r.1 - part

Common Fue d 

Crops i ,1 

Elbert L. Little, Jr. 

7, 

II 

A Handbook for 

Their Identification 

7

Common 

Fuelwood Crops 

A Handbook for Their Identification 

Elbert.LLittle, Jro 

Communi-Tech Associates 

Morgantown, West Virginia

Available for purchase from 

Communi-Tech Associates 

Post Office Box 3170 

Morgantown, West Virginia 26503 

Single copy price: S13.50 (softcover) 

Printed in the United States of America by 

McClain Printing Company, Parsons, West Virginia

Contents 

The Author 

Foreword 

How to Use This Handbook 

Introduction 

Acknowledgments 

Descriptions of 90 Species of Fuelwood Crops 

ACACIA, acacia 

1. Acacia auiculifornis, northern black wattle 

2. Acacia brachystachya, umbrella mulga 

3. Acacia carnbagei, gidgee 

4. Acacia cyclops, western Australia coastal wattle 

5. Acacia tnearnsii,black wattle 

6. Acacia nilotica, Egyptian-thorn 

7. Acacia saligna, orange wattle 

8. Acacia senegal, gum-arabic-tree 

9. Acacia seyal, seyal 

10. Acacia tortili, umbrella.thorn 

11. Adhatoda zeylanica, vasaka 

12. Ailanthus altissima, ailanthus 

13. Ailanthus excelsa, ailanthus 

14. Albizia fa!cataria,Molucca albizia 

15. Albizia lebbek, lebbek 

ALNUS, alder 

16. AInus acurninata, Andes alder 

17. Alnus nepalensis, Nepal alder 

18. AInus rubra, red alder 

19. Anogeissus latifolia, axlewood 

20. Azadirachta indica, neem 

21. Byrsonirna crassifolia, nance 

22. Cajanus cajan, pigeon-pea 

23. Calliandra calothyrsus, calliandra 

24. Cassia siamnea, Siamese cassia 

CASUARINA, casuarina 

25. Casuarina cunninghamiana, Cunningham casuarina 

26. Casuarina equisetifolia, horsetail casuarina 

27. Casuarinaglauca, longleaf casuarina 

28. Colophospermun mopane, mopane 

29. Dalbergia sissoo, sissoo 

30. Derris indica, pongam 

31. Eniblica officinalis, emblic 

iii 

Page 

vi 

vii 

Viii 

ix 

xii 

1 

3 

6 

9 

13 

15 

18 

23 

28 

32 

35 

39 

42 

45 

48 

51 

55 

56 

61 

64 

68 

71 

75 

78 

81 

84 

87 

89 

93 

97 

100 

105 

109 

113

EUCALYPTUS, eucalyptus 

32. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, river redgum eucalyptus 

33. Eucalyptus citriodora, lemon.scented-gum 

34. Eucalyptus globulus, Tasmanian bluegum 

35. Eucalyptus goinphocephala, tuart 

36. Eucalyptus grandis, flooded-gum 

37. Eucalyptus microtheca, coolibah 

38. Eucalyptus occidentalis, flat-topped yate 

39. Eucalyptus robusta, robusta eucalyptus 

40. Eucalyptus saligna, saligna eucalyptus 

41. Eucalyptus tereticornis, forest redgum 

42. Gleditsia triacanthos, horcylocust 

43. Gliricidia sepiurn, motherof-cocoa moth ~oa1 e -of- o 

44. Gmelina arborea, gmelina 

45. Grevillea robusta, grevillea 

46. Guazuma ulInifolia, gudcima 

47. Haloxylon aphyllum, black saksaul 

48. Haloxylon persicum, white saksaul 

49. Inga vera, inga 

50. Leucaena leucocephala, leucaena 

51, Mela'euca quinquenervia, cajeput-tree 

52. Melia azedarach, chinaberry 

53. Mimosa scabrella, bracadtinga 

54. Muntingia calabura, strawberry-tree 

55. Parhinsonia aculeata, Jerusalem-thorn 

PINUS, pine 

56. Pnus brutia, brutia pine 

57. Pinus caribaea, Caribbean pine 

58. Pinus halepensis,Aleppo pine 

59. Pithecellobiu'n dulce, blackbeard 

PROSOPIS, mesquite 

60. Prosopis alba, white algarrobo 

61. Prosopis chilensis, algarrobo de Chile 

62. Prosopis cineraria, jand 

63. Prosopis farcta, acatia 

64. Prosopisjuliflora, mesquite 

65. Prosopispallida, mesquite 

66. Prosopis tanharugo,tamarugo 

67. Psidiuni guajava, guava 

68. Robinia pseuaoacaeia,black locust 

117 

120 

124 

128 

133 

137. 

141 

145 

148 

152 

156 

160 

164 6 7 

17 

171 

174 

177 

181 

183 

186 

190 

194 

198 

202 

205 

208 

209 

212 

216 

219 

222 

225 

227 

231 

234 

237 

240 

243 

247 

250 

69. Sesbania bispinosa, dhaincha 

70. Sesbania grandiflora, agati 

257 

iv

71. Syzygium cunini, jambolan 

72. Taniarix aphyllao athel tamarisk 

73. Tarnrix chinensix, tamarisk 

74. Terminalia catappa, India-almond 

TREMA, trema 

75. Tremaguineensis, charcoal-tree 

76. Treina inicrantia,Florida trema 

77. Trema orientalis,charcoal-tree 

78. Trema politoria, banharria 

79. Ziziphus mauritiana,Indian jujube 

80. Ziziphus spina.christi, Christ-thorn jujube 

MANGROVES 

81. Avicenniagerminans, black.mangrove 

82. Avicennia marina, black-mangrove 

83. Avicennia oflicinalis,Indian mangrove 

84. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Burma mangrove 

85. Ceriopstagal, tagal mangrove 

86. Conocarpus erectus, button.mangrove 

87. Laguncularia rac2,nosa, white-mangrove 

88. Rhizophora mangle, red mangrove 

89. Rhizophora ,nucronata, Asiatic mangrove 

90. Sonneralia caseolaris, crabapple mangrove 

Index of Scientific Names 

Index of Common Names 

v 

260 

263 

268 

271 

.275 

276 

279 

282 

285 

287 

291 

294 

298 

303 

306 

309 

313 

316 

320 

324 

329 

333 

337 

340

The Author 

Elbert L. Little, Jr., is Chief Dendrologist (retired), Forest Service, United 

States Department of Agriculture. His career of more than a half century as a 

tree identification specialist has been devoted mainly to New Wo.rld trees. 

Field trips have taken him throughout the United States including Alaska 

and Hawaii. For more than seven years he worked in tropical America from 

Mexico and Puerto Rico to the Patagonia region of Argentina and Chile. 

Visiting professorships included Universidad de Los Andes, Mrida, 

Venezuela, and the Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center, Turrialba, 

Costa Rica. In World War 11 he served with the Latin American Forest 

Resources Project in Ecuador and Costa Rica, with the Cinchona Division, 

Foreign Economics Administration in Colombia, and the drug plants program, 

U.S. Commnercial Co.. in Mexico. The Food and Agriculture Organization of 

the United Nations employed him as a consultant in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, 

and Ecuador. In Guyana he was an ecologist with a soil survey. 

His M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in botany are from the University of Chicago. 

Honors include Distinguished Service Awards from the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture and the American Forestry Association. 

He is author or coauthor of many tree books and publications, including 

Common Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Arboles Cornunes de 

Esmeraldas(Ecuador), Alaska Trees and Shrubs, Checklist of United States Trees, 

tais of United States Trees, and the Audubon Society Field Guide to North 

American Trees. Still writing in retirement, he is a Research Associate, Departmeiih 

of Botany, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 

vi

Foreword 

Increasingly, biomass is being considered a major source of energy for development. 

Until now, energy planners in developing countries have thought 

of biofuels as suitable primarily for "traditional" uses, such as domestic cooking 

and small-scale rural industries. But even remote regions have felt the 

higher costs of 'conventional" fuels - either directly or indirectly - through the 

higher prices commanded by cordwood and charcoal. These are the only biofuels 

whose quality enables them to substitute readily for oil, kerosene, or coal 

in many uses. 

Rather than fight the trend to commercialization of biomass, planners in 

such countries as the Philippines and Brazil are beginning to see their biofuels 

as economically competitive new fuels that canl yield enough energy for vir 

tually any use. In the Philippines, irrigation pumps, electricity generators, 

fishing boats, and ice machines are fueled with wood and charcoal. Other 

countries are planning similar biomass-based energy programs. Experience 

has taught that such programs need a framework as comprehensive as that required 

for coal, peat, or any other fossil resource. The development of a complete 

bioenergy economy requires the coordination of comparable national 

policies and plans, project efforts, and research programs. Once such a 

framework is established, informed decisions can be made about managing 

the production of biomass materials that can be converted into useful forms of 

energy. In many cases the preferred biomass will be woody. 

The Agency for International Development (AID) has made the development 

of indigenous energy resources, including biomass, a high priority for its 

development assistance programs. AID provides t,2chnical assistance and information 

to countries interested in systematic approaches to developing their 

renewable energy resources. This handbook for identifying existing and 

potential fuelwood crops is one example of such efforts to assist those involved 

in the development of bioenergy systems. It is intended to complement 

Firewood Crops: Shrub and Tree Species for Energy Production, published by the 

National Academy of Sciences in 1980, by providing a tool useful in the field 

and in the classroom throughout tropical regions. 

This book was written under a contract funded by AID and administered by 

the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

W. Paul Weatherly 

Manager 

Bioenergy Systems and Technology Project 

Office of Energy 

Agency for International Development 

Washington, D.C. 

vii

How to Use This Handbook 

This handbook contains botanical descriptions of 90 tree species. The 

species are arranged alphabetically by their commonly accepted scientific 

names beginning on page 1,except that ten species of mangrove are at the end 

of the list (beginning on page 294). 

If only a common name of a specimen is known, consult the Index of Conmon 

Names on page 340. This list offers one or more common names by 

which the species is known in its natural range of distribution. The commonly 

accepted scientific name and page reference are given for each common name 

indexed. The specimen can then be compared with the description and illustrations 

given. 

The Index of Scientific Names, on page 337, lists the botanical or Latin 

names, synonyms, and names of plant families. When the scientific name is 

known, the reader may refer directly to the section on that species. If the plant 

family is recognized, this index can also be consulted for numbers of the pages 

describing all its species. 

OiII

Introduction 

The main objective of this handbook is to aid the identification of the common 

trees and shrubs grown as fuelwood crops in plantations and forests 

chiefly in tropical regions. It is intended as a companion volume to Firewood 

Crops: Shrub and Tree Species for Energy Production (National Academy of 

Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1980). Sixty woody species were described in 

detail and illustrated in Firewood Crops; the collection is expanded to 90 

species here. 

This book is designed to help in the recognition and naming of growing 

plants and specimens through nontechnical botanical descriptions and illustrations 

that show details of leaves, flowers, and fruits. Drawings from older 

volumes have been assembled for nearly all species. Previously published 

distribution maps have been included for many. Additional references, including 

classical and newer monographs, are cited as sources for further infornation. 

Numerous common names for different languages and countries have 

been compiled n.d indexed to assist identification. 

Plan of the Text 

Information for each species in this book generally follows the plan used in 

Firewood Crops. Some subjects have been expanded, and other topics not 

related to identification have been condensed or omitted. The botanical 

descriptions are similar to those of other publications by the author, especially 

the two-volume handbook on the trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands 

(Little and Wadsworth, 1964; Little, Woodbury, and Wadsworth, 1974). Text 

and drawings of 30 species from these references have been adapted or revised 

here. Throughout, the aim has been to prepare accurate botanical descriptions 

in mostly nontechnical terms. The metric system has been used for 

measurements. A table for converting to this system is found on the inside 

back cover. 

Botanical Description 

A description and keys to individual species are provided for the 7 genera 

which have 3 or roore species described here, and for the group of mangroves. 

Next come the species descriptions which include the following information. 

The heading above the text of each species gives the accepted scientific 

name, a Latin binomial. This scientific name is repeated, with the author 

added, as the botanical name; if the author's name is long, it is usually abbreviated. 

Next come any synonyms, that is, other widely used scientific names. 

These are followed by common names, given by language or country. The 

plant family in English and Latin is given last. For the legume family, the subfamily 

is added in parentheses. 

While scientific names are necessary in international references involving 

ix

many countries and languages, common names used locally are important aids 

to identification. This compilation sought to expand the list of common names 

by languages and countries, as noted in tile publications consulted, and to offer 

here tile one preferred in each country. It is impractical to copy all com 

mon names found in print. Because of different groups and dialects, one 

some with 

species within a large country may have 15 or more local names, 

slightly varying spellings and pronunciations. The common names compiled 

name first and then others 

here by languages and countries list tile preferred 

in use, with English names first. 

species mentions important details, including 

The first paragraph under 

the general climatic group 

special features for identification or recognition, 

botanical description in several 

and any unusual values. Then follows tile 

paragraphs, with side headings in boldface type. First is a general description, 

or deciduous and whether spiny. 

including size and habit, whether evergreen 

at maturity on good sites, which obviously vary 

Sizes generally are averages 

for the trunk, crown, bark, twigs, 

greatly. Other details are given 

and 

sometimes buds. 

The paragraph on leaves includes such details as arrangement, whether simple 

or compound and divided into leaflets, and shape, size, base, tip, margin, 

arrangement of veins, surfaces, color, and hairiness. 

Discussed under flowers are the flower cluster, shape, size, color, distinctive 

characters, and important notes on parts. The fruit description includes kind, 

shape, size, color, and seeds. 

compiled from available sources 

A brief description of the wood has been 

nearly all species and contains such information as wood anatomy and 

for 

wood properties. Various uses of the wood, especially as firewood and charcoal, 

are summarized. 

Paragraphs on other uses include minor forest products, such as bark, edible 

fruits and seeds, chemicals, and medicines. Also discussed are uses in cultivation, 

such as forest plantations, fuelwood plantations, shade, ornament, 

Forage value for liveshelterbelts, 

windbreaks, hedges, and erosion control. 

stock and wildlife is noted. 

native range by connatural 

distribution summarizes tile 

Information on 

tinents and countries along the range border. The altitude range is included. 

Discussion of the distribution of introduced species is general and does not list 

every country with successful plantations or trials. 

climate and soils, including 

A brief paragraph containing information on 

temperature and rainfall, is condensed from the discussions of environmental 

requirements in Firewood Crops. Data on vegetation type and associated trees 

are given if known. 

Details about named varieties, related species, and derivation of scientific 

names are added, when appropriate. 

x

Illustrations 

Illustrations, including drawings and maps, have been compiled from 

various publications. Most of these illustrations are older drawings skillfully 

executed from living plants. Most show a leafy twig, flowers, and fruits; many 

also have details enlarged. Illustrations for a few species are incomplete. 

Because these illustrations comc from many sources and are by different ar. 

tists, they vary in style and detail. Some are from early works long out of print. 

However, these drawings are still useful for identification today. 

Published distribution maps showing natural ranges for 61 species are 

reproduced here. A few are from taxonomic monographs. Fifteen for Australia 

(most from Hall et al., 1970) show the entire natural range. However, many 

show only part of the extent within one country or region. Sixteen are for India 

and adjacent countries (Pearson and Brown, 1932). Nine are from southern 

Africa (Coates Palgrave, 1977). Eight for the United States and 4 for Puerto 

Rico are from the author's publications. Though incomplete, these maps may 

be useful in indicating seed sources. 

References 

References, chosen mainly to assist in identification, are cited after the text 

describing each species. Firewood Crops lists more titles and publications with 

additional information on cultivation, growth, and yield are available for 

many species. 

Most countries possess technical, often lengthy, descriptive floras, for identification 

of seed plants, including trees and shrubs. Many geographical or 

political divisions have useful illustrated handbooks for naming common trees 

and shrubs. However, these publications generally emphasize the native 

species and may not contain recent introductions such as fuelwood crops. 

Statistical Summary 

The 90 firewood species described and illustrated here are classified in 48 

genera and 22 piant families; they thus represent many environments. Thirtyfive 

species, more than one-third, belong to the Legume Family, Leguminosae, 

including 10 in the genus Acacia, acacia, and 7 in Prosopis, mesquite. The 

Myrtle Family, Myrtaceae, has 13 species, of which 10 are in the genus 

Eucalyptus, eucalyptus. 

The remaining 42 species are distributed Lmong 20 plant families with I to 4 

species each. The genus Trema, trema, has 4 species described, while 4 genera 

have 3 each: Alnus, alder; Avicennia, black-mangrove; Casuarina,casuarina; 

and Pinus, pine. 

Conifers, or softwoods, are represented by only the Pine Family, Pinaceae, 

with 3 species in the genus Pinus, pine. All the others are hardwoods, or 

xi

dicotyledons, but their woods vary widely from hard to soft. Information on 

mangroves has been expanded and all species are treated together following 

the other genera. Ten species of mangrove in 7 genera and 4 plant families are 

described. 

trees; most are small to 

Nearly all species described in this handbook are 

medium in size, but some 

become large. A few species in very dry, almost 

treeless regions are shrubs that seldom, if ever, attain tree size. One is grown 

as an annual crop. 

The 90 species may be grouped according to climate, as in FirewoodCrops. 

However, the three groups intergrade. Some species are cited in that volume's 

more than one group. More 

Master List of Firewood Species (pp. 187-90) in 

listed under 

than one-third of the species covered in this handbook (33) are 

humid tropics, and one-sixth, or about 15, in tropical highlands. The remaining 

42 are in arid and semiarid regions. 

Acknowledgments 

Paul Weatherly, Agency for International De- 

Special credit is due W. 

velopment, for planning this handbook for identifying fuelwood crops and for 

its preparation. Additional administrative support was given by 

funding 

and Pieter E. Hoekstra, Forest Service, United States 

Harold E. Wahlgren 

Department of Agriculture. 

Noel D. Vietmeyer and Mary Jane Engquist, National Academy of Sciences, 

on 

D.C., kindly made available their comprehensive files 

Washington, 

publications, and 

firewood crops, including correspondence, notes, 

bibliographies. Government forestry agencies of niany countries have assisted 

nanes, in response to a circular letter. 

in indicating the preferred common 

The illustrations, including drawings and maps, have been repioduced from 

source of each is acknowledged in the legend and 

various publications. The 

cited under References. 

was prepared mostly in the Department of Botany, United 

This publication 

Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 

States National Museum of 

is a research associate. Grateful 

Washington, D.C., where the author 

of the Institution's Botany Library and 

acknowledgment is made for the use 

the National Herbarium of worldwide scope. 

xii

ACACIA 

Common Names acacia; wattle (Australia) 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Mimosoideae 

The 600-800 species of trees and shrubs of the genus Acacia are widely distributed 

in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, with Australia and 

Africa having the greatest numbers. Acacia, derived from the Greek word for 

thorn, is the classical Greek name of a thorny tree of Egypt, thought to be of 

this genus. Species of Acacia, especially those with showy flowers, are called 

"wattle" in Australia. That term refers to twigs, saplings, or flexible rods 

planted or interwoven together in the framework of house walls. 

Growing mainly in dry regions, trees and shrubs of this species are mostly 

evergreen, often with spreading crown and spines. Twigs are slender, often 

with spines paired from stipules (sometimes swollen) or scattered. Leaves are 

alternate and crowded, hipinnately compound with many small leaflets; but in 

about 300 Australian species there are simple flattened leaves (phyllodes) from 

modified leafstalks. Flower clusters are round (heads) or cylindrical (spikes) at 

leaf bases. Numerous small flowers are yellow or greenish-white. The calyx is 

bell-shaped and mostly 5-toothed; petals, mostly 5, are more or lcss united; 

stamens are nunerous, threadlike, and longer than the petals; and the pistil 

has a narrow ovary, long slender style, and doi stigma. Fruit isa nearly cylindrical 

or oblong, flat pod, not splitting open. The several seeds are beanlike 

and flattened. 

The l0 species important for firewood described and illustrated here are sep. 

arated in the key below. 

Reference 

National Academy of Sciences. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. 

National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC., USA. 

ACACIA I

KEY TO ACACIA SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

Leaves simple flattened phyllodes (modified leafstalks); spines absent; native 

of Australia. 

Flower clusters (spikes) narrow, cylindrical. 

2.3 mm 

1.5 cm long; phyllodes very narrow, 

Flower clusters short, 

.. •2. Acacia brachystachya. 

wide; pods nearly cylindrical, very narrow 

mm wide; pods 

Flower clusters long, 5-8 cm; phyllodes broad, 15-35 

cm wide, flattened, twisted in irregular coil or spiral 

1.1.5 

... 1.A cacia auriculiforin is. 

... ............................ 

Flower clusters (heads) like balls. 

Phyllodes with prominent midv,'in and many side veins; pods very narbetween 

mm wide, straight, flattened, s'.ightly narrowed 

row, 4-6 7. A cocia saligna. 

seeds ........................................ 

mm wide, flattened 

Phyllodes with parallel veins; pods broader, 8-12 

not narrowed between seeds. 

Phyllodes short-pointed, with grayish-white bloom; pods straight 

3. Acacia carn bagci. 

................ ........................ 

to side, light green; pods 

point curved 

Phyllodes with short hard 

4.Acacia cyclops. 

curved ..................................... 

Leaves bipinnately compound, with many tiny narrow leaflets; spines present 

and not native of Australia (except 5. Acacia inearnsii). 

Leaflets very numerous, 40-60 pairs on each side axis, densely soft, hairy; 

spines absent; pods narrowly oblong, flat, narrowed between seeds; na 

5. Acacia niearnsii. 

tive of Australia .......................... 

Leaflets fewer than 25 pairs on each side axis, hairless or slightly hairy; 

spines or thorns present; native of Africa and Asia. 

spines 

spine curved backward, lateral 

Spines mostly in 3's, central 

flower clusters (spikesl narrow, 

straight and pointing forward; 

8.Acacia senegal. 

cylindrical; pods broad, flat ..................... 

Spines in pairs; flower clusters (heads) like halls. 

long, straight; pods 

kinds: short, curved prickles and 

Spines of 2 

10. Acacia tortilis. 

curved and twisted .......................... 

Spines long, straight; pods flattened, straight. 

Pods in clusters, less than I cm wide, long.pointed . .9. Acacia seyal. 

.... 6. Acacia nilotica. 

Pods 1-2, more than Icm wide, short.pointed 

COMMON FUELWOOD CROPS

1. Acacia auriculiformis 

Botanical Name Acacia auriculiformisA. Cunn. ex Benth. (also spelled auriculaeformis). 

Common Names northern black wattle, earpod wattle, Darwin black 

wattle (Australia); akashmoni, Australia babul (India); kasia (Indonesia); 

Papua wattle (Papua New Guinea). 


This hardy, drought-resistant Australian and Papuan tree can produce good 

fuelwood 

on poor soils. It is recognized by broad, lance-shaped leathery 

phyllodes with several long, parallel veins; many tiny flowers in long, narrow 

cylindrical clusters; and flattened pods twisted in an irregular coil or spiral 

suggesting an ear. The specific name from Iatin, meaning with the shape of a 

small ear, refers to the pods. This is a fuelwood species for the humid tropics. 

Description Small to medium-sized deciduous or evergreen tree 8-20 m 

high with usually 2 or more, often crooked, trunks up to 60 cm in diameter, 

with dense crown, often with large low branches and poor form; on favorable 

sites a large tree to 25-30 in. Bark gray or brown, smoothish, becoming rough 

and fissured. Twigs slightly angled, mostly hairless. 

Leaves alternate, simple flattened 

phyllodes (modified leafstalks), lance- 

shaped or oblong, slightly curved, long-pointed at both ends, 10-16 cm long, 

mostly 1.5-2.5 cm wide, 4-9 times as long as broad, thick, leathery, hairless, 

with several long parallel veins (3 prominent) from base, which has a gland, 

and many crowded fine veins forming network. 

Flower clusters (spikes) 5-8 cm long, paired at leaf bases, narrow. Flowers 

many but not crowded, stalkless, tiny, 3 mm long; composed of cuplike, 

5-toothed, hairless calyx 1 mm long; corolla of 5 narrow, pointed petals 2 mm 

long; many threadlike stamens 3 mm long; and pistil with hairy ovary and 

threadlike style. 

Pods (legumes) 6-8 cm long, 1-1.5 cm wide, flattened, twisted in irregular 

coil or spiral, outer edge often wavy, with prominent veins, hard. Seeds 

several, beanlike, elliptical, flattened, 5 mm long, encircled by long threadlike 

red or orange stalk. 

Wood dark red with yellow sapwood, heavy (sp. gr. 0.6-0.75), very hard, 

durable, high calorific value. Good firewood, excellent charcoal that glows 

well and burns without smoke or sparks, pulpwood, suitable for construction 

and furniture; tannin in bark. 

Other Uses Widely grown for ornament and shade because of dense 

foliage, hardiness in cities; erosion control on steep, unstable slopes and 

beaches; suitable on poor sites for fuelwood and charcoal. 

Natural Distribution 

Papua New Guinea, islands of the Torres Straight, 

and northern Australia in Queensland (Cape York Peninsula) and Northern 

Territory (Arnhem Land). Altitude sea level to 500 m. 

ACACIA AURICULIFORMIS 

3

Fig. 1. Acacia auriculiformis (Mueller 1888). 

countries from Africa to southern Asia and In 

Introduced into various 

donesia. 

Climate and Soils Humid seasonal tropical with high temperatures 

throughout year, no frosts; 1000-1800 mm average annual rainfall, with 6-month 

dry season. Wide range of soils with deep to shiallow, such as sand dunes, mica 

In northern Australia trees grow on 

schist, clay, limestone, podsols, laterite. 

both alkaline sand dunes (pH 9.0) and acid mine spoil banks (pH 3.0). 

4 

COMMON FU ELWOOD CROPS

Fig. 2. Distribution of Acacia auriculiformis in Australia (Hall et al. 1980). 

In savanna vegetation, this species forms narrow belts, where it may be 

dominant or a principal species; it occurs in low, open tropical forest with 

Eucalyptus, and other Acacia species, and also grows behind beaches. 

References 

Hall, Norman, J. W. Turnbull, and P. N. Martensz. 1980. Australian acacias, 

no. 8. Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. Illus. Australia Com 

monwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Division of 

Forest Research. 2 pp. (map used here). 

Mueller, Ferd. von. 1888. Iconography of Australian species of Acacia and cognate 

genera, 9th decade. Illus. (unnumb. pl., drawing used here). 


Illus. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA. pp. 165-171. 

Pedley, L. 1975. Revision of the extra-Australian species of Acacia subg. Heter 

ophyllum. Contributions from the Queensland Herbarium, no. 20. 24 pp. 

1978-79. A revision of Acacia Mill. in Queensland. Austrobaileya 1: 75 

- 

337, illus. 

Verdcourt, B. 1979. A manual of New Guinea legumes. Botany Bulletin, no. 11. 

Illus. Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 

ACACIA AURICULIFORMIS 

5

2. Acacia brachystachya 

Botanical Name Acacia brachystachyaBenth. 

Common Names umbrella mulga, turpentine mulga, narrowleaf mulga 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Mimosoideae) 

Acacia brachystachya is widespread in arid interior Australia. This shrub or 

small tree has upright, very narrow phyllodes; tiny flowers in cylindrical 

clusters; and very narrow, nearly cylindrical, silvery pods that are hard and 

hairy. This fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions produces superior 

firewood. The specific name from Greek, meaning "short spike," refers to the 

flower cluster. "Mulga" is the Australian aboriginal name for several species. 

tree to 7 m high, evergreen (?), 

Description Tall bushy shrub or small 

usually branching from base, with spreading rounded crown of upright 

branches. Twigs angled, with brown and silvery pressed hairs. 

Leaves alternate, simple flattened phyllodes (modified leafstalks), upright, 

very narrow (linear), 8-10 cm long, 2-3 mm wide, mostly 30-50 times as long as 

wide, slightly flattened, long-pointed, curved, stiff and leathery, with many 

fine veins and prominent gland at base. 

Flowerclusters (spikes) cylindrical, single at leaf bases, 1.5 cm long, shortstalked. 

Flowers many, crowded, stalkless, tiny, 2 mm long, composed of 

5-lobed calyx 0.5 mm long, corolla 1.5 mm long, 5-lobed halfway to base, often 

finely hairy, many threadlike 2 mm stamens, and pistil with hairy ovary and 


Pods (legumes) long, very narrow (linear), 3-6 cm long, 3-5 mm wide, 2-2.5 

mm thick, nearly cylindrical, slightly narrowed between seeds, silvery, finely 

hairy, with network of veins, hard, woody. Seeds several, beanlike, elliptical, 

flattened, 5-7 mm long, on threadlike twisted stalk. 

Wood hard, heavy, durable; superior firewood. 

Other Uses Used to manufacture small ornamental objects. Foliage, 

as 

though of low palatability, sometimes eaten by livestocl:, can serve 

emergency fodder. Aborigines ate seeds. 

Natural Distribution Widespread in arid and semiarid Australia, from 

southwestern Queensland west of central South Australia and cross to the 

central coast of Western Australia. Altitude from sea level to about 600 m. Apparently 

not widely introduced elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Arid and semiarid tropical and subtropical, with great 

temperature extremes from 40-58 0 C, sometimes between OC and 690C. Annual 

rainfall mostly 200-300 mm, sometimes to 500 mm; may be long dry 

seasons or droughts. Soils laterites, friable clays, loams, and alluvium. Fairly 

common in plains, often in dry stony or grav.elly areas. 

6 


AL 

* / D 

Il.l,.,/.I-,-/ 

'(( 

+\ 4 

0 

Fig. 3 Acacia brachystachya (Maiden 19i7, P 1 . 230). 

ACACIA BRACHYSTACHYA 

7

References 

Maiden, J. H. 1917. The forest flora of New South Wales, vol. 7. Illus. pp. 9-12, 

14. lpl. 230, drawing used here). 

Pedley, L. 197ts-19. A revision of Acacia Mill. InQueensland. Austrobaileya 1: 

75-337, illus. 

8 


3. Acacia cambagei 

Botanical Name Acacia carnbageiR. T. Baker 

Common Names gidgee, gidyea, gidya, stinking wattle 


Gidgee, an Australian tree of very dry areas, is recognized by the grayish or 

whitish, narrow, lance-shaped phyllodes with 1-3 main veins; tiny yellow 

flowers in balls; long, narrow, flat, straight pods; and a very offensive odor, 

especially during or with the approach of rain. The extremely heavy wood is 

one of the world's hardest, heaviest timbers and burns with intense heat. It is a 

fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions. The scientific name honors 

Richard Hind Cambage (1859-1928), mining surveyor and undersecretary for 

mines, New South Wales. An enthusiastic botanist, he studied Acacia seed 

lings and collected specimens showing that this was a dstinct species. 

"Gidgee" is the Australian aboriginal name. 

Description Handsome small to medium-sized evergreen (?)tree to 10.12 

in high, with straight trunk to 30 cm in diameter, and widespreading, 

moderately dense crown of gray or whitish evil-smelling foliage; under ex 

treme conditions only 4 m high, with sparse open crown. Bark dark gray or 

brown, rough, fibrous, somewhat flaky, deeply furrowed. Twigs slightly 

drooping, angled, often with pressed hairs. 

Leaves alternate, simple flattened phyllodes (modified leafstalks), lance 

shaped, straight or curved, 5-13 cm 

long, 5-10 nun wide, about 6-16 times as 

long as wide, flattened, thick and leathery, short-pointed, with 1-3 main veins 

and many fine parallel veins not connected, becoming hairless, covered with 

grayish-white bloom. 

Flower clusters (heads) like balls, mostly 4-10 on stalks along axis (raceme) 

to 3 cmilong or on separate stalks at leaf iase. Flowers 15-25, crowded, stalkless, 

tiny, 3 mm long, yellow or orange, with unpleasant odor suggesting rotten 

onions. Calyx 0.5 mm long with 5 blunt lobes hairy at tip; 5 narrow petals 

more than 1 mm long, hairless or slightly hairy; many threadlike stamens 3 

mm long; and pistil with hairy ovary and long slender style. 

Pods (legumes) long and narrow, 8-13 cm long, 9-12 mn wide, flat, mostly 

straight or curved, thin, with coarse 

network of veins, hairless, thin-walled. 

Seeds several, beanlike, elliptical, 8-9 mm long, on short thread. 

Wood dark reddish or almost black, with pale yellow sapwood, extremely 

hard and heavy (sp. gr. 1.31, very fine-textured, with interlocked grain, often 

with rings and pretty markings; very durable and resistant to termites but 

rather difficult to work. 

Excellent firewood, burning completely green or dry, leaving thick whitish 

or pale gray ash up to 90 percent lime (calcium oxidel. Because of intense heat 

of burning, other wood is usually mixed with Acacia cambagei to avoid buckling 

of firebars. Charcoal with high ash content. 

ACACIA CAMBAGEI 

9

VIC..° 

Fig. 4. A 'mciacarnbagei jMaiden 1908, pl. 121). 

Other Uses Fenceposts, rough 

articles 

work 

such 

and 

as 

turnery, 

picture frames. 

small ornamental 

parallel 

Ringed 

rings, 

gidgee, 

prized 

a variation 

for ma',ng, 

with 

canes, 

beautiful 

Aborigines walkingsticks, 

made stoekwhip 

spears handles. 

Natural 

and 

Distribution 

boomerangs 

Widespread from 

in 

wood. 

temperate arid 

and 

and 

subtropical 

semiarid areas 

eastern of 

and 

inland 

Western 

central 

Australia, 

Australia 

an 

but 

area 

not 

of 

as 

more 

far west 

than 

as 

1.5 million km2 . In dense groves, par- 

10 


Fig. 5. Distribution of Acacia cambagei in Australia (Hall et al. 1975). 

ticularly in western Queensland and northern New South Wales. Altitude 

75-500 m. 

Introduced in small-scale tests in India, North Africa, and the Persian Gulf. 

Climate and Soils Arid and semiarid temperate and subtropical with 

summer temperatures to 341C. Rainfall 125.500 mm annually, mainly in sumnier, 

with severe droughts averaging 5 months in duration. Wide range of 

soils, commonly clay oams with thin sandy layer on top, with moderately 

good drainage. 

Often tie dominant tree, especially along streams and in clay depressions 

where water collects after rain; forms dense, pure stands or scrub thickets 

with interlacing branches, bordering treeless grassland plains. 

Very offensive, almost unbearable odor from foliage, especially during or on 

approach of wet weather, detectable for kilometers, which foretells approach 

of rain. Because of reports that men cutting down a tree just before a rain be. 

came very sick, this species should not be planted within 0.2 km of homes or 

even greater distances on windward side in areas with summer rains. Odor apparently 

keeps livestock from browsi:ig foliage. 

ACACIA CAMBAGE! 

11

References 

Hall, N., J. W. Turnbull, and M. 1.H. Brooker. 1975. Australian acacias,vol. I. 

Acacia cambageiR. T. Bak. Illus. Australia Commonwealth Scientific and In- 

Division of Forest Research. 2 pp. (map 

dustrial Research Organization, 

used here). 

Maiden, J. H. 1908. The forest floraof New South Wales, vol. 4. Illus. pp. 24-27. 

(pl. 121, drawing used here). 

Pedley, L. 1978-79. A revision of Acacia Mill. in Queensland. Austrobaileya 1: 

75-337, illus. 

12 


4. Acacia cyclops 

Botanical Name Acacia cyclops A. Cunn. ex G. Don (also spelled cyclopis) 

Common Names western Australa coastal wattle, coastal wattle, circleeye-seeded 

acacia (Australia); rooikrans (South Africa). 


This Australian shrub or small tree of very dry areas is distinguished by the 

small, narrowly oblong phyllodes, tiny flowers in balls, and long, narrow, flat, 

curved pods. The specific name "cyclops" is from Greek, meaning "roundeyed," 

and apparently refers to the stalk around the seed. In Greek mythology 

it was the name of a race of one-eyed giants. Cyclops is also the name of a 

genus of tiny, free-swimming copepod crustaceans, known as "water fleas." 

Acacia cyclops is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Bushy evergreen shrub 2-3 ni high, dense, often with many 

stems; or a small tree to 8 in high, with trunk to 20 cm in diameter and 

rounded crown; on exposed coasts, a wind-swept, hedgelike dwarf shrub of 50 

cm. Twigs slender, angled, hairless. 

Leaves alternate, simple flattened phyllodes (modified leafstalks) narrowly 

oblong, 4.9 cm long, 5-13 mm wide, nearly straight, blunt with short, hard 

point curved to side, tapering to long-pointed base, stiff and leathery, hairless, 

with 3-7 main veins from base and 1 tiny gland on upper edge at base, light 

green, shiny when young, pointed downward vertically. 

Flowerclusters (heads)like balls, 1-3 on short stalks, up to 3 cm long at leaf 

bases, 7 mm in diameter. Flowers about 40, crowded, very short-stalked, tiny, 

about 3 mm long, composed of tubular 5-toothed hairy calyx, corolla of 5 

separate petals, many threadlike stamens, pistil with narrow ovary and long 


Pods (legumes) narrowly oblong, 4-12 cm long, 8-12 mm wide, flattened, 

curved or twisted, dark brown, remaining attached. Seeds several, beanlike, 

elliptical, flattened, 5 mm long, dark brown, encircled by thick red threadlike 

oily stalk. 

Wood heavy, producing dense, small firewood pieces of high quality. 

Natural Distribution Native of western Australia, found mostly on 

coastal sand dunes. Altitude from sea level to 300 m. 

Introduced into South Africa for stabilization of coastal dunes, popular there 

for firewood. Goats and antelope browse foliage, wildlife eat seeds and their 

oily stalk. 

Climate and Soils Arid and semiarid subtropical with annual rainfall of 

200-800 mam. Monthly mean temperatures from 31 0 C in summer to 5OC in 

winter. Apparently there may be slight frosts. Varying soils from sands and 

sand dunes to limestone. 

Plants hardy but slow-growing, surviving in very dry areas and tolerating 

salt spray, salinity, wind, sand blast, and frosts; however, intolerant of shade. 

ACACIA CYCLOPS 

13

T. 

•, ,, /.. 1 

Fig. 6. Acacia cyclops (Mueller 1887). 

Shrubs form dense thickets, spread as undesirable weeds over large areas, 

becoming naturalized. Eradication difficult. However, death follows cutting, 

and coppicing is rare. 

Reference 

Mueller, Ferd. von. 1887. Iconography of Australianspecies of Acacia and co'g. 

nate genera, 8th decade. Illus. (unnumb. pl., drawing used here). 

14 


5. Acacia mearnsii 

Botanical Name Acacia mearnsiiDe Wild. 

Synonyms Acacia decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. var. mollis Lindl., A. mollissima 

auct., non Willd. 

Common Names black wattle (Australia); tan wattle, green wattle, Australian 

acacia; wattor-ju (Okinawa); acacia negra (Colombia); mwati (Tanzania). 


The world's main source of tanbark is recognized by its feathery, dark green 

foliage with numerous tiny crowded soft hairy leaflets; tiny pale yellow 

flowers in balls; narrowly ohlong, flat and rough pods narrowed between 

seeds; and the blackish, nearly smooth bark. Acacia mearnsii is native to 

southeastern Australia but has been introduced around the world. It is a 

fuelwood species for tropical highlands. 

Description Small to large evergreen tree 6-25 m high, with straight trunk 

to 50 cm in diameter and spreading rounded crown of feathery, dark green 

foliage; or when crowded in plantations erect and slender, without spines. 

Bark blackish or brown, nearly smooth. Twigs angled, gray, densely hairy, 

tinged with golden yellow when young. 

Leaves alternate, feathery, bipinnately compound, very soft hairy, 8-15 cm 

long, with 6-20 pairs of side axes (pinnae)2-5 cm long and round gland at base 

of each pair on upper surface. Leaflets very numerous, 20-70 pairs on each 

side axis (pinna), small, crowded and touching, narrowly oblong, 3 mm long, 

blunt, with dense soft hairs, yellowish when young, becoming dark green. 

Flower clusters (racemes) along axis at leaf base or terminal, composed of 

many (20-30) stalked, pale yellow balls (heads) 7-8 mm in diameter. Flowers 

many, tiny, very sweet-scented, composed of narrow 5-lobed calyx, corolla of 

5 petals, many threadlike, pale yellow stamens, and pistil with long, slender 

style. 

Pods (legumes) narrowly oblong, 5-10 cm long, 5-9 mm wide, flat, rougb, 

narrowed between seeds, blackish, finely hairy, maturing in 14 months. Seeds 

several, beanlike, elliptical, flattened, blackish, 4 mm long. 

Wood light yellowish to light red, heavy (sp. gr. 0.7-0.85), moderately hard 

to hard, durable, fairly tough and strong. Yields excellent fuelwood and charcoal; 

serves also as fuel for curing tobacco. 

Other Uses Used for poles and mine props. Pulp suitable for wrapping 

paper and hardboard. World's main source of tanbark, perhaps containing 

35-40 percent tannin of good quality, used in manufacture of hard leathers for 

shoes, saddles, etc. 

Trees planted for erosion control and shelterbelts on steep slopes and poor 

soils, as well as for fuelwood and charcoal. Soil improved fcr agriculture by 

nitrogen fixation and green manure. Forests provide grasses and herbs for 

grazing. Acacia mearnsiiand related species attractive ornamentals, flowering 

profusely in late winter. 

ACACIA MEARNSII 

15

Fig. 7. Acacia mearnsii (Lindley 1819, pl. 371; at right, details from Maiden 1907, vol. 

3, pl. 88, fig. D-GI. 

(Queensland, New South 

Natural Distribution Southeastern Australia 

Wales, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania). Altitude to 1100 m. 

Introduced into many subtropical and tropical countries. South Africa produces 

and exports about two-thirds of world's total bark and extract; Kenya 

now 

second. Fast-gruwing, rapidly spreading species a noxious weed in 

Hawaii and South Africa, where called "green cancer." 

Climate and Soils Semiarid subtropical with cool winters, slight frosts. 

Annual rainfall 500-700 mm, where native. Sandy loam soils; various others, 

even poor, but not calcareous. 

16 

C 


Related Species The scientific and common names of three related 

Australian species have been confused. At one time all were classed as 

varieties of Acacia decurrens. Their names and distinguishing characters 

follow. 

-Acacia decurrens Willd. (A. decurrens var. decurrens and var. normalis), 

called green wattle (black wattle) or king wattle, native of New South Wales. 

Hairless foliage or young shoots slightly hairy. Leaflets long and narrow, 6-10 

mm. Bright yellow flowers in late winter. Pods 5-10 cm long, less than 1cm 

wide, slightly contracted between seeds. 

-Acacia dealbataLink (A.decurrens var. dealbata (Link) Muell.), silver wattle, 

native of New South Wales, Tasmania, and Victoria. Small tree to 10 m 

high. Hairy foliage silvery gray or whitish from mealy powder. Leaflets 3-6 

mm long, without glands along axis. Pale lemon yellow flowers in winter. 

Pods more than 1cm broad, not contracted between seeds, whitish. Scientific 

name means "white-powdered." 

-Acacia mearnsii De Wild. (A. decurrens var. mollis Lindl., A. rnollissima 

auct.), black wattle (green wattle). Small to large tree 6-25 m high. Foliage soft, 

hairy; young twigs golden yellow, hairy. Leaflets 3 mm long, blunt, shorter 

and broader than A. decurrens. Pale yellow flowers in summer (October- 

December) in Australia. Pods as in A. decurrens. Bark blackish. 

The name Acacia mollissinia, under which this species was known for many 

years, is rejected as a synonym of A. pubescens (Vent) Ait. f., a different 

Australian shrub. Acacia rnearnsii,the name now accepted, was given in 1925 

to a specimen obtained in Kenya in 1909 and thought to be native. Edgar Alexander 

Mearns (1856-1916), physician and naturalist of the United States Army, 

collected botanical specimens on field trips to Africa with Theodore Roosevelt 

in 1909 and 1911-12, along the Mexican border in 1892-94, and in the Philippines 

in 1906-07. 

References 

Brenan, J. P. M., and R. Melville. 1960. The Latin name of the black wattle. 

Kew Bulletin 14:37-39, illus. 

Lindley, John. 1819. Acacia decurrens. g ,nollis. Edward's Botanical Register, 

vol. 5. Illus. (pl. 371, drawing used here). 

Maiden, J. 11. 1907. The forest flora of New South Wales, vol. 3. p. 47. Illus. 

(pl. 88, fig. D-G, as A. decurrens var. inollis, drawing used here). 

Purseglove, J. W. 1968. Tropicalcrops: Dicotyledons 1. Illus. Longmans, Green 

& Co. Ltd. (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York). (Acacia mearnsii, pp. 

210-15). 

ACACIA MEARNSII 

17

6. Acacia nilotica 

Botanical Name Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile 

Synonym Acacia arabicaauct., non (Lam.) Willd. 

Common Names Egyptian-thorn, babul (English); prickly acacia 

(India); kiker, babar (Pakistan); sunt (Arabic); 

(Australia); babul, bhabal 

ban (Niger); scented-thorn, scented-pod 

gonakie (Senegal); bagaruwa, 

acacia, red.heart, lekkeruikpeul, ruikpeul, stinkpeul (South Africa); goma 

arlbicu, goma de acacia (Spanish); kufupod. 


This widespread Old World tree has paired, straight, light gray spines that 

are long and slender; bipinnately compound leaves with many small, narrow, 

narrow, flat, 

gray-green leaflets; tiny bright yellow flowers in balls; and 

straight pods narrowed between seeds. Acacia nilotica is important in farm 

forestry in India for firewood and charcoal and many other uses. Hardy and 

it is becoming naturalized as an undesirable weed. The 

drought-resistant, 

scientific name refers to the Nile River and countries through which it flows. 

It is a fuelwood sl.( is for arid and semiarid regions. 

as many as 9 

This extremely variable species has been divided into 

in minor taxonomic characters, such as pods and 

subspecies, differing 

hairiness, as well as geographic range. For example, ssp. indica (Benth.) 

Brenan in India, ssp. nilotica in Egypt, and ssp. kraussiana (Benth.) Brenan in 

southern Africa. 

Description Small to medium-sized deciduous or nearly evergreen spiny 

tree 10 m high with trunk 30 cm in diameter; sometimes to 20 m high and 80 

cm in diameter on good sites; a large shrub on poor sites. Crown flattened or 

foliage. Bark gray, brown, reddish, or 

umbrella-shaped, with feathery 

blackish, rough furrowed. Twigs slender, gray to dark brown, with fine hairs 

1-6 (8) cm long, slender, straight, light gray or 

on nearly hairless. Spines 

whitish, arising from stipules paired at base of most leaves. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, 5-15 cm long, with axis finely 

hairy, with 3-8 pairs of side axes (pinnae 1-4 cm long. Leaflets 10-30 pairs on 

each side axis, small, narrowly oblong, 3.6 mnn long, blunt at ends, with tiny 

hairs along edges, gray-green. 

Flower clusters (heads) like balls, few at leaf bases on slender jointed stalks 

less than 25 mm long, 10-15 mm in diameter, bright yellow, fragrant. Flowers 

many, crowded, stalkless, 6-8 mm long, composed of 5-toothed, slightly hairy 

calyx 1-2 mm long, narrow yellow tubular 5-toothed corolla 3 mm long, many 

yellow threadlike stamens 6 mm long united at base, with bright yellow dotlike 

anthers, and pistil with slender ovary and threadlike style. 

cm 

Pods (legumes) 1-2 on long stalk, narrow, flattened, 8-17 cm long, 1-2 

wide, straight, mostly narrowed between seeds suggesting a necklace, stalked 

18 


Fig. 8, Acacia nilotica (Sahni 1968, fig. 19). 

ACACIA NILOTICA 

19

0 Ule 4W m Iw 

MAP 

j- qSHOWING DISTIIBUTION 

% 't.OF 

kACACIA ARABICA. WILLO 

o1e 

N 

Ro''O so LNBhuN 

ARA 

O 

IAM 

B AY PAISAt 

" MADRAS Aldaman 

Islands 111-04? 

COLOIslands R 

Fig. 9. Distribution of Acacia nilotica in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

at base, short-pointed, gray or black, mostly hairy, aromatic, not splitting 

open, breaking in segments. Seeds 8-15, beanlike, 7-9 mm in diameter, 

rounded, flattened, blackish-brown. 

Wood with narrow to wide whitish sapwood and pinkish heartwood turning 

reddish-brown with age, generally with darker streaks, moderately heavy to 

heavy (sp. gr. 0.80), with grain straight or somewhat twisted, fine-textured 

with large to medium-sized pores. Wood hard, strong, tough, durable, difficult 

to saw, and resistant to termites. Valuable source of fuel and charcoal; has 

been used in locomotives, river stenmers, small industries. Burning charcoal 

reportedly emits sparks. 

Other Uses Common on dry plains, Acacia nilotica is one of most important 

species in social and farm forestry in India, where classed as one of best 

fine-textured hardwoods. Used there for carts, farm implements, tool handles, 

oars, boat-building, rafters, carving, turnery, mine timbers, railway crossties. 

Elsewhere used for utility poles, fenceposts. Suitable as pulpwood. 

Bark and pods of high tannin content used in ihe leather industry and for 

dyes. Sweet, edible gum exuding from wounds in the trunk probably earliest 

source of gum arabic, now mostly from Acacia senegal. Home remedies 

prepared from bark. Foliage and sweetish pods eaten by sheep, goats, and cat- 

20 


Fig. 10. Distribution of Acacia niloticain southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 1977). 

tie; fragrant flowers source of honey. Pods consumed by wildlife, for example, 

baboons, rhinos, and antelopes in South Africa. 

After introduction as ornamentals and roadside trees in other tropical countries 

Acacia nilotica spread, becoming naturalized as undesirable weeds in 

thickets. 

Natural Distribution Extensive in tropical Africa and Asia from South 

Africa north to Egypt and from Arabia to Pakistan and India. Altitude from 

near sea level to 500 m. 

Introduced widely throughout the tropics and bcoming naturalized, such as 

in the West Indies. Large areas of forests established in India and Pakistan. 

Planted in Africa along the Blue Nile in the Sudan, in the bushveld of Natal 

aisd Transvaal, in Zambia and Botswana. 

Climate and Soils Arid tropical with low rainfall. Soils vary from alluvial 

subject to seasonal flooding and heavy clays to poor rocky sites. Common, 

forming nearly pure forests and thickets; or scattered, such as in dry savanna, 

woodland, bushveld, river valley scrub, and scrub. 

References 

Brznan, J. P. M. 1957. Notes on Mimosoideae: III. Kew Bulletin 1957: 75-96, 

illus. 

Ca:r, J. D. 1976. The South African acacias.Illus. 323 pp. Conservation Press 

(PTY) Ltd., Johannesburg, South Africa. 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of Southern Africa. Illus. C. Struik, Cape 

Town Johannesburg, South Africa. 959 pp. (p. 246, map used here). 

Little, Elbert L., Jr., Roy 0. Woodbury, and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1974. Trees 

ACACIA NILOTICA 

21

of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 2. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 

449. Forest Service, United States Departr.,ent of Agriculture, Washington, 

D.C. pp. 248-249. 

Pearson, R. S., and H. P. Brown. 

1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Acaciaarabica,pp. 439.443, map used 

here). 

Sahni, K. C. 1968. Important trees of the northern Sudan. Illus. Forestry Research 

and Education Centre, Khartoum, United Nations Development Pro. 

gramme, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 138 

pp. (pp. 46-49, fig. 19, drawing used here). 

22 


7. Acacia saligna 

Botanical Name Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. Wendl. 

Synonym Acacia cyanophylla Lindl. 

Common Names orange wattle, golden-wreath wattle, willow wattle, blueleaf 

wattle, weeping wattle, western Australian wattle (Australia); Port- 

Jackson willow (South Africa). 


This bushy shrub or small tree of southwestern Australia has very narrow 

phyllodes, tiny bright yellow flowers in balls, and very narrow, flattened, 

straight pods slightly narrowed between seeds. It is so variable that it now 

comprises two formerly separate species. Vegetation types of this species include 

open dry evergreen forest, temperate woodland, and semiarid 

woodland. 

Several horticultural forms are distinguished, for example, with drooping 

branches, upright flower clusters, and phyllodes to 30 cm long. The specific 

name, meaning "willowlike," describes the phyllodes. 

Extremely rugged and drought-hardj', Acacia saligna is planted for reclaiming 

lands as well as for fuel. This fueiwood species grows in arid and 

semiarid regions. 

Description Dense bushy shrub 2-5 m high, also a small tree of 5-10 m 

with short single trunk to 30 cm in diameter or dividing near base into a few 

main branches with widespreading crown, evergreen (?). Bark dark gray or 

brown, rough, furrowed; on branches and young plants smooth and gray to 

red-brown. Twigs slender, finely angled, green, hairless, often drooping, often 

flattened and whitish when young. 

Leaves alternate, simple flattened phyllodes (modified leafstalks) varying 

from very narrow (linear) to lance-shaped, about 10 times as long as wide, 

mostly 8.25 cm long and 0.5-2 cm wide (toward base of plant often as large as 

20-32 cm long and 4-8 cm wide), straight or slightly curved to side, longpointed 

and tapering at both ends, like ribbons, hairless, often drooping, dull 

blue-green to whitish, with prominent midvein and many fine side veins. 

Large dotlike gland 1-2 mm or more in diameter at base of upper edge of 

phyllode. 

Flowerclusters (hea ls) like balls, mostly 2-10 (sometimes 1), on stalks along 

axis (raceme) to 8 cm lcng at base of leaf, round, bright yellow or deep golden, 

7-10 mm in diameter, , Ith many (25-55) crowded tiny flowers, abundant and 

showy. Flowers stalkless 3-4 mm long, mostly hairless, composed of calyx 1.5 

mm long with conical tue and 5 short rounded lobes often finely hairy on 

edge, corolla of 5 narrow long-pointed petals 2-3 mm long, united near base, 

many threadlike stamens, and pistil with hairless ovary and slender style. 

Pods (legumes) very narrow (linear), mostly 8-12 cm long and 4-6 mm wide, 

straight, flattened, with edges slightly thickened, slightly narrowed between 

ACACIA SALIGNA 

23

frcm 

rig. 11. Acacia saligna IMaslin 1974, fig. 2). 

24 


Fig. 12. Distribution of Acacia salignain Australia (Hall and Turnbull 1976). 

seeds, brown, hairless. Seeds 6-10, beanlike, oblong to slightly elliptical, 3-6 

mm long, shiny dark brown to black, on yellowish stalk. 

Wood (properties not recorded) used for fuel including charcoal, for fenceposts 

and small farm implements; bark yields tannin. 

Other Uses 

Cultivated extensively in eastern Australia for its horticultural 

value; as a rapidly growing ornamental, provides spectacular display of golden 

flowers as well as a quick screen. Though attractive for its dense, sometimes 

whitish foliage, trees become open-branched and untidy. 

Also planted in eastern Australia to stabilize coastal sands after mining and 

as source of tannin; naturalized locally. Because of rapid growth and extensive 

root system, this extremely rugged tree widely introduced elsewhere to reclaim 

barren, eroded hillsides and wastelands and to stabilize sand dunes. 

Planted also for windbreaks and along roadsides and seashores. 

Foliage and pods eaten fresh or as hay by livestock; bushes can be browsed 

heavily without damage. Acidic gum exudes from injured barK. 

Natural Distribution Southwestern corner of Western Australia. Altitude 

from sea level to 325 m. 

Planted and naturalized locally in eastern Australia. Introduced into South 

Africa about 1845 to stabilize shifting sand dunes. Now naturalized and 


25

CAfNAN 

. 

2 

.. ~~ A.,j 

1;L0 -04-_, 

ILLOTOA 

AL 

AWI 

AW 

-- I 

SALE 

A 

Fig. 13. Distribution of Acacia saligna in southwestern Australia (Mvashon 1974, fig. 4). 

26 


classed as serious menace displacing natural vegetation, consuming water, 

and very difficult to eradicate. Cultivated also in many other countries including 

the Mediterranean region and northern Africa. 

Climate and Soils Subhumid, humid, and semiarid subtropical. Areas 

within native range frost-free, or inland with 1-6 frosts a year. Soils mainly 

sandy coastal plains but vary greatly from swamps and riverbanks to rocky 

hills, including acid and calcareous sands, moderately heavy clays, saline and 

alkaline soils. 

References 

Hall, Norman, and J. W. Turnbull. 1976. Australian acacias,no. 4. Acacia 

saligna (Labill.) H. Wendl. Illus. Australia Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial 

Research Organization, Division of Forest Research. 2 pp. (map 

used here). 

Maslin, B. R. 1974. Studies in the genus Acacia-3-The taxonomy of A. 

saligna (Labill.) H. Wendl. Nuytsia 1: 332-340, illus. (fig. 4, map; fig. 2, drawing 

used here). 

Pedley, L. 1978-79. A revision of Acacia Mill. in Queensland. Austrobaileya 1: 

75-337, illus. 


27

8. Acacia senegal 

B'tanical Name Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. 

Synonym Acacia verek Guill. & Perr. 

Common Names Gum-arabic tree, Sudan gum-arabic, gum acacia (English); 

hashab, alloba (Arabic); ekonoit (Turkish); dakwara, danga (Niger); 

edad, adad (Somali); mgunga (Tanzania); three-thorned acacia, driehaakdoring, 

drievingerdoring, gomdoring, geelhaak (South Africa); kumbat, kher 

(Pakistan); acacia du S~n~gal, gomier (Frenchl; goma (Spanish). 


Gum-arabic tree, native of Africa, is easily recognized by the short spines or 

thorns mostly in 3's. It has small, bipinnately compound leaves; small white 

flowers in narrow cylindrical clusters; and broad, flat, papery pods. The 

hardy, drought-resistant trees produce gum arabic and good fuelwood and are 

widely planted for sand dune fixation and wind-erosion control. This is a fuelwood 

species for arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Small deciduous spiny tree 6 in high, sometimes to 13 m, 

with crown becoming flattened, with deep and widespreading roots; also a 

thicket-forming shrub of 3 m. Trunk short, usually branched near base, to 50 

cm in diameter. Bark pale brown or gray, becoming furrowed and scaly; slash 

mottled red and white. Twigs with yellowish bark, soon peeling off. Short 

spines or thorns mostly in 3's at swollen nodes (sometimes only 1), 3-7 mm 

long; central spine sharply curved backward, lateral ones straight and pointing 

forward. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, 2-6 cm long, with 3-6 pairs of side 

axes (pinnae) 2-3 cm long. Leaflets 8-18 pairs on each side axis, narrowly 

oblong, small, 3-7 mm long, blunt or short-pointed, gray-green, hairless. 

Flowerclusters (spikes) 1-2 at nodes mostly before leaves and longer (2-10 

cm), cylindrical. Flowers many, crowded, stalkless, fragrant, 6-8 mm long, 

composed of 5-toothed calyx 2-3 mm long, 5-lobed white corolla 3-4 mm long, 

many threadlike stamens, and pistil with narrow ovary and threadlike style. 

Pods (legumes) short-stalked, oblong, flat, 4-10 cm long, 15-22 mm broad, 

sometimes slightly narrowed between seeds, pale brown, papery with prominent 

network, fine hairs. Seeds few, round, flat, 6-10 mm in diameter, brown. 

Seed crops varying from infrequent to abundant every year. 

Wood whitish, hard, heavy. Locally the best firewood and main species for 

charcoal. 

Other Uses Trunks and roots used for poles, fenceposts, local construc 

tion, tool hanoles, weavers' shuttles. Wood could serve in cabinetmaking. 

Ropes nmade from strong fibers of the long surface roots. 

Gum arabic, perhaps the most commercially important natural gum, produced 

by wounds in trunk and branches mostly of this species, both wild trees 

and plantations. Yellowish, odorless, bland-tasting gum in commerce more 

28 


Fig. 14. Acacia senegal (Sahni 1968, fig. 22). 

ACACIA SENEGAL 

6 

*11 

"1 

29

Fig. 15. Distribution of Acacia senegal in southern Africa lCoates Palgrave 1977). 

foods, beverages, pharmaceuticals, confecthan 

4000 years; now used in 

tionery, industry, folk medicine. About 80 percent of world's supply produced 

in Sudan; lesser yields from Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Chad, 

Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Somalia. 

Foliage and pods important forage for camels, sheep, goats. Leaves collected 

for fodder; seeds dried and preserved for human consumption. 

Plantations made for erosion control, stabilization of sand dunes, and soil 

rehabilitation, such as in combination with agricultural crops. Soil enriched 

through nitrogen fixation in rcot nodules. 

Natural Distribution Widespread in tropical Africa. Belt 300 km wide in 

northern Africa along southern border of Sahara Desert, from Mauritania to 

South to Namibia and South Africa. Altitude 

Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia. 

100-1700 n. 

Introduced and naturalized in East Africa and east to Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, 

India. 

Arid or semidesert, hot tropical to subtropical with 

Climate and Soils 

mm with 8-11 dry 

freezing temperatures. Annual rainfall mostly 200-500 

months. Soils poor rocky, sand hills and dunes, clay. Widespread in dry savanna 

forest, thorn-scrub, bush. 

condi- 

Hardy and very drought-resistant, this species can survive extreme 

tions, such as hot dry winds and sandstorms. Plants are slow-growing but may 

form thorny thickets, becoming noxious weeds. 

Acacia senegal widespread with many geographical variations 

Varieties 

including good fuelwood sources, though varying in gum production. Typical 

variety (var. senegal) is northern, in tropical Africa; flower cluster has densely 

hairy axis. Two varieties are distinguished in southern Africa: 

30 


-Var. leiorhachisBrenan,gomdoring, is slender, upright tree to 6-8 m with 

few erect branches, orange-brown corky bark, flower cluster axis hairless, and 

pods with rounded tip. East and South Africa, in dry bush in eastern and 

northern Transvaal. 

-Var. rostrata Brenan, geelhaak or three-thorned acacia, is smaller shrub 

seldom more than 4 m high, usually branching from base; grayish trunk becoming 

somewhat flaking with age, flat-spreading crown of 'many lightcolored 

interlacing branches, flower cluster axis hairy, and pods ending in 

sharp slender point. Widespread in scrub and bush from Mozambique west to 

Zimbabwe, South Africa, Namibia. 

References 

Brenan, J. P. M. 1953. Kew Bulletin 1953: 97-100. 

Cheema, M. S. Z. A., and S. A. Qadir. 1973. Autecology of Acacia senegal (L.) 

Willd. Vegetatio 27(1-3): 131-162, illus. 

Carr, J. D. 1976. The South African acacias. Illus. Conservation Press (PTY) 

Ltd., Johannesburg, South Africa. 323 pp. 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of Southern Africa. Illus. C. Struik, Cape 

Town Johannesburg, South Africa. 959 pp. (pp. 250.251, map used here). 


and Education Centre, Khartoum, United Nations Development Programme, 

and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Natinns. 138 

pp. (pp. 54-55, fig. 22, drawing used here). 

ACACIA SENEGAL 

31

9. Acacia seyal 

Botanical Name Acacia seyal Delile 

seyal, tahl, white.galled acacia, whistling-thorn; shittim- 

Common names 

acacia seyal 

(wood); suffar abyad (Arabic); sayaal (Egypt); seyal, 

wood 

(Senegal); mgunga (Tanzania). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (MimosoWdeae 

Seyal is a small spiny tree or shrub widespread through dry regions from 

by paired, long, straight white 

northern to southern Africa, characterized 

spines; small, bipinnately compound leaves; bright yellow flowers in ball 

clusters; and long, narrow, flat, slightly curved pods. The hardy, rather slowgrowing 

plants are resistant to drought and fire and produce good firewood 

name is from the Arabic. This tree is a 

and forage for livestock. The specific 

fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions. 

mhigh, with trunk to 20 cm 

Description Small deciduous spiny tree 3-12 

or a 

near base, and with flat-topped crown, 

in diameter, often branching 

shrub. Bark reddish or whitish in different varieties, mealy, rough, scaling or 

flaking off in rectai-g!es and shedding annually, exposing powdery layer. 

Twigs smooth, new growtii covered with mealy cream-yellow or rust-red powcomes 

off when rubbed to expose very thin, bright green inner 

der which 

layer. Spines or thorns (to 6 cm long) paired from stipules at leaf bases, long, 

straight, sharp, white. On white-bark variety, some thorns with greatly swollen 

base and united as ant-galls. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, 4-8 cm long, with 3-9 pairs of side 

axes (pinnae) 1-2 cm long. Leaflets 10-20 pairs on each side axis, crowded, narrowly 

oblong, 3-8 mm long, dull green. 

mm in diameter, abundant on 

Flower clusters (heads) like balls, 10-15 

slender stalks along twigs, usually before leave3, golden or bright yellow, very 

stalkless, 6 mm long, composed of 

fragrant. Flowers many, crowded, 

threadlike 

mm long, 5-lobed corolla 4 mm long, many 

5-toothed calyx 6 

stamens, and pistil with threadlike style. 

(linear), flat, 7-20 cm 

Pods (legumes) in clusters of 3 to many, long, narrow 

mm wide, slightly curved and slightly narrowed between seeds, longlong, 

5-9 

remaining attached. 

both ends, hairless, brown, splitting open, 

pointed at 

long, flattened, brown, hanging on slender 

Seeds 6-10, beanlike, 7-9 mm 

thread. coarse- 

Wood white tu yellow-brown, with fine dark lines, heavy, hard, 

textured. Seasons reasonably well, easy to work, finishes rough, polishes well, 

discolors with mold, susceptible to insect attack. Important for firewood and 

legions where few other plants survive. Timber regarded in Chad as 

poles . 

some still in existence, 

the best firewood. Ancient Egyptians made coffins, 

from this wood. 

32 


Fig. 16. Acacia seyal (Sahni 1968, fig. 23). 

ACACIA SEYAL 

.33

Other Uses Pods, foliage, and flowers important dry-season forage for 

sheep and goats; cattle browse cut branches and pods. 

Gum exuded from wounded bark substitutes for gum-arabic, but darker and 

inferior to that of Acacia senegal. Edible when fresh, though slightly acid in 

taste. High tannin content in bark. Decoctions of the bark employed in home 

remedies. 

Natural Distribution Northern Africa in the Sahelian zone from Senegal 

to Chad and Sudan, and eastern Africa from Egypt south to Somalia, Kenya, 

Mozambique, Namibia. Altitude generally in lowlands but up to 2100 m. Apparently 

not common in cultivation. 

Climate and Soils Arid or semidesert hot tropical. Annual rainfall 350 mm 

and above. Soils various from stony upland to heavy clay of river valleys, with 

some flooding and waterlogging. Abundant in dry or semidesert savannas, 

forming groves. Along Nile River banks in Egypt. Reportedly common in overgrazed 

pastures. 

Varieties Two geographical varieties with bark differences have been distinguished: 

-Acacia seyal var. seyal, red-bark, with bark color dark gray, reddish-brown, 

or black. Northern tropical Africa to Egypt. 

-Acacia seyal var. fistula (Schweinf.) Oliv. (A.fistula Schweinf.i, white-bark, 

with bark color cream to greenish-yellow. Eastern Africa from Sudan to 

Mozambique. 

Reference 



and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 138 

pp. (Acacia seyal var. fistula, pp. 56-57, fig. 23, drawing used here). 

34 


10. Acacia tortilis 

Botanical Name Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne 

Common Names umbrella-thorn (Africa); haak-en-steek, haaken-steekdoring, 

sambreeldoring (South Africa); sayal, samor (Egypt, Sudan); seing, 

tortilis (Senegal); kandili, bisaw (Niger); seyal, sayyal (Arabic); mgunga (Tanzania); 

Israeli babool (India). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Mimosoideae} 

This tree or shrub, one of the most widespread species of Acacia in Africa 

and the Middle East, is recognized by paired spines of 2 kinds, both -hortcurved 

and long-straight, small bipinnately compound leaves, white to pale 

yellow flowers in ball clusters, and pods curved and twisted, often in a spiral. 

It is drought-resistant and produces superior firewood and charcoal. The 

scientific name, meaning "twisted," describes the pods. The common name 

"haak-en-steek" means "hook-and-prick" in reference to the 2 kinds of spines of 

this fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Small to medium-sized spiny deciduous or nearly evergreen 

tree mostly 4-15 m high (rarely 20 m), with trunk branching low; sometimes 

with several spreading crooked trunks 20 cm or more in diameter. Small trees 

with rounded crown, larger trees with widespreading flat-topped crown suggesting 

an umbrella, of dense, fine feathery foliage. Under extreme aridity, a 

low shrub of Im; under heavy grazing, reduced to trailing, seemingly unconnected 

branches radiating from a low sand mound. Produces long lateral roots. 

Bark gray or dark brown to blackish, rough, deeply furrowed, scaly. Twigs 

gray-green to reddish-brown, mostly hairy. Spines from stipules paired at 

nodes, of 2 kinds with both often on same twig; curved or hooked, brownish, 

mostly under 5 mm long, others long-straight and white, 1-5(-9) cm long. 

Leaves 2-6 at a node, bipinnately compound, small, 15-35 mm long, with 

4-10 pairs of side axes (pinnae) 5-10 mm long, each bearing 7-15 pairs of 

crowded, tiny, narrow leaflets 1-5 mm long, bluish gray green, finely hairy. 

Flower clusters (heads) like balls, in masses over tree, 1-4 on slender stalks 

at leaf base, 7-10 mm in diameter, white to cream or pale yellow, fragrant. 

Flowers many, crowded, stalkless, about 4 mm long, composed of 5-toothed 

calyx 1mm long, 5petals 2 mm long, many threadlike stamens, and pistil with 


Pods (legumes) narrow, 8-12 cm long, 5-9 mm wide, slightly flattened and 

narrowed between seeds, much curved and twisted, often in a spiral like a coil 

spring, hard, yellow-brown, slightly narrowed between seeds, often finely 

hairy, not opening. Seeds several, beanlike, elliptical, 6-7 mm long, light 

brown. 

Wood reddish with whitish sapwood, heavy. Warps upon drying and often 

riddled by borers. This wood of high calorific value used mainly for superior 

ACACIA TORTILIS 

35

D. 

Fig. 17. Acacia tortilis (Sahni 1968, fig. 25). 

firewood and charcoal. Provides fuelwood for much of arid and semiarid 

Africa and the Middle East. 

Other Uses Used for fenceposts, small implements, other articles. Pens 

for domestic livestock made from thorny branches. 

Protein-rich, nutritious pods borne in quantities, eaten from the ground, by 

domnestic livestock including goats, sheep, cattle, camels, and by wildlife such 

as antelopes, giraffes, monkeys, baboons. Foliage, including new shoots and 

seedlings, also browsed. In the Sahara-Sahelian belt in the Sudan, provides the 

major dry-season 19 months) fodder for sheep and goats. Plants survive heavy 

grazing. 

Trees attractive ornamentals, provide good shade. Gum from trunk said to 

be edible; pods can be strung into necklaces. Classed as excellent for sand 

stabilization, and has been planted in shifting sand dunes. 

36 

COMMON FUELWOOD CROPS 

.

Fig. 18. Distribution of Acacia tortilis in southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 1977). 

Natural Distribution Extensive through Africa from southern part of 

continent to tropical Sudan and Ethiopia and the Middle East to Israel, Saudi 

Arabia, Yemen. Altitude lowland. Planted in other areas such as India on a 

large scale for fuelwood. 

Climate and Soils Arid or semidesert tropical, hot and dry, with long irregular 

dry seasons. Annual rainfall 100-1000 mm. Maximum temperatures 

about 50*C, minimum may be near 0°C. Soils various, including sand dunes, 

sands, sandy loam, rocky, and alkaline. In shallow soil, plants shrubby but 

develop long lateral roots. 

Common in dry savannas, forming groves, and in other types such as 

bushlands, thornbush, bushveld, lowveld. The last woody species bordering 

the desert. 

Extremely hardy and drought-resistant, this species can be grown under 

severe arid conditions. Growth slow but relatively fast for dry zone tree. 

Young plants not frost-hardy. Because of long lateral roots, plants can spread 

to nearby fields and roads, becoming undesirable weeds. If introduced into a 

humid climate, could become a serious pest. 

Subspecies Species has 4 distinct subspecies (earlier named as species) 

with different geographical ranges and different ecological zones and 

tolerances. Thus, subspecies or geographical source should be considered 

when seed is selected for plantations. These 4 subspecies are listed below wi n. 

their ranges and taxonomic differences. 

-Ssp. tortilis. Young twigs and leaf axes hairy; pods narrow, hairy, not 

glandular, 3-5 mm wide. Egypt and Middle East to Palestine, Yemen, Arabia. 

-Ssp. raddiana (Savi) Brenan (AcaciaraddianaSavi). Twigs, leaves, and pods 

hairless or hairy; pods mostly hairless, not glandular, 6-9 mm wide. North 

Africa and Middle East; Algeria to Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Nigeria. 

ACACIA TORTILIS 

37

Ssp. spirocarpa(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Brenan (Acaciaspirocarpal-ochst. ex 

A. Rich.). Twigs and leaf axes velvety, densely hairy; pods hairy, glandular 

(red glands visible with lens), 6-9(-12) mm wide. Eastern Africa, Sudan, 

Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Angola. 

-Ssp. heteracantha(Burch.) Brenan (Acacia heteracanthaBurch.). Twigs and 

mm wide. Southern Africa, 

leaf axes hairy; pods hairless, narrow, (4-16-9 

South Africa (Natal, Orange Free State, the Cape and Transvaall, Swaziland, 

Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique. This subspecies of southern 

tree. Grows in deep loam with grasses; an in 

Africa a common bushveld 

dicator tree of good winter grazing. 

References 

Brenan, J.P. M. 1957. Notes on Mimosoideae: 111. Kew Bulletin 12: 75-96, illus. 

Carr, J. D. 1976. The South African acacias.Illus. Conservation Press (PTY) 

Ltd., Johannesburg, South Africa. 323 pp. 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of South Africa. Illus. C. Struik, Cape Town 

Johannesburg, South Africa. 959 pp. (Acaciatortilis,p. 252, map used here). 



and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 138 

pp. (Acacia tortilis, pp. 60-63, fig. 25, drawing used here). 

38 


11. Adhatoda zeylanica 

Botanical Name Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. 

Synonyms Adhatoda vasica (L.), Nees, Justicia adhatodaL. 

Common Names vasaka, arusha, bakas, adadodai, adulsa, adusa (India); 

adathoda (Sri Lanka); Malabar-nuttree. 

Acanth Family, Acanthaceae 

This thicket-forming, ill-smelling shrub has large opposite elliptical leaves 

and clusters of large, tubular, whitish flowers. It is hardy in semiarid tropical 

regions, fast-growing, and unpalatable to livestock. Where wild, it is readily 

available as firewood, though in small sizes. 

This species is suitable for 

reclaiming waste lands. It is propagated from seeds and cuttings and coppices 

well. However, the plants could become undesirable weeds where introduced. 

Adhatoda is from a local name in India, while zelanica refers to Ceylon, 

now Sri Lanka. The genus Adhatoda, with about 20 species in tropical Africa 

and Asia, is also united underJusticia.Adhatoda zeylanica is listed as Adhatoda 

vasica under arid and semiarid regions in Firewood Crops. 

Description Many-branched, dense evergreen large shrub mostly less 

than 2.5 m high (sometimes to 6 in), branching from base, with stems less than 

3 cm in diameter and large deep roots; very bitter throughout. Twigs enlarged 

above ringed nodes, finely hairy when young. 

Leaves opposite, elliptical, 10-20 cm long, 2.5-7 cm wide, long-pointed, not 

toothed on edges, with many prominent curved side veins, bright green and 

hairless above, paler and finely hairy underneath; unpleasant odor when 

crushed. Leafstalk 2-3 cm long. 

Flower clusters (spikes) sev,:ral upright on long stalks near ends of twigs, 

4-10 cm long, compact, with large elliptical, hairy leaflike bracts 2.5-4 cm 

long. Flowers several, compact, stalkless, large, 2-4 cm long, composed of 

deeply 5-lobed calyx 

1 cm long; corolla irregular, tubular, funnel-shaped, 

2-lipped, upper lip fringed, hairy on outer sturface, white with purplish spots 

and streaks; stamens 2, inserted near throat of corolla; and pistil with narrow 

2-celled ovary, 2 ovules in each cell, long style, and stigma slightly 2-lobed. 

Fruita stalked club-shaped capsule 2 cm long, hairy, 2-celled, splitting or 

exploding in 2 parts to release seeds. Seeds 2-4, 7 mm in diameter, wrinkled. 

Wood whitish, with very small scattered pores, moderately hard. Used for 

firewood, charcoal, gunpowder charcoal; good for quick, intense, long-lasting, 

clean cooking fires; burns with little or no smoke, odor, or sparks. However, 

only small pieces of firewood available because plants are small. 

Other Uses 

Leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots long used medicinally in 

India for home remedies. Drug vasaka from fresh or dried leaves used chiefly 

as expectorant. An alkaloid vasicine and an essential oil found in leaves. 

Species apparently toxic to other forms of life; has served in insecticides and 

ADHATODA ZEYLANICA 

39

Fig. 19. Adhatoda zeylanica (Basu 1918, pl. 722A). 

fungicides and as an antiseptic. Termites, fleas, mosquitoes, other noxious intoxic 

to coldsects 

destroyed by an infusion of leaves. Alkaloid vasicine 

blooded animals such as fish but not mammals. As herbicide, leaves prevent 

growth of lower aquatics in rice fields, serve also as green manure. 

In packing and storing fruits, layers of leaves speed ripening and coloring, 

inhibit fungi, repel insects. With boiling, leaves yield yellow dye for coarse 

cloth and skins; also special black hue in pottery. 

Natural Distribution Common throughout plains and submontane India; 

also Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaysia. To 1500 m altitude in 

iimalayas. 

Introduced in other tropical regions, for example, Java, West Indies, south- 

40 


ern Florida, as ornamental and hedge plant and forests. A greenhouse or 

namental in temperate regions. 

Climate and Soils Dry and moist tropical and subtropical, including 

seasonal (monsoon). Plants killed to the ground by frosts but recover rapidly. 

Annual rainfall 500-1650 mm where introduced. Soils various, dry, often with 

deep water table; or moist, from riverbanks to dry slopes and disturbed areas. 

Common in dry deciduous forests and thorn forests, often forming thickets. 

Shrubs spread in waste places and heavily grazed ranges, where most plants 

are killed by browsing. 

Reference 

Basu, B. D. 1918. Indian medicinalplants. Illus. (Adhatoda vasica, pp. 974-977, 

pl. 722A, drawing used here). 

ADHATODA ZEYLANICA 

41

12. Ailanthus altissima 

Botanical Name Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle 

Synonym Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. 

Common Names ailanthus, tree-of.heaven, China-sumac (English); waliyati 

drawa (Pakistan); shin-ju (Okinawa; drbol del cielo (Spanish); Gltterbaum 

(German). 

Quassla Family, Simaroubaceae 

com- 

Ailanthus has coarse, ill-smelling foliage with very large, pinnately 

pound leaves. The broadly lance.shaped leaflets have 2-5 teeth near a I-sided 

base; each tooth has a gland-dot beneath. It is fast-growing and hardy in cities, 

even where all other trees fail. As a weed tree, it is available for firewood. A 

temperate zone tree, it also merits testing in tropical highlands. 

This species is easily grown from seeds, which are bone abundantly, and 

from root cuttings of either sex. Male trees may be preferred for the absence of 

fruits and seeds but have unpleasant flower odor. Female trees have ornamental 

fruits, such as one red-fruited variety, but their abundant seeds and seedlings 

may be objectionable. The trees form thickets along fences and roadbecome 

serious 

sides, in abandoned fields, and at forest borders. They can 

pests and bad weeds, spreading profusely from root suckers to fields. Eradication 

may be difficult. 

Ailanthus is from the Moluccan name meaning "tree-of-heaven" and refers to 

the height of the tree. The Latin specific name means "very tall." 

The genus Ailanthus has about 10 species of tall deciduous trees native in 

eastern Asia, East Indies, Philippine Islands, Solomon Islands, and Australia. 

Besides the 2 species described here, 2 others of southeastern Asia merit consideration 

for firewood plantations: Ailanthus grandisPrain and Ailanthusmala. 

baricaDC. 

m taI, some- 

Description Medium-sized deciduous tree commonly 6-10 

cm or more in 

more, with straight or crooked trunk 30 

times to 20 in or 

diameter (rarely a large tree to 30 m tall and I in in diameter), often clustered 

of stout branches and 

or in thickets, and with spreading, very open crown 

Trees mostly male and female 

coarse foliage, becoming flat-topped. 

(dioecious). Bark distinctive, light brown or gray, smoothish, thin, becoming 

rough with long fissures and (lark ridges. Twigs few, very stout, light brown, 

finely hairy when young, with large, slightly raised triangular leaf-scars and 

large brown or orange pith. Buds small, rounded, reddish-brown, hairy, with 

2-4 scales; no end bud. 

cm long, 

Leaves alternate, very large, pinnately compound, mostly 30-60 

when young, crushed foliage with disagreeable odor. Leaflets 

finely hairy 

13-25 (sometimes to 41), paired except at end, short-stalked, broadly lancecm 

long, 2.5-5 cm wide, long-pointed, with 2-5 teeth 

shaped, mostly 7.5-13 

42 


,:~ 6 

23 

Fig. 20. Ailanthus altissihn (Illick 1925, pl. 101). 

near -sided base, each tooth with gland-dot beneath, green above, paler 

underneath. In autumn leaflets fall separately before the axis. 

Flower clusters (panicles) large, 15-25 cm long, branched, at end of leafy 

twig. Flowers many, small, 6 mm long, greenish or greenish-yellow, with 

5-lobed calyx, 5 narrow petals, mostly male and female 

on different trees. 

Male flowers with 10 stamens and disagreeable odor. Female flowers with 2-5 

nearly separate pistils united at base, each with style and ovary containing 1 

ovule. 

Fruits (keys or samaras) many, in large showy clusters, 1-5 from a flower, 

3-5 cm long, 1cm wide, with reddish or purplish-brown, flat, slightly twisted 

AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA 

43

wing suggesting a propeller, rt.naining attached. Seed I in middle, 6 mm long, 

elliptical, flattened. 

Wood whitish or pale brown, iyithot.t distinct heartwood, ring-porous with 

conspicuous rays, coarse, unevr;nly textured, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.60), 

soft, weak, brittle. Used for fuel and ch-,rcoal in several countries. 

Other Uses Difficult to split but er sy to work and polish. Though seldom 

used, wood suitable for lumber, cabinetwork, furniture, woodenware, 

cellulose manufacture, pulp. Bark of trunk and root used in medicines. 

Cultivated for shade and ornament, for shelterbelts and erosion control on 

mountain slopes, for lumber and firewood in urban forestry. Hardy "city tree" 

apparently immune to pollution, dust, smoke; free from insects and diseases; 

nearly indestructible. Thrives in cities, where other trees cannot survive. 

However, on good sites other species preferable for most purposes. 

Natural Distribution China, and one variety in Taiwan. 

Widely planted in temperate regions, such as Europe and Asia, as fastgrowing 

shade tree and ornamental; extensively naturalized. Introduced from 

China to Europe by missionaries in 1751 and to the United States in 1784. 

Naturalized as a weed tree in eastern and far western United States, southern 

Ontario. 

Climate and Soils Humid temperate and subtropical. Classed in har- 

° 

diness zone 4 (average minimum annual temperature -34 to -29°C). 

Thrives in a humid climate but grows also in areas of low annual rainfall 

sea level to 2000 m 

(350.600 mm) and up to 8 dry months. Planted from 

altitude or above. Ailanthus found on variety of soils from sandy to light clay, 

hard, dry, wet, acid, alkaline, rocky, swamp, and depleted. Reportedly does 

not do well on compact clay or chalky soils. In cities typically found in cracks 

of concrete, polluted alleys, vacant lots, trash heaps. 

Reference 

Illick, Joseph S. 1925. Pennsylvania trees, 5th ed. Illus. Pennsylvania Department 

of Forests and Waters Bulletin 11. 237 pp. (Ailanthusglandulosa,p. 193, 

pl. 101, drawing used here.) 

o 

44 


13. Ailanthus excelsa 

Botanical Name Ailanthusexcelsa Roxb. 

Common Names ailanthus, tree-of-heaven (English); maharukh, ardusi, 

ardu, arua, chora nim, dhup, per lari, gorwi-kawat (India). 

Quassia Family, Simaroubaceae 

This tropical relative of Ailanthus altissima is similar to that species and 

adapted to semiarid as well as humid regions. It is recognized by the large pinnately 

compound leaves with many pairs of coat sely toothed, gland-hairy leaflets 

and by the many narrow, flattened red fruits. As a fast-growing weed tree, 

it is readily available for fuel. The trees, which are easily propagated by seed 

and cuttings, grow very fast and coppice well. 

Description Handsome, large deciduous tree 18-25 m high, with straight 

trunk 60-80 cm in diameter. Bark light gray and smooth, becoming gray-brown 

and rough on large trees, aromatic, slightly bitter. Twigs stout, greenish. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, large, 30-60 

cm or more in length. 

Leaflets 8-14 or more pairs, long-stalked, ovate or broadly lance-shaped from 

verl unequal base, 6-10 cm long, 3-5 cm wide, often curved, long-pointed, 

gland-hairy, edges coarsely toothed and often lobed. 

Flowerclusters (panicles) drooping at leaf bases, shorter than leaves, much 

branched. Flowers many, mostly male and female on different trees, short 

stalked, greenish-yellow. Calyx 5-lobed, 5 narrow petals spreading 6 mm 

across, 10 stamens, and on other flowers 2-5 separate pistils each with elliptical 

ovary, 1ovule, and slender style. 

Fruits (samaras) many, 2-5 from a flower, lance-shaped, flat, pointed at 

ends, 5 cm long, 1cm wide, copper-red, strongly veined, twisted at base. Seed 

1, flat. 

Wood white and lustrous, turning light grayish-white, without distinct 

heartwood, with rather rough feel, soft, very lightweight (sp. gr. 0.45), 

buoyant, straight-grained, fairly even and very coarse-textured, with wide 

rays, diffuse-porous, growth rings indistinct or none. Easily worked but 

perishable and subject to insect attack and stain. 

Other Uses In addition to fuelwood, species used for boxes, crates, fishing 

floats, toys, tool handles, matches, drums. Yields a gum, which is not used. 

Bark and leaves used in home remedies. Lopped branches excellent fodder for 

sheep and goats. Trees serve as shelterbelts along borders of fields. Often 

planted for fodder, but leaves of young plants not browsed by cattle because of 

acrid juice. 


Common in central and southern India, especially 

on old village sites within forests. 

Widely planted nearly throughout India, including dry northern areas, often 

in rows at edges of farms and streams. 

Climate Seasonal humid tropical (monsoon); 600 mm minimum rainfall, 

AILANTHUS EXCELSA 

45

Fig. 21. Ailanhus excelsa lBasu 1918, pl. 202). 

46 


SEA 

MAP 

b SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 

Ilk . AILANTHUS EXCELSA, RoxI 

* RIAJPUTANA C 

• 

NU 

BAM 

"SORS-AS Andaman ~llalna tkiomr mIum 

Islands 1PR am 

0 goo W No Nicobars, 

O , 141iandls 

Fig. 22. Distribution of Ailanthus excelsa in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

References 

Basu, B. D. 1918. Indian medicinalplants, 2 vols. and 2 vols. plates. Ailanthus 

excelsa {pi. 202, from Wight, drawing used here). 

Pearson, R. S., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Illus. (Acacia excelsa, pp. 214-216, map used here). 

AILANTHUS EXCELSA 

47

14. Albizia falcataria 

Botanical Name Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosb. 

Synonyms Albizia moluccana Miq., Albizia falcata (L.) Backer (in part) (also 

spelled Albizzia) 

Common Names Molucca albizia, Indonesia albizia, white albizia (Englishi; 

batai (Pen. Malaysia), mara (Sri Lanka); falkata, Moluccan sau (Philippines); 

kayu macis (Sarawak, Malaysia); djeungdjing, sengon, sengon laut 

(Indonesia); tamalini (W. Samoa); vaivai (Fiji); sau, puah. 

Legume Family, Leguminosac (Mimosoideae) 

Albizia falcataria, one of the fastest-growing trees in the world, is a fuelwood 

species for the humid tropics. It is a large deciduous tree with a thin, very 

broad crown of dull green foliage, bipinnately compound leaves with numerous 

small, oblong leaflets, and narrow, flat brown pods that split open. It is 

widely planted in tropical countries and becoming naturalized. 

This pioneer, light-requiring tree produces abundant seeds in lightweight 

pods blown by winds. It spreads into clearings and has become established in 

abandoned sugar cane fields in Hawaii. 

Growth records of this "miracle tree" on good soil and high rainfall are as 

much as 7 m in height in little more than a year, 13-18 m in 3years, 21 m in 4 

years, and 30 m in 9-10 years. Then growth slows to a maximum of 45 m and 

short life of about 25 ,ears. In plots, the most vigorous trees increased in trunk 

diameter about 5-7 cm per year. A height of 15 m and diameter of 30 cm have 

been attained after 4 years, in Hawaii. The state champion tree in Hawaii 

measured 33.6 m high. 9.1 m in circumference at breast height, and 50.9 m in 

crown spread. 

The trees coppice vigorously and can be harvested in plantations on an 

8-year cycle from coppice growth. They are shallow-rooted and very susceptible 

to uprooting and breakage of branches by typhoons. 

The specific name, "falcate" or "curved like a sickle," refers to the leaflets. 

Description Large deciduous tree to 24-30 m tall, with long trunk, often 

bent or branching, to 80 cm in diameter, not enlarged at base; thin, very broad 

spreading crown, often umbrella-shaped, of dull green foliage. Bark light 

gray, smooth with corky warts, showy; inner bark pink, astringent, slightly 

bitter. Twigs stout, light gray. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, 23-30 cm long, with tiny rusty 

pressed hairs and slender angled axis bearing gla:'d above base. Side axes (pinnae) 

10-12 pairs, 5-10 cm long. Leaflets paired, 15-20 pairs on each axis, 

stalkless, small, oblong, 6-12 mm long, 3-5 mm wide, short-pointed at tip, 

unequal-sided and blunt at base, edges not toothed, upper surface dull green 

and hairless, underneath paler and finely hairy. 

Flower clusters (panicles) large, lateral, branched, 20-25 cm long. Flowers 

many, clustered, stalkless, 12 mm long, whitish, composed of light green bell- 

48 


Fig. 23. Albizia falcataria (Little and Skolmen in press). 

shaped 5-toothed hairy calyx 3 mm long, greenish-white hairy corolla 6 mm 

long with 5 narrow-pointed lobes; very many threadlike, spreading, whitish 

stamens more than 12 mm long, and slender pistil with narrow ovary and long 


Pods (legumes) narrow, flat, 10-13 cm long, 2 cm wide, short-pointed, green, 

turning brown, thin-walled, splitting open. Seeds 15-20, beanlike, 6 mm long, 

oblong, flattened, dull dark brown. 

Wood light-colored, very soft, lightweight (sp. gr. 0.30-0.46), with grain 

ALBIZIA FALCATARIA 

49

interlocked. Difficult to saw, not strong, not 

usually straight, shallowly 

durable. Wood suitable for fuel and makes good charcoal. though its calorific 

value is not high. 

Other Uses A promising source of pulpwood. Rated excellent for fibercore 

stock, pallets, boxes, crates, 

board and particle-board. Used for veneer 

furniture components, matches. 

Trees widely planted as fast-growing timber trees in reforestation and sometimes 

as shade for coffee and banana plantations. Also grown as ornamentals, 

though large and short-lived. 

Native of Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain, 


and Solomon Islands. Altitude where native from sea level to 1200 m and in 

plantations to 1500 m. 

Introduced and widely planted in tropical countries and becoming naturalized. 

Common in Southeast Asia, Philippines, and Pacific Islands to Hawaii. 

Humid or moist tropical, such as tropical rain forest. 


Rainfall high (2000-4000 mm), uniform through the year or with dry season of 

not more than 2 months. In the Philippines plantations rainfall as much as 

4500 mm. Grows best on deep, well-drained fertile soils, such as friable clay 

loam. Does better on alkaline than acid soils; not suited to dry sands. 

References 

Little, Elbert L., Jr., and Roger G. Skolmen. In press. Common forest trees of 

Hawaii. Illus. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 

(drawing used here). 

National Academy ot Sciencrs. 1979. Tropicallegumes: resources for the future. 

National Academy of Scienes, Washington, D.C., USA. 

50 


15. Albizia lebbek 

Botanical Name Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth. 

(also spelled Albizzia and lebbeck) 

Common Names lebbek, siris-tree, woman's-tongue, tibet-tree, albizzia, 

East Indian walnut (English); Indian siris (Australia); seris, kakko (India); 

sirin (Pakistan); mara (Sri Lanka); telik, koleo, moniwopu, welala (Indonesia); 

biruma-gokan (Okinawa); kpakpei (Sierra Leone); kassari, n'kolo 

(Niger); mtangatanga (Malawi); black-ebony (Bermuda); singer-tree 

(Bahamas); shack-shack (Trinidad); acacia amarilla, lengua de mujer (Puerto 

Rico); chach, (Dominican Republic); algarrobo de olor, mtisico (Cuba); canjuro 

(El Salvador); barba caballero (Venezuela); muche, dormil6n 

(Colombia); tcha-tcha, bois noir (Haiti); vieille fille (Guadeloupe); coracao de 

negro (Brazil); barba di junkuman (Dutch West Indies); pruek, langil. 


Albizia lebbeh is recognized by its large, bipinnately compound leaves with 

large, oblong leaflets rounded at both ends and by the numerous strawcolored, 

flat papery pods that hang down and rattle with the wind. This 

species is widely planted and available for firewood in arid and semiarid 

regions and in the humid tropics. The trees grow moderately fast and coppice 

fairly well. The brittle branches may be broken by strong winds, and trees 

with roots near the surface are not wind-firm. 

This genus contains 100-150 species in the Old World. The name honors 

Cavalier Filippo degl' Albizzi, of an old and noble Italian family, who introduced 

plants into Europe in 1749. "Lebbek"is the Arabic common name. The 

peculiar rattling sound produced by continual movement of the dry pods is the 

source of the common names "woman's-tongue," "lengua de mujer," and 

"m~tsico." 

Description Medium-sized deciduous tree 6-12 m high with trunk often 

short, 50 cm in diameter, sometimes a large tree to 30 m tall and 1 m in 

diameter, with spreading umbrella-shaped crown of thin foliage. Bark gray, 

smoothish, becoming fissured or rough; inner bark pink and bitter. Twigs 

greenish, becoming gray or brown, finely hairy when young. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, 15-40 cm long, with greenish or 

yellow-brown axis bearing small elliptical gland on upper side near base and 

2-4 pairs of lateral axes (pinnae), each with 4-10 pairs of leaflets. Leaflets very 

short-stalked, oblong, 2-3 cm long, 1-1.5 cm wide, rounded at both ends and 

very unequal-sided at base, with midvein not in center, edges not toothed, 

thin, dull green upper surface, sometimes finely hairy underneath; end 

leaflets broadest above middle (obovate). 

Flowerclusters (umbels or heads) 1-4 rounded masses at end of stalk, 4-10 

cm long at leaf base, 5-7.5 cm across; many threadlike, spreading, whitish to 

yellow stamens tipped with light green. Flowers many, fragrant, on short 

ALBIZIA LEBBEK 

51

Fig. 24. Albizia lcbbek (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

slender hairy stalks of 5 mm, 3.4 cm long; composed of narrow, tubular, hairy, 

mm long in 

5-toothed calyx 3 mm long: narrow, tubular, white corolla 8 

cluding 5 pointed lobes hairy at tip; many threadlike spreading stamens united 

into tube near base, and pistil with narrow ovary and threadlike style. 

Pods Ilegumes) oblong, broad, flat, 10-25 cm long, 2.5-4 cm wide, strawcolored, 

short-pointed at both ends, swollen around each seed. Seeds 4-12 in 

row, oblong, flattened, brown, I cm long. Pods produced in great quantities, 

open late, and remain hanging down on the twigs almost throughout the year, 

long after leaves are shed, and rattle with the wind. 

Wood with wide whitish or yellowish-white sapwood, and heartwood light 

52 

COMMON FUELWOOD CROPS.

A, 

-* MAP 

SHOWING DISTRIUTION 

F". 5.Dstiu0o OF . 

w i mt drludfcto 

wNdmcieMas 

brow wth steakdigher ad drke badsmodatlyn e~avy (sp. gr. 

goodnfueadc holgtraddre admoeaeyhay{p r 

Other Uses Furniture, paneling, veneer, turnery, general construction, 

carts, and carving. Though not easy to work by hand, wood carves and polishes 

well, resembles rosewood. Bark used in tanning, and some parts of the 

tree in home medicines. A good honey plant. 

Attractive trees widely planted for shade and ornament, especially along 

roadsides, in gardens, pastures, and plantations of tea, coffee, and cardamon. 

Tree good for reforestation on dry alkaline soils; fixes nitrogen through root 

nodules. Trees good soil binders for erosion control, such as along embankments. 

Livestock and wildlife browse foliage, can damage young plants. Young 

foliage fed to cattle and water buffalo. Leaves useful as green manure. 

Natural Distribution Tropical Asia from India to Pakistan, Nepal, 

Bangladesh, Andaman Islands, Thailand, Malaysia. Altitude in India from sea 

level to 1600 m. 

Widely planted and naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions around 

the world, including Africa, southern Florida, West Indies, Central and South 

ALBIZIA LEBBEK 

53

America, and Southeast Asia. Extensive plantations in Nepal and central and 

southern India. 

Climate and Soils Tropical and subtropical, humid with dry season or 

seasonal (monsoon). Annual rainfall 500-2000 mm in the native range, with 

wet summers. Soils various but well.drained loam best. Trees can grow in dry 

alkaline soils and near the seashore. 

References 

Little, Elbert L., Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto 

Rico and the Virgin Islands. Illus. United States Department of Agriculture, 

Agriculture Handbook no. 249. (Albizia lebbek, pp. 146-148, drawing used 

here), 

and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Pearson, R. S., 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Albizzia lebbek, pp. 454-458, map used 

here). 

54 


ALNUS 

Common Names alder (English); aliso (Spanish) 

Birch Family, Betulaceae 

The genus Alnus (from the classical Latin name) has about 30 species of 

shrubs and trees in the northern temperate zone. They are widely distributed 

through the northernmost forests even beyond the limit of trees and extend 

southward into tropical mountains to Malaya and Assam and Algeria, and 

down the Andes to Peru and Bolivia. They are mainly in wet soils along 

streams and in swamps and also as pioneers on exposed soils. The bark is gray 

and smooth. Twigs have a 3-angled pith and stalked buds. Leaves are alternate 

in 3 rows and are ovate or elliptical with toothed edges. Male and female 

flowers occur in separate clusters on the same twig. Male flower clusters are 

short, upright cones containing many tiny male flowers. Conelike female 

clusters are also short and upright and contain many tiny female flowers. 

There are several upright, conelike, dark brown fruits which are hard and eggshaped. 

They remain attached and contain many tiny 2-winged nutlets. 

Alders are nitrogen-fixing; that is, their roots bear nodules or swellings with 

microorganisms that enrich the soil as do legumes. Thus, they are well 

adapted to reforestation and soil fertility improvement. The extensive lateral 

root system bearing the nodules serves also for watershed protection and erosion 

control on unstable slopes. These trees are suitable for planting for fuelwood 

in tropical highlands. 

A key to the 3 species of Alnus described here follows. 

KEY TO 3 ALNUS SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

Leaves elliptical, edges finely toothed with uniform short teeth; conelike fruits 

mostly more than 10 in cluster, 12-18 mm long; native of southern Asia 

............................................... 

17. A Inus nepalensis 

Leaves ovate or elliptical, edges doubly toothed with coarse teeth of 2 sizes; 

conelike fruits 8 or fewer in cluster, 15-25 mm long. 

Leaves with edges turned under, wavy-lobed; native of Pacific Coast region 

of northwestern North America ................ 18. Alnus rubra. 

Leaves with edges flat, not wavy-lobed; native of mountains from Mexico 

to South America ............................ 16. Alnusacuminata. 

ALNUS 

55

16. Alnus acuminata 

Alnus acuminata H.B.K. 

Botanical Name 

Alnus spachii 

Synonyms Alnus ferruginea H.B.K., Alnus mirbellii Spach, 

(Reg.) Call, 

Andes alder, alder (English); aliso, jadl, alle (Spanish); 

Common Names 

sairno (Panama); lambrvn (Peru); aliso del cerro (Argentina). 

Birch Family, Bctulaceae 

This species, native in New World tropical mountains, has 3.6 fruits in a 

cluster and ovate leaves doubly saw.toothed with teeth of 2 sizes. 

stream banks, 

Characteristic of montane forests in valleys, ravines, and 

Alnus acuminatais also found on steep slopes and exposed or denuded areas. It 

forms secondary forests on landslides and clearings and in pastures and along 

roadsides. The species is often found with Pinusand Quercus in Mexico, and in 

pure stands or groves called "alisares" in Argentina. 

As pioneers the fast-growing plants form thickets on bare, exposed soil. The 

small winged nutlets &rseeds are easily spread by the wind. 

This species is well adapted to fuelwood production on pasture lands, where 

are grazed under scattered G,wide-spaced trees. It is reported that 

livestock 

forage production increases in pastures where Ahaus acurninatais planted. This 

is a fuelwood species for tropical highlands. 

Description Small to large evergreen tree commonly 10-25 m high (sometimes 

30 ni and, in plantations, to 40 in), with straight trunk slightly angled 

and grooved, 20-50 cm (to I in)in diameter, and narrow crown of dark green 

exposed sites and summits a shrub with crooked branches. Root 

foliage; on 

dark gray, thin, smooth, 

system broad, spreading, shallow. Bark light to 

becoming slightly rough, often with horizontal ridges; inner bark light brown, 

turning (lark brown, often hairy, 

slightly bitter. Twigs green when young, 

with tiny glands; pith 3-angled. Buds stalked, egg-shaped, to I cm long, shortpointed, 

covered by 2 or 3 flattened scales meeting along edges, resinous, often 

slightly hairy. 

Leaves alternate in 3 rows, ovate or elliptical, 7-12 cm long, 3.5-8 cm wide, 

mostly long-pointed at tip, short-pointed to rounded at base, edges coarsely or 

not turnediunder, 

finely doubly saw-toothed with teeth of 2 sizes, flat and 

slightly thickened, upper surface (lark green, mostly hairless and often slightly 

brown and hairy with tiny glands, 10-15 straight, 

,,hiny, underneath light 

parallel, slightly shrunken side veins on each side of midvein. Leafstalks 1-2.5 

cm long, light green. 

Flower clusters narrowly cylindrical, greenish, fron" buds of previous 

season, male and female separate on same twig. Male flower clusters (catkins) 

mm in diameter, with 

3-6 hanging down at end of twig, 5-12 cm long and 5-9 

many scales. Rounded green scales 2.5 mm wide, each bearing 3 male flowers 

56 


Fig. 26. Alnus acuninata (Purlow 1977, fig. 9b). 

2 mm wide, consisting of 4 whitish-green pointed sepals I mm long and 4 

yellow opposite stamens. Female clusters back of male, 3-6 upright, conelike, 

7-10 mm long, 3 mm wide. Green scales Imm long, each bearing 2 tiny female 

flowers 2 mm long, composed of pistil with green ovary and 2 blackish styles. 

Fruits 3-6, upright on short stalks, conelike, egg-shaped or cylindrical, 18-25 

mm long, 8-12 mm in diameter, dark brown or blackish, composed of many 

spreading hard woody scales, remaining attached after opening. Nutlets 

many, elliptical, flat, with 2 narrow winSs, light brown, about 2.5 mm long 

and wide, with 2 styles remaining. 

Wood reddish brown with light brown or indistinct sapwood, turning 

darker on exposure, lightweight Isp. gr. 0.36), soft, fine-textured, generally 

straight-grained, diffuse-porous with very small pores, with lustrous surface 

and no odor. Easy to work, polishes well, but not durable where exposed. 

Classed as a good, evenly burning fuelwood. Where wood cut for lumber, 

tops and pruned branches salvaged for fuel. 

Other Uses Used for furniture, cabinetmaking, coffins, boxes and crates, 

interior construction, posts, plywood, carving. Suitable for pulp. Inner bark 

has served in tanning and dyeing. 

ALNUS ACUMINATA 

57

Fig. 27. Distribution of Abtus acuininata in Mexico and Central America )Furlow H)79, 

fig. 371. 

Widespread in mountains from northeastern Mex- 


ico through Central America to Panama, and Andes of South America from 

Colombia and western Venezuela to Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argontina 

1500-3250 m, 

(Salta, jujuy, and Tucumn). Altitude high mountains mostly 

sometimes as low as 1200 m, and in northern Argentina down to 850 m. 

Grown in plantations within the native range in Costa Rica and Andean 

ranges. Introduced into Chile, New Zealand, perhaps elsewhere. 

Humid cool or subtropical of mountains in tropical 


survive short periods of freezing temperatures. Annual rainfall 

zone. Can 

Soils moist, well-drained, varying from loams and 

1000-3000 mm or more. 

loamy sands to gravel, sand, clay. 

3 subspecies 

Alnus acuminala is a variable species with 

Subspecies 

distinguished (Furlow 1980). 

only native alder there. 

to South America, 

- Ssp. acuminata, confined 

Characterized by leaves mostly elliptical, hairy, with edges usually finely saw. 

toothed. 

- Ssp. arguta (Schlecht.) Furlow, of Mexico and Central Amrrica, has leaves 

mostly ovate, hairy, vith coarse, deep, double saw-toothed edges. 

of central and southern Mexico, closely 

-Ssp. glabrata (Fern.) Furlow, 

58 


Fig. 28. Distribution of Alnus acuminata in South America (Furluw 1979, fig. 34). 

related to the second, but has leaves narrowly ovate, hairless, with sharp and 

double saw-toothed edges. 

names aliso and aile, a 

Related Species Alnusjorullensis H.B.K., common 

closely related species often confused or treated as a synonym, native in 

mountains from central Mexico south to Guatemala. Aspreading scrubby tree 

to 20 m high and I m or more in diameter, on less moist sites. Leaves elliptical 

or blunt tip, with edges coarse, 

to obovate, broadest toward short-pointed 

uneven, double saw-toothed or wavy; long side veins making a small angle 

with midvein, many tiny yellow or brown glands beneath. Fruits conelil.e, 

egg-shaped, 13-25 mm long, short-stalked. 

ALNUS ACUMINATA 

A 

59

References 

Furlow, John J. 1977. Betulaceae. In Burger, William. FloraCostaricensis.Fieldiana: 

Botany 40: 56-58, illus. (fig. 9b, drawing used here). 

- . 1979. The systematics of the American species of Alnus (Betulaceae). 

Rhodora 81: 1-121, 151-248, illus. (Alnus acuminata, pp. 97-121, maps used 

here). 

Tortorelli, Lucas A. 1956. Maderas y bosques argentinos. Editorial Acme, 

S.A.C.I., Buenos Aires, Argentina, 910 pp. (Alnus var. spachii, pp. 275-279). 

60 

COMMON FUELWOOD CROPS,

17. Alnus nepalensis 

Botanical Name Alnus nepalensisD. Don 

Common Names Nepal alder, Nepalense alder, Indian alder (English); utis, 

kodom (Nepal); utis, kohi (India); maibau (Burma). 


This Old World species of the Himalayan Mountains and mountains of 

Southeast Asia has persistent, upright, conelike fruits that occur as clusters 

with usually more than 10 fruits per cluster. Edges of its elliptical leaves have 

fine, uniform sawteeth. This tree has been planted extensively in hills of 

northern India. 

This fast-growing, shade-tolerant large tree is suitable for plantations in 

moist, tropical hi,',hlands. Scientific and common names refer to Nepal, where 

this species forms forests. 

Description Medium to large deciduous tree 10-30 m high, with straight 

trunk 30-60 cm (to 1m) in diameter, becoming slightly enlarged at base, with 

spreading irregular crown. Bark gray or silvery gray, thick, smooth with horizontal 

corky ridges, becoming fissured; inner bark pinkish or brown-streaked, 

bitter or astringent. Twigs greenish, becoming brown, hairless; pith 3-angled. 

Buds stalked, covered by 2 scales meeting along edges. 

Leaves alternate in 3 rows, elliptical, 6-13 cm long, 4-7.5 cm wide, shortpointed 

at both ends, finely sawtoothed with uniform teeth, thin, becoming 

hairless, upper surface dull or shiny dark green with many slightly curved side 

veins, underneath paler with dotlike yellow-brown scales and slightly raised 

veins. Leafstalks short (less than 1cm), light green. 

or 

Flower clusters narrowly cylindrical, male and female separate on same 

different twigs in autumn. Male flower clusters (catkins) several, hanging down 

at and near end of twig, 5-12 cm long, 3mm in diameter, yellow, showy, bearing 

many tiny flowers in autumn. Female clusters more than 10, conelike, upright 

on branching side twigs, 5-10 mm long, 2 mm wide, with many tiny female 

flowers. 

Fruits many, mostly more than 10, upright on short stalks, conelike, elliptical 

or egg-shaped, 12-18 mm long, 6-8 mm in diameter, dark brown, composed 

of many spreading, hard, woody scales, remaining attached. Nutlets 

more than 2 mm 

many, rounded and flat with 2 broad wings, light brown, 

long. 

Wood reddish-white turning to light brown with pinkish tint, sapwood 

broad, whitish, indistinct, medium- and even-textured, fairly straight-grained, 

lightweight (sp. gr. 0.32-0.37), soft, spongy, diffuse-porous with distinct but inconspicuous 

growth rings. Easily seasoned, machines well but not durable or 

resistant to decay or termites. Dries rapidly, burns evenly but quickly. In 

India it is classed as a timber tree of secondary importance. 

Wood used locally for boxes and in carpentry. Suitable for in- 

Other Uses 

ALNUS NEPALENSIS 

61

Fig. 29. Alnus nepalensis (Little and Skolmen in press). 

terior parts in furniture manufacture. Bark served for tanning and dyeing in 

India. 

Natural Distribution Himalayan Mountains in Pakistan (Punjab), Nepal, 

and northern India east to Assam, northern Burma, southern China (Yunnan, 

Szechuan, Kweichow). Recorded from Indochina. Altitude in Himalayan 

Mountains 1000-2700 m (sometimes 300-3000 m). 

Planted exclusively in hills of northern India (West Bengal, Kashmir, 

Himachal Pradesh). In Burma, seed broadcast during last years of shifting cultivation. 

Tested in rr.,ist mountainous areas of Hawaii. 

Climate and Soils Humid cool or subtropical mountain areas in tropical 

with high rainfall. Soils moist, well-drained, varying from loams and 

zone, 

loamy sands to gravel, sand, clay. 

62 


t ." 

" "MAP. 

- SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 

or 

ALNUS NEPALENSISt 

. .oo 

. 

9 L 'A JPUTANA 

KARACHI 

ARABIAN 

OIL A 

4 0''sahu 

NINA 

ARANDABENGAL 

~ A. 1,11 5 M. 

.'-'s r SIAM 

11,144 

SAY 

jot.ALL.l 

4A 

OR 

orGA 

Scale of Was x 

"s~oRiE aM AndamanA 

sltandsI PORT AIR 

0 '11 411 auiou Nicobar# 

COLOCUG 

Islands | 

Fig. 30. Distribution of Alnus nepalensis in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

Common in stream beds, near streams, in ravines, also in drier forests and 

old cultivated lands. 

References 


Hawaii. Illus. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 


and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India. 2 vols. 


(Alnus nepalensis, pp. 969-971, map 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. 

used here). 

ALNUS NEPALENSIS 

63

18. Alnus rubra 

Botanical Name Alnus rubra Bong. 

Synonym Alnus oregona Nutt. 

Common Names red alder, Oregon alder, Pacific Coast alder, western 

alder (English); aune de i'Ordgon (French). 


Alnus rubra, which ranges north to southeastern Alaska, is probably the 

northernmost species described here. This leading hardwood of the Pacific 

Northwest is a good fuelwood and is considered a fuel source for generating 

electricity. It is recognized by the upright, conelike fruits in clusters of 4 to 8 

and wavy-lobed leaves with double sz;."-eth and edges turned under. The tree 

is a fuelwood species for tropical highlat ds and the humid temperate zone. 

This species is one of the most common broadleaf trees or hardwoods within 

its range. It occurs in nearly pure stands as the red aider forest type and as a 

minor component in the Stika spruce and Sitka spruce-western hemlock types, 

and occasionally in others. Pure stands are mainly at lower altitudes in stream 

bottoms, moist flats, and lower slopes. Alnus rubra is also found along beaches 

where rivers enter the ocean and in swamps. As a pioneer on exposed mineral 

soil, it invades landslides, clearings, cutover and burned forest lands, and 

roadsides, and forms thickets or pure stands. The fast-growing pioneer plants 

can compete with weeds. Their wide-spreading shallow roots have nodules or 

swellings containing microorganisms that fix atmospheric nitrogen and thus 

enrich mineral soils. 

Both scientific and common names refer to the wood, which turns reddishbrown. 

Description Small to large deciduous tree 12-30 m high (reported to reach 

40 in), with straight trunk 30-80 cm (to 1 m) in diameter and narrow crown of 

dark green foliage; with bi ,adiy conical crown down nearly to ground in open 

areas. Bark light gray, mottled with white, thin, smooth or becoming slightly 

scaly and furrowed into irregular flat plates; inner bark reddish-brown. Twigs 

slender, light green and hairy when young, becoming dark red; pith 3-angled. 

Winter buds stalked, elliptical, to Icm long, short-pointed, dark red, covered 

by 2 hairy scales meeting along edges. 

Leaves alternate in 3 rows, ovate or elliptical, 6-13 cm long, 4-7.5 cm wide, 

short-pointed at both ends, edges shallowly wavy-lobed with coarse double 

sawteeth having both large and small gland-tipped teeth, turned under, slightly 

thickened, with 9-15 nearly straight parallel veins on each side of midvein, 

upper surface green, nearly hairless and dull to slightly shiny, underneath 

gray-green with rusty hairs along veins, remaining green and shedding in late 

auti. nn. Leafstalks 7-30 mm long, hairy, glandular. 

Flower clustersnarrowly cylindrical, with many dark red scales, male and 

female separate on same twig from buds of previous season, opening in early 

64 


Fig. 31. Alnus rubra IViereck and Little 1972). 

spring before leaves. Male flower clusters (catkins) 3.6, hanging down at end 

of twig, 5-15 cm long, 6-10 mm in diameter. Each scale with 3 tiny, yellowish 

male flowers composed of 4 sepals and 4 opposite stamens. Female clusters 

back of male, 4-8, upright, conelike. Each scale with 2 tiny female flowers, 

composed of reddish pistil with 2-celled ovary and 2 styles. 

Fruits 4-8, upright in short stalks, conelike, egg-shaped or rounded, 15-25 

mm long, 8-15 mm in diameter, blackish, composed of many spreading, hard, 

woody scales, maturing in summer and remaining attached. Nutlets many, 

ALNUS RUBRA 

65

,az' h,1/, 

Fig. 32. Distribution of Alnus rubra in North America (Little 1971, map 104-N). 

elliptical, flat witl' 2 narrow wings, brown, 2-3 rmm long, shedding in autumn 

and winter. 

Wood whitish when freshly cut, soon turning to light reddish-brown, not 

and heartwood, fine-textured, straight-grained, 

distinguished into sapwood 

moderately lightweight (sp. gr. 0.33-0.48), diffuse-porous with small pores, an- 

66 

\ 


nual growth rings distinct, with broad rays, soft to moderately soft. Easy to work 

and stain but scars easily and wears poorly. Green logs and lumber very susceptible 

to decay; however, firewood may be stored under cover if split and airdried. 

Wood used for domestic firewood and makes good charcoal. Because of 

its rapid growth, species being considered as a potential energy crop to generate 

electricity. 

Other Uses Red alder an important pulpwood, usually blended with conifer 

pulps. Also used in furniture, plywood, woodenware and novelties, paneling 

and other millwork, fixtures, tool handles. This species has been cultivated for 

ornament and windbreaks and planted on coal mine spoils. 


Pacific Coast region of northwestern North America 

from northern end of southeastern Alaska (almost 600 north latitude to western 

central California. 

British Columbia, western Washington, western Oregon, 

Mostly within 160 km of Pacific Ocean. Also local in mountains of northern 

Idaho. Altitude from sea level to 750 m (mostly below 300 in), in northern part 

Introduced into Europe, New Zealand, 

of southeastern Alaska only to 300 m. 

perhaps elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Mostly humid to superhumid temperate oceanic climate 

within coastal fog belt. Placed in plant hardiness zone 4, with average winter 

minimums of approxim:ely 

-340 to -291C. High annual precipitation 

600-3000 mm, mainly as rain in winter. Soils varying from gravel or sand to 

clay, including exposed mineral soils. Best growth on deep, well-drained loams. 

References 

A. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. Illus. United 

Fowells, H. 

no. 271, 762 pp. 

States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 

(Alnus rubra, pp. 83.88). 

Furlow, John J. 1979. The systematics of the American species of Alnus (Betulaceae). 

Rhodora 81: 1-121, 151-248, illus. (Alnus rubra, pp. 79-85). 

Johnson, Frederic D. 1968. Taxonomy and distribution of northwestern 

alders, In J. M. Trappe, J. F. Franklin, R. F. Tarrant, and G. M. Hansen, eds. 

Biology of alder. Illus. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- 

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, 

vice, 

Oregon, USA, 292 pp. 

Atlas of United States trees, vol. 1. Illus. United 

Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1971. 

States Department of Agriculture, Misc. Pub. no. 1146. (map 104-N used 

here). 

Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.J. Illus. United States De- 

Plank, Marlin E. 1971. 

partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, American Woods FS-215, 7 pp. 

Viereck, Leslie A., and Elbert L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees and shrubs. Illus. 

no. 410. 

United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 

(Alnus rubra, p. 145, map, drawing used here). 

-. 1975. Atlas of United States trees, vol. 2. Illus. United States Department 

of Agriculture, Misc. Pub. no. 1292. 

ALNUS RUBRA 

67

.19. Anogeissus latifolia 

Botanical Name Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Bedd. 

Common Names axlewood, axlewood-tree; dhawa, dhaura, dihausa, bakli 

(India); dawu, vellai-naga (Sri Lanka); guediane (Senegal). 

Combretum Family, Combretaceae 

This hardy tree common in dry forests of India has broadly elliptical leaves, 

many small yellow or pinkish flowers, fruits in rounded clusters at leaf bases, 

and smooth whitish or gray bark. The wood is readily accessible for fuel and 

charcoal. It is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions and also the 

humid tropics. This is a dominant species in the dry deciduous or monsoon 

forests. The trees are hardy on poor, dry sites but grow slowly. They may remain 

dwarfed on exposed rocky slopes and may die back in extreme droughts. 

The tropical genus Anogeissus has about 11 species ranging from Africa to 

Arabia, India, and southeastern Asia. 

Description Medium to large deciduous tree 20 m high, 60 cm (to 1m) in 

trunk diameter, sometimes larger; in dry areas a small tree of 5 m or large 

shrub. Bark smooth, whitish or gray, hard, shiny, conspicuous; inner bark 

red-brown. Twigs slender, hairless. 

Leaves alternate, broadly elliptical, 6-10 cm long, 4-6 cm wide, blunt or 

short-pointed at tip, rounded or notched at base, edges not toothed, becoming 

hairless, side veins slightly curved and sunken, with many fine veins in network, 

turning coppery or reddish before shedding in autumn; leafstalk 1-2 cm 

long. 

Flower clusters (heads) rounded, single or in short clusters (cymes), 1-1.5 

cm in diameter, short-stalked at leaf bases. Flowers many, stalkless, 5-7 mm 

long, composed of narrow finely hairy tube (hypanthium), calyx with tube and 

5 lobes turned back, yellow or pinkish-yellow; no corolla; 10 stamens inserted 

on tube; pistil with inferior -celled ovary, 2 ovules, slender style. 

Fruits (multiple) many, in rounded clusters (heads) 1cm in diameter. Individual 

fruit about 5 mm long, dry, pinkish to yellowish, almost hairless, 

1-seeded, flattened with 2 wings and long point from calyx. 

Wood with wide, yellowish-gray sapwood and purplish-brown heartwood, 

heavy to very heavy (sp. gr. 0.94), fine-textured, with shallowly interlocked 

grain, small pores, growth rings present but not distinct. Strong, elastic, very 

tough, hard, difficult to season, somewhat difficult to saw but good for turning 

and machining, polishes well with smooth shiny surface. Attacked by termites 

and not durable in exposed situations. A fine firewood and excellent for charcoal. 

Other Uses Widely used for poles, rafters, farm implements, tool handles, 

shaft. and axles of carts; also construction, furniture, mine props. Also a possible 

su -rce of paper pulp. 

Light yellow or brownish gum, known as gum gatty or Indian gum, exuding 

68 


Fig. 33. Anogeissus latifolia Wight 1845, pl. 994). 

ANOGEISSUS LATIFOLIA 

69

MAP 

SHOWINO DISTRIBUTION 

Of 

,,. ,' ,..,. ANOGEISSUS LATIFOLIA, WA. 

BAY 

m .w 

ARABIAN BENGOAL 

69iA 

MARRAS Andaman 

u~~gnol IO l~l pm~glam 

6 0 too gCo IKdo 

o 

Fig. 34. Distribution of Anogeissus latifoliain India 1Pearson and Brown 1932). 

from the bark serves in pharmaceuticals and calico printing. Bark and leaves 

rich in tannin; leaves yield a black dye. Foliage serves as fodder. One of 

several tropical host plants for tasar silkworms. 

ot India to Nepal 

l"atural Distribution Widespread through mountains 

and open grasslands of Sri Lanka. To 1300 m altitude. Not widely planted or 

introduced elsewhere. 

Cilmate and Soils Tropical and subtropical, semiarid, seasonal or monsoon, 

with as much as 600 mm annual rainfall. Long, irregular dry season with 

very low rainfall some years when the monsoon fails. Soils dry sandy or rocky 

including hills, ravines, and denuded wastelands too dry for agriculture. 

References 

1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 


Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. Anogeissus latifolia, pp. 539-543 (map 

used here). 

Wight, Robert. 1845. Icones plantarum Indiae Orientalis. Illus. (Conocarpus 

latifolia pl. 994, drawing used here). 

70 


20. Azadirachta indica 

Botanical Name Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 

Synonyms Melia azadirachta L., Melia indica (A.juss.) Brandis 

Common Names neem, neem-tree, margosa-tree (English); nim (India); 

kohomba, vcmpu (Sri Lanka); tamaka (Burma); mambu, sadu (Malaysia); 

mindi (Indonesia); maranggo. 

Mahogany Family, Meliateae 

Neem has been called "that most ubiquitous of all plantation trees in arid 

regions." Neem plants have fairly rapid growth, coppice freely, and produce 

root sprouts from an extensive root system. They are drought-resistant but not 

frost-hardy, particularly when young. The generic name means "noble tree" in 

Persian, and the specific name refers to India. This genus has a second species 

from Borneo to the Philippines. 

The species is recognized by the drooping, large, pinnately compound leaves 

with many paired, curved, lance-shaped, very long-pointed leaflets, and abundant 

small, whitish, fragrant flowers. The wood from plantations is valued not 

only for fuel but for construction and furniture. This is a fuelwood crop for 

arid and semiarid regions and the humid tropics. 

Description Medium to large handsome tree 10-15 m high, with straight 

short trunk 30-80 cm in diameter and widespreading branches forming dense, 

rounded crown, usually evergreen except in periods of extreme drought, deeprooted. 

Bark gray, with scaly plates, thick; inner bark pink, astringent, bitter. 

Twigs stout, brown, hairless, twigs and crushed foliage with slight odor of 

garlic. 

Leaves crowded near ends of twigs, alternate, pinnately compound, 20-35 

cm or more in length, hairless, with slender light green axis. Leaflets mostly 

I at end often lacking, with stalks less 

9-17 (sometimes more), paired except 

than 3 mm long, curved lance-shaped with very long point, base blunt and 

very unequal or 1-sided, sawtoothed on edges, midvein curved and near lower 

edge, 4-8 cm long, 12-22 mm wide, thin, dull green above, paler underneath. 

or beck of leaves, 10-30 

Flower clusters (panicles) from base of old leaves 

cm long, narrow, branched. Flowers many, short-stalked, small, white, 

fragrant, 1cm across, composed of 5 rounded light green calyx lobes, 5 oblong, 

rounded white petals 5 mm long, 10 stamens united within a tube toothed at 

end, and pistil with rounded 3-celled ovary, slender style, and 3-lobed stigma. 

Fruits (drupes) many, oblong, 13-20 mm long, light yellow turning purple, 

with bitter pulp, large elliptical stone, I large seed. 

Wood with grayish-white sapwood and heartwood red, fading to reddishbrown, 

aromatic, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.56-0.85), hard, with interlocked 

grain, medium- to somewhat coarse-textured, oily, with distinct growth rings. 

Easily worked, durable, resistant to decay, not attacked by insects. Resembles 

AZADIRACHTA INDICA 

71

-34 

Fig. 3. A:- derchl indIcdI Bcddonie 1869.74. p1. 14). 

V 

-0 

nahogllany in the same family and may be beautifully mottled. Wood long 

used for fuel in ln2ia and Africa where planted for this purpose. 

Other Uses Used for construction, shipbuilding, poles, lumber, furniture, 

agricultural instrumenks, carving. Aromatic wood in shelve5 and drawers 

reported to repel insects. 

72 


, 

,- 

0 

2\P 

MAP 

SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 

or 

*A7ADIRACHTA INDICA, 

I 41a 

qj,~ 

ARABIAN 

5 tA 

,,.l 01 Nil" 

IRAJPUTAN 

3 JUS& 

:| 

A 

9A 

A 

q 

9or 

10.S 

41 

91 14 ALeA 

BAY 

ULNGAL 

P A ans103 u 

Fig. 36. Distribution of Azadirachla indica in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

Most parts of tree yield commercial by-products. Nearly all par:s except 

wood used in home remedies or medicine, for example, bark, young fruit, oil, 

flowers, leaves, sap, and gum. Bark has high tannin content. Neem oil or 

margosa oil from seeds has served in soaps, disinfectants, drugs, cosmetics, 

and as a lubricant and fuel for lamps. Seed cake or residue left after oil extraction 

reportedly an excellerit fertilizer. 

Seeds and leaves yield azadirachtin, apromising new insect repellent. Dried 

leaves long used to protect cloth and books from insects. Leaves and twigs 

have served as a mulch and green manure fertilizer. In Asia leaves browsed as 

fodder, but foliage of the variation in West Africa not eaten by livestock. Twigs 

chewed for mouth hygiene, and a toothpaste from the bark extract has been 

patented. 

Species has bei regarded as sacred in religious cejemonies in parts of India. 

eaten to acquire freedom from disease. Oily wood used 

Cooked leaves we-e 

for carving idols. 

Neemn trees planted exten3ively for shade and windbreaks along streets and 

trees are 

roadsides and in pastures, because they keep leaves when other 

leafless. Aljo grown for reclamation of arid wastelands. Has been suggested 

for vegetative fallow or rotation to restore soil productivity to farm lands while 

pr, 'icing firewood, timber, fodder, etc. 

AZADIRACUTA INDICA 

73

Natural Distribution Native in Burma and perhaps parts of India. 

Altitude from sea level to 1500 m. 

Widely planted in dry tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World. 

Common throughout India; also in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Peninsular 

in dry inland forests and 

Malaysia, Indonesia. Now common and widesprea' 

open scrub forests in semiarid areas of India and Burma. Has grown well in 

plantations for firewood in many parts of Af'ica. Apparently uncommon in the 

New World; rare in southern Florida and Puerto Rico. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid tropical and subtropical with great 

to 0 Annual rainfall 450-1150 mm, 

0 temperature range down C or below. 

Soils 

where planted, less in drought years, and often with long dry season. 

variable, including dry, stony, sandy, clay, and shallow but not waterlogged, 

saline, or deep dry sands. 

References 

Beddome, R. H. 1869-74. The flora sylvatica for southern India, 2 vols. Illus. 

(Melia azadirachta,pl. 14, drawing used here). 



449. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D.C., USA. (Melia azadirachta,pp. 358.359). 

Pearson, R. C., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Azadirachtaindica, pp. 235-237, map 

used here). 

74 


21. Byrsonima crassifolia 

Botanical Name Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) H.B.K. 

Common Names nance, craboo, crapoo, doncela; maricao cimarr6n, 

peralejo (Puerto Rico); nanche, chi (Mexico); nance, nancite (Central 

America); nancito, crabo (Honduras); chaparru (Colombia); manteco, 

chaparro manteco (Venezuela); savanna serrette (Tr,.. lpd); huria (Guyana); 

sabana kwari moeleidan, hori (Suriname). 

Malpighla Family, Malpighiaceae 

Nance iscommonly a small crooked tree or shrub distributed extensively in 

dry forests and savannas throughout tropical America. This variable species is 

readily available for fuelwood. If planted for that purpose, perhaps superior 

varieties could be selected for wood production, as well as for fruits. It is easily 

recognized by its paired elliptical leaves, rusty-red hairs on young twigs, 

flower buds, and young leaves, its many flowers with 5 rounded, stalked, 

yellow petals, and its small, nearly round, yellowish fruits. This species, a 

fuelwood for arid and semiarid regions, is often planted for the fruits and for 

ornamental purposes. 

Byrsoninia, coming from Greek words meaning "hide" and "name," refers to 

the use of the bark in tanning leather, while the species name means "thick 

leaf." "Nance" is of Nahuatl origin. The genus has about 100 species in tropical 

America as far north as southern Florida; this species isthe most widespread. 

Description A small evergreen tree or shrub attaining 4-7 m in height 

(rarely 10 m), with open, widespreading, or rounded crown of low branches; 

often flowering as a shrub of 1-2 m, sometimes tall and narrow with straight 

trunk to 25 cm in diameter. Bark gray to dark brown, becoming thick and 

very rough, with irregular large warts; inner bark streaked with pink and red, 

bitter. 

Leaves opposite, elliptical, 6-13 cm long, 2.5-5 cm wide, varying in size and 

shape, short-pointed at 

tip and base, not toothed on edges, leathery, with 

prominent veins, upper surface green, slightly shiny, almost hairless at maturity; 

lower surface light green, with larger veins mostly rusty-red, hairy. 

Leafstalk 1-1.5 cm long. 

Flower clusters (racemes) many, 7-10 cm long, at ends of upright twigs. 

Flowers many on rusty hairy stalks of 10-12 mim, 

curved downward, 15-20 

mm across, composed of pale yellow or rusty hairy calyx, 5-lobed wit. 1 10 

oblong glands at base outside; 5 widely spreading, rounded, stalked petals 6-10 

mm long, bright yellow but turning reddish; 10 pale yellow stamens; and pale 

green pistil with 3-celled ovary and 3 slender styles. 

Fruit (drupe) rounded, 8-12 mm in diameter, dull yellow or tinged with 

orange, juicy, sour, edible, with large stone. 

Wood dull reddish or pinkish-brown, with lighter sapwood, hard, heavy (sp. 

gr. 0.7), strong but brittie, coarse-textured, moderately durable. 

BYRSONIMA CRASSIFOLIA 

75

Fig. 37. Byrsonima crassifolia (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

and charcoal, used for construction 

Other Uses In addition to fuel 

small. In Mexico and Central America trees 

timbers, though generally too 

planted for fruits, which are larger than in wild variations. Plants classed as 

handsome ornamentals for their numerous golden flowers. 

or cooked or prepared as dessert or a lemonade-type 

Fruits eaten fresh 

76 


drink. Animals, such as hogs and wildlife, consume quantities. Light brown 

dye extracted from fruit rind used for cotton textiles. Bark employed for tanning 

and in home remedies. Species classed as a honey plant. 

Natural Distribution Common to abundant and widespread throughout 

tropical America fromn southern Mexico and Guatemala to Peru, Bolivia, 

Paraguay, Brazil. Also through West Indies from Cuba to Hispaniola, Puerto 

Rico, and Lesser Antilles to Trinidad. To 1500 m altitude. Introduced in 

southern [lorida as an ornamental. 

Climate and Soils Dry or seasonal tropical (monsoon) with long dry 

period. Soils varying from rock to heavy clay. 

Common to abundant in open forests and savannas with trees and 

grasslands. Common in Central America on dry Pacific slopes in chaparral 

vegetation and open pine forests. Widespread in savannas or Ilanos of northern 

South America, where there are periodic fires and great annual fluctuation 

in water table. 

Reference 


Rico and the Virgin Islands. Illus. United States Department of Agriculture, 

Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Washington, D.C., USA. lByrsonima 

crassifolia,pp. 258-259, drawing used here). 

BYRSONIMA CRASSIFOLIA 

77

22. Cajanus cajan 

Botanical Name Cajanus cajan (L.) Druce 

Synonyms Cajanus indicus Spreng., Cajan cajan (L.) Huth 

Common Names 

pigeon pea, cajan, Congo-pea, Angola-pea, lo-eye-pea, 

red gram (English); arhar, dhal, shu-tou (India); paripu, thovaroy (Sri Lanka); 

pay.in-chong (Burma); togare (Thailand); katjang (Malayan); cadios (Philippines); 

ki-mame (China): ryukyu marne (Okinawa); lenteja francesa (Guam); 

vio vio (Nigeria); burusa (Uganda); ervilha de Congo (Angola); mbazi (Tanzania); 

gandul, gandures, guisante de paloma (Spanish); frijol de palo, frijolillo 

(Mexico); garbanzo falso (Nicaragua); timbolillo (Costa Rica); guandfi 

(Panama); quinchoncho (Venezuela; poroto de palo (Ecuador); guandu de 

pois pigeon 

fava larga (Brazil); embrevade, pois d'Angole, pois cajon, 

(French); Angolische Erbse (German); gungo pea (Jamaica); Puerto Riran pea 

(Hawaii). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Faboideae or Papilionoideae) 

Pigeon pea is a cultivated tropical food crop producing 4 percent of the 

world's total grain legumes. This shrub has very branchy, woody stems that 

or 

can be harvested as firewood, a by-product. Many cultivated varieties 

cultivars are available for different environments. Plants mature and produce 

seeds in 100-300 days, depending upon the variety, location, and time of sowas 

an annual or biennial, 

ing. For seed production this species is cultivated 

because harvest declines after the first year. Grown as an annual, the wood is 

used for fuel. This genus has only 1or 2 species. 

This species is recognized by the compound leaves with 3 lance-shaped, 

velvety, hairy leaflets, clusters of pea-shaped yellow or orange flowers, and 

abundant, narrowly oblong, slightly flattened pods containing 3-7 rounded, 

a fuelwood for arid and semiarid 

beanlike edible seeds. Cajanus cajan is 

regions and the humid tropics. 

Description Deciduous shrub or woody herb 1-3.6 m high, upright, bushy 

and much-branched, finely hairy, grown as an annual or short-lived perennial 

crop. Stems very slender, stiff, grooved, gray, silky hairy. Available in many 

varieties, such as tall, open and upright, and dwarf, compact and bushy. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound with stalk 1-3 cm or more in length 

and 3 leaflets (middle leaflet long-stalked), lnce-shaped to narrowly elliptical, 

2.5-8 cm long, 1-3 cm wide, long- or short-pointed at tip, short-pointed at base, 

not toothed on edges, soft or velvety hairy on both surfaces, dark green above, 

underneath grayish with gland-dots. 

Flowers in stalked clusters (racemes) 6-10 cm long at leaf bases, pea-shaped, 

1.5-2 cm long, broad, showy. Calyx narrowly bell-shaped, 5-lobed, with 2 upper 

lobes partly united, brown, hairy; corolla variable, yellow or orange and 

often purplish outside, with large, broad standard curved back, oblique wings, 

78 


Fig. 38. Cajanus cajan (Basu 1918, pi. 329). 

and blunt, curved keel; stamens 9 united and I free; and pistil with narrow 

ovary, hairless style, and dotlike stigma. 

Pods (legumes) in quantities, scattered, narrowly oblong, 5-8 cm long, Icm 

CAJANUS CAJAN 

79

oad, slightly flattened, ending in long point, with diagonal depressions 

separating seeds, green, often red-spotted, hairy, glandular, splitting in 2 parts. 

Seeds 3-7, beanlike, rounded, slightly flattened, 5-7 mm in diameter, light 

brown. 

Description of the wood, which is in rather small dimensions, not available. 

Thick or spindly main stems used for firewood in India and formerly for making 

charcoal for gunpowder. Thin, straight branches serve for thatch and 

basketry. 

Other Uses Seeds nutritious, of high protein content; boiled, used in 

soups, made into a sauce. Young green seeds, germinating seeds, and green 

pods also eaten as fresh vegetables. Young leaves reportedly edible raw or 

cooked. 

Livestock browse pods and seeds and less eagerly the foliage. Shoots and 

even dried plants good fodder for cattle, horses, other animals. Plants 

cultivated for feeding silkworms and the lac insects from which shellac is ob. 

tained. Pods and leaves have served in home remedies. 

Species important in improving soil 

fertility, through nitrogen-fixing 

nodules on the deeply penetrating roots and also when grown for green 

manure and plowed under. These hardy shrubs adapted to lands unsuited for 

other crops. Rapidly produce dense ground cover and extensive lateral root 

system, protecting the soil from erosion. Also used for windbreaks and hedges. 

Natural Distribution As species not found truly wild, the native home or 

original range is uncertain, perhaps southeastern Asia, East Indies, or northeastern 

Africa. Common and scientific names, perhaps suggesting origin, from 

Malayan term "katjang." 

Very widely planted in most of the world's tropical and subtropical countries 

at latitudes between 300 north and 300 south, for edible seeds, green manure, 

cover cr, .p. Now thoroughly naturalized. Cultivated range extends to Bermuda, 

southern Florida, West Indies, East Indies, Hawaii, Australia. 

Altitudinal range is from sea level to 3000 m. 

Species known in ancient Egypt 

at least 4000 years ago; grown widely in 

Africa and Southeast Asia since prehistoric times. Reached the Americas and 

Pacific countries in the colonial period. India produces more than 90 percent 

of the world's harvest on about 2.3 million ha. 

Climate and Soils Tropical and frost-free. Optimum annual rainfall 

600-1000 mm. However, species grows in humid areas with 2500 mm and in 

semiarid areas with only 400 mm. Soils wide ranging; thrives in light, sandy 

soils but grows best in neutral, deep loams and cannot withstand water 

logging. 

Reference 

Basu, B. D. 1918. Indian medicinal plants, 4 vols. Illus. (Cajanusindicus, pl. 

329, drawing used here). 

80 


23. Calliandra calothyrsus 

Botanical Name Calliandracalothyrsus Meissn. 

Synonyms Caliandra confusa Sprague & Riley, Calliandra similis Sprague & 

Riley 

Commov Names calliandra (English); caliandra, cabello. de Angel, pelo de 

Angel (Spanish); canilla (Guatemala); carboncillo (Costa Rica); kaliandra 

(Indonesia). 


This Central American shrub or small tree has become a promising fastgrowing 

firewood for the humid tropics. It was discovered in 1846 in 

Suriname and named in 1848 but not collected again for many years. Then it 

was found in Central America and was given 2 other scientific names. It was 

introduced to Indonesia from Guatemala in 1936. Growth in plantations in Indonesia 

is very rapid and dense, and coppicing is excellent. Small-sized 

fuelwood can be cut annually from the first year through the next 15-20 years. 

This hardy species might become a weed. 

Calliandra calothyrsus has bipinnately compound, feathery leaves, showy 

flower clusters with numerous threadlike, purplish-red stamens, and clusters 

of several upright, narrow, flat pods that split open elastically from tip to base 

and curve back. 

The genus Calliandrahas about 00 species of shrubs and small trees in 

tropical and warm temperate regions. The generic name of Greek origin 

means "beautiful male elements" or stamens. The specific name, also Greek, 

refers to the beautiful branched flower cluster. 

Description Large shrub 1.5-3 m high or small tree 4-6 m (rarely 10 m), 

with trunk diameter of 3-20 cm, few branches or unbranched. Bark blackishbrown. 

Twigs angled, rusty, hairy when young, becoming nearly hairless. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, feathery, with glandless axis 10-17 

cm long having 15-20 pairs of side axes (pinnae) 4-7 cm long. Leaflets 

numerous, 25-60 pairs on each side axis, very narrow (linear), 5.8 mm long 

and 1 mm wide, rounded or blunt at tip, 1-sided at base, with obscure nearly 

central midvein, hairless except for short hairs on edges. 

Flower clusters (racemes or panicles) upright at ends of twigs, often 

branched, large, 10-30 cm long, with many short-stalked flowers in few to 

many showy heads. Flowers from rounded bud 5 mm long, showy, purplishred, 

4-6 cm long, composed of tiny bell-shaped, 5-toothed, hairless calyx 2 mm 

long, corolla 5-6 mm long, pale green, hairless, with short tube and 5 long 

lobes, numerous purplish-red threadlike stamens 4-6 cm long with yellow dot 

anthers and united into short tube at base, and pistil with narrow, hairless 

ovary, long, threadlike style, and dot stigi, a. 

Pods (legumes) several upright in a cluster, narrow (broadly linear), flat, 

8-11 cm long, 1cm wide, broadest near short-pointed tip and tapering to base, 

CALLIANDRA CALOTHYRSUS 

81

Fig. 39. Calliandra calothyrsus (Woodson and Schery 1950, fig. 96). 

edges thickened and raised, brownish, hairless or finely hairy, splitting open 

curving straight back. Seeds 

widely and elastically from tip to base and 

several, beanlike, elliptical, flattened, 5-7 mm long, dark brown. 

no description Is 

0.51-0.781, though 

Wood moderately heavy (sp. gr. 

available. Good household fuel for cooking. 

as those making lime, tiles, or 

Serves small industries, such 

Other Uses 

bricks. In Indonesia trees planted in strips on state forest lands as firebreaks 

also as good highwoodcutting. 

Cultivated 

and protection against illegal 

82 


yielding fodder crop and on areas that cannot support other crops. Very rapid 

growth makes it suitable for erosion control on slopes and stream banks. Extensive 

deep root system binds the soil; dense foliage provides ground cover. 

Soil improved by nitrogen fixation on root nodules and by litter production. 

An attractive ornamental and hedge plant with beautiful purplish-red 

"powderpuff" flowers; bittersweet honey. Livestock, especially goats, brcvsc 

foliage. 

Natural Distribution Southern Mexico (Chiapas), Central America from 

Guatemala and Belize to Panama, and northern South America to Surinamt. 

Altitude from near sea level to 1800 m. 

After introduction in 1936, became successful in Indonesian plantations. By 

1979, about 30,000 ha under cultivation in Java, but not widely introduced 

elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical and subtropical. Annual rainfall more 

than 1000 mm with drought periods. Soils various, even heavily compacted 

clays. In thickets on dry to moist sites, often on steep slopes, where native. 

References 


National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA. 

Woodson, Robert E., Jr., and Robert W. Schery. 1950. Flora of Panama. Annals 

of the Missouri Botanical Garden 37: 264-265, illus. (Calliandra confusa, 

fig. 96, drawing used here). 

CALLIANDRA CALOTHYRSUS 

83

24. Cassia siamea 

Cassia siamea Lam. 


Siamese cassia, yellow cassia, kassod-tree, Bombay black- 

Common Names 

wood (English); casia de Siam, casia siamea, casia amarilla (Spanish); casse 

(French); sheku turay (Sierra Leone); mjohoro, msunobari, mti 

de Siam 

ulaya (Tanzania); kassod, beati (India); wa, aramana, vakai (Sri Lanka); minmuong 

(Vietnam); angkanh (Cambodia); 

jri (Bangladesh); mezali (Burma); 

johar (Pen. Malaysia); juar (Indonesia); tagaya-san-no-ki (Okinawa); minjri, 

muong, anghank. 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Caesalpinioideae) 

tree bearing large clusters of many bright 

This is an irregular spreading 

yellow flowers and long, narrow, flat, (lark brown pods throughout the year. 

Cassia siarnea has long been planted for firewood crops but is now partly 

replaced by faster-growing trees. 

Livestock and wildlife browse and damage young trees. The seeds, pods, 

and foliage are highly toxic to hogs and cause death quickly after being eaten. 

Trees blown over or broken by storms increase the d-nger. Thus, hogs must 

be kept out of plantations. Cattle and sheep apparently are not affected. 

Cassia is from the Greek name. Specific and common names refer to Siam, 

now Thailand. This genus in the broad sense has 500-600 species of trees, 

shrubs, and herbs in tropical and warm temptrate regions. Cassiasiarnea is a 

fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions and the humid tropics. 

to 18 m high, with straight 

Description Medium-sized evergreen tree 

in diameter and upright dense crown, becoming rounded, irtrunk 

30 cm 

regular, and spreading. Bark gray or light brown, smoothish but becoming 

slightly fissured; inner bark light brown, gritty, tasteless. Twigs greenish, finely 

hairy when young, turning brown. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, 23-33 cm long, with slender green 

and reddish-tinged axis. Leaflets 6-12 pairs on short stalks of 3 mm, oblong, 3-7 

long, 12-20 mm wide, rounded at both ends, with tiny bristle tip, edges 

cm 

without teeth, thin, shiny green and almost hairless upper surface, gray-green 

and finely hairy underneath. 

Flower clusters (panicles) upright at ends oi twigs, large, branched, 20-30 

cm long, 13 cm broad, with many bright yellow flowers 3 cm across, opening 

several at a time. Flowers on slender stalks of 2-2.5 cm, almost regular, composed 

of 5 concave pointed, greenish-yellow, finely hairy sepals 8 mm long; 5 

short-stalked, spreading, nearly equal, rounded yellow petals 15-20 mm long; 

7 stamens of different lengths and 3 smaller sterile stamens; and pistil with 

pale green, finely hairy, 1-celled ovary and curved style. 

give tree an untidy ap 

Pods (legumesl so numerous they sometimes 

pearance, hanging in clusters, long, narrow, 5-25 cm long, 12-20 mm broad, 

flat, thin, stiff, dark brown, splitting up the sides into 2 parts. Seeds as many as 

long. 

25, flat, bean-shaped, shiny dark brown, 8 mm 

84 


Fig. 40. Cassiasiamea (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 74). 

CASSIA SIAMEA 

I4 

85

Wood with thick, light brown or whitish sapwood and heartwood dark 

brown or blackish with dark and light streaks, hard, heavy (sp. gr. 0.6-0.8). 

Susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites but perhaps resistant in some 

localities, according to reports. 

Makes excellent, but "smoky" fuel. Formerly preferred for locomotives because 

of high calorific value. 

Other Uses Used for posts, construction, mine props, furniture, turnery. 

Attractive wood suitable also for cabinetry and inlays. Apparently not suited 

for pulpwood, according to tests. Tannin has been extracted from bark. 

Serves to reforest denuded hills, cutover areas, abandoned mining sites. 

Used in India as host for sandalwood (Santalum album), t parasitic tree. Trees 

good windbreaks because of deep, closed crown. Cultivated extensively as 

handsome, fast-growing ornamental and shade tree; also as thick hedge, if 

pruned. Has served as shade for coffee and cacao. 

Natural Distrlbution Southeast Asia from southern India and Sri Lanka 

to Burma, Thailand, and Malaysia. Altitudinal range sea level to about 600 m, 

sometimes 900 in, generally lowland. 

Widely introduced and naturalized in tropical regions around the world, 

becoming abundant locally on roadsides and waste places. Formerly one of the 

most widely grown plantation trees in eastern, western, and southern Africa, 

particularly from 1910 to 1924. Was often planted for both fuel and poles and 

became naturalized it) many areas. Introduced through the West Indies and 

escaped and naturalized locally. Less common in southern Florida and from 

Guatemala to northern South America. Cultivated through India and 

southeastern Asia. Later replaced partly by Eucalyptus. 

Climate and Soils Tropical, from humid and subhumid to semiarid, 

seasonal or monsoon. Annual rainfall 1(;00 mm or more in monsoonal areas, 

dry season of 4 to 8 months. Deep, weil-drnined, relatively rich soils for best 

growth. Where native, trees commin in moist and seasonal forests; can grow 

in drier areas with accessible subsoil moisture, such as along riverbanks and 

canals and under irrigation. 

Reference 

Little, Elbert L., Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Connon trees of Puerto 

Rico and file Virgin Islands. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Service, 

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. 

(Cassia siarnea, pp. 174-175, drawing used here). 

86 


Common Names 

(Australia). 

Casuarina Family, Casuarinaceae 

CASUARINA 

casuarina, beefwood, Australian-pine (English); she-oak 

trees and shrubs 

The genus Casuarina has about 45 species of evergreen 

native mostly to Australia and southeastern Asia and Polynesia. Most species 

produce top-quality firewooLd that ranks among the best fuels of Australia. The 

trees are fast-growing, hardy, salt-tolerant, and wind.resistant. They are! able 

to grow in poor sites, such as sand dunes and eroded soils, where other plants 

cannot. Like legumes, this genus has root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing 

microorganisms which enrich the soil. Within this genus are species adapted 

to various climates and soils. 

With another smaller closely related genus, Casuarinaforms a very distinct 

plant family easily recognized by the wiry, cylindrical, grooved and jointed 

reduced to rings of 

twigs and the drooping or weeping habit. The leaves are 

tiny gray or brown scales at joints or nodes. The very slender green twigs serve 

of leaves, and shed gradually. The tiny, 

for food manufacture instead 

crowded, brownish flowers are male and female in separate clusters on the 

same or different trees. Male flower clusters (like spikes or catkins) are narrow, 

cylindrical, mostly at ends of twigs; each male flower has I stamen and 2 

tiny brown sepals and 2 scales at the base. Female flower clusters (heads) are 

balls at sides of twigs; each female flower above 2 scales is a pistil composed of 

a small ovary with 2 ovules and a short style with 2 long stigmas. The multiple 

light brown, hard, warty, conelike ball, containing many tiny 

fruit is a 

1-seeded winged nutlets. 

Casuarina is from the Malay word "kasuari," or cassowary, which indicates 

the supposed resemblance of the twigs to the plumage of that bird. The common 

name "she-oak," widely used in Australia, refers to the wood's attractive 

pattern of large lines or rays like oak but weaker. The term "beefwood" refers 

to the reddish color. "Australian-pine" refers to the similarity of the wiry green 

twigs and conelike fruits to the needlelike leaves and cones of the unrelated 

true pines. The name "ironwood" used in Hawaii to describe the hard wood, 

should be avoided because of the confusior)caused by its application to many 

different trees. 

Firewood Crops describes in detail Casuarina equisetifolia, the most widely 

planted species of the genus, and lists 14 others. This species and 2 others are 

included here. Some cultivated trees may be hybrids. 

A key to the 3 species of Casuarina described here follows. 

CASUARINA 

.87

KEY TO 3 CASUARINA SPECIES DESCRIBED 1ERE 

Scale leaves 12-16 in a ring; twigs relatively long (30.40 cm), relatively thick 

(1.5 cm in diameter); fruits about 13 mm in diameter .. 27. Casuarina gkauca. 

Scale leaves mostly 6.8 in a ring; twigs short or long, relatively thin, 1mm or 

less in diameter. 

Twigs long or short, mostly 23-38 cm long, 1 mm in diameter; fruits large, 

13.20 mm in diameter ...................... 26. Casuarinaequisetifolia. 

Twigs short, mostly 8-18 cm long, less than 1mm in diameter; fruits small 

10-12 mm in diameter ............... 25. Casuarinacunninghamiana. 

88 


25. Casuarina cunninghamiana 

Botanical Name Casuaina cunninghamianaMiq. 

Common Names Cunningham casuarina, river-oak casuarina, casuarina, 

river-oak, beefwood, "Australian-pine" (English); river she-oak (Australia); 

casuarina, pino australiano, pino de Australia, pino (Spanish); pino de mar 

casuarina cavalinha (Brazil): mvinje (Tanzania); jangli saru, jan 

(Mexico); 

(India); kasa (Sri Lanka). 


This species is recognized by the very thin, short twigs and small, round, 

conelike fruits 10-12 mm 

in diameter. This is one of the most cold-hardy 

species of Casuarinaand is often planted in mountainous areas. It is fastgrowing 

and can withstand some drought. Seedlings must be protected from 

browsing by livestock. It is not recommended for cities, because of the large 

root systems and space needed. The name of this species honors Alan Cunn- 

ingham (1791-1839), 

Australian botanist and explorer and superintendent of 

the Botanic Gardens at Sydney. This is a fuelwood species for humid tropics 

and tropical highlands. 

Description Evergreen medium or large tree 12-24 m high, with straight 

trunk 30-70 cm in diameter, b,':oming enlarged at base, and with thin, irregular 

crown of drooping twigs. Among the largest species in the genus in 

Australia, attaining 30 m in height and 1.2 m in diameter. Bark gray-brown, 

and deeply furrowed into narrow 

smoothish but becoming rough, thick, 

ridges; inner bark brown and dark red within, gritty, slightly bitter. 

Twigs wiry, gray-green, drooping, mostly 8-18 cm long, very thin, less than 

1 mm in diameter, with 6-8 long ridges or fine lines ending in scale leaves at 

each joint, shedding gradually. A few main twigs, finely hairy and pale green 

when young, develop into rough or smooth brownish branches. 

Scale leaves like teeth, less than 0.5 

mm 

long, 6-8 in a ring (whorled) at 

joints or nodes about 5 mm apart: on main twigs to 3 mm long, curved back in 

rings as close as 1.5 mm. 

Flower clusters inconspicuous, light brown, male and female on different 

trees (dioecious). Male flower clusters (like spikes or catkins) at end of twig, 

narrowly cylindrical, 6-20 mm long, less than 3 mm wide. Male flowers tiny, 

crowded in rings within grayish scales, consisting of I exposed brown stamen 

less than 3 mm 

long and 2 tiny brown sepal scales at base. Female flower 

clusters are short-%talked balls (heads) more than 6 mm across stigmas. Female 

flowers consist of pistil 5 mm long including small ovary and short style with 2 

long, threadlike, dark red stigmas. 

or gray, hard, warty, conelike ball about 

Fruit (multiple) a small brown 

10-12 mm in diameter, flattened at ends, often longer than broad and slightly 

cylindrical, composed of long, broad, hard points of individual fruits 3 mm 

CASUARINA CUNNINGHAMIANA 

89

t I . 

rI, . '".C 

0 / 

Fig. 41. Casuarina cunninghaiana(Maiden 1906, vol. 2, pl. 59). 

long and broad, each from a flower. Each individual fruit nearly 6 mm long 

splits in 2 parts to release I light brown winged nutlet or seed 5 mm long. 

Sapwood narrow, light brown or whitish, heartwood reddish-brown, often 

with handsome figure. Wood moderately heavy Isp. gr. 0.58), with broad rays, 

hard, strong, tough, with relatively large shrinkage in drying, not durable in 

ground. Makes excellent fuel and burns well; ashes retain heat a long time. 

Suitable for bakers' ovens. 

90 


Fig. 42. Distribution of Casuarina cunninghamiana in Australia (Hall et al. 1970). 

Other Uses Used like related species for paneling, furniture, ornamental 

turnery, tool handles, heads of casks; formerly used for shingles and yokes. 

Trees widely grown for shelterbelts, windbreaks, ornament, shade, reforestation. 

Can be pruned into hedges or living fences. Extensive shallow roots 

useful for erosion control on stream banks. 

During droughts in Australia large quantities of branches, though not high in 

food value, fed to sheep and cattle. Young plants browsed by livestock, but 

mature woody branches not considered good fodder. 

Natural Distribution Eastern Australia (Queensland and New South 

Wales), northern Australia (Northern Territory). Altitude where native from 

sea level to about 1000 m; where planted to 2200 m. 

Widely cultivated and naturalized in subtropical and tropical regions of the 

world. Adapted to subtropical mountains and common in the interior plateaus 

of Mexico and south through ile Andes from Venezuela to Argentina and 

Florida, southern Arizona, California, 

Chile. Planted in northern to central 

Hawaii; also South Africa. 

Climate and Soils Humid subtropical and warm temperate. Mean annual 

130 to 27 0 C. Some areas frost-free, 

temperature in native range varies from 

others with as many -is60 frosts annually. Mean annual rainfall 500-1500 m, 

but more moistue available along riverbanks. Soils various from rich silty 

CASUARINA CUNNINGHAMIANA 

91

loams through sands to gravels, including poor soils and eroded sites. Where 

native, one of the most common trees along riverbanks, as indicated by the 

name river-oak, and important in erosion control. Ranges from warm coastal 

areas to tablelands and "cold" mountain districts. 

References 

Hall, Norman, R. D. Johnston, and G. M. Chippendale. 1970. Forest trees of 

Australia. Illus. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. 

(Casuarinacunningharniara,pp. 274-275, (map used here). 


of PuertoRico and the Virgin Islands,vol. 2. Agriculture Handbook no. 449. IIlus. 

Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D.C., USA (Casuarinacunninghaiana,pp. 88.90). 

Maiden, J. H. 1905. The forest flora of New South Wales, vol. 2, Illus. (Casuarina 

cunninghamiana,pl. 59, drawing used here). 

92 


26. Casuarina equisetifolia 

Botanical Name Casuarina equisetifolia L. ex J. R. & G. Forst. 

Synonyms Casuarina litorea L., Casuarina littoralis Salisb. 

Common Names horsetail casuarina, casuarina, Australian-pine, horsetailtree, 

beefwood, whistling-pine (English); beach she-oak, she-oak (Australia); 

casuarina, pino australiano, pino de Australia, pino (Spanish); pin 

d'Australie, bois de fer, filao (French); casuarine (Dutch); cazuarina (Brazil); 

mvinjc (Tanzania); jangli saru, jan (India); kasa, savuku (Sri Lanka); tinyu 

(Burma); ru (Pen. Malaysia); aru (Sabah, Malaysia); ru laut (Sarawak, 

Malaysia); cemara laut (Indonesia); agoho (Philippines); tokiwa-gyoryu 

(Okinawa); nokonoko (Fiji). 


Casuarina equisetifolia is the best known species of this genus and the most 

widely planted and naturalized in tropical regions around the world. It has 

long or short wiry twigs, 6-8 scale leaves in a ring, and relatively large conelike 

fruits 13-20 mm in diameter. 

This species is apioneer on sand dunes and exposed sandy shore,;, where it 

reclaims 'and. It isreplaced by forests of other species. Seed is produced abundantly. 

Seedlings are raised in a nursery for transplanting. The trees are fastgrowing 

and drought-resistant but mostly short-lived. They coppice poorly 

and do not sprout from roots but can be cut clean and replanted. 

The scientific and common 

names refer to the unrelated herbaceous genus 

Equisetum, meaning "horsetail," which has similar foliage. Casuarina 

equisetifolia is a fuelwood species for humid tropics, tropical highlands, and 

arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Medium to large evergreen tree 15-30 11or more in height, 

with long trunk 20-50 cm in diameter and thin crown of drooping twigs 

resembling pine needles; narrow crown becoming irregular and spreading 

with age. Bark light gray-brown, smoothish on small trunks, becoming rough, 

thick, furrowed and shaggy, and splitting into thin strips and flakes exposing 

reddish-brown layer; inner bark reddish and bitter or astringent. 

Twigs wiry, drooping, mostly 23-38 cm long and 1 mm in diameter, dark 

green, becoming paler, with 6-8 long ridges or fine lines ending in scale leaves 

at each joint, shedding gradually. A few main twigs, gray and finely hairy, 

becoming rough and stout and developing into brownish branches. 

Scale leaves like teeth, less than I mm long, 6-8 in a ring (whorled) at joints 

or nodes 6-10 mnm apart, on main twigs to 3 mm long and curved back in rings 

as close as 3 mm. 

Flower clusters inconspicuous, light brown, male and female mostly on 

same tree (monoecious). Male flower clusters (like spikes or catkins) at end of 

twig, narrowly cylindrical, 1-2 cm long, less than 3 mm wide. Male flowers 

tiny, crowded in rings among grayish scales, consisting of 1 exposed brown 

CASUARINA EQUISETIFOLIA 

93

A 

h.... 

..... ... A 

7it 

Fig. 43. Casuarina equisetifolia (Maiden 1912, vol. 5, pl. 1821. 

stamen less than 3 mm long and 2 tiny brown sepal scales at base. Female 

flower clusters short-stalked balls (heads) less than 3 mm in diameter or 8 mm 

across stigmas; female flowers consisting of pistil 5 mm long including small 

ovary, very short style, and 2 long, threadlike, dark red stigmas. 

Fruit (multiple) a light brown, hard, warty, conelike ball 13-20 mm in 

diamter, often longer than broad and slightly cylindrical, composed of points 

94 


I l

MAP 

o ,, SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 

or 

1 6' CASUARINA eqUiSETIFOLIA, 

0 % A P T L htnaI 

A 

NA A 1 

a a 6 . . 

0 IW I¥a.NICOII ! 

I OANEO ) 

BE NOAL 

€0OLOMItlc III~nOS SI! 

Fig. 44. Distribution of Casuarina equisetifalia in Burma (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

of individual fruits 3 mm long and broad, each from a flower. Each individual 

fruit splits open in 2 parts to release 1light brown winged nutlet or seed 6 mm 

long. 

Sapwood pinkish to light brown, heartwood dark brown. Wood very hard, 

heavy to very heavy (sp. gr. 0.81-0.95}, straight-grained, fine-textured, strong, 

tough. Cracks, splits and is difficult to saw. Very susceptible to attack by drywood 

termites and not durable in the ground. 

Wood burns with great heat and little ash; has been called "the best firewood 

in th~e world." Used for both domestic and industrial fuel, such as in railroad 

locomotives; makes exceptionally fine charcoal. Ignites readily, even when 

green, and ashes retain heat for long periods. 

Other Uses Used in the round for fenceposts, utility poles, house posts, 

rafters, beams, min2 timbers. Also used for roofing shingles, tool handles, 

oars, yokcs, oxcart tongues, wagon wheels; a good pulpwood.. Bark has been 

employed in tanning, in medicine, and in the extraction of a red or blue-black 

dye. 

Species widely planted for windbreaks and erosion contro'l, such as along 

sandy coasts, sand dunes, and riverbanks. Long cultivated throughout India in 

large plantation3 for fuelwood and poles. Grown also for ornament and as a 

street tree, especially along seashores, because salt-tolerant and windresistant. 

Plants can be pruned into hedges. 

CASUARINA EQUISETIFOLIA 

95

Natural Distribution Native of tropical shores from Bangladesh, Burma, 

and Andaman Islands through southeastern Asia to Indonesia, Philippines, 

some Pacific islands, and northern and eastern Australia (Queensland and 

New South Wales). Altitude near sea level where native, to 1500 m where introduced, 

. Widely planted and naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the 

world. Introduced, for example, in Africa, Bermuda, West Indies, from Mexico 

to Brazil, and Hawaii. Naturalized in southern Florida. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical and subtropical. Not frost-hardy. Rainfall 

in the native range 700-2000 mm annually, often with 6-8-month dry 

season. Where introduced, 200-5000 mm annual rainfall variation. Soils vary 

from saline soils of seashores and sand dunes to calcareous and dry but not 

clays. 

References 


Rico and the Virgin Islands. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Ser- 

Ace, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA 

(Casuarinaequisetifolia, pp. 48-49). 

Maiden, J. H. 1913. The forest flora of Now South Wales, vol. 5 (Casuarinaequisetifolia 

var. incana, pp. 155-158, pl. 182, drawing used here). 

Pearson, R. C., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India. Illus. 

(Casuarinaequisetifolia, pp. 956-960, map used here). 

96 


27. Casuarina glauca 

Botanical Name Casuarina glauca Sieber ex K. Spreng. 

Common Names longleaf casuarina, casuarina (English); swamp she-oak, 

marsh she-oak, swamp-oak, grey buloke (Australia); mvinje (Tanzania); 

savuku (Sri Lanka). 


This species is identified by the long, relatively thick, needlelike twigs with 

12-16 scale leaves in a ring and round conelike fruits about 13 mm in diameter. 

The scientific name, meaning glaucous or whitish bloom, refers to the color of 

the twigs. The dense stands are easily recognized by the closely spaced trees 

formed from root sprouts or suckers. This is a fuelwood species for arid and 

semiarid regions and humid tropics. 

Description Evergreen medium-sized tree 12-15 m high, sometimes 

larger, with straight trunk to 60 cm in diameter, becoming slightly enlarged at 

base, with thin crown of upright branches and drooping twigs, and crowded 

trunks from many root sprouts. Bark on upright branches gray-brown, 

smoothish, on trunk flaky, becoming rough, thick, furrowed: inner bark light 

brown, slightly fibrous, astringent. 

Twigs wiry, whitish or grayish-green, drooping, relatively long and thick 

in comparison with related species, 30-40 cm long, about 1.5 mm in diameter, 

and with 12-16 long ridges or fine lines ending in scale leaves at each joint, 

shedding gradually. A few main twigs become stout, brown, rough. 

Scale leaves like teeth, about 1 mm long, 12-16 in a ring, mostly 15 

(whorled), at joints or nodes about 12-20 mm apart, on main twigs to 5 mm 

long and curved back in rings as close as 3 mm. 

Flower clusters inconspicuous, light brown, male and female on same or 

partly different trees. Male flower clusters (like spikes or catkins) at end of 

long twigs, narrowly cylindrical, 2-4 cm long, 3 mm in diameter. Male flowers 

tiny, crowded in rings of narrow pointed scales, consisting of 1 stamen less 

than 3 mm long and 2 tiny sepal scales at base. Female flower clusters shortstalked 

balls ,heads) about 6 mm in diameter; female flowers consist of pistil 

with small ovary, very short style, and 2 long, threadlike, dark-red stigmas. 

Fruit(multiple) a small gray, hard, warty, conelike ball about 13 mm in diameter, 

flattened at ends, often longer than broad and slightly cylindrical, 

composed of many finely hairy hard points of individual fruits 3 mm long and 

broad, each from a flower. Each individual fruit splits open in 2 parts to release 

I light gray winged nutlet or seed 5 mm long. 

Sapwood pale yellowv and heartwood dark brown, often with beautiful 

figure provided by the prominent oaklike rays. Wood hard, moderately heavy, 

fine-textured, straight-grained, strong, tough, brittle, not durable in the 

ground. Difficult to season and to work but takes a good polish and carves 

well. Wood used for fuel. 

CASUARINA GLAUCA 

97

Fig. 45. Casuarinaglauca (Maiden 1904, vol. 2, pl. 55). 

Used in native range for roofing shingles, fence rails, staves, 

Other Uses 

paneling, furniture, marine piling, oxen yokes, canes. 

Because of the root-suckering habit, this tree excellent for erosion control 

and healing scars. However, may spread as a weed on nearby lands. Suitable 

also for planting in saline and swampy soils, including tidal flats, and has been 

successful in dry zones. 

98 


Natural Distribution Native on coasts of eastern and southern Australia 

(all states except Tasmania and West Australia) but not far inland. Altitude sea 

level and slightly above. 

Widely introduced in tropical regions, for example, Africa and India. The 

most commonly planted species of Casuarina in the forest reserves of Hawaii. 

Cultivated in southern Florida, where spreads from root sprouts. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical and subtropical with rainfall apparently 

high. Soils saline and swamps, including heavy soils. Where native, species 

found in sandy and swampy tidal flats and borders of tidal rivers and lagoons, 

sometimes in salt water. Also in brackish soil some distance from the coast 

and on dry, well-drained uplands nearby. 

Reference 

Maiden, J. H. 1904. The forest flora of New South Wales. Casuarinaglauca, vol. 

2. Illus. pp. 95-99 (pl. 55, drawing used here). 

CASUARINA GLAUCA 

99

28. Colophospermum mopane 

Botanical Name Colophospermum mopane (Kirk ex Benth,) Kirk ex J. 

LUonard 

Synonym Copaifera mopane Kirk ex Benth. 

Common Names mopane, mopanie, mupani, mupane; butterfly-tree, 

turpentine-tree, Rhodesian ironwood, balsam-tree (English); sanya 

(Nyasaland); mopani (India). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Caesalpinoideae} 

Mopane is easily recognized by the distinctive leaves with 2 leaflets resembling 

butterfly wings that fold together at midday and in hot weather, by 

the kidney-shaped 1-seeded pods with tiny giaaid-,iots, and the strong odor of 

turpentine. This tree has very hard, heavy wooO claimed to be "the best 

firewood in Africa." It is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions but 

apparently has not been tested in plantations for comparison with exotic trees. 

Mopane is one of the principal trees of hot lowlands in southern tropical and 

subtropical Africa. It is dominant in a distinct vegetation type in the deciduous 

or savanna forest. Often it forms pure stands of 'large monotonous shadeless 

forests" called mopane woodland or bush. Where stunted, mopane scrub indicates 

poor soils unsuited to agriculture. The trees are subject to forest fires 

throughout the year and may be destroyed by veld-fires when small. 

The small lightweight pods are dispersed by wind and by adhering to the 

feet of animals. Seeds germinate readily, but seedlings are slow-growing and 

sensitive, to frost. This species coppices vigorously. A cleared area grew back 

to forest within 15 years, according to reports. 

For firewood plantations, other species may grow faster. However, under 

extremely unfavorable conditions, mopanc may be the hardiest. 

This species has been 3egregated fron, ,he larger genus Copaifera into its 

own genus. The generic name is from Greek words meaning "oily seed." 

"Mopane" is the native name as spelled by its author, John Kirk (1832-1922), a 

British physician and naturalist with the Livingstone Expedition. He collected 

a specimen in Mozambique in the 1860's and later made extensive collections 

of economic plants during many years in Africa. 

Description Small or medium-sized deciduous spineless tree 4-18 m 

(sometimes 23 m, commonly about 10 mi, with 1or more straight trunks 50 

cm-I m in diameter and open, very thin, V-shaped or spreading crown of few 

nearly upright branches. Shrublikc and very branchy in very dry areas. Bark 

distinctive, gray to blackish, thick, very rough, deeply furrowed into long, narrow, 

forking, flaking ridges. Twigs slender, hairless, pale brown, becoming 

light to dark gray. 

Leaves distinctive, alternate, compound, axis 2-4 cm long, ending in small 

point of 3 mm. Leaflets 2, paired, stalkless, resembling butterfly wings, ovate 

100 


8 

Fig. 46. Colophospermum mopane (Chalk et al. 1932). 

COLOPHOSPERMUM MOPANE 

1

Fig. 47. Distribution of Colophospernuin nopane in southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 

1977). 

or narrowly triangular, 5-10 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, very unequal and rounded 

at base, blunt or short-pointed at tip, not toothed on edges, thick, leathery, 

hard, brittle, with 7-9 curved veins from base, shiny red-brown when young, 

becoming pale green to blue and less shiny underneath, with tiny gland-dots 

and strong odor of turpentine, folding together at midday and in hot dry 

weather, turning yellow then red and brown and very showy before shedding 

irregularly in winter. 

Flower clusters (racemes) 2 together at leaf base, short, slender, drooping. 

Flowers few, short-stalked, pdle green, from rounded flower buds 3-4 mm in 

diameter; composed of 4 rounded sepals, no petals, 20-25 separate stamens, 

and pistil with elliptical ovary, I ovule, short style, and dotlike stigma. 

Pods (legumes) stalked in drooping clusters, kidney-shaped, asymmetrical, 

flattened, nearly half-round suggesting a half moon or mollusk shell, 3.5-5 cm 

long, 

2-2.5 cm wide, pale yellow or light brown with network, slightly 

leathery and thick-walled, not opening. Seed 1, kidney-shaped or oblong, very 

wrinkled, yellowish, covered with small, red, resinous or sticky gland-dots, 

oily with strong odor of turpentine. 

Wood dark brown to reddish-brown with darker streaks or blackish, with 

sharply defined straw-colored or yellowish sapwood, very hard, very heavy 

(sp. gr. 0.89), texture moderately coarse but even, grain interlocked, growth 

rings usually distinct. Durable and resistant to termites but difficult to work. 

Excellent firewood burning slowly and 

quietly with fragrance and pro- 

ducing intense heat. Log left on the fire in the evening may still be burning the 

next morning. After bush fires, fallen mopane trees often smolder for weeks. 

Burns green and produces good charcoal. Residue of fine white ash, though 

negligible, used locally as fertilizer; high in phosphate and calcium. 

102 


ANGOLA 

RHOOESIA 

......$.RHODESIA 

SM .W AFRICA 

,: 

. .............. ........ ..... ........ ................. 

. ............ . 

Fig. 48. Distribution of Colophospermum mopane in southern Africa IHutchinson 1931). 

Timber serves various purposes, but many trees hollow or of 

Other Uses 

Extensively 

poor form. Logging difficult because of the extreme hardness. 

used for mine timbers and durable fenceposts. Also used for poles for houses, 

bridge timbers, railway crossties, carved ornaments, parquet, beautiful furplaited 

from fibrous bark. Extracts and 

niture, toys. Strong cord has been 

gums from wood and roots used in home remedies. 

Mopane important forage of high protein content for livestock and wildlife. 

in winter. Foliage and sometimes dry leaves 

Valuable fodder provided even 

and seeds on the ground browsed by cattle, elephants, giraffes, buffalos, 

for game farms where cattle cannot surlive 

antelopes. Could be important 

because of tsetse-fly or long droughts. 

Mopane worms - large many-colored, dark-spotted, hairless but spiny caterpillars 

5-10 cm long- feed on the leaves and often defoliate the trees. They are 

larvae of a large, brownish-gray emperor-moth (Gonimbrasia belina). High in 

protein, they are a delicacy in the diet of many rural Africans and can be dried 

or roasted and stored for months. 

Angola, Zim- 

Natural Distribution Mozambique, Zaruabia, Botswana, 

COLOPHOSPERMUM MOPANE 

103

abwe, northern Namibia (South West Africa), and northern South Africa. Altitude 

300.600 m, reported up to 1200 m. Not introduced and tested in commercial 

plantations, except in the Rajasthan area of India. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid hot tropical and subtropical with low rainfall 

and a dry season. Annual rainfall generally about 200-450 mm, but trees found 

within extremes of 125 mm and 800 mm. Soils variable, generally shallow 

compacted clay, and badly drained, also saline and alkaline. Growth best in 

rich deep alluvial soils and poor on shaliow rocky and sandy soils. 

References 

Chalk, L., J. Burtt Davy, and E. H. Desch. 1932. Some East African Coniferae 

and Leguminosae. Forest treesand timbers of the British Empire I. Illus. 68 pp. 

Oxford. (Copaiferamopane, pp. 41-46 drawing used here). 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of Southern Africa. Illus. 959 pp. C. Struik 

Publishers, Cape Town Johannesburg, South Africa. (Colophospermum 

mopane, pp. 268-269, map used here). 

Hutchinson, J. 1931. General Smuts' botanical expedition to northern 

Rhodesia, 1930. Kew Bulletin 1931: 225-254, illus. (map used here). 

Palmer, Eve, and Nora Pitman. 1972. Trees of Southern Africa, 3 vols. Illus. 

Cape Town, South Africa. (Colophospermnum mopane, 2: 842-845). 

104 


29. Dalbergia sissoo 

Botanical Name Dalbergiasissoo Roxb. ex DC. 

Common Names sissoo, Indian rosewood, Bombay blackwood, shisham, 

nelkar, safeda; sissoo, tali, yette (India); sarsou (Egypt); sonossissoo (Java); 

sisu (Spanish). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Faboideae or Papilionoideael 

Sisso, or Indian rosewood, is a valued timber tree from India. Its wood is in 

great demand for general construction and is excellent for fuel and charcoal. It 

is widely planted in tropical countries, especially arid and semiarid regions, 

for both wood and shade. 

The trees are fast-gfowing, salt-tolerant, drought-resistant, frost-hardy, and 

intolerant of shade. They are propagated by seeds, transplants, and root 

suckers. Spreading from root suckers and runners, the trees are used for ero 

sion control in gullies. 

This genus with about 300 species of tropical and subtropical woody plants 

was named for Nils Dalberg (1735-1820), Swedish botanist. Sissoo is characterized 

by pinnate leaves with 3-5 rounded, abruptly short-pointed leaflets, many 

small whitish or yellow pea-shaped flowers, and oblong, flat, thin pods. 

Description Medium to large tree to 30 m high, with trunk to 80 cm in 

diameter, often crooked, with rounded open crown of spreading branches, 

deciduous or almost evergreen. Bark gray, scaly, deeply furrowed, shedding 

in long narrow strips. Twigs green to gray, very slender. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, about 15 cm long, hairy when 

young. Leaflets 3-5, alternate on leafstalks of 6 mm, along very slender zigzag 

axis and almost at right angle, nearly round, 2.5-5 cm long and broad, 

rounded, abruptly short-pointed ai tip, rounded or blunt at base, not toothed 

on edges, thin, with many fine parallel side veins, paler green underneath. 

Flower clusters (panicles) 5-10 cm long at leaf bases and nodes back of 

leaves, branching, hairy. Flowers many, small (about 1 cm long), whitish or 

yellow, pea-shaped, fragrant. Calyx 5-toothed; corolla with 5 petals, broad 

, 9 united into broad stalk; and 

standard, 2 narrow wings, narrow keel; stamen 

stalked, hairy pistil with narrow 1-celled ovary containing few ovules, short 

style, and dot stigma. 

Pods (legumes) oblong, flat, thin, 3-7.5 cm long, 10-12 mm wide, light 

brown, narrowed at both ends, stalked at base, not splitting open. Seeds 1-5, 

bean-shaped, 6-10 mm long. 

Wood with sapwood white to pale brownish-white and heartwood golden 

brown to dark brown with deep brown streaks, moderately heavy to heavy 

(sp. gr. 0.80), very hard and strong, medium-coarse-textured, with interlocked 

grain, diffuse-porous with inconspicuous growth rings. Heartwood extremely 

durable, one of the Indian woods least susceptible to dry-wood termites. 

Other Uses Sissoo ranks among the four primary timbers of India and 

DALBERGIA SISSOO 

105

Fig. 49. Dalbergiasissoo (Little et al. 1974). 

among the finest cabinet and furniture woods. Used for general construction, 

good-quality furniture, paneling, boats and shipbuilding, utility poles, posts, 

boxes, carving, ornaments, small articles, plywood. Special uses, including 

musical instruments, athletic equipment, tool handles. Branches make excellent 

fuel, almost like coal, and charcoal. 

A desirable shade tree in tropical and subtropical regions. After maturing, 

106 


sreAJPUTANA 

+ • 

MAP 

SHOWINO ISTRISUTIOO 

o " DALBERGIA S1$$00, ROXL 

,o'%I1?401 V 4 V 

ARABIAN 99NOF 

am, amins 

Fig. 50. Distribution of Dalbergia sissoo in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

trees could be harvested for cabinetwood. Young branches and foliage have 

served as fodder for livestock. 

Natural Distribution Native of the Himalayan region and adjacent 

valleys of northern India, Pakistan, and Nepal. From lowlands to lower 

altitudes mostly below 900 m, sometimes to 1300 m. 

Extensively planted along roads and canals throughout India; also as windbreaks, 

for erosion control, around orchards, and in irrigated plantations. 

Widely cultivated in tropical countries for wood and shade, running wild and 

becoming naturalized. Recommended as a shade tree in southern Florida, 

where it spreads from cultivation. 

Climate and Soils Tropical seasonal (monsoon), with 500-2000 mm annual 

rainfall and long dry season. Temperature range from just below freezing 

nearly to 501C. Soils vary from pure sand and gravel to rich alluvium of riverbanks. 

Species colonizes landslides and exposed mineral soil; adapted to the 

dry savanna woodland. 

References 




D.C., USA. (Dalbergiasissoo, pp. 290-291, drawing used here). 

DALBERGIA SiSSOO 

107

Pearson, R. C., aid H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Dalbergiasissoo, pp. 364-368, map 

used here). 

108 


30. Derrisindica 

Botanical Name Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet 

Synonyms Pongamiapinnata (L.) Pierre, Pongamia glabraVent. 

Common Names pongam, pongamia, poonga-oil-tree, karum-tree, dona, 

kanji, pari-pari, karanda, karanja, Indian-beech; kuro-yona zoku (Okinawa); 

bfni (Philippines); melapari (Indonesia); langi poka (Celebes). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Faboideae or Papilionoideae , 

Pongam or ponganiiiis native of the Indian subcontinent but is widely 

introduced in humid tropical regions. The wood is a popular firewood, and the 

oil from the large seeds is burned in lamps. Pongam is identified by the pinnately 

compound leaves having 5 or 7 elliptical leaflets, the abundant, peashaped, 

pink, purplish, or white flowers, and the quantities of elliptical, slightly 

swollen pods with I large oily seed. 

Pongam is easily grown from seed and cuttings and is drought-resistant. 

However, it spreads from root suckers as well as seedlings and could become 

an undesirable weed. 

This species usually has been placed alone in its genus Pongamia, derived 

from the common name. However, within recent years it has been united 

with the larger genus Derris,with about 80 tropical woody species. That name, 

derived from Greek, means "leather covering or skin." The specific name obviously 

means "of India." 

Description Medium-sized deciduous or evergreen tree 8 m high (sometimes 

to 15 m), with straight or crooked trunk 50-70 cm or more in diameter 

and broad crown of spreading or drooping branches. Bark gray-brown, 

smoothish to rough. Twigs hairless. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound with long slender leafstalk, hairless. 

Leaflets 5 or 7, paired except at end, short-stalked, elliptical, 5-10 cm long, 4-6 

cm wide, abruptly long-pointed at tip, short-pointed at base, not toothed on 

edges, slightly thickened, shiny light green deepening to dark green, crimson 

when young. 

Flowerclusters (racemes) at base of and shorter than leaves, to 15 cm long, 

slender, drooping. Flowers abundant after leaves formed, fragrant, 2-4 

together, short-stalked, pea-shaped, 15-18 mm long. Calyx cuplike, 5-toothed, 

brown, finely hairy; corolla pale pink, purplish, or white, the largest petal or 

standard rounded and silky on back, 10 stamens, I separate at base but united 

above; and hairy pistil with ovary containing 2 ovules, curved style, and dot 

stigma. 

Pods (legumes) borne in quantities, elliptical, 3-6 cm long, 2-3 cm wide, flattened 

but slightly swollen, slightly curved with short curved point, brown, 

thick-walled, hard, woody, not opening. Seed 1, beanlike, elliptical, 18-20 mm 

long, flattened, dark brown, oily. 

Wood whitish, turning to cream-colored and mottled, without distinct heart. 

wood, lightweight to heavy (sp. gr. 0.57-0.74), medium-textured, with nar. 

DERRIS INDICA 

109

Fig. 51. Derris indica (Beddorne 1869-74, pl. 177). 

unevenly distributed, growth 

rowly interlocked grain, pores scattered and 

rings faint or none, with unpleasant odor when first exposed. Fairly hard and 

saw and work but may split and 

tough, moderately strong, not difficult to 

110 


MAP 

SHOWINODISTRIBUTION 

,.., ! PONGAMIA GLABRA, VENT. 

RAPUTAN 

KASAAws 

IANA 

DAY 

ARAB OF 

ARABIANBENGAL 

MADRAI 

4 

a 

Andamn 

ft U 

sland s P I? h1J il 

Fig. 52. Distribution of Derris indica in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

warp in seasoning. Perishable, subject to gray stain, and liable to insect attack 

unless well seasoned. Wood commonly used as fuel. 

Other Uses Used for cabinetmaking, cart wheels, posts. Bark fiber made 

into rope. Thick, red-brown or yellow oil extracted from the seeds used as a 

lubricant, 

as fuel in kerosene lamps, for leather dressing, in manufacture of 

soap, varnish, and paints, and in medicine. Presscake after seed oil is extracted 

has insecticidal and pesticidal properties; bitter but serves as poultry feed and 

fertilizer. 

Cattle browse foliage. Leaves valuable fodder; often plowed under as green 

manure. 

Dried leaves protect stored grains because insects repelled by their 

odor. Leaves, flowers, bark, and sap also medicinal. Seeds and roots have 

served to stupefy fish. 

Species planted as a roadside tree in nearly all of India and for afforestation 

in drier areas. landsonie shade and ornamental tree, especially along road. 

sides. However, classed as a "trashy"tree because old leaves, flowers, and pods 

litter the ground. Also pruned into large hedges and planted for erosion control 

and binding sand dunes. 

Natural Distribution Native to the Indian subcontinent, along coasts of 

India, Burma, and the Andamans and along rivers up to 600-1000 m altitude. 

Now widely introduced throughout the world's humid lowland tropics, including 

Philippines, Malaysia, Australia, Oceania, Seychelles, United States 

(Florida, California, Hawaii). 

DERRIS INDICA 

111

Climate and Soils Humid tropical and subtropical, with 500-2500 mm an. 

nual rainfall. Mature plants withstand slight frosts. Soils, where wild, sandy 

and rocky including limestone. Will grow in.most soil types including saline. 

Common in coastal forests near the ocean and along tidal streams. 

References 

Beddome, R. H. 1869-74. The flora sylvatica for southern India. Illus. {Pongamia 

glabra, pi. 177, drawing used here). 

Pearson, R. S., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Illus. (Pongamia glabra,pp. 399.403, map used here). 

112 


31. Emblica officinalis 

Botanical Name Emblica officinalis Gaertn. 

Synonym Phyllanthus emblica L. 

Common Names emblic, emblic myrobalan, Malacca-tree, Indian-gooseberry 

(English); amla, amlika, nelli (India); nelli, toppinelli (Sri Lanka); 

mclakka (Peninsular Malaysia); aonla, mirobalano. 

Spurge Family, Euphorbiaceac 

Emblic is a wild and cultivated fruit tree of southern Asia, with rounded, 

greenish-yellow or sometimes reddish fruits, which are very sour and rich in 

vitamin C. As a fruit tree, this species is propagated vegetatively by budding, 

cuttings, and inarchin3. Fruits from seedlings may be small and inferior. The 

wood is good fuel and makes excellent charcoal, for arid and semiarid regions. 

Emblic is recognized by the small, crowded, oblong leaves in 2 rows resembling 

a pinnately compound leaf. 

Emblica is from the Bengalese plant name "amlaki." Officinalis, from a Latin 

word meaning "officinal" or "sold in a shop," refers to the medicinal use. 

"Malacca," a word of Sanskrit origin for town and river, is believed to have 

been derived also from the name of this tree. This genus of 4 species from 

Madagascar to eastern Asia is also united under Phyllanthus. 

Description Small to medium-sized tree, deciduous or nearly evergreen, 

becoming 18 m high (rarely 30 m), with trunk to 60 cm in diameter, often 

fluted and twisted, and with graceful irregular crown of feathery, pale green 

foliage. Bqirk pale gray-brown, thin, peeling in oblong, papery scales exposing 

smooth, orange-brown layers; inner bark pinkish-brown, green beneath surface, 

softly fibrous, very astringent. Twigs reddish-brown, finely hairy, 

slender. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows on slender deciduous twigs 7-15 cm long, 

resembling a pinnately compound leaf, crowded, very short-stalked, oblong, 

7-25 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, short-pointed at tip, rounded at base, edges 

slightly curved, leather,, bright green upper surface, whitish underneath, 

pinkish when young. 

Flowers at leaf bases, short-stalked, tiny, 2 mm wide, pale green or greenishyellow, 

with 6 sepals and no petals, male and female mostly on same tree. 

Male flowers several in a cluster, each with 6 glands and 3 anthers on short 

stalk. Female flowers mostly single near end of twig, with cuplike disk and 

pistil composed of 3-celled ovary having ovules in each cell, 3-forked style, 

and forked stigmas. 

Fruits (drupes) mostly single near end of twig, almost stalkless, rounded, 2-3 

cm in diameter (in cultivation reported to 5 cm), smooth, greenish-yellow with 

paler stripes, sometimes reddish, hairless, firm, juicy, very sour, sometimes 

bitter, with 6-angled, 3-ceiled, 6-seeded stone. 

EMBLICA OFFICINALIS 

113

' 

I . ..i..% 

. , 

Jb~~ 

tp 

Lv 'z T 

Fig. 53. Embica officinalis (Beddome 18369-74, p1, Z58), 

with purplish cast, 

frequently 

red, aging to reddish-brown 

Wood dull 

(sp. gro 

hard, moderately heavy 

moderately 

without distinct heartwood, grain, moderately 

0.74-0.80), with shallowly interlocked or slightly wavy 

114 

.. 

. 

COMMON FUEL WOOD CROPS

* 

MAP 

' 'SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 

PHLATU 

A ABINA B G lb 

+ 

ou 

SEAV 

A OF 

ARAIA BENGAL~ 

EIORIAGJ 

Fig. 54. Distribution of Eniblica officinalis in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

coarse, unevenly textured; growth rings generally distinct but inconspicuous. 

Wood good fuel and makes excellent charcoal. 

Other Uses Used for posts, poles, agricultural implements, furniture, low 

grade construction, lining of wells; turning. Very sour fruits eaten fresh, dried, 

One of the richest natural 

or pickled and in preserves, relishes, candies. 

sources of vitamin C or ascorbic acid and also rich in pectin. 

Bark has served in tanning and dyeing; leaves, roots, fruits, flowers, and 

by livestock and wildlife. 

bark used in medicine. Foliage and fruits eaten 

Branches lopped for green manure. Often planted in India in gardens and near 

homes and temples for the fruits and also for forestry. 

Wild and cultivated throughout much of tropical 


and 

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaysia, 

Asia, including central southern 

southern China, Mascarine Islands. Grows wild in India from sea level to 1800 

m. Introduced experimentally into other tropical regions, including the West 

Indies, Hawaii, Florida. 

Humid tropical and subtropical with mild winters and 


loam, 

mostly high rainfall or with dry season. Soils include deep moist 

alluvial, alkaline, and poor dry sites. Common and widespread in dry and 

moist deciduous forests where native. 

EMBLICA OFFICINALIS 

115

References 

Beddome, R. H. 1869.74. The flora sylvatica for southern India. Illus. (Phyllan. 

thus indica, pl. 258, drawing used here). 

Morton, Julia F. 1960. The emblic (Phyllanthus emblica L.). Economic Botany 

14: 119-128, illus. 

Pearson, A. S., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India. Illus. 

(Phyllanthus emblica, pp. 878.881, map used here). 

116 


EUCALYPTUS 

Common Names eucalyptus, eucalypt (English); eucalipto, eucaliptus 

(Spanish); mkaratusi (Tanzania); nilgiri, safeda (India); hue (Indonesia). 

Myrtle Family, Myrtaceae 

The genus Eucalyptus (from the Greek meaning "well covered," referring to 

the flower) is important for firewood crops because the trees grow rapidly and 

attain great size, and because it contains numerous species adapted to many 

climates. The natural habitat of this large genus of about 500 species, among 

them the world's tallest hardwoods, is almost confined to subtropical and 

tropical portions of Australia. A few species are native on islands nol ihward to 

the Philippines as shown in Figure 55. Many species are now widely planted 

around the world for their wood, shade, ornament, and other values. 

Ageneric description is given below for identification and recognition. Next 

follow general references for identification and a key to the 10 species described 

and illustrated here. Firewood Crops treated the first 7 in detail and 

briefly mentioned the last 3. 

Trees of this genus are 

large to very tall aromatic evergreen trees (a few 

species are shrubs); most have resin or gum. Several groups are distinguished 

by the bark: "gums"with smooth bark; "bloodwoods" with scaly bark; "stringybarks" 

with thick, fibrous bark; and "iron-barks"with hard, furrowed, blackish 

bark. 

Leaves are mostly alternate, lance-shaped, long-pointed, not toothed on 

edges, slightly thickened, shiny green, hairless, and drooping along slender 

twigs. Young plants have juvenile leaves of different shape; they are mostly 

opposite for 3-5 pairs, broad, often ovate, with short leafstalks or none. 

Single (often several) flower clusters (commonly umbels) are found at the 

leaf bases. There are usually several flowers on short equal stalks spreading at 

the end of a longer stalk. The distinctive flower bud is composed of a cupshaped 

base (hypanthium) and a mainly conical and pointed lid (operculum), 

which corresponds to a calyx or corolla and sheds early. There are many 

threadlike, mostly white stamens with small anthers useful in classification. 

The pistil has an inferior ovary within its base; it generally is 3-5-celled, contains 

many tiny ovules, and has a stout style. The fruit is a hard seed capsule 

(mainly 3-5-celled) that opens at the top and generally has as many protruding 

teeth or lines as cells. There are many small seeds; some are tiny and nonfunctional. 

References 

Blakely, W. F. 1955. A key to the eucalypts, with descriptions of 522 species and 

150 varieties, 2d. ed. 359 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, Forestry 

and Timber Bureau. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. 

EUCALYPTUS 

117

e 

I C, 3' C140 Is CC* Ira w, 

V. 

'C 

CoiCC 

ARES Of NATURAL 

OCCURRENCE OFEUCALYPTS 

I.4flq. 

C4140 oloco W MEN, Ci.4 

.No. C o Spi cru 1 

,, WALAW LINE . 

I C S I 

STASMANIA 

, .. .. 

,40C 1e ,S 

ICC ,IO* 'IC° /,O 

Fig. 55. Natural distribution of the genus Eucalyptus (FAQ of the United Nations 1979, 

map I}. 

Chippendale. G. M., ed. 1968. Eucalyptus buds and fruits. Illus. 96 pp. Australian 

Department of Agriculture. Forestry and Timber Bureau. Government 

Publishing Service. Canberra. Australia. 

-. 

1973. Eucalypts of the western Australian goldfields (and the adjacent 

wheatbelt). Illus. 218 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture. Forestry and 

Timber Bureau. Government Publishing Service. Canberra, Australia. 

-.-. 1976. Eucalyptus nomenclature. Australian Forestry Research 7: 69- 107. 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (Maxwell Ralph 

Jacobs. main author). 1979. Eucalypts for planting. FAQ Forestry Series No. 

11. Ilus. 677 pp. FAQ, Rome (map used here). 


Australia. 3d ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture. 

Forestry and Timber Bureau. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 

Australia. 

Maiden, J. H. 1903-33. A criticalrevision of the genus Eucalyptus. 8 vols. Illus. 

118 

i 

Fill 


-

Government Printer, Sydney, Australia. 

Mueller, Ferd. von. 1879-84. Eucalyptographia. A descriptive atlasof the eucalypts 

of Australia and the adjoining islands, 8 decades. Illus. Government 

Printer, Melbourne, Australia. 

Penfold, A. R., 

and J. L. Willis. 1961. 

The eucalypts: botany, cultivation, 

chemistry andutilization. Illus. 551 pp. World Crop Books, Leonard Hill Ltd., 

London. 

KEY TO 10 EUCALYPTUS SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

Bark smooth, peeling in strips or flakes, white, gray, or mottled; "gums." 

Crushed foliage with odor of camphor or lemon. 

more 

Foliage with odor of camphor; flowers single at leaf base, large, 

than 5 cm across spreading stamens; seed capsules 4-angled, warty, with 

34. Eucalyptusglobulus. 

whitish bloom ............................. 

Foliage with odor of lemon; flowers many in branched cluster (corymb), 

seed capsules egg-shaped or 

small, 12 mm across spreading stamens; 

urn-shaped .............................. 

33. Eucalyptuscitriodora. 

many in unbranched cluster 

Foliage without distinctive odor; flowers 

(umbel) at leaf base. 

Flowers short-stalked or stalkless, seed capsules with sunken disk, inconspicuous 

teeth. 

Buds and seed capsules with whitish bloom; seed capsules pear-shaped, 

narrowed at top, bark white ................. 35. Eucalyptusgrandis. 

Buds and seed capsules not whitish; seed capsules bell-shaped; bark 

bluish ................................... 

40. Eucalyptussaligna. 

Flowers long-stalked; seed capsules half-round with raised disk, raised 

teeth. 

Leaves dull green; buds egg-shaped, 6-10 mm long 

......................... 

32. Eucalyptus camaldulensis. 

.. ........ 

Leaves shiny green; buds with long conical lid, 12-16 mm long 

.............. 41. Eucalyptus tereticornis. 

....................... 

Bark rough, furrowed or fissured, fibrous, not shedding, gray or brown. 

Flowers many in branched cluster (panicle) at end of twig, small, less than 1 

37. Eucalyptus microtheca. 

cm across ................................ 

Flowers several in unbranched cluster (umbell ending flattened stalk at leaf 

base, more than 1.5 cm across. 

Flower bud with half-round lid broader than base and like a mushroom 

35. Eucalyptus gomphocephala. 

..................................... 

Flower bud with narrow, conical, pointed lid. 

Leaves with many fine parallel side veins nearly at right angle to midvein; 

seed capsules opening by sunken pores... 39. Eucalyptus robusta. 

Leaves with fewer side veins at small angle to midvein; seed capsules 

with protruding teeth .................. 38. Eucalyptus occidentalis. 

EUCALYPTUS 

119

32. Eucalyptus camaldulensis 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus carnaldulensis Dehnh. 

Synonym Eucalyptus rostrata Schlecht. 

Common Names river redgum eucalyptus, longbeak eucalyptus; river 

redgum, redgum, Murray redgum, river-gum (Australia); eucalipto rojo 

(Ecuador); ilachi, gond (Pakistan). 

Myrtle Family, Myrtaceac 

This example of the redgum group is the species of Eucalyptus having the 

broadest range in Australia as well as being one of the most widely planted 

over the world. It is recognized by the small flowers clustered at leaf bases, the 

bud ending in a long narrow point, the small half-round seed capsules opening 

by 3-4 teeth, and the smoothish white bark. The wood is an outstanding fuel as 

well as an important hardwood. 

Minor botanical varieties differing mainly in shape of fruit and its lid have 

been named. There are different races or provenances adapted to special 

climates, such as tropical, Mediterranean, arid, or high altitude. For successful 

reforestation it is essential to select seed from a climatic zone similar to that of 

the planting area, for example, in latitude, altitude, temperature, and rainfall, 

and also soil type and pest resistance. 

The specific name, referring to Hortus Camaldulensis, a garden near Naples, 

Italy, is based upon a tree cultivated there in 1832. The term "gum"is applied 

to species with smooth bark; red describes the color of the wood. This is a 

fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions and also for the humid tropics 

and tropical highlands. 

Description Large evergreen tree 24-40 m high (to 50 m in Australia), with 

stoitt trunk often short and crooked, becoming 60 cm to I m (sometimes 2 m) 

in diameter; and open, widely spreading irregular crown. Bark mostly 

smoothish, white, light gray, or buff, often with patches of darker gray and 

red, peeling in long strips or irregular flakes and exposing whitish inner layers, 

flaky bark persisting toward base. Twigs reddish, long, very slender, angled, 

drooping. Trunk can form air roots. Root system deep and spreading. 

Leaves alternate, drooping on slender leafstalks of 12-25 mm, narrowly 

lance-shaped to lance-shaped, 8-22 cm long, 1-2 cm wide, often curved or 

sickle-shaped, tapering to long point, short-pointed at base, not toothed on 

edges, hairless, thin or slightly thickened, with many fine straight side veins at 

an angle and vein inside edge, dull pale green on both surfaces or occasionally 

grayish. Juvenile leaves opposite or 3-4 pairs, then alternate, stalked, ovate to 

broadly lance-shaped, 6-9 cm lcng, 2.5-4 cm wide, gray-green. 

Flower clusters (umbels) single at leaf base, about 2.5 cm long on slender 

stalk of 6-19 am. Flowers 5-10, each on slender stalk of 5-12 mm, from eggshaped 

bud 6-10 mm long and 4-5 mm wide, with half-round base (hypanthium) 

and longer conical lid with long, narrow point or beak. Stamens, many, 

120 


** 

IA\ A, ,.,. 

Fig. 56. Eucalyptus car,,aldulensis IMuelier 1879). 

, , 

threadlike, white, 5-6 mm long, spreading 12-15 mm across, anthers with 

small round gland. Pistil with inferior, long-pointed, 3-4-celled ovary and long, 

stout style. 

Fruits or seed capsul-s several clustered at end of slender stalk, half-round 

or egg-shaped, 7.8 mm long, 5-6 mm wide, light brown, with wide, raised disk 

and 3-4 prominent triangular teeth almost 2 mm long, raised and curved in 

ward, clawlike. Seeds many, tiny, 1.5 mm long, light brown. 

EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENSIS 

121

Fig. 57. Distribution of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Australia IHall et al. 1970). 

Wood with thick pale red sapwood and reddish to #."--k red heartwood, moderately 

heavy (sp. gr. 0.65), hard, strong, tough, fin, "extured, with interlocked 

or wavy grain, with gun veins and pockets coin non. Durable, resistant 

to termites, not difficult to saw, takes a fine finish, but tends to warp in 

drying. 

As firewood, Eucalyptus camaldulensis has few equals. An outstanding fuel 

when fully dry; highly valued ii, Australia. Makes very good charcoal. Argentine 

steel industry relies on this charcoal for steelmaking. One limitation is 

that wood burns quickly and smokes heavily. 

Other Uses In Australia ihis important inland hardwood used extensively 

for structural timbers where strength and durability required, railroad crossties, 

and geaeral construction. Also used for interior finish, flooring, furniture, 

cabinetwork, fenceposts, and sometimes pulpwood. 

Trees planted for shade and ornament, along roadsides, and in shelterbelts, 

windbreaks, farm woodlots. Classed as good honey plant in Australia, flowering 

nearly all year and producing clear or pale honey with mild, pleasant 

flavor. Australian aborigines made canoes from bark and obtained drinking 

water from roots, as noted under Eucalyptus microtheca. 

Natural Distribution The most widely distributed of all eucalypts, ex- 

122 


tending over 230 of latitude. Found in most parts of Australia including arid 

and semiarid areas but not the humid eastern and southwestern coasts, 

western interior, nor Tasmanin. Mostly in lowlands at 30-230 m altitude but 

extends up higher slopes to 600 in. 

This species and Eucalyptus globulus are the most widely planted eucalypts in 

the world, this particularly in arid regions. One of the first ecualypts to be introduced 

overseas, planted in Naples in 1803 and now the dominant eucalypt 

around the Mediterranean. In Hawaii, where introduced in the 1880s, one of 

the most con ionly planted eucalypts, primarily in windbreaks. One of the 

best eucalypts for inland valley planting in California; more tolerant of 

drought, frost, and alkali than Eucalyptus globulus, but slower-growing. 

Climate and Soils Within the extensive natural range varies from tropical 

to subtropical and warm temperate, and from arid to semiarid. Temperatures 

high, especially in summer; as low as 30 to - 5°C in winter with 0-50 frosts according 

to locality. Annual rainfall where native varies considerably from 

minimum of about 250-625 mm to as high as 1000-1250 mm on limited areas. 

Tropical zone of northern Australia has summer rainfall; temperate zone of 

the southern region has winter rainfall. Dry seasons may be prolonged. Soils 

vary greatly from poor to periodically waterlogged. In Australia species forms 

pure forests on flood plains, stream banks, and similar moist habitats. May be 

found with other eucalypts on adjacent higher ground. Frequently occurs in 

the savanna woodland. 

References 

Blake, S. T. 1950. Botanical contributions of the northern Australia Regional 

Survey. 1.Studies on northern Australian species of Eucalyptus. Australian 

Journalof Rotany 1: 185.352, illus. (map). 

Eldridge, K. G. 1975. An annotated bibliography of genetic variation in Eucalyptus 

camaldulensis.Tropical Forestry Paper No. 8. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, 

Oxford, and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organization, Division of Forest Research, Canberra, Australia. 


Australia. 3d ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, 


Australia (map used here). 

Mueller, Ferd. von. 1879. Eucalyptographia. A descriptive atlas of the eucalypts 

of Australia and the adjoining islands, 4th decade. Government Printer, 

Melbourne, Australia. (Eucalyptus rostrata, unnumb. pl., drawing used here). 

Turnbull, J. W. 1973. The ecology and variation of Eucalyptus carnaldulensis. 

Forestry Occasional Paper 1973/2. pp. 32-40. Forest Genetic Resources Information, 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 

Italy. 

EUCALYPTUS CAMALDULENSIS 

123

33. Eucalyptus citriodora 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 

Common Names lemon-scented gum, spotted-gum, lemon-scented spottedgum 

(Australia); lemon-gum eucalyptus; eucalipto aromdtico (Ecuador). 


This species of the bloodwood group is easily recognized by the strong 

lemon odor of crushed foliage and the smooth gray bark becoming mottled. It 

is a first-class sawtimber as well as a popular fuelwood. Eucalyptus citriodora is 

a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions and also for the humid tropics 

and tropical highlands. This species usually grows in mixed forests with other 

eucalypts. 

Description Large handsome evergreen tree 24-40 m high, of good form, 

with tall straight trunk 0.6-1.3 in in diameter, and thin, open, regular, graceful 

crown of drooping foliage. Bark smooth, gray, peeling off in thin irregular 

scales or patches and becoming mottled, exposing whitish or faintly bluish inner 

layer with powdery surface, appearing dimpled; on large trunks dark gray 

and shaggy. Twigs slender, slightly flattened, light green, tinged with brown. 

Leaves alternate, drooping on yellowish flattened leafstalks of 12-20 mm, 

1-2.5 wide, long-pointed at tip, 

narrowly lance-shaped, 10-20 cm long, cm 

short-pointed at base, not toodhed on edges, hairless, thin, light green on both 

surfaces, slightly shiny, with many fine parallel straight veins scarcely visible, 

and with vein inside edge. Juvenile leaves opposite for 3-5 pairs, stalked, a few 

attached above base, narrowly to broadly lance-shaped with 

with leafstalk 

wavy margins, 4-13 cm long, 12-25 mm wide, slightly bristly hairy, upper surface 

green, purplish underneath. 

at leaf bases, to 6 cm long, 

Flower clusters (corymbs) terminal and 

branched. Flowers many, 3-5 together on equal short stalks (umbels) from eggshaped 

bud 8-12 mm long, 5-8 mm wide, with bell-shaped base (hypanthium) 

and half-round lid with very short point. Stamens many, threadlike, white, 6 

mm long, spreading about 12 mm across, anthers with long gland. Pistil with 

inferior 3-celled ovary and long, stout style. 

Fruitsor seed capsules few, urn-shaped or egg-shaped, narrowed into short 

neck, 10-12 mm long, 8-10 mm wide, brown with scattered raised dots, with 

wide sunken disk, opening by 3 narrow lines. Seeds few, irregularly elliptical, 

relatively large, 4-5 mm long, shiny black; also many small sterile seeds. 

Wood light brown to gray-brown, very ! avy (sp. gr. 0.75-1.11, very hard, 

tough; moderately durable to 

with straight or wavy grain, strong, very 

durable, moderately resistant to termites, and works easily for its density. 

Long used as a fuel in Australia; hard, heavy and buroiing steadily. Principal 

source of charcoal for steel production in Brazil. 

and used for general and 

Other Usei Rated as a first-class sawtimber 

heavy construction, tool handles, poles, and railroad crossties. Trees hand- 

124 


Fig. 58. Eucalyptus citrilodra (Little and Skolmen in press). 

sonic ornamentals but not recommended for homes because of the brittle 

branches. Sparse crown limits planting for shelterbelts. Lemon.scented oil, 

mainly citronellal, obtained from leaves used in the perfume industry. Lemon 

odor indicated by both scientific and common names. Honey of good quality. 

Natural Distribution Northeastern Australia (Queensland), restricted to 

two areas from the coast to more than 300 km inland, at altitudes of 80.300 m 

southward and 600.800 m northward. 

EUCALYiIruS CITRIODORA 

125

Fig. 59. Distribution of Eucalyptus citriodora In Australia (Hall et al. 1970). 

This fast-growing species widely planted with good results in many regions 

with differing climates and soil types. Promising hybrids developed for 

fuetwood plentations. 

Clmate and Soils Where native tropical to subtropical, semiarid, frostfree 

near the coast but with light frosts inland. Annual rainfall 600-1250 mm, 

mainly in summer, with dry season of 5-7 months, sometimes severe. Soils 

various, well-drained, on rolling plateaus and dry ridges, from gravels to clays. 

References 


Australia. 3d. ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, Forestry 

and Timber Bureau. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 


Larsen, E. 1965. A study of the variabilityof Eucalyptus maculataHook. and Eucalyptus 

citriodoraHook. Leaflet No. 95. Australian Department of Agriculture, 

Forestry and Timber Bureau, Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 

Australia. 


126 


Hawaii. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 


Maiden, J. H. 1920. A critical revision of the. genus Eucalyptus. Government 

Printer, Sydney, Australia. (Eucalyptus maculata var. citriodora, vol. 5, pp. 

88.92, pl. 178, fig. 5-7.) 

EUCALYPTUS CITRIODORA 

127

34. Eucalyptus globulus 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus globulus Labill. 

Common Names Tasmanian bluegum, bluegum, southern bluegum (Australia); 

bluegum eucalyptus; turpentine-gas (Sri Lanka); yukari-no-ki 

(Okinawa). 


This best known and most widely planted eucalypt in subtropical regions 

around the world is a fast-growing forest tree and ahandsome shade tree and 

ornamental. This example of the southern bluegum group is easily recognized 

by the large, single flowers at leaf bases, the 4.angled, warty, whitish seed cap. 

sules, and the camphor odor of crushed foliage. It is a fuelwood species for 

tropical highlands, also subtropical regions. 

Description Large to very large evergreen tree 40-55 ni tall (sometimes 60 

i), with straight massive trunk 0.6-2 m in diameter and up to two-thirds of 

total height; with narrow, irregular crown of large branches and drooping 

aromatic foliage, with odor like camphor when crushed. Crown of open grown 

trees broadly rounded or irregular with branches nearly to ground. Root 

system deep and spreading. 

Bark smoothish, mottled gray, brown, and greenish or bluish, peeling in 

long strips, at base becoming gray, rough and shaggy, thick, and finely furrowed; 

inner bark light yellow within thin green layer. Branches with thin, 

smoothish, bluish-green bark. Twigs slender, angled, drooping, yellow-green, 

turning dark red or brown. 

Leaves alternate, drooping on flattened yellowish leafc.lalks of 1.5-4 cm, narrowly 

lance-shaped, 10-30 cm long, 2.5-5 cm wide, mostly curved or sickleshaped, 

long-pointed at tip, short-pointed at base, not toothed on edges, 

hairless, thick, leathery, with fine straight veins and vein inside margin, shiny 

dark green on both surfaces. juvenile leaves on 4-angled or winged twigs, opposite 

for many pairs, stalkless or clasping, ovate or broadly lance-shaped, 

7.5-15 cm long, 4-9 cm wide, with bluish or whitish wax bloom on lower surface. 

Flowers 1 (rarely 2-31, at leaf base on very short flattened stalk or none, 

more than 5 cm ackoss the very numerous, spreading white stamens about 12 

mn long, with odor of camphor. Buds top-shaped, 12-15 mm long, 12-25 mm 

wide, base Ihypanthium) 4-angled and very warty, whitish bloom, with 2 lids: 

cuplike. warty lid with central knob, and thin, smooth, pointed inner lid. 

Stamens many, threadlike, white, anthers oblong, opening in broad slits, with 

round gland. Pistil with inferior 3.5-celled ovary and long stout style. 

Fruits or seed capsules single at leaf base, broadly top-shaped or rounded, 

1-1.5 cm long, 2-2.5 cm wide, 4-angled, warty, with whitish, broad, thick, flat 

or convex disk and 3.5 slits. Seeds many, irregularly elliptical, 2-3 mm long, 

dull black; also many smaller sterile seeds. 

128 


Fig.60. Furalypnis ghdblus INMeller 1880). 

Sapwood white and thick, tihe heartwood pale yellow-brown. Wood heavy 

Isp. gr. 0.67-0.80), hard, with medium texture, straight to interlocked grain, 

and growth rings. Seasons poorly; difficult to work but takes a high finish. 

Dense outer wood very strong and moderately durable, resistant to termites 

because of its oil content. This important firewood burns freely, leaves little 

ash, and produces good charcoal. 

EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS 

129

Fig. 61. Natural distribution in the narrow 

1970). 

sense of Eucalyptus globulus (Hall et al. 

Other Uses Light and heavy construction and lumber for home framing, 

flooring, and siding as well as for decorative interior paneling and furniture. 

Also plywood, veneer, utility poles, piles, railroad crossties, tool handles. One 

of the best eucalypts for pulpwood. 

Eucalyptol, commercially important eucalyptus oil, distilled from the leaves 

of this and other species and used in medicine. Flowers produce good honey. 

Has served for land reclamation including erosion control and formerly in 

swamps; also for windbreaks and shelterbelts. Grown in parks but its large 

size makes it unsuitable as a shade tree in humid regions. 

In the usual narrow sense, species native to the 


on its western 

eastern part of the Australian island of Tasmania, also local 

on only the southern tip of Victoria on the Australian 

coast, and nearby 

mainland. Altitude from sea level to 330 m. 

Eucalyptus globu.us now cultivated around the world in subtropical regions 

of many countries in plantations totaling more than 800,000 ha; has become 

naturalized. About half the area in Portugal and Spain. Trees planted in Porhigh, 

among the tallest in Europe. Besides the 

tugal ir, '875 now 60-70 m 

are large plantations in eastern and southern 

Mediterranean region there 

Africa and the Andes of South America. Also the common eucalypt of Califor- 

130 


f 

. 

' 

:'0 

*.. 

0o 

Iwo*o 

0~~~ 

00 

-r..... 

OI, IULU$ v" 

0 VAn 

Fig. 62. Natural distribution in the broad sense with 4 subspecies of Eucalyplfu 

globulus (Kirkpatrick 1974, fig. 3). 

EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS 

i-- 

131

nia. Where native, occurs in pure stands on favorable sites or mixed with 

other eucalypts. 

Climate and Soils In the native home humid and subtropical without extremes 

of heat or cold and 0-5 frosts. Annual rainfall 500-1500 mm, mainly in 

winter but well distributed with a dry season up to 3 months. Soils include 

well-drained sandy clays and loams. In cooler parts of its range, species grows 

on undulating country near the sea, but in warmer parts is in valleys of the 

hilly country. 

Species adapted to subtropical climates with winter rainfall, such as the 

Mediterranean region, and to cool zones of tropical mountains but not hardy 

in warm temperate climates. 

Subspecies Three closely related species of coastal southeastern Australia 

but not Tasmania have also been united as subspecies (Kirkpatrick 1974), as 

follows: 

-Eucalyptus globulus ssp. bicostata (Maid. et al.) Kirkpatrick, coast-grey-box, 

Eucalyptus bicostata Maid. et al. 

-Eucalyptus globulus ssp. maidenfl IF. Muell.) Kirkpatrick, Maidens gum, 

Eucalyptus maidenii F. Muell. 

-Eucalyptus globulus ssp. pseudoglobulus (Nauden ex Maid.) Kirkpatrick, 

Eucalyptus pseudoglobulus Naudin ex Maid., Eucalyptus stjohnii (R. T. Baker) R. 

T. Baker. 

Under this classification, the species universally known as Eucalyptus 

globulus Labill. becomes in the strict sense Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ssp. 

globulus. 

Ranges are shown in the maps, first Eucalyptus globulus sens. strict, and then 

the 4 subspecies. 

References 





Kirkpatrick, J. B. 1974. The numerical intraspecific taxonomy of Eucalyptus 

globulus Labill. (Myrtaccae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 69: 

89-104, illus. (map, fig. 3, used here). 

Kirkpatrick, J. B. 1975. Geographical variation in Eucalyptus globulus. Bulletin 

No. 47. Australian Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Timber Bureau. 

Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. 


of Australia and the adjoining islands. 6th decade. Government Printer, 

Melbourne, Australia (unnumb. pl., drawing used here). 

132 


35. Eucalyptus gomphocephala 

Eucalyptus gomphocephala A. DC. 


Common Name tuart 


Tuart is one of the heaviest and most durable timbers in Australia and one of 

the most valuable in the western part of that continent. However, its supply is 

limited in southwestern Australia. It is distinguished by the flower bud that 

resembles a mushroom with a half-round lid broader than its base. 

good firewood, grows naturally in pure or 

This species, which is also a 

almost pure stands and less commonly in mixed forests with othev eucalypts. 

sand plains and widely planted on sandy soils, but is less 

It is native on 

suitable for dry areas and has poor frost tolerance. Tuart is easily propagated 

from seed and coppices well. This is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid 

regions and also for tropical highlands. 

The specific name from Greek words meaning "bolt" and "head" refers to the 

a very broad, half-round lid. "Tuart," the common 

distinctive flower with 

name, is of aboriginal origin. 

Medium to large evergreen tree commonly 20-35 m high 

Description 

(sometimes to 42 m, under favorable conditions where native), or in dry areas 

1-2.3 m in 

only 12 m. Trunk short, one-third to one-half the total height, 

diameter, often crooked or forked. Crown dense, broad, with large, spreading 

to nearly upright branches. Bark light ashy-gray, fibrous, finely fissured, close 

and not shedding. Twigs stout, gray, hairless. Deep taproot and extensive surface 

roots. 

on slender leafstalks, narrowly lance-shaped, 

Leaves alternate, drooping 

12-17 cm long, 1.5-2.5 cm wide, slightly curved to side, tapering to long point, 

short-pointed at base, not toothed on edges, hairless, thick, both surfaces shiny 

gray-green with faint regular veins. Juvenile leaves opposite for 3-4 pairs, then 

5-7 cm long, 4-5 cm wide. 

alternate, long-stalked, broadly lance-shaped, 

Flowerclusters (umbels) single at leaf base, with broad flat stalk 2.5-3.5 cm 

long and 1-1.5 cm wide. Flowers 3-7, stalkless, from buds 20-25 mm long, like 

a mushroom, a half-round lid, hard, rough, thick, splitting off, much broader 

than bell-shaped base (hypanthium) nearly 12 t.an long. Stamens many, long, 

threadlike, white, with oblong anthers and oblong gland. Pistil with inferior 

4-celled ovary and short style. 

mm long and 

Fruits few at end of stalk, bell-shaped seed capsules 13-20 

11-15 mm in diameter, with flat top and prominent rim, smooth, thick-walled, 

opening by pores bordered by 4 short teeth. Seeds many, tiny, 2-3 mm long, 

light brown. 

1.17), fine-textured, with inter- 

Wood pale yellowish, very heavy (sp. gr. 

very hard, strong, tough, difficult to split, durable except in 

locked grain, 

resistance to dry-wood termites. Seasons and works well. Wood burns well 

and makes good firewood. 

EUCALYPTUS GOMPHOCEPHALA 

133

N I- 

Fig. 63. Eucalyptus gornphocephala (Mueller 1880); mature fruits, lower right (Maiden 

1914, vol. 3, pl. 92, 2f, 3c). 

Other Uses Used for construction, railway boxcars, wagons, trucks, insulator 

pins and similar articles, fenceposts, stakes, and formerly in shipbuilding. 

Widely planted to stabilize sand dunes and for windbreaks, soil protection, 

and as a street and shade tree. Flowers produce choice honey of light creamy 

color. 

134 


Fig. 64. Distribution of Eucalyptus gomnphocephala in Australia (Hall et al. 19701. 

Natural Distribution Very restricted, a narrow strip of sand plain (overlying 

limestone), often barely 1.5 km wide, about 200 km long, near the ocean 

extending behind the coastal dunes near Perth in far southwestern Australia. 

Altitude from sea level to 30 m. 

areas in northern Africa, 

Introduczd in many countries. Largest cultivated 

for example, Morocco. Tested also in the Mediterranean region. 

Climate and Soils Where native, warm temperate with winter rainfall 

- 4 0 C) and summers with cooland 

mild, usually frost-free winters (minimum 

mm annually, 

ing afternoon breezes. Rainfall where native about 700-1000 

mostly in winter, with 4-6 dry summer months. However, species introduced 

higher altitudes. Soils where native 

successfully in drier climates and at 

neutral yellow or brown sands overlying limestone. 

References 


ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, For- 

Australia. 3d 

estry and Timber Bureau. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 


EUCALYPTUS GOMPHOCEPHALA 

135

Maiden, J. H. 1914. A critical revision of the genus Eucalyptus, vol. 3. Government 

Printer, Sydney, Australia (pl. 92, drawing of mature fruit used here). 

Mueller, Ferd. von. 1880. Eucalyptographia.A descriptiveatlas of the eucalypts of 

Australia and the adjoining islands, 7th decade. Government Printer, 


136 

COMMON FUBLWOOD CROPS

36. Eucalyptus grandis 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maid. 

Synonym Eucalyptus saligna var. pallidivalvis Baker & Smith 

Common Names flooded-gum, rosegum, toolur (Australia); rosegum eucalyptus; 

turpentine-gas (Sri Lanka). 


This member of the eastern bluegum group has smooth white bark and pearshaped 

seed capsules with whitish bloom and inconspicuous teeth. It is one of 

the most widely grown eucalypts, especially in South Africa. For many years 

and seed was 

this tree was not distinguished from Eucalyptus saligna, 

distributed under that name. 

This species typically occurs in pure or almost pure stands, sometimes in 

mixed forests. In the southern part of its range it is found on flats and lower 

slopes of deep fertile valleys and at the edge of rain forests. Northward it 

ascends to tablelands. 

meaning "grand" is appropriate. "Flooded-gum" refers to 

The specific name 

the habitat along streams and the smooth bark. "Toolur" is the native name. 

Eucalyptus grandis is a fuelwood species for tropical highlands and also for the 

humid tropics. 

Description Very large evergreen tree 40 m high (45-55 rii in Australia), 

with tall straight trunk unbranched for up to two-thirds of total height and 1m 

in diameter (sometimes 2 nil. Crown spreadirng and thin when grown in open; 

small and compressed in dense plantations. Bark white, gray or green, 

smooth, shedding in long narrow strips; occasionally lowest 1.5 m of trunk has 

light gray or "stocking" persisting as fairly regular small plates. Twigs slender, 

angled, with whitish waxy coating 

Leaves alternate, drooping or horizontal on slender leafstalks of 12-20 mm, 

cm wide, tapering to long narrow point, 

lance-shaped, 10-20 cm long, 2-4 

base, slightly wavy, hairless, thin, with fine 

blunt and slightly unequal at 

regular veins and vein inside edge, shiny, dark green upper surface, paler 

pairs, then alternate, shortunderneath. 

Juvenile leaves opposite for 3-4 

stalked, oblong lance-shaped, 2.5-6 cm long, 12-25 mm wide, thin, slightly 

wavy. 

Flower clusters (unibels) single ai leaf base, 2.5-3 cm long including flattened 

stalk of 12 rm. Flowers 5-12, short-stalked or stalkless Buds 10 mm 

long, 5 mm wide, pear-shaped with blunt-pointed conical lid, usually with 

whitish waxy coating, and with bell-shaped base (hypanthium). Stamens 

many, threadlike, white, anthers oblong with large round gland. Pistil with inferior 

4.6-celled ovary. 

Fruits or seed capsules several, short-stalked, pear-shaped or conical, slightly 

narrowed at rim, thin, 8 mm long, 6 mm wide, with whitish waxy coating, 

EUCALYPTUS GRANDIS 

137

138~~~~~ 

-9 

pl.~ ~~ ~10,fis 811 

A 

9b a / 9m?~ 

I,,, 

COMO FULO 

d 

RP

Fig. 66. Distribution of Eucalyptus grandis in Australia (Hall et al. 1970). 

narrow sunken disk, and 4-6 (commonly 5) pointed thin teeth slightly projecting 

and curved inward, persisting on twigs back of leaves. 

Wood pink to light reddish-brown, lightweight (sp. gr. 0.40-0.55) but 

variable, moderately hard, coarse-textured, straight-grained, of moderate 

strength and durability, easily worked. Subject to warping, splitting, and other 

defects in seasoning. Lighter in weight and softer than most eucalypts, floats 

in water. Wood excellent firewood; has served as a railroad fuel. 

Other Uses Used for utility poles, house construction, boxes, mine props, 

veneer, pulpwood. Is an ornamental antl shade tree and good honey plant. 

Natural Distribution Coastal regions of eastern Australia in northeastern 

New South Wales and southeastern Queensland and locally in northern 

Queensland. Altitude 0-300 in or up to 900 m northward. 

Widely cultivated in South America, especially Brazil, in eastern and 

southern Africa, and in many other countries. 

Climate and Soils Humid subtropical to warm temperate with summer 

temperatures to 40*C and winter minimums - 1 to - 31C with several frosts. 

Annual rainfall between 1000 and 1800 mm, distributed mainly in summerautumn 

with a spring dry period. Soils moist well-drained from various kinds 

of bedrock. 

EUCALYPTUS GRANDIS 

139

is a closely 

Species Eucalyptus saligna Sm., Sidney bluegum, 

Related 

related species. Where native in Australia, it grows on slopes rather than 

bottomland. The two species hybridize, and some plantations apparently are 

hybrids. 

References 

1970. Forest trees of 

Hall, Norman, R. D. Johnston, and G. M. Chippendale. 

Australia. 3d ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, For- 

Service, Canberra, 

estry and Timber Bureau. Government Publishing 



Hawaii. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 


Maiden, J. H. 1915. A critical revision of the genus Eucalyptus, vol. 3. Government 

Printer, Sydney, Australia. (Eucalyptus saligna var. pallidivalvis, pl. 100, 

fig. 8-13, drawing used here). 

140 


37. Eucalyptus microtheca 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus microtheca F. Muell. 

Common Names coolibah, coolabah, flooded-box, western coolibah (Aus. 

tralia). 


Coolibah is easily recognized by the clusters of numerous, very small 

flowers at the ends of twigs and the tiny seed capsules opening with 3-4 teeth. 

This is one of the most widely distributed species of Eucalyptus, ranging across 

arid northern and central parts of Australia. 

This tree is commonly found in open savannas or woodlands subject to seasonal 

flooding, including edges of swamps or lagoons and the extensive 

floodplains of inland rivers. The wood, classed among the world's hardest, 

makes good fuel but has few other uses because of its poor form, hardness, 

and weight. 

Coolibah is variable in character of bark, wood, and fruits, and a related 

species has been united as a synonym. One variation known as "blackheart" 

has smooth whitish bark. The specific name, Greek for "small case," describes 

the very small seed capsules, among the smallest in the genus. "Coolibah" is 

the aboriginal name. This is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions 

and also for the humid tropics. 

Description Small to medium-sized evergreen tree 6-12 m high, with 

usually crooked or irregular short stout trunk 30-60 cm in diameter (sometimes 

to 20 m high and I m in diameter), often several trunks, with low 

branches and wide spreading crown; or a stunted shrub of 3 m. Bark gray or 

blackish, thick, fibrous, rough, more or less scaly to deeply furrowed toward 

base, not shedding; bark of upper branches usually with smooth whitish or 

light gray bark shedding in strips, rarely extending nearly to base. Twigs 

slender, angled, often whitish. 

Leaves alternate, drooping on slender leafstalk of 1-2 cm,variable in shape, 

narrowly lance-shaped, 6-20 cmIlop, 1-3 cm wide, long-pointed at tip, shortpointed 

at base, not toothed on edges, hairless, slightly thick, leathery, dull 

green, slightly paler underneath, with inconspicuous veins forming fine network 

and vein near edge. Juvenile leaves opposite for 4-5 pairs, short-stalked, 

variable, lance-shaped, 4-7 cm long, 2-3 cm wide, dull whitish-green. 

Flower clusters (panicles) mostly at and near ends of twigs, short, branched 

with slightly angled slender stalks ending in clusters (umbels) of 3-7 shortstalked 

fragrant flowers. Flowers very small from egg-shaped, short-pointed 

bud 4-6 mm long, with half-round or conical lid shorter than top-shaped or 

conical angled base (hypanthium). Stamens many, spreading, white, short, 3-4 

inni long, anthers rounded with small round gland. Pistil with inferior 

3-4-celled ovary and stout style. 

Fruitsor seed capsules short-stalked, half-round or top-shaped, very small, 

EUCALYPTUS MICROTHECA 

141

F i6 '. L 

>r.1-- 

Fin. 67'. A.icaly~lu.5 nfcrr,,Ih','a i~tudhr 11841. 

,- / -, 

3.4.5 mm long and wide, thin.walled or papery, with 3.4 raised teeth, fragile 

and mistly shedding when mature. Seeds many, tiny, 2 mm long, blackish. 

Wood dark reddish-brown to almost black, with narrow whitish sapwood, 

142 

/1 


1

dF 

Fig. 68. Distribution of Eucalyptus rnicrotheca in Australia (Hall et al.1970). 

with pores like fine whitish threads, very hard, very heavy, with interlocked 

grain, strong, durable in and out of ground, and resistant to termites. Difficult 

to work and split- said to be the hardest eucalypt and one of the hardest woods 

in the world. Is a very good fuel. Charcoal good but with relatively high ash 

content. 

Other Uses Wood used for durable poles and fenceposts but not for construction 

because of its hardness. Suitable for bearings, b,.shings, bolts, shafts, 

frames, and wheel parts for heavy vehicles. 

Trees planted for shelterbelts, shade, soil conservation, and erosion control 

in arid regions and could be grown in irrigated plantations in deserts. 

Natural Distribution Widespread though scattered throughout interior 

of Australia except southern part; in all states except Victoria and the island of 

Tasmania. Altitude mainly from 80 to 340 ,n, and up to 700 ni. Introduced successfully 

on a small scale in arid parts of northern Africa and southwestern 

Asia. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid or arid tropical or desert with hot 

temperatures most of the year. Can withstand afew frosts a year. Annual rainfall 

in most of native range 250-1000 mm and as low as 200 mm with a dry 

EU:CALYPTUS MICROTHECA 

143

season of up to 7 months. At southeastern edge of the range, annual summer 

rainfall 500 mm. In the northern part, rainfall seasonal or monsoonal and up to 

1000 mm annually. Soils mostly clays or silty clay loams of seasonally flooded 

watercourses, often alkaline. 

This species is one of the eucalypts with water-yielding roots and known 

also as weir-mallees. An account by Mueller (1884) on the method of obtaining 

drinking water is quoted below. Maiden (1913, vol. 2, pp. 14-15; vol. 6, pp. 

21-22) recorded additional details for this species and Eucalyptus camnaldulensis. 

The lateral roots are lifted by the natives with sharp-pointed sticks or their 

spears to the surface from about a foot or less depth and to a distance of 15 or 

more feet from the tree: the overlying earth when necessary being removed by 

wooden shovels: the root is then cut into pieces of about 18 inches length and the 

bark peeled off: if the water, on placing these fragments vertically, does not at 

once commence to come out spontaneously, the process is expedited by blowing 

vigorously at one of the ends of the root-pieces; roots of the size of a man's wrist 

are the best for this operation, Mr. Bennett obtained in -ost favorable cases by 

these means a quart-pot full of water in half an hour and found it beautifully 

clear, cool and free from any unpleasant taste. (Roots from depressions in the 

ground yielded water more copiously, and main roots near the trunk were not 

sufficiently porous for obtaining water.) 

Messrs. Muir saw Desert-Eucalypts also used widely in South-Western 

Australia for obtaining drinking water from the roots, the Aborigines having entirely 

to depend on this source of water in many of their hunting excursions, the 

roots chosen being about one inch in thickness, the surrounding soil being often 

dusty dry. 

References 

Blake, S. T. 1950. Botanical contributions of the northern Australia Regional 

Survey. I. Studies on northern Australian species of Eucalyptus. 

AustralianJournalof Botany 1: 185-352, illus. (map). 

Hall, Norman, R. D. Johnston, and G. M. Chippendale. 1970. Forest trees ol 

Australia. 3d ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, Forestry 

and Timber Bureau. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 


Maiden, J. H. 1913. The forest flora of New South Wales, vol. 6. Illus. Government 

Printer, Sydney, Australia (pp. 19-24, pl. 195). 

Mueller, Ferd. van. 1884. Eucalyptographia.A descriptive atlas of the eucalypts 



144 


38. Eucalyptus occidentalis 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl. 

Common Names flat-topped yate, swamp yate (Australia). 


This slow-growing, hardy tree, which is drought-tolerant, can grow where 

other eucalypts do poorly. Its wood is very hard and heavy. Eucalyptus occidentalis 

is characterized by clusters of 3-7 flowers at the end of a broad flat stalk, 

long narrow buds, long yellowish-white stamens, bell.shaped seed capsules 

with 4 raised teeth, and dark gray, rough bark. This is a fuelwood species for 

arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Medium-sized evergreen tree 15-21 m high (sometimes to 28 

ml, with stout erect trunk to 80 cm in diameter and upright branches of about 

equal length forming broad flat-topped or umbrellalike crown; sometimes a 

small tree of 6 m. Bark dark gray or almost black, thick, rough, fissured, 

fibrous, hard, not shedding; bark of branches light gray or yellowish-gray, 

smooth, flaky with loose ribbons. Twigs slightly angled, reddish-brown. 

Leaves alternate, with short leafstalk to 2 cm long, narrowly to broadly 

lance-shaped, 10-14 cm long, 2-3 cm wide, short-pointed at both ends, sides 

nearly equal, not toothed on edges, hairless, thick, with side veins spreading 

and slightly prominent and with vein near margin, shiny dark green on both 

surfaces. Juvenile leaves opposite for 4-5 pairs, short-stalked, lance-shaped to 

ovate, 7-12 cm long, 3-7 cm wide, thin, slightly whitish. 

Flower clusters (umbels) single at leaf base, with broad flat stalk 15-25 mm 

long. Flowers 3-7, short-stalked, from cylindrical conical bud to 20 mm long, 

with narrow blunt-pointed lid twice as long as bell-shaped base (hypanthium). 

Stamens many, long, 8-20 mm long, straight in bud, yellowish-white, threadlike, 

slightly 4-angled, with tiny gland-dots, oblong anthers with oblong gland. 

Pistil with inferior conical 4-celled ovary and long slender style. 

Fruitsor seed capsules short-stalked, bell-shaped, 10-18 mm long, 8-12 mm 

wide, brown, finely streaked, with narrow rim, 4-celled, opening with usually 

4 raised short-pointed teeth. Seeds few, tiny, 2 mm long, brown, with many, 

very small sterile seeds. 

Wood yellow-brown with pale yellow sapwood, very hard, very heavy, fairly 

straight-grained, strong, durable. Reportedly one of the hardest and 

strongest timbers in the world, having a tensile strength slightly below that of 

wrought iron. Wood burns steadily with a hot fire. 

Other Uses Used for wheelwright work, especially parts requiring great 

strength and toughness, such as vehicles, frames, and wheel parts; also construction. 

Bark, with high tannin c6ntent, formerly was harvested. 

Species recommended as a shade tree in Western Australia. Suitable for 

parks because light shade permits growth of grass. A good honey plant. 

Natural Distribution Southwestern part of Western Australia. Altitude 

EUCALYPTUS OCCIDENTALIS 

145

Fig. 69. Eucalyptus occidentalis (Mueller 1880). 

50-300 m, mainly below 100 m. Small-scale plantations have been made in 

several regions, including from northern Africa to southwestern Asia. 

Climate Semiarid warm temperate or subtropical. Summers mild to hot; 

146 


Fig. 70. Distribution of Eucalyptus occidentalis in western Australia 

1973). 

(Chippendale 

frosts a year. Winter rainfall 300-760 mm, with 

winters with up to 20 

moderate variability and dry season of 7 months. 

Species native to the semiarid wheatbelt zone and parts of the adjacent subhumid 

zone. Often on alluvial flats subject to seasonal flooding and near salt 

lakes. Soils mostly clays or clay loams, occasionally with sandy surface layer 

and poor drainage. Can be planted where other eucalypts do poorly or barely 

survive, for example in very saline and alkaline soils. 

References 

Chippendale, G. M. 1973. Eucalypts ofthe western Australian goldfields (and the 

of Agriculture, 

adjacent wheatbelt). Illus. 218 pp. Australian Department 




the adjoining islands, 6th decade. Government Printer, 

of Australia and 


EUCALYPTUS OCCIDENTALIS 

147"

39. Eucalyptus robusta 

Botanical Name Eucalyptus robusta Sm. 

Synonym Eucalyptus multiflora Poir. 

Common Names robusta eucalyptus, beakpod eucalyptus, swampmahogany 

eucalyptus, Australian swamp-mahogany; swamp-mahogany, 

swamp messmate, browngum (Australia); eucalipto del alcanfor, eucalipto 

de pantano (Puerto Rico); eucalipto comtin, eucalipto achatado (Colombia). 


This is one of the most widely planted species of eucalypts and is classed in 

the eastern bluegum group. The trees grow rapidly but are not very frostresistant. 

In Puerto Rico they have attained a height of 27 m and diameter of 

40 cm in 15 years. 

the site and the wood's 

The common name "swamp-mahogany" refers to 

resemblance to mahogany. It is recognized among eucalypts by the relatively 

broad lance-shaped leaves, large flowers, and large bell-shaped seed capsules 

pores. fuelwood species especially for tropical 

opening by sunken This 

highlands can grow in the humid tropics and arid and semiarid regions. 

Handsome large evergreen tree 24-27 m (sometimes 30-40 m) 

Description 

high, with relatively large, short, straight trunk 1-1.2 m in diameter and about 

half the height of tree. Crown relatively dense, narrow to spreading, of dark 

brown, reddishgreen 

foliage, with long irregular branches. Bark gray o. 

brown beneath surface, very thick, rough, deeply furrowed into long scaly 

ridges, fibrous and very soft, persistent. Inner bark whitish, slightly bitter. 

Twigs stout, angled and yellowish when young, becoming reddish-brown. 

Trunk can form air roots. 

or pinkish tinged leafstalks of 12-25 mm. 

Leaves alternate, with yellowish 

Blades broadly lance-shaped, 10-18 cm long, 3-6 cm wide, long-pointed at tip, 

base short-pointed and often with sides curved and unequal, hairless, thick, 

surface, dull light green 

leathery, stiff, shiny or dull dark green upper 

underneath, with many fine parallel side veins nearly at right angle to midvein 

and with vein very near edge, aromatic, with spicy resinous odor (when 

crushed) and taste. Juvenile leaves opposite for 3-5 pairs, broadly lance-shaped 

long, 5-7 cm wide, light green, thick. 

or narrowly ovate, 7.5-11 cm 

Flower clusters(umbels) single at leaf base, to 6 cm long including flattened 

Flowers 5-10, equally short-stalked, large, 3 cm across. Buds 

stalk of 2-3 cm. 

12-20 mm long, 7-10 mm wide, with long conical or bell-shaped 

pear-shaped, 

narrow, conical, pointed lid. Stamens many, 

base (hypanthiuml and long, 

or cream-colored, about 12 mm long, anthers 

threadlike, spreading, white 

large oblong gland. Pistil with inferior 3-4-celle.d ovary and 

oblong with 

straight, stout style. 

Fruits or seed capsules several in rounded cluster, stalked, large bell-shaped 

or cuplike, 12-15 mm long, 10-12 mm wide, with flattened or sunken disk, nar- 

148 


Fig. 71. Eucalyptus robusta IMueller 1880). 

/ i 

row rim, opening by 3-4 sunken pores, remaining on tree, Seeds tiny, dull light 

brown, 1-2 mm long. 

Sapwood light brown and heartwood salmon to light reddish-brown, often 

EUCALYPTUS ROBUSTA 

149

Fig. 72, Eucalyptus robusta In southeastern Australia (Hall et al. 1970). 

mottled with brown streaks and patches. Wood moderately hard, moderately 

heavy (sp. gr. 0.51), strong, brittle, stiff, elastic, coarse.textured, fairly straightgrained 

with some interlocked grain. Difficult to season and split but works 

well and takes a good polish. Very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites 

but considered durable in the ground. 

Other Uses 

Although of limited supply in Australia, wood employed for 

general construction, especially for parts in contact with the ground. Also used 

for underground piling, utility poles, fenceposts, in addition to fuel. Is an attractive 

shade tree and ornamental; used also for windbreaks. A good honey 

plant. 

Natural Distribution Southeastern Australia (New South Wales and 

a very narrow coastal strip from sea level to 

southeastern Queensland) in 

about 100 m altitude. 

Introduced into many tropical and subtropical lands around the world. The 

eucalpyt in Hawaiian plantations; in Puerto Rico the best 

most common 

adapted of the species tested. Grown also in southern Florida and coastal 

California. 

Humid subtropical with warm summers, frosts rare 


150 


(5-10) or absent, with high humidity throughout the year. Annual rainfall 

where native 1000-1500 mm, more in summer northward and'uniformly 

distributed southward. Soils where native typically moist heavy clays but also 

light sandy clays and pure sands. Will grow on wider range of soils, however. 

Where native, species found mainly in swamps and on edges of saltwater 

estuaries, usually scattered or in nat oow belts. Trees grow faster on better soils 

of nearby slopes but cannot compete with more vigorous species of the 

eucalyptus mixed forest. 

A natural hybrid between Eucalpytus grandisand Eucalyp- 

Related Species 

tus robusta, known as Eucalyptus grandis var. grandiflora Maid., is a potential 

firewood. These species also hybridize in plantations. 

References 

Hall, Norman, R.D. Johnston, and G. M. Chippendale. 1970. Forest trees of 

3d ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, 

Australia. 

Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 

Forestry and Timber Bureau 

Australia. (map used here). 

Mueller, Ferd. von. 1880. Eucalpytographia. A descriptive atlas of the eucalypts of 

7th decade. Government Printer, 

Australia and the adjoining islands, 

Melbourne, Australia. (unnumb. pl., drawing used here). 

EUJCALYPTUS ROBUSTA 

151

40. Eucalpytussaligna 

Botanical Name Eucalpytus saligna Sm. 

Common Names saligna eucalyptus, flooded-gum eucalyptus, Sidney 

bluegum eucalyptus, saligna-gum, flooded-gum; Sydney bluegum 

(Australia): bluegum (New Zealand). 

Myrtle Family, Myrtaccae 

This important general purpose hardwood and construction timber in 

Australia is classed in the eastern bluegum group. It is commonly mixed with 

other eucalypts, occasionally in pure stands, in valleys, slopes, and ridges. 

In Hawaii it is tile fastest-growing eucalypt. A tree 71 m high is the tallest 

tree in Hawaii and the tallest hardwood in the United States. This species is 

identified by the smooth bluish bark, dull green lance-shaped leaves with 

many scarcely visible, parallel side veins and bell-shaped seed capsules with 

3-5 slightly projecting teeth. This fuelwood species for tropical highlands and 

the humid tropics is mentioned in Firewood Crops under Eucalyptus grandis. 

The two closely related species have been confused and will hybridize. 

Eucalyptus saligna grows naturally on slopes and is suitable for moist cool 

mountains. The closely related species Eucalyptus grandis is found on bottomlands 

and is suitable for moist warm lowlands. 

Description Handsome tall evergreen tree 39-48 m high (sometimes to 55 

m or more), with open, spreading, irregular crown. Trunk 1.2-1.8 m in 

diameter, straight, tall, of good form, half to two-thirds total tree height. Bark 

dull, bluish or greenish-gray, smooth, peeling off slightly and exposing yellow 

layer: on large trunks up to 9 m from base becoming gray-brown, thick, rough, 

furrowed into short narrow ridges or plates, persistent. Inner bark with green 

cap, then whittish, fibrous, bitter. Twigs slender, angled, yellow-green to 

pink. The roots have swellings (lignotubers) near the surface. 

Leaves alternate, on slender, slightly flattened, yellow-green to pink 

leafstalk of 12-25 am, hanging obliquely or horizontal. Blades lance-shaped, 

10-20 cm long, 1.5-3 cm wide, often curved, tapering to long point, shortpointed 

at base, hairless, dull green or dark green upper surface, dull light 

green underneath, with many fine, scarcely visible, straight, parallel side 

veins. Juvenile leaves opposite for 3-4 pairs, short-stalked, lance-shaped, 3-6 

cm long, 2-3 cm wide, thin, slightly wavy, pale green. 

Flower clusters (umbels) single at leaf bases and along twigs, 2-2.5 cm long 

including flattened or angled stalk of I cm. Flowers 3-9, usually 7, equally 

short-stalked or nearly stalkless, 12-19 im across. Buds 8-9 mm long, 4-5 mm 

wide, with conical to bell-shaped base (hypanthium), lid conical and bluntly or 

sharply pointed. Stamens many, threadlike, white, anthers oblong with large 

round gland. Pistil with inferior 3-5-celled ovary and short style. 

Fruitsor seed capsules on short stalk of 6 mm or almost none, slightly bellshaped 

or conical, 5-6 mm long and wide, dark brown, with narrow sunken 

152 


Fig 7 'E. 

srai . .e m ny. ty - 

"" "> 

, ,... ." 

spreding Seed 

'. 

man 

;' 

. .. 

"er 

tn, ,* mm 

:.i-- 

4 ' .,, : 

n,,d" ihtbon 

" 

"-.,\ 

" 

41 ~ 

'' I..: 

Wood light red to reddish-brown, moderately hard, moderately heavy (sp. 

EUCALYPTUS SALIGNA 

153

Fig. 74. Distribution of Eucalyptus saligna in Australia IHall et al. 1970). 

gr. 0.55), coarse-textured, with straight or sometimes wavy grain, strong, stiff, 

tough, moderately durable. Easy to work and finish and takes a good polish. 

Other Uses In addition to fuelwood, this general purpose hardwood used 

for construction, shipbuilding, railroad crossties, furniture, cabinetmaking, 

turnery, veneers. In Australia favored for flooring and steps because it is not 

greasy. Grown elso as an ornamental and shade tree. A good honey plant. 

Natural Distribution Southeastern Australia (New South Wales and 

southeastern Queensland) within 160 km of coast. Altitude from near sea level 

to 300 m or northward to 1000 m. 

Planted in various tropical regions, extensively in Brazil, South Africa, and 

New Zealand. 

Climate and Soils Humid subtropical to warm temperate, frost-free at sea 

level but with frosts at higher altitudes. Annual precipitation 800-1200 mm, 

more in summer northward and uniform southward. Soils heavy derived from 

shales and deep well-drained clays in valleys. 

154 


References 





Mueller, Ferd. von. 1879. Eucalyptographia.A descriptiveatlas of the eucalypts of 

Australia and the adjoining islands, 2d decade. Government Printer, 


EUCALYPTUS SALIGNA 

155

41. Eucalyptus tereticornis 

Botanical Name Euccipytus terelicornus Sm. 

Synonym Eucalyptus umbellata Gaertn.) Doinin j?) 

Common Names forest redgum, bluegum, red irongum, slaty-gum, horncap 

eucalyptus; forest redgum, Queensland bluegum (Australia); Mysoregum 

(India). 


Eucalyptus tercticornis, one oi the eucalypts of greatest latitudinal range, is 

classed in the redgum group. It is recognized by the long hornlike lid of the 

flnwer buds, the shiny green narrowly lance.shaped leaves, and the smooth 

whitish bark. Where native this species usually is in open forests or scattered 

on alluvial flats and stream banks. In cooler and drier areas, it is common on 

alluvial flats with some flooding. In areas of high rainfall, it grows on lower 

slopes of hillsides and in the tropics up to mountain slopes and plateaus. 

Promising hybrids have been developed. The specific name from Latin 

meaning "long," "round" and "horn," refers to the very long hornlike lid (operculuml 

of the bud. This is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions and 

the humid tropics and tropical highlands. 

Description Large evergreen tree 18.30 m hirh (sometimes to 46 m in 

Australia), with straight stout trunk 1-1.8 m in di&.neter, large and open or 

fairly dense crown, variable. Bark smooth, whitish, peeling i%irregu',ar th'n 

sheets or large flakes, becoming mottled with white, gray, or bluish patches, 

often with some rough, dark gray bark at base. Twigs reddish or yellowishgreen. 

Leaves alternate, drooping on slender leafstalk, narrowly lance-shaped, 

10-21 cm long, 12.25 mm wide, often curved, long-pointed at tip and shortpointed 

at base, slightly thickened, shiny green on both surfaces, hairless, 

with many fine side veins at an angle and distinct vein along edge. Juvenile 

leaves opposite for 2.3 pairs, with slender leafstalks, elliptical to broadly lanceshaped, 

6.16 cm long, 5.6 cm wide, green. 

Flower clusters (umbels) single at leaf base, 2.5-3 cm long including 

rounded stalk of I cm. Flowers 5-12, spreading on equal stalks on 5-7 mm. 

Buds 12-16 mnm long, 5 mm wide, with half.round base (hypanthium) and 

long, narrow, conical lid suggesting a horn. Stamens many, threadlike, white, 

10-12 mm long, anthers small and elliptical, with small round gland. Pistil 

with inferior 4-5-celled ovary and long stout style. 

Fruitsor seed capsules several, half-round or top-shaped, 6-9 mm long, 8-10 

mm in diameter, with raised disk and prominent rim, opening with 4-5 raised 

teeth curving inward. Seeds many, tiny, 1 mm long and broad, shiny dark 

brown to black. 

Wood r,ddish, hard heavy (sp. gr. 0.75-1.05) with uniform texture and 

interlocked grain, strong, durable, difficult to work. 

156 

COMMON FUELWoOD CROPS

Fig. 75. Eucalyptus tereticornis (Mueller 1883). 

Other Uses In addition to firewood and charcoal, used for ptilpwood, 

fiberboard, particle-board; suitable for piling. Widely used in Australia for 

general construction; also mining timbers, railroad crossties, fenceposts. 

EUCALYPTUS TERETICORNIS 

157

Fig. 76. Distribut~on of Eucalyptus tereticornisin Australia (Hall et al. 19701. 

One of the most widely grown 

Planted also for shade and shelterbelts. 

eucalypts in India, for pulpwood as well as construction timber. 

Victoria 

Natural Distribution Australia, along eastern coast from 

through New South Wales to northeastern Queensland, a distance of 3000 km. 

Also north to New Guinea, including drier parts of Papua. North-south range 

extends over 32 degrees of latitude. Altitude is from near sea level to 900 m, 

in New Guinea. Introduced into various tropical 

southward and to 1800 m, 

regions; does well in South Africa. 

Found in wide range of climates from warm temperate, 


humid with rainfall in winter or uniform, to tropical with marked summer 

maximum. Frosts 1-15 a year in cooler parts and none in warmer latitudes. Anmm 

or more with dry season varying up to 7 months. 

nual rainfall 500-1500 

and 

Soils fairly rich, moist (but not water-logged) alluvial, sandy Ioams, 

gravels, but not acidic soils. 

References 

Hall, Norman, R. D. johaston, and G. M. Chippendale. 1970. Forest trees of 

ed. Illus. 333 pp. Australian Department of Agriculture, 

Australia. 3d 

158 




Mueller, Ferd. von. 1883. Eucalyptographia.A descriptive atlas of the eucalpyts 



EUCALYPTUS TERETICORNIS 

159

42. Gleditsia triacanthos 

Gleditsia triacanthosL. 


Common Names honeylocust, sweet-locust, thorny-locust (English); 

soetpeul, driedoring, sprinkaan (South Africa); acacia negra (Argentina). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Caesalpinioideae) 

included under tropical 

Honeylocust of the eastern United States is 

highlands and arid and semiarid regions in the Master List of Firewood Species 

in FirewoodCrops and is added here. This hardy temperate zone tree has been 

introduced into many countries and produces good firewood. Honeylocust 

generally is scattered in deciduous forests with oaks (Quercusspp.) and other 

hardwoods and is not a major component of forest stands. This intolerant tree 

becomes established in openings. It is a pioneer in rocky limestone glades and 

in strip-mine spoil-banks. 

Propagation is mainly by seeds but can be vegetative from hardwood, greenwood, 

and root cuttings. Plants sprout from roots and produce many suckers. 

Growth is fairly rapid to miturity in about 120 years. The roots do not produce 

nodules, as do most tree legumes. Varieties with abundant large pods high in 

sugar content have been selected and can be propagated vegetatively. 

This species is readily identified by the very large branched spines on the 

absent in a commonly planted thornless variety. 

trunk; however, these are 

The leaves are both pinnately and bipinnately compound with many oblong, 

are very long, flat, dark 

shiny green leaflets having fine wavy edges. There 

brown pods that are slightly curved and twisted; the pulp is sweetish. 

Gleditsia in the Latin name honors Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch (1718-86), a 

about 14 tree species of wide distribution, in- 

German botanist. There are 

1 in South America. The specific name 

cluding 2 in the United States and 

mean-, "3-thorn." 

Description Large, spiny, deciduous tree 24 m high and 50-90 cm in trunk 

diameter (sometimes larger) with open flattened crown and large, stout, shiny, 

slightly flattened, dark brown spines, usually branched and located on trunk, 

narrow 

branches, and twigs. Bark gray-brown or black, fissured into long, 

scaly ridges, with branched spines sometimes 20 cm or more in length. Twigs 

slender, slightly zigzag and swollen at nodes, shiny brown, hairless, bearing 

stout, flattened, long-pointed spines, often 3-forked. Buds few together, partly 

hidden, tiny, hairless; no end bud. 

Leaves alternate, both pinnately and bipinnately compound, 10-20 cm long, 

axes or forks. Leaflets many, paired, 

the axis often with 3-6 pairs of side 

long, blunt or rounded at tip, rounded and unequalstalkless, 

oblong, 1-4 cm 

sided at base, with finely wavy edges, shiny green and hairless upper surface, 

dull yellow-green and nearly hairless underneath turning yellow before falling. 

Flowers many in short clusters (racemes) 5-8 cm long at leaf bases, small, 1 

160 


Fig. 77. Gledilsia triacanlhos(Illick 1925, pl. 95). 

GLEDITSIA TRIACANTHOS 

161

Fig. 78, Distribution of Gleditsia triacanthos in eastern Unitdd States (Fowells 1965). 

5 

long and wide, greenish-yellow, finely hairy, with bell-shaped base, 

cm 

different twigs and 

sepals, and 5 narrow petals. mostly male and female on 

trees. Male flowers have 610 stamens; female flowers have pistil with long 

hairy ovary, many ovules, short style, and enlarged stigma. 

Pods Ilegumes) few, very long, flat, 15-45 cm long, 3-5 cm wide, dark 

brown, hairy, slightly curved and twisted, thick-walled, not opening, shedding 

I cm long, elliptical, flatbeanlike, 

about 

late after maturity. Seeds many, 

tened, shiny dark brown, in sweetish edible pulp. 

Wood light red to reddish-brown with wide yellowish sapwood, heavy (sp. 

gr. 0.67), very hard, coarse-textured, ring-porous with conspicuous growth 

rings, strong, stiff, moderately resistant to decay, durabie in the ground. Good 

for firewood and worthy of testing in tropical highlands. 

interior trim, 

Used for fenceposts, construction, furniture, 

Other Uses 

vehicles (especially wagon wheels), railroad crossties. 

hedges. 

ornament, shelterbelts, windbreaks, 

Widely planted for shade, 

Valuable for erosion control, such as after strip mining, because of the stout 

and very branched laterals. Nutritious pulp of the pods, sweet like 

taproot 

162 


honey, consumed by livestock and wildlife; would serve as human food in 

emergency. Livestock browse foliage. 

Natural Distribution Eastern half of the United States except northern 

and eastern borders. Planted and naturalized beyond in eastern United States 

and introduced also in the western part. Altitude from sea level to about 750 

m, sometimes to 1500 ill. 

Introduced widely in temperate and subtropical regions, iincluding South 

America south to Argentina, Mediterranean Basin of Europe (naturalized), 

eastern and central Asia, Africa south to South Africa, and Australia. 

Climate and Soils Moist or humid temperate with hot summers and cold 

winters. Classed in plant hardiness zone 4, with average annual minimum 

as -29' to -34 0C and frost-free period of 140 to 340 

temperatures as low 

days. Annual precipitation varying from more than 1750 mm to 500 mm 

toward northwest, about half in growing season, and including snowfall from 

none 

to 100 cm. Soils deep sandy loams of stream valleys and flood plains, 

clays, soils of limestone origin, and other types. Species tolerant of alkali and 

slight salinity and grows well on neutral soils. 

References 

Fowells, H. A. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. Illus. Agriculture 

271. Forest Service, United States Department of 

Handbook No. 

Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. (Gleditsia triacanthos, pp. 197-201, map 

used lere). 

Illick, Joseph S. 1925. Pennsylvania trees. 5th ed., Illus. 237 pp. Pennsylvania 

Department of Forests and Waters Bulletin 11. (Gleditsia triacanthos, pp. 185, 

pi. 95, drawing used here). 

National Academy of Sciences. 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the 

future. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA. 

GLEDITSIA TRIACANTHOS 

163

43. Gliricidia sepium 

Botanical Name Gliricidia sepiun (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. 

Synonym Gliricidia naculata (H.B.K.) Steud. 

Common Names mother-of-cocoa, Mexican-lilac (English); mata-rat6n, 

madre de cocao, madera negra, madriado (Spanish); pifi6n de Cuba 

(Dominican Republic); pifi6n amoroso (Cuba); cacahuananche (Mexico); 

bala, balo (Panama); quick-stick (Jamaica, Guyana); Nicaragua cocoa-shade 

(Trinidad); lilas 6tranger (Haiti); yerba di tonka (Dutch West Indies); 

kakawate (Philippines); gamal (Indonesia). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Faboideac or Papilionoideae) 

Best known as a living fence, this tropical American small tree is also a 

fuelwood species for the humid tropics. It is common in many parts of Central 

America in plains, foothills, and lower mountain slopes in seasonal forests 

with a dry season. The trees are easily prupagated by seeds and by cuttings as 

large as fenceposts 2 m long. Giowth is rapid. The species is not frost-hardy. 

The species is recognized by the pinnately compound leaves with 7-17 elliptical 

leaflets that are paired except at the end. It has narrow, flat, blackish pods 

and numerous showy, pea-shaped, whitish-pink or purplish-tinged flowers on 

old leafless branches or on the back of leaves. 

As the common name "mata-rat6n" (mouse killer) suggests, the toxic seeds, 

bark, leaves, and roots serve to poison rats, mice, and other rodents. 

The genus Gliricidiahas about 10 species of trees in tropical American including 

the West Indies. The Latin scientific names indicate its uses, the 

generic meaning "mouse killer," and the specific, "of hedges." 

Description Small deciduous tree to 10 n)high, with short trunk 20-30 cm 

in diameter, often twisted, and irregular spreading crown of thin foliage. Bark 

gray or light brown, smoothish to slightly fissured; inner bark whitish. Young 

twigs light green and finely hairy: older twigs light brown. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, 15-40 cm long, with slender, yellowgreen, 

finely hairy axis. Leaflets 7-17, paired except at end, elliptical or lanceshaped, 

3-6 cm long, 1.5-3 cm wide, short- to long-pointed at tip, rounded or 

short-pointed at base, not toothed on edges, thin, dull green and hai,'less upper 

surface, gray-green and often slightly hairy underneath; leaflet-stalks 5 mm 

long, hairy. 

Flowerclusters (racemes) numerous along old branches when leafless or on 

back of leaves, 5-12 cm long, unbranched. Flowers many, showy, pea-shaped, 

about 2 cm long, on slender stalks. Calyx bell-shaped, light green tinged with 

red, 5-toothed; corolla pea-shaped or butterfly-shaped, consisting of 5 whitishpink 

or purplish-tinged petals, broad standard turned back and yellowish near 

base, 2 oblong curved wings, and 2 united petals forming keel; 10 whitish 

stamens, 9 united in a tube and 1separate; and pistil with stalked, narrow, red 

ovary and whitish bent style. 

164 


Fig. 79. Gliricidia sepium Ilittle and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 851. 

Pods (legumesl narrow, flat, 10-15 cm long, 12-15 mm wide, yellow-green 

when immature, turning blackish, short-stalked, short-pointed, splitting open 

at maturity. Seeds 3-8, beanlike, elliptical, shiny, blackish, 10 mm long. 

Wood with light brown sapwood and dark brown heartwood, turning red- 

GLIRICIDIA SEPIUNI 

165

dish on exposure, hard, heavy, strong, coarse-textured, with irregular grain, 

pretty. Not easy to work but takes a good polish. Resistant to termites and 

decay. Is good fuelwood and serves for curing tobacco and for charcoal. 

Other Uses Used for posts, posts of rural houses, railway crossties, heavy 

construction. Suitable also for furniture, farm implements, tool handles, small 

articles. 

Commonly used as living fences. Posts set promptly after cutting generally 

sprout and take root, forming branches and lasting indefinitely. Can be 

trimmed frequently, and the branches used for green manure and cattle forage 

as well as firewood. Trees also used in firebreaks and windbreaks and for 

reforestation of denuded watersheds. 

Trees serve aho for shade in ,offee and cacao or cocoa plantations, for sup. 

port of vanilla and black pepper vines, and for shade and ornament. The 

names 'niadre de cacao" and "mother-of-cocoa," applied in some areas, indicate 

their use as shade trees in cacao plantittionS. These legumes have root nodules 

containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which enrich the soil. 

Foliage browsed by cattle but toxic to horses and most other animals. In a 

few countries flowers eaten fried or boiled, though they may be poisonous 

raw. Leaves reportedly can hasten ripening of bananas. The flowers are a 

source of honey. Freshly crushed leaves used as poultices in home remedies. 

Natural Distribution From Mexico through Central America to Colombia, 

Venezuela, and Guianas in northern South America. Altitude from sea 

level to about 1600 in, mainly below 500 in. 

Planted also in southern Florida and in South America south to Brazil; 

becoming naturalized in West Indies. Introduced also in Old World tropics, including 

Africa, southern Asia, Indonesia. Brought to the Philippines by the 

Spanish in the seventeenth century and now thoroughly naturalized. 

Climate and Soils Hlumid tropical, with no frosts. Annual rainfall 

1500-2300 mm and above, mostly with a dry season. Soils various, moist or 

dry, including eroded, sand dunes, and limestone. 

Reference 


Rico and the Virgin Islands. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Service, 


(Gliricidiasepium, pp. 196-198, drawing used here). 

166 


44. Gmelina arborea 

Botanical Name Gnuelina arborea Roxb. 

Common Names gmelina (pronounced mie-EYE-na, English): melina (pronounced 

me-LEE-na, Spanish); yemane (Burmese and international); gainbhar, 

gumhar, kunihar (India); gamar (Bangladesh); etdemata (Sri Lanka); 

bulang (Malaya): bushbeech (Malaysia). 

Verbena Family, Verbenaceae 

Gnielina has become well known as a very fast-growing tree for arid and 

It can also be grown in plantations in humid tropical 


lowlands. Thus, it is a promising fuelwood crop. Its silviculture iswell known, 

and its seeds are widely available. It can be propagated by the abundant seeds, 

coppice well and sprout 

by cuttings, or by budding or grafting. The trees 

stumps. Thus, gmelina is especially promising as a 

vigorously from cut 

fuelwood crop for plantations in humid lowland tropics, because it can be 

established easily and cheaply and regenerates well from both sprouts and 

seed. 

Because of international interest, the FAO Planel on Forest Gene Resources 

has included this species as one of top priority in the list of forest trees whose 

gene resources need exploration, utilization, and conservation. A provenance 

collection of seed samples from widely scattered areas indicates the genetical 

variation and the best seed sources for plantations in different environments. 

A large scale plantation was made at Jarilandia on Rio Jar, in Brazil's 

Amazon Basin, by Daniel K. Ludwig. Ile planned to grow Gnueina on a 6-or 

7-year rotation for pulpwood with 3 coppices before replanting. Recent reports 

not been very successful and that other tree 

indicate that the project has 

species are being grown. 

The genus Ginelina contains about 35 species of trees and shrubs, most in 

tropical eastern Asia, Indomalaysia, and Australia, and 2 in Africa. It was 

named for Johann Georg Gmelin 11709-55), a German botanist. Tile specific 

name from Latin means "treelike." 

This species is easily recognized by the large ovate, opposite leaves with 3 or 

5 main veins, clusters of many large, trumpet-shaped, orange-yellow flowers, 

and egg-shaped, orange-yellow fruits. 

Description Medium to large deciduous tiee 12-30 ni high and 60-100 cm 

in trunk diameter, of very rapid growth. Grows in the open with tapered trunk 

Bark light gray or grayoften 

bent, large low branches, and broad crown. 

yellow, smooth, thin, somewhat corking, becoming brown and rough; inner 

bark mottled, turning brown quickly upon exposure. Young lwigs, leafstalks, 

and lower leaf surfaces yellow-brown, softly hairy. Twigs stout, often slightly 

4-angled. 

Leaves opposite, broadly ovate and slightly heart-shaped, mostly large, 10-20 

cm long, 7-13 cm wide, base with 2-4 glands bencath and often notched, tapered 

GMELINA ARBOREA 

167

% L 

,i, 2.5 

pairs of side veins, upper surface green and becoming hairless or nearly so, 

underneath velvety with yellow-brown hairs. Leafstalks 5-12 cm long, hairy. 

168 

COMMION FUELWOOD CROPS 

~~'TN

A. IMAP 

% % 


. '. GMELINA ARBOREA, 

f 

*~ 

. TOgN 

*s Bs E, T-,.. Ronu. 

ARABIAN 

SEA 

' R AJPUT NA / t. 

g~m014 

- A 

AE& MI IINV 0BHAR$~? 

7> AND CENAL 

4NBA 

/s 

BAY AY 

O 

BENGAL 

p Oft &1AOSA6 Andaman 

lands IPoaV SLAM 

MUM 0 

Nicobare 

C0.0LV Island$ III 

Fig. 81. Distribution of Ginlinu orborea in India (Pearson and Brown 

O 

1932). 

Flower clusters (panicled cymes) upright at ends of twigs, large, 15-30 cm 

long, branched, densely hairy, when trees are leafless or with young leaves. 

Flowers many, short-stalked, nodding, large, 4 cm long, densely hairy. Calyx 

bell-shaped, 5 mm long, 5-toothed; corolla trumpet-shaped or obliquely 

funnel-shaped, swollen on side, bright orange-yellow or brownish-yellow, 

with short narrow tube, 2-lipped with 5 irregular or unequal spreading lobes 

having wavy edges: stamens 4 in 2 pairs inserted near base of tube and extending 

beyond; and pistil with elliptical 4-celled ovary having I ovule in each 

cell, slender curved style, and slignia often slightly 2-.4-forked 

Fruits (drupes) abundant, egg-shaped or pea'-sha d. 2-2.5 cm long, 

smooth, becoming orange-yellow, pulpy, wilh large egg-shaped stone, having 

1-4 cells. Seeds 1-4 within stone. 

I'ood light yellowish-brown or straw-colored, heartwood not distinct, very 

lightweight to lightweight isp. gr. 0).42-0.(I4). medium- to coarse-textured, 

more or less ring-porous with distinct growth rings: moderately hard, strong, 

durable, resistant to termites, seasons well. saws and w(rks well, and takes a 

good polish. 

A good firewood. Charcoal burns well without smoke but leaves amounts of 

ash. Used also for tobacco curing. 

Other Uses A valuable forest tree, classed as one of the best utility timbers 

in the tropics. Used for particle board, plywood core stock, mine props, 

GNMILINA ARBOREA 

169

matches, and sawtimber for light construction, general carpentry, boxes, and 

furniture. Also orantental work, carriages, carving, musical instiuments. 

Pulpwood produces paper with properties superior to most hardwoods. 

Trees often cultivated as ornamentals and for shade along streets. Ilighquility 

h.ne)y produced fron the almindatnt flowers. Roots, bark, fruits, and 

sap from young leaves have servcd in home remedies. Bittersweet ripe fruits 

formerly c.ten by people. Cattle browse fohliage and ark of young trees and 

havi" destr vi-'I sott v'plitations. Dler alIso foid of foliage. .eaves can be 

htl.steul. for fodder. 

Nailumal l)istrihutlon N,itive fron Il dia. Nepal. Pakistan, Bangladesh. Sri 

I.aliIka. antd hurma IIrough Sottheast Asia to Vielmt n ald southern China and 

Malaysia. Allitude till to 1000( in. 

Ihtr ldtile iii naim, tropical couantriecs. Comitt i plaitations htthcaI found main. 

ly in Brazil. Senegal. Gatbia. Sierra L.eone. Ivo y Coast, Nigeria, Malawi. 

Malavsia. and tIe I'hilippi lies; plaitnted for fuelwood i,other countries. 

('lim1te and Soils Ilimid tropical. scasinial or imtonsonon with long dry 

season. "elttpe'lra ttres vnry from'i hot to slighlIy above freezing. Ainu rainfall 

where phintcd 75t-50 .tl) n1 with a(dry selsoitas hlg as 6-7 imtonths. Soils 

raitnging wid'ly frot acid to calcareotis foamns, and lotrit's; n noist well 

drained alluivitlm be.t. 

Usually found initix:d itoist deciduous forests, especially valleys, also extendiitg 

into seiiiievergreen aid dry decidtous forests. A pioneer shade 

intoleranitt species. 

Beferences 

Ieddoit e, 1l. Ii. 1809-74. The flora .sylu'atica ,'or soulhert India, 2 vols. Illus. 

G,'elia ,rlsr,'la. pl. 253. drawing used here). 

Lanmb. A. F. A. 198i. (;,m'liili arlrea. FIi ri,.otvi, tii,,er ire's of 1te lowland 

tprfi,,% Ilhs. 1 pp. Coittmonuwealtlh Forestry Institutle, Oxford, England. 

in iish Iralsltiiat: 'spect'i's itaderables de crecimitylnto rlipido en I Tierra 

Baja l'ropialI. (G-,'Ijia arlsir,',n.tifii titI.'re.sl I.atim, nt'ric'io de [i. 

v,.ti,,, rl v '0% , :a' ,vli . HIIt, : let ili,,ifico. 33i.31: 21-25.1 

I'en rs'1 It. S.. and It.1'. Browni. 1932. ('u1nercill tlhers of India. Illus. 

'.;iiverinenit o(lilia. Central Ittblicalti Braich, Calcutta. lGmelina or. 

Iiwas. pp. 799.80.3. mlp used here). 

t710 


45. Grevillea robusta 

Botanical Name Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. 

Common Names silky-oak, grevillea, silk-wak (English); southern silky-oak 

(Australia); grcvilea, roble de sedir, roble aostraliano (Spanish); carvalho 

sedosa (Brazil): mwangati (Tanzania); bahekar, bekkar (Pakistan). 

Protea F'amily, Proteaccae 

This handsone tree, native of Australia, has showy yellowish flowers and 

fernlike leaves that are silky and whitish on lowc r surfaces. GrevUllea, a large 

genus of about 190 species of shrubs and trees of Australia, Malaysia, and 

nearby islands, was dedicated to the Rt. Hon. Charles Francis Greville 

(1747.1809), a nineralogist and patron of botany and a founder of the Royal 

Horticultural Society of London. The specific name "robust" is appropriate for 

the largest tree among mostly shrubby species. The common name "oak" refers 

Iathe resemblance to that wood, while "silky"describes the lower leaf surface 

and freshly split wood. 

This species is fast-growing, cold-hardy, and drought-retsistant. It is easily 

propagated from the quantities of seeds and regenerates naturally, r.tning 

wild as an undesirable weed. It is widely planted fo timber and shade and 

could be "aluable for firewood. This is a fuelwood for the tropical highlands 

and the humid tropics. 

Desciiption Deciduous meed;un to large tree 12-20 mllhigh (sometim',s to 

30 mor niore), with straight trunk 30-90 cm in diameter and many branches. 

Bark light to dark gray, rough and thick with many deep furrows, on branches 

gray and smooth: inner bark with brownish layer and whitish within, fibrous, 

slightly bitter. Twigs stout, angled, with fine gtay pressed hairs. 

Leaves alternate, fernlike, pinnately conpound (almost bipinnately), 15-30 

cin long, with 11-21 pairs of side axes pinna.) 4-9 cn long, deeply divided into 

narrow long-pointed lobes 6-12 nmn wide. edges turned under, slightly 

thickened, upper surface shiny dark green and hairless, underneath silky with 

whitish or ash-colored hairs. 

Flowerclusters (racenwsl, 7.5-18 ci long, inbranched, arising iostly fron 

trunk, along twigs back of leaves, and at teaf bases. Flowers showy. yellowish, 

nimerous, paired oil long slender stalks if1-2 cin, crowded on I side of 

slender stiff axis. They are coiposed of 4 narrow yellow or orange sepals 12 

nn long, curved downward, no petals, 4 stalkless stanens inserted on sepals 

ant opposite theni, and pistil with stalk, ovary, and long. threadlike, curved 

style. .nlarged sligna held in tilebud until pollen is shed, while the style 

follrms a loop, then straightens out. 

I"ruits podlike ifolliclesl. broad, slightly flattened tboat-shapedl, 2 cm long. 

black, with long slender stalk and long, threadlike, curved style, splitting open 

oln Iside, remnaining attached. Seeds I or 2,10.13 nni long. elliptical, flattened 

witi :ing all around, brown. 

GRi'VIII.EA IIOiItlSTA 

171

Fig. 82. Grevillea robusta ILittle ct al. 1974. fig. 302). 

Wood pale pinkish-brown with grayish-white sapwood, attractive because 

of the prominent broad rays. resembling oak, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.57), 

silky in appearance. strong, tough, elastic. Not resistant to decay or dry-wood 

172 


termites. Wood used locally for fuel. Plantation trees could serve for firewood. 

Other Uses Rated as one of tile best woods in all-around machinability. 

However, sawdust causes dermatitis in some fair-skinned persons. Handsome 

wood utilized for cabinetmaking, furniture, paneling, interiors, parquetry, 

turning. Also railroad crossties, plywood paneling, boxes. Suitable for face 

veneer and paper pulp. 

Widely planted for ornament and shade along streets and highways and as 

shade in coffee and tea plantations. Also grown in forest plantations for the 

valuable wood. An important honey plant. A gum exudes from tile trunk. 

Northward in temperate climates, the decorative fernlike plants can be raised 

indoors in pots. 

Natural Distribution Native to subtropical areas of eastern Australia in 

New South Wales and Queensland from the coast inland to about 160 km. 

Widely introduced and naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the 

world. Grown for shade or timber in many countries. Planted in the United 

States in southern Florida, Arizona, California, Hawaii. 

Climate and Soils Where native humid subtropical with annual rainfall 

of 700-1500 mam, mostly in sunner. Has been introduced into areas with annual 

rainfall as low as 400-600 mm and 6-8 dry months or as high as 2500 mm 

and at altitudes from sea level to 2300 im. Mature trees can withstand occasional 

light frosts down to - 10°C. Soils many types including sandy, loams, 

and acid. 

Reference 


of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands,vol. 2. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 


DC., USA. (Grevillea robusta, pp. 138-139, drawing used here). 

GREVILLEA ROBUSTA 

173

46. Guazuma ulmifolia 

Botanical Name Guazurna uhnifolia Lam. 

Synonym Guazuina tomentosa H.B.K. 

Common Names guAcima, guicirno, gudzuma, hudslmo (Spanish); caulote, 

cablote (Central America); guacimillo (Nicaragua); bay.cedar (Belize); West- 

Indian elm (Trinidad); jacocalalu (Virgin Islands); bois d'orme, bois de hetre 

(French); goeaazoema (Dutch West Indies); mutamba (Brazil); nipaltuntha 

(India). 

Chocolate Family, Sterculiaceae 

GuAcima is one of the most common trees in seasonal or dry forests within 

its native range throughout the humid tropics of the Americas. It is classed as 

an excellent fuel but is seldom cultivated. Gudcima is common in openings, 

clearings, pastures, along stream banks, and in secondary forests of disturbed 

areas. This hardy species grows rapidly and requires light. The seeds are scattered 

by wildlife and livestock, and the trees appear frequently along cattle 

trails. It is easily recogniwd by the 2 rows of finely saw-toothed ovate leaves 

having 3 main veins, the many small brownish-yellow flowers, and the round 

to elliptical, ver, warty, hard, black fruits. 

This variable species has differences in the shape and hairiness of the leaves 

and in the shape of the seed capsules and their method of opening. Trees in 

moist areas have nearly hairless foliage (rusty brown hairs, if present). Those 

in dry areas have light gray, densely hairy foliage and formerly were separated 

as a different species (Guaz.u na tomentosa 1I.B.K.). 

Guazurna has 3species cf trees, kll in tropical America. The generic name of 

American Indian origin has been adapted in Spanish with different spellings. 

The specific name means "with leaves lile Ulmus (elm)." 

Description Small to medium-sized tree, evergreen except in areas with 

long dry season, to 15 in high, sometimes larger, with trunk 30-60 cm in 

diameter and spreading rounded crown of long horizontal or slightly drooping 

slightly 

branches. lMArk gray or brown, becoming furrowed and rough or 

shaggy; inner bark light brown, fibrous, slightly bitter. Twigs covered with 

tiny rusty brown or light gray star-shaped hairs when young, becoming dark 

brown, long and slender. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows in flattened arrangement, ovate to lance-shaped, 

6-13 cm long, 2.5-6 cm wide, long-pointed, finely saw-toothed, with 3 or 

or no!ched unequal-sided base, thin, 

sometimes 5 main veins from rounded 

nearly hairless or sometimes densely hairy, green upper surface, paler underneath, 

at night hanging vertically. Leafstalks slender, 6-12 mm long, covered 

with tiny star-shaped hairs. 

Flowerclusters (panicles) branched, 2.5-5 cm long at base of leaves. Flowers 

many, short-stalked, small, brownish-yellow, with 5 parts, about I cm long 

and half us broad, spreading, slightly fragrant. Calyx 2-3-lobed, with rusty 

174 


Fig. 83. Guazum= ulrnifolia (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

brown or light gray hairs, turned back and then greenish; 5yellow petals each 

2-forked; a yellowish stamen column with about 15 anthers surrounding the 

pistil, which has hairy, light green, 5-celled ovary, style, and 5 united stigmas. 

Fruils (capsules) round to elliptical, very warty, hard, black, 15-25 mm long, 

5-celled, opening at tip or irregularly by pores. Seeds many, egg-shaped, 3 mm 

long, gray. 

Wood light brown sapwood and pinkish to brownish sapwood, moderately 

hard, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.55-0.58), easily worked. Not durable and 

very suscept.e to attack by dry-wood termites. Regarded as excellent fuel. In 

the West Indies has served also for charcoal and formerly charcoal in gunpowc 

'. 

Other Uses Used for posts, general carpentry, interior construction, furniture, 

barrel staves, boxes, crates, tool handles, gunstocks. 

Immature fruits and foliage browsed by horses and cattle, especially in dry 

periods; fruits fed to hogs. If eaten to excess, however, fruits may cause intestinal 

obstruction in cattle. 

Mucilaginous green fruits edible fresh or cooked. Mature fruits contain a 

small amount of sweet edible pulp. Flowers a souice of honey. Rope and twine 

GUAZUMA ULMIFOLIA 

175

Fig. 84. Presence of Guazuma uhnifolia in Puerto Rican municipalities {with numbers) 

(Little and Wadsworth 19641. 

made from the tough fibrous bark and young stems. Different plant parts 

employed in home medicines. Trees serve as shade in pastures and along city 

streets and could be grown in plantations for fuelwood. 

Natural Distribution Tropical America from Mexico south to Peru, 

northern Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil. Also through West Indies except 

Bahamas. Altitude from sea level to 1200 m. Not widely introduced or 

cultivated outside the native range. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid or moist seasonal tropical with about 

700-1500 mm annual rainfall and 4-7-month dry season. Soils wide ranging. 

Reference 




(Guazuma ulmifolia, pp. 338.340, drawing, map used here). 

176 


47. Haloxylon aphyllum 

Botanical Name Haloxylon aphyllum (Minkw.) Ilin 

Synonyms Haloxylon ammondendron (C. A. Mey.) Bunge var. aphyllim 

Minkw., Arthrophyturm aphylluin (Minkw.) Litw., Arthrophytum haloxylon 

Litw. 

Common Names black saksaul; saksaul, saksaul cheryni (Russian, spelled 

also saksaoul or saxaul; pronounced sik-sI-66ll; odzhar (Turkmeni). 

Goosefoot Family, Chenopodiaceae 

Black snksaul and the next species, white saksaul (Haloxylon persicuni), are 

halophytes, or salt-tolerant plants growing in salt deserts. Often forming pure 

stands, they occupy vast areas in the Soviet Union under severe conditions 

where most trees cannot survive. 

Haloxylon contains 10 species of shrubs and small trees that are halophytes. 

They have green, succulent, jointed stems that are apparently leafless. Haloxylon 

ranges through salt deserts and steppes from the Mediterranean region 

eastward through southern Asia to Mongolia and southwestern China. 

Haloxylon aphyllurn is both a xerophyte and halophyte, being tolerant of 

drought and salt in beth hot and cold deserts. As the leaves are reduced to 

scales, food is manufactut'd in the greenish twigs (cladodes). 

Growth obviously is slow. Year-old seedlings are planted. The taproots grow 

vigorously to as deep as 7 m to locate subsoil moisture. Under favorable conditions 

the trees form an open irregular crown of foliage and begin to bear 

flowers and fruits at 7 years. Life span is 50-70 years (rarely 100). In tests the 

plants have been coppiced at 50 cm height on a 5-year rotation. 

This genus is distinguished by jointed green stems that are freshy or succulent 

and brittle, leaves reduced to tiny green scales, and rounded fruit with 

5wings. The hard, heavy wood, which is almost comparable to coal, isof enormous 

importance for firewood and charcoal. 

The generic name for this species is from Greek words for "salt" and "tree." 

The specific name, meaning "without leaves," refers to the leaves reduced to 

tiny scales. 

Description Small tree 5-8 m high, trunk 20-40 cm in diameter generally 

having large irregular base, often with large branches of same diameter near 

base, with irregular open crown of curved or drooping ribbed branches, 

evergreen but appearing leafless, with deep taproot. Bark dark gray or graybrown, 

very thin, on light gray branches. Branches and twigs (cladodes) cylindrical, 

fleshy or succulent, greenish, hairless, brittle. Young twigs green or 

whitish, 2 mm thick, with rings at nodes. 

Leaves opposite or paired, tiny, scalelike, short, triangular, blunt, united in 

cuplike base. 

Flowers single and stalkless at base of scales on very short twigs at nodes or 

HALOXYLON APHYLLUM 177

VA 

'lb 

. 

242; right, details of vegetative and 

Fig. 85, Ialoxyloii prsicuoiZohary 1966, F0 

0,figs. 9a, 9b). Halox,lon aphyllum, lower right (Il'in 

fruiting twigs ll'in 1936, vol. 6,pl. 

1935, vol. 6, pl. to, fig. 10, detail of vegetative twig). 

joints, tiny, greenish, composed of 5-lobed calyx, no corolla, 5 stamens and 5 

sterile stamens united into tall disk at base, and pistil with ovary and 5 styles. 

Fruits utricles) rounded, 2-2.5 mm in diameter, concave at top, with base of 

178 


HjLXym e 

CaKcay ".. 

.. 

. 

. 

.... 

Fig. 86. Combined distribution of Ilahoxy'lo aphylluni and tlaloxylon persicutn 12. Haloxylon 

atmnodenidroti) (Akad. Nauk, SSSR, Botanich. Inst. 1951, fig. 147). 

style at center, within the enlarged calyx 8-12 mm in diameter of 5 rounded 

membranous brown wings, -seeded. 

Wood with heartwood almost black, very hard, very heavy Isp. gr. 1.02), 

brittle, breaks easily, not splintering. A high-quality fuelwood almost comparable 

to bituminous coal. Reported to produce long-smoldering cinders of 

better quality than white saksaul. Formerly of great importance in Soviet Central 

Asia for charcoal and loconotive fuel as well as firewood. However, with 

general electrification and gasification of populated areas its use now limited. 

Other Uses Foliage browsed by livestock. In the southern regions species 

important as winter forage for camels and sheep. Planted in grasslands to increase 

forage production and for shelterbelts to protect grazing lands. Herbage 

used for potash extraction. 

Has been cultivated on large areas to stabilize deserts and combat wind erosion. 

However, not a pioneer sand stabilizer for planting on moving dunes. 

Central Asia from western China, Mongolia, and 


Soviet Union to Caspian Sea as well as hot deserts of Middle East, Asia Minor, 

North Africa. Mostly at low altitudes in Central Asia. Seldom planted outside 

the native range. 

Arid temperate or desert with temperature extremes 


from birning hot summers at 50 0C to subfreezing winters at -35 0 C.Annual 

low as 100 mm. Soils desert types such as 

precipitation including snow as 

saline sands poor in humus and nutrients and rich in salts (chlorides and 

sulfates). 

HALOXYLON APHYLLUM 

179

References 

Akademiia Nauk SSSR, Botanicheskii Institut. 1951. Derevpai kustarnikiSSSR 

II. Illus. (Halogeton, pp. 564-569, map used here). 

ll'in, M. M. 1936. Floraof the U.S.S.R., vol. 6. (English translation 1970). Illus. 

pp. 239-242 (pl. 10, fig. 10, drawing used here). 

180 

COMMON WOODWOOD CROPS

48. Haloxylon persicum 

Botanical Name Haloxylon persicum Bunge 

Common Names white saksaul; saksaul (Russian, pronounced stk-sd-ool); 

tar-gaz (Pakistan); ak-sazak (Turkmenil. 

Goosefoot Family, Chenopodiaceae 

White saksaul is a halophyte, or salt-tolerant plant, of salt deserts 

widespread in arid regions from Asia Minor to the Soviet Union. This common 

widespread species forms saksaul or Haloxylon woods in pure stands or with 

Haloxylon aphyllum on san.1hills and sand ridges. Together they occupy about 

100 million ha in the Soviet Union. This species is extremely drought-resistant 

and easily established. However, it is less resistant to cold and less salttolerant 

than Haloxylon aphyllui. It lives 20-25 years. 

Like black saksaul, this species is characterized by jointed green stems that 

are fleshy or succulent and brittle, and leaves reduced to tiny scales but longpointed 

instead of blunt. The hard, heavy wood is prized for firewood and 

charcoal. The specific name refers to Persia, now Iran, where this species was 

first noted. Minor varieties differing in leaf shape and fruit have been named. 

Description Shrub or gnarled small tree 1.5-4 in high (sometimes to 7 m) 

with stout trunk 10 cm in diameter, often branching at a height of 1 m or less, 

with irregular open crown of spreading t':anclies, evergreen but appearing 

leafless, with deep taproot. Bark light gray, thin. Branches and twigs 

(cladodes) cylindrical, jointed, fleshy or succulent, greenish, hairless, brittle. 

Young twigs pale green, 1-2 mm thick, with rings at nodes, upright. Older 

twigs whitish, often drooping. 

Leaves opposite or paired, tiny, scalelike, triangular, I mm long, very longor 

short-pointed, united in cuplike base hairy within. 

Flowers single and stalkless at base of scales on very short twigs at nodes or 

joints, tiny, greenish, composed of 5-lobed calyx, no corollr. 5 stamens and 5 

sterile stamens, and pistil with ovary and 5 styles. 

Fruits(utricles) rounded, flattened, 2-2.5 mn in diameter, fleshy, within the 

enlarged calyx 9-12 mm in diameter of 5 rounded membranous brown wings, 

-seeded. 

Wood very heavy (sp. gr. 1.01), brittle, breaks easily, not splintering, 

durable. An excellent fuel and extensively used for making charcoal. Almost 

comparable to bituminous coal: hurns down to long-smoldering cinders. 

Other Uses Produces valuable nutritious forage for camels and sheep in 

southern regions of Soviet Central Asia, particularly in winter. 

Well-developed root system is excellent for sand fixation. Is adapted to sand 

dunes, but moving dunes must be stabilized with grasses first. 

Natural Distribution Asia Minor from Sinai, Israel, and Arabia to Iraq, 

Iran, Afghanistan, Soviet Union, and Mongolia in Central Asia. Mostly at low 

altitudes. Seldom planted outside the native range. 

HALOXYLON PERSICUM 

181

Climate and Soils Arid temperate or desert with annual rainfall as low as 

100 mm. Soils include loose wind.borne sands and dunes as high as 40 m, 

slightly saline soils, and deep soils with moisture at 5 mm or below. 

References 

Win, M. M. 1936. Flora of the U.S.S.R., vol. 6. (English translation 1970). Illus. 

pp. 239-241 (pl. 10, fig. 9 a-c). 

Zohary, Michael. 1966. Flora Palaestina, part 1, Text, Plates. Illus. Israel 

Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem. (Haloxylon persicum, pp. 

166.167, pl. 242, drawing used here). 

182 


49. Inga vera 

Botanical Name hIga vera Wilid. 

Synonym Inga inga (L.) Britton 

Common Nantes inga; guaba, guavo, guami (Spanish)i pois doux. pols doux 

Apaille (French); pan chock, river-koko Uaniaical. 

Legume Family, leguminosae (Mimosoideae) 

The large genus Inlaf, froni the Tupi Indian narne, contains nearly 200 

species of trees in moist tropical and subtropical regions of the New World. 

The genus is easily recognized by the iany threadlike stamens in clustered 

flowers in the subfanily Mimosoideac. and within that subfamily by the 

leaves that are pinnately rather than bipinnately conpound. 

The trees commonly are grown for shade in plantations of coffee and cacao, 

and the wood serves for firewood and charcoal. The trees are easily prop. 

ngated from seed and are fast-growing. This species, whose Latin namne means 

"true" or "genuine," was the first namued in the large genus. Several varations 

originally designated as species have been united as synonyms or subspecies. 

Other species have similar uses for fuel, shade, and edible fruits. This species 

is a fuelwood for tropical highlands and the humid tropics. 

Description Mediuinsized evergreen tree 12-18 n tall, with trunk 30.60 

cm in diameter (sonctines to 20 inand I in in diameter), with very widely 

spreading crown of long branches and thin foliage. Hark gray.brown. 

smoothish but beconing finely fi :,,red; inner bark pinkish to brown. Twigs 

brown, often zigzag, with dense brown hairs when young. 

cin long: axis 6.18 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows, pinnately conpound. 18':) 

nn broad. Leaflets 3.7 pairs. 

cn long, brown, hairy, with a green wing 6.10 

slightly drooping, stalkless, with tiny round gland between cach pair, elliptical 

to oblong, 5.15 cin long, 2.5-7 cni wide. larger fron base toward end. longbase, 

not toothed oiledges- thin and slightly 

pointed at tip an.1 short.pointed ill 

underneath 

convex, slightly hairy especially on veins, upper surface green. 

light green. 

Flower clusters Ispikesl 1.4 at base of leaf or at end of twig, consisting of 

near end of hairy stalk, only I or 2 openl 

several stalkless flowers crowde.d 

daily. Each flower is 6.7.5 cmn long and 7.5 ) cli across, iany threadlike white 

at dawn but soon wills in daylighl. Calyx tubular. 

stamiens, fully expanded 

narrow cylindrical tube about 15 

cylindrical, 5-toothed; corolla conposed of 

mm long and 5 short spreading lobes. greenish-yellow with denste brown 

hairs: nunerous stamnens united into tube inside corolla: pistil with long nar. 

row ovary and very slender style. 

Pods (legulnesl nearly cylindrical, narrow, 0.2(0 etm long. 1.2 cin wide. 

.1-ribbed, with 2 long grooves, slightly curved, densely hairy, brown, with 

calyx albase, not splitting open.. Seed4-4s few. beanlikc. black. in white. 

sweetish, edible pulp. Flowering and fruiting through the year. 

.NGA VERA 

113

Fig. 87. Inga vera (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 64). 

Sapwood whitish, and heartwood pale brown to golden brown with 

longitudinal streaks or patches of darker brown often shaded with green or 

yellow. Wood moderately hard, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.57-0.59), strong, 

tough. Very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites and to decay when in 

contact with the ground. Makes excellent fuel and is used for ;charcoal and 

posts. 

Other Uses Suitable for utility furniture, boxes, crates, light construction, 

general carpentry. A comnon shade tree in plantations of coffee and cacao; a 

184 


Fig. 88. Presence of Inga vera in Puerto Rican municipalities (with numbers) (Little and 

Wadsworth 1964). 

good honey plant. Seeds of this and many other species of Inga enclosed in 

sugary edible pulp. 

Natural Distribution Native in West Indies (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, 

Puerto Rico) and from Mexico south through Central America to Venezuela in 

northern South America. Altitude from sea level to about 1000 m. Often 

cultivated as shade for coffee and cacao within the native range and beyond in 

West Indies and remaining in abandoned plantations. 

Humid tropical with high rainfall. Soils many types in- 


cluding limestone. Where nai'.ve, as in Puerto Rico, sciattered in wet or moist 

tropical forests including coast&al, limestone, and lower mountain types. 

References 

Le6n, Jorge. 1966. Central American and West Indian species of Inga 

(Leguminosae). Annals of the Missouri BotanicalGarden 53: 265-359. 

Little, E1bert L., Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto 

Rico arid tile Virgin Islands. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Service, 


(Inga vera, pp. 154-154, map, drawing used here). 

INGA VERA 

185

50. Leucaena leucocephala 

Botanical Name Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit 

Synonym Leucaena glauca Benth. 

Common Names leucaena, leadtree, wild tamarind, white popinac, jumbiebean, 

tantan, horse tamarind (English); guaje, yaje (Spanish); lino 

(Dominican Republic); aroma blanca (Cuba); zarcilla (Puerto Rico); barba de 

le6n (Guatemala); .-hack-shack (Trinidad); macata (Guadeloupe); tumbarabu 

(Dutch West Inc es); lusina (Tanzania); su-babul, ku-babul (India); ipil-ipil, 

umi (Sri Lanka,; petai belalang (Sabah, Malaysia); lamtora gung, lamtora, 

kemlandingan (Indonesia); ipil-ipil (Philippines); gin-nemu (Okinawa); koahaole 

(Hawaii). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Mimosoideac) 

Leucaena has numerous uses including excellent firewood and charcoal, 

timber, forage, organic fertilizer, reforestation, shade, and ornament. This 

very fast-growing shrub or small tree is apparently native to southeastern 

Mexico but has been widely introduced and naturalized throughout the 

tropics, often spreading as a weed. It is recognized by the bip!nnately compound 

leaves with many small, narrowly oblong, gray-green leaflets, flowers 

in many whitish balls, and many clustered flat dark brown pods. 

The genus Leucaena contains about 10 species of shrubs and trees in tropical 

and subtropical regions, nearly ell in New World; 2 are found as far north as 

the southern border of the United States in Texas. The generic name from 

Greek, "to whiten," and leucocephala, "white-head," both refer to the flowers. 

This species was long known as Leucaena glauca. This is a fuelwood species for 

the humid tropics. 

Description Size differing in varieties, 

from a rounded, very branched 

shrub less than 5 m high to a small or medium-sized slender tree 8-20 m high 

and 10 cm or more in diameter, with irregular spreading crown of gray-green 

foliage. Bark gray or brownish-gray, smooth, with many dots or warts; inner 

bark light green or light brown, slightly bitter. Twigs gray-green and finely 

hairy, becoming brownish-gray. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, 10-20 cm long, axis and 3-10 pairs 

of side axes (pinnae) gray-green with swelling at base, hairless or finely hairy. 

Leaflets 10-20 pairs on each side axis, narrowly oblong or lance-shaped, 8-15 

mm long, less than 3 mm wide, short-pointed at tip, oblique or unequal at 

short-pointed base, thin, gray-green, sligltly paler underneath; each pair 

folding upward together at night. 

Flowei clusters (heads, many whitish balls 1cm across in bud and 2-2.5 cm 

across the "powderpuff" flowers, on stalks of 2-3 cm at ends or sides of twigs. 

Flowers many, narrow, stalkless, 8 mm long, consisting of tubular, greenish- 

186 


)K"' 

&~"V& 

Fig. 89. Leucaena leucocephala (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 65). 

white, hairy 5-toothed calyx less than 2 mm long and 5 narrcw, greenishwhite, 

hairy petals 5 mm long; 10 thread-like white stamens 8 mm long, and 

slender-stalked pistil with narrow, green, hairy ovary and white style. 

Pods (legumes) many, clustered, 10-15 cm long, 1.5-2 cm wide, oblong, narrow, 

flat and thin with raised border, narrowed into stalk at base, shortpointed 

at tip, dark brown, finely hairy, hanging down, splitting open at both 

edges at maturity. Seeds many, beanlike, oblong, flattened, 8 m long, shiny 

brown. Flowering and fruiting nearly throughout year. 

Sapwood light yellow, heartwood yellow-brown to dark brown. Wood hard, 

heavy (sp. gr. 0.7). Makes excellent firewood and charcoal. 

Other Uses New productive varieties cultivated to furnish fuel for electric 

generators, factories, and agricultural processing facilities. Wood of taller 

varieties suitable for construction, roundwood, lumber, pulpwood. 

Important for highly palatable, digestible, protein-rich, nutritious forage for 

beef and dairy cattle, water buffalo, and goats. Oddly, leaves and pods 

poisonous to horses, donkeys, mules, hogs, and rabbits, if eaten solely for long 

periods. These animals become ill and shed their hair; chickens molt their 

feathers. Mimosine, a poisonous chemical, is concentrated in seeds and young 

LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA 

187

of Leucaena leucocephala in Puerto Rican municipalities (with 

Fig. 90. Presence 

numbers) (Little and Wadswurth 1964). 

MEXICO 

USA. 

Fig. 91. Distribution of Leucaena leucocephala in Mexico and Central America (National 

Academy of Sciences 1977). 

leaves. Can be counteracted by adding soluble iron salts to the feed or leached 

by water soaking. 

Leucaena seed is planted by hand or machine. Growth is very fast. The 

stumps coppice readily. This hardy species is tolerant of drought but 

become an undesirable weed. Average annual growth as high as about 25 m 

per ha has been reported. Through intensive research projects, such as those 

in Hawaii, improved varieties for special uses are being developed and propagated. 

This species can restore forest cover by revegetation of watersheds, slopes, 

188 

can 


3

and grasslands denuded through cutting or fire. Soil improved by nitrogen fixation 

on root nodules, green manure, and by the root system, which breaks up 

the soil. 

After softening in boiling water, seeds strung as beads into necklaces, 

bracelets, decorations on hats, and curiosities for tourists. Young pods cooked 

as a vegetable, and seeds prepared as a coffee substitute. Bark and roots 

reportedly employed in home remedies. Bees obtain pollen from. flowers. 

Natural Distribution Native apparently in southeastern Mexico 

(Yucatfn). Widely introduced and naturalized throughout the tropics. In the 

New World from southern Florida and southern Texas (also planted in California) 

south to Chile and Brazil and through the West Indies. In the Old World 

from Africa to southeast Asia, Australia, Philippines, and Pacific Islands to 

Hawaii. Altitude where planted mostly lowlands from sea level to 500 m or 

high as 750 m in Hawaii. In Hawaii, other vegetation crowded out by 

leucaena's widespread dense thickets through the dry lowlands. Thoroughly 

naturalized in roadsides and abandoned pastures in dry coastal regions of 

Puerto Rico. 


Semiarid tropical with frost.free temperatures. Growth 

best where annual rainfall 600-1700 mm. However, the hardy plants can 

spread where rainfall as low as 250 mm. Soils a wide variety from rocky and 

coral to heavy clay. Growth better in neutral or alkaline soils rather than 

acidic. 

References 




(Leucaena glauca, pp. 156-157, drawing, map used here). 

MacLean, Jayne T. 1981. 

Leucaena, the versatile ipil-ipil tree. 1970-1981. 164 

citations. 13 pp. Quick Bibliography Series. NAL-BIBL.-81-25. United States 

Department of Agriculture, National Agricultu:al Library, Beltsville, 

Maryland. 

National Academy of Sciences. 1977. Leucaena:promisingforage and tree crop 

for the tropics. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA. (map 

used here). 

LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA 

189

51. Melaleua quinquenervia 

Botanical Name Melaleuca qiinquenervia (Cav.) S. T. Blake 

Synonym Mela!euca leucadendronauct., non (L.) L. 

Common Names cajeput-tree, paperbark, bottlebrush, white bottlebrush, 

punk-tree (English); broadleaved tea-tree, five-veined paperbark, maouli 

(Australia); cayeputi, cayeput (Spanish); corcho (Costa Rica); cajaputi 

(India); samed (Thailand); kayuputeh (Pen.Malaysia); kajuputih (Indonesia). 


Cajeput-tree has been widely introduced as an ornamental throughout the 

tropics from its native home in eastern Australia and nearby islands. In many 

areas it has spread and has become naturalized as an undesirable weed. 

Where native, this species is common in open grassland in coastal savanna 

belt, especially along river banks and edges of tidal waters. It forms pure 

stands in swampy soils and is frequent on hillsides having ground water near 

the surface. 

Where introduced, the trees become common along highways, fencerows, 

ditches, swamps, :nd fields. The thick bark provides resistance to fires. The 

brittle branches are broken by strong winds. Sprouts are abundantly produced 

from stumps and roots. It is propagated from seeds or cuttings. 

The wood is an excellent fuei and is available where eradication is desired; 

plantations are not needed. This species (uaider its former name of Melaleuca 

ieucadendron)was named as a fuelwood iii all three climate categories of the 

Master List of Firewood Species in Firewood Crops. Thus, a description and 

illustration of this species are added here. 

This species is easily recognized by the odd whitish bark, which peels in 

many papery layers, the lance-shaped or narrowly elliptical leaves with mostly 

5 veins from base to tip, and the many crowded stalkless white flowers with 

numerous 

threadlike stamens suggesting a bottlebrush. 

Melaleuca from Greek words for "black and white" refers to the dark trunk 

and white branches of one species. The specific name, meaning "5.nerved," 

describes the leaves. This genus has about 100 species of mostly large shrubs 

and small trees centered in Australia, with a few in New Zealand and nearby 

areas. 

Description Evergreen resinous small to medium-sized tree with poor 

form, 6-16 in high, with short trunk 30-cm in diameter, slightly angled and 

grooved, often crooked 

or twisted, with main axis and irregular branches 

forming narrow or open crown. With age a large tree 25-30 m high and 60-100 

cm in trunk diameter. Bark of trunk and branches whitish, very thick, corky 

or spongy, composed of many light pink, fibrous, papery layers, which split 

and peel, on large trunks becoming rough and shaggy; inner bark light brown, 

slightly sour. 

190 


Fig. 92. Melaleuca quinqjenere,ia (Little et al. 1974). 

," " 

Twigs long and slender, often drooping, light brown and finely hairy when 

young, turning gray. End and side buds round to cylindrical, 3-6 mm long, 

greenish-brown, composed of many rounded, mostly hairy overlapping scales. 

MELALEUCA QUINQUENERVIA 

191

-t. 

.30 

14 

IS 

M quinquefevia 

Distribution of Melaleuca quinquenervia In eastern Australia, New Caledonia, 

Fig. 93. 

Papua, and New Guinea (Blake 1968). 

green leafstalks of 4-10 mm, 

Leaves alternate, with finely hairy, light 

aromatic. Blades lance.shaped or narrowly elliptical, 4-9 cm long, 6-24 mm 

wide, long-pointed at both ends, not toothed on edges, slightly thickened and 

stiff, upper surface gray-green and hairless, with 5 (sometimes 3 or 7) faint 

nearly parallel veins from base to tip, lower surface paler and often slightly 

hairy. Resinuous odor when crushed; taste ,omewhat like that of eucalyptus. 

long and 2.5-4 cm across, at end of twig, 

Flower clusters (spikes) 3-8 cm 

which elongates and forms new leaves beyond, composed of many crowded, 

stalkless white flowers 15 mm long. Flowers have base {hypanthium) 1.5 mm 

mm long; 5 concave 

long; caly of 5 half.round greenish lobes less than 1.5 

long, 

whitish rcials 3 mm long; about 30 threadlike white stamens 11-20 mmn 

slightly united in 5 grotps at base and falling together early; pistil composed of 

inferior 2-4-celled ovary with many ovules, long, threadlike, white style, and 

brown dot stigma. 

192 

1"YO 

ITO 


Fruitsor seed capsules many, crowded and stalkless in masses 2.5.7.5 cm 

long on gray twigs back of leaves or between groups of leaves, short, cylindrical, 

3-4 mm long, 4-5 mm wide, gray-brown, hard and persistent, opening 

at flattened end by 3.4 blunt hairy slits and teeth. Seeds many, tiny, less than 

1.5 mm long, very narrow, brown, shedding late. Almost continuous flowering 

and fruiting. 

Ileartwood pink to reddish-brown with narrow yellowish sapwood. Wood 

moderately hard, fine- to medium-textured, with interlocked grain, diffuseporous, 

tough, tending to warp, difficult to season, classed as durable. Exuding 

resin as it burns, wood an excellent fuel. Reported to be an important firewood 

locally where native. Also, papery bark easily ignited and has high heating 

value. 

Other Uses Used for construction, boatbuilding, marine piling, railroad 

crossties, flooring, cabinetwork, fenceposts. Thick bark serves as packing 

material for fruits, calking for boats, upholstery, insulation, torches. 

Cajeput oil obtained from leaves and twigs of this and related species by 

steam distillation; used in medicines and local remedies. This species classed 

as a good hon'-y plant, producing dark strong-flavored honey. Fast-growing 

tree an attractive ornamental; suitable also for windbreaks and beach planting. 

Natural Distribution Native from near coast of eastern Australia (New 

South Wales to northern Queensland) to New Caledonia, Papua, New Guinea. 

Altitude from sea level to about 800 mi or 1400 m where introduced in Hawaii. 

Widely planted and naturalized in tropical regions, especially dry tropical 

lowlands, for example, the Philippines, India, and West Indies. Naturalized in 

southern Florida and Hawaii and introduced in California. 

Climate and Soils Mostly humid tropical with no freezing temperatures. 

Annual rainfall where native 800-1600 mm. Soils varying from wet clays to 

saline and dry. 

References 

Blake, S. T. 1968. A revision of Malaleuca leucadendron and its allies (Myrtaceae). 

Contributionsfron the Queensland Herbariumno. 1. Illus. 114 pp. (fig. 

18, map used here). 

Little, Elbert I., Jr., Roy 0. Woodbury, and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1974. Trees 

of PuertoRico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 2. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 


D.C., USA. (Melaleuca quinquenervia,pp. 680-681, drawing used here). 

MELALEUCA QUINQUENERVIA 

193

52. Melia azedarach 

Melia azedarach L. 


chinaberry, Persian-lilac, pride-of-India, chinatree, pride- 

Common Namer, 

chinaberry, Indian-lilac, beadtree 

of-China, umbrella-tree, umbrella 

(English); bakain, drek, dek, pejri, padrai (India); bakainu (Nepal); thamaga 

'inia (Hawaii); paraiso (Spanishl; alelaila (Puerto 

(Burma); mindi Uaval; 

Rico); jacinto (Panama); aleli (Venezuela)- West.Indian-lilac, lilac (West Indies); 

paradise-tree (Belize); lilas (Haiti, French); cinnamonio (Brazil). 

Mahogany Family, Meliaceae 

is a popular ornamental 

Chinaberry, Persian-lilac, or pride-of-India, 

deciduous tree widely planted in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate 

green foliage of twice pinnate 

regions. It is recognized by the dense dark 

leaves, showy clusters of pale purplish fragrant flowers, and clusters of nearly 

round, yellow, poisonous fruits conspicuous after the leaves are shed. 

The fast-growing trees are often planted on short rotation for firewood in the 

desired. This shade-intolerant 

Middle East. Wide spacing and good soil are 

species is easily propagated from seeds, cuttings, stump sprouts, and root 

replaced after about 20 

it is short-lived and should be 

suckers. However, 

years. The brittle limbs are easily broken by wind, and the poisonous fruits are 

objectionable. 

Umbrella chinaberry or Texas umbrella-tree is a horticultural variety with a 

compact crown of erect radiating branches and drooping foliage. 

This species is related to neem, Azadirachia indica A. Juss., but is a smaller 

tree more tolerant of freezing temperatures. Melia is the classical Greek name 

for the ash tree, transferred by Linnaeus to this small genus. The specific name 

is from Persian, literally "noble tree." Well-adapted and available as a fuelwood 

species for tropical highlands, Melia azedarachcan also be grown in the humid 

and arid tropics. 

Description Small to medium-sized deciduous tree becoming 6-15 m tall 

and 30-60 cm in trunk diameter, with crowded, abruptly spreading branches 

crown. Bark (lark or reddish-brown, 

forming hemispherical or flattened 

smoothish, becoming furrowed; inner bark whitish, slightly bitter, astringent. 

Twigs green, hairless or nearly so. 

in length, bipinnate or occasionally 3 

Leaves alternate, 20-40 cm or more 

numerous, shn;-t-stalked, paired along 

times pinnate (tripinnate). Leaflets 

slender green forks of leaf axis but single at ends, lance-shaped to ovate, 2.5-5 

wide, long-pointed, saw-toothed, short-pointed and mostly 

cm long, 1-2 cm 

(lark green upper surface, paler 

I-sided at base, thin, hairless or nearly so, 

underneath, with pungent odor when crushed. 

cm long at leaf bases, long-stalked, 

Flower clusters (panicles) 10-25 

branched. Flowers showy, fragrant, numerous on slender stalks, about 10 mm 

wide. Calyx of 5 greenish sepals; 5 pale purplish or lilaclong, 

15-19 nm 

194 


Fig. 94. Melia azedarach (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

colored petals 10 war long, narrow, spreading, and slightly turned back; usually 

10 stamens on narrow violet tub,'; and pale green pistil with disk at base, 

3.6-celled ovary, long style. 

Fruits or berries (drupes) nearly round, about 15 mm in diameter, yellow, 

smooth but becoming a little shriveled, slightly fleshy, generally present all 

year. Stone hard, containing 5 or fewer narrow dark brown seeds 8 mm long. 

MELIA AZEDARACH 

195

MAP 


% OF 

",MELIA AZEDARACH, LINK 

%~ LH N I NA 

% AJPUT A Bhuta b 

g o,%. ~~~~~- 

A N O . G W L .1CO 

0 1OO 0AR 

~ A* ISSA AL IJYTA0URM 

41O14UAY xl SIAM 

ARABIAN **Aor 

SEA 

€o*. . *s 

BENGAL 

IllnB I 

POORE% 1ADftAS 

Andaman / 

Islands 1PORun. 

IL Nicobar# 

Cololds 

Islands I 

Fig. 95. Distribution of Melia azedarach in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

Fruits bitter, -have poisonous or narcotic properties. Flowering nearly 

throughout the year or seasonal. 

Wood with yellowish-white sapwood and heartwood light to reddish-brown 

and attractively marked, moderately soft, moderately lightweight to heavy 

(sp. gr. 0.47), straight-grained, coarse and uneven-textured, ring-porous, weak, 

britt, very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites. 

Other Uses In addition to fuelwood, used for furniture, cabinetmaking, 

plywood, boxes, tool handles, small articles, turnery articles, toys. 

Poisonous species having insecticidal properties. Leaves and dried fruits 

protect stored clothing and other articles from insects. Various tree parts, including 

fruits, flowers, leaves, bark, and roots, employed medicinally in different 

countries. 

Berries toxic to animals, have killed pigs but cattle and birds reportedly eat 

the fruits. Oil suitable for illumination has been extracted experimentally 

from the berries. Hard, angular, bony centers of the fruits, after removal by 

boiling, dyed and strung as beads. A sacred tree in parts of Asia. 

Natural Distribution Native of southern Asia, probably Pakistan 

(Baluchistan to Kashmir) but now widespread from Iran and India to China. 

From low altitudes to 2000 m in Himalayas. 

Cultivated for ornament and shade and naturalized in tropical and warm 

temperate regions of the world. In the New World from Bermuda, throughout 

West Indies, and from southern United States south to Argentina and Brazil. 

196 

~ 


Climate and Soils Tropical to warm temperate, mostly humid. In 

southeastern United States species hardy north to plant hardiness zone 7, with 

minimum annual temperatures as low as -8" to - 18*C. However, young 

plants frost-tender. Drought-ha~dy species grows with 600-1000 mm annual 

precipitation. In drier climates occurs along streams and under irrigation. 

Found on a wide range of soils, even saline; best growth on well-drained deer 

sands. 

References 

Little, Elber' L., Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puertc 

Rico and ihe Virgin Islands. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Ser 

vice, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA 

(Melia azedarach, pp. 246-248, drawing used here). 

Pearson, R. C., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Meliaazedarach,pp. 239-241, map us 

ed here). 

MELIA AZEDARACH 

197

53. Mimosa scabrella 

Botanical Name Mimosa scabrella Benth. 

Synonym Mimosa bracaatingaHoehne 

Common Names bracaAtinga, bracatinga, abarAcaltinga 

Legume Family, Leguminosae IMimosoideae) 

Bracafitinga, a small tree little known outside its home in southern Brazil, is 

a good fast-growing source of fuelwood for the humid tropics. It has small 

bipinnately compound leaves with tiny leaflets, small flowers in whitish balls, 

and several small, narrow, flat pods covered with tiny warts and separating into 

joints that split open. 

Bracadtinga is characteristic of and almost iimited to the forests of ParanApine 

(Araucariaangustifolia (Bert.) 0. Ktze.) ci the planalto or plateau region. 

However, the range is not continuous. It is abundant as a pioneer in clearings. 

Pure dense stands of braca~itinga forests of secondary vegetation have become 

established through vast areas of the planalto after destruction and burning of 

the Parand-pine forests. Great quantities of seeds are produced and germinate 

well in burned areas, producing abundant seedlings. 

As early as 1930, F. C. Hoehne in Brazil called attention to this rapidly growing 

tree as an excellent source of fuel. As a result, forest plantations were 

established. Plantations are easily established by direct seeding. Growth is 

fast, as much as 15 m in height in 3 years. Trees have been harvested on rotationr, 

as short as 3 years. 

Seeds reportedly remain viable up to 3 years under normal conditions of 

temperature and humidity. Storage in cold chambers has been recommended. 

To obtain rapid and uniform germination, the seeds should be rcarified, 

heated for not less than 3 minutes, and sown immediately afterwards. Also, 

the seeds can be left to soak in water for 2 days before sowing to accelerate germination. 

The genus Mitnosa has about 400-500 species, mainly herbs and low shrubs 

and some trees. Most grow in tropical and subtropical America, but a few are 

found in Africa and Asia. The generic name Mimosa from Greek meaning "to 

imitate" or "a mimic actor" may refer to some species called sensitive plants. 

They imitate animals by moving and folding their leaflets when touched. The 

specific name, meaing "slightly rough to the touch," refers to the densely 

hairy foliage. 

Description Small to medium-sized tree 4-12 in high Isometimes to 20 m), 

with tall straight slender trunk 10-50 cm in diameter in forest, or short and 

branched, with dense rounded crown of gray foliage, or a large shrub. Bark 

whitish-gray, smoothish. Twigs densely scaly. 

Leaves bipinnately compound, small, with axis 3-11 cm long and 3-9 pairs of 

side axes (pinnae)2-7 cm long, larger on vigorous twigs, Leaflets 15-35 pairs on 

198 


Fig. 96. 

u.ffa. k 

1978, Fig. I1 . 

Mimosa scabrella (Reitz et al. 

MIMOSA SCABRELLA

DA " FiroecooN4.Nbic€ s 

Fig. 97. Distribution of Mimosa scabrella in Santa Catarina, Brazil (Reitz et al. 1978). 

each side axis, narrowly oblong, tiny, 2-5 mm long, blunt, densely covered 

with fine star-shaped hairs, yellow-green upper surface, paler underneath. 

Flower clusters (short racemes) 1-3 at leaf bases or several along short axis, 

consisting of heads or balls, rounded or elliptical, 7-10 mm in diameter. 

of tubular hairless 

Flowers many, small, whitish, 5-7 mm long, composed 

calyx 1 mm long, hairy corolla 2-3 mm long with 4 or 5 lobes, 4 or 5 yellowish 

mm long, united into tube near base, and pistil with 

threadlike stamens 4-7 

narrow ovary and slender style. 

Pods (legumes) several in cluster, narrowly oblong, flattened, 2-4 cm long, 

5-9 mm wide, covered with tiny warts, separating into 2-4 4-angled 1-seeded 

joints or segments, each splitting open. Seeds few, beanlike, egg-shaped, flattened, 

3-6 mm long, brown. 

Wood with pinkish sapwood and heartwood clear gray and rose tinted, 

coarse-textured, straighthard, 

moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.67), medium- to 

taste or odor, surface moderately rough and without luster. 

grained, without 

In addition to fuel and charcoal, wood used for lumber and 

Other Uses 

for pulpwood for manufacture of printing and writing 

cellulose. Suitable 

papers. Plantations made in Brazil for charcoal and formerly for fuel for steam 

locomotives. Trees grown also as ornamentals, avenue trees, living fences, coffee 

shade. Soil enriched by nitrogen-fixation by root nodules and from green 

manure or production of humus. 

200 


the plateaus of the ParanA-pine 

Natural Distribution Widespread in 

region of southeastern Brazil (Parand, Santa Catarina, and extreme northeastern 

Rio Grande do Sul). Scattered into the western border of the Atlantic 

Coast rain forest zone. Altitude 200-1600 m. 

Introduced experimentally from Argentina north to Mexico, in Africa, and 

southern Europe. At 2400 m altitude in Guatemala. 

Climate Humid subtropical. Soils many types, well-drained. 

Reference 

Reitz, Raulino, Roberto M. Klein, and Ademir Rcis. 1978. Projeto madeira de 

Santa Catarina. Sellowia vol. 30 (nos. 20-30) 'llus. 320 pp. (Mimosa scabrella, 

pp. 114-119, drawing, map used here). 

MIMOSA SCABRELLA 

201

54. Muntingia calabura 

Botanical Name Muntingia calaburaL. 

Common Names strawberry-tree, Jamaica-cherry, calabur-tree (English); 

capulln, capulin blanco, capulin de comer (Spanish); memiso (Cuba); pasito 

(Panama); chitato, majagiiito (Colombia); majagiiillo (Venezuela); nigiiito 

(Venezuela, Ecuador); bolina (Peru); bois d'orme (Haiti); calabura, pau-deseda 

(Brazil); buah cheri, cherry-tree, Japanese.cherry (Peninsular 

Malaysia); datiles (Philippines). 

Elaeocarpus Family, Elaeocarpaceae 

This fast-growing small tree of tropical America is a handsome ornamental 

but has become a naturalized weed where introduced, such as in southeastern 

Asia. It is distinguished by the 2 rows of irregularly toothed, lance-shaped or 

oblong leaves with 3 main veins from a very 1-sided base, by the long-stalked 

flowers at leaf bases with 5 spreading rounded white petals, and by the reddish 

or yellowish, round, slightly sweet berries. This is a fuelwood species for 

the humid tropics. 

The plants grow readily in open areas from seeds and cuttings but are shortlived. 

This hardy species may reseed naturally and become an undesirable 

weed in fields and waste places. Thus, its proposed use as shade for livestock 

has been questioned. 

Muntingia, a genus of 3 species of trees in tropical America, was dedicated to 

the Dutch botanist and physician Abraham Munting (1626-83). Calabura is 

from Latin, meaning "long fiber." The name "strawberry-tree" is su 13ested by 

the white flowers and reddish fruits. 

Description Evergreen small tree 8-13 m high, with trunk 10-20 cm in 

diameter and short broad spreading crown of foliage with musky scent. Bark 

smooth, brown; inner bark whitish, fibrous. Twigs spreading nearly horizontal, 

gray with tiny star-shaped hairs when young, later turning brown. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows in flattened arrangement, 5-10 cm long, 1-3 cm 

wide, lance-shaped or oblong, long-pointed, with 3 main veins from very 

1-sided or oblique rounded base, irregularly toothed, thin, green upper surface 

with soft hairs, gray-green underside covered with tiny :,tar-shaped hairs. 

Leafstalks short, about 5 mm long, hairy. 

Flowers 1-3 on stalks 2-3 cm long at leaf bases, 2-2.25 cm across, produced 

continuously. There 

are 5 narrow green sepals, turned back; 5 spreading, 

rounded, white petals 6-10 mm long, shedding same day; many short yellow 

stamens; and on a disk the greenish pistil with 5-celled ovary and 5 stalkless 

stigmas. 

Fruits (berries) round, reddish, or ye.lowish, 10-15 mm in diarmieter, with 

stigmas at tip and juicy light brown pulp, slightly sweet and edible. 

Wood with sapwood lighter in color than pale brown heartwood, 

lightweight, medium-textured, with irregular grain, very easily worked, but 

202 


Fig. 98. Alwitingia calaburc,(Little et al. 1974). 

susceptible to decay. Used locally for firewood. Thoroughly dry wood ignites 

quickly, producing a high flame with intense heat and little smoke, leaving red 

glowing embers. 

Other Uses Also used locally for barrel staves. Wood considered potential 

source 

of paper pulp. Tough bark fibers served in making rope and baskets; 

flowers used in home remedies. Sweetish red berries edible but without distinctive 

flavor. 

MUNTINGIA CALABURA 

203

Its main value is as showy ornamental and shade tree. Fas'.growing in full 

sunlight, continuously bearing white flowers and reddish berries from about 

age 2 years onward. However, irregular appearance, musky scent of foliage, 

and s-'atter of juicy fruits objectionable. Widely spreading limbs break in 

strong winds and may require annual pruning. 


Native from southern 

Mexico south to Brazil, 

Bolivia, and Peru and in West Indies (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola). Altitude 


Introduced sparingly elsewhere in West Indies, such as Puerto Rico, and in 

southern Florida; escaping from cultivation. Planted also in Hawaii and 

through the Pacific islands. Naturalized in Southeast Asia (Thailand and Vietnam, 

for example) and Malaysia, where common and considered native. 

Humid tropical with annual rainfall of 1000-2000 mm. 


Soils many types, including sand, sandy coral soils, limestone. Scattered in dry 

to moist thickets and secondary forests along slopes and valleys where native. 

a closely related species local in 

Related Species Muntingia rosea Karst., 

northern Venezuela, has slightly larger pinkish-purple petals and larger 

leaves. More attractive than the white-flowered tree as an ornamental. 

Reference 




D.C., USA. (Muntingiacalabura,pp. 512-513, drawing used here). 

204 


55. Parkinsonia aculeata 

Botanical Name Parkinsonia aculeata L. 

Common Names Jerusalem-thorn, Mexican paloverde, horsebean 

(English); paloverde, retama, palo de rayo (Spanish); Iluvia de oro 

(Dominican Republic); junco marino (Cuba); sulfato (Central America); 

acacia de agiiijote (Nicaragua); sauce guajiro, espino (Colombia); espinillo, 

pauji (Venezuela); mataburro (Peru); cina-cina (Uruguay, Argentina); 

madam naiz (Haiti); arr~te-boeuf (Guadeloupe, Martinique); boonchi strena, 

wonder-tree (Dutch West Indies); mbarkasoni (Senegal); Hanson sessabani 

(N. Nigeria); sessaban (Arabic); vilayati kikar, vilayati babul (India). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Caesalpinioideae 

This fast-growing hardy tree, native to tropical and subtropical America, is 

widely planted and naturalized as a weed in arid and semarid regions of the 

world. It is also found in the humid tropics. Thus, the hard wood is available 

for firewood and charcoal. Easy identification is by the smooth yellow-green 

trunks, branches, and twigs; distinctive leaves consisting of a very short axis 

ending in a spine and beai!ng 2 or 4 drooping, long, flat, yellow-green strips or 

streamers and many small leaflets that shed early; clusters of showy golden 

yellow flowers; and nearly cylindrical pods narrowed between seeds. 

This species produces seed abundantly and grows easily from seed, root or 

shoot cuttings, or air-layers. It is more frost-hardy than most subtropical trees; 

for example, it is planted in the southern United States. It is very droughtresistant 

and thrives in full sunlight but may not be adapted to wet climates. It 

can become an undesirable weed. 

The genus Parkinsonia, which has a second species in Africa, honors John 

Parkinson (1567-1650), a British botanist. The specific name means "with 

spines or prickles." "Jerusalem" in this and other plant names does not refer to 

the city in Israel but is a corruption from Italian of "girasol," meaning "turning 

toward the sun." 

Description Small spiny tree 4-10 m high, with short often crooked trunk 

to 40 cm in diameter, often branching near ground, with very open crown of 

spreading branches, and very thin drooping foliage; green throughout the year 

though appearing leafless after leaflets fall. Bark of trunk, branches, and twigs 

smooth, yellow-green or blue-green, on large trunks becoming brown and 

fissured or scaly; inner bark green and slightly bitter. Twigs slender, slightly 

zigzag, finely hairy when young, often with spines 3 or I remaining at nodes, 

including 2 short spines (stipules). 

Leaves specialized, alternate, actually bipinnately compound, consisting of 

very short axis ending in spine 1-2 cm long, and I or 2 pairs of long yellowgreen 

drooping side axes, strips or streamers 20-30 cm long and 3 mm broad, 

flat and slightly thickened. Each strip with 20-30 pairs of thin, oblong, green 

PARKINSONIA ACULEATA 

205

N 

Fig. 99. PArkinsoniaaculeata (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

206 


small leaflets 3-5 mm long, which shed early. Strip resembling a blade of grass 

continues functioning as leaf after leaflets fall. 

Flower clusters(racemes) at leaf bases 7.5-20 cm long, unbranched. Flowers 

several on long slender stalks, irregular and slightly pea-shaped, fragrant, 

showy, golden yellow, 2 cm or more across. Calyx consists of a short tube with 

5 narrow yellow-brown lobes turned back; corolla of 5 nearly round petals 

10-13 mm long, yellow tinged with orange and h*.airy at base, upper petal 

slightly larger, red-spotted, and turning red with w'ithering; 10 green stamens 

with brown anthers; and reddish-tinged pistil with hairy 1-celled ovary and 

slender style. 

Pods (legumes) nearly cylindrical, 5-10 cm long, 6 mn or more in diameter, 

narrowed between seeds, long-pointed. Seeds 1-5, beanlike, oblong, I cm long, 

dark brown. With flowers and pods all year. 

Sapwood yellowish and thick, and heartwood light or reddish brown. Wood 

moderately hard and heavy (sp. gr. 0.6), fine-textured, brittle. Burns well and 

used for firewood and charcoal. 

Other Uses Foliage and pods browsed by livestock. Young branches 

lopped to feed goats and sheep. Seeds have served as human food. 

Trees attractive ornamentals with unusual foliage, vivid flowers, and 

smooth green bark. Used in fences and can be pruned into spiny hedges. 

Grown also for erosion control on sandy soils in arid climates. 

Natural Distribution Widespread in tropical and subtropical America 

from southwestern United States (southwestern Texas and southern Arizona) 

and northern Mexico south to Argentina. Altitude from sea level to about 1300 

nl. 

Extensively cultivated and naturalized in many tropical and subtropical 

regions of the world, especially dry areas; north to southern border of United 

States (Florida and Georgia west to California), through West Indies, and in 

Africa. Naturalized in India, where grown mainly as a hedge in dry districts. 

Introduced in Hawaii. 

Climate and Soils Arid and semiarid tropical and subtropical with great 

temperature range from very hot to several degrees below freezing with frosts. 

Annual rainfall as low as 200 mm with dry seasons up to 9 months, and as high 

as 1000 ram. Soils various types, especially desert gravels and sands along 

valleys and canyons; also saline. Native in semidesert vegetation, especially in 

desert valleys and desert grassland zones. 

Reference 




(Parkinsoniaaculeata,pp. 180 181, drawing used here). 

I'ARKINSONIA ACULEATA 

207

PINUS 

Common Names pine (English); pino (Spanish,. Italian); pin 

pinheiro, pinho (Portuguese); Kiefer (German). 

(French); 

Pine Family, Pinaceae 

Pinus (from the classical Latin name), with nearly 100 species, is the most 

widespread genus of conifers and the one with the most commercial value. 

Conifers (Coniferae), known also as softwoods, are represented by about 600 

species native mostly in temperate regions. They are important sources of 

as lumber and other wood products. They are 

resinous fuel as well 

distinguished from hardwoods (Dicotyledons) by seeds that are exposed or 

naked in cones and by the absence of flowers and fruits. 

Pines ate evergreen resinous trees with straight trunk and axis and rings 

(whorls) of horizontal or spreading branches that are conical to the spreading 

crown. The bark is mostly thick and furrowed and sometimes scaly. End buds 

are compound, containing smaller side buds. There are usually 2-5 needlelike 

leaves in a bundle with a sheath of scales at the base. Male and female cones 

are found on the same tree. Female cones mature in 2 years, with paired longwinged 

seeds exposed at the base of many overlapping hard cone.scales. The 

cones nroduce ouantities of pale yellow 

numerous, crowded, small male 

pollen. 

The Key below may be used to separate the 3 species of Pinus, which are the 

only conifers described and illustrated in this handbook. 

KEY TO THE 3 PINUS SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

long; cones without prickles. 

Leaves 2 in a bundle, mostly less than 15 cm 

cm long; cones 1-3, pointed back or drooping on stout scaly 

Leaves 6.10 

stalks ........................................ 

58. Pinushalepensis. 

long; cones mostly 2-4, upright or spreading, very short- 

Leaves 11-15 cm 

stalked or almost stalkless ........................... 

56. Pinusbrutia. 

Leaves mostly 3 (2-5) in a bundle, mostly 15-25 cm long; cones with prickles 

........................... 

57. Pinuscaribaea. 

208 


56. Pinus brutia 

Botanical Name Pinusbrutia Ten. 

Synonyms Pinus halepensis var. brutia (Ten.) Elwes & Henry, Pinuspityusa 

Steven, Pinushalepensis var. pityusa (Steven) Gordon 

Common Names brutia pine, Calabrian pine, Cyprus pine (English), maindano 

(Tanzania); kadi. 


This pine species of the eastern Mediterranean region is closely related to 

Pinus halepensis and often classed as a variety or synonym. It is distinguished 

by the longer leaves 2 in a bundle and by the mostly 2-4 upright or spreading, 

nearly stalkless cones. The resinous wood is a useful fuel. This is a fuelwood 


Pinus brutia was 

named for Calabria province (ancient name Brutium) of 

southern Italy, where it apparently was introduced. Pinus halepensis,the close 

relative from the western Mediterranean region, has often slightly shorter and 

thinner leaves, fewer cones in a cluster that are pointed back on stout stalks, 

and cone-scales raised with a horizontal ridge on the exposed end. 

Description Needleleaf, evergreen, coniferous, medium to large pine tree 

12-24 m high (rarely 30-36 ni), with straight trunk and thin irregular spreading 

crown, forming more than 1 circle of reddish or yellowish branches a year; 

resinous throughout. Bark brownish-gray, furrowed. Twigs reddish, becoming 

gray-brown, ending in winter buds wih many fringed scales curved back. 

Leaves 2 in bundle, needlelike, 11-15 (-18) cm long, 0.5-1.5 mm wide, 

slender, sharp-pointed, edges with tiny tceth, green with whitish lines on all 

surfaces; at base a sheath of persistent scales. 

Cones (female) mostly 2-4 (sometimes to 6), in a ring, upright or spreading 

10 

Fig. 100. Pinus brutia (Komarov 1934, vol. 1, pl. 7, fig. 20-21). 

PINUS BRUTIA 

411 

209

0 

/ 

- 

Pjins balepensis 

isolated t occurrece 

, Pinus brutia 

z..-, -a" o ". 

CC 

jro 

Isolated occu remeC 

"0 a * 

C7;& I.." E S o 

t Fig. 101. Combined natural distribution of Pinus brutia and Pinus halepensis tCritcho 

field and Little 1966, map 311. 

.

(not pointed back), very short-stalked or stalkless, egg-shaped conical, to 10 

cm long, shiny reddish-brown, remaining attached and closed. Cone-scales 

with exposed end 4-angled, flat or slightly sunken. Seeds 2 exposed at base of 

cone-scale, with blackish body and brown wing 3-4 times as long. Male cones 

many, crowded in headlike clusters, elliptical, 6-7 mm long, reddish-yellow. 

Wood nonporous, 

leartwood reddish-brown and sapwood yellow. 

resinous. 

Other Uses 

Used for carpentry, ship planking, particle-board, and veneer, 

as well as fuel. Could be grown in firewood plantations. Cultivated as an ornamental. 

Natural Distribution Eastern Mediterranean region in Turkey from Black 

and west to northeastern 

Sea, including northern shore, south to Lebanon 

Greece, also islands of Cyprus and Crete. Local in northern Iraq. Altitude from 

sea level to 1500 m. Frequently a dominant forest tree in Turkey, from sea level 

to 1200 in, mostly below 750 m. Pinus brutiaoccurs in Iran and Afghanistan but 

unknown. 

apparently only in old plantations and not native. Seed source 

A variation along the northern and northeastern shores of the Black Sea has 

been named Pinus pityusa Steven. It forms extensive groves on rocky and 

sandy seaside slopes from the shore to 300 in. 

Semiarid warm temperate or Mediterranean with rainy 


in mild winter. Annual rainfall mainly 500-1000 nun or down to 250 

season 

mm on coastal lowlands. Soils varying from high lime content to acid podzols. 

Medw., Eldar pine, a closely related 

Related Species Pinus eldarica 

high with broad 

species or variety, is a medium-sized evergreen tree 12-15 m 

crown. Differs in the mostly shorter rigid leaves or needles 6-9 cm long and 

mostly 2 or 3 stalked smaller cones 6 cm long. Natural distribution rare as a 

relic at one locality only, Mt. Eilyar-bugi, in central Transcaucasia southeast of 

Union, at 200-600 m altitude. Tolerates frosts, high 

Thilisi, Georgia, Soviet 

mam. Classed as very 

temperatures of 40°-450C, and low rainfall of 200-250 

In 

drought-resistant, could be used for afforestation of dry mountain slopc. 

plantations, such as in Iran and Pakistan, growth said to be faster than that of 

both Pinus brutia and Pinus halepensis. Thus, it merits further testing. 

References 

Critchfield, William B., and Elbert L. Little, Jr. 1966. Geographicdistributionof 

the pines of the world. Illus. Misc. Pub. no. 991. United States Department of 

(Pinus brutia, pp. 12-13, map 31, used 

Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. 

here). 

Davis, P. II. 1965. Flora of Turtey, vol. 1. pp. 73-75 (map). 

Kornarov, V. 1. 1934. Flora of the U.S.S.R., vol. 1. (English translation, 1968). 

(p. 135, pl. 7, fig. 20-21, cones, as Pinus pithyusa, drawing used here). 

Mirov, N. T. 1967. The genus Pinus. Illus. Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y., 

USA. (Pipus brutia, pp. 252-254, map). 

PINUS BRUTIA 

211

57. Pinus caribaea 

Botanical Name Pinus caribaea Morelet 

Common Names Caribbean pine, Caribbean pitch pine, pitch pine, 

Honduran pine, Bahaman pine, yellow pine (English); pino caribea, pino del 

Caribe, pino hondurefio (Spanish); pino macho, pino amarillo (Cuba); pino 

colorado (Central America); ocote blanco (Guatemala); pino de la costa (Honduras). 


Pinus caribaea has become one of the most important timber trees planted 

through the humid lowland tropics, because it can grow at sea level on poor 

sites. Firewood is easily obtained as a byproduct. Where native this species is 

common in pine forests, pure stands or with other pines, and scattered in open 

savannas and grasslands. 

This species is distinguished by the long needlelike leaves mostly 3 in a 

bundle and the shiny reddish-brown prickly cones opening at maturity. Pinus 

caribaea is a fuelwood species for humid tropics and tropical highlands. 

Description Needleleaf, evergreen, coniferous, large tree becoming 20-30 

m tall and 30-60 cm in trunk diameter (rarely to 45 m and 1.3 m); resinous 

throughout, with odor like turpentine. Axis straight, with thin pointed conical 

crown of regular circles of horizontal branches, becoming rounded or irregular. 

Bark gray to reddish-brown, rough, thick, with long scaly ridges or 

plates and deep furrows exposing reddish-brown inner bark composed of rings 

like wood. Branches gray-brown, rough and scaly. Twigs stout, whitish-gray. 

Winter buds cylindrical, with many long, narrow, reddish-brown scales 

white-fringed. 

Leaves crowded and spreading at end of twigs, mostly 3 (2-5) in a bundle, 

needlelike, 15-25 cm long, less than 1.5 mm wide, slightly stiff, sharp-pointed, 

slightly rough on edges from tiny teeth, dark or yellowish-green, with whitish 

lines on all surfaces; at base a persistent sheath of gray-brown scales. 

Copies (female) mostly in upper part of crown, mostly 2-4 in a ring (whorl) 

and 1-3 rings a year, short-stalked, narrowly conical when closed, 4-12 cm 

long, 2.5.4 cm ii. diameter, shiny reddish-brown, composed of many over- 

Iappag hard cone-scales, maturing second year, opening to release seeds, then 

shedding or remaining attached a few years. Cone-scales ending in ridge and 

prickle less than 1mm long. Seeds 2 exposed at base of cone-scale, with elliptical 

body 6 mm long, black, mottled gray, or light brown, and membranous 

brown wing 20 mm long, becoming detached or remaining attached. Male 

cones many, crowded in clusters mostly in lower part of crown, narrowly 

cylindrical, 20-40 mm long, red-brown. 

Heartwood reddish-brown and sapwood whitish, of varying thickness. 

Wood soft, moderately lightweight (sp. gi. 0.61-0.68), nonporous, with growth 

212 


Fig. 102. Pirns caribaea(Little et al. 1974). 

rings, resinous. Heartwood moderately resistant to fungi, durability varying 

with resin content. 

Other Uses In addition to fuelwood, used for general utility lumber, construction, 

boat building, veneer, pulpwood, posts. Oleoresin extracted from 

old stumps. Trees grown in forest plantations and as ornamentals. Small plants 

PINUS CARIBAEA 

213

NATURAL IST RIBUTION 

0,0 


Fig' 103. Distribution of Pinus caribaea in the Bahama Islands, Cuba, and Central 

America (Lamb 1973). 

suitable for Christmas trees. In pine plantations large amounts of fuelwood 

should be available from such harvest operations as thinning and slash. 

Natural Distribution Western Bahamas and Caicos Islands, western 

Cuba and Isle of Pines, and Central America from Belize and eastern 

Guatemala to Honduras and Nicaragua. The limit in southeastern Nicaragua 

at 12013 ' north latitude is the southernmost natural occurrence of the genus 

Pinusin the New World. Altitude from sea level to 12 m in Bahamas, to 280 m 

in Cuba, and to 1000 m in Central America. 

Widely introduced in forest plantations around the world in some 40 countries 

with tropical and subtropical climates. It has been predicted that large 

centers of plantations of this pine likely will be in Brazil, lowland tropical 

Africa, Queensland in Australia, Fiji, and possibly eastern India. Several other 

countries have smaller centers of development. 

Propagation from seeds and seedlings is easy, and growth is rapid. Inoculation 

of soils with fungi that form mycorrhizae on the roots may be needed. 

Volume tables for plantations have been prepared. According to tests, this 

3 

species can produce a mean annual increment of 17 to 37 m per ha. 

214 


Within the native range, humid seasonal tropical with 


rainfall and dry, mild, frost-free winter season. Coastal areas have 

summer 

warm equable climate, cooler in winter. Extreme temperatures inland about 

50C and 37CC, somewhat less along coasts. Soils vary greatly from shallow on 

coral rock and alkaline (pH 8.41 to deep sands, loams, silts, and gravel and acid 

{pH 4-5.51. 

Three geographic varieties are distinguished. 

Varieties 

caribaea (typical), Caribbean pine (typical), 

-Pinus caribaea Morelet var. 

pino caribea, pino macho, pino amarillo. Needles 3 (rarely 41 in bundle; cones 

5-10 cm long; seeds with wings remaining attached. Native of western Cuba 

and Isle of Pines (type locality of species,. 

caribaea var. bahaniensis Barrett & Golfari, Bahaman pine, yellow 

-Pinus 

pine. Needles 3 (sometimes 4 or 5) in bundle; cones 6-14 cm long; seeds with 

Bahamas and Caicos 

wings mostly becoming detached. Native of western 

Islands. Honduran pine, pino 

-Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis Barrett & Golfari, 

hondureflo. Needles 2 and 3 in bundle; cones 4.12 cm long; seeds with wings 

becoming detached. Native of Central America from Belize through eastern 

to Honduras and Nicaragua. This is a variety generally grown in 

Guatemala 

plantations elsewhere. 

References 

and Lamberto Golfari. 1962. Descripci6n de dos 

Barrett, Wilfredo H. G., 

nuevas variedades del "Pino del Caribe" (PinuscaribaeaMorelet). Caribbean 

Forester23: 59-71, illus. (map). 

Pinus caribaea,vol. 1. Fast growing timber trees of the 

Lamb, A. F. A. 1973. 

lowland tropicsno. 6. Illus. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of 

Oxford, England. 254 pp. (map opposite p. 10, used here). 


of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 2. Illus. (Pinus caribaea,pp. 58-59, 

drawing used here). 


215

58. Pinus halepensis 

Botanical Name Pinus halepensisMill. 

Common Names Aleppo pine, Jerusalem pine (English); pino de Alepo, 

pino carrasco (Spanish); pin d'Alep (French); pino d'Aleppo (Italian); Aleppo- 

Kiefer (German); sanouber, sanaoubar halabi (Arabic); misindano 

(Tanzania). 


The most widespread pine of the Mediterranean region is hardy and 

drought-resistant. It is characterized by the needlelike leaves 2 in a bundle and 

6-10 cm long, by 1-3 cones pointed back on stout scaly stalks, and by conescales 

raised with a horizontal ridge. The resinous wood makes good fuel and 

has served for charcoal. This is a fueiwood species for arid and semiarid 

regions. 

Aleppo pine is a hardy drought-tolerant pine for the Mediterranean climate 

and hot dry regions. It grows rapidly with good form and regenerates freely 

after fires. However, for lumber production it is recommended only where 

more profitable species with wood of higher quality are not adapted. 

Common and scientific names are from Aleppo in northwestern Syria. 

However, this species is restricted to the coast in that area and does not grow 

as far inland as that city. 

Description Needleleaf, evergreen, coniferous, medium to large tree 15 m 

high {sometin'es to 27 in), with straight trunk 50-100 cm in diameter and open 

rounded crown of irregular spreading branches, often more than 1 circle a 

year, smaller on poor sites; resinous throughout. Bark smooth, silvery or 

ashy-gray, shiny, becoming furrowed, scaly, and reddish-brown. Twigs 

whitish or ashy-gray, slightly rough, hairless. Winter buds conical, with many 

brownish-white scales fringed and often bent back tt tip, not resinous. 

Leaves 2 in bundle, needlelike, 6-10 cm long, less than 1mm wide, slender, 

curved-twisted, sharp-pointed, edges with tiny teeth, light green, with whitish 

lines on all %urfaces;at base a sheath of persistent scales. 

Cones (female) i-3, pointed back or drooping on stout scaly stalk, eggshaped 

conical, 6-10 cm long, symmetrical or nearly so, shiny reddisn or 

yellowish-brown, composed of many overlapping hard cone-scales, maturing 

second year, remaining attached and closed often for a few years. Cone-scales 

with exposed end 4-angled, raised with hoiizontal ridge, without a prickle. 

Seeds 2, exposed at base of cone-scale, with oblong brown body 6 mm long 

and pale brown wing more than 2 cm long. Male cones many, crowded, elliptical, 

6-8 mm long, yellow tinged with red. 

Heartwood yellowish.brown and sapwood yellow. Wood heavy {sp. gr. 

0.71), coarse-textured, nonporous, resinous. Resinous or pitchy wood makes 

good fuel and has served for charcoal. 

Other Uses Used for general construction, carpentry, particle-board, 

216 


Fig. 104. Pinus halepensis tZohary 1966, pl. 16). 

PINUS HALEPENSIS 

217

oxes, crates, mine timbers, railroad crossties, utility poles. Trees tapped for 

good-quality resin in Algeria and Greece, for example. Bark has served in tanning. 

Species used in forest plantations and soil conservation and for 

shelterbelts. A handsome ornamental. 

Natural Distribution In all countries bordering the Mediterranean Sell 

from Greece west to Spain and from Morocco east to Libya. Also local and rare 

at eastern end from Israel and Jordan north to southern Turkey. Altitude from 

sea level to 1000 m, as in southern Spain, to 1700 m in Morocco, and 

sometimes to 2200 m. 

Widely planted in semiarid subtropical and warm temperate areas of 

America from southern Arizona, California, and Mexico soith to Chile and 

Argentina. Also in the Soviet Union, South Africa, and Australia. Common ornamental 

tree throughout Mediterranean region. Does well as an ornamental 

in the hot dry climate of southern Arizona when irrigated. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid warm temperate, or Mediterranean, with 

rainy season in mild winter. Annual rainfall 250-800 mm, seasonal with 7-8 

dry months. Winters mild with some frosts and minimum temperatures as low 

as - 181C. Soils include poor eroded shallow soils, limestone, and heavy clay 

but not saline or swampy soils. 

In its native home this pine is uncommon in pure groves and is more often 

mixed with the Mediterranean scrub forest and maquis brush. 

References 

Critchfield, William B., and Elbert L. Little, Jr. 1966. Geographic distribution of 

the pines of the world. Illus. Misc. Pub. no. 991. United States Department of 

Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. (Pinus halepensis, p. 12, map 31, used 

here). 

Mirov, N. T. 1967. The genus Pinus. Illus. Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y. 

jPinus halepensis, pp. 250-252, map). 

Zohary, Michael. 1966. Flora Palaestina, Part 1. Illus. (Pinushalepensis, pl. 16, 


218 


59. Pithecellobium dulce 

Botanical Name Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. (formerly also spelled 

Pithecolobiurn) 

Common Names blackbead, Madras-thorn, Manila-tamarind (English); 

guamtfichil, guamuche, quamachil (Spanish); inga dulce (Cuba); jaguay 

(Guatemala); mongollano (El Salvador); mochigdiste (Costa Rica); 

chiminango, payand6 (Colombia); yacure (Venezuela); tierra espina 

(Ecuador); bread-and-cheese (Guyana); mchongoma (Tanzania); vilayati 

babul, imli, dakhani babuf (India), katugaha, kodukapuli (Sri Lanka); 

makam tet (Thailand); kamachile (Philippines); kinki-ju (Okinawa); opiuma 

(Hawaii). 


This widely planted tree is native to tropical America. It has bipinnately 

compound leaves with only 4 oblong leaflets, paired slender spines at the base 

of most leaves, ball-like heads of many small white flowers, and curved or 

coiled pink to brown pods bearing several shiny black seeds mostly covered 

by pink or whitish edible pulp. The ti,-es are growa mainly for shade and ornament 

and have various useful products. Pithecellobiun dulce is a fuelwood 

species for arid and semiarid regions and also for the humid tropics. 

ais hardy species is readily propagated by cuttings and weeds. It is fastgrowing 

and drought-resistant, withstands heavy cutting, and coppices 

vigorously. However, it may spread and become an undesirable weed. Heavy 

windstorms may break the branches or topple the shallow-rooted trees. 

Spaniards early introduced this New World tree into the Philippines, where 

it became thoroughly naturalized. It was named and described botanically in 

1795 in Coromandel, India, where it had been further transported. 

The tropical genus Pithecellobium has 150 to 200 tree species, some with 

spines, and has 2 each north to southern Florida and southern Texas. The 

generic name, coming from Greek words meaning "ape's earring," refers to the 

coiled pods of some species. The Latin specific name meaning "sweet" 

describes the edible seed pulp. 

Description Small to medium-sized spiny tree 5-20 m high, with short 

trunk 30-60 cm (to 1 m)in diameter, trunk and branches often crooked, and 

broad spreading crrwn to 30 in across. Nearly evergreen but shedding old 

leaves as new one, appear. Bark light gray, smnoothish, becoming slightly 

rough and furrowed; inner bark thick, light brown, bitter or astringent. Tivigs 

slender and droopinj', a few very long, greenish and slightly hairy when 

young, becoming gray 

Leaves alternate, biinnately compound, with very slender green leafstalk 

1-3 cm long bearing tiny round gland near tip and 2 very short side axes (pinnae) 

3-6 mm long. Leaflets 4, nearly stalkless, 2 at end of each side axis, oblong 

or ovate, 2-5 cm long, 5-15 mm wide, rounded at tip, rounde., or short-pointed 

PITHFECELLOBIUM DULCE 

219

-4j I 

Fig. 105. Pithecellobhan dulce (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 68). 

at unequal-sided base, not toothed on edges, thin or slightly thickened, hairy 

or hairless, dull pale green upper surface, light green underneath. New growth 

is pink or reddish. Pair of slender, straight, sharp spines (stipules) 2-15 mm 

long located at the base of most leaves or may be absent. 

220 


Flower clusters many small ball-like heads 1 cm or more across on slender, 

drooping, branched twigs, short-stalked, each covered with whitish hairs and 

composed of 20-30 creamy white, densely hairy flowers 6-8 mm long. Eac. flower 

has tiny, tubular, hairy 5-toothed calyx, a funnel-shaped, tubular, hairy 5-toothed 

corolla 3 mm long, about 50 spreading, long, threadlike stamens united into a 

short tube at base, and pistil with hairy ovary and long threadlike style. 

Pods (legumes) narrow, 10-13 cm long, 1-1.5 cm wide, becoming curved into a 

coil, pink or brown, slightly flattened and narrowed between seeds, finely hairy, 

splitting open on both sides. Seeds 5-12, beanlike, 1cm long, shiny black, hanging 

down on pinkish thread inside mass of whitish pulp to 2 cm long, sweetish, acid 

and edible 

Wood with yellowish sapwood and yellowish or reddish-brown heartwood, 

moderately hard, heavy (sp. gr. 0.64), fine-textured. Strong and durable, takes a 

high polish but brittle and not easily worked. Wood widely used as fuel but 

smokes considerably and is not the best quality firewood. 

Other Uses In India trees planted for fuel for brick kilns. Also used for general 

construction, paneling, boxes, posts. This attractive tree planted along streets and 

highways for shade and ornament and for shelterbelts. Can be pruned and 

trimmed into thorny hedges and fences for livestock. 

Edible pulp around the seeds eaten fresh or made into a drink like lemonade. 

Greenish oil in seeds can be used for food or in making soap, after processing. 

Presscake residue rich in protein and may be used as stockfeed. Pods and leaves 

good forage for cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Plants withstand heavy browsing. 

Hedge clippings often gathered for animal feed. 

Miscellaneous products include tannin and home remedies from the bark, a 

mucilaginous gum from wounded bark, and good-quality honey. 

Natural Distribution Native from northwestern Mexico (Baja California 

and Sonora) south through Central America to Colombia and Venezuela. 

Widely planted and naturalized in many tropical regions, for example, in warmer 

and drier larts of the Philippines and India. Formerly planted extensively in 

southern India for many purposes, especially fuel and hedges. Introduced into dry 

areas of tropical Africa and naturalized in the West Indies and Hawaii. Also in 

southern Florida. 

Climate and Soils Where native dry or semiarid subtropical and tropical 

with low rainfall. Altitude from near sea level to 1800 in. Annual rainfall where 

planted 450-1650 mm. Soils most types, including clay, limetone, sands, and 

brackish sands. Often common in dry thickets or forests on coasts, plains, and hillsides 

where native. 

Reference 




(Pithecellobiumdulce, pp. 162-163, drawing used here). 

PITHECELLOBIUM DULCE 

221

Common 

(Spanish). 

PKDSOPIS 

Names mesquite (English); algarrobo, 

algarroba, mezquite 


dry regions of the New 

The genus Prosopis has about 40 species in warm 

World centered in Argentina and ranging north to Mexico and southwestern 

United States. There are 4 other species in the Old World, from tropical Africa 

to southwest Asia and India. It is widely cultivated and naturalized in other 

dry tropical regions. Natural distribution of the genus is shown in Figure 106. 

Prosopis, applied to this genus by Linnaeus, is an ancient Greek name of a 

plant with prickly fruit, apparently burdock. Mesquite, the English term for 

the New World species is from the Spanish "me quite" and the Nahuatl native 

for this genus, is that of the carob tree 

term. Algarrobo, the Spanish name 

a legume of southwestern Asia and long planted in the 

(Ceratoniasiliqua L.), 

Mediterranean region. 

This genus has small to medium-sized deciduous trees and shrubs of dry 

tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones, with short 

regions, and 

trunk and spreading crown of very thin foliage, mostly spiny. Twigs are often 

are 

zigzag and enlarged at nodes. The variable, straight spines from twigs 

paired stipules or scattered prickles. 

The bipinnately compound leaves are alternate or on short spur shoots, and 

have 1-4 1-7) pairs of side axes (pinnae); the leafstalk has a round gland at end. 

oblong or linear, not 

many, mostly paired leaflets are small, narrow, 

The 

toothed on edges, and mostly yellow-green on both surfaces; they sometimes 

shed early. 

At the leaf bases therm are cylindrical flower clusters (spikelike racemes) of 

many crowded, nearly stalkless flowers along an axis. The flowers are small 

and greenish-white. The calyx is short, bell-shaped and 5-toothed; the corolla 

10 

of 5 narrow petals is often united toward base and often hairy. There are 

separate threadlike stamens longer than the petals. The pistil has a narrow, 

stalked, hairy ovary and threadlike style. 

The narrow fruits of pods (legumes) are straight, curved, or spirally coiled, 

with spongy sugary pulp, not splitting open. Each of the several, beanlike, flattened, 

shiny brown seeds is enclosed in a 4-angled nutlike case. 

222 


m .. mj q° v,. 

". .. 

• ar 

PO tk I \ 

t0 ~ 30 a 3 

Fig. 106. Global distribution of Prosopis (Simpson 1977). 

References 

Burkart, Arturo. 1976. A monograph of the genus Prosopis (Leguminosae 

subfam. Mimosoideae). Journalof the Arnold Arboretum 57: 219-249, 450-525, 

illus. 

National Academy of Sciences. 1979. Tropical Legumes: Resources for the 

Future. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA. 

Simpson, Beryl B., ed. 1977. Mesquite-Its Biology in Two Desert Scrub 

Ecosystems. Illus. US/IBP Synthesis Series. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 

Inc., Stroudsburg, Pa., USA. (maps used here). 

PROSOPIS 

223

KEY TO THE 7 PROSOPIS SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

Spines or prickles scattered along twigs; native of Old World. 

Shrub, mostly low; leaves with 3-7 pairs of side axes (pinnae); pods short, 

63. Prosopisfarcta. 

egg-shaped to cylindrical, appearing as if swollen ...... 

Small to medium-sized tree; leaves with 1-3 pairs of side axes (pinnae); pods 

very long and narrow, nearly cylindrical .......... 62. Prosopiscineraria. 

Spines at enlarged nodes of twigs, paired or single, sometimes none; native of 

New World. 

Spines paired at nodes, from stipules, enlarged and united at base and exaxes 

(pinnae); pods 

tending down twig; leaves with 1 pair of side 

cylindrical, swollen, curved into half or complete ring 

............... 66. Prosopistam arugo. 

.......................... 

Spines paired or single at nodes, sometimes none, not united at base: leaves 

mostly clustered on short knotty spurs, with 1-4 pairs of side axes (pinnae); 

pods long and narrow. 

Leaflets numerous, 25-50 pairs on each side axis, very narrow; pods very 

...................... 

60. Prosopis alba. 

flattened, curved or in a ring 

Leaflets mostly less than 15 pairs on each side axis; pods straight or slight. 

ly curved. 

Flower clusters much longer than leaves, slender; leaves with 2-4 pairs 

of side axes (pinnae); leaflets small, less than 8 mm long 

........................... 

65. Prosopis pallida. 

.............. 

Flower clusters about as long as leaves or shorter; leaves with mostly 1-2 

pairs of side axes (pinnae); leaflets more than 8 mm long. 

cm long, and 1-3 mm 

Leaflets scattered, relatively large, narrow, 1-4 

wide ................................... 

61. Prosopischilensis. 

mm long and 

Leaflets close together, relatively small and broad, 8-23 

2-5 mm wide ............................. 

64. Prosopisjuliflora. 

224 


60. Prosopis alba 

Botanical Name Prosopisalba Griseb. 

Common Names white algarrobo (English); algarrobo blanco (Spanish); el 

drbol, yana-tacu, tacu (Argentina); ibop6, ibop6.para. 


This South American tree has spines paired on twigs- leaves with 1-3 pairs of 

side axes (pinnac); numerous, very narrow leaflets, and long, narrow, flattened 

pods curved in a ring. Its valuable products include firewood, timber for 

construction and other uses, and pods for forage and human consumption. It is 

called "el Arbol" ("the tree") in northeastern Argentina because of its importance 

and abundance there. This is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Medium-sized, deciduous, spiny tree 5-15 (-18) m tall, with 

short trunk 40-70 cm, sometimes I m or more in diameter, often twisted, and 

broad rounded crown of many large branches. Bark gray to brown, with long 

furrows, thin. Twigs slender, drooping, with infrequent paired spines 2-4 cm 

long at enlarged nodes or leaf bases on vigorous twigs; some varieties thornless. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, hairless, with axis 0.5-8 cm long 

and 1-3 pairs of side axes (pinnae) 6-14 cm long. Leaflets numerous, 25-50 pairs 

on each side axis, stalkless, very narrow (linear), 5-17 mm long and 1-2 mm 

wide, short-pointed or blunt at tip, gray-green. 

Flower clusters (spikelike racemes) few at leaf bases, 7-11 cm long. Flowers 

many, crowded, almost stalkless, regular, greenish-white to yellowish, about 5 

mm long, composed of cuplike calyx 1mm long, corolla of 5 petals 3 mm long, 

10 separate threadlike stamens 4-5 mm long, and pistil with hairy ovary and 

slender style. 

Fruits or pods (legumes) beanlike, long, narrow, curved or in a ring, 12-25 

(-30) cm long, 11-20 mm wide, 4-5 mm thick, very flattened, long-pointed, 

light yellow, with sweetish pulp, not splitting open. Seeds 12-30, bean-shaped, 

oblong, flattened, each in 4-angled case. 

Wood with yellowish-white sapwood and heartwood rose-brown with 

streaks, turning dark brown. Modciately heavy to heavy (sp. gr. 0.75-0.85), 

nedium-textured, interlocked grain, semi-:ing-porous with large vessels and 

growth rings slightly distinguished. Difficult to work. Firewood an important 

use. Surpassed in calorific value by uly a few tree species. 

Other Uses One of thc most usetil woods in its range. Timber highly 

valued for construction, doors, window frames, benches, billiard cues, shoe 

lasts, pegs, barrel staves. A former us,.! was paving blocks. leartwood yields 

good-quality tannic acid for curing fine skins. 

Pods excellent forage for cattle and other animals. Algarroba flour from 

ground or milled pods made into baked goods. Jellies, paste, arrope (wine), 

aguardiente, vinegar are other food products. Trees cultivated to limited extent, 

especially for windbreaks and roadside planting; very drought-resistant. 

PROSOPIS ALBA 

225

Prosopis alba, left, flowering twig (Schimper 1908 after Hieronymus), fruit 

Fig. 107. 

(original); right, details of leaflets and flowers from type specimen (Burkhart 1940, fig. 

14). 

Central and northern Argentina, Paraguay, southern 


Bolivia, Peru. Native to plains or flatlands and low mruntains to 1000-1500 m altitude. 

Not widely introduced elsewhere; planted in Morocco. 

with 100-500 mm annual rainfall. 

Climate and Soils Arid subtropical 

with average winter temperature of 15°C. Withstands 

Species grown in areas 

salt. 

mild frosts but not frost-hardy. Thrives on sands with high clay content but tolerates 

some 

Variations There are variations, especially in size and shape of pods and 

leaflets. Some are thornless. One widespread variety, algarrobo panta or algarrobo 

impanta (Prosopis alba var. pantaGriseb.), has large, nearly straight pods to 

30 cm long. 

References 

monografla del g~nero Prosopis 

1950. Materiales para una 

Burkart, Arturo. 

here. 57-128, illus. (fig. 14, drawing photograph 

(Leguminosael. used Darwiniana4: 

Schimper, A. F. W. Pflanzen.Geographieauf PhysiologischerGrundlage. 2d ed. 

Illus. (fig. 256, drawing used here). 

Tortorelli, Lucas A. 1956. Maderasy bosques argentinos.Illus. 910 pp. Editorial 

Buenos Aires. (Prosopisalba, pp. 392-396). 

Acme, S.A.C.I., 

226 

0 

e 


b

61. Prosopis chilensis 

Botanical Name Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz 

Synonym Prosopissiliquastrum (Lag.) DC. 

Common Names ,lgarrobo de Chile, algarrobo blanco, algarrobo planta 

(Spanish); huarango (Peru); tcako, cupesi (Bolivia); algarrobo dulce, algarrobo 

de caballo (Chile); Arbol blanco (Argentina). 


This tree of Chile and adjacent countries has leaves with 1-3 (mostly 21 pairs 

of side axes (pinnae); scattered, relatively large leaflets to 4 cm long; and long, 

narrow, nearly straight pods. It is classed as one of the most drought-resistant 

and fast-growing species in the genus. However, the trees may become an 

areas. This is a fuelwood 

undesirable weed, especially in heavily grazed 


tree (3-18-15 m 

Description Small to medium-sized, deciduous, spiny 

high, larger with age, having short trunk to 70 cm in diameter ano thin, open, 

rounded crown. Twigs slender, enlarged at nodes. Paired, straight, spreading, 

leaf bases on vigorous shoots. Root system 

stout spines to 6 cm long at 

reportedly shallow and spreading. 

short spurs, bipinnately compound, 

Leaves alternate, mostly clustered on 

hairless or nearly so, with axis 1.5-12 cm long and 1-3 (mostly 2)pairs of side 

axis (pinnae) 8-24 cm long. Leaflets 10-29 pairs on each -id" axis, scattered and 

widely spaced, stalkless, very narrow (linear), relaiively large, 1-4 cm long, 1-3 

mm wide, pale green. 

Flower clusters (spikelike racemes) at leaf bases, 7-12 cm long, cylindrical. 

Flowers many (about 2501, crowded, short-stalked, greenish-white to 

yellowish, about 6 mm long, composed of cuplike calyx I mm long, corolla of 

5 petals 3mm long, hairy within, 10 separate threadlike stamens 5-6 mm long, 

and pistil with hairy ovary and threadlike style. 

nearly straight to slightly 

Fruits or pods (legumes) beanlike, long, narrow, 

curved, 12-20 cm long, 1-2 cm broad, 6 mm thick, flattened, light yellow, with 

sweetish pulp, not splitting open. Secds many, bean-shaped, oblong, 6-7 mm 

long, flattened, brown, each in 4-angled case. 

Wood with rich dark brown heartwood, often with purplish hue, heavy (sp. 

gr. 0.80-0.92), coarse-textured, irregularly grained, hard, strong, very resistant 

to decay. Easy to work, finishes smoothly, and takes a natural polish. Important 

locally for fuel. 

Pods a staple food for cattle in dry regions, can be ground into 

Other Uses 

meal for concentrated rations. Livestock browse foliage. Sweetish pods eaten 

and used to make a drink. Trees serve also for shade. 

Peru and Bolivia to central Chile and northwestern 


Argentina (provinces of Salta, Tucumdn, Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, 

San Luis, C6rdoba). Altitude to 2900 m in southern Peru. 

PROSOPIS CHILENSIS 

227

1 

Fig. 108. Prosopis chilensis IMunoz Pizarro 1959, p . 1321. 

228 

IN 


, 2' 

a 

' . 

I I 

40 I""o ... , ,'0 

. C4 i 

I U~iij 

) .' .1 I 

so 

4.: 

0 

O t ' 

BO0 km 

Fig. 109. Distribution of Prosopis chilensis In Peru, Bolivia, Argentina. and Chile (Simp. 

son 1977). 

PROSOPIS CHILENSIS 

so 

S" 

229

Introduced into semidesert regions of Africa. Use in reforestation has been 

tested in Chile, Argentina, and elsewhere. Thornless varieties planted as ornamentals 

in southwestern United States. 

Climate Semidesert subtropical with high temperatures. Plants withstand 

mild frosts. Rainfall where planted in Africa 200.400 mm with 8-11 dry 

months a year. 

Varieties Three named varieties differ mainly in shape and size of leaflets 

and pods. Selection for cultivation in this variable species has been suggested; 

for example, taller trunks, increased truit production, and absence of thorns. 

The nomenclature of Prosopis chilensis has been confused. The specific 

epithet was from Chile, and the type locality was in the vicinity of Santiago. 

This obscure older name was revived as a substitute for Prosopisjuliflorabut 

instead replaces Prosopis siliquastrum. Thus, some introductions under this 

name were Prosopisjuliflora. Others, for example, to Hawatii, were Prosopis 

pallida. 

References 

Mufioz Pizarro, Carlos. 1959. Sinopsis de la flora chilena. Illus. Ediciones de la 

Universidad de Chile. (Prosopischilensis, pp. 153, 252, pl. 132, drawing used 

here). 

Simpson, Beryl B., ed. 1977. Mesquite-Its Biology in Two Desert Scrub 

Ecosystems. Illus. US/IBP Synthesis Series. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 

Inc., Stroudsburg, Pa., USA. (map used here). 

230 


62. Prosopis cineraria 

Botanical Name Prosopiscineraria(L.) Druce 

Synonym Prosopisspicigera L. 

Common Names 

ghaf (Arabia). 

jand, khejiri, shami (India); thand, kandi, jandi (Pakistan); 


This hardy Old World tree has spines or prickles scattered along twigs, 

leaves with 1-3 pairs of side axes (pinnac), very long, narrow nearly cylindrical 

pods, and a large deep taproot. The excellent firewood is widely used in India. 

This fuelwood species is for arid and semiarid regions. 

These slow-growing trees reproduce by root suckers and coppice shoots as 

well as seeds. The deep saproots more than 3 in long reach the water table far 

below tile surface and obtaiai subsoil moisture. One taproot displayed at an exposition 

was 25 m long and had penetrated 19 m vertically. Thus, it is reported 

that crop plants may be grown near the trunks and that the canopy favors crop 

and range plants beneath. 

a serious 

If planted in humid regions, this thorny species might become 

weed. The specific name from Latin means "ashy-gray." 

5-9 m high, 

Description Small to medium-sized, deciduous, spiny tree 

with crooked trunk to 30 cm in diameter, thin open crown of many irregular 

branches, and large very deep taproot; leafless for short time before flowering 

or locally evergreen. Bark ash-gray, rough, thick, with deep long furrows and 

horizontal cracks. Twigs slender, gray, finely hairy when young, with gray 

spines or prickles to 8 mm long scattered in internodes (not at nodes and not 

paired), straight and pointing outward or slightly toward tip, with broad conical 

base. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, hairless or finely hairy, with axis 

0.5-4 cm long and 1-3 pairs of side axis (pinnae) 2-7 cm long. Leaflets 7-14 pairs 

on each side axis, stalkless, narrowly oblong, 4-15 mm long, 2-4.5 mm broad, 

straight or slightly curved, ending in short sharp point, with midvein on side 

and without side veins, gray-green. 

new leaves, several along stalk 

Flower clusters (spikelike racemes) after 'le 

at leaf base, 5-13 cm long. Flowers many, almost stalkless, small, 5 mm long, 

yellow, hairless; composed of short cuplike calyx 1mm long, corolla of 5 narback, 

10 separate, threadlike, 

row petals 3.5 mm long, becoming rolled 

spreading stamens 5 mm long, and pistil with cylindrical hairless ovary, long 

threadlike style, and (lot stigma. 

nearly 

Fruits or pods (legumes) short-stalked, beanlike, very long, narrow, 

cylindrical, 8-19 cm long, 4-7 mm diameter, slightly nai rowed between seeds, 

with thin brittle wall and mealy sweetish pulp, not splitting 

long-pointed, 

open. Seeds several, bean-shaped, 6 mm long, flattened. 

Wood with thick whitish sapwood and smaller irregular masses of purplish- 

PROSOPIS CINERARIA 

231

Fig. 110. I'rosopis cineraria(Beddorne 1869-74, pl. 56). 

brown heartwood, heavy (sp. gr. 1.15), fine-textured, straight-grained, with 

small to medium-sized pores and growth rings, very hard, tough. Easy to work 

but not durable, susceptible to dry rot and insects. An excellent fuelwood, 

preferred locally for cooking ?nd heating. Used also in locomotives and 

steamers. Produces high-quality charcoal. 

232 


Other Uses Wood used for house construction, posts, tool handles, boat 

frames, and occasionally for furniture, though trunks often have poor form. 

Gum exuding from wounds in bark not used. 

. Pods valued for fodder or forage. Branches also cut or lopped for forage. 

Species locally classed among the best browse plants for cattle, sheep, goats, 

camels. Mealy nutritious pulp of immature pods high in protein, can be 

ground and eaten raw or boiled to enrich the diet. 

Natural Distribution Arid regions of southwestern Asia from northwestern 

India (Punjab, West Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh) to dry parts 

of central a.nd southern India, also Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Arabia. At low 

altitudes. Not widely introduced elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Dry tropical with long dry seasons and hot winds. 

Plants withstand both slight frost J-6°C minimuml and high temperatures 

140.50 0 C maximum). Annual rainfall 75-850 nn. Soils vary from alluvial and 

coarse sands often alkaline (as high as pH 9.8) to moderately saline, dry stony, 

and black cotton soil. 

Species scattered in rocky uplands or found pure or mixed with other 

species in open groves in the tropical thorn forest. Where rainfall is less than 

250 mam, plants confined to streams. 

Reference 


Madras. (Prosopisspicigera,pl. 56, drawing used here). 

PROSOPIS CINERARIA 

233

63. Prosopis farcta 

Botanical Name Prosopisfarcia (Soland. ex Russell) Macbr. 

Synonyms Prosopis stephaniana (M. Bieb.) Kunth ex Spreng., Lagonychium 

farclum (Soland. ex Russell) E. G. Bobrov 

Common Names acatia, schamuth (Arabic); kharnub, shok (Iraq); tofshandrnaq 

(eastern Caucasia); rnimozka (Russian); aqool (Egypt). 


This species is commonly a low shrub with spines or prickles scattered along 

3-7 pairs of side axes (pinnae), and short, egg-shaped, 

twigs, leaves with 

Old World species occupies large barren areas, 

swollen pods. This hardy 

where it is prized for firewood. It is classed as both a very important plant and 

a noxious wecd. The plants spread into wheat and cotton fields by root sprouts 

and thus bccome undesirable weeds. This is a fuelwood species for arid and 


Prosopisfarcta is sometimes placed alone in a distinct genus because of its 

short "swollen" or "fat" pods, not flattened. The specific name, meaning 

"stuffed, filled, or solid with soft tissue," refers to this character. A variety is 

hairless throughout. 

or 

Description Low straggling or prostrate deciduous shrub, spiny 

prickly, 30-100 cm high (sometimes 2-3 m or more) ruported to become taller 

and vinelike to 8-10 m, very branched, with thick, reddish, deep taproot 

spreading from root sprouts. Bark whitish-gray. Youig twigs slender, whitish, 

or 

with dense short hairs, scattered straight or slightly curved short spines 

prickles in internodes, sometimes at base of leaf but not paired, to 5 mm long 

and broad at base. Older twigs grayish or whitish, hairless, ridged, often crack. 

ed. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, mostly finely hairy, with axis 1-3 

cm long and with 3-7 pairs of side axes (pinnae) 1-2 cm long. Leaflets 8-15 pairs 

mm long, 1-2 mm 

on each side axis, stalkless, small, narrowly oblong, 2-6 

wide, gray-grecn. 

leaf base, longer than leaves, cylindrical, 

Flower clusters (racemes) 1 at 

hairless. Flowers many, short-stalked, 4-5 mm long, hairless; composed of 

long, corolla of 5 narrow, hairless, 

greenish cuplike 5-toothed calyx 1 mm 

mm long, 10 separate threadlike spreading stamens 

cream-coloied petals 3-5 

4-6 nun long, and pistil with narrow hairless ovary and slender style. 

Fruits or pods (legumes) short-stalked, short, egg-shaped to cylindrical, 

1.5-4.5 cm long, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, slightly curved or straight, appearing 

as if swollen and deformed, blunt or short-pointed, hairless, shiny, smooth, 

orange-red, becoming purplish, dark brown or black, with thin wall and dry, 

mealy or spongy pulp, not splitting open. Seeds many, flattened in 2 rows, 

bean-shaped, rounded, 7-8 mm long, brownish. 

234 


Fig. III. Prosopis farctla (Townsend and Evan Guest 1974, pl. 71. 

PROSOPIS FARCTA 

.( 

235

Wood of this low shrub available in small sizes. Obviously prized for 

firewood where larger woody plants are absent. Taproots as much as 5 m deep 

apparently contain more wood than the branches. 

Other Uses This hardy shrub is browsed by sheep, goats, cattle, and 

camels. Livestock eat the pods and scatter the seeds but feed on the foliage 

only when young, because of the spiny branches. Listed as a good honey plant 

but suspected of causing hay fever. The roots and pods contain tannin. 

Natural Distribution North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria-rare, Egypt) and 

southwestern Asia including Cyprus, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, 

Causia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (Punjab). Altitude from sea level to 1900 

mn. 

In Iraq this species formerly grew in dense impenetrable thickets more than 

2 m high, providing shelter for abundant wildlife. However, those thickets 

mostly destroyed by fuel gatherers, who continually cut plants back to the 

ground. Plants seldom grow higher than 0.5 m before cutting. In Egypt often 

grow hidden in sand with only the pods exposed. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid and desert, with low rainfall. :..apted to deep 

alluvial soils, espec'ally with shallow water table, but common on dry clay. 

Also on saline soils, sandy hillsides and dunes, and red marl banks. 

Widely distributed and common on dry plains, foothills, mountains, river 

valleys, seashores. Also around canals and wells. Covers immense tracts of 

barren land. 

Reference 

Townsend, C. C., and Evan Guest, 1974. Floraof Iraq. Prosopisfarcta, 3: 38.42, 

illus. (pl. 7, drawing used here). 

236 


64. Prosopis juliflora 

Botanical Name Prosopisjuliflora (Sw.) DC. 

Common Names mesquite (English); cashaw (Jamaica); algarrobo, algarroba 

(Spanish); mezquite (Mexico); carb6n (Central America); catzimec 

(Guatemala); espino ruco (Honduras); acacia de Catarina (Nicaragua); armo, 

espino montreno (Costa Rica); armo, herrero (Panama); trupillo cuji (Colombia); 

cuji, yaque (Venezuela); sudjoe (Dutch West Indies); vilayati kikar, 

kabuli kikar, vilayati babul (India). 


The common species of lProopisin Mexico, Central America, and northern 

South America has leaves with 1-2 (sometimes 3), pairs of side axes (pinnae), 

relatively small and broad leaflets, and long, narrow, nearly straight pods. It 

has been widely introduced into other tropical regions for fuel and other uses. 

It is a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid regions. 

Description Small to medium-sized evergreen or deciduous spiny tree 

3-12 m high, with short crooked trunk and thin, open, flat-topped or rounded 

crown of spreading or slightly drooping branches, with deep taproot; 

sometimes a shrub. Bark dark brown or gray, furrowed, shedding in strips. 

Twigs with paired or single stout, straight, spreading spines to 5 cm long, 

sometimes none. 

Leaves alternate, mostly clustered on short spurs, bipinnately compound, 

hairless or slightly hairy, with axis 0.5-7.5 cm long and 1-2 (sometimes 3), pairs 

of side axes (pinnac) 3-11 cm long. Leaflets mostly 11-15 (6-29) pairs on each 

side axis, close together, stalkless, elliptically oblong, thin, mostly blunt at tip, 

8-23 mm long, 2-5 mm wide, green or pale green. 

Flowerclusters (spikelike racemes) at leaf bases, 7-15 cm long, cylindrical. 

Flowers many, short-stalked, greenish-white to light yellow, 6-8 mm long, 

composed of cuplike calyx I mm long, corolla of 5 petals 3 mm long, hairy 

within, 10 separate threadlike stamens 6-8 mm long, and pistil with hairy 

ovary and threadlike style. 

Fruits or pods (legumes) beanlike, long, narrow, nearly straight to slightly 

curved, 8-25 cm long, 9-17 mm wide, 4-8 mm thick, flattened, long- or shortpointed, 

light yellow to brown, with sweetish pulp, not splitting open. Seeds 

many, bean-shaped, oblong, 5 mm long, flattened, brown, each in 4-angled 

case. 

Wood brown with yellowish sapwood, hard, heavy (sp. gr. 0.70 or higher), 

durable. Excellent for firewood and makes superior charcoal. Has high heat 

value, burns slowly and evenly, and holds heat well. 

Other Uses Wood used for fenceposts, door and window frames, and 

other light carpentry. Gum exudes from the trunk. Pods eaten by livestock; 

may be ground into flour for human consumption. Flowers a source of honey. 

This species is cultivated for firewood, timber, shade, and forage in very dry 

PROSOPISJULIFLORA 

237

1 

Fig. 112. Prosopisjuiflrz, lSvenson 1946, p . 1t). 

Plants grow fast and coppice readily. 

areas where other species not successful. 

invade lands and baeconmc an undcsirable weed difficult to 

However, may 

cradicate. 

Natural Distribution Native from Mexico 

through Central America to 

Panama and northern South America in Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador to 

to 1500 nm. 

Galaipagos Islands. Altitude from sea level 

238 


Introduced widely into tropical regions, for example, in West Indies, north 

eastern Brazil, Africa, Asia. Brought to India more than 100 years ago for 

stabilizing dunes and for fuel. 

Climate and Soils Semidesert tropical with high temperatures, ho. and 

dry. Annual rainfall 150-750 miml. Soils vary from sandy and saline beaches to 

sand dunes, rocky slopes, and lava fields. 

Related Species This tropical species is very closely related to Prosopis 

chilensis, a subtropical species, and at onet line was united under that name. 

The name t osopis julilor ihas heen applied also to plants now referred to 

other species, for example, i'ospis glatidulosa and I'rospis veltina in 

southwestern United States. Thus, sone introdloctios may he mislabeled. 

The botanical type specimen of PIosi pis julilT,,rat caine fromn Jamaica, where 

the species was introduced from the continent more than two centuries ago. 

The specific name means "catkii-flowered" and describes the narrow cylin 

drical flower clusters in this genus. Two varieties have been namled, one 

spineless and the other with large, stout, paired spines. 

Two additional related species listed below are native at the northern limit 

Of tile genus illn,it hwestern United States and northern Nexico and are frosthardy. 

Their wood including the large taproots is prized for fuel. 

-prosopis ghinduosa 'iorr., honey mesquite, is a thicket-fornling shrub or 

small tree to 6 illhigh and 30 cm in trunk diamelitter,. Leaves with I pair of side 

axes (pinnael and 7-17 pairs of relatively large leaflets 1-3co long. Species has 

extended its range in southwestern Uniled States from Texas to California 

northward more than 2t00 killinto southwestern Kansas. Withstanding winter 

temperatures as low its- 20"C, it is available for warn temperate regions. 

I lowever, it has spread as an undesirable weed on range lands and has been 

eradicated over large portions of Texas. 

-i'ros pis velutina Woot., velvet mesquite, is a mleditml-sized tree 6.12 m 

high with trunk 30-60co in diameter and with hairy or velvety twigs, leaflets, 

and pods. Leaves with 1-2 pairs of side axes (pinoae) and 15-20 pairs of small 

leaflets 6-12 mll long. This subtropical species, native from northwestern 

Mexico (Sonora) north to central Arizona, withstands some freezing 

temnperatures. 

References 

Burkart, Arturo. 1940. Materiales para una monografia del g~nero Prosopis 

ILeguminosac). Darwiniana 4: 57-128, illus. (Prosopis juliflora, pl. 22, 

photograph of type, used here). 

Svenson, I lenry K. 1946. AmericanJournal ofBotany 33: 451-453 (pl. 11, drawing 

used here). 

I'ORSOPISJULIFLORA 

239

65. Prosopis paflida 

Botanical Name Pros,)pis pallida (H. &B. ex Willd.) H.B.K. 

Synonym Prosopis lininszs Benth. 

Names mesquite (English); algarrobo, algarroba (Spanish); 

Common 

huarango (Peru); bayahondA (Puerto Rico); kiawe (Hawaii). 


This hardy tree of the dry Pacific coastal region of South America has flower 

clusters much longer than its leaves, leaves with 2-4 pairs of side axes (pinnae), 

long, and long, narrow, nearly straight pods. 

small leaflets less than 8 mm 

The wood has various 

uses in addition to firewood and charcoal, and the 

pods are valuable forage for livestock. Prosopispallida is one of the most useful 

hntroduced trees of Hawaii, occupyirg dry barren lands. 

This species was long known in both Hawaii and Puerto Rico as Prosopis 

julilloraand for a shorter time as Prosopischilensis, when the latter, older name 

introductions under 

was thought to represent the same species. Thus, some 

may refer to Prosopispallida. The specific name refers to the 

those names 

a fuelwood species for arid and 

pallid or pale gray-green foliage. This is 


Description Small to medium-sized deciduous tree 8-20 m high, usually 

spiny, with irregular short trunk to 60 cm in diameter, often angled and fluted, 

twisted, crooked, with widely forking branches, and with broad spreading, 

very thin, often flat-lopped crown. Bark gray-brown, finely fissured or deeply 

hairless, 

furrowed, inner bark orange-brown, fibrous, bitter. Twigs green, 

slightly zigzag, some enlarged nodes or leaf bases with 1-2 spreading spines to 

3 cm long; some trees without spines. 

Leaves alternate on long twigs or mostly clustered on short spurs, bipinnatelong 

and 2-4 pairs of side 

ly compound, often finely hairy, with axis 1-4 cm 

axes (pinnae)2-6 cm long. Leaflets 6-15 pairs on each side axis, stalkless, small, 

mm long, 1-3 mm wide, rounded at tip, dull light green. 

narrowly oblong, 3-8 

leaf bases, much longer than 

Flower cluslers (spikelike racemes) few at 

long, 1.5 cm wide, cylindrical, finely hairy. Flowers many 

leaves, 8-15 cm 

(200-250), crowded, short-stalked, light yellow, about 6 mm long, composed of 

cuplike, green, 5-toothed calyx I mm long, corolla of 5 narrow petals 3 mm 

long, hairy within, 10 separate threadlike stamens 6 mm long, and pistil with 

narrow hairy ovary, curved threadlike style, and dot stigma. 

pods (legumes) short-stalked, beanlike, long, narrow, nearly 

Fruits or 

cm wide, and 5-9 mm thick, slightly flattened, 

st: aight, 8-25 cm long, 1-1.5 

brown, with whitish slightly sweet pulp, not 

long-pointed, light yellow or 

splitting open. Seeds 10-30, bean-shaped, oblong and slightly flattened, 6 mm 

long, shiny light brown, each within whitish 4-angled case. 

Wood dark reddish-brown with thin light yellow sapwood, very heavy (sp. 

240 


Fig, 113, Prosopls pallida (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

gr. 0.85), extremely harJ, tough, strong, easy to work. Heartwood very resistant 

to decay and durable in the ground but susceptible to attack by drywood 

termites. Most common uses are firewood, charcoal, and fenceposts. Wood 

has high calorific value and makes charcoal of high quality. 

Other Uses Used for crossties, piling, rural carpentry, vehicle parts, furniture. 

Bark has been employed in tanning. A gum exuding from trunk has 

served for glue and varnish. Used in Hawaii for cement floats, mallets, and 

heavy rifle stocks for match shooting. 

Pods a valuable forage for cattle and other livestock. Foliage reportedly 

browsed also. Sweetish edible pods added to soups and corn meal, made into 

PROSOPIS PALLIDA 

241

Presence of Prosopis patlida in Puerto Rican municipalities (with numbers) 

Fig. 114. 

(Little and Wadsworth 19641. 

various drinks. Flowers, though 

sweet syrup ("algarrobina"l used to prepare 

not fragrant, attract bees and are a source of honey and beeswax. 

Trees have been planted for shade and ornament. Suitable for afforestation, 

preespecially 

in hot dry regions of high salinity. Thornless variations are 

systems and may be uprooted during 

ferred. The trees have shallow root 

could spread from cultivation where not 

storms. This species, like others, 

wanted and become an undesirable weed. 

region of Ecuador and Peru. 

Natural Distributtion Dry Pacific coastal 

level to 300 

Also inland Colombia, apparently introduced. Altitude from sea 

ml. 

Puerto Rico, other tropical areas. 

Introduced and naturalized in Hawaii, 

Cultivated also in India, Australia, Africa, elsewhere. 

Annual rainfall 

Semiarid tropical with long dry season. 


250.1250 ram. Survives light frosts. Grows on various soil types from coastal 

sands to old lava flows and clays and is tolerant to salt. 

A dominant species in the dry coastal regions of southwestern Ecuador and 

northwestern Peru. In Hawaii, where known as kiawe, this species introduced 

tree in lowland dry zone from 

in 1828 is now established as the most common 

sea level to about 600 in altitude, covering more than 36,000 ha of barren soils. 

Reference 

Little, Eiert L., Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto 

Rico and the Virgin Islands. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Ser- 

USA. 

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 

vice, United States 

(Prosopisjulifora,pp. 166-168, drawing used here). 

242 


66. Prosopis tamarugo 

BotanicalName ProsopistanarugoF.Philippi 

Common Name tamarugo 


Tamarugo grows under extreme conditions in salt desert plains of northern 

Chile, where it is the only tree and only forage plant. In a government desert 

areas have been converted into open 

reforestation project there, large desert 

forests of tamarugo. This transformation has been called a miracle. The planta 

tion supports sheep and goats. The trees reproduce naturally from seed and 

10im 

coppice readily. Rate of growth is very slow, but a height as much as 

after 15 years has been reported. If introduced into more favorable climates 

a noxious 

elsewhere, this species might spread out of control and become 

weed. 

paired spines (stipules) enlarged and 

Distinguishing characters include 

united at base and extending down twig, leaves with 1pair of side axes (pinnae), 

and cylindrical pods curved into half or complete ring. This is a fuelwood 


Description Medium-sized deciduous spiny tree 8-15 (-18) m high and 80 

Twigs slender, angled, with 

cm in trunk diameter, with thin open crown. 

paired, straight, stout spines (stipules) 5-38 mm long at many nodes or leaf 

bases, enlarged and united at base and extending down twig. Taproot long, to 6 

m,fast-growing, with dense mat of side roots. 

Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound, small, hairless, with leafstalk 3 

mm long and 1pair of side axes (pinnae) 3-4 cm long. Leaflets 10-15 pairs on 

mm long, blunt at tip. 

each side axis, scattered, very narrow (linear), 4-8 

cm long, cylindrical. Flowers 

Flower clusters (spikes) at leaf bases, 3.5-6.5 

many, crowded, stalkless, golden yellow, composed of calyx 1.5 mm long, co 

mm 

at tips within, 10 separate 

rolla of 5 united petals 4-5 long, hairy 

threadlike stamens, and pistil with hairy ovary. 

Fruits or pods (legumes) beanlike, cylindrical, 2-5 cm long, 7-10 mm thick, 

swollen, slightly narrowed between seeds, light yellow or light brown, often 

curved into half or complete ring 2-3.5 cm in diameter, with brownish pulp, 

not splitting open. Seeds several in 2 rows, bean-shaped, oblong, 3-4 mm long, 

flattened, brown. 

very hard, 

Wood dark reddish with yellowish-red sapwood, very heavy, 

to work. Produces first class firewood and charcoal and 

resistant, difficult 

burns well. 

Other Uses Reportedly used also for furniture, though rather heavy, and 

for construction. The only available timber, firewood, and forage over large 

desert expanses. 

PROSOPIS TAMARUGO 

243

Fig. 115. Prosopistamarugo, left, photograph of type specimen, right, details of fruits 

and seeds lBurkart 1940, pl. 7 and fig. 4 a.d). 

Sheep and goats eat fallen pods and leaves and occasionally browse young 

shoots within reach. Pods must be thoroughly leached before suitable for 

human consumption. 

northern desert provinces of 

Natural Distribution Northern Chile, 

Tarapacii, southern Arica and Antofagasta, and northern Chuquicamata, a 

region known as Pampa del Tamarugal (from the common name of this tree). 

This inland salt desert is about 300 km long, 40 km wide, and has a total area 

of roughly 15,000 km'. Altitude about 1000-1500 m. 

244 

C( 


- 

- U lBOLIVIA 

Pam 

J 

0a to. 

W, 19AR110O ANTAAICO 

Fig. 116. 

Northern half of range of Prosopislamarugo (Contreras 1978). 

PROSOPISTAMARUGO 

I- 

245

This species apparently was more widespread and more common in the undisturbed 

vegetation. Natural woodlands are very scattered or devastated, 

because of heavy cutting and destruction. In the early 1900s the nitrate industry 

used wood extensively for construction and fuel. The only tree on arid 

mesas of Tarapaci. 

Climate and Soils Desert, very dry, sometin es without rain for years. 

Annual rainfall as low as 10 mm or none, sometimes to 70 mm or up to 200 

mm. However, at night there is high relative humidity condensed as dew and 

rare fogs ("camanchacas"}. Then plants absorb moisture through leaves and 

transport it for storage in the roots and reportedly also in the soil. Mean annual 

temperature 261C. Great temperature ranges, from - 12'C to 361C, with great 

daily variation. Soils salty sands or clay loams, sometimes with salt incrustation 

10-60 cm thick at surface. Water table may exceed depth of 20 m. 

References 

Burkart, Arturo. 1940. Materiales para una monografla del gdnero Prosopis 

(Leguminosae). Daniniana 4: 57-128, illus. (fig. 4, pl. 7, drawing, 

photograph used here). 

Contreras, David. 1978. Estado actual de conocimiento del tamarugo (Prosopis 

tanarugo Phil.). Illus. 23 pp. Organizaci6n de las Naciones Unidas para la 

Agricultura y la Alimentaci6n, Santiago, Chile. (map used here). 

246 


67. Psidium guajava 

Botanical Name Psidium guajava L. 

Names guava, common guava (English); guayaba, guayabo, 

Common 

(Spanish); guayaba perulera (Nicaragua); guayabo dulce 

guayava 

(Colombia); guayabillo (Peru); arazii.puitA (Argentina); goyave, goyavier 

(French); yaba, goeajaaba (Dutch West Indies); guave, goejaba (Suriname): 

goiaba, goiabiera (Brazil); mpera (Tanzania); amrud (Pakistan); amrud, 

koiya (Sri Lanka); jambu batu (Malaysia); bayabas 

goaachhi (India); pera, 

(Philippines); banjiro (Okinawa); kuawa (Hawaii). 


Guava is extensively cultivated and naturalized through the tropics for its 

rounded yellow edible fruits from which paste and jelly are made. It is a good 

firewood source because of its abundance, natural propagation, and classificaweed. 

Psidium guajava is identified by the smooth, 

tion as an undesirable 

oblong, dull green leaves with many sunken parallel side veins, and by the 

large white flowers with 4 or 5 petals mostly single at leaf bases. 

The hardy trees invade pastures as troublesome weeds. Even in densely 

populated and urban areas, the plants continue to spread. Firewood cutting 

of sprouts or suckers. Natural 

causes excessive propagation by formation 

reproduction is good from the abundant seeds scattered by livestock and 

rate is exwildlife. 

Fruit varieties are propagated by root cuttings. Growth 

a site with full 

cellent, and the plants coppice readily. The trees can occupy 

sunlight and can withstand partial shading. Control is difficult, even with herbicides. 

This species has been declared a noxious weed in at least one country. 

for the humid tropics. 

Thus, guava is a good firewood source 

to 

The genus Psidium has about 150 species of trees and shrubs native 

tropical America including I in southern Florida. This late Latin name for the 

pomegranate was adopted by Carolus Linnaeus. The specific name is from the 

Spanish guayaba. 

Description Evergreen shrub or small tree 3-10 m high, with trunk to 20 

cm in diameter and broad spreading crown, often branching near ground and 

producing sprouts from nearby roots. Bark distinctive, brown, smooth, thin, 

peeling off in thin sheets, exposing greenish-brown inner layers; inner bark 

brown, slightly bitter. Twigs 4-angled and slightly winged when young, hairy, 

green, becoming brown. 

or paired, with short broad leafstalks of 3-6 mm. Blades 

Leaves opposite 

oblong or elliptical, 5-10 cm long and 2.5-5 cm wide, short-pointed or rounded 

at both ends, slightly thickened and leatnery, with edges turned under. Upper 

dull or slightly shiny, almost hairless at masurface 

green or yellow-green, 

turity, with many sunken parallel side veins; lower surface paler, finely hairy, 

with side veins raised, and with tiny gland-dots visible under a lens. 

Flowers mostly 1 (sometimes 2-4), scattered at leaf bases on stalks of 2-2.5 

PSIDIUM GUAJAVA 

247

Fig. 117. Psidium guajava (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 195). 

cm, white, fragrant, about 4 cm across. Green, finely hairy, tubular base 

(hypanthium) 10 mm long and broad encloses the ovary and bears the other 

parts; calyx of 4-5 yellow-green, rounded, slightly thickened, finely hairy 

lobes 10-15 mm long; 4-5 elliptical rounded white petals 16-19 mm long; very 

many spreading, threadlike, white stamens; and pistil with inferior 4-5-celled 

ovary and slender style. 

Fruits (berries) variable, rounded or sometimes pear-shaped, yellow, 3-5 cm. 

248 


•in diameter and to 7.5 cm long, smooth or slightly rough, with 4-5 calyx lobes 

remaining at top, with strong mellow odor, sweetish and edible; outer layer 

thin, yellow, slightly sour or sweet; juicy pinkish or yellow pulp. Seeds many, 

mm long, yellow. Flowering and fruiting nearly 

elliptical, more than 3 

throughout the year. 

Sapwood light brown, and heartwood brown or reddish. Wood moderately 

hard, heavy lsp. gr. 0.8), and strong. Wood makes excellent firewood and charcoal; 

quantities widely available as trees become abundant, propagate naturally, 

and spread as undesirable weeds. 

Used for tool handles, implements, and fenceposts. Common- 

Other Uses 

ly cultivated through the topics for the edible fruits, which have been improved 

by selection. Fruits, unusually rich in vitamin C, eaten raw, though outer 

pulp is thin and inner is many-seeded. Guava paste, jelly, preserves, and juice 

made from dehydrated fruits. Several hor 

also prepared; guava powder 

ticultural varieties have been ipi-iiied. 

N,tive of tropical America, probably from southern 


Mexico to South America. Altitudinal range from sea level probably high into 

tropical mountains. 

Range greatly extended by cultivation as a fruit tree through tropical and 

subtropical regions of the world. Also widely naturalized as a weed. 

Indians in many parts of the West Indies were growing improved forms at 

the time of the discovery of the New World, according to a report by Oviedo in 

1526. This species was introduced early by Spanish into the Philippines and by 

Portuguese to India. Then it spread through the tropics and has become 

in many countries and considered a weed. Now widespread in 

naturalized 

parts of southern Africa. Thoroughly naturalized in Hawaii and southern 

Florida; grown also in California. 

natural range humid and subhumid 

Climate and Soils Within the 

-5 0 C. 

frost but withstands temperatures down to 

tropical. Susceptible to 

mam. A dry season may aid 

Growth good with annual rainfall of about 1000 

fruit maturation. Soils vary widely, including slightly to strongly acid. 

References 


no. 249. Forest Service, 

Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook 

IPsidium 


guajava, pp. 416-417, drawing used here). 

Ruehle, G. D. 1948. The common guava-a neglected fruit with a promising 

future. Economic Botany 2: 306-325, illus. 

PSIDIUM GUAJAVA 

249

68. Robinia pseudoacacia 

Botanical Names Robinia pseudoacacia L. 

Common Names black locust, yellow locust, locust, false acacia, robinia 

(English). 

Legume Family, Leguminosae (Faboideae or Papilionoideae) 

Black locust of tile eastern United States is cited under tropical highlands in 

the Master List of Firewood Species in Firewood Crops and is added here. This 

temperate zone tree produces excellent firewood and charcoal and has been 

introduced into many parts of the world. It is easily identified by the paired 

brown spines along twigs; pinnately compound leaves with 7-19 elliptical dull 

blue-green leaflets having a tiny bristly tip; clusters of showy, pea.shaped, 

white flowers; and narrowly oblong, Ilat, thin pods. 

This species forms the black locust forest cover type, which is spotty but 

widespread, for example, as a pioneer on old fields, burned areas, and lands 

strip-mined for coal. Black locust is a minor component of other forest cover 

types with oaks (Quercus) and other hardwoods and in mixed stands with 

pines (Pinus). 

Black locust grows rapidly but is short-lived. Natural reproduction commonly 

is by root sprouts or suckers, which spread onto bare areas. The number of 

sprouts can be increased by injury to the plant or root system. Seed crops often 

are heavy, but germination of untreated seeds in nature is poor. Propagation is 

by planted seedlings, direct seeding, transplanting sprouts, and cuttings. 

This species is intolerant of shade and is shallow-rooted without a taproot. 

As a legume it increases nitrogen content of the soil by nitrogen-fixing bacteria 

on root nodules and by decomposition of leaf litter. 

Robinia pseudoacacia var. rectissimta Raber, shipmast locust, a clone of 

unknown origin, has become established in northeastern United States, mainly 

New England. It has a straighter trunk and greater resistance to insect 

borers and decay. Propagation is by vegetative nieans. 

Robinia commemorates Jean Robin (1550-1629) and his son Vespasian Robin 

(1579-1662), herbalists to French kings and introducers of this species to 

Europe. The genus has about 10 species of trees and shrubs, all in the United 

States except 1confined to Mexico. The specific name, an old generic name, 

means "false Acacia." 

Description Deciduous, spiny, medium-sized tree 15 m high, with forking, 

slightly angled trunk 30 cm in diameter, often crooked, and irregular open 

crown of upright branches; rarely a large tree to 30 in and 60 cm in diameter. 

Bark light gray, thick, deeply furrowed into long rough forking ridges. Twigs 

stout, slightly zigzag, angled, becoming hairless, often with paired stout brown 

spines 6-25 nn (from stipules) at nodes. Buds few together in leaf scar, tiny, 

brownish, hairy; no end bud. 

Leaves spreading in 2 rows, alternate, pinnately compound, 15-30 cm long. 

250 


Fig. 118. Robinia pseudoacacia (lllick 1925, pl. 97). 

ROBINIA PSEUDOACACIA 

251

L 

Fig. 119. Distribution of Rohinia pseudcIcacic 

A 

in eastern United States (Fowells 1965). 

Leaflets 7-19, paired except at end, nearly stalkless, elliptical, 2.5.5 cm long, 

13-19 mm wide, rounded at ends with tiny bristle tip, edges not toothed, hairy 

when young, dull blue-green and hairless upper surface, pale and hairless or 

nearly so underneath, folding at night. 

Flower clusters iracemes) 10-20 cm long, unbranched, drooping at base of 

leaves. Flowers many, showy, very fragrant, pea-shaped, 2 cm long, composed 

of cup-shaped 5-toothed calyx greenish tinged with red, corolla of 5 unequal 

white petals, the largest petal yellow near base, 9 stamens united into tube and 

ovary, several ovules, hairy 

I mostly separate, and pistil with long narrow 

bent style, and lot stigma. 

Pods (legumes) few, narrowly oblong, flat, thin, dark brown, hairless, 5-10 

long, remaining attached, splitting open. Seeds 3.10, beanlike, flattened, 

cm 

dark brown, reported to be poisonous. 

with narrow yellowish or 

Wood greenish-yellow to golden (lark brown 

whitish sapwood, fine-textured, ring-porous with distinct growth rings, very 

252 

COMMON FUELWOOi) CHOPS

heavy (sp. gr. 0.73), very hard, very strong, stiff. Durable heartwood has high 

decay resistance. One of the hardest and heaviest commercial woods in the 

United States. Excellent for firewood and charcoal. Burns like coal, with 

bright blue flame. 

Other Uses Used principally for fenceposts, mine timbers, flooring, furniture, 

vehicles, woodenware and novelties, railroad crossties, boxes, crates, 

skates. The main wood for insulator pins of utility poles. 

Trees planted extensively for shade, ornament, shelterbelts, wildlife cover, 

and erosion control, for example, on land strip-mined for coal and on coastal 

and sand dunes. Flowers produce good honey. Leaves have served as fodder 

but may be toxic in quantity. 

Natural Distribution Native in eastern United States in Appalachian 

Mountain and Ozark Mountain regions; the original range not accurately 

known. Altitude from about 150 in to more than 1000 m. 

Now widely planted and naturalized across the United States and southern 

Canada. Introduced and naturalized in many parts of the world, including 

semiarid regions, such as Israel and Cyprus. 

Climate and Soils Moist or humid temperate with hot summers and cold 

winters. Classed in plant hardiness zone 3, with average annual minimum 

temperatures as low as -34'C to -40 0 C and frost-free periods of 140-220 

days. Annual precipitation, including snowfall, more than 1000 mm in the 

native home, well distributed. Can be planted where total as low as 300-400 

mm, with dry periods of 2-6 months. Soils varied, including silt loams, sandy 

loams, and those from limestone and from acid to alkaline. Slow growth on 

poor sites with wet clays and coarse sands. 

References 

Fowells, H. A. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the UnitedStates. Illus. Agriculture 

Handbook no. 271. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 

Washington, D.C., USA. (Robi, ia pseudoacacia,pp. 641-648, map used here). 

Illick, Joseph S. 1925. Pennsylvania trees. 5th ed. Illus. 237 pp. Pennsylvania 

Department of Forests and Waters Bulletin 11. (Robiniapseudoacacia,p. 187, 

pl. 97, drawing used here). 

United States Forest Service. 1971. Black locust. American woods, FS-244. Illus. 

6 pp. United States Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C., USA. 

ROBINIA PSEUDOACACIA 

253

,59. Sesbania bi3pinosa 

Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W. F. Wight 


Synonym Sesbania aculeata (Wilid.) Poir. 

Names dhaincha, prickly sesban (English); dhaincha (India); 

Common 

jantar (Pakistan). 

Legumne Family, Leguminosae (Faboideae or Papilionolideae) 

Dhaincha is a fast-growing annual prickly shrub or herb cultivated as an important 

leguminous green manure crop, fodder, and firewood, especially in Inand 

grow rapidly. 

dia. The plants are easily established by direct seeding 

they can become noxious weeds in rice paddies. The tree is 

However, 

green stems, twigs with scattered tiny 

characterized by slender rodlike 

leaves with many small narrowly oblong 

prickles, pinnately compound 

leaflets, pale yellow pea-shaped flowers, and very long narrow pods. This is a 

fuelwood species for the humid tropics. 

50 species of herbs, shrubs, and small trees in tropical 

Sesbania has about 

The generic name is Latinized from Persian and 

and subtropical regions. 

names. The specific name, meaning "2-spined," refers to the prickles. 

Arabic 

Description Annual, soft-wooded, prickly shrub or herb woody at base, 

spreading and very branched or in crowded stands tall and straight, with green 

i), and few branches, fastslender 

rodlike stem 2-2.5 m high (somet'mes to 4 

growing, with taproot and many laterals. Twigs and often leaf axls rough with 

scattered tiny prickles, angled, hairless. 

cm long, axis with tiny 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, 10-25 

20-40 pairs, almost stalkless, narrowly 

prickles beneath, hairless. Leaflets 

oblong, blunt at ends with bristle tip, 8-20 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, green, paler 

underneath. 

cm long. Flowers 

Flower cluslers at leaf bases, shorter than leaves, 10-15 

long, pea-shaped. Calyx 4-5 mm 

2-8 on slender stalks of I cm, about 12 mm 

10-12 mm long, pale yellow, of 5 

long, tubular, 5-toothed, hairless; corolla 

petals fox ming keel, wings, and standard rounded and clotted with reddish- 

I separate; and pistil 

brown or purple, rarely orange; stamens 9 united and 

with long slender ovary, curved style, and dot stigma. 

15-25 cm long, 3 mm wide, flattened, 

Pods (legumes) very long, narrow, 

point, hairless, hanging down, splitting in 2 

straight, ending in long narrow 

parts. Seeds 35-45, beanlike, oblong, 3 mm long, dark brown. 

An annual firewood crop maturing in 

Wood lightweight isp. gr. 0.3), soft. 

5-6 months. 

from sugar. A potential 

Also used for evaporating water 

Other Uses 

source of pulpwood and paper products. Fibrous stems can produce cordage 

like jute for fish nets, gunnysacks, sails. Foliage mak-s good cattle fodder and 

to increase soil fertility, especially on saline and wet 

serves as g~een manure 

soils. Root nodules aid fertility through nitrogen fixation. 

254 


Fig.120 Sesani bipinosa lBasu 1918, pl. 3041. 

SESBNIABISINOA25 

jA~7 

J• -.,I f

Planted also for windbreaks, hedges, and erosion control, as well as a rotation 

crop to grow fuelwood and to enrich the soil, for example, in rice fields. 

Two harvests a year possible. Water-soluble gun in seeds used for sizing textiles 

and paper products and for thickening and stabilizing solutions. 

Native of tropical and subtropical areas of the In- 


dian subcontinent. A weed through plains of India. Altitude from sea level to 

1200 m. Introduced into Africa, southeast Asia, China, West Indies, Mexico. 

Humid tropical and subtropical. Annual rainfall 


for best growth. Soils include saline and alkaline wastelands (to 

550-1100 mm 

pH 9.5-10.0) and wet almost waterlogged soils. 

References 

Basu, B.D. 1918. Idian medicinal plants, 2 vols. Illus. Allababad, Indian Press. 

(Sesbania aculeatr,, pl. 304, drawing used here). 

I. H. Farooqi. 1979. 'Dhaincha' for seed gum. Extension 

Chandra, V., and M. 

1. Illus. 12 pp. Economic Botany Information Service, National 

Bulletin no. 

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India. 

256 


70. Sesbania grandiflora 

Botanical Name Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. 

Synonym Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv. 

Common Names agati, Australian corkwoodtree, bacule (English); white 

dragontree (Australia); flamingo-bill (Bahamas); August-flower (Guyana); 

gallito, cresta de gallo (Spanish); pico de flamenco (Mexico); choncho (El 

Salvador); cobreque (Nicaragua); pois vailier (Haiti); colibri v6gdtal, fleurpapillon 

(Guadeloupe); August-flower (Guyana); tiger-tongue (Dutch West 

Indies); chogache, basna (India); ton kae (Thailand); sesban, getih, turi (Pen. 

Malaysia); turi (Indonesia); petai belalang (Sabah, Malaysia); katurai (Philippines); 

sirogotyo (Japanese). 

Legume Fa, aily, Leguminosac (Faboideae or Papilionoideae) 

This fast-growing small tree produces forage, firewood, pulp and paper, 

food, and green manure. It is a handsome ornamental and has served in 

reforestation. Sesbania grandiflora is recognized by the pinnately compound 

leaves with many oblong leaflets rounded at both ends, the giant white or red 

pea-shaped flowers, and the very long, narrow, flattened pods that are longpointed 

at both ends. 

This fuelwood species for humid tropics propagates easily from seed, seedlings, 

and cuttings. It has extremely fast growth in plantations. Vigorous 

sprouts are formed after cutting. This is a short-lived species. The specific 

name, meaning "large-flowered," refers to this distinctive feature. 

Description Deciduous or evergreen small tree to 10 m high, with straight 

trunk to 30 cm in diameter and spreading thin crown of few nearly upright 

branches. Bark gray, rough, deeply furrowed into thick plates, corklike; inner 

bark pink, slightly bitter. Young twigs finely hairy. 

Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, 15-35 cm long, with hairless or finely 

hairy axis enlarged at base. Leaflets 10-30 pairs, very short-stalked, oblong, 

2-4 cm long, 6-12 mm wide, rounded at both ends, thin, pale yellowish-green, 

nearly hairless except when young. 

Flower clusters (racemes) hanging at leaf base have 2-5 very large or giant 

white or red flowers 6-9 cm long from curved bud. Flowers pea-shaped, with 

unpleasant odor, composed of bell-shaped whitish calyx about 2 cm long, 

slightly 2-lobed with 5 shallow teeth; corolla of 5 white or red fleshy petals 6-9 

cm long, stalked at base, the oblong spreading standard shorter than others 

and curved back, 2 curved wings, and 2 united curved keel petals; 10 curved 

stamens, 9 united into tube and 1separate; and pistil with very narrow stalked 

ovary and slender style. 

Pods (legumes) very long and narrow, hanging down, 30-45 (-60) cm long, 

6-8 mm wide, flattened but slightly 4-angled, long-pointed at both ends, light 

brown, long-stalked, splitting open. Seeds 15-50, beanlike, elliptical, 5 mm 

long, brown. 

SESBANIA GRANDIFLORA 

257

Fig. 121. Sesbania grandiflora (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 911. 

0.42) weak, used mainly. for 

Wood whitish, soft, lightweight (sp. gr. 

firewood. Also a pulpwood. 

Other Uses Clear gum exuding from cut bark has served as gum arabic 

258 


substitute. Bark yields a tanning agent and fiber. This species is widely planted 

as an ornamental for its giant showy flowers and long pods; also for windbreaks 

and living fences. Escapes from cultivation, such as along roadsides, 

forming thickets. Used also in reforesting eroded hill regions. Foliage makes 

excellent green manure; soil fertility increased through nitrogen fixation by 

root nodules. 

Young leaves, tender 

pods, and large fleshy flowers favorite Asian 

vegetables, served in salads, curries, soups, fried, lightly steamed, or boiled. 

Cattle eat foliage and pods. Extracts of leaves, flowers, and bark employed 

medicinally. 

Natural Distribution Southern Asia from India to East Indies and Philipsea 

level. The same or a very closely related 

pines. Altitude to 800 m above 

species, Sesbania formosa (F. Muell.) Burbidge, white dragontree or Australian 

corkwoodtree, with minor differences in flowers, native to northwestern 

Australia. 

Widely distributed by cultivation and occasionally naturalized through the 

tropics, including West Indies, from southern Mexico to South America, and 

W.ust Africa. Planted in southern Florida and Hawaii. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical, with annual rainfall above 1000 mm, 

only a few months of dry season, and no frosts. Soils, a wide range including 

poor soils and black clay. 

References 




(Sesbaniagrandiflora,pp. 208-209, drawing used here). 

National Academy of Sciences. 1979. Tropical legumes: resourcesfor the future. 

Illus. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., USA. (Sesbania 

grandiflora,pp. 185-193). 

SESBANIA GRANDIFLORA 

259

71. Syzygium cumini 

Botanical Name Syzygiurn cumini (L.) Skeels 

Synonyms Syzygium jambolanum (Lam.) DC., Eugenia culnini (L.) Druce, 

Eugenia jambolana Lam. 

Common Names jambolan, jambolan-plum, Java.plum, Malabar-plum, 

black-olum tree (English); mzambarau (Tanzania); jaman (Pakistan); jaman, 

jam, jambul (India); madan, naval (Sri Lanka): thabyebyi (Burma); jambolan, 

jiwat (Pen. Malaysia); obah (Sabah, Malaysia); duhat (Philippines). 


Jambolan, native to southern Asia, is extensively planted in many tropical 

and subtropical regions for sl-ie and ornament as well as for the plumlike 

fruits. Classed as a humid tropics .-pecies, it produces excellent fuelwood. It is 

identified by the opposite, narrowly elliptical, leathery leaves, by clusters of 

many small white flowers on old twigs back of the leaves, and by many 

crowded, almost stalkless, oblong fruits that are dark purple to black and sour 

but edible. 

Jambolan is easily propagated from seed but can be rooted from cuttings. 

The plants are fast-growing and are vigorous after coppicing and pruning. The 

abundant fermenting fruits, which are widely disseminated by birds, can 

become litter and a nuisance. In some areas, such as Hawaii, the plants have 

become undesirable weeds, shading out forage plants. 

The genus Syz.ygium, often united under Eugenia, contains about 500 species 

of trees and shrubs in the Old World tropical and subtropical regions. The 

generic name is from Greek, meaning "paired or joined together." The specific 

name, "of cummin," refers to an Egyptian dwarf plant grown for its aromatic 

seeds used in flavoring. 

Description Small to large evergreen tree 13-30 high, with straight or 

crooked trunk 50 c:, -i n in diameter and crown of many branches. Bark light 

gray with darker patches, smoothish; inner bark with thin green outer layer, 

mottled light brown, astringent and bitter. Twigs light green, becoming light 

gray, slightly flattened, hairless. 

Leaves opposite, hairless, with slender light yellow leafstalk 1.5-2 cm long, 

narrowly elliptical, 7-13 cm long, 3-7.5 cm wide, abruptly short-pointed at tip, 

short-pointed at base, not toothed on edges, slightly thickened, leathery, dull 

light green, paler underneath, light yellow midvein and many fine, straight, 

parallel side veins close together, with many tiny gland-dots visible under a 

lens, pinkish when young, turning red before shedding. 

Flower clusters (cynies) on old twigs back of leaves, 5-6 cm long and wide, 

with many paired stout forks at nearly right angles, end flower opening first. 

Flowers many, small, about 7 mm long, slightly fragrant, nearly stalkless, with 

cuplike conical light green base (hypanthium) 3 mm long and broad, bearing 

on rim 4 tiny rounded calyx lobes, 4 white rounded concave petals more than 

260 


Fig, 122. SyzygiunI cunmihi )Beddome 1869-74, pl. 197). 

2 mm long united into a cap, and many white or pinkish threadlike stamens 5 

mm long; pistil with inferior ovary, many tiny ovules, and stout style. 

Fruits (berries) many, crowded in clusters and almost stalkless along twigs 

back of leaves, oblong to elliptical or rounded, 1.5-2.5(-5) cm long, dark 

SYZYGIUM CUMINI 

261

purple to black, with juice, sour, edible, purple or white pulp and 1 large 

oblong green seed. 

Wood pale reddish-gray to brownish-gray or whitish, sometimes with faint 

darker streaks, w;,hout distinct heartwood, rough, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 

0.67-0.77), moderately coarse-textured, with interlocked grain, with medium 

to large pores. Difficult to work, moderately durable, and resistant to termites. 

Classed as an excellent fuel, burning well. 

Other Uses Used in construction, including posts, beams, rafters, panels; 

also carts, boats, masts, oars, farm timbers, mine timbers, railroad crossties. In 

Hawaii used on a small scale as decorative veneer for manufacture of marquetry 

designs on place mats. 

Astringent bark has served in tanning and yields a brown dye. Bark, fruit, 

seed, and leaves utilized in native medicines. 

Widely planted for edible plumlike fruits varying in size and in flavor from 

sour to sweet with astringent taste that can be reduced by soaking in salt 

water. Fruits eaten raw; can be made into juice, jellies, syrup, vinegar, wine, 

tarts, puddings. Handsome trees cultivated also for shade, ornament, windbreaks, 

hedges. Popular along avenues in India. Flowers yield high-quality 

honey. 

Natural Distribution Native from India to Burma, Sri Lanka, Andaman 

Islands, and Thailand in southeastern Asia. Widespread through India. 

Altitude from sea level to 1800 ni. 

Extensively planted and naturalized in many tropical and subtropical 

regions of the world, including Philippines, East Indies, Australia, Africa. 

Thoroughly naturalized in Hawaii. Less common in the New World but scattered, 

as in southern Florida, West Indies (not Puerto Rico), Central America, 

Guyana. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical and subtropical with high rainfall. 

Where introduced, annual rainfall varies from 1500 to 10,000 mm. Soils many 

types, including sand, marl, and well-drained limestone. Commonly found 

along river banks, in valleys, and on other moist sites. 

References 


Madras, India. (Eugenia jambolana, pl. 197, drawing used here). 

Morton, Julia F. 1963. The jambolan (Syzygium curnini Skeels)-its food, 

medicinal, ornamental and other uses. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural 

Society 76: 328.338. 

Pearson, R. S., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India. Illus. 

(Eugenia jambolana, pp. 560-563, map used here). 

262 


72. Tamarix aphylla 

Botanical Name Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. 

Synonyms Tamarix articulataVahl, Tamarix orientalisForssk. 

athel tamarisk, tamarisk, athel, athel-tree, desert athel, 

Common Names 

Nile tamarisk, Egyptian tamarisk, Arabian tamarisk, evergreen tamarisk, 

(Pakistan); laljhav, 

saltcedar, eshel (English); tarfa, athl (Arabic); farash 

farash, raktajhav (India); kiri (Sri Lankal. 

Tamarisk Family, Tamaricaceae 

Shrubs and trees of the genus Taniarix, or tamarisks, are fast-growing, har 

and tolerant of saline soils. They tolerate high 

dy, drought-resistant, 

temperatures and some freezing. Their hard wood is used for firewood and 

charcoal. This common tree example is easily identified by the drooping, wiry, 

twigs; tiny scale leaves circling the twig; many tiny 

jointed, gray-green 

whitish-pink flowers; and tiny hairy seeds. It is classed as a fuelwood species 

for arid rnd semiarid regions. 

This species is Frpagated by cuttings. The plants coppice well after heavy 

use quancutting. 

Around streams, lakes, and irrigation ditches, the plants 

tities of water needed for agricultural crops. 

Taarixis the classical Latin name, perhaps from Tamaris, a river in Spain. 

The specific name means "leafless." The genus contains about 50 species of 

shrubs and trees of semiarid and salty regions in the Old World from western 

Europe east to China. This species is one having the largest trees. 

8-12 high 

Small to medium-sized evergreen tree m 

Description 

(sometimes to 18 m), 60-80 cm in trunk diameter, with many stout spreading 

branches and rounded to irregular gray-green crown, resembling a conifer 

twigs. Bark light gray-brown or reddish-brown, rough, 

with its needlelike 

becoming thick and deeply furrowed into long narrow hard ridges; inner bark 

bitter. Branches purplish-brown and smooth. Twigs 

light brown, slightly 

drooping, wiry or needlelike, less than 1.5 mm in diameter, jointed, graygreen, 

hairless, mostly shedding, older twigs greenish-brown. 

Leaves alternate tiny scales less than 2 mm long, circling twig and ending in 

tiny point, gray-green, hairless, often with salt deposit, each forming joint 

along twig, shedding together. 

Flower clusters (racemes and panicles) mostly at ends of twigs, slender, 3-6 

mm long, 4-5 mm broad; or mostly branched and to 15 cm. Flowers many, 

long, whitish-pink, bisexual or of one 

nearly stalkless, tiny, less than 3 mm 

sex; 5overlapping rounded sepals, 5 elliptical petals 2 mm long and shedding 

pistil with narrow 

early, 5 stamens attached between lobes of disk, and 

1-celled ovary and 3 stigmas. 

TAMARIX APHYLLA 

263

i 3 

. -11M 

Fig. 123. Tamnarix aphylha ISahni 1968, fig. 4), fruits, lower left ILittle et al. 1974, pl. 

521). Tarnarix chinensis, lower right (Little 1950). 

Fruits or seed capsules many, narrow, pointed, 5 mm long, splitting into 3 

parts. Seeds many, tiny, 0.5 mm long, brown, each with tuft of whitish hairs 3 

ra. long. 

Wood light brown or whitish with yellow tinge, without distinct heartwood, 

264 

A 

, , 


ARAN 

1b 

MAP 

SHOWIIO DISTRIBUTION 

04 TAMARIX ARTICULATA, VAHL 

ACPJPUTANA 01 4 V9 A & Bua s 

%IIt.01u I H A",Re. 

.Ln N ON 

M RSA8 8I~rdUHIR M-l 

0~ ~ T 000 SI SIAMOIluNcoa 

J'SoRI 

Weou Mie. ItMG 

MAN" 

Andama 

Fig. 124. Distribution of Tarnarixaphylla in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

moderately hard, moderately heavy Isp. gr. 0.69), coarse-textured, grain more 

or less twisted and fibrous, diffuse-porous, growth rings indistinct, lustrous, 

rough, strong, brittle. Difficult to season and not durable. 

Used for firewood and charcoal; burns reasonably well though slow to catch 

fire and with high ash content. Not considered a good railway fuel. Green 

wood reportedly produces offensive odor when burned. Leaf litter and small 

branches burn poorly and slowly, perhaps because of their high salt content. 

This species is important in arid regions because of its availability where few 

other trees can exist. 

Other Uses Wood used for carpentry, farm implements such as plows, 

turnery, furniture, cabinetwork, boxes, ornaments. Bark and galls have served 

in tanning and in home remedies, and the twigs in basketry. 

Trees widely planted for shelterbelts and windbreaks in arid zones, being 

evergreen and effective year-round. Rows of tanarisks protect highways and 

railroads from wind and blowing sand. 'Trees also used for erosion control and 

to stabilize sand dunes with their deep and extensive root system. 

can be planted as firebreaks along highways and 

Strips of tarnarisks 

railroads. Dense salty litter prevents growth of other plants and does not burn. 

Salt secreted from foliage may increase salt content of the ground. Trees also 

grown for ornament and shade: can be pruned into screens and hedges. 

From northern and eastern Africa to southwestern 



265

Ill*0* 1530' 4P'I S 

: ' 5. _- .- . ,-, 

*;,i ,, ,,, 7 

00 

Fig. 125. Natural range of Tamarix aphyla (Baum 1978, map 20). 

Asia. Recorded as native from Morocco and Algeria to Kenya, Egypt, Israel, 

Iran, Afghanistan, India. Altitude from sea level to at least 800 m where introduced. 

Widely planted in dry tropical and subtropical areas. Cultivated in 

the New World in Mexico and southwestern United States from southern 

Texas to California but not naturalized. Extensively cultivated in Australia. 

Common in irrigated plantations of northwestern India and Pakistan. 

Climate and Soils Semiarid tropical and subtropical or desert. 

Temperature extremes where planted in California 50'C and - 10'C. Annual 

rainfall where planted 350-500 nm or as low as 100 mam. However, additional 

water often available from ground water, streams, and irrigation. Soils vary 

from sands and dunes to deep silts, heavy clays, and salty or saline. Also moist 

soils along river banks and seasonal wtor courses, such as the Nile River. 

Found along old river beds in northwestern India. 

References 

Baum, Bernard R. 1967. Introduced and naturalized tamarisks in the United 

States and Canada 'Tamaricaceae. Baileya 15: 19-25, illus. 

- . 1978. The genus Tainarix. Illus. Israel Academy of Sciences and Hunmanities, 

Jerusalem. (Tamarix aphylla, pp. 81-84, map used here). 

Little, Elbert L., Jr., Roy 0. Woodbury, and Frank ti. Wadsworth. 1974. Trees 



D.C., USA. (Tanvirix aphylla, pp. 568-569, drawing used here). 

266 

IN 


Pearson, R. C., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Illus. (Tanarixarticulata,pp. 40-42, map used here). 

Sahni, K. C. 1968. Important trees of the northern Sudan. Illus. Forestry 

Research and Education Centre, Khartoum, United Nations Development 

Programme and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 

(Tanarixaphylla, pp. 14.16, drawing used here). 


267

73. Tamarix chinensis 

Botanical Name Tamarix chinensis Lour. 

Tainarix pentandra Pall., Tamarix 

Synonyms Tamarix rumosissima Ledeb., 

gallica auct., non L. 

tanarisk, sallcedar (English); palo de saliltral, tamarisco 

Comnon Names 

(Spanish). 

Tanarisk Family, 'Tanaricaceae 

'ihis species is incluJed here as a fuelwood species for arid and semiarid 

regions because of its abundance where naturalized as a weed in southwestern 

United Stales. Great quantities of wood should be available without planting, 

temperate 

particularly where eradication is in progress or desired. This warn 

species may be one of the most cold-hardy. It is a deciduous shrub, sometimes 

a snall tree, with long slender upright twigs, tiny dull blue-green scale leaves, 

many tiny pale pink flowers, and tiny hairy seeds. 

This species originally was introduced into southwestern United States as an 

is by seeds, cuttings, and transplati 

ornanental about 1900. Propagation 

tile wild. Growth is rapid. The plants consume quantities of water needfronconsuled 

for irrigation and are classed as phreatophytes (well plants: that is, 

Thus, eradication may be recommended in many areas. 

ing water like a well. 

cover for wildlife. Wood should be in 

lowever. the thickets prvide some 

abundant Supply. 

For many years the plants naturalized in southwestern United States were 

identified as Tamnairix gallica, a related species native to southern Europe and 

natiralized locally in southern United States. The specific name, meaning "of 

China.' indicates the type locality of the species. 

I)eciduous shrub or sometinmes small tree to 7 I' hit' n-,d 15 

)escriltioln 

with age, with narrow crowsn of 

cm in Irink diameter, becoming broader 

slender upright brancles and scale leaves, hairless throughout. Bark brown, 

gray. or blackish, snoothish, becoming rough and furrowed or finely fissured, 

reddish or 

CXj))Sillg orange-brown inner bark. Twigs long, slender, uprighl, 

purplish, the smallest sheddiig with leaves. 

1.5-3 mm long, narrow and 

Leav's immy, cr'wJed, alternate, scalelike, 

:ng with twig or leaf base remaining atpointed, 

dull blue-green. wostly shc. 

lached. 5-7 nni broad, 

1l. e'r (-Ulu'rs jraceiesl many. narrow, 21-6 cm long. 

upright at end of twigs. Flowers many, crowded, tiny, less than 3 mn long and 

V ide. ctmll)lnltd of calyx of -5 ,lg.'iointed sepals, corolla of 5 pale pink, ellip. 

ical, persisten i pchls 3 t long, 5 threadlik' slaliens .ittached in notches of 

pistil with iiarrow I.celled ovary and 3 stigmas. 

lobed disk ::,.I 

narrow, conic;l, pointed. 3 mn long, 

ruitifs or sect! calpsnlcs many, small. 

splitting into 3-5 parts. Seedsi many, tiny, with tufts ot hairs. 

Wood available in small sizes. i)escripiive notes not available. 


7p MK . - 13$ 

75" W 105" 120 t. 

, .. I t- " i , 

:b. " ' A_2 1..,,., '- -- ,,--1I i--- 

Fig. 127. Distribution of Tapw~ur' chmeungv s Tamara 1978 24 sma ynnm)13 

shores. r a soreofhny 

*'o 1 

shrs F~w'si orct of honey. 

Natural lDistribution Southeastern Europe and Asia, the original range 

perhaps extended through cultivation. Soviet Union from Ukraine to Iraq, 

Iran. Afghanistan, Tihet, Mongolia, China, Korea, Japan. Altitude from near 

sea level to 150 )m (where naturalized in United States). 

Extensively naturalized along streams in western Uhnited States southward 

to northern Mexico. 

Climate and Soils Warm temperate, mostly semiarid, where naturalized 

IAMARIX CIIINENSIS 

or,1 

269

in United States. Average annual minimum temperatures as low as -25°C; 

summers may be hot as well as dry. Annual rainfall mostly 400-750 mm. Soils 

wet, mostly sandy soils bordering streams, reservoirs, and irrigation ditches in 

the United States, where naturalized. Hardy in both alkaline and salty soils. 

Native habitat includes river banks, lake shcres, marshes, humid plains, and 

steppes, especially with salts soils. 

References 

Baum, Bernard R. 1967. Introduced and naturalized tamarisks in the United 

States and Canada Tamaricaceae. Baileya 15: 19-25, illus. 

.. 1978. The genus Tanarix. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 

Jerusalem. (Tarnarixchinensis, pp. 93-95, pl. 24, map 24, used here; 

Tainarixrarnosissitna,pp. 40-44, pl. 6, map 6 used here). 

Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1950. Southwestern trees: a guide to the native species of Newv 

9, Forest Service, 

Mexico and Arizona. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 

(Tarnarix 


gallica, pp. 86-87, drawing used here). 

270 


74. Terminalia catappa 

Botanical Name Terminaliacatappa L. 

Common Names India-almond, Indian-almond, tropical-almond, seaalmond, 

West-Indian-almond, Malabar-almond, Singapore-almond 

(English); almendro, almendra, almendro de la India, almendro de playa, 

almendro tropical (Spanish); amandier des Indes, badamier (French); amendoeira, 

amendoeria de India (Portuguese); Etagenbaum (German); wilde 

amandel, amandelboom (Dutch); waitman granat (Sierre Leoncl; badamier 

(Senegal); mkungu (Tanzania); deshi-badam, bangla-badam, badam (India); 

white bombway (Andamans); kottamba (Sri Lanka); badan (Burma); 

ketapang, katapang (Malaysia, Indonesia); kotamba (Australia); talisae 

(Philippines); momo-tama-na (Okinawa); beowa (Sumatra); sabris6 

(Celebes); sadina (Moluccas); kalis (W. New Guinea); false kamani, kamanihaole 

(Hawaii). 

Combreturn Family, Combretaccae 

India-almond is recognized by horizontal branches in circles at different 

levels, large leathery leaves that are broadest toward tip, and turn reddish 

before falling, and elliptical slightly flattened fruits with hard fibrous husk and 

edible seed. The fast-growing trees are hardy along sandy seashores. This is a 

good fuelwood species for the humid tropics. 

The seeds, which float, are dispersed by ocean currents and also by fruiteating 

bats. Growth is fast. The trees tolerate salt spray and drought. 

Terininaliahas about 250 species of trees widespread in tropical regions. The 

generic name refers to the clustered terminal leaves at ends of branches, and 

that of the species is from the Malabar name "katapang." Many other species of 

smaller ranges merit testing locally for firewood production. 

Description Small or medium-sized tree 10-15 in high, with short trunk 30 

cm in diameter, sometimes much thicker and angled with slight buttresses, 

with horizontal branches in circles or rows at different levels on trunk, with 

flattened crown. Evergreen or in dry climates deciduous, shedding leaves 

often twice a year. Bark gray, smoothish, thin, becoming slightly fissured; inner 

bark pinkish-brown, slightly bitter and astringent. Twigs brown, finely 

hairy when young, slender but swollen at nodes. 

Leaves alternate but crowded together near ends of twigs, with stout finely 

hairy leafstalks 1-2 cm long. Leaf blades large, broadest toward tip (obovate), 

15-28 cm long, 9-15 cm wide, abruptly short-pointed or rounded at tip, 

gradually narrowed toward rounded or slightly notched base, not toothed on 

edges, slightly thickened, leathery, upper surface shiny green or dark green 

and hairless, underneath paler, often with fine brown hairs and with 2 glands 

near base, turning bright red, sometimes yellow, before shedding. 

Flower clusters (narrow racemes) at leaf bases, 5-15 cm long. Flowers 

many, small, slightly fragrant, greenish-white, 5-6 mm across, mostly male 

TERMINALIA CATAPPA 

271

Fig. 128. Terminalia calappa (Little and Wadsworth 1964, fig. 184). 

and short-stalked; a few bisexual flowers near base. Both kinds have greenishwhite 

or light brown hairy calyx %ith cup-shaped tube and 5 or 6 pointed 

as many small stamens near base. Bisexual or 

spreading lobes and twice 

basal tube (hypanthium) 5 mm long, 

female flowers stalkless with narrow 

brownish-green and finely hairy, resembling a stalk but containing inferior 

1-celled ovary bearing a slender style. 

Fruits (drupes) elliptical, slightly flattened, with I or 2 narrowly winged 

272 


• 

A i 

MAP 

& q. SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 

Kb 

, TERMINALIA CATAPPA LIN. 

#V 

NA.ACH" '."OV5o -,' 

ARABA A ATOl 

A BENOAL 

0 0 4W0 UOIII0 

1N ?Ap % 

Fig. 129. Distribution of Tertninalia catappa in the Andaman Islands (Pearson and 

Brown 19321. 'AA 

"'so tf. °' T 

Andm . 

0, tos~a- 40c 0 IN" - 

T graIsaan 

Fig. 130. Distribution of Terninalia catappa in northern Australia (Byrnes 1977). 

edges, about 5 cm long, 2.5 cm broad, blunt-poit.ted, greenish, turning light 

brown at maturity. Thick fibrous husk with thin outer layer, slightly sour and 

edible, and light brown, thick, hard stone. Seed or nut without stone large, 

TERMJNALIA CATAPPA 

It 

A 

273

about 3 cm long, 1 cm wide, oily, edible, somewhat like a true almond, with 

leaves or cotyledons. Flowering and fruiting nearly 

spiral folds of seed 


Heartwood reddish-brown, becoming pale brown with age, with subdued 

figure from dark bands at end of distinct growth rings; sapwond lighter or 

0.59), moderately strong, 

grayish. Wood hard, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 

tough, medium- to coarse-textured, and with irregular and often interlocked 

grain. Rapid rate of air-seasoning. Very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites. 

Makes good firewood. 

for general construction, boatbuilding, bridge 

Other Uses Wood used 

timbers, crossties, flooring, boxes, crates, posts. Though machining isdifficult, 

attractive wood suitable for millwork, furniture, veneer, cabinetwork. 

Tannin found in bark, roots, astringent green fruits, leaves; all have been 

used in tanning. Black dye serving for ink obtained from bark, fruits, foliage. 

An oil extracted from the seeds. Foliage suitable for feeding tasar or katkura 

silkworms. 

trees widely grown in tropical regions around the world, 

Handsome 

especially along sandy seashores, for shade and ornament and for the edible 

seeds. However, insects often damage foliage, and dropping fruits produce litter. 

Planted also for erosion control and dune fixation on sandy beaches. 

Asia from Andaman Islands 

Natural Distribution Southeastern 

throughout Malaysia to northern Australia and the Pacific islands. Altitude 

from sea level to 5 in (planted to 300 m). 

Planted and naturalized throughout the tropics. Very common in India, also 

lawaii. In New World from 

in Indonesia, and through the Pacific islands to 

West Indies, southern Florida, and Mexico south to Peru and Brazil. Also in 

tropical Africa. 

un, 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical. Annual rainfall at least 1000 

water table. Soils various, mainly sandy and rocky 

unless there is a high 

seashores, also marl and limestone. Common in beach forests where native. 

References 

Byrnes, N. B. 1977. A revision of Combretaceae in Australia. Contributions 

no. 20, 72 pp., illus. (map used here). 

from the Queensland Herbarium. 


Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Service, 

USA. (Ter- 

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 

rninaliacatappa, pp. 39 395 drawing used here). 

1932. Comnercial timhers of India, 2 vols. 


Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Tern;inalia catappa, pp. 501-503, map 

used here). 

274 


TREMA 

Common Names trema, charcoal-tree (English) 

Elm Family, Ulmaceae 

The genus Trenta has about 25 species of generally small trees in tropical and 

subtropical regions that are mostly humid. They are recognized by the 2 rows 

of short-stalked, alternate leaves on long slender twigs; the leaves, commonly 

having 3 main ve'ns from an unequal-sided base, are long-pointed and have 

toothed edges. Tiny greenish flowers, clustered at leaf bases, are inconspicuous 

and without petals. Male and female flowers are located on the 

or black fruit (drupe) is 

same or different plants. The juicy, I-seeded, pink 

name from Greek, 

small and rounded with the style at the tip. The generic 

me",ing "hole," refers to the pitted stone of the fruit. 

The fast-growing plants are pioneers on bare soil, such as clearings and roadsides. 

The soft wood is of limited value as firewood but serves for charcoal, as 

the common name "charcoal-tree" suggests. 

This handbook describes and illustrates 4 of the 5 Trema species that were 

treated as a unit in Firewood Crops. A key to these 4 species follows. 

KEY TO THE 4 TREMA SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

Leaves with 3 main veins from slightly above rounded base and with 6-7 veins 

on each side, very roagh on both surfaces; fruit elliptical, black, 3 mm long, 

78. Trema politoria. 

native of India and nearby areas ..................... 

Leaves with 3 main veins from end of leafstalk at mostly notched base and 

with 4-5 veins on each side, upper surface rough, lower surface soft, hairy. 

Fruits about 5 mm in diameter, mostly turning black. 

Native of Asia ................................. 

77. Trema orientalis. 

Native of Africa ............................... 

75. Tremaguineensis. 

Fruits about 3 mm in diameter, pink or orange; native of America 

........................... 

.............. 76. Trema micrantha. 

TREMA 

275

75. Trema guineensis 

Botanical Name Trema guineensis (Schumach &Thonn.) Ficalho 

Common Names trema, charcoal-tree (English); pigeonwood, hopout 

(South Africa); ngomba-wuli (Sierre Leone); adaschia (Ivory Coast); tieku 

(Niger); kasisa (Uganda); mainga (Tanzania); mijamuni, mpefu (Malawi). 

Elm Family, Ulnaceae 

Widespread through tropical Africa, this species is closely related to Tremna 

orientalis of Asia and is also included under that species. The rounded fruits 

are 4.6 mm in diameter, mostly turning black. The specific name of 

geographic origin refers to Guinea. The common name "charcoal-tree" indicates 

one of its uses. This is a fueiwood species for the humid tropics. 

The trees are one of the fastest-growing in their range, growing as much as 2 

m in height annually when young but less later. The trees spread from seeds, 

which germinate rapidly, and from root sprouts. However, they are very 

short-lived, maturing at only 5 or 6 years. 

Description Shrub or small to medium-sized tree 6-12 m high (sometimes 

'to 20 in), with straight trunk to 30 cm (sometimes 60 cm) in diameter, 

spreading crown, evergreen or deciduous. Bark smooth, light gray, thin; inner 

bark very pale pink to white, turning brown nn exposure. Twigs brownishgray, 

with soft whitish hairs when young. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows, narrowly ovate to oblong, 6-12 cm long, 2.5-5 cm 

wide, unequal-sided, ending in very long point, edges finely saw-toothed, with 

3 main veins from slightly notched or rounded base and 4-5 side veins prominent 

on under surface; slightly thickened, bright green, rough upper surface; 

p,'e green with soft whitish hairs underneath; turning yellow before shedaing. 

Leafstalk short, 4-8 mm long. 

Flower clusters (cymes) short, branched at leaf bases. Flowers many, 

crowded, nearly stalkless, tiny, 3 mm wide, yellow-gree,, with calyx of 5 

hairy sepals and no petals, mostly male and bisexual or female in different 

clusters on same 

tree. Male flowers have 5 stamens opposite sepals; female 

flowers have pistil with 1-celled ovary, I ovule, and 2 short styles. 

Fruits (drupes) many on very short stalks, rounded or egg-shaped, 4-6 mm 

in diameter, with calyx at base, turning from green to dark purple or black, 

juice. Seed (stone) round, pale brown, hard. 

Wood whitish, faintly tinged with pink, without distinct heartwood, with 

large pores and annual growth rings, lightweight (sp. gr. 0.5), soft, perishable. 

Wood widely used for fuel and charcoal, as indicated by the name "charcoaltree." 

Other Uses Used for fruit boxes and poles. Strong cord made from bark. 

Shavings from inner bark rubbed on fishing lines as a preservative. Brown dye 

obtained from leaves; ashes from leaves have served in soapmaking. 

Chopped young leaves and fruits reportedly edible. Birds and bats eat juicy 

276 


Fig. 131. Trema guineensis (Irvine 1961, fig. 831. 

TREMA GUINEENSIS 

277

Fig. 132. Distribution of Trernaguineensis in southern Afrkia (Coates Palgrave 1977). 

fruits. Wildlife, such as African antelope, browse foliage. Various parts of the 

tree, including bark, leaves, flowers, and roots, have served in home 

remedies. Trees planted for coffee shade in Kenya and regarded as indicator of 

good soil for cocoa. 

Natural Distribution Widespread through tropical Africa to South Africa 

and Madagascar and northeast to Arabia. From sea level to 1800 m in Kenya. 

Apparently not introduced beyond. 

Climate and Soils Humid and dry tropical and subtropical with dry 

season. Soils bare, exposed, disturbed, and denuded, mostly moist but also 

dry. 

Very common as a pioneer in secondary deciduous forests, forest borders, 

clearings, old farms. Also river banks, stream beds, valleys. 

Related Species Closely related to Trena orientalis (L.) Blume of Asia (No. 

77 here) and included under that species by sonic specialists. However, the 

range of the combined species would be very large and would include 

geographical variations. The separate name for the African variation is helpful 

in identifying the seed source. 

References 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of southern Africa. Illus. C. Struik 

Publishers, Cape Town Johannesburg, South Africa. (Trema orientalis, p. 98, 

map used here). 

Irvine, F. R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana. Illus. Oxford University Press, London. 

(Trerna guineensis, pp. 422-424, fig. 88, drawing used here). 

278 


76. Trema micrantha 

Trema nticrantha (L.) Blume 


Florida trema (United States); Jamaican nettle-tree 

Common Names 

(Jamaica); white capulin, wild bay-cedar (Belize); capulln, capulln blanco, 

capulin negro (Spanish); guacimilla (Puerto Rico, Cuba); memizo cimarr6n 

(Dominican Republic); capulin cimarr6n (Mexico); capulln .iacho (El 

jordan (Panama); zurrumbo, 

Salvador); juc6, vera blanca (Costa Rica); 

berragiiito, majagiiito (Colombia); masaquilla (Venezuela); tortolero, sapan 

de paloma, muchichiln (Ecuador); atadijo, aisegerina (Peru); palo-p6lvora, 

afta colorado (Argentina); bois de soic (1-laitil; ceiuva IBrazil). 

Elr' Family, Ulmr ceae 

common New World species of the 

This is the most widespread and most 

genus. The round pink or orange fruits are 3 mm in diameter. The trees are 

spread by birds and 

fast-growing and short-lived. The seeds apparently are 

may remain viable in the soil for long periods. The specific name means "small 

flov:er." This is a fuelwood species for the humid tropics. 

Description Small evergreen tree to 12 m high (rarely 20 in), with straight 

trunk to 30-70 cm in diameter and open spreading crown with horizontal and 

slightly drooping branches. Bark light brown, smoothish, with rows of warty 

dots, or becoming slightly fissured; inner bark brownish or pinkish, almost 

tasteless or slightly bitter. Twigs long, slender, green, hairy. 

Leaves alternate in flattened arr, ngement in 2 rows, narrowly ovate or 

wide, unequal-sided, ending in very long 

lance-shaped, 6-15 cm long, 2-6 cm 

point, edges finely saw-toothed, with 3 main veins from slightly notched base 

and 2-5 side veins, slightly thickened; green, rough and hairy upper surface, 

light green with soft gray hairs underneath. Leafstalk short, 3-10 mm long. 

Flowerclusters (cymes) branched at leaf bases, short, to 3 cm long, hairy. 

Flowers mostly male and female or bisexual, short-stalked, many, tiny, 3 mm 

wide, greenish, with calyx of 5 pointed whitish-green sepals. Male flowers 

have 5 whitish stamens opposite sepals; female flo%,,'rs have pistil with green 

ovary and 2 whitish styles. 

Fruits (drupes) on very short stalks, round, 3 mm in diameter, with calyx at 

mm long, black. 

base, pink or orange, juicy. Seed (stone) 1, nearly 2 

Wood light brown, without distinct heartwood, soft, lightweight (sp. gr. 0.4), 

weak. Used for posts and fuel. Strong fiber in bark has served for cordage. 

Natural Distribution Through tropical America from central Mexico 

south to Central America and South America to Argentina and Brazil. Also 

Florida. Altitude from sea level to 2100 m. Ap- 

West Indies and southern 

parently not introduced beyond. 

Humid tropical with high rainfall or also with dry 


season. Soils moist bare, exposed, disturbed, and denuded. 

Very common as a pioneer and weed tree in sunny places such as forest 

clearings, secondary forests, roadsides, abandoned fields. 

TREMA MICRANTIIA 

279

Fig. 133. Trema micrantha (Little and Wadsworth 1964). 

'280 COMMON FUELWOOD CROPS

usa 

- ,q --.- 

. . . 

............. 

Fig. 134. Distribution of Drema nlicrantha InFlorida, USA iLittle 1978, map 2191. 

References 

5. Illus. Misc. Pub. 

Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1978. Atlas of United States Trees, vol. 

no. 1361. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. 

(map 219 used here). 

trees of Mserto Rico and the 

I-=and Frank 11.Wadsworth. 1964. Comzmon no. 249. United States Depart- 

Virgin Islands. Ilhs. Agriculture Hlandbook 

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 


THENIA MICRtANTtiA 

USA. (Trema nticranthia, pp. 58-59, 

281

77. Trema orientalis 

Botanical Name Trenia orientalis1L.) Blume 

Common Names charcoal-tree, gunpowder-tree (English); peach-cedar, 

poison-peach, woolly-cedar (Australia); gio, chikan, kapashi (India); gedumba 

(Sri Lanka); paw fin (Thailand); rough trema, menarong, menkira (Pen. 

Malaysia); randangong (Sabah, Malaysia); tuku baroh (Sarawak, Malaysia); 

anggerung (Indonesia): kaiitu (Celebes); anabiong (Philippines); urajiroenoki 

(Okinawa). 


Tremna orientalisis common and widespread in southern Asia from India to 

southeastern Asia and China. It is characterized by round, mostly black fruits 

5 mm in diameter and by leaves with 3 main veins, which are rough and hairy 

on upper surfac2s and dull green and softly hairy underneath. The English 

common names indicate its use in making charcoal for gunpowder. This 

fuelwood species is for the humid tropics. The trees grow very rapidly from 

seed but are short-lived. 

Description Small to medium-sized evergreen tree to 18 in high and 60 cm 

in trunk diameter with spreading crown. Bark light gray-brown, srnoothish, 

finely fissured, thin: inner bark pink, soft, fibrous, bitter. Twigs long, slender, 

unbranched, spreading, light green, finely hairy, turning brown. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows, narrowly ovate, 6-15 cm long, 2-6 cm wide, thin, 

unequal-sided, ending in very long point, edge.i finely saw-toothed, with 3 

main veins from slightly notched base and 4-5 veins on each side. Upper surface 

shiny light green, slightly rough with veins sunker; lower surface dull 

and pale, soft, hairy, with prominent light yellow veins. Leafstalk 1-2 cm long, 

finely hairy. 

Flower clusters (cymes) short, branched at leaf bases, 1-2 cm long and 

broad. Flowers many, nearly stalkless, tiny, 3 mm wide, !ight green, nostly 

male and bisexual or female in different clusters on same tree. Maio fowers 

have 5 stanens opposite sepals; female flowers have pistil with I-celled ovary 

and 2 whitish spreading hairy styles. 

Fruits (drupes) many, round, 5 mm in diameter, with calyx at base, pink to 

bluish-black, juicy. Seed (stone) round, brown, 1.5 mm long. 

Wood pale brown or buff, without distinct heartwood, lightweight (sp. gr. 

0.40), soft, easy to work, ,lot resistant to decay or (try-wood termites. 

Wood used to inake charcoal for gunpowder and fireworks. Though of low 

calorific value, widely used as fuel because of its availability. 

Other Uses A possible source of pulpwood. Rope has been made frrni 

fibrous bark. Trees have served as coffee shade. Appear abundantly in parks, 

gardens, thickets, hedges. Sweet edible fruits, though small, could be eaten 

when food is scarce. 

Natural Distribution Native to central, western, and southern India and 

282 


JA~ 

Fig. 135. Trema orientalis tBeddome 1869-74, pl. 311). 

TREMA ORIENTALIS 

283

00 

des Monsun Gebietee 

Fig. 136. Distribution of Trema species in monsoon regions, including Trema orientalis 

and Treina poliforia (Lauterbach 1914). 

from Himalayas to Sri Lanka and through southeast Asia to Malay Peninsula 

in Himalayas. Planted in tests in 

and China. Altitude from sea level to 2000 n 

Philippines. 

Humid tropical and subtropical with high rainfall. 


Soils moist bare, exposed, disturbed, denuded. 

Common to abundant as a pioneer, the first woody plant to appear in open 

areas including forest clearings, secondary forests, roadsides, old fields, waste 

lands, landslides, banks. 

References 

1869-74. The flora sylvatica for southern India, 2 vols. Illus. 

Beddome, R. H. 

(Sponia wightii, pl. 311, drawing used here). 

1914. Die Ulmaceen Papuasiens nebst elner Revision der 

Louterbach, C. 

Engler Botanische Jahibucher 50: 

Trema-Arten des Monsun-Gehietes. 

.sRo.27.illus. Imav used here). 

284 

COMMON FUEIWOOD CROPS

78. Trema politoria 

Botanical Name Trema politoria (Planch.) Blume 

Common Names banharria, khagshi, tila, kharkas (India); khakshi (Nepal). 


This subtropical small tree of India and nearby areas grows insa drier climate 

than related species and may be more hardy and drought-rdsistant. It is 

distinguished by the very rough leaves with 3 main veins from slightly above 

the rounded base and by ,he small elliptical fruits 3 mm long. 

This species has very rapid growth from seed and has been proposed for af 

forestation trials. It is suitable for planting on denuded and disturbed areas 

and as a soil binder. It is common as a pioneer on bare soil of open and disturbed 

areas including clearings, roadside cuts and embankments, landslides, 

and stream banks and beds. This species is abundant locally in open forests 

and is found along streams and in valleys. Trema politoria is a fuelwood species 

for the humid tropics and perhaps semiarid regions. 

Description Small evergreen tree 5 m high with short trunk 10 cm :n 

diameter and few spreading branches. Bark greenish-white or reddish-brown, 

thin, smoothish or becoming rough, with longitudinal fissures; inner bark red, 

fibrous. Twigs stout, rough with long, stiff, whitish hairs. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows, oblong or lance-shaped, 5-15 cm long, 1.5-5 cm 

wide, ending in very long point, with sides almost equal, edges finely sawtoothed, 

with 3 main veins from slightly above rounded base and 6-7 veins on 

each side, slightly thickened, very rough on both surfaces with scattered hairs 

and raised bases of fallen hairs, shiny green upper surface, paler underneath. 

Leafstalk 5-10 mm long. 

Flower clusters (cymes) compact, branched at leaf bases. Flowers several, 

tiny, 3 mm wide, greenish, with calyx of 5 narrow hairy sepals, mostly male 

and bisexual or female in different clusters on same tree. Male flowers in short 

clusters with 5 stamens opposite sepals; female flowers in slightly larger 

clusters have pistil with hairless ovary and 2 spreading hairy styles. 

Fruits (drupes) several, elliptical, 3 mm long, with calyx at base, black, 

juicy, with I seed (stone). 

Wood gray-brown or reddish.brown, soft or moderately hard, moderately 

fine-textured, fibrous, with small pores, annual growth rings. Splits and cracks 

in seasoning. Used for fuelwood. 

Other Uses Rope made from fibrous bark; branches lopped for fodder. 

Very rough leaves used like sandpaper to polish wood and horn. The appropriate 

specific name from Latin means "polisher." 

Natural Distribution Through subtropical northern and central India 

from Gujarat in the west to Assam in the east; also Pakistan. Altitude from sea 

level to 1500 m in Himalayas. Apparently not introduced elsewhere. 

TREMA POLITORIA 

285

Fig. 137. Trema polihoria (Lauterbach 1914, 'ig. IF). 

Climate and Soils Dry subtropical (monsoon) with long dry season. Soils 

vary from sandy to rocky and volcanic, including poor, barren, and eroded. 

Reference 

Ulmaccen Papuasiens niebst einer Revision der 

Lauterbach, C. 1914. Die 

Jahrbcher 50: 

Trema-Arten des Monsun.Gebietes. Engler Botanische 

308-328, illus. (Fig. IF, drawing, map used here). 

286 


79. Ziziphus mauritiana 

Botanical Name Ziziphus mauritianaLam. (alsospelled Zizyphus) 

Synonym Ziziphusjujuba (L.) Lam., non Mill. 

Common Names 

Indian jujube, Indian-plum, indian-ch rry, Chinese-date, 

Chinese-apple (English); ber (Pakistan, India); bor (India); Jjubier, Jujubier 

sauvage (French); beri, nabbak el fil(Arabic); yuyuba (Spanish); mayaria 

(Niger); nisondoka, kankanoe (Malawi); mkunazi (Tanzania); bidara (Indonesia). 

Buckthorn Family, Rhamnaceae 

This hardy spiny shrub or small tree, native to southern Asia, is cultivated 

throughout the tropics for its edible elliptical or rounded reddish fruits. It is 

also a fuetwood species for arid and semiarid regions. 

Its elliptical leaves are rounded at the tip and finely wavy-toothed on the 

edges; under surfaces of leaves have dense, %hitish, soft hairs. Small starshaped 

yellow flowers are clustered at leaf bases. 

This species is propagated by direct seeding or vegetatively, such as by grafting 

in the fruit varieties. Thornless varieties are known. The trees grow fast, 

coppice well, and sprout vigorously from stumps and roots. This species can 

be planted in dry areas and on poor sites unfit for other crops. 

The genus Ziziphus has 100-150 species of trees and shrubs widespread in 

tropical and subtropical regions including Australia and north to southwestern 

from Persian. The 

United States. This ancient Greek name was derived 

specific name, meaning "Mauritian," refers to Mauritania in northwestern 

Africa, where this tree was introduced long ago. 

Description Spiny deciduous or evergreen shrub or small tree to 12 m 

high, with trunk 40 cm or more in diameter, spreading crown, many drooping 

branches. On severe sites a compact thicket-forming shrub of 3-4 m. Bark 

dark gray or blackish, irregularly fissured. Twigs, leafstalks, lower leaf surfaces, 

and flower clusters with dense whitish or rusty-brown hairs. Spines 

(stipules) paired at some leaf bases, curved, brownish, 3-6 mm long. 

Leaves variable, alternate in 2 rows, elliptical to rounded, 2.5-6 cm long, 

1.5-5 cm wide, with tip rounded or slightly notched, with 3 main veins from 

edges, shiny 

unequal-sided or slightly notched base, finely wavy-toothed on 

green and hairless upper surface, dense whitish soft hairs underneath. 

Leafstalks short, less than I cm long. 

Flower clusters.(cynies) at leaf bases less than 2 cm across. Flowers several, 

fragrant, short-stalked, spreading, small, star-shaped, densely hairy, yellow, 5 

mm across, composed of bell-shaped base (hyparthium), 5 spreading, pointed, 

hairy, yellow sepals less than 2 mm long, 5 narrow stalked whitish petals, 5 

stamens opposite petals, and within the disk the pistil with 2-celled ovary and 

2-forked style. 

ZIZIPHUS MAURITIANA 

287

Fig. 138. Ziziphits niauritiana(Little et al. 1974). 

• 

Fruits (drupes) short-stalked at leaf bases, nearly elliptical or rounded, 2-2.5 

cni long, shiny orange-red or reddish-brown, juicy, sweet, edible. Stone large, 

long. 

2-celled, with 2 elliptical flattened brown seeds 6 tur 

distinct heartwood, 

Wood light red, aging to reddish-brown, without 

as 0.93)0 

moderately hard, moderately heavy (sp. gr. 0.57-0.66; reported also 

288 

IN 

i' 

COMMNON FUELWOOD CROPS

4 

• ,,l&, 

MAP 


OF 

ZIZYPHUS JUJUBA, LAM. 

' 

G q P 4 n, 

H Ihun INA 

ADBENGAL 

Fig. 139. Distribution of Ziziphoas maurifiana in India (Pearson and Brown 1932(. 

medium-textured, with uneven and interlocked grain, dull, with growth rings 

often distinct. Strong, moderately durabic, easy to saw and work, takes a good 

polish but requires sonic care in planing. Wood excellent firewood and good 

charcoal. Drooping branches casily accessible for harvesting. 

Other Uses In India, whlere species is common, wood used for construction 

of rural houses, posts, tool handles, farm implements, saddletrees, yokes, 

tent pegs, golf clubs, sandals, toys, turnery. 

F'ruits, bo)rne in quantities, eaten freshl, dried like dates, or pickled; can be 

made into fl(oury mecal, butter, or chleeselike paste used as a condiment. 

Refreshing drink prepared by macerating fruits in water; intoxicating 

beverage nmade fr'om fermented fruit pulp. 

T1rees planted as living fence or hedge, as well as fruit tree; thorny branches 

used in fencing. Bark, including that of roots, has served in tanning. Roots, bitter 

bark, and leaves used inl homle remedies. Cattle, camels, goats browse 

foliage and fruits. I~eaves used to feed thle tasar silkworm. Species also hosts 

lac insects for shellac production. 

Natural Distribution Native of southern Asia, especially sub-Himalayan 

hill country of India. Altitude from sea level to 600 in. 

Cultiaed through the tropics, becoming naturalized. Widespread in many 

parts, especially dry areas, of Asia, Australia, Africa, tropical America north to 

Florida and California, and West Indies. Widely distributed and common 

ZIZIP'IIUS MAUIIITIANA 

289

in dry forests of India and Burma, including open lands and abandoned fields; 

extensively cultivated and escaping. 

Arid or dry tropical and subtropical, with severe heat 

ClImate anti Soils 

and slight frost. Annual rainfall 300.500 mm; where planted, as high as 2000 

mm. Soils a wide variety including limestone. 

Related Species Ziziplhisjijuba Mill., common jujube or Chinese jujube, 

is a relaled deciduous tree native from southeastern Europe to China. Many 

horticultural varieties planted in temperate regions for edible f uits. Hairless 

leaves green on both surfaces. Hardy where winter temperatures as low as 

name of this species was applied to 

-25°C. For mitty years the scientific 

Ziziphus iauritiana. 

Referencea 


of Puerto Rico Und the V,'iti,r Islands, vol. 2. Illus. Agriculture Handbook no. 

449. Forest Service, UIited States Departnient of Agriculture, Washington, 

D.C., USA. (Ziziphius rnauriliana,pp. 506-507, drawing used here). 

and I1. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial limbers of India, 2 vols. 


Illus. (Ziziphusijujuba,pp. 283-285, map used here). 

290 


80. Ziziphus spina-christi 

Botanical Name Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. (also spelled Zizyphus) 

Common Names Christ-thorn jujube, Christ-thorn (English); nabbag, sidr, 

nabq (Arabic); mkunazi (Tanzania); Kurna (Niger); jujubier (Senegal). 

Buckthorn Family, Rhamnaceac 

This spiny shrub or small tree of the Old World has edible yellow-brown 

fruits and wood otten used for fuel. It is characterized by paired spines at the 

leaf bases (I long and straight and I short and curved); by small, broadly elliptical, 

hairless leaves rounded at the tips and finely wavy-toothed on the edges; 

and by smali, star-shaped, yellow flowers clustered at leaf bases. 

rid and semiarid regions is generally propagated 

This fuelwood species for 

by seeds but also by cuttings. The plants are resistant to heat and drought and 

coppice well. 

names, applied to various thorny plants, refer to a 

The specific and common 

of thorns. Their application to this 

tradition of the origin of C(I-ist's crown 

species, attributed to the Crusaders, has been questioned and seems unlikely 

Lecause Ziziphus spina-christi is rare in that area. 

small tree 3-10 m high with thin spreading 

Description Spiny shrub or 

crown of slender branches and deep taproot, generally evergreen; also a very 

Bark smooth, becoming deeply fissured, 

branchy, thicket-forming shrub. 

to reddishgray; 

inner bark pinkish-white. Twigs slender, zigzag, whitish 

leaf bases, brownish, I long, 

brown, hairless. Spines (stipules) paired at 

straight, to 15 mam, and I short, curved, to 5 mm. 

Leaves alternate in 2 rows, short-stalked, broadly elliptical, mostly small, 

2-7 cm long, 1.5-3.5 cm wide, rounded to short-pointed at tip, with 3 main 

veins from rounded or slightly notched base and prominent side veins, finely 

on edges, hairless or nearly so, green, paler underneath. 

wavy-toothed 

short-stalked small flowers at leaf 

Flower clusters (cynics) with several 

bases. Flowers spreading, star-shaped, densely hairy, 5 min across, composed 

of bell-shaped base (hypanthium), 5spreading pointed greenish-yellow sepals, 

stalked petals, 5 stamens opposite petals, and within the disk the 

5 narrow 

pistil with 2-celled ovary a:d 2-forked style. 

Fruits (drupes) few, short-staiked at leaf bases, rounded, 1.5-2,5 cm in 

diameter, yellow-brown or red, juicy, edible, with large stone. 

Wood reddish, turning dark brown, hard, heavy, said to be resistant to termuch 

used for fuel throughout the range; burns with intense 

mites. Wood 

heat; provides good charcoal. 

Other Uses Good cabinetwood; used also for fenceposts, roofing beams, 

piling, tool handles, hotsehold utensils, turned items, spear shafts. 

as well as by people; foliage eaten by 

Fruits eaten by sheep and goats 

domestic livestock including camels. In some areas may be the main available 

ZIZIPIIUS SPINA-CHRISTI 

291

Fig.F 

Fig. 140. Ziziphus spina.christi (Sahni 1968, fig. 351. 

292 


forage. Leaves and fruits have served in home remedies. Bees attracted by 

abundant nectar of flowers. 

This species is useful in erosion control, such as stabilizing sand dunes, 

because of very deep taproot and spreading laterals. Planted also for fruit, 

shade, windbreaks, shelterbelts, and as stock-proof living fence. 

vst area of Africa from Mauritania 

Natural Distribution Native in a 

through the Saharan and Sahelian zones of West Africa to the Red Sea. Also the 

Peninsula. Altitude 

eastern Mediterranean, Iran, eastern Tirkey, Arabian 


Cultivated for fruit and shade through native range and in parts of India. 

Fruits found in tombs of the ancient Egyptians. 

Arid tropical or desert, with high temperatures. Soils 


dry desert. Best growth on alluvial plains with deep soils and in river beds or 

wadis, whrre ground water available for deep roots. 

This species forms impenetrable spiny thickets through its native range. 

areas where better, less hardy 

Thus, it should be tested only in very dry 

species cannot be grown. 

Varieties One variety, Ziziphus spina-christi var. microphyllaHochst. ex A. 

Rich., is a very branchy, thicket-forming shrub with small leaves less than 4 

cm long and 1-2 pairs of strong upper side veins. Aspineless variety, var. recta 

Forssk., is known in cultivation and is naturalized in Egypt. 

Reference 

Sahni, K.C. 1968. Important trees of the northern Sudan. Illus. 138 pp., Forestry 


Programme and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 

(Ziziphus spina-christi, pp. 82-83, fig. 35, drawingused here). 

ZIZIPHUS SPINA-CHRISTI 

293

MANGROVES 

Botanical Names Rhizophora, Bruguiera, and Ceriops in Mangrove Family, 

Rhizophoraceae; Avicennia in Avicennia Family, Avicenniaceae; Conocarpus 

and Lagunculariain Combretum Family, Combretaceae; Sonneratia in Sonneratia 

Family, Sonneratiaceac; etc, 

Common Names mangrove (English); mangle (Spanish); manglier (French); 

mangue (Portuguese); mangro, mangel (Dutch); Mangelbaum (German). 

The term "mangrove" is applied to as many as 50 tree species in about 13 

genera and 8 families. These trees form the mangrove swamp forests of silty 

seashores widespread throughout tropical regions. As indicated above, some 

species are closely related, whilk others are ,'assified in several unrelated 

plant families. The Old World tropics have a greater richness of species than 

the New World, which has only 4 genera in 3 families. 

Firewood Crops treats the mangroves together as a group for the humid 

tropics. This handbook describes and illustrates 10 species of mangroves 

belonging to 7 genera and 4 families; they are arranged alphabetically by 

botanical name. 

This introduction to mangroves contains general notes 

on the group, in- 

cluding characteristics, natural distribution, and ues. Next follows a key to the 

10 species described here. 

Mangroves produce good fuelwood in a readily accessible narrew coastal 

zone where other trees cannot exist. These trees are easily harvested by water. 

Natural regeneration is successful, and growth generally is rapid. Thus, 

firewood can be removed at intervals under management without establishment 

of plantations. Some species respond to cutting by sprouting from buds 

along the trunk and branches. Forests can be extended by vegetative propagation. 

These trees are pioneer plants on the bare depositing silt shores or mud flats. 

They are tolerant of salt water and brackish water. Many species have special 

adaptations that also aid in identification. Some have stilt roots or prop roots, 

often branched, that serve to anchor and to expand the forest. Roots of others 

rise above the water as pencillike projections or spongy "knee-roots" 

(pneumatophores), which function as aerators to absorb air. Some have seeds 

that germinate on the tree before falling or seeds that can float and germinate 

in salt water. 

Mangrove wood is prized for firewood and charcoal in many countries. It 

burns well when freshly cut, and the bark makes excellent fuel. The wood of 

most species is heavy and splits easily. It has a high calorific value and leaves 

little ash. Other uses of mangrove wood include marine pilings, furniture, 

wood chips for pulp and rayon, and extractives such as tannins and resins. 

As pioneers, mangroves tend to spread into open water, collect silt, and extend 

shore lines, thus increasing the land surface area. Other uses of mangrove 

294 


M ,a 

2 4 

FlO rl n Op °#i$ 

"q ,....9. o 

? afv*r 

28* 20'Punromds austral del monlorl 

.uoe,,cono eftoCosa ,liric 

Fig. 141. Distribution of mangrove forests along coasts of South America (Bascope et 

al. 19591. 

forests are coastal protection and production of wildlife. Natural protection is 

provided against turbulent seas and storm damage from hurricanes, typhoons, 

and strong winds. These forests support many kinds of marine fish, as well as 

MANGROVES 

295

crabs, clams, and oysters, Habitats and cover for sea birds and other wildlife 

are made available. 

References 

Bascop&, Federico, A. Luciano Bernardi, Richard N. Jorgensen, Kurt Hueck, 

Hans Lamprecht, and Pausolino Martinez E. 1959. Descripciones de Arboles 

forestales, no. 5. Los manglaresen Amdrica. Illus. 52 pp. Instituto Forestal 

Latino Americano d Investigaci6n y Capacitaci6n, M~rida, Venezuela. 

inmap used here). 

Nlacnae, W. 1968. Fauna and flora of mangrove sw:;ps. In Advances in marine 

biology. F. Russell and M. Yange, eds. Academic Press, New York, N.Y., 

USA. 

Stearn, William T. 1958. A key to West Indian mangroves. Kew Buietin 

1958: 33-37, illus. 

Walsh, G. E. 1974. Mangroves, a review. In Ecology of halophytes. pp. 51-174. 

Academic Press, New York, N.Y., USA. 

KEY TO THE 10 MANGROVE SPECIES DESCRIBED HERE 

Leaves alternate or borne singly, less than 8 cm long, lance-shaped; flowers 

tiny, crowded in many small balls; fruits rounded, small, 10.12 mm in di 

ameter, resembling abutton ..................... 

86. Cortocarpus erectus. 

Leaves opposite or paired, larger; flowers and fruits larger, not in balls. 

Leaves with fine gray hairs underneath, more or less upright; flowers 

crowded in headlike clusters, with tubular 4-lobed white or yellow corolla; 

fruit an egg-shaped flattened capsule; numerous upright pencillike 

projections (pneumatophores) rising from roots (Avicennia). 

Flowers -mall, 5 mm across the 4 nearly equal short corolla lobes hairless 

on 

inner surface, style very short; leaves ovate, lance-shaped to ellip 

tical, mostly short-pointed; native of Old World coasts from Africa to 

Asia, Australia and Oceania ................... 82. Avicennia marina. 

Flowers larger, 10 mm or more across corolla with 4 unequal lobes hairy 

on both surfaces, style long. 

Flowers 10 mm across; leaves lance-shaped or narrowly elliptical, shortpointed 

or blunt at tip; native of New World and western Africa 

..... .... ........................... 81. Avicennia gerf inans. 

Flowers 12-15 mm across; leaves obovate or broadly oblong, rounded at 

tip; native of Old World coasts from Asia to Australia and Oceania 

... .... ............................... 83. Avicennia officinalis. 

flowers not crowded, in spreading clusters or 

Leaves hairless, spreading: 

borne singly, corolla with separate petals. 

Leafstalks with 2 raised gland-dots; fruit pear-shaped, flattened, with 

sepals at tip; upright pencillike projections (pneumatophoresl often 

rising from roots ........................ 

87. Laguncularia racemosa. 

296 


Leafstalks without gland-dots; with stilt roots or upright knee-roots. 

Fruit a rounded berry: flowers mostly borne singly or 2-3; no stilt roots 

............ ............. 90. Sonneratiacaseolaris. 

............ 

long seedling hanging down, becoming cigar-shaped 

Fruit with 

(Rhizophoraceae). 

not black-dotted 

Leaves rounded and often slightly notched at tip, 

underneath; fruits with cigar-shaped seedlings sharply angled: 

flowers with 5.6 calyx lobes curved back on fruit; unbranched stilt 

85, Ceriopstagal. 

roots often present ........................... 

Leaves pointed at tip, black-dotted underneath; fruits with cigarshaped 

seedlings rounded. 

with 10-14 narrow lobes remaining 

Flowers borne singly, calyx 

against fruit: many upright knee-roots rising from roots 

............................... 

84. Bruguiera g"inorrhiza. 

Flowers 2 to many in cluster, calyx with 4 sepals curved back on 

fruit; stilt roots branched and arching (Rhizophora). 

coasts of tropical America, 

Leaves blunt-pointed; native of 

western Africa, and Oceania ........... 88. Rhizophora mangle. 

Leaves ending in short sharp point; native of Old World coasts 

from East Africa to southeastern Asia, Australia, and Oceania 

............................... 89. Rhizophoramucronata. 

MANGROVES 

297

81. Avicennia germinans 

Botanical Name Avicennia germinans (L. L. 

Synonym Avicennia nitida Jacq. 

Common Names black-mangrove, mangrove (English); blackwood-bush 

(Bahamas); limewood (Trinidad); mangle, mangle negro, mangle prieto, 

mangle blanco, mangle salado, manglecito (Spanish); madre de sal (Mexico); 

palo de sal (Costa Rica); sietecapas (Venezuela); mangle iguanero (Ecuador); 

jeli salado (Peru); pal6tuvier blanc, mangle blanc, manglier noir (French); 

parwa (Suriname); 

mangel blancu, saltpond-tree (Dutch West Indies); 

courida (Guyana); siriuba, scriba (Brazil). 

Avicennia Family, Avicenniaccae (or Verbena Family, Verbenaceac) 

The genus Avicennia is recognized by lance-shaped leaves having fine gray 

hairs underneath and by upright, headlike clusters of flowers with a tubular, 

4-lobed, white or yellow corolla 10 mm across. The fruit is an egg-shaped flatupright 

pencillike projections (pheumatophores) 

tened capsule. Numerous 

rise from the roots. This is the norlhernmost and hardiest mangrove of the 

New World. 

the 

Avicennia germinans is common in mangrove swamp forests, mainly on 

landward side, in brackish water in mud flats of tidal zones of protected silty 

shores, and at the mouths of rivers. It is usually found with other mangrove 

species, rarely forming pure stands. This species penetrates farther inland 

along rivers and Lppears to withstand prolonged flooding. 

The name of the genus Avicennia, with about 10 species on tropical shores of 

or Abu Ali Huthe 

world, commemorates Abu Sina (Latinized as Avicenna), 

sian ibn-Abdallah ibn-Sina (980-1037), of Bokhara, a Persian physician, mathe 

"germatician, 

philosopher and naturalist. The specific name, meaning 

minating," refers to the early seed germination often within the fruit on the 

tree. 

eDescription Evergreen shrub or small tree 3-12 in high Irarely to 25 i) 

in diameter (often crooked), and rounded crown of 

with trunk 30-60 cm 

spreading branches. Masses of small air roots 15-45 cm long sometimes hang 

in the air from upper part of large trunks. Numerous, upright, fleshy pencillike 

projections (pneumatophores) often rise 5-10 cm from the long horizontal 

roots in mud under tree, perhaps aiding in air movement. Bark dark gray 

or brown and smooth on small trunks, becoming dark brown, fissured, scaly, 

and thick; inner bark bright orange to yellow and within brown, slightly salty 

in taste. Twigs gray or brown, finely hairy when young, with rings at enlarged 

nodes. 

Leaves opposite or paired, lance-shaped or narrowly elliptical, 5-11 cm long, 

wide, short-pointed or blunt at tip, short-pointed at base, not toothed 

2-4 cm 

on edges, thick, leathery, yellow-green and often shiny above, underneath 

gray-green with coat of fine hairs giving a grayish hue to foliage: both surfaces 

298 


Fig. 142. Avicen'da germinaris (Little and Wadsworth 1964, pl. 225). 

often with scattered salt crystals and salty taste, usually turning black in drying. 

Leafstalks short, 3-15 mm long. 

Flower clusters (spikes or panicles) headlike, upright at and near ends of 

AVICENNIA GERMINANS 

299

17-N). 

// 

long. Flowers several, crowded, stalkless, 6 

twig-, on 4-angled stalks to 4 cm 

across, fragrant. Calyx cup-shaped, deeply 5-lobed, graymmi 

long, 10 mim 

green, hairy, with 3 smaller scales outside: corolla tubular, hairy, white but 

at base, with 4 slightly unequal spreading, rounded, or ,notched 

yellowish 

300 


lobes; 4 stamens 5 mm long inserted in notches of corolla tube near base; and 

pistil with imperfectly 4-celled ovary, slender style, and 2-forked stigma. 

Fruit (capsule) elliptical, flattened, 2.5-3 cm long, short-pointed, yellowgreen, 

finely hairy, fleshy, often splitting into 2 parts. Seed 1, large, flattened, 

dark green, without seed coat, often germinating on tree, splitting open fruit. 

Upon falling, young plant continues growing in mud or may float and be 

transported Lv tide and currents. Flowering and fruiting nearly throughout the 

year. 

Sapwood light brown and thick, and heartwood dark brown or blackish. 

Wood very hard, very heavy (sp. gr. 0 9), strong, medium-textured, with 

coarse uneven interlocked grain; when feshly cut has odor of mushrooms. 

Very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites. Wood anatomy in this genus 

distin.tive, with many narrow concentric layers or bands of pore-bearing 

tissue (xylem) and nonporous tissue (phloem). Wood used for fuel and charcoal, 

burning with intense heat. 

Other Uses 

Used for posts, utility poles, railway crossties, piers, wharves, 

other marine construction. Bark has served in tanning and the bark and gum 

in home remedies. 

An important honey plant, producing clear white honey of high quality. 

Flowers rich in nectar and attract bees. Sprouting seeds reportedly edible 

when cooked but poisonous raw. 

Natural Distribution Widespread along coasts of tropical America. On 

Atlantic Coast from Bermuda 

and Bahamas through West Indies to 

southeastern United States, northern Florida and southeastern Texas and local 

between. From northern Mexico southward on Atlantic Coast to Brazil and on 

Pacific Coast to Ecuador including Galipagos Islands and northwestern Peru. 

Altitude sea level in tidal zone to 15 m. The same or very closely related 

species on coasts of western Africa. Not widely planted or introduced 

elsewhere. 


Humid tropical with high annual rainfall. Species ap- 

parently withstands slight frosts and freezing temperatures. Plants rarely 

killed to the ground. Soils mostly saline and brackish skits of depositing shores 

and marshes. 

Varieties This widespread species is available. Besides the typical variety, 

2 geographic varieties in South America have been named. 

References 

Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1977-78. Atlas of United States Trees, vols. 4 and 5. Misc. 

Pub. nos. 1342, 1361. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D.C., USA. (vol. 4, map 17-N used here). (See also vol. 4, map 17-SE and vol. 

5, map 168). 



AVICENNIA GERMINANS 

301

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. {Avicennia 

nitida, pp. 476-478, drawing used here). 

Moldenke, Harold ',. 1960. Materials toward a monograph of the genus 

Avicennia. Phytologia7: 123-168, 179-232, 259-293. (Avicenniagerminans,pp. 

165-168, 179-206). 

302 


82. Avicennia marina 

Botpnlcal Name Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. 

Common Names black-mangrove, mangrove (English); grey mangrove 

(Australia); manawa (New Zealand); witseebasboom (South Africa); mchu 

(Tanzania); afiafy (Madagascar); shora (Arabic); venkandal (Sri Lanka); apiapi 

jambu (Pen. Malaysia); api-api hitam (Sabah, Malaysia); api-api merah 

(Sarawak, Malaysia): bongalon (Philippines); hirugi-danmashi (Okinawa). 

Avicennia Family, Avicenniaceae (or Verbena Family, Verbenaceae) 

This widespread Old World species of Avicewnia is distinguished by opposite 

leaves with fine gray hairs underneath, headlike clusters of small 

ovate 

the 4-lobed white corolla, an egg-shaped flattened capflowers 

5 mm across 

sule fruit, and numerous upright, pencillike projections from the root. . 

Avicennia marina is common and often the dominant species in mangrove 

swamp forests and salt marshes in mud flats of tidal zone:; along silt shores and 

along adjacent river banks at sea level. It is often a pioneer in mud, 

esta|llishing by other unrelated species. This 

i forest, and being follewed 

species is also found in mature mangrove forests in brackish water in a zone 

farthest away from the shore. Because it is not tolerant of shade, it gradually 

disappears in dense forests. The largest size is attained where drainage is good. 

This very variable species is one of the 5 mangroves of South Africa and the 

name "marine" refers to the 

southernmost, thus t~ie hardiest. The specific 

habitat. Five varieties differ in details such as leaf shape and size and in size of 

flower cluster, as well as geographical distribution. 

Distribution Evergreen shrub or small tree of mangrove swamp forests 

m high, with straight or crooked trunk to 20 cm (sometimes 40 cm) in 

1-10 

crown. Numerous upright pendiameter 

and open, very branchy, rounded 

cillike projections (pncumatophores) 10-15 cm high and 6 mm in diameter rise 

above the soil from long, shallow, horizontal roots. Trunk often with masses of 

no prop or stilt roots. Bark whitish to grayish or yellowsmall 

air roots but 

green, smooth, often powdery with raised dots, scaly, exposing greenish inner 

bark. Twigs stiff, with fine whitish flairs when young, becoming hairless, pale, 

with rings at enlarged nodes. 

or paired, variable in shape, ovate, lance-shaped, to ellip- 

Leaves opposite 

tical, 3.5-12 cm long, 1.5-5 cm wide (commonly 7 cm by 2.5 crn), mostly shortpointed 

at both ends, not toothed on edges, thick, leathery, shiny green and 

hairless upper surface, pale whitish-gray and finely hairy underneath. 

Leafstalks mostly short, 5-10 mm long, hairy. 

Flower clusters (heads or cymes] ball-like, upright on long stalks at ends and 

sides of twigs Flowers few to many, stalkless, small, fragrant, 4 mm long, 5 

mm across. Calyx 5-lobed, green, hairy, persistent; corolla tubular, white turn. 

ing yellow or orange (blackening in drying) with 4 nearly equal, short, 

spreading lobes densely hairy on outer surface but hairless on inner surface; 4 

AVICENNIA MARINA 

303

Fig. 144. Avicennia marina (Sahni 1968, fig. 47). 

%L 

short stamens inserted in notches of corolla tube; and pistil with hairy ovary 

imperfectly 4-celled with 4 ovules, and very short 2-forked style. 

Fruit (capsule) egg-shaped or conical, flattened, 1.2-2.5 cm long, sharppointed, 

yellowish-green or gray-green, splitting in 2 parts, with fine, dense 

gray hairs. Seed 1, large, flattened, without seedcoat, germinating on tree 

before falling. 

304 


Fig. 145. Distribution of Avicennia marina in southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 1977). 

Wood gray to yellowish with darker heartwood, heavy, hard, even-textured, 

durable. Used for firewood and fuel for lime kilns. 

Other Uses Also used for poles and ribs of boats. Bark yields a brown dye. 

Bark, roots, and leaves have high tannin content. 

Natural Distribution Coasts of East and South Africa and southern Asia, 

Australia, and Oceania. From Egypt and Arabia along shores of Red Sea and 

western Indian Ocean, eastward along shores of Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, 

southeastern and eastern Indian Ocean, South China Sea north to Hongkong 

and Taiwan, and islands of the Philippine Sea, Coral Sea, and South Pacific to 

western Australia and New Zealand. Altitude sea level in tidal zone to slightly 

above. Not widely planted or introduced elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical with high annual rainfall. Soils mostly 

saline silts of depositing shores and marshes. 

References 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of southernAfrica. Illus. 959 pp. C. Struik, 

Cape Town Johannesburg, South Africa. (Avicennia marina, pp. 816-817, 


Moldenke, Harold N. 1960. Materials toward a monograph of the genus 

Avicennia. Phytologia 7: 123-168, 179-232, 259-293. (Avicennia marina, pp. 

210-232, 259-266). 

Sahni, K. C. 1968. Important trees of the northern Sudan. Illus. 138 pp. Forestry 


Programme and Food and Agriculture Organi:ation of the United Natons. 

(Avicennia marina,pp. 108-110, fig. 47, drawing used here). 

AVICENNIA MARINA 

305

83. Avicennia officinalis 

Botanical Name Avicennia officinalis L. 

Indian mangrove, grey mangrove, mangrove (English); 

Common Names 

, tham nt 

temer (Pakistan); bina, tivar (India); upattha (Sri Lanka); tham 

(Burma); api-api ludat (Pen. Malaysia); api.api suduh (Sarawak, Malaysia); 

api-api JPhilippines, Indonesia). 

Avicennia Family, Avicenniaceae (or Verbena Family, Verbenaceae) 

This Old World species of Avicennia is characterized by obovate leaves 

rounded at the tips, with fine gray-green hairs underneath; headlike clusters of 

flowers 12-15 mm across the 4-lobed yellow corolla; an egg.shaped flattened 

capsule fruit; and numerous, upright, pencillike projections from the roots. 

Avicennia officinalis is common in mangrove swamp forests and salt marshes 

in mud flats of the tidal zone at sea level along seashores and river mouths. It 

sea 

also extends slightly inward in brackish water along river banks above 

level. The plants coppice freely. 

to other species. The 

The name Avicennia officinclis has been misapplied 

name means "used in medicine" or originally "stocked in an office or 

specific 

pharmacy." 

Description Medium to large evergreen tree of mangrove swamp forests 

with short often crooked trunk to 1 m in 

18 m high (sometimes to 25 m), 

diameter, irregular crown; also a large shrub. Numerous upright pencillike 

projections (pneumatophores) rise above soil from long, shallow, horizontal 

roots. Bark brownish-gray, thin, becoming rough and blackish, or outer bark 

yellowish-green and inner bark whitish. Twigs having fine gray hairs when 

young, with rings at enlarged nodes. 

Leaves npposite or paired, obovate or broadly oblong, 4-12 cm long, 2-6 cm 

wide, rounded at tip, short-pointed or rounded at base, thick, leathery, edges 

slightly rolled under, upper surfaces shiny green and hairless, underneath 

witl; fine gray-green hairs and resin dots. 

Flower clusters (cymes in panicles) headlike, upright near ends of twigs, to 

15 cm long and wide. Flowers many, 2-12 together, stalkless, with unpleasant 

mm across. Calyx 5-lobed, hairy (in edges, with 

odor, 7-10 mm long, 12-15 

resin dots, persistent; corolla bell-shaped, tubular, yellow or yellow-biown, 

turning orange, with 4 unequal spreading lobes having dense whitish hairs on 

outer surface; 4 stamens inserted in notches of corolla tube; and pistil with 

conical hairy ovary imperfectly 4-celled with 4 ovules, threadlike style, and 

2-forked stigma. 

Fruit(capsule) broadly egg-shaped, flattened, 2.5 cm long, gieenish-purple, 

densely hairy, splitting in 2 parts. Seed 1, large, flattened, without seed coat, 

germinating in water. 

or undefined, hard, 

Wood gray or straw-colored with heartwood darker 

heavy, with interlocked grain, ring-porous, very brittle. Wood anatomy in this 

306 


Fig. 146. Avicenhia o(ffcinalis (Wight 1840-53, pl. 1481). 

with many narrow concentric layers or bands of pore* 

genus distinctive, 

bearing tissue (xyleml and nonporous tissue (phloem). The brittle wood used 

for firewood. 

AVICENNIA OFFICINALIS 

307

Other Uses Used for piling for wharves, construction of houses, and small 

boats. Ashes used to wash cloth. 

Bitter seeds have served in home remedies. Reportedly seeds can be eaten, 

generally by cooking or soaking in water for a long period and (trying in 

sunlight to remove the bitterness. 

Naturai l)lstrilution Coasts of southern Asia to Australia and Oceania. 

From India, East Pakistan, Tanasserim, Andaman Islands, and Sri Lanka 

through coasts of Vietnam, Thailand, and Peninsular Malaysia to the Philippines, 

Sumatra, Madura, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Sunda Wands, Molucca 

Islands, and New Guinea; south in Australia to New South Wales. Altitude sea 

level in) tidal zone to slightly above, to 50 in in Papua. Not widely planted or introduced 

elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Ilumid tropical with high annual rainfall. Soils mostly 

saline and brackish silts of depositing shores and marshes. 

References 

Moldenke, Harold N. 1960. Materials toward a monograph of the genus 

Avicennia. Phytologia 7:123-168, 179-232, 259-293. (A vicennia officinalis, pp. 

267-280). 

Wight, Robert. 1840-53. Icones plantarum Indiae Orientalis, vol. 4. (reprinted 

1963). (pl. 1481, as Avicennia tomentosa: drawing used here). 

308 


84. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 

Botanical Name Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savigny in Lan. 

Synonym 

Bruguiera conjugata auct., non (L.) Merr. 

Names Burma mangrove, many-petal mangrove, mangrove 

Common 

(South Africa); black 

(English); black-mangrove, swartworteboom 

mangrove, nobble-rooted mangrove (Australia); mchonga, msinzi, muwi 

(Tanzania); kankra (India); pathkadol (Sri Lanka); saung (Burma); tumu 

merah, bakau besar (i'en. Malaysia); betut (Sabah, Malaysia); berus kurong 

(Sarawak, Malaysia); tumu, kandeka (Indonesia); tonka (Celebes); busaing 

akabana 

(Philippines); o-hirugi (Okinawa); palhtuvier (French); c-hirugi, 

hirugi (Japanese). 

Mangrove Family, Rhi-ophoraceae 

one 

and longest-lived 

This widespread Old World species is of the largest 

mangroves. It is characterized by opposite elliptical leaves; by single, large, 

red to yellowish flowers at the leaf base, which have a 10-14-lobed persistent 

narrow white petals; by fruit having a long cigar-shaped seedcalyx 

and 10-14 

ling hanging down; and by many upright knee-roots. 

Brugoiera gymniorrhiza is common to abundant in mangrove swamp forests of 

tropical shores in mud flats and ascending tidal parts of rivers. This species is 

on the drier, landward side. It is shadedominant 

in the tall forest, mostly 

tolerant and can form pure stands where the shade is too dense for seedlings of 

the final stage in succession of littoral 

Rhizophora. This mangrove forms 

is 

forests antI the beginning of the transition to inland forests. Regeneration 

mangrove fern 

often scant or absent. Seedlings compete with the large 

nurse crop. In South Africa this species has 

Acrostichim, which can become a 

been planted to stabilize dunes and in fresh water swamps. 

name honors Jean 

This genus of mangroves has 6 species. The generic 

a French naturalist who traveled in South 

Guillaume llruguibrejs) (1750-99), 

America in 1773 and in Iran in 1792. The specific name, meaning "naked root," 

refers to the knee-roots. 

Description Small to large evergreen tree of mangrove swamp forests 8-25 

cm in diameter, butin 

high (someiiito~s to 35 in), with straight trunk 40-90 

tressed at base, and with many upright knee-roots (pneumatophores) rising to 

45 cm from long horizontal roots extending out to 6 in but without stilt or prop 

roots. lark gray to blackish, smooth to roughly fissured, thick; inner bark reddish. 

Twigs green, stout, stiff, hairless with ring scars at nodes. 

Leaves opposite or paired, elliptical, 9-20 cm long 5-7 cm wide, shortpointed 

at both ends, not toothed on edges, without visible viiis, thick, 

green tipper surface, paler and black-dotted 

leathery, hairless, shiny dark 

composed of 

underneath. Leafstalk 2-4.5 cm long. End bud long, narrow, 

paired narrow green or often reddish stipules, shedding and leaving ring scars. 

BRUGUIERA GYMNORRHIZA 

309

C 

Fig. 147. Bruguiera,gninirrhizalWalker 1954, fig. 144). 

II; 

Flowers single at leaf base, usually drooping on stalk of 1.2.5 cm, 3-4 cm 

long, 3 cm wide, red to yellowish or cream-colored, with red to pink-red bellshaped 

base (hypanthium, which bears other parts. Calyx with 10-14 very 

narrow, leathery lobes remaining against fruit. Petals 10-14, 13-15 mm long, 

eacn with 2 narrow lobes ending in 3-4 bristles, edges 

white turning brown, 

with white silky hairs. Stamens 2 nearly hidden at base of each petal. Pistil 

310 


D

\S 

Fig. 148. Distribution of Bruguiera 8ynmorrhiza in southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 

19771. W 

3O$"llTmS~IT 

SHO 

",S' 

MAP 

+ BRUGUIERA OYMNORHIZALA. 

'RJPUR 

a 

ARABIANA 

A 

N 

BhUufl 

OAL 

U 

m 

H 

IoIs9 A 

AO R0 

SIAM 

'b 

II~~ 

). 

and Brown 1932 

)Pearson 

rliiza in India 

ruguier"nior of B 

Distribution forks. 

ovules, 

and slender 

style and 

Fig. 149 short 2 

3-4 

cell with 

down, becoming 

each 

2-2.5 cm long, leathery. 

with stigma ovary, 

hanging 

with inferior 

3.4-celled 

tree, seedling 

on or top.shaped, 

within cgg-shaped 

fruit 

)berryl drooping, 

Seed 1, Fruit 

germinating 

BRUGUIERA GYMNORRHIZA 

311

cm in diameter, before falhng into mud, 

cigar-shaped, 15-20 cm long, 1.5-2 

where germination continues. 

light reddish sapwood and reddish heartwood, turning 

Wood with narrow 

straightreddish-brown 

on exposure, heavy to very heavy (sp. gr. 0.87-1.081, 

small to very small pores, without 

grained, even and fine.textured, with 

growth rings, dull, extremely hard. Strong rough, durable but difficult to saw 

and work. Wood widely used for fuel and charcoal. 

Other Uses Used in construction including house posts and beams, heavy 

construction, piling, furniture. In India heartwood prized for furniture. 

dye which can be 

Bark rich in tannin; serves for tanning; yields black 

treated to orange-red, brown, violet. 

Natural Distribution Widespread from tropical South and East Africa, 

Asia, Ryukyu, and 

Sri Lanka, southeastern 

Madagascar, Seychelles, 

Micronesia (Palau, Yap, Marto 

Philippines, Australia, 

throughout Malaysia 

Not widely planted but inshall 

Islands, etc.), and Polynesia (Samoa, Fiji). 

troduced into Hawaii. 

tropical with high annual rainfall. Altitude sea 

Climate and Soils l-lu.)i 

or above. Soils mostly saline and brackish silts of 

level in tidal zone to 5 in 

depositing shores and marshes. 

References 

1977. Trees of southern Africa. Illus. 959 pp. C. Struik, 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 

Cape Town Johannesburg, South Africa. (pp. 655-656, map used here). 

461-463, 453, illus. (Bruguiera 

Hou, Ding. 1958. Flora Malesiana, Ser. 1, 5: 

gymnorrhiza). 

S., and H. P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India, 2 vols. 

Pearson, R. 

Government of India, Calcutta. pp. 490-492 (map used here). 

Walker, Egbert H1.1954. Important trees of the Ryukyu Islands. Illus. (Bruguiera 

conjugata, pp. 232-233, fig. 144, drawing used here). 

312 


85. Ceriops tagal 

Botanical Name Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. B. Rob. 

Synonym Ceriops candolliana Ain. 

tagal mangrove; Indian mangrove, Indiese wortelboom 

Common Names 

(South Africa); spurred mangrove (Australia); mangrove; kirrari, charri 

(Sri Lanka); tengar (Malaysia, In 

(Pakistan); goran 1India); chirukandal 

donesia); tengar samak ISarawak, Malaysia); tangir (Celebes); tangal (Philippines); 

takao-kohirugi (Japanese). 

Mangrove Family, Rhizophoraceae 

This distinctive Old World mangrove is recognized by the opposite obovate 

leaves rounded and often slightly notched at the tips, clusters of small flowers 

on fruit, 5.6 2.lobed white 

with 5-6 yellow-green calyx lobes curved back 

petals, fruit with a long cigar-shaped, sharply angled seedling, and often unbranched 

stilt roots and knees from roots. 

Common to abundant in mangrove swamp forests of tropical shores, this 

species forms dense pure stands or is in the understory of other mangroves, in 

well-drained soils in the inner part or landward side and along tidal rivers. 

Ceriopsis from Greek words meaning "horn" and "eye." The specific name is 

name. This genus has a rare second species, also in 

from a common 

southeastern Asia and Pacific Islands. 

Description Small or medium-sized evergreen tree of mangrove swamp 

in trunk diameter, often with 

forests 5-15 m (rarely 25 m) high and 20-40 cm 

cm high from roots; or a very 

unbranched stilt roots and thin knees 20-30 

branchy low shrh. Bark light gray or reddish-brown, smooth or irregularly 

fissured; inner bark orange or reddish. Twigs hairless, with tings at nodes. 

elliptical, 5-10 cm 

Leaves opposite, clustered at end of twigs, obovate to 

wide, rounded with small notch at tip, short-pointed at base, 

long, 2-6 cm 

not toothed but often wavy, thick, leathery, hairless, without visible 

edges 

veins, shiny yellowish-green upper surface, light green underiLuath. Leafstalk 

1-3.5 cm long. Paired narrow stipules at base of each leaf pair about 2 cm long 

.'orm bud and shed, leaving ring scar. 

Flowerclusters (cymes) single and short-stalked at leaf bases. Flowers 4-10, 

long, composed of short cup-shaped base (hypanshort-stalked, 

about 6 mm 

thium), which bears other parts. Calyx yellow-green with 5-6 narrow pointed 

lobes spreading and persisting, turned back on fruit; 5-6 white petals united at 

base, 2-lobed and ending in 2-4 bristles, turning brown; 10 or 12 stamens; and 

pistil with conical, partly inferior 3-celled ovary and short style. 

Fruit (berry) drooping, egg-shaped, 1.5-2.5 cm long, leathery. Seed 1, germinating 

within fruit on tree, seedling hanging down, becoming cigar-shaped 

or club-shaped, sharply angled, 15-25 (-35) cm long before falling. 

Wood orange-red, changing to reddish-brown on exposure, with narrow 

CERIOPSTAGAL 

313

Fig. 150. Ceriops ragal (Wight 1840-53, pl. 240). 

sapwood scarcely distinct, very hard, heavy (sp. gr. 0.89), fine.textured, 

straight-grained, with growth rings. Wood excellent firewood and charcoal. 

Other Uses Used in general construction, mine timbers; knees used for 

boats. 

314 


Fig. 151. Distribution of Ceriops tagal in southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 1977). 

Ba:k high in tannin content and has served for tanning, also for preserving 

fish lines, nets, sails, and as dye. Fruits also used in tanning. 

Natural Distribution Widespread on shores from South and East Africa 

Lanka, India, Burma, Andamans, Thailand, 

to Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri 

Taiwan, and through Malaysia to 

Cambodia, Vietnam, southern China, 

(Palau, Yap), tiorthern Australia )Northern Territory, 

Micronesia 

Queensland), and Melanesia to New Caledonia. In South Africa rare and local; 

a protected species. Not widely planted or introduced elsewhere. 


Humid tropical with high annual rainfall. Altitude sea 

level in tidal zone. Soils well-drained saline and brackish silty soils within 

reach of occasional tides. 

References 

liou, Ding. 1958. Flora Malesiana, Ser. 1, 5: 468-472, illus. (Ceriops). 

Woody flora of Taiwan. Illus. 974 pp. Livington Publishing 

Li, llui-Lin. 1963. 

Co., Narberth, Pa., USA. (Ceriopstagal, pp. 632-633). 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of southern Africa. Illus. 959 pp. C. Struik, 

South Africa. (Ceriops tagal, pp. 653-654, map 

Cape Town Johannesburg, 

used here). 

Wight, Robert. 1840-53. lcones plantarum Indiae Orientalis, vol. 1. Illus. 

(reprinted 1963). (Ceriops candolliana, pl. 240, drawing used here). 

CERIOPSTAGAL 

315

86. Conocarpus erectus 

Coaocarpljs erectus L. 


buttonwood (English); buttonbush 

Common Names button-mangrove, 

(Belizel; mangle bot6n, botoncillo, mangle botoncillo, mangle negro, mangle 

zaragosa IPanaal; 

prieto (Spanishl: yana (Cuba); marequito ICosta Rica); 

mangle jell, jele lEcuadorl: manglier gris, pal~tuvier (French); mangel, grijze 

mangue branco, 

West Indies); mangue, 

mangel, witte mangel [Dutch 

niangue tie botao (Brazill. 

Conibr'etunl Family, Conbretaceae 

This species is easily distinguished from other mangroves by the hiternate 

and by the rounded small fruits re. 

are small and narrow, 

leaves, which 

semlbling a button. There are no prop roots or "knee-roots above the water. 

This species is common in mangrove swamp forests in salt and brackish 

water in mud flats of tidal zone, usually on the landward side. It often forms 

an inland zone at a slightly higher altitude above the high tide level. 

dry land away from seashores. They can be 

The plnts can be grown on 

propagated from cuttings as living fenceposts. 

Evergreen small tree to 6 in high, 20 cm in trunk diameter, 

lescription 

with spreading crown; sometimes larger or a low shrub. Bark gray or brown, 

becoming rough, furrowed, thick; inner bark light brown, astringent and bitter. 

Twigs slender, yellow-green when young, becoming brown, with a promwing 

below each leaf. Usually hairless throughout, but one 

inent angle or 

variety has silky or silvery hairy foliage. 

cm broad, 

or elliptical, 3-8 cm long, 1.5-5 

Leaves alternate, lance-shaped, 

leathery and slightly fleshy, long-pointed at both ends, not toothed on edges, 

vein 

with several gland-dots near 

on both surfaces, usually 

yelhw-green long, slightly broad and 

lower surface. l,eafstalks short, 3-101 mmn1 

angles on 

winged, with 2 gland-dots. 

Flower clusters mnostly 3-8 cin long at end of twigs and base of leaves, consisting 

of several small balls Iheads) about 5 inm in diameter on slender stalks. 

long, mostly bi- 

Flowers many in each ball, tiny, greenish, fragrant, 2 nm 

sexual: sole plaits bear either male or female flowers. Bisexual flowers have 

hairy, grayish, 2-winged tubular base lhypanthiul,, cuplike green calyx with 

and pistil of inferior ovary with slender 

5 lobes, 5-t protruding stamens, 

style. Male flowers lack tubular base and pistil but have longer stamens. 

nm in diameter, purplish. 

Fruils imuliiple) rounded, small balls 10-12 

brown. Individual fruits (drupes) many, scalelike, dry, 3 mm long, 2.winged, 

fruiting probably 

maturity. Flowering and 

and separating at 

overlapping 

throughout tile year. 

Wood with light brown sapwood and yellow-brown heartwood, very hard, 

very heavy Isp. gr. I.(I), fine.textured, strong. Takes a fine polish and classed 

as durable, though susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites. Makes good, 

slow.burning fuel and charcoal. 

COMMON FUEIWOOD CROPS

Fig. 152. Conocarpus ereclus (Lit le and Wadsworth 1964). 

wood turning, boat- 

Other Uses Wood used fo." fenceposts, crossties, 

building. Bark used in tanning and medicine; leaves contain tannin. 

Natural Distribution Widespread on coasts of tropical America from Bermuda 

and Bahamas through West Indies to central Florida. From northern 

Mexico southward on Atlantic Coast to Brazil and on Pacific Coast to Ecuador 

including Galipagos Islands and northwestern Peru. Also on coasts of western 

Altitude sea level in tidal zone and slighttropical 

Africa from Senegal to Zaire 

CONOCARPUS ERECTUS 

317

Be 

06 

as' 

as-Be 

Fig. 153. Distribution of Conocarpus erectus In Florida, USA 

318 

G-o is 

r !I. I--... .-. 

(Little 1978, map 190. 


s 

Is'

as or 

*ly above. Apparently not extensively introduced elsewhere except 

namental. 

Humid tropical with high annual rainfall. Apparently 


can withstand slight fros's. Soils mostly saline and brackish silts of depositing 

shores, marshes, and stream banks. 

silvery foliage, Conocarpus erectus var. 

Variety A variety with silky or 

ex DC., silky buttonwood, is occasionally found wild. 

sericeus Forst. 

Sometimes cultivated as a handsome ornamental, for example, in southern 

Florida. 

Related Species Conocarpus lancifolius Engi. danas, sammas (Somalia), is 

species native to Somalia, northeastern tropical Africa. Not a 

a second 

mangrove; grows in dry riverbeds in uplands to 1000 m. Small tree to 10 m 

high, with rough furrowed bark. Twigs with short rusty hairs when young, 

becoming hairless. Leaves opposite or alternate, short-stalked, lance-shaped, 

7-9 cm long, 1.2-2 cm broad, leathery, whitish-green on both surfaces. Wood 

in salt water, and resistant to termites. 

light-colored, lightweight, durable 

used in shipbuilding. Crushed leaves 

Makes excellent charcoal; formerly 

fish poison. This species performed the best of several tested in 

serve as 

merits further trials for 

reclamation of limestone quarries in Kenya and 

firewood. The genus Conocarpus (from Latin for "cone" and "fruit") has only 

these 2 species. 

References 

Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1978. Atlas of United States Trees, vol. 5. Illus. Misc. Pub. 

no. 1361. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. 

(map 190 used here). 

trees of Puerto Rico and 

-, and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common 

249. Forest Service, United 

the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook no. 

USA. (pp. 390-391, 

States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 


CONOCARPUS ERECTUS 

319

87. Laguncularia racemosa 

Botanical Name Laguncularia racemosu (L.) Gaertn. f. 

Common Names white-mangrove, mangrove, white buttonwood (English); 

mangle blanco, mangle amarillo (Spanishl; mangle chino (Mexico); sincahuite 

(El Salvador); mangle blanco (Ecuador); jeli de mangle (Peru); 

palktuvier, manglier blanc (French); akira (Suriname); mangue, mangue 

branco (Brazil); ma-kent-ma-bi (Sierra Leone). 

Combreturn Family, Combretaceac 

This mangrove is recognized by the elliptical leaves rounded at both ends 

and often notched at the tips, leafstalks with 2 raised gland-dots, small bellshaped 

whitish flowers with 5 tiny petals, ilar-shaped flattened fruits with 5 

tiny sepals remaining at the tips, and the upright pencillike projections often 

rising from roots. 

This species, found only in the New World and western Africa, is common 

in mangrove swamp forests of tropical shores with other species of mangroves 

and is often the most widely distributed. Flowers and fruits may be produced 

at less than 2 years. Growth is rapid. After cutting, a clump of many stems 

may sprout. 

Laguncuaria is from Latin, meaning "asmall flask or bottle," and refers to the 

fancied resemblance of flower and fruit to a bottle. The specific name 

"racemose" refers to the branching flower clusters. This genus has only I or 2 

species. 

Description Small evergreen tree of mangrove swamp forests to 12 m high 

and 30 cm in trunk diameter, sometimes larger, with rounded or irregular 

spreading crown. Bark gray-brown, becoming rough and fissured; inner bark 

light brown, bitter, astringent. Twigs greenish or rcddish-brown when young, 

becoming brown, hairless, enlarged but not ringled at nodes. Upright pencillike 

projections (pncumatophores) from roots often present. 

Leaves opposite, elliptical, 4-10 cm long, 2.5-5 cm wide, rounded at both 

ends, often notched at tip, not toothed oi edges, hairless, leathery, slightly 

fleshy, without visible veins, dull yellow-green on both surfaces. Leafstalks 

10-13 mm long, stout, reddish, with 2 raised gland-dots near blade. 

Flower clusters (panicles) at ends and sides of twigs, mostly branched and 

spreading, 3-1( cm long, with fine whitis, hairs. Flowers mostly bisexual or a 

few male, fragrant, stalkless, small, about 5 mm long, bell-shaped, whitish. 

Tubular, whitish, finely hairy base (hypanthium) ' ss than 3 mm long and 

broad bears 2 tiny scales, 5 spreading blunt-pointed whitish sepals 1 mmn long, 

5 rounded whitish petals 1 mm long, and 10 stamens; pistil has inferior 

I-celled ovary with 2 ovules, slender style, and tiny 2-lobed stignma. 

Fruits(drupes) several, stalkless, slightly pear-shaped (obovoidl, 12-20 mm 

long, flattened, ridged, gray-green with velvety hairs when immature, turning 

brownish, broadest near tip with sepals remaining attached at tip. Seed 1, 

32) 


Fig. 154. Laguncularia racenhosa ILittle and Wadsworth 19641. 

large, beginning to enlarge and sometimes to germinate within fruit on tree. 

Fruit floats and is disseminated by water. Flowering and fruiting occurs nearly 


Sapwood light brown, and heartwood yellowish-brown. Wood moderately 

heavy (sp. gr. 0.6), hard, strong, but not very durable. Wood cut for fuel and 

charcoal. 

LAGUNCULARIA RACEMOSA 

321

Fig. 155. Distribution of Languncularfa racemosa in Florida, USA ILittle 1978, map 

219). 

322 

-4. 

• tts 


Other Uses Used for posts, construction, tool handles, and similar objects. 

Tannin-containing bark employed in tanning and in medicines. Classed as a 

honey plant. 

on seashores on both coasts of con- 

Natural Distribution Widespread 

tinental tropical America from northern Mexico southward on Atlantic Coast 

to Brazil and along Pacific Coast to Ecuador including Galpagos Islands and 

northwestern Peru. Through West Indies and Bermuda to southern and cen 

on coasts of western Africa from Senegal to Cameroon. 

tral Florida. Also 

Not widely planted or introduced elsewhere. 

Altitude sea level in tidal zone. 

Humid tropical with high annual rainfall. Soils well- 


drained saline and brackish silty soils along shores of lagoons and tidal rivers. 

Reference 

Little, Elbert L, Jr., and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto 


United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. (pp. 

392-393, drawing used here). 

LAGUNCULARIA RACEMOSA 

323

88. Rhizophora mangle 

Botanical Namne Rhizophora mangle L. 

Common Names red mangrove, mangrove, African mangrove (English); 

mangle, mangle colorado, mangle rojo, mangle salado, mangle gateador 

(Spanish); candel6n (Mexico); pal6tuvier rouge, manglier rouge (French); 

mangro (Suriname); mangue sapateiro, mangue vernielho (Brazil); dengii 

(Sierra Leonel. 

Mangrove Fainl'y, Rhizophoraceac 

Rhizoluhrc, red mangrove, is perhaps tile most common and most widely 

distributed of the genera of mangrove swamp forests. Trees are recognized by 

the large branchy and arching stilt roots bordering the ocean, the small 

yellowish flowers with 4 sepals curved back on the fruit, the long cigar-shaped 

seedling hanging down, and blunt-pointed leaves. 

Trees of the genus Rhizophora are the most common mangroves in the New 

World and are also found in western AfriLa and Oceania. They are common to 

abundant in mangrove swamp forests over large flat areas of silty or muddy 

shores in salt and brackish water. Trees form pure stands on the seaward side 

and mixed stands with other mangrove species farther inland. Rhizophora with 

its stilt roots growing in shallow water extends farther seaward than other 

nangroves. 

The genus Rhi'oplhora has about 5 species on tropical shores. The generic 

name from Greek, meaning "root-bearing," refers to the prominent arching 

prop roots. The specific name is the Spanish common name for mangrove. 

Description Small to large tree of mangrove swamp forests 5-20 m 

(sometimes to 30 m) high with upright trunk 20-50 cm in diameter (sometimes 

to 70 cm), casily recognized by the branched, curved and arching stilt roots 

2-4.5 m high in salt water: sometimes a large shrub. Bark gray or gray-brown, 

smooth and thin on small trunks, becoming furrowed and thick; inner bark 

reddish or pinkish, with slightly bitter and salty taste. Twigs stout, gray or 

brown, hairless, with ring scars at nodes, ending in long narrow pointed green 

bud 2.5-6 cm long. 

Leaves opposite or paired, elliptical, blunt-pointed at tip, short-pointed at 

base, edges slightly rolled under, without visible veins, thick, leathery, 

hairless. 6.12 cm long, 2.5-6 cm wide, shiny green upper surface, yellow-green 

and black-dotted underneath. leafstalk 1.5-2 cm long. Paired narrow stipules 

at base of each leaf pair form narrow bud and shed, leaving ring scar. 

Flowers mostly 2-4 on forked stalk 4-7 cm long at leaf base, pale yellow, 

about 2 cot across, slightly fragrant. lell-shaped pale yellow base (hypanthiutm) 

about 5 mn long bears 4 widely spreading, narrow, leathery, pale 

yellow sepals 12 mill hog, which become enlarged and curved back and remain 

on fruit: 4 narrow thin petals I cm long, curved downward, whitish but 

turning brown, white woolly or cottony oil inner side, and 8 stalklesE stamens. 

:24 


Fig. 156. Rhizophora mangle (Little and Wadsworth 1964, pl. 179). 

Pistil consisting of mostly inferior conical 2-celled ovary with 2 ovules in each 

cell, slender style, 2-lobed stigma. 

Fruit(berry) egg.shaped, 3 cm long, dark brown. Seed 1,germinating within 

tree. Seedling hanging down, bccoming cigar-shaped, forming long 

fruit on 

narrow first root Iradicle), green except for the brown enlarged pointed end, to 

in diameter. Flowering and fruiting throughout the 

25 cm long and 12 mm 

year. 

Wood with light brown sapwood and reddish-brown or dark brown heart 

RHIZOPHORA MANGLE 

325

-. A. . I ., 

• ,I,. mcro~o~mk. 

B 

,.'" .~ ' '. 

.R. 

Rhizophora mangle and Rhizophora mucronala Hou 1960). 

wood, hard, very heavy (sp. gr. 0.9-1.2), with straight or irregular grain, finetextured, 

without growth rings. Strong, difficult to saw, takes a good polish. 

Durable in the soil but susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites. Wood excellent 

for fuel and charcoal. 

Other Uses Used also for posts and poles, marine piling, wharves, shipbuilding, 

construction, cabinetry. 

Bark, with high tannin content, important commercially in tanning leather; 

leaves also rich in tannin. Dye and medicines obtained from bark. Extract 

from roots used to preserve fishermen's lines and nets. 

Natural Distribution Widesprecd on silt shores of coasts in tropical 

America from Bermuda through West Indies to Florida. Also from northern 

Mexico south on Atlantic coast to Brazil and on Pacific coast to Ecuador including 

Galhpagos Islands and northwestern Peru. Also on coasts of western 

Africa from Senegal to Nigeria; in Angola, Melanesia, Polynesia [New 

Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga). 

Mangroves planted for coastal protection in Florida. Plantations established 

in Puerto Rico and '".sewhere. Mangroves introduced into Hawaii. 

In Florida species iound along both coasts from southern to central parts and 

locally into the northern part, where plants are shrubby and killed back by infrequent 

very low freezing temperatures. Then plants recover, or area restocked 

by seedlings of southern origin. Thus, species not frost-hardy. 

326 

I, 

I7 

CONiMON FUELWOOD CROPS

4i 

.*\-/-_\ . 4 

,S -.... : -- - ,%l 

• / ., 

I " '', A, 

/ I r " 

Fig. 158. Distribution of Rhizophora in North America (Little 1971, map 186-N). 


Climiate and Solils 

zone. Soils mostly saline and brackish silts of depositing shores 

level in tidal 

and marshes. 

closely related: 

Related Species Rhizophora racemowa G.F.W. Meyer is a 

RHIZOPHORA NIANGLE, 

 

327

species of both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of northern South America and 

West Indies; also western Africa from Senegal to Gabon and Angola. Has 

larger flower clusters as much as 14 cm long and 10 cm broad, composed of as 

many as 20 slightly smaller flowers; has longer cigar-shaped seedlings to 50 cm 

long. However, foliage indistinguishable except for slightly larger leaves. 

Sonic plants are intermediate or hybrids JR. Xharrisonii Leachman). 

References 

Breteler, F. J. 1969. The Atlantic species of Rhizophora. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 

18: 434-441, illus. 

Hou, Ding. 1960. A review of the genus Rhizophora with special reference to 

the Pacific species. Blumea 10: 625-634, illus. (map used here). 

Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1971-78. Atlas of the UnitedStates Trees. vols. 1and 5. Misc. 

Pub. nos. 1146, 1361. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 

D.C. USA. (vol. 1, maps 186-N, 186-E: vol. 5, map 238 used here). 

-, and Frank H. Wadsworth. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the 

Virgii Islands. Agriculture Handbook no. 249. Forest Service, United States 

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., USA. (Rhizophoramangle, pp. 

384-385, drawing used here). 

Salvoza, Felipe M. 1936. Rhizophora. Philippine University Bulletin of Natural 

and Applied Sciences 5: 179-255, illus. 

328 


89. Rhizophora mucronata 

Botanical Name Rhizophora inucronataLain. 

Asiatic mangrove, mangrove (English); red mangrove, 

Common Names 

(South Africa); red mangrove (Australia); mkoko, mgando 

rooiwortelboom 

(Pakistan); kamo, bhora, pyu (India); 

(Tanzania); mkoko (Kenya); kamo 

kadol, kandal (Sri Lanka); bakau, kurap, belukup (Pen. Malaysia); bangkita 

bakau kurap (Sarawak, Malaysia); bakau, bakau hitam 

(Sabah, Malaysia); 

bakauan, bakauan-babae (Philippines); yaeyama-hirugi, ohna 

(Indonesia); 

hirugi (Japanese). 

Mangrove Family, Rhizophoraceae 

This is one of the most widely distributed Old World mangroves. The large, 

distinguish this genus among the mangroves 

branchy, arching stilt roots 

whose fruits have long cigar-shaped seedlings hanging down on the tree. This 

species, as indicated by its scientific name, has leaves ending in a short sharp 

point. It is common, often in pure dense stands, in mangrove swamp forests of 

tropical shores in mud flats and tidal rivers. 

Description Small to large evergreen tree of mangrove swamp forests to 

30 in), with trunk 70 cm in diameter, supported by 

25 m high (rarely 

Bark brown or blackish, smoothish, 

numerous branchy, arching stilt roots. 

with horizontal fissures. Twigs hairless, with ring scars at nodes, ending in 

long narrow blid 6-8 cm Inig. 

Leaves opposite or paired, elliptical to oblong, 8-15 cm long, 5-10 cm wide, 

ending in short sharp point, base short-pointed, not toothed on edges, without 

and black-dotted 

visible veins, thick and leathery, hairless, dark green 

underneath. Leafstalk 3-5 cm long. Paired narrow stipules at base of each leaf 

pair form narrow bud aimi shed, leaving ring scar. 

Flowerclusters 1cyniose) at base of leaves, 2-3 times forked, bearing mostly 

long, drooping on short stalks. The bell-shaped base 

3-8 flowers about 15 mm 

bears 4 pale yellow, pointed, leathery sepals and 4 cream 

(hypanthiumi) 

colored petals 9 mm long, densely hairy along edges. Stamens 8 stalkless with 

anthers 6-8 mm long, 4 opposite sepals and 4 opposite petals. Pistil with half 

with 2 ovules in each cell and short 2-lobed 

inferior conical 2-celled ovary 

style. 

long, brown, leathery. Seed 1, 

Fruit (berry) egg-shaped or conical, 5-7 cm 

within fruit on tree, seedling hanging down, becoming cigargerminating 

shaped, to 30-40 cm long and 2 cm in diameter before falling into mud, where 

germination continues. 

Wood with narrow light red sapwood and dark red heartwood, turning dark 

reddish-brown with age, sometimes with darker bands, heavy (sp. gr. 0.81), 

very hard, straight-grained, very fine-textured, with small to very small pores, 

without growth rings, dull, smooth. Durable except in ground and difficult to 

saw. 

RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA 

329

Fig. 159. Rhizophcra mucronata IWight 1940-53, pl. 238). 

Fig. 160. Distribution of Rhizophora ,iucrmla 

19771. 

in southern Africa (Coates Palgrave 

firewood and charcoal; has served 

Wood makes excellent 

as fuel for 

locomotives. 

Other Uses Used for poles, piling, frames of houses, fish traps and as a 

330 


MAP 

1 , SHOWING OISTRIBUTION 

,1. RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA, 

ARABIAN 

:u r O,,114 - e n, 141W 

% O "IA 

~ AND BENGAL 

10 IND HR OF 

,BENAAL 

IWO oflan Kol3 

lAndna 

NIIcoIa 

Fig. 161. Distribution of Rhizophora tnucronata in India (Pearson and Brown 1932). 

good heavy construction timber. Bark utilized in home remedies, for tanning, 

and dyeing a deep brown or black color. Has been planted along coastal fish 

ponds to protect the banks. 

Natural Distribution Widespread on silt shores of coasts of Old World 

tropics from South and East Africa to Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, 

to China, Ryukyu, throughout Malaysia to 

southeastern Africa southern 

northeastern Australia, Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, New Hebrides), and 

Micronesia (Guam, Palau, Pohape, Ogiwal). 

as introduced in 

Not widely planted or introduced elsewhere. Recorded 

Hawaii. 



level in tidal zone. Soils mostly saline and brackish silts of depositing shores 

and marshes. 

References 

Coates Palgrave, Keith. 1977. Trees of southern Africa. Illus. 959 pp. C. Struik, 

Cape Town Johannesburg, South Africa. (pp. 654-655, map used here). 

Hou Ding, 1958. Flora Malesiana,Ser. 1, 5: 429-493, illus. 

-. 

1960. A review of the genus Rhizophora. Blumea 10: 625-634, illus. 

(map used here). 

RIIIZOPHORA MUCRONATA 

331

P. Brown. 1932. Commercial timbers of India. 2 vols. 

Pearson, R. S., and H. 

Illus. Government of India, Calcutta. (Rhizophora mucronata, pp. 487-490, 


Icones plantarum Indiae Orientalis, vol. 1. Illus, 

Wight, Robert. 1840-53. 

(reprinted 1963). (pl.238, drawing used here). 

332 


90. Sonneratia caseolaris 

Botanical Name Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. 

Synonym Sonneratiaacida L. f. 

Common Names crabapple mangrove, mangrove (English); orcha (India); 

kirilla, kinnai (Sri Lanka); berembang (Pen. Malaysia); padada, pagatpat 

(Philippines); pedada, perepat, bedada (Malaysia); bidada (Java). 

Sonneratla Family, Sonneratiaceae 

Sonneratia, one of the minor genera of mangroves found along Old World 

tropical silty shores, is adapted to cutting for firewood because of its rapid 

regrowth from buds along the trunk and branches. The genus is characterized 

by very long, shallow, horizontal roots, from which arise many vertical "kneeroots" 

or "breathing-roots," which bear many fine horizontal "nutrition-roots"in 

the water. There are a few large flowers with many stamens. The fruit, having 

an ill-smelling pulp, is a rounded berry with calyx lobes spreading horizontal. 

ly. 

Soneratia caseolaris is common in mangrove swamp forests of silty shores, 

generally in less salty parts. This species is often found along tidal streams 

with slow-moving brackish 

or fresh water and as far inland as the salt water 

floods. Sonneratia is easily accessible in mangrove forests for firewood from 

wild stands. Because the trees recover rapidly after branchwood is cut, plantations 

should not be needed. 

This genus was dedicated to Pierre Sonnerat (1748-1814), a French naturalist 

and explorer. The 5 species are distributed from East Africa to southeastern 

Asia, northern Australia, the Philippines, and other western Pacific islands. 

Description Small to medium-sized evergreen tree of mangrove swamp 

forests 5-15 in high (rarely 20 m), trunk without buttresses or stilt roots, with 

rather open spreading crown, hairless throughout; or a shrub. "Knee-roots" 

(pneumatophores) 50-90 cm high, 7 cm in diameter. Bark gray, coarsely flaky. 

Twigs drooping, bluntly 4-angled when young, with rings at nodes. 

Leaves opposite, without stipules, with very short stout leafstalk, elliptical, 

oblong or ovate, 5-13 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, with broad or tapering base and 

biunt or rounded tip, not toothed on edges, stout midvein with 8-12 widely 

spreading fine side veins on each side, leathery, light green upper surface, 

paler underneath. 

Flowers 1-3 at end of drooping twig, from broadly elliptical bud, opening at 

sunset, nocturnal, short-lived, with disagreeable odor. The cup-shaped base 

(hypanthium) bears 6-8 calyx lobes greenish or yellowish-white on inner surface, 

persistent and spreading horizontally on fruit; petals 6-8, 2-3.5 cm long, 

1.5-3.5 mm wide, dark or blood-red, shedding early; stamens numerous, with 

threadlike filaments 2.5-3.5 cm long, red in lower part and white beyond; 

pistil with 16-21-celled ovary containing many ovules, and very long stout 

style. Flowering throughout the year. 

SONNERATIA CASEOLARIS 

333

23 

Fig. 162. Sonneratia caseolaris (Wight 1840-53, pl. 340). 

high, 5-7.5 cm wide, green, with 

Fruit a rounded, flattened berry 3-4 cm 

at base, and long style. Seeds 

hard wall, calyx lobes spreading horizontally 

numerous in ill-smelling pulp, small. 

334 


Wood whitish, lightweight, soft, fine.textured. Used for fuel, especially where 

better firewood is not available. 

Other Uses Also used for construction, piles, posts, boatbuilding. The 

very lightweight "breathing-roots" after boiling in water serve as a cork 

substitute in floats for fish nets, sandals, etc. 

Sour young berries eaten; pectin extracted from fruits. Flowers contain 

quantities of nectar, attracting birds, bats, large moths. 

Natural Distribution Coasts of tropical southeastern Asia from Sri Lanka 

to Malay Peninsula and northern Australia. Also Sumatra, Java, Borneo, 

Celebes, Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New 

Hebrides. Altitude sea level in tidal zone. Apparently not planted or introduced 

elsewhere. 

Climate and Soils Humid tropical with high annual rainfall above 1000 

mm and with frost-free temperatures. Soils silty depositing seashores, also 

coral with some sand or mud. 

References 

Backer, C. A., and C.G. G. J. van Steenis. 1951. Sonneratiaceae. In Flora Malesiana, 

Ser. 1,4: 280.288, 513-515, illus. 

Wight, Robert. 1849. lcones plantarum Indiae Orientalis, 3vols. Illus. (reprinted 

1963). (Sonneratia acida, pl. 340, drawing used here). 

SONNERATIA CASEOLARIS 

335

Index of Scientific Names 

Page numbers of names treated as synonyms are in italics. Under family 

names are page numbers of each included species. 

ACACIA, I 

Acacia arabica, 18 

Acacia auriculiformis, 3 

Acacia brachystachya. 6 

Acacia cainbagei, 9 

Acacia cyanophylla, 23 

Acacia cyclops, 13 

Acacia dealbata, 17 

Acacia decurrens, 17 

Acacia decurrcns var. niollis, 15 

Acacia heteracantha, 38 

Acacia mearnsii, 15 

Acacia mollissima, 15 

Acacia nilotica, 18 

Acacia raddiana, 37 

Acacia saligna, 23 

Acccia senegal, 28 

Acacia seyal, 32 

Acacia spirocarpa, 38 

Acacia tortilis, 35 

Acacia verek, 28 

Acanthaceae, 39 

Adhatoda va.ica, 39 

Adhatoda zeylanica, 39 

Agati grandiflora, 257 

Ailanthus altissima, 42 

Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

Ailanthus glandulosa, 42 

Albizia (alcata, 48 

Albizia falcataria, 48 

Albizia lebbek, 51 

Albizia moluccana, 48 

Albizzia, see /,lhizia 

ALNUS 55 

Alnus acuminata, 56 

Ahms ferruginea, 56 

Ahis jorullensis, 59 

Ahms mirbelii, 56 

Ahms nepalensis, 61 

Alnus oregona, 64 

Ams rubra, 64 

Ahms spachii, 56 

Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES 

Araucaria angustifolia, 198 

Arthrophytuniv aphyllun, 177 

Arlhrophyluin haloxylon, 177 

Avicennia, 294 

Avicennia germinans, 298 

Avicennia marina, 303 

Avicennia nilida, 298 

Avicennia officinalis, 306 

Avicenniaceae, 294, 298, 303, 306 

Azadirachta indica, 71 

Betulaceae, 55, 56, 61, 64 

Bruguiera, 294 

Bruguiera conjugata, 309 

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 309 

Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

Caesalpinioideae, 84, 100, 160, 205 

Cajan cajan, 78 

Cajanus cajant, 78 

Cajanus indicus, 78 

Calliandra calothyrsus, 81 

Calliandraconfusa, 81 

Calliandrasirnilis, 81 

Cassia siamea, 84 

CASUARINA, 87 

Casuarina cunninghaniana, 89 

Casuarinaequisetifolia, 93 

Casuarina glauca, 97 

Casuarinalitorea, 93 

Casuarina littoralis, 93 

Casuarinaceae, 87, 89, 93, 97 

Ceriops, 294 

C'eriops candolliana, 313 

Ceriops lagal, 313 

Chenopodiaceae, 177, 181 

Colophospermurn mopane, 100 

Combretaceae, 68, 271, 294, 316, 320 

Conocarpus, 294 

Conocarpus erectus, 316 

C'onocarpus lancifolius, 319 

Copaifera mopane, 100 

Previous Page Blank 

337

Dalbergia sissoo, 105 

Derris indica, 109 

Elacocarpaceae, 202 

Emblica officinalis, 113 

EUCALYPrUS, 117 

Eucalyptus bicostata, 132 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 120, 144 

Eucalyptus citriodora, 124 

Eucalyptus globulus, 123, 128 

Eucalyptus gomphocephala, 133 

Eucalyptus grandis, 137, 152 

Eucalyptus grandis var. grandillora, 

151 

Eucalyptus maidenii, 132 

Eucalyptus microtheca, 141 

Eucalyptus multiflora, 148 

Eucalyptus occidentalis, 145 

Eucalyptus pseudoglobuls, 132 

Eucalyptus robusta, 148 

Eucalyptus rostrata, 120 

Eucalyptus saligna, 140. 152 

Eucalyptus saligna var. pallidivalvis, 

137 

Eucalyptus stjohnii, 132 

Eucalyptus tereticornis, 156 

Eucalyptus umbellata, 156 

Eugenia cumini, 260 

Eugeniajambulana,260 

Euphorbiaceae, 113 

Faboidcac, 78, 105, 109, 164, 250, 

254, 257 

Glditsiafriacanthas, 160 

Gliricidia maculata, 164 

Gliricidia sepium, 164 

Gmelina arbrea, 167 

Grevillea robusta, 171 

(;uzuma topnentosa, 174 

Guizuia ulmifolia, 174 

ltaloxylo ammondendron var. aphyl. 

lm, 177 

llal'xylop aphyllum, 177 

llaloxylot persicum, 181 

Inga inga, 183 

Inga vera, 183 

338 

Justiclaadhatoda, 39 

Lagonychium 

farctum, 234 

Laguncularia, 294 

Laguncularia racemosa, 230 

LeguminosaC, 1, 3, 6, 9, .13, 15, 18-, 

23, 28, 32, 35, 48, 51, 78, 81, 84, 100, 

105, 109, 160, 164, 183, 186, 198, 

205, 219, 222, 225, 227, 231, 234, 

237, 240, 243, 250, 254, 257 

Leucaena glauca, 186 

Leucaefa leucocephula, 186 

Malpighiaceae, 75 

Melaleuca leucadendron, 190 

Melaleuca quinquenervia, 190 

Melia azadirachta, 71 

Melia azedarach, 194 

Melia indica, 71 

Meliaceac, 71, 194 

Mimosa bracaalinga, 198 

Mimosa scabrella, 198 

Mimosoideae, 1, 3, 6, 9, 13, 15, 18, 

23, 28, 32, 35, 48, 51, 81, 183, 186, 

198, 219, 222, 225, 227, 231, 234, 

237, 240, 243 

Muntingia calabura, 202 

Muntingia roseu, 204 

Myrtaccae, 117, 120, 124, 128, 133, 

137, 141, 145, 148, 152, 156, 190, 

247, 260 

Papilonoideae 78, 105, 109. 164, 

250,257 

Parhinqoptia aculeata, 205 

Phyllanthus emblica, 113 

Pinaceac, 208, 209, 212, 216 

PINUS, 208 

Pinus brutia, 209 

Pinus caribaea, 212 

Pinus elarica, 211 

Pinus halepensis, 216 

Pinus halepensis var. brutia, 209 

Pinus halepensis var. pityusa, 209 

Pinus pityusa, 209 

Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

Pithecolobium, see Pithecellobiunt 


Pongamiaglabra, 109 

Pon.gamia pinnata, 109 

Sesbanla 8randilora,257 

Simaroub'-ceae, 42, 45 

Sonneralia, 294 

PROSOPI'S,222 

Prosopisalix. 225 

Prn, opis clilensis. 227 

I'roso'piscineraria, 231 

IPnr.sn is furcla. 234 

l'rosopis glailhlilma. 239 

Sonnerafia acida, 333 

So,'neralia camolaris, 333 

Sunneratinceac. 294, 333 

Sterculinceae, 174 

Syzygiwn cwmini, 260 

S)'zygianajwomlanuni, 260 

Prsj pis julillora. 237 

prnsoi'isliesis,240 

Iprosopis ,idllida, 240 

l'rosnims sililuestri in, 227 

l'rosopisspicigera, 231 

Vrwop~qis ,slephannaa,23J 

Prosopislailarago,243 

prnsnpis velutipia. 239 

Proteaccae, 171 

psidilm Ruajava. 247 

Tamaricaceac. 263, 268 

Tamarix aphylla, 263 

Tainarix arliculata, 263 

Tainarix chineusis. 268 

Tonarix gallica,268 

Tanirix orientalis, 263 

Tainarix pentandra, 268 

Tamarix ramnosissiria, 268 

Terminalia catapixt. 271 

TREAIA, 275 

Rhaiilnaceae, 287. 291 

Rhi:zophira, 294 

Rhizphlioriz x harrisonii,328 

Rhiophnra nmugle, 324 

Rhizopihora ,,ncronata, 329 

Rhi:.ophora rucemocit. 327 

Rhizoplhraceae. 294, 309, 313, 324, 

Trenia guineensis. 276 

Trena micrantha, 279 

Trerna orientalis, 278, 282 

Trema politoria, 285 

Ulmaccae, 275, 276, 279, 282, 28. 

329 Verbenaceac, 167, 298, 303, 306 

RhIiiu psend, awaCdia, 250 

Zizipluis jujubxt, 2.S7, 290 

1pltcalln 41b14f, 86 

S,.shiia uculeato, 254 

,sesixiian bispintout 254 

eslbatia fortaut, 259 

Ziziphus maurilinca, 287 

Ziziplis spina.christi, 291 

Zizyphus, see ZiiplIzis 

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES 

339

Index of Common Names 

is followed by the accepted scientific name atid the 

Each common name 

page number. English common names of more than one word generally are indexed 

under the last word. That word r: nresents the genus or other group and 

may be hyphenated. Under family names are page numbers of each included 

species. 

abarilcaltinga, Alimmoa scabrcllu, 198 

acacia, Acacia, I 

acacia, Australian, Acacia neatrnsii, 15 

acacia, circle.eye.sectded, Acacia cyclops, 

13 

acacia, false, Robinfa pseudxuacia, 250 

acacia, gum, Acacia senegal. 28 

acacia, prickly, Acacia nilolica, 18 

acacia, scented-pod, Acacia niotica, 18 

acacia, three-thorncd, Acacia sem'gal, 28 

acacia, white-galled, Acacia seyaL, :32 

acacia, amarilla, Alhizia leblbk, 51 

acacia, tieagiiijole, Parkiosmia aculeata, 

205 

acacia, tieCatarina, i'rosopis juliflora, 

237 

acacia du S&6igal, Acacia seniegal, 28 

acacia negra, Acacia mearnsii, 15; Gled. 

itsia triacpithS, 161) 

acacia seyal, Acacia seyal. 32 

Acanth Family, Acanthaceae, 39 

atalia, P,.ompis [arcia, 234 

ada(I, Acacia sepigl, 28 

a,ladodai, Adhatodh zey:apnci, 39 

adaschia, T"i/,a quinecnsis, 276 

adathtda, Adhao(hd ;,eylmcia, 39 

dlsa, Adhahuha ,'eylacia,39 

ado sa, Ad(Ialoda zeylicia. 319 

afiafy, Avicennia inariia. 303 

aft a col rada, Treia micrantha, 279 

agati, Sesqc,.iic grlndifuira. 257 

aglio, ('asuarinaequiseifidia, 93 

ailantlhus, Aimthus altissinia.42; Alanthus 

excelsa, .15 

ailt, Ahnus acinninara, 56; Ahms jorut'esits, 

59 

aisegerina, "T'rea micrantha, 279 

akabana-hirugi, IBruguiera gypinorrhiza, 

309 

akashmoni, Acacia auricuiliormis,3 

:140 

akira, Lapuncularia racemosa, 320 

ak-sa'iak, Hahoxylon persi(um, 181 

albizia, Molucca, Albizia falclaria, 48 

albizia, Indonesia, Aihizia falcaaria, 48 

albizia, white, Aibizia falcataria. 48 

albizzia, Aibizia lebbek, 51 

alder, Ahms, 55; Altars actuaiatia, 56 

alder, Andes, Ahmis acumiinal, 56 

aIder, Indian, Ahass Piepacnsis, 61 

alder, Nepal, Abms neplaensis, 61 

alder, Nepalense, Aius nepalensis, 61 

aIder, Oregon, Altars rmbra, 64 

ader, Pacific Coast, Ahms rubra, 64 

alder, red, Alus rubra, 64 

alder, western, Ahms rubra. 64 

alelaila, Melia azedarach, 194 

alell, Melia azedharach, 194 

Alepl-Kiefer, Pius hah'pensis, 216 

algarroba, Prosopis, 222; Prosopis 

juliflora. 237; i'rosopispallida, 240 

algarroba, white, Prosopis alba, 225 

algarroho, Prosopis, 222; I'rosopis juli. 

flora, 237; l'rosopispallida, 240 

algarrobo blanco, lmosropis alba, 225: Prosopis 

chileisis. 227 

algarrobo die caballo, Prosopis chilensis, 

227 

algarrobo tieChile, Prosopis chilensis, 

227 

algarro)bo tie olor, Albizia lebbek, 51 

algarrobo dulce, PIosopis chilensis, 227 

algarrobo impanta, Prosopis alba var. 

1wnfa, 226 

algarrobo panta, Prosopis all avar. panta, 

226 

algarrobo planta, Il'rosopis chilensis, 227 

aliso, Alnus, 55; Ahmis ac'mninata, 56: 

Ainis joruilensis, 59 

aliso del cerro, Alnus acumintla, 56 

alloba, Acacia senegal, 28 

COMMON FUElWOOD CROPS

almendra, Terminalia calappa, 271 

almendro de ia India, Terminalia catappa, 

271 

almendro tropical, Term inalia catappa, 

271 

amandel, wilde, Terminalia catappa, 

271 

amandelboom, Terminalia catappa, 271 

amandier des Indes, Terminalia catappa, 

271 

amendoeira, Terminalia catappa, 271 

amendoeira da India, Tcrininalia catappa, 

271 

amla, Emnblica officinalis, 113 

amlika, Emblica officinalis, 113 

ami !, Psidiurn guajava, 247 

anabiong, Trema orientalis,282 

anggerung, Trema orientalis, 282 

anghank, Cassia siarnea, 84 

angkanh, Cassiasiamea, 84 

Angola-pea. Cajanus cajan, 78 

aonla, Emblica officinalis, 113 

api-api, Avicannia officinalis, 306 

api-api hitam, Avicennia marina, 303 

api-api jambu, Avicennia marina, 303 

api-api ludat, Avicennia officinalis, 306 

api-api merah, Avicennia marina, 303 

api-api suduh, Avicennia officinalis, 306 

aqool, Prosopis farcta, 234 

aramana, Cassia sianiea, 84 

arazM-puitlil, Psidiuni guajava, 247 

Arbol blanco, Prosopis chilensis, 227 

firbol del cielo, Ailanthus altissina, 42 

ardu, Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

ardusi, Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

arhar, Cajanus cajan, 7F 

armo, Prosopisjuliflora, 237 

aroma blancsa, Leucae.,a leucocephala, 

186 

aromo, Prosopisjuiflora, 237 

arr&e-boeur, I'arhinsonia acaleala, 205 

aru, Casuarina equisetifoli,, 93 

arua, Ailanthus excel,, 45 

arusha, Adhatoxa zeylancia, 39 

atadijo, Trenia ,nicrantha, 279 

athel, Tarnarix aphylla, 263 

athel, desert, Tamarix aphylla, 263 

athel-tree, Tamarix aphylla, 263 

INDEX OF COMMON NAMES 

athl, Tamarix aphylla, 263 

August.flower, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

aune de l'Ordgon, Alnus rubra, 64 

"Australian-pine," Casuarina, 87; Casuarina 

cunninghamiana, 89; 

Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

Avicennia Family, Avicnniaceae, 294, 

298, 303, 306 

axlewood, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

axlewood-tree, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

babar, Acacia nilotica, 18 

babool, Israeli, Acacia tortilis, 35 

babul, Acacia nilotica, 18 

babul, Australia, Acacia auriculiformis, 

3 

bacule, Sesbania grand flora, 257 

badam, Terminalia catappa, 271 

badainier, Terininalia catappa, 271 

badan, Terminalia catappa, 271 

bagaruwa, Acacia nilotica, 18 

bahekar, Grevillea robusta, 171 

bakain, Melia azedarach, 194 

bakainu, Melia azedarach, 194 

bakas, Adhatoda zeylanica, 39 

bakau, Rhizophora mucronata, 329 

bakau besar, Bruguiera gyinorrhiza, 309 

bakau hitam, Rhizophora rnucronata,329 

bakau kurap, Rhizophora mucronata, 329 

bakauan, Rhizophora mucronata, 329 

bakauan-babae, Rhizophora mucronala, 

329 

bakli, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

bala, Gliricidic sepium, 164 

balo, Gliricidia sepilon, 164 

balsam-tree, Colophosperinuni 11opane, 

100 

ban, Acacia nilotica, 18 

bangkita, Rhizophora mucronata,329 

bangla-badam, Terminalia catappa, 271 

banharria, Trema politoria, 285 

btAni, Derris indica, 109 

banjiro, Psidiunt guajava, 247 

barba caballero, Albizia lebbeh, 51 

barba 

de le6n, Leucaena leucocephala, 

186 

barba di junkuman, Albizia lebbek, 51 

basna, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

341

atai, Albizia falcataria, 48 

bayabas, Psidiun guajavc, 241 

bayahonda, Prosopis pallida, 240 

bay-cedar, Guazuma ulnifolia, 174 

bay-cedar, wild, Trema micrantha, 279 

beadtree, Afelia azedarach, 194 

beati, Cassia siamea, 84 

bedada, Sonneratia caseolaris, 333 

beefwood, Casuarina, 87" Casuarina cunninghamdanc), 

89; Casuarinaequiseti, 

folia, 93 

bekkar, Grevillea robusta, 171 

belukup, Rhizophora mucronata, 329 

beowa, Terminalia colappa, 271 

ber, Ziziphus maouritiana, 287 

berembang, Soineratia caseolaris, 333 

beri, Ziziphus mauritiana, 287 

berragilito, Trema micrantha, 279 

berus kurong, Bruguiera ,ymnorrhiza, 

309 

betut, Bruguiera gynorrhiza, 309 

bhabal, Acacia nilotica, 18 

bhora, Rhizophora mucronata, 329 

bidada, Sonneratia caseohris, 333 

bidara, Ziziphus mauritiana, 287 

bina, Avicennia officinalis, 306 

Birch Family, Betulaceae, 55, 56, 61, 64 

biruma-gokan, Albizia lebbek, 51 

bisawv, Acacia tI.rtilis, 35 

blackbead, Pithecellohiun dulce, 219 

black-ebony, Albizia lebbek, 51 

black-mangrove, Avicennia germinans, 

298; ,lvicennia marina, 303; Bruguiera 

g),morrhiza, 3019 

black-olu n-tree, Sygygium cumini, 260 

blackwood, Bombay, Cassiasiamea, 84; 

Dalbergia sissoo, 105 

blackwood-bush, Avicennia germinons, 

298 

bluegum, Eucalyptus globuus, 128; 

Eucalyptus saligna, 152; Eucalyptus 

tereticornis, 156 

bluegum, Queensland, Eucalyptus tereticornis, 

156 

bluegum, southern, Eucalyptus globulus, 

128 

bluegum, Sydney, Eucalyptus saligna, 

152 

342 

bluegum, Tasmanian, Eucalyptus globulus, 

128 

bols de fer, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

bois de htre, Guazuma ulmifolia, 174 

bois de soie, Trema micrantha, 279 

bois d'orme, Guazuma ulmifolia, 174: 

Muntingia calabura, 202 

bois noir, Albizia lehbeh, 51 

bolina, AMuntingia calabura, 202 

bombway, white, Terminalia calappa, 

271 

bongalon, Avicennia marina, 303 

boonchi strena, Parkinsonia aculeata, 

205 

bar, Ziziphus mauritiana, 287 

botoncillo, Conocarpuserectus, 316 

bottlebrush, Aielaleuca quinquenervia, 

190 

bottlebrush, white, Melaleuca quimnuenervia, 

190 

bracadtinga, Mimosa scabrella, 198 

bracatinga, Minosa scabrella, 198 

bread-and-cheese, Pithecellobium dulce, 

219 

browngum, Eucalyptus robusta, 148 

buah cheri, Aluntingia calahura, 202 

Buckthorn Family, Rhamnaceae, 287, 

291 

bulang, Gmelina arborea, 167 

buloke, grey, Casuarinaglauca, 97 

burusa, Cajanus cajan, 78 

busaing, Bruguiera gmnorrhiza, 309 

bushbeech, Gmclina arborea, 167 

butterfly-tree, Colophospermuin 

mopane, 100 

buttonbush, Conocarpuserectus, 316 

button-mangrove, Conocarpus erectus, 

316 

buttonwood, Cotocarpus erectus, 316 

buttonwood, white, Lagunculria racemosa, 

320 

cabello de ingel, Calliandra calothyrus, 

81 

cablote, Guazuma ulnifolia, 174 

cacahuananche, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

cadios, Cajanus cajan, 78 

cajan, Cajapnscajan, 78 


cajaputi, Melaleuca quinquenervia, 190 

cajeput-tree, A1elaleuca quinquenerviao 

190 

calabura, Muntingia calabura, 202 

calabir-tree, Mniltingia calabura,202 

cemara laut, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

ceridva, Trema micrantha, 279 

chachd, Albizia lebbek, 51 

chaparro, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

chaparro manteco, Byrsonimfa crassifolia, 

califindra, Calliailracalothyrsus, 81 

c.-rliandra, Callia Idra calothyrsus, 81 

candelon, Rhizopora matngle, 324 

cmilla, Callia:dra calotlhyrsus, 81 

canjuro, AIbiia lebbek, 51 

capulir., Muntingia calabura, 202; Trema 

micrantha, 279 

capulhn, white, Trema micrautha, 279 

capulhi hlanco, Ahutingia calahura, 202: 

Trema micrantha, 279 

capulin cimarr6n, Trellia ,icranthia, 279 

capulbn de comer, Aluntingia calabura, 

202 

capulin macho,Trenta micrantha, 279 

capulin negro, Trema micralitha, 279 

carb6n, Prosopis juliflora, 237 

carboncillo, Calliwidra calothyrsus, 81 

carvalho sedosa, Grevillea robusta, 171 

cashaw, Prosopisjuliflora, 237 

Casia amarilla, Cassia siaea,84 

czIsia de Siam, (assia sialiea, 84 

casia siamea, Cassia siamea, 84 

casse de Siam, Cassia siaMea, 84 

cassia Siamese, Cassia siamea, 84 

cassia, yellow, Cassia siatea, 84 

casuarina, Casuarina. 87: Casuarina cull- 

lingliamiana, 89 Casuarina equisei- 

/ilia, 93; Casuarinaglauc, 97 

casuarina cavalinha, Casuarina cunning- 

hanmiana, 89 

casuarina Cunninghin, Casuarina cul. 

flinghamiana, 89 

casuarina horsetail, Casuarina equiselifolia, 

93 

casuarina, longleaf, Casuarinaglauca, 97 

casuarina, river-oak, Casuarina cunlinghamiana, 

89 

Casuarina Family, Casuarinaccae, 87, 

89, 93,97 

casuarine, Casuarinaequisetifolia,93 

catzimec, prosopisjuliflora, 237 

cauote, Gia(iZijLtlim uhifolia, 174 

cayeput, Alelaluca quinquenervia, 190 

cayeputi, Alelaleuca quinquenerviao 190 

cazuarina, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

75 

charcoal-tree Trema, 275; Trefa 

guineensis, 276: Trema orientalis,282 

charri, Ceriops tagal, 313 

cherry-tree, Muntingia calabura, 202 

chi, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

chikan, Trema orientalis, 282 

chiminango, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

chinaberry, Melia azedarach, 194 

chinaberry, umbrella, Melia azedarach, 

194 

China-sumac, Ailanthus allissima, 42 

Chinese-apple, Ziziphus mauriiiana,287 

Chinese-date, Ziziphus mauritiafna, 287 

c-hirugi, Bruguiera gyfmnorrhiza, 309 

chirukandal, Ceriops tagal, 313 

chitato, Aluntingia calabura, 202 

Chocolate Family, Sterculiaccae, 174 

chogache, Seslbnia gratdifolia, 257 

choncho, Sesbania grandifolia, 257 

chora nim, Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

Christ-thorn, Ziziphus spina.christi, 291 

cina-cina, Parkinsonia aculeata, 205 

cinnamoma, Melia azedarach, 194 

coast-grey-box, Eucalyptus globuls ssp. 

bicostala, 132 

cobreque, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

cocoa-shade, Nicaragua, Gliricidia 

sepium, 164 

colibri v~g~tal, SesbnMia grandiflora, 

257 

Combretum Family, Combretaceae, 68, 

271,294, 316, 320 

Congo-pea, Cajanus cajun, 78 

coolabah, Eucalyptus microtheca, 141 

coolibah, Eucalyptus microtheca, 141 

coolibah, western, Eucalyptus micro 

theca, 141 

coracao de negro, Albizia lebbeh, 51 

corcho, Afelaleuca quinquenervia, 190 

corkwoodtree, Australian, Sesbaania 

grandiflora, 257 

courida, Avicennia germinans, 298 

crabo, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 


343

craboo, Byrsonimna crassifolia, 75 

crapoo, Byrsonirna crassifolia, 75 

cresta de gallo, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

cuji, Prosopisjuliflora, 237 

cupesi, Prosopis chilensis, 227 

dakhani babul, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

dakwara, Acacia senegal, 28 

darga, Acacia senegal, 28 

datiles, Muntingia calabura, 202 

dawu, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

dek, Melia azedarach, 194 

dengii, Rhizophora mangle, 324 

deshi-badam, Termiralia catappa, 271 

dhaincha, Sesbania bispinosa, 254 

dhal, Cajanus cajan, 78 

dhaura, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

dhawa, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

dhup, Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

dihausa, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

djeungdjing, Albizia falcataria, 48 

dana, Derris indica, 109 

doncela, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

dormilon, Albizia lebbeh, 51 

dragontree, white, Sesbania grandiflora, 

257 

drek, Melia azedarach, 194 

driedoring, Gleditsia triacanthos, 160 

driehaakdoring, Acacia senegal, 28 

drievingerdoring, Acacia senegal, 28 

duhat, Syzygium cumini, 260 

East-Indian-walnut, Albizia lebbek, 51 

edad, Acacia senegal, 28 

Egyptian-thorn, Acacia nilotica, 18 

ekonoit, Acacia senegal, 28 

el dirbol, Prosopis alba, 225 

Elaeocarpus Family, Elaeocarpaceae, 

202 

Elm Family, Ulmaceae, 275, 276, 279, 

282, 285 

emblic, Etnblica officinalis, 113 

embrevade, Cajanus cajan, 78 

ervilha de Congo,3 Cajanus cajan, 78 

Ervse, Angolische, Cajanus cajan, 78 

eshel, Tamarix aphylla, 263 

espinillo, Parkinsonia aculeata, 205 

espino, Parkinsonia aculeata, 205 

espino montreno, Prosopisjuliflora, 237 

344 

espino ruco, Pro.-pis juliflora, 237 

Etagenbaum, Terminalia catappa, 271 

etdemata, Gmelina arborea, 167 

eucalipto, Eucalyptus, 117 

eucalipto achntado, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

eucalipto aromdtico, Eucalyptus citriodora, 

124 

eucalipto comnn, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

eucalipto de pantano, Eucalyptus 

robusta, 148 

eucalipto del alcanfor, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

eucalipto rojo, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 

120 

eucaliptus, Eucalyptus, 117 

eucalypt, Eucalyptus, 117 

eucalyptus, Eucalyptus, 117 

eucalyptus beakpod, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

eucalyptus bluegum, Eucalyptus globulus, 

128 

eucalyptus, flooded-gun, Eucalyptus 

saligna, 152 

eucalyptus, horncap, Eucalyptus tereticornis, 

156 

eucalyptus, lemon-gum, Eucalyptus citriodora, 

124 

eucalyptus, longbeak, Eucalyptus carnaldulensis, 

120 

eucalyptus, river redgum, Eucalyptus 

camuldulensis, 120 

eucalyptus, robusta, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

eucalyptus, roseguni, Eucalyptus grandis, 

137 

eucalyptus, saligna, Eucalyptus saligna, 

152 

eucalyptus, Signey bluegum, Eucalyptus 

saligna, 152 

eucalyptus, swamp-mahogany, Eucalyptus 

robusta, 148 

falkata, Albizia falcataria, 48 

farash, Tarnarix aphylla, 263 

filao, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

flamingo-bill, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

fleur-papillon, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 


flooded-box, Eucalyptus microtheca, 141 

flooded-gum, Eucalyptus grandis, 137; 

Eucalyptus saligna, 152 

frijol de palo, Cajanus cajan, 78 

frijolillo, Cajanus cajan, 78 

gallito, Sesbania grandillora, 257 

gamal, Gliricidia sepiurn, 164 

gamar, Gmelina arborea, 167 

gambhar, Ginelina arborea, 167 

gandul, Cajunus cajan, 78 

gandures, Cajanus cajan, 78 

garbanzo falso, Cajnus cajan, 78 

gedumba, Treina orientalis,282 

geelhaak, Acacia senegal, 28 

getih, Sesxania grandiflora, 257 

ghaf, Prosopis cineraria, 231 

gidgee, Acacia cainbagei, 9 

gidya, Acacia canbagei, 9 

gidyea, Acacia catnbagei, 9 

gin-nemu, Leucaena leucocephala, 186 

gio, Trenia orientalis, 282 

gmelina, Gnielinaarborea, 167 

goaachhi, Psidiutn guajava, 247 

goeaazoema, Guazuma uhnifolia, 174 

goeajaaba, Psidium guajava, 247 

goejaba, Psidium guajava, 247 

goiaba, Psidiuni guajava, 247 

goiabiera, Psidium guajava, 247 

goma, Acacia senegal, 28 

goma aribica, Acacia nilotica, 18 

gonia de acacia, Acacia nilotica, 18 

gomdoring, Acacia senegal, 28 

gamier, Acacia senegal, 28 

gonakie, Acacia nilotica, 18 

gond, Eucalyptus canaldulensis, 120 

Goosefoot Family, Chenopodiaceae, 

177, 181 

goran, Ceriops tagal, 313 

gorwi-kawat, Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

Gotterbaum, Ailanthus altissirna, 42 

goyave, Psidiutn guajava, 247 

goyavier, Psidiumn guajava, 247 

gram, red, Cajanus cajan, 78 

grevilea. Grevillea robusta, 171 

grevillea, Grevillea robusta, 171 

guaba, Inga vera, 183 

gu~cima, Guazuina uhnifolia, 174 


guacimilla, Treina micrantha, 279 

guacimillo, Guazuina ulmifolia, 174 

gu~cimo, Guazurna ulnifolia, 174 

guaje, Leucaena leucocephala, 186 

guama, Inga vera, 183 

guamuche, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

guamfichil, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

guandO, Cajanus cajan, 78 

guandu de fava larga, Cajanus cajan, 78 

guava, Psidium guajava, 247 

guava, common. Psidiuni guajava, 247 

guava, Psidium guoiava, ?47 

guava, Inga vera, 183 

guayaba, Psidium guajava, 247 

guayaba perulera, Psidium guajava, 247 

guayabillo, Psidiurn guajavc, 247 

guayabo, Psidiumn guajava, 247 

guayabo dulce, Psidium guajava, 247 

guayava, Psidiurn guajava, 247 

guizuma, Guazunza ulnifolia, 174 

guediane, Anogeissus latifolia, 68 

guisante de paloma, Cajanus cajan, 78 

gum-arabic, Sudan, Acacia senegal, 28 

gum-arabic-tree, Acacia senegal, 28 

gumhar, Ginelina arborea, 167 

gunpowder-tree, Trenia orientalis, 282 

haak-en-steek, Acacia tortilis, 35 

haaken-steekdoring, Acacia tortilis, 35 

hasbah, Acacia senegal, 28 

herrero, Prosopis julillora, 237 

hirugi-damashi, Avicennia ,narina, 303 

honeylocust, Gleditsia triacanthos, 160 

hopout, Tremna guineensis, 276 

hori, Byrsoniina crassifolia, 75 

horsebean, Parhinsoniaaculeata, 205 

horsetail-tree, Casuarina equisetifolia, 

93 

'uarango, Prosopis chilensis, 227; Proso. 

sis pallida, 240 

hudsimo, Guazunia uhnifolia, 174 

hue, Eucalyptus, 117 

huria, Byrsonirna crassifolia, 75 

ibop6, Prosopis alba, 225 

ibop6-para, Prosopis alba, 225 

ilachi, Eucalyptus canaldulensis, 120 

imli, Pithecellobium dulca, 219 

345

India-almond, Terminaliacalappa, 271 

Indian-alnond, Terminalia calaplm, 271 

Indian-beech, Derris indica, 109 

1ndian-cherry, Ziziphus mauriliana, 287 

Indian-gooseberry, E,,blica officinalis, 

113 

Indian-Iilac, Aelia azedarach, 194 

1ndian-phln, Ziziplius mauriliana, 287 

inga, Inga vera, 183 

inga dulce, Pilhecellobiurn dulce, 219 

'inia, Atelia awedarach, 194 

ipil-ipil, Leucaena leucocephal, 186 

irongum, red, Eucalyptus lerelicornis, 

156 

jacinto, Alelia azedarach, 194 

jacocalalu, Guazurna ulinifulia, 174 

jaguay, Pithece//obiutni dulce, 219 

jam, Syzygium curnini, 260 

Jamaica-cherry, Aluntingia ca/alura, 202 

jaman, Syzygium cumini, 260 

jambolan, Syzygium cuinini, 260 

jambolan-phm, Syzygium cuini,260 

jambu batti, I'sidium guajava, 247 

jambul, Syzygium cumini, 260 

jan, Casuarina cumninghalniana, 89; 

Casuarinaequiselifulia, 93 

jand, Prosopis cineraria, 231 

jandi, Prosopis cintraria, 231 

jangli saru, Casuarina cunning hamiana, 

89; Casuarina equiselifo/ia, 93 

jantar, Sesbania bispinosa,254 

Japanese-cherry, Aluntingia calabura, 

202 

ja l I,Ahnus actllninala, 56 

Java .llu i, Syzygiuni cumnini, 260 

jele, Collncarpus ereclus, 316 

jelide mangle, Laguncularia racemnsa, 

320 

jelisalatd, Avicetnnia germinans, 298 

Jcrusal1cm-thurn, IParhinsonia aculealu, 

205 

jiwat, Sy.'ygiuiu cumii, 260 

jolar, ('assia siani'a, 84 

jorddn, Trena micra~tiim, 279 

jtar, (assia siamea, 85 

juc6, Treioa micraniha, 279 

jujube, Christ-thorn, Ziziphus spinca, 

christi, 291 

346 

jujube, Indian, Ziziphus mauriliana,287 

jujubier, Ziziphus inauritiana, 287; 

Ziziphus spina.christi 291 

jujubler sauvage, Ziziphus mauriliana, 

287 

jumblie.bean, Leucaena leucocephala, 186 

junco marino, Parhinsonia aculeala, 205 

kabuli kikar, Prosopisjuliflora, 237 

kadi, Pinus brutia, 209 

kadol, Rhizophora niucronata,327 

kajuputih, Alehleuca /uinquenervia, 190 

kakawate, Gliricidia sepium. 164 

kakko, Albizia h,bek, 51 

kaliandra, Calliandracalothyrsus, 81 

kamachile, Il'ithecellobiui dulce, 219 

kamo, Rhizophora inucropala, 329 

kandal, Rhizophora mucronala, 329 

kandi, IProsopis cineraria,231 

kandili, Acacia orli/is, 35 

kanji, Derris indica, 109 

kankanoc, Ziziphus mnauritiana, 287 

kankra, Irugiiiera gymninrrhiza, 309 

kapashi, Trema orientalis,282 

karanda, Derris indica, 109 

karanja, Derris indica, 109 

karum-tree, Derris indica, 109 

kasa, Casuarina cuaninghainiana, 89: 

Casuarinaequisetifilia, 93 

kasia, Acacia auriculifrmis,3 

kasisa, Trema guineensis, 276 

kassari, Albizia lebbek, 51 

kassod, Cassiat siapnea, 84 

kassod-trce, Ci'ssia siatnea, 84 

katapang, "fl'erminali, catappa, 271 

katjang, Cajanus cajan, 78 

katugaho, I'ithecellol/ium duke, L19 

katurai, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

kafitu, Trena orientalis,282 

kayu muicis, Albizia faleaturia. 48 

kaytiputeh, Ale/a/euca quintue(tervia, 

190 

kenlandingan, Leucaena leucocephala, 

186 

ketapang, Terminalia catappia. 271 

khagshi, Trepia plitoria, 285 

khakshi, Trenta poliforia, 285 

kharkas, Trenma palitoria, 285 

kharnub, Prouspis farcla, 234 


khejiri, Prosopiscineraria,231 

kher, Acacia senegal, 28 

kiawc, prosopis pallida, 240 

Kiefer, Pinus, 208 

kiker, Acacia nilotica, 18 

ki.name, Cajaus cajan, 78 

kinki-ju, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

kinnai, Sonuwratia caseolaris, 333 

kiri, Tamarix aphylla, 263 

kirilla, Solwratia caseolaris, 333 

kirrari, Ceriops tagal, 313 

koa-haole, Leticaena leucocephala, 186 

kodom, Ahus nelkidensis, 61 

kodukapuli, 1ithecellobiutn dulce, 219 

kohi, AInus ,wpalensis, 61 

kohomba, Aadirachtaindica, 71 

koiya, P'sidimto guajava, 247 

kolco, Aflizia lebbek, 51 

kotamba, Termifaia catappa,271 

kottamba, Ttrminalia catappa, 271 

kpakpei, AIhi.ia lebbek, 51 

kuawa, Psidium 'aijava, 247 

ku-babul, Leucae'na leucocephala, 186 

kufupod, Acacia nilotica, 18 

kumbat, Acacia senegal, 28 

kumhar, Gmelina arhorea, 167 

kurap, Rhizophora ,mcronata, 329 

kurna, Ziziplms spina-christi, 291 

kuro-yona zoku, Derris indica, 109 

hajhav, Tamarix aphylhl, 263 

lambriln, Ahnus acuminata, 56 

lamlora, Ltcatela lellcocephala, 186 

la tuoro gong, Leucaena leucoccphala, 

186 

langi poke, Derris indica. 109 

Iaogil, Alhiith, hhbbek, 51 

leadiree, Leucaela leacocephala, 186 

Icbbek, .lbizia lebbeh, 51 

I,egumt. Family, Leguminosae, 1, 3, 6, 9, 

13, 15, 18, 23, 28, 32, 35, 48, 51, 78, 

81, 84, 100, 105, I(09, 160, 164, 183, 

18i, 198, 205, 219, 222, 225, 227, 

231, 234, 237, 240, 243, 250, 254, 

257 

lekkeruikpeul, Acacia nilutica, 18 

len-scented gol, Ehucalyptus citrio 

dora. 124 


lenteja francesa, Cajamus cajan, 78 

leucaena, Leucaena leucocephala, 186 

lilac, Melia azedarach, 194 

lilaila, Melia azedarach, 194 

lilas, Melia azedarach, 194 

lilas 6tranger, Gliricidia sepium, 160 

limewood, Aviccnnia germinans, 298 

lino, Leucacna kucaocephala, 186 

Iluvia de oro, Parkinsonia aculeata, 205 

locust, Robinia pseudoacacia, 250 

locust, black, Robinia pseudoacacia, 250 

locust, yellow, Robinia pschaeoacacia,250 

lusina, Leucaea leucocephIIala, 186 

macata, Leucaena leucocephala, 186 

madam naiz, Parhinsonia aculeata, 205 

madan, Syzygiumn cumini, 260 

madera negra, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

Madras-thorn, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

madre de cacao, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

madre de sal, Avicennia germinans, 298 

madriado, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

maharukh, Ailanthus excelsa, 45 

Mahogany Family, Meliaceae, 71, 194 

maibau, Ahais nepalensis, 61 

Maidens-gum, Eucalyptus globulus ssp. 

maidenii, 132 

maindano, Pious brutia, 209 

mainga, Trema guineensis, 276 

majagiillo, AhMtingia calabura, 202 

majagilito, AMuntingia calabura, 202; 

Trema micrantha, 279 

makan tet, Pithecellobiundulce, 219 

nla-kent-ma-bi, Laguncularia racemosa, 

320 

Malabar-almond, Terminalia calappa, 

271 

Malabar-nuttrec, Adhatoda zeylancia, 39 

Malabar-plum, Syzygium cuuini,260 

Malacca-tree, Emblica officinalis, 113 

Malpighia Family, Malpighiaceae, 75 

mambu, Azadirachia indica, 71 

manawa, Avicennia marina, 303 

mangel, Conocarpus erectus, 316 

mrangel blancu, Avicennia germinans, 298 

mangel, grijze, Conocarpus erectus, 316 

nmangel, witte, Conocarpus erectus, 316 

mangle, Avicennia germinans, 300; Rhiz. 

ophora mangle, 324 

347

mangle amarillo, Laguncularia racemosa, 

320 

mangle blanc, Avicennia germinans, 298 

mangle blanco, Avicennia germinans, 

298; Laguncularia racemosa, 320 

mangle bot6n, Conocarpuserectus, 316 

mangle botoncillo, Conocarpus erectus, 

316 

mangle chino, Laguncularia racemosa, 

320 

mangle colorado, Rhizophora mangle, 

324 

mangle gateador, Rhizophora mangle, 

324 

mangle iguanero, Avicennia germinans, 

298 

mangle jell, Conocarpus erectus, 316 

mangle negro, Avicennia germinans, 298; 

Conocarpus erectus, 316 

mangle prieto, Avicennia germinans, 298; 

Conocarpuserectus, 316 

mangle rojo, Rhizophora mangle, 324 

mangle salado, Avicennia germinans, 

298; Rhizophora mangle, 324 

manglecito, Avicennia germinans, 298 

manglier blanc, Lagunculariaracemosa, 

320 

manglier gris, Conocarpuserectus, 316 

manglier noir, Avicennia germinans, 298 

manglier rouge, Rhizophora mangle, 324 

mangro, Rhizophora mangle, 324 

mangrove, Avicennia gerninans, 298; 

Avicennia marina, 303; Avicennia of. 

ficinalis, 306; Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 

309; Ceriops tagal, 313; Laguncularia 

racemosa, 320; Rhizophora mangle, 

324; Rhizophora mucronata,329; Sonneratia 

caseolaris, 333 

mangrove, African, Rhizophora mangle, 

324 

mangrove, Asiatic, Rhizophora mucronata, 

329 

mangrove, Burma, Bruguiera gymnor, 

rhiza, 309 

mangrove, crabapple, Sonneratia case- 

olaris, 333 

mangrove, grey, Avicennia marina, 303; 

Avicennia officinalis, 306 

348 

mangrove, India, Avicennia officinalis, 

306; Ceriops tagal, 313 

mangrove, many-petal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 

309 

mangrove, nobble-rooted, Bruguiera 

gymnorrhiza, 309 

mangrove, red, Rhizophora mangle, 324; 

Rhizophora mucronata, 329 

mangrove, spurred, Ceriops tagal, 313 

mangrove, tagal, Ceriops tagal, 313 

Mangrove Family, Rhizophoraceae, 294, 

309, 313, 324, 329 

mangue, Conocarpus erectus, 316; Laguncularia 

racemosa, 320 

mangue branco, Conocarpus erectus, 

316; Laguncularia racemosa, 320 

mangue de botao, Conocarpus erectus, 

316 

mangue sapateiro, Rhizophora mangle, 

324 

mangue vermelho, Rhizophora mangle, 

324 

Marila-tamarindo, Pithecellobium dulce, 

219 

manteco, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

mara, Albizia falcataria, 48; Albizia lebbek, 

51 

maranggo, Azadirachta indica, 71 

marequito, Conocarpuserectus, 316 

margosa-tree, Azadirachtaindica, 71 

maricao cimarron, Byrsonima crassifolia, 

75 

masaquilla, Trema micrantha, 279 

mataburro, Parhinsonia aculeata, 205 

mata-rat6n, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

mayaria, Ziziphus ,nauritiana, 287 

mbarkasonie, Parkinsonia aculeata, 205 

mbazi, Cajanus cajan, 78 

mchonga, Bruguiera gynarr/iza, 309 

mchongoma, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

mchu, Avicennia marina, 303 

melakka, Enblica officinalis, 113 

melapari, Derris indica, 109 

melina, Gmelina arborea, 167 

memiso, Muntingia calabura, 202 

memizo cimarron, Trema micrantha, 279 

menarong, Trema orientalis, 282 

menkira, Trema orientalis, 282 

COMMON FUELWOODCROPS

mesquite, Prosopis, 222; Prosopis juliflora, 

237; Prosopis pallida, 240 

mesquite, honey, Prosopis glandulosa, 

239 

mesquite, velvet, Prosopis velutina, 239 

messmate, swamp, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

Mexican-lilac, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

mezali, Cassia siamea, 84 

mezquite, Prosopis, 222; Prosopis juli. 

flora, 237 

mgunga, Acacia senegal, 28; Acacia seyal, 

32; Acacia tortilis, 35 

mimozka, Prosopis farcta, 234 

mindi, Azadirachta indica, 71; Melia 

azedarach, 194 

minjri, Cassia siamnea, 84 

mirobalano, Emblica officinalis, 113 

mjamuni, Trenia guineensis, 276 

mjohoro, Cassia siamea, 84 

mkaratusi, Eucalyptus, 117 

mkoko, Rhizophora ,nucronata, 329 

mkunazi, Ziziphus mnauritiana, 287; 

Ziziphus spina-christi, 291 

mkungu, Terminalia catappa, 271 

mochigiiiste, Pithecellobiumn dulce, 219 

momo-tama-na, Terminalia catappa, 271 

mongollano, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

moniwopu, Albizia lebbek, 51 

mopane, Colophospermuni rnopane, 100 

mopani, Colophosperniuni mnopane, 100 

mopanie, Colophosperinuin rnopane, 100 

mother-of-cocoa, Gliricidia sepiunl, 164 

mpefu, Trema guineensis, 276 

mpera, Psidiurn guajava, 247 

msindano, Pinus halepensis, 216 

rnsinzi, Bruguiera gyrnnorrhiza, 309 

rnsondoka, Ziziphus mauritiana,287 

msunobari, Cassia siamea, 84 

mtangatanga, Albizia lebbek, 51 

inti ulaya, Cassia siamnea, 84 

muche, Albizia lebbek, 51 

muchichilan, Tremna micrantha, 279 

mulga, narrowleaf, Acacia brachystachya, 

6 

mulga, turpentine, Acacia brachystachya, 

6 

mulga umbrella, Acacia brachystachya, 

6 


muong, Cassia sianea, 84 

mupane, Colophospernum mopane, 100 

mupani, Colophospermurn mopane, 100 

mutamba, Guazurna ulmifolia, 174 

muwi, Bruguiera gyinnorrhiza, 309 

mvinje, Casuarina cunningharniana,89; 

Casuarina equisetifolia, 93; Casuarina 

glauca, 97 

mwangati, Grevillea robusta, 171 

mwati, Acacia ,ncarnsii, 15 

myrobalan, emblic, Ernblica officinalis, 

113 

Myrtle Family, Myrtaceae, 117, 120, 

124, 128, 133, 137, 141, 145, 148, 

152, 156, 190, 247, 260 

Mysore-gun, Eucalyptus terticornis, 156 

mzambarau, Syzygium curnini, 260 

nabbag, Ziziphus spina-christi, 291 

nabbak el fil, Ziziphus inauritiana,287 

nabq, Ziziphus spina-christi, 291 

nance, Byrsonirna crassifolia, 75 

nanche, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

nancite, Byrsonima crassifolia, 75 

nancito, Byrsoninia crassifolia, 75 

naval, Syzygiurn cutnini, 260 

neem, Azadirachta indica, 71 

neem-tree, Azadirachta indica, 71 

nelkar, Dalbergia sissoo, 105 

nelli, Emblica officinalis, 113 

nettle-tree, Jamaican, Trenma micrantha, 

279 

ngando, Rhizophora mucronata,329 

ngomba-wull, Trema guineensis, 276 

niaouli, Melaleuca quinquenervia, 190 

nilgiri, Eucalyptus, 117 

nim, Azadirachia indica, 71 

nipaltuntha, Guazutna ulmifolia, 174 

n'kolo, Albizia lebbek, 51 

no-eye-pea, Cajanus cajan, 78 

nokonoko, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

nigiiito, Muntingia calabura,202 

Obah, Syzygiuni cumini, 260 

ocote blanco, Pinus caribaea, 212 

odzhar, Haloxylon aphyllurn, 177 

o-hirugi Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 309 

opiuma, Pithecellobium dulce, 219 

orcha, Sonneratia caseolaris, 333 

349

padada, Sonnwralia caseoklris, 333 

padrai, Alelia azedarach, 194 

pagatpat, Sonneratia caseolaris 333 

pal~tuvier, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 309; 

Conocarpuserectus, 316; Laguncularia 

racemosa, 320 

palktuvier blanc, Aviceoia germinans, 

298 

paltuvier rouge, Rhizophora mangle, 

324 

palo de rayo, Iarkinsoniaaculeaa,205 

palo de sal, Avicepmoia germinans, 298 

palo de salitral, Taiarix chinensis, 268 

palo.p6lvora, Trema micrantha, 279 

paloverde, Parkinsonia aculeata, 205 

paloverde, Mexican, l'arhinsonia acu. 

leala, 205 

pan-chock, Ingo vera, 183 

paperbark, Aelateuca quinquenervia, 190 

paperbark, five-veined, Ale/a/cuca quirt 

quenervia. 190 

paradise-tree, Afelia azedarach, 194 

paraiso, Alelia oazedorach, 194 

pari-pari, Derris indica, 109 

paripu, Cajanms cajan, 78 

parwa, Avicennia germinans, 298 

pasito, Alutingia calahura, 202 

pathkadol, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 

309 

pau-de-seda, Alontingia calobura, 202 

pauji, I'arkinsolia acu hata, 205 

paw fin, Trema orientalis, 282 

payande, Pithecelhohium dulce, 219 

pay-in chong, Cajanus ,cajan,78 

pea, gungo, Cajanus cajan, 78 

pea, Puerto Rican, Cajanus cajon, 78 

peach-cedar, T'remu rientalis, 282 

pedada, Sonneratia caseolaris, 333 

peenari, Aila thmus excelsa, 45 

pejiri, Aelia a.-edurach, 194 

pelo tie ingel, (allimndra calohyrsus,81 

pera, P'sidim guajava, 247 

peralejo, Blyrsniaul crassifolia, 75 

pcrepat, Sonncratia caseolris,333 

Versian-lilac, Ae/ia ocedrach, 194 

petai belalang, Leucaena leucocephala, 

186; Sestamia grandiflora,257 

pico tic flanenco, Sesbania grandiflora, 

257 

350 

pigeon-pea, Cajaous cajon, 73 

pigeonwood, Trema guineensis 276 

pin, Pims, 208 

pin d'Alep, Pinus halepensis, 216 

pin d'australie, Casuarina equisefifolia. 

93 

pine, l'ims, 208 

pine, Aleppo, Pims halepensis, 216 

pine, Bahaman, Pinus caribaea, 212 

pine, brutia, Pious brufia, 209 

pine, Calabrian, Pinus brutia, 209 

pine, Caribbean, Pius caribaea, 212 

pine, Caribbean pitch, Pinus caribaea, 

212 

pine, Cyprus, Pious brutia, 209 

pine, Eldar, ims eldarica, 211 

pine, Honduran, Iinus cari/ac, 212 

pine, Jerusalem, Pious halepensis, 216 

pine, pitch, Pious carilmea. 212 

pine, yellow, PiMus cari/tea, 212 

Pine Family, Pinaceae, 208, 209, 212, 

216 

pinheiro, ims, 208 

pinho, Pious, 208 

pino, Pioms, 208: Casuarina cunning. 

hamniana, 89; Casuarina equiselifolia, 

93 

pino amarillo, Pinus caribaca, 212 

pino australiano, Casuarina cunning. 

hamiana, 89; Casuarina equiselifolia, 

93 

pino caribea, Pious caridmea, 212 

pint) carrasco, Pious haepensis, 216 

pino colorado, IPinus caribaa, 212 

pino d'Aleppo, Pious halelensis, 216 

pino de Alepo, Pinus halepensis, 216 

pino tic Australia, Casuarina cunning. 

h1iana, 89; Casuarinaequliselifolia, 

93 

pino de la costa, l'1ius caribwaa, 212 

pino tie nwr, Casu rina cunningihatiaa, 

89 

pino dl( Caribe, I'inus caril)ca, 212 

pino hondu refo, Pi,::.licari aa, 212 

pino nitacho. Pinus caribawa, 212 

pifi6n amoroso, Gliricidia sepiam, 164 

pifi6n (ICCuba, Gliricidia sepihn, 164 

pois d'Angole, Cajanus cajan, 78 

pois cajon, Cajaums cajan, 78 

COMMON FUEl.WOOD CROPS

pols doux, Inga vera, 183 

pois doux apaille, Inga vera, 183 

pois pigeon, Cajanus cajan, 78 

pois vallier, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

poison-peach, Trema orientalis,282 

pongam, Derris indica, 109 

pongamia, Derris indica, 109 

poonga-oil-tree, Derris indica, 109 

popinac, white, Leucaena leucocephala, 

186 

poroto de palo, Cajanuscajun, 78 

Port.Jackson-willow, Acacia saligna, 23 

pride-of-China, Melia azedarach. 194 

pride-of-India, Melia azedarach, 194 

Protea Family, Proteaceae, 171 

pruek, Albizia lebbek, 51 

puah, Albizia falcataria, 48 

punk-stree, Alelaleuca quinquenervia, 

190 

pyu, Rhizophora mucrolpata, 329 

quamachil, Pitwecellobium thdlce, 219 

Quassia Family, Simaroubaceae, 42, 45 

quick-stick, Gliricidia sepium, 164 

quinchoncho, Cajanus cajan, 78 

raktajhav, Tamarix aphylka, 263 

randangong. Treoa orientalis,282 

redgum, Eucalyptus camalddensis, 120 

redgum, forest, Eucalyptus tercticornis, 

156 

redgum, Murray, Eucalyptus camalulen- 

0q, 120 

redgum, river, Eucalyptus camaldlensis, 

120 

red-heart, Acacia nilotica, 18 

retama, Parkinsonia aculeata. 205 

Rhodesian-ironwood, Colophospermurn 

mopane, I100 

river-gum, Eucabptus camaldensis, 120 

river-koko, Inga vera, 183 

river-oak, Casuarina cuninghapniana,89 

robinia, Robinia 1seudmhicacia, 250 

roble australiano, Grevilh'a robusta, 171 

roble de seda. Greviliea robusta, 171 

rooikrans. Acacia cyclops, 13 

rooiwortelboom, Rhizopmora ntucronuala, 

329 


rosegum, Eucalyptus grandis 137 

rosewood, Indian, Dalbergia sissoo, 105 

ru, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

ru laut, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93 

ruikpeul, Acacia nilotica, 18 

ryukyu mane, Cajanus cajan, 78 

sabana kwari moeleidan, Byrsonima 

crassifolia, 75 

sadu, Azadirachta indica, 71 

safeda, Dalbegia sissoo, 105; Eucalyptus, 

117 

saimo, Ams acuminata, 56 

saksaul, Haloxylon aphyllunt, 177; laloxylon 

persicum, 181 

saksaul, black, Haloxylon aphyllurn, 177 

saksaul, white, laloxylon persicum, 181 

saksaul cheryni, Haloxylon aphyllun), 

177 

saligna-gum, Eucalyptus saligna, 152 

saltcedar, Tamarix aphylla, 263; Tamarix 

chinensis, 268 

saltpond-tree, Avicennia germinans, 298 

sambreeldoring, Acacia tortilis, 35 

sarned, Alelaleuca quinquener'ia, 190 

samor, Acacia tortilis, 35 

sanaoubar halabi, Pims halepensis, 216 

sanouber, Pims halepensis, 216 

sanya, Colophospermu'n mopane, 100 

salidn de palorna, Trema micrantha, 279 

sarsou, Dalbergia sissoo, 105 

sau, Albizia falcataria, 48 

sau, Moluccan, Albizia falcataria, 48 

sauce guajiro, l'arkinsoniaaculeata, 205 

saung, Bruguiera gynorrhiza, 309 

savanna serrette, Byrsanima crassifolia, 

75 

savuku, Casuarina equisetifolia, 93; Casnarina 

glauca, 97 

sayaal, Acacia seyal, 32 

sayal, Acacia tortilis, 35 

scented-thorn, Acacia nilotica, 18 

scharnuth, Prosopis farcta, 234 

seing, Acacia tortilis, 35 

seriba, Aviccnia germinans, 333 

sayyal, Acacia tortilis, 35 

sea-almond, Terminalia catappa, 271 

sengon, Albizia falcataria, 48 

351

sengon taut, Albizia (alcalaria, 48 

seris, Albizia lebbek, 51 

sesban, Sesbania grandiflora, 257 

sesban, prickly, Sesbania bispinosa, 254 

sessaban, l'arkinsoniaaculeala, 205 

sessabani, Hlanson, Parlcinsonia aculeala, 

205 

seyal, Acacia syal, 32 

seyseyal, Acacia tortilis, 35 

shack-shack, Alhizia lebbeh, 51; Leucaelna 

le'uocephala, 186 

shami, I'rosopis cineraria, 231 

sheku Luray, CassiasiaMea, 84 

she.oak, Casuarina, 87; Casuarina equisetifolia, 

93 

she-oak, beach, Casuarina equiselifolia, 

93 

she-oak, marsh, Casuarinaglauca. 97 

she-oak, river, Casuarina cunningindana, 

89 

shin-ju, Ailantihus altissima, 42 

shinobu-no-ki, Grevillea robusta, 171 

shisham, Dalhergia sissoo, 105 

shittimwood, Acacia seyal, 32 

shok, Prosopis furcla, 234 

shora, Avicennia maria, 303 

shu-tou, Cajanus cajan, 78 

sidr, Ziziplus spinauchristi, 291 

sietecapas, Avicenlia germinans, 298 

silk-oak, Grcvillea rolusta, 171 

silky-oak, Grevilh'a rohsta, 171 

silky-oak, southern, (irevillea robusla, 

171 

silcahuile, lag'uncluri racemosa, 321 

Singapore-alhond, Terminlia ctaplp/, 

271 

singer-tree, Albi.ia lebbek, 51 

sirin, Abizia lebhek, 51 

siris, Indian, AIhizia lehbek, 51 

siris-tree, Alhiziu h bebek, 51 

siriuba, Avjcenfiu ierminus, 298 

sirogotyo, Seshnia grandiflora, 257 

sissoo, ')(lleiqja sissoo, 105 

siso, I)(uhergiu sissoo, 105 

slaty-gum, Eucalyptus tereticornis, 156 

soetpeuli, Gleditisia triacanlhos, 160 

Sonneratia Family, Sonneratiaccae, 294, 

333 

352 

sonossissoo, Dalbergia sissoo, 105 

spotted-gum, Eucalyptus citriodura, 124 

spotted.gum, lemon-scented, Eucalyptus 

citriodora, 124 

sprinkaan, Gleditsia triacanthos, 160 

Spurge Family, Euphorbiaceae, 113 

stinkpeul, Acacia nilotica, 18 

strawberry-tree, Alatingia caluhura, 202 

su.babul, Leucaena leucoccphala, 186 

sudjoe, Prosopisjulifloru, 237 

suffar abyad, Acacia seyal, 32 

sulfato, Parkinsoniaacuhata, 205 

sunt, Acacia nilotica, 18 

swamp-mahogany, Eucalyptus robusta, 

148 

swamp-mahogany, Australian, Eucalyplus 

robusta, 148 

swamp-oak, Casuarinagla ca, 97 

swartwortelboom, Bruguiera gymnor. 

rhiza, 309 

sweet-locust, Gkedilisia friacanthos, 160 

tacu, Prosopisalba, 225 

tagaya-san-no-ki, Cassia siamea, 84 

tahl, Acacia seyal, 32 

takao-kohirugi, Ceriops lagal, 313 

tali, Daulbergiasissoo, 105 

talisae, Terminalia calppa, 271 

tamaka, Azaditachta indica, 71 

tamalini, Albizia falcutaria,48 

tamarind, horse, Leucaena leucocephala, 

186 

tamarind, wild, Leucaenu leucocephala, 

186 

tamarisco, TaariX chinsis, 268 

tamarisk, Tamarix aphyllu, 263; Tainarix 

:idnensis, 268 

tamarisk, Arabian, "amarix aphyfla, 263 

tamarisk, athel, Tanarix aphylla, 263 

tamarisk, Egyptian, Tainarix aphylla, 263 

tamarisk, evergreen, Tamurix aphylla, 

263 

tamarisk, Nile, Tamarix aph),l/l, 263 

Tamarisk Family, Tanmaricaceae, 23, 

268 

tamarugo. Prosopistamarugo, 243 

tangal, Criops tagal, 313 

tangir, Cerio/ps tugal, 313 


torfa& Tinarix aphyIla. 263 turi, S1IDar jgratdiflaa. 257 

lar-gal. II1i1ux)'lun p-iun 181 turpenticgas. Riscalias gklbuius, 128: 

icak;'. rI'mi.%s chilIeasis. 227 Eucalyplt~s grandis. 137 

idchacj. -Ilia.h kI'bbe. 51 turpenline-Irce. Cn'ospertman ,,io. 

,a*4it'L' lbr~i-dvdlt.t Mefg'1a quill. ijult., 100 

i dik. .411:w.Ir'Ik 5a1 

unibrellainn Acacia f..rtils, 35 

lln 31. (c'I''"ps faga 313 11111jIA'UCCU'lil k-'uce~phuah. 186 

h.,hi yb S ,:1jI ~. 14111011 260 iirijimrsisnki. IretaU cirientals. 282 

t C., Au-?j~ ,''I ),11;/. IN, . A06li vaivai, AIbi~a fulcitlarua. 48 

thand h 1 .'.i e ,.a 231 vakai. Camsti.0~atnwe. 44.3 

th~ 

.. '16.zai ? 

tiktc ["NO5~ ,I'~51I 

licu 1''vs:.ai.v .s26enk,.ndal. 

lictrr --Ifpa 1.,..uI.2I' W1' 

Ige I lIImpw '~.5' . vvII a. 2W7 

vellin*.111p, -jpisXji..usjs ifiia. 68 

ellipi. A:sali'swlsl induica. 71 

elviceninaaina.:403 

vL'ra hliiiica. Pont pplicran~tl 279 

%,tar~lmi J..iuily. Vtei lwnacec. 167. 298, 

lia '; . ui a 303..3M 

i an vil a.'ju. 4 .f.ai I v ilayali haN I. Pasrtfia%'1 11cus asa 205: 

I.~~~~~~~~~ d21;.Ila's liiti 

5 19: kst It. 

7S ~~ ~ ~~ viii kiau.Pakiaia itt ait 01 

4. ll It.iI % ,awa~.a'.1h 257 

tia ,1,'1 1 *.l'515 I 

1'.4119t li.;.:!,-, I 37 tsa~: 

f" ul-21.t I rx% Ilj.ilip.Ui 

wa. Casl mallwa 10~a, 

t *inusn g:raiml 'r.-manabt caflasps. 271 

%'U: dlr,swa .Ia'rfwsm% a5l5'iDvi'a*. 42 

Is. lw4..c ..n AI'a':wha a,Iii'. Q. v..sttlc IlueIcal 

.~~~ 5afig,ga 23, 

~. '~~** 1. ,~ S1.6 ta'i*27t; ai I I)a rm Ni 1at k Ac,iuns assuih 

tt.!1 l1,":.a 5~~crlKI n;.d3lJ2'4,,,i' 114 Acd .. 

a .St*~I .. sq4Icii:"i~71 a. ;iUt ~II~c~~~rcl~I~A.s~al.'.t~is.iI5.23 

('41MMOi 

s~trN SAML:S 

'Pilc*ap.l.g A., .5.ttats1 stlltPrms 23 

353

wattle, silver, Acacia dtalbata, 17 

wattle, stinking, Acracia cambigei. 9 

wattle, tan, Acacia Inearlsii, 15 

wattle, weeping, Acacia salign', 23 

wattle, western Australia coastal, Acacia 

cy',ops, 13 

wattle, western Australian, Aracia su. 

igna, 23 

wattle, willow, Acacia s ligna, 23 

wattor-ju, Acacia mearsii, 15 

welala, Albi:zit hl',i, 51 

West -1iiliat -al monl, Te',miplaia catap- 

,a, 271 

West-Indianl -l, i Gouma' h 11I1ifula, 

174 

West .Indian-lilac, AlIliu azed~arach, 194 

whistling-pine, ('asuarina eqisetifolia. 

93 

whistling-thorn, Aacio seyal,. 32 

white.mangrove, Avicennia morima, 303; 

Laguncuhariaracemoam. 320 

witseebasboom, Avicennia mariaha, 313 

womans.longue, A Ibiji lebbeh. 51 

wonder-tree. Pcarkinsopiaacdeatia,205 

354 

woolly-cedar, 'i'rema Orientalis 282 

wortelboom, Indiese, Ceriops tagal, 313 

yaba, i'sidiumgpajava, 247 

yacure, Pithecellolbium duce, 219 

yaeyani-hirugi, Rhizophora mucroata, 

329 

yaje, Leucfenia h'ucowepholo, 186 

yanla, CopcOwaspsereclus, 316 

yana-tacu, I'ro.lpis allba, 225 

yaque, Irsopisjulillou, 237 

yale, flat.t pped, i.acuyptus occidentalis, 

145 

yate, swamp, Eucalyptus occidentalis. 

145 

yemane, Gnelinu arIorea, 167 

yerba di tinka, Gliricidia.epium. 164 

yette, l)allwrgia sissoo, 11)5 

yukari-no-ki, Eucalyptus gloulls. 128 

yuyhla, Ziziphlus mauriltioa,287 

zaragosa, (C'om-arpusereclus, 316 

zarcilla, I.ea'aela h,'alocephaht, 186 

zurrumi, Trema mierutlha. 279 


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