Priority species of bamboo and rattan - Bioversity International

Priority species of 

bamboo and rattan 

A. N. Rao, V. Ramanatha Rao and J.T. Williams editors 

IPGRI is an institute of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) 

I P G 

R 

I 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

Priority species of 

bamboo and rattan 

A. N. Rao, V. Ramanatha Rao and J.T. Williams editors 

Contributing Authors: 

John Dransfield 

Soejatmi Dransfield 

Elizabeth Widjaja 

C Renuka 

Published jointly by: 

IPGRI and INBAR 

1998 

I P G 

R 

I 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

ii PRIORITY SPECIES OF BAMBOO AND RATTAN 

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an autonomous international 

scientific organization, supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural 

Research (CGIAR). IPGRI’s mandate is to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic 

resources for the benefit of present and future generations. IPGRI’s headquarters is based 

in Rome, Italy, with offices in another 14 countries worldwide. It operates through three 

programmes: (1) the Plant Genetic Resources Programme, (2) the CGIAR Genetic Resources 

Support Programme, and (3) the International Network for the Improvement of Banana 

and Plantain (INIBAP). The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment 

Agreement which, by January 1998, had been signed and ratified by the Governments of 

Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, 

Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, 

Greece, Guinea, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, 

Mauritania, Morocco, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, 

Slovak Republic, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda and Ukraine. 

Financial support for the Research Agenda of IPGRI is provided by the Governments 

of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech 

Republic, Denmark, Estonia, F.R. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Finland, France, 

Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, 

Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, the Netherlands, Norway, 

Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, 

Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, the UK, the USA and by the Asian 

Development Bank, Common Fund for Commodities, Technical Centre for Agricultural 

and Rural Cooperation (CTA), European Union, Food and Agriculture Organization of the 

United Nations (FAO), International Development Research Centre (IDRC), International 

Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Association for the promotion 

of cooperation with scientists from the New Independent States of the former Soviet Union 

(INTAS), Interamerican Development Bank, United Nations Development Programme 

(UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank. 

The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this 

publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRI 

or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its 

authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the 

views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these 

participating organizations. 

Citation: 

Rao, A.N. and V. Ramanatha Rao, editors. 1998. Priority Species of Bamboo and Rattan. 

IPGRI-APO, Serdang, Malaysia. 

ISBN: 92-9043-491-5 

I P G 

R 

I 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute 

IPGRI – Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania 

P O Box 236, UPM Post Office 

43400 Serdang, Selangor 

© International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 1998

The International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) is an intergovernmental 

organization established in 1997, by Treaty. As of December 1998, INBAR’s Establishment 

Agreement had been signed by 11 countries (Bangladesh, Canada, China, India, 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Peru, the Philippines and Tanzania). INBAR’s 

mission is to improve the social, economic and environmental benefits of bamboo and 

rattan. INBAR supports and coordinates core programmes in scientific research and 

technology generation, and sustainable development programmes providing bamboo 

and rattan solutions for people and the environment. INBAR programmes link partners 

from the government, non-government, academic and corporate sectors with knowledge 

and technologies that directly improve the well-being of people in developing and 

developed countries. 

INBAR publishes an ongoing series of Working Papers and Technical Reports, 

occassional monographs, reference materials and the INBAR Newsmagazine. It also 

provides an on-line library featuring relational databases on bamboo and rattan products, 

organizations, projects, experts and scientific information. 

Financial support for INBAR’s programes is provided by the Governments of 

China and the Netherlands, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) 

of Canada and the United Nations Internaitonal Fund for Agricultural Development 

(IFAD). 

International Network for Bamboo and Rattan 

Branch Box 155, P O Box 9799 

Beijing 

P R China 1000101 

Tel No: 86-10-64956961/82 

Fax No: 86-10-64956962/83 

Email: info@inbar.org.cn 

Website: http://www.inbar.org.cn 

iii

Contents 

Foreword vii 

Preface to the 1 st edition viii 

Acknowledgement ix 

Introduction 1 

Background 3 

Genetic conservation of bamboo and rattan 6 

Criteria for selection of species 8 

The major priority species 9 

Part I 

CONTENTS v 

Notes on Priority Bamboos 15 

Bambusa balcooa 15 

Bambusa bambos 15 

Bambusa blumeana 17 

Bambusa polymorpha 19 

Bambusa textilis 22 

Bambusa tulda 22 

Bambusa vulgaris 25 

Cephalostachyum pergracile 27 

Dendrocalamus asper 27 

Dendrocalamus giganteus 29 

Dendrocalamus latiflorus 31 

Dendrocalamus strictus 34 

Gigantochloa apus 36 

Gigantochloa levis 36 

Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea 39 

Guadua angustifolia 41 

Melocanna baccifera 41 

Ochlandra spp 44 

Phyllostachys pubescens 46 

Thyrsostachys siamensis 48 

Additional species 50 

Arundinaria sp 51 

Bambusa atra 51 

Bambusa heterostachya 51 

Bambusa nutans 51 

Bambusa oldhamii 51 

Bambusa pervariabilis 52 

Lingnania chungii 52 

Dendrocalamus brandisii 52 

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 52 

Dendrocalamus hookerii 52 

Dendrocalmus membranaceus 53 

Gigantochloa albociliata 53 

Gigantochloa atroviolacea 53 

Gigantochloa balui 53

vi PRIORITY SPECIES OF BAMBOO AND RATTAN 

Gigantochloa hasskarliana 53 

Oxytenanthera sp. 54 

Phyllostachys glauca 54 

Schizostachyum sp 54 

References 55 

Part II 

Notes on Priority Rattan 59 

Calamus manan 59 

Calamus caesius 62 

Calamus trachycoleus 64 

Calamus sect.Podocephalus 66 

Calamus andamanicus 68 

Calamus burckianus 68 

Calamus erinaceus 68 

Calamus foxworthyi 68 

Calamus merrillii 68 

Calamus nagbettai 68 

Calamus ovoideus 68 

Calamus polystachys 70 

Calamus warburgii 70 

Calamus zeylanicus 70 

Calamus zollingeri 70 

Calamus palustris and relatives 73 

Calamus inermis 77 

Calamus nambariensis 77 

Calamus deeratus 77 

Calamus tetradactylus 79 

Calamus hollrungii and relatives 81 

References 83 

Application of the priorities 87 

A. Bamboos 89 

B. Rattans 89 

Further Research 90 

Other Decisions 91 

Epilogue 92 

Appendix I 95

Foreword 

Selecting a limited number of species of bamboo and rattan for priority research and 

development out of the several hundred that exist was not an easy task. Traditional 

methods helped to some extent to indicate the usefulness of certain species in different 

countries. However, there is no comprehensive account to consolidate their uses in 

many countries. An exercise to select bamboo and rattan species for further research 

was completed in 1993 with the assistance of a handful of experts in the fields of 

bamboo and rattan taxonomy, ethnobotany, silviculture, conservation and genetics. 

This collaboration resulted in the first joint publication, between INBAR and IBPGR 

issued in 1994. The contents included background details, criteria for selection of 

species, the major priority bamboo and rattan species selected and notes on them. 

The publication was not conceived as an end in itself, but as an initial document 

to be updated from time to time. The first edition itself contained, besides the list of 

priority species, a list of additional species that were important. The document was 

widely circulated, inviting responses and initiating discussions on prioritizing bamboo 

and rattan species based on social, economic and cultural considerations. 

The details given in the publication were very much appreciated and widely used. 

At the same time many valuable suggestions were made to include more species, that 

are economically important in several Asian regions, their characteristics and economic 

values. 

The INBAR Bamboo Rattan Working Group on Genetic Diversity and Conservation 

decided last year to bring out a second edition of Priority Species of Bamboo and 

Rattan. This new edition is a result of further review of information from different 

countries as well as new information gathered by IPGRI and INBAR. 

The second edition also incorporates changes suggested by national programes. 

The revised list was prepared for the INBAR Biodiversity and Genetic Resources 

Conservation Working Group and spearheaded by Prof A N Rao of the International 

Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). 

We hope the research workers, institutions and authorities concerned with bamboo 

and rattan resources and utilization will welcome and use this new edition as well as 

they did the first one. Needless to say, planning and action are needed to save the 

existing bamboo and rattan resources in the forests and to promote their sustainable 

use. Such efforts will continue to assist to improve the incomes of rural people who 

are closely connected in harvesting, local trades and utilizing materials in home 

industries. 

Cherla B. Sastry Kenneth Walker Riley 

Director General Regional Director 

INBAR IPGRI-APO 

vii

viii PRIORITY SPECIES OF BAMBOO AND RATTAN 

Preface to the 1 st edition 

This is the first in a series of publications from the International Network for Bamboo 

and Rattan (INBAR). In the months ahead, we hope to offer bamboo and rattan 

researchers and enthusiasts alike a wealth of information about these increasingly 

important species. The publication of this book, therefore, marks an important stage 

in INBAR’s evolution. 

INBAR is the outgrowth of a network of bamboo and rattan research projects that 

have been funded since the early 1980’s by the International Development Research 

Centre (IDRC) of Canada. Following months of study and consultation with donor 

agencies, IDRC approved a grant in late 1992 to establish INBAR. In 1993, the 

International fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) approved major grant towards 

INBAR’s activities, to be channelled through the Centre for International Forestry 

Research (CIFOR). In mid-1993, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources 

(IBPGR) obtained funding from Japan and agreed to co-sponsor with INBAR a meeting 

aimed at identifying priority species of bamboo and rattan. 

The idea for the INBAR-IBPGR Consultative Meeting on the Selection of Priority 

Species of Bamboo and Rattan had been proposed in mid-1993 at an INBAR networkshop 

of bamboo and rattan project collaborators from Asia. The meeting in Dehra Dun in 

December 1993 comprised a select group of Asian and international experts. 

We hope that this publication will provide some useful guidelines in identification 

of bamboo and rattan species for establishing plantations, intercropping, and in social 

forestry programmes. The priority species of bamboo present a vast untapped potential 

for rehabilitating degraded waste lands, as do the rattan species for rehabilitating 

forests. The result will be an enhancement of the incomes of rural people and forest 

dwellers. 

INBAR and IBPGR wish to thank Dr D N Tewari, Director General of the Indian 

Council of Forestry Research and Education, for offering the participants an inspiring 

setting for the deliberations. In addition, IBPGR sincerely wishes to acknowledge the 

funding received from the Government of Japan for its project on bamboo and rattan. 

Our thanks to the participants for the enthusiasm and dedication that they demonstrated 

in accomplishing the objectives set out for them. Finally, a special word of thanks to 

our principal editors, not only for their editorial efforts, but for their effective 

chairmanship of the meeting in Dehra Dun. 

Paul Stinson Cherla B. Sastry 

Manager, INBAR Principal Program Officer 

(Forestry), IDRC 

March, 1994

Acknowledgement 

We are grateful to Drs R.L. Banik – Bangladesh, A.C. Chaturvedi – India, J. Dransfield 

– UK, Ms S. Dransfield-UK, Ms Elizabeth Widjaja – Indonesia, Fu Mao Yi – China, K.C. 

Koshy – India, A.F. Masceranhas – India, Pei Shengji – China, S.N. Prasad – India, IVR 

Rao, China, Ms C. Renuka – India, M.L. Sharma – India, Chris Stapleton – UK, D.N. 

Tewari – India, and K. Vivekanandan – Sri Lanka, for their comments and helpful 

suggestions. Most of them have been incorporated in the revised edition. 

We are thankful to Ms Mahaletchumy Arujanan and Ms Eleanor Gomez for their 

technical help. 

ix 

Editors

Introduction 

A Consultative Meeting to identify priority species of bamboo and rattan was held 

from 6–9 December 1993 at the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, 

Dehra Dun, by kind invitation of Dr D N Tewari, Director General. 

The Meeting was held under the auspices of INBAR (International Network for 

Bamboo and Rattan) and IBPGR (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources). Two 

other international organizations participated : FORTIP (UNDP/FAO Regional Projects 

on Improved Productivity of Man-Made Forests through Application of Technological 

Advances in Tree Breeding and Propagation) and ICIMOD (International Centre for 

Integrated Mountain Development). A list of participants is given in Appendix 1. 

Participants included experts in the field of bamboo and rattan taxonomy, 

sylviculture and variation. Additionally, advice on priority species had been solicited 

by INBAR from a number of national programmes and their data were made available 

to the meeting. 

Current knowledge lists about 75 genera and 1250 species of bamboo. About 75% 

of these species are used locally for one or many purposes, and about 50 species are 

used extensively. There are about 600 rattan species, in 13 genera, of which virtually 

all are used locally but only about 50 are used regularly and commercially. 

In order to enhance production, especially against a background of over exploitation, 

INBAR’s research networking requires a much sharper focus on a limited number of 

high priority species. Past research has focused on better understanding of the resource 

base and better processing and utilisation of products. Current opinion is that the most 

urgent tasks are to increase production in cultivation and to sustainably manage 

natural stands so that resources are adequately available. 

In view of the very large number of species and their diverse geographical ranges 

and ecologies, focus also has to be given to the conservation of genepools of more 

useful species. There is no one easy applicable method for conservation, and appropriate 

technology has to be developed which can be effectively used in a complementary 

conservation strategy for bamboo and rattan genetic resources. IPGRI recognizes that 

to conduct strategic research in this area requires clear focus on a limited number of 

high priority taxa. 

Experts at the meeting agreed upon criteria for selection of species and their 

prioritization, categorized levels of priority for identified priority species and made 

recommendations on urgent tasks to be undertaken upon these species. 

Need for revision 

The publication of “Priority Species of Bamboo and Rattan” aroused much interest 

among bamboo and rattan researchers and conservationists. Many suggested that rating, 

evaluation and domestication need to be changed for certain species listed in Tables 1 

and 2. Some of them felt that too few species had been included in the lists omitting 

a number of others that are yet traditionally used in many countries. Many suggested 

that bamboos growing in the colder climates like Arundinaria spp. should be included 

since many of them provide fodder, building and biomass materials for people living 

at very high altitudes. Still others thought there was not enough emphasis accorded to 

the real woody genera like Gigantochloa, Guadua, Phyllostachys sp., since they are the 

primary sources for building construction, wood and paper industries. Additions and 

amendments are made to cover many of the above points and to accommodate a wider 

coverage of greater number of economically important species and to provide more 

technical details on them. More species are included in the revised text, at the same time 

1

2 PRIORITY SPECIES OF BAMBOO AND RATTAN 

the priority needs in terms of conservation and use are revised. Also additional technical 

details and recent research on many of the priority species have been added. 

Process of revision 

In the last 4–5 years, since the publication of the priority species, much progress has 

been made on socio-economics, selection, exchange of materials in an informal way 

and information generation and technology transfer. Many of the recent publications 

listed under references provide details (see the list of references). Because of economic 

implications and the greater need to use bamboos for low cost housing or construction 

of bamboo houses in earthquake prone areas the interest is increasing. Much technical 

information has also been generated, since the publication of the first edition. More 

researchers of different institutions in various countries have been encouraged to 

conduct research on bamboo and rattan. Many of these have participated in international 

meetings and training courses arranged in the last 3–4 years to pave the way to greater 

collaboration and exchange of information. 

Problems are many in the conservation and perpetuation of bamboo and rattan, 

especially the selection of superior clones or materials. Lack of well trained staff in 

many countries is a serious handicap. Many of the deficiencies identified or highlighted 

earlier are yet to be well covered to fill up gaps. Progress made is slow for this reason 

but many projects in various countries are well supported. 

Some of the recent researches include: 

a) Distribution of bamboo and rattan species in China, India, Nepal and Thailand; 

b) Guidelines for bamboo seed collection, germination and conservation; 

c) Genetic assessment and analysis of rattan species in Malaysia and Thailand using 

biochemical methods; 

d) Reproductive, phenological and macroproliferation methods for certain bamboos; 

e) Slow growth invitro studies on certain bamboo species; 

f) Ex situ and in situ conservation of bamboo and rattan germplasm in certain Asian 

countries; 

g) Bamboo and rattan diversity in N E India and others. 

Some of the data on these topics is already published and others are in press (see the 

list of references). The recent information is also abstracted in this revised edition. 

The background papers of the first edition have been retained since much of the 

discussion there is still relevant. As noted earlier, despite limited human resources 

available, research on bamboo and rattan has continued to progress, though much 

needs to be done. The coordination and collaboration among scientists have greatly 

improved. Significant progress has also been made in resource assessment and 

identifying conservation areas. The 1993 consultation was the first serious attempt to 

address issues of conservation in a collaborative mode. The second paper focussed on 

identification of criteria to determine priority species. Since the criteria followed are 

sound, the relevance of this paper remains the same. The importance of complementary 

conservation strategies mentioned there has assumed greater significance today and 

our aim should be to develop holistic complementary conservation strategies for 

bamboo and rattan genetic resources and for their sustainable utilization.

Background 

Bamboo and rattan research 

J. T. Williams 

It would be trite for me to open this consultation with facts and figures which emphasize 

the important role of bamboo and rattan in the lives of people, especially in the tropics. 

But it could be helpful to summarize what has happened in research on these nontimber 

forest resources since there has been rapid change in relation to the availability 

of materials and also major advances in the development of technologies. 

Research and development of bamboo and rattan has accelerated since the early 

1980s and many national programmes have strengthened their capability in this area. 

This was timely because the gradual diminution of supply sources from natural forests 

had received little or no attention until about the middle of the decade. At that time, 

shortages of raw bamboo were noted in numerous Asian countries and for rattan a 

number of bans on export were enforced. Concessional rates for supplies of materials 

were also introduced. Whatever the outcomes of such events and interventions, 

governments began to recognize the needs for increased production. 

Scientists responded in a somewhat uncoordinated manner. Their research interests 

ranged from enhanced domestication to develop plantations to increasing attention on 

lesser-known local species. The latter effort was expected to reduce pressure on the 

natural stands of more desired and valuable ones. And a whole range of activities was 

pursued whilst unchecked cutting, logging, clear felling and habitat destruction 

continues at an accelerated pace. 

By the end of the decade donors and several national programmes became concerned 

to see how the somewhat diffuse research efforts could be better focused. This entailed 

an assessment of all previous efforts and the identification of research gaps and the 

strategic research needed to fill them. An international review team carried out this 

assessment and the report was made to both donors and to national programmes in 

1991. 

Guiding principles during the review were sustainability and better protection of 

the resource base as well as the need to enhance technology required to improve the 

incomes of rural people. Four broad areas of research emerged: 

• Socio-economics 

• Production research 

• Post-harvest technology 

• Information generation and technology transfer including training. 

Additionally, a fifth area was also clearly identified: resource assessment and 

conservation. However, in discussions which led up to the mobilization of funding, 

it was felt that core research on bamboo and rattan should focus on the first four areas. 

Due to the magnitude of the task for resource assessment and conservation it was 

agreed that this should be phased in, as and when special project funding became 

available. 

By early 1993, funding from two major donors, IDRC and IFAD became available 

to strengthen the research networking , and I am delighted to say that IBPGR responded 

to the challenge to promote conservation. By September 1993, IBPGR had mobilized 

funding for research in Asia on this topic. 

3


The research network became organized as INBAR with funding for a two-year 

period and it currently faces a list of onerous tasks. First of all, INBAR is charged with 

re-organizing the way scientists do business, so that inter-country research collaboration 

develops rapidly, rather than continuing solely the national efforts. In this way, critical 

mass of researchers in the region can better address urgent research problems. If I were 

to paraphrase the objectives of INBAR they would be “to expand sustainable use and 

cultivation of bamboo and rattan to more rapidly improve the lives and incomes of 

people”. Clearly, the highest priority has to be to increase production and this means 

a shift of emphasis from naturally-gathered resources to one of harvested crops, and 

of course, to the sustainable management of natural habitats. 

As the focus is changing in this way, it becomes a high priority to target a limited 

number of species – out of the hundreds available and the scores previously worked 

on. This is because enhanced production will surely demand genetic improvement, 

initially through the selection of superior strains and also improved silvicultural methods 

to increase economic production. I suspect in the early phases, we shall have to look 

more closely at adaptation of a number of selected species and to look for and exploit 

wider adaptability than hitherto. 

This background will help IBPGR in developing appropriate genetic conservation 

strategies, and for that reason it is fully appropriate for INBAR and IBPGR to join 

together in this consultation to develop priorities among species and areas. Participants 

will be the first to stress that we still lack a great deal of taxonomic information; that 

studies on genetic diversity patterns within species and gene pools are virtually nonexistent; 

indigenous knowledge on good cultivars; and as a result some of the priorities 

agreed may be somewhat arbitrary. However, they should be based on assessment of 

our current knowledge. We cannot afford to wait for extensive new research, and 

priorities, as determined by this consultation, can always be revised and changed as 

new light is thrown on the biodiversity of the resource. 

I say that we cannot wait for two reasons. First, the need for priorities has been 

stressed numerous times: for instance, in the review of past research, by the fourth 

international bamboo congress in Chiang Mai, Thailand in 1991, by the orientation 

meeting of national programmes participating in INBAR earlier this year, and by a 

meeting of INBAR subject working groups in June 1993. 

Second, as research moves into its new mode with joint research programmes 

involving more than one country, it is essential that the materials used in the research 

are indeed those which are known to be productive and which can be standardised 

with common provenances and attendant documentation. 

Now I turn to the expectations of this consultation. First of all we need a broad 

consensus on highest priority taxa, but we also need to take note of other important 

species so that we are sensitive to the needs of national programmes. We need to 

consider priority species in relation to agro-ecologies and may be categorize them in 

this way rather than the traditional way of looking at them as they are distributed 

within political boundaries. For instance, it would be helpful to highlight particular 

species for use in soil stabilization and production in semi-arid zones, or on reclaimed 

degraded acid soils or sloping lands. Such areas merit urgent action , and these types 

of agro-ecologies are only a few of the many, but they do illustrate the way we would 

like you to consider species. Such an approach is essential in the post-UNCED climate. 

Decisions on species need to be amplified by pooling knowledge on putative 

centres of diversity, wide and narrow adaptability, the degree to which primitive 

cultivars have been selected and identification of where selection has proceeded much 

further. Much of this information is known to many but it is not available in the 

literature.

Finally we should crystallize the information we collate into tasks which need to 

be done in the short to medium-term to implement the priorities. Even if these tasks 

do not relate directly to those which INBAR and IBPGR can fund, these organizations 

can draw them to the attention of development assistance donors if the research 

proposed is applied, to national programmes if it is adaptive research and to other 

donors if it is more basic research. Such research will need to be well defined; for 

instance, research on domestication of a minor species which is long-term and risky 

is unlikely to attract major support. 

We all have high expectations that bamboo and rattan research will become a model 

for other minor forest products and achieving the objectives of this consultation will 

set the scene for action on other commodities. Surely, the major follow-up will be the 

need for carefully established provenance trials with common methodologies across 

regions and the input to these of the right priority species. The results of this consultation 

could be an important step in this direction. 

5


Genetic conservation of bamboo & rattan 

V. Ramanatha Rao 

In general, the methods of conservation of genetic diversity can be divided into ex situ 

and in situ approaches. However, conserving the genetic diversity of bamboo and 

rattan presents many challenges because the methods of conservation and techniques 

required for use of conserved material later on differ markedly from crops and similar 

plant groups. There is, therefore, a need to develop an appropriate integrated 

conservation strategy and new techniques for use of conserved material of this group 

of species. 

While considering an appropriate balance of ex situ and in situ approaches, we 

should remember that the approaches required for the conservation of bamboo and 

rattan genetic material can be markedly different from approaches to ecosystem 

conservation. This may especially be true for bamboo which generally occurs outside 

of the primary forests and in disturbed forest sites. 

Whereas much of the effort on crops and their wild relatives has been made so that 

ranges of genetic variability are stored for long periods in genebanks, any similar 

approach – if it were feasible – would present major problems when it came to 

regeneration of stored stocks, especially in the context of use. Even field genebanks 

of bamboo and rattan accessions, where vegetative materials are maintained over the 

short – to medium- term periods, may not be very appropriate since very little material 

can be maintained and large areas of land and fairly intensive management are required. 

These problems may be common for most perennial tree species, and it is accentuated 

as bamboos tend to be weedy and colonizing species as well. As these conventional 

methods of conservation cannot be easily applied to bamboo and rattan, in vitro 

methods whereby tissues are maintained in culture are thought to be viable alternative. 

However, although methods have been developed for in vitro propagation, they have 

not been applied to conservation under conditions of slow growth, nor has genetic 

stability in culture been adequately researched. Furthermore, rattans are grown from 

heterogeneous seed lots and not from clones, and bamboos represent a range from seed 

lots to clonal materials. 

The constraints outlined above provide compelling reasons to consider appropriate 

and integrated conservation methodologies specific to these resources. No single method 

could be used to conserve bamboo and rattan genetic resources. 

Given the very large number of species of both commodities, it would also be 

difficult to think of conserving all of them when there are limited financial resources 

available. For this reason, IBPGR fully supports efforts to prioritize either species or 

gene pools for urgent conservation action. 

For genetic conservation, criteria would include: 

• Degree and extent of perceived/projected genetic erosion. 

• Known and potential values in terms of both commercialization and local uses. 

• Value applicable to large numbers of people, not just local value. 

• Degree of domestication and potential for domestication. 

The criteria for enhancing utilization germane to the interests of INBAR will differ 

somewhat from those of IBPGR. This Meeting needs to consider the diverse criteria 

and balance them in reaching consensus conclusion. Against this background, we can 

ask “is it possible to develop a list of priority species?” Should the list be limited to 

a few globally-important gene pools, supplemented by some regionally important ones

associated with climatic zones, and by some nationally important ones? If this is so, 

where do we fit species of commercial value? 

In many ways, genetic resources conservation is action mobilized on the basis of 

crisis, and in many cases we may not have all the information required to initiate the 

most appropriate action. However, action is required urgently with some ground rules 

for the present and these could be improved when more and better information becomes 

available. For instance, for bamboo and rattan we need good descriptive categories, 

especially at the infra-specific and genetic level. Descriptors need to be, as far as 

possible, highly heritable. The current state of knowledge needs to be assessed to see 

whether we can move in this direction. 

One of the pressing research needs is to initiate studies on patterns of genetic 

diversity within gene pools. This will require conduct of ecogeographical surveys. 

Another area of research must surely be related to seed production in bamboos, which, 

in many species, is often rare or non-existent. Storability of seeds of both bamboos and 

rattans need to be investigated. This is because, despite the difficulties encountered 

with flowering cycles, some species may flower but not produce seeds, others may 

produce seeds in very small quantities or seeds produced may have high inviability. 

This would facilitate ex situ conservation of seed material of those species for which 

such storage and increased viability are possible. It would be necessary to conduct 

work on how to induce flowering in young bamboo and rattan plants, as it will greatly 

influence the use of genetic resources at a later stage. 

It can be seen that there is an extensive research agenda necessary before genetic 

conservation of these resources is in hand. However, the highest priority is the 

identification of those species on which the efforts should be targeted. Prioritization 

of species will be of inordinate value to both INBAR and IBPGR, but will also be of 

value to research institutions, universities and others, on the understanding that any 

list developed by this meeting will not be definitive for all time, but will represent 

a starting point that can be modified as more information becomes available. 

Collaborating institutes should be stimulated to work in this area so that the research 

networking is strengthened. 

7


Criteria for selection of species 

Criteria agreed to be used during discussion on individual species included the 

following: 

1. Utilization 

1.1 Relative importance to countries in terms of current use 

1.2 Relative importance to regions in terms of current use 

1.3 Potential importance for expanded use in countries 

1.4 Potential importance for expanded use in regions 

2. Cultivation 

2.1 Knowledge on degree of domestication and commercialization 

2.2 Potential for generation of knowledge 

3. Products and processing 

3.1 Products currently valued 

3.2 Products likely to increase in value 

3.3 Enhanced processing shows clear potential 

4. Germplasm and genetic resources 

4.1 Material currently available or expected to be readily available 

4.2 Degree of genetic erosion of the resource base 

4.3 Needs for genetic resources conservation programmes 

5. Agro-ecology 

5.1 Suitability for agro-ecological zones 

5.2 Suitability for use in special circumstances e.g. degraded lands, and mountainous 

areas 

These criteria agreed in 1993 and used still remain valid. In addition to the five criteria 

listed above, the actual situation in each individual country has been reviewed and 

additional taxa have been added in this revision.

The major priority species 

From the beginning it was recognized that a consensus on the major priorities for 

regional and international action would, of necessity, not include many of the other 

species which are used locally and many of which are the subject of research by 

national programmes. It is stressed that research on these should continue to receive 

attention from national programmes. However, one or more locally and some what 

regionally or sub-regionally important species can be added. 

The following 20 taxa of bamboos are accorded high priority for international action 

based on the criteria discussed earlier: 

Bambusa balcooa Roxb. 

B. bambos (L.) Voss 

B. blumeana J A and J H Schultes 

B. polymorpha Munro 

B.textilis McClure 

B. tulda Roxb. 

B. vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl 

Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro 

Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Heyne 

D.giganteus Wallich ex Munro 

D.latiflorus Munro 

D. strictus (Roxb.) Nees 

Gigantochloa apus J A and J.H. Schultes 

G.levis (Blanco) Merrill 

G.pseudoarundinacea (Steud.) Widjaja 

Guadua angustifolia Kunth 

Melocanna baccifera (Roxb.) Kurz 

Ochlandra Thw. (Spp.) 

Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex H. de Leh 11 including P.bambusoides Sieb. and Zucc 

and P. edulis Makino 

Thyrsostachys siamensis (Kurz) Gamble (Table 1) 

Table 1 illustrates the value of these species for utilization and for environmental 

rehabilitation, their degree of domestication, climatic ranges and needs for genetic 

conservation and further survey. 

A further 18 taxa were noted to be important and the information available on them 

have been updated (Table 3). See page 50 onwards. 

Arundinaria spp 

Bambusa atra Lindl. (Neololeba atra (Linn) Widjaja) 

B. heterostachya (Munro) Holtum 

B. nutans Wall. ex Munro 

B. oldhamii Munro 

B. pervariabilis McClure 

Lingnania chungii McClure 

Dendrocalamus brandisii (Munro) Kurz 

D. hamiltonii Nees 

D. hookeri Munro 

D. membranaceus Munro 

Gigantochloa albociliata (Munro) Kurz 

9


Bamboos 

Table 1. Priority species and species of national and regional importance (Commercial and local use) 

Value 

Climate & Ecology Genetic resources 

Taxa 

Domestication 

C RI E C1 S1 GE S IV E Survey 

Bambusa balcooa ++ ++ ++ D h, d m, r H H* H H H 

Bambusa bambos ++ ++ ++ D h, d, s r, m, p H L M M H 

B. blumeana ++ ++ ++ D h, d, s r, m, p H L H H H 

B. polymorpha + + – D h, d r, m H H M H H 

B. textilis + ++ + D st r, m M L H H L 

B. tulda + ++ + D h, d r, m H M H H H 

B. vulgaris – – ++ D h, d, s r, m, p L L L L L 

Cephalostachyum pergracile + ++ + W h, d m M L M H M 

Dendrocalamus asper ++ + ++ D h, d r H H M H H 

D. giganteus + + + D h r H H M H H 

D. latiflorus ++ + + D h r M L M H L 

D. strictus ++ + ++ D d, s m, p M L L H M 

Gigantochloa apus + ++ ++ D h r H H M H H 

G. levis + ++ ++ D h r H L H H H 

G. pseudoarundinacea ++ + + D h, d r M L H H L 

Guadua angustifolia ++ ++ ++ W h r, m H H H H H 

Melocanna baccifera + ++ + W h r H M H H M 

Ochlandra sps + + + W h r H H M H H 

Phyllostachys pubescens ++ ++ ++ D t r, m M M L L L 

Thyrsostachys siamensis ++ ++ ++ D d. (h) m, (r) M M L H L 

KEY Value Genetic resources 

C = commercialization potential: High (++), medium (+), and little (-). GE = genetic erosion: High (H), medium (M)., low (L). 

Survey = need for further field survey: High (H), medium (M), low (L). S = need for research on seed storage: High (H), medium (M), low (L). 

RI = rural industries: High (++), medium (+), and little (-). IV = need for research on in vitro storage: High (H), medium (M), low (L). 

E = environmental rehabilitation: High (++), medium (+), and little (-). E = need for wider exchange. High: (H), medium (M), low (L). 

Domestication 

Wild = W, domesticated = D. 

Climate and ecology 

Cl = climate: humid tropics (h), dry tropics (d), subtropics (st), semi-arid (s), temperate (t). 

Sl = soils: rich (r), medium (m), poor (p)

G. atroviolacea Widjaja 

G. balui Wong 

G.hasskarliana (Kurz) Back. ex Heyne 

Oxytenanthera spp. Munro 

Phyllostachys glauca McClure 

Schizostachyum spp. Nees 

It was agreed that the following seven taxa of rattans should be accorded high priority 

for international action. 

Calamus manan Miq (including C. tumidus, Furtado a related species) 

C. caesius Blume (including C. optimus Becc). 

C.trachycoleus Becc. this includes about 14 closely related species from different 

areas of Asia, some of which have not yet been fully described; however, they are 

all closely related. 

Calamus Section Podocephalus Furtado 

C. subinermis H. Wendl. ex Becc (including relatives) 

C. palustris Griff. (this complex includes C. inermis T. Anders., C. latifolius Roxb., C. 

nambariensis Becc. and others such as C.platyacanthus Warb., C. egregius Burret and C. 

simplicifolius Wei. This complex presents tremendous scope for genetic improvement. 

C.tetradactylus Hance including a number of related species such as C.cambojensis 

Becc., C. rotang L. and C. viminalis willd; there is need for taxonomic revision. 

Table 2 illustrates the value of these species for utilization, their degree of domestication, 

climatic ranges and needs for genetic conservation and further survey. 

Further, it was agreed that the following two taxa require more study or are probably 

of lower value for expanded production. These are: 

Calamus deeratus G. Mann and H. Wendl 

C. hollrungii Becc., and relatives 

These taxa are also included in Table 2. 

The priority taxa mentioned above are listed using the currently correct nomenclature. 

It should be noted that there are many synonyms widely used and in a number of cases 

research results cannot always be applied to the correct taxonomy. The value of keeping 

a voucher specimen cannot be over-stressed. It will also be important to refer to 

wherever possible, to the collectors’ number while presenting results to avoid any 

ambiguity. 

In general, some level of ex situ conservation through developing ex situ stands or 

collections in field genebanks or in botanical gardens is suggested for most of the 

priority species of bamboo and rattan. Promoting research on in vitro conservation can 

help in developing an additional method for ex situ conservation. However, the major 

component of a complementary conservation strategy should include in situ conservation 

of most of the species with ex situ stands and in vitro methods to promote studies on 

different species and propagations as well as to promote use and exchange in the case 

of in situ conservation of bamboo and rattan. There is the need to link conservation 

with extract protected area systems in different countries. 

A general outline map showing South, Southeast and Far east Asian countries (Fig. 

1) and maps showing distribution areas for various species are included. Many of the 

species are introduced and grown in Australia, tolerant or well adapted to cold climate 

and are frost resistant (Cussack 1998) 

11


Rattans 

Table 2. Priority species and species of national and regional importance (Commercial and local use) 

Value 


Taxa 

Domestication 

CS C RI C1 H GE IV E Survey 

Calamus manan L ++ + D h d H L H M 

C. caesius S ++ ++ D h d/w H L H H 

C. trachycoleus S ++ ++ D h seas.f L L M L 

Calamus Sect. Podocephalus M-L ++ + SD h, s saline H L H H 

mangrove 

to montane 

C. subinermis (and relatives) M-L ++ + SD h, s dry H L H M 

(coastal hills) 

C. palustris (and relatives) M-L + ++ SD s varied H L H H 

(monsoonal) 

C. tetradactylus S + ++ D Cool d L L L L 

C. deeratus S-M (+) ++ W h, s w H L H H 

C. hollrungii (and relatives) M-L + + W h d H L H H 

KEY Value 

CS = cane size: Large (L), medium (M), and small (S). 

C = commercialization potential: High (++), medium (+), and not fully known (+). 

RI = rural industries: High (++), medium (+). 

Domestication 

Wild = W, semi-domesticated = SD, domesticated = D. 


Cl = climate: humid tropics = h, subtropics = s. 

H = habitat: dryland = d, wet = w, seasonally flooded = seas. F. 

Genetic resources 

GE = genetic erosion: High (H), low (L). 

IV = need for research on in vitro: Low (L). 

E = need for exchange: High (H), medium (M), low (L). 

Survey = need for further field survey: High (H), medium (M), low (L).

Afghanistan 

Pakistan 

Tropic of Cancer 

Equator 

Tropic of Capricorn 

India 

Nepal 

Sri Lanka 

Bhutan 

Bangladesh 

Mongolia 

China 

Myanmar Laos 

Vietnam 

Thailand 

Cambodia 

Malaysia 

Singapore 

Fig. 1 South, Southeast Asian countries and Australia 

Hainan 

Brunei 

Indonesia 

South 

Korea 

Taiwan 

Sabah 

Sarawak 

North 

Korea 

Philippines 

Australia 

Japan 

13 

Papau New Guinea

Part I

Notes on priority bamboos 

Bambusa balcooa (= Dendrocalamus balcooa) 

Tall bamboo, forming distinct tufts, groups or clumps, culms 20–24 m long, 8–15 cm 

diameter, greyish green to light white,thick walled 2–2.5 cm, nodes prominent with white 

ring above node, internodes 30–45 cm long, leaf blade oblong lanceolate ± 25 x 4 cm, 

Inflorescence compound panicle, with 6–8 spikelets on nodes, flowers well described, fruits 

not known. Vegetative propagation – culm cuttings, rhizome and branch cuttings, growth 

regulators like NAA are used for root induction, tissue culture protocol well-outlined. 

DISTRIBUTION: Origin is said to be from N E India, native of Bengal; at present mostly 

cultivated in different countries, introduced to Australia (Fig. 2). 

CLIMATE AND SOIL: Tropical bamboo of monsoon climate, lowland to 600 m, can 

withstand dry period, suitable for different soils, grows better on heavy clay soil, well 

drained, can withstand –5°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Basic methods for propagation and planting are established 

but they need to be improved, especially the water requirements for young plants in 

dry regions. Cytology 2n = 70 (aneuploid). 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: This species is well cultivated, utilised in Bangladesh and 

India, but has great potential for cultivation in other countries with similar climatic 

conditions. Unexplored or underexplored regions of Bangladesh, India and Myanmar 

should be surveyed to collect superior plant materials. 

CONSERVATION: Small germplasm collection in India, Bangladesh. Larger germplasm 

collections recommended. Culm characters variable although vegetatetively propagated. 

USES: Structural bamboo, average quality, building materials for homes, bridges, 

agricultural implements, furniture of good quality, paper pulp, shoots edible but not 

of good quality, leaves provide fodder. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: 

1. Studies on physical and chemical properties. 

2. Selection of superior varieties to obtain better fodder. 

3. Provenance trails. 

Bambusa bambos (= B. arundinacea, B. spinosa) 

Common Name: Spiny bamboo, Thorny bamboo, Indian bamboo 

PART I 15 

This is a thorny bamboo densely tufted, with curving branches, graceful, upright, 

shining culms 15–30 m tall; nodes swollen, culm tip bending slightly, internodes 20– 

40 cm long, diameter 15–18 cm and wall thickness 1–1.5 cm, but sometimes almost solid 

near the base especially in dry climates and poor soils; lower branches spreading, 

recurved spines, in groups of 3 spines each, leaves lanceolate 6–22 x 1–3 cm, gregarious 

flowering, flowering cycle 30–45 years, Inflorescence panicle, stamens exerted, anthers 

yellow, ovary elliptic – oblong, fruit (caryopsis) 4–8 mm long, persistent glume and 

palea, embryo prominent. Methods suggested for vegetative propagation – culm 

cuttings, layering, marcotting and macroproliferation of seedlings.


Indigenous 

Cultivated / Introduced 

Fig. 2 Bambusa balcooa

DISTRIBUTION: Extends from India, sub Himalayan and Indoganetic plains, scattered 

in Assam and Bengal, Thailand to Southern China, major commercial species in Thailand; 

planted in Nepal, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines, cultivated throughout tropics 

(Fig. 3). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Bambusa bambos thrives in both humid tropical and not very 

dry tropical climates, flourishes in flat alluvial areas, grows on rich to poor soils but 

prefers acid soils, abundant and grows well in moist forest, extends up to 1200 m in 

altitude, tolerates –2°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Studies on use for bamboo board, pulp and paper have been 

carried out. Mass propagation through tissue culture and vegetative propagation have 

been studied. Some work has been done in studying distribution in different countries 

but not very extensive. Some work has been done on seed storage and seed ageing, 

Cytology 2n = 70, 72. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: This species has great potential for rehabilitation of degraded 

lands, and it could be recommended for an agroforestry system. It has also been 

reported to be an ideal species for commercial plantations. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: No work has been done. It is urgent to collect and conserve 

a wide range of possible varieties, commonly cultivated, one variety gigantea has been 

identified in S. India. 

USES: General purpose, structural bamboo, medium quality, shoots edible both superior 

and poor quality, this species is used as building materials and for making bamboo 

board, pulp and paper (useful because of long fibres), furniture of superior quality, 

and also planted as windbreaker and major commercial species in many countries, 

seeds edible, leaves have medicinal value used for different ailments. 


1. Exploration of both primitive and superior cultivars. 

2. Selection for quality improvement (including for pulp and paper). 

3. Propagation management. 

4. Seedlings of 4 types, some better than others, selection needed. 

5. Tissue culture (TC) work done, more research needed for mass propagation and 

in vitro conservation. 

6. Studies on insect pests. 

7. Taxonomic status of varieties and genotype evaluation. 

8. Distribution of diversity and location in protected areas. 

9. Testing for degraded areas. 

Bambusa blumeana (= B. spinosa, B. pungens, B. arnendo) 

Common Name: Spiny bamboo, thorny bamboo, lesser thorny bamboo. 

PART I 17 

This is a thorny bamboo with culms 15–25 m tall. The internodes are 25–60 cm long, 

with 6–10 cm diameter and wall thickness of 0.5–3 cm, but mostly solid at the base 

especially in dry areas or poor soils, leaf lanceolate, 15–20 x 1.5–2 cm, leaves very fine, 

Inflorescence on leafy branches, fruits not known. Vegetative propagation methods: 

Culm cuttings, rhizome planting, layering and marcotting.


Indigenous 


Fig. 3 Bambusa bambos

DISTRIBUTION: Exact origin of this species is unknown, but said to be native of 

Indonesian islands, cultivated in PNG, Northern part of Peninsula Malaysia, Thailand 

and the Philippines (Fig. 4). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Bambusa blumeana grows in humid tropical or dry tropical areas 

and on rich to poor soils, heavy saline soils not suitable, tolerates –7°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Studies on physical and mechanical properties, have only used 

materials from limited areas. Some research on vegetative and tissue culture propagation 

has been carried out. Some work on its use in rehabilitation of denuded forest lands has 

been carried out. Harvesting techniques have been worked out. Cytology 2n=78 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: This species has great potential for rehabilitation of marginal 

lands and can be used as borders to agricultural areas. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: No work has been done, one variety luzonensis has been 

found in the Philippines. 

USES: General purpose, in furniture industries medium to poor quality, chopsticks 

industries, local handicrafts, baskets and occasionally as a vegetable after processing 

of edible shoots, good quality, planted as windbreaker. 


1. Exploration for primitive and superior cultivars. 

2. Selection for quality improvement 

3. Propagation management, tissue culture work needed. 

4. Sustainable management of natural stands, tissue culture for propagation. 

5. Rarely flowers, seed production, seed storage studies. 

6. Limited germplasm collection in Sumatra, need to be improved. 

7. Testing for degraded areas. 

8. Study on genetic diversity of the species. 

Bambusa polymorpha 

PART I 19 

This is a medium to large size bamboo with culms up to 25 m tall, diameter of culms 

up to 15 cm, wall thickness 1–2 cm, relatively thick walls, occasionally solid, leaf 10– 

20 x 8–2 cm, inflorencence long with pseudospikelets arranged in bunches, flowering 

cycle 50–60 years, flowering gregarious and sporadic, ovary obovate, fruit ovoid, 5 mm 

long. Vegetative propagation methods: Culm cuttings, rhizome planting, branch cutting, 

layering and marcotting. 

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Bangladesh, India, Myanmar and Thailand, cultivated 

elsewhere (Fig. 5), grows along with Teak in Myanmar 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Bambusa polymorpha grows naturally in semi-humid areas on 

medium to rich soils, well-developed soils. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Very little, tissue culture work done. Cytology 2n=64, 72 

anueploid. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Needs investigation, germplasm collections in India and 

Myanmar.


Indigenous 


Fig. 4 Bambusa blumeana

Indigenous 

PART I 21 


Fig. 5 Bambusa polymorpha


USES: Primarily used as building material, structural timber, medium quality, decorative 

timber; shoots are edible; it is also used locally for making baskets, paper pulp, land 

scaping, furniture average quality. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: All aspects, including cultivation. 

Bambusa textilis 

Common Name: Weavers bamboo 

This is a medium-sized sympodial bamboo with culms up to 15 m tall, straight and 

smooth, diameter 3–5 cm, internode 35–60 cm, leaves lanceolate 9–25 x 1–2.5 cm; Little 

information on flowering and fruiting. Several cultivars and varieties recognized cv. 

Albostriata, var, glabra, var, gracilis. 

DISTRIBUTION: South China, including Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian provinces 

introduced to other provinces (Fig. 6). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Bambusa textilis is native and cultivated in China in subtropical 

areas on moderately rich soils, usually growing on hills. 

CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH: Need attention, some hybrids produced crossing 

with Bambusa pervariabilis and Dendrocalamus latiflorus. Three botanical varieties 

identified, cv, ‘Albo striata’, var glabra, var. gracilis. 

USES: Structural bamboo, light quality, largely used for making handicrafts and kitchen 

utensils, weaving splits, and land scaping, edible shoots of average quality, cultivar 

albostriata, general purpose furniture, edible shoots average quality, var glabra – 

structural timber, light quality, furniture medium quality, edible shoots average quality, 

var gracilis, structural timber, light quality, small diameter bamboo for furniture, 

edible shoots, average quality. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: Flowering and fruiting, propagation methods, cultivar 

development. 

Bambusa tulda (= Dendrocalamus tulda) 

Common name: Bengal bamboo, Spineless Indian bamboo, Calcutta cane. 

This is a medium-sized tufted bamboo, clump forming, evergreen, rarely deciduous, 

growing up to 30 m, but often less; fast growing culms, 0.4–0.7 cm thick walls with 

diameter ca 5–10 cm, internodes 40–70 cm long, leaf 15–25 x 2–4 cm, leaf size variable 

on the same culm. Inflorescence on leafless branches and pseudo spikelets, fruit 7–5 

mm long. Flowering spordic, isolated and gregarious, flowering cycle 25–40 years, fruit 

oblong 7.5 mm long. Vegetative propagation methods – culm cuttings, marcotting, 

offset rhizomes, macroproliferation of seedlings, tissue culture method known. 

DISTRIBUTION: Native of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand. Introduced to 

other parts, cultivated in N. India, Terai, Nepal, introduced to Java, Vietnam, and the 

Philippines (Fig. 7). 

CLIMATE AND SOIL: Frequently found to grow as an undergrowth sporadically or 

in patches in the mixed semi-deciduous forests. Sometimes form patches of a pure to 

semi-pure vegetation. Grows well in moist and moderately high rainfall (4000–6500

Indigenous 

PART I 23 


Fig. 6 Bambusa textilis


Indigenous 


Fig. 7 Bambusa tulda

mm) areas with temperature range from 4 to 37°C. It commonly grows on the flat 

alluvial deposits along the hilly streams inside the forests also along the banks of 

rivers, water courses, grows up to 1500 m altitude. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Germplasm collection in N.E. India, more research needed on 

all aspects. Cytology 2n = 70, 72 aneuploid. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Conservation programme not yet planned. The local people 

have been conserving the species to some extent in their homestead and settled forest 

areas. The species is domesticated in the villages as well as grows wild in the forest, 

varieties found at low and high altitudes, need to be properly identified and conserved. 

USES: Structural timber of medium quality, varied uses of the material from this 

species include for building materials, thick walled material for furniture, edible shoots 

(also for pickles) average quality, pulp for paper and a very wide range of handicrafts 

and implements, wind breakers, flute making, fishing rods. 


1. Germplasm characterization for in situ and ex situ Conservation. 

2. Propagation methods, selection and multiplication. 

3. Exploration and identification of diversities in the region. 

4. Identification of out of phase flowering types. 

Bambusa vulgaris (= B. surinamensis) 

Common Name: Common bamboo, Golden bamboo, Buddha’s belly bamboo 

PART I 25 

This is a medium-sized bamboo, not densely tufted with culms 8–20 m tall. Culms with 

yellow or green stripes, flowering not common. Internodes 25–35 cm long, 5–10 cm 

diameter and thickness of wall ranges 7–15 mm. Inflorescence panicle, with many 

spikelets, no seeds. Vegetative propagation methods – culm cuttings, rhizome planting, 

branch cutting, layering, marcotting. 

DISTRIBUTION: Bambusa vulgaris is a pantropical species. Origin of the species is unknown 

but most commonly cultivated everywhere, especially the horticultural varieties with 

yellow culms (Fig. 8), green culm varieties common in naturalized populations. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: It grows in a wide range of climates and on a range of soils; 

up to about 1500 m, frost hardy up to –3°C; plants with green culms are more common, 

drought resistant, very vigorous on moist soil. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Significant amount of work has been done on various aspects 

– harvesting techniques, biology, physico-chemical and medicinal properties etc. In 

vitro work, including in vitro plant regeneration via callogenesis and organogenesis. 

Cytology 2n=72. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Adaptation to semi-arid areas, and on degraded and flooded 

lands. Three groups are recognized; a) green culm group B. vulgaris, var vulgaris, b) 

yellow culm group – thicker walls than green culms, B. vulgaris var vittata, c) Buddha’s 

belly group – B. vulgaris, cv wamin, indigenous to South China. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Not threatened since it is weedy, easy to propagate by 

using rhizome, culm branch cutting and layering.



Fig. 8 Bambusa vulgaris

USES: It is used for a variety of purposes: building, culm is comparable with best timber, 

used most commonly, fencing, scaffolding, furniture, handicrafts, paper and pulp, ornamental, 

edible shoots of average to poor quality, medicinal value, planted for soil conservation. 


1. Quality and durability need to be improved since it is easily attacked by insects, 

limited germplasm collection in Sumatra. 

2. Studies on adaptability, matching the variety with soil type. 

3. Studies on variability and germplasm in various countries. 

4. In vitro conservation, tissue culture for rooting of shoots. 

5. Use in degraded areas. 

Cephalostachyum pergracile (= Schizostachyum pergracile) 

Common name: Tinwa bamboo 

This is a medium-sized densely growing bamboo up to 7–30 m tall; culms have thin 

walls, leaf linear lanceolate, 10–35 x 1.5–6.0 cm; flowering gregarious or sporadic, few 

or no seeds in sporadic flowering plants; inflorescence long, drooping, fruits ovoid 1 

cm long. Vegetative propagation by culm cutting. Tissue culture work done. 

DISTRIBUTION: N E India, Nepal, Myanmar, Northern Thailand and Yunan Province, 

China, cultivated elsewhere (Fig. 9). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: C. pergracile occurs in semi-humid to semi-arid regions on a 

range of soils, it is most common in well-drained loamy soils in Myanmar. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Some work on the identification of varieties using isoenzymes 

has been carried out. Cytology, 2n=72, 48, 54, 60, Hexaploid. 

CONSERVATION: Need attention. 

USES: Structural timber, light quality, used largely for buildings, thatching and walling, 

general purpose furniture, handicrafts, but also for matting, basket making and 

temporary construction, horticultural value, culms used for cooking. 


1. Population survey; 

2. Genetic analysis; 

3. Selection of superior plants; 

4. Germplasm collection; 

5. Genetic erosion is very high in certain countries. 

6. Improved methods for seed storage. 

PART I 27 

Dendrocalamus asper (= Bambusa aspera, Gigantochloa aspera, 

Dendrocalamus flagellifer, Dendrocalamus merrillianus) 

Common name: Giant bamboo, Bamboo Betung 

This is a large bamboo with culms 20–30 m tall; lower nodes covered with a circle of 

rootlets; internodes 20–45 cm long with a diameter of 8–20 cm and with relatively thick 

walls (11–20 mm), but thinner towards the top of the plant; leaf 30 x 2.5 cm; inflorescence 

long, clustered pseudo spikelets, flowers sterile, fruits collected from hybrids. Vegetative 

propagation – culm and branch cutting.


Indigenous 


Fig. 9 Cephalostachyum pergracile

DISTRIBUTION: Commonly planted in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia (Peninsular and 

East), Indonesia and the Philippines; commercially important in eastern parts of India; 

widely introduced elsewhere in tropical and subtropical botanic gardens, origin 

somewhere in S E Asia (Fig. 10). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: This species grows best in rich and heavy soils of the humid 

regions from the lowlands to 1500 m altitude, but it also grows well in semi-dry areas 

in Thailand, grows best with good drainage or sandy soil, tolerates –3°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Propagation methods and management for shoot production 

have been studied. Use in rehabilitation of degraded forest lands has been studied. 

Preservation of culms has also been researched, propagation using rhizome, culm and 

branch cuttings, some in vitro work done. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: There is clear potential for use of this species in agroforestry 

systems and also for use in manufacturing bamboo boards. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Poor and needs priority attention, limited germplasm 

collection in Sumatra. 

USES: Structural timber, strong, large, very good quality. General purpose, one of the 

most useful bamboos for heavy construction in rural communities. However, it is 

mainly used for building due to the strength of the culms which are relatively durable. 

It is also used in making good quality furniture, musical instruments, containers, 

chopsticks, household utensils and handicrafts. The young shoot is sweet and considered 

delicious; plantations for shoot production have been established in Thailand and 

other countries. Six cultivars recognized, D.asper, cv betung wulung, large black bamboo 

of Indonesia; cv Thai green, suitable for plantations as used in Thailand, cv Phai Tong 

Dam, less popular than Thai green, slightly black in colour. 


1. Primitive cultivars need to be sampled and characterized. 

2. Genetic improvement for shoot production and culms; initial efforts could be based 

on selection of primitive cultivars. 

3. Production management research on diverse soils and for continuous production 

of shoots. 

4. Studies on floral biology to improve seed production. 

5. More plantings because of the wide variety of uses by rural communities. 

6. Studies on physical, mechanical and chemical properties in relation to bamboo 

board production. 

7. Provenance trials should be established for selecting the elite strains. 

Dendrocalamus giganteus (= Bambusa gigantea) 

Common name: Giant bamboo 

PART I 29 

This is a gigantic large bamboo 24–60 m tall, green to dark bluish green, internodes 

are 40–50 cm long, with diameter 10–20 cm and thick walls 2.5 cm, but can vary 

according to height; leaf 20–40 x 3–7 cm. Inflorescence 4–5 cm long with crowded 

spikelets; fruit oblong, 7–8 mm long, hairy. Vegetative propagation methods: culm 

cutting, rhizome planting, branch cutting, layering, marcotting and macroproliferation 

of seedlings. Propagation possible by tissue culture.



Fig. 10 Dendrocalamus asper

DISTRIBUTION: Native of Southern Myanmar and N W Thailand, introduced and 

cultivated in various countries including: India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, 

Vietnam, South China, Indonesia, Malay Peninsula and the Philippines (Fig. 11). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: D. giganteus grows in humid tropical to subtropical regions, 

usually on richer soils, up to 1200 m, tolerates –2°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: A range of basic information including physico-chemical and 

mechanical properties available; tissue culture work done, germplasm collection in 

India and Bangladesh, superior plants identified. Cytology 2n=72, Hexaploid. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Shoot production could be enhanced and use in the bamboo 

board industry can be expanded. 

CONSERVATION NEEDS: Need to be investigated in different countries, especially in 

Myanmar and North West Thailand. 

USES: Structural timber, strong superior quality, mostly used for building and for 

making bamboo board. It is also useful for making pulp and household implements, 

furniture very good quality, shoots can be eaten, canned, very good quality. 


1. Clonal selection and improvement 

2. Population diversity survey 

3. Cultivation methods 

PART I 31 

Dendrocalamus latiflorus – (= Bambusa latiflora, Sinocalamus latiflorus) 

Common name: Taiwan giant bamboo, Mabamboo 

This is a medium-sized bamboo; 14–25 m tall, internodes 20–70 cm, 8–20 cm diameter. 

thick walls, leaf 15–40 x 2.5–7.5 cm, Internodes 20–70 cm long, wall thickness 0.5–3.0 

cm, inflorescence 80 cm long with many spikelets, caryopsis 0.6 – 1.2 cm cylindrical 

to avoid. Vegetative propagation – culm cutting, layering, marcotting. 

DISTRIBUTION: Distributed wild in Myanmar and parts of neighbouring countries, 

Cultivated in South and South West China, Taiwan; it has been introduced to the 

Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, India, Vietnam and Japan (Fig. 12) one cultivar 

Meimung in China. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Mostly subtropical, up to 1000 m, frost resistant, tolerates – 

4°C. It grows on rich soils in the humid tropics, with high rain fall. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Work is underway on improvement for shoot production, 

germplasm collections in Yunnan, China, including Taiwan. Cyctology 2n=72. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: It can be more widely cultivated on sandy loam soils. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Limited work done, good collection in Xishuangbanna area 

both wild and cultivated, two cultivars recognised. 

USES: Structural timber, medium quality, commercially valuable species, shoots are 

sweet, edible, very good quality. Other uses include production of quality furniture,


Indigenous 


Fig. 11 Dendrocalamus giganteus

Indigenous 

PART I 33 


Fig. 12 Dendrocalamus latiflorus


chopsticks, crafts, basketry, construction, paper pulp, thatching and ornamental. Leaves 

used for cooking rice. Cultivars mei mung provides strong structural timber, suitable 

for good quality furniture and superior edible shoots. 

RESEARH NEEDS: 

1. Sylviculture 

2. Conservation needs 

3. Selection of superior clones and cultivar development. 

Dendrocalamus strictus (= Bambos stricta) 

Common Name: Male bamboo, solid bamboo 

This is a medium-sized bamboo with culms about 8–20 m tall, internodes 30–45 cm 

long, 2.5–8 cm diameter, with thick walls, although slightly ‘zig-zag’, culms are strong; 

leaf lanceolate 25 x 3 cm; gregarious (20–40 years cycle) and sporadic flowering, 

inflorescence dense with globular heads, distinctly apart, hairy; fruit ovoid 7.5 mm 

long. Vegetative propagation – culm cutting, rhizome planting, layering, marcotting, 

macroproliferation of seedlings, in vitro propagation well known. 

DISTRIBUTION: D. strictus is native to India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and 

Thailand. Cultivated in many other countries of S E Asia (Fig. 13). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: This species is found naturally in pure or mixed forests in semiarid 

or dry zones of the plains or hilly areas very productive up to 150–180 culms/ 

clump; drought resistant, however, it adapts well when planted in humid tropical 

zones and subtropical regions, extends up to 1200 m, grows well on different soils with 

good water source and drainage, frost resistant, tolerates –5°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Work has been carried out on propagation (seed, vegetative, 

micro-propagation and mini-clump division); planting techniques, physical and chemical 

properties, forest management, use in reinforced concrete, suitability for reclamation 

of degraded lands, grows on variety of soils. Three varieties recognised – D. strictus 

var. argentea, var proimiana, var sericeus. Some information is available on floral biology 

and breeding behaviour of this species in India. Cytology 2n = 56, 70, 72, Hexaploid. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: More use is justified in agroforestry and in land reclamation, 

use of marginal, infertile soils. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Requires urgent attention. Germplasm collection in India. 

Tissue culture work done, varieties in each country to be identified and conserved. 

USES: Structural timber, medium to light quality, edible shoots of poor quality. An 

important source for paper pulp, average quality furniture, but solid and thick walled, 

used also for making boards, agricultural implements and household utensils. Leaves 

are good as forage, edible shoots of poor quality. 


1. Genetic improvement and conservation of germplasm. 

2. Genetic diversity evaluation. 

3. Taxonomic status of varieties. 

4. Development of cultivars. 

5. Use on degraded areas.

Indigenous 

PART I 35 


Fig. 13 Dendrocalamus strictus


Gigantochloa apus (= Bambusa apus, Gigantochloa kurzii) 

Common Name: String bamboo, Pring tali 

This is a good-sized bamboo, 8–30 m tall, 4–13 cm diameter, strongly tufted with 

internodes 36–45 cm, medium wall thickness 1.5 cm and very flexible. It is a multipurpose 

bamboo. Leaf lanceolate, 13–49 x 2–9 cm; inflorescence long, spikelets arranged 

like stars, closely arranged, fruit 12 x 2 mm, glabrous with a furrow on one side. 

Vegetative propagation – culm cuttings. 

DISTRIBUTION: It has been reported to be wild in Myanmar and Southern Thailand 

but is cultivated in Indonesia and in Malaysia (Peninsular and East); introduced to 

Meghalaya (Garo Hills) in India (Fig. 14). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: This is a species of rich soils of the humid tropics up to 1500 

m above sea level, tolerates –2°C 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Micropropagation through tissue culture done, and uses in 

bamboo board industry have been investigated, propagated by seed, rhizome and 

branch cutting. Cytology 2n=72 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: It could be useful in agroforestry. It is also known to survive 

in drier areas (although growth is less) but needs more testing for specific adaptations 

and to various soils. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Genetic diversity is said to be low; most of the ex situ 

material in cultivation. The wild material has not been investigated, small germplasm 

collection in Sumatra. 

USES: This species is used for building materials, structural timber of medium quality 

and for making furniture of both good and average quality, handicrafts, musical 

instruments, kitchen utensils and baskets. Shoots are edible, poor quality, bitter, buried 

in mud for 4–5 days before use to reduce the bitter taste. 


1. Studies on physical and chemical properties. 

2. Improved management of stands. 

3. Seed technology. 

4. Provenance trails. 

5. Genetic analysis. 

Gigantochloa levis (= Bambusa levis, Gigantochloa scribneriana, 

Dendrocalamus curranii) 

This is a large bamboo, culms are up to 30 m tall with diameter 5–16 cm and relatively 

thick walls 1–1.2 cm, internodes 45 cm long, leaf 8–35 x 7 cm; inflorescence long with 

many spikelets at each node, fruit set unknown. Vegetative propagation – culm cutting. 

DISTRIBUTION: Origin unknown, cultivated in the Philippines, Eastern Indonesia, 

Northern and Western Kalimantan, East Malaysia, China and Vietnam (Fig. 15). 

CLIMATE AND SOIL: G. levis is naturalized in humid tropical areas with rich soils, 

common in homesteads and village gardens in the Philippines.

Indigenous 

PART I 37 


Fig. 14 Gigantochloa apus



Fig. 15 Gigantochloa levis

CURRENT RESEARCH: Very little is known about growth requirements and need 

attention. Reproductive biology needs to be studied. Some information is available on 

the use of this species in rehabilitating denuded forest lands in the Philippines, tissue 

culture work in progress. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Very little information. 

USES: Structural timber, strong superior quality, edible shoots of good quality, also 

used for making kitchen utensils of good quality, furniture, craft paper, water pipes, 

fencing and other uses. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: Information required on all aspects especially propagation in 

tissue culture. 

Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea (=Bambusa pseudoarundinacea, B. 

verticillata, Gigantochloa verticillata, G. maxima) 

This is a medium-sized bamboo 7–30 m tall, aerial roots on lower nodes, with internodes 

35–45 cm, diameter 5–13 cm, medium to thick wall, 2cm thick and is very strong; leaf 

blade 25 x 5 cm; inflorescence 75 cm long, spikelets on nodes, seeds not known. 

Vegetative propagation – culm cuttings, branch cuttings. 

DISTRIBUTION: Origin not known, said to be native of Java, found in cultivation in 

Sumatra and Java, introduced to India, and Peninsula Malaya, China and Vietnam 

(Fig. 16). 

CLIMATE: Mainly grows in humid tropics but it can also grow in dry areas and up 

to 1200 m above sea level, sandy loam and alluvial soils, tolerates –2°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Work is underway to evaluate its suitability for bamboo 

board, manufacturing. Cytology 2n = 72 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Its value as processed building material can be exploited. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Requires attention. There are some germplasm collections 

in Bogor, Java and Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia. Natural hybrids in Sumatra have 

been observed to produce seeds. Tissue culture work not done. 

USES: Structural timber, building materials, medium quality, used as water pipes, for 

making handicrafts, furniture of very good quality, household articles, chopsticks, 

toothpicks, edible shoots of very good quality. 


1. Suitability in agroforestry 

2. Floral biology and induction of seeding 

3. Basic properties (physical, chemical, mechanical) 

4. Provenance trials 

5. Tissue culture 

PART I 39 

Gigantochloa sp. Var: Malay dwarf, var. malay dwarf variegated, both varieties from 

Malaysia, both perhaps closely related to Bambusa heterostachya, culms green to cream 

coloured, cultivated as ornamentals, good economic value. (Wong, 1995).



Fig. 16 Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea

Guadua angustifolia 

This is a large spectacular, sympodial bamboo with culms reaching 30 m, dark green 

colour, white bands at nodes, diameter up to 20 cm; leaves medium size. It is considered 

outstanding in stature, with superior mechanical properties and durability of culms. 

Plays an important role in rural economics and house or building construction. 

DISTRIBUTION: Origin South America, well distributed and cultivated in Central and 

South America (Fig. 17). Introduced to many other countries. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Grows on rich to medium soils, especially along rivers and 

on hilly ground, tolerates –2°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Present research efforts are limited to studies on culm 

preservation and determining the physical properties. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Valuable on sloping lands, and for soil conservation 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Unknown. 

PART I 41 

USES: Structural bamboo, large, strong, superior quality, it is a multipurpose bamboo. 

Though most extensively used as building material for low-cost housing or even for 

big buildings, it has many other uses in rural communities and is used for general 

purpose furniture making, handicrafts. Most popular bamboo in Central American 

countries; houses and large buildings built of this bamboo have withstood the shocks 

of earthquakes, and related factors. Commercial plantations are increasing. 


1. Survey of patterns of variation in natural populations and to generate more 

information on conservation status. 

2. Sustainable management of natural stands. 

3. Provenance trials. 

4. Propagation technology 

5. Use of young shoots. 

Melocanna baccifera (= Bambusa baccifera) 

Common name: Muli, berry bamboo 

This is a medium-sized ever green bamboo, 10–20 m tall, clump open and diffuse and culms 

have relatively thin walls 0.5–1.2 cm, internode 20–50 cm long, diameter 5–7 cm, culm tips 

pendulous. Leaf blade lanceolate, 14–28 x 3–5 cm; inflorescence 15–45 cm long, compound 

panicle drooping, spikelets 1–1.5 cm long, stamens three, anthers yellow, elongated style 

with 2–4 lobes; fruits large 7.5 – 12.5 cm long, 5–7.5 cm broad, beak curved with thick fleshy 

pericarp; flowering interval 30–35, 45–48 and 60–65 years, both sporadic and gregarious 

flowering. Fruits fleshy viviparous, germinate easily producing seedlings, vegatative 

propagation: Culm cutting. 

DISTRIBUTION: The species naturally growing throughout the hill forests of 

Bangladesh, Myanmar and North East (Assam, Arunachal, Meghalaya and eastern part 

of Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram) of India. The natural home of this bamboo 

is believed to be Chittagong Hill Tracts where this species grows gregariously covering 

large tracts of land. Also cultivated in south-eastern Terai part of Nepal and southern 

border of Bhutan, probably introduced from Bangladesh; occasionally cultivated or 

introduced and planted in many botanical and private gardens all over the world, 

including, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Taiwan and South America (Fig. 18).


Fig. 17 Guadua angustifolia

Indigenous 

PART I 43 


Fig. 18 Melocanna baccifera


CLIMATE AND SOILS: The species can grow on highly weathered deep clay soil to 

shallow, to very deep loamy soils with pH4.5–6.0 and rainfall 3000–5000 mm, with 

temperature range of 5–37°C, Melocanna occurs as an undergrowth to many tree species 

and also forms a pure stand by aggressive nature of its underground rhizome in areas after 

burning. The plant thrives satisfactorily on moist sandy, clay loam alluvial soils, on well 

drained residual soils, sandy rough slopes and the top of the hills. It indicates the wide 

adaptability and hardy nature of the species, good coloniser on lands cleared of forests. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Grows well under different conditions, has great potential, 

more research needed. Cytology 2n =72 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Conservation work needed. The local ethnic people have 

been conserving them only in the settled forest areas. The species is still wild and not 

yet well domesticated. 

USES: Plants naturally durable, much used for roofing, thatching, matting and in house 

construction. Thus great demand in cottage industries, pulp and paper and rayon mills. 

Young shoots are edible. All the ethnic people of Chittagong Hill Tracts use it as a tasty 

vegetable and also sell in the market, fruits fleshy and edible, leaves used for preparing liquor. 

It is reported that in M. baccifera two types of clumps exist in nature, judged on 

the basis of emerging shoot characters. In one type, shoots possess a yellowish culmsheath 

and are usually preferred as edible shoots. In the other, the sheaths are 

comparatively deep brown and not usually favoured as food due to their bitter and 

astringency taste. Selection of cultivars is needed. 


1. Exploration and identification of different flowering populations existing in the 

region and the fruit types. 

2. Identification of diversities and their conservation. 

3. Selection and multiplication of elite types. 

4. Identification of out-of-phase flowering “types” and their characterization. 

5. Scientific management of vast areas of Melocanna forests for sustainable use. 

6. Role in soil conservation on the hill slopes along with water resources management 

in the catchment areas. 

7. Use on degraded areas. 

8. Tissue culture for multiplication of new cultivars. 

Ochlandra sps 

Common name: Elephant grass 

This genus includes about nine species and eight are endemic to Western Ghats 

of S India, shrubby, gregarious, reed-like bamboos, usually 5–10 m high and culms with 

2–5 cm diameter and thin walls, leaves small to medium, oblong lanceolate, flowering 

gregarious and sporadic. Inflorescence long spicate panicle, stamens many, free 

filaments, ovary with long style, stigma 4–6, fruit large, ovoid, with long beak, pericarp 

thick fleshy. Important species include O. beddomei Gamble, O. ebracteata Raizada and 

Chatterji, O. scriptoria (Dennst.) C.E.C. Fischer, O. setigera Gamble, O. stridula Moon 

ex Thw, O. talboti Brandis and O. travancorica (Bedd.) Benth. ex Gamble, var travancorica, 

var hirsuta. (Seethalakshmi and Kumar 1998). Vegetative propagation: Culm cutting. 

DISTRIBUTION: Western Ghats of South India and in the south west region of Sri 

Lanka, up to 1000 m, grows well with heavy rain fall (Fig. 19).

Indigenous 

PART I 45 

Fig, 19 Ochlandra spp.


CLIMATE AND SOILS: Species belonging to Ochlandra mostly occur in rich loamy soils 

especially along perennial or semi perennial streams, on sloping lands of India. 

Occurrence in the Western Ghats is also in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests up 

to 1500 m and in wet lowlands in Sri Lanka. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Some work is in progress on seed storage and sylvicultural 

aspects of a few species of this genus. Intensity of flowering, seed charecteristics, 

moisture content, seed longevity have been worked out, smallest fruits in O. scriptoria 

640/Kg, largest in O. travancorica 40/kg, seed germination upto 75%, longevity up to 

120 days Och. travancorica (Seethalakshmi, 1998). Cytology 2n = 72. 

UPTAPPED POTENTIAL: There are excellent species in this group for binding soil 

which can be used to reclaim degraded land and for soil conservation. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Conservation programmes not yet organized whilst overextraction 

continues. 

USES: Mainly for pulp in the paper industry but used locally for house construction, 

most important for thatching and walling and handicrafts, most useful for local people 

for various household uses. 


1. Genetic improvement, superior plants. 

2. Physical and mechanical properties. 

3. Matching the species and varieties to specific soil conditions. 

4. Tissue culture for propagation and plant improvement. 

Phyllostachys pubescens (= P.heterocycla, var. pubescens, = Bambusa 

heterocycla, = P. edulis var. heterocycla (including P. bambusoides and P. edulis) 

Phyllostachys is a large temperate, monopodial genus with about 70 recognized species, 

various species are extensively cultivated in China because of their many uses and 

economic importance; there are many taxonomic uncertainties in the limitation of 

various species. P. pubescens is changed to P. heterocycla with distinct variety pubescens 

(P. heterocycla var. pubescens). 

Culm green, smooth, culm sheath brownish yellow, shoots edible, culms used as 

timber, cultivated including following varieties: var castillonis, var. lacrima, var. mixta, 

var shoujhu yi. This is a medium to large monopodial bamboo with culms 10–20 m tall 

and a diameter of ca 18 cm. Culms are straight, strong and suitable for heavy 

construction. Vegetative propagation: Culm cutting, layering, marcotting. 

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China (Fig. 20). Extensively cultivated, in different provinces 

of China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Introduced to many Botanical gardens. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: This is a temperate species complex, planted on rich soil, also 

found as natural pure stands, suitable for many soil types. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: A wide range of research is in progress, especially in China. 

Topics include distribution, site characteristics, sylviculture, agronomic pratices, in 

vitro culture, physico-mehanical properties of wood, industrial uses etc. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Wider use in agroforestry and for use on degraded lands.

Indigenous 

PART I 47 


Fig. 20 Phyllostachys pubescens


CONSERVATION STATUS: Needs further investigation especially, population genetics 

and genetic diversity studies for the identification of genetically diverse populations. 

USES: This species and different varieties are used as building material, for shoot 

production (especially in China), and for making agricultural and household 

implements, wood industry. Widely cultivated for shoots and timber in China, Japan 

and Korea. 


1. Selection of elite strains for use in industry, building material and for shoot 

production. 

2. Exploration and determining conservation needs, matching the varieties with soil 

types. 

Thyrsostachys siamensis (= Thyrsostachys regia, Bambusa regia) 

Common name : Monastery bamboo, umbrella handle bamboo 

Very graceful, tufted, sympodial bamboo, popular for cultivation, culms densely packed 

in clumps, culms 8–16 m tall, internodes 15–30 cm long, culm sheaths persistent, white 

ring below the nodes, leaf blade narrow, elegant 8–16 x 0.8–1 cm, pleasant light green, 

flowering sporadic, inflorescence long with many branchlets, fruits cylindrical, small, 

5–2.5 mm, with long beak, sulcate on one side, gregarious, flowering interval up to 

40 years. Seeds germinate well and seed viability extends up to 2–2 1 /2 years. Vegetative 

propagation: Culm cutting, macroproliferation of seedlings, off-set rhizome, tissue 

culture for propagation known. 

DISTRIBUTION: From Myanmar through IndoChina (Fig. 21); introduced elsewhere, 

extensively cultivated in many countries in Asia. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: T. siamensis is found naturally in pure or mixed forests in dry areas 

with pronounced monsoonal climate. It adapts fairly well to humid areas of the tropics 

with rich soils, well adapted to poor soils also grows up to 400 m, tolerates –4°C. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Research on propagation, forest management, some work on 

seed storage are in progress. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: It is thought that selection of varieties for particular uses 

would not be difficult. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Needs investigation. 

USES: Provides raw material for house construction, structural timber of light quality, 

pulp for paper, shoots for food, good quality, materials for handicrafts; thick walled 

bamboo for furniture, also used for fences and windbreaks and as an ornamental, 

planted as small clumps in gardens, look very elegant and graceful. 


1. Properties and preservation of culms, large scale cultivation 

2. Sustainable management of forest stands. 

3. Population genetics and conservation of superior germplasm.

Indigenous 

PART I 49 


Fig. 21 Thyrsostachys siamensis


Additional species 

As noted earlier, based on review and discussion with various partners in different 

countries, 18 additional taxa have been included with some level of priority within 

different countries of Asia. Table 3 gives some details on these 18 taxa. 

Table 3. DistribuMtion and uses of additional taxa of bamboos. Short notes are given for various 

taxa 

Taxa Distribution Major Uses 

Arundinaria. Michaux N.E. India, Sikkim, Nepal Baskets, floor mats, fodder, 

thacthing 

Bambusa atra Lindley East Indonesia Handicrafts, hedges, walls 

B. heterostachya (Munro) Malay Peninsula, all in Handicrafts, poles 

Holttum cultivation; Indonesia 

B. nutans Wall ex Munro Nepal, India, Thailand, Building construction 

Bangladesh, Vietnam 

B. oldhamii Munro China: South and Taiwan Handicrafts, Construction, 

introduced to Indonesia and edible shoots, furniture 

Philippines 

B. pervariabilis McClure South China Handicrafts, light 

construction, furniture 

Lingnania chungii L. Southern China to Northern Handicrafts 

Thailand, Vietnam 

Dendrocalamus brandisii Southern China to Thailand Building construction, 

(Munro) Kurz. handicrafts, edible shoots 

D. hamiltonii Nees India, Nepal, Bhutan, South Building construction, 

China, Vietnam handicrafts, edible shoots. 

D. hookeri Munro India, Nepal Building construction, 

handicrafts 

D. membranaceus Munro Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, Building, Bamboo board, 

China, Vietnam furniture, paper pulp, shoots 

edible. 

Gigantochloa albociliata India, Bangladesh, Thailand Edible shoots, construction, 

(Munro) Kurz furniture 

G. atroviolacea, Widjaja Indonesia Furniture industry, handicrafts, 

building construction 

G. balui K.M. Wong Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, Building construction, 

Kalimantan handicrafts 

G. hasskarliana (Kurz) South Thailand, Malay Building construction, 

Backer ex Heyne Peninsula, West Indonesia handicrafts, soil conservation 

Oxytenanthera sp. THW India, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Building construction, 

African countries handicrafts, beverages, 

edible shoots 

Phyllostachys glauca McClure China, Japan, Vietnam Edible shoots, chopsticks 

Schizostachyum sps. Nees South China, Vietnam, Thailand, Building construction, 

Malaysia, India, Indonesia, handicrafts, chopsticks, 

Pacific Is, Bangladesh ornamentals.

Arundinaria spp. 

The diversity and utilization of bamboo in the Himalayan region are very great. 

Substantial effort is needed to conserve them. Five species of Arundinaria namely A. 

gracilis, A hirsuta, A. microphylla, A. racemosa and A. rolloana are described from N E 

India; Nepal and Bhutan, A. racemosa, in Eastern Himalayas extends to 2200–3050 m, 

A. falcata, Western Himalayas to 1300 – 2200 m. They are all shrubby, gregarious, 

spreading bamboos, ± 3–5 m high, ± 1cm diameter, internodes 20–25 cm long, leaves 

± 15 x 3 cm. Inflorescence is a panicle and some of them produce fruits that are ovoid 

oblong, 3–5 mm long. The plants provide biomass, used for many purposes; making 

household articles, mats, baskets, thatching materials, fencing, fodder for animals and 

others. They protect the soil on mountain slopes. Many of them grow on high mountains 

reaching 3000 m. 

Bambusa atra (= B. farbesii, B. lineata, B. rumphiana, Dendrocalamus latifolius) 

Native to eastern islands of Indonesia, up to New Guinea, including North Sulawesi, 

Moluccas, culms 8–10 m tall, 2–4 cm in diameter, thin wall, internodes 35–70 cm long; 

leaf blade lanceolate 50 x 8 cm; inflorescence terminal with many spikelets, fruits 

unknown. It is a lowland species growing well on hill slopes on wet soils and water 

margins. Used mostly for basketry and handicrafts, thatching, very well-suited to 

develop village industries, worth introduction to other countries for cultivation. The 

name of this taxa has been recently changed Neololeba atra (Widjaja 1997). This species 

was introduced to India a long time ago. 

Bambusa heterostachya (= Gigantochloa heterostachya, Bambusa latispiculata) 

Origin of this species unknown, only found in cultivation in Sabah, Peninsula Malaysia 

and Sumatera, Indonesia. Culms straight 8–16 m tall, 3–5 cm in diameter, with light 

green or white green stripes; wall 8–10 mm thick, internodes 30–80 cm long, nodes 

prominent; leaf blade lanceolate, 30 x 4 cm on average, inflorescence indeterminate 

with many spikelets, fruit cylindrical 5–6 mm long, hairy at apex. This species is 

recorded to flower regularly, well-adapted to lowland forest conditions, very useful 

for many purposes, such as poles for picking or collecting oil palm fruit bunches. 

Needs to be researched on cultivation and for adoption to different soil conditions and 

water regimes. Cultivation by seed and culm cutting. 

Bambusa nutans 

Commonly growing in the lower Himalayan region extending southwards to Bangladesh 

and Thailand. Important commercial species locally. Culms 5–15 m high, 5–10 cm 

diameter, straight, smooth and green, internodes 25–45 cm long; leaves linear lanceolate, 

20 x 3 cm; inflorescence a panicle with many spikelets, fruit oblong and hairy. Flowering 

cycle 15–30 years both sporadic and gregarious, graceful bamboo with ornamental 

value, culms used in construction work and for paper pulp; furniture making, merits 

good exchange of materials and for wide cultivation. 

Bambusa oldhamii (= Dendrocalamopsis oldhamii) 

PART I 51 

Origin S China, largely cultivated, fast growing species with erect culms, culm 8–12 

m tall, young culms covered with white powdery substance, shoots edible of very good


quality, introduced to Australia and New Zealand, grown in orchards and as wind 

breakers, well used to the cold climate, Structural bamboo of medium quality, furniture 

making, extensively cultivated in China for shoot production. 

Bambusa pervariabilis 

Common Name: Punting pole bamboo 

Origin S China, Guangdong province; culms straight 10–15 m tall, diameter 5–6 cm, 

internodes 20–45 cm long; thick walled, leaves ± 12 x 2 cm, lower surface covered with 

many bristles, flowers and fruits unknown or not described. It has many uses – farm 

tools, fishing rods, furniture, large poles, thatching and weaving. 

Lingnania chungii (= Bambusa chungii) 

Culms straight, upto 10 m tall, diameter 5 cm, internode pale yellowish, green, nodes 

swollen; leaves 7–21 x 1–2.8 cm, linear lanecolate. Mostly from S China, Guangdong 

and Guangxi provinces, medium sized bamboo, culms are extensively used for 

handicrafts, pulp for paper making. 

Dendrocalamus brandisii (= Bambusa brandisii) 

Mostly in South and N E India and Myanmar, introduced to S E Asia, cultivated, found 

in Yunnan, China on good soils, most localities, culms tall 20–34 m, 13–20 cm in 

diameter, internodes 30–40 cm long, thick walled, nodes swollen, lower nodes with 

many rootlets; leaves 25 x 5 cm, oblong lanceolate, hairy beneath; inflorescence huge 

panicle, with many spikelets on nodes, flowering gregariously, or sporadically, fruits 

ovoid 2–4 mm long, with many hairs at the tip. Superior bamboo for construction, 

baskets, furniture, handicrafts, shoots edible of very good quality; natural populations 

are rare, needs conservation efforts for germplasm collection. This is one of the largest 

bamboos like Dendrocalamus giganteus. 

D. hamiltonii 

N E India, Central and E Himalayas up to 1000 m, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam 

and Yunnan often cultivated, rich loams, moist places, culms tall and large, 15–20 m, 

12–18 cm in diameter, internodes, 40–50 cm long, wall 1–2 cm thick; leaves variable 

in size 36 x 3.5 cm, rounded leaf base; inflorescence dense panicle especially at the tip, 

with purple spikelets, fruits ovoid, broad. Used for construction, baskets, handicrafts, 

household utensils, fuel, fodder, rafts and edible shoots. Easy to propagate and has 

great potential for cultivation. Some work on its introduction and establishment in East 

Africa has been carried out. Severe erosion of naturally distributed D. hamiltonii has 

been reported in Bangladesh. 

Dendrocalamus hookerii 

Distributed in N E India, Myanmar and Nepal, large bamboo 15–20 m high, 10–15 cm 

diameter, dark green, internodes 40–50 cm long; leaves large, oblong lanceolate; 

inflorescence large compound panicle, spikelets, compactly arranged at nodes, flowers 

variable in structure, fruits not known. Used in construction and for making baskets 

and household articles.

Dendrocalamus membranaceus 

Native of Myanmar, distributed in N E India, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam and China, culms 

straight, 20–25 m high, 6–10 cm diameter, covered with white powdery material, nodes 

prominent with rings, basal nodes with rootlets, internodes up to 40 cm long, leaves 25 

x 2.5 cm, hairy on midrib and beneath; inflorescence compound panicle, with distinct 

globular heads on nodal points, spikelets closely grouped, flower structure variable, fruit 

ovate, flat, 5–8 mm long, Flowering habit gregarious. Used for construction, medium 

quality, good quality furniture, paper pulp, chopsticks and handicrafts; the species has 

great potential for cultivation in plantations, edible shoots of very good quality. 

Gigantochloa albociliata ( = Oxytenanthera albociliata) 

Supposedly introduced to N E India, Myanmar, Thailand, and other countries, especially 

W China. Densely tufted, evergreen or semi deciduous bamboo, culms 8–10 m high, 

2–2.5 cm diameter, culms with grey or white stripes, internodes up to 40 cm long, walls 

1–2 cm thick; leaves linear lanceolate, base rounded, 20 x 2.5 cm; inflorescence panicle, 

spreading, spikelets sparsely arranged, flower structure variable, fruit oblong, 

cylindrical, flowering habit sporadic. It has ornamental value, shoots edible, good 

quality, commercially cultivated, has great commercial potential, structural bamboo, 

medium quality, good for furniture making and edible shoots of good quality. 

Gigantochloa atroviolacea ( = Gigantochloa verticillata) 

Common Name: Black Bamboo 

Only known in cultivation, said to be a Javanese species, commonly cultivated, 

introduced to India more than 100 years ago. Culms 10–15 m high, 6–8 cm diameter 

internodes 40–50 cm long, wall thickness 8 mm, mature culms, dark brown, purplish, 

hence the common name black bamboo; leaf lanceolate, ± 25 x 4 cm, pubescent, white 

hairs when young; inflorenscence long with clustered spikelets, fruits unknown. Very 

popular to make musical instruments in Java, used to make handicrafts, furniture, also 

used in building construction and yields edible shoots. 

Gigantochloa balui 

Place of origin unknown, most probably Indo-China, but grows wild in Thailand, East 

Malaysia, Kalimantan and other places. Culms 10–12 m tall, diameter 5 cm, internodes 

30–40 cm long, culms green with white and yellow stripes; leaves lanceolate ± 30 x 

3 cm, inflorenscence on leafless branches, long with few spikelets in nodal regions, 

fruits unknown. Used in handicraft industry, basketery, culms for cooking, young 

shoots edible but not of very good quality. Germplasm collection needed, cultivation 

methods to be well established. 

Gigantochloa hasskarliana (= Schizostachyum hasskarlianum) 

PART I 53 

Native and originates from Western Indonesia; introduced to botanic gardens in other 

countries, Malaysia, Thailand, Papua New Guinea. Culms 8–10 m tall, 3–6 cm in diameter 

wall thickness ± 1.2 cm, internodes 40–50 cm long; leaf lanceolate ± 30 x 4 cm, hairy on 

lower surface, inflorescence long with 4–6 clustered spikelets on each node, caryopsis, 

narrow cylindrical. Fast growing bamboo of humid tropics, grows up to 1500 m altitude, 

tolerates –2°C, easy to propagate by seeds and vegetative methods. Very suitable to grow 

in lowland forest areas, very suitbale for furniture making, useful for soil erosion control.


Oxytenanthera sps 

Woody or climbing bamboos, mostly from the subtropical region of Asia and Africa. One 

species reported from tropical Africa (Oxytenanthera abyssinica), few from India (O. abyssinica, 

O. stocksii, (Karnataka, Maharashtra), O. monostigma (W.Ghtas), (O. parvifolia (N.E. India) 

and O. alba, O. parvifolia (Myanmar). (Liese 1998, Seethalakshami and Kumar 1998). 

Culms 10–12 m long, 6–10 cm diameter, internodes 20 cm long; leaves ± 15 x 3 cm; long 

inflorenscences with many spikelets, caryopsis linear oblong 0.5–0.8 cm. Very useful bamboos, 

well used in handicrafts, cultivated to produce paper pulp, liquor extracted from young 

shoots. Flowering cycle 7–8 years, seeds unknown. Used in handicraft, basket making, 

poles. Research needs – rapid multiplication methods, development of a spineless variety. 

Phyllostachys glauca 

Mostly in South China, Japan, naturalized in Indonesia, culms 12–14 m, diameter 8– 

10 cm, culms dark green with black stains or patches, internodes 30–40 cm long; leaves 

pointed 12 x 3 cm; flowers and fruits details wanted. Edible shoots, used in handicrafts, 

farm tools, weaving, basketery and others. Like other monopodial bamboos of China, 

it is extensively cultivated in many places. 

Schizostachyum spp 

Schizostachyum is a large genus with about 30 species that are distributed in tropical 

and subtropical countries of Asia. Many of them are very useful, many cultivated to 

obtain the culms and foliage used for various purposes, ornamental bamboo. 

Species reported in various countries are: 

China – 9 species, S. diffusum is the tallest, culm height up to 40m, internode length 

60 cm, others are of medium height 5–12 m; most of them are of ornamental value, 

others used in weaving, handicrafts, paper making. (Zhu Shi Linn 1993). The taxonomic 

identity of S. diffusum is uncertain (Dransfield 1998). 

Indonesia and S E Asian countries – 9 species, S. lumampao (native of Philippines) 

S. trachycladum, S. grande and S. zollingeri are the tallest up to 20 m, other species range 

between 8–12 m in height. Most of them are used for construction, making household 

wares, umbrellas, small boxes, musical instruments, fishing rods, thatching, water 

containers, mats and baskets, handicrafts, props for banana plants, screens, containers 

to cook glutinuous rice, edible shoots (S. grande), planted for soil stabilisation, to 

control erosion and more commonly as ornamentals. The dark green or yellow culms 

with green stripes, persistent culm sheaths make them attractive as ornamental bamboos. 

India – 14 species; some cultivated and plant materials used for various purposes 

as mentioned above 

Bangladesh – S. dullooa, used for cottage industries. 

S. brachycladum – S E Asia, culms 15 m x 5 cm, tolerates 3°C, gold yellow green 

striped, structural timber of medium quality, general purpose furniture, handicrafts, 

cooking, musical instruments, ornamental value; one cultivar ‘green’ recognized. 

S. glaucifolium – 20 m x 5 cm, New Guinea, Pacific Is, Ivory green, striped, tolerates 

4°C, ornamental Bamboo, most popular on seasides. 

S. dumetorum – S E Asia, 8 m x 1 cm, tolerates 4°C, S E Asia, bushy bamboo, small 

diameter culms used to make ropes. 

S. jaculans – S E Asia, 8 m x 3 m, tolerates 4°C, attractive garden bamboo, musical 

instruments and blow pipes. 

S. zollingeri – S E Asia, 15 m x 6 cm, tolerates 3°C, densely clumping, shoots edible, 

average quality, beautiful bamboo with ornamental value.

References 

PART I 55 

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Part II

Notes on priority rattans 

Calamus manan 

PART II 59 

C. manan is a robust single-stemmed rattan that produces the very best, most sought 

after cane for the furniture industry. It produces a strong durable cane of ca 20–80 mm 

diameter, of even texture, with good surface appearance; internode length can be as 

long as 40 cm. The mature plant can reach lengths long in excess of 100 m with leaves 

over 7 m long (including the whip-like cirrus). Altogether it is a massive plant. It is 

closely related to C. tumidus Furtado (smaller diameter, but traded usually mixed with 

C. manan). As currently understood, C. giganteus Becc. is synonymous with C. manan. 

However, recently C. giganteus var. robustus S.J. Pei & S.Y. Chen has been desrcibed 

from Yunnan. Whether this also is synonymous with C. manan (in which case this 

represents a major extension of its range) or represents a distinct species, has yet to 

be ascertained. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: In the strict sense, C. manan is found naturally in 

Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Southern Thailand and South Kalimantan (Indonesian 

Borneo) (Fig. 22). C. tumidus is also distributed in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. 

CULTIVATION: There is a history of cultivation of this species for its fruits in South 

Kalimantan. Since 1975 it has been introduced into trials and commercial plantations 

in Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia. It has also been tried in natural, 

logged over and man-made forests, and rubber plantations. 

CLIMATE AND SOIL: The species is found in the wild in perhumid tropical areas 

between altitudes of 200-1000 m above sea level, usually on slopes on well-drained 

soils. However, in plantation, it has proved to be less demanding in its requirements 

and can be planted in the lowlands. However, it does not perform well on waterlogged 

soils. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: C. manan has been the subject of intensive research on many 

aspects of its performance in trials and commercial sized plantations. Many aspects 

have been studied, ranging from taxonomy to growth rates, sex ratios, in vitro techniques, 

seed storage and ecophysiology. Some of the research results obtained recently from 

various workers that participated in EEC project are briefly summarised (Bacilieri 

1998). 

A large ex situ collection of Calamus manan, C. Caesius, C. subinermis, C. ornatus and 

C. optimus has been established in Luasong, Sabah spread over 69 ha. The project 

started in 1988 and more than 15,000 seedlings were used. In the observations made 

during 1992–1996 sex ratio of male and female plants was determined for C. manan. 

On an average about 875 plants were observed with 14% flowering in 1992 and 41% 

in 1996. Female to male plant ratio varied from 1:3.2 in 1992 to 1: 1.3 in 1996 indicating 

that ratio between the male and female plants was almost equal (Aloysius 1998). 

In another study conducted, Calamus manan and C. subinermis showed considerable 

genetic diversity both at species and population levels. A geographic pattern of genetic 

diversity could be established in the two species. The plant populations of C. manan 

in Sabah were established from seeds collected and brought from Peninsular Malaysia 

and those in Kalimantan from Sumatra. C. subinermis is endemic to Sabah and the two 

populations in N.W. Sabah were genetically distinct from those in the east coast. The 

differences between the sub populations of C. subernimis were minimal (Bacilieri, 1998).


Indigenous 


Fig. 22 Calamus manan

PART II 61 

Abscision of flower buds was high reaching up to 95% in C. manan and C. subinermis. 

There was no gradient in pollen maturity among flowers on the same rachis. Pollen 

from unopened buds gave better percentage germination than at anthesis. Pollen 

viability could be well maintained by desiccating the unopened mature flower buds 

for 24 hours under vacuum and storing them at –18°C in vacuum sealed glass vials. 

Storing with this treatment, pollen remained viable for more than one year covering 

two flowering seasons. The results obtained would help the process of artificial 

pollination (Bacilieri 1998). 

Pollen morphology of Calamus caesius, C. manan, C. optimus, C. ornatus, C.palustris, 

C. scipiomum, C. subinermis, C. trachycoleus, and C. tumidus was studied using voucher 

specimens deposited in Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Forest Research Centre, 

Sabah. Pollen in all the species are disulcate but the wall thickness and features of exine 

pattern vary (Harley 1998). 

In vitro propagation methods to obtain plantlets have been well established for 

Calamus manan, C. merrillii and C. subinermis. Ms medium was used supplemented with 

growth regulators. Explants were obtained from seedlings obtained under in vitro or 

from seedlings raised in the nursery. Root explants of C. manan and C. subinermis, 

zygotic embryos and young leaves of C. merrilii responded well giving rise to callus 

that differentiated into somatic embryos. Tissues of C. merrillii were more responsive 

than of the other two species (Goh, 1998). 

Genetic Assessment of Rattan Species – Calamus manan, C. caesius and C. palustris: 

Work on the genetic assessment of rattan species was completed, a research project 

undertaken in Forest Research Insttitute (FRIM), Kepong Malaysia and supported by 

IPGRI-APO. Seeds of eleven mother plants from each species were collected based on 

the availability of fruits. Leaf samples of mother plants and male plants were also 

collected; 11 and 17 for C. manan, 11 and 30 for C. caesius, 21 and 58 for C. palustris. 

About 30 seeds from each mother tree of C. manan (Bukit Lagong, FRIM and Sg. Yu, 

Pahang), C. caesius (Bukit Soga and Sg. Buluh) and C. palustris (Gopeng , Bukit 

Larik and Merapoh) were transferred to polybags. Isozyme analysis were carried out 

for C. manan mature plants (12 loci representing 9 enzyme systems) and seedlings (14 

loci representing 10 enzyme systems), for C. palustris mature plants (8 loci representing 

8 enzyme systems). The genetic variability measures (A, P, Ho and He) for C. palustris 

were generally very much higher than that for C. manan mature plants and seedlings, 

The final report is under preparation (Salwana, et al. 1996). 

CONSERVATION STATUS: The species has been severely overexploited to the extent 

that is now in very short supply and other large diameter species of poorer quality 

are collected and traded as substitutes. 

USES: This is the preferred large diameter cane for all furniture frame manufacturing. 


a) Further studies on the establishment of provenance trials for the selection of elite 

strains. 

b) Breeding with related species, to introduce novel traits such as regular clustering 

behaviour. 

c) Establishment and management of ex situ stands.


Calamus caesius 

C. caesius is a densely clump forming, small diameter rattan that produces one of the very 

best canes of 7–12 mm diameter. The canes are resilient and durable and have a glossy 

siliceous surface that is sometimes intentionally removed during processing to make the 

cane more flexible. Stems may reach 100 m or more in length and growth rates of 4–5 m/ 

year, exceptionally to 7 m or more, have been recorded. Clump establishment is rapid and 

after five or six years, there may be over 20–50 or more aerial stems depending on growing 

conditions and provenance. It is closely related to C. trachycoleus with similar diameter and 

the larger C. optimus Becc. (endemic to Borneo). 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: This is a widely dispersed species occurring in the 

wild in Southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Palawan 

(Philippines) (Fig. 23). 

CULTIVATION: There is a long history of sporadic small-scale cultivation of this 

species in Borneo. In one system, it is planted in the fallow period of the shifting 

cultivation cycle, and harvested when the forest is felled again for rice-planting. Since 

the late 1970s, commercial rattan plantations have been established using this species. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: The natural distribution suggests that C. caesius is adapted to 

perhumid tropical climates. Attempts to cultivate it outside such climates have been 

disappointing. In Borneo, the species occurs from lowlands up to an elevation of 900 

m; elsewhere it is confined to low elevations. Although found on a variety of soils, 

it performs best on rich alluvial soil. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Calamus caesius has been the subject of much research on 

growth, yields, pests and diseases. Cultivation of this species is better understood than 

any other, though much needs to be done. High heritability of characters was recorded 

in C. caesius including growth rate of the cane and number of stems formed per clump. 

(Bacilieri 1998). 

Two types of suckers were produced in C. caesius, one with lanceolate leaflets and 

the other with vestigial leaflets. There was no correlation between canopy opening and 

the number or kind of suckers produced (Lee 1998). 

Experiments were conducted using agar-water medium, to germinate rattan seeds 

under light and dark conditions. Seeds of Calamus caesius, C. densiflorus, C. manan, C. 

nanodendron, Daemonorops longipes, D. periacantha germinated in less than 10 days at 

26°C with 12 hours light (12 hour photo period). Seeds of C. palustris, C. paspalanthus, 

C. subinermis and C. tumidus germinated after more than 30 days under same conditions 

(Pritchard and Davis 1998). 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: The major untapped potential of this species is as a smallholder 

crop. It has been grown on this scale but there is great potential for expansion of smallholder 

cultivation, especially in village orchards, marginal lands and buffer zones. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Wherever the species occurs in the wild, it is harvested, 

often before flowering and fruiting can take place. This presents a great danger for 

its conservation. 

USES: Wherever it occurs, C. caesius is regarded as the very finest small diameter cane 

for both commercial purposes (matting, chair cane, binding for furniture and furniture 

construction) and local handicrafts (especially high quality traditional basket making).

Indigenous 

PART II 63 

Fig. 23 Calamus caesius


RESEARCH NEEDS: The major research need is the collection of provenances to 

sample the known wide variation in size, quality and apparent ecological requirements. 

In particular, there is great variation in Borneo, some provenances appearing to be 

especially vigorous in plantations. Calamus optimus Becc., closely related but larger in 

diameter, should be included in such sampling of provenances. Although much has 

been achieved in understanding cultivation requirements, much remains unknown, 

especially at the level of basic biology and maximum growth requirements, further 

survey and establishment and management of ex situ stands need urgent attention. 

Calamus trachycoleus 

C. trachycoleus is a vigorous rapidly-growing, small diameter rattan that produces one of 

the best canes of 7–12 mm diameter. The canes are resilient and durable, of a quality only 

slightly poorer than very best species, C. caesius. The outer surface of the cane is glossy 

and siliceous; this surface silica layer is often removed before the cane is utilized. The 

species is unusual in its clumping behaviour; clumps develop by the production of long 

(to 3 m or more) stolons that metamorphose into aerial stems, while at the same time 

producing more stolons. Growth rates of aerial stems can be very rapid (up to 7 m a year). 

This growth form and rapid growth rate allow this species to colonize areas rapidly where 

it is cultivated, but also makes it rather difficult to control in plantations. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: The species is confined to the Barito Selatan area 

of central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Fig. 24). However, it has now been introduced into 

several parts of Indonesia and Malaysia. 

CULTIVATION: C. trachycoleus has been cultivated for over 100 years on a large scale 

by villagers in Barito Selatan, as their main source of income. This clearly successful 

cultivation system has been used as a model for the setting up of smallholder and 

commercial plantations elsewhere and there are now new commercial estates of this 

species in Indonesia and Malaysia. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: The species has performed best in perhumid tropical areas at 

low elevations. A remarkable feature is its ability to withstand severe and prolonged 

seasonal flooding (1–1.5 m for up to 2 months) with little damage. In its original area 

of cultivation it occurs on seasonally flooded alluvial flats on soil overlying highly 

acidic clay, soils that are not suitable for permanent agriculture. C. trachycoleus cannot, 

however, grow well in waterlogged soils. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Very little research is being conducted at present on this 

species. Growth studies in plantation in Sabah and trials on different soil types in 

Malaysia are being performed. The species gives the impression of being remarkably 

invariable but this needs to be explored further. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: At present, expanded cultivation of this species is on a 

commercial scale. There is great potential for the promotion of cultivation of this 

species on a smallholder basis, outside the present area of smallholder cultivation. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: At present, there appears to be no serious conservation problem. 

USES: The primary use of this species is as split cane for weaving into matting, chair 

cane and handicrafts. For some weaving purposes it may even be preferred over C. 

caesius because the stem is softer and more supple.

Indigenous 

PART II 65 


Fig. 24 Calamus trachycoleus


RESEARCH NEEDS: Because of the very invasive behaviour of the species, cultivation 

in neat rows is impossible to maintain and this presents problems for harvesting and 

commercial estate management. Research is required to develop efficient management 

and harvesting methods. In view of the close relationship with C. caesius, there may 

be prospects for interbreeding to allow selection of forms combining the growth form 

and flood tolerance of C. trachycoleus with the larger internode length and higher 

quality of C. caesius. Further assessment is needed to understand the variations in 

populations. Both survey and genetic diversity studies are required to establish 

provenances. 

Calamus Sect. Podocephalus 

This is a well defined group of very closely related species of medium to large rattans 

that occurs from the Indian subcontinent to New Guinea (Fig. 25). The group includes 

about 11 named species and several that have been recognized as being undescribed 

and have been assigned manuscript names by Fernando who is preparing a monograph 

on this group. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Taxa recognized so far in this complex and their 

distribution is given below (Fig. 25): 

Calamus “ahliduri” Fernando (in ed.) – Indonesia (Sulawesi) 

C. andamanicus Kurz – Andaman, Nicobar Islands 

C. burckianus Becc. – Java and Bali 

C. erinaceus (Becc.) J. Dransf. – Thailand, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Palawan 

C. erinaceus (Becc.) J. Dransf. var. “declivium” Fernando (in ed.) – Palawan 

C. foxworthyi Becc. – Palawan, Philippines 

C. merrillii Becc. – Philippines (widespread) 

C. nagbettai Fernandez & Dey – Karnataka, W. Ghats, India 

C. ovoideus Thw. Ex Trimen – Sri Lanka 

C. “parutan” Fernando (in ed.) – Bali 

C. polystachys Becc. – Sumatra, Java, Malay Peninsula 

C. warburgii Becc. – Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea 

C. zeylanicus Becc. – Sri Lanka 

C. “zieckii” Fernando – New Guinea 

C. zollingeri Becc. – Sulawesi 

More derails about various species listed above are as follows : (see Dransfield and 

Manokaran 1993).

Indigenous 

PART II 67 

Fig. 25 Calamus Sect. Podocephalus


Calamus andamanicus 

Solitary or clustered rattan, stem 24 m long or more, stem diameter with sheath 8 cm, 

without 5 cm, pale yellow colour; leaf cirrate, 4 m long, leaflets ± 40 x 3 cm, male 

inflorescence 1.3 m long, female 1.0 m long, with many flowers on each, mostly present 

in Andaman, Nicobar islands, flowering in November – December, fruiting in April- 

May. Fruits ovoid 1.4 x 0.9 cm with 17 rows of scales vertically arranged. Well-used 

in furniture industry, leaves used for thatching (Renuka 1995). (Table 4). 

Calamus burckianus 

Clustering rattan, stem upto 25 m tall, diameter 4 cm without leaf sheath, collected 

from Java and Bali, lowland forests and on hill slopes upto 600 m (Dransfield and 

Manokaran 1993). 

Calamus erinaceus 

Clustering rattan near mangrove swamps and coastal margins, stems upto 20m, diameter 

without sheath ± 3 cm, internodes 25–30 cm, leaf cirrate 4–5 m long; inflorescence 1– 

1.5 m long, male more compact than female, fruits 1 cm diameter, covered with 12 rows 

of scales, light yellow in colour; considered as medium to low quality coarse cane; 

recorded in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. (Dransfield 1992). 

Calamus foxworthyi 

Endemic to Palawan Island, Philippines, not one of the economically important species 

(Lapis 1998). 

Calamus merrillii 

Present in different provinces of the Philippines including Palawan Island; cultivated 

species, also introduced to Sabah, East Malaysia for growing in plantations; commercially 

important species (Lapis 1998). Some work also has been done on chemical control of 

black leaf spot disease. 

Calamus nagbettai 

Endemic species in Western Ghats of Karnataka state, India; clustering or solitary 

rattan, stems 25–40 m, upper leaves with long cirrus 3–4 m long, leaflets 40 x 2.5 cm; 

male and female inflorescences distinct, 30 and 70 cm long respectively; fruits ovoid 

oblong 2 x 1 cm with 17–18 rows of scales with white margins, flowering Dec–Jan, 

fruiting from May–June; very useful species for making furniture and other articles, 

limited cultivation, the species has cultural and religious significance (Lakshmana 

1993). (Table 4). 

Calamus ovoideus 

Endemic to Sri Lanka, clustering rattan, up to 100 m in length, diameter 3–4 cm without 

sheath; leaf up to 4m long with cirrus 2 m long, leaflets 50 x 2 cm; male and female 

inflorescences 2.5 m and 1 m long, male flowers bigger than female; fruit ovoid 1.2 

x 0.8 cm, scales orange brown, flowering in April, fruiting in October; canes of excellent 

quality used in furniture industry and handicrafts (Zoysa and Vivekanandan 1994).

Distribution 

Table 4. Information on certain other species that are economically important 

Value 


Taxa 

Domestication 

CS C RI C1 H GE Survey 

Calamus thwaitesii Becc. L ++ ++ D h Evergreen & H L India, Sri Lanka 

Semiever green 

C. hookerianus Becc. M ++ ++ D h Semiever green H L Tamil Nadu, Kerala, 

forests India, Endemic 

C. travancoricus Bedd. S ++ ++ SD h Evergreen H L Tamil Nadu, Kerala, 

India, Endemic 

C. brandisiiBecc. S ++ ++ W h Montane forests H L Tamil Nadu, Kerala, 

India, Endemic 

C. nagbettai Fernandez L ++ ++ D h Evergreen H L Karnataka, India, 

and Dey Endemic 

C. nambariensis Becc. M ++ ++ W h Evergreen H M Assam, India, 

Endemic 

C. tenuis Roxb. S ++ ++ D h Plains & India, Bangladesh, 

Marshy lands Burma, S. Vietnam 

C. acanthospathus Griff. M ++ ++ W h Evergreen H M N.E. India, Bhutan 

C.viminalis Willd. S ++ ++ D h Plains & H L Cambodia, Thailand, 

Semiever green Bangladesh, India, 

Myanmar, P. Malaysia, 

Indonesia 

C. andamanicus Kurz. L ++ ++ SD h Evergreen H L Andaman, Nicobar Is., 

Endemic 

C. pseudorivalis Becc. M ++ ++ W h Evergreen H L Andaman, Nicobar Is., 

Endemic 

C. guruba Buch-Ham S ++ ++ W h Evergreen H M India, Bangladesh, 

Myanmar, Thailand 

For details see Renuka 1992, 1995, 1998, Basu, 1992 and Zoysa and Vivekanandan 1994, Dransfield and Manokaran, 1993). 

KEY Value 

CS = cane size: Large (L), medium (M), and small (S). Genetic resources 

C = commercialization potential: High (++), medium (+), and not fully known [(+)]. GE = genetic erosion: High (H), low (L). 

RI = rural industries: High (++), medium (+). IV = need for research on in vitro: Low (L). 

E = need for exchange: High (H), medium (M), low (L). 

Domestication Survey = need for further field survey: High (H), medium 

Wild = W, semi-domesticated = SD, domesticated = D. (M), low (L) 

PART II 69 


Cl = climate: humid tropics = h, subtropics = s. 

H = habitat: dryland = d, wet = w, seasonally flooded = seas. F.


Calamus polystachys 

Clustering rattan, common in lowland swampy forests, Indonesia and Peninsula 

Malaysia, stem 1–2 cm without sheath, internodes 15–20 cm, leaves 2.5 m long with 

cirrus, leaflets 35 x 1 cm; male and female inflorescence about 50 cm long, fruits ovulate 

about 8 mm diameter, covered with 18 rows of ivory coloured scales, leaf sheath ant 

infested, under exploited cane, mostly used by the local people (Dransfield 1979; 

Dransfield and Manokaran 1993). 

Calamus warburgii 

Solitary rattan, stem 15 m tall, diameter 3.8 cm without sheath, leaves 4.3 m long, has 

strong resemblences to C. zollingeri; distribution in low land forest of Irian Jaya, 

Indonesia and Papua New Guinea; used by the local people for making baskets and 

other articles. (Dransfield and Manokaran 1993; Maturbongs 1997). 

Calamus zeylanicus 

Endemic to Sri Lanka, occurs along with C. ovoideus, mostly in wet lowland forests; 

clustering rattan, up to 50 m high, diameter 3 cm, internodes 35 cm long, leaf 3 m long 

with cirrus, leaflets 50 x 3 cm; male and female inflorescences 1.5 and 0.5 m long 

respectively, fruits almost round 2 cm long, 1.5 cm broad, fruit covered with copper 

coloured scales with white margin; excellent cane used in furniture industry and 

handicraft industries, natural resources overexploited and species endangered (Zoysa 

and Vivekanandan 1994) 

Calamus zollingeri 

Distribution Sulawesi and Moluccas of Indonesia, clustering; stem 40 m long, diameter 

about 4 cm without leaf sheath, internodes 35–40 cm long, leaf 6–7 m long, cirrate, 

leaflets 40 x 3 cm; male and female inflorencences similar 1.1 m long; fruits small 

5 mm diameter; good cane for furniture industry, used by the local people for various 

purposes, earlier exported to Hongkong, grown in plantations on a limited scale. 

(Dransfield and Manokaran 1993). 

The group includes medium diameter species such as C. erinaceus to very large 

diameter species (C. andamanicus). Cane quality ranges from mediocre (C. erinaceus) 

to excellent and highly prized (C. merrillii). All species appear to be multi-stemmed 

and can grow to great lengths. C. merrillii, C. zollingeri and C. ovoideus are among the 

most highly prized commercial rattans, that produce canes of even, large diameter, 

good internal structure and appearance, used widely in the furniture industry. Both 

C. merrillii and C.zollingeri are grossly over-exploited at present. Although of a quality 

not as fine as that of C. manan, aspects of the growth form of all members of the group 

suggest they may be more amenable to sustainable cultivation than C. manan. 

Furthermore, the very close relatedness of the recognized species and their very wide 

geographical and ecological range suggest that there may be considerable scope for 

selection and breeding for precise cultivation conditions. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: The climate range of the group covers monsoonal to perhumid 

climates, from the lowlands to ca 1800 m in the mountains, but individual species tend 

to have a rather narrow range. Soils range from mangrove soils, freshwater swamps 

(but not peat-swamp), coral limestone and occasionally ultramafic soils.

CURRENT RESEARCH: Current research is focused on C. merrillii and a few other 

species of this group. This species has been the subject of silvicultural trials since about 

1979, with promising results. It has been introduced into Malaysia from the Philippines 

on a trial basis. C. zollingeri has also been introduced recently. Other large species in 

the group are prime targets for silvicultural research. Some in vitro research has been 

carried out on C. merrillii. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: This group of rattans has very great potential for agroforestry, 

especially in view of the multi-stemmed habit and wide climatic and ecological range 

of the group. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Species in the group are subjected to different degrees of 

threat, ranging from the severe threats from over-exploitation to C. merrillii and C. 

andamanicus, and habitat destruction to C. ovoideus and C. zeylanicus to much less threat 

to C. erinaceus. 

USES: Primary use of this group is as a source of large diameter canes for furniture 

manufacture. Small diameter canes may be used for making rough furniture, coarse 

baskets and household utensils. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: Taxonomic research required to provide a basic framework for 

further work within this complex of species has yet to be completed, and must be 

regarded as a high priority. There is a great need to assemble provenances both within 

the individual species and within the whole group. This complex group offers exciting 

possibilities for the selection and breeding of high quality, medium to large diameter 

canes, for permanent rattan plantation in a wide range of climates and soil types. Very 

little is known of the basic biology of these rattans. 

Calamus subinermis 

PART II 71 

Calamus subinermis is a medium to large diameter rattan of excellent quality, that is 

the preferred source of cane for furniture frames in Sabah, Palawan and, possibly, parts 

of Sulawesi. Although the species is clump-forming and thus potentially can produce 

a sustained harvest, generally the clumps often consist of no more than two or three 

aerial stems. There is considerable variability in clumping behaviour and armature of 

the leaf sheaths that suggest considerable genetic variability and the possibility of 

genetic improvement. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: In the narrow sense, C. subinermis is confined to 

Sabah and closely adjacent parts of Sarawak and Kalimantan, and Palawan and offshore 

islands in the Philippines. A closely related or conspecific rattan occurs in North 

Sulawesi where it is one of the sources of “tohiti” canes, the preferred large cane for 

furniture frames in Sulawesi. A similar species also occurs in West Java (Fig. 26). 

CULTIVATION: This species has been introduced into cultivation trials in Sabah. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: In the wild, this species is confined to well drained soils on 

rather dry coastal hills. Although usually found on mildly acidic rocks, the species has 

been observed on soils derived from coral limestone and on soils overlying ultramafic 

rock. The geographical distribution of the species and its putative relatives suggests 

that it may be adapted to survival outside the perhumid areas of southeast Asia.


Indigenous 

Fig. 26 Calamus subinermis

CURRENT RESEARCH: The species is actively being investigated by Lee Ying Fah and 

his coworkers at the Forest Research Centre, Sipilok, Sabah, Malaysia, who are examining 

basic aspects of its biology, growth and performance under trials. Some small scale 

provenance trials have been initiated. Details on flower, pollen longevity and pollination 

in C. subinermis and C. caesius have been published (Lee et al. 1995 a,b). 

The species of Calamus are dioecious with regular male and female inflorescence. 

The male flowers arranged with female flowers are usually sterile. In Calamus subinermis 

both male and hermaphodite flowers were found together for the first time and pollen 

tested was viable and germinated. Andromonoecy may have a genetical bearing that 

needs to be analysed (Lee 1998). 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Preliminary growth trials suggest that this species has great 

potential as a plantation crop for drier areas adjacent to perhumid areas. The apparent 

wide range of soil tolerance in the wild suggests that the species may have potential 

for cultivation on an equally wide variety of substrates. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Since the revitalization of the rattan industry in Sabah in 

the late 1970s, Calamus subinermis has been subjected to severe overexploitation. Nowhere 

is it legally protected, except in the Tungku Abdul Rahman National Park near Kota 

Kinabalu. 

USES: Primary use is for furniture frames. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: A major requirement is to investigate clumping behaviour, whether 

it is genetically or environmentally controlled. Seed germination in this species seems 

often to be staggered and would require further study. 

Calamus palustris and relatives 

PART II 73 

This is a complex of closely related, taxonomically poorly understood rattans that 

include named species that are known to show great silvicultural potential. These 

rattans produce canes of medium to large diameter (15–20 mm or more), of an excellent 

glossy yellowish appearance and with good strength properties. Larger forms from 

Peninsular Malaysia have been traded as “manau”, the trade name of the best large 

diameter cane, C. manan. The taxonomy of the group is confused and is in urgent need 

of reassessment. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: The geographical distribution of this species 

complex is given in Fig. 27 and the following taxa are tentatively included in this complex: 

Calamus palustris Griff and varieties – China, India (Andaman, Nicobar), Myanmar, 

Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Vietnam. 

Calamus inermis T. Anders. – India, Bangladesh. 

Calamus nambariensis Becc. and varieties – China, India 

Calamus platyacanthus Warb. ex Becc. and varieties – China, Vietnam and possibly 

a few other places. 

CULTIVATION: C. palustris var. malaccensis is cultivated in north Peninsular Malaysia 

by smallholders in old rubber plantations. C. nambariensis is cultivated within the 

shifting cultivation cycle by Dai people in southern Yunnan.


Indigenous 

Fig. 27 Calamus palustris and relatives

CLIMATE AND SOILS: In the broad sense, the complex is found over a wide 

geographical and climatic range from northern Peninsular Malaysia to northern India 

and southern China, from the edge of the perhumid zone to strongly seasonal climates, 

and from near sea level to about 700 m or more altitudes in southern Yunnan. It appers 

to perform best on relatively fertile soils but very little is known of its soil requirements. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Research on growth and yields of C. palustris is progressing 

at Forest Research Institute, Malaysia. Research on C. nambariensis in the shifting 

cultivation cycle in southern Yunnan has been carried out by Pei Shengji and associates. 

Some work on genetic diversity and its distribution has been done in Malaysia and 

Thailand (Changtragoon et al. 1998). 

Ms modified basal medium was used to germinate the embryos of C. tumidus and 

C. palustris which responded well under in vitro. Detailed reports are prepared on “The 

role of embryo culture in the seed conservation of palms and other species” and 

“Biodiversity and Conservation of Rattan Seeds” (Pritchard 1998). 

Evaluating the status of genetic resources of rattan (Calamus palustris) by isoenzyme 

gene markers: In collaboration with the Royal Forest Department (RFD) Bangkok, 

Thailand, the status of genetic resources of Calamus palustris in Thailand was evaluated 

using isoenzyme gene markers. The distribution of Calamus palustris which is one of 

the important rattan species in Thailand was surveyed in disturbed and undisturbed 

areas. A total of 13 populations from 7 provinces in the South Thailand were studied. 

C. palustris could not be found in four areas where it was known to be distributed from 

earlier explorations indicating some genetic erosion. Eighteen isoenzyme gene loci 

were identified and about 80% of the isoenzyme loci studied were found to be 

polymorphic. The genetic structure, differentiation and diversity of C. palustris were 

studied/measured. The results showed that approximately 18% of the total diversity 

was due to differences among populations. The conservation of genetic resources of 

this species is discussed. This work was presented at the last IUFRO Congress 

(Changtrogoon et al. 1998), evaluating the stauts of genetic resources of rattan (Calamus 

palustris) in Thailand by isoenzyme gene markers. (IUFRO Conference on Forest Genetics 

and Tree Improvement. Contribution of genetics to the sustained management of 

global forest resources, Beijing, China 22–28 August, 1998). 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: Growth of C. palustris in the northern part of Peninsular 

Malaysia suggests that this is a very promising species for the drier and more monsoonal 

areas of the region. The observation that it tolerates rather open conditions suggests 

that it may be relatively easy to grow. Within the range of variability of C. palustris 

and its relatives, there is potential for the selection of strains for growing in different 

climatic regions and soil types. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Little known. The genetic diversity study in Thailand 

indicates significant genetic erosion is occurring. 

USES: Primary use is for framework for furniture. 

PART II 75 

RESEARCH NEEDS: The most important gaps in our knowledge of this complex group 

are the relationships within the complex. There is a need for an extensive survey to 

provide the material for a proper classification of the group, a taxonomic study that 

is required as a framework for future development. Still very little is understood about 

the basic biology and growth in plantation of different members of this complex. There 

is clearly a need to establish a major provenance trial. 

More details are summarised about the various species.


Calamus palustris 

Clustering, 25–30 m tall, diameter without leaf sheath 2 cm, internodes 25–30 cm; leaf 

cirrate, 1m long, leaflets 35 x 4 cm; inflorescences female shorter than male, 1–1.5 m 

long, fruit globular, 0.9 cm diameter with 12 rows of light yellow scales. Very useful 

cane used for furniture, internationally traded (Dransfield and Manokaran 1993). 

Calamus platyacanthus (=C.wailong) 

Yunnan province of China on hill slopes upto 900 m, some cultivated, clustering 

robust rattan, stem without sheath 20 mm in diameter, internode 50cm or more, leaves 

2–6 m long, leaflets 55 x 7 cm, no regular arrangement, rachis ends up with cirrus upto 

3 m long, male and female inflorescences similar, fruits ovoid 17 x 11 mm covered with 

20 rows of light yellow scales, seed slightly flat, extensively used in weaving, for 

furniture, and house construction (Dransfield and Manokaran 1993). 

Calamus inermis 

Endemic species in N E India, Sikkim, up to 800 m, clustering rattan, 20–25 m tall, 

diameter 2–3 cm without leaf sheath; inflorescence 1 m long, fruits ellipsoid 3 x 

1.5 cm, with 18 rows of scales, groove in the middle; used in furniture industry. More 

details required on all other aspects (Basu 1992). 

Calamus nambariensis 

Distribution N E India, Yunnan, China and most likely in Myanmar – China border 

areas; clustering, robust cane, 20–30 m tall, 2 cm diameter, leaves 3 m long, leaflets 

40 x 3 cm, 5 nerved; fruits globose 2.5 cm diameter, covered with 21 rows of scales; 

mostly used in furniture; more details are required on all aspects (Basu 1992). 

Calamus tetradactylus 

Calamus tetradactylus is a densely clustering small diameter rattan, with good quality 

canes of 5–8 mm diameter. It can also grow to lengths of up to 30 m. It is closely related 

to C. tetradactyloides, C. cambojensis and to some species in Calamus Sect. Calamus (Sect. 

Coleospathus Furtado). 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: C. tetradactylus occurs in China on Hainan Island, in 

southern Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Morinees, Hong Kong and in Viernam (Fig. 28). 

CULTIVATION: C. tetradactylus has been cultivated on a trial and small commercial 

scale in southern China. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: Ecophysiological requirements are cited as being air temperature 

20–30°C (–2°C may kill seedlings), more than 1300 mm rainfall annually and relative 

humidity over 78%. This species is the most northerly of all cultivated rattans, occurring 

in areas where rare frosts can occur. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: The species has been the subject of intense research in south 

China over the last 15 years. Successful trials have been established. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: The major untapped potential of this species is for wider 

cultivation in areas with climate similar to that of southern China, as a small holder 

crop for handicrafts.

Indigenous 

PART II 77 

Fig. 28 Calamus tetradactylus


CONSERVATION STATUS: Severely threatened in the wild by overexploitation and 

habitat destruction. 

USES: The primary use is as a first class small diameter cane in handicrafts, binding 

in furniture and cordage. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: Studies are needed to understand intraspecific variability and its 

relationships with other taxa occurring outside China. 

Calamus deeratus 

C. deeratus is a highly polymorphic small to medium diameter clustering rattan, that 

produces a cane of moderate quality, up to ca 18 mm diameter. In the past several other 

species have been described that are now considered to be synonymous. They include: 

Calamus akimensis Bess. 

C. barteri Drude 

C. falabensis Becc. 

C. heudelotii Drude 

C. laurentii DeWild 

C. leprieurii Becc. 

C. perrotetii Becc. and 

C. schweinfurthii Becc. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: This is the only species of Calamus to be found in 

Africa. It occurs in the humid parts of west tropical Africa, the Congo Basin and with 

outliers in western Uganda and northern Zambia (Fig. 29). 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: It appears to be confined to freshwater swamps and alluvial 

forests in the humid tropical rain forest belt. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: There has been very little research conducted on this species. 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: The potential of this species is unknown. As the best quality 

species in Africa, it clearly plays an important role in local economies, but whether 

it has potential for further development requires a detailed pan African survey. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Unknown. 

USES: Its main use is in local handicrafts and binding in furniture for local consumption. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: Since very little is known about this species, research work in 

all fields will be needed. 

Calamus hollrungii and relatives 

Calamus hollrungii is a medium to large diameter rattan that produces a high quality 

cane ca 9–20 mm or more in diameter. It is usually single-stemmed. Very closely related 

are several other recognized species that share the same excellent cane quality and size. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: The following species are tentatively included 

under the genepool of Calamus hollrungii and distribution of this group is presented 

in Fig. 30.

Fig. 29 Calamus deeratus 

Indigenous 

PART II 79


Indigenous 

Fig. 30 Calamus hollrungii and relatives

C. hollrungii Becc. – throughout New Guinea, Queensland; its distribution in Solomon 

Islands is to be confirmed. 

C. aruensis Becc. – Aru Islands, New Guinea, Queensland. 

C. subinermis Becc – Sabah, Sarawak, East Kalimantan (also see separate section on 

this species and Fig. 15). 

C. vitiensis Warb. ex Becc. – Fiji 

C. vanuatuensis Dowe – Vanuatu 

CULTIVATION: There is no record of systematic cultivation of these species. 

CLIMATE AND SOILS: These are all rattans of low elevations on relatively rich soils 

in perhumid climates. Beyond this, very little is known of their ecological requirements. 

CURRENT RESEARCH: Apart from basic floristic survey work, there has been no 

research on this species complex, except C. subinermis. 

During the recent botanical expiditions to New Guinea about 60 identified and 

eight unidentified rattans were collected and a check list has been published including 

Calamus hollrungii and C. aruensis. This group provides good planting materials suitable 

for plantation establishment (Dransfield 1998). 

UNTAPPED POTENTIAL: The perceived great potential of this species complex is a 

plantation subject for the west Pacific region. 

CONSERVATION STATUS: Little is known of its conservtion status. 

USES: Throughout their range, the canes of this species complex are much sought after 

for export for manufacturing furniture frames. 

RESEARCH NEEDS: Almost all aspects of these rattans as they pertain to cultivation 

and conservation are in need of research. In particular, trials need to be established. 

Endemic species 

PART II 81 

Many species of rattan are endemic reported by various authors. In the evolutionary 

scale the endemic species are considered either as young or old species. The relative 

areas of distribution may increase over time in case of younger species and be reduced 

in older species depending on the fecundity and genetics of species. The data available 

at present do not discuss the extent of distribution area of such species but only 

mention the place or country of occurrence. (Basu 1992; Renuka 1992, 1995; Zoysa and 

Vivekanandan 1994). (Fig. 31). Further studies would be interesting and details obtained 

may help to assess the taxonomic relationship of various species and their age and area 

connections as well as the ecological conditions that govern such species. Conservation 

measures adopted should take the above details into consideration, as they refer to 

priority species, their close relatives and superior plant populations.


Sri Lanka 

Andaman 

and 

Nicobar 

Islands 

Indigenous 

Fig. 31 Endemism of Rattans 

Andaman Nicobar islands – Total 3 genera and 18 species of rattans of which eleven species of three genera are endemic. Four species of Calamus ie. C. 

longisetus, C. palustris, C. unifarius, C. viminalis and Korthalsia laciniosa are spread in S. East Asia as far as Bali, C. palustris extends North to S. China. 

Sri Lanka – 19 species of Calamus, 7 are endemic, three species common with India in rattan growing region. (See Table 4).

References 

PART II 83 

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Bot, 82, 5. 596-606. 

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Application of the priorities 

Bamboos 

PART II 87 

Participants of the 1994 workshop made the following recommendations in relation 

to bamboos. 

1. In order to enhance production there is an urgent need to survey the priority 

species across their distributional ranges and sample populations in different areas 

to assess gross morphological differences and to modify existing biochemical and 

molecular methods to measure patterns of genetic variation. IBPGR (now IPGRI) 

is urged to develop an appropriate descriptor system for the priority species of 

bamboos. 

Present status: Since 1994, survey work has been conducted in China, India, 

Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and other 

countries identifying the distribution patterns of some of the priority species 

(Vivekanandan et al 1998). Relative DNA content of certain species is estimated to 

compare with the ploidy level. 

2. Regional provenance trials of selected accessions could be initiated through FORTIP, 

which has agreed on ten forest species or groups of species for project action and 

bamboo is a high priority species among these ten. 

Participants suggested that provenance trials should be targeted to agroforestry 

and small plantation systems for production of culms and/or shoots especially on 

marginal and degraded lands. Two early interventions are recommended. 

Present status: Agroforestry and socioforestry work is in progress in certain 

countries like China, India, Thailand and others. All the data available need to be 

well consolidated and published. 

a. INBAR is asked to obtain from national programmes lists of selected provenance 

of the priority species characterized by short descriptions of morphology, other 

attributes and provenance data. 

b. INBAR and FORTIP are asked as a matter of urgency to arrange for the 

compilation of standard methodology for the design, field lay-out, data collection 

and analyses for provenance trials. This compilation should have appended 

known soil preferences of particular species. Furthermore, INBAR is initiating 

synthesis of all known pests and diseases and thereafter, IBPGR and FAO are 

asked to develop guidelines for the safe movement of materials. 

Present status: Some initial work and planning was started. A document was 

published outlining some of the procedures for the provenance trials. (INBAR 

technical report, 4 (Anon 1994). Initial discussions have started to prepare the 

guidelines for the safe movement of germplasm materials. 

3. For conservation and sustained yield of genetic resources the assessment of patterns 

of genetic diversity through survey and experimentation is of the utmost urgency 

in view of genetic erosion. However, IBPGR is requested to develop appropriate 

conservation methodology in parallel with this work. At this stage it is suggested 

that since tissue culture protocols are available for many species, that modification 

of tissue culture methods to promote slow growth for conservation of clones is


quite feasible. Despite the difficulties encountered with flowering cycles, some 

species (e.g. Dendrocalamus asper) may flower but not produce seeds, others may 

produce seeds in very small quantities (e.g. D. asper or Gigantochloa apus), or seeds 

produced may have high inviability. So research on testing seed, viability and 

storability of seed for long-term conservation is recommended. Innovative research 

on physiology to induce flowering could be most valuable. 

Present status: Tissue culture methods for mass propagation of most of the 

bamboo priority species are well outlined and further support was given by IPGRI 

for more studies. Various methods are followed for producing plantlets and by 

using young plants, bamboo plantations have been established. 

In vitro induction of flowering and fruiting offered much hope in the beginning 

but the degree of success was relative only in certain cases or clones. The methods 

are not successful in many other cases (INBAR technical report, 5). 

Some good work has been recently conducted on bamboo seed harvest, handling, 

storability and seed viability, with IPGRI’s support, and these data are being put 

together to develop some giudelines towards conservation strategy. 

One of the commercial companies in Belgium has gained much experience in 

invitro culture of bamboos and they solicit orders from clients offering to produce 

and supply bamboo plantlets of the desired varieties. The presentation made by 

this company at the recent International Bamboo congress in Costa Rica received 

many responses. 

4. With reference to in situ conservation it is pointed out that the agreed priority 

species do not occur in primary forests but are associated with anthropogenic forest 

vegetation. Such areas lend themselves to buffer zone areas but conservation areas 

in ecotones and other anthropogenic forests should be considered in developing 

in situ conservation systems. The conservation community INTERESTED IN 

CONSERVATION has given inadequate attention to these areas despite repeated 

mention in relation to crop relatives and a substantial number of other economic 

plants. 

Present status: The relative status of in situ and ex situ conservation work has 

been summarized for five countries, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Philippines and 

Sri Lanka. Plans for further work are also outlined (Vivekanandan 1998). Similar 

work to produce reports for other countries will be pursued and supported by 

IPGRI. 

4A. It is noted that the IBPGR research is targeted solely to Asia. The attention of 

INBAR and IBPGR is drawn to the need to survey Guadua in Latin America. 

Present status: Natural distribution and plantation establishment of Guadua in 

Central and South American countries are discussed in a recently held International 

Bamboo Conference. This priority species i.e. Guadua angustifolia is well conserved, 

and sustainably used in various Central and South American countries, especially 

for low cost housing. Many books and research papers on this species are recently 

published. Building of bamboo houses has a long tradition in these countries. 

5. An urgent task necessary to enhance bamboo production is genetic enhancement. 

INBAR and FORTIP are asked to consider how this can be promoted. 

Present status: An expert consultation meeting was held in Los Baños, Philippines 

and many important recommendations are made for the genetic enhancement of 

bamboos and rattans (Banik et al 1995; Fu 1995; Gurumurthi 1995; Lawrence 1995; 

Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1995; Williams 1995).

Rattans 

PART II 89 

Participants of the 1994 workshop made the following recommendations in relation 

to rattans. 

1. Recognizing that current exchange of planting materials is slow and that this needs 

to be accelerated and further, that widespread testing has not been carried out, the 

establishment of regional provenance trials on the priority species is urgently 

required. FORTIP has also accorded priority to rattan and their collaboration should 

be sought in this regard. As in the case of bamboos, two urgent interventions are 

needed: 

Present status: Considerable amount of work has been done on plantation and 

nursery techniques for rattan including some priority species like C. manan, C. 

caesius, and C. trachycoleus. Large scale ex situ collections and plantations have been 

established in Sabah using the logged over forest areas (Bacilieri 1998). Work on 

regional provenance trials are awaited but this is not easy to achieve because of 

particular growth conditions that rattans require like rainfall, soil moisture, light 

shade conditions and others. More basic research on ecophysiology needed. 

a. INBAR and FORTIP are asked to develop standard methodology as for bamboos 

(see above). 

b. IBPGR and FAO are asked to develop guidelines for the safe movement of 

materials when INBAR has databased all current information on pests and 

diseases. 

Present status: The data collection on pests and diseases is in progress. The papers 

published on this topic have to be consolidated. More information is available on 

bamboos than rattans. Preliminary discussions have started on the safe movement 

of seed materials. CABI Bioscience of CAB International have joined INBAR-IPGRI 

working group to establish guidelines for the safe movement of Bamboo and Rattan 

materials. 

2. Micropropagation techniques have been developed for a limited number of the 

high priority species. However, further research in this area can await the 

commercialization of selected clones (which has not been done yet). 

Present status: Considerable success has been gained in producing rattan plantlets 

under invitro, part of the CIRAD-FORET/ICSB efforts in Plant Biotech laboratory, 

Tawau, Sabah. Using root or young leaf segments of Calamus manan, C. subinermis 

and C. merrillii somatic embryos have been produced in large numbers which later 

on differentiated into plantlets. The plants have been transferred to the field already. 

This is a major breakthrough in conserving and propagating superior rattan plants. 

The performances of in vitro produced plants will be uniform in terms of growth 

and yield since the plantlets are developed from vegetative tissues of mother 

plants. All the three species are important commercially and the canes of these 

species are very well-used in furniture industry. (Goh, 1997). Earlier research on 

in vitro Culture studies on rattan was summarised. (Rao I.V. et al 1990).


3. For genetic conservation, rattan seeds are short-lived and hence research is needed 

on storability. Tissue culture is not a high priority for genetic conservation because 

current plantings are from heterogeneous seed collections which vary every time. 

(Almost all rattans are dioecious and a genetic marker for the sex ratio has not been 

identified). In situ conservation in primary forests is clearly of the highest priority 

and this must be coupled with survey and identification of patterns of genetic 

variation. 

Present status: Broad based data on in situ conservation of rattan have been obtained 

for few countries like Philippines, Sri Lanka, China, India, Nepal and others. More 

intensive work is required to identify the pattern of genetic variation in rattans. 

Large scale ex situ rattan collections have been established in Luasang Sabah, 

involving five commercially important species (Aloysius , 1998). Similar exercises 

can be practiced in other countries also. As said before it is feasible to obtain large 

number of (genetically uniform) plants by using invitro methods. Since vegetative 

tissues are used as explants, uniform performance of plants produced in the 

laboratory is expected with few modifications. The invitro methods can also be tried 

for genetic conservation of species. Identifying genetic markers and sex ratio studies 

should progress since they help to firmly establish the scientific methods, needed 

to carry out conservation programmes. 

a. Development of extractive reserves and models for sustainable management of 

natural stands should be vigorously pursued, but development of clear scientific 

standards is essential. 

Present status: Some efforts are under way, supported by IPGRI, to understand the 

impact of extraction. More socio-economic, ethnobotanical research needs to be 

done. 

b. A great deal of data exist on rattan distribution in protected areas and these 

should be collated. However, these should be checked by reference to herbarium 

materials and by on-ground surveys. 

Present status: Some valuable data are collected on the distribution of rattan in 

protected areas and natural forests of certain countries including Bangladesh, China, 

India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand 

and Vietnam. The accuracy of data varies since very little work is done in certain 

countries due to shortage of manpower and lack of expertise. Available data has 

been brought upto date (Vivekanandan et al 1997). 

Other topics related to furthering research 

1. Participants discussed the need for relevant information systems and noted that 

a number of databases either exist or are planned by international organizations. 

It was felt that it would be precipitous to discuss these further until descriptor 

systems were available and widely used. 

2. Attention was drawn to the need to use the existing bamboo and rattan information 

centres in China, India & Malaysia. 

Present status: The information sent by the various centres is well-used. The future 

of these centres need to be reassessed.

3. The value of the palm database at the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, UK was noted 

and that this covers not only taxonomy but distribution, ecology, uses and other 

topics. INBAR is asked to explore the possiblity of the subset dealing with rattans 

being made available to cross reference with bibliographic data in the Rattan 

Information Centre. 

Present status: Alice Nomenclature database and collection database on rattan are 

available at Kew, Richmond, England. 

4. A similar database for bamboos is not yet available and this would be the first task 

to be explored. 

Present status: Plans are being made to establish bamboo database. 

PART II 91 

Other decisions 

1. Participants wished to state that of the numerous species not listed as the priority 

in this report there are many which need to be protected in reserve areas and 

inventories maintained. This is due to the over-riding importance of the use of 

these species by local peoples. This would require appropriate sustainable 

management of these species within the forests. 

Present status: Attention has been drawn of the concerned people to the above 

problems at various meetings recently conducted. The country reports presented 

at the training courses and workshops throw some light on the subject illustrating 

the progress made. (See the list of references). Additional number of species have 

been added and discussed in the present volume also. 

2. It is recognized that there are major gaps in our knowledge on the biodiversity of 

many species of priority bamboos and rattans. As research proceeds it will become 

clear that the priorities identified in this report will require revision. 

Present status: Very little work has been done on the biodiversity of rattan and 

bamboo so far. Some varieties are identified for certain species. The deficiency is 

largely due to the lack of well trained manpower and intensive field survey in the 

region.


Epilogue 

A.N. Rao 

Epilogue (1994 edition): Agreement on priority species of bamboo and rattan represents 

a landmark achievement. Obviously the next question posed is what should be next 

in the areas of biodiversity and understanding and exploiting genetic diversity. 

Recommendations made in the report relate to immediate follow-up action so that 

research networking applies the priorities and develops a degree of standardization 

in methodology. However, in relation to diversity scientists will be pondering over 

many unknowns for bamboo and rattan. Conservation is of particular interest in this 

respect, and advances in conservation will rely on understanding patterns of diversity 

in relation to ecology, physiology, genetics, reproductive biology and molecular biology. 

Since the knowledge base is extremely small in relation to these subjects, by necessity 

we need to follow a multidisciplinary approach. Advances will be made when groups 

of researchers working in the various disciplines can be brought together to work on 

common problems. Such groups will include universities as well as research institutes 

and silviculturists in various countries. 

The stimulation of this type of research presents a great challenge to organizations 

such as IBPGR and other international and regional efforts on conservation and 

utilization of plant genetic resources. In any event, it needs careful preparation: topics 

need to be well defined and programming implemented against a background of 

continual assessment and rolling priorities. With some dedicated work, good results 

can be achieved in about 2–3 years time. Lastly, this approach for bamboo and rattan 

will be needed for many other non-timber forest products. 

Epilogue (1998): The meetings at Dehradun and the subsequent ones organized by 

INBAR, FORTIP and IPGRI-APO provided excellent opportunities for many researchers 

to discuss the various issues raised above during the last four years. Although all the 

problems have not been fully solved or the various questions answered, a good beginning 

has been made in several countries and directions outlined to promote research on 

Bamboo and Rattan. The series of publications that have come out in the last 3 years 

bear evidence to such facts giving out various details on several important points 

including conservation and sustainable utilization. (See list of references 1996–1998). 

Methodologies outlined whether they are for field trials, nursery techniques, plantation 

development, vegetative propagation, biochemical methods including tissue culture 

work are very closely followed in many laboratories and institutions. Much progress 

has been made. Population analysis studies are in progress in certain countries paving 

the way for genetic analysis and conservation of various species. 

The publication of final scientific report on the EEC project is an important document 

showing the valuable research carried out on conservation, genetic improvement and 

silviculture of various rattan species. In many ways the document outlines the new 

methods followed to solve the various problems on rattan and sets up models for 

further research. The results obtained during the four year period by the joint work 

of researchers from five institutions in France, UK and Malaysia have helped to open 

many frontiers, unexplored before. Limited or complete answers are made available 

to many questions raised earlier at various meetings and conferences. (Bacilieri 1998). 

The joint efforts of these organizations along with IPGRI-APO, INBAR and FORTIP 

also helped to improve the manpower development in the region. 

The relative status of ex situ and in situ conservation of Bamboo and Rattan has 

been evaluated for more than six Asian countries. Details on Guadua angustifolia are

eing published by various researchers in Central and South America. Attempts are 

made to understand and analyse the patterns of diversity in certain priority species. 

Identification and selection of Bamboo Rattan species for plantation establishment and 

to increase production have been discussed in earlier pages. As explained the nativity or 

indigenous nature of certain species is well known or easily identifiable, for others the 

indigenous status is unknown but certain species are widely distributed in large areas 

either as camp followers or due to their inherent success and ecological adaptability to 

various edaphic and climatic conditions. Few of them are endemic representing either the 

primitive or the advanced stages of evolution. Altogether the distribution of about 30–40 

species are included in this revised text with distribution maps. 

Analysis and understanding the range of species distribution is basic to plan and 

promote conservation measures. Selection and promotion of superior clones or varieties 

of the various species would enhance their economic value. The rarity or scarcity of 

species prompted the various International organizations to prepare the lists of plants 

– generic names proposed for conservation in 1948. Since then many directories or Red 

books have been published for various countries indicating the endangered or threatened 

status of various plant species. Present day conditions endangering the vegetation in 

tropical and subtropical forests are such that we need to prepare a list of Bamboo 

Rattan species that need to be conserved in various countries either immediately or 

over a period of time in the near future. To carry out such an exercise in different 

countries distribution maps given for various species in this publication will be helpful. 

Plant species distribution is the major topic or the core subject of Phytogeography 

or Plantgeography, the main principles of which are discussed in various publications 

over the last 140 years (1807–1944) under different headings including: zonation of 

plants, geography of plants, botanical geography and localities, life zones, floristic 

provinces, age and area and others. The basic principles were enumerated in a concise 

form about 50 years ago by Cain including principles concerning environment, plant 

responses, migration of flora and climaxes, plant evolution etc. Most of these details 

are yet to be covered or analysed in case of Bamboo and Rattan by conducting further 

research. Fossil evidence for both the groups is absent since they are monocots. Bamboos 

are present both in old and new worlds whereas rattans are mostly South East Asian 

in distribution. 

Majority of the woody bamboos investigated so far are polyploids and polyploid 

species often show a wider range of distribution. Almost all the priority species 

considered in the present text are polyploid species and the limited distribution of 

majority of priority species confirm the above statement. The chromosome numbers 

in the related woody genera of bamboos, including the priority species considered 

presently, are not variable, making it difficult to establish genetic relationship between 

economically important genera and the species. Nevertheless genetic enhancement 

and hybridization research has progressed (Tewari 1994, Williams, et al 1995). 

Very few rattans, not more than 4–5 species have been investigated cytologically 

to determine the chromosome numbers, diploid numbers vary between 22–24. Most 

of the rattans when 2–3 years old are very slow growers, and majority of them are 

dioecious. The nature and role of X and Y chromosome analysis in rattans, if any, 

causing diocy are yet to be determined analysing the segregation of sexuality in rattan 

populations. Most probably the pattern of sexuality in dioecious rattan follows the 

same archetype as species of Borassus and Phoenix where male plants have XY pair of 

chromosomes, X larger than Y, and female plants with XX pair, with no size difference 

between the two chromosomes. Andromonoecious condition has been reported in 

Calamus subinermis, an endemic species from Sabah (Lee 1998), suggesting an important 

advice to researchers to re-examine the flower arrangements and structure of many 

other species more closely. 

93


Population analysis of rattans is very important not only to understand the 

phenology and ecology of plants but also to maintain the proper balance between male 

and female plants in a population so that good seed production is ensured to propogate 

and conserve the genetic resources which form the baseline for sustainable utilization. 

Except for suckers there is no vegetative propagation method in rattans. Not all rattans 

would produce suckers. Methods outlined to obtain somatic embryos through tissue 

culture work of 2–3 species may prove very helpful in the near future for other species. 

Dioecious condition is said to be a very advanced evolutionary tendency in 

reproduction of flowering plants (Renner and Ricklefs 1995). Correlations between 

dioecious rattan plants, their ecophysiological, morphological and genetical 

characteristics are yet to be well correlated. Physiological and morphological amplitudes 

of a species are governed by the genetical characters of a species. Therefore proper 

understanding and analysis of rattan reproduction for conservation should involve a 

good measure of both ecophysiological and genetical studies. 

Researchers in developing countries are pursuing a multidisciplinary approach 

using the manpower that are available. Experts are brought from various countries to 

improve or augment the situation wherever needed. More efforts will be made to solve 

the problems in different Asian countries that grow Bamboo and Rattan. With the 

continued support provided by INBAR and IPGRI-APO many of the researchers in 

developing countries are forging ahead to solve the various national and regional 

problems. The networks already established are functioning well in Asian countries 

and more coordinated efforts will help to conserve and sustainably use Bamboo and 

Rattan resources in the near future, using various biotechnological methods (Ratnam 

et al, 1994, Salwana et al, 1996).

Appendix I. Participants 

1. Dr R. Dayal 

Indian Council of Forestry Research 

and Education 

Dehra Dun 248 006 

India 

2. Dr J. Dransfield 

Royal Botanic Gardens 

Kew Richmond, Surrey 

TW9 3Ab, UK 

3. Dr Soejatmi Dransfield 

Royal Botanic Gardens 

Kew. Richmond, Surrey 

TW9 3AB, UK 

4. Dr Aminuddin Mohamad 

Forest Research Institute Malaysia 

Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur 

Malaysia 

5. Dr Abdou-Salam Ouedraogo 

International Plant Genetic Resources 

Institute 

Via delle Sette Chiese 142 

00145 Rome 

Italy 

6. Prof Pei Shengji 

International Centre for Integrated 

Mountain Development 

GPO Box 326 

Kathmandu 

Nepal 

7. Prof A N Rao 

Department of Botany 

National University of Singapore 

Lower Kent Ridge Road 

Singapore 0511 

Singapore 

8. Dr V Ramanatha Rao 

International Plant Genetic Resources 

Institute 

RELC Building 

30 Orange Grove Road 

Singapore 1025 

Singapore 

9. Dr C Renuka 

Kerala Forest Research Institute 

Peechi 680 653 

Thrissur District 

Kerala State 

India 

10. Mr P. Stinson 

International Network for Bamboo and 

Rattan 

IDRC 

17 Jor Bagh 

New Delhi 110003 

India 

11. Dr D N Tewari 

Indian Council for Forestry Research 

and Education 

Dehra Dun 248006 

India 

12. Dr K Vivekanandan 

FORTIP 

UNDP/FAO Regional Project RAS/ 

91/004 

Ecosystems Research and 

Development Bureau 

P O Box 157 

College Laguna 4031 

Philippines 

13. Dr Elizabeth Widjaja 

Herbarium Bogoriense 

Jl. Raja Juanda 22-24 

Bogor 16122 

Indonesia 

APPENDIX 111 95 

14. Prof J T Williams 

INBAR Science Adviser 

C/o 1 Scott Cirfcle NW#102 

Washington D C 20036 

USA

DTP Production: Vision Waves Design • Printer: Vision Waves Print

I P G 

R 

I 

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute 

ISBN 92-9043-491-5

Priority species of bamboo and rattan - Bioversity International

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