2000). Elephants 

and tiger are the flagship species of the sanctuary. Others 

include the hoolock gibbon, capped langur and clouded 

leopard (state animal). The sanctuary supports 37 

species of mammals, 116 species of birds and about 18 

species of reptiles (Annexure IX; list of mammals). 

The corridor was monitored from March 2005 to 

February 2007 to see how this was being used by 

animals. This is crucial to assess the importance of the 

corridor specially taking into consideration the high cost 

involved for its securing. Data was collected on a predesigned 

format based on direct and indirect sighting. 

It was seen that a large number of animals were 

using the corridor. Major among the mammalian 

species includes elephants, wild boar, deer, capped 

langur, porcupines and even tigers. As seen in Fig.19, 

almost 75% of the corridor usage by the larger 

mammal is by elephants followed by wild boar (8.9%). 

Tigers were also seen using the corridor (1.94%). 

Seasonal variation in usage of corridor by elephants and 

other animals was also analyzed. The elephants use the 

corridor almost regularly throughout the year (Fig 20) 

with slightly more usage during late winters and early 

summer. During monsoon the Simsang river is flooded 

and elephants could hardly cross it. Hence, they are 

Fig 19 Animal usage of the Siju-Aritika corridor in 

different season (March 2005 - February 2007) 

confined to Siju WLS and Balpakram NP. Also with onset 

of monsoon, the availability of grasses and bamboos 

increases throughout the Siju - Balphakram forest area 

and thus most of the elephants stay in these areas and 

only disperse during late winter and summer when the 

resources are either over utilized or with ripening of the 

wet paddy in November-December (Anon, 2006) in 

Fig 20 Elephant usage of the corridor across the 

months from March 2005 - February 2007 

nearby jhum lands. In summers, the water level is low 

and elephants easily cross Simsang river and move either 

ways. 

The corridor is being used by both solitary males and 

herds and the herd size varied from three to nine 

elephants. 

There is no doubt that the corridor is being used by a 

large number of animal species and serves as an important 

conduit between the two populations on either side of 

Simsang river. This also justifies the intervention Wildlife 

Trust of India has initiated in this corridor for its securing. 

Working with Meghalaya forest department and 

Garo Hills Autonomous District Council, Wildlife 

Trust of India will also make efforts to secure the 

other corridors in the area that will help minimize 

conflict and strengthen the long-term conservation of 

elephants in the state. 


References 

Anon (2006): Annual report of the wildlife team 

Meghalaya field office Samrakshan Trust 

2006-07 

Bera S.K., Basumatary S.K., AgarwalA. and Ahmed, 

M (2006). Conversion of forest land in Garo 

Hills, Meghalaya for construction of roads: a 

threat to the environment and biodiversity. 

Current Science, 91(3): 281-284. 

Choudhury, A. (1999). Status and conservation of the 

Asian elephant Elephas maximus in northeastern 

India. Mammal Review 29(3): 141- 

173. 

Doak, D. F. and Mills. L.S. (1994). A useful role for 

theory in conservation. Ecology 75: 615-626 

Fahrig, L. and Merriam, G. (1994). Conservation of 

Fragmented Populations. Conserv. Biol. 8: 50 

- 59. 

Gurung, S. and Lahiri Choudhury, D.K. (2000). Project 

Elephant-human conflict in Asia state report 

on Meghalaya, India. Part-I. Asian Elephant 

Research and Conservation Centre 

Gurung, S. and Lahiri Choudhury, D.K. (2001). 

Project: Elephant-human conflict in Asia 

state report on Meghalaya, India,. 

Community development-block reports. 

Part-II. Asian Elephant Research and 

Conservation Centre 

http://meghalaya.nic.in/ - Official Website 

of the Government of Meghalaya. 

Marak, T. T. C. (2002). Status, distribution and 

conservation of the Asian elephant (Elephas 

maximus) in Meghalaya. Indian Forester 

128(2): 155-160 

Martcot, B.G., Kumar, A., Roy, P.S. and Sawarkar, 

V.B. (2002). Towards a landscape 


conservation strategy: Analysis of Jhum 

landscape and proposed corridors for 

managing elephants in south Garo Hills and 

Nokrek area, Meghalaya. Indian Forester 

128(2): 207-216 

Saunders, D.A. and Hobbs, R.J. (1991). The Role of 

Corridors, Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping 

Norton, New South Wales, Australia. 

Simberloff, D.S. (1988). The Contribution of 

Population and Community Biology to 

Conservation Science. Annual Review of 

Ecology and Systematics. 19: 473-511. 

Sjorgen, P. (1991). Extinction and isolation gradients 

in meta-populations; the case of the pool frog 

(Rana lessonae). Biological Journal of the 

Linnean Society 42: 135-147. 

Talukdar B.K. (2005). Current status of elephant 

conservation in Meghalaya and Arunachal 

Pradesh in Northeast India. Tigerpaper, 32(3): 

1-6. 

Tiwari, S.K., Karyong, Sunil S., Sarkar, P., 

Choudhury, A. U. and Williams, A.C (2005). 

Elephant Corridors of North-eastern India. 

In. Menon, V., Tiwari, S.K., Easa, P.S. and 

Sukumar, R. eds. Right of Passage: Elephant 

corridors of India. Wildlife Trust of India, 

New Delhi. 

Williams, A. C. and Johnsingh, A. J. T. (1996a). Status 

survey of elephants and their habitats in 

Garo Hills, north-east India. Gajah 16 : 43-60. 

Williams, A. C. and Johnsingh, A. J. T. (1996b). 

Threatened elephant corridors in Garo Hills, 

north-east India. Gajah 16 : 61-68. 

111

Selbalgre village (about 20 kms from district HQ 

Tura and on way to Williamnagar) in West Garo 

Hills has a small patch of forest under sacred grove 

which harbours a wide variety of flora and fauna. It is 

one of the few remaining abode of the Hoolock Gibbon 

(Hoolock hoolock )locally called as “Huro”, a Schedule I 

species in the state. 

Selbelgre was initially taken up for protection when 

WTI officials first visited the sacred grove on June 29, 

2006. This was followed by a series of meetings with 

Executive committee members of Garo Hills 

Autonomous District Council (GHADC) and villagers 

of Selbalgre discussing the need and benefit of 

protecting the forest patch in Selbalgre. Finally in a 

meeting on December 19, 2006 between all the three 

stakeholders, the villagers agreed to take up measures 

to protect the forest. This was followed by a general 

meeting on March 12, 2007 at the residence of Nokma 

Selbalgre to constitute a committee to declare the 

Fig.1 Hoolock Gibbon in the Selbalgre Village 

Reserve fores 

CHAPTER IX 

Joining the Gibbon canopies to restore 

the Nokrek landscape 

Sunil Kyarong, Rahul Kaul, Vivek Menon and Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

forest areas near old village side as Village Reserve 

Forest. The following resolution was adopted during 

the meeting: 

To declare and register the Selbalgre forest area 

at Old village site as Village Reserve Forest. 

Standing bamboo will only be extracted for 

domestic use. 

Jhum fallows of the Reserve will be planted with 

native trees including fruiting trees and a 

nursery will also be created. 

In addition to Reserve forest area, 250m along 

Selbalgre stream from Selbalgre old village site 

to Nisimagre A’Khing will be covered under the 

Reserve 

All field work/activities will be executed by the 

Village Reserve Committee or the villagers of 

Selbalgre. Wages rates were also fixed 

If additional area is required in future, the 

matter will also be taken up in subsequent 

meetings. 

Fig. 2 A view of Selbalgre Village Reserve

Fig. 3 Dense vegetation in Selbalgre Village Reserve Forest 

Before declaration of the Village Reserve, it was 

important that the area is demarcated which was 

carried out by WTI and officials of GHADC. The 

forest was finally notified as Selbalgre Village 

Reserve Forest spread over 100 hectares area 

(Reg.No. 03/GHADC, dated 16th April, 2007) on 

April 06, 2007 vide Office Order No. CF.332/Vill- 

RF/87/52-57 (Fig. 5 &..6). 

The notification of the Village Reserve forest was 

formally informed to the villagers in a function 

organized on April 20, 2007 at Selbalgre village by 

GHADC in presence of representative from forest 

department, WTI, local people from Selbalgre and 

neighbouring villages and press. The villagers have 

welcomed the move, since they understood that the 

improvement of vegetation cover will not only help in 

protecting the forest but will also improve water 

retention in the area. 

Since some part of the Reserve had abandoned jhum 

land, plantation was taken up in the opened area in 

three fallow plots totaling 10 hectares. Indigenous 


species like Artocarpus heterophyllus (Jack fruit), 

Gmelina arborea (Gamari), Michelia champaca (Teta 

Champa), Syzygium cumini (Jamun) , Bahunia sp and 

other local species were planted between July 

andAugust 2007. Subsequently de-weeding of the 

plantation was also carried out in December 2007. 

About 70% of the various fruiting and other 

indigenous trees planted have survived (Fig 4 - 8). 

To strengthen the livelihood of the people and as 

incentives to the villagers for protecting the forest, 

three fish pools were constructed for preservation of 

the endemic fish species inside Selbalgre VRF using 

only local available materials and with financial 

assistance from Wildlife Trust of India. This will not 

only help is easily availability of fishes for local 

consumption of the villagers but will also help to 

protect the catchments areas of the forest (Fig. 9). 

On December 18, 2007 the Selbalgre Village Reserve 

Forest Committee has passed a resolution to declare 

additional area of 100 hectares (Mostly jhum fallows) 

as extension of the Selbalgre Village Reserve Forest. 

113

Fig. 4 Notification of Selbalgre Village Reserve being released 

Fig. 5 WTI Coordinator Sunil Kyarong in Selbalgre VRF 


This was made possible after persistent sensitization 

of the villagers about the benefit of protecting the area 

and positive livelihood support to the villagers. An 

executive committee to oversee the activities of 

Selbalgre VRF has been formed with WTI as one of the 

member. 

Working with the local community, Garo Hills 

Autonomous Council and state forest department, the 


Wildlife Trust of India will make effort to protect 

further areas left fallow due to jhumming between 

Rongram and Nokrek to protect the natural forest and 

other existing wildlife and could contribute to the 

development of eco-tourism in the region. This, we 

hope, will also facilitate easy movement of animals 

and help reduced interaction of wild animals with 

human and reduce conflict. 

Fig. 6 Jhummed fallow in Selbalgre VRF Fig. 7 Removing the weeds from recently planted 

areas of Selbalgre VRF 

Fig. 8 Signage fixed at Selbalgre Village Reserve Forest for awareness 

115

Fig. 9 Fishery tank being prepared for Selbalgre villagers 

Fig. 10 Selbelgre community assisted habitat restoration to link fragmented wildlife habitat in 

the Garo Hills 


Background and Objective 

ANNEXURE I 

REPORT OF NATIONAL COMMISSION TO REVIEW 

THE WORKING OF THE CONSTITUTION 

9.22.1 The North Eastern region of India is one of its 

richest regions in terms of natural resources. 

It is also one of the most beautiful parts of 

India. However, a sense of alienation, 

misgovernance, corruption and under 

development are pervasive features of the 

region. To tackle the problems of this unique 

area and to preserve the democratic 

traditions and cultural diversity of its people, 

the framers of the Constitution conceived of 

the instrument of tribal self-rule. This stands 

embodied in the Sixth Schedule to the 

Constitution. The drafting of this Schedule 

was done by a Sub-Committee on North East 

Frontier (Assam Tribal and excluded areas) 

of the Constituent Assembly headed by Shri 

Gopinath Bardoloi, the then Premier of 

Assam. The effort was to accommodate the 

collective aspirations of tribal communities 

within the broader framework of a 

democratic political system. 

9.22.2 The provisions of the Sixth Schedule are 

applicable to the administration of the tribal 

areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, 

Tripura and Mizoram. Arunachal Pradesh 

(earlier known as North Eastern Frontier 

Agency) was also part of the Sixth Schedule 

and was administered by the Governor of 

Assam. Assam (barring two districts 

covered by the Sixth Schedule), Arunachal 

Pradesh, Manipur and Sikkim have passed 

legislation bringing the local bodies under 

the provisions of the 73rd and 74th 

Amendments to the Constitution. 

9.22.3 The North Eastern part of India with its large 

number of tribal communities and emerging 

educated elites has self-governing village 

councils and organized tribal chiefdoms. 

Efforts are to be made to give all the States in 

this region the opportunities provided under 

Chapter: 9 Decentralization and Devolution 

D. Institutions in North East India 

the 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendments. 

However, this should be done with due 

regard to the unique traditions of the region 

and the genius of the people without 

tampering with their essential rights and 

giving to each State the chance to use its own 

nomenclature for systems of governance 

which will have local acceptance. 

9.22.4 The Commission feels that our efforts must 

be to develop those instruments of political 

government to bring self-governance to the 

region and to calm the passions of divisive 

trends. The future of the North Eastern 

States hinges on choosing self-governance. 

During the last few decades, the system of 

local-governance promoted under the 

provisions of the Sixth Schedule has been 

seeking to guarantee political dominance 

for backward groups, better local 

governance at the community level, better 

economic development and ethnic security 

for those who feel threatened by large scale 

influx of illegal migrants and even settlers 

from other parts of India. 

9.22.5 The other regions of the country where 

there are large population of tribals are 

covered by the provisions of the Fifth 

Schedule. This is totally different from 

the Sixth Schedule States where the 

emphasis is on self-rule because many of 

the communities inhabiting these areas 

had ruled themselves until the British 

subjugated them in the 19th century. The 

issues of emotional, physical and political 

distance and alienation still remain. 

General recommendations 

9.23 After carefully studying the existing position 

of local self- governance in the various Northeastern 

States, the Commission makes the 

following general recommendations:- 

1 Report submitted on 31.3.2002 to the Government of India by Hon'ble Sri M.N. Venkatchaliah, former Chief Justice of India

(i) Careful steps should be taken to devolve 

political powers through the intermediate 

and local-Ievel traditional political 

organisations, provided their traditional 

practices carried out in a modern world do 

not deny legitimate democratic rights to any 

section in their contemporary society. The 

details of state-wise steps to devolve such 

powers will have to be carefully considered 

in a proper representative meeting of 

traditional leaders of each community, 

opinion builders of the respective 

communities and leaders of state and 

national stature from these very groups. A 

hasty decision could have serious 

repercussions, unforeseen and unfortunate, 

which could further complicate and worsen 

the situation. To begin with, the subjects 

given under the Sixth Schedule and those 

mentioned in the Eleventh Schedule could 

be entrusted to the Autonomous District 

Councils (ADCs). The system of in-built 

safeguards in the Sixth Schedule, should be 

maintained and strengthened for the 

minority and micro-minority groups while 

empowering them with greater 

responsibilities and opportunities, for 

example, through the process of Central 

funding for Plan expenditure instead of 

routing all funds through the State 

Governments. The North Eastern Council 

can play a central role here by developing a 

process of public education on the proposed 

changes, which would assure communities 

about protection of their traditions and also 

bring in gender representation and give 

voice to other ethnic groups. 

(ii) Traditional forms of governance must be 

associated with self-governance because of 

the present dissatisfaction. However, 

positive democratic elements like gender 

justice and adult franchise should be built 

into these institutions to make them broader 

based and capable of dealing with a 

changing world. 

(iii) The implementation of centrally funded 

projects from various departments of the 

Union Government should be entrusted to 

the ADCs and to revived village councils 

with strict audit by the Comptroller and 

Auditor-General of India. 

(iv) The process of protection of identity and the 

process of development and change are 

extremely sensitive. These twin processes 

need to be understood in the framework of 

a changing world and the role of all 

communities, small and large, in that world. 

Therefore, the North Eastern Council 

should be mandated to conduct an intensive 

programme of public awareness, 

sensitization and education through nongovernment 

organizations, State 

Governments, and its own structure to help 

bring about such an understanding of the 

proposals given below. 

(v) The provisions of the Anti-Defection Law in 

the proposed revised form as now 

recommended by the Commission, vide 

paragraph 4.18.2 shall be made applicable to 

all the Sixth Schedule areas. 

(vi) Given the demographic imbalance which 

is taking place in the North-East as a 

result of illegal migration from across the 

borders, urgent legal steps are necessary 

for preventing such groups from entering 

electoral rolls and citizenship rolls of the 

country. The recommendations of this 

Commission for issuance of multipurpose 

identity cards to all Indian 

citizens be made mandatory for all Indian 

residents in the North East on a highpriority 

basis and the Citizenship Act 

should be reviewed to plug the loopholes 

which enable illegal settlers to become 

‘virtual’ citizens in a short span of time, 

using a network of touts, politicians and 

officials. 

(vii) A National Immigration Council be set up 

under law to examine and report on a range 

of issues including Work Permits for legal 

migrants, Identity Cards for all residents 

and the enactment of a National Migration 

Law and a National Refugee Law, review of 

the Citizenship Act, the Illegal Migrants 

Determination by Tribunal Act and the 

Foreigners Act. 

(viii) Local communities be involved in the 

monitoring of our borders, in association 

with the local police and the Border Security 

Force. 


Specific Statewise Recommendations 

9.24 In addition to the above, some specific 

reforms are recommended by the 

Commission in regard to individual States in 

the North Eastern region of India. 

9.25 Nagaland: The case of Nagaland is quite 

different from the position of other North 

Eastern States in view of the provisions of 

article 371A of the Constitution inserted by 

the Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) 

Act, 1962 and the Nagaland Tribe, Area, 

Range and Village Council Act, 1966. Article 

371A specifically provides that no Act of 

Parliament in respect of (i) religious or 

social practices of the Nagas, (ii) Naga 

customary law and procedure, (iii) 

administration of civil and criminal justice 

involving decisions according to Naga 

customary law; and (iv) ownership and 

transfer of land and its resources shall apply 

to the State unless the Legislative Assembly 

by a resolution so decides. In addition, the 

Governor of Nagaland has special powers 

to act with regard to internal disturbances, 

powers which are virtually 

unchallengeable. The Nagaland Tribe, Area, 

Range and Village Council Act, 1966 

provides for the creation of a tribal council 

for each tribe, an Area Council for Kohima 

and Dimapur, a Range Council where there 

is a recognized range in the Mokukchung 

and Kohima Districts and Village Councils 

for one or more villages in Kohima and 

Mokukchung, wherever they may be 

deemed necessary by the Deputy 

Commissioner. The Village Development 

Board scheme was started in 1970s to enable 

village councils to function effectively and 

with autonomy. The Village Development 

Boards are now receiving central funds and 

about 1000 village development boards are 

functioning with assets totaling about 

twenty crores of rupees. The Commission 

elicited views of the State Government and 

the general public as to how a long term 

settlement of the political issues of the Naga 

leadership could be arrived at and as to how 

much autonomy could be given to the local 

communities to promote self-governance 

and a sense of ownership. The Commission 

notices the efforts being made by the 

Government to arrive at a political solution. 

It is to be hoped that this process would 

contribute to peace and stability. 


The Commission recommends that in Nagaland - 

(1) Naga Councils be replaced by elected 

representatives of various Naga society 

groups with an intermediary tier at the 

district level. 

(2) Village Development Boards be less 

dependent on State and receive more 

Centrally-sponsored funds. 

9.26 Assam: The division of the composite State 

of Assam led to the drawing of new 

boundaries. The North Cachar hills subdivision 

of the United Mikir and Cachar 

Hills District was upgraded to a district in 

1970. The Mikir Hills District section was 

renamed as Karbi Anglong in 1976. Both 

the districts have Autonomous Councils. 

For each autonomous district, the Sixth 

Schedule provides for a District Council 

consisting of not more than 30 members for 

a term of five years. The Governor 

nominates not more than four members to 

the Council while the others are elected on 

the basis of adult suffrage. The Chief 

Executive Member (CEM), the chairman 

and the deputy chairman (equivalent to 

Speaker and the deputy Speaker) are elected 

from among the Members and the CEM 

selects the other executive members. 

9.27 There are different internal rules for 

different Autonomous District Councils. In 

some Councils like Mara in Mizoram, the 

electorate are eligible adults and in certain 

others like Karbi Anglong right to access to 

traditional lands and length of stay in the 

region are regarded as qualifying criteria for 

being included in the voters’ list for the 

ADCs. 

9.28 As regards Assam, the Commission 

recommends that (1) the Sixth Schedule 

should be extended to the Bodoland 

Autonomous Council with protection for 

non-tribal, non-Bodo groups, (2) other 

Autonomous Councils be upgraded to 

Auton omous Development Councils with 

more Central funds for infrastructure 

development; within the purview of the 

73rd Amendment but also using traditional 

governing systems at the village level. 

9.29 Meghalaya: In Meghalaya, the District 

Councils are dominated by the tribal 

119

communities. The major tribes of the State are Khasi, 

Jaintia and Garo. Besides District Councils, there are 

traditional ruling systems, namely, the Syiems (rajas) 

of the Khasi Hills. The Dolois of the Jaintia and the 

Nokmas of the Garos. Of these three, the Khasi 

traditional polity was regulated under a three tier 

system with the Durbar Shnong i.e., Village Council 

presided by the Rangbah Shnong (headman) at the 

base, the Durbar Hima i.e., State Assembly presided 

by the Syiem or the equivalent of a king at the apex. 

The Dolois of the Jaintia Hills and the Nokmas or 

traditional headmen of the Garos are not as well 

organized as the Syiemships. There are at present 

competing systems of authority each of which is 

seeking to serve or represent the same constituency 

and the system therefore requires streamlining as per 

the aspirations of the people. Trends towards 

militancy in the State can be discouraged through 

measures leading to self-governance. For this to 

happen, the traditional systems of governance will 

have to be included and given specific roles and 

opportunities instead of being marginalized. 

As regards Meghalaya, the Commission makes the 

following recommendations:- 

(1) A tier of village governance to be created for 

a village or a group of villages in the 

Autonomous District Councils, comprising of 

elected persons from the traditional systems 

plus from existing village councils with not 

more than 15 persons at each village unit. 

(2) At present, each of the Autonomous District 

Councils in Meghalaya consists of 30 seats. It 

is recommended that this number may be 

increased by 10 seats, i.e., to a total number of 

40 seats. Of the 10 additional seats, having 

regard to the non-representation of women 

and non-tribals, the Governor may nominate 

up to five members from these categories to 

each of the ADCs. The other five may be 

elected as follows:- 

By Syiems and Myntris, from among 

themselves to the Khasi Autonomous 

Council. 

By Dolois from among themselves to the 

Jaintia Autonomous District Council; 

and 

By Nokmas from among themselves to 

the Garo Autonomous District Council. 

9.30 Tripura: In Tripura, the Tripura Tribal Areas 

Autonomous District Councils were formed 

in 1985 and every such Council has 28 

elected members and two members 

nominated on the basis of the Chief 

Executive Member’s recommendation by 

the Governor from among the Tribals. 

As regards Tripura, the Commission makes the 


(1) The recommendations made by the 

Commission for other Autonomous Councils 

should also apply in respect of the 

Autonomous District Council(s) in Tripura. 

(2) The number of elected members in the 

Council should be increased from 28 to 32. 

(3) The number of nominated members should 

be increased to six from the current two. The 

existing non-tribal seats (currently, they have 

three elected seats) be converted to tribal 

seats. Three non-tribals may be nominated by 

the Governor and three tribal women may be 

nominated by the Chief Executive Member. 

9.31 Mizoram: In Mizoram, there are three 

Autonomous District Councils (ADCs), 

namely, the Lai, Mara and Chakma. The 

Chakma ADC has 13 elected members and 3 

nominated members. The Lai ADC has 23 

elected and 4 nominated members. The Mara 

ADC has 19 elected and 4 nominated members. 

As regards Mizoram, the Commission makes the 


(1) An intermediary elected 30-member tier be 

developed at the district level in areas not 

covered by the Sixth Schedule, i.e.,excluding 

the Chakma, Lai and Mara District 

Autonomous Councils. There would thus be 

two tiers below the State Legislature: the 

District and the Village. 

(2) Village Councils in non-Scheduled areas be 

given more administrative and judicial 

powers; two or more villages be combined to 

form one village council, given the small 

population in the State. 


(3) Consideration be given to groups seeking 

Sixth Schedule status, depending on viability 

of the demand, including size of population, 

territorial and ethnic contiguity. 

(4) Central funding as outlined in general 

recommendations be provided to the ADCs. 

(5) Nominated seats for women, non-tribals and 

Sixth Schedule tribes in non-scheduled area 

(not to exceed six over and above the size of 

the Councils, making a total of 36 members); 

current size of ADCs be increased to 30 with a 

similar provision for women and nonscheduled 

tribes. 

9.32 Manipur: Manipur has been seeking Sixth 

Schedule status for its hill areas and this 

request needs serious consideration. The 


Fig.1 Traditional musical instrument being played at a festival 

73rd and 74th Amendments are applicable 

to only those areas of Manipur which are in 

plains and these provisions are yet to be 

fully implemented. 

As regards Manipur, the Commission 

recommends that the provisions of the Sixth 

Schedule be extended to hill districts of the 

State. Also, the 73rd Amendment be 

implemented vigorously in the areas of the 

plains where, despite elections, the system 

is virtually non-existent. 

9.33 Arunachal Pradesh: Since the Government 

of Arunachal Pradesh has already 

implemented the provisions of the 

Constitution 73rd Amendment in toto, the 

Commission does not propose to make any 

recommendation in this regard. 

121

ANNEXURE II 

T.N. GODAVARMAN THIRUMULPAD 

VERSUS 

UNION OF INDIA & ORS. 

ENVIRONMENT AWARENESS FORUM 

VERSUS 

STATE OF J & K & ORS. 

Chief Justice, A S Anand and B.N. Kirpal, JJ. 

(WP (C) No. 202/95 with WP (C) No. 171/96) 

North Eastern States - Transportation of Timber 

outside the State - Not feasible - Ban on Timber 

Trade - Neither feasible nor desirable in view of 

dependence of local people- Number to be 

regulated according to sustainability 

Saw Mills to be relocated in specified industrial 

zones - industrial requirement have to be 

subordinated to maintenance of ecology and 

bonafide local needs - No fresh felling in 

Government, District Councils and Regional 

Councils - Fool proof institutional arrangements to 

be put in place under supervision of North-Eastern 

Council - Satellite office of Forest Survey of India 

to be set up at Shillong 

Disposal of felled timber - Report of High 

Powered Committee consider - Directions issued - 

Pricing of timber - existing royalty to be revised 

(Decided on 15.01.1998) 

upwardly - Licensing - Licenses given to wood 

based industries suspended - Wood based 

industries cleared by High Powered Committee to 

shift to industrialistics - complete moratorium on 

issue of new licenses for wood based industries - 

number of wood basedindustries to be determined 

on quantity of timber that can be sustainably 

harvested 

Forest Protection - Action Plan for intensive 

patrolling to be prepared by PCCF - Report to be 

submitted to Central Government - State 

Government to provide all facilities to strictly 

enforce forest protection measures - Chief 

Secretary to review the same every six month 

Scientific Management of Forest - Working 

Plans for all Forest Divisions shall be prepared by 

State Government and approved 

1 Report submitted on 31.3.2002 to the Government of India by Hon'ble Sri M.N. Venkatchaliah, former Chief Justice of India

District Regional and Village Councils working 

schemes specified 

Ecologically sensitive area - States to identify in 

consultation with ICFRE, WII, NERIST, NEHU and 

NGOs - areas to be totally excluded from 

exploitation - minimum extent to be 10% of total 

forest area in the State. 

Action against Officials - State Government’s to 

identify forest divisions where significant illegal 

felling have taken place - initiation of disciplinary/ 

criminal proceedings against guilty Timber 

Extraction - Except in private plantations - to be 

done only by State agencies Local Laws and 

Customs relating to forest - Concerned State 

Government to apply for modification of Court’s 

order. 

Arunachal Pradesh - Permit System abolished 

Proceeds from seize timber to be shade between 

State Government and Tribal Populations Wildlife 

and Biodiversity - States to ensure sufficient 

budgetary provisions Ministry of Environmental 

Forest to have liberty in issuing suitable directions 

consisting with order. 

Clarification - term ‘State Government to include 

District Councils 

Order 

Learned Attorney General submits that the 

perception of the Ministry of Environment and 

Forests is as under: 

1. It has been estimated by the HPC that 

about 1.20 lakhs cubic meters of illicitly 

felled seized timber, belonging to the State 

Governments is lying in the forests and 

depots for varying periods of time between 

1 to 2 years and is thereby getting degraded 

on account of decay and rotting of the 

wood. It is necessary to dispose it off at the 

earliest to minimise any further loss in it 

monetary value. There is, in addition, 

considerable quantity of Timber claimed by 

the private industry and local people. 

List the matter on 20th January , 1998 

before a Bench consisting of Hon’ble Dr. 

Justice A.S. Anand, Hon’ble Mr Justice B 

N Kirpal and Hon’ble Mr Justice V S 

Khare. 


In view of the approaching monsoon 

season (April 98) all such timber needs to 

be disposed off with urgency to save 

further loss in quality, as also in value, 

albeit with, proper checks and balances. 

North Eastern States 

2. Given the weak infrastructure in the 

North-eastern region, it does not seem 

feasible to transport such huge quantities 

of timber for auction in markets outside 

the region in a short time. Moreover, there 

would be uncertainty of the response in 

timber markets far away from the source 

of timber which has been subject to 

elements of degradation in varying 

degrees. There is also the likelihood of 

local resentment, in an otherwise sensitive 

area, it all such material is removed from 

the region without processing and value 

addition, which could be conceived as 

creating an adverse effect on the region’s 

economy. 

3. Even though the proliferation of wood-based 

industries has been the main cause of 

degradation of forests in the North-Eastern 

States, considering the extent of forests 

(64% of the geographical area) and the 

dependence of the local people on the 

forest resources in the region it is neither 

feasible, nor desirable, to ban completely 

either the timber trade or running of the 

wood based industries. However, their 

numbers and capacities were to be 

regulated qua the sustainable availability 

of forest produce and they are also 

required to be relocated in specified 

industrial zones. Moreover, the industrial 

requirements have to be subordinated to the 

maintenance of environment and ecology as 

well as bonafide local needs. 

4. There shall be no fresh fellings in the 

forests belonging to the Government, 

District and Regional Councils till the 

disposal of their existing stocks of legal 

and illegal timber. 

5. In view of the multi-dimensional issues 

impinging upon forest protection, 

123

foolproof institutional arrangements need to 

be put in place, and made functional under the 

strict supervision of the North-East Council 

(NEC). Technical back stopping in the 

forestry matter will be provided by MoEF by 

opening a separate Cell in the Ministry under 

an officer of the rank of CCF and starting a 

satellite office of the Forest Survey of India at 

Shillong. 

We appreciate the perception of MoEF as 

reflected by the learned Attorney General. 

We have heard the Amicus Curiae, the 

Learned Attorney General and learned 

counsel for North Eastern states. In view of the 

report of the High Power Committee and 

taking into account the factors which require 

an order to be made by the Court for disposal 

of the felled timber and ancillary matters 

which are lying in the North-Eastern States, 

we consider it appropriate to make the 

following order:- 

1. Disposal of timber shall commence only after 

the concerned Principal Chief Conservator of 

Forests irrevocably certifies that 

investigations of all felled timber in the State 

has been completed. 

2. As a first measure all inventories timber, 

including seized timber lying in the forest 

should be immediately transported to 

specified forest depots. 

3. All illegal/illicit timber found in 

possession of an offender or abandoned in 

the forest shall be confiscated to the State 

Government and shall be disposed off in 

accordance with the procedure to be 

adopted for disposal of Government 

timber. 

4. Out of the seized timber, logs found 

suitable for manufacture of veneer and 

plywood shall be processed by the State 

Governments within their own factories 

and by hiring such facilities. The finished 

product can be marketed freely. 

5. The remaining timber belonging to 

Government and District Councils shall 

be first offered for sale to Government 

Departments for their bonafide official 

use and the rest shall be sold in public 

auction or through sealed tenders after 

fixing floor price by an Expert Committee 

with a representative from the MoEF. 

Private timber owners whose stocks have 

been cleared by HPC shall have the option 

of selling the timber either in the auctions 

organized by the State Forest 

Departments/Forest Development 

Corporations or directly. 

6. The State Governments shall formally notify 

industrial estates for locating the wood based 

industries units in consultation with the 

Ministry of Environment and Forests. 

Timber as per inventory cleared by 

HPC may be allowed to: 

(a) be converted/utilized if the unit is 

located within the notified 

industrial estate. As the relocation in 

proposed industrial estates may take 

some time, existing units with only 

legal stocks may convert this timber, 

as one time exception, 

notwithstanding anything contained 

in para 12 hereunder, till such stocks 

last subject to the maximum period 

as per the norms prescribed by the 

High Power Committee (Vide their 

III report) or six months whichever 

is less. Any stock remaining 

thereafter shall rest in the State 

Government. However, fresh 

trees/timber will be allotted to these 

units only when they start 

functioning within the designated 

industrial estates. The territorial 

Deputy Conservator of 

Forests/Divisional Forest Officer 

shall be responsible for ensuring that 

such units process the legal stocks 

only and will closely monitor the 

various transit permits (inward and 

outward) and maintenance of the 

prescribed records. All such records 

shall be countersigned (with date) by 

an officer not less than the rank of an 

Assistant Conservator of Forests. 

(b) allowed to be sold to other units 

which are located in these industrial 



estates subject to the condition that 

such transactions are routed through 

an authority notified/ constituted by 

the Principal Chief Conservator of 

Forests. 

(c) The State Governments shall ensure 

disposal of illegal timber before 

permitting the conversion/disposal 

of legal/authorized timber available 

with the wood based industries. 

8. Transportation of auctioned timber (as well 

as legal timber) including sawn timber 

outside the North Eastern Region shall only 

be done through railways under the strict 

supervision of the Forest Department. The 

Railway Board shall give priority for 

providing rakes/wagons for such 

transportation. 

9. Modalities for transportation of 

timber/timber products and alternative 

modes in case of difficulties in 

transportation by Railways will be worked 

out by the State Governments in 

concurrence of the Ministry of 

Environment and Forests. 

10. Existing inventoried stock of timber 

originating from plantations in private and 

community holdings in the States of 

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura, Manipur 

and Nagaland may be disposed of by their 

owners under the relevant State laws and 

rules. In States where such laws and rules 

do not exist, the necessary laws and rules 

may be framed within six months. 

Pricing of Timber 

11. The State Governments shall ensure that 

timber/forest produce is supplied to 

industries including Government 

Undertakings, at full market rate. The 

existing royalty shall be reviewed and 

revised upwardly by a Committee 

constituted under the Chairmanship of 

Principal Chief Conservator of Forests 

with representatives from the concerned 

Departments and shall also include a 

representative of Ministry of 

Environment and Forest. The prices of 

Licensing 

timber for which royalty has not been 

realized in full shall also be reviewed by 

this Committee and the concerned 

industry shall be required to pay the 

revised price or the royalty (including 

surcharge, fee etc.) which ever is higher 

after deducting the part royalty already 

paid. 

12. Licensing given to all wood based 

industries shall stand suspended. 

13. Wood based industries which have been 

cleared by the High Power Committee 

without any penalty shall have the option 

to shift to industrial estates which shall be 

identified by the States within 45 days and 

developed within six months thereafter. 

14. Units which have been penalized because 

they were found to exceed normal 

recovery norms, but were within 15% of 

the said norms will have right to approach 

the High Power Committee on or before 

9th February, 1998. The High Power 

Committee shall examine all relevant 

material in particular the income tax and 

excise records for the proceeding three 

years. The High Power Committee shall 

dispose of all such applications within 45 

days thereafter and such mills may be 

granted licence if the High Power 

Committee finds that it is not against 

public interest so to do. 

15. Units which have not furnished 

details/information to the High Power 

Committee so far or which have not been 

cleared by the High Power Committee, shall 

not be granted any licence and the stocks in 

their custody if any, shall be confiscated to 

the State Government. In case of leased mills 

belonging to corporations/trusts/ 

cooperative societies owned/controlled/ 

managed by the State Government and 

where the lessees have been penalized by the 

High Power Committee, the leases shall 

stand revoked. Such mills shall, however, be 

eligible for relicencing subject to the 

condition that these mills are not leased out 

in future except to a entity fully owned by the 

Government. 

125

16. Units who do not want to shift to the 

designated industrial estates shall be allowed 

to wind up as per law. 

17. Henceforth, licenses of units shall be renewed 

annually only in those cases where no 

irregularity is detected. 

18. There shall be a complete moratorium on 

the issue of new licenses by the State 

Governments or any other authority for 

the establishment of any new wood based 

industry for the next five years after which 

the situation shall be reviewed with the 

concurrence of Ministry of Environment 

and Forests. 

19. Number of wood based industries shall 

be determined strictly within the 

quantity of timber which can be felled 

annually on sustainable basis as 

determined by the approved working 

plans from time to time. If it is found 

that units after relocation in industrial 

estate have excess capacity then their 

capacities shall be reduced pro rata to 

remain within the sustainable levels. 

Forest Protection 

20. An action plan shall be prepared by the 

Principal Chief Conservator of 

Forests/Chief Forest Officer for intensive 

patrolling and other necessary protective 

measure to be undertaken in identified 

vulnerable areas and quarterly report shall 

be submitted to the Central Government 

for approval. The approved plan together 

with the modifications, if any, shall be 

acted upon. 

21. To ensure protection of the forest wealth 

the forest officers in the North Eastern 

States may be empowered with authority 

to investigate prosecute and confiscate 

on the lines of the powers conferred on 

the forest officers in many other States in 

the country. 

22. The State Governments shall be 

responsible for providing all facilities 

including security and police force to 

strictly enforce forest protection 

measures to stop illicit felling, removal 

and utilizations of such timber. The Chief 

Secretary shall review the various matters 

concerning forest protection and 

development in his State at least once 

every six months with senior forest 

officers up to the rank of Conservator of 

Forests, Regional Chief Conservator of 

Forests of MoEF shall be invited to all 

such meetings. 

Scientific Management of Forest 

23. Working Plans for all forest divisions shall 

be prepared by the State Governments and 

got approved from the Government of India. 

Forest working shall be carried out strictly 

in accordance with the approved 

prescriptions of the working plans. The 

working plans should be prepared within a 

period of two years. During the 

interregnum the forests shall be worked 

according to an annual felling programme 

approved by the MoEF which shall be 

incorporated in the concerned working 

plan. In case a working plan is not 

prepared within this time frame, future 

fellings will remain suspended till the 

regular working plan is prepared and get 

approved. 

24. The forests under the District, Regional 

and Village Councils shall be worked in 

accordance with working schemes which 

shall specify both the programme for 

regeneration and harvesting and whose 

period shall not be less than 5 years. 

25. The maximum permissible annual yield in 

the ad interim measures suggested above, 

shall not exceed the annual harvestable 

yield determined by Ministry of 

Environment and Forests. The plantations 

schemes raised on private and community 

holdings shall be excluded from these 

requirements but shall be regulated under 

respective State rules and regulations. 

26. The States shall identify ecologically 

sensitive areas in consultation with 


leading institutions like the Indian Council 

of Forestry Research and Education 

Wildlife Institute of India, North Eastern ill 

University, North Eastern Regional 

Institute of Science and Technology, 

leading NGOs, etc. and ensure that such 

areas are totally excluded from any kind of 

exploitation: The minimum extent of such 

areas shall be 10% of the total forest area in 

the state. 

Action against officials 

27. The State Government shall identify 

within 15 days all those forest divisions 

where significant illegal felling has taken 

place and initiate disciplinary/criminal 

proceedings against those found 

responsible. The first Action Taken Report 

(ATR) in this regard shall be submitted to 

the Central Government within three 

months which shall be followed by 

quarterly reports (Qrs.) till the culmination 

of the matter. 

28. Timber extracting in forests irrespective of 

ownership except in private plantations, 

shall be carried out by a State agency only. 

The States shall endeavour to adopt 

pattern obtaining in the State of Himachal 

Pradesh as described in para 2, 5, 3 of the 

Rajamani Committee Report. 

If there be any local laws/customs relating to the 

forest in any State, the concerned State Government 

may apply to this Court for the needed modification, if 

any, with alternative proposal. 

29. The penalties levied on the wood based 

industries as ordered by the High Power 

Committee shall constitute the revolving 

fund to meet the expenses involved in 

collection and transportation of seized 

illegal timber. These can be augmented by 

utilizing the funds generated by the initial 

sales of illegal timber already available in 

the forest depots. 

30. Each State shall constitute a State level 

Expert Committee for matters concerning 

the preparation of Working plans, their 


implementation, development of 

Industrial estates, shifting of industrial 

units to these estates, rules and regulations 

regarding the grant and renewal of 

licenses to wood based industry and other 

ancillary matters, under the chairmanship 

of Principal Chief Conservator of Forests 

and with a nominee of Ministry of 

environment and Forests as one of its 

members. Any decision of this Committee 

which is not acceptable to the State 

Government shall be referred to the 

Central Government. 

31. The existing permit system in Arunachal 

Pradesh shall stand abolished. The State 

Government may provide financial assistance 

in each or kind in the form of timber only for 

the bonafide use of the local tribals alone. Such 

concessional timber shall not be bartered 

or sold. Felling of trees for such purpose 

shall be carried out only by a Government 

agency. 

32. The total sale proceeds from the sale of 

seized timber, as well as timber products 

manufactured and disposed by the State 

Government (Vide para-1) and penalties 

would be credited to the State Revenues. 

Out of this, the State shall utilize one half of 

the amount for raising forest plantations by 

local tribal population and as assistance to 

the tribals. The remaining one half of the 

total sale proceeds, after deduction of the 

expense therefrom, would go to the State 

coffers for other developmental activities in 

the State. 

33. The States shall ensure that sufficient 

budgetary provisions are made for the 

preservation of biodiversity and protection 

of wildlife. 

34. To ensure that timber/forest produce 

smuggled across the border may not be 

used as a cover for trade in illegal timber, 

it is directed that all such timber seized by 

customs/Border Security Force should not be 

redeemed in favor of individuals who are 

smuggling it but should be confiscated and 

handed over to the concerned State Forest 

Department along with offenders. Vehicles, 

127

tools and implements for prosecution under the 

relevant acts. 

35. For the proper and effective 

implementation of these orders, Ministry 

of Environment and Forests will have the 

liberty to issue suitable directions 

consistent with this order. 

36. Action taken report be filed by each State 

Government and the Ministry of 

Fig. 1 Pitcher plant in Garo hills 

Environment and Forest every two 

months. 

37. Liberty to apply for modification/ 

clarification in case of need. 

(Note: In this order the term “State Government” 

would include District Council also except where the 

context implies otherwise.) 


Autonomous districts and autonomous 

regions 

(1) Subject to the provisions of this paragraph, 

the tribal areas in each item of Parts I, II and 

IIA and in Part III of the table appended to 

paragraph 20 of this Schedule shall be an 

autonomous district. 

(2) If there are different Scheduled Tribes in an 

autonomous district, the Governor may, by 

public notification, divide the area or areas 

inhabited by them into autonomous regions. 

(3) The Governor may, by public notification, 

(a) include any area in any of the Parts of the 

said table, 

(b) exclude any area from any of the Parts of 

the said table, 

(c) create a new autonomous district, 

(d) increase the area of any autonomous 

district, 

(e) diminish the area of any autonomous 

district, 

(f) unite two or more autonomous districts 

or parts thereof so as to form one 

autonomous district, 

(g) alter the name of any autonomous 

district, 

(h) define the boundaries of any autonomous 

district: 

Provided that no order shall be made by the 

Governor under clauses (c), (d), (e) and (f) of this subparagraph 

except after consideration of the report of a 

Commission appointed under sub-paragraph (1) of 

paragraph 14 of this Schedule: 

ANNEXURE III 

SIX SCHEDULE 

[Articles 244(2) and 275(1)] 

Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the 

States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram 

Provided further that any order made by the 

Governor under this sub-paragraph may contain such 

incidental and consequential provisions (including 

any amendment of paragraph 20 and of any item in 

any of the Parts of the said table) as appear to the 

Governor to be necessary for giving effect to the 

provisions of the order. 

Constitution of District Councils and 

Regional Councils 

(1) There shall be a District Council for each 

autonomous district consisting of not more 

than thirty members, of whom not more than 

four persons shall be nominated by the 

Governor and the rest shall be elected on the 

basis of adult suffrage. 

(2) There shall be a separate Regional Council for 

each area constituted an autonomous region 

under sub-paragraph (2) of paragraph 1 of 

this Schedule. 

(3) Each District Council and each Regional 

Council shall be a body corporate by the 

name respectively of “the District Council of 

(name of district)” and “the Regional Council 

of (name of region)”, shall have perpetual 

succession and a common seal and shall by 

the said name sue and be sued. 

(4) Subject to the provisions of this Schedule, the 

administration of an autonomous district 

shall, in so far as it is not vested under this 

Schedule in any Regional Council within such 

district, be vested in the District Council for 

such district and the administration of an 

autonomous region shall be vested in the 

Regional Council for such region. 

(5) In an autonomous district with Regional 

Councils, the District Council shall have only 

such powers with respect to the areas under 

the authority of the Regional Council as may

e delegated to it by the Regional Council in 

addition to the powers conferred on it by this 

Schedule with respect to such areas. 

(6) The Governor shall make rules for the first 

constitution of District Councils and Regional 

Councils in consultation with the existing 

tribal Councils or other representative tribal 

organisations within the autonomous 

districts or regions concerned, and such rules 

shall provide for 

(a) the composition of the District Councils 

and Regional Councils and the allocation 

of seats therein; 

(b) the delimitation of territorial 

constituencies for the purpose of elections 

to those Councils; 

(c) the qualifications for voting at such 

elections and the preparation of electoral 

rolls therefor; 

(d) the qualifications for being elected at such 

elections as members of such Councils; 

(e) the term of office of members of Regional 

Councils; 

(f) any other matter relating to or connected 

with elections or nominations to such 

Councils; 

(g) the procedure and the conduct of 

business (including the power to act 

notwithstanding any vacancy) in the 

District and Regional Councils; 

(h) the appointment of officers and staff of the 

District and Regional Councils. 

(6A) The elected members of the District Council 

shall hold office for a term of five years from 

the date appointed for the first meeting of the 

Council after the general elections to the 

Council, unless the District Council is sooner 

dissolved under paragraph 16 and a 

nominated member shall hold office at the 

pleasure of the Governor: 

Provided that the said period of five years may, 

while a Proclamation of Emergency is in 

operation or if circumstances exist which, in the 

opinion of the Governor, render the holding of 

elections impracticable, be extended by the 

Governor for a period not exceeding one year 

at a time and in any case where a Proclamation 

of Emergency is in operation not extending 

beyond a period of six months after the 

Proclamation has ceased to operate: 

Provided further that a member elected to fill 

a casual vacancy shall hold office only for the 

remainder of the term of office of the member 

whom he replaces. 

(7) The District or the Regional Council may after 

its first constitution make rules with the 

approval of the Governor with regard to the 

matters specified in sub-paragraph (6) of this 

paragraph and may also make rules with like 

approval regulating 

(a) the formation of subordinate local 

Councils or Boards and their procedure 

and the conduct of their business; and 

(b) generally all matters relating to the 

transaction of business pertaining to the 

administration of the district or region, as 

the case may be: 

Provided that until rules are made by the 

District or the Regional Council under this 

sub-paragraph the rules made by the 

Governor under sub-paragraph (6) of this 

paragraph shall have effect in respect of 

elections to, the officers and staff of, and the 

procedure and the conduct of business in, 

each such Council. 

Powers of the District Councils and 

Regional Councils to make laws 

(1) The Regional Council for an autonomous 

region in respect of all areas within such 

region and the District Council for an 

autonomous district in respect of all areas 

within the district except those which are 

under the authority of Regional Councils, if 

any, within the district shall have power to 

make laws with respect to 

(a) the allotment, occupation or use, or the 

setting apart, of land, other than any land 

which is a reserved forest for the 

purposes of agriculture or grazing or for 

residential or other non-agricultural 


purposes or for any other purpose likely to 

promote the interests of the inhabitants of any 

village or town: 

Provided that nothing in such laws shall prevent 

the compulsory acquisition of any land, whether 

occupied or unoccupied, for public purposes by the 

Government of the State concerned in accordance 

with the law for the time being in force authorising 

such acquisition; 

(b) the management of any forest not being a 

reserved forest; 

(c) the use of any canal or water-course for 

the purpose of agriculture; 

(d) the regulation of the practice of jhum or 

other forms of shifting cultivation; 

(e) the establishment of village or town 

committees or councils and their powers; 

(f) any other matter relating to village or 

town administration, including village or 

town police and public health and 

sanitation; 

(g) the appointment or succession of Chiefs 

or Headmen; 

(h) the inheritance of property; 

(i) marriage and divorce; 

(j) social customs. 

(2) In this paragraph, a “reserved forest” means 

any area which is a reserved forest under the 

Assam Forest Regulation, 1891, or under any 

other law for the time being in force in the 

area in question. 

(3) All laws made under this paragraph shall be 

submitted forthwith to the Governor and, 

until assented to by him, shall have no effect. 

Administration of justice in autonomous 

districts and autonomous regions 


region in respect of areas within such region 

and the District Council for an autonomous 

district in respect of areas within the district 


other than those which are under the 

authority of the Regional Councils, if any, 

within the district may constitute village 

councils or courts for the trial of suits and 

cases between the parties all of whom belong 

to Scheduled Tribes within such areas, other 

than suits and cases to which the provisions of 

sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 5 of this 

Schedule apply, to the exclusion of any court 

in the State, and may appoint suitable persons 

to be members of such village councils or 

presiding officers of such courts, and may also 

appoint such officers as may be necessary for 

the administration of the laws made under 

paragraph 3 of this Schedule. 

(2) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, 

the Regional Council for an autonomous region 

or any court constituted in that behalf by the 

Regional Council or, if in respect of any area 

within an autonomous district there is no 

Regional Council, the District Council for such 

district, or any court constituted in that behalf by 

the District Council, shall exercise the powers of 

a court of appeal in respect of all suits and cases 

triable by a village council or court constituted 

under sub-paragraph (1) of this paragraph 

within such region or area, as the case may be, 

other than those to which the provisions of subparagraph 

(1) of paragraph 5 of this Schedule 

apply, and no other court except the High Court 

and the Supreme Court shall have jurisdiction 

over such suits or cases. 

(3) The High Court shall have and exercise such 

jurisdiction over the suits and cases to which 

the provisions of sub-paragraph (2) of this 

paragraph apply as the Governor may from 

time to time by order specify. 

(4) A Regional Council or District Council, as the 

case may be, may with the previous approval 

of the Governor make rules regulating 

(a) the constitution of village councils and 

courts and the powers to be exercised by 

them under this paragraph; 

(b) the procedure to be followed by village 

councils or courts in the trial of suits and 

cases under sub-paragraph (1) of this 

paragraph; 

(c) the procedure to be followed by the 

Regional or District Council or any court 

131

constituted by such Council in appeals 

and other proceedings under subparagraph 

(2) of this paragraph; 

(d) the enforcement of decisions and orders 

of such councils and courts; 

(e) all other ancillary matters for the carrying 

out of the provisions of sub-paragraphs 

(1) and (2) of this paragraph. 

(5) On and from such date as the President may, 

after consulting the Government of the State 

concerned, by notification appoint in this 

behalf, this paragraph shall have effect in 

relation to such autonomous district or region 

as may be specified in the notification, as if 

(i) in sub-paragraph (1), for the words 

“between the parties all of whom belong 

to Scheduled Tribes within such areas, 

other than suits and cases to which the 

provisions of sub-paragraph (1) of 

paragraph 5 of this Schedule apply,”, the 

words “not being suits and cases of the 

nature referred to in sub-paragraph (1) of 

paragraph (5) of this Schedule, which the 

Governor may specify in this behalf,” had 

been substituted; 

(ii) sub-paragraphs (2) and (3) had been 

omitted; 

(iii) in sub-paragraph (4) 

(a) for the words “A Regional Council or 

District Council, as the case may be, may 

with the previous approval of the 

Governor make rules regulating”, the 

words “the Governor may make rules 

regulating” had been substituted; and 

(b) for clause (a), the following clause had 

been substituted, namely: “(a) the 

constitution of village councils and 

courts, the powers to be exercised by 

them under this paragraph and the courts 

to which appeals from the decisions of 

village councils and courts shall lie;”; 

(c) for clause (c), the following clause had 

been substituted, namely: “(c) the transfer 

of appeals and other proceedings 

pending before the Regional or District 

Council or any court constituted by such 

Council immediately before the date 

appointed by the President under subparagraph 

(5);”; and 

(d) in clause (e), for the words, brackets and 

figures “sub-paragraphs (1) and (2)”, the 

word, brackets and figure “subparagraph 

(1)” had been substituted. 

Conferment of powers under the Code of 

Civil Procedure, 1908, and the Code of 

Criminal Procedure, 18981, on the Regional 

and District Councils and on certain courts 

and officers for the trial of certain suits, cases 

and offences 

(1) The Governor may, for the trial of suits or 

cases arising out of any law in force in any 

autonomous district or region being a law 

specified in that behalf by the Governor, or 

for the trial of offences punishable with death, 

transportation for life, or imprisonment for a 

term of not less than five years under the 

Indian Penal Code or under any other law for 

the time being applicable to such district or 

region, confer on the District Council or the 

Regional Council having authority over such 

district or region or on courts constituted by 

such District Council or on any officer 

appointed in that behalf by the Governor, 

such powers under the Code of Civil 

Procedure, 1908, or, as the case may be, the 

Code of Criminal Procedure, 18981, as he 

deems appropriate, and thereupon the said 

Council, court or officer shall try the suits, 

cases or offences in exercise of the powers so 

conferred. 

(2) The Governor may withdraw or modify any 

of the powers conferred on a District Council, 

Regional Council, court or officer under subparagraph 

(1) of this paragraph. 

(3) Save as expressly provided in this paragraph, 

the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, and the 

Code of Criminal Procedure, 18981, shall not 

apply to the trial of any suits, cases or offences 

in an autonomous district or in any 

autonomous region to which the provisions 

of this paragraph apply. 

(4) On and from the date appointed by the 

President under sub-paragraph (5) of 


paragraph 4 in relation to any autonomous 

district or autonomous region, nothing 

contained in this paragraph shall, in its 

application to that district or region, be 

deemed to authorise the Governor to confer 

on the District Council or Regional Council or 

on courts constituted by the District Council 

any of the powers referred to in subparagraph 

(1) of this paragraph. 

Powers of the District Council to 

establish primary schools, etc 

(1) The District Council for an autonomous 

district may establish, construct, or manage 

primary schools, dispensaries, markets, cattle 

pounds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road 

transport and waterways in the district and 

may, with the previous approval of the 

Governor, make regulations for the 

regulation and control thereof and, in 

particular, may prescribe the language and 

the manner in which primary education shall 

be imparted in the primary schools in the 

district. 

(2) The Governor may, with the consent of any 

District Council, entrust either conditionally 

or unconditionally to that Council or to its 

officers functions in relation to agriculture, 

animal husbandry, community projects, cooperative 

societies, social welfare, village 

planning or any other matter to which the 

executive power of the State extends. 

District and Regional Funds 

(1) There shall be constituted for each 

autonomous district, a District Fund and for 

each autonomous region, a Regional Fund to 

which shall be credited all moneys received 

respectively by the District Council for that 

district and the Regional Council for that 

region in the course of the administration of 

such district or region, as the case may be, in 

accordance with the provisions of this 

Constitution. 

(2) The Governor may make rules for the 

management of the District Fund, or, as the 

case may be, the Regional Fund and for the 

procedure to be followed in respect of 

payment of money into the said Fund, the 

withdrawal of moneys therefrom, the custody 

of moneys therein and any other matter 


connected with or ancillary to the matters 

aforesaid. 

(3) The accounts of the District Council or, as the 

case may be, the Regional Council shall be 

kept in such form as the Comptroller and 

Auditor-General of India may, with the 

approval of the President, prescribe. 

(4) The Comptroller and Auditor-General shall 

cause the accounts of the District and Regional 

Councils to be audited in such manner as he 

may think fit, and the reports of the 

Comptroller and Auditor-General relating to 

such accounts shall be submitted to the 

Governor who shall cause them to be laid 

before the Council. 

Powers to assess and collect land 

revenue and to impose taxes 


region in respect of all lands within such region 


district in respect of all lands within the district 

except those which are in the areas under the 

authority of Regional Councils, if any, within 

the district, shall have the power to assess and 

collect revenue in respect of such lands in 

accordance with the principles for the time 

being followed by the Government of the State 

in assessing lands for the purpose of land 

revenue in the State generally. 


region in respect of areas within such region 


district in respect of all areas in the district 

except those which are under the authority of 

Regional Councils, if any, within the district, 

shall have power to levy and collect taxes on 

lands and buildings, and tolls on persons 

resident within such areas. 

(3) The District Council for an autonomous 

district shall have the power to levy and 

collect all or any of the following taxes within 

such district, that is to say — 

(a) taxes on professions, trades, callings and 

employments; 

(b) taxes on animals, vehicles and boats; 

133

(c) taxes on the entry of goods into a market 

for sale therein, and tolls on passengers 

and goods carried in ferries; and 

(d) taxes for the maintenance of schools, 

dispensaries or roads. 

(4) A Regional Council or District Council, as the 

case may be, may make regulations to 

provide for the levy and collection of any of 

the taxes specified in sub-paragraphs (2) and 

(3) of this paragraph and every such 

regulation shall be submitted forthwith to the 

Governor and, until assented to by him, shall 

have no effect. 

Licences or leases for the purpose of 

prospecting for, or extraction of, 

minerals 

(1) Such share of the royalties accruing each year 

from licences or leases for the purpose of 

prospecting for, or the extraction of, minerals 

granted by the Government of the State in 

respect of any area within an autonomous 

district as may be agreed upon between the 

Government of the State and the District 

Council of such district shall be made over to 

that District Council. 

(2) If any dispute arises as to the share of such 

royalties to be made over to a District Council, 

it shall be referred to the Governor for 

determination and the amount determined by 

the Governor in his discretion shall be 

deemed to be the amount payable under subparagraph 

(1) of this paragraph to the District 

Council and the decision of the Governor 

shall be final. 

Power of District Council to make 

regulations for the control of moneylending 

and trading by non-tribals 

(1) The District Council of an autonomous 

district may make regulations for the 

regulation and control of money-lending or 

trading within the district by persons other 

than Scheduled Tribes resident in the district. 

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the 

generality of the foregoing power, such 

regulations may— 

(a) prescribe that no one except the holder of 

a licence issued in that behalf shall carry 

on the business of money-lending; 

(b) prescribe the maximum rate of interest 

which may be charged or be recovered by 

a money-lender; 

(c) provide for the maintenance of accounts 

by money-lenders and for the inspection 

of such accounts by officers appointed in 

that behalf by the District Council; 

(d) prescribe that no person who is not a 

member of the Scheduled Tribes resident 

in the district shall carry on wholesale or 

retail business in any commodity except 

under a licence issued in that behalf by 

the District Council : 

Provided that no regulations may be made under 

this paragraph unless they are passed by a majority of 

not less than three-fourths of the total membership of 

the District Council: 

Provided further that it shall not be competent 

under any such regulations to refuse the grant of a 

licence to a money-lender or a trader who has been 

carrying on business within the district since before 

the time of the making of such regulations. 

(3) All regulations made under this paragraph 

shall be submitted forthwith to the Governor 

and, until assented to by him, shall have no 

effect. 

Publication of laws, rules and 

regulations made under the Schedule. 

All laws, rules and regulations made under this 

Schedule by a District Council or a Regional Council 

shall be published forthwith in the Official Gazette of 

the State and shall on such publication have the force 

of law. 

Application of Acts of Parliament and of 

the Legislature of the State of Assam to 

autonomous districts and autonomous 

regions in the State of Assam. 

(1) Notwithstanding anything in this 

Constitution 

(a) no Act of the Legislature of the State of 



Assam in respect of any of the matters 

specified in paragraph 3 of this Schedule 

as matters with respect to which a 

District Council or a Regional Council 

may make laws, and no Act of the 

Legislature of the State of Assam 

prohibiting or restricting the 

consumption of any non-distilled 

alcoholic liquor shall apply to any 

autonomous district or autonomous 

region in that State unless in either case 

the District Council for such district or 

having jurisdiction over such region by 

public notification so directs, and the 

District Council in giving such direction 

with respect to any Act may direct that 

the Act shall in its application to such 

district or region or any part thereof have 

effect subject to such exceptions or 

modifications as it thinks fit; 

(b) the Governor may, by public notification, 

direct that any Act of Parliament or of the 

Legislature of the State of Assam to which 

the provisions of clause (a) of this subparagraph 

do not apply shall not apply to 

an autonomous district or an autonomous 

region in that State, or shall apply to such 

district or region or any part thereof 

subject to such exceptions or modifications 

as he may specify in the notification. 

(2) Any direction given under sub-paragraph (1) of 

this paragraph may be given so as to have 

retrospective effect. 

12A. Application of Acts of Parliament and of the 

Legislature of the State of Meghalaya to 

autonomous districts and autonomous regions 

in the State of Meghalaya.—Notwithstanding 

anything in this Constitution, 

(a) if any provision of a law made by a 

District or Regional Council in the State of 

Meghalaya with respect to any matter 

specified in sub-paragraph (1) of 

paragraph 3 of this Schedule or if any 

provision of any regulation made by a 

District Council or a Regional Council in 

that State under paragraph 8 or 

paragraph 10 of this Schedule, is 

repugnant to any provision of a law made 

by the Legislature of the State of 

Meghalaya with respect to that matter, 

then, the law or regulation made by the 

District Council or, as the case may be, 

the Regional Council whether made 

before or after the law made by the 

Legislature of the State of Meghalaya, 

shall, to the extent of repugnancy, be void 

and the law made by the Legislature of 

the State of Meghalaya shall prevail; 

(b) the President may, with respect to any 

Act of Parliament, by notification, direct 

that it shall not apply to an autonomous 

district or an autonomous region in the 

State of Meghalaya, or shall apply to such 

district or region or any part thereof 

subject to such exceptions or 

modifications as he may specify in the 

notification and any such direction may 

be given so as to have retrospective effect. 

12AA. Application of Acts of Parliament and of 

the Legislature of the State of Tripura to 

the autonomous districts and 

autonomous regions in the State of 

Tripura.—Notwithstanding anything in 

this Constitution,— 


Tripura in respect of any of the matters 


as matters with respect to which a District 

Council or a Regional Council may make 

laws, and no Act of the Legislature of the 

State of Tripura prohibiting or restricting 

the consumption of any non-distilled 

alcoholic liquor shall apply to the 

autonomous district or an autonomous 

region in that State unless, in either case, 

the District Council for that district or 

having jurisdiction over such region by 

public notification so directs, and the 

District Council in giving such direction 

with respect to any Act may direct that 

the Act shall, in its application to that 

district or such region or any part thereof, 

have effect subject to such exceptions or 



direct that any Act of the Legislature of 

the State of Tripura to which the 

provisions of clause (a) of this subparagraph 

do not apply, shall not apply to 

the autonomous district or any 

autonomous region in that State, or shall 

apply to that district or such region, or 

any part thereof, subject to such 

exceptions or modifications, as he may 

135

specify in the notification; 

(c) the President may, with respect to any 


that it shall not apply to the autonomous 


State of Tripura, or shall apply to such 

district or region or any part thereof, 




be given so as to have retrospective effect. 

12B. Application of Acts of Parliament and of the 

Legislature of the State of Mizoram to 

autonomous districts and autonomous regions 

in the State of Mizoram.—Notwithstanding 

anything in this Constitution, 


Mizoram in respect of any of the matters 


as matters with respect to which a District 

Council or a Regional Council may make 

laws, and no Act of the Legislature of the 

State of Mizoram prohibiting or 

restricting the consumption of any nondistilled 

alcoholic liquor shall apply to 

any autonomous district or autonomous 

region in that State unless, in either case, 

the District Council for such district or 

having jurisdiction over such region, by 

public notification, so directs, and the 

District Council, in giving such direction 

with respect to any Act, may direct that 

the Act shall, in its application to such 

district or region or any part thereof, have 

effect subject to such exceptions or 



direct that any Act of the Legislature of 

the State of Mizoram to which the 

provisions of clause (a) of this subparagraph 

do not apply, shall not apply 

to an autonomous district or an 

autonomous region in that State, or shall 

apply to such district or region, or any 

part thereof, subject to such exceptions or 

modifications, as he may specify in the 

notification; 

(c) the President may, with respect to any 


that it shall not apply to an autonomous 


State of Mizoram, or shall apply to such 

district or region or any part thereof, 




be given so as to have retrospective 

effect. 

Estimated receipts and expenditure 

pertaining to autonomous districts to be 

shown separately in the annual 

financial statement. 

The estimated receipts and expenditure pertaining to 

an autonomous district which are to be credited to, or 

is to be made from, the Consolidated Fund of the State 

shall be first placed before the District Council for 

discussion and then after such discussion be shown 

separately in the annual financial statement of the 

State to be laid before the Legislature of the State 

under article 202. 

Appointment of Commission to inquire 

into and report on the administration of 


regions 

(1) The Governor may at any time appoint a 

Commission to examine and report on any 

matter specified by him relating to the 

administration of the autonomous districts 

and autonomous regions in the State, 

including matters specified in clauses (c), (d), 

(e) and (f) of sub-paragraph (3) of paragraph 1 

of this Schedule, or may appoint a 

Commission to inquire into and report from 

time to time on the administration of 


regions in the State generally and in particular 

on— 

(a) the provision of educational and medical 

facilities and communications in such 

districts and regions; 

(b) the need for any new or special 

legislation in respect of such districts and 

regions; and 


(c) the administration of the laws, rules and 

regulations made by the District and 

Regional Councils; 

and define the procedure to be followed 

by such Commission. 

(2) The report of every such Commission with 

the recommendations of the Governor with 

respect thereto shall be laid before the 

Legislature of the State by the Minister 

concerned together with an explanatory 

memorandum regarding the action proposed 

to be taken thereon by the Government of the 

State. 

(3) In allocating the business of the Government 

of the State among his Ministers the Governor 

may place one of his Ministers specially in 

charge of the welfare of the autonomous 

districts and autonomous regions in the State. 

Annulment or suspension of acts and 

resolutions of District and Regional 

Councils 

(1) If at any time the Governor is satisfied that an 

act or resolution of a District or a Regional 

Council is likely to endanger the safety of 

India or is likely to be prejudicial to public 

order, he may annul or suspend such act or 

resolution and take such steps as he may 

consider necessary (including the suspension 

of the Council and the assumption to himself 

of all or any of the powers vested in or 

exercisable by the Council) to prevent the 

commission or continuance of such act, or the 

giving of effect to such resolution. 

(2) Any order made by the Governor under subparagraph 

(1) of this paragraph together with 

the reasons therefor shall be laid before the 

Legislature of the State as soon as possible 

and the order shall, unless revoked by the 

Legislature of the State, continue in force for a 

period of twelve months from the date on 

which it was so made: 

Provided that if and so often as a resolution 

approving the continuance in force of such 

order is passed by the Legislature of the State, 

the order shall unless cancelled by the 

Governor continue in force for a further 

period of twelve months from the date on 

which under this paragraph it would 

otherwise have ceased to operate. 


Dissolution of a District or a 

Regional Council 

(1) The Governor may on the recommendation of 

a Commission appointed under paragraph 14 

of this Schedule by public notification order 

the dissolution of a District or a Regional 

Council, and 

(a) direct that a fresh general election shall be 

held immediately for the reconstitution 

of the Council, or 

(b) subject to the previous approval of the 

Legislature of the State assume the 

administration of the area under the 

authority of such Council himself or place 

the administration of such area under the 

Commission appointed under the said 

paragraph or any other body considered 

suitable by him for a period not 

exceeding twelve months: 

Provided that when an order under clause (a) of this 

paragraph has been made, the Governor may take the 

action referred to in clause (b) of this paragraph with 

regard to the administration of the area in question 

pending the reconstitution of the Council on fresh 

general election: 

Provided further that no action shall be taken under 

clause (b) of this paragraph without giving the District 

or the Regional Council, as the case may be, an 

opportunity of placing its views before the Legislature 

of the State. 

(2) If at any time the Governor is satisfied that a 

situation has arisen in which the 

administration of an autonomous district or 

region cannot be carried on in accordance 

with the provisions of this Schedule, he may, 

by public notification, assume to himself all or 

any of the functions or powers vested in or 

exercisable by the District Council or, as the 

case may be, the Regional Council and 

declare that such functions or powers shall be 

exercisable by such person or authority as he 

may specify in this behalf, for a period not 

exceeding six months: 

Provided that the Governor may by a further order 

or orders extend the operation of the initial order 

by a period not exceeding six months on each 

occasion. 

137

(3) Every order made under sub-paragraph (2) of 

this paragraph with the reasons therefor shall 

be laid before the Legislature of the State and 

shall cease to operate at the expiration of 

thirty days from the date on which the State 

Legislature first sits after the issue of the 

order, unless, before the expiry of that period 

it has been approved by that State 

Legislature. 

Exclusion of areas from autonomous 

districts in forming constituencies in 

such districts. 

For the purposes of elections to the Legislative 

Assembly of Assam or Meghalaya or Tripura or 

Mizoram, the Governor may by order declare that any 

area within an autonomous district in the State of 

Assam or Meghalaya or Tripura or Mizoram, as the 

case may be, shall not form part of any constituency to 

fill a seat or seats in the Assembly reserved for any 

such district but shall form part of a constituency to 

fill a seat or seats in the Assembly not so reserved to 

be specified in the order. 

Transitional provisions 

(1) As soon as possible after the commencement 

of this Constitution the Governor shall take 

steps for the constitution of a District Council 

for each autonomous district in the State 

under this Schedule and, until a District 

Council is so constituted for an autonomous 

district, the administration of such district 

shall be vested in the Governor and the 

following provisions shall apply to the 

administration of the areas within such 

district instead of the foregoing provisions of 

this Schedule, namely: 

(a) no Act of Parliament or of the Legislature 

of the State shall apply to any such area 

unless the Governor by public 

notification so directs; and the Governor 

in giving such a direction with respect to 

any Act may direct that the Act shall, in 

its application to the area or to any 

specified part thereof, have effect subject 

to such exceptions or modifications as he 

thinks fit; 

(b) the Governor may make regulations for 

the peace and good government of any 

such area and any regulations so made 

may repeal or amend any Act of 

Parliament or of the Legislature of the 

State or any existing law which is for the 

time being applicable to such area. 

(2) Any direction given by the Governor under 

clause (a) of sub-paragraph (1) of this 

paragraph may be given so as to have 

retrospective effect. 

(3) All regulations made under clause (b) of subparagraph 

(1) of this paragraph shall be 

submitted forthwith to the President and, 

until assented to by him, shall have no effect. 

Tribal areas 

(1) The areas specified in Parts I, II, IIA and III of 

the table below shall respectively be the tribal 

areas within the State of Assam, the State of 

Meghalaya, the State of Tripura and the State 

of Mizoram. 

(2) Any reference in Part I, Part II or Part III of the 

table below to any district shall be construed as 

a reference to the territories comprised within 

the autonomous district of that name existing 

immediately before the day appointed under 

clause (b) of section 2 of the North-Eastern 

Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971: 

Provided that for the purposes of clauses (e) and (f) 

of sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 3, paragraph 4, 

paragraph 5, paragraph 6, sub-paragraph (2), clauses 

(a), (b) and (d) of sub-paragraph 

(3) and sub-paragraph (4) of paragraph 8 and 

clause (d) of sub-paragraph (2) of paragraph 

10 of this Schedule, no part of the area 

comprised within the municipality of 

Shillong shall be deemed to be within the 

Khasi Hills District. 

(4) The reference in Part IIA in the table below to 

the "Tripura Tribal Areas District" shall be 

construed as a reference to the territory 

comprising the tribal areas specified in the 

First Schedule to the Tripura Tribal Areas 

Autonomous District Council Act, 1979. 

TABLE 

PART I 

1. The North Cachar Hills District. 

2. The Karbi Anglong District. 



3. The Bodoland Territorial 

Areas District. 

PART II 

1. Khasi Hills District. 

2. Jaintia Hills District. 

3. The Garo Hills District. 

PART IIA 

Tripura Tribal Areas District 

PART III 

1. The Chakma District. 

2. The Mara District. 

3. The Lai District. 

20A. Dissolution of the Mizo District Council 

(1) Notwithstanding anything in this Schedule, 

the District Council of the Mizo District 

existing immediately before the prescribed 

date (hereinafter referred to as the Mizo 

District Council) shall stand dissolved and 

cease to exist. 

(2) The Administrator of the Union territory of 

Mizoram may, by one or more orders, 

provide for all or any of the following 

matters, namely:— 

(a) the transfer, in whole or in part, of the 

assets, rights and liabilities of the Mizo 

District Council (including the rights and 

liabilities under any contract made by it) to 

the Union or to any other authority; 

(b) the substitution of the Union or any other 

authority for the Mizo District Council, or 

the addition of the Union or any other 

authority, as a party to any legal 

proceedings to which the Mizo District 

Council is a party; 

(c) the transfer or re-employment of any 

employees of the Mizo District Council to 

or by the Union or any other authority, 

the terms and conditions of service 

applicable to such employees after such 

transfer or re-employment; 

(d) the continuance of any laws, made by the 

Mizo District Council and in force 

immediately before its dissolution, 

subject to such adaptations and 

modifications, whether by way of repeal 

or amendment, as the Administrator may 

make in this behalf, until such laws are 

altered, repealed or amended by a 

competent Legislature or other 

competent authority; 

(e) such incidental, consequential and 

supplementary matters as the 

Administrator considers necessary. 

Explanation.—In this paragraph and in 

paragraph 20B of this Schedule, the 

expression "prescribed date" means the 

date on which the Legislative Assembly 

of the Union territory of Mizoram is duly 

constituted under and in accordance with 

the provisions of the Government of 

Union Territories Act, 1963. 

20B. Autonomous regions in the Union territory of 

Mizoram to be autonomous districts and 

transitory provisions consequent thereto 

(1) Notwithstanding anything in this Schedule, 

(a) every autonomous region existing 

immediately before the prescribed date in 

the Union territory of Mizoram shall, on 

and from that date, be an autonomous 

district in that Union territory (hereafter 

referred to as the corresponding new 

district) and the Administrator thereof 

may, by one or more orders, direct that 

such consequential amendments as are 

necessary to give effect to the provisions 

of this clause shall be made in paragraph 

20 of this Schedule (including Part III of 

the table appended to that paragraph) 

and thereupon the said paragraph and 

the said Part III shall be deemed to have 

been amended accordingly; 

(b) every Regional Council of an autonomous 

region in the Union territory of Mizoram 

existing immediately before the 

prescribed date (hereafter referred to as 

the existing Regional Council) shall, on 

and from that date and until a District 

Council is duly constituted for the 

corresponding new district, be deemed to 

be the District Council of that district 

(hereafter referred to as the corresponding 

new District Council). 

139

(2) Every member whether elected or nominated 

of an existing Regional Council shall be 

deemed to have been elected or, as the case 

may be, nominated to the corresponding new 

District Council and shall hold office until a 

District Council is duly constituted for the 

corresponding new district under this 

Schedule. 

(3) Until rules are made under sub-paragraph (7) 

of paragraph 2 and sub-paragraph (4) of 

paragraph 4 of this Schedule by the 

corresponding new District Council, the rules 

made under the said provisions by the 

existing Regional Council and in force 

immediately before the prescribed date shall 

have effect in relation to the corresponding 

new District Council subject to such 

adaptations and modifications as may be 

made therein by the Administrator of the 

Union territory of Mizoram. 

(4) The Administrator of the Union territory of 

Mizoram may, by one or more orders, 

provide for all or any of the following 

matters, namely:— 

(a) the transfer in whole or in part of the assets, 

rights and liabilities of the existing Regional 

Council (including the rights and liabilities 

under any contract made by it) to the 

corresponding new District Council; 

(b) the substitution of the corresponding new 

District Council for the existing Regional 

Council as a party to the legal 

proceedings to which the existing 

Regional Council is a party; 

(c) the transfer or re-employment of any 

employees of the existing Regional 

Council to or by the corresponding new 

District Council, the terms and conditions 

of service applicable to such employees 

after such transfer or re-employment; 

(d) the continuance of any laws made by the 

existing Regional Council and in force 

immediately before the prescribed date, 

subject to such adaptations and 

modifications, whether by way of repeal 

or amendment, as the Administrator may 

make in this behalf until such laws are 

altered, repealed or amended by a 

competent Legislature or other 

competent authority; 

(e) such incidental, consequential and 

supplementary matters as the 

Administrator considers necessary. 

20C. Interpretation.-Subject to any provision made 

in this behalf, the provisions of this Schedule 

shall, in their application to the Union 

territory of Mizoram, have effect- 

(1) as if references to the Governor and 

Government of the State were references to 

the Administrator of the Union territory 

appointed under article 239, references to 

State (except in the expression "Government 

of the State") were references to the Union 

territory of Mizoram and references to the 

State Legislature were references to the 

Legislative Assembly of the Union territory of 

Mizoram; 

(2) as if 

(a) in sub-paragraph (5) of paragraph 4, the 

provision for consultation with the 

Government of the State concerned had 

been omitted; 

(b) in sub-paragraph (2) of paragraph 6, for 

the words "to which the executive power 

of the State extends", the words "with 

respect to which the Legislative 

Assembly of the Union territory of 

Mizoram has power to make laws" had 

been substituted; 

(c) in paragraph 13, the words and figures 

"under article 202" had been omitted. 

Amendment of the Schedule 

(1) Parliament may from time to time by law 

amend by way of addition, variation or repeal 

any of the provisions of this Schedule and, 

when the Schedule is so amended, any 

reference to this Schedule in this Constitution 


shall be construed as a reference to such 

Schedule as so amended. 

(2) No such law as is mentioned in subparagraph 

(1) of this paragraph shall be 

deemed to be an amendment of this 

Constitution for the purposes of artic 

Endnotes 

[1] Paragraph 1 has been amended in its 

application to the State of Assam by the Sixth 

Schedule to the Constitution (Amendment) 

Act, 2003 (44 of 2003),s. 2 , so as to insert the 

following provison after sub-paragraph (2), 

namely: "Provided that nothing in this subparagraph 

shall apply to the Bodoland 

Territorial Areas District."\ 


application to the State of Assam by s. 2,ibid., 

so as to insert the following proviso after subparagraph 

(1), namely: - "Provided that the 

Bodoland Territorial Council shall consist of 

not more than forty-six members of whom 

forty shall be elected on the basis of adult 

suffrage, of whom thirty shall be reserved for 

the Scheduled Tribes, five for non-tribal 

communities, five open for all communities 

and the remaining six shall be nominated by 

the Governor having same rights and 

privileges as other members, including voting 

rights, from amongst the un-represented 

communities of the Bodoland Territorial 

Areas District, of which at least two shall be 

women." *Paragraph 2 has been amended in 

its application to the State of Assam by the 

Sixth Schedule to the Constitution 

(Amendment) Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), s.2 so as 

to insert the following proviso after subparagraph 

(3), namely,- "Provided that the 

District Council constituted for the North 

Cachar Hills District shall be called as the 

North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council and 

the District Council constituted for the Karbi 

Anglong District shall be called as the Karbi 

Anglong Autonomous Council." *Paragraph 2 

has been amended in its application to the 

State of Assam by the Sixth Schedule to the 

Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003 (44 of 

2003)s. 2 , so as to insert the following proviso 

after the proviso in sub-paragraph (3), 

namely: - "Provided further that the District 

Council constituted for the Bodoland 

Territorial Areas District shall be called the 

Bodoland Territorial Council." 





Act, 2003 (44 of 2003), s. 2 , so as to substitute 

sub-paragraph (3) as under, "(3) Save as 

otherwise provided in sub-paragraph (2) of 

paragraph 3A or sub-paragraph (2) of 

paragraph 3B, all laws made under this 

paragraph or sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 

3A or sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 3B shall 

be submitted forthwith to the Governor and, 

until assented to by him, shall have no effect." 

After paragraph 3, the following paragraph has 

been inserted in its application to the State of Assam 

by the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution 

(Amendment) Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), s.2 , namely: 

"3A. Additional powers of the North Cachar Hills 

Autonomous Council and the Karbi Anglong 

Autonomous Council to make laws.-(1) 

Without prejudice to the provisions of 

paragraph 3, the North Cachar Hills 


Autonomous Council within their respective 

districts, shall have power to make laws with 

respect to- 

(a) industries, subject to the provisions of 

entries 7 and 52 of List I of the Seventh 

Schedule; 

(b) communications, that is to say, roads, 

bridges, ferries and other means of 

communication not specified in List I of 

the Seventh Schedule; municipal 

tramways, ropeways, inland waterways 

and traffic thereon subject to the 

provisions of List I and List III of the 

Seventh Schedule with regard to such 

waterways; vehicles other than 

mechanically propelled vehicles; 

(c) preservation, protection and 

improvement of stock and prevention of 

animal diseases; veterinary training and 

practice; cattle pounds; 

(d) primary and secondary education; 

(e) agriculture, including agricultural 

education and research, protection 

against pests and prevention of plant 

diseases; 

141

(f) fisheries; 

(g) water, that is to say, water supplies, 

irrigation and canals, drainage and 

embankments, water storage and water 

power subject to the provisions of entry 

56 of List I of the Seventh Schedule; 

(h) social security and social insurance; 

employment and unemployment; 

(i) flood control schemes for protection of 

villages, paddy fields, markets, towns, 

etc. (not of technical nature); 

(j) theatre and dramatic performances, 

cinemas subject to the provisions of entry 

60 of List I of the Seventh Schedule; sports 

entertainments and amusements; 

(k) public health and sanitation, hospitals 

and dispensaries; 

(l) minor irrigation; 

(m) trade and commerce in, and the 

production supply and distribution of, 

food stuffs, cattle fodder, raw cotton and 

raw jute; 

(n) libraries, museums and other similar 

Institutions controlled or financed by the 

State; ancient and historical monuments 

and records other than those declared by 

or under any law made by Parliament to 

be of national importance; and 

(o) alienation of land. 

(2) All laws made by the North Cachar Hills 


Autonomous Council under paragraph 3 or 

under this paragraph shall, in so far as they 

relate to matters specified in List III of the 

Seventh Schedule, be submitted forthwith to 

the Governor who shall reserve the same for 

the consideration of the President. 

(3) When a law is reserved for the consideration 

of the President, the President shall declare 

either that he assents to the said law or that he 

withholds assent therefrom: 

Provided that the President may direct the 

Governor to return the law to the North Cachar Hills 

Autonomous Council or the Karbi Anglong 

Autonomous Council, as the case may be, together 

with a message requesting that the said Council will 

reconsider the law or any specified provisions thereof 

and, in particular, will, consider the desirability of 

introducing any such amendments as he may 

recommend in his message and, when the law is so 

returned, the said Council shall consider the law 

accordingly within a period of six months from the 

date of receipt of such message and, if the law is again 

passed by the said Council with or without 

amendment it shall be presented again to the 

President for his consideration.". 

*After paragraph 3A, the following paragraph has 



(Amendment) Act, 2003, (44 0f 2003), s. 2 , namely: - 

"3B. Additional powers of the Bodoland 

Territorial Council to make laws.-(1) Without 

prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 3, 

the Bodoland Territorial Council within its 

areas shall have power to make laws with 

respect to :- (i) Agriculture, including 

agricultural education and research, 

protection against pests and prevention of 

plant diseases; (ii) Animal husbandry and 

veterinary, that is to say, preservation, 

protection and improvement of stock and 

prevention of animal diseases, veterinary 

training and practice, cattle pounds; (iii) Cooperation; 

(iv) Cultural affairs; (v) Education, 

that is to say, primary education, higher 

secondary including vocational training, 

adult education, college education (general); 

(vi) Fisheries; (vii) Flood control for 

protection of village, paddy fields, markets 

and towns (not of technical nature); (viii) 

Food and civil supply; (ix) Forests (other than 

reserved forests); (x) Handloom and textile; 

(xi) Health and family welfare, (xii) 

Intoxicating liquors, opium and derivatives, 

subject to the provisions of entry 84 of List I of 

the Seventh Schedule; (xiii) Irrigation; (xiv) 

Labour and employment; (xv) Land and 

Revenue; (xvi) Library services (financed and 

controlled by the State Government); (xvii) 

Lotteries (subject to the provisions of entry 40 

of List I of the Seventh Schedule), theatres, 

dramatic performances and cinemas (subject 

to the provisions of entry 60 of List I of the 

Seventh Schedule); (xviii) Markets and fairs; 

(xix) Municipal corporation, improvement 

trust, district boards and other local 

authorities; (xx) Museum and archaeology 

institutions controlled or financed by the 


State, ancient and historical monuments and records 

other than those declared by or under any law made 

by Parliament to be of national importance; (xxi) 

Panchayat and rural development; (xxii) Planning and 

development; (xxiii) Printing and stationery; (xxiv) 

Pubic health engineering; (xxv) Public works 

department; (xxvi) Publicity and public relations; 

(xxvii) Registration of births and deaths; (xxviii) Relief 

and rehabilitation; (xxix) Sericulture; (xxx) Small, 

cottage and rural industry subject to the provisions of 

entries 7 and 52 of List I of the Seventh Schedule; 

(xxxi) Social Welfare; (xxxii) Soil conservation; (xxxiii) 

Sports and youth welfare; (xxxiv) Statistics; (xxxv) 

Tourism; (xxxvi) Transport (roads, bridges, ferries 

and other means of communications not specified in 

List I of the Seventh Schedule, municipal tramways, 

ropeways, inland waterways and traffic thereon 

subject to the provision of List I and List III of the 

Seventh Schedule with regard to such waterways, 

vehicles other than mechanically propelled vehicles); 

(xxxvii) Tribal research institute controlled and 

financed by the State Government; (xxxviii) Urban 

development-town and country planning; (xxxix) 

Weights and measures subject to the provisions of 

entry 50 of List I of the Seventh Schedule; and (xl) 

Welfare of plain tribes and backward classes: 

Provided that nothing in such laws shall-- 

(a) extinguish or modify the existing rights 

and privileges of any citizen in respect of 

his land at the date of commencement of 

this Act; and 

(b) disallow and citizen from acquiring land 

either by way of inheritance, allotment, 

settlement or by any other way of transfer 

if such citizen is otherwise eligible for 

such acquisition of land within the 

Bodoland Territorial Areas District. 

(2) All laws made under paragraph 3 or under 

this paragraph shall in so far as they relate to 

matters specified in List III of the Seventh 

Schedule, be submitted forthwith to the 

Governor who shall reserve the same for the 

consideration of the President. 






Governor to return the law to the Bodoland Territorial 

Council, together with the message requesting that 


the said Council will reconsider the law or any 

specified provisions thereof and, in particular, will 

consider the desirability of introducing any such 

amendments as he may recommend in his message 

and, when the law is so returned, the said Council 

shall consider the law accordingly within a period of 

six month from the date of receipt of such message 

and, if the law is again passéd by the said Council 

with or without amendments it shall be presented 

again to the President for his consideration." 




Act, 2003 (44 of 2003), s. 2 , so as to insert the 

following sub-paragraph after sub-paragraph 

(5), namely: - 

"(6) Nothing in this paragraph shall apply to the 

Bodoland Territorial Council constituted 

under the proviso to sub-paragraph (3) of 

paragraph 2 of this Schedule." 

[5] See now the Code of Criminal Procedure, 

1973 (Act 2 of 1974). 


application to the States of Tripura and 

Mizoram by the Sixth Schedule to the 


1988), s.2, so as to insert the following subparagraph 

after sub-paragraph (2), namely:- 

"(3) The Governor may, by order, direct that the 

share of royalties to be made over to a District 

Council under this paragraph shall be made 

over to that Council within a period of one 

year from the date of any agreement under 

sub-paragraph (1) or, as the case may be, of 

any determination under sub-paragraph (2).". 





1988), s.2, as under- 

(a) in the heading, the words "by non-tribals" 

shall be omitted; 

(b) in sub-paragraph (1), the words "other 

than Scheduled Tribes" shall be omitted; 

(c) in sub-paragraph (2), for clause (d), the 

following clause shall be substituted, 

namely:- 

143

(d) prescribe that no person resident in the 

district shall carry on any trade, whether 

wholesale or retail, except under a licence 

issued in that behalf by the District 

Council.". 

*Paragraph 10 has been amended in its application 

to the State of Assam by the Sixth Schedule to the 

Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003 (44 of 2003), s. 2 

, so as to insert the following sub-paragraph after subparagraph 

(3), namely: 





[7] Paragraph 12 has been amended to its 



Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), s.2, as under,- 

'in paragraph 12, in sub-paragraph (1), for the 

words and figure "matters specified in paragraph 3 of 

this Schedule", the words, figures and letter "matters 

specified in paragraph 3 or paragraph 3A of this 

Schedule" shall be substituted.'; 

Paragraph 12 has been amended in its application 


Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003 (44 of 2003), s. 2, 

as under, - 

in paragraph 12, in sub-paragraph (1), in clause (a), 

for the words, figures and letter "matters specified in 

paragraph 3 or paragraph 3A of this Schedule", the 

words, figures and letter "matters specified in 

paragraph 3 or paragraph 3A or paragraph 3B of this 

Schedule" shall be substituted. 




Act, 1995 (42 of 1995) , s. 2, as under,- 

In paragraph 14 , in sub-paragraph (2), the words 

"with the recommendations of the Governor with 

respect thereto" shall be omitted. 





1988), s. 2, as under,- 

(a) in the opening paragraph, for the words 

"by the Legislature of the State", the 

words "by him" shall be substituted; 

(b) the proviso shall be omitted. 



Mizoram by s. 2, ibid., as under,- 

(a) in sub-paragraph (1), the words "subject to 

the previous approval of the Legislature of 

the State" occurring in clause (b), and the 

second proviso shall be omitted; 

(b) for sub-paragraph (3), the following subgraph 

shall be substituted, namely: 

"(3) Every order made under sub-paragraph (1) or 

sub-paragraph (2) of this paragraph, along 

with the reasons therefor shall be laid before 

the Legislature of the State."'. 





following proviso, namely: - 

"Provided that nothing in this paragraph shall apply 

to the Bodoland Territorial Areas District." 


application to the State of Assam by s. 2 , ibid., 

so as to insert the following sub-paragraph 

after sub-paragraph (3), namely: - 

"(4) As soon as possible after the commencement 

of this Act, and Interim Executive Council for 

Bodoland Territorial Areas District in Assam 

shall be formed by the Governor from 

amongst leaders of the Bodo movement, 

including the signatories to the 

Memorandum of Settlement, and shall 

provide adequate representation to the nontribal 

communities in that area: 

Provided that Interim Council shall be for a period 

of six months during which endeavour to hold the 

election to the Council shall be made. 

Explanation.---For the purposes of this subparagraph, 

the expression "Memorandum of 

Settlement" means the Memorandum signed on 

the 10th day of February, 2003 between 

Government of India, Government of Assam and 

Bodo Liberation Tigres." 


[13] After paragraph 20B, the following paragraph 

has been inserted in its application to the State 

of Assam by the Sixth Schedule to the 


1995), s. 2, namely:- 

"20BA. Exercise of discretionary powers by the 

Governor in the discharge of his 

functions.-The Governor in the discharge 

of his functions under sub-paragraphs (2) 

and (3) of paragraph 1, sub-paragraphs 

(1), (6), sub-paragraph (6A) excluding the 

first proviso and sub-paragraph (7) of 

paragraph 2, sub-paragraph (3) of 


paragraph 4, paragraph 5, sub-paragraph 

(1) of paragraph 6, sub-paragraph (2) of 






paragraph 15 and sub-paragraphs (1) and 

(2) of paragraph 16 of this Schedule, shall, 

after consulting the Council of Ministers 

and the North Cachar Hills Autonomous 

Council or the Karbi Anglong 

Autonomous Council, as the case may be, 

take such action as he considers necessary 

in his discretion." 

[14] After paragraph 20B, the following 

paragraph has been inserted in its 


Mizoram, by the Sixth Schedule to the 


1988), s. 2, namely:- 

"20BB. Exercise of discretionary powers by the 


functions.-The Governor, in the discharge 



(1) and (7) of paragraph 2, sub-paragraph 




paragraph 7, sub- paragraph (3) of 





after consulting the Council of Ministers, 

and if he thinks it necessary, the District 

Council or the Regional Council 


End notes 

concerned, take such action as he 

considers necessary in his discretion." 




Act, 2003 (44 of 2003),s. 2 , so as to insert the 

following proviso after sub-paragraph (2), 

namely: "Provided that nothing in this subparagraph 

shall apply to the Bodoland 

Territorial Areas District."\ 


application to the State of Assam by s. 2,ibid., 

so as to insert the following proviso after subparagraph 

(1), namely: - "Provided that the 

Bodoland Territorial Council shall consist of 

not more than forty-six members of whom 

forty shall be elected on the basis of adult 

suffrage, of whom thirty shall be reserved for 

the Scheduled Tribes, five for non-tribal 

communities, five open for all communities 

and the remaining six shall be nominated by 

the Governor having same rights and 

privileges as other members, including voting 

rights, from amongst the un-represented 

communities of the Bodoland Territorial 

Areas District, of which at least two shall be 

women." *Paragraph 2 has been amended in 

its application to the State of Assam by the 

Sixth Schedule to the Constitution 

(Amendment) Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), s.2 so as 

to insert the following proviso after subparagraph 

(3), namely,- "Provided that the 

District Council constituted for the North 

Cachar Hills District shall be called as the 

North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council and 

the District Council constituted for the Karbi 

Anglong District shall be called as the Karbi 

Anglong Autonomous Council." *Paragraph 2 

has been amended in its application to the 

State of Assam by the Sixth Schedule to the 


2003)s. 2 , so as to insert the following proviso 

after the proviso in sub-paragraph (3), 

namely: - "Provided further that the District 

Council constituted for the Bodoland 

Territorial Areas District shall be called the 

Bodoland Territorial Council." 




145

Act, 2003 (44 of 2003), s. 2 , so as to substitute subparagraph 

(3) as under, "(3) Save as otherwise provided 

in sub-paragraph (2) of paragraph 3A or sub-paragraph 

(2) of paragraph 3B , all laws made under this 

paragraph or sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 3A or 

sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 3B shall be submitted 

forthwith to the Governor and, until assented to by him, 

shall have no effect." 

After paragraph 3, the following paragraph has 



(Amendment) Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), s.2 , namely: 

"3A. Additional powers of the North Cachar Hills 


Autonomous Council to make laws.-(1) 

Without prejudice to the provisions of 

paragraph 3, the North Cachar Hills 


Autonomous Council within their respective 

districts, shall have power to make laws with 

respect to- 

(a) industries, subject to the provisions of 

entries 7 and 52 of List I of the Seventh 

Schedule; 

(b) communications, that is to say, roads, 

bridges, ferries and other means of 

communication not specified in List I of 

the Seventh Schedule; municipal 

tramways, ropeways, inland waterways 

and traffic thereon subject to the 

provisions of List I and List III of the 

Seventh Schedule with regard to such 

waterways; vehicles other than 

mechanically propelled vehicles; 

(c) preservation, protection and improvement 

of stock and prevention of animal diseases; 

veterinary training and practice; cattle 

pounds; 

(d) primary and secondary education; 

(e) agriculture, including agricultural 

education and research, protection against 

pests and prevention of plant diseases; 

(f) fisheries; 

(g) water, that is to say, water supplies, 

irrigation and canals, drainage and 

embankments, water storage and water 

power subject to the provisions of entry 

56 of List I of the Seventh Schedule; 

(h) social security and social insurance; 

employment and unemployment; 

(i) flood control schemes for protection of 

villages, paddy fields, markets, towns, 

etc. (not of technical nature); 

(j) theatre and dramatic performances, 

cinemas subject to the provisions of entry 

60 of List I of the Seventh Schedule; sports 

entertainments and amusements; 

(k) public health and sanitation, hospitals 

and dispensaries; 

(l) minor irrigation; 

(m) trade and commerce in, and the production 

supply and distribution of, food stuffs, 

cattle fodder, raw cotton and raw jute; 

(n) libraries, museums and other similar 

Institutions controlled or financed by the 

State; ancient and historical monuments 

and records other than those declared by 

or under any law made by Parliament to 

be of national importance; and 

(o) alienation of land. 

(2) All laws made by the North Cachar Hills 


Autonomous Council under paragraph 3 or 

under this paragraph shall, in so far as they 

relate to matters specified in List III of the 

Seventh Schedule, be submitted forthwith to 

the Governor who shall reserve the same for 

the consideration of the President. 






Governor to return the law to the North Cachar Hills 

Autonomous Council or the Karbi Anglong 

Autonomous Council, as the case may be, together 

with a message requesting that the said Council will 

reconsider the law or any specified provisions thereof 

and, in particular, will, consider the desirability of 

introducing any such amendments as he may 


ecommend in his message and, when the law is so 

returned, the said Council shall consider the law 

accordingly within a period of six months from the 

date of receipt of such message and, if the law is again 

passed by the said Council with or without 

amendment it shall be presented again to the 

President for his consideration.". 

*After paragraph 3A, the following paragraph has 



(Amendment) Act, 2003, (44 0f 2003), s. 2 , namely: - 

"3B. Additional powers of the Bodoland Territorial 

Council to make laws.-(1) Without prejudice to 

the provisions of paragraph 3, the Bodoland 

Territorial Council within its areas shall have 

power to make laws with respect to :- (i) 

Agriculture, including agricultural education 

and research, protection against pests and 

prevention of plant diseases; (ii) Animal 

husbandry and veterinary, that is to say, 

preservation, protection and improvement of 

stock and prevention of animal diseases, 

veterinary training and practice, cattle pounds; 

(iii) Co-operation; (iv) Cultural affairs; (v) 

Education, that is to say, primary education, 

higher secondary including vocational 

training, adult education, college education 

(general); (vi) Fisheries; (vii) Flood control for 

protection of village, paddy fields, markets and 

towns (not of technical nature); (viii) Food and 

civil supply; (ix) Forests (other than reserved 

forests); (x) Handloom and textile; (xi) Health 

and family welfare, (xii) Intoxicating liquors, 

opium and derivatives, subject to the 

provisions of entry 84 of List I of the Seventh 

Schedule; (xiii) Irrigation; (xiv) Labour and 

employment; (xv) Land and Revenue; (xvi) 

Library services (financed and controlled by 

the State Government); (xvii) Lotteries (subject 

to the provisions of entry 40 of List I of the 

Seventh Schedule), theatres, dramatic 

performances and cinemas (subject to the 

provisions of entry 60 of List I of the Seventh 

Schedule); (xviii) Markets and fairs; (xix) 

Municipal corporation, improvement trust, 

district boards and other local authorities; (xx) 

Museum and archaeology institutions 

controlled or financed by the State, ancient and 

historical monuments and records other than 

those declared by or under any law made by 

Parliament to be of national importance; (xxi) 

Panchayat and rural development; (xxii) 

Planning and development; (xxiii) Printing and 

stationery; (xxiv) Pubic health engineering; 


(xxv) Public works department; (xxvi) Publicity 

and public relations; (xxvii) Registration of 

births and deaths; (xxviii) Relief and 

rehabilitation; (xxix) Sericulture; (xxx) Small, 

cottage and rural industry subject to the 

provisions of entries 7 and 52 of List I of the 

Seventh Schedule; (xxxi) Social Welfare; (xxxii) 

Soil conservation; (xxxiii) Sports and youth 

welfare; (xxxiv) Statistics; (xxxv) Tourism; 

(xxxvi) Transport (roads, bridges, ferries and 

other means of communications not specified 

in List I of the Seventh Schedule, municipal 

tramways, ropeways, inland waterways and 

traffic thereon subject to the provision of List I 

and List III of the Seventh Schedule with regard 

to such waterways, vehicles other than 

mechanically propelled vehicles); (xxxvii) 

Tribal research institute controlled and 

financed by the State Government; (xxxviii) 

Urban development-town and country 

planning; (xxxix) Weights and measures 

subject to the provisions of entry 50 of List I of 

the Seventh Schedule; and (xl) Welfare of plain 

tribes and backward classes: 

Provided that nothing in such laws shall-- 

(a) extinguish or modify the existing rights 

and privileges of any citizen in respect of 

his land at the date of commencement of 

this Act; and 

(b) disallow and citizen from acquiring land 

either by way of inheritance, allotment, 

settlement or by any other way of transfer 

if such citizen is otherwise eligible for 

such acquisition of land within the 

Bodoland Territorial Areas District. 

(2) All laws made under paragraph 3 or under 

this paragraph shall in so far as they relate to 

matters specified in List III of the Seventh 

Schedule, be submitted forthwith to the 

Governor who shall reserve the same for the 

consideration of the President. 






Governor to return the law to the Bodoland Territorial 

Council, together with the message requesting that 

the said Council will reconsider the law or any 

specified provisions thereof and, in particular, will 

147

consider the desirability of introducing any such 

amendments as he may recommend in his message 

and, when the law is so returned, the said Council 

shall consider the law accordingly within a period of 

six month from the date of receipt of such message 

and, if the law is again passéd by the said Council 

with or without amendments it shall be presented 

again to the President for his consideration." 





following sub-paragraph after sub-paragraph 

(5), namely: - 





[5] See now the Code of Criminal Procedure, 

1973 (Act 2 of 1974). 





1988), s.2, so as to insert the following subparagraph 

after sub-paragraph (2), namely:- 

"(3) The Governor may, by order, direct that the 

share of royalties to be made over to a District 

Council under this paragraph shall be made 

over to that Council within a period of one 

year from the date of any agreement under 

sub-paragraph (1) or, as the case may be, of 

any determination under sub-paragraph (2).". 





1988), s.2, as under- 

(a) in the heading, the words "by non-tribals" 

shall be omitted; 

(b) in sub-paragraph (1), the words "other 

than Scheduled Tribes" shall be omitted; 

(c) in sub-paragraph (2), for clause (d), the 

following clause shall be substituted, 

namely:- 

(d) prescribe that no person resident in the 

district shall carry on any trade, whether 

wholesale or retail, except under a licence 

issued in that behalf by the District 

Council.". 

*Paragraph 10 has been amended in its application 



so as to insert the following sub-paragraph after subparagraph 

(3), namely: 





[7] Paragraph 12 has been amended to its 



Act, 1995 (42 of 1995), s.2, as under,- 

'in paragraph 12, in sub-paragraph (1), for the 

words and figure "matters specified in paragraph 3 of 

this Schedule", the words, figures and letter "matters 

specified in paragraph 3 or paragraph 3A of this 

Schedule" shall be substituted.'; 

Paragraph 12 has been amended in its application 



as under, - 

in paragraph 12, in sub-paragraph (1), in clause (a), 

for the words, figures and letter "matters specified in 

paragraph 3 or paragraph 3A of this Schedule", the 

words, figures and letter "matters specified in 

paragraph 3 or paragraph 3A or paragraph 3B of this 

Schedule" shall be substituted. 




Act, 1995 (42 of 1995) , s. 2, as under,- 

In paragraph 14 , in sub-paragraph (2), the words 

"with the recommendations of the Governor with 

respect thereto" shall be omitted. 





1988), s. 2, as under,- 


(a) in the opening paragraph, for the words 

"by the Legislature of the State", the 

words "by him" shall be substituted; 

(b) the proviso shall be omitted. 



Mizoram by s. 2, ibid., as under,- 

(a) in sub-paragraph (1), the words "subject 

to the previous approval of the 

Legislature of the State" occurring in 

clause (b), and the second proviso shall be 

omitted; 

(b) for sub-paragraph (3), the following subgraph 

shall be substituted, namely: 

"(3) Every order made under sub-paragraph (1) or 

sub-paragraph (2) of this paragraph, along 

with the reasons therefor shall be laid before 

the Legislature of the State."'. 





following proviso, namely: - 

"Provided that nothing in this paragraph shall 

apply to the Bodoland Territorial Areas District." 


application to the State of Assam by s. 2 , ibid., 

so as to insert the following sub-paragraph 

after sub-paragraph (3), namely: - 

"(4) As soon as possible after the commencement 

of this Act, and Interim Executive Council for 

Bodoland Territorial Areas District in Assam 

shall be formed by the Governor from 

amongst leaders of the Bodo movement, 

including the signatories to the 

Memorandum of Settlement, and shall 

provide adequate representation to the nontribal 

communities in that area: 

Provided that Interim Council shall be for a period 

of six months during which endeavour to hold the 

election to the Council shall be made. 

Explanation.---For the purposes of this subparagraph, 

the expression "Memorandum of Settlement" 

means the Memorandum signed on the 10th day of 

February, 2003 between Government of India, 

Government of Assam and Bodo Liberation Tigres." 

[13] After paragraph 20B, the following paragraph 


has been inserted in its application to the State 

of Assam by the Sixth Schedule to the 


1995), s. 2, namely:- 

"20BA. Exercise of discretionary powers by the 


functions.-The Governor in the discharge 



(1), (6), sub-paragraph (6A) excluding the 

first proviso and sub-paragraph (7) of 












after consulting the Council of Ministers 

and the North Cachar Hills Autonomous 

Council or the Karbi Anglong 

Autonomous Council, as the case may be, 

take such action as he considers necessary 

in his discretion." 

[14] After paragraph 20B, the following 

paragraph has been inserted in its 


Mizoram, by the Sixth Schedule to the 


1988), s. 2, namely:- 

"20BB. Exercise of discretionary powers by the 


functions.-The Governor, in the 

discharge of his functions under subparagraphs 

(2) and (3) of paragraph 1, 

sub-paragraphs (1) and (7) of paragraph 

2, sub-paragraph (3) of paragraph 3, subparagraph 

(4) of paragraph 4, paragraph 

5, sub-paragraph (1) of paragraph 6, subparagraph 

(2) of paragraph 7, subparagraph 



(1) of paragraph 15 and subparagraphs 

(1) and (2) of paragraph 16 of 

this Schedule, shall, after consulting the 

Council of Ministers, and if he thinks it 

necessary, the District Council or the 

Regional Council concerned, take such 

action as he considers necessary in his 

discretion." 

149

Order: Insectivora 

Family: Soricidae: 

Sub Family: Crocidurinae 

Grey shrew Crocidura attenuata Milne-Edwards + 

Southeast Asian White- Crocidura fuliginosa (Blyth) + 

toothed shrew 

Family : Talpidae 

Subfamily : Talpinae 

Order: Scandentia 

Family: Tupaiidae 

Sub Family: Tupaiinae 

Talpa micrura Hodgson + 

W. Garo E. Garo S. Garo 

Common Tree Shrew Tupaia glis assamensis (Wroughton) + + 

Order: Chiroptera 

Suborder: Megachiroptera 

Family: Pteropodidae 

Subfamily: Pteropodinae 

Short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx sphinx (Vahl) + + + 

Indian flying fox Pteropus giganteus giganteus + 

(Brunnich) 

Fulvous fruit bat Rousettus leschenaultia leschenaulti + + + 

(Desmarest) 

Subfamily: Macroglossinae 

Long-tongued fruit bat Eonycteris spelaea spelaea ( Dobson) + 

Suborder: Microchiroptera 

Family: Megadermatidae 

Indian false vampire bat Megaderma lyra lyra E. Geoffroy + 

Family: Rhinolophidae 

Subfamily: Rhinolophinae 

Paerson’s horseshoe bat Rhinolophus pearsonii Horsfield + + + 

Least horseshoe bat Rhinolophus pusillus blythi Anderson + 

Subfamily: Hipposiderinae 

ANNEXURE IV 

List of mammals found in Garo Hills (Ghosh, et al 1995) 

Great Himalayan leaf-t Hipposideros armiger armiger + + + 

nosed ba (Hodgson) 

Great Ceylon leaf-nosed bat Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart + 

Horsfield’s leaf-nosed bat Hipposideros larvatus (Horsfield) +

Andersen’s leaf-nosed bat Hipposideros Pomona gentilis Andersen + 

Family: Vespertilionidae 

Subfamily: Kerivoulinae 

Hardwicke's forest bat Kerivoula hardwickii (Horsfield) + 

Subfamily: Vespertilioninae 

Harlequin bat Scotomanes ornatus ornatus (Blyth) + 

Common yellowbellied bat Scotophilus heathi heathi (Horsfield) + 

Asiatic Lesser yellow bat Scotophilus kuhlii kuhlii Leach + + + 

Philippine bamboo bat Tylonycteris pachypus + 

Subfamily: Miniopterinae 

Schreiber's long-fingered bat Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl) + 

Order: Primates 

Family: Cercopithecidae 

Subfamily: Cercopithecinae 

Stump-tailed macaque Macaca arctoides (geoffroy) + + 

Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis (M’Clelland) + + 

Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) + + + 

Pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina (Linnaeus) + 

Subfamily : Colobinae 

Common langur Semnopithecus entellus (Dufresne) + 

Capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus (Blyth) + + + 

Family: Hylobatidae 

Hoolock gibbon Hoolock hoolock + + + 

Family: Loridae 

Slow loris Nycticebus coucang (Boddaert) + + + 

Order: Pholidota 

Family: Manidae 

Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus + 

Order: Carnivora 

Family: Canidae 

Asiatic Jackal Canis aureusLinnaeus + + + 

Wild dog, Dhole Cuon alpinus (Pallas) + + + 

Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw) + + + 

Family: Felidae 

Subfamily: Felinae 

Asiatic Golden cat Catopuma temminckii + + 

(Vigors and Horsfield) 

Jungle Cat Felis chaus Schreber + + + 

Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis (Kerr) 

Subfamily: Pantherinae 

Leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Linnaeus) + + + 


151

Tiger Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus) + + + 

Marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata (Martin) + 

Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith) + + + 

Family: Herpestidae 

Subfamily: Herpestinae 

Indian Gray mongoose Herpestes edwardsii + 

(E. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire) 

Crab-eating mongoose Herpestes urva (Hodgson) + + 

Family: Mustelidae 

Subfamily: Lutrinae 

Small Clawed otter Amblonyx cinerea concolor + 

(Rafinesque) 

Smooth- coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata perspicillata + 

(I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire) 

Subfamily: Melinae 

Hog badger Arctonyx collaris Cuvier + + + 

Subfamily: Mustelinae 

Yellow-throated Marten Martes flavigula (Boddaert) + 

Family: Ursidae 

Subfamily: Ursinae 

Himalayan black bear Ursus thibetanus Cuvier + + + 

Sloth bear Melursus ursinus (Shaw) + + + 

Malayan Sun Bear Helarctos malayanus (Raffles) + + + 

Subfamily: Ailurinae 

Red panda Ailurus fulgens Cuvier + + + 

Family: Viverridae 

Subfamily: Paradoxurinae 

Masked palm civet Paguma larvata neglecta P ocock + 

Common Palm Civet, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Pallas) + 

Toddy cat 

Subfamily: Viverrinae 

Small Indian civet Viverricula indica(Desmarest) + 

Order Proboscidea 

Family Elephantidae 

Elephant Elephas maximusindicus G. Cuvier + + + 

Order: Artiodactyla: 

Family: Bovidae: 

Sub Family: Bovinae 

Gaur Bos gaurus++Wild buffalo Bubalus + 

bubalis (Linnaeus) 

Four horned Antelope, Tetracerus quadricornis + 

Chausinga (Blainville) 


Subfamily: Caprinae 

Goral Naemorhedus goral (Hardwicke) + 

Serow Naemorhedus sumatraensis (Bechstein) + + + 

Family: Cervidae 

Sambar Cervus unicolor Kerr + + + 

Subfamily: Muntiacinae 

Barking Deer/Munjtac Muntiacus muntjak Pocock + + + 

Family: Suidae 

Subfamily: Suinae 

Indian wild boar Sus scrofa Linnaeus + + + 

Order: Rodentia 

Suborder: Sciurognathi 

Family Sciuridae 

Subfamily: Sciurinae 

Red-bellied tree squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus erythraeus + + 


Callosciurus erythraeus erythogaster + + 

Hoary-bellied Himalayan Callosciurus pygerythrus blythi ( Tytler) + + 

squirrel 

Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor giganteus (M’Clelland) + + 

Family: Petauristinae 

Hodgson's flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus + 

Giant red flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista lylei Bonhote + 

Family: Muridae 

Subfamily: Murinae 

Petaurista petaurista albiventer (Gray) + 

Indian field mouse Mus booduga booduga ( Gray) + + 

Shrew mouse Mus pahari jacksoniae (Thomas) + 

Chestnut Rat, Himalayan Niviventer fulvescens fulvescens (Gray) + 

Chestnut rat 

Himalayan rat Rattus nitidus nitudus + + + 

Common house rat Rattus rattus brunneusculus (Hodgson) + + 

Subfamily: Rhizomyinae 

Rattus rattus tistae Hinton + + 

Rattus sabanus garonum + + 

Bay bamboo rat Cannomys badius badius (Hodgson) + 

Suborder: Hystricognathi 

Family: Hystricidae 

Order: Lagomorpha 

Family: Leporidae 

Atherurus hodgsonii + 

Indian hare/Blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis + + 

153

ANNEXURE V 

List of Birds reported from Garo Hills (Majumdar, 1994) 

Order: Anseriformes 

Family: Anatidae 

Anser anser rubrirostris Greylag Goose 

Aythya ferina Common Pochard 

Mergus merganser merganser Common Merganser 

Order: Apodiformes 

Family: Apodidae 

Apus affinis subfurcatus Little Swift 

Cypsiurus parvus infumatus 

Order: Bucerotiformes 

Family: Bucerotidae 

Anthracoceros malabaricus malabaricus 

Order: Ciconiiformes 

Family: Accipitridae 

Accipiter badius dussumieri Shikra 

Accipiter nisus Eurasian Sparrowhawk 

Aviceda leuphotes Black Baza 

Circus aeruginosus Western Marsh Harrier 

Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier 

Elanus caeruleus vociferus Black-winged Kite 

Haliastur Indus indus Brahminy Kite 

Milvus migrans Black Kite 

Pandion haliaetus haliaetus Osprey 

Family: Ardeidae 

Ardeola striatus chloriceps 

Ardea alba modesta 

Ardea cinerea rectirostris Grey Heron 

Ardea purpurea manilensis Purple Heron 

Ardeola grayii grayii Indian Pond-Heron 

Bubulcus ibis coromandus Cattle Egret 

Egretta garzetta Little Egret 

Egretta garzetta garzettaIxobrychus cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bittern 

Ixobrychus flavicollis flavicollis Black Bittern 

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night-Heron 

Family: Charadriidae 

Himantopus himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt 

Vanellus Spinosus duvanvelii

Family: Ciconiidae 

Anastomus oscitans Asian Openbill 

Ciconia episcopus episcopus Woolly-necked Stork 

Family: Falconidae 

Falco subbuteo centralasiae Eurasian Hobby 

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Common Kestrel 

Microhierax caerulescens caerulescens Collared Falconet 

Family: Glareolidae 

Glareola pratincola Maldivarum Collared Pratincole 

Family: Jacanidae 

Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana 

Metopidius indicus Bronze-winged Jacana 

Family: Laridae 

Sterna acuticauda Black-bellied Tern 

Sterna aurantia River Tern 

Sterna hirundo tibetana Common Tern 

Family: Phalacrocoracidae 

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis Great Cormorant 

Family: Scolopacidae 

Calidris minuta Little Stint 

Gallinago gallinago gallinago Common Snipe 

Gallinago minimaGallinago nemoricola Wood Snipe 

Gallinago solitaria solitaria Solitary SnipeG 

allinago stenura Pintail Snipe 

Philomachus pugnax Ruff 

Scolopax rusticola rusticola Eurasian Woodcock 

Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper 

Tringa hypoleucos hypoleucos Common Sandpiper 

Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank 

Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper 

Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper 

Tringa totanus totanus Common Redshank 

Family: Threskiornithidae 

Platalea leucorodia major Eurasian Spoonbill 

Threskiornis aethiopica melanocephalus Black-headed Ibis 

Order: Columbiformes 

Family: Columbidae 

Chalcophaps indica indica Emerald Dove 

Ducula aenea Sylvatica Green Imperial-Pigeon 

Streptopelia chinensis tigrina Spotted Dove 

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto Eurasian Collared-Dove 

Streptopelia tranquebarica humilis Red Collared-Dove 

Treron bicincta bicincta Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon 


155

Order: Coraciiformes 

Family: Alcedinidae 

Alcedo hercules Blyth's Kingfisher 

Alcedo meninting coltarti Blue-eared Kingfisher 

Family: Cerylidae 

Ceryle rudis leucomelanuru Pied Kingfisher 

Family: Dacelonidae 

Halcyon smyrnensis perpulchra White-throated Kingfisher 

Pelargopsis capensis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher 

Family: Meropidae 

Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Chestnut-headed Bee-eater 

Merops orientalis orientalis Little Green Bee-eater 

Merops orientalis birmanusNyctyornis athertoni athertoni Blue-bearded Bee-eater 

Order: Cuculiformes 

Family: Centropodidae 

Centropus toulou bengalensis Lesser Coucal 

Centropus sinensis intermedius Greater Coucal 

Family: Cuculidae 

Clamator coromandus Chestnut-winged Cuckoo 

Chalcites maculatusEudynamys scolopacea malayana Asian Koel 

Order: Galliformes 

Family: Phasianidae 

Arborophila atrogularis White-cheeked Partridge 

Bambusicola fytchii hopkinsoni Mountain Bamboo-Partridge 

Coturnix coromandelica Rain Quail 

Francolinus francolinus melanotus Black Francolin 

Francolinus gularis Swamp Francolin 

Gallus gallus murghi Red Junglefowl 

Lophura leucomelanos lathami Kalij Pheasant 

Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl 

Polyplectron bicalcaratum bakeri Grey Peacock-Pheasant 

Order: Gruiformes 

Family: Rallidae 

Fulica atra atr Common Coot 

Gallinula chloropus indica Common Moorhen 

Porzana pusilla pusilla Baillon's Crake 

Order: Passeriformes 

Family: Alaudidae 

Eremopterix grisea Ashy-crowned Sparrow-Lark 

Family: Cisticolidae 

criniger flaveolus flaveolus 

Family: Corvidae 

Aegithina tiphia tiphia Common Iora 

Artamus fuscus Ashy Wood-swallow 

Coracina novaehollandiae nipalensisCorvus splendens splendens House Crow 


Dendrocitta formosae himalayana Grey Treepie 

Dendrocitta vagabunda vagabunda Rufous Treepie 

Dicrurus aeneus aeneus Bronzed Drongo 

Dicrurus adsimilis albirictusDicrurus caerulescens caerulescens White-bellied Drongo 

Dicrurus hottentottus hottentottus Hair-crested Drongo 

Dicrurus paradiseus grandis Greater Racket-tailed Drongo 

Dicrurus remifer tectirostris Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo 

Hypothymis azurea styani Black-naped Monarch 

Oriolus xanthornus xanthornus Black-hooded Oriole 

Pericrocotus flammeus fraterculus Scarlet Minivet 

Tephrodornis virgatus pelvicaTephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus Common Woodshrike 

Family: Eurylaimidae 

Serilophus lunatus rubropygius Silver-breasted Broadbill 

Family: Fringillidae 

Emberiza pusilla Little Bunting 

Family: Hirundinidae 

Hirundo rustica tytleri Barn Swallow 

Family: Irenidae 

Chloropsis aurifrons aurifrons Golden-fronted Leafbird 

Chloropsis cochinchinensis cochinchinensis Blue-winged Leafbird 

Family: Laniidae 

Lanius cristatus cristatus Brown Shrike 

Lanius schach tricolor Long-tailed Shrike 

Lanius tephronotus tephronotus Grey-backed Shrike 

Family: Muscicapidae 

Copsychus malabaricus indicus White-rumped Shama 

Copsychus saularis erimelas Oriental Magpie-Robin 

Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea Grey-headed Canary-Flycatcher 

Enicurus immaculatus Black-backed Forktail 

Luscinia calliope Siberian Rubythroat 

Luscinia pectardens Firethroat 

Monticola solitarius pandoo Blue Rock-Thrush 

Muscicapa latirostris Muscicapa parva albicilla Muscicapa westermanni 

australorienti sMuscicapa sapphira Muscicapa macgrigoriae signata 

Muscicapa sundara sundara Turdus albocinctus White-collared Blackbird 

Turdus dissimilis dissimilis Black-breasted Thrush 

Turdus rubrocanus rubrocanus Chestnut Thrush 

Zoothera citrina citrina Orange-headed Thrush 

Family: Nectariniidae 

Aethopyga saturata assamensis Black-throated Sunbird 

Anthreptes singalensis rubinigentis Ruby-cheeked Sunbird 

Dicaeum cruentatum cruentatum Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker 

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos Pale-billed Flowerpecker 

Nectarinia zeylonica sola Purple-rumped Sunbird 


157

Family: Paridae 

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea Sultan Tit 

Parus major nipalensis Great Tit 

Family: Passeridae 

Amandava amandava Red Avadavat 

Anthus hodgsoni Olive-backed Pipit 

Lonchura malacca atricapilla Black-headed Munia 

Passer domesticus indicus House Sparrow 

Family: Pycnonotidae 

Pycnonotus cafer bengalensis Red-vented Bulbul 

Pycnonotus jocosus emeria Red-whiskered Bulbul 

Pycnonotus jocosus monticola 

Family: Sturnidae 

Acridotheres tristis tristis Common Myna 

Gracula religiosa intermedia Hill Myna 

Saroglossa spiloptera Spot-winged Starling 

Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus Chestnut-tailed Starling 

Family: Sylviidae 

Abroscopus albogularis albogularis Rufous-faced Warbler 

Abroscopus superciliaris flaviventris Yellow-bellied Warbler 

Alcippe castaneceps castaneceps Rufous-winged Fulvetta 

Alcippe nipalensis nipalensis Nepal Fulvetta 

Cettia brunnifrons muroides Grey-sided Bush-Warbler 

Cettia major vafer Chestnut-crowned Bush- Warbler 

Chaetornis striatus Bristled Grassbird 

Gampsorhynchus rufulus rufulus White-hooded Babbler 

Garrulax erythrocephalus chrysopterus Chestnut-crowned Laughingthrush 

Garrulax leucolophus patkaicus White-crested Laughingthrush 

Garrulax monileger monileger Lesser Necklaced Laughingthrush 

Garrulax pectoralis melanotis Greater Necklaced 

Laughingthrush 

Leiothrix argentauris argentauris Silver-eared Mesia 

Macronous gularis rubricapilla Striped Tit-Babbler 

Malacocincla abbotti abbotti (Blyth) Abbott's Babbler 

Megalurus palustris toklao Striated Grassbird 

Napothera brevicaudata striata Streaked Wren-Babbler 

Orthotomus atrogularis nitidus Dark-necked Tailorbird 

Orthotomus sutorius patia Common Tailorbird 

Pellorneum ruficeps mandellii Puff-throated Babbler 

Pellorneum ruficeps chamelumPhylloscopus inornatus inornatus Inornate Warbler 

Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides Greenish Warbler 

Pomatorhinus hypoleucos hypoleucos Large Scimitar-Babbler 

Pteruthius aenobarbus aenobarbulus Chestnut-fronted Shrike- Babbler 

Pteruthius flaviscapis validirostris White-browed Shrike-Babbler 


Turdoides longirostris Slender-billed Babbler 

Yuhina castaniceps castaniceps Striated Yuhina 

Family: Zosteropidae 

Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa Oriental White-eye 

Order: Piciformes 

Family: Megalaimidae 

Megalaima asiatica asiatica Blue-throated Barbet 

Megalaima australis cyanotis Blue-eared Barbet 

Megalaima franklinii franklinii Golden-throated Barbet 

Micropternus brachyurus phaiocepsMegalaima lineate hodgsoni Lineated Barbet 

Megalaima virens magnifica Great Barbet 

Family: Picidae 

Chrysocolaptes lucidus sultaneus Greater Flameback 

Chrysocolaptes lucidus guttacristatus Dinopium benghalense benghalense Black-rumped Flameback 

Gecinulus grantia grantia Pale-headed Woodpecker 

Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti Great Slaty Woodpecker 

Picus canus hessei Grey-faced Woodpecker 

Picus chlorolophus chlorolophus Lesser Yellownape 

Picoides mahrattensis mahrattensis Picoides canicapillus semicoronatus 

Order: Psittaciformes 

Family: Psittacidae 

Psittacula alexandri fasciata Red-breasted Parakeet 

Psittacula krameri borealis Rose-ringed Parakeet 

Order: Strigiformes 

Family: Caprimulgidae 

Caprimulgus affinis monticola Savanna Nightjar 

Caprimulgus indicus hazarae rey Nightjar 

Caprimulgus macrurus albonotatus Large-tailed Nightjar 

Caprimulgus indicus jotaka 

Family: Strigidae 

Glaucidium brodiei brodiei Collared Owlet 

Glaucidium cuculoides rufescens Asian Barred Owlet 

Otus scops sunia Eurasian Scops-Owl 

Strix leptogrammica newarensis Brown Wood-Owl 

Order: Trogoniformes 

Family: Trogonidae 

Harpactes erythrocephalus erythrocephalus Red-headed Trogon 


159

Order: Testudines 

1. Hardella thurjii (Gray) 

2. Kachuga dhongoka (Gray) 

3. Kachuga sylhetensis (Jerdon) 

4. Kachuga tecta (Gray) 

5. Geoclemys hamiltoni (Gray) 

6. Cyclemys dentate (Gray) 

7. Melanochelys tricarinata (Blyth) 

8. Indotestudo elongate (Blyth) 

9. Aspideretes hurum Gray 

Order: Squamata 

Suborder: Sauria 

1. Cyrtodactylus khasiensis (Jerdon) 

2. Cnemaspis jerdoni (Theobald) 

3. Cosymbotus pltyurus (Schneider) 

4. Hemidactylus brooki Gray 

5. Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel 

6. Gekko gecko (Linnaeus) 

7. Calotes emma Gray 

8. Calotes versicolor (Daudin) 

9. Sphenomorphus indicus (Gray) 

10. Sphenomorphus maculatus (Blyth) 

11. Mabuya macularia (Blyth ) 

12. Mabuya multifasciata multifasciata (kuhl) 

13. Takydromus sexlineatus sexlineatus Daudin 

14. Varanus bengalensis (Daudin) 

15. Varanus salvator (Laurenti) 

ANNEXURE VI 

List of Reptiles reported from Garo Hills (Mathew, R., 1994) 

Suborder: Serpentes 

1. Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin) 

2. Typhlops diardi Schlegel 

3. Typhlops tenuicollis (Peters) 

4. Amphiesma khasiensis (Boulenger) 

5. Amphiesma parallela (Boulenger) 

6. Amphiesma xenura (Wall) 

7. Boiga trigonata (Schneider) 

8. Calamaria pavimentata Dumeril & Bibrin 

9. Chrysopelea ornate (Shaw) 

10. Elaphe hodgsoni (Boulenger) 

11. Elaphe prasina (Blyth) 

12. Elaphe radiate (Schlegel) 

13. Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus) 

14. Lycodon jara (Shaw) 

15. Oligodon cinereus (Gunther) 

16. Oligodon dorsalis (Cantor) 

17. Oligodon dorsalis Gray & Hardwicke 

18. Oligodon theobaldi (Gunther) 

19. Ptyas korros Schlegel 

20. Rhabdophis subminiata (Schlegel) 

21. Sibynophis chinesis (Gunther) 

22. Xenochrophis piscator (Shneider) 

23. Bungarus niger Wall 

24. Callophis macclellandi (Reinhardt) 

25. Naja naja (Linnaeous) 

26. Trimeresurus erythrurus (Cantor)

1. Xenophrys parva (Boulengar) 

2. Bufo melanostictus Schneider 

3. Amolops afghanus (Gunther) 

4. Rana alticola Boulenger 

5. Rana bilineata Pillai & Chanda 

6. Rana cyanoplyctis Schneider 

7. Rana garoensis Boulenger 

8. Rana laticeps (Boulenger) 

9. Rana limnocharis Weighmann 

10. Rana malabarica Tschudi 

11. Philautus garo (Boulenger) 

12. Philautus kempii 

13. Rhacophorus maximus Gunther 

14. Ploypedates leucomystax Gravenhorst 

ANNEXURE VII 

List of Amphibians reported from Garo Hills (Chanda, S.K., 1994)

Order: Primates 

Family: Cercopithecidae 

Subfamily: Cercopithecinae 

1. Stump-tailed macaque Macaca arctoides (geoffroy) 

2. Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis (M’Clelland) 

3. Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) 

Subfamily : Colobinae 

4. Capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus (Blyth) 

Family: Hylobatidae 

5. Hoolock gibbon Hoolock hoolock (Harlan) 

Family: Loridae 

6. Slow loris Nycticebus coucang (Boddaert) 

Order: Carnivora 

Family: Canidae 

7. Wolf Canis lupus Linnaeus 

8. Wild dog, Dhole Cuon alpinus (Pallas) 

9. Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw) 

Family: Felidae 

Subfamily: Felinae 

10. Jungle Cat Felis chausSchreber 

11. Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis (Kerr) 

Subfamily: Pantherinae 

12. Leopard Panthera pardus (Linnaeus) 

13. Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith) 

Family: Herpestidae 

Subfamily: Herpestinae 

14. Indian Gray mongoose Herpestes edwardsii 

(E. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire) 

Family: Mustelidae 

Subfamily: Melinae 

15. Hog badger Arctonyx collaris Cuvier 

16. Chinese feret badger Melogale moschata (Gray) 

Family: Ursidae 

Subfamily: Ursinae 

ANNEXURE VIII 

Faunal diversity of Siju Wildlife Sanctuary 

Mammals 

17. Himalayan black bear Ursus thibetanus Cuvier

Family: Viverridae 

Subfamily: Viverrinae 

18. Large Indian civet Viverra zibetha Linnaeus 

19. Small Indian civet Viverricula indica (Desmarest) 

Order Proboscidea 

Family Elephantidae 

20. Asian Elephant Elephas maximus indicus G. Cuvier 

Order: Artiodactyla: 

Family: Bovidae: 

Subfamily: Bovinae 

21. Indian Bison or Gaur Bos gaurus 

22. Wild buffalo Bubalus bubalis (Linnaeus) 

Family: Cervidae 

23. Sambar Cervus unicolor Kerr 

Subfamily: Muntiacinae 

24. Barking Deer/Munjtac Muntiacus muntjak Pocock 

Family: Suidae 

Subfamily: Suinae 

25. Indian wild boar Sus scrofa Linnaeus 

Order: Rodentia 

Suborder: Sciurognathi 

Family Sciuridae 

Subfamily: Sciurinae 

26. Five-striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennantii 

27. Indian giant squirrel Ratufa indica 

Family: Petauristinae 

28. Red Giant flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista 

Family: Dipodidae 

Subfamily: Murinae 

29. Large Bandicoot rat Bandicota indica 

Suborder: Hystricognathi 

Family: Hystricidae 

30. Indian Crested porcupine Hystrix indica 

Order: Lagomorpha 

Family: Leporidae 

31. Indian hare/Blacknaped hare Lepus nigricollis 


163

ANNEXURE IX

ANNEXURE X

A. OCCASIONAL REPORTS 

OTHER WTI PUBLICATIONS 

Tribal Territories: 

Impact assessment around the Jarawa tribal reserve, middle and south Andaman Islands 

Captive Concerns: 

Health and management of captive elephants in Jaipur 

Jumbo Express: 

A scientific approach to understanding and mitigating elephant mortality due to train accidents in Rajaji National Park. 

Fair Concern: 

Health and management of captive elephants in Sonpur 

Elephant in Exile: 

A rapid assessment of the human-elephant conflict in Chhattisgarh 

Ganesha to Bin Laden: 

Human-elephant conflict in Sonitpur district of Assam 

Healing Touch: 

Health and management of captive elephants at Kaziranga elephant festivals 

Dog and Bull: 

An investigation into carnivore-human conflict in and around Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh 

Against the Current: 

Otters in the river Cauvery, Karnataka 

Silent Stranglers: 

Eradication of mimosa in Kaziranga National Park, Assam 

Living at the Edge: 

Rapid survey for the endangered Ladakh urial ( Ovis vignei vignei) in Leh district of Ladakh Trans-Himalaya 

Search for Spectacle: 

A conservation survey of the Phayre’s leaf monkey (Tranchypithecus phayrei) in Assam and Mizoram 

Sighting Storks: 

Status and distribution of Greater adjutant storks (Leptoptilos dubius) in the Ganga and Kosi river floodplains near 

Bhagalpur, Bihar 

Bait and Watch: 

Popularization of alternatives to dolphin oil among fishermen for the conservation of the Ganges river dolphin (Plantanista 

gangetica) in Bihar 

Awaiting Arribadda: 

Protection of Olive Ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) and their nesting habitats at Rushikuliya rookery, Orissa 

Living with Giants: 

Understanding human-elephant conflict in Maharashtra and adjoining areas 

Crane Capital: 

Conservation strategy for Sarus Crane (Grus antigone) habitat in Etawah and Mainpuri Districts, Uttar Pradesh 

Deadly Tracks: 

A scientific approach to understanding and mitigating elephant mortality due to train hits in Assam 

Carnivore Conflict: 

Support provided to leopards involved in conflict related cases in Maharashtra

India at the International Whaling commission: 

A policy document on India’s involvement in the IWC 1981-2003 

B. CONSERVATION ACTION REPORTS 

Beyond the Ban: 

A census of Shahtoosh workers in Jammu & Kashmir 

Biodiversity, Livelihoods and the Law: 

The case of the ‘Jogi Nath’ snake charmers of India 

Goats on the Border: 

A rapid assessment of the Pir Panjal markhor in Jammu & Kashmir distribution, status and threats 

The Ground Beneath the Waves : (2 Volumes) 

Post-tsunami impact assessment of wildlife and their habitats in India 

Walking the Bears: 

Rehabilitation of Asiatic black bears in Arunachal Pradesh 

Mountain Migrants: 

Survey of Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii) and Wild Yak (Bos grunniens) in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India 

Predator Alert: 

Attacks on humans by leopard and Asiatic black bear in the Kashmir valley – Analysis of case studies and spatial patterns of 

elevated conflict 

Turning the Tide: 

The campaign to save Vhali, the Whale Shark (Rhincondon Typus)in Gujarat 

C. CONSERVATION REFERENCE SERIES 

Wildlife Law: 

A ready reckoner - A guide to the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 

Back to the Wild: 

Studies in wildlife rehabilitation 

Right of Passage: 

Elephant corridors of India 

Poisons and the Pachyderm: 

Responding to poisoning in Asian elephants – A field guide 

Commentaries on Wildlife Law: 

Cases, statutes & notifications 

Pakke Pachyderms: 

Ecology and conservation of Asian elephants in Kameng elephant reserve, Arunachal Pradesh 

Bringing Back Manas: 

Conserving the forest and wildlife of the Bodoland Territorial Council 

D. OTHERS 

Wrap up the trade: 

An international campaign to save the endangered Tibetan Antelope 

Tiger Bridge: 

Nine days on a bend of the Nauranala 

167

Emergency Relief Network Digest 2005 – 2006 

Emergency Relief Network Digest 2006 – 2007 

Action Tiger: 

Tiger action plans of 12 tiger range countries 

168 

PROJECT TEAM 

Biswajit Saikia 

Bulbully Marak 

J. Dutta 


P.C.Bhattacherjee 

P.R. Marak 

P.S.Easa 

Pangeng Marak 

Prabal Sarkar 

R. Thiek 

Rahul Kaul 

Ritwick Dutta 

S.N. Sangma 

Sandeep Kumar Tiwari 

Satadal Acherji 

Siddhartha Bhattacharjee 

Sunil Subba Kyarong 

Susenjit Nath Choudhury 

T.T.C. Marak 

Vijay Dashmana 

Vivek Menon 

Vyom Raghuvanshi

The Balphakram and Nokrek protected areas are the two ecological crown jewels 

of the Garo Hills. The two are connected tenuously by forest along the spine of 

the Garo Hills much of which is akhin owned, private community forests and 

jhummed land. Wildlife still flourishes here and the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) 

with the World Land Trust, British High Commission and the International Fund 

for Animal Welfare (IFAW) has worked with the Garo Hills Autonomous District 

Council and the Meghalaya Forest Department in preserving these representative 

forests of the Garo Hills using an innovative protection mechanism. This report 

documents the declaration of village reserves in the Garo Hills - the Selbelgre 

Village Reserve forest to protect gibbons and the Siju-Aretika Village Reserve 

forest and Rewak Kosigre Village Reserve to secure a critical elephant corridor 

that was earlier identified by WTI and IFAW with support from the US Fish and 

Wildlife Services. Gibbons are canopy dependent species and elephants require 

terrestrial corridors for their nomadic existence; two appropriate flagships for 

preserving the linkages that connect the wildlife protected areas of the Garo Hills.

Canopies and Corridors - International Fund for Animal Welfare

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