An Investment Plan for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve - Birdlife ...

BirdLife International Vietnam Programme 

in collaboration with the 

Forest Inventory and Planning Institute 

An Investment Plan for 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, 

Kon Tum Province, Vietnam 

A Contribution to the Management Plan 

Conservation Report 

Number 5 

BirdLife International European Union FIPI

An Investment Plan for 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, 

Kon Tum Province, Vietnam 

A Contribution to the Management Plan 

by 

Le Trong Trai 


and 

William Jeff Richardson 


with contributions from 

Bui Dac Tuyen, 

Le Van Cham, 

Nguyen Huy Dung 

and 

Ha Van Hoach 


and 

Nguyen Van Sang, 

Alexander L. Monastyrskii 

and 

Jonathan C. Eames 


This is a technical report for the project entitled: 

Expanding the Protected Areas Network in Vietnam for the 21 st Century. 

(Contract VNM/B7-6201/IB/96/005) 

Hanoi 

May 1999

Project Coordinators: Nguyen Huy Phon (FIPI) 

Vu Van Dung (FIPI) 

Jonathan C. Eames (BirdLife International) 

Field Survey Team: Le Trong Trai (FIPI) 

Le Van Cham (FIPI) 

Bui Dac Tuyen (FIPI) 

Tran Hieu Minh (FIPI) 

Tran Quang Ngoc (FIPI) 

Nguyen Van Sang (FIPI) 

Ha Van Hoach (FIPI) 

Nguyen Huy Dung (FIPI) 

Tran Quoc Dung (FIPI) 

Hoang Trong Tri (FIPI) 

Alexander L. Monastyrskii (BirdLife International) 

Jonathan C. Eames (BirdLife International) 

Nguyen Van Thu (Dac Glei District Forest Protection Department) 

Nguyen Ba Thu (Dac Glei District Forest Protection Department) 

Maps: Mai Ky Vinh (FIPI) 

Project Funding: European Union and BirdLife International 

Cover Illustration: Black-crowned Barwing Actinodura sodangorum 

by Kamol Komolphalin 

Citation: Le Trong Trai, Richardson, W. J., Bui Dac Tuyen, Le Van Cham, Nguyen 

Huy Dung, Ha Van Hoach, Monastyrskii, A. L. and Eames, J. C. (1999) 

An Investment Plan for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Kon Tum Province, Vietnam: 

A Contribution to the Management Plan. BirdLife International Vietnam 

Programme, Hanoi, Vietnam 

Copies available from: BirdLife International Vietnam Programme 

11 Lane 167, Tay Son, Dong Da 

Hanoi, Vietnam 

Tel/Fax: + (84) 4 851 7217 

E-mail: birdlife@netnam.org.vn

Table of Contents 

List of Figures iv 

Executive Summary viii 

Executive Summary in Vietnamese x 

1. Introduction 1 

1.1 Geography, Demographics, Economics and Environment 1 

1.2 Conservation 1 

1.3 The Kontum Plateau 2 

1.4 Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 2 

1.5 History and Official Status 3 

1.6 Current Conservation Status 3 

1.7 Current Legislative Status 4 

1.8 Global Conservation Significance 5 

1.9 Management Authority 6 

2. Site Features 7 

2.1 Location 7 

2.2 Topography 7 

2.3 Hydrology 8 

2.4 Geomorphology 10 

2.5 Soils 10 

2.6 Meteorology 12 

2.7 Flora Overview 13 

2.8 Forest and Vegetation Cover 14 

2.9 Forest Types 14 

High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 15 

Medium to High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 17 

Low Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 19 

Secondary Vegetation 20 

2.10 Fauna Overview 22 

2.11 Mammals 22 

2.12 Birds 22 

2.13 Herpetiles 26 

2.14 Butterflies 27 

2.15 Socio-Cultural Features 28 

Population Distribution 29 

Sedentary and Nomadic Populations 29 

Transportation 29 

Health Care 31 

Education 32 

Cultivation Practices and Household Incomes 32 

Animal Husbandry 34 

Forest Production 34 

Forest Enterprises 35 

3. Evaluation 36 

3.1 Evaluation Criteria 36 

3.2 Evaluation of Physical Features 37 

3.3 Evaluation of Flora and Fauna 37 

i

ii 

Conservation of Threatened Species 38 

Discovery of New Bird Species and Subspecies 38 

Conservation of Restricted-Range Endemic Species 38 

Biodiversity Comparison with Vietnam’s National Parks 39 

3.4 Evaluation of Socio-Economic and Socio-Cultural Benefits 40 

Flood and Erosion Control 40 

Water Supply 40 

Forestry and Agroforestry 41 

Medicinal and Ornamental Plants 41 

Genetic Resources 41 

Tourism 42 

Agricultural Self-sufficiency and Agroforestry 43 

Research and Local Stewardship 44 

3.5 Evaluation of Managerial Role of Communes, Government and NGOs 44 

3.6 Summary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Evaluation 45 

4. Management Planning 46 

4.1 Administrative Areas 46 

Districts and Communes in the Administrative Area 46 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Boundary 46 

Strict Protection and Forest Recovery Areas 47 

Buffer Zone 50 

4.2 Management Development 51 

Nature Reserve Management Personnel 51 

Management Hierarchy and Recruitment 51 

Forest Protection Personnel 51 

Management Development Infrastructure 52 

Visitor Access and Restrictions 52 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Headquarters 53 

Guard Stations and Forest Protection Personnel 53 

5. Management Policy, Objectives, Development and Reporting 54 

5.1 Management Policy 54 

Protected Area Classification 54 

Compatible Utilisation 54 

Incompatible Utilisation, Exploitation and Unsustainable Use 55 

Management Actions 55 

5.2 Management Objectives 56 

5.3 Management and Development 56 

Infrastructure Development Programme 57 

Conservation and Protection Programme 59 

Scientific Research Programme 61 

Education and Awareness Programme 61 

Administrative Management Programme 61 

5.4 Management Progress Reporting 63 

Evaluating Management Effectiveness 63 

Regional Management Units 65 

6. Finance 66 

6.1 Financial Management 66 

6.2 Investment Capital 66

References 69 

Appendix 1 Flora Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 71 

Appendix 2 Mammals Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (excluding Rodents and Bats) 79 

Appendix 3 Birds Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 81 

Appendix 4 Herpetiles Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 86 

Appendix 5 Butterflies Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 88 

List of Tables 

Table 1: Comparison of Ngoc Linh’s Restricted-range Birds with Vietnam’s other EBAs 6 

Table 2: Meteorological Data from Four Weather Stations near Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 13 

Table 3: Plants Found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 13 

Table 4: Plants Found in the Western Highlands 13 

Table 5: Forest Cover in the Four Communes of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 14 

Table 6: Composition of Saplings in High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 15 

Table 7: Composition of Mature Trees in Medium to High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 18 

Table 8: Composition of Saplings in Medium to High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 18 

Table 9: Composition of Mature Trees in Low Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 19 

Table 10: Composition of Saplings in Low Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 19 

Table 11: Composition of Mature Trees in Secondary Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 20 

Table 12: Vertebrate Species Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 22 

Table 13: Threatened Mammals Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 23 

Table 14: Threatened Birds Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 24 

Table 15: Endemic and Threatened Herpetiles Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 26 

Table 16: Altitudinal Ranges of Butterflies in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 28 

Table 17: Population Statistics and Ethnic Composition 28 

Table 18: Population Distribution, Density and Growth in the Buffer Zone 29 

Table 19: Settlement in the Buffer Zone Communes 31 

Table 20: Health Care Staff, Facilities and Diseases in the Buffer Zone 31 

Table 21: Education Provision and Attendance in the Buffer Zone 32 

Table 22: Agricultural Production and Famine Levels in the Buffer Zone 33 

Table 23: Land-Use in the Buffer Zone 33 

Table 24: Agricultural Cultivation in the Buffer Zone 34 

Table 25: Agroforestry Land-Use in the Buffer Zone 34 

Table 26: Exploitation of Forest in the Buffer Zone 35 

Table 27: Conservation Criteria and Evaluation of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 36 

Table 28: Flora Diversity in the Kontum Plateau and Da Lat Plateau EBAs, and Fan Si Pan 37 

and Northern Laos Secondary EBA 

Table 29: Comparison of Mammal and Bird Diversity with other Montane Nature Reserves 37 

Table 30: Number of Total, Globally and Vietnam Threatened Species 38 

Table 31: Bird Endemism Ranking for Vietnam’s Montane Nature Reserves 39 

Table 32: Biodiversity Comparison of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve with 40 

Vietnam’s National Parks 

Table 33: Strict Protection Sub-Areas and Forest Recovery Area 47 

Table 34: Management Regime for the Strict Protection Area 48 

Table 35: Management Regime for the Forest Recovery Area 50 

Table 36: Commune Areas in the Nature Reserve and Buffer Zone 50 

Table 37: Locally versus Regionally Recruited Protection Personnel 52 

Table 38: Recommendations for Guard Stations, Staffing Requirements, and Coverage 53 

Table 39: Classifying Protection Features of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 54 

Table 40: Recommended Compatible and Incompatible Utilisation of the Nature Reserve 55 

Table 41: Buffer Zone Land-Use Areas of Four Communes 61 

iii

Table 42: Investment Programme for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 66 

Table 43: Cost Estimates for the Nature Reserve’s Programmes 67 

Table 44: Disbursement Schedule for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 68 

List of Maps 

Map 1: Location of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve vii 

Map 2: Geology of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 9 

Map 3: Soil Types of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 11 

Map 4: Land-Use in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 16 

Map 5: Population Density and Ethnic Composition of Communes in the Buffer Zone 30 

Map 6: Proposed Boundary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 49 

List of Figures 

Figure 1: Adult male Golden-winged Laughingthrush Garrulax ngoclinhensis (centre) with 25 

Chestnut-crowned Laughingthrush G. erythrocephalus (above) and Collared 

Laughingthrush G. yersini (below). Original Painting by Kamol Komolphalin 

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of Nature Reserve Staff Hierarchy 50 

iv

Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to thank the Commission of European Communities (DGI) and BirdLife 

International for the financial assistance that made this study possible. 

Special thanks to Mr Le Sau, Director of the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI), and Mr 

Nguyen Huu Dong, Director of the Forest Resources and Environment Centre (FREC) of FIPI who 

deserves congratulations for his direct contributions in project design, ideas and personal support. We 

also acknowledge with thanks Dr Nguyen Huu Phon, Vice-Director of FIPI and Mr Vu Van Dung, 

Vice-Director of FREC, who directly contributed to project management and the drafting of this 

report. 

In Kon Tum province, we are indebted to the cooperation and energetic support from Mr Tran Quang 

Vinh, Vice-Director of the Provincial People’s Committee; Mr Truong Khac Toi, Vice-Director of the 

Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development; and Mr Cao Chi Cong, Director of the 

Provincial Forest Protection Department for their cooperation and energetic support. We extend special 

thanks to the Forest Protection Department staff in Nuoc My and Ngoc Linh districts, and to the 

people of Kon Tum province. 

v

vi 

Conventions Used 

Plant names, sequence and species limits follow Pham Hoang Ho (1991), with scientific names given 

at first mention and in Appendix 1. Mammal names (common and scientific), sequence and species 

limits follow Corbet and Hill (1992), with scientific names given at first mention and in Appendix 2. 

Bird names (common and scientific), sequence and species limits follow Inskipp et al. (1996), with 

scientific names given at first mention and in Appendix 3. Herpetile and butterfly names (common 

and scientific), sequence and species limits follow Nguyen Van Sang and Ho Thu Cuc (1996) and 

Corbet et al. (1992), respectively. 

Diacritical marks are omitted from Vietnamese names due to typographical limitations and the restricted 

understanding of international readers. 

Locality names follow the Department of Cartography 1:50,000 series maps (1993). 

A threatened species is any species included in the IUCN Red Lists of Threatened Animals and Plants 

(IUCN 1996 and 1997) or in the Red Data Books of Vietnam (Anon. 1992 and 1996). 

Endemic Bird Areas refer to an area supporting at least two restricted-range bird species. A restrictedrange 

bird species is a species with a global range of less than 50,000 km 2 . 

Indochina refers to the biogeographic region of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. 

Abbreviations and Acronyms Used 

BAP - Biodiversity Action Plan 

CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 

EBA - Endemic Bird Area 

EU - European Union 

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation 

FIPI - Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, Hanoi 

FREC - Forest Resources and Environment Centre 

GNP - Gross National Product 

ICBP - International Council for Bird Preservation (now BirdLife International) 

IUCN - World Conservation Union 

MARD - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 

MOF - Ministry of Forestry (now part of MARD) 

NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation 

UNDP - United Nations Development Programme 

WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature

Map 1: Location of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Kon Tum Province 

Grid: UTM, zone 48 SCALE 1:1,000,000 Produced by the Forest Resources 

and Envirnment Centre of FIPI 

vii

viii 

Executive Summary 

This report is an expanded translation of the investment plan for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Kon Tum 

province, written in Vietnamese by the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI) in collaboration 

with BirdLife International. The objective of the original investment plan was to provide the necessary 

information and justification to upgrade Ngoc Linh to a functioning nature reserve. The objective of 

this report is to provide a higher level of detail for an international audience interested in Ngoc Linh 

Nature Reserve, Kon Tum province. 

In April-May 1996 and March-May 1998, BirdLife International worked in collaboration with FIPI to 

formulate an investment plan for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. The plan, funded by the European Union 

and BirdLife International, was part of the government’s commitment to increase Vietnam’s protected 

area coverage to 2 million hectares by the year 2000. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Kon Tum province, is located in Vietnam’s Western Highlands. The area is 

at high elevation, with Mount Ngoc Linh, Vietnam’s second highest peak at 2,598 m, as its most 

prominent feature. The nature reserve’s proposed 41,420 ha coverage would be augmented by two 

adjacent proposed protected areas to the north: Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam province) and Song Thanh- 

Dakpring Nature Reserves. Together, the three nature reserves would cover more than 170,000 ha. 

Three Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) were found in Vietnam. Bird endemism is believed to be a good 

indicator of an area’s overall biodiversity. Fieldwork in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Kon Tum province 

indicates that the area qualifies as Vietnam’s fourth EBA and warrants protected area status. 

To better assess the value of conserving the 

area, a preliminary inventory of Ngoc Linh’s 

flora and fauna was conducted. The inventory 

found that the nature reserve is home to a 

number of endemic and threatened species. 

Four previously known restricted-range bird 

species were recorded, as were two species and 

12 subspecies of birds new to science. The 

Fauna of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Group Number of Species % Threatened 

Mammals 52 42 

Birds 190 9 

Reptiles 41 39 

Amphibians 23 22 

Listed in either the IUCN Red List (IUCN 1996) or the Red Data Book of 

Vietnam (Anon. 1992). 

area is also home to two recently discovered mammal species. As for flora, 878 plant species were 

recorded, including 45 threatened plant species. The area is the only known location for the endemic 

Ngoc Linh or Vietnamese Ginseng Panax vietnamensis. 

A biodiversity comparison of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve with nine Vietnamese national parks shows 

that Ngoc Linh ranks higher in levels of overall biodiversity than all but one of Vietnam’s national parks 

(Cuc Phuong National Park). 

A total of 13,876 people live in the nature reserve’s buffer zone. Most of area’s inhabitants (65%) are 

from the Xe Dang ethnic minority. The eight communes in the buffer zone suffer from poor access, a 

lack of health and education facilities, and a shortage of teachers and health workers. 

About 75% of the area’s inhabitants survive by shifting cultivation, hunting, and collecting forest products. 

A number of these people have been scheduled to receive permanent housing under a government 

settlement programme. 

Wet rice cultivation, swidden agriculture and animal husbandry are the main economic activities in the 

area. Annual water shortages, however, mean that only one crop of rice per year can be produced. Forty 

percent of the area’s population suffers from malnutrition and lacks sufficient food for at least one

month per year. Most households own livestock. 

There are five state-run forest enterprises operating in the area. Rung Thong Forest Enterprise is the 

only one that is continuing to cut timber (6,000 m 3 a year) and collect pine resin (30 tonnes a year) in 

the buffer zone. It is proposed that the people working in the forest enterprises will be recruited as 

nature reserve staff. 

In order to conserve Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, a number of development programmes are proposed. 

The first is to improve the nature reserve’s infrastructure by constructing a new headquarters, building 

seven guard stations, demarcating the protected area boundary, and improving local trails and roads. 

The second is to implement a conservation and protection programme by hiring 42 forest guards, 

reforesting several areas with native species, and strengthening the ongoing government agroforestry 

programme. The third is to begin a scientific research programme to monitor and develop the area’s 

flora and fauna. The fourth is to design and implement an environmental education and awareness 

campaign, and the fifth is to create an administrative structure and hire 13 managers and support staff. 

The nature reserve would be managed by the Kon Tum Provincial People’s Committee with the assistance 

of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD). The total cost of the five programmes 

would be VND16,317 million over five years. 

The objectives of the nature reserve would be to: 

• conserve the representative tropical montane forest habitats; 

• protect and maintain the area’s rich biodiversity; 

• protect the populations of threatened and endemic species; 

• promote the creation of a buffer zone; and 

• safeguard the watershed protection value of the area. 

This report proposes that, once Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum province), Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam province) 

and Song Thanh-Dakpring (Quang Nam province) Nature Reserves have been established, they be 

upgraded to national park status. This would afford the highest management category to and ensure 

central government funding for an extensive, representative example of the Kontum Plateau EBA. 

ix

x 

Toùm taét quaù trình thöïc hieän 

Baœn baùo caùo naøy dòch töø “Döï aùn ñaàu tö khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc Linh, tænh Kon Tum” 

cuœa Vieän Ñieàu tra quy hoaïch röøng (FIPI) vaø BirdLife Intrnational. Muïc tieâu cuœa döï aùn ñaàu tö 

nhaèm cung caáp nhöõng thoâng tin caàn thieát vaø minh chöùng caàn thieát ñeå naâng caáp Ngoïc Linh 

thaønh khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân. Muïc ñích cuœa baùo caùo naøy laø ñöa ra caùc thoâng tin ôœ möùc cao 

vaø chi tieát hôn cho nhöõng ñoäc giaœ quoác teá coù quan taâm ñeán Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc 

Linh, tænh Kon Tum. 

Trong khoaœng thôøi gian töø thaùng 4 - 5 naêm 1996 vaø töø thaùng 3 - 5 naêm 1998, toå chöùc 

BirdlLife International ñaõ phoái hôïp vôùi Vieän Ñieàu tra Quy hoaïch Röøng (Haø Noäi) trình baøy döï 

aùn ñaàu tö cho Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc Linh. Döï aùn naøy ñaõ ñöôïc Coäng ñoàng Chaâu AÂu 

vaø toå chöùc BirdLife International taøi trôï vaø noù cuõng laø muïc tieâu cuœa Chính Phuœ nhaèm taêng 

dieän tích caùc khu röøng ñaëc duïng ôœ Vieät Nam leân tôùi 2 trieäu ha vaøo naêm 2000. 

Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc Linh naèm ôœ vò trí vuøng ñoài nuùi cao mieàn Trung Vieät Nam. 

Khu vöïc naøy coù ñoä cao lôùn vôùi neùt ñaëc tröng tieâu bieåu laø ñænh nuùi Ngoïc Linh cao thöù nhì 

Vieät Nam. Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân döï kieán 41,424 ha coù theå taêng theâm nöõa bôœi hai khu vöïc 

baœo veä lieàn keà nhau tôùi taän phía Baéc: Ngoïc Linh (tænh Quaœng Nam) vaø Khu Baœo toàn thieân 

nhieân Soâng Thanh-Dakpring. Keát hôïp caœ 3 khu naøy laïi thì dieän tích treân 170,000 ha. 

Naêm 1992, toå chöùc BirdLife International ñaõ tieán haønh khaœo saùt treân toaøn theá giôùi vaø xaùc 

ñònh ñöôïc 221 trung taâm chim ñaëc höõu. Ba vuøng chim ñaëc höõu ñaõ ñöôïc tìm thaáy ôœ Vieät 

Nam. “Chim ñaëc höõu” ñöôïc coi laø moät chæ thò toát cho tính ña daïng sinh hoïc toaøn vuøng. Qua 

thöïc ñòa ôœ khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc Linh ñaõ cho thaáy khu vöïc naøy coù ñuœ khaœ naêng ñeå 

ñöôïc chöùng nhaän laø vuøng Chim ñaëc höõu thöù tö ôœ Vieät Nam. 

Coâng vieäc ñieàu tra sô boä veà ñoäng, thöïc vaät Ñoäng thöïc vaät khu baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc Linh 

ñaõ ñöôïc tieán haønh ñeå ñaùnh giaù giaù trò cuœa Nhoùm Soá loaøi Möùc ñoä nguy caáp % 

noù ñöôïc toát hôn. Qua ñoù cho thaáy Khu baœo Thuù 52 44 

toàn thieân nhieân ñeà xuaát laø nôi cö nguï cuœa Chim 190 10 

moät soá loaøi ñaëc höõu vaø ñang coù nguy cô bò Boø saùt 41 39 

ñe doïa. Ñaõ thu thaäp ñöôïc 4 loaøi chim hieám Löôõng cö 23 22 

coù tröôùc ñaây, cuøng vôùi 2 loaøi vaø 11 phaân Danh saùch ñöôïc saép xeáp theo IUCN Red Lists (IUCN1996) vaø Saùch ñoœ 

loaøi chim môùi cho khoa hoïc. Khu vöïc naøy 

cuõng laø nôi cö truù cho nhöõng loaøi thuù môùi 

Vieät Nam (Anon.1992). 

phaùt hieän gaàn ñaây. Veà thöïc vaät coù 878 loaøi ñöôïc thu thaäp, trong ñoù coù 45 loaøi ñang bò ñe 

doïa. Ñaây laø nôi cö nguï cuœa caùc loaøi ñaëc höõu vaø ñöôïc bieát ñeán laø nôi duy nhaát coù loaøi Saâm 

Ngoïc Linh (Panax vietnamensis). 

So saùnh veà tính traïng ña daïng sinh hoïc cuœa Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân Ngoïc Linh vôùi 9 vöôøn 

Quoác gia khaùc cho thaáy khu vöïc naøy xeáp ôœ baäc cao hôn haún bôœi tính ña daïng sinh hoïc ôœ 

ñaây cao hôn taát caœ caùc khu Vöôøn quoác gia khaùc (ví duï nhö Vöôøn Quoác gia Cuùc Phöông). 

Coù 13,876 ngöôøi soáng trong vuøng ñeäm cuœa Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân. Chuœ yeáu toäc ngöôøi Xeâ 

Ñaêng cö truù ôœ ñaây (65%). Taùm xaõ vuøng ñeäm ñang chòu caœnh thieáu thoán veà trang thieát bò y 

teá giaùo duïc; nhö khoâng ñuœ giaùo vieân, nhaân vieân y teá. Ñöôøng saù ñi laïi trong vuøng gaëp nhieàu 

khoù khaên. Coù khoaœng 75% daân soá sinh soáng baèng phöông thöùc du canh, saên baén, thu haùi 

caùc saœn phaåm töø röøng. Moät phaàn trong soá hoï ñaõ ñöôïc caáp nhaø laâu daøi trong keá hoaïch ñònh 

canh cuœa Chính Phuœ.

Caày caáy luùa nöôùc, chaên nuoâi gia suùc laø hoaït ñoäng kinh teá chính cuœa vuøng naøy. Vì thieáu nöôùc 

neân moät naêm chæ thu hoaïch ñöôïc moät vuï luùa. Boán möôi phaàn traêm daân soá trong khu vöïc 

phaœi chòu caœnh ñoùi aên vaø thieáu löông thöïc ít nhaát laø moät thaùng/naêm. Haàu heát caùc hoä daân 

ñeàu chaên nuoâi gia suùc. 

Trong vuøng naøy coù 5 laâm tröôøng quoác doanh hoaït ñoäng. ÔŒ trong vuøng ñeäm chæ coøn duy 

nhaát laâm tröôøng Röøng Thoâng vaãn tieáp tuïc khai thaùc (6,000 m 3 /naêm) vaø laáy nhöïa thoâng (30 

taán/naêm). Mong raèng nhöõng ngöôøi laøm vieäc ôœ caùc laâm tröôøng trong röøng seõ ñöôïc boå sung 

laøm nhaân vieân cuœa khu baœo toàn thieân nhieân. 

Ñeå Ngoïc Linh trôœ thaønh 1 khu baœo toàn thieân nhieân beàn vöõng, chuùng toâi kieán nghò moät soá 

chöông trình phaùt trieån nhö sau: 

1. Naâng caáp haï taàng cô sôœ cuœa Khu Baœo toàn thieân nhieân baèng caùch xaây döïng moät 

ban quaœn lyù môùi, xaây döïng 7 traïm gaùc, phaân ranh rôùi Khu Baœo toàn, naâng caáp 

ñöôøng saét vaø ñöôøng boä ôœ ñòa phöông. 

2. Thöïc hieän coâng taùc baœo toàn vaø chöông trình baœo veä baèng caùch tuyeån 42 ngöôøi 

baœo veä, khoâi phuïc laïi nhieàu khu vöïc röøng vôùi caùc loaøi caây baœn ñòa vaø tieáp tuïc 

hoaøn thieän chính saùch khuyeán noâng cuœa chính phuœ. 

3. Baét ñaàu caùc chöông trình nghieân cöùu khoa hoïc ñeå theo doõi vaø phaùt trieån caùc loaøi 

ñoäng thöïc vaät. 

4. Döï thaœo vaø thöïc hieän chöông trình giaùo duïc veà moâi tröôøng vaø chieán dòch naâng 

cao nhaän thöùc. 

5. Thieát laäp moät heä thoáng haønh chính vaø tuyeån 13 ngöôøi quaœn lyù vaø nhöõng nhaân 

vieân giuùp vieäc. 

Khu baœo toàn thieân nhieân seõ ñöôïc UBND tænh Kon Tum quaœn lyù vôùi söï giuùp ñôõ cuœa Boä Noâng 

nghieäp vaø phaùt trieån noâng thoân, Toång chi phí cho caœ naêm chöông trình hoaït ñoäng treân 5 

naêm seõ laø 16,317 trieäu ñoàng. 

Nhöõng muïc tieâu cuœa döï aùn laø: 

• Baœo veä neùt ñaëc tröng cuœa sinh caœnh nuùi röøng nhieät ñôùi 

• Baœo veä vaø duy trì tính ña daïng sinh hoïc cao cuœa vuøng naøy 

• Baœo veä caùc caù theå ñaëc höõu vaø ñang bò ñe doïa 

• Taïo laäp vuøng ñeäm 

• Baœo veä giaù trò phoøng hoä ñaàu nguoàn cuœa khu vöïc. 

xi

1. Introduction 

This is an expanded English-language version of the original Vietnamese-language investment plan for 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve prepared by the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute (FIPI) and BirdLife 

International. The objective of the Vietnamese report was to provide the justification and details needed 

to formally establish Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province. The objective of the English 

translation is to serve as a source document for a wider audience. 

1.1 Geography, Demographics, Economics and Environment 

Geography. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a relatively narrow strip running north-south along 

the eastern coast of the Indochinese Peninsula. With a 3,000 km coastline, Vietnam extends from 

23°37.5' to 8°00.5'N. It is approximately 525 km across at its widest point and 47 km across at its 

narrowest point. Vietnam’s total land area is 331,689 km 2 . Mountain ranges extend along Vietnam’s 

border with the People’s Republic of China in the north, and along the borders with the Lao People’s 

Democratic Republic and the Kingdom of Cambodia in the west. The highest point is Mount Fan Si 

Pan in the far north at 3,143 m, although average mountain altitudes are around 1,000 m. Vietnam is 

topographically complex with the exception of the narrow, coastal lowlands of the central region and 

the southern Mekong Delta region. 

Demographics. The population of Vietnam is approximately 77 million people (1998), with a growth 

rate of 2.3% (at this rate, the population will double in 32 years). The country is comprised of 61 

provinces with 570 urban centres. Eighty percent of the population live in rural areas. Two cities have 

over 1 million inhabitants: Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) and Hanoi, the capital. Literacy rates 

are high: 93% for males and 83% for females. Life expectancy is 62 years for males and 67 years for 

females (Pham Ngoc Dang 1998). 

Economics. Vietnam is currently undergoing an economic transition towards a more market-oriented 

economy. Vietnam’s annual per capita gross national product (GNP) is about US$250 (World Bank 

1997). GNP has been growing rapidly for the past decade. Vietnam’s leading exports in order of 

contribution to GNP are crude oil, coal, rice, coffee, textiles, marine products, shoes, tea, cashew nuts 

and rubber. It is the world’s third largest rice exporter and the fifth largest coffee exporter. 

Environment. Economic growth, infrastructure development, population growth, protracted wars, 

and the development of agriculture, forestry and fishing industries have caused an over-exploitation of 

Vietnam’s natural resources. The environment in Vietnam has largely been compromised; forest cover 

is estimated at less than 20% of the country’s total land area (less than 10% primary forest) (Vo Quy 

1998). Over the last two decades, there has been an average reduction of forest by 350,000 ha per year 

(Vo Quy 1998). Gross deforestation has been accompanied by degradation of arable land, soil erosion, 

destruction of water catchments, diminished groundwater sources, siltation and ecological degradation 

of coastal and submerged areas, and a loss of overall biodiversity within Vietnam. 

1.2 Conservation 

The government of Vietnam recognised the necessity for conserving and rehabilitating the natural 

environment at the end of the 1970s. Its first priority was to provide areas for settling war veterans. The 

second priority was chemical detoxification and remediation for human resettlement of areas affected 

by chemical defoliants. The third priority was given to reforestation, establishing protected areas and 

the conversion of forests into cultivated land (MOF 1991a). Only in the 1990s has the conservation 

emphasis moved towards protecting endangered habitats and species. 

1

Section 1 - Introduction 

2 

Vietnam’s forests are divided into three categories (MOF 1991a,b): 

(a) Production Forest. These are forested areas which can be allocated to any organisation or 

individual (with management requirements and harvesting regulations) for domestic 

commercial timber needs as stipulated in Vietnam’s Forestry Law, Articles 28-34; 

(b) Watershed Protection Forest. These forested areas can be allocated to forestry agencies, 

people’s committees, or to the people directly, with the main purposes of watershed 

protection, soil erosion control, and foreshore protection with special provisions as per 

Articles 35-37; and 

(c) Special-Use Forest (Protected Area). These are forested lands allocated for environment 

conservation, tourism, educational purposes, national defence, and other special uses. These 

lands can be allocated to organisations and agencies in the state forestry sector which are 

expected to generate revenues outside of the strict preservation areas and follow management 

procedures as per Articles 39-41. Special-Use Forests are further subdivided into: 

(i) Cultural and Historical Sites to preserve and maintain areas of national and 

cultural interest and importance; 

(ii) Nature Reserves intended to preserve all representative forest types and to 

conserve biodiversity; and 

(iii) National Parks to protect and conserve all major types of wildlife and habitat 

types found within the country of Vietnam. 

Vietnam currently has proposals for 105 protected areas, comprising 976,000 ha or 3% of the total 

land area. If these proposals are adopted, there will be 10 national parks, 61 nature reserves, and 34 

cultural of historical sites (Dang Huy Huynh 1998). Vietnam is actively gazetting new sites as part of its 

treaty obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Under this treaty, Vietnam has agreed 

to establish 2,000,000 ha of protected areas by the year 2000, thereby doubling the network of Special- 

Use Forests. 

Vietnam supports approximately 275 mammal species, 826 bird species, 260 reptile species, 82 amphibian 

species, 500 freshwater fish species, 2,000 marine fish species, and 12,000 plant species (Dang Huy 

Huynh 1998, MacKinnon 1996). 

1.3 The Kontum Plateau 

The Kontum Plateau is the mountainous region centred on Kon Tum and southern Quang Nam 

provinces in the Western Highlands of Vietnam, also known as the Central Highlands, is the second 

highest montane area in Vietnam and includes the second highest mountain in Vietnam, Mount Ngoc 

Linh (2,598 m). Mount Ngoc Linh lies within Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, a geographically isolated 

and unique area that encompasses lower and upper montane habitats within its conservation coverage. 

The Kontum Plateau region also supports extensive areas of primary forest. 

1.4 Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

The Ngoc Linh area was recognised for its unique flora, upper montane forest and a nationally famous 

endemic plant with purported medicinal qualities, Ngoc Linh or Vietnamese Ginseng Panax vietnamensis.


The conservation coverage of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is primarily comprised of degraded lower 

montane evergreen forest and pristine upper montane evergreen forest. This includes patches of primary 

forest and secondary lower montane evergreen forest from 1,500 to 1,700 m; above this altitude, the 

forest is largely pristine with a closed canopy. Predominantly upper montane primary evergreen forest 

extends from 1,700 to 2,400 m (Eames et al. 1999a). 

The high montane peaks of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are also especially notable both for high levels of 

insulation and for extremely localised or restricted-range endemism. According to the Protected Areas 

System Review of the Indo-Malayan Realm (MacKinnon 1996), the Kontum Plateau, centred on Mount 

Ngoc Linh, lies within sub-unit Ma (Central Annam Mountains) which shows moderately high levels 

of endemism of conifers and birds. As such, the forest protected by Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve was the 

focus of ornithological surveys to elucidate areas for conservation planning in 1996 and 1998 (Eames et 

al. 1999a). 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve also plays a very important role in the region’s watershed management. The 

forest in Ngoc Linh, Dac Man and Dac Plo districts, and the Lo Xo Pass area encompasses the upstream 

catchments of all the main river systems in the region, including the Dac Mek, Dac Po Lo, Thu Bon 

and Dac Bla Rivers flowing to Laos. As a result, this forest plays a crucial economic role in Quang Nam 

and Kon Tum provinces as the main water source point for irrigation, domestic water supplies and the 

reservoir of Yaly Hydropower Station. 

1.5 History and Official Status 

The original recommendation for establishing Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province was 

made in 1986. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve was included in Ministerial Decision No. 194/CT dated 9 

August 1986, which proposed establishing 73 protected areas, including two national parks, 46 nature 

reserves, and 25 cultural and historical sites. Although this decree included the original recommendation 

for the formation of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province, the proposed conservation 

coverage was only 20,000 ha (Cao Van Sung 1995). In the Biodiversity Action Plan for Vietnam 

(Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1994), Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve was listed as one 

of twelve priority areas in Vietnam for expansion in order to protect regional biodiversity. 

1.6 Current Conservation Status 

The 41,420 ha conservation coverage proposed for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve includes the majority of 

extant primary forest in the area. From 1976 to 1995, the area which includes the nature reserve lost 

approximately 13% of its evergreen forest. The decrease in evergreen forest was accompanied by an 

increase in scrub and grasslands from 10 to 21% of the area. Ground surveys indicate that shifting 

cultivation was the primary cause of this significant loss of evergreen forest (Eames et al. 1999a). The 

rate of habitat loss due to shifting cultivation is increasing due to population growth in local communities. 

Road construction plans for the Western Highlands also present a potential threat to Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve. A 1,789 km highway project, currently in the developmental phase, is aimed at traversing 

Vietnam’s western border. National Highway 14, which bisects the nature reserve, is included for 

upgrading as part of this highway project, which would facilitate access to the forest and resources of 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, and potentially increase the rate of forest degradation (Eames et al. 1999a). 

The conservation coverage of the Ngoc Linh area of the northern Kontum Plateau would benefit from 

the planned establishment of two additional nature reserves, both abutting Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

to the east and north in Quang Nam province. These are Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) Nature Reserve, 

3


directly east of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (approximately 30,000 ha) and Song Thanh-Dakpring Nature 

Reserve (approximately 100,000 ha), currently proposed by the World Wide Fund for Nature’s (WWF) 

Indochina Programme (Wikramanayake et al. 1997). Song Thanh-Dakpring Nature Reserve would 

include an area of Quang Nam province to the north of Ngoc Linh (Kon Tum) Nature Reserve, extending 

from the western boundary of Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) Nature Reserve to Vietnam’s border with 

Laos. 

4 

1.7 Current Legislative Status 

Several documents govern the establishment, expansion, development, management and regulations of 

Vietnam’s protected areas network, of which the most important for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are in 

chronological order: 

• Ministerial Decision No. 194/CT dated 9 August 1986 proposing the establishment of 73 

protected areas, including two national parks, 46 nature reserves, and 25 cultural and 

historical sites. This decree included the original recommendation for the formation of 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province; 

• Ministerial Decision No. 1171/QD of 30 December 1986 which outlines the management 

regulations and objectives of ‘Special-Use Forests’; 

• Ministerial Decision No. 62 LN/KL dated 3 February 1990, which regulates the principles 

and procedures for the establishment of ‘Special-Use Forests’; 

• Guidelines of the Ministry of Forestry dated July 1991, outlining the methods and contents 

of feasibility studies for establishment of ‘Special-Use Forests’; 

• The Forestry Sector Review, and the Tropical Forestry Action Programme and Plan were 

established in December 1991 under UNDP/FAO Project VIE/88/037 in order to institute 

Vietnam’s terms of reference on forest policy and legislation; 

• The Ministry of Forestry (now under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 

(MARD)) Letter No. 1,586 dated 13 July 1993, which regulates the establishment and 

requirements of buffer zones for Vietnam’s national parks and nature reserves; 

• Ministerial Decision 202 TTg dated 2 May 1994, defining the policies and legislation 

regarding the protection, regeneration and growing of forest; 

• Ministry of Forestry Guidelines No. 09/KH dated 13 September 1994, governing the 

investment of capital in the forestry sector; 

• Vietnam’s treaty under the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1993, ratified in 1994, 

and thereby obliging Vietnam to increase its protected area coverage to two million hectares 

by the year 2000; 

• Within the scope of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Vietnam formulated a national 

Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), ratified under Ministerial Decree 845/TTg of 22 December 

1995. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is listed in the BAP as one of twelve prioritised areas in 

Vietnam for expansion in order to protect regional biodiversity;


• The Vietnam Forestry Development Strategy was approved during the 11th National 

Assembly under Section 9 in March 1997. The Vietnam Forestry Development Strategy 

aims to plan the expansion of ‘Special-Use Forests’ by a further 1,444,900 ha by the year 

2000; and 

• Ministerial Decision No. 34, 1998-QD/BNN-Kh dated 24 February 1998, outlining areas 

for preliminary and feasibility studies in irrigation, agriculture and forestry projects during 

1998 under the direct management of MARD. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum 

province is one of the priority projects proposed by MARD’s designate, the Forest Inventory 

and Planning Institute (FIPI), to be assisted by BirdLife International. 

1.8 Global Conservation Significance 

Initial surveys conducted by BirdLife International identified 221 centres of bird endemism worldwide; 

termed Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) (ICBP 1992). Three EBAs were identified in Vietnam: Da 

Lat Plateau in the Western Highlands, the Southern Vietnamese Lowlands, and the Annamese Lowlands 

in central Vietnam (ICBP 1992, Stattersfield et al. 1998). Recent surveys, conducted to provide baseline 

information for this investment plan, revealed that the bird fauna of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve qualifies 

and upgrades the Kontum Plateau to Vietnam’s fourth EBA. 

Bird endemism is believed to be a good indicator of overall biodiversity. Thus, areas found to be foci of 

endemic birds should be assessed by conservation planners for inclusion in protected areas systems, as 

such areas often provide the most comprehensive conservation coverage (Eames et al. 1994). 

Ornithologically, the results from this previously unsurveyed region included several significant finds, 

including two bird species new to science: Golden-winged Laughingthrush Garrulax ngoclinhensis (Eames 

et al. 1999b) and Black-crowned Barwing Actinodura sodangorum (Eames et al. 1999a). Additionally, 

12 new bird subspecies were discovered in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (Eames et al. in press) (see 

Section 2.12 for more details). Furthermore, five previously known, restricted-range bird species were 

recorded at this site: Crested Argus Rheinardia ocellata, White-cheeked Laughingthrush Garrulax vassali, 

Black-hooded Laughingthrush Garrulax milleti, Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler Jabouilleia danjoui and 

Yellow-billed Nuthatch Sitta solangiae. Therefore, Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve lies within a new EBA: 

the Kontum Plateau EBA. This elevates the conservation significance of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve and 

the wider area to international importance. 

Discoveries of New Mammal Species. The Kontum Plateau EBA is also of world-wide significance 

because it harbours endemic mammal species. Of particular importance was the discovery in 1997 of 

the Truong Son Muntjac Muntiacus truongsonensis within forest extending from Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve into western Quang Nam province (Pham Mong Giao et al. 1998). Another recently discovered 

mammal that is also found within Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is the Giant Muntjac Megamuntiacus 

vuquangensis, which represents a new genus (Do Tuoc et al. 1994). 

Other Restricted-Range, Endemic and Red-Listed Species. The restricted-range bird fauna of Ngoc 

Linh Nature Reserve overlaps with that of both the Annamese Lowlands and Da Lat Plateau EBAs 

(Table 1). The restricted-range bird fauna of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve includes Crested Argus, Whitecheeked 

Laughingthrush, Black-hooded Laughingthrush, Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler and Yellowbilled 

Nuthatch, all of which are found in other Vietnamese EBAs. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve contains 17 red-listed bird species and 20 red-listed mammal species. Large 

mammal species of conservation importance found within the nature reserve include Tiger Panthera 

tigris, Clouded Leopard Pardofelis nebulosa, Asiatic Black Bear Ursus thibetanus, Sun Bear Ursus malayanus, 

5


Buff-cheeked Gibbon Hylobates gabriellae, Giant Muntjac and Truong Son Muntjac. Moreover, there 

are 21 red-listed herpetiles. 

Regarding flora, Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is home to 45 red-listed plant species and is the only 

known site of the endemic Ngoc Linh Ginseng. Eight other endemic plant species are also found in the 

nature reserve: Pinus dalatensis, Amentotaxus poilanei, Cinnamomum balansae, Alchornea annamensis, 

Baccaurea silvestris, Bulbophyllum evrardii, Otochilus fuscus and Calamus poilanei. 

Collaborative Conservation Efforts. There is a need to officially establish Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

for protection as a representative area of the Kontum Plateau EBA and for its global conservation 

significance. In December 1996, the government of Vietnam approved the project “Expanding the 

Protected Areas Network in Vietnam for the 21 st Century”, funded by the European Union (EU). This 

project is being implemented by BirdLife International and FIPI. This investment plan, which will 

contribute to the establishment of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, represents the second study to be researched 

and written as part of this collaborative conservation effort. The baseline research conducted to assist in 

this report strongly suggests that Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve can be an important part of Vietnam’s 

network of ‘Special-Use Forests’ 

6 

Table 1: Comparison of Ngoc Linh’s Restricted-range Birds with Vietnam’s other EBAs 

Bird Species Status Kontum Da Lat Annamese Southern Vietnamese 

Plateau Plateau Lowlands Lowlands 

Crested Argus Vulnerable + + + - 

White-cheeked Laughingthrush Least Concern + + + - 

Black-hooded Laughingthrush Vulnerable + + - - 

Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler Vulnerable + + + - 

Yellow-billed Nuthatch Vulnerable + + - - 

1.9 Management Authority 

Official status within Vietnam’s network of ‘Special-Use Forests’ would necessitate management 

responsibility being routed through the Kon Tum Provincial Forest Protection Department under 

MARD. Protection of all ‘Special-Use Forests’ is coordinated by MARD at the national level (MOF 

1991a).

2. Site Features 

2.1 Location 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is located within Dac Glei and Dac To districts in the mountainous north of 

Kon Tum province. The nature reserve is defined by the coordinates: 14 o 45' to 15 o 15'N and 107 o 21' to 

108 o 20'E. The nature reserve is approximately 87 km north-north-west of Kon Tum town and 100 km 

south-south-west of Da Nang city. 

The nature reserve borders Giang and Phuoc Son districts in Quang Nam province to the north, and 

Tra My district, also in Quang Nam province, to the east. To the west, the nature reserve borders Dac 

Nhoong and Dac Plo communes, on the Vietnam-Laos border, as well as Dac Pek and Dac Glei 

communes, all of which are in Dac Glei district, Kon Tum province. To the south, the nature reserve 

borders Dac Na, Mang Xang and Ngoc Lay communes in Dac To district, Kon Tum province (Map 5). 

Access Roads. National Highway 14 bisects the north-western section of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

and is accessible by all vehicle types. National Highway 14 climbs through the upstream basin of the 

Dac Po Ko River in Dac Pek commune from the south, entering the nature reserve in Bac Man commune. 

Heading north through Dac Man commune, National Highway 14 then descends through the Dak Se 

River basin and criss-crosses the border between Kon Tum and Quang Nam provinces. 

An unsurfaced road extends through the centre of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve from west to east, following 

the Dak Mek River. This route connects Dac Choong village, nearly surrounded by the nature reserve’s 

western boundary, and stops at Ngoc Linh village, which is completely encircled by the eastern section 

of the nature reserve. 

2.2 Topography 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is located in the mountainous Western Highlands of central Vietnam. This 

area is also often referred to as the Central Highlands, or, in historical references, as the southernmost 

extension of the Annamite Cordillera or Annamite Mountains. Mount Ngoc Linh and the surrounding 

mountains are connected to the southern Annamite Mountains as part of the Nam-Ngai-Dinh Ridge, 

which extends away from the main north-south range from north-west to south-east. The summits of 

this ridge are linked by a series of sharp peaks, in all comprising the mountain ranges of western Quang 

Nam and northern Kon Tum provinces. These high mountains and their adjacent highland areas are 

collectively referred to as the Kontum Plateau. The high mountains of this plateau are isolates, being 

separated by relatively long distances from other high mountain blocks. 

The slope ratio in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is rather high, typically 40 to 45 0 but sometimes as high as 

60 to 65 0 in the north, particularly on Ngoc Tion (2,032 m), Ngoc Peukpee (1,728 m) and Ngoc Lum 

Heo (2,030 m) peaks. In the south-east of the nature reserve are the peaks of Ngoc Lepho (2,070 m) and 

Ngoc Pa (2,251 m). The highest peak is Mount Ngoc Linh (2,598 m) with a steep slope from the summit 

down to 300 m in Dac My valley. In the south-west of the nature reserve, the slope is more gentle because 

of the eroded basins of the Dac Mek, Dac Psi, Dac Na and Dac Glei Rivers. The altitudes in the southwest 

area range from 900 to 1,200 m. The topography remains complex but the slope ratios become lower 

as the highlands extend south into Dac Glei and Dac To districts. 

2.3 Hydrology 

In general, river systems in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are narrow, high energy, montane rivers which 

are undergoing extensive grading and erosion. During the rainy season, rivers undergo pulse-flow events, 

7

Section 2 - Site Features 

resulting in sudden floods that can cause extensive erosion of river banks. Flood damage to lower lying 

areas is common, particularly to agricultural areas and irrigation projects. Groundwater run-off occurs 

at a high rate, as alluvial soils in the region are coarse grained, with a high proportion of sand (40 to 

50%), and very porous. 

During the dry season, rivers and streams at higher elevations and in open areas without forest cover are 

temporal. Water availability can be limited, making irrigation difficult in the lowlands. The main rivers 

flow all year at lower elevations. However, the extensive forest cover performs an important hydrological 

function by reducing seasonality in stream flow and peak flow volumes. 

The mountains of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are the upstream water catchments of four main river 

systems: 

8 

(a) Dac Mek River. This river originates below the summits of Mount Ngoc Linh (2,598 m) 

and Ngoc Pang (2,327 m) and runs through Ngoc Linh, Dac Choong, Muong Hoong and 

Dac Man communes. It merges into the Dac Se River, the main river flowing into the 

South China Sea at Da Nang city. This river is 60 km long with many large secondary 

branches such as the Dac Che and Dac Thiang Mek Rivers. 

(b) Dac Po Ko River. This river originates below the summit of Ngoc Nay (2,259 m) and 

peaks at 1,998 m, 1,855 m, 2,032 m and 2,003 m, runs through Dac Man and Dac 

Nhong communes, and then flows south to Dac Glei and Kon Tum towns. It also has 

many large secondary branches such as the Dac Na, Dac Ka Tan, Dac Psi and Dac Glei 

Rivers which also spring from Ngoc Linh, Ngoc Pang and some other high summits. This 

river flows to Dac Pla, then merges with the Krong Po Ko River at Kon Tum town. The 

Dac Po Ko River is the most important water source for Yaly Hydropower Station. 

(c) Thu Bon River. This river also originates from below Mount Ngoc Linh and other high 

peaks in the east and north-east of the nature reserve. The Thu Bon River flows in a southwest 

to north-east direction and reaches the South China Sea at the Hoi An estuary. 

(d) Dac Plo River. This is another river system originating from sources at high elevations in 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. These secondary rivers flow into the Dac Plo River, travel 

through Laos, and eventually join the Mekong River. These secondary rivers are an important 

source of water for irrigated rice fields in Dac Plo commune. 

2.4 Geomorphology 

During the Precambrian Age, the ancient Indoxinian Massif extruded from the sea with its eastern 

perimeter creating a shield ranging from Ngoc An to Ngoc Linh. Uneven subduction from the east and 

geological erosion resulted in flattened and slanted surfaces with numerous displacement fractures. 

During the formation of the Viet-Lao Caledon enfolded syncline, from the Cambrian Period to the 

beginning of the Devonian, the Kontum Plateau or submassif was formed by splitting from the Indoxinian 

Massif. 

The settling of the Kontum Plateau resulted from the Secong Fracture, along the plateau’s western side 

and a southern fault line, both of which isolated the plateau from the Indoxinian Massif to the west. In 

addition, continuous Himalayan movements created a number of fractures in a north-south direction, 

heightening some blocks and slanting others toward the west. In places where blocking was extreme, 

many big fractures were created that effused thick layers of basalt either irregularly or in large areas, as 

in the highlands south of Dac Glei and Dac To districts (Map 2).

Grid: UTM, zone 48 

Horizontal Datum: India 1960 

Map 2: Geology of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

LEGEND 

Vietnam/Laos Border 

Provincial Border 

Commune Border 

National Highway 14 

Other Road 

Stream or River 

Boundary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

GEOLOGY 

1. Basalt 

2. Ben Giang-Que Son complex: gabrodiorite, diorite and granite. 

3. Re River complex: plagiogranite, granodiorite and granite-migmatite 

4. Tranh River stratum: gneiss with amphbiotite and migmatite 

5. Dac Mi stratum: gneiss with migmatite 

6. Chu La-Ba To complex: granodiorite, granite and granite-migmatite 

7. Chieng Mountain complex: granosyenite, syenite and granite 

8. Mainland complex: granodiorite and granite with gneiss 

9. A Vuong stratum: phylite, quartzite and mica 

10. Clay, sand, shingle, gravel and boulders 

SCALE 1:250,000 


� 

Produced by the Forest Resources 


9


2.5 Soils 

Field assessments and available data indicate that the main soils in the area are (Map 3): 

10 

(a) Highland Alittic Humus Soil (HA). This soil type is distributed above a height of 2,000 m 

where the average temperature is below 15 0 C. Temperatures during the coldest months are 

5 to 6 o C and are lower than 20 0 C during the hottest months. The soil is always humid 

although the aeolian and soil layer are thin. However, the upper humus layer is over 50 cm 

thick. In many places, such as Ngoc Linh summit, there is a very humid and porous humus 

layer over one metre thick. The soil layer is also humid, light, textured and structureless. At 

an average depth of 35 cm is a layer of clay containing white rock crystal, with pH 4, 30% 

humus, and C/N ratio of 25 to 35, which is liable to being washed off. The total extent of 

this soil type is 7,600 ha, comprising 15.4% of the total nature reserve area. 

(b) Feralite Humus Soil (FH). This soil type is distributed in areas from 1,000 to 2,000 m 

altitude. The climate at these altitudes is always humid and cool. Temperatures are between 

15 and 20 o C. Evaporation rates are lower than rainfall rates. Lots of crude humus has 

accumulated. The C/N ratio is 15 to 20. Feralite levels are comparatively low. The humus 

layer is thick. Soils are acidic, impermeable and have developed on three different mother 

rocks: 

(i) Yellow Feralite Humus Soil on Acid Magmatic Rock (FHa). These soils are thick layered, 

medium textured, acid and poorly developed. The area covered by this soil type is 

4,800 ha, making up 9.7% of the nature reserve’s area. These soils are distributed on 

the slopes of Mount Ngoc Linh and other high mountains in the region; 

(ii) Brown Feralite Humus Soil on Magmatic Alkaline and Neutral Rock (FHk). This soil 

layer is very thick, heavy textured, homogeneous, fertile and acidic. These soils cover 

2,900 ha, which is 5.9% of the total area of the nature reserve. They are distributed 

mostly in Muong Hoong, Dac Man and Ngoc Linh communes, at a height of 1,000 

to 1,500 m; and 

(iii) Yellow and Red Feralite Soil on Clay Schist and Metamorphic Rock (FHs). These are 

thick layered, heavy or medium textured, fertile, porous and acidic soils. They cover 

a large area of 23,130 ha, comprising 46.8% of the total area of the nature reserve. 

They are distributed between 1,000 and 2,000 m. 

(c) Feralite Soil (F). These soils are found between 500 and 1,000 m and cover 21.2% of the 

total area of the nature reserve. Due to lower rainfall rates, higher atmospheric and surface 

temperatures, the forest cover is more broken and open as compared to forest at higher 

altitudes. Based on different tectonic rocks, there are the following three soils: 

(i) Yellow and Red Feralite Soil on Magmatic Acidic Rock in Lowlands (Fa). Medium 

layered, coarse grained, unconsolidated, granular soil. Subject to denutrification in 

deforested areas. This soil type covers 5,700 ha or 11.5% of the total area. These soils 

are distributed along rivers at the base of Mount Ngoc Linh; 

(ii) Brown and Red Feralite Soil on Magmatic Alkaline and Neutral Rock in Lowlands (Fk). 

Homogeneous, thick layered, 80% clay textured soils. This is a nutrient-rich soil that is 

compacted in deforested areas. This soil type covers 1,900 ha or 3.8% of the total area 

and is distributed along National Highway 14, near the Dac Mek River; and

11 

Feralite Humus Soil (FH) 

Feralite Soil (F) 

Highland Alittic Humus Soil (HA) 



LEGEND 





Other Road 



SOIL TYPE 

Map 3: Soil Types of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

SCALE 1:200,000 

� 

Map based on soil map produced by FIPI in 1994 

Section 2 - Site Features


12 

(iii) Yellow and Red Feralite Soil on Metamorphic Rock and Clay Slate in Lowlands (Fs). 

These are deep layered, heavy textured (60% clay), good structured and very fertile 

soils. These soils comprise 2,900 ha and make up 5.9% of the total area of the nature 

reserve. They are distributed along National Highways 14A and 14B, and the Dac 

Mek Valley. 

(d) River and Stream Alluvial Soil (P). Created from the alluvium along rivers and streams, or 

accumulated at the foot of mountains or hills; these are grey and brown, deeply layered, 

medium to light textured, porous soils. Due to the even topography of accumulation areas, 

most of these soils are utilised for agriculture. These soils cover 500 ha or 1% of the total 

area. They are very fertile soils and are distributed along all the rivers and streams in the 

region. 

2.6 Meteorology 

The study area is in a remote mountainous region without any weather stations. Therefore, meteorological 

data had to be collected from neighbouring weather stations located in Tra My, Ba To and Dac To 

districts, and Kon Tum town. These four locations are the closest stations that are capable of presenting 

data representative of the nature reserve’s climatic conditions (Table 2). 

Table 2: Meteorological Data from Four Weather Stations near Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Meteorological Weather Station 

Data Tra My Ba To Dac To Kon Tum 

Latitude 15 0 21'N 14 0 46'N 14 0 42'N 14 0 30'N 

Longitude 108 0 13'E 108 0 43'E 107 0 49'E 108 0 01'E 

Altitude (m) 200 150 650 536 

Period of measurements 1978 to 1995 1980 to 1995 1981 to 1995 1976 to 1995 

Total annual rainfall (mm) 3,841 3,608 3,841 1,804 

Maximum daily rainfall (mm) 403 515 141 170 

Months of maximum rainfall Sep, Oct, Sep, Oct, Jun, Jul, Jun, Jul, 

Nov, Dec Nov, Dec Aug, Sep Aug, Sep 

Rainy season Apr to Jan May to Jan Apr to Oct Apr to Oct 

Dry season Feb to Mar Feb to Apr Nov to Mar Nov to Mar 

Annual no. of rainy days 173 days 140 days 140 days 132 days 

Annual mean temperature ( o C) 25.3 24.3 22.3 23.4 

Annual humidity (% RH) 86 84 80 78 

Evaporation (mm) 728 mm 867 mm 1,232 mm 1,533 mm 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve enjoys a humid tropical climate. However, as a high montane area with 

altitudes ranging from 500 to 2,598 m, the climate varies considerably. The average annual temperatures 

clearly reflect the topographical variation between the different weather stations. For instance, Tra My 

and Ba To, at an altitude of 200 m and located to the east and north-west of the study area, have average 

yearly temperatures of 24 and 25 0 C, respectively. In Dac To and Kon Tum, to the south-west of the 

nature reserve and at altitudes of 650 and 536 m, the average yearly temperatures are only 22 and 23 0 C, 

respectively. 

Rainfall rates also vary with altitude, as mountains induce localised precipitation patterns from clouds 

carried by prevailing winds. The north-east side of Mount Ngoc Linh has a much higher rainfall rate than 

the south-west side. Total annual rainfall increases with altitude: Ba To, 3,608 mm; Tra My, 3,841 mm; 

and Ngoc Linh summit, 4,000 mm. The total number of rainy days per annum averages 170 ; however, at 

Ngoc Linh summit, it is 250.


To the north-east of the nature reserve, the rainy season begins around the end of April and extends to 

the end of January. There are only two months of dry season: February and March. To the south-west 

of the nature reserve, the rainy season starts in May and lasts until the end of October; and the dry 

season lasts for five months, from November to March or the beginning of April. 

During the rainy season, there is a high incidence of typhoons in the region. However, typhoons never 

cross over to the western side of the Western Highlands. Therefore, the south-west of the study area 

never encounters storms, although it periodically suffers from floods brought on by prolonged rainfall. 

The dry season also exhibits very localised patterns, and causes severe water shortages in the west of the 

nature reserve. 

2.7 Flora Overview 

Data from two field surveys conducted in 

April-May 1996 and March-May 1998, 

revealed 878 plant species in 539 genera 

and 152 families (Table 3). 

Out of 878 species found in the nature 

reserve, there are 45 threatened species, of 

which 19 are listed in the IUCN Red List 

of Threatened Plants (IUCN 1997) and 34 

are listed in the Red Data Book of Vietnam 

Table 3: Plants Found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Order Families Genera Species 

Psilotophyta 1 1 1 

Lycopodiophyta 2 3 4 

Equisetophyta 1 1 1 

Polypodiophyta 14 26 41 

Pinophyta 6 10 12 

Magnoliophyta 128 498 819 

Total 152 539 878 

(Anon. 1996). There are 238 timber species, 169 medicinal species and 78 ornamental species. The 

flora of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is similar to that of Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve and the Western 

Highlands as a whole (Table 4). 

Table 4: Plants Found in the Western Highlands 

Location Area (ha) Families Genera Species 

Western Highlands — 223 1,139 3,201 

Chu Yang Sin Nature Reserve 59,278 142 475 876 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 41,420 152 539 878 

Mount Ngoc Linh, the second highest mountain in Vietnam and the highest mountain in southern 

Vietnam, represents the largest area of montane habitat on the Kontum Plateau. The mountain’s 

geographical isolation has lead to the evolution of several endemic species. Nine plant species found at 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are endemic to Vietnam: Panax vietnamensis, Pinus dalatensis, Amentotaxus 

poilanei, Cinnamomum balansae, Alchornea annamensis, Baccaurea silvestris, Bulbophyllum evrardii, 

Otochilus fuscus and Calamus poilanei. The flora of Ngoc Linh shows many Sino-Himalayan affinities, 

and the area is also a haven for primitive taxa such as conifers and members of the Magnoliaceae, 

Annonaceae, Theaceae and Betulaceae. 

In the known flora of Ngoc Linh, 26 families are represented by 10 or more species: Asteraceae (59), 

Orchidaceae (50), Rutaceae (41), Poaceae (29), Fagaceae (24), Moraceae, Euphorbiaceae (23), Araliaceae 

(18), Myrsinaceae, Cyperaceae (17), Lauraceae (16), Rosaceae (15), Fabaceae, Apocynaceae, Theaceae, 

Ericaceae, Araceae (14), Meliaceae, Anacardiaceae (13), Rutaceae (12), Lamiaceae (11), Polypodiaceae, 

Verbenaceae, Annonaceae, Mimosaceae and Melastomaceae (10). However, the tree flora is largely 

dominated by species from the less species-rich families such as the Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Hamamelidaceae, 

Magnoliaceae, Betulaceae, Pentaphylaceae, Theaceae and Elaeocarpaceae. 

13


Among the conifers, Pinus kesiya is widespread, either in monospecific stands or in mixed forest. Other 

coniferous tree species include Pinus dalatensis, Dacrycarpus imbricatus and Keteleeria evelyniana, which 

are not abundant but are represented by particularly large specimens. 

There are many valuable plant species, particularly those used in traditional medicine. The Araliaceae 

contains large numbers of medicinal plant species, including the endemic Ngoc Linh Ginseng, which 

has been heavily over-exploited and is now endangered. 

2.8 Forest and Vegetation Cover 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve has a large area of extant forest cover: within the proposed boundaries of the 

nature reserve, forest cover makes up 88% of the total area (Table 5 and Map 4). The primary forest 

cover is also high and makes up approximately 60% of the total area. A large proportion of each of the 

main forest types and subtypes found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is primary. 

Although the forest types in Table 5 are based on a forestry classification, it is clear that the extent of 

rich and medium forest (which is roughly equivalent to primary forest) is great. These forest types are 

distributed at medium and high altitudes in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, extending south into Gia Lai 

and Dak Lak provinces, north into Quang Nam province and west into Laos. 

2.9 Forest Types 

Data on forest types was provided by vegetation maps (1:50,000 scale, UTM) compiled from remote 

sensing data by the Forest Resources and Environment Centre of FIPI in 1996 and verified by ground 

assessments in April 1998. 

The main forest types are based upon the classification of Thai Van Trung (1978). Based on this 

classification, the following forest types are found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve: 

14 

Table 5: Forest Cover in the Four Communes of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Forest Type Dac Choong Dac Man Ngoc Linh Muong Hoong Total % 

(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) 

Rich Forest 7,992 4,532 3,620 1,906 18,050 30 

Medium Forest 6,919 2,995 700 3,251 13,865 23 

Poor Forest 138 138 56 1,100 1,432 2 

Regenerating Forest 1,924 3,765 1,020 1,566 8,275 14 

Coniferous Forest 3,625 332 0 0 3,957 7 

Bamboo Forest 0 0 249 245 739 1 

Scrub and Grassland 5,724 2,550 1,720 1,344 11,338 19 

Scattered Trees 280 138 25 68 511 1 

Agricultural Land 38 50 35 980 1,103 2 

Total 26,640 14,500 7,670 10,460 59,270 — 

(a) high montane broadleaf evergreen forest; 

(b) medium to high montane broadleaf evergreen forest; 

(c) low montane broadleaf evergreen forest; and 

(d) secondary forest. 

Forest types (a) and (b) broadly equate to tropical montane evergreen forest in the classification developed 

by MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986) (and refined by MacKinnon in 1996), whilst forest type (c)

oadly equates to tropical semi-evergreen rainforest. 


High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

This forest type is distributed from 2,000 to 2,598 m on Mount Ngoc Linh and is developed on alittic 

humus soils with a base of granite intermingled with rionite and daxite rocks. This forest type is largely 

undisturbed. The tree flora is composed mainly of broadleaf trees interspersed with a few conifers. 

The tree flora includes members of the Lauraceae, Fagaceae, Theaceae, Araliaceae, Magnoliaceae, 

Aceraceae and Rosaceae, including Pentaphylax spp., Quercus spp., Lithocarpus spp., Castanopsis spp., 

Litsea verticillata, Symplocos cochinchinensis, Eurya japonica, Elaeocarpus spp., Exbucklandia tonkinensis, 

E. populnea, and Turpinia montana. There are also conifers such as Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Podocarpus 

neriifolius, Pinus dalatensis and Dacrydium elatum. Of the conifers, only Pinus dalatensis is present in 

large numbers. 

This undisturbed forest exhibits dense canopy cover and a complex forest structure with a species-rich 

floral composition. This forest type is stratified into three layers. The characteristics of each of the forest 

layers are: 

(a) Emergent Layer. This dominant tree layer consists of the aforementioned broadleaf trees. 

The most notable emergents are Quercus spp., Dacrycarpus imbricatus and Pinus dalatensis, 

with diameters of 80 to 150 cm and heights of 25 to 30 m; 

(b) Closed Canopy. This layer of species-diverse and dense continuous forest cover includes 

small timber trees, trees of the Araliaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Trees in this layer are dense at 

6,000 trees/ha; and 

(c) Open Understorey, Shade-Tolerant Forest. This foliage layer is interspersed with both 

shade-loving trees and saplings of the species found in the closed canopy and emergent 

layer (Table 6). This third storey forms a continuum to the forest floor, mixing with both 

monocotyledons and some dicotyledons that make up the shrub and herb layer. 

Data from 40 x 40 m sample plots indicate that: 

• Average tree height: 18.5 m 

• Average tree diameter at 1.3 m: 28.5 cm 

• Mature tree density: 620 trees/ha 

• Volume of timber: 360 m 3 /ha 

• Sapling tree density: 6,000/ha 

Subtype: a) Elfin Forest (above 2,300m) 

This stunted forest subtype of high montane broadleaf evergreen forest 

is found distributed at altitudes above 2,300 m on the higher peaks 

of the Ngoc Linh range. Elfin forest is always found on slopes and 

Table 6: Composition of Saplings 

in High Montane Broadleaf 

Evergreen Forest 

Taxon Density 

Eurya sinensis var. glabra 30% 

Pentaphylax spp. 20% 

Symplocos cochinchinensis 15% 

Quercus chevalieri 10% 

Neolitsea cambodiana 2% 

Randia spp. 2% 

Other species 21% 

ridges which experience strong wind and are continually shrouded in cloud. The tree heights are low, covered 

with thick moss, and found growing on a decomposed humus soil 60 to 70 cm thick. Typical tree species are 

Rhododendron spp., Lyonia spp., Quercus spp., Anneslea fragrans, Elaeocarpus spp. and Sorbus wattii. 

In elfin forest, trees exhibit stunted morphology, they are not erect and tree size varies; tree diameters 

range from 2 to 6 cm and tree heights from 1.5 to 2 m. Trees which are sheltered from the prevailing 

winds can grow to larger sizes, with tree diameters from 6 to 14 cm and tree heights from 6 to 10 m. 

Elfin forest is rich in epiphytes: trees are covered by a layer of thick moss, and this forest type supports 

over 40 species of epiphytic orchids. 

15

16 

LEGEND 





Other Road 



SOIL TYPE 

1. Rich Forest 

2. Medium Forest 

3. Poor Forest 

4. Regenerating Forest 

5. Coniferous Forest 

6. Bamboo Forest 

7. Scattered Trees 

8. Scrub and Grassland 

9. Agricultural Land 



Map 4: Land Use in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

SCALE 1:200,000 

� 

Map based on soil map produced by FIPI in 1994 

Section 2 - Site Features


Subtype: b) Arundinaria vicinia Forest (2,100 to 2,400 m) 

On some of the higher mountains there is a zone of Arundinaria vicinia forest below the elfin forest. This 

forest type is commonest at altitudes between 2,300 and 2,400 m, although it is found as low as 2,100 m. 

The understorey is dominated by the dwarf bamboo, A. vicinia, which ranges from 1.3 to 1.7 cm in 

diameter, reaches 2.5 to 3.5 m in height, and grows at a density of 20,000 stems/ha. 

This undisturbed forest contains many rare and endemic species. Endemic conifers include Pinus 

dalatensis, Dacrydium elatum, Amentotaxus poilanei, Keteleeria evelyniana and Dacrycarpus imbricatus. 

Subtype: c) Mixed Coniferous and Broadleaf Forest containing Pinus dalatensis (~2,200 m) 

This forest type is a mature, undisturbed mixed forest of conifers (mainly Pinus dalatensis and Keteleeria 

evelyniana) and broadleaf trees. It is distributed at an elevation of 2,200 m on a litter layer 1 to 1.6 m 

thick and composed mostly of pine needles. The humus layer is over 30 cm thick and contains many 

tree roots. Furthermore, a thin soil layer is found on yellow acidic magmatic rock. 

The emergent layer is dominated by P. dalatensis, sparsely distributed in small, distinct stands, after 

which this forest subtype is named. These small stands are made up of trees reaching a height of 28 to 

30 m, with an average diameter of 150 to 200 cm, and with thin, emergent crowns. 

Trees in the closed canopy layer have comparatively small diameters and low tree heights. However, the 

tree density is very high, particularly in the areas with small P. dalatensis stands, and the broadleaf trees 

have thick crowns. 

Medium to High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

This forest type, found between 1,000 and 2,000 m, comprises the largest area of forest in the nature 

reserve. It is distributed on the south-west side of Mount Ngoc Linh, Ngoc Lum Heo and Ngoc Pang, 

and also occurs up to the summits of the mountains adjacent to Lo Xo Pass, including the peaks at 

1,998 , 1,728 , 1,855 and 1,785 m. 

This forest type is developed on red, yellow and brown feralite humus soil, on a bed of bioclastic granite 

rock, basaltic extrusive rock and altered slate. The rocks are mostly altered and the soil layer is of 

medium thickness, at 0.8 m, with low erosion. 

In general, this forest type can be considered primary, as only small areas have been converted to 

cultivation. Coniferous trees present include Dacrydium elatum, Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Podocarpus 

kesiya and P. neriifolius, which are randomly distributed on mountain sides and lower peaks. 

Broadleaf trees are dominant at these altitudes, typically members of the Fagaceae (Lithocarpus spp. and 

Quercus spp.) and Lauraceae. The Magnoliaceae is also well represented with several species of Michelia, 

Manglietia and Magnolia. The Sapotaceae is represented by the densely distributed Madhuca pasquieri, 

with a mean diameter of 40 to 50 cm. 

Data from primary medium to high montane broadleaf evergreen forest plots (40 x 40 m) indicate that: 


• Maximum tree height: >20 m 

• Average tree diameter at 1.3 m: 30 cm 

• Maximum tree diameter at 1.3 m: >45 cm 

• Mature tree density: 2,000 trees/ha 


• Sapling tree density: 10,000 trees/ha 

17


This rich, undisturbed forest type is distributed not only on the slopes of Mount Ngoc Linh and Lo Xo 

Pass but is found throughout the Cong Troi area and the south of Mang Xang commune. Ngoc Linh 

Ginseng is unevenly distributed in this forest type at altitudes over 1,700 m. 

At an elevation of 1,700 m, medium to high montane broadleaf evergreen forest is stratified into four 

layers: 

(a) Emergent Layer. The emergent layer in many areas is uniform and almost continuous. 

This layer is at a height of 15 to 17 m and consists mostly of broadleaf trees such as Betula 

alnoides, Castanopsis indica and Dacrycarpus imbricatus. This is only 2 to 4 m higher than 

the high montane broadleaf evergreen forest at higher elevations; 

18 

(b) Middle Layer. The middle layer is not referred to as a closed canopy because it is broken by 

large areas or stands of emergent trees. Continuous areas of the middle layer are directly 

underneath, and often appear continuous with, the emergent layer. The canopy layer differs 

from the emergent layer primarily in that it includes many species in the Rubiaceae and 

Euphorbiaceae; 

(c) Lower Layer. The shadetolerant 

lower layer is 

dominated by Calamus sp. 

and members of the 

Polypodiaceae; and 

(d) Ground Layer. The ground 

layer is a mixed shrub and 

herbaceous vegetation layer 

of both monocotyledons 

and dicotyledons. This 

layer includes saplings of 

the upper three vegetation 

layers which, particularly 

when growing with lianas, 

make small patches of this 

layer appear continuous 

with the lower forest layer. 

Forestry data on percentage density and basal area of each 

major tree species, used to calculate mean timber values, 

is also indicative of the dominant tree species in this forest 

type. These species are listed in descending order of 

density, and give a good view of the composition of this 

forest type (Table 7). The density of saplings in this forest 

type (Table 8) shows a different composition to the 

mature forest trees, suggesting that this highly developed 

forest type has complex stratification dynamics. 

Low Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

This forest type is distributed at altitudes less than 1,000 

m, on red and yellow feralite soils with a bedrock of granite, 

arenaceous and other altered rocks. Although extensive 

Table 7: Composition of Mature Trees in Medium to 

High Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

Taxon Density (%) Basal Area (%) 

1. Betula alnoides 13 20 

2. Eurya japonica 12 10 

3. Litsea verticillata 7 12 

4. Quercus spp. 7 11 

5. Castanopsis indica 6 15 

6. Symplocos cochinchinensis 6 5 

7. Engelhardtia spp. 6 4 

8. Cinnamomum balansae 6 1 

9. Quercus chevalieri 6 1 

10. Nephelium lappaceum 4 1 

11. Dacrycarpus imbricatus 4 5 

12. Schefflera octophylla 4 2 

13. Elaeocarpus spp. 4 1 

14. Pterospermum lanceaefolium 3 1 

15. Rhodoleia championii 8 1 

16. Other species 4 10 

Table 8: Composition of Saplings in 

Medium to High Montane Broadleaf 

Evergreen Forest 

Taxon Density (%) 

1. Quercus spp. 20 

2. Eugenia spp. 16 

3. Lauraceae 16 

4. Gironniera subaequalis 9 

5. Albizia lucidior 7 

6. Mischocarpus sundaicus 7 

7. Elaeocarpus spp. 5 

8. Litsea monopetala 5 

9. Randia acuminatissima 5 

10. Other species 7

areas of this forest type are disturbed, areas 

of primary forest remain. 

The vegetation layers are uneven and 

continuous in areas, either due to human 

disturbance and/or a predominance of fast 

growing, light-tolerant trees. Fast growing 

trees in this forest type are numerous and 

include species found in the Myrtaceae, 

Meliaceae, Moraceae, Lauraceae, Fagaceae 

and Elaeocarpaceae. 

Low montane broadleaf evergreen forest, 

where it has not been heavily disturbed, is 

stratified into three forest layers. These layers 

are: 

(a) Emergent Layer. The emergent layer 

is dominated by Ficus spp., such as 

F. altissima. The emergents are large 

trees with a mean diameter of 30 cm, 

a height of 17 m or over and a timber 

density of 100 m 3 /ha; 

(b) Closed Canopy Layer. This layer 

includes Schefflera octophylla, 

Elaeocarpus spp. and Litsea spp., as 

well as members of the Fagaceae and 

Theaceae; and 


Table 9: Composition of Mature Trees in Low 

Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

Taxon Density (%) Basal area (%) 

1. Fagaceae 33 35 

2. Schefflera octophylla 11 9 

3. Theaceae 11 8 

4. Elaeocarpus spp. 10 9 

5. Choerospondias axillaris 10 15 

6. Aglaia gigantea 7 6 

7. Lauraceae 6 9 

8. Sloanea sinensis 4 4 

9. Litsea monopetala 3 2 

10. Annonaceae 3 2 

11. Albizia lucidior 2 1 

Table 10: Composition of Saplings in Low 

Montane Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

Taxon Density (%) 

1. Fagaceae 31 

2. Lauraceae 19 

3. Elaeocarpus sp. 12 

4. Theaceae 10 

5. Albizia lucidior 10 

6. Engelhardtia roxburghiana 6 

7. Schefflera octophylla 5 

8. Other species 7 

(c) Ground Layer. There is a mixed understorey layer of shrubs herbs and saplings (Table 10). 

This dense ground layer also harbours climbers and is particularly difficult to navigate in 

more disturbed forest. 

Logging data from a typical plot (40 x 40 m) in low montane broadleaf evergreen forest in the Thac 

Che area of Dac Man commune show that: 


• Average tree diameter at 1.3 m: < 30 cm 




Forestry data on percentage density and basal area of each major tree species is indicative of the dominant 

tree species in low montane broadleaf evergreen forest. These species are listed in descending order with 

respect to density, and give an indication of the composition of the tree community (Table 9). 

Secondary Vegetation 

Areas of secondary regrowth have been created largely as a result of shifting agriculture. Five secondary 

vegetation subtypes are found within Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. Most are located on fallow or abandoned 

agricultural land. 

19


Subtype: a) Mixed Broadleaf and Bamboo Forest 

Mixed broadleaf and bamboo forest is distributed at altitudes below 1,200 m, and occurs adjacent to 

rivers, streams and villages in lower valleys. This forest type is often found on fallow agricultural land. 

The dominant bamboo species of this forest type is Dinochloa sp. Some characteristics of this species 

are: 

20 

• Average stem height: 7.5 to 8 m 

• Average stem diameter at 1.3 m: 4.5 to 5 cm 

Subtype: b) Pure Bamboo Forest Complex 

This forest type is found growing on fallow agricultural lands which have not been used for a long 

period of time. This is an interesting forest type as it is not monotypic but a complex of several bamboo 

species. Some mature trees are interspersed with the bamboo but very few or no saplings are found in 

this forest type. 

As in the mixed broadleaf and bamboo forest, the dominant bamboo species is Dinochloa sp. which is 

found growing in large plots along National Highway 14, as well as along rivers and streams. Stands of 

Dinochloa sp. are characterised by: 

• Average stem density: 36,000 to 42,000 stems/ha 

• Percent leaf/stem cover: 80 to 90% 

Another bamboo species, which grows in large monospecific stands, is Gigantochloa nigro-ciliata. This 

species grows very well on fertile lands and characteristically has: 

• Average stem diameter at 1.3 m: 3 to 3.5 cm 

• Average stem height: 4 to 4.5 m 

There are other bamboo species growing in large monospecific stands: the next most prevalent species 

is Bambusa balcoa, found below 1,200 m, and randomly distributed along roads, rivers, streams and 

cultivated areas. 

Subtype: c) Secondary Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

This forest type is associated with fallow agricultural land, and over-exploited and degraded forest 

areas. This forest type has two distinct forest layers: the understorey comprises herbaceous plants and 

tree saplings, whilst the canopy layer consists of fast growing, light-tolerant tree species such as Symplocos 

cochinchinensis, Eurya sinensis and members of the Theaceae and Fagaceae. Dominant tree taxa are 

listed in Table 11. 

Data from a typical plot (40 x 40 m) of 

secondary broadleaf evergreen forest, on 

agricultural land left fallow for 20 years at 

an elevation of 1,500 m on Mount Ngoc 

Linh, indicate that: 

• Average tree height: 

15 m 

• Average tree diameter at 1.3 m: 

18 cm 


Table 11: Composition of Mature Trees in Secondary 

Broadleaf Evergreen Forest 

Taxon Density (%) Basal Area (%) 

1. Fagaceae 51 60 

2. Symplocos cochinchinensis 22 10 

3. Theaceae 10 12 

4. Eurya tonkinensis 4 8 

5. Acer tonkinensis 3 2 

6. Pentaphylax sp. 3 3 

7. Elaeocarpus sp. 3 3 

8. Prunus arborea 1 2


• Total basal area: 18 m 2 /ha 

• Percent canopy cover: 70 to 80% 


Subtype: d) Grassland and Scrub 

Grassland and scrub are found in areas subjected to intensive and unregulated cultivation in the past. 

This vegetation type is widespread, and commonly distributed along rivers and near villages. The total 

area of grassland and scrub found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is 11,338 ha or 19.1% of the total area. 

Most commonly, scrub is interspersed with small broadleaf trees at a mean height of 8 to 10 m, the 

structure of this layer is simple and is comprised of members of the Fagaceae with a few members of the 

Euphorbiaceae. 

The height of the vegetation is under 3 m. Grasses are the main ground cover and vary in composition, 

although Phragmites vallatoria and Erianthus arundinaceus are typically present. Grasses are seasonal, 

growing during the rainy season and dying off during the dry season. Dry grasslands are vulnerable to 

fire. 

Subtype: e) Coniferous Forest 

This is a well-represented forest type, distributed mainly in the west and south-west of Ngoc Linh 

Nature Reserve, at altitudes between 900 and 2,000 m. Below these altitudes there are only randomly 

distributed species of Pinus kesiya, which is the predominant tree species in the coniferous forest. Stands 

of fire-tolerant coniferous forest are found at uniform stages of development. However, different stands 

are at different stages of development, due to variation in the intensity and frequency of forest fires 

throughout the nature reserve. Coniferous forest can be further divided into two subtypes as follows: 

(a) Pure Coniferous Forest (Pinus kesiya Forest). This forest type consists of nearly or entirely 

monospecific stands of Pinus kesiya, a fire tolerant species. This forest type is mostly found 

on feralite soils and on differing beds of granite, basalt and arenaceous rocks. The soil 

profile is deep at 50 to 100 cm thick and acidic, with pH values of 4.5 to 5.5. The humus 

layer is a thick layer of pine needles; and 

(b) Mixed Coniferous and Broadleaf Forest. Coniferous trees such as Pinus dalatensis and 

Dacrycarpus spp. are sparsely distributed with broadleaf trees from the Fagaceae, Lauraceae, 

Magnoliaceae, Betulaceae, Pentaphylaceae, and Theaceae, forming mixed forest. This 

extremely variable forest type is suspected to be a transitional stage between forest where 

succession is controlled by fire ecology and mature low montane broadleaf evergreen forest. 

The humus layer of dried pine needles and leaves is very thick, sometimes up to 20 cm, and 

very combustible. 

Mature coniferous forest is uniformly 25 to 30 m in height and is the tallest forest type in Ngoc Linh 

Nature Reserve. Coniferous forest exhibits several features that promote frequent forest fires which 

exclude trees which are not fire-tolerant. In particular, large amounts of combustible litter are produced, 

creating a thick fuel layer on the ground. The forest is comparatively more open to wind and sunlight, 

disrupting the humid ground layer, elevating the ground air temperature, lowering the relative humidity, 

drying the fuel layer, and lowering the level of soil moisture. Coniferous trees have a complex system of 

surface roots and deep primary tap roots, helping again to lower the level of soil moisture available to 

other species, and providing these trees with access to deeper groundwater not available to broadleaf 

trees with shallow surface roots. 

21


In the pure coniferous forest, Pinus kesiya commonly comprises 90% of the tree flora, with other 

species belonging to the Fagaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Mature, monospecific stands of Pinus kesiya are 

found in Dac Choong commune. 

Data from typical plots (40 x 40 m) of representative mature coniferous forest in Mang Xang commune, 

Dac Plo district show that: 

22 

• Average tree height: 28 m 

• Average tree diameter at 1.3 m: 45 cm 



• Percent leaf cover: 50 to 60% 


2.10 Fauna Overview 

The fauna of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve had not been 

studied prior to the field surveys in 1996 and 1998. 

These surveys revealed a total of 306 vertebrate species 

in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, including 52 mammal 

species, 190 bird species, 41 reptile species and 23 

amphibian species (Table 12). 

2.11 Mammals 

A total of 52 mammal species in 7 orders and 21 families were recorded in the nature reserve (Appendix 

2); although the orders Rodentia and Chiroptera were not included in the survey. 

Identification of hunting trophies increased the known range of the recently discovered Giant Muntjac 

to include Lo Xo Pass (15 0 03'48''N 107 0 44'18''E) in Dac Man commune, Dac Glei district, Kon Tum 

province. Identification of hunting trophies also extends the known range of the recently discovered 

Truong Son Muntjac to include Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. Truong Son Muntjac inhabits areas near 

Lo Xo Pass, Dac Man, Dac Plo and Mang Xang communes in Dac Glei and Dac To districts, Kon Tum 

province. 

There are a total of 20 mammal species that are red-listed, which is equivalent to 39% of the known 

mammal species in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. This figure includes 14 species that are listed in the 

IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 1996) and 16 species listed in the Red Data Book of 

Vietnam (Anon. 1992) (Table 13). 

2.12 Birds 

Table 12: Vertebrate Species Recorded in 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Class Orders Families Species 

Mammals 7 21 52 

Birds 11 33 190 

Reptiles 2 14 41 

Amphibians 2 6 23 

Total 20 67 306 

Field surveys revealed 190 bird species in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (Appendix 3). Of the 190 bird 

species found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, a total of 17 are listed by Collar et al. (1994) and/or the 

Red Data Book of Vietnam (Anon. 1992) (Table 14). A further seven species are restricted-range 

endemics. 

The surveys have revealed high levels of endemism, particularly amongst babblers (Sylviidae: Garrulacinae 

and Sylviinae). Remarkably, two new species of babbler were discovered in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve: 

Golden-winged Laughingthrush (Eames et al. 1999b) (Figure 1) and Black-crowned Barwing (Eames


Table 13: Red-listed Mammals Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Species Scientific Name Current Status 

IUCN 1996 Anon. 1992 

Pangolins: Pholiodota: 

Pangolins Manidae 

1. Sunda Pangolin Manis javanica NT 

Primates: Primates: 

Lorises Loridae 

2. Slow Loris Nycticebus coucang V 

Old-world monkeys Cercopithecidae 

3. Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina VU V 

4. Rhesus Macaque M. mulatta NT 

5. Bear Macaque M. arctoides VU V 

Gibbons Hylobatidae 

6. Buff-cheeked Gibbon Hylobates gabriellae DD 

Carnivores: Carnivora: 

Dogs and Foxes Canidae 

7. Indian Wild Dog or Dhole Cuon alpinus VU E 

Bears Ursidae 

8. Asiatic Black Bear Ursus thibetanus VU E 

9. Sun Bear U. malayanus DD E 

Weasels, etc. Mustelidae 

10. Large-toothed Ferret Badger Melogale personata R 

11. Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra T 

Civets Viverridae 

12. Binturong Arctictis binturong V 

13. Small-toothed Palm Civet Arctogalidia trivirgata V 

Cats Felidae 

14. Golden Cat Catopuma temminckii NT V 

15. Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata V 

16. Clouded Leopard P. nebulosa VU V 

17. Tiger Panthera tigris EN E 

Even-toed Ungulates: Artiodactyla: 

Deer Cervidae 

Cattle, Antelopes, Goats Bovidae 

18. Southern Serow Naemorhedus sumatraensis VU V 

Rodents: Rodentia: 

Flying Squirrels Pteromyidae 

19. Red Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis R 

Old-world Porcupines Hystricidae 

20. Malayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyura VU 

Follows Corbet and Hill (1992) 

Notes: EN/E = Endangered; VU/V = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; T = Threatened; R = Rare; DD = Data Deficient as per IUCN (1996) and Anon. 

(1992) 

et al. 1999a). Along with the discovery of two new bird species, 12 new subspecies of babbler were 

discovered within Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (Eames et al. in press): 

• Black-hooded Laughingthrush 

• Red-tailed Laughingthrush 

• Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus ferruginosus subsp. nov. 

• Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler 

23


24 

Table 14: Threatened Birds Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Species Scientific Name Current Status 

Collar et al. 1994 Anon. 1992 

Phasianidae 

1. Siamese Fireback Lophura diardi VU T 

2. Silver Pheasant L. nycthemera T 

3. Crested Argus Rheinardia ocellata VU T 

Bucerotidae 

4. Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus T 

5. Brown Hornbill Anorrhinus tickelli NT T 

6. Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis T 

Halcyonidae 

7. Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda R 

Strigidae 

8. Brown Wood-owl Strix leptogrammica R 

Eurylaimidae 

9. Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae T 

Corvidae 

10. White-winged Magpie Urocissa whiteheadi NT 

11. Indochinese Green Magpie Cissa hypoleuca NT 

Muscicapidae 

12. Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis NT 

Sittidae 

13. Yellow-billed Nuthatch Sitta solangiae VU T 

Sylviidae 

14. Black-hooded Laughingthrush G. milleti subsp. nov. VU R 

15. White-cheeked Laughingthrush G. vassali VU T 

16. Red-tailed Laughingthrush G. milnei subsp. nov. NT 

17. Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler Jabouilleia danjoui subsp. nov. VU T 

Follows Inskipp et al. (1996). 

Notes: VU/V = Vulnerable; T = Threatened; NT = Near Threatened; R = Rare as per Collar et al. (1994) and Anon. (1992). 

• Cutia Cutia nipalensis subsp. nov. 

• Chestnut-tailed Minla Minla strigula subsp. nov. 

• Rufous-winged Fulvetta Alcippe castaneceps subsp. nov. 

• Rusty-capped Fulvetta A. dubia subsp. nov. 

• Rufous-backed Sibia Heterophasia annectans subsp. nov. 

• Black-headed Sibia H. melanoleuca subsp. nov. 

• Stripe-throated Yuhina Yuhina gularis subsp. nov. 

• Black-throated Parrotbill Paradoxornis nipalensis subsp. nov. 

Whilst the bird flora of Ngoc Linh has high levels of endemism, it also has a significant Sino-Himalayan 

component: 136 of the species found at Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (72%) are also found in northern 

and north-western Vietnam. These Sino-Himalayan affinities can be attributed in part to the montane 

habitats found at Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve and their connection to the Annamite Mountains.


2.13 Herpetiles 

Of the 41 reptiles and 23 amphibians found in the nature reserve (Appendix 4), 21 are listed in the 

IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 1996) or in the Red Data Book of Vietnam (Anon. 

1992) (Table 15). 

26 

Table 15: Endemic and Red-Listed Herpetiles Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Order, Family, Species Endemic Current Status 

Species IUCN 1996 Anon. 1992 

Squamata: 

Gekkonidae 

1. Gekko gecko T 

Scincidae 

2. Scincella rufocaudata EV 

Agamidae 

3. Physignathus cocincinus V 

4. Acanthosaura lepidogaster T 

Varanidae 

5. Varanus nebulosus V 

6. V. salvator V 

Boidae 

7. Python molutus NT V 

8. P. reticulatus V 

Colubridae 

9. Ptyas korros T 

Elapidae 

10. Bungarus fasciatus T 

11. Ophiophagus hannah E 

12. Naja naja T 

Testudinata: 

Emydidae 

13. Cistoclemmys galbinifrons EV NT V 

14. Cuora trifasciata EN V 

Platysternidae 

15. Platysternum megacephalum DD R 

Trionychidae 

16. Palea steindachneri NT 

Testudinidae 

17. Indotestudo elongata VU V 

Apoda: 

Coeciliidae 

18. Ichthyophis glutinosus V 

Anura: 

Pelobatidae 

19. Megophrys longipes T 

Bufonidae 

20. Bufo galeatus R 

Ranidae 

21. Rana verrucospinosa EV 

22. R. andersoni T 

Rhacophoridae 

23. Rhacophorus nigropalmatus T 

Follows Nguyen Van Sang and Ho Thu Cuc (1996) 

Notes: EN/E = Endangered; VU/V = Vulnerable; T = threatened; NT = Near Threatened; R = Rare; DD = Data deficient as per IUCN (1996) and Anon. 

(1992). EV = endemic to Vietnam.


Twenty two percent of the amphibians, and 39% of the reptiles of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are red-listed. 

The herpetiles listed in the Red Data Book of Vietnam include 15 reptiles, (five lizards, six snakes and four 

turtles) and five amphibians. Three of the herpetile species recorded at Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are endemic 

to Vietnam: Scincella rufocaudata, Cistoclemmys galbinifrons and Rana verrucospinosa. 

2.14 Butterflies 

A total of 236 butterfly species have been recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (Appendix 5). These 

species belong to 11 families: the Papilionidae (22), Pieridae (23), Danaidae (9), Satyridae (33), 

Amathusiidae (9), Nymphalidae (51), Acraeidae (2), Libytheidae (1), Riodinidae (11), Lycaenidae (46), 

and Hesperiidae (29). 

Amongst the butterflies collected in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, 18 taxa have not been previously 

classified, and most of these are new to science. The new butterfly taxa include members of the genera 

Neorina, Limenitis, Thoressa, Calaenorrhinus, Aldania and Dodona. In addition, many of the other 

butterfly species collected are new subspecies, for instance, Aemona amathusia which was originally 

described from the Himalayas. Some of butterfly species are known to be restricted to one habitat type, 

such as Lethe siderea, L. sura, L. latiaris, L. sinorix, Orinoma damaris, Callerebia narasingha, Stichophthalma 

louisa and Neope armandii, all of which represent new subspecies which have probably not yet been 

described. 

There are 26 butterfly species within seven families found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, which have 

not been previously recorded in Vietnam, and whose known ranges have been extended. Additionally, 

there are 18 butterfly species that are new species records for central Vietnam. 

Biogeographically, 51% of the species collected in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve (119 species) are Indo- 

Malayan species. Another 15% of the butterflies are species endemic to the eastern Himalayas. There 

are 34 butterfly species (15%) found from India to northern Indochina. 

Butterflies can be separated into groups based on their altitudinal distribution. Of a total of 236 butterfly 

species, 102 species are found between altitudes of 1,500 and 2,300 m (Sites S1, S2 and S3; Appendix 

5), and 179 species are found at altitudes between 900 and 1,500 m (Sites S4, S5, S6 and S7; Appendix 

5). Only 48 butterfly species are found at elevations below 1,500 m. A group of 42 species with restricted 

ranges were identified as high altitude or montane species. Another group of 42 species with restricted 

ranges were identified as lower altitude species (Table 16). 

The butterfly community of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is very species diverse and includes many 

endemic species. A significant proportion of the butterfly community is of Sino-Himalayan origin. 

Another notable feature is the prevalence of undescribed species, new species records for Vietnam, and 

new species records for central Vietnam. One species found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, Teinopalpus 

imperialis, is listed by IUCN (1996). 

Butterfly communities are indicative of habitat diversity, especially as butterflies exhibit a high degree 

of niche separation by utilising a wide variety of species-specific food plants. The altitudinal changes in 

the butterfly community composition are indicative of altitudinal variation in forest types in Ngoc 

Linh Nature Reserve. Furthermore, based on the diversity of the butterfly communities, each altitudinal 

zone is extremely habitat diverse. The diverse habitats of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve deserve protection 

as one of Vietnam’s truly unique conservation sites. 

27


2.15Socio-Cultural Features 

The buffer zone of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve includes five communes in Dac Glei district and three 

communes in Dac To district (Table 17). The total human population of these communes is 13,876 

people or 37% of the two districts’ combined population. The residents of the buffer zone are members 

of five ethnic groups. The Xe Dang ethnic minority are the largest population, comprising 65% of the 

people in the area. The De ethnic minority comprise 26.3%, the Trieng De ethnic minority 7.3%, the 

Chau ethnic minority 0.7%, and the Kinh (majority Vietnamese) only 0.3% of the local population. 

Other ethnic minorities comprise only 0.4% of the local population. The Xe Dang ethnic minority 

inhabit Dac To district. The De ethnic minority mostly live in Dac Plo and Dac Man communes of 

Dac To district. The remaining ethnic minority people reside in Dac Glei district (Map 5). 

The five buffer zone communes in Dac Glei district have a total population of 8,543 people or 61.5% 

of the buffer zone’s population. The three buffer zone communes in Dac To district have a total population 

of 5,333 people or 38.5% of the buffer zone’s population. The average population density in the buffer 

zone is 17 people/km 2 . Communes located within the buffer zone contain very little agricultural land, 

with only between 1,000 and 2,400 m 2 per person. Most cultivated lands are single-crop fields. 

Exploitation of forest products is common in the nature reserve area. 

28 

Table 16: Altitudinal Ranges of Butterflies in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Family No. Species Restricted-range No. Species Restricted-range 

found between Species between found between Species between 

900 and 1,500 m 900 and 1,500 m 1,500 and 2,300 m 1,500 and 2,000 m 

Papilionidae 19 3 7 3 

Pieridae 22 2 13 2 

Danaidae 8 0 2 1 

Satyridae 23 12 20 14 

Amathusiidae 8 8 2 2 

Nymphalidae 40 6 22 7 

Acraeidae 2 0 1 0 

Libytheidae 1 0 0 0 

Riodinidae 7 1 8 4 

Lycaenidae 31 6 15 4 

Hesperiidae 18 4 12 5 

Total 179 42 102 42 

Table 17: Population Statistics and Ethnic Composition 

District/ Total Male Female Ethnic Group 

Commune Popn. Kinh Xe Dang De Trieng Re Chau Other 

Dac Glei district 8,543 3,748 4,795 47 3,659 3,658 1,032 95 52 

Dac Plo 932 400 552 0 0 932 0 0 0 

Dac Man 867 381 486 0 0 867 0 0 0 

Dac Choong 2,975 1,309 1,646 32 0 1,859 1,032 0 52 

Muong Hoong 1,994 877 1,117 15 1,884 0 0 95 0 

Ngoc Linh 1,775 781 994 0 1,775 0 0 0 0 

Dac To district 5,333 2,557 2,776 0 5,333 0 0 0 0 

Dac Na 1,970 952 1,018 0 1,970 0 0 0 0 

Mang Xang 2,315 1,103 1,212 0 2,315 0 0 0 0 

Ngoc Lay 1,048 502 546 0 1,048 0 0 0 0 

Total 13,876 6,305 7,571 47 8,992 3,658 1,032 95 52


Population Distribution 

The human populations within Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s buffer zone are concentrated in 19 villages 

and comprise 2,714 households (Table 18). Of these, Dac Man commune has the lowest population, 

with 867 people living in three villages along National Highway 14. The most populated commune is 

Dac Choong with 2,975 people, spread throughout 16 villages. Three communes are almost completely 

surrounded by Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve: Dac Choong, Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh. 

Table 18: Population Distribution, Density and Growth in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Area Popn. No. of No. of Density Popn. 

Commune (ha) Villages Households (pers/km 2 ) Growth (%) 

Dac Glei district 72,842 8,543 46 1,691 12 — 

Dac Plo 17,289 932 5 219 6 2.7 

Dac Man 11,931 867 3 169 12 2.7 

Dac Choong 26,512 2,975 16 687 11 2.7 

Muong Hoong 8,776 1,994 6 363 23 2.7 

Ngoc Linh 8,334 1,775 16 253 21 2.7 

Dac To district 27,297 5,333 34 1,023 20 — 

Dac Na 8,126 1,970 14 403 24 2.3 

Mang Xang 8,878 2,315 10 397 26 2.3 

Ngoc Lay 10,293 1,048 10 223 10 2.3 

Total 100,139 13,876 80 2,714 14 — 

Households commonly contain three generations of one family: grandparents, parents and an average 

of five to six children. Population growth rates are high, averaging 2.5% per annum; the rate of population 

growth is especially high in Dac To commune, at 2.7% per annum. Natural forest is still widespread in 

the area, due to the lack of technology to convert this to agricultural land, difficult living conditions in 

the area, and the low productivity of existing small agricultural areas. The main economic activities are 

wet rice cultivation, shifting agriculture, animal husbandry and exploitation of the surrounding forest. 

Sedentary and Nomadic Populations 

In the buffer zone of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, there are 482 households with 2,303 people that have 

been scheduled for permanent dwellings provided through state-administered programmes. However, 

there is a sizeable itinerant population of 1,989 households and 10,554 people who subsist on shifting 

cultivation, and rely on hunting and collection of forest products. Of these, 1,248 households with 6,724 

people are currently in temporary housing, whilst 741 households with 3,830 people live a nomadic or 

semi-nomadic existence and have not yet been scheduled for permanent housing (Table 19). 

Table 19: Settlement in the Buffer Zone Communes 

District/ Total Settled Temporarily Unsettled 

Commune Population Population Settled Popn. Population 

H’shold People H’shold People H’shold People H’shold People 

Dac Glei district 1,614 8,250 369 1,745 1,050 5,530 195 975 

Dac Plo/Dac Man* 355 1,705 0 0 170 770 185 935 

Dac Choong 654 2,894 198 862 446 1,992 10 40 

Muong Hoong 354 1,900 113 584 241 1,316 0 0 

Ngoc Linh 251 1,751 58 299 193 1,452 0 0 

Dac To district 857 4,607 113 558 198 1,194 546 2,855 

Dac Na 269 1,604 0 0 198 1,194 71 410 

Mang Xang 391 2,068 113 558 0 0 278 1,510 

Ngoc Lay 197 935 0 0 0 0 197 935 

Total 2,471 12,857 482 2,303 1,248 6,724 741 3,830 

* Dac Plo and Dac Man were administratively divided in 1997 and share data. 

29


30 

Map 5: Population Density and Ethnic Composition of Communes in the Buffer Zone 

LEGEND 






Nature Reserve Boundary 

Commune Centre 

ETHNIC COMPOSITION (%) 

Xe Dang 

De 

Trieng Re 

Chau 

Other Minority 

Kinh 

POPULATION DENSITY 

< 10 people/km 2 

10 - 20 people/km 2 

20 - 30 people/km 2 

> 30 people/km 2 

SCALE 1:300,000 

� 


and Envirnment Centre of FIPI


The temporarily settled and unsettled households are primarily found in the more mountainous areas 

on the borders of Dac To and Dac Glei districts, a remote area distant from settled communities and 

existing roads. The itinerant population, which lives a nomadic or semi-nomadic existence, suffers 

from malnutrition and is subject to seasonal famine. Access to transportation, educational facilities and 

clean water supplies is minimal; agricultural methods are primitive and inefficient; and the nomadic 

and semi-nomadic people have not been included in famine-alleviation programmes or in the national 

agroforestry programme. 

Transportation 

Within the buffer zone there are 336 km of roads, comprising 83 km of surfaced roads and 253 km of 

unsurfaced roads. The road system in the buffer zone links the main population centres or communes 

to each other and to the district administrative centre. However, transportation is still difficult, especially 

during the rainy season, due to the complex terrain and the prevalence of unpaved roads. Access to 

villages is mostly by mountain trails, and the smaller communes are up to 40 km from the district 

centres. The present transportation system is a considerable obstacle to the area’s future development. 

Health Care 

The buffer zone has a district health service network to serve the communes. With the exception of Dac 

Man commune, every commune has its own health station. However, medical equipment is lacking 

and health stations are understaffed. Only three out of eight communes have assistant doctors on the 

staff and some communes have no formal health care workers. Qualified health care staff and proper 

services are rare. 

The most common diseases and ailments are malaria, goitre and tuberculosis (Table 20). In particular, 

there is a malarial infection rate of 5 to 10%, and those infected require medical attention at least once 

every year. Despite a campaign to eradicate malaria, the local health care staff and cooperating agencies 

have had little success. 

Table 20: Health Care Staff, Facilities and Diseases in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Health Number of Health Workers Water Common 

Commune Stations Doctors Asst. Doctors Nurses Source Diseases 

Dac Glei district 4 0 1 8 Natural TB and malaria 

Dac Plo 1 0 0 0 “ “ 

Dac Man 0 0 0 0 “ “ 

Dac Choong 1 0 1 2 “ “ 

Muong Hoong 1 0 0 3 “ “ 

Ngoc Linh 1 0 0 3 “ “ 

Dac To district 3 0 2 4 Natural TB, malaria and goitre 

Dac Na 1 0 1 2 “ “ 

Mang Xang 1 0 1 1 “ “ 

Ngoc Lay 1 0 0 1 “ “ 

Total 7 0 3 12 — — 

The national family planning programme has also had little success. The family planning programme 

has been difficult to implement due to a large, inaccessible population and the reluctance of local 

people to change their lifestyles. 

Primary drinking water sources in the area are all from natural sources, including rivers, streams, seeps, 

springs and primitive groundwater wells. Unclean water consumption is the cause of most illness and 

disease in the area. 

31


Education 

Every commune has an educational system that incorporates kindergarten to primary school education, 

with the exception of Dac Choong and Dac Na communes which do not have kindergarten facilities. 

There is one secondary school in each district (in Ngoc Lay and Muong Hoong communes) (Table 21). 

Seventy six percent of children attend secondary school. The lowest attendances are for Dac Plo (60%) 

and Ngoc Lay (50%) communes. There is little incentive for families to assure schooling for their 

children, and this presents a major obstacle to economic development. The main reasons for low 

attendance are that families are poor, that children are needed to work in the home or in the fields, and 

that it is too far to travel to school. 

There is a serious shortfall in numbers of classrooms, desks, teachers and housing for teachers. There 

are only 99 classrooms in buffer zone, of which 23 classrooms are brick and all others are thatch. The 

area is currently in need of nine classrooms and 22 teachers. A shortage of qualified teachers results in 

large class sizes, and the level of education is poor. Some schools must hold mixed-grade classes due to 

the shortage of classrooms. 

Cultivation Practices and Household Incomes 

The area of agricultural land is very low, averaging 1,600 m 2 per person (Table 23). Wet rice cultivation 

is mostly on hillsides and with low-yielding strains, resulting in low productivity. Wet rice cultivation 

experiences annual shortages of water and can only produce one crop per year. Little investment has 

gone into secondary crop cultivation and production forest, and these represent only a small portion of 

household incomes. In the buffer zone, 1,066 households suffer from malnutrition (Table 22). 

Communes suffering from high levels of famine include Ngoc Lay at 30%, Mang Xang at 31%, Dac 

Plo at 36% and Dac Man at 38% of the local population. On average, in communes in Dac To district, 

35% of households have insufficient food, whilst the figure for Da Lay district is 42%. Most households 

actively exploit forest products in the nature reserve area; particularly households suffering from famine, 

whose main supplementary income comes from such forest products as firewood, honey, Ngoc Linh 

Ginseng and hunting. Forest products account for 20 to 25% of the total income of households in the 

buffer zone. 

In comparison to other communes in the province and other buffer zones in Vietnam, the inhabitants 

of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s buffer zone have very low incomes. Their incomes are derived entirely 

from agriculture, forest products and animal husbandry. 

32 

Table 21: Education Provision and Attendance in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Kindergarten Primary Secondary Atten- Number Shortage 

Commune School School dance of of 

Class Pupil Class Pupil Class Pupil (%) Teachers Teachers 

Dac Glei district 9 234 75 1,730 1 30 78 83 13 

Dac Plo 1 20 9 196 0 0 60 7 0 

Dac Man 2 26 12 240 0 0 70 10 0 

Dac Choong 0 0 19 651 0 0 80 22 0 

Muong Hoong 4 140 20 348 1 30 90 25 7 

Ngoc Linh 2 48 15 295 0 0 90 19 6 

Dac To district 3 59 33 786 1 7 71 72 9 

Dac Na 0 0 5 126 0 0 75 25 0 

Mang Xang 2 45 13 460 0 0 89 28 7 

Ngoc Lay 1 14 15 200 1 7 50 19 2 

Total 12 293 108 2,516 2 37 76 102 22


Table 22: Agricultural Production and Famine Levels in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Total Surplus Sufficient Households at Famine Level 

Commune House- Food Food Total 1 to 2 3 to 4 5 to 6 

holds Production Production Months Months Months 

Dac Glei district 1,691 30 954 707 121 251 335 

Dac Plo 219 0 78 141 46 57 38 

Dac Man 169 0 48 121 0 57 64 

Dac Choong 687 0 470 217 0 79 138 

Muong Hoong 363 30 185 148 0 58 90 

Ngoc Linh 253 0 173 80 75 0 5 

Dac To district 1,023 20 644 359 84 182 93 

Dac Na 403 0 353 50 0 15 35 

Mang Xang 397 20 223 154 69 47 38 

Ngoc Lay 223 0 68 155 15 120 20 

Total 2,714 50 1,598 1,066 205 433 428 

As the local population’s current survival is dependent upon forest resources, a concerted effort has to 

be made to effectively establish and protect the nature reserve. As part of this effort, a community 

development programme in the buffer zone including agriculture, forestry, education and health care, 

must be implemented; in particular prioritising the communes suffering from food shortages. Living 

conditions and standards must be gradually improved and illegal forest exploitation reduced in order to 

conserve the biodiversity of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

Table 23: Land-Use in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Total Land Land-Use (ha) 

Commune Area Agricultural Forested Planned Other 

(ha) Land Land Agriculture Lands 

Dac Glei district 72,842 1,298 67,102 3,468 873 

Dac Plo/Dac Man* 29,220 365 27,373 1,066 316 

Dac Choong 26,512 286 24,800 1,093 333 

Muong Hoong 8,776 349 7,654 645 128 

Ngoc Linh 8,334 298 7,275 664 96 

Dac To district 27,297 817 21,919 4,372 189 

Dac Na 8,126 270 6,249 1,528 79 

Mang Xang 8,878 318 6,640 1,866 54 

Ngoc Lay 10,293 229 9,030 978 56 

Total 100,139 2,115 89,021 7,840 1,062 

* Dac Plo and Dac Man were administratively divided in 1997 and share data. 

Secondary crops grown in the region include cassava, corn and potato; beans and peanuts are grown to 

a lesser degree. Cassava and corn are the most common secondary crops (Table 24). Secondary crops 

are used to replace rice during times of shortage but are rarely used as commodities in the region. 

Animal Husbandry 

In general, the local area is favourable for animal husbandry and a developed cattle industry exists. 

Many households have two or three cows or buffaloes but some households are too poor to purchase 

livestock. On average, 60% of households own livestock; except in Ngoc Linh and Muong Hoong 

communes where 100% of households own livestock. 

33


Forest Production 

The exploitation of forest products is the major economic activity in the region. The people of the 

buffer zone of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve can only receive assigned forestry lands under an agroforestry 

tenure agreement. The average family receives responsibility for 10 to 15 ha of land under their protection 

(Table 25). Most households have not acquired enough land to establish production forest. Although 

there are extensive areas of forest under the administration of the communes, most forest is managed by 

forest enterprises. 

The potential for agroforestry in the production forest of the buffer zone communes is still very high. 

To date, most of these lands have not been used to plant economically valuable trees. Those areas which 

have been planted have not been protected, and many areas have been destroyed by grazing cattle. 

There is a dire need to implement policies and measures which will encourage local people to become 

involved in agroforestry. At the very least, production forest in the buffer zone and outside of the nature 

reserve area should be encouraged to produce firewood to meet local needs. 

Although the inhabitants of the buffer zone are not legally permitted to cut trees, exploitation of timber 

and other forest products occurs outside and inside the nature reserve. Most timber is exploited for 

domestic uses, such as building material and firewood, whilst some is sold locally. 

34 

Table 24: Agricultural Production in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Total Rice Cultivation (ha) Other Crops (ha) 

Commune Area Total 1st 2nd Hill Total Corn Potato Cassava 

(ha) Crop Crop Rice 

Dac Glei district 1,177 962 626 135 201 210 138 1 71 

Dac Plo 236 136 30 0 106 100 65 0 35 

Dac Man 83 43 3 0 40 20 5 0 15 

Dac Choong 359 310 135 120 55 49 43 0 6 

Muong Hoong 283 273 258 15 0 25 15 0 10 

Ngoc Linh 216 200 200 0 0 16 10 1 5 

Dac To district 674 391 238 34 119 282 103 13 166 

Dac Na 305 175 95 30 50 130 50 0 80 

Mang Xang 259 135 91 4 40 124 44 13 67 

Ngoc Lay 110 81 53 0 29 28 9 0 19 

Total 1,851 1,353 865 171 320 492 241 14 237 

Table 25: Agroforestry Land-Use in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Total Production Forest (ha) 

Commune Area (ha) Coffee plants Litsea monopetala Cinnamomum sp. Fruit Trees 

Dac Glei district 356 257 32 34 34 

Dac Plo 42 29 0 1 13 

Dac Man 48 15 25 3 5 

Dac Choong 97 89 2 0 6 

Muong Hoong 102 72 5 15 10 

Ngoc Linh 67 52 0 15 0 

Dac To district 94 25 23 1 45 

Dac Na 0 0 0 0 0 

Mang Xang 93 25 22 1 45 

Ngoc Lay 1 — 1 0 — 

Total 450 282 55 35 79


The forest both inside and outside Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve has been heavily exploited (Table 26). 

Forest exploitation ranges from timber extraction, hunting and rattan collecting to collecting forest 

products that have already been over-exploited such as Ngoc Linh Ginseng and Litsea monopetala. 

Table 26: Exploitation of Forest in the Buffer Zone 

District/ Timber Firewood Ngoc Linh Litsea Honey 

Commune (m 3 ) (no. of stems) Ginseng (kg) monopetala (kg) (kg) 

Dac Glei district 200 40,190 200 1,800 3,375 

Dac Plo 20 5,250 0 200 100 

Dac Man 53 6,070 0 200 65 

Dac Choong 68 10,190 — 500 820 

Muong Hoong 35 14,440 100 500 390 

Ngoc Linh 24 4,240 100 400 2,000 

Dac To district 138 19,782 60 4,000 960 

Dac Na 35 9,670 50 1,000 50 

Mang Xang 53 4,760 10 2,000 650 

Ngoc Lay 50 5,352 0 1,000 260 

Total 338 59,972 260 5,800 4,335 

Management of all forestry activities is the responsibility of the board of forestry in each commune. 

This board includes a chairman and three to four board members. They employ local people in forest 

protection and management, and oversee the agroforestry programme. However, with a lack of human 

resources coupled with low local incomes, widespread forest exploitation is inevitable. 

Forest Enterprises 

There are five state-run forest enterprises operating in the area; all fall within the management of the 

Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. All of these forest enterprises holdings 

are either partly or totally within the nature reserve area. 

The main activities of the forest enterprises are reforestation and forest exploitation. Once Ngoc Linh 

Nature Reserve is officially registered, these forest enterprises will function in an official capacity to 

protect and manage the nature reserve and implement the agroforestry programme. Currently, Rung 

Thong Forest Enterprise is the only company still exploiting the forest, felling 6,000 m 3 of timber per 

year, collecting 30 tonnes of pine resin per year and actively planting forests as part of the agroforestry 

programme. 

The agroforestry programme is administered under the state-run forest enterprises, also known as the 

327 Programme. This programme actively encourages farmers to develop forest plantations and protect 

natural forest. The forest enterprises have also constructed some roads, schools and health stations as 

part of this programme. For example, a television station, hydropower station and health care centre 

have been constructed, and roads have been developed as part of a forestry settlement programme in 

Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh communes. 

35

Section 3 - Evaluation 

3. Evaluation 

3.1 Evaluation Criteria 

Establishing a set of criteria for assessing a nature reserve’s global biogeographic coverage is a useful 

means of evaluating the overall importance and value of a site. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve satisfies 

virtually all of the main criteria for an area to be considered to be of extremely high conservation value 

(Table 27). 

36 

Table 27: Conservation Criteria and Evaluation of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Conservation Criteria Site Evaluation 

Size: 

The area must be of a size and form sufficient to support 

ecological units or viable populations of flora and fauna. As 

a rule, conservation importance increases with protected-area 

size. 

Richness And Diversity: 

Usually linked with the diversity of habitat types; ecological 

gradients or ecotones should be represented because they 

support transitional communities. 

Naturalness: 

Assessment of the extent of primary habitats. 

Rarity: 

The primary purpose of many protected areas is to protect 

rare and endangered species and habitats. Rarity may be a 

result of special habitat requirements, direct human pressure 

or indirect human influences. 

Uniqueness: 

Areas which exhibit particular natural processes or which are 

poorly represented in the national protection system. 

Typicalness: 

It is important to represent typical areas of common habitats 

and typical communities of a biome. 

Fragility: 

A measure of an area’s susceptibility to change through either 

natural or man-made processes. 

Position as an Ecological Unit: 

To establish the area’s position in an ecological unit, it is 

important to determine how or whether an area is linked to 

other areas of natural or semi-natural habitats. 

Economic Value: 

An area may protect a valuable water catchment or a higher 

level of biogeographic subdivision. 

Conservation Opportunity: 

Socio-political climate is highly determinate in the success 

of any conservation area’s future objectives and priorities. 

Conservation criteria follow Ratcliffe (1977) 

The area is representative of the Kontum Plateau EBA. Viable 

animal populations exist and should be preserved with 

comprehensive management efforts. 

The area is as species diverse as other protected areas and is a 

biodiversity hotspot. Ecological gradients are present between 

four major habitat types and eight subtypes. An altitudinal 

gradient also exists. 

The nature reserve area is almost pristine with little 

modification, and large contiguous areas of great biodiversity 

importance are unaltered. Small modified areas can be 

restored. 

There are 58 red-listed vertebrate species and 45 red-listed 

plant species. Two mammal species, two bird species and 12 

bird subspecies are newly discovered. 

The study area is an EBA and contains unique upper montane 

habitat types. The two newly discovered bird species are not 

known from any other protected area. 

Because of the wide altitudinal range, the study area contains 

all the major habitat types of the Kontum Plateau. 

Montane habitats and their associated fauna and flora are 

fragile, sensitive, easily modified and very slow to recover. 

To the north, the study area is contiguous with extensive 

forest areas in the proposed Song Thanh-Dakpring and Ngoc 

Linh (Quang Nam) Nature Reserves. Song Thanh-Dakpring 

is, in turn, linked to forest areas in Laos. 

Area protects several important water catchments. 

One of 12 prioritised areas identified for expansion in the 

Biodiversity Action Plan for Vietnam in order to protect 

regional biodiversity.


Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve satisfies all of the evaluation criteria used to assess the overall importance 

and value of a conservation area. Moreover, Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve easily meets all of the criteria 

normally reserved for national parks and is recommended for upgrading to national park status. 

3.2 Evaluation of Physical Features 

The conservation coverage of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province is planned to be 41,420 ha. 

The conservation area of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is comparable to that of seven other protected areas in 

the Western Highlands: Mon Ray (48,600 ha), Kon Ka Kinh (28,000 ha), Yok Don (58,000 ha), Chu Yang 

Sin (32,300 ha), Nam Ca (24,500 ha), Chu Hoa (17,000 ha), and Nui Bi Doup/Nui Ba (74,000 ha). The 

coverage of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve includes 23,631 ha (57% of the total area) of “rich” and “medium” 

broadleaf forest. 

The majority of the conservation coverage is over 1,000 m in elevation: this ensures significant inclusion 

of key montane habitats for endemic and newly discovered species. Combined with the conservation 

coverage of the proposed Ngoc Linh (Quang Nam) and Song Thang-Dakpring Nature Reserves in 

Quang Nam province, the conservation coverage would increase to approximately 170,000 ha and 

would become one of the largest conservation areas in Vietnam. This area would also be linked to a 

large block of forest in Laos, which would help to ensure the survival of a large area of one of Vietnam’s 

more unique, rare and interesting high montane forest ecosystems. 

3.3 Evaluation of Flora and Fauna 

Findings of the preliminary survey of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve included 190 bird species, 52 mammal 

species, 41 reptile species, 23 amphibian species, 236 butterfly species and 878 plant species. 

The shortcomings of this survey were that it was a quick assessment and did not focus on nocturnal 

species or freshwater fauna and flora. Thus invertebrates (except for butterflies), rodents and bats were 

excluded from the survey. Future faunal surveys could be anticipated to reveal additional species records 

for the area. 

The vegetation of 

Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve is diverse and 

includes four main 

forest types and eight 

vegetation subtypes, 

ranging from an 

altitude of 900 m to 

the summit of Mount 

Table 28: Flora Diversity in the Kontum Plateau and Da Lat Plateau 

EBAs, and the Fan Si Pan and Northern Laos Secondary EBA 

Protected Area Area (ha) Families Genera Species 

Hill 1978 (Thuong Da Nhim) — 74 113 170 

Nui Bi Doup / Nui Ra Rich 73,912 126 288 425 

Chu Yang Sin 32,328 142 475 876 

Hoang Lien 29,845 119 322 497 

Ngoc Linh 41,420 152 539 878 

Ngoc Linh at 2,598 m. A total of 878 plant species have been identified to date, and Ngoc Linh is 

extremely diverse in flora when compared to other montane protected areas in Vietnam (Table 28). 

Table 29: Comparison of Mammal and Bird 

The flora and fauna of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Diversity with other Montane Nature 

have large Sino-Himalayan components. The nature 

Reserves 

reserve has great floral and faunal similarities with the Area Mammals Birds 

high mountains of north-west Vietnam but also has Ngoc Linh 52 190 

affinities with the highest peaks further south in the Mom Ray 76 208 

Da Lat Plateau EBA. Mammal and bird species Chu Yang Sin 46 203 

diversity are comparable to those of other montane Nui Bi Doup — 154 

nature reserves in Vietnam (Table 29). 

Hoang Lien 33 208 

37


Conservation of Red-listed Species 

At 104, the number of red-listed species found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is high; 19% of vertebrate 

species recorded are red-listed (Table 30). Mammals, reptiles and amphibians show high proportions of 

red-listed species; and 2% of the flora is listed by IUCN (1997), a high proportion for plant species. 

The total number of red-listed bird species is also relatively high, and is composed primarily of extremely 

niche-specialised species, and includes important indicator species for these fragile montane habitats. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve has 14 mammal species listed by IUCN (1996) and 16 mammal species 

listed in the Red Data Book of Vietnam (Anon. 1992). Of particular conservation concern is the 

endangered Tiger. Several mammals listed as vulnerable are also of conservation significance, namely 

Dhole Cuon alpinus, Asiatic Black Bear and Clouded Leopard. Two newly described mammal species 

are found within the nature reserve: Giant Muntjac and Truong Son Muntjac. Truong Son Muntjac is 

a locally common, restricted-range endemic with a currently known range of approximately 300 km 2 . 

There are also 17 red-listed bird species, 10 of which are listed by Collar et al. (1994) and 13 of which 

are listed in the Red Data Book of Vietnam (Anon. 1992). The 10 species listed by Collar et al. are 

Siamese Fireback Lophura diardi, Crested Argus, Brown Hornbill Anorrhinus tickelli, White-winged 

Magpie Urocissa whiteheadi, Indochinese Green Magpie Cissa hypoleuca, Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis, 

Yellow-billed Nuthatch, Red-tailed Laughingthrush Garrulax milnei, Black-hooded Laughingthrush 

and Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler. 

Among the butterflies, Teinopalpus imperialis is listed in Appendix II of CITES (1994) and in the 

IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 1996). This species was previously known for Vietnam 

only from Sa Pa in the far north, and this represents the first record for central Vietnam. At present, no 

butterfly species are included in the Red Data Book of Vietnam (Anon. 1992) but this situation probably 

reflects a lack of study of this group rather than the true status of Vietnamese butterfly species. 

Discovery of New Bird Species and Subspecies 

The higher elevations of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve have a large component of altitudinally restricted 

species that have been isolated for periods long enough to allow speciation. During the course of this 

survey, two species of bird new to science were discovered along with 12 new subspecies (see Section 2.12 

for more details). 

Conservation of Restricted-Range Endemic Species 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve has a high degree of endemism; this mountain isolate includes both lowland 

and montane restricted-range species. Nine plant species endemic to Vietnam are found in the nature 

reserve, one of which, Ngoc Linh Ginseng, is famous for its purported medicinal qualities. 

38 

Table 30: Number of Total, Globally and Vietnam Red-Listed Species 

Group Total No. of Total IUCN Vietnam % of Total 

Species Red-listed Listed Listed Species 

Species Species Species Red-Listed 

Mammals 52 20 14 16 39 

Birds 190 17 10 13 9 

Reptiles 41 16 6 15 39 

Amphibians 23 5 0 5 26 

Butterflies 236 1 1 0


northern Indochina. The ranges of another 42 butterfly species are restricted to Indochina, and nine 

species are endemic to central Vietnam. Two butterfly species are new species records for the Oriental 

Region. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve represents the only known range of many butterfly species either in central 

Vietnam, Vietnam as a whole or the world. Therefore, despite the current lack of information on the 

distribution of many butterfly species within Vietnam, Ngoc Linh should be considered a priority site 

for the conservation of butterfly diversity. 

Three endemic reptiles and amphibians are found in the nature reserve; these Vietnam endemics include 

two reptiles, Scincella rufocaudata and Cistoclemmys galbinifrons, and one amphibian, Rana verrucospinosa. 

Three mammal species endemic to Vietnam or to Vietnam and Laos are found in the nature reserve: 

Truong Son Muntjac, Giant Muntjac and Buff-cheeked Gibbon. 

Seven restricted-range bird species are found in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve: 

• Crested Argus. Vulnerable; restricted to the Annamese Lowlands and the Da Lat and Kontum 

Plateaus of Vietnam, Laos, and peninsular Malaysia; 

• Yellow-billed Nuthatch. Vulnerable; restricted to Mount Fan Si Pan and the Da Lat and 

Kontum Plateaus of Vietnam, northern Laos, and Hainan Island, China; 

• White-cheeked Laughingthrush. Least Concern; restricted to the Annamese Lowlands and 

the Da Lat and Kontum Plateaus of Vietnam and southern Laos; 

• Black-hooded Laughingthrush. Vulnerable; restricted to the Da Lat and Kontum Plateaus 

of Vietnam and adjacent areas in Laos; 

• Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler. Vulnerable; restricted to the Annamese Lowlands and the 

Da Lat and Kontum Plateaus of Vietnam and adjacent areas in Laos; 

• Golden-winged Laughingthrush. Not Evaluated; restricted to the Kontum Plateau of 

Vietnam; and 

• Black-crowned Barwing. Not Evaluated; restricted to the Kontum Plateau of Vietnam, 

and adjacent areas in Laos. 

The level of endemism in the bird fauna of Ngoc Linh can be ranked for comparison with that of other 

montane nature reserves. A scoring method allows five points per genus, one point per species, 20 points 

per restricted-range species, and 10 points per red-listed species (Table 31). Ranking results indicate 

that Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve has higher levels of endemism than other montane nature reserves in 

Vietnam. 

Table 31: Bird Endemism Ranking for Vietnam’s Montane Nature Reserves 

Nature Reserve Genera Species RRS Red-Listed Score Rank 

Ngoc Linh 125 190 7 17 1,125 1 

Chu Yang Sin 120 203 6 7 993 2 

Cong Troi (Lam Dong) 111 154 7 7 919 3 

Hoang Lien 110 208 4 7 908 4 

Hill 1978 (Thuong Da Nhim) 74 93 5 7 633 5 

Nui Bi Doup/ Nui Ra Rich 61 84 5 4 529 6 

Nui Ba 53 63 3 3 418 7 

Note: RRS = Restricted-Range Species (restricted to within 50,000 km 2 (ICBP 1992)). Red-listed as per Collar et al. (1994) and Anon. (1992). 

Indicator Species 

Several butterfly species collected in Ngoc Linh are indicators of habitat type. A high proportion of 

species in the Satyridae and Amathusiidae are forest understorey species, such as species in the following 

39


genera: Stichophthalma, Faunis, Aemone, Thaumantis, Neope and Lethe. A number of species, including 

Teinopalpus imperialis, Dodona adonira, D. deodata, D. ouida, D. egeon, Polyura dolon, Parantica sita, 

Capila pauripuneteta, etc. are restricted to mountane forest habitats where their food plants are distributed. 

The larvae of T. imperialis, for instance, feed only on species in the Magnoliaceae. 

The abundance of rare and endemic species such as Aemona amathusia, Orinoma damaris and Enispe 

cycnus is relatively high in habitats at high elevations. This fact, coupled with the high overall butterfly 

species diversity and the large number of species with specific habitat requirements, indicates the presence 

of a wide variety of habitat types, including undisturbed montane forest habitats. 

Biodiversity Comparison with Vietnam’s National Parks 

When the total known biodiversity of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is compared with that of Vietnam’s 

national parks, it is ranked second behind Cuc Phuong National Park (Table 32). 

The biodiversity of Cuc Phuong is much better studied than that of Ngoc Linh, especially with respect 

to flora, so it is not surprising that it should be ranked higher. However, it is probable that, given 

further study, the level of known biodiversity for Ngoc Linh will equal or even surpass that for Cuc 

Phuong. Based on the area’s high biodiversity and favourable conservation evaluation, Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve deserves conservation coverage comparable to that of a national park. 

40 

Table 32: Biodiversity Comparison of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve with Vietnam’s National Parks 

Protected Area Mammal Bird Reptile Amphibian Plant Rank by No. 

Species Species Species Species Species of Species 

Cuc Phuong National Park 64 137 36 17 1,967 1 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 52 190 41 23 878 2 

Ba Vi National Park 38 113 41 27 812 3 

Ben En National Park 41 82 3 27 737 4 

Cat Tien National Park 62 121 22 14 632 5 

Yok Don National Park 62 196 — 13 464 6 

Bach Ma National Park 55 158 — — 501 7 

Ba Be National Park 38 111 18 6 354 8 

Con Dao National Park 18 62 19 6 361 9 

Cat Ba National Park 28 37 20 — — 10 

3.4 Evaluation of Socio-Economic and Socio-Cultural Benefits 

The demand for immediately available resources rapidly increases in developing countries with high 

population growth. Protected areas are increasingly required to provide justification on both biological 

and socio-economic grounds. 

Flood and Erosion Control 

In general, river systems in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are narrow, high energy, montane rivers which 

are undergoing extensive grading and erosion. These rivers include the Dac Mek, Dac Po Ko, Thu Bon 

and Dac Plo Rivers and all are graded into sharp sloped, “V” shaped valleys that experience sudden 

floods and extensive erosion during the rainy seasons. Flood damage to lower lying areas is common, 

particularly to agricultural areas and irrigation projects. Groundwater run-off occurs at high rates for 

the alluvial soils in the region. Furthermore, during the dry season, rivers and streams at higher elevations 

and in open areas without forest cover are temporal. Available water can be limited, making irrigation 

very difficult in the lowlands. 

Increases in river-flow volume can be higher than one-hundred-and-fifty-fold for typical lowland rivers


in this region. Guaranteeing further protection of these watersheds in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is 

highly recommended for the prevention and reduction of flash-floods and erosion. Additionally, the 

large area of forest cover maintains a thick humus layer that can regulate and preserve groundwater, and 

has an invaluable function in rainwater intrainment and internment. 

Water Supply 

The forest of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve has an equally important role in upstream watershed protection 

for several of the large rivers in Quang Nam and Kon Tum provinces. These rivers are used to irrigate 

thousands of hectares of agricultural lands, as sources of potable water, and to supply the Yaly Hydropower 

Station. These rivers and the areas they service include: 

(a) Dac Mek River. Provides irrigation and potable water for Ngoc Linh, Dac Choong, Muong 

Hoong and Dac Man communes in the vicinity of the nature reserve. This river merges 

with the Dac Se River, which flows into the South China Sea at Da Nang city; 

(b) Dac Po Ko River. Provides irrigation and potable water for the Dac Man and Dac Nhong 

communes, and travels south to Dac Glei and Kon Tum towns. Several tributaries merge 

with this river from the nature reserve such as Dac Na, Dac Ka Tan, Dac Psi and Dac Glei 

Rivers. This river flows to Dac Pla, then merges with the Krong Po Ko River at Kon Tum 

town. The Dac Po Ko River is the most important water source for the Yaly Hydropower 

Station; 

(c) Thu Bon River. Provides irrigation and potable waters for the communities between the 

nature reserve and where it reaches the South China Sea, supplying freshwater to the fisheries 

at the Hoi An estuary; and 

(d) Dac Plo River. Secondary rivers flow into the Dac Plo River which travels through Laos 

and joins the Mekong River; it is an important irrigation and potable water supply for the 

communities and rice fields in the Dac Plo district communes on the Vietnam-Laos border. 

Forestry and Agroforestry 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve contains 236 commercially valuable timber species and extensive areas of 

potentially exploitable forest which are economically valuable and largely inaccessible. Primary broadleaf 

forest classified as “rich” or “medium” covers 57% of the total area of the nature reserve and contains a 

standing timber volume estimated at 5,346,876 m 3 . Inaccessible terrain renders many areas too costly 

to exploit by constructing logging roads. 

The only active logging company in the nature reserve is Rung Thong Forest Enterprise, whose activities 

would have to be transformed to an official capacity in forest protection and management. Despite 

this, continued small-scale extraction of timber can be anticipated, especially of the more commercially 

valuable species. Conservation measures to curtail these activities would have to be implemented. 

Exhausted, degraded and abandoned agricultural lands surrounding the nature reserve are of great 

importance as buffer zones. Funds allocated for reforestation of buffer zones under the current agroforestry 

programme would improve the living standards of the local people and help to prevent migration of 

people into the nature reserve in the future. Inclusion of these areas in the agroforestry programme 

would not only provide income for local people but would decrease the current reliance on forest 

resources. As part of this programme, emphasis should be placed on planting commercially valuable, 

native tree species. 

In implementing the agroforestry programme, it is advisable that indigenous tree species are used for 

41


reforestation. Current silviculture practices commonly replant with non-native Casuarina equisetifolia 

and Eucalyptus spp., both of which produce highly flammable alkaloids and growth-inhibiting hormones, 

thereby increasing the risk of fire, deterring seed germination and restricting the growth of other plant 

species. 

Medicinal and Ornamental Plants 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s forest contains 78 ornamental plant species and 169 medicinal plant species. 

Medicinal plants are valuable, widely sought and easily depleted. The efficacy of wild medicinal plants 

is well understood in Asia and they are regularly used for various aliments but their potential western 

pharmaceutical value remains largely unresearched. Some chemical compounds isolated from these 

plants could provide valuable pharmaceutical drugs. 

Other medicinal plant species could be cultivated locally for commercial purposes. A case in point is 

the endemic, endangered and heavily over-exploited Ngoc Linh Ginseng. This plant is now restricted 

to altitudes over 1,700 m but could be polycultured as part of an agroforestry programme. 

Genetic Resources 

Tropical forests are increasingly regarded as valuable genetic reservoirs with many possible agricultural 

and husbandry applications. They represent not only many potentially untapped commercially exploitable 

animal resources but a source for valuable strains with increased production, hardiness and disease 

resistance. 

Tourism 

Ecotourism. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve covers a large area of pristine and beautiful primary forest, 

with altitudinal zonation of four distinct vegetation types and eight subtypes. The nature reserve includes 

the second highest mountain in Vietnam in a scenic setting with prominent landscape features, such as 

broad vistas, complex terrain, unbroken forest and deep river gorges. At least five ethnic minority 

groups reside within the immediate vicinity of the nature reserve. 

The nearest centres of developed tourism are Hoi An, Da Nang and Hue cities. Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve is an ideal location for potential recreational activities such as hiking, climbing, camping, 

white-water rafting, kayaking and birdwatching. Road access is provided by National Highway 14 

which bisects the nature reserve. 

Birdwatching. Ornithological tours are increasingly popular in western countries and Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve shows promise as a desirable destination to be included in ornithological tour itineraries. One 

potential drawback is that the newly discovered species and subspecies, as well as the most endangered 

and visually stunning species, can be especially difficult to observe. 

Ethnotourism. Another area of tourism potential is ethnotourism: tours that emphasise the ethnology 

of the region. These tours, which educate participants about the lifestyles and culture of the local ethnic 

groups, are becoming popular in Vietnam. Tours that respect and recognise the intrinsic value of local 

customs can help to preserve these cultures and their respective customs. The specific minorities found 

in the study area and some of their historic ethnographic characteristics of potential tourist interest 

(Nghiem Van Dang et al. 1993) are: 

42 

(a) The Xe Dang (Sedang) and the Chau. The Xe Dang people belong to the Mon-Khmer 

language group; these are the most populous ethnic minority in the area with 8,992 people 

or 64% of the local population. Another 95 people are members of the Chau, a subclan of 

the Xe Dang. These people construct complex and aesthetically appealing terraced rice 

fields with intricate irrigation systems. Some Xe Dang and Chau villages have blacksmiths


that forge iron implements. Traditional celebrations often involve a buffalo sacrifice and 

exhibiting jars, gongs and livestock. The Xe Dang have rich spiritual beliefs based on 

agricultural cycles. Some of their oral traditions, songs and dance have been popularised on 

stage in Vietnam. 

(b) The De or E-de (Zay or Ee-zay). The De people are members of the Indo-Malay language 

group and are the second most populous ethnic minority with 3,658 people or 26% of the 

local population. Traditionally, these people lived in large longhouses divided into family 

compartments. Men wear turbans, long decorated loincloths and vests. Women wear their 

hair tied into a chignon. De people often forge farming tools, weave durable cloths and 

baskets, and carve wood; some make pottery. Both sexes wear copper bracelets, symbolic of 

marriage and oaths. Puberty is heralded by rites including bleaching the incisors and piercing 

the earlobes, which are then stretched for cosmetic purposes. De women propose marriage 

to the men, men reside in the wife’s house, children adopt the mother’s family name and a 

surname from the mother’s family ancestors. Polytheism is practised where both spirits and 

kings of the elements are worshiped and venerated. Their popular literature, arts and music 

are rich and unique; myths, legends, epics, stories and folk songs relate to their customs 

and history. 

(c) The Gie-Trieng, known locally as the Trieng-Re (Chee-ing Zay). The Trieng-Re people 

are another member of the Mon-Khmer language group and are the third most populous 

ethnic minority with 1,032 people or 7% of the local population. These nomadic and 

semi-nomadic people traditionally practised human sacrifices of enemies as a religious rite 

and lived in houses arranged on a four-level caste system within the village. Their swidden 

cultivation practices are meagre and rely heavily on gathering and hunting. Men wear 

loincloths and women wear necklaces and ornaments made of copper, silver, glass beads 

and sometimes ivory. Women’s hairstyles denote their marital status; a girls hair is worn 

shoulder length until married, when it is plaited and tied into a knot on the top of the 

head. Children’s ears are pierced and puberty is marked by the filing of teeth for both boys 

and girls. Trieng-Re people weave bamboo, rattan, cotton and jute. Metal forging is 

increasingly uncommon but pottery is specialised in certain villages. Religious activities are 

based on agricultural cycles, fertility rites, sorcery with many taboos and prohibitions, and 

vestiges of totemism that are different for men and women. Their material and social 

culture, particularly musical instruments, story telling, folk singing, popular art and 

literature, are rich and varied. 

The amount of ethnographically unique characteristics that have been retained by these ethnic minorities 

remains undetermined. If local ethnic minorities have not retained some of their more unique 

characteristics, then ethnotourism may have potential. 

The Xe Dang people have altered the landscape into interesting terraced rice fields that are unique to 

this part of Vietnam. The areas of greater interest are readily accessible on National Highway 14 from 

Dac Glei district to Da Nang and on National Highway 14B from Dac Man to Cong Troi and Dac Plo. 

This area of Vietnam is implicitly as anthropologically and culturally rich as other areas in Vietnam of 

high ethnotourist interest, such as Mai Chau and Sa Pa in northern Vietnam. 

Agricultural Self-sufficiency and Agroforestry 

The staple food for people in this region is rice, which is produced from low-yielding strains. Other 

food crops are corn and cassava, whilst green beans and potatoes are grown to a lesser degree. 

Forest resources are still rich, and the area of primary forest cover is the highest in the region. Ngoc 

43


Linh, Muong Hoong and Dac Man communes have a population of 4,636 people, and the other five 

communes in the buffer zone have a population of 9,240 people. Ethnic minorities make up more than 

95% of the local population, and 97% of the population relies on agricultural production. The 

agroforestry programme has begun planting trees in family forest plots and forest gardens, emphasising 

coffee, cinnamon and Litsea monopetala. The living conditions of local people are difficult: 39% of 

households suffer from famine for at least one month a year. Forest resources account for as much as 20 

to 25% of household income. Forest products include animals, edible tubers, leaves and fruits, traditional 

medicines, scented wood and resins, mints, gums, tannins, ornamental plants, medicinal plants, bamboo, 

rattan, construction materials and timber products. 

Incorporating the villages in the nature reserve’s buffer zone into the agroforestry programme could 

potentially realise several benefits. Training local people in more productive agricultural methods and 

the sustainable exploitation of forest products will have immediate and measurable benefits for them. 

The obvious benefit to conservation will be a reduced dependence on natural resources. 

The main objectives should be to economically empower local people by producing a surplus of food 

beyond their immediate needs, provide a more readily available source of forest products, and alleviate 

the hunting and collecting pressure on Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

Research and Local Stewardship 

Understanding the dynamic nature of the fragile montane habitats and forest types within this unique 

biogeographical isolate is crucial for proposing land-use alternatives ultimately aimed at minimising 

the loss of the region’s and Vietnam’s biodiversity. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve provides an opportunity 

for studies to understand altitudinal zonation of tropical montane forests and the standards required to 

manage these primary montane forest habitats. 

Studies of the primary forest of this nature reserve can provide baseline data for comparative studies 

elsewhere in Vietnam, and lead to a better understanding of immigration and emigration in a biological 

isolate. The opportunity to determine population dynamics of new, rare and endangered plants and 

animals in various undisturbed habitats is also a feature of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. The area also 

caters to applied socio-anthropological studies. The Xe Dang people’s method of terraced wet-rice 

cultivation could potentially be expanded to other communes in the buffer zone and the region. 

The scientific value of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve should be emphasised in schools, universities and 

colleges in Vietnam, as well as the benefits of forest management and biodiversity conservation in the 

country. 

44 

3.5 Evaluation of Managerial Role of Communes, Government and NGOs 

Vietnam’s system of ‘Special-Use Forests’ is unlikely to succeed in its objectives without the assistance 

and support of local communities, various government agencies, and Non-Governmental Organisations 

(NGOs). These bodies and organisations are particularly important in terms of defining and prioritising 

long-term objectives. 

The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) is the management body responsible 

for Vietnam’s national parks. Management of nature reserves falls under the responsibility of provincial 

people’s committees. However, limited resources are available to the government bodies responsible for 

development and management of protected areas; the European Union has a treaty agreement with 

Vietnam to subsidise these costs over a five-year interim period. This interim period should be devoted 

to determining which government agencies, NGOs and international donors can best serve the objectives 

of protection areas now and in the future. Numerous opportunities and benefits exist for local


communities, provincial authorities, government agencies and NGOs in assuming management 

responsibilities. NGOs should have a particularly active role not only in management and conservation 

training, sustainable development, tourism training, and educational awareness but also in developing 

assistance and coordinating multilateral efforts. 

NGOs are often in a position to coordinate the collaboration of various governmental branches with 

the activities of local communities, donor organisations, research bodies, other NGOs and international 

governments. 

The general scope of activities for NGOs includes to: 

• conduct environmental and social awareness programmes; 

• perform environmental and conservation education programmes; 

• assist in professional management training programmes; 

• devise and implement management and conservation plans; 

• conduct environmental assessment, management and monitoring; 

• supervise sustainable resource and forestry management; 

• identify economic, biodiversity and conservation priorities; 

• monitor environmental law compliance; 

• protect genetic variability and resources; 

• oversee on-going research and long-term monitoring studies; 

• recommend expansion, linkage and corridor prospects; 

• supervise policies regarding threatened species and habitats; and 

• acquire funds and grants for long-term management. 

3.6 Summary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Evaluation 

Ranking the overall evaluation features of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve shows that the area is of high 

conservation, economic and socio-cultural value. Virtually all of the site features fulfil the conservation 

criteria at the local and regional level. The biological and scientific values of the study area are 

unquestionably of international importance. 

Ecotourism, ornithological tourism and ethnotourism are all of potential value in regard to economic 

benefits at the local and regional level. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve fulfils all of the evaluation criteria 

normally reserved for national parks. 

45

4. Management Planning 

4.1 Administrative Areas 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province will fall within the management of the Kon Tum 

Provincial People’s Committee. The nature reserve will be administered by the provincial Forest Protection 

Department under MARD. Administrative duties include the management and protection of the nature 

reserve, as well as the implementation of projects and the nature reserve’s investment programme. 

Districts and Communes in the Administrative Area 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is located at 15 0 04'20''N 107 0 58'30''E, in northern Kon Tum province, on 

the border with Quang Nam province. Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s boundary includes conservation 

coverage of 41,420 ha, located within four communes and including 42 compartments. These communes 

and compartments are: 

46 

• Dac Man commune: compartments 16 to 25, excluding part of compartment 23; 

• Dac Choong commune: compartments 53 to 55, 59, 60 and 64 to 77, excluding parts of 

compartments 54, 66 and 69 but including part of compartment 83; and 

• Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh communes: compartments 78 to 82, 94 and 95 are included; 

as are parts of compartments 86, 87, 89 and 91 to 93. 

Eight communes in Dac Glei and Dac To districts are included in the buffer zone of the nature reserve. 

The total administrative area of these eight communes is 100,139 ha. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Boundary 

The administrative boundary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon Tum province is based on: 

• a biodiversity assessment of the area; 

• the inclusion of all habitat types and their associated fauna and flora, especially endemic 

and critically-threatened species; and 

• the necessity for boundary increases in the future. 

The nature reserve’s northern boundary follows the border between Kon Tum and Quang Nam provinces. 

This starts at Ngoc Peng Pek peak (1,728 m) and follows a stream bed until it crosses National Highway 

14 at Lo Xo Pass (15 0 03’48’’N 107 0 44’18’’E). It then proceeds east then south-west, crossing the summit 

of Mount Ngoc Linh (2,598 m), to Ngoc Hu peak (2,383 m) on the border between Dac To and Dac 

Glei districts. 

The southern boundary follows the border between Dac Glei and Dac To districts, from Ngoc Hu peak 

to Ngoc Poong peak (1,729 m). 

The south-western boundary starts at Ngoc Poong peak and heads north along the western boundaries 

of compartments 77, 73 and 69 until it reaches the peak of Ngoc Moc (1,500 m), where it heads east, 

cutting across compartment 69 to the confluence of the Dac Choong and Dac Nol Rivers. At this 

point, the boundary follows the Dac Nol River until it meets the northern boundary of compartment 

70. The boundary then cuts across compartment 66 in a north-easterly direction to the western boundary 

of compartment 67. From here, the boundary follows the northern boundaries of compartments 64 

and 65 until it reaches the border between Dac Choong and Muong Hoong communes. 

The north-western boundary starts at the border between Dac Choong and Muong Hoong communes.

Section 4 - Management Planning 

It cuts across compartment 83 then heads west along the southern boundaries of compartments 60, 59, 

55 and 54. The boundary cuts across the south-west corner of compartment 54, and then follows the 

southern boundaries of compartments 53 and 23, until reaching National Highway 14 at the 12 km 

marker. Following National Highway 14 to the Dac Man bridge, it then follows the Dac Man Stream 

to the southern boundary of compartment 22. It then follows the southern boundaries of compartments 

24 and 25 in Dac Man commune, and the western boundary of compartments 20, 21, 19, 18, 17 and 

16 in Dac Plo commune. The northern end of the western boundary is Ngoc Peng peak. 

The boundary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, as described, includes the villages and agricultural lands 

of Ngoc Linh and Muong Hoong communes. Therefore, the nature reserve’s boundary is further defined 

so as to exclude compartments 84, 85, 88 and 90, and those parts of compartments 86, 87, 89 and 91 

to 93 that include agricultural land or habitation. 

Strict Protection and Forest Regeneration Areas 

The conservation coverage of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is divided into two management categories: a 

Strict Protection Area and a Forest Regeneration Area. Because the Strict Protection Area is very large, 

it is divided into five sub-areas (SP I to SP V) in order to help make management and protection efforts 

more convenient. There is only one Forest Regeneration Area (FR I) (Table 33). 

Table 33: Strict Protection Sub-Areas and Forest Regeneration Area 

Area/ Forestry Classified Areas (ha) Total 

Sub-area (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) 

SP I 3,161 2,007 71 2,826 377 576 249 1,055 0 10,322 

SP II 123 1,577 0 594 483 252 28 748 61 3,866 

SP III 1,191 3,280 924 1,267 370 376 21 1,095 23 8,547 

SP IV 2,669 239 39 626 0 99 20 896 0 4,588 

SP V 6,440 2,001 0 395 1,083 790 165 409 0 11,283 

FR I 248 695 0 355 601 131 34 750 0 2,814 

Total 13,832 9,799 1,034 6,063 2,914 2,224 517 4,953 84 41,420 

SP = Strict Protection Sub-area; FR = Forest Regeneration Area. 1 = Rich forest, 2 = Medium forest, 3 = Poor forest, 4 = Regeneration forest, 5 = Coniferous 

forest, 6 = Bamboo forest, 7 = Scattered trees, 8 = Scrub and Grassland, 9 = Waterways. 

Strict Protection Area. This area is free from exploitation or being compromised in any way. This is to 

ensure that an area exists where wildlife populations can live and reproduce unhindered. The Strict 

Protection Area includes 38,606 ha or 93% of the nature reserve’s total area. Management requirements 

for the Strict Protection Area are very restrictive of activities allowed in the area (Table 34). 

(a) Strict Protection Sub-Area I. An area of 10,322 ha in the west and north-west of the 

nature reserve, including parts of nine compartments in Dac Man commune; forest covers 

9,018 ha or 87% of the sub-area, of which 3,161 ha is rich forest. Biodiversity is high, with 

Truong Son Muntjac, Giant Muntjac and Tiger present, particularly in the Cong Troi and 

Lo Xo Pass areas. Endemic birds found in this sub-area are Black-crowned Barwing, Blackhooded 

Laughingthrush and Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler. 

(b) Strict Protection Sub-Area II. An area of 3,866 ha on the northern boundary of the nature 

reserve, which comprises compartments 53 to 55, bordering Phuoc Son district in Quang 

Nam province to the north. The forest is moderately disturbed and there are some areas of 

scattered trees, grasslands and scrub in an area of 1,000 ha. Most forest is classified as 

“medium”, with some areas of regenerating and poor forest. This area contains the lowest 

diversity of bird and mammal species in the nature reserve. 

(c) Strict Protection Sub-area III. An area of 8,547 ha in the north and north-east of the 

47


48 

nature reserve, which includes compartments 59 and 60 in Dac Choong commune, and 

compartments 78 to 82 and parts of compartments 86 and 87 in Muong Hoong commune. 

Forest covers 7,392 ha or 87% of the sub-area, and is moderately disturbed but still in 

good condition. 

(d) Strict Protection Sub-area IV. An area of 4,588 ha which comprises the forest in Ngoc 

Linh commune and includes all or part of compartments 89, and 91 to 95 in the southeast 

of the nature reserve. Forest extends from 1,400 m to the summit of Mount Ngoc 

Linh. The area of forest cover is 3,672 ha or 80% of the sub-area, of which 2,669 ha 

comprises rich forest. This is the primary area where Ngoc Linh Ginseng is found. This is 

also an area where large stands of Pinus dalatensis occur. Bird and butterfly communities in 

this sub-area are similar to those of northern and north-western Vietnam. The two newly 

described bird species, two endemic species and several endemic sub-species are found in 

this sub-area. Large mammals such as Tiger, Clouded Leopard, Sun Bear, Asiatic Black 

Bear, Buff-cheeked Gibbon, Truong Son Muntjac and Dhole are also found in this subarea. 

(e) Strict Protection Sub-area V. This sub-area covers an area of 11,283 ha, including nine 

compartments 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76 and 77, of which 10,709 ha or 95% comprises 

forest. The sub-area includes undisturbed primary forest in the upstream catchments of 

the Dac Mek and Dak Po Ko Rivers in the south-west of the nature reserve, which cover an 

area of 6,500 ha. Ngoc Linh Ginseng is found in some locations. Stands of Pinus dalatensis, 

endemic bird species, and Truong Son Muntjac are also found in this sub-area. 

Table 34: Management Regime for the Strict Protection Area 

Activity Impacts Management 

Logging Forest fragmentation, forest habitat destruction, loss of Strictly prohibited 

animal and plant species 

Charcoal production Forest fragmentation, loss of habitat and species, air and Strictly prohibited 

ground pollution 

Fragrant wood/oil distilling Forest degradation, habitat destruction, loss of plant Strictly prohibited 

species, regeneration disturbance 

Mining Forest and habitat destruction, pollution, loss of animal Strictly prohibited 

and plant species 

Construction of roads, houses and Forest and habitat destruction, wildlife disturbance, Strictly prohibited 

other infrastructure pollution 

Ngoc Linh Ginseng collecting Loss of genetic and economic resources Strictly prohibited 

Hunting with guns Loss of animal species, wildlife disturbance Strictly prohibited 

Trapping Loss of animal species, wildlife disturbance Strictly prohibited 

Poison and dynamite fishing Habitat destruction, loss of animal species, pollution Strictly prohibited 

Fishing Loss of species Strictly prohibited 

Ornamental plant collecting Unknown but can endanger local species Strictly prohibited 

Livestock grazing Natural regeneration, habitat and wildlife disturbance Strictly prohibited 

Fires Forest and habitat destruction Strictly prohibited 

Firewood collecting Forest fragmentation, natural regeneration disturbance Limited 

Rattan cane collecting Habitat destruction, wildlife disturbance Limited 

Medicinal plant collecting Loss of plant species, potential habitat disturbance Limited 

Honey collecting Possible fire hazard Limited 

Forest Regeneration Area. The Forest Regeneration Area includes 2,814 ha or 7% of the nature reserve’s 

total area, within which limited human activities are permitted (Table 35). The management regime is

49 

LEGEND 




Nature Reserve Boundary 


Other Road 


Compartmental Boundary 

Guard Station 

Nature Reserve Headquater 

Strict Protection Area 

Forest Recovery Area 



Map 6: Proposed Boundary of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

SCALE 1:200,000 

� 



Section 4 - Management Planning


primarily aimed at allowing degraded forest to regenerate and increasing the total area available for 

viable wildlife populations in the nature reserve. The forest is moderately disturbed and situated adjacent 

to cultivated lands in Dac Choong commune. However, there are also 900 ha of grassland and scattered 

trees. This area would be part of the agroforestry programme in the future. There is suitable habitat for 

birds and animals below 1,000 m. Animals recorded in this area include civets, bovids, Siamese Fireback, 

Crested Argus and hornbills. 

Buffer Zone 

Buffer zones are areas adjacent to protected areas in which land-use is partially restricted, giving an 

added degree of protection to the nature reserve while providing valuable benefits to local communities. 

Buffer zones can serve two functions (adapted from MacKinnon et al. 1986): 

50 

Table 35: Management Regime for the Forest Regeneration Area 

Activity Impacts Management 

Logging Forest and habitat destruction, loss of animal and plant Strictly prohibited 

species 

Fragrant wood/oil distilling Forest degradation, habitat destruction, loss of species, Strictly prohibited 

regeneration disturbance 

Reforestation with alien species Loss of habitat, loss of plant and animal species Strictly prohibited 

Hunting and trapping Loss of animal species, habitat disturbance Strictly prohibited 

Mining Forest and habitat destruction, pollution, loss of animal Strictly prohibited 

and plant species 

Construction of roads, houses Forest and habitat destruction, wildlife disturbance, Strictly prohibited 

and public facilities pollution 

Livestock grazing Natural regeneration, habitat and wildlife disturbance Strictly prohibited 

Fire Forest and habitat destruction Strictly prohibited 

Converting forest to cultivation Forest and habitat destruction, loss of animal and plant Strictly prohibited 

species 

Honey Exploitation Possible fire hazard Permitted 

Exploitation of non-timber Loss of plant species and habitat Limited and regulated 

forest products 

Reforestation with local Habitat expansion, maintenance of biodiversity Encouraged 

indigenous tree species 

Family forest plots Reforestation, reduction of pressures on forest, habitat 

expansion Encouraged 

(a) Extension Buffering which extends 

the area of habitats contained within 

the protected area and supports larger 

breeding populations than could 

survive within the nature reserve area 

alone. These areas can have limited 

socio-cultural use; and 

(b) Socio-Buffering where wildlife use is 

of secondary importance and 

management is primarily aimed at 

providing products for local use but 

land-use does not conflict with the 

nature reserve’s objectives. 

Table 36: Commune Areas in the Nature 

Reserve and Buffer Zone 

District/ Area in Nature Area in Buffer 

Commune Reserve (ha) Zone (ha) 

Dac Glei district 41,420 32,470 

Dac Plo 0 14,620 

Dac Man 10,321 4,179 

Dac Choong 19,766 6,874 

Muong Hoong 6,745 3,715 

Ngoc Linh 4,588 3,082 

Dac To district 0 27,297 

Dac Na 0 8,126 

Mang Xang 0 8,878 

Ngoc Lay 0 10,293 

Total 41,420 59,767


An area of 59,767 ha is included in the buffer zone; this area is outside of the designated Ngoc Linh 

Nature Reserve and does not include Dac Nhoong and Dac Pek communes nor Dac Glei town. 

The communes of Dac Choong, Dac Man, Dac Plo, Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh in Dac Glei 

district are included in the buffer zone. In Dac To district, there are three communes included in the 

buffer zone, these are Dac Na, Mang Xang and Ngoc Lay (Table 36). 

The inhabitants of Dac Man, Dac Choong, Muong Hoong and Ngoc Linh communes can be expected 

to have the greatest impact on the nature reserve. The total area of these four communes is 59,270 ha, 

of which the nature reserve area comprises 41,420 ha or 70% the total area. 

4.2 Management Development 

Nature Reserve Management Personnel 

Initial personnel requirements for the nature reserve include the following: 

(a) Nature Reserve Director. Responsible for managing all nature reserve staff, and coordinating 

government bodies, institutions, consultants and NGOs. Supports, coordinates and presents 

all activities and programmes that aim to address the nature reserve’s objectives; 

(b) Vice-Director (Administrative). Responsible for overall operational aspects of the nature 

reserve regarding management and development plans. Reports to manager on progress of 

physical, institutional and personnel activities, as well as the budgetary status; 

(c) Vice-Director (Technical). Responsible for coordinating scientific specialists in investigating 

specific aspects of the nature reserve necessary for management and interpretative 

programmes. Must be aware of any occurring impacts and responsible for technical support 

and maintenance; and 

(d) Head of Forest Protection. As head guard, responsibilities include working with scientists 

to design and implement necessary resource management activities. Interacts with visitors, 

controls and monitors resources, applies forest protection laws and policies, and coordinates 

the activities of forest guards. 

Management Hierarchy and Recruitment 

The chain of managerial responsibility should be clear and precise with well-established hierarchical 

reporting and duty allocation. Direct communications are required between each department and its 

subordinates. The hierarchical allocation of duties should be clearly delineated. The minimum staffing 

requirements are shown in Figure 2. 

Forest Protection Personnel 

Ultimate responsibility for the performance of protection personnel falls on the head of forest protection, 

who should be in regular contact with and involved in the selection of personnel. Guards may be 

recruited locally or appointed to the area from outside the region; distinct disadvantages and advantages 

exist for both options (Table 37). 

51


Senior 

Level 

Advanced 

Level 

Medium 

Level 

Basic 

Level 

Local recruitment of protection personnel would be more desirable than hiring regionally; with training 

and education, local recruits can fulfil all but the highest levels of conservation protection positions. 

With local recruits, the benefits in both local knowledge and social goodwill outweigh the disadvantages 

and can be of long-term benefit in meeting management objectives. 

Management Development Infrastructure 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is currently poorly administered and lacks appropriate facilities for carrying 

out protection activities. There are no support vehicles or communication equipment, nor are there 

programmes for forest-fire prevention or the protection of forest resources. Salaries and living standards 

of forest protection personnel are low, and, consequently, incentive to work is often lacking. However, 

five forest enterprises are located in the area, and there is potential for the conversion of their personnel 

to a forest-protection role. 

Visitor Access and Restrictions 

It is highly recommended that visitor access be restricted to National Highway 14, which passes through 

52 

Administration Department 

Head of Administration 

Table 37: Locally versus Regionally Recruited Protection Personnel 

Local Recruitment Regional Recruitment 

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages 

Can select most able and best 

members of the local 

community. 

Locals are familiar with 

conservation area and have local 

knowledge. 

Locally employed work force 

generates goodwill amongst the 

local communities. 

Locals are more likely to 

maintain their posts if families 

are either nearby or accompany. 

Locals often have low 

education levels and are 

poorly qualified. 

Locals may be more lenient 

on infringements by other 

locals. 

Locals may be involved in 

long-standing local divisions, 

feuds or clan conflicts. 

Loyalties may be stronger 

towards family or local clans, 

creating resentments. 

Directors 

Director and 2 Vice-directors 

Technical Department 

Head of Science 

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of Nature Reserve Staff Hierarchy 

Regional searches offer a 

much wider pool of potential 

employees. 

Regional employment can 

select more highly educated 

personnel. 

Regional staff can be posted 

where no previous loyalties or 

relationships exist. 

Regionally hired staff can be 

moved in the event of local 

problems or serious trouble. 

Protection Department 

Head of Forest Protection 

and Deputy Head 

1 Administrative Clerk 

Science and Monitoring: 

2 Technicians and 

1 Cashier/Clerk 

8 Senior Guards 

1 Servant and 1 Driver 34 Guards 

May have little empathy for 

locals or their customs and 

traditions. 

May be reluctant to explore 

and provide cover of 

unknown areas. 

May be unsuitable for work 

in remote areas or feel they 

are upper management level. 

May be of poor qualification 

or standard as applicants for 

lower paying jobs.


the west of the nature reserve. Prohibiting vehicular traffic to the inner communities of Ngoc Linh and 

Muong Hoong communes is advisable until these access roads are better developed. 

Access to the higher and more fragile montane forest types and habitats should be limited and restricted 

to existing trails. Nevertheless, visitor access should pass through as many of the representative forest 

and vegetation types as possible, and visitors should be routed to any areas with impressive vistas. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Headquarters 

The location of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve headquarters was discussed at a workshop with the relevant 

provincial authorities, where it was decided that the headquarters should be constructed at Be Re 

village in Dac Choong commune. 

Guard Stations and Forest Protection Personnel 

Recommended locations for guard stations to maximise the protection coverage of Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve are given in Table 38. Protection coverage includes creating perimeters around the most pristine 

forest areas, controlling access routes, and establishing guard stations between the more heavily populated 

areas and the forest. 

Manpower requirements for protection coverage include eight forest protection teams, totalling eight 

senior guards and 34 guards, and the establishment of seven guard stations; one team is a mobile unit 

which constantly relocates within the nature reserve. All protection teams are required to conduct 

regular patrols and maintain diaries of useful information: wildlife sightings, human disturbance, etc. 

The most important objective of the protection teams is the strict enforcement of the nature reserve’s 

regulations. 

Table 38: Recommendations for Guard Stations, Staffing Requirements, and Coverage 

Location Guard Staff Coverage Location 

Ngoc Linh 1 Senior Guard SP IV and FR I In village that is nearly surrounded by the nature reserve. 

commune and 4 Guards 

Muong Hoong 1 Senior Guard SP III and FR I Good monitoring area between north end of Muong Hoong 

commune and 4 Guards village and the nature reserve. 

Dac Choong 1 Senior Guard SP II, SP III Situated on main access trail, in centre of area encircled by nature 

commune and 4 Guards and FR I reserve. 

Dac Man 1 Senior Guard SP I and SP II Located at junction between National Highway 14 and 

commune and 4 Guards road leading to three communes encircled by nature reserve. 

(at 12 km marker) 

Dac Man 1 Senior Guard SP I Located on National Highway 14, 26 km from Dac Glei town. 

commune and 4 Guards Existing building and communications. 

(at 26 km marker) 

Dac Plo 1 Senior Guard SP I Controls access to nature reserve from Phuoc Son district, 

commune and 4 Guards Quang Nam province. 

Dac Glei town 1 Senior Guard SP V Access provided by Rung Thong Forest Enterprise road. 

and 4 Guards 

Mobile unit 1 Senior Guard Not applicable Mobile team that constantly relocates to check 

and 6 Guards station-based conservation coverage. 

53

5. Management Policy, Objectives, Development and Reporting 

5.1 Management Policy 

Devising a comprehensive management policy for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is determined by 

site-specific requirements. The nature reserve’s management requirements are a function of three factors 

addressed in the following sections, namely: 

54 

(a) classifying the features which require protection; 

(b) determining appropriate management actions; and 

(c) establishing compatible utilisation with limited disturbance. 

Protected Area Classification 

Classifying the protection area establishes the major features that require protection; these specific 

protection features are the basis for devising a site-specific management policy (Table 39). 

Table 39: Classifying the Protection Features of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Protection Features Site Considerations 

Characteristic or unique ecosystems Montane forest isolate with eight habitats 

Special species of interest, value, rarity or under conservation 19% of vertebrate species red-listed, including 

threat 20 mammals, 17 birds and 21 herpetiles 

Sites of unusual species diversity High montane area with key habitat types 

Landscapes or geophysical features of aesthetic or scientific Very aesthetic area of mountains, valleys, rivers, forest 

value and terraced rice cultivation 

Hydrological protective functions Watershed, flood control, and irrigation 

Nature recreation and tourism facilities Recreation and tourism potential very high 

Sites of special scientific interest Montane forest of high scientific value 

Cultural sites Not applicable 

The primary features for protection in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve under this classificatory scheme are 

the unique and vulnerable high montane forest habitats that have associated high species diversity; and 

the newly discovered, endemic and threatened species of great conservation value. The nature reserve is 

aesthetically very appealing and promises to be an area of high recreational and tourist interest. 

Furthermore, the area is important for its various hydrological benefits and is of scientific value for ongoing 

research into dynamic tropical montane forest systems that are poorly understood at present. 

Compatible Utilisation 

Conservation areas are increasingly required to realise benefits for local inhabitants whose livelihoods 

have been affected by establishing the area. Unfortunately, if immediate benefits are not realised by the 

local inhabitants, at least to some extent, the conservation area may fail to meet its objectives. 

Visitors should be able to witness firsthand the areas, habitats and species which have been targeted for 

conservation efforts. Habitats and species which are threatened should be accessible to a limited extent 

as a means of promoting awareness of the conservation area but contact should be as non-interventionist 

as possible. Therefore, a concerted effort should be made to predetermine which target species are 

intolerant of human contact. Also, the extent of access increases the need for regulatory enforcement. 

Furthermore, the benefits of visitor access versus the effects on threatened species should be considered. 

Scientific research is essential for understanding poorly studied areas, particularly threatened animal 

populations and unique habitat dynamics. The potential benefits from research in the areas of ecology, 

ethology, conservation, ethnology, and sociology within the tropical montane forests of the Western

Highlands of Vietnam are great and should be promoted. 

Section 5 - Management Policy, Objectives, Development and Reporting 

Recommendations for compatible utilisation of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve should take into consideration 

the potential impacts on key habitats and threatened species. Any utilisation with potential for causing 

disturbance is not recommended for this nature reserve on several grounds: available refuge is limited 

and patchily distributed; habitats are already heavily degraded and unstable; and the viability of existing 

wildlife populations has not been determined. 

The most highly recommended compatible utilisation for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve is that users have 

access to most habitat types without compromising the more fragile habitats. 

Incompatible Utilisation, Exploitation and Unsustainable Use 

Most common forms of exploitation of natural resources in Vietnam are incompatible with the 

management objectives of ‘Special-Use Forest’ areas. These activities must be regulated and controlled 

to ensure the sustainable use, management and maintenance of Vietnam’s biodiversity and natural 

resources. 

Legal and Illegal Timber Extraction. The timber resources in the study area are largely unprotected: 

small-scale timber extraction currently operates unhindered, and Rung Thong Forest Enterprise holds 

concessions within the nature reserve for large-scale extraction. Currently, this is the only forest enterprise 

still legally exploiting the forest. However, the timber cutting activities of this company must be stopped 

to ensure the survival of the fragile montane forest habitats in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

Trapping and Hunting. The local ethnic minority people living at subsistence level must supplement 

their protein intake, therefore trapping and hunting are widespread in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

Large birds and mammals are particularly vulnerable to hunting and trapping pressure; to ensure their 

survival, these activities would have to be prohibited within the nature reserve’s boundaries. 

Other Incompatible Uses. Several other forms of exploitation are probably common but highly 

incompatible with any conservation effort in the nature reserve, most notable are activities such as 

forest burning, agriculture, plant collecting and animal trading. 

Livestock grazing takes place around Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve and its effects on the flora and fauna 

would have to be determined before allowing continued grazing within the nature reserve’s boundaries. 

Management Actions 

At some point, extensive human impact will reduce the naturalness of the area, thereby increasing the 

costs of management efforts. Therefore, it is essential that a management regime encouraging only 

compatible utilisation of the nature reserve is implemented (Table 40). 

Table 40: Recommended Compatible and Incompatible Utilisation of the Nature Reserve 

Utilisation Management Recommendations 

Collecting firewood and forest products Not for recovering or damaged habitats 

Traditional hunting, trapping and fishing Not for depleted or threatened populations 

Villages None currently located within boundary 

Grazing of domestic stocks Not if this competes with wild animal populations of inhibits seral succession 

Limited agricultural use Not permitted 

Selective logging Not permitted 

Clear felling with reforestation Not permitted 

Silviculture Not permitted 

Agroforestry/polyculture Only if polyculturing species 

Mining or quarrying Not permitted 

55


5.2 Management Objectives 

Site-specific management objectives for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve should be based on the protection 

features, the extent of management actions contemplated for the area, and the range of compatible 

utilisation that can be accommodated with limited disturbance. The management objectives for Ngoc 

Linh Nature Reserve should be to: 

56 

(a) conserve the representative tropical montane forest habitats; 

(b) protect and maintain the area’s rich biodiversity; 

(c) protect the populations of threatened, restricted-range and endemic species; especially the 

newly described species; 

(d) conserve the potential genetic resources of the area; 

(e) promote the creation of buffer zones in the conservation coverage; 

(f) safeguard the watershed-protection value of the area in order to reduce soil erosion, siltation, 

drought, saltwater intrusion and flooding; 

(g) maintain a source for fresh water and irrigation supply for downstream users; 

(h) improve local knowledge and practice of responsible land stewardship, sustainable landuse 

and tourism; 

(i) accommodate visitors while increasing awareness and ensuring preservation of the nature 

reserve’s biological uniqueness and aesthetic appeal; 

(j) promote the on-going management of the nature reserve, and the cooperation of the local 

community, government and NGOs in achieving the nature reserve’s goals; 

(k) promote and facilitate research, particularly on conservation of endangered animal 

populations and on dynamics of tropical montane forest; and 

(l) demonstrate the ability to manage and sustainably utilise forest resources while maintaining 

a comprehensive conservation protection area, and to do this without over-exploiting the 

inherently limited resources of adjacent areas. 

5.3 Management and Development 

As part of the management plan for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve, programmes outlining the necessary 

development stages are required. Development of the nature reserve will require baseline studies, 

construction and protection efforts, as well as parallel socio-economic development programmes for 

the communities that reside in the buffer zone of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. These development 

programmes must adhere to the nature reserve’s objectives while also addressing development needs of 

the local communities. The management and development programmes should be: 

(a) infrastructure development programme; 

(i) demarcation workshops 

(ii) headquarters construction 

(iii) guard station construction 

(iv) road and trail upgrading 

(b) conservation and protection programme; 

(i) protection coverage 

(ii) natural and assisted forest regeneration 

(iii) agroforestry 

(c) scientific research programme; 

(d) education and awareness programme; and 

(e) administrative management programme.

The management and development programmes should aim to: 


• clearly delineate the nature reserve’s administrative areas and ensure public awareness of 

the rules and regulations of the nature reserve; 

• describe and evaluate the forest and forest resources in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve including 

flora, invertebrate and vertebrate fauna communities. This baseline work should focus on 

locally and regionally threatened, and restricted-range endemic species, including their 

role and importance in both the local ecosystem and the local economy; 

• evaluate the potential genetic, economic and hydrological values of the nature reserve; 

• evaluate the dependence on forest resources of the local community, and the pressure that 

they exert on the forest resources of the nature reserve; 

• propose a proper management plan within the scope of conservation in the nature reserve 

for promoting the sustainable development of local communities; 

• propose a five-year plan for construction, management and protection of Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve; 

• propose investment and disbursements for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve; and 

• evaluate the effectiveness of management and investment in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

Infrastructure Development Programme 

(a) Demarcation Workshops 

Objectives. To announce the establishment of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. To clearly establish the 

nature reserve and buffer zone boundaries. To provide notice of the nature reserve’s rules and 

regulations. 

Activities. Upon approval for investment and establishment of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve in Kon 

Tum province by MARD, the Kon Tum People’s Committee will be requested to make decisions 

regarding the organisation(s) and personnel to be assigned to Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. The 

management board of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve should then hold a series of demarcation 

workshops to seek agreement on the zoning plan of the nature reserve from the leaders of the 

relevant districts, communes and forest enterprises. During these workshops, the nature reserve’s 

management board should announce the establishment of the nature reserve, the objectives of 

the nature reserve and the contents of the management plan, and should carry out the following 

activities: 

(i) Setting Boundary Pillars. Demarcation of the nature reserve requires the setting of boundary 

pillars to mark the nature reserve’s boundary. These boundary pillars should be made of 

concrete and set at a spacing of every 100 to 150 m along the boundary in Ngoc Linh and 

Muong Hoong communes; this includes the boundaries of compartments 86, 87, 89, 91 

and 93. In the areas of clearly divided terrain that separates the nature reserve, boundary 

pillars should only be placed at the ends of the boundary and at the entrance of trails 

leading into the nature reserve. 

Estimated total number of boundary pillars: 150. 

(ii) Setting Regulation Boards. Rules and regulation boards should be posted at the nature reserve 

headquarters, guard stations, villages, communes and at the entrance of trails leading into 

the nature reserve. 

Estimated number of regulation boards: 15. 

Size: 1.5 x 2 x 0.05 metres. 

57


(b) Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve Headquarters 

58 

Objectives. To construct of a nature reserve headquarters. The nature reserve headquarters should 

be large enough to accommodate workshops, conferences and various departmental functions. 

This structure must include a lobby, offices for the director and vice-directors, and rooms for the 

protection, technical and administration departments. Also in this facility, or adjacent to this 

facility, there should be accommodations which include guest rooms, directors and officers living 

quarters, staff quarters, and washrooms 

Activities. Selection of a suitable location, design of the headquarters and approval of the design, 

and finally construction of the facility. 

Estimated constructed area: 500 m 2 (on a plot of 2,000 to 3,000 m 2 ). 

(c) Guard Stations 

Objective. To provide suitable lodgings and work place for guards, whose responsibilities will be 

to enforce rules and regulations, to manage and protect the nature reserve from exploitation 

activities, and to conduct regular patrols of the nature reserve area. 

Activities. Construction of seven guard stations. 

Estimated area: 60 m 2 for each guard station and including lodgings, work place and washrooms, 

within a plot of 300 m 2 . 

Total construction area: 7 x 60 = 420 m 2 . 

(i) Ngoc Linh Guard Station. Location: centre of Ngoc Linh commune; 15 0 05'N 

107 0 55'E. 

Duties: to protect and manage Strict Protection Sub-area IV; and to cooperate with 

Ngoc Linh commune in the implementation of forest protection and reforestation 

in the Forest Regeneration Area. 

(ii) Muong Hoong Guard Station. Location: centre of Muong Hoong commune. 

Duties: to protect and manage Strict Protection Sub-areas II and III; and to cooperate 

with Kon Rieng Guard Station and Muong Hoong commune in the implementation 

of forest protection and reforestation in the Forest Regeneration Area. 

(iii) Kon Rieng Guard Station. Location: Kon Rieng village, Dac Choong commune; 

15 0 09'N 107 0 52'E. 

Duties: to protect and manage Strict Protection Sub-areas II and III; cooperate with 

Muong Hoong guard station and Kon Rieng village in the implementation of forest 

protection and reforestation in the Forest Regeneration Area. 

(iv) Kilometre 12 Guard Station. Location: 12 km marker on National Highway 14 (12 km 

from Dac Glei district centre), at the T-junction of the road to Ngoc Linh commune. 

Duties: to protect and manage Strict Protection Sub-areas I and II.


(v) Dac Man Guard Station. Location: Dac Man commune forestry station 

Duties: to protect and manage Strict Protection Sub-area I. 

(vi) Dac Plo Guard Station. Location: Dac Plo commune. 

Duties: to protect and manage Strict Protection Sub-area I. 

(vii) Dac Glei Guard Station. Location: west of Dac Glei town, near Rung Thong Forest 

Enterprise. 

(d) Road and Trail Upgrading 

Duties: to protect and manage of Strict Protection Sub-area V. 

Objectives. To improve access for implementing protection and management programmes, and 

to increase user access to the nature reserve. To reduce erosion of heavily used but unsurfaced 

roads. 

Activities 

• construction of 15 km of road. The road to Ngoc Linh from National Highway 14, which 

will be repaired as part of the Ngoc Linh-Muong Hoong Centre project, should not be 

included in this project. However, 15 km of National Highway 14b, between Dac Man 

and Dac Plo communes, should be upgraded, including the access road to Border Army 

Station 662 (accounted for in the buffer zone investment); 

• repair of two drainage areas and four small underpasses; 

• upgrading of 7 km of road from Ngoc Linh Forest Enterprise to Long Hy village, Mang 

Xang commune; 

• reconstruction of five bridges (accounted for in buffer zone investment); and 

• repair of two trails for guard-station access. This includes 10 km of trail from Long Nang 

village, Ngoc Linh commune to Long Hy village, Mang Xang commune, and 15 km of 

trail from Long Nang village to Dac Choong commune. 

Conservation and Protection Programme 

(a) Protection Coverage 

This programme is aimed at resource protection and resource management in the nature reserve, 

and should be implemented by the nature reserve headquarters and protection teams. 

Objectives. To protect the nature reserve’s forest resources, to implement and enforce the nature 

reserve’s rules and regulations, to maintain a record of field activities and findings, and to coordinate 

activities in the Strict Protection and Forest Regeneration Areas. 

Activities 

• establishment of ‘Standard Operating Procedures’ for each guard station which outline in 

detail the scope, objectives and activities for each protection team; 

• preparation of weekly, monthly and annual guard schedules for each guard station protection 

team and the mobile protection team; 

• enforcement of the rules and regulations regarding forest exploitation activities, particularly 

regarding hunting, trapping, plant collecting and logging; 

59


60 

• regular inspections and interviews with households taking part in the forest regeneration, 

forest protection and agroforestry programmes; and 

• establishment of a forest fire prevention and fighting plan to be implemented during the 

dry season, with particular attention to areas of coniferous forest. 

(b) Natural and Assisted Forest Regeneration 

A forest regeneration programme should be implemented as part of a process to restore areas of 

degraded forest to their natural condition. 

Objectives. To increase the forest cover of the nature reserve, to expand habitats for wildlife, and 

to generate incomes for local people. 

Activities 

• design of a detailed forest regeneration programme; 

• selection of indigenous trees and plants, and collecting seedlings of local trees; 

• design and establishment of nurseries to provide young trees for the forest regeneration 

and agroforestry programmes; 

• establishment of guidelines for nursery, planting and post-planting care; and 

• plan of the diversity, density and distribution of indigenous trees to be planted in the 

Forest Regeneration Area of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

In order to carry out the forest regeneration programme, the project proposes the establishment 

of two nurseries, each of two hectares: one near Muong Hoong guard station and the other near 

the nature reserve headquarters in Be Re village, Dac Choong commune. 

Areas of scrub, grassland and scattered trees totalling 3,972 ha should be allocated to individual 

households for the purpose of natural regeneration. Households allocated land for natural 

regeneration should receive VND90,000 in the first year and VND80,000 in subsequent years. 

Areas of bare land and scrub that are unable to regenerate naturally should be replanted with 

native tree species. These areas are mostly within the Forest Regeneration Area and have a total 

area of 784 ha. Preference should be given to indigenous species, such as Litsea verticillata, 

L. monopetala, Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Michelia spp., Pinus kesiya, and others. Mixed planting is 

emphasised in order to create a forest ecosystem with different botanical species. 

VND7 million per hectare per year should be allocated for the first five years of the replantation 

programme. 

(c) Forest Protection 

Objectives. To protect the nature reserve’s forest, and to involve local communities in nature 

conservation by allocating forest land to individual households for the purposes of protection. 

Activities. A total of 12,235 ha of forest, including coniferous forest, regeneration forest, poor 

forest and bamboo forest should be allocated on protection contracts to households living in the 

nature reserve’s buffer zone. Households allocated forest land should receive VND70,000 per 

hectare for the first year and VND50,000 per hectare in subsequent years. 

(d) Agroforestry 

This socio-economic development project should be designed and implemented separately from


Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s development and management programmes. Participation of the 

local people is crucial to the implementation of the agroforestry project. 

Objective. Improve local people’s living conditions, particularly those that are more dependent on 

the forest products from the nature reserve, and to reduce their dependence on the nature reserve’s 

forest. Promote local participation in forest protection and polyculture development. 

Activities 

• inventory of present land-use in the communes in the nature reserve’s buffer zones; 

• assignment of forest to be protected and reforested in the buffer zone; 

• implementation of programmes through the forestry departments of Dac Glei and Dac To 

and the related forest enterprises; and 

• coordination of the agroforestry project with the forest regeneration project, particularly 

the nursery activities, and species to be collected and planted. 

Buffer zone land-use areas of the four communes of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve are listed in Table 41. 

The agroforestry project for the four buffer zone communes should assign 8,712 ha of forest for 

protection; this includes categories 1 to 6 in Table 41. Most of the assigned areas of forest should be 

Table 41: Buffer Zone Land-Use Areas of Four Communes 

Commune 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total 

Ngoc Linh 44 759 0 321 53 474 648 783 3,082 

Muong Hoong 0 794 0 290 706 295 587 1,043 3,715 

Dac Choong 644 453 15 27 248 117 155 2,520 4,179 

Dac Man 156 382 0 998 1,523 413 741 2,661 6,874 

Total 844 2,388 15 1,636 2,530 1,299 2,131 7,007 17,850 

Note: 1 = rich forest; 2 = medium forest; 3 = poor forest; 4 = regenerated forest; 5 = coniferous forest; 6 = bamboo forest; 7 = agricultural lands; 8 = scrub 

and grasslands 

located near villages or existing agricultural land. Land assigned for agroforestry should also include 

scrub and grasslands (category 8 in Table 41) which cover 7,007 ha. Preference should be given to 

indigenous tree species, such as Litsea spp. and Michelia spp., as well as to economically valuable ones 

such as cinnamon and coffee. 

Scientific Research Programme 

Objective. To increase understanding of the ecology of the nature reserve in order to assist in formulating 

both long and short-term protection and management plans. To promote and increase the capacity of 

conservation personnel’s knowledge of forestry, biology and natural resources. 

Activities 

• establishment of a plan for research studies including study outlines, proposal for any 

interventionist measures, period of study, cooperating agencies and training; 

• comprehensive baseline assessment of the fauna and flora systems in the nature reserve; 

• on-going evaluation of forest regeneration; 

• on-going observation of the distribution and numbers of mammals in the nature reserve, 

particularly endangered and threatened species; 

• on-going studies of the range, habits and ecology of endemic restricted-range birds; and 

• studies of Ngoc Linh Ginseng, with cultivation under different forest types. 

The above research studies will include as part of the programme, collaboration with nature reserve 

staff, training centres, colleges and NGOs (i.e. BirdLife and WWF). Cooperation with government 

agencies such as FIPI, the Institute for Ecology and Biological Resources, Xuan Mai Forestry College, 

61


and the Institute of Forestry Science. 

Education and Awareness Programme 

Objective. Promote local knowledge in nature and resource protection and conservation and how it 

applies to Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. Education is important for the community and visitors to 

understand Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s significant role in water catchment, potable water, agriculture, 

irrigation, hydropower and ecology. 

Activities 

• distribution of materials introducing the role of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve; 

• courses on forest protection and community development, in particular for the buffer zone 

communities; 

• distribution of materials on forest and environmental protection for course lessons in schools 

in the buffer zone; and 

• films and exhibitions on environmental and forest-resource protection in communities 

and schools in the buffer zone. 

Administrative Management Programme 

Objective. Establish the administrative structure for the implementation of the management, protection 

and development of Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve. 

Activities. Establish a directorate with three personnel, which oversees three departments: a protection 

department with 44 personnel; a technical department with four personnel; and an administration 

department with four personnel. 

(a) Directorate 

62 

Personnel. One director and two vice-directors. 

Function. The director is the highest-ranking officer in the nature reserve, who is properly qualified 

in forestry, biology and/or nature conservation. The director is responsible for organisation and 

management of the nature reserve, supervision of the board of management, and planning and 

monitoring the programmes proposed in the project. Vice-directors assist the director or act on 

behalf of the director to deal with management, activities and programmes. 

(b) Protection Department 

Personnel. 44 officers, equivalent to a forest department branch. Of which, there is one head of 

department, one deputy head, five personnel for each of seven guard stations, and seven personnel 

for one mobile team to be stationed at the nature reserve headquarters. 

Functions 

• implement protection and management measures for forest resources and the forest 

regeneration programme; 

• cooperate with local authorities to allocate forest to households for protection and replanting; 

• execute the rules and regulations on protection and management of ‘Special-Use Forests’; 

• educate the local populous in forest fire prevention, conservation, and rules and regulations 

regarding the nature reserve; and 

• guard stations should directly organise and fulfil duties including patrolling and inspection 

of forest in assigned areas; maintenance of regular contact with other guard station heads 

and the head of the protection department, and collaboration with the mobile team that


will assist the guard stations in forest protection. 

(c) Technical Department 

Personnel. One head of department, two technical experts and one cashier/clerk. 

Functions 

• assist the directorate in consulting, planning and supervision; 

• propose long-term plans for the protection and management programme; and 

• provide the technical support for the forest regeneration programme, primary baseline 

assessment and on-going scientific studies. 

(d) Administration Department 

Personnel. One head of department, one administrative clerk, one servant and one driver. 

Functions. Assisting the directorate and other departments in the implementation of programmes, 

financial management and payrolls, disbursement for locally-hired staff, and acquisition of 

necessary goods and equipment. 

5.4 Management Progress Reporting 

Evaluating Management Effectiveness 

Periodic independent evaluations of management effectiveness are recommended to determine whether 

the nature reserve’s conservation objectives are being met. Evaluations are further recommended as a 

component of all routine reports and should be conducted as internal audits as well as external audits. 

Four areas of management importance should be included in evaluations: 

EVALUATIONS INTERNAL AUDITS EXTERNAL AUDITS 

Expenditures and Budgets Self Evaluations Independent Experts 

Progress and Time Schedules Headquarters Assessments Local Advisory Committee 

Goals and Objectives Visitors’ Responses 

Cost-effectiveness 

A set of evaluation criteria have been devised by IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected 

Areas: 

(1) Clearly defined specific written objectives to 

guide management; 

(2) Compatible legislation fully protected at 

national or provincial level; 

(3) Basic resources information including: 

(a) Mammal Inventory 

(b) Bird inventory 

(c) Herpetile Inventory 

(d) Terrestrial Invertebrate Inventory 

(e) Freshwater Vertebrate and Invertebrate 

Inventory 

(f) Plant Inventory 

(g) Vegetation Maps 

(h) Geomorphology Maps 

(i) Pedology Maps 

(j) Meteorology Data Sets 

(k) Hydrological Data Sets 

(l) Topographic Maps 

(m) Aerial Photographs 

(n) Full Bibliography of Publications 

(4) Basic ecological information including: 

(a) Studies of wildlife population dynamics 

(b) Studies of population status and trends of 

key target species 

(c) Information on wildlife and habitat 

relationships 

63


(d) Studies of predator-prey relationships 

(e) Information on the carrying capacity of key 

habitat types 

(f) Information on disease reservoirs among 

wildlife 

(g) Studies on seral succession 

(h) Information on fires and their effects 

(5) Watershed management that protects: 

(a) Welfare of downstream inhabitants 

(b) Welfare of downstream ecological processes 

(e.g. estuaries) 

(c) Engineering works for irrigation dams 

(6) Managed to protect potential genetic 

resources 

(7) Management plan approved, implemented 

and monitored 

(8) Zoning plan which controls human impacts 

and includes development relative carrying 

capacity 

(9) Boundaries are clearly demarcated and 

effectively define the area 

(10) Ecological boundaries which enclose an 

entire self-sufficient ecosystem 

(11) Natural resources are fully and effectively 

protected from exploitation 

(12) Research programmes are well integrated 

and applied research provides support to 

management objectives 

(13) Formal education with adequate facilities, 

extension programmes for local and national 

institutions 

Regional Management Units 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve will come under the management jurisdiction of the Kon Tum Provincial 

People’s Committee. The administration of the nature reserve will be through the Kon Tum Provincial 

Forest Protection Department. Collaboration between the nature reserve and the Kon Tum Provincial 

People’s Committee will be coordinated by Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s management board 

The provincial Forest Protection Department will be responsible for the staffing and expenditures, 

approaching potential funding sources and the technical studies as an addendum to the nature reserve’s 

management plan. It is highly recommended that coordination of these functions is supported and 

guided by Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s management board. 

Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve’s management board’s responsibilities and duties should be: 

64 

(14) Informal education with the following 

facilities: 

(a) Leaflets 

(b) Maps 

(c) Marked Trails 

(d) Signs 

(e) Guide Services 

(f) Information Centre 

(g) Audio-Visual Programmes 

(h) Observation Areas 

(15) Tourism is promoted and facilities are 

provided 

(16) Political support of the central government 

for the nature reserve’s conservation 

objectives 

(17) Local Advisory Committee involves local 

people in decision making processes 

(18) Benefits to local people are real economic, 

agricultural and development opportunities 

(19) Budget is sufficient to meet the conservation 

objectives in the management plan 

(20) Maintenance is budgeted for and 

equipment/facilities are in working order 

(21) Personnel and training are sufficient to attain 

specified management objectives 

(22) Equipment is sufficient and well maintained 

to meet management objectives 

(23) External support is acquired, budgeted for 

and well utilised 

(a) coordination with the provincial Forest Protection Department; 

(b) participation with and inputs from the local communities; 

(c) development and management of the nature reserve; 

(d) collaboration with the agroforestry programme; 

(e) mediation of socio-cultural and economic impacts of the nature reserve;


(f) mitigation or litigation issues associated with the nature reserve; 

(g) collaboration with NGOs and institutions work and research; 

(h) establishment and maintenance of the buffer zones; and 

(i) potential extension of conservation coverage. 

65

Section 6 - Finance 

6. Finance 

6.1 Financial Management 

The responsibility for financial 

management of Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve will be largely the duty of 

the management board of Ngoc 

Linh Nature Reserve. This board is 

the acting project coordinator 

between the provincial 

administration and the nature 

reserve’s management personnel. 

The investment programme to develop Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve covers the management and 

development programmes as discussed in Section 5 (Table 42). 

6.2 Investment Capital 

Investment capital should been apportioned for the management and development of Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve with the following provisos: 

66 

Table 42: Investment Programme for Ngoc Linh Nature 

Reserve (in VND million) 

Category Total 1999 2000 2001-2003 

1. Protection programme 2,669 1,613 761 295 

2. Regeneration programme 10,883 1,282 2,450 7,151 

3. Research programme 2,600 100 300 2,200 

4. Education programme 165 20 55 90 

Total 16,317 3,015 3,566 9,736 

• investment capital for protection and management programmes in the nature reserve should 

be accounted for in a five-year plan, from 1999 to 2003; 

• feasibility studies should be conducted for the construction projects, and protection, 

management and development programmes outlined in Section 5; and 

• investment capital for construction should be based on completing the necessary legal 

documents. 

The investment capital that has been appointed for the management and development of Ngoc Linh 

Nature Reserve is VND13,477 million. Cost estimates for the nature reserve total VND16,317 million 

(Table 43). The estimated cost for each of the programmes includes construction and equipment 

investment, and personnel payrolls. In order to meet the shortfall of VND2,840 million, the nature 

reserve will have to obtain additional sources of funding, such as low interest loans or foreign assistance. 

Annual disbursements of the nature reserve’s investment capital will begin in fiscal year 1999 and end 

in fiscal year 2003 (Table 44).


Table 43: Cost Estimates for the Nature Reserve’s Programmes (in VND million) 

Category Quantity Unit price Price 

1. Infrastructure Development Programme 2,669 

Demarcation workshops 3 15 45 

Boundary pillars 150 0.5 75 

Regulation boards 15 2 30 

Headquarters 500 m 2 1.5 750 

Guard stations 420 m 2 1.2 504 

Road repairs 25 km 2.5 62.5 

Car 1 350 350 

Motorbikes 10 15 150 

Vehicle registration and maintenance –– –– 150 

Petrol and oil –– –– 150 

Generator for headquarters 1 15 15 

Generators for guard stations 7 7.5 52.5 

15W mobile phone 1 10 10 

6W mobile phones 10 5 50 

Binoculars 10 5 50 

Compasses 10 0.5 5 

Cameras 2 10 20 

Office equipment –– –– 200 

2. Conservation Protection Programme 10,883 

Land allocation for protection 13,213 ha 0.27 3,567 

Land allocation for regeneration 3,972 ha 0.41 1,628 

Reforestation with native species 784 ha 7 5,488 

Nurseries 4 ha 50 200 

3. Science and Research Programme 2,600 

Primary assessment 3 yrs 200 600 

Studies of Ngoc Linh Ginseng 3 yrs 200 600 

Studies of regeneration 3 yrs 100 300 

Studies of mammals 3 yrs 100 300 

Studies of restricted-range birds 3 yrs 100 300 

Training 5 yrs 100 500 

4. Education and Awareness Programme 165 

Materials –– –– 100 

Camera 1 15 15 

TVs 2 5 10 

Video recorders 2 5 10 

Slide projector 1 15 15 

Overhead projector 1 15 15 

Total 16,317 

67


68 

Table 44: Disbursement Schedule for Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Category Total 1999 2000 2001––2003 

1. Infrastructure Development Programme 2,669 1,613 761 295 

Demarcation workshops 45 45 –– –– 

Boundary pillars 75 75 –– –– 

Regulation boards 30 30 –– –– 

Headquarters 750 450 300 –– 

Guard stations 504 288 216 –– 

Road repairs 62.5 25 37.5 –– 

Car 350 350 –– –– 

Motorbikes 150 100 50 –– 

Vehicle registration and maintenance 150 10 35 105 

Petrol and oil 150 30 30 90 

Generator for headquarter 15 15 –– –– 

Generators for guard stations 52.5 30 22.5 –– 

15W mobile phone 10 10 –– –– 

6W mobile phone 50 50 –– –– 

Binoculars 50 30 20 –– 

Compasses 5 5 –– –– 

Cameras 20 20 –– –– 

Office equipment 200 50 50 100 

2. Conservation Protection Programme 10,883 1,282 2,450 7,151 

Land allocation for protection 3,567 925 660 1,982 

Land allocation for regeneration 1,628 357 318 953 

Reforestation with native species 5,488 1,372 4,116 

Nurseries 200 100 100 

3. Science and Research Programme 2,600 100 300 2,200 

Primary assessment 600 –– –– 600 

Studies of Ngoc Linh Ginseng 600 –– 200 400 

Studies of regeneration 300 –– –– 300 

Studies of mammals 300 –– –– 300 

Studies of restricted––range birds 300 –– –– 300 

Training 500 100 100 300 

4. Education and Awrns. Programme 165 20 55 60 

Materials 50 20 20 30 

Equipment 65 –– 35 30 

Total Investment 16,317 3,015 3,566 9,736

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Inskipp, T., Lindsey, N. and Duckworth, W. (1996) Annotated checklist of the birds of the Oriental 

region. Sandy, Bedfordshire, U.K.: Oriental Bird Club. 

IUCN (1996) 1996 Red list of threatened animals. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 

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IUCN (1997) 1997 IUCN Red list of threatened plants. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 

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MacKinnon, J., MacKinnon, K., Child, G. and Thorsell, J. (1986) Managing protected areas in the 

tropics. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 

MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986) Review of the protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan 

realm. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 

MacKinnon, J. (1996) Protected areas systems review of the Indo-Malayan realm. Canterbury, U.K.: The 

Asian Bureau for Conservation (ABC) and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre 

(WCMC). 

MOF (1991a) Vietnam forestry sector review tropical forestry action programme: main report. Hanoi: Ministry 

of Forestry. 

MOF (1991b) Vietnam forestry sector review tropical forestry action programme: forest policy and legislation. 

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Nghiem Van Dang, Chu Thai Son and Luu Hung (1993) Ethnic minorities in Vietnam. Hanoi: The 

Gioi Publishers. 

Nguyen Van Sang and Ho Thu Cuc (1996) Checklist of reptiles and amphibians in Vietnam. Hanoi: 

Scientific and Technical Publishing House. (In Vietnamese.) 

Pham Hoang Ho (1991) Cay Co Vietnam. Santa Ana, California: Mekong First. 

Pham Mong Giao, Do Tuoc, Vu Van Dung, Wikramanayake, E. D., Amato, G., Arctander, P. and 

MacKinnon, J. (1998) Description of Muntiacus truongsonensis, a new species of muntjac 

(Artiodactyla: Muntiacidae) from central Vietnam, and its conservation significance. Animal 

Conservation 1: 61-68. 

Pham Ngoc Dang (1998) Urban environment and industrialisation in Vietnam. In: Vietnamese Studies 

3 (129): 80-95. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers. 

Ratcliffe, D. (1977) A nature conservation review. vol. 1. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. 

Stattersfield, A. J., Crosby, M. J., Long, A. J. and Wege, D. C. (1998) Endemic bird areas of the world: 

priorities for biodiversity conservation. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International. 

Thai Van Trung (1978) Forest vegetation of Vietnam. Hanoi: Science and Technology Publishing House 

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Vo Quy (1998) An overview of the environmental problems in Vietnam. In: Vietnamese Studies 3 

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Wikramanayake, E. D., Vu Van Dung and Pham Mong Giao (1997) A biological and socio-economic 

survey of west Quang Nam province with recommendations for a nature reserve. Hanoi: WWF- 

Indochina Programme.

Psilotaceae 

Psilotophyta 

Psilotum nudum R,1 

Lycopodiophyta 

Lycopodiaceae 

Huberzia phlegmaria O,1,2 

Lycopodium cernuum O,1,2 

Selaginellaceae 

Selaginella doderleinii 1,2 

S. involvens 2 

Equisetaceae 

Equisetophyta 

Equisetum debile M,1,2 

Polypodiophyta 

Ophioglossaceae 

Helminthostachys zeylanica M,1,2 

Angiopteridaceae 

Angiopteris annamensis O,1,2 

A. cochinchinensis O,1,2 

Schizeaceae 

Lygodium conforme M,1,2 

L. flexuosum M,1,2 

L. japonicum M,1,2 

Adiantaceae 

Adiantum capillus-veneris O,1,2 

A. flabellulatum O,1,2 

A. philippense O,1,2 

Pteris biaurita 1,2 

P. ensiformis 1,2 

P. grevilleana 1,2 

P. semipinnata 1,2 

Vittaria flexuosa var.filipes 1,2 

Gleicheniaceae 

Dicranopteris linearis 1,2 

Polypodiaceae 

Drynaria fortunei R,M,1 

D. quercifolia O,1,2 

Microsorum brachylepis 2 

M. fortunei 1,2 

Phymatodes scolopedra 1,2 

Platycerium coronarium O,1,2 

P. grande O,1 

Pseudodrynaria coronans O,1,2 

Pyrrosia acrostichoides 1,2 

P. lingua var. heteracta 1,2 

Cyatheaceae 

Cyathea latebrosa 2 

Appendix 1: Flora Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

C. glabra 1,2 

Thyrsopteridaceae 

Cybotium barometz M,R,1,2 

Dennstaedtiaceae 

Pteridium aquilinum 1,2 

Lindsaea lobata 1,2 

L. longipes 1 

Thelypteridaceae 

Pneumatopteris truncatus 1,2 

Thelypteris triphylla 1,2 

Aspleniaceae 

Asplenium crinicaule O,1,2 

A. scortechinii 1,2 

Diplazium platychlamys 1,2 

Dryopteridaceae 

Dryopteris assamensis 1,2 

Davalliaceae 

Nephrolepis cordifolia M1,2 

Blechnaceae 

Blechnum orientale 1,2 

Brainea insignis 1,2 

Woodwardia japonica M,1,2 

Gnetaceae 

Pinophyta 

Gnetum latifolium M,1,2 

Cycadaceae 

Cycas immersa O,1 

Pinaceae 

Keteleeria evelyniana W,R,1 

Pinus dalatensis W,M, 

EV,R,1 

P. kesiya W,1,2 

Podocarpaceae 

Dacrycarpus imbricatus W,1,2 

Dacrydium elatum W,R,1,2 

Nageia aff. fleuryi W,O,R,1 

N. aff. wallichiana W,O,R,1 

Podocarpus neriifolius W,1,2 

Cephalotaxaceae 

Cephalotaxus mannii W,R,1,2 

Amentotaxaceae 

Amentotaxus poilanei W,EV,R1,2 

Magnoliophyta 

Magnoliopsida 

Magnoliaceae 

Kmeria aff. duperreana W,1 

Magnolia annamensis W,O,1,2 

Manglietia blaoensis W,1 

M. chevalieri W,1 

M. sp1 W,1 

Appendices 

Class, Family, Class, Family, Class, Family, 

Genus and Species Notes Genus and Species Notes Genus and Species Notes 

M. sp2 W,1,2 

Michelia foveolata W,1,2 

Parakmeria aff. yunnanensis W,1 

Paramichelia baillonii W,1,2 

Annonaceae 

Alphonsea boniana W,1 

Cyathocalyx annamensis W,1 

Desmos chinensis O,1 

Enicosanthellum plagioneurum W,1 

Fissistigma oldhamii 1 

F. polyanthoides 1 

F. thorelii M,1 

Polyalthia cerasoides W,1,2 

Uvaria dac 1,2 

Xylopia vielana M,1,2 

Myristicaceae 

Horsfieldia amygdalina W,1,2 

Knema conferta W,M,1,2 

Chloranthaceae 

Sarcandra glabra 1 

Saururaceae 

Houttuynia cordata M,1,2 

Piperaceae 

Peperomia tetraphylla 1,2 

Piper boehmeriaefolium 1,2 

P. chaudocanum 1,2 

P. harmandii 1,2 

P. cf. maclurei 1 

P. hainanense 1,2 

Zippelia begonifolia 1 

Illiciaceae 

Illicium griffithii M,1 

Ranunculaceae 

Anemone poilanei 1,2 

Ranunculus cantoniensis 1 

Menispermaceae 

Coscinium fenestratum M,1,2 

Cissampelos pereira M,1 

Limacia scandens 1 

Pericampylus ineanus M,1,2 

Stephania pierrei 1,2 

Lauraceae 

Alseodaphne andersonii W,1,2 

Beilschmiedia percoriacea W,1,2 

71

Appendices 

72 



Caryodaphnopsis poilanei W,1 

Cinnamomum balansae W,R,EV,1 

C. cassia W,M,1 

C. iners W,1,1 

Cryptocarya metcalfiana W,1,2 

Lindera spicata M,1,2 

Litsea cambodiana W,2 

L. cubeba M,1,2 

L. glutinosa W,M,1,2 

L. verticillata W,1,2 

Machilus bombycina W,1,2 

Neolitsea cambodiana W,1,2 

Phoebe lanceolata W,1 

P. tavoyana W1,2 

Hernandiaceae 

Illigera parviflora M,1 

I. pierrei 1 

Dilleniaceae 

Dillenia ovata W,2 

Tetracera sarmentosa M,1,2 

Actinidiaceae 

Actinidia aff. latifolia 

Saurauja fasciculata 1,2 

S. nepaulensis 1,2 

S. roxburghii 1,2 

Theaceae 

Anneslea fragrans W,1 

Camellia caudata 1 

C. dormoyana 1,2 

C. kissi W,1,2 

Eurya japonica 1,2 

E. muricata 1,2 

E. sinensis var. glabra 1,2 

E. trichocarpa 1,2 

Gordonia intricata W,1 

G. gigantiflora W,1,2 

Pyrenaria jonqueriana 1,2 

P. oblongicarpa W,1 

Schima wallichii ssp. W,1,2 

norronhae 

Ternstroemia japonica W,1,2 

Pentaphylaceae 

Pentaphylax spicata W,1,2 

Guttifereae 

Calophyllum dryobalanoides W,2 

Cratoxylum maingayi 2 

C. formosum var. prunifolium W,1,2 

Garcinia kyddia 1 

G. merguensis var. truncata W,1,2 

G. multiflora W,M,1,2 

G. scheffleri W,1 

Hypericum javanica M,1 

Elaeocarpaceae 

Elaeocarpus daclacensis W,1 

E. griffithii W,1,2 

E. laceifolius W,1 

E. nitentifolius W,1,2 

E. tectorius W,1,2 

E. varunua W,1,2 

E. sp W,2 

Sloanea sinensis W,1,2 

Tiliaceae 

Grewia abutilifolia 1 

G. sessilifolia 1,2 

Sterculiaceae 

Pterocymbium tinctorium W,1 

Pterospermum lanceaefolium W,1,2 

Reevesia gagnepainiana W,1 

Sterculia hyposticta W,1,2 

S. lanceolata W,1,2 

Bombacaceae 

Bombax ceiba W,1,2 

Malvaceae 

Abelmoschus moschatus M,1,2 

Sida rhomboidea 1,2 

Urena lobata M,1 

Flacourtiaceae 

Casearia glomerata 1,2 

Osmelia philippinense W,1,2 

Xylosma contronversum W,2 

Violaceae 

Viola arcuata O,1,2 

V. curvistylis 1,2 

V. inconspicua 1,2 

Passifloraceae 

Passiflora heterophylla M,2 

P. siamea M,1,2 

Cucurbitaceae 

Gymnopetalum cochinchinensis M,1,2 

Hodgsonia macrocarpa 1,2 

Solena heterophylla M,1 

Begoniaceae 

Begonia aptera 1,2 

B. lanciniata M,1,2 

B. palmata 1 

B. siamensis 1,2 

Brassicaceae 

Capsella bursa-pastoris M,1,2 

Rorippa nasturtium-aquatium M,1 

Clethraceae 

Clethra faberi 1 

Ericaceae 

Craibiodendron stellatum R,1 

Diplycosia semi-infera 1 

Enkianthus quinqueflorus R,1 

Gaultheria fragrantissima M,1 

Leucothoe griffithiana 1 

Lyonia ovalifolia W,1,2 

L. ovalifolia var. rubrovenia 1,2 

Rhododendron excelsum O,1,2 

R. fleuryi O,1,2 

R. irroratum subsp. O,1 

kontumense 

R. lyi O,1,2 

Vaccinium dunalianum 1 

V. nummulari 1 

V. sperengelii 1,2 

Sapotaceae 

Donella lanceolata W,1,2 

Madhuca alpina W,1 

M. floribunda W,2 

M. pasquieri W,R,2 

Sarcosperma kachinense W,2 

S. kontumensis W,1,2 

Ebenaceae 

Diospyros apiculata W,1,2 

D. hayatae W,2 

D. pilocella W,1,2 

D. vaccinioides W,1 

Styracaceae 

Alniphyllum fortunei W,1,2 

Rehderodendron macrocarpon W,1,2 

Styrax benjoin W,1,2 

S. tonkinensis W,2 

Symplocaceae 

Symplocos adenophylla W1,2 

S. cambodiana 1,2 

S. cochinchinensis var. laurina W,M,1,2 

S. glomerata subsp. congesta W,1,2 

S. racemosa M.1 

S. ramosissima 1,2 

Myrsinaceae 

Ardisia aciphylla 1,2 

A. cambodiana 1,2 

A. corymbifera 1,2 

A. depressa 1,2 

A. elegans 1,2

Appendices 



A. florida 1,2 

A. gigantifolia M,1 

A. hypargyrea 1 

A. lecomte 1,2 

A. vestita 2 

A. villosa 1,2 

A. villosoides 1 

Embelia aberran 1,2 

E. laeta M,1 

E. ribes M,1,2 

Maesa balansae 1 

M. laxiflora 1,2 

M. montana 1,2 

Primulaceae 

Lysimachia clethroides 1 

L. siamensis 1 

Amaranthaceae 

Achyranthes aspera M,1,2 

Alternanthera sessilis 1,2 

Amaranthus spinosus M,1,2 

Cyathula prostrata M,1 

Psilotrichum ferrugineum 1,2 

Portulacaceae 

Portulaca oleracea M,1,2 

Caryophyllaceae 

Drymaria diandra 1,2 

Polygonaceae 

Cephalophilon perfoliatum M,1,2 

C. caespitosum 1 

C. chinense M,1,2 

C. hydropiper M,1,2 

Pittosporaceae 

Pittosporum floribundum 1 

Rosaceae 

Eriobotrya bengalensis W,1,2 

E. poilanei W,M,1,2 

Malus doumeri W,M,1,2 

Photinia benthamiana var. 1 

glabrescens 

Prunus arborea var. montana W,1,2 

Rubus alcaefolius M,1,2 

R. asper 1,2 

R. chevalieri var. anghae M,1,2 

R. cochinchinensis var. 1,2 

glabrescens 

R. leucanthus 1,2 

R. niveus 1,2 

R. obcordatus 1,2 

R. rugosus 1,2 

Sorbus granulosa M,1,2 

S. wattii 1 

Saxifragaceae 

Astilbe rivularis M,1 

Dichroa febrifuga M,1 

Itea chinensis W,1,2 

Mimosaceae 

Acacia pennata 1,2 

Albizia chinensis W,1,2 

A. lucidior W,1,2 

A. odoratissima W,1,2 

Archidendron clypearia W,1,2 

A. pellitum W,1,2 

A. turgidum W,1,2 

Entada glandulosa 1,2 

Mimosa diplotricha 1,2 

M. pudica M,1,2 

Caesalpiniaceae 

Bauhinia bracteata 1,2 

Cassia alata M,1,2 

C. siamea W,1,2 

Sindora laotica W,1,2 

Fabaceae 

Dalbergia pinnata 1,2 

D. rimosa 1 

Desmodium heterocarpum 1,2 

D. triquetrum M,1 

Dunbaria circinalis 1 

D. ferruginea 1,2 

Lespedeza juncea var. sericea 1,2 

Milletia pachyloba 1,2 

M. cf. spireana 1 

Ormosia balansae W,1,2 

O. pinnata W,1,2 

Phaseolus minimus 1 

Pueraria montana 1,2 

Shuteria suffulta 1 

Elaeagnaceae 

Elaeagnus aff. conferta 1 

Proteaceae 

Helicia cochinchinensis W,1,2 

H. obovatifolia W,1 

Sonneratiaceae 

Duabanga grandiflora W,2 

Thymeleaceae 

Aquilaria crassna M,R,1,2 

Daphne composita 1 

Wikstroemia meyeniana 1 

Myrtaceae 

Cleistocalyx consperipunctatus W,1 

Decaspermum montanum W,1,2 

Syzygium albiflorum 1 

S. cumini W,1,2 

S. oblatum W,1 

S. syzygioides W,1 

S. zeylanicum W,1,2 

Tristaniopsis burmanica W,1,2 

Onagraceae 

Ludwidgia octovalvis 1,2 

Melastomataceae 

Allomorphia sulcata 1,2 

Medinilla honbaensis 1,2 

M. scortechinii 1 

Melastoma chevalieri 1,2 

M. normale 1,2 

Memecylon fruticosum 1 

Osbeckia crinita 1 

Sonerila annamica 1,2 

S. quadragularis 1 

S. rivularis 1,2 

Rhizophoraceae 

Carallia brachiata W,1,2 

Alangiaceae 

Alangium kurzii W,1,2 

Nyssaceae 

Nyssa japonica 1 

Cornaceae 

Cornus controversa W,1 

Mastixia arborea 1,2 

M. poilanei 1,2 

Olacaceae 

Anacolosa moiorum W,1 

Harmandia mekongensis W,1 

Santalaceae 

Dendrotrophe buxifolia 2 

Loranthaceae 

Elytranthe alpida 1,2 

Macrosolen bibracteolatus 1,2 

Taxillus chinensis 1,2 

T. parasitica 1,2 

Viscum ovalifolium 1 

Balanophoraceae 

Balanophora fungosa M,1 

B. laxiflora M,1 

Rhopalocnemis phalloides R,1 

Celastraceae 

Celastrus monosperma M,1,2 

73

Appendices 

74 



Euonymus grandiflorus 1 

Maytenus hookeri 1,2 

Aquifoliaceae 

Ilex fabrilis W,1,2 

I. micrococca 1,2 

I. rotunda W,1,2 

Euphorbiaceae 

Alchornea annamica EV,1,2 

Antidesma bunius W,1,2 

A. velutinosum 1,2 

Aporusa microcalyx W,1,2 

Baccaurea oxycarpa W,1,2 

B. silvestris W,EN,2 

Bischofia javanica W,1,2 

Breynia fruticosa 1,2 

Claoxylon indicum M,1 

Croton poilanei 1,2 

Delechampia bidentata 1 

Endospermum chinense W,1,2 

Glochidion eriocarpum M,1,2 

Homonoia riparia 1,2 

Macaranga denticulata W,1,2 

M. kurzii W,1,2 

Mallotus apelta W,1,2 

Microdesmis caseariaefolia W,M,1,2 

Phyllanthus embrica W,1,2 

Sapium discolor W,1,2 

S. rotundifolium W,1,2 

Securinega vinosa 1,2 

Suregada multiflora 1,2 

Oxalidaceae 

Oxalis corniculata 1,2 

Balsaminaceae 

Impatiens rara O,1,2 

Sapindaceae 

Cardiospermum halicacabum 1,2 

Mischocarpus sundaicus W,2 

Nephelium lappaceum W,1,2 

Paranephelium spirei W,2 

Pometia pinnata W,1 

Sapindus mukorossi W,1,2 

Xerospermum laoticum W,2 

Staphyleaceae 

Turpinia montana W,1,2 

T. cochinchinensis W,1,2 

T. pomifera W,1,2 

Aceraceae 

Acer heptaphlebium W,O,1,2 

A. laurinum W,O,1,2 

A. oblongum W,1,2 

A. tonkinensis var. fenzelianum W,O,1,2 

Sabiaceae 

Meliosma lepidota subsp. W,1 

dumicola 

M. simplicifolia 1,2 

Sabia fasciculata 1,2 

Malpighiaceae 

Hiptage bengalensis 1,2 

Polygalaceae 

Polygala karensium M,1,2 

P. luteo-alba M,1,2 

Burseraceae 

Canarium littorale var. rufum W,M,1,2 

Dacryodes dungii W,1,2 

Anacardiaceae 

Buchanania reticulata W,1 

Choerospondias axillaris W,1,2 

Mangifera sp. W,1,2 

Protium serratum W,1,2 

Rhus chinensis M,1,2 

Semecarpus annamensis 1 

S. caudata 1 

S. humilis 1,2 

S. reticulata W,1,2 

Spondias pinnata W,1,2 

Toxicodendron succedana W,1,2 

Simaroubaceae 

Ailanthus triphysa W,M,1,2 

Brucea javanica M,1,2 

B. mollis M,1,2 

Picrasma javanica W,1 

Meliaceae 

Aglaia andamanica W,1,2 

A. cambodiana W,1,2 

A. gigantea W,1,2 

A. taynguyenensis 1,2 

A. roxburghiana W,1,2 

Chisocheton paniculatus W,1,2 

Chukrasia tabularis W,R,1,2 

Cipadessa baccifera 1 

Dysoxylum cochinchinensis W,1,2 

Melia azedazach W,1,2 

Toona aff. sinensis W,2 

Rutaceae 

Acronychia pedunculata W,M,1,2 

Clausena excavata 1,2 

Euodia calophylla M,1,2 

E. lepta M,1,2 

E. meliaefolia M,1,2 

Glycosmis pentaphylla 1 

G. craibii 1 

Micromelum minutum 1,2 

Skimmia arborescens 1,2 

Toddalia tonkinensis 1,2 

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium 1 

Z. avicenniae 1,2 

Rhamnaceae 

Alphitonia philippinensis W,1,2 

Berchemia floribunda M,1,2 

Zizyphus incurva 1 

Leeaceae 

Leea rugosa M,1,2 

Vitaceae 

Cayratia japonica M,1,2 

Cissus adnata 2 

C. javanica 1,2 

C. subtetragona 2 

Tetrastigma erubescens 1 

T. laoticum 2 

Vitis balansaeana 2 

Apiaceae 

Centella asiatica M,1,2 

Eryngium foetidum M,1,2 

Hydrocotyle chinensis 1,2 

H. petelotii 1,2 

Oenanthe javanica 1,2 

Pimpinella divercifolia 2 

Sanicula elata 1 

Araliaceae 

Aralia armata M,1,2 

Brassaiopsis acuminata 1 

B. glomerulata M,1 

Dendropanax stachyanthus W,1,2 

Macropanax grushvitzkii 1 

M. undulatus var. simplex 1 

Panax vietnamensis M,E,R,1 

Schefflera cf. aromatica 1 

S. alongensis M,1 

S. delavayi M,1 

S. fasciculifoliata M,1 

S. hypoleuca M,1 

S. incisa M,1 

S. kontumensis M,1 

S. lucescens M,1 

S. octophylla W,M,1,2 

Scheffleropsis angkae 1,2 

Trevesia palmata M,1,2

Appendices 



Hamamelidaceae 

Exbucklandia populnea W,1,2 

E. tonkinensis W,1,2 

Rhodoleia championii W,R,2 

Ulmaceae 

Celtis orientalis W,1,2 

Gironniera nervosa W,2 

G. subaequalis W,1,2 

Trema orientalis W,1,2 

Ulmus lanceaefolia W,1 

Salicaceae 

Salix tetrasperma var. W,1 

nilagirica 

S. thorelii W,1 

Moraceae 

Artocarpus lakoocha W,M,1 

A. nitidus W,M,1 

Broussonetia papyrifera M,1,2 

Ficus abelii 1,2 

F. altissima W,1,2 

F. auriculata W,M,1,2 

F. chartacea 1,2 

F. fulva 1,2 

F. fulva var. minor 1,2 

F. glaberrima W,1 

F. heterophylla var. 1,2 

heterophylla 

F. hirta var. roxburghii 1,2 

F. hispida var. hispida 1,2 

F. oligodon W,M,1 

F. pumila M,1 

F. racemosa W,1,2 

F. sagittata W,1 

F. saxophila W,1,2 

Maclura nadamanica M,1 

M. cochinchinensis M,1,2 

Morus wittiorum W,1 

Urticaceae 

Boehmeria diffusa 1,2 

B. tonkinensis 2 

Debregeasia velutina 1,2 

Elatostema acuminata 1 

Poikilospermum mollis 1,2 

P. suaveolens M,1,2 

Pouzolzia hirta 2 

P. sanguinea 1,2 

Villebrunea tonkinensis 2 

Juglandaceae 

Engelhardtia colebrookeana W,1,2 

E. roxburghiana W,1,2 

E. serrata var. cambodiana W,1,2 

E. spicata var. spicata W,1,2 

E. wallichiana W,1,2 

Myricaceae 

Myrica esculenta var. chevalier W,1,2 

M. esculenta var. tonkinensis W,1,2 

Fagaceae 

Castanopsis ceratacantha W,1 

C. echinophora W,1,2 

C. harmandii W,1,2 

C. hystrix W,1,2 

C. indica W,1,2 

Lithocarpus aggregatus W,1,2 

L. blaoensis W,1.2 

L. corneus W,1,2 

L. dealbatus W,1 

L. dinhensis W,1 

L. elegans W,1 

L. fissa W,1,2 

L. krempfii W,1,2 

L. sylvicolarum W,1,2 

Quercus augustinii W,1,2 

Q. fructisepta W,2 

Q. helferiana W,1,2 

Q. kerrii W,1,2 

Q. langbianensis W,1 

Q. leucotrichophora W,1 

Q. macrocalyx W,1,2 

Q. poilanei W,1 

Betulaceae 

Betula alnoides W,1,2 

Carpinus poilanei W,1,2 

Loganiaceae 

Fagraea auriculata 1,2 

Gelsemium elegans 1,2 

Gentiniaceae 

Crawfurdia campanulacea 1,2 

Gentiana rigrescens 1 

Apocynaceae 

Alstonia scholaris W,M,1,2 

Alyxia pisiformis 1,2 

A. kontumensis 1,2 

A. poilanei 1,2 

A. pseudosinensis 1,2 

Bousigonia mekongensis 1,2 

Ervatamia pierrei 1,2 

Ixodonerium annamense 1,2 

Kopsia lancibracteolata W,1 

Melodinus spireanus 1,2 

Pottsia laxiflora 1,2 

Rauvolfia cambodiana M,R,1,2 

Strophanthus kontumensis 1 

Wrightia pubescens W,1,2 

Asclepiadaceae 

Dischidia alboflava 1,2 

D. hirsuta 1 

Gymnema silvestre 1,2 

Streptocaulon griffithii M,1,2 

Solanaceae 

Physalis angulata 1,2 

Solanum americanum 1,2 

S. torvum W,1,2 

S. virganianum 2 

Convolvulaceae 

Argyreia lanceolata M,O,1 

Ipomoea involucrata 1,2 

Lepistemon bilechtariferum 1,2 

Merremia umbellata 1,2 

Xenostegia tridentata 1,2 

Porana racemosa 1,2 

Boraginaceae 

Heliotropium indicum M,1,2 

Tournefortia montana 1,2 

Verbenaceae 

Callicarpa alpida 1,2 

C. arborea 1,2 

Clerodenrum erioclona M1,2 

C. rubella 1 

Gmelina arborea W,1,2 

Premna balansae 1,2 

P. flavescens 1,2 

Verbena officinalis M,1,2 

Vitex sumatrana W,1,2 

V. trifolia W,1,2 

Lamiaceae 

Anisomeles indica M,1,2 

Ceratanthus annamensis 1,2 

C. ocimoides 1,2 

Colquhounia elegans 1 

Elsholtzia blanda 1,2 

E. winitina 1 

Gomphostemma lucidum 1,2 

Leonurus sibiricus M,1 

Leucas mollissima 1,2 

Melissa axillaris M,1 

Plectranthus dakglayensis 1 

75

Appendices 

76 



Plantaginaceae 

Plantago asiatica M,1,2 

Buddleiaceae 

Buddleia paniculata 1 

Oleaceae 

Fraxinus chinensis W,R,1,2 

F. floribunda W,1 

F. insularis W,1,2 

Olea dentata 1,2 

Scrophulariaceae 

Alectra avense M,1 

Lindernia ciliata M,1 

Torenia alboviolacea 1 

T. concolor 1,2 

Gesneriaceae 

Beccarinda tonkinensis 1 

Acanthaceae 

Andrographis laxiflora 1,2 

Asystasia chelonoides 1,2 

Justicia multinodis 1,2 

Strobilanthes boerhavioides M,1 

S. dalziellii 1,2 

S. echinata 1 

S. pateriformis 1,2 

S. pentstemonoides 1,2 

Bignoniaceae 

Oroxylum indicum M,1,2 

Stereospermum colais W,M,1,2 

Pentaphragmaceae 

Pentaphragma sinense 1,2 

Campanulaceae 

Codonopsis javanica M,R,1,2 

Lobelia zeylanica 1,2 

Pratia nummularia M,1 

Rubiaceae 

Adina polycephala W,M,1,2 

Aidia cochinchinensis M,1,2 

A. oxyodonta W,1,2 

Anthocephalus chinensis W,1 

Borriera articularis 1,2 

Canthium dicoccum var. W,1,2 

rostratum 

Fagerlindia depauperata M,1,2 

Galium rotundifolium 1 

Gardnera philastrei 1 

Hedyotis capitellata var. 1 

dactinensis 

H. capitellata var. glabra 1,2 

H. capitellata var. mollis M,1,2 

H. corymbosa 1,2 

H. diffusa 1,2 

H. ovatifolia 1 

H. uncinella 1,2 

Ixora dolichophylla 1,2 

I. henryi 1 

Lasianthus annamicus 1,2 

L. baviensis 1 

L. cyanocarpus 1,2 

L. cyanocarpus var. asperatus 1 

L. dinhensis 1 

L. hoaensis M,R,1,2 

L. poilanei 1 

Morinda cochinchinensis M,1,2 

Mussaenda erosa M,1,2 

M. pubescens 1,2 

Ophiorrhiza baviensis 1,2 

Paederia scandens M,1,2 

Pavetta indica M,1,2 

Psychotria cephalophora M,1 

P. mekongensis 1 

P. morindoides 1,2 

P. rubra M,1 

Randia acuminatissima W,2 

R. lanceolata W,1,2 

Tarenna latifolia 1,2 

Uncaria hirsuta 1,2 

Wendlandia glabrata 1,2 

W. ferrugienea 1,2 

W. panicunata 1,2 

Caprifoliaceae 

Lonicera dasystyla M,1,2 

Sambucus simpsonii 1 

Viburnum coriaceum W,1,2 

V. punctatum W,1,2 

Valerianaceae 

Valeriana hardwickii M,1 

Asteraceae 

Adenostemma laevinia M,1,2 

A. macrophyllum 1 

Ageratum conyzoides M,1,2 

Ainsliaea latifolia 1,2 

Anaphalis adnata 1,2 

A. margaritacea O,1,2 

Artemisia japonica M,1,2 

A. vulgaris M,1,2 

Aster ageratoides M,1 

Bidens bipinnata M,1 

Blumea aromatica 1,2 

B. balsamifera M,1,2 

B. eberhardtii 1 

B. hieracifolia 1 

B. lacera M,1 

B. laciniata M,1,2 

B. lanceolaria M,1 

B. membranacea var. 1 

membranacea 

B. procera 1 

B. riparia 1 

B. virens 1,2 

Centipeda minima M,1 

Cirsium lineare M,1,2 

Conyza japonica 1,2 

Crossostephium crepidioides M,1,2 

Dichrocephala integrifolia 1 

Eclipta prostrata M,1,2 

Elephantopus mollis 1,2 

Emilia sonchifolia M,1 

Erechtites hierracifolia 1,2 

E. valerianifolia 1,2 

Erigeron crispus 1,2 

Eupatorium odoratum M,1,2 

E. fortunei M,2 

Galinsoga parviflorum 1,2 

Gnaphalium affine 1,2 

G. polycaulon 1,2 

Gynura barbaraefolia M,1 

G. nitida 1,2 

G. procumbens 1 

Inula cappa M, 1,2 

I. polygonata O,1,2 

Ixeris gracilis 1 

Lactuca indica M,1,2 

Laggera alata M,1,2 

Microglossa pyrifolia M,1,2 

Piloselloides hirsuta M,1,2 

Rhynchospermum verticillatum 1 

Saussurea delloidea var. nivea 1 

Senecio scandens M,1 

Siegesbeckia orientalis M,1,2 

Sonchus oleraceus M,1,2 

Tridax procumbens M,1,2 

Vernonia arborea var. javanica W,1,2 

V. cinerea M,1,2 

V. cumingiana M,1 

V. solanifolia 1,2 

Vicoa auriculata 1 

Youngia japonica 1,2

Appendices 



Pandanaceae 

Liliopsida 

Pandanus tonkinensis 1,2 

P. sp. 1,2 

Araceae 

Acorus tatarinovii M,1 

Aglaonema modestum 1,2 

Alocasia macrorrhiza M,1,2 

Arisoema hypoglaucum 1,2 

A. petiolulatum 1,2 

Colocasia esculenta 1,2 

Epipremnum giganteum O,1,2 

E. pinnatum O,1,2 

Homalomena occulta M,1,2 

Lasia spinosa 1,2 

Pothos angustifolius 1,2 

P. balansae O,1,2 

P. cachcartii O,1,2 

Schismatoglottis cadieri M,1 

Commelinaceae 

Commelina diffusa 1,2 

Cyanotis vaga 1,2 

Arecaceae 

Areca triandra O,M,1,2 

Arenga pinnata 1 

Calamus bousigonii 1,2 

C. poilanei EV,R,1,2 

C. rudentum 1,2 

C. tetradactylus 1,2 

Caryota mitis O,1,2 

C. urens 1 

Daemonorops pierreanus 1,2 

Korthalsia lacsiniosa 1,2 

Licuala ternata 1,2 

Livistona saribus 1,2 

Pinanga paradoxa 1,2 

Plectocomia elongata 1,2 

Musaceae 

Musa bakeri 1,2 

Zingiberaceae 

Catimbium bracteatum M,1,2 

Costus speciosus M,1,2 

Curcuma aromatica M,2 

Hedychium bousigonianum M,1,2 

H. coronarium M,O,1,2 

Zingiber purpureum M,1,2 

Z. rubens M,1,2 

Z. zerumber 1,2 

Maranthaceae 

Phrynium dispermum M,1,2 

Pontederiaceae 

Monochoria hastata 1,2 

M. ovata 1,2 

Liliaceae 

Dianella nemorosa 1,2 

Disporum calcaratum 1 

D. cantoniense M,1,2 

D. cambodiana O,2 

D. gracilis O,1 

Ophiopogon peliosanthoides O,1,2 

Paris polyphylla M,R,1,2 

Polygonatum kingianum M,1 

P. punctatum M,1 

Smilacaceae 

Smilax annamensis 1,2 

S. corbularia 1,2 

S. glabra M,R,1 

S. megacarpa 1,2 

S. perfoliata 1,2 

Cyperaceae 

Carex anomocaria 1,2 

C. cryptostachys 1,2 

C. filicina 1,2 

C. leucholora 1,2 

Cyperus diffusus 1,2 

C. flavidus 1,2 

C. paniceus var. roxburghianus 1,2 

C. pumilus 1,2 

C. rotundus 1,2 

Fimbristylis complanata 1,2 

F. dichotoma 1,2 

F. thomsonii 1,2 

Kyllinga brevifolia 1,2 

K. sesquiflorus 1,2 

Lipocarpha chinensis 1 

Scirpus ternatanus 1,2 

S. wichurai 2 

Poaceae 

Arundinaria pusilla 1,2 

A. vicinia 1 

Arthraxon hispidus 1,2 

A. lancifolius 1,2 

Bambusa balcoa 1,2 

Cephalostachyum langbianensis 1,2 

Cynodon dactylon 1,2 

Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum 1,2 

Digitaria ciniaris 1,2 

Dinochloa sp. 1,2 

Echinochloa colonum 1,2 

Eleusine indica 1,2 

Eragrostis zeylanica 1,2 

Erianthus arundinaceus 1,2 

Gigantochloa nigro-ciliata 2 

Hymenachne polymorpha 1,2 

Imperata cylindrica 1,2 

Melocalamus compactiflorus 1,2 

Miscanthus floridulus 1,2 

Oxytenanthera albo-cyliata 1,2 

O. poilanei 1,2 

Paspalum cojugatum 1,2 

P. scrobiculatum 1,2 

Phragmites vallatoria 1,2 

Saccharum spontaneum 1,2 

Setaria geniculata 1,2 

S. palmifolia 1,2 

Sorghum nitidum 1,2 

Themeda caudata 1,2 

Thysanolaena maxima 1,2 

Agavaceae 

Dracaena angustifolia O,2 

Taccaceae 

Tacca integrifolia M,2 

Dioscoreaceae 

Dioscorea cirrhosa 2 

D. glabra M,1,2 

D. intempestiva 1,2 

Orchidaceae 

Aerides falcatum O,1,2 

A. multiflorum O,1,2 

Anoectochilus lylei M,1,2 

Arachnis labrosa 2 

Arundina graminifolia O,1,2 

Bulbophyllum evrardii O,EV,R,1 

B. retusiusculum O,1,2 

B. semitereitifolium O,1,2 

B. tortuosum 1,2 

Calanthe triplicata O,1 

Coelogyne ovalis O,1,2 

C. stricta O,1,2 

Cymbidium ensifolium O,1,2 

C. lowianum 1 

Dendrobium bellatulum O,R,1 

D. christyanum O,1,2 

D. crystallinum O,1,2 

D. faulhaberianam O,1,2 

D. heterocarpum O,1,2 

77

Appendices 

78 

Class, Family, 

Genus and Species Notes 

D. lindleyi O,1,2 

D. linguella 2 

D. palpebrae O,2 

D. parishii O,1,2 

D. podagraria O,1 

D. terminale O,1,2 

D. thyrsiflorum O,2 

Doritis pulcherrima 1,2 

Eria amica 1,2 

E. dacrydium O,1,2 

E. floribunda O,1,2 

E. globifera O,1,2 

Eulophia nuda O,2 

Flickingeria angustifolia 2 

Goodyera schlechtendaliana M,O,1 

Holcoglossum subulifolium O,1 

Liparis mannii O,1 

Luisia curtisii 2 

Oberonia anceps O,1,2 

O. rufilabris O,1,2 

Otochilus fuscus O,EV,1,2 

Phajus tankervilleae O,1,2 

Pholidota articulata O,1,2 

P. chinensis O,1,2 

P. convallariae O,1,2 

P. rubra O,1,2 

Schoenorchis aff. gemmata O,2 

Spiranthes sinensis M,1 

Thecostele alata O,1,2 

Thrixspermum pusillum 2 

Zeuxine affinis 1 

Follows Pham Hoang Ho (1991) 

Notes: 

1 = Recorded on Mount Ngoc Linh; 

2 = Recorded in Cong Troi Area and Lo Xo Pass; 

EV = Endemic to Vietnam; 

M = Medicinal; 

W = Wood; 

O = Ornamental; 

E = Endangered; 

R = Rare 

as per IUCN (1997) and Anon. (1996).

Appendix 2: Mammals Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

(excluding Rodents and Bats) 

Appendices 

No. Common Name Order, Family, Genus IUCN Anon. Site Data 

Pangolins: Pholidota: 

Pangolins Manidae 

and Species 1996 1992 Source 

1 Sunda Pangolin Manis javanica NT 1,2,4 I,S 

Insectivores: Insectivora: 

Moles Talpidae 

2 Himalayan Mole Talpa micrura 5 S 

Shrews Soricidae 

3 House Shrew Suncus murinus 2 O 

4 SE Asian White-toothed Shrew Crocidura fuliginosa 5 O 

Treeshrews: Scandentia: 

Treeshrews Tupaiidae 

5 Northern Treeshrew Tupaia belangeri 1,2,5 O 

Primates: Primates: 

Lorises Loridae 

6 Slow Loris Nycticebus coucang V 5 S 

Old-World Monkeys Cercopithecidae 

7 Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina VU V 4 S 

8 Rhesus Macaque M. mulatta NT 2,4 S 

9 Bear Macaque M. arctoides VU V 2,4,5 S 

Gibbons Hylobatidae 

10 Buff-cheeked Gibbon Hylobates gabriellae DD 2 H 

Carnivores: Carnivora: 

Dog and Foxes Canidae 

11 Indian Wild Dog or Dhole Cuon alpinus VU E 1,2 H,I 

Bears Ursidae 

12 Asiatic Black Bear Ursus thibetanus VU E 2,4,5 I 

13 Sun Bear U. malayanus DD E 2,4,5 I 

Weasels, etc. Mustelidae 

14 Yellow-throated Marten Martes flavigula 2 S 

15 Hog-Badger Arctonyx collaris 2,4,5 I 

16 Large-toothed Ferret-Badger Melogale personata R 2 S 

17 Eurasian Otter Lutra lutra T 2,4 I,S 

Civets Viverridae 

18 Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha 2 S 

19 Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica 2 S 

20 Spotted Linsang Prionodon pardicolor 2 S 

21 Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus 2 S 

22 Masked Palm Civet Paguma larvata 2 S 

23 Binturong Arctictis binturong V 2 S 

24 Small-toothed Palm Civet Arctogalidia trivirgata R 2 S 

Mongooses Herpestidae 

25 Small Asian Mongoose Herpestes javanicus 2 O 

79

Appendices 

80 

No. Common Name Order, Family, Genus IUCN Anon. Site Data 

26 Crab-eating Mongoose H. urva 2 S 

Cats Felidae 

27 Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis 

28 Golden Cat Catopuma temminckii NT V 2 I 

29 Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata DD V 2,4 I,S 

30 Clouded Leopard P. nebulosa VU V 2 I 

31 Tiger Panthera tigris EN E 2,4 I 

Even-toed ungulates: Artiodactyla: 

Pigs Suidae 

32 Wild Boar Sus scrofa 2,4 I,T 

Deer Cervidae 

33 Sambar Deer Cervus unicolor 2,4 S,T 

34 Giant Muntjac Megamuntiacus vuquangensis 2 S 

35 Truong Son Muntjac Muntiacus truongsonensis 2,4 S 

36 Barking Deer M. muntjak 1,2,3,4,5 H,T 

Cattle, Antelopes, etc. Bovidae 

37 Southern Serow Naemorhedus sumatraensis VU V 2,4 I 

Rodents: Rodentia: 

Non-flying Squirrels Sciuridae 

38 Black Giant Squirrel Ratufa bicolor 2,5 O,S 

39 Pallas’s Squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus 1,2,4 O 

40 Cambodian Striped Tree-squirrel Tamiops rodolphii 1,2,3,4,5 O 

41 Red-cheeked Squirrel Dremomys rufigenis 3,5 O 

42 Indochinese Ground Squirrel Menetes berdmorei 2,3,4,5 O 

Flying Squirrels Pteromyidae 

43 Red Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista philippensis R 2 S 

44 Red-cheeked Flying Squirrel Hylopetes spadiceus 2 S 

Mice, Rats, etc. Muridae 

45 Sladen’s Rat Rattus koratensis 2,5 S,O 

46 Polynesian Rat R. exulans 

and Species 1996 1992 Source 

47 Large Bandicoot-Rat Bandicota indica 3 S,O 

48 Fea’s Tree Rat Chiromyscus chiropus 2 S 

Bamboo Rats Rhizomyidae 49 

49 Hoary Bamboo Rat Rhizomys pruinosus 2 S 

50 Large Bamboo Rat R. sumatrensis 2 S 

Old-World Porcupines Hystricidae 

51 Malayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyura VU 2,4 S 

52 Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine Atherurus macrourus 2,3 S,O 

Follows Corbet and Hill (1992) 

Note: EN/E = Endangered; VU/V = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; T = Threatened; R = Rare; DD = Data Deficient as per IUCN (1996) and Anon. 

(1992). 

S = Specimen; O = Observed; I = Interview; H = Heard; T = Tracks. 

Site: 1 = Ngoc Linh commune; 2 = Lo Xo Pass; 3 = Cong Troi Area; 4 = Dac Plo commune; 5 = Mang Xang commune.

Appendix 3: Birds Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

Appendices 

No. Common Name Order, Family,Genus Notes Collar et al. Anon. 

and Species 1994 1992 

Galliformes 

Phasianidae 

1 Chinese Francolin Francolinus pintadeanus 1 

2 Rufous-throated Partridge Arborophila rufogularis 1 

3 Bar-backed Partridge A. brunneopectus 1 

4 Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus 1 

5 Silver Pheasant Lophura nycthemera 1 T 

6 Siamese Fireback L. diardi V VU T 

7 Crested Argus Rheinardia ocellata RRS VU T 

Piciformes 

Picidae 

8 Speckled Piculet Picumnus innominatus 1 

9 White-browed Piculet Sasia ochracea 1 

10 Grey-capped Pygmy Woodpecker Dendrocopos canicapillus 1 

11 Stripe-breasted Woodpecker D. atratus * 

12 Bay Woodpecker Blythipicus pyrrhotis 1 

Megalaimidae 

13 Green-eared Barbet Megalaima faiostricta 1 

14 Golden-throated Barbet M. franklinii 1 

15 Black-browed Barbet M. oorti * 

16 Blue-throated Barbet M. asiatica * 

Bucerotiformes 

Bucerotidae 

17 Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis 1 T 

18 Brown Hornbill Anorrhinus tickelli 1 NT T 

19 Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus T 

Trogoniformes 

Trogonidae 

20 Red-headed Trogon Harpactes erythrocephalus 1 

Coraciiformes 

Coraciidae 

21 Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis 

Alcedinidae 

22 Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis 1 

Halcyonidae 

23 Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda R 

24 White-throated Kingfisher H. smyrnensis 

Meropidae 

25 Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni 1 

Cuculiformes 

Cuculidae 

26 Hodgson’s Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx fugax 

27 Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micopterus 

28 Eurasian Cuckoo C. canorus 

29 Asian Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx maculatus 1 

30 Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris 

81

Appendices 

82 



31 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea 

32 Green-billed Malkoha Phaenicophaeus tristis 1 

Centropodidae 

33 Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis 1 

34 Lesser Coucal C. bengalensis 1 

Apodiformes 

Apodidae 

35 Swiftlet species Collocalia sp. 

36 White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus 

37 Asian Palm Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis 

38 House Swift Apus affinis 

Strigiformes 

Strigidae 

39 Mountain Scops Owl Otus spilocephalus 1 

40 Collared Scops Owl O. bakkamoena 

41 Brown Wood Owl Strix leptogrammica 1 R 

42 Collared Owlet Glaucidium brodiei 1 

43 Brown Hawk Owl Ninox scutulata 

Caprimulgidae 

44 Grey Nightjar Caprimulgus indicus 1 

45 Large-tailed Nightjar C. macrurus 1 

Columbiformes 

Columbidae 

46 Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis 1 

47 Spotted Dove S. chinensis 1 

48 Barred Cuckoo Dove Macropygia unchall 1 

49 Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica 1 

50 Thick-billed Green Pigeon Treron curvirostra 1 

51 Mountain Imperial Pigeon Ducula badia 1 

Ciconiiformes 

Accipitridae 

52 Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus 1 

53 Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela 1 

54 Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirgatus 1 

55 Grey-faced Buzzard Butastur indicus 1 

56 Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis 1 

Ardeidae 

57 Little Egret Egretta garzetta 1 

58 Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis 1 

59 Little Heron Butorides striatus 1 

60 Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus 1 

61 Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus 1 

Passeriformes 

Pittidae 

62 Rusty-naped Pitta Pitta oatesi 1 

Eurylaimidae 

63 Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae 1 T

Appendices 



Irenidae 

64 Orange-bellied Leafbird Chloropsis hardwickii 1 

Laniidae 

65 Burmese Shrike Lanius collurioides ** 

66 Long-tailed Shrike L. schach 1 

Corvidae 

67 Red-billed Blue Magpie Urocissa erythrorhyncha 1 

68 White-winged Magpie U. whiteheadi 1 NT 

69 Common Green Magpie Cissa chinensis 1 

70 Indochinese Green Magpie C. hypoleuca NT 

71 Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos 1 

72 Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus 1 

73 Maroon Oriole Oriolus traillii 1 

74 Large Cuckooshrike Coracina macei 1 

75 Indochinese Cuckooshrike C. polioptera 

76 Black-winged Cuckooshrike C. melaschistos 1 

77 Long-tailed Minivet Pericrocotus ethologus 1 

78 Scarlet Minivet P. flammeus 1 

79 Bar-winged Flycatcher-shrike Hemipus picatus 1 

80 White-throated Fantail Rhipidura albicollis 1 

81 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus 1 

82 Ashy Drongo D. leucophaeus 1 

83 Crow-billed Drongo D. annectans 1 

84 Bronzed Drongo D. aeneus 1 

85 Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo D. remifer 1 

86 Black-naped Monarch Hypothymis azurea 1 

Muscicapidae 

87 Blue Whistling Thrush Myophonus caeruleus 1 

88 Siberian Thrush Zoothera sibirica 1 

89 Scaly Thrush Z. dauma 1 

90 Lesser Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophrys 1 

91 White-browed Shortwing B. montana 1 

92 Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica 1 

93 Ferruginous Flycatcher M. ferruginea 

94 Narcissus Flycatcher Ficedula narcissina 1 

95 Slaty-backed Flycatcher F. hodgsonii 

96 Rufous-gorgeted Flycatcher F. strophiata 1 

97 White-gorgeted Flycatcher F. monileger 1 

98 Snowy-browed Flycatcher F. hyperythra 1 

99 Little Pied Flycatcher F. westermanni 1 

100 Verditer Flycatcher Eumyias thalassina 1 

101 Large Niltava Niltava grandis 1 

102 Small Niltava N. macgrigoriae 1 

103 Blue-throated Flycatcher Cyornis rubeculoides 

104 Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis 1 

105 Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis 1 

106 Plumbeous Water Redstart Rhyacornis fuliginosus 

107 White-tailed Robin Myiomela leucura 1 

83

Appendices 

84 



108 Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus 1 

109 Spotted Forktail E. maculatus 

110 Green Cochoa Cochoa viridis 1 NT 

Sturnidae 

111 Black-collared Starling Sturnus nigricollis 1 

Sittidae 

112 Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Sitta castanea 1 

113 Velvet-fronted Nuthatch S. frontalis 1 

114 Yellow-billed Nuthatch S. solangiae *RRS VU T 

Paridae 

115 Yellow-cheeked Tit Parus spilonotus 1 

116 Yellow-browed Tit Sylviparus modestus 1 

117 Sultan Tit Melanochlora sultanea ** 

Aegithalidae 

118 Black-throated Tit Aegithalos concinnus 1 

Pycnonotidae 

119 Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus 1 

120 Flavescent Bulbul P. flavescens 1 

121 Yellow-vented Bulbul P. goiavier *** 

122 Puff-throated Bulbul Alophoixus pallidus 1 

123 Ashy Bulbul Hemixos flavala ** 

124 Mountain Bulbul Hypsipetes mcclellandii 1 

125 Black Bulbul H. leucocephalus 1 

Cisticolidae 

126 Hill Prinia Prinia atrogularis 1 

Zosteropidae 

127 Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus 

Sylviidae 

128 Grey-bellied Tesia Tesia cyaniventer 1 

129 Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum ** 

130 Mountain Tailorbird Orthotomus cuculatus 1** 

131 Ashy-throated Warbler Phylloscopus maculipennis 1** 

132 Pallas’s Leaf Warbler P. proregulus 1** 

133 Yellow-browed Warbler P. inornatus 

134 Two-barred Greenish Warbler P. plumbeitarsus * 

135 Pale-legged Leaf Warbler P. tenellipes 

136 White-tailed Leaf Warbler P. davisoni 1 

137 Golden-spectacled Warbler Seicercus burkii 

138 White-spectacled Warbler S. affinis ** 

139 Grey-cheeked Warbler S. poliogenys 1** 

140 Chestnut-crowned Warbler S. castaniceps 1** 

141 Yellow-bellied Warbler Abroscopus superciliaris ** 

142 Golden-winged Laughingthrush Garrulax ngoclinhensis NS,RRS NE NE 

143 Black-hooded Laughingthrush G. milleti RRS VU R 

144 Black-throated Laughingthrush G. chinensis 1 

145 White-cheeked Laughingthrush G. vassali RRS T 

146 Red-tailed Laughingthrush G. milnei 1** NT 

147 Buff-breasted Babbler Pellorneum tickelli 1 

148 Spot-throated Babbler P. albiventre 1

Appendices 



149 Large Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus hypoleucos 1** 

150 White-browed Scimitar Babbler P. schisticeps 

151 Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler P. ferruginosus 1** 

152 Short-tailed Scimitar Babbler Jabouilleia danjoui RRS VU T 

153 Streaked Wren Babbler Napothera brevicaudata 1 

154 Eyebrowed Wren Babbler N. epilepidota 1 

155 Pygmy Wren Babbler Pnoepyga pusilla 

156 Rufous-fronted Babbler Stachyris rufifrons * 

157 Golden Babbler S. chrysaea 1 

158 Grey-throated Babbler S. nigriceps 1 

159 Spot-necked Babbler S. striolata 1** 

160 Silver-eared Mesia Leiothrix argentauris 1** 

161 Cutia Cutia nipalensis 1 

162 White-browed Shrike Babbler Pteruthius flaviscapis 1 

163 Black-eared Shrike Babbler P. melanotis 1** 

164 Chestnut-fronted Shrike Babbler P. aenobarbus 1 

165 Black-crowned Barwing Actinodura sodangorum NS,RRS NE NE 

166 Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera 1** 

167 Chestnut-tailed Minla M. strigula 1** 

168 Red-tailed Minla M. ignotincta 1** 

169 Golden-breasted Fulvetta Alcippe chrysotis 1** 

170 Rufous-winged Fulvetta A. castaneceps 1** 

171 Spectacled Fulvetta A. ruficapilla 1** 

172 Streaked-throated Fulvetta A. cinereiceps 1** 

173 Rusty-capped Fulvetta A. dubia 1** 

174 Mountain Fulvetta A. peracensis 

175 Rufous-backed Sibia Heterophasia annectans 1 

176 Black-headed Sibia H. melanoleuca 1 

177 Stripe-throated Yuhina Yuhina gularis 1** 

178 Black-chinned Yuhina Y. nigrimenta 1** 

179 White-bellied Yuhina Y. zantholeuca 1 

180 Black-throated Parrotbill Paradoxornis nipalensis 1** 

Nectariniidae 

181 Fire-breasted Flowerpecker Dicaeum ignipectus 1 

182 Gould’s Sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae 1 

183 Green-tailed Sunbird A. nipalensis 1 

184 Black-throated Sunbird A. saturata 1 

185 Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra 1 

186 Streaked Spiderhunter A. magna 

Passeridae 

187 Forest Wagtail Dendronanthus indicus 

188 Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea 

189 Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni 

190 White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata 

Follows Inskipp et al. (1996) 

Status: E = Endangered; VU/V = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; T = Threatened; R = Rare as per Collar et al (1994) and Anon. (1992). NE = Not 

Evaluated. 

Notes: 1 : Also distributed in north or north-west Vietnam 

* : New record for Vietnam 

** : New record for central Vietnam 

*** : Range extension 

NS : New species for science 

RRS : Restricted-Range Species 

85

Appendices 

86 

Appendix 4: Herpetiles Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

No. Class, Order, Family Data Endemic IUCN Anon. 

Genus and Species Source Species 1996 1992 

Reptilia 

Squamata: 

Gekkonidae 

1 Gekko gecko O T 

2 Hemidactylus frenatus O 

Agamidae 

3 Acanthosaura capra R 

4 A. lepidogaster S T 

5 Calotes emma R 

6 C. mystaceus S 

7 C. versicolor O 

8 Draco maculatus R 

9 Physignathus cocincinus O V 

Scincidae 

10 Eumeces quadrilineatus R 

11 Mabuya multifasciata O 

12 M. sp. R 

13 Scincella rufocaudata R EV 

14 S. vittigerum R 

Dibamidae 

15 Dibamus bourreti R 

Lacertidae 

16 Takydromus sexlineatus R 

Varanidae 

17 Varanus nebulosus R V 

18 V. salvator I V 

Boidae 

19 Python molutus I NT V 

20 P. reticulatus R V 

Colubridae 

21 Ahaetulla prasina O 

22 Amphiesma stolata O 

23 Calamaria septentrionalis S 

24 Dinodon sp. S 

25 Dipsas margaritophorus S 

26 Elaphe radiata I 

27 Enhydris plumbea R 

28 Ptyas korros R T 

29 Xenochrophis piscator R 

Elapidae 

30 Bungarus candidus I 

31 B. fasciatus I T 

32 Naja naja I T 

33 Ophiophagus hannah I E 

Viperidae 

34 Trimeresurus albolabris

Appendices 

No. Class, Order, Family Data Endemic IUCN Anon. 

Genus and Species Source Species 1996 1992 

Testudinata: 

Platysternidae 

35 Platysternum megacephalum R DD R 

Emydidae 

36 Cistoclemmys galbinifrons R EV NT V 

37 Cuora trifasciata R EN V 

38 Geoemyda spengleri R 

39 Pyxidea mouhoti R 

Testudinidae 

40 Indotestudo elongata R VU V 

Trionychidae 

41 Palea steindachneri R NT 

Amphibia 

Apoda: 

Coeciliidae 

1 Ichthyophis glutinosus R V 

Anura: 

Megophryidae 

2 Leptobrachium hasselti S 

3 Megophrys longipes S T 

4 M. major S 

Bufonidae 

5 Bufo galeatus R R 

6 B. melanosticus O 

Ranidae 

7 Occidozyga lima R 

8 Phrynoglossus laevis O 

9 Rana andersoni S T 

10 R. guentheri O 

11 R. kuhlii R 

12 R. limmocharis S 

13 R. nigrovittata S 

14 R. ricketi S 

15 R. rugulosa O 

16 R. verrucospinosa R EV 

Rhacophoridae 

17 Rhacophorus leucomystax S 

18 R. nigropalmatus R T 

19 Philautus sp. S 

Microhylidae 

21 Microhyla berdmorei R 

22 M. heymonsi S 

23 M. ornata S 

Follows Nguyen Van Sang and Ho Thu Cuc (1996). 

Notes: EN/E = Endangered; VU/V = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened; R = Rare; DD = Data Deficient as per IUCN (1996) and Anon. (1992). 

EV = Endemic to Vietnam. 

Data Source: S = Specimen; O = Observed; I = Interview; R = Data from Previous Report. 

87

Appendices 

88 

Appendix 5: Butterflies Recorded in Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve 

No. Family, Genus and Species Range S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 Status 

Papilionidae 

1 Parides aidoneus Doubleday 2 r 

2 P. dasarada Moore 2 r 

3 Chilasa agestor Gray 3 r 

4 Papilio demoleus 4 u 

5 P. helenus L. 4 r c u 

6 P. alcmenor Westwood 2 r 

7 P. polytes L. 3 r u c 

8 P. dialis Leech 2 r u 

9 P. arcturus Westwood 1 r 

10 P. paris L. 3 r 

11 P. memnon L. 3 u 

12 Teinopalpus imperialis Hop. 1 r NT 

13 Meandrusa payeni Boisd. 2* r 

14 M. sciron Leech 2 r 

15 Pazala glycerion Gray 1 c c 

16 Graphium macareus Godart 3 u 

17 G. cloanthus West. 2* r 

18 G. chironides Honr. 3 u 

19 G. agamemnon L. 3 c 

20 G. sarpedon L. 4 u c 

21 Lamproptera curius F. 3 c c 

22 L. meges Zinken 3 c 

Pieridae 

23 Delias belladonna F. 3 c 

24 D. agostina annamitica Fruhstorfer 0 c u 

25 Prioneris thestylis Doubl. 3 r c 

26 Artogeia canidia Spar. 2 u u 

27 Talbotia naganum Moore 1 r c 

28 Cepora nadina Lucas 3 r 

29 C. nerissa F. 3 u 

30 Appias lyncida Cram. 3 u 

31 A. indra Moore 3 u 

32 A. lalage Doubl. 3 r 

33 A. lalassis G.-S. 3 u 

34 A. albina Boisd. 3 u c c 

35 A. pandione Greyer 3 r 

36 Hebomoia glaucippe L. 3 c 

37 Dercas nina Mell. 1 u 

38 D. verhuelli V.d.Hoeven 2 r r 

39 Catopsilia pomona F. 5 c c c 

40 C. scylla cornelia F. 4 c 

41 Eurema brigitta hainana Moore 2* r c c 

42 E. hecabe L. 4 u u c c 

43 E. simulatrix Semper 3 u 

44 E. blanda silhetana Wallace 3 u u c c u 

45 E. ada iona Talbot 2* r r

Appendices 


Danaidae 

46 Danaus chrysippus L. 5 c 

47 D. genutia Cram. 4 c 

48 Parantica aglea melanoides Moore 3 c c 

49 P. sita Kollar 2* c c c 

50 P. melaneus plataniston Fruhstorfer 3 r u 

51 Ideopsis vulgaris Butler 3 u 

52 Euploea mulciber Cram. 3 c 

53 E. tulliolus F. 3 c 

54 E. radamanthus F. 3 u 

Satyridae 

55 Melanitis leda L. 5 u u u 

56 M. phedima Cramer 3 r 

57 Elymnias hypermnestra L. 3 u 

58 E. patna Westwood 3 r 

59 E. malelas ivena Fruhstorfer 2 r r 

60 Lethe siderea Marshall ssp? 1 r r 

61 L. dura Marshall 2 r 

62 L. sura Doubled 1 r 

63 L. rohria F. 3 r 

64 L. sinorix Hew. 2* r r 

65 L. verma stenopa Fruhst. 3 c c 

66 L. confusa Aurivillius 3 c 

67 L. chandica suvarna Fruh. 3 r r 

68 L. mekara crijnana Fruh. 3 r 

69 L. vindya Felder 3 r u c c 

70 L. latiaris perimele Fruh. 1 u 

71 L. philemon 2 r 

72 L. distans Butl. r 

73 Neope bhadra Moore 1 r u 

74 N. armandii Oberthur 1 u u u 

75 Mandarinia regalis baronesa Fruhstorfer 2 r 

76 Neorina sp. (near patria) 1 r 

77 Orinoma damaris Gray 1 u 

78 Penthema darlisa annamitica Fruhstorfer 0 r r 

79 Erites falcypennis W.-M. and de Niceville 2 r 

80 Ragadia critolaius de Niceville 2 u u r 

81 Mycalesis gotama Moore 3 r 

82 M. francisca Fruhst. 1 c u c c 

83 Ypthima baldus Fabricius 3 u 

84 Y. cerealis Watson 3 r 

85 Y. watsoni Moore ? 3 u c u 

86 Y. dohertyi Moore 3 r u u 

87 Callerebia narasingha Moore 1 r c r 

Amathusiidae u 

88 Faunis aerope Leech 0 

89 F. canens arcesilas Stich 2 c 

90 F. eumeus incerta Staudinger 2 c 

91 Aemona amathusia Hew. 0 u r u 

92 Stichophthalma louisa W.-M. ssp 0 r r c 

89

Appendices 

90 


93 Thaumantis diores splendens Tytler 1 u 

94 Discophora deo de Nicev. 2 r 

95 Enispe euthymius syhaeus (?) Brooks 0 r 

96 E. cycnus verbanus Fruh. 

Acraeidae 

0 r 

97 Acraea issoria vestalina Fruh. 0 c c 

98 A. viola F. 

Nymphalidae 

2 ? 

99 Cethosia biblis Drury 3 r u u u 

100 Argyreus hyperbius L. 5 c u u c c 

101 Phalanta phalantha Drury 4 u 

102 P. alcippe alcippoides Moore 3 r 

103 Vagrans egista Cramer 4 u 

104 Vindula erota F. 3 r r c c 

105 Vanessa cardui L. 6 c c 

106 Kanisca canace L. 3 c r 

107 Symbrenthia hypoclus Cram. 3 u u u 

108 S. hypselis Godart 3 r u 

109 Junonia iphita Cramer 3 r 

110 J. almana L. 3 c 

111 Junonia atlites L. 3 u c 

112 Kallima inachus Doyere 2 r c u 

113 Ariadne merione Cramer 3 u 

114 Cyrestis thyodamas Doyere 3 u u 

115 Chersonesia risa Doubleday 3 r 

116 Neptis clinia susruta Moore 3 r 

117 N. soma shania Evans 3 c c c c 

118 N. sappho astola Moore 2 c c u c c 

119 N. harita Moore 3 r 

120 N. sankara Kollar 1 u r 

121 N. zaida Westwood 2 r 

122 N. ananta Moore 1 r 

123 N. manasa Moore 1 r 

124 Pantoporia paraka Butler 3 r 

125 Athyma perius L. 3 c ? 

126 A. cama Moore 3 c 

127 A. ranga Moore 2 r 

128 A. asura Moore 2 r 

129 A. selenophora batilda Fruhstorfer 3 r 

130 Limenitis mimica spp. 1 u 

131 Sumalia daraxa Doubleday 3 c 

132 Auzakia danava Moore 1 r r 

133 Bhagadatta austenia Moore 1 r 

134 Tanaecia julii indochinensis Fruhstorfer 3 u u u u u 

135 Tanaecia lepidea Butler 3 u 

136 T. sp. ? r 

137 Euthalia monina sastra Fruh. 3 r 

138 E. sp. ? r 

139 E. lubentina Cramer 3 r 

140 Bassarona franciae Gray 1 u

Appendices 


141 Apatura ambica Kollar 2 r 

142 Rohana parisatis Westw. 3 u 

143 Hestina nama nama Doubleday 3 r 

144 Euripus nyctelius Doubleday 3 u u 

145 Pseudergolis wedah Kollar 2 c u 

146 Stibochiona nicea Gray 3 u u 

147 Dichorragia nesimachus Doyere 4 r 

148 Charaxes aristogiton Felder 2 r 

149 Polyura dolon Westw. 

Libytheidae 

1 u r 

150 Libythea myrrha sanguinalis Fruhstorfer 

Riodinidae 

2 u 

151 Zemeros flegyas annamensis Fruhstorfer 3 c u u c c c c 

152 Dodona ouida ouida Moore 1 r r 

153 D. adonira Hew. 2 u u 

154 D. deodata lecerfi Fruh 0 u 

155 D. sp. ? r 

156 D. egeon Dbl. and Hew. 3 r 

157 Abisara burnii de Nicev. 3 r 

158 A. echerius Stoll. 3 u 

159 A. neophron Hew. 2 c u c c 

160 A. fylla Doubl. and Hew. 1 c u c u 

161 Stiboges nymphidia elodinia Fruhstorfer 

Lycaenidae 

3 c u u 

162 Poritia phama regia Evans 2 r 

163 Allotinus drumila aphtonius Fruhstorfer 2 u 

164 Miletus mallus mallus Fruhstorfer ? ? 

165 Curetis bulis Westw. 3 r u u 

166 Discolampa ethion West. 3 u 

167 Taraka hamada H.Druce 3 r 

168 Caleta elna Hewitson 3 u 

169 Acytolepis puspa gisca Fruhstorfer 3 c 

170 Calenya lenya Evans 3 r 

171 Celastrina lavendularis limbata Moore 

172 C. argiolus iynteana de Niceville 

173 Celatoxia marginata Nicev. 3 u 

174 Udara akasa sadenobui Eliot & Kawazoe 3 c 

175 U. dilecta Moore 3 u 

176 U placidula howarthi Cantlie & Norman 

177 Zizina otis sangra Moore 3 c 

178 Pseudozizeeria maha Kollar 2 u c 

179 Everes lacturnus rileyi Fodfrey 3 u 

180 Euchrysops cnejus F. 3 c 

181 Lampides boeticus L 5 u 

182 Jamides alecto alocina Swinhoe 3 u 

183 J. bochus Stoll 3 u u 

184 J. celeno Cramer 3 u 

185 Nacaduba angusta albida Riley & Godfrey 3 u u 

186 N. kurava Moore 3 u 

187 Prosotas nora ardates Moore 3 c 

91

Appendices 

92 


188 P. pia Toxopeus 3 c 

189 Anthene lycaeninae Felder 3 c 

190 Una usta Distant 3 r 

191 Heliophorus ila pseudonexus Eliot 3 r c c 

192 H. tamu kala Tytler 1 c 

193 Arhopala oenea khamti Doherty ? r 

194 A. ace arata Tytler ? r 

195 Amblipodia anita Hewitson 3 u 

196 Spindasis syama latipicta Fruhstorfer 3 c 

197 Yasoda tripunctata Hewitson 2 u 

198 Pratapa icetas Hewitson 3 r 

199 Cheritrella truncipennis de Niceville 1 r 

200 Ancema ctesia Hewitson 3 r 

201 Hypolycaena kina Hewitson 3 u 

202 Zeltus amasa Hewitson 3 u u u 

203 Sinthusa chandrana Moore 1 r 

204 Neocheritra fabronia Hew. 1 r 

205 Tajuria diaeus ssp ? 

206 Deudorix epijarbas Moore 3 r r 

207 Rapala nissa Kollar 

Hesperiidae 

1 u 

208 Hasora vitta Butler 4 r c c 

209 H. danda Evans 3 c 

210 H. taminatus malayana Felder & Felder 3 c 

211 H. anura de Niceville 1 r 

212 Choaspes benjaminii formosana Fruhstorfer 3 r r 

213 Capila zennara Moore ? ? 

214 C. pauripunetata tamdaoensis Devyatkin 1 r 

215 C. lidderdali Elwes 1 r 

216 Celaenorrhinus putra Moore 3 r u 

217 C. sp (near putra) 

218 C. aspersa Leech 2? r 

219 C. pyrrha de Niceville 2 c ? 

220 Tagiades cohaerens cynthia Evans 3 r 

221 T. gana sangarava Fruhstorfer 3 r 

222 Aeromachus sp. (near jhora) ? r 

223 Thoressa fusca ssp? 1 r 

224 T. gupta de Niceville 3 u u 

225 T. sp. n. (near aina de Niceville) 

226 Astictopterus jama olivascens Moore 3 u u 

227 Darpa hanria Moore 1 r 

228 Gerosis phisara Moore 2 r 

229 Notocrypta feistamelii alysos Moore 3 u u 

230 Gangara thyrsis F. 3 r 

231 Potanthus lydia Evans 3 u c c 

232 P. ganda ganda Fruhstorfer 

233 Polytremis discreta Elw 3 c u 

234 P. eltola Hew. 3 c 

235 Pelopidas assamensis de Niceville 

236 Caltoris cahira austeni Moore

Global Range: 0 - Central Vietnam, Ngoc Linh Nature Reserve; 

1 - East Himalayas (Nepal, Assam, Sikkim, N. Burma, Yunnan, S.W. China, N. Indochina); 

2 - Indochina to India; 

3 - Oriental region; 

4 - Indo-Australian tropics; 

5 - Palaeotropics; and 

6 – Cosmopolitan. 

Study Sites: S1 - Stream at 1,600 to 1,700 m a.s.l.; 

S2 - Forest situated between stream and base camp at 1,600 to 1,750 m a.s.l.; 

S3 - Primary and secondary forest fragments situated between 1,700 and 2200 m a.s.l.; 

S4 - Forested section of road ~10 km from Ngoc Linh village at 900 m.; 

S5 - Forest in the neighbourhood of Lo Xo Pass 1,000 to 1,100 m a.s.l.; 

S6 - Forest trail at Lo Xo pass at 1,100 m a.s.l.; and 

S7 - The neighbourhood of Ngoc Linh village at 1,000 to 1,300 m. a.s.l. 

Species occurrence is divided into three categories: 

r - rare (single or two specimens encountered); 

u - uncommon (~10 specimens seen); 

c - common (up to 20 specimens seen); 

Status: NT – Near Threatened as per IUCN 1996. 

Appendices 

93

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