Mycteria cinerea - BirdBase

MILKY STORK 

Mycteria cinerea 

Critical — 

Endangered — 

Vulnerable A2c,d; C1 

This stork has a small, declining population owing to loss of coastal habitat, hunting and trade. 

These factors are predicted to cause rapid declines in the near future. It therefore qualifies as 

Vulnerable. 

DISTRIBUTION The Milky Stork is widely but very patchily distributed in South-East 

Asia. It is known from Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia and Indonesia, 

with an unconfirmed record from Singapore (see Remarks 1). 

■ THAILAND The species is clearly at the edge of its range in Thailand and the very few 

records represent either vagrants or escaped birds; if it ever bred in the country it is now 

presumed no longer to do so (Treesucon and Round 1990). Records are from: north of Laem 

Phak Bia, Phetchaburi, 1–3 in a flock of c.100 Painted Storks Mycteria leucocephala, 

September and October 1998 (P. Charoenjai, J. Visetchinda and S. Supparativikorn per 

P. D. Round in litt. 1998, Bird Cons. Soc. Thailand Bull. 16, 10 [1999]: 18–19, Oriental Bird 

Club Bull. 30 [1999]: 52–56); Satul, one adult, August 1935 (Gibson-Hill 1949b, Medway and 

Wells 1976; also Morioka and Yang 1990). 

A bird at Wat Asokaram, Bang Poo, Samut Prakan, January 1994 (seen by Suradech 

Wongsinlang) was said to have been present from October 1993 and was thought to be an 

escape owing to its tameness (P. D. Round in litt. 1999). 

■ CAMBODIA Apart from one record in Banteay Meanchay province, this species 

is apparently restricted to the immediate vicinity of Tonle Sap lake and coastal Kompong 

Som (=Sihanoukville) province (Sun Hean in litt. 1997). Records are from: Ang Trapeang 

Thmor Reserve, one June 2000 (P. Davidson verbally 2000); between Sisophon and Siem 

Reap, 1960s (Thomas 1964); Siem Reap, December 1927 (two specimens in BMNH; also 

Thomas 1964); Prek Da, 15, April 1994 (Mundkur et al. 1995a, Oriental Bird Club Bull. 20 

[1994]: 55–61), 20–60 pairs reported by locals in the last few years (Parr et al. 1996), including 

two singletons in May and June 1998 (Goes et al. 1998b); Prek Toal, Battambang, the only 

confirmed breeding site in Cambodia, 15, 1994 (Mundkur et al. 1995a), c.15 pairs, 1996 

(Parr et al. 1996), up to six, February and March 1996, with presence of chicks in villages 

confirming local breeding (Parr et al. 1996), three, 1997 (Ear-Dupuy et al. 1998), four plus 

a distant group of 31, April 1999 (F. Goes and C. M. Poole in litt. 1999), three, April 2000 

(P. Davidson in litt. 2000), and nearby at the Stoeng Sangke (Sangke river), one, July 1998 

(Goes et al. 1998b) and Boeng Rohal, three, March–April 1997 (Ear-Dupuy et al. 1998); 

Prek Peach Kantoeli (Prek Peach Kantiel), one, July 1998 (Goes et al. 1998b); Kampong 

Chhnang, at Chhunuk Tru, one, May 1993 (Carr 1993); Tnal Krabei, Prek Kaoh Pao 

estuary, 5 km south of Koh Kong town, “some”, April 1944 (Engelbach 1952); Stoeng Kampong 

Smach, Kampong Som (=Sihanoukville), one, April 1994 (Mundkur et al. 1995a, Oriental 

Bird Club Bull. 20 [1994]: 55–61), and one near Prek Kampong Smach with 50 Painted 

Storks, December 1995 (J. C. Eames in litt. 2000); Kampong Som (=Sihanoukville), one, 

February 1999 (D. Judell verbally 1999), eight, including three immatures, April 1999 

(J. Smith and C. M. Poole in litt. 1999); Ream National Park, seven, March 1996 (J. W. K. 

Parr in litt. 1998), eight (including three immatures), April 1999 (Cambodia Bird News 2 

[1999]: 38–39, 3: 39–43). 

169

Threatened birds of Asia 

■ VIETNAM Despite repeated recent reports (including intimations of breeding), none is 

acceptable (Eames and Tordoff in prep.; see Remarks 2). The only record is from: Bac Lieu, 

where two captive birds at Ho Chi Minh city (=Saigon) Zoo had apparently been captured 

(Delacour and Jabouille 1931), although there is no further report from the province (Scott 

1989). 

■ MALAYSIA An isolated resident population of this species survives on the north-east 

coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Perak); there have also been a few records from the southwest 

coast (Johor), possibly of wanderers from the nearby Sumatran population to the west 

rather than the more distant Perak population (Hawkins and Howes 1986, Wells 1999; but 

see Remarks 1). Confirmed records are from: Kuala Kedah, late November 1907 (Robinson 

and Kloss 1910–1911, Robinson and Chasen 1936); Sungai Burong (Sungai Burung), Kuala 

Kurau, Perak, October 1984 (Swennen and Marteijn 1987, Wells 1990b); Matang Mangrove 

Forest Reserve, Perak, including Kuala Gula, 42 in 1975, 79 in August 1983 (Parish and 

Wells 1985), 31 in 1984 (Swennen and Marteijn 1985), and many records until the present, 

also slightly further south at Pulau Kelumpang, Kuala Kurau, 74, August 1983 (Wells 1990a), 

maximum of 101 in October 1984 (Swennen and Marteijn 1987, Wells 1990b), and 29 nests 

in 1989 (Siti Hawa Yatim 1990, Wells 1999), at Pulau Terong, 40, January–February 1986 

(Hawkins and Silvius 1986), to the south of Kuala Larut, 36 at a pool in mangroves, August 

1983 (Parish and Wells 1985, Wells 1990a), and at unspecified localities in the forest reserve, 

57 adults, March 1989 (Enggang 2, 4 [1989]), and 42 in September 1995 (A. C. Sebastian in 

litt. 1999); Pulau Ketam, Kelang estuary, Selangor, “up to four pairs” breeding, 1933–1935 

(Madoc ms, Madoc 1936 in Wells 1999), including two nests in August 1935 (Robinson and 

Chasen 1936), subsequently disappearing along with the heronry (DWNPPM 1987); Sungai 

Kinchin, Pahang, July 1989 (Wells 1990d); on the coast of Melaka (Malacca), mid-nineteenth 

century (Gibson-Hill 1949 in Wells 1999); Benut Forest Reserve, Johor, apparently in 1950s 

(Wells 1999), two at Kuala Sanglang, February 1985, one on the foreshore at Kuala Benut, 

March 1986 (Hawkins and Howes 1986, Wells 1990c). 

■ INDONESIA Highest numbers are recorded from Sumatra and Java where the species 

breeds, with lesser numbers from Sulawesi (breeding likely), Buton and Sumbawa. The global 

stronghold of the species is Sumatra, where it is primarily distributed along the coasts in the 

coastal swamps of Aceh, North, Jambi and Lampung provinces, with breeding recorded in 

the latter two of these (van Marle and Voous 1988). Records for the country are from: 

Sumatra ■ Aceh large numbers on a creek near Banda Aceh, February 1873 (Hume 1873b); 

Lhokseumawe, 1970, 1981–1982 and 1985 (Burton 1985 in van Marle and Voous 1988); 

■ North Sumatra Ramunia, Serdang, June 1915 (male in ZMA, de Beaufort and de Bussy 

1919); Perbaungan, December 1920 (male in RMNH); Serbadjadi, and elsewhere in Deli, 

1913 and 1916 (specimens in ZMA, RMNH); between Bukittinggi and Sipirok, one, October 

1993 (J. N. Dymond in litt. 1999); ■ West Sumatra Bukittinggi (=Fort de Kock), 900 m, 

undated (Kloss 1931); Danau Singkarak, 400 m, February 1977 (van Marle and Voous 1988); 

Solok, undated (specimen in AMNH); Lunang, West Sumatra, October 1990 (Holmes 1996); 

■ Riau Ollak Tanding, Sindang, October 1881 (female in BMNH); Pulau Halang, March 

1981 (van Marle and Voous 1988); Bagansiapiapi region, with strong evidence of breeding in 

the Kubu area, perhaps also on Bengkalis, August 1990 (Holmes 1996); Kampar estuary, six, 

February 1999 (S. J. M. Blaber in litt. 1999); concentrations of feeding birds at coastal 

promontories such as Tanjung Datuk and Tanjung Bakung, undated (Silvius 1988); 

Kualacenako (Kuala Cinaku), on the border with Jambi, November 1992 (Holmes 1996), 

Kateman (not mapped), 1930 (Morioka and Yang 1996); ■ Jambi Kuala Betara, Hutan Bakan 

Pantai Timor Nature Reserve (74 active nests in late July 1985), west side of Sungai Betara, 

mid-1980s (Danielsen and Skov 1985, 1987), but colony gone by 1989 (Danielsen et al. 1991b); 

Tanjung Jabung, undated (Silvius 1988); Sungai Batang Hari, c.50 km inland, 1980s (Verheugt 

170


1987); Berbak National Park at Sungei Lokan, 126 in September 1986 (A. Elliott per T. P. 

Inskipp in litt. 1997), and at Sungei Simpang Gajah, one, September 1986 (A. Elliott per T. P. 

Inskipp in litt. 1997); ■ South Sumatra entire coastline, including Banyuasin peninsula, major 

colony, September 1988 (Danielsen et al. 1991a; see Population); Tanjung Selokan, major 

colony, September 1988 (Danielsen et al. 1991a; see Population); Padang Sugihan Wildlife 

Reserve, regularly August–October 1984 and May–June 1985 (but with no records between 

these dates), including a bird in breeding plumage, May (Nash and Nash 1985); Tanjung 

Koyan, major colony, September 1988 (Danielsen et al. 1991a; see Population); ■ Lampung 

near Menggala, 1993–1994 (Holmes and Noor 1995); Way Kambas National Park, resident 

(Wind et al. 1979), with an apparent breeding colony of 200–230 found 6 km south of Pos 

Pedemaran, June 1989, and many records from within the area (Parrott and Andrew 1996); 

Telukbetung, undated (specimen in RMNH); (untraced) estuaries of the Siput river and Jentolo 

river, large numbers in 1980s (Verheugt 1987); 

Java ■ West Java Ujung Kulon National Park, 1940s (Hoogerwerf 1948a); Pulau Dua, 

where formerly breeding (Hoogerwerf 1947a, 1948a) and last recorded doing so in 1975, but 

now a regular visitor, often roosting there (Milton and Marhadi 1985); Serang, flock of 49 

flying east, September 1984 (Allport and Wilson 1986); Tangerang, north coast, July 1935 

(Hoogerwerf 1936a); Pulau Rambut Wildlife Reserve, Jakarta Bay, since 1974, and including 

January 1987 (Lambert and Erftemeijer 1989), 42 adults, five fledged young and five active 

nests, June 1989 (Wilkinson et al. 1991a); Jakarta (=Batavia) and environs, until 1930s 

(Hoogerwerf and Siccama 1937–1938, Hoogerwerf 1948a, specimen in MCZ), and more 

recently at Ancol beach, June 1989 (Wilkinson et al. 1991a), regular at Muara Angke, undated 

(Bartels 1915–1930), and occurring there recently including August 1993 (N. Bostock in litt. 

1999), August 1994 (Tobias and Phelps 1994), and in roadside pools near Soekarno-Hatta 

airport, including several in September 1996 (JAT), but decreasing at this site as it becomes 

more disturbed and developed (B. F. King verbally 1998); Muara Gembong, September 1915 

and April 1917 (two females in RMNH); Muara Wetan, August 1908 and April 1914 (two 

specimens in RMNH), October 1922 (two juveniles in RMNH); Citarum delta (this general 

area includes other sites such as Muara Gembong and Balubuk), seasonally very common 

and breeding, undated (Bartels 1915–1930), including at Muara Bungin, 1907–1923 (five 

specimens in RMNH); Balubuk (Muara Blubuk), July 1919 (one immature and one pullus in 

RMNH) and May 1922 (male in RMNH); Rawa Gempol, Krawang, October 1908 (van Oort 

1910; also two females in AMNH); Tanjung Sedari (Sedari delta), seasonal in occurrence 

(usually in the “east monsoon”), undated (Bartels 1915–1930); Indramayu, April 1925 (male 

in RMNH), at the Bungko estuary, November 1990 (Indrawan et al. 1993b); Cirebon 

(Cheribon), October 1925 (male in RMNH); ■ Central Java Segara Anakan, east of 

Pangandaran, where recorded in early 1980s (Verheugt 1987), a non-breeding area for 160– 

180 birds, with up to 20, mid-1989 (Erftemeijer et al. 1988, Lewis et al. 1989), “small” numbers, 

July 1991 (Heath 1991); Nusa Kambangan, 25 birds foraging near Klacis, August 1998 

(V. Nijman in litt. 2000); Tegal, February 1910 (male in RMNH); ■ East Java Surabaya, one 

immature shot on a nearby pond, undated (Bartels 1915–1930); Baluran National Park, 

“small” numbers, July 1991 (Heath 1991); 

Madura Sumenep, 170, March 1996 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 24 [1996]: 59–65); 

Bali an “irregular visitor” (Verheugt 1987), including one passing east over Gilimanuk, 

October 1982 (Ash 1984, NJC; see Migration); 

Sumbawa unspecified locality (Verheugt 1987), “west coast”, May 1988 (Silvius and 

Verheugt 1989) and Taliwang, December 1989 (Gibbs 1990), where apparently seen the 

previous year; 

Sulawesi ■ North Sulawesi small lake c.10 km east of Panua Reserve (near Marisa), 

Kecamatan Paguat, Desa Sale Lama, flock of 51, all in adult, mostly non-breeding plumage, 

December 1997, but none in August 1999 (Bishop in press); Marisa, 10–15 birds, February 

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1979 (Watling 1983b); Tanjung Panjang, a group of c.15, December 1978 (J. R. MacKinnon 

in Escott and Holmes 1980; also White and Bruce 1986); ■ Central Sulawesi Kolumbi, Roraya 

district, August 1978 (Escott and Holmes 1980; also White and Bruce 1986); ■ South 

Sulawesi Palopo and adjacent shoreline, undated (Holmes and Wood 1980 in White and 

Bruce 1986), March/April 1986 (Uttley 1987); near Polewali, undated (Escott and Holmes 

1980); Danau Tempe, two adults and one juvenile, January 1990 (Baltzer 1990); Palima in the 

Cendrenai (Cenrana) delta, March 1986, at least 33 birds including four immatures, the first 

evidence of possible breeding on the island (Uttley 1987), late 1989 (Baltzer 1990); Maros, 

five, March 1977 (Escott and Holmes 1980); Makassar (= Ujung Pandang), undated records 

THAILAND 

1 

4 3 

5 

CAMBODIA 

6 9 

7 10 

8 12 11 

13 14 

VIETNAM 

SUMATRA 

(INDONESIA) 

22 

23 

I N D I A N 

O C E A N 

2 

15 

S O U T H 

C H I N A 

S E A 

MALAYSIA 

16 

17 

24 

25 18 

26 20 19 

33 

21 

34 

27 

35 

28 38 36 

29 

37 

30 39 40 

31 4142 

55 

43 44 56 

32 

57 

45 46 58 

47 59 

48 60 

54 

49 51 61 62 

50 52 66 

53 63 

65 

67 

64 

JAVA 

(INDONESIA) 

69 

70 

68 

71 

SULAWESI 

(INDONESIA) 

73 

74 72 75 

76 

77 

84 

85 83 

80 78 

79 

81 86 

82 87 

The distribution of Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea: (1) Laem Phak Bia; (2) Satul; (3) Ang Trapeang Thmor 

Reserve; (4) Sisophon; (5) Siem Reap; (6) Prek Da; (7) Prek Toal; (8) Prek Peach Kantoeli; (9) Kampong Chhnang; 

(10) Koh Kong; (11) Stoeng Kampong Smach; (12) Kampong Som; (13) Ream National Park; (14) Bac Lieu; 

(15) Kuala Kedah; (16) Sungai Burong; (17) Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve; (18) Pulau Ketam; (19) Sungai 

Kinchin; (20) Melaka; (21) Benut Forest Reserve; (22) Banda Aceh; (23) Lhokseumawe; (24) Ramunia; 

(25) Perbaungan; (26) Serbajadi; (27) Sipirok; (28) Bukittinggi; (29) Danau Singkarak; (30) Solok; (31) Lunang; 

(32) Sindang; (33) Pulau Halang; (34) Bagansiapiapi; (35) Kampar estuary; (36,Tanjung Datuk; (37) Tanjung 

Bakung; (38) Kualacenako; (39) Kuala Betara; (40) Tanjung Jabung; (41) Sungai Batang Hari; (42) Berbak 

National Park; (43) Banyuasin peninsula; (44) Tanjung Selokan; (45) Padang Sugihan Wildlife Reserve; 

(46) Tanjung Koyan; (47) Menggala; (48) Way Kambas National Park; (49) Telukbetung; (50) Ujung Kulon 

National Park; (51) Pulau Dua; (52) Serang; (53) Tangerang; (54) Pulau Rambut Wildlife Reserve; (55) Jakarta; 

(56) Muara Gembong; (57) Muara Wetan; (58) Muara Bungin; (59) Balubuk; (60) Rawa Gempol; (61) Tanjung 

Sedari; (62) Indramayu; (63) Cirebon; (64) Segara Anakan; (65) Nusa Kambangan; (66) Tegal; (67) Surabaya; 

(68) Baluran National Park; (69) Sumenep; (70) Gilimanuk; (71) Taliwang; (72) Panua Reserve; (73) Marisa; 

(74) Tanjung Panjang; (75) Kolumbi; (76) Palopo; (77) Polewali; (78) Danau Tempe; (79) Palima; (80) Maros; 

(81) Makassar; (82) Jeneponto; (83) Pulau Bokhari; (84) Ranomeeto; (85) Rawa Aopa Watumohai National 

Park; (86) Wolulu; (87) Danau Ambuau. 

Historical (pre-1950) Fairly recent (1950–1979) Recent (1980–present) Undated 

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(Escott and Holmes 1980), between Makassar and Maros at Lanteboeng (5°05´S 119°28´E: 

Bishop in press), up to 30, March 1986 (Uttley 1987), 22 birds, February 1990 (Baltzer 1990), 

and c.3 km south-west of Ujung Pandang airport, three adults, January 1986 (Bishop in 

press); Mampie Game Reserve by strong report, recently (Baltzer 1990); Jeneponto, undated 

(Escott and Holmes 1980); ■ South-East Sulawesi Pulau Bokhari, Kota Kendari, 14, August 

1998 (R. Gregory-Smith in litt. 1999); Ranomeeto, Kota Kendari, one, September 1998 (R. 

Gregory-Smith in litt. 1999); Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park, up to c.137 (largest 

flock 88) seen at Savanna, Mangrove, Aopa swamp, Kendari, Anaaha and Kolaka, 

September–October 1995 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 24 [1996]: 59–65, Wardill et al. 1995), 

seven, August 1998 (R. Gregory-Smith in litt. 1999); Wolulu, “Kab. Kolaka”, eight, August 

1998 (R. Gregory-Smith in litt. 1999); 

Buton Danau Ambuau, November 1996 (Catterall undated); “square 78”, November 1996 

(Catterall undated); “square 74”, November 1996 (Catterall undated). 

POPULATION The estimated world population is 6,100 (Perennou et al. 1994), or more 

precisely, 6,000 in Indonesia and 100–150 in Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia combined 

(Rose and Scott 1997). 

Thailand Although the scant evidence has been interpreted to suggest that the species 

might have occurred regularly in the south, possibly breeding along the coasts (Morioka and 

Yang 1990), it is perhaps more likely that it was always scarce in the country; it is now 

apparently locally extinct (Treesucon and Round 1990). 

Cambodia Early reports give the impression that the species was always uncommon in 

Cambodia (e.g. Delacour 1929b); it was “rare” in the country by the 1960s (Thomas 1964) 

and has apparently undergone subsequent declines (Scott 1992). Numbers are now thought 

to be very low, with an estimated 30 breeding pairs at Prek Toal and Prek Da near Tonle Sap 

lake being the only resident population reported in Indochina (Parr et al. 1996, Sun Hean in 

litt. 1997); the largest group reported recently contained 31 individuals near Tonle Sap in 

April 1999 (F. Goes and C. M. Poole in litt. 1999). No breeding birds were found in an 

extensive survey of waterbird breeding colonies around Tonle Sap in 1998, although locals 

reported that small colonies still exist (Goes et al. 1998b). 

Vietnam There is no unequivocal evidence that the species ever bred in the country and it 

is certainly now only a vagrant at best (Collar et al. 1994, Eames and Tordoff in prep.; see 

Remarks 2). 

Peninsular Malaysia Although Robinson and Chasen (1936) were able to compile “few 

formal records”, they nevertheless considered it “not rare in suitable localities”; it was, for 

example, “not uncommon” on the Selangor coast. Over the next few decades, however, none 

was observed on the Selangor coast by Madoc (ms) between 1944 and 1957 despite “many 

trips around the outer islands and mudflats”, while Medway and Wells (1976) added that 

“on many visits to the Selangor mudflats during 1961–71 this stork was never seen”. The 

Pulau Ketam heronry had long been abandoned by 1957 (Madoc ms), presumably because it 

was “much-raided” (Wells 1999). At that time the species was only known in Krian district, 

Perak (Medway and Wells 1976). In 1984 an aerial survey between Kuala Lumpur and 

Langkawi yielded sightings of 115 individuals, a group of 36 south of the Larut estuary and 

79 around the Kuala Gula area; this was thought to approximate to the entire population of 

Peninsular Malaysia (Parish and Wells 1985). 

Indonesia W. Davison (in Hume 1873b) mentioned “an enormous flock” in a large creek 

in Aceh, northernmost Sumatra, suggesting that the species was previously very common on 

Sumatra. By the end of the 1980s the island was indeed recognised as the global stronghold 

of the species, with a population estimated to be around 5,000 individuals (Silvius and 

Verheugt 1989). In 1985, 116 were counted in Lampung province (Milton and Marhadi 1985). 

Counts in October–November 1984 were of 3,053 birds in the provinces of Riau (703), Jambi 

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(763) and South Sumatra (1,587); in July–August 1985 of 1,029 in Jambi (697) and South 

Sumatra (732); and again in March–April 1986 of 1,937 in Jambi (1,134), and South Sumatra 

(803); on the basis of these data these three provinces were judged to hold the majority of the 

world population (Danielsen and Skov 1985, Silvius 1988). In September 1988 at Tanjung 

Koyan 300–400 nests were estimated to be present, with a total of 500 birds including at least 

50 juveniles; at Tanjung Selokan 300 nests were estimated to be present, with a total of 150 

birds including several juveniles; and on the Banyuasin peninsula 280 nests were observed 

along with 250 adults and 100 juveniles (Danielsen et al. 1991a), with as many as 1,000 birds 

there subsequently (Verheugt et al. 1993). These welcome findings were in part offset by the 

subsequent discovery of the loss of the colony within Hutan Bakau Pantai Timor reserve, 

Jambi province (Danielsen et al. 1991b), which must be taken as reasonably likely to represent 

a real decline in overall numbers. 

Early in the twentieth century the species was clearly seasonally very common in Java, 

with large colonies (“many nests”, or 75–100 nests) noted in the Citarum delta (Bartels 1915– 

1930, Hoogerwerf 1936a). By the mid-1980s, the breeding population was tiny but the island 

experienced influxes of other birds (Lambert and Erftemeijer 1989); the total population of 

West Java was estimated at c.400 (356–408 individuals) (Allport and Wilson 1986; also 

Verheugt 1987). Over 1,000 individuals have been reported to visit the north-east coast of 

Java seasonally (Hancock et al. 1992), but this is possibly an overestimation. Surveys of the 

south coast of Central Java yielded a minimum of 164 birds, but without confirmation of 

breeding (Erftemeijer et al. 1988), and surveys in East Java found only 38 birds (Erftemeijer 

and Djuharsa 1988). Pulau Rambut may be the last breeding site on the north coast of Java, 

since the species is known to have ceased breeding on Pulau Dua in 1975 and at an unspecified 

date in the Brantas or Solo deltas of East Java, indicating a considerable decline; the maximum 

number of nests recently found was 10 in 1984 (14 given in Allport and Wilson [1986]). A 

recent record of 170 individuals on Madura (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 24 [1996]: 59–65) 

suggested that the island may support an important numbers of the species, at least seasonally. 

The population on Sulawesi appears to have increased in recent years, although this is 

almost certainly a result of greater observer coverage and surveying of new areas, especially 

in South-east Sulawesi (Bishop in press). As many as 73 birds were discovered at a variety of 

coastal sites in South Sulawesi in 1986, suggesting a modest resident population in the province 

(Uttley 1987). South-east Sulawesi may hold a small but valuable population, with c.100 in 

Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park in 1995 (Wardill et al. 1995). Breeding has not been 

proven on the island (Bishop in press), although sightings of juveniles suggests that it is very 

likely to occur. In 1996 the species was also noted at three localities on Buton, with 21 birds 

in one tree, and an immature also seen, suggesting local breeding (Catterall undated). 

ECOLOGY Habitat Throughout much of its range, the Milky Stork is essentially a coastal 

species, favouring mangroves, mudflats and estuaries (Hancock et al. 1992). It also feeds on 

ricefields and fishponds (Verheugt 1987). This is certainly the case in its Sumatran heartland, 

although it occasionally visits “lebaks” (backswamps along river floodplains) up to 150 km 

from the coast; during spring tides, birds often roost in remnant trees in ricefields (Verheugt 

et al. 1993; also Danielsen and Skov 1985, 1987). Roost sites are sometimes in the crowns of 

tall mangrove trees (Hancock et al. 1992), although they also regularly roost on the ground 

out on mudflats or in marshes (Bartels 1915–1930), a factor that makes the species relatively 

easy to count, even from the air (e.g. Parish and Wells 1985). In Peninsular Malaysia, the 

species is “more exclusively marine” than its congener the Painted Stork (Robinson and 

Chasen 1936), the suggestion being that the two separate ecologically when they meet 

(Morioka and Yang 1990). However, they were reported to frequent the same marshy plains 

in Cambodia, often in the same flock (Delacour and Jabouille 1931), and recent reports from 

Cambodia again suggest that they use or used similar habitats (Mundkur et al. 1995a, C. M. 

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Poole in litt. 1997); moreover, local people report that they breed alongside each other in 

flooded forest around Tonle Sap (Goes et al. 1998b). In Cambodia, Milky Storks frequent 

flooded forest and mangrove in both freshwater and coastal habitats (Mundkur et al. 1995a, 

Sun Hean in litt. 1997). Concentrations have been recorded at fishponds in Sulawesi (Andrew 

and Holmes 1990). Although they are said to be generally shy and vulnerable to disturbance 

(Verheugt 1987), this applies to foraging individuals, as nesting birds can often be approached 

quite closely (Allport and Wilson 1986, Hancock et al. 1992). 

Food At Sungai Burong, Malaysia, the bulk of the diet appeared to be large mudskippers 

Periophthalmus 10–23 cm in length; the estimated weight of fish eaten in one observation of 

39 minutes was 225 g (Swennen and Marteijn 1987). In Indonesia the species has also been 

reported consuming snakes and frogs (Hoogerwerf and Siccama 1937–1938), fish (including 

a large “blanak”, presumably a kind of fish) (Bartels 1915–1930), and feeding eels, 

mudskippers and 20 cm fish to nestlings (Hoogerwerf 1936b). 

Often feeding in aggregations with other wading birds, such as Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos 

javanicus and egrets Ardeidae (Verheugt 1987, Hancock et al. 1992), the species generally 

employs a tactile foraging technique, involving standing still (sometimes for several minutes) 

or walking through mud and usually very shallow (but sometimes deeper) water, probing 

with a partly opened bill, or drawing it in an arc from side to side, until a prey item is located 

by touch (Bartels 1915–1930, Swennen and Marteijn 1987, Silvius 1988, Indrawan et al. 

1993b); it has also been seen to seek food by foot-stirring (Hoogerwerf 1936b). Less frequently, 

individuals either detect prey by sight or root them from their burrows (Swennen and Marteijn 

1987, Silvius 1988). On locating a mudskipper’s hole an individual will usually probe its bill 

in the immediate vicinity 10–15 times, sometimes immersing the whole bill and head into the 

mud and then hauling out the prey once it has been secured in the bill (del Hoyo et al. 1992). 

Birds have been observed feeding spaced 50–100 m apart (A. Elliott per T. P. Inskipp in litt. 

1997), but sometimes they will move in a single tight flock, flushing fish in shallow water 

(Indrawan et al. 1993b). Where food is abundant, foraging bouts are of relatively short 

duration, and roosting or comfort behaviour is undertaken for protracted periods (Hancock 

et al. 1992). At the Pulau Dua colony, considerable nocturnal activity was noted, with birds 

both foraging and visiting nests during hours of darkness, at least under a full moon (Hancock 

et al. 1992). 

Breeding Season At Tonle Sap, Cambodia, egg-laying apparently takes place during the 

dry season (as with all other waterbirds at the site) in January and February (Parr et al. 

1996), while in Malaysia two nests contained three eggs on 18 August (Robinson and Chasen 

1936) and the Kuala Gula colony was active in November (Hancock et al. 1992). In Indonesia, 

breeding occurs during the dry season that usually lasts until October (Hancock et al. 1992). 

Clutches taken on Java date from March, May and July (Hellebrekers and Hoogerwerf 1967), 

a Javan colony mostly contained fledged and almost full-grown young (with one clutch 

unhatched) in July (Hoogerwerf 1936a), and eggs are apparently sometimes laid in August 

(Hancock et al. 1992). On 19 July 1919, nests were active at the Citarum delta on Java, most 

containing three eggs, some with newly hatched chicks and a very few with chicks close to 

fledging (Bartels 1915–1930). In Sumatra a bird was seen in breeding plumage in May (Nash 

and Nash 1985) and egg-laying occurs in June–August (Hancock et al. 1992). Dry-season 

breeding probably coincides with maximum fish stocks, following the rainy season (Hancock 

et al. 1992), and presumably increased ease of prey capture as water levels drop (although 

this is presumably does not apply to birds feeding in tidal areas). 

Nest site and structure Breeding is colonial, often occurring in multi-species aggregations, 

with Milky Stork nests often numbering only 10–20, but sometimes up to several hundred 

(Hancock et al. 1992). In Sumatra the species has been recorded nesting alongside Lesser 

Adjutant, Black-headed Ibis Ibis melanocephala and several species of heron Ardeidae 

(Danielsen et al. 1991a). Nesting around Tonle Sap presumably takes place in large colonies 

175


containing Painted Stork, Lesser Adjutant and Spot-billed Pelicans Pelecanus philippensis 

(Mundkur et al. 1995a, Goes et al. 1998b). 

The major breeding colonies found in Sumatra in September 1988 were all in mangrove 

back swamps; at Tanjung Koyan the colony was some 2 km from the coast, in dense 

Acrostichum fern vegetation, with nests built in 3–4 m high bushes around a small (900 m²) 

pool; at Tanjung Selokan it was 1–2 km from the coast, with nests 5–15 m up in 10–12 dead 

trees within a flooded area 15 ha in extent; on the Banyuasin peninsula it was 3–4 km inland, 

2–6 m up in 10–15 small bushes near a 2,500 m² pool in dense Acrostichum fern vegetation 

(Danielsen et al. 1991a); and at Kuala Betara, it was situated in the outer mangrove fringe in 

nine trees (probably Avicennia, although some were later identified as “red mangrove” 

Rhizophora apiculata) 8–12 m high (Danielsen and Skov 1985, 1987; also Silvius 1988). Two 

other nesting colonies were also reported one and three hours inland by canoe (Danielsen 

and Skov 1985). On Java a colony of 75–100 nests was sited in a group of large “black 

mangrove” Avicennia marina covering c.4.5 ha; nest-trees generally held 5–7 nests, sometimes 

10, rarely only 2–3 (Hoogerwerf 1936a). At the Citarum delta only very tall trees were used, 

one of these containing 22 nests (Bartels 1915–1930). In the same tree species, nests were 

placed at heights of 8–30 m (Verheugt 1987), usually 30 m up on Pulau Rambut, but originally 

(prior to disturbance) down to 4 m above the ground on Pulau Dua (Hancock et al. 1992). In 

Malaysia, a colony of 20 nests was situated 8–10 m up both live and dead trees, mostly the 

latter (Siti Hawa Yatim 1990); in another case two nests were placed in the tops of mangroves 

(Robinson and Chasen 1936). Nests are fairly bulky structures of sticks, lined with fresh 

leafy twigs, in general resembling the nests of Grey Herons Ardea cinerea but containing 

thicker branches (Hoogerwerf 1936a, Robinson and Chasen 1936). Twigs and fresh leaves 

are sometimes collected for the nest from some distance away (Bartels 1915–1930). 

Clutch, incubation and fledging Nine clutches from Java consisted of three eggs (Hellebrekers 

and Hoogerwerf 1967), although nests in one large colony held mostly two young, one with 

one and a few with three (Hoogerwerf 1936a), and clutches of four eggs have been recorded 

(Hoogerwerf 1949). In 1984, nests at Pulau Rambut, Java, mostly contained two young 

(Verheugt 1987). Two nests in Malaysia both contained three young (Robinson and Chasen 

1936). The incubation period is estimated at 27–30 days; by 6–7 weeks the young are able to 

leave the nest and fly poorly, and by eight weeks they fly well but are still fed in the nest by 

parents (Hoogerwerf 1936b). Small young are fed more frequently than large young; before 

they are four weeks old chicks may be fed twice per hour (presumably on small items), whereas 

older nestlings may only be fed once per afternoon (presumably on larger items) (Hoogerwerf 

1936b). When temperatures are high, adults sometimes bring water to the nest and drool it 

from their bills to cool the nestlings or allow them to drink (Hancock et al. 1992). 

Migration Most waterbirds breeding around Tonle Sap vacate the area during the wet 

season, visiting wetlands across Cambodia (C. M. Poole in litt. 1998, Goes 1999a). The recent 

sighting of birds in the Gulf of Thailand coincides with this annual wet-season exodus 

(C. M. Poole verbally 1999), and indeed the species may be an overlooked regular but rare 

visitor to the area (P. D. Round in litt. 1999). 

In Peninsular Malaysia the Perak population is essentially resident (Wells 1999). The few 

sightings from Johor are probably occasional wanderers from the Riau and Jambi populations 

on Sumatra, only 70 km distant (Hawkins and Howes 1986; see Remarks 1). The record 

from north-west Bali in October 1982 was of a bird flying east during a raptor migration 

(Ash 1982, NJC), and other sightings to the east in Sumbawa suggest that individuals 

occasionally wander for great distances. In addition, two birds were observed crossing the 

Sunda Straits in September 1984 (Allport and Wilson 1986), a flock of presumed immigrants 

was seen flying east at Serang, West Java, again in September 1984, and spring migration 

was noted in April 1985 when two small groups were seen flying in a north-westerly direction, 

leaving mainland Java and travelling towards Sumatra (Verheugt 1987). Although such 

176


movements have not been considered true migration (Silvius and Verheugt 1989), the likely 

provenance of all these birds is south-east Sumatra, suggesting a minor annual migration 

(Hancock et al. 1992). 

THREATS The main threats to the survival of the species are human disturbance, hunting 

and habitat loss. A review of threats to the species is given by Verheugt (1987). 

Persecution, disturbance and trade In all portions of its range the species is threatened by 

poaching and interference with colonies (Hancock et al. 1992). Cambodia The flooded forest 

at Prek Toal, near Tonle Sap lake, supports one of the most important waterbird colonies in 

South-East Asia (Parr et al. 1996; see Measures Proposed under Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos 

dubius). The exploitation of eggs and chicks was identified as the principal threat to the 

continued survival of these colonies (Parr et al. 1996, Sun Hean in litt. 1997; see Threats 

under Greater Adjutant). As in much of South-East Asia, wildlife is seen as a delicacy much 

sought after by city dwellers, and middlemen travel from Battambang and Siem Reap to the 

Prek Toal area, often providing advance monies for waterbird chicks months before the 

breeding season; stork chicks are also often consumed at Khmer New Year feasts in the 

area, as the meat is preferred and the price is low (Ear-Dupuy et al. 1998). It was thought 

that, along with Painted Stork, this species is one of the most favoured by local waterbird 

collectors at Prek Toal because of the taste and manageable weight of its chicks (Parr et al. 

1996; see Remarks 3), but this conclusion has not been supported by later research (Ear- 

Dupuy et al. 1998). These demands cause much of the exploitation at Tonle Sap colonies, 

resulting in an extremely low ratio of offspring to adults for all large waterbirds, which 

implies poor breeding success and low recruitment (Parr et al. 1996). Other local methods of 

waterbird exploitation include the use of fishing hooks and monofilament nylon lines or 

hooks mounted on sticks to snare adult birds (Mundkur et al. 1995a, Parr et al. 1996), but 

this mostly targets small or medium-sized waterbirds. Spring-traps baited with decoy birds 

are a potentially serious threat (Parr et al. 1996). Peninsular Malaysia Given the vast mudflats 

along the western Malaysian Peninsula, the local decline of the species cannot easily be 

attributed to any shortage in foraging habitat or food supply (although see Pollution under 

Lesser Adjutant); persecution and disturbance at nesting colonies (along with destruction of 

nesting habitat) are almost certainly the cause of apparent declines (Swennen and Marteijn 

1985, Wells 1999). The Pulau Ketam heronry, in which this species once nested, was thought 

to have been abandoned owing to high levels of hunting and disturbance (DWNPPM 1987). 

Indonesia The future of the species in South Sumatra remains uncertain partly owing to 

continuing local demand for food and trade (Silvius and Verheugt 1989). The breeding colony 

at Hutan Bakau Pantai Timor mangrove reserve had disappeared in 1989, along with much 

of the mangrove within the area; this was possibly caused by a pulse of illegal trade in the 

species, when 40–50 young birds were shipped to zoos within South-East Asia and western 

Europe at a time when the only other known (publicised) colony was the small one on Pulau 

Rambut, Java (Danielsen et al. 1991b). In the early 1990s, 70 Milky Storks were kept in 

captivity in nine zoos outside Indonesia (Hancock et al. 1992). D. A. Holmes (in litt. 1999) 

commented that “without urgent, strong, positive intervention it is likely that all the breeding 

colonies in Sumatra will be destroyed within a few years”, especially given the partial 

breakdown of law and order occurring in some regions. Bartels (1915–1930) reported that 

on Java no persecution of adult Milky Storks occurred and the birds were therefore very 

tame; they were often kept as pets, however, indicating that young ones were taken from 

colonies. The fact that the species no longer breeds on Java suggests that this pressure grew 

too intense or that disturbance of nesting colonies increased unsupportably. During the 

Japanese occupation of Indonesia (1942–1945) management of Pulau Dua was interrupted; 

severe damage to mangrove habitat was thereby incurred with a negative impact on numbers 

of the species (Hoogerwerf 1947a). The loss of this stork (in common with four other colonial 

177


waterbirds) from the breeding avifauna of Pulau Dua in 1975 coincided with increased access 

to the island (it became joined to the mainland by a spit of accumulated silt in the mid-1970s, 

allowing pedestrian access to humans and other predators) and so is probably related to 

disturbance (Milton and Marhadi 1985, Verheugt 1987, Hancock et al. 1992). 

Habitat loss and modification Throughout its range the species is threatened by habitat 

loss as a result of mangrove deforestation, tidal rice cultivation, fish- and prawn-farming 

and (in Indonesia at least) human resettlement (Luthin 1987, Verheugt 1987, Collar et al. 

1994, Hancock et al. 1992). In South-East Asia all large waterbirds are “suffering reduction 

in available breeding sites through felling of trees providing nest sites and loss of foraging 

areas to urban and industrial development” (Kushlan and Hafner 2000). In particular, 

mangrove forests throughout the region are being cleared at a dramatic rate for development, 

for the commercial production of firewood and charcoal, and for fish-farming (Silvius et al. 

1986, Verheugt 1987, Whitten et al. 1987b,c, Parr 1994b, Kushlan and Hafner 2000). Cambodia 

Large tracts of swamp forest around Tonle Sap have apparently already been logged and 

converted to agriculture; forest clearance is currently proceeding at a slow rate but as timber 

resources become depleted peripherally, the pressure to exploit the remaining habitat is set 

to intensify (Scott 1992, Parr et al. 1996). Intentional burning of the flooded forest at this site 

was noted in the dry season, but the extent of damage was not determined (Parr et al. 1996). 

Siltation may pose another threat. Although it has perhaps been exacerbated by widespread 

deforestation of the catchment area, and by a series of small dams constructed by the Khmer 

Rouge (Scott 1989), there is no evidence to support this and, in fact, some dam/irrigation 

schemes in Cambodia have produced excellent habitat for large waterbirds (e.g. Ang Trapeang 

Thmor Reserve) (C. M. Poole in litt. 1999). Ironically, the increasing prospect of peace in the 

region is perhaps one of the most serious threats to the waterbirds of Tonle Sap, as political 

and military stability will probably lead to a resumption of plans for flood control, drainage 

and irrigation as part of a regional development scheme (Scott 1992); on the other hand, of 

course, instability reduces the chances of establishing an effective protected-area network in 

Cambodia (Parr et al. 1996). Vietnam Hancock et al. (1992) stated that “this species was 

essentially eliminated from Vietnam by the widespread destruction of mangrove swamps 

during the Southeast Asian War”, going on to suggest that “extensive mangrove reforestation 

and protection by wardens may have resulted in some recolonization in recent years”. There 

is, in fact, little evidence to suggest that the species ever bred in Vietnam (see under Population) 

or that it was exterminated by habitat loss. Moreover, the mangrove reforestation programme 

is apparently ineffective, and wardening of suitable areas almost non-existent (S. T. Buckton 

verbally 2000). Peninsular Malaysia An account of threats to coastal wetlands and mangroves 

(including Kuala Gula) in the peninsula appears in Threats under Lesser Adjutant. Indonesia 

The future of the species in South Sumatra remains uncertain owing to plans to convert tidal 

forests into large-scale brackish-water fish-farms and to implement various logging and 

conversion schemes (Silvius and Verheugt 1989). Large areas of lowland forest in Sumatra, 

including swamp forest, have been severely adversely affected by widespread fires (see Threats 

under Hook-billed Bulbul Setornis criniger); for example, fire destroyed habitat in Berbak 

National Park in 1997 (Legg and Laumonier 1999). There are or were dangers associated 

with all three major breeding colonies on Sumatra in 1988, although positive opportunities 

existed (see Measures Taken and Measures Proposed). The disappearance of the breeding 

colony at Hutan Bakau Pantai Timor, along with much of the mangrove within the area, 

was possibly attributable to substantial incursions by farmers and loggers apparently unaware 

of the existence of the reserve (Danielsen et al. 1991b). Padang Sugihan reserve has been 

overrun by local settlers (Rudyanto verbally 2000). The important wetland of Segara Anakan 

in southern Central Java has been a source of concern through steady siltation and plans for 

its conversion to rice (Erftemeijer et al. 1988). In total, an estimated 1,000 km 2 of coastal 

wetland is lost in Indonesia per annum (Verheugt 1987). Rapid degradation of coastal 

178


mangroves and swamps in Sulawesi was observed during December 1997 along the east and 

south coasts of the northern peninsula (Kasinbar to Tilamuta) and does not bode well for 

the local population of this species (Bishop in press). The degree of habitat loss in south and 

south-eastern Sulawesi is not known. 

Pollution Industrial and agricultural pollution in Cambodia and Peninsular Malaysia is 

discussed in Threats under Lesser Adjutant. 

MEASURES TAKEN The species has been listed on Appendix I of CITES since 1987. It is 

legally protected in Malaysia and Indonesia. 

Protected areas Cambodia Prek Toal is a core area of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve (C. M. 

Poole in litt. 1999; but see Measures Taken and Measures Proposed under Greater Adjutant). 

Ream National Park might protect a breeding population (J. W. K. Parr in litt. 1998) and 

recent reports of immature birds in the area lend weight to this prospect (C. M. Poole in litt. 

1999); extensive mangroves are located immediately east of the reserve. Peninsular Malaysia 

The species receives some protection at Kuala Gula in Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve. It 

also occurs in Benut Forest Reserve but it is unclear what level of protection this entails. 

Indonesia The large colony at Tanjung Koyan, South Sumatra, is within mangrove designated 

as protection forest, and although part of the area has been identified for agricultural 

settlement the site should not be affected if the status of the mangrove is maintained (Danielsen 

et al. 1991a). Other colonies are in the Berbak National Park and Way Kambas National 

Park (Sumatra), Pulau Rambut Strict Nature Reserve (Java) and Rawa Aopa Watumohai 

National Park (Sulawesi). 

Reduction of persecution Cambodia An account of relevant measures at colonies near 

Tonle Sap appears under Greater Adjutant. 

Education Cambodia The species is included in awareness material (books and posters) 

produced and distributed by the Wildlife Protection Office as part of an ongoing campaign 

to reduce the exploitation and hunting of large waterbirds (Veasna 1999, C. M. Poole in litt. 

1999). Educational videos have also been shown to some villagers, emphasising the laws 

prohibiting hunting and the need to conserve large waterbirds (Veasna 1999). 

Captive breeding Malaysia A captive breeding programme at Zoo Negara, Kuala Lumpur, 

resulted in four pairs producing 12 offspring up to 1990 (ICBP/IWRB Storks, Ibises and 

Spoonbills Specialist Group Newsletter 3, 1/2 [1990]: 5). Individuals were released from captivity 

at Kuala Selangor Nature Park, Selangor (Enggang 4, 3 [1996]), and by 2000 the zoo had 60 

birds, but although some of these had been released into the park no breeding had occurred 

(Suara Enggang 4, July–August [2000]: 30–31). 

MEASURES PROPOSED Accounts of all measures proposed in the Tonle Sap region, 

Cambodia, appear in equivalent sections under Greater Adjutant. Conservation action for 

this species also broadly overlaps that suggested for the Lesser Adjutant in Malaysia and 

Indonesia (see relevant account). 

Protected areas Malaysia The level and area of protection at Matang Mangrove Forest 

Reserve and Benut Forest Reserve should be increased. Proposals relating to forestry practices 

in these areas appear under Lesser Adjutant. Indonesia The location of the inland colonies at 

Sungei Gapung and Sungei Siput, South Sumatra, the latter reputedly holding “hundreds of 

nests” (Danielsen and Skov 1985), is clearly important, and the protection of these and the 

colony in mangrove at Kuala Betara (Hutan Bakau Pantai Timor mangrove reserve), if still 

extant, is imperative. The breeding colony at Tanjung Selokan is or was within an area 

proposed for fishpond development, but a nature reserve of 100 km 2 has now been proposed 

(Danielsen and Verheugt 1990, Danielsen et al. 1991a). The colony on the Banyuasin peninsula 

is similarly within an area designated for fishpond development, in spite of being on acidic 

soils and falling within protection forest, but a major proposal to create the Sembilang Wildlife 

179


Reserve, covering 3,875 km 2 , has been formulated to protect not only the storks and another 

34 globally threatened wildlife species but also a major migration stopover site and the natural 

spawning areas for 70% of the province’s coastal fisheries (Danielsen and Verheugt 1990, 

Danielsen et al. 1991a). Silvius and Verheugt (1989) called for network of coastal nature or 

wildlife reserves to be established in Riau, Jambi and South Sumatra provinces, Sumatra. 

Repeated observations in Sulawesi come from an area of coastal mangroves, swamp forest 

and shallow lake(s) in and around the proposed Tanjang Panjang Reserve (FAO 1982), a 

site that clearly deserves protection. 

Research and monitoring Further survey work is required, as is continued monitoring of 

all subpopulations at key sites (see Remarks 4). Commercial harvesting of swamp forest 

needs further study so that methods can be improved from the viewpoint of waterbird 

conservation. Research programmes are also required on the general ecology and seasonal 

movements of the species. In Indonesia, surveys of Sulawesi should seek to establish its 

status, distribution and management requirements. Key colonies need to be studied where 

possible so that reproductive success can be gauged, trends tracked and the source of 

significant threats identified. 

Reduction of persecution Colonies need to be protected from disturbance and from egg or 

chick collection wherever possible. In some cases this will necessitate some form of breeding 

season surveillance, perhaps in conjunction with research or ecotourism, and certainly in 

conjunction with local education initiatives. 

Education The success of conservation programmes and protected areas for the species 

in Malaysia “will depend much on actively interesting the local community” (Wells 1999); to 

address this need, community awareness projects should target relevant settlements. In 

Indonesia a public awareness campaign should inform the local communities, including 

fishermen who live semi-permanently offshore, of the conservation and protection status of 

the species (Silvius and Verheugt 1989). 

REMARKS (1) Wells (1999) took the clustering of records into five nodes to be “suggestive 

of at least as many past colonies”, rather than the result of wandering birds. Further 

unconfirmed records from the southern portion of the peninsula include a group seen at 

Kampung Telok Jawa, near Pasir Gidang, south Johor, Peninsular Malaysia, in June 1998, 

after a newspaper report of 14 in November 1997: these birds were suspiciously confiding 

and therefore probably escapees from Singapore Zoo (Suara Enggang July–August 1998). 

An earlier report of 14 flying north to south near Serangoon, Singapore, October 1997 (H. 

Jensen in litt. 1999), seems likely to refer to the same flock of birds. (2) Although rumours 

have circulated that “a former colony site in southern Vietnam has been recolonized in recent 

years” (Verheugt 1987) or that “some birds have apparently recolonized Vietnam since the 

war of 1963–75” (Hancock et al. 1992), there is no firm evidence of this. Ornithological 

surveys of wetlands throughout the Mekong delta in 1999 failed to find the species (Buckton 

et al. 1999), and there are no confirmed recent records from elsewhere in Vietnam (Nguyen 

Cu in litt. 1997, Eames and Tordoff in prep.). A possible record from Cat Tien National 

Park, Dong Nai, in December 1988 (Morris 1994), and other records from Ca Mau, Kien 

Giang and Minh Hai provinces (Le Dien Duc and Le Dinh Thuy 1987, Verheugt 1987, Le 

Dien Duc 1989, 1993a, Scott 1989) are all thought to be mistaken (J. C. Eames in litt. 2001). 

(3) The Milky Stork is often not differentiated from the Painted Stork by locals in Cambodia 

(Parr et al. 1996). Waterbird harvesters reportedly collected 6,570 eggs and 2,482 chicks of 

Painted Stork from the Prek Toal colony in the 1995–1996 breeding season, totals that might 

contain small numbers of Milky Stork eggs (Parr et al. 1996). (4) Care should be taken 

during survey work to distinguish between this species and Painted Stork. Their similarity 

(especially of juveniles) makes the Milky Stork easy to overlook, especially at sites such as 

Tonle Sap, Cambodia, where Painted Storks are much commoner (Goes et al. 1998b). 

180

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