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International Agricultural Centre 

CAUSES OF PEATSWAMP FOREST DEGRADATION IN BERBAK 

NP, INDONESIA, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESTORATION 

Water for Food & Ecosystems Programme project on: ”Promoting the river 

basin and ecosystem approach for sustainable management of SE Asian 

lowland peatswamp forests: Case study Air Hitam Laut river basin, Jambi 

Province, Indonesia.” 

25 January 2004 

Euroconsult

CAUSES OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST 

DEGRADATION IN BERBAK NP, 

INDONESIA, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

FOR RESTORATION 

by Wim Giesen 

ARCADIS Euroconsult 

Part of the project on 

“Promoting the river basin and ecosystem approach for sustainable management of SE Asian 

lowland peat swamp forests: Case study Air Hitam Laut river basin, Jambi Province, Indonesia.” 

Water for Food and Ecosystems Programme 

INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CENTRE (IAC) 

IN COOPERATION WITH 

ALTERRA 

ARCADIS EUROCONSULT 

WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY / LEI 

WL / DELFT HYDRAULICS 

WETLANDS INTERNATIONAL 

25 JANUARY 2004

CAUSES OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST DEGRADATION IN BERBAK NP, INDONESIA, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESTORATION 

Contents 

Abbreviations, acronyms & glossary ______________________________________________ 4 

Background ____________________________________________________________________ 6 

Summary _______________________________________________________________________ 7 

Acknowledgements _____________________________________________________________ 9 

1 Introduction ________________________________________________________________ 11 

1.1 Introduction to Southeast Asian peat swamp forests___________________________ 11 

1.1.1 Brief introduction to Peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia _______________ 11 

1.1.2 Recent history of SE Asian peat swamp forests _________________________ 14 

1.2 Introduction to Berbak NP_________________________________________________ 16 

1.2.1 Brief description of the natural conditions of the Park ___________________ 16 

1.2.2 Brief history of the Park_____________________________________________ 18 

2 Assessment of present condition of Berbak NP ________________________________ 20 

2.1 Condition of Berbak NP as reported by others ________________________________ 20 

2.2 Assessment of condition of Berbak NP based on satellite imagery________________ 22 

2.3 Fieldwork and observations of state of habitats at Berbak NP ___________________ 27 

2.3.1 Fieldwork methodology ____________________________________________ 27 

2.3.2 Fieldwork results __________________________________________________ 29 

2.3.3 General observations during fieldwork ________________________________ 32 

3 Cause(s) of peat swamp forest degradation in Berbak NP ______________________ 34 

3.1 Assessments by others____________________________________________________ 34 

3.1.1 General assessments _______________________________________________ 34 

3.1.2 Hotspot analyses __________________________________________________ 36 

3.2 Assessment based on present field observations ______________________________ 36 

3.3 Likely history/scenarios leading to present condition of Berbak NP _______________ 38 

3.4 Conclusions & discussion__________________________________________________ 39 

4 Peat swamp forest restoration opportunities__________________________________ 44 

4.1 Degradation seres and natural regeneration of peat swamp forest in Southeast Asia 44 

4.1.1 Degradation seres & regeneration in the region ________________________ 44 

4.1.2 Degradation seres & regeneration in Indonesia _________________________ 47 

4.2 Attempts at peat swamp forest restoration in Southeast Asia ___________________ 49 

4.2.1 Peat swamp forest restoration in Southeast Asia________________________ 49 

4.2.2 Restoration attempts In and around Berbak NP _________________________ 54 

4.3 Identification of promising species for restoration programmes__________________ 57 

4.3.1 Recognised by others ______________________________________________ 57 

4.3.2 Identified during the present survey __________________________________ 61 

4.4 Requirements for replanting programmes____________________________________ 63 

Final Draft ARCADIS 2


5 Recommendations for restoration of degraded peat swamp forest at Berbak NP _ 66 

5.1 Mid-upper catchment of the Air Hitam Laut river basin ________________________ 66 

5.2 Centre of Berbak NP _____________________________________________________ 67 

6 Recommendations for the Project’s peat swamp forest restoration programme __ 69 

6.1 Recommendations for improvement of the existing programme _________________ 69 

6.2 Budget and recommended Work Plan for the current project ___________________ 73 

7 Recommendations for capacity building in reforestation techniques & peat swamp 

management _______________________________________________________________ 75 

7.1 Local concession holder___________________________________________________ 75 

7.2 National Park staff _______________________________________________________ 75 

8 Conclusions ________________________________________________________________ 77 

References ____________________________________________________________________ 82 

Annex 1 Itinerary ________________________________________________________________ 90 

Annex 2 Site survey results: relevees ________________________________________________ 94 

Annex 3 Summary of site characteristics____________________________________________ 102 

Annex 4 Bird observations _______________________________________________________ 103 

Annex 5 Species common in burnt areas ___________________________________________ 106 

Annex 6 Terms of reference for SRS _______________________________________________ 108 

Annex 7 Photographic summary __________________________________________________ 111 



Abbreviations, acronyms & glossary 

AHD Air Hitam Dalam 

AHL Air Hitam Laut 

asl Above Sea Level 

CCFPI Climate Change, Forests and Peatlands in Indonesia (project) 

CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research (based in Bogor) 

CPI Caltex Pacific Indonesia 

cukong Local term for broker, mainly used in a negative sense 

DANCED Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development 

dbh Diameter at breast height (= forestry term) 

Dinas Kehutanan Forest Service 

FFPCP Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project 

FRIM Forest Research Institute Malaysia 

GEF Global Environment Facility 

GIS Geographic Information System 

ha Hectares 

HLG Hutan Lindung Gambut (Peat Protection Forest) 

HP Hutan Produksi (Normal Production Forest) 

HPH Hak Pengusahan Hutan (Forest Concession Right) 

HPT Hutan Produksi Terbata (Limited Production Forest) 

HTI Hutan Tanaman Industri (Industrial Tree-crop Estate) 

IPB Institut Pertanian Bogor (Agricultural Institute Bogor) 

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural 

Resources (World Conservation Union) 

jelutung Dyera species; in the PSF of eastern Sumatra this is Dyera lowii 

(Apocynaceae) 

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency 

kempas Koompassia malaccensis (Leguminosae) 

KSDA Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam (Conservation of Natural Resources) 

department representing PHPA (now PKA) in the provinces 

LIPI National Science Agency Indonesia 

Nipa Nypa fruticans (Arecaceae) 

NP National Park 

NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product 

OKI Ogan-Komering Ilir district (in South Sumatra) 

PHPA (Direktorat Jenderal) Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian Alam 

(Directorate General of) Forest Protection and Nature Conservation; 

now DG of Nature Conservation 

PSF Peat Swamp Forest 

PT. Limited Company 



PT. DHL Dyera Hutan Lestari (plantation concession company with a 8,000 

ha area located at Sungai Aur, near Berbak NP; main species 

planted are jelutung, with some pulai). 

PT. PDIW Putra Duta Indah Wood (logging concession company with a 

concession to the west/southwest of Berbak NP 

PT. SDR Satia Djaya Raya (now defunct logging concession company) 

pulai Alstonia species ; in the swamp forests of Berbak NP this is 

predominantly Alstonia pneumatophora (Apocynaceae) 

PUSDALKARHUTLA Pusat Pengendalian Kebakaran Hutan dan Lahan (Centre for 

Prevention of Forest and Land Fires) 

ramin Gonystylus bancanus (Thymelaeaceae) 

rasau Pandanus helicopus (Pandanaceae) 

RIL Reduced Impact Logging (Malaysian system, esp. Sarawak) 

sere Ecological term for a series of plant communities resulting from the 

process of succession. Various types exist, depending on type of 

disturbance or influence, e.g. fire sere, xerosere, hydrosere. 

SM Simpang Melaka 

SMPSF Sustainable Management of Peat Swamp Forests in Peninsular 

Malaysia (project) 

SRS Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist 

Sungai (or sungei) River 

TM Thematic Mapper (type of Landsat stellite image) 

TPTI Indonesian selective logging process 

WI-IP Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme 

YAPENTA Yayasan Pembangunan Tanjung Jabung (Tanjung Jabung 

Development Foundation) 



Background 

This study is a component of the project on “Promoting the river basin and ecosystem 

approach for sustainable management of SE Asian lowland peat swamp forests: Case study 

Air Hitam Laut river basin, Jambi Province, Indonesia” (a.k.a. Air Hitam Laut project), 

funded by the Netherlands Government as part of the Water for Food and Ecosystems 

Programme. Implementation of the Air Hitam Laut project is lead by the International 

Agricultural Centre (IAC) in Wageningen, the Netherlands, in cooperation with ARCADIS 

Euroconsult (Arnhem, the Netherlands), Alterra – Green World Research (Wageningen), 

Wetlands International (Wageningen and Bogor), Waterloopkundig Laboratorium 

(WL|Delft Hydraulics) and the Landbouw Economisch Instituut (LEI/Wageningen). In 

Indonesia, the project cooperates with the Ministry of Forestry, Ministry of Environment, 

Ministry of Public Works, BAPPEDA (Provincial Planning Bureau), University of Jambi, 

Agricultural University of Bogor and the University of Sriwijaya, Palembang. Regionally, 

the project collaborates with the Global Environment Centre, based in Kuala Lumpur. 

The goal of the Air Hitam Laut project is defined as: The project will assess the nature and 

impact of human activities on the functioning of the greater Berbak ecosystem, analyse the hydrology 

of the Air Hitam Laut river, and the dependency of the coastal communities on the ecosystem health. 

This will provide improved understanding of the hydrological and ecological functioning of Southeast 

Asian lowland peat swamp forests, and contribute to an enhanced baseline for policy and decision 

making in relation to integrated management of peat swamp river basins in the tropics, and in 

particular the Berbak National Park. 

The bulk of the Air Hitam Laut project focuses on hydrological assessments, analysis and 

modeling, with smaller inputs devoted to socio-economic studies, policy analysis and 

awareness, and ecology-cum-peat swamp forest regeneration. The Terms of Reference for 

the 25-day input of the peat swamp forest ecologist focuses on: 

Assessment of recent developments with respect to existing reforestation 

techniques in peatlands and their potential for improvement; 

 

 

 

 

Assessment of the requirements for reforestation interventions in Berbak NP; 

Recommendations on sustainable options for rehabilitating burnt and logged peat 

swamp forest in the mid-upper catchment of the Air Hitam Laut river basin and 

the centre of Berbak National Park; 

Support to the preparation of a peat swamp forest rehabilitation programme; and 

Support for the development of capacity building activities for concession holder 

and NP staff in reforestation techniques and peat swamp management. 

The peat swamp forest ecologist carried out fieldwork in Indonesia from 30 September to 24 

October, of which three weeks were spent in Jambi. This output is to provide a basis for 

practical restoration attempts by the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist (Iwan Cahyo 

Wibisono), who will continue up until the end of the project (late 2004). The report will also 

provide a basis for two students of Wageningen Agricultural University (Pieter Leenman 

and Pieter van Eijk) and two students of Jambi University (Dian Febriyanti and Muhammad 

Fadli) who will carry out ecological studies on burnt peat swamp forest in Berbak in 

January-April 2004. 



Summary 

Chapter one provides an introduction to the peat swamp forests of Southeast Asia, 

including a brief overview of past studies, remaining area of this habitat (33 million ha, of 

which 82% in Indonesia), and a general description of features. It also provides an 

introduction to floristics and vegetation of Southeast Asian and Sumatran peat swamp 

forests> It also focuses on plant species diversity, with up to 240 species in a single location, 

but usually in the range of 35-130 tree species occurring in a single 1-5 ha plot. A recent 

history of this habitat in Southeast Asia is given, indicating the rapid rate at which peat 

swamp forests have disappeared due to felling, fires, and conversion to agriculture or 

pulpwood plantations. In 1993, only 2% of Sumatra’s former peat and freshwater swamp 

forests was both gazetted in the Protected Area system and remained in a good condition – 

this can only have declined further since then. An introduction is provided to the 185,000 ha 

Berbak National Park, which is the focus of this study and is located in the coastal zone of 

Jambi Province, Sumatra. Berbak NP mainly consists of two habitat types – freshwater 

swamp forest and peat swamp forest – that extend over 60,000 hectares (32% of the park) 

and 110,000 hectares (59%), respectively. Large fires – mainly in the mid-1990s – have lead to 

significant loss of these habitats. A description is given of habitats and Park history. 

Chapter two focuses on the present condition of Berbak NP, split into two sections: one 

providing an assessment based on previous studies and satellite imagery, the second based 

on field work carried out as part of the present study. Others report that about 17,000 ha 

(roughly 10%) of the Park has been affected by recent fires (esp. 1997-98). Analysis of 

satellite imagery confirms this, but shows that significant disturbances in the Park between 

1983 and August 1997 created the conditions that lead to the highly destructive fires of 

September 1997, and again in 1998. Most of these disturbances appear to be linked to illegal 

logging, as indicated by a pattern of clearing and thinning of canopy cover. Field work 

carried out in October 2003 shows that illegal logging still appears to be nothing short of 

rampant throughout the Park: 26 illegal logging camps – most operational – were observed 

in the Park along the upper Air Hitam Laut river. Sawn timber was observed along the 

river, in camps, and being loaded from the AHL onto lorries on PDIW’s rail system, which 

at present is the main outlet of timber and logs being poached from the western side of 

Berbak NP. Similarly, timber poaching was observed to be common and active along the Air 

Hitam Dalam. 

Chapter three attempts to assess the causes of peat swamp forest degradation in Berbak NP. 

Previous analyses do not identify a single cause, but instead identify a host of contributing 

factors including lowering of water levels by transmigrants, fires escaping from agricultural 

fields and fires used by poachers, illegal logging, clearing by fishermen, unsustainable use 

of resources (esp. jelutung and nipa), insufficient patrolling and enforcement, unclear 

boundaries and (linked to the latter) conversion to agriculture. The direct cause of the 1997- 

98 fires is often reported to be ‘unknown’. Based on an analysis of satellite images and field 

work, however, it can be concluded that the most significant threat by far is posed by illegal 

logging activities in the National Park. Large-scale destructive fires that occurred at Berbak 

NP in 1997-98 appear to be directly linked to illegal logging that occurred in the same 

locations in the preceding decade. These activities largely went unnoticed/unreported, as 

they were being carried out in areas that were inaccessible to park staff. However, they can 



be clearly observed on satellite images dating from this period. A likely sequence of events 

leading to the present level of degradation is provided, along with an assessment of whom / 

which companies were involved. 

Chapter four provides an overview of what is known about natural regeneration of peat 

swamp forests in Southeast Asia in general, and Sumatra in particular. It recognizes various 

degradation seres, and plant species characteristic of secondary peat swamp habitats. It also 

provides an overview of past and ongoing attempts at peat swamp forest restoration, both 

in the region (notably in Thailand, but also Vietnam and Malaysia) and in Indonesia. 

Attempts in Thailand were initiated more than 40 years ago and appear to be successful, 

while other initiatives in the region remain at a pilot stage. Various attempts at replanting 

degraded peat swamp forest have been carried out in and around Berbak NP, but all are 

small scale and can be regarded as trials only: there is no active restoration or rehabilitation 

programme ongoing. An exception to this is the jelutung and pulai plantation of PT. Dyera 

Hutan Lestari (PT. DHL). This study identifies species that have a high survival or 

recolonisation rate and may be considered for restoration activities at Berbak NP. These 

species include Alstonia pneumatophora (pulai), Combretocarpus rotundatus (tanah-tanah), 

Dyera lowii (jelutung), Elaeocarpus petiolatus, Eugenia spicata (gelam tikus), Ganua motleyana, 

Gluta wallichii (rengas), Gonystylus bancanus (ramin), Licuala paludosa (palas), Macaranga 

pruinosa (mahang), Mallotus muticus (perupuk), Neolamarckia cadamba (bengkal/medang 

keladi), Palaquium spp. (nyatoh), Pandanus helicopus (rasau), Pholidocarpus sumatranus (liran), 

Shorea pauciflora (meranti rawa), and Syzygium (Eugenia) cerina, (temasaman). Issues 

regarding species provenance, nurseries, planting regimes and timing, and tending 

requirements are described. 

Chapter five provides recommendations for which degraded areas within Berbak NP are to 

be targeted by the restoration programme. These include the Mid-upper catchment of the 

Air Hitam Laut river, the central Air Hitam Laut burnt area (about 12,000 ha), and the 

Simpang Melaka burnt area (4,000 ha). 

Chapter six provides recommendations for the Project’s peat swamp forest restoration 

programme, focusing on species identification, site identification, the use of trial areas, 

where and how to establish nurseries, and how to improve the actual (ongoing) restoration 

programme itself. A draft budget, implementation schedule, and draft terms of reference are 

provided. 

Chapter seven provides recommendations for capacity building in reforestation techniques 

and peat swamp management. Because of proven lack of genuine interest, any investment in 

capacity building of the logging concessionaire (PT. PDIW) is considered a waste of scarce 

resources, better spent on other components of the Project. Training of National Park staff is 

proposed for i) establishing and managing the two nurseries, to produce material for 

replanting in Berbak NP; and ii) planting techniques and managing replanted areas. 

Chapter eight provides conclusions drawn from the various chapters, and is followed by a 

list of references and appendices on: i) field work itinerary, ii) site survey results, iii) site 

characteristics, iv) bird observations, v) list of plant species common in burnt areas, vi) ToR 

for the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist, and vii), a photographic summary. 



Acknowledgements 

The author would like to thank the following agencies and persons, without whom this 

study would not have been possible: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme, especially Pak Dibyo, Nyoman 

Suryadiputra, Iwan Cahyo (Yoyok) Wibisono, Yus Rusila Noor, Anggie, Labueni 

S., Triana, Pak Umar and Ibu Lusi. I would particularly like to thank Yoyok for the 

fine arrangements in the field, and his excellent insights in peat swamp forest 

restoration. Thanks also to Pak Nyoman and Yoyok for their comments on the first 

draft of this report, Labueni for her help in arranging visits to various office and 

helping with the identification of herbarium specimens, and Pak Umar for his 

excellent driving skills. 

The field team in Jambi, especially Iwan Cahyo (Yoyok) Wibisono, Suhendra (both 

of Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme) and Habibie (TN Berbak staff). 

Staff of Taman Nasional Berbak, especially Pak Istanto (Kepala Balai TN Berbak), 

Mr. H. Soemarno (Wakil Kepala TN), Habibie (for his active participation in all the 

field trips), Mr. Rohman Fauzi (field staff Berbak NP), Pak Aziz Sembiring, Pak 

Ponimon, and Pak Farit (TN) for advice and assistance. 

Bogor Herbarium, especially Ms Afriastini for her kind help in identifying the 

plant specimens collected at Berbak, and Herwint Simbolon, for discussions on 

regeneration plot monitoring and information about peat swamp forest 

regeneration in general. 

The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR, Bogor), especially Dr 

Takeshi Toma, Dr Daniel Murdiyarso, Tini Gumartini, Yulia Siagian and Nia 

Sabarniati, for information provided about peat swamp forest regeneration, and 

discussions held about their research programmes. Special thanks go to Iwan 

Kurniawan for assisting with satellite imagery of Berbak NP, as this made it 

possible to analyse the events leading up to the fires of the mid-1990s. 

Dinas Kehutanan Jambi, especially Ir. Gatot Moeryanto (Kepala Dinas) 

BAPPEDA Jambi, especially Ir. Helbar, for provision of maps. 

PT Dyera Hutan Lestari, especially Mr. Hamri P. Rosera (Director of Production) 

and Mr. Bambang Handoko (Director Field Operations) for the information 

provided, and for their kind assistance and hospitality in the field. 

BP-DAS of Jambi, especially Ir. H. Ahriman Ahmed (head), for the lively 

discussion of problems associated with reforestation. 

PUSDALKARHUTLA, especially Ir. Joko Fajar Kiswanto (Coordinator) and Mr. O. 

Soeparman (technical head), for discussions on the fire management programme 

PT Putra Duta Indah Wood), especially Ir. Hari Subagyo and the field staff (Pak 

Kadri, Pak Eden S. Tanga), for logistical assistance and their hospitality in the field. 

Dinas Pertambangan dan Energi (Mining & Energy Service), especially Ir. Akhmad 

Bakhtiar Amin, Kepala Dinas, for his advice. 



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Wim Giesen 

Faizal Parish (Global Environment Center) for discussions and advice on peat 

swamp forest management. 

Dr. Yadi Setiadi, Head of Forest Biotechnology Laboratory and Environmental 

Biotechnology Research Center. Bogor Agriculture University for information on 

peat swamp forest regeneration trials in Sumatra. 

Dr. Ismail Parlan of FRIM (Forest Research Institute Malaysia), for information 

about trials on peat swamp forest restoration in Malaysia. 

Dr. Jack Rieley of the Department of Life Science, University of Nottingham, for a 

splendid overview of recent developments in the field of peat swamp forest 

restoration in Southeast Asia. 

Dr. Tanit Nuyim, Princess Sirindhorn Peat Swamp Forest Research and Nature 

Study Center, Sungaikolok, Narathiwat, Thailand, for his kind advice and 

information about peat swamp forest restoration activities in Thailand. 

Mizuki Tomita, of the Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, 

Yokohama National University, for information about Melaleuca recovery on burnt 

peat swamp forest. 

Mr. Tony Sebastian of Aonyx Environmental, Kuching, for providing information 

on peat swamp forest activities and contacts in Malaysia. 

Lastly, I would like to thank my colleagues on the project on “Promoting the river 

basin and ecosystem approach for sustainable management of SE Asian lowland 

peat swamp forests”, especially Ingrid Gevers, Marcel Silvius, Henk Wösten and 

Aljosja Hooijer. 

ARCADIS Euroconsult 

Arnhem, The Netherlands 

25 January 2004 

w.giesen@arcadis.nl 

www.euroconsult.nl 


1.1 


CHAPTER 

1Introduction 

INTRODUCTION TO SOUTHEAST ASIAN PEAT SWAMP FORESTS 

1.1.1 BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PEAT SWAMP FORESTS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 

General 

Peat swamp forests of Southeast Asia have long been poorly studied, and our current 

knowledge of their composition, dynamics and ecology remains incomplete in spite of a 

surge in studies during the past decade. For a long time, Anderson (1963, 1972, 1978) and 

Brünig (1973, 1990), summarised by Whitmore (1984) were the only widely known studies 

on this habitat. Less well known were a series of papers by Coulter (1950, 1957), Wyatt- 

Smith (1959, 1961) and Lee (1979) in Malaya, and by Dutch foresters (e.g. van der Laan, 1925; 

Bodegom, 1929; Boon, 1936; Sewandono 1937, 1938), botanists (Endert, 1932; van Steenis 

1938, 1957; Kostermans, 1958) and soil scientists (Polak 1933, 1941; Schophuys, 1936; 

Driessen, 1978; Andriesse, 1986) in Indonesia. 

During the past decade-and-a-half interest in this habitat increased significantly, 

culminating in a series of workshops and symposiums: 

1987: Tropical Peat and Peatlands for Development, held in Yogyakarta, and sponsored 

by the International Peat Society and the Indonesian Peat Association. 

 

 

 

1991: 2 nd International Symposium on Tropical Peat and Peatlands for Development, held 

in Kuching and published as a book in 1992. 

1992: Workshop on Integrated Planning and Management of Tropical Lowland Peatlands, 

held in Cisarua, Indonesia, 3-8 July 1992, and published by the IUCN Wetlands 

Programme in 1996 (Maltby et al., 1996). 

1995: International Symposium on Biodiversity, Environmental Importance and 

Sustainability of Tropical Peat and Peatlands, held in Palangkaraya, Central 

Kalimantan, 4-8 September 1995, with proceedings published by Samara 

Publishing Ltd. (Rieley & Page, 1997). 

The total area of peat swamps in Southeast Asia are estimated by Rieley et al. (1996) to be 

about 33 million hectares, of which the vast majority in Indonesia (82%), Papua New Guinea 

(8.8%) and Malaysia (8.3%), with smaller areas in the Philippines (240,000 ha), Vietnam 

(183,000 ha) and Thailand (65,000 ha; Nuyim, 2000). However, these figures probably 

represent maximum areas as vast tracts of peat swamp forest have been subjected to 

clearing, drainage and conversion throughout the region during the past two decades. 



Most of the peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia have developed in or near coastal plains 

during the past 5,000-10,000 years, either developing in fresh or brackish waters overlying 

marine sediments, or in depressions between rivers somewhat further inland. In these areas 

water tables are permanently high and peat depth may be as much as 24 metres, although 

depths usually range from 4-8 metres. pH’s are generally low, usually ranging from 3.0-4.5. 

In many areas peat domes have developed, whereby the central areas are raised and their 

only source of water is rainwater. 

According to Whitmore (1984), most of the tree families of lowland evergreen dipterocarp 

rain forest are found in the peat swamp forest, except for the Combretaceae, Lythraceae, 

Proteaceae, Styraceae and Palmae (Arecaceae) 1 

. This habitat has few endemics, probably due 

to the fact that most areas are less than 11,000 years old. According to Rieley and Achmad- 

Shah (1996), plants found in tropical peat swamp forest are usually restricted to this type of 

habitat. In spite of this, however, few species are endemic to the peat swamp forest of a 

single country. The authors list seven species, all of which are restricted to either Thailand 

or Malaysia. Following Wyatt-Smith (1959 and 1963), Ibrahim and Chong (1992) regard this 

forest as uniquely adapted to waterlogging, poor nutrients and high acidity of the soil. They 

add that very few of the tree species are found outside this habitat, but according to Corner 

(1994), floristics do not bear this out. They list 50 species for the Kuala Langat peat swamp 

forest in Peninsular Malaysia, but at least 38 of these occur, apparently indiscriminately, in 

freshwater swamp forests of Johore (Corner, 1994). Brünig (1973) also shows that floristically 

there is a significant overlap between peat swamp forests and so-called heath forests 

(kerangas) in Sarawak and Brunei, with 146 tree species common to both habitats, including 

11 of the 15 dipterocarps recorded. 

Tree species diversity for Southeast Asian lowland forests vary significantly, among others 

depending on location, habitat and plot size. For 1.0 hectare plots, tree diversity in Malesian 

plots listed by Whitmore (1984) vary from 70 to more than 220 species. Compared to dry 

lowland rain forest, however, species diversity of peat swamp forests is relatively low. In 

Sarawak and Brunei, a total of 1800-2300 tree species occur in dry lowland forest while a 

total of only 234 tree species have been recorded in peat swamp forests (Whitmore, 1984). 

Nevertheless, vegetation of lowland peat swamps in Southeast Asia may be diverse, with 

communities having up to 240 plant species (e.g. in Rieley et al., 1994; Shepherd et al., 1997). 

At the other end of the spectrum are species-poor communities dominated by one or only a 

few species, for example, the Combretocarpus rotundatus dominated central domes in 

Sarawak described by Whitmore (1984), or degradation seres described by Giesen (1990) in 

South Kalimantan. Examples of species diversity in Southeast Asian peat swamp forests: 

Disturbed mixed peat swamp forest in South Kalimantan: 20 tree species (range 9- 

51); Shorea balangeran degraded peat swamp forest: 10 tree species (range 2-14), 

Combretocarpus rotundatus degraded peat swamp forest: 7 tree species (range 3-12); 

Giesen (1990). 

Giesen and van Balen (1991a) noted 103 species in a rapid survey of peat swamp 

forests on Pulau Padang, Riau, with tree species varying from 17 (padang or pole 

forest) to 37 (mixed peat swamp forest) along transects of 100m. Total species 

diversity ranged from 94 in the mixed peat swamp forest to 37 in the padang 

forest. 

1 

Apparently contradicting this is the fact that 28 palm species have been recorded in Berbak NP 

(Giesen, 1991), although most of these may occur in peripheral, swamp forest and riperian habitats. 



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

54 tree species (27 families) recorded in a 3.8 ha plot of primary peat swamp forest 

in Kuala Langat, Peninsular Malaysia (Shamsudin & Chong, 1992). 

95 tree species (35 families) recorded in a 4.5 ha plot at Sungai Karang, Peninsular 

Malaysia (Schilling, 1992, in Ibrahim, 1997). 

30 common tree species and 50 rarer tree species in 37 30x30 metre (=3.33 ha) plots 

in peat swamp forests of Brunei (Stoneman, 1997). 

132 tree species (39 families) recorded in a 5 ha plot of peat swamp forest in Pekan, 

Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia (Ibrahim, 1997), with the highest diversity being in 

the Lauraceae (14 species), followed by the Euphorbiaceae (13), Guttiferae (12), 

Rubiaceae (11) and Myristicaceae (9). 

130 tree species recorded in a variety of peat swamp forest habitats in the Sungai 

Sebangau region of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Shepherd et al., 1997). 

131 plant species in all were recorded at three peat swamp forest sites in Riau, 

Sumatra, ranging from 68-78 spp at each 2-8 ha site (Mogea & Mansur, 2000); there 

were five dominant species: Calophyllum soulattri, Campnosperma coriaceum, 

Gonystylus macrophyllus, Palaquium hexandrum, Shorea uliginosa. Herbs were 

dominated by Asplenium nidus, Crinum asiaticum, Gleichenia linearis, Lygodium sp., 

Nepenthese ampullaria, Nephrolepis biserrata, Nephrolepis exceltata and Scleria laevis. 

44 tree species were recorded by Purwaningsih and Yusuf (2000) on a 1.6 ha peat 

swamp forest site, 15-20 m asl, in Kluet, South Aceh, dominated by Gluta renghas, 

along with Shorea palembanica, Parinarium corymbosum, Sandoricum emarginatum, 

Garcinia celebica, Eugenia sexangulata, Horsfieldia crassifolia, Mangifera longipetiolata 

and Litsea gracilipes. 

Peat swamp forests are often regarded as being low in biodiversity. However, a full 20% of 

freshwater fish species found in Peninsular Malaysia are found in streams of this habitat, 

and this is thought to be mainly due to the occurrence of various microhabitats (Ahmad et 

al., 2002). Some fish species are unique to this habitat and can be regarded as threatened due 

habitat loss. Although much peat swamp forest has been lost to logging and fire, it remains 

the dominant habitat in most of the current range of the false gavial Tomistoma schlegelii, 

which is found only in Sumatra, Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia and is listed as Vulnerable 

on the IUCN Red Data List (Bezuijden et al., 2001). It is also the preferred habitat of the hairy 

nosed otter Lutra sumatrana, Storm’s stork Ciconia stormi, white-winged wood-duck Cairina 

scutulata, grey-headed fish-eagle Haliaeetus ichthyophaga, and the largest remaining habitat 

for Bornean populations of orangutan Pongo pygmaeus (Meijaard, 1997). 

Sumatran swamp forests 

The first studies on Sumatran peat swamp forests were carried out in the 1930s by the 

foresters van Bodegom (1929), Boon (1936) and Sewandono (1937, 1938), who mainly 

worked in what is now Riau province. Their papers record general observations on the 

ecology and management of logging concessions. Sewandono (1937) noted that forests 

decreased in stature when proceeding from the periphery towards the centre of a peat 

dome, with species such as dipterocarps and Palaquium decreasing and Calophyllum and 

Tristania increasing in abundance. He also noted that central areas of islands in the 

Bengkalis region were characterised by an abundance of Eugenia’s, Tristania, Calophyllum 

species, Tetramerista glabra, Campnosperma and Shorea species, with sedges dominating the 

undergrowth. Most of these latter areas had stunted trees, although (according to 

Sewandono, 1938) there did not appear to be a link with peat depth. 



The first detailed ecological study on Sumatran peat swamp forests is that by Silvius et al. 

(1984) in Berbak NP (then Berbak Game Reserve). This landmark study focused on a wide 

range of aspects of peat swamp and freshwater swamp ecology, including soils, vegetation 

and fauna (see 1.2.1). Detailed studies have been also carried out in peat swamps in Padang 

Sugihan NP in South Sumatra and Pulau Padang in Riau by Brady (1997), who mainly 

focused on peat development processes and models of peat accumulation. Some rapid 

ecological surveys were carried out in Sumatran peat swamp forests in 1990-91 by Giesen 

(1991) and Giesen and van Balen (1991a, 1991b). In their overview of peat swamp forest 

vegetation, Rieley and Achmad-Shah (1996) note that tree species common to all peat 

swamp forests are (in decreasing order of abundance) Garcinia spp., Shorea spp., Palaquium 

spp. and Campnosperma auriculata. 

1.1.2 RECENT HISTORY OF SE ASIAN PEAT SWAMP FORESTS 

General 

Although large tracts of peatland remain, peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia have been 

reduced to a fraction of their former area. Braatz et al. (1992) report that by 1990, 54.6% of all 

wetland and marsh ecosystem had been lost in the Indo-Malayan realm – much of this 

habitat formerly consisted of swamp forest. With most of the remaining peat swamp forests 

occurring in Indonesia and Malaysia, developments in these two countries is particularly 

pertinent to the conservation and sustainable use of these ecosystems. 

Of the 1.45 million hectares of peat swamp forest remaining in Malaysia, more than 80% 

occurs in Sarawak. Of the 200,000 hectares remaining in Peninsular Malaysia, more than 

160,000 hectares is found in Pahang state, mostly in one contiguous area. Recent 

developments (e.g. felling of former Virgin Jungle Reserves) have lead to the disappearance 

of some of the last remaining peat swamp forests in Selangor and Johore. 

Indonesian swamp forests 

Most of western Indonesia’s 2 swamp forests have not fared well during the past decades, 

and much has disappeared, either being converted for agriculture (esp. rice paddies) or tree 

crop estates (HTI, e.g. oil palm), or having been severely degraded and abandoned (e.g. 

large tracts of sedge-fern belukar). Many areas of deep peat were earmarked for conversion 

(inappropriately, according to Silvius & Giesen, 1996), which permitted clear-felling of vast 

tracts of land following a first round of selective logging (TPTI). The sale of timber and logs 

from clear-felled areas was usually more than sufficient for the following investment, for 

example, in plantation crops such as Acacia or oil palm, and subsequent failure of these 

ventures did not result in bankruptcy of the companies involved. The Forestry Department 

has just completed a round of evaluation of HTI estates and will cancel the concessions of 

those considered to be unviable. A large number are expected to be affected. 

2 Apart from Papua, where vast tracts still remain, eastern Indonesia has only a very limited area of 

swamp forest. 


FIGURE 1.1 

Peat swamp forests in 

Western Indonesia, 1988-90 

(based on Giesen, 1994). 


Production forests (HP, HPT) 3 in peat and freshwater swamp areas have on the whole not 

fared much better and have been poorly to very poorlymanaged by concession holders 

(HPHs). After a first round of selective logging by the HPH, these forests have usually been 

subjected to continued rounds of illegal logging, leading to severe degradation and often to 

(repeated) fires. Once an area is severely degraded, the HPHs often request a change of 

status of the area to that of HTI, after which the area is clear-felled and planted with estate 

crops. 

Ostensibly, large areas of swamp forest are protected in a number of reserves in Western 

Indonesia, for example Berbak NP (Jambi), Way Kambas NP (Lampung), Tanjung Putting 

NP (Central Kalimantan), and Danau Sentarum NP (West Kalimantan). On the whole, 

protection is limited and widespread poaching of timber resources is rampant in all 

reserves, all of which have also suffered from fires. This used to be a problem during the 

Suharto era, but has increased significantly since 1998, with the advent of decentralisation. 

According to the head of the Forestry Service (Dinas Kehutanan) in Jambi province, 

poaching of timber has increased six fold since 1998. 

Sumatran swamp forests 

According to Giesen (1993, 1994), peat swamp and freshwater swamp forests in Sumatra 

formerly covered an area of 92,865 km², but by 1982-3 only two-thirds (63,790 km² or 68.7%) 

remained. By 1988 this had decreased to 57,506 km² (61.9% of original area), of which only 

8,683 km² (9.3%) could be considered primary forest. Similar figures for Jambi show that of 

the original area of 8,813 km², only 2,604 could be considered primary forest by 1988, of 

which most occurred in and around what is now Berbak NP 4 . By 2003, most of the logging 

concession companies have discontinued operations as the resource has been depleted, and 

the logging industry is now largely the realm of rogue companies. Peat swamp forests – 

most of which had the status limited production forest (HPT) or peat protection forest 

(HLG) – have been severely degraded, converted (e.g. for pulp production), and have been 

the locus of widespread fires that have been common in lowland Sumatra since the mid- 

1990s. 

Ha (x1000) 

12000 

10000 

8000 

6000 

4000 

2000 

0 

Java 

Sumatra 

Kalimantan 

primary remaining 

degraded 

gone 

3 HP = Hutan Produksi or (normal) production forest; HPT = Hutan Produksi Terbatas or limited 

production forest ; most peat swamp forest is included in the HPT category. 

4 At the time Berbak’s status was that of Wildlife Reserve. 



In 1993, 187,050 hectares of undisturbed peat and freshwater swamp forest had been 

incorporated into the Indonesian Protected Area system, of which 80% occurred in Berbak. 

(Giesen, 1993; Silvius & Giesen, 1996). A further 433,000 hectares of former peat swamp 

forest and freshwater swamp forest were located in gazetted reserves, but much had already 

been degraded or disappeared altogether. By 1993, only 10% of the former peat and 

freshwater swamp forests occurred in Kurumutan Baru Nature Reserve (Riau), while that of 

Padang Sugihan Wildlife Reserve (South Sumatra) and Giam-Siak Kecil Wildlife Reserve 

(Riau) had disappeared altogether. 

By 1993, only 2% of Sumatra’s former peat and freshwater swamp forests was gazetted in 

Protected Areas and remained in a good condition. As noted above, illegal logging has 

increased significantly (reportedly six fold) since 1998, and as a result it is expected that very 

little intact swamp forest remains outside the Berbak NP area, and even that has been 

affected (see below). Since the early 1990s, widespread wildfires have added a new 

dimension to peat swamp management, and according to Tacconi (2003), a total of 308,000 

hectares of peat swamp and freshwater swamp forest burnt in Sumatra alone during the 

1997-98 fires. 

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO BERBAK NP 

1.2.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURAL CONDITIONS OF THE PARK 

The following description is mainly derived from Silvius et al. (1984), with some additions from 

Giesen (1991), or based on the current study. 

Berbak NP is located in the coastal zone of Jambi Province, Sumatra, and extends over an 

area of approximately 185,000 hectares (Figure 1.2). Berbak forms part of the vast alluvial 

coastal plain of eastern Sumatra, that is assumed to have formed about 5,000 years BP. 

Evidence indicates that sea levels have dropped about two metres during the past 5,000 

years, with sediments – mainly supplied by the Batanghari River – accumulating along the 

accreting coastline. On the highly weathered sediments, peat has formed, with an average 

age of about 4,500 years, and in some areas with a depth of more than 20 metres (Scholtz, 

1983). Berbak is very flat, and at no point is the elevation more than about 15 metres. 

Berbak is mainly drained by the Air Hitam Laut River system and its main tributaries the 

Simpang Kubu and the Simpang Melaka, which lie almost entirely within the park. These 

are blackwater systems, draining peat domes, that have a pH of 3.5-3.9 and are naturally 

oligotrophic. The Benuh River, which forms the southern boundary of the park, also drains 

peat dome areas and is similar to the aforementioned rivers. The Air Hitam Dalam River to 

the northwest differs from the other rivers in the park as it also receives floodwaters 5 from 

the Batanghari River that are markedly richer in silt and nutrients. 

Until the mid-1980s, Berbak mainly consists of two habitat types – freshwater swamp forest 

and peat swamp forest – that extend over 60,000 hectares (32% of the park) and 110,000 

5 

On 15-16 October 2003, Batanghari River waters were observed to be flowing into the Air Hitam Dalam 

River; these waters were coloured a milky brown, unlike the tannin/tea coloured waters of the Air 

Hitam Laut River. 



hectares (59%), respectively. Other habitats included riverine (

1.2.2 


At least 227 bird species have been recorded at Berbak, including nine hornbill species, and 

rare species such as milky stork Mycteria cinerea, white-winged wood-duck Cairina scutulata, 

and Storm’s stork Ciconia stormi. Mammals recorded at Berbak include Sumatran rhino 

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Malay tapir Tapirus indicus, Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris and sun 

bear Helarctos malayanus. Reptiles include the rare river terrapin Batagur baska, and two 

crocodilians, false gavial Tomistoma schlegli and estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus. 

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PARK 

Berbak was first gazetted as a protected area in 1935, when it was proclaimed a 

‘wildreservaat’ (i.e. game reserve) by a decree by the Governor General of the Netherlands- 

Indies on 29 October 1935. The (then) Indonesian Directorate General of Forest Protection 

and Nature Conservation (PHPA) 7 began management activities in Jambi in 1972, and 

boundary demarcation of Berbak was completed by 1974. Nevertheless, there were still 

some areas of dispute at the time, including overlap with logging concessions and 

encroachment by Buginese settlers along the coast. Management at provincial level by 

PHPA is carried out via KSDA (Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam, or the Natural resource 

Management office), that established a reserve headquarters in Nipah Panjang in 1975, and 

field offices (‘resorts’) at Air Hitam Laut (1975), Air Hitam Dalam, Sungai Benuh and 

Simpang Datuk (all 1983; see Figure 1.2). Apart from these four resorts, a network of guard 

posts (pos jaga) were also established, notably at Simpang Melaka and Simpang Kanan. 

A first management plan was developed in 1991-1992 for Berbak Game Reserve as part of 

the Sumatra Wetlands Project, executed jointly by PHPA and the Asian Wetland Bureau. It 

was recognised as Indonesia’s first Ramsar wetland of international importance, on 8 April 

1992, and was the target of several management-oriented projects in the mid-1990s (mainly 

focusing on sustainable bufferzone development). Under the new ministerial decree on 

forestry (No. 185/Kpts-II/1997) dated 31 March 1997, Berbak’s status was upgraded to that 

of national park, and management handed over from KSDA to the Provincial National Park 

Unit (Taman Nasional) section of the Forestry Department in 1998. Taman Nasional have 

maintained the infrastructure established by KSDA, expanding this with several boats and 

replacing 90% of former reserve staff. 

7 PHPA is now the Directorate General of Nature Protection and Conservation (NPC) 


FIGURE 1.2 

Map of Berbak NP, adapted 

from Silvius et al., 1984. 



2.1 

TABLE 2.1 

Monthly rainfall figures 

recorded at Kenten, 

Palembang 


2Assessment of present 

condition of Berbak NP 

CHAPTER 

CONDITION OF BERBAK NP AS REPORTED BY OTHERS 

Management Plan for Berbak NP 

Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme produced a management plan for Berbak 

NP (WI-IP, 2000). This plan includes sections on degradation of the park due to fires, and 

refers to two major fires in Berbak NP in the 1990s, namely in 1994 and 1997. It goes on to 

state that these forest fires took place during a prolonged dry season related to the El-Niño 

phenomenon (Table 2.1). Surveys were carried out in 1998 in order to assess impacts, 

concluding that an estimated 18,000 ha (or about 11% of the park) of peat swamp forest 

burnt during the 1997 fires in three isolated locations inside the park. 

YEAR 

JAN FEB MAR APR 

Monthly Total (mm) 

MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 

1996 244 292 304 231 53 271 173 99 126 303 314 294 

1997 139 292 319 336 215 65 6 4 0 6 124 330 

1998 207 165 402 282 177 137 181 119 213 137 310 390 

48 year 

average 

(1951-98) 

240 247 322 283 181 136 125 113 143 197 303 331 

Source: Anderson et al. (1999) 

Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project 

Anderson and Bowen (2000) recognise seven major fire zones in Sumatra, of which one – the 

Batanghari River Wetlands and Berbak NP – encompasses the Air Hitam Laut peatlands. 

Around 17,000 ha or about 10% of the park was destroyed by fires in 1997. The grassland 

nucleus caused by the 1997 fires coupled with the boundary felling and illegal logging has 

opened up the whole park to destruction by fire in the next El Niño year. Based on imagery 

from September 2000. at least 10% of the Park has been damaged by fire. 


FIGURE 2.1 

AREAS BURNT IN THE 1997- 

1998 EL NIÑO YEAR 


Conservation Information Forum (WARSI) Indonesia 

According to the Indonesian Conservation information Forum (WARSI; www.warsi.or.id), 

3,406 hectares had been cleared and burned to the north of Berbak NP by the 1 st of May 1998, 

after the 1997 El Niño. At the same time, two large fires had significantly affected the core of 

the park: one extending over 12,669 hectares along both sides of the Air Hitam Laut, 

upstream of the Simpang Kubu, the second covering 4,133 hectares on both banks of the 

Simpang Melaka River (see Figure 2.1, adapted from the WARSI website). 

 

 

 

 

30 May 1997 

(adapted from the WARSI website; www.warsi.or.id) 

Assessment by Wetlands International 

 

1 May 1998 

Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme carried out a DGIS 8 

-funded study on the 

burnt areas in 2002 (WI-IP, 2002). According to the report on this study, “fire has changed 

the properties of the peat swamp forest ecosystem in Berbak. Closed canopy of tall trees 

with lower vegetation on the forest floor has been replaced by a mosaic of open patches of 

burnt stands dominated by pioneer species consisting of grass and shrubs. Regeneration of 

pioneer species has been detected by the emergence of several typical pioneer species in 

peat swamp forest such as the occurrence of Macaranga. Repeated and frequent fire events 

will eventually alter the ecosystem in the direction of a grass swamp ecosystem or open 

secondary swamp forest.” It goes on to describe the large, central burnt area along the Air 

Hitam Laut, which “ was estimated at around 12,000 ha. It was reported that during the 

rainy season it was covered by water which made it look like a large open lake, and that 

during the dry season some fire resistant plant species with a height of almost 4 metres 

(locally known as “mahang”; = Macaranga) appeared.” According to Lubis (2002), of the 

294,314 ha of peatland in Berbak and the surrounding area (i.e. the bufferzone), 211,024 of 

peat swamp forest is still left, representing a loss of about 28%. 

8 Netherlands Directorate General of Foreign Aid. 



2.2 ASSESSMENT OF CONDITION OF BERBAK NP BASED ON SATELLITE IMAGERY 

FIGURE 2.2 

Satellite images of Berbak 

NP, showing changes from 

1983-2002. 

In order to assess development within and around Berbak over the past two decades, a time 

series of Landsat satellite images from 1983-2002 were obtained from the Landsat website 

(http//www.landsat.org) as quick looks, and as processed images from CIFOR in Bogor. 

These were assessed for changes in land use/land cover in and around Berbak NP. From 

these, the following emerges (see Figure 2.2). 

Images Date & notes 

16 April 1983 (fig. 2.2a) 

Clouds obscure much, but 

one may conclude that 

Berbak NP appears to be 

(largely) intact. 

9 June 1989 (fig. 2.2b) 

The large central part of 

Berbak NP along the Air 

Hitam Laut has a paler 

appearance, indicating a 

difference compared to 

adjacent areas (darker 

green) and possible 

disturbance (see Figure 

2.3) 



16 May 1992 (fig. 2.2c) 

Apparent are some small 

fires (red) along the Air 

Hitam Laut, upstream of 

the large area burnt in 

1997/1998, but well 

within the park. The 

image is too unclear to 

conclusively assess 

disturbance along the 

central AHL area. 

18 August 1997 (fig. 

2.2d) 

This image was taken just 

before the major 1997 El 

Niño fires, which started 

in September. Note along 

AHL: small fires (red), 

pale green vegetation 

(possibly indicating 

secondary vegetation 

and/or clearing); and a 

rectangle of clear-felling 

at Simpang Kubu. For 

detail of latter see fig. 2.4. 



1 May 1998 (fig. 2.2e) 

Widespread fire damage 

is visible on the 1998 

image (red), showing that 

a large central area along 

AHL has burnt again in 

1998, along with smaller 

patches along the 

upstream section of AHL, 

a large area along the 

Simpang Melaka, the 

upper part of the Air 

Hitam Dalam, and the 

downstream part of AHL 

close to AHL village. 

Black line indicates 

approximate boundary of 

Berbak NP. 

1 September 1999 

(fig. 2.2f) 

By 1999, secondary 

vegetation had developed 

on most of the large burnt 

areas in Berbak (pale 

green), but new fires (red) 

had again affected 10-30% 

of the disturbed areas 

along the AHL and 

Simpang Melaka. Note 

the ongoing fire at Sungai 

Aur (N. of Batanghari). 



8 August 2002 (fig. 2.2g) 

Although the image is 

somewhat obscured by 

clouds, the same pattern 

as in 1999 emerges, with 

some central areas in 

Berbak being subjected to 

recent (2002) burning 

(red), and the rest covered 

with secondary vegetation 

(pale green). 

It would appear that between 1983 and August 1997 (fig.’s 2.2a and 2.2d), significant 

disturbances occurred within the park, leading up to the highly destructive fires of 

September 1997, and again in 1998. The 1989 image (fig. 2.2b) already shows what appears 

to be a paler vegetation, but this is not visible on the 1992 image (fig. 2.2c), which is less 

clear. An enlarged black-and-white detail of the 1992 image (16 May) adapted from 

www.eelaart.com is provided in Figure 2.3. This image – on which the approximate area 

burnt in 1997 is indicated by means of a thick black line – clearly shows that the area that 

was later burnt had a finer grained vegetation, indicating smaller canopy size, than the 

surrounding vegetation. It also shows some open areas directly along the AHL, and used 

logging trails to the west of the AHL. 

Most peat swamps have evidence of concentric forest zones, of which the innermost in 

extreme cases comprise stunted trees commonly of markedly xeromorphic aspect 

(Whitmore, 1984). Sewandono (1938) discovered a similar phenomenon when studying the 

peat swamps of Bengkalis Island, off the coast of Riau. He found that when heading inland 

from the coast, the cover of herbaceous terrestrial species and small palms increased, 

including species such as Zingiberaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae, Eleiodoxa (Salacca) conferta, 

Licuala, some rattans, Cyrtostachys lakka and Pandanus. Where trees had been felled there was 

an abundance of Cyperaceae and ferns. In the middle of the islands he discovered many 

dead and dying trees, that were often diminutive in size, and a dense undergrowth mainly 

consisting of sedges. Sewandono recorded no evidence of fires, nor did the phenomenon 

appear to be linked with increasing peat depth. Since then, studies have indicated that 

extreme nutrient deficiency in central parts of ombrogenous peat domes can lead to such 

patterns (Whitmore, 1984). However, as this central part of the AHL straddles the river 

system this seems an unlikely explanation, and a more logical explanation for the observed 

pattern is that illegal logging had degraded the central AHL forests already by 1992, and 

that logs were being transported out of the National Park via the logging trail. 


FIGURE 2.3 

Disturbances along the 

central Air Hitam Laut, 

16 May 1992. 

FIGURE 2.4 

Disturbances along central 

Air Hitam Laut area, 

18 August 1997. 


The image dating from 18 August 1997 (fig. 2.2d) – taken just before the catastrophic fires, 

shows some signs of disturbance that may have been the direct cause. An enlargement of 

this image (fig.2.4) shows that some smaller fires had already occurred along the Air Hitam 

Laut between Simpang “T” and Simpang Kubu, and that a rectangle of 120-150 hectares had 

been cleared at Simpang Kubu. These are clear signs of disturbance and human activities in 

the park’s core area, and are likely to be directly responsible for the occurrence of the 

catastrophic fires. The cleared rectangle is already showing signs of revegetation (most of it 

is pale green in colour), and this may have been cleared 1-2 seasons before August 1997. 



2.3 FIELDWORK AND OBSERVATIONS OF STATE OF HABITATS AT BERBAK NP 

2.3.1 FIELDWORK METHODOLOGY 

Fieldwork was carried out in and around Berbak NP in October (see attached itinerary, 

Appendix 1 and Figure 2.5), entering the Park from the following three main access routes: 

western side, via the logging trail of PT Putra Duta Indah Wood along the Air 

Hitam Laut River up to where it is completely blocked by bakung (Hanguana 

malayana) at Simpang “T” (from 4-8 October); 

 

 

eastern side, via the coast and up the Air Hitam Laut up to where it is completely 

blocked by bakung (Hanguana malayana) and rasau (Pandanus helicopus) just 

downstream of Simpang Kubu; also up the Simpang Melaka River to where it is 

blocked by a similar vegetation (from 10-14 October); and 

north-western side, up the Air Hitam Dalam, to the areas that have been burnt in 

1991, 1994 and 1997/8 (from 16-17 October). 

In all three areas, known burnt sites (as previously identified on the satellite images) were 

visited, and rapid surveys were conducted at each site. This involved recording the soil 

type, indications of (recent) flooding (e.g. depth), total vegetation cover, total tree cover, 

plus a record of all macrophytic plant species found at the site with an indication of 

abundance (+=present; ++= common; +++=dominant). For comparison, rapid surveys were 

also conducted in riparian/swamp forest vegetation. Plant species not immediately 

recognised were photographed and a herbarium specimen collected (72 specimens in all, 

some in duplicate). Specimens were later dried at the laboratory of the Hydrology 

Department of the University of Jambi, and taken to Bogor for identification. For the latter, 

use was made of the Flora Malesiana (esp. for Anacardiaceae, Brackenridgea, 

Lentibulariaceae, Nepenthes, Scleria spp.), Whitmore and Tantra (1986, for local tree names), 

Piggott (1988, for Gleichenia and Nephrolepis), Giesen (1992, esp. for grasses and sedges) and 

Whitmore (1973, for palms) for the identification of a number of key species. The remainder 

(52 specimens) were submitted to the Herbarium Bogoriense for identification. 

A record was also kept of bird species observed at each site, as it was hypothesized that they 

might play a role in seed dispersal. Bird species were identified using Binolyt 10x28 DCF 

waterproof binoculars, and referring to MacKinnon and Phillipps (1993). A photographic 

record was made of each field trip, especially of the regenerating burnt areas and of key 

plant species, and a CD with 372 digital photographs was provided to the head of Berbak 

NP (Mr. Istanto), the project’s coordinator in Jambi (Mr. Iwan Tricahyo Wibisono) and 

Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme (Mr. Nyoman Suryadiputra). Unfortunately, 

exact locations (latlongs) of each site surveyed could not be provided due to malfunctioning 

of the consultant’s GPS from the first day onward. However, as most burnt areas are easily 

identifiable on recent satellite images, these sites can be indicated with an acceptable degree 

of accuracy. 


FIGURE 2.5 

Survey route and 

relevee sites 



2.3.2 FIELDWORK RESULTS 

FIGURE 2.6 

Plant species diversity in 

various habitats and 

locations 


Survey results are summarised in the following four tables: 

Site survey results (Annex 2) 

Summary of site characteristics (Annex 3) 

Bird observations (Annex 4) 

Species common in burnt areas (Annex 5), 

– while a ToR for the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist is provided in Annex 6, and a 

photographic summary – especially covering the survey sites and key species – is provided 

in Annex 7. 

In all, 142 plant species belonging to 57 families and representing 119 genera were identified 

during the rapid surveys (Annex 3). On average, 18.6 species were identified per site 

surveyed, varying from only 2 species (site 1; a repeatedly burnt site) on the upper AHL, to 

68 species (site 19, riparian) on the Air Hitam Dalam. It must be noted, however, that the 

number of species recorded at site 8, and to a lesser extent at site 9, were not exhaustive but 

indicative. On the whole, there is little difference in species diversity between burnt sites 

and riparian vegetation in the Air Hitam Laut and Simpang Melaka area, while in the Air 

Hitam Dalam area riparian vegetation is about twice as biodiverse (Figure 2.6). There is a 

marked difference in diversity between Air Hitam Laut and Simpang Melaka on the one 

side, and Air Hitam Dalam on the other side, and the latter is 2-4 times as diverse, 

depending on the condition of the site. 

average no. of species 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

burnt 

AHL 

riparian 

AHL 

burnt 

SM 

riparian 

SM 

burnt 

AHD 

riparian 

AHD 

AHL = Air Hitam Laut; AHD = Air Hitam Dalam; SM = Simpang Melaka 

A total of 87 plant species were recorded at the burnt sites (see Annex 2), of which 26 species 

can be considered common in these areas (i.e. occurring at more than two sites; see Annex 

5). These include 11 tree species, 6 climbers, 3 ferns, 3 sedges 2 palms and 2 grasses, listed 

below in Table 2.2. Burnt areas are often characterised by a prolific growth of a limited 

number of species. In the upstream Air Hitam Laut area and along the Simpang Melaka, 


TABLE 2.2 

Plant species common in 

burnt areas 


most sites are dominated by the ferns Stenochlaena palustis and Blechnum indicum, often 

accompanied by sedges Thoracostachyum bancanum, T. sumatranum and Scleria purpurescens 

and Pandanus helicopus. In the downstream section of the large burnt area along the Air 

Hitam Laut, near Simpang Kubu, secondary vegetation is dominated by Macaranga and 

palms (esp. Licuala). Burnt areas along the Air Hitam Dalam are characterised by the 

presence of many saplings, and dense thickets of bamboo and Zingiberaceae. Figs (Ficus 

spp.) are a common feature in many burnt area, although not always the same species are 

involved, and they may be present as either climbers (often starting as epiphytes) or small 

trees. 

No. Habit Species 

1 Trees a. Alstonia pneumatophora 

b. Combretocarpus rotundatus 

c. Diospyros siamang 

d. Elaeocarpus petiolatus 

e. Eugenia spicata 

f. Ficus spp. 

g. Macaranga pruinosa 

h. Mallotus muticus 

(Coccoceras borneense) 

i. Neolamarckia cadamba 

(Anthocephalus indicus) 

j. Pandanus helicopus 

k. Syzygium (Eugenia) cerina 

2 Shrubs a. Gigantochloa sp. 

b. Melastoma malabathricum 

3 Climbers a. Ficus spp. 

b. Flagellaria indica 

c. Lygodium microphyllum 

d. Morinda philippensis 

e. Stenochlaena palustris 

f. Uncaria glabrata 

4 Palms a. Licuala paludosa 

b. Pholidocarpus sumatranus 

5 Sedges a. Scleria purpurescens 

b. Thoracostachyum bancanum 

c. Thoracostachyum sumatranum 

6 Grasses a. Hymenachne acutigluma 

b. Paspalum conjugatum 

7 Ferns a. Blechnum indicum 

b. Lygodium microphyllum* 

c. Stenochlaena palustris* 

* Note that these two climbing ferns appear twice in this list. 

The burnt areas varied widely in terms of total vegetation cover and tree cover (Annex 3). At 

some sites of repeated burning (sites 3, 7, 10) the total vegetation cover was very low, and 

not more than about 5-10 %. These same sites also had virtually no tree cover (all

FIGURE 2.7 

Bird feeding behaviour in 

burnt areas 

FIGURE 2.8 

Bird feeding behaviour in all 

habitats combined 


all, though, total vegetation cover in the burnt sites averaged at 67%, while that of riparian 

habitats, primary peat swamp and selectively logged peat swamp was close to 100%. Tree 

cover in the non-burnt sites varied from 1-10% in the riparian habitats, and was 90-100% in 

the primary and selectively logged peat swamp sites. Most trees found in the burnt areas 

appeared to be newly established (esp. Alstonia and Macaranga), but it was also observed 

that Mallotus (Coccoceras), Combretocarpus and Eugenia species were resprouting from 

previously established and partly charred trunks. Although most of the Alstonia specimens 

seen appeared to have established from seed stock, it was observed that this species is also 

capable of resprouting from fire-damaged trunks. Both of the palm species found in burnt 

areas – Licuala paludosa and Pholidocarpus sumatranus – appear able to withstand fires, and 

especially large specimens of Pholidocarpus were observed remaining in several former peat 

swamp areas now virtually devoid of tree cover due to (repeated) fires. 

Annex 4 (bird observations) lists 45 species observed during field surveys. Of these 45 

species, almost half (20 species) were observed in the burnt areas. Species found in the burnt 

areas are predominantly invertebrate (esp. insect) and fish feeders, which together comprise 

more than three-quarter of the species encountered (Figure 2.7). This is not vastly dissimilar 

to the pattern for all habitats combined (Figure 2.8). 

Burnt areas 

fish/amphibians 

invertebrates 

fruit/seeds 

other 

All habitats 

fish/amphibians 

invertebrates 

fruit/seeds 

other 



2.3.3 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS DURING FIELDWORK 

Floristics 

As already indicated by Giesen (1991), a comparison of the three main rivers in the area – 

Air Hitam Laut (AHL), Air Hitam Dalam (AHD) and Simpang Melaka (SM) – shows a 

significant difference between the AHL and SM on the one hand, and the AHD on the other 

hand. The AHL and SM are dominated by dense groves of Pandanus helicopus, often together 

with Hanguana malayana and a variety of Myrtaceae. River transport is often blocked by 

Pandanus and Hanguana, that in some areas may form impenetrable barriers (e.g. between 

Simpang Kubu and Simpang “T”). Conspicuously absent along the AHL and SM are typical 

near coastal riparian species such as Cerbera odollam, Fagraea crenulata, Ficus microcarpa, 

Flacourtia rukam, Gluta renghas, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Kleinhovia hospita, Lagerstroemia speciosa and 

Pometia pinnata, all of which are found along the AHD. On the whole, the AHD is vastly 

richer in terms number of species found than either the AHL or SM. 

Changes since 1990 

During surveys conducted by the consultant in December 1990 (Giesen, 1991) along the Air 

Hitam Dalam, lower Air Hitam Laut and Simpang Melaka, there was little sign of tree 

felling along the last two rivers, but evidence of significant tree felling going on along the 

Air Hitam Dalam. At the same time, there was no evidence of burning or wildfires occurring 

or having occurred in the area. This has taken a dramatic turn for the worse since then, 

however, as there is evidence for illegal logging in almost all areas (see below), and there are 

vast tracts of former forest that have been burnt during the past decade (see 2.1 and 2.2). 

Illegal logging 

Illegal logging appears to be nothing short of rampant throughout the Park. On the upper 

section of the Air Hitam Laut river, 8 pondok camps were observed on 6-7 October between 

PDIW’s Kem Pembinaan and the border of Berbak NP, while a further 26 camps were 

observed in the Park, between the border and Simpang “T” (located in the centre of the large 

burnt area on the AHL). Some camps have only one pondok, while some have as many as six 

or seven. Most of these camps are used for illegal logging activities, although they are also 

used by fisherfolk and jelutung collectors. An exception are the three camps in the burnt area 

(e.g. near Simpang Raket and Simpang “T”) that are used only by fisherfolk now that forests 

have disappeared over a vast area since the 1997 fires. Sawn timber of kempas Koompassia 

malaccensis, meranti Shorea spp., ramin Gonystylus bancanua and punak Tetramerista glabra was 

observed along the river, in camps, and being loaded from the AHL onto lorries on PDIWs 

rail system, which is the main outlet of timber and logs being poached from the western side 

of Berbak NP. According to Mr. Istanto (Head of Berbak NP in Jambi), a major drive was last 

undertaken against illegal logging from the western part of the NP in 2001, but the persons 

involved reacted violently and were well-armed (with rifles and parang), attacking staff and 

burning down PDIW’s Kem Pembinaan. 

Similarly, timber poaching was also observed on 16-17 October along the Air Hitam Dalam, 

with two rafts of timber (one consisting of sawn meranti, the other consisting of ramin) lying 

ready for transport out of the Park. The forests along the AHD have a very open canopy, 

and everywhere there are signs of entry into the forest (trails, slip marks, some sawn 

remains of timber). Large pompongs (e.g. from Sungai Rambut) were observed to readily 

enter the Park via the new gate. The sawn timber was later observed to be transferred from 



pompongs to Buginese vessels waiting for cargo on the Batanghari River, not far upstream 

from AHD and Sungai Rambut. 

There were few signs of poaching of timber along the lower course of the Air Hitam Laut, 

apart from some trees having been felled near the Pos Jaga (guardpost) at Simpang Melaka. 

However, as there are numerous canals entering into the swamp forest from the coast, there 

is no direct need for poachers to use the AHL as a conduit for poached timber. Recent 

satellite images (e.g. Landsat TM image of 18 September 2002) clearly show signs of 

thinning of the forests between Air Hitam Laut village and the burnt areas along the 

Simpang Melaka and central AHL (see Figure 2.2). 

Evidence of logging in burnt areas? 

No sign of logging was found in the surveyed burnt areas, but this absence of evidence does 

not mean evidence of absence, as such signs can easily be obscured by the large amounts of 

unburnt fuel and prolific growth of secondary vegetation, especially of ferns and shrubs. 

Also, moving around in such areas is difficult to very difficult, as large amounts of fallen 

tree trunks, often completely overgrown by ferns, provide a significant obstacle to any kind 

of movement. 

Large burnt area near Simpang “T” 

As indicated in 2.2 and Figure 2.3, the large burnt area along the AHL appeared to have a 

different vegetation (notably smaller canopy size) than surrounding areas already well in 

advance of the 1997-1998 fires. Soil at Simpang “T” was found to consist primarily of clay, 

with some (shallow?) peat. In addition to regrowth of secondary vegetation, quite a number 

of dead trees remained standing at Simpang ‘T’ (see Photo 12, Annex 7). These appear to be 

small and straight, supporting satellite image evidence that trees in this area were small in 

stature. 


3.1 


3Cause(s) of peat 

swamp forest degradation in 

Berbak NP 

CHAPTER 

ASSESSMENTS BY OTHERS 

3.1.1 GENERAL ASSESSMENTS 

Swamp forests in general in Southeast Asia 

According to Van Steenis (1957), “Fire is one of the greatest enemies of the swamp forest, as 

during exceptionally dry years – which occur regularly about every 5 years in the everwet parts of Malaysia – this types of forest is definitely inflammable 

and is attacked by fishermen. … There is no doubt that the extensive open spaces now 

occupied by the floating grass-mats in the lake districts of Borneo were once swamp forest 

areas.” Fire has sometimes a distinctly selective effect in swamp forests, leading to 

gregarious stands of fire-resistant species.” 

Greater Berbak-Sembilang Integrated Coastal Wetland Conservation Project 

According to Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme (2001), the main threats in the 

Berbak NP area are: 

Forest fires, caused by: 

o Transmigrants excavating drainage canals and lowering water tables. 

o Logging, leading to degradation of the PSF. 

o Small fires (e.g. for cooking) getting out of control. 

o Fishermen clearing sites for fishing. 

o Farmers preparing sites for cultivation, and fires used getting out of 

control. 

Illegal logging. Mainly in the logging concessions outside the proposed national park. 

Unsustainable use of resources, especially jelutung (in Sungai Merang area in South 

Sumatra), and nipa leaves (in the Sungai Bungin area). 

Poaching. Mainly of crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus and Tomistoma schlegelii), 

monitor lizards (esp. Varanus salvator), snakes (Elephant-trunk snake Acrochordus 

javanicus, Sunbeam snake Xenopeltis unicolor, Reticulated python Python reticulatus) 

and the occasional stork (Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea, Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos 

javanicus). 

Land conversion. 



 

 

 

Unclear boundaries. 

Insufficient patrol system and law enforcement. 

Use of cyanide for fishing. 

Management Plan for Berbak NP 

The Management Plan produced for Berbak NP by Wetlands International – Indonesia 

Programme (WI-IP, 2000), reports that the fires of 1994 and during a prolonged dry season, 

related to the El-Niño phenomenon, and that jelutung and wood poachers – some from the 

Sembilang area – were responsible for initiating these and other remote fires. The plan also 

identifies ‘local communities’ and immigrants as being the cause of these problems. 

Fire Assessment by Wetlands International 

Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme carried out a DGIS 9 

-funded study on the 

burnt areas in 2002 (WI-IP, 2002). Regarding causes, the report adheres to conclusions 

drawn by others (on various fire-related projects in the province), listing an array of possible 

culprits such as farmers, plantation estates, ‘cigarettes and camp fires’ of illegal loggers and 

fishermen, or wildlife poachers burning the forest to flush out the animals they wanted to 

catch. 

Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project 

Anderson and Bowen (2000) recognise seven major fire zones in Sumatra, of which one – the 

Batanghari River Wetlands and Berbak NP – encompasses the Air Hitam Laut peatlands. 

According to these authors, the sequence of events that led to the formation of this fire zone 

are as follows: 

Logging concessions to the west of the Berbak NP and spontaneous Bugis settlers 

along the coast and rivers to the east heavily damaged considerable areas of 

swamp forest. The destruction was both direct by over-intensive cutting and 

indirect by the digging of canals to float the logs out. 

Extensive illegal cutting, again with canalisation, began outside and now extends 

somewhat within the National Park. 

Around 17,000 ha or about 10% of the park was destroyed by fires in 1997. 

According to Anderson and Bowen, how and why the fires were lit is not know. 

The grassland nucleus caused by the 1997 fires coupled with the boundary felling 

and illegal logging has opened up the whole park to destruction by fire in the next 

El Niño year. 

Based on imagery from September 2000: at least 10% of the Park has been damaged 

by fire. Reports of widespread illegal logging of ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) in the 

Park. 

Project Inception Workshop 

According to the participants of the project planning workshop held in Jambi on 21-22 May 

2003 (Klaas & Gevers, 2003), : 

Illegal logging in Berbak NP particularly targets species such as jelutung, ramin and 

kempas. 

Logging is mainly carried out by outsiders from South Sumatra province, using 

chainsaws provided by local cukong. 

9 Netherlands Directorate General of Foreign Aid. 



 

3.1.2 HOTSPOT ANALYSES 

3.2 

Illegally logged trees are usually transported via hand-made canals, particularly in 

the Labuhan Pering village area where these canals 10 

were first constructed in 1972 

by YAPENTA, to support economic activities and to be used to transport 

agricultural products or as irrigation canal. In 1998 the canals were extended by 

another 3.5 kilometres 11 

and then primarily used to transport logs and timber 

poached from Berbak NP. These new canals were developed by cukong consisting 

of former and still active government officials, such as AIRUD and sectors of the 

police department. Villages involved are Telaga Lima, Labuan Pering, Air Hitam 

Laut, Pematang Raman, Sungai Kapas, Sungai Aur And Sungai Cemara. 

Hotspots prior to and during the 1997 fires 

Anderson et al. (1999) provide an overview of hotspots in Sumatra from 1996-1998, and 

these maps indicate the existence of the following hotspots 

between January 1996 – January 1999: 

in and around Berbak NP 

October 1996: northeast Berbak NP, on coast 

December 1996: PDIW area, near Kem Pembinaan. 

July 1997: on coast: AHL village 

August 1997: many areas, throughout most of PDIW, central AHL, northern central 

area, AHL village area, S. Benuh 

September 1997: same as in August, but fewer hotspots 

May 1998: AHL village 

Recent hotspots 

30 September 2003 had the greatest number of hotspots so far this year – 428 hotspots, of 

which 21 within Berbak NP, and 4 at PT Putra Duta Indah Wood (pers. comm., Messrs. 

Kiswanto and Soeparman 12 ). Up to that date there had only been 11 hotspots in the Park 

during the previous 9 months. On the map seen at their office, it could be observed that the 

hotspots in the Park are located mainly in a cluster along the north-western border, to the 

mid-west, along the upper Air Hitam Laut, and near Sungai Benuh. By the 2 nd 

of October 

2003 it had rained, and all hotspots in the Park had disappeared. 

ASSESSMENT BASED ON PRESENT FIELD OBSERVATIONS 

A wide variety of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are harvested in Berbak NP, 

including jelutung, honey, fruit and rattan. Also, the area has long been populated by 

fisherfolk that mainly target large species such as Wallago catfish and snakeheads Channa 

species. These are kept in cages and sold as fresh fish to traders. Turtles – especially Orlitia 

bornense – are also caught and sold to Chinese traders. Although these activities add to a 

general disturbance in the park, lead to the decline or disappearance of certain species, and 

their presence may be the direct cause of accidental fires, harvesters of NTFPs and fisherfolk 

are not considered to be the main threat to the integrity of the park. 

10 

2.5 km long, 3 metres wide and 70 cm deep. 

11 

150 cm wide and 50 cm deep. 

12 

Ir. Joko Fajar Kiswanto (Coordinator) & Mr. O. Soeparman (technical head), Pusat Pengendalian 

Kebakaran Hutan dan Lahan (PUSDALKARHUTLA), 3 October 2003. 



The clearing observed on the satellite image of 18 August 1997 (Figure 2.4) remains 

puzzling. Being a clear rectangle of 120-150 hectares it has obviously been cleared by human 

hands – but for which reason? The area is too large for helicopter landing pads (these are 

usually 1-2 ha) or even a temporary oil industry field camp (the national oil company 

Pertamina has carried out exploratory activities in the area). Also, the area is seasonally 

deeply flooded and has absolutely no potential for agriculture. Staff of KSDA formerly 

based at Berbak when this was still a Wildlife Reserve reported that a few hectares were 

cleared at Simpang Kubu for shifting cultivation (ladang), but that the person involved was 

apprehended on time after only a few hectares had been cleared, and forced to leave the 

area. Although the time appears about correct (these staff report the mid-1990s for this 

event), a ’few hectares’ is not consistent with an area of 120-150 hectares. 

Although some fires spread into the park from adjacent agricultural land (esp. in the 

northern part of the park, and along the coast), most of the major fires at Berbak NP do not 

appear to have been caused by farmers. This is especially the case for the large, central burnt 

area along the Air Hitam Laut, and perhaps also holds for the fires at Simpang Melaka and 

to the south near the Benuh River. 

The most significant threat by far is posed by illegal logging activities in the National Park, 

which are rampant, of a very significant scale, and present in most parts of the park. From 

the magnitude of these activities it is clear that this is well organised and funded – 26 

logging camps along the upper part of the Air Hitam Laut, in the NP alone. From various 

sources the consultant has understood that the driving force behind illegal logging are the 

local administration (at Kabupaten level, e.g. the Bupati), police and army, probably 

supported by local businessmen. From analysis of satellite imagery, it is obvious that all 

burnt areas were degraded – in all likelihood by illegal logging 13 

– prior to destructive fires. 

Given the rate of forest disappearance in Berbak NP, the park is rapidly losing its value to 

conservation and might be considered ‘lost’ if current activities are not curbed and are 

allowed to continue for another decade. 

Illegal logging seems to have been most active in four areas: i) central Air Hitam Laut; ii) 

Simpang Melaka; iii) Benuh River, and iv) Air Hitam Dalam. Each of these areas appears to 

be targeted by a different group: 

i) Air Hitam Laut. Because of infestation with Pandanus helicopus and Hanguana 

malayana (see below) it is impossible to export logs or timber out of the large, 

central part of AHL (where 12,000 hectares of forest were burnt in 1997) via the 

river, and the only option is that these were taken out via a logging rail 

system. There are two rail systems in the upper part of the AHL, namely that 

of PDIW and that of PT. Satia Djaya Raya (SDR). The rail system of PDIW was 

extended up to the AHL after the 1997 fires, so this seems an unlikely 

candidate. PT SDR (based at Sungei Aur), however, was investigated in 1990 

following illegal incursions into north-western Berbak in 1988-1990. A KSDA 

team investigated the illegal logging activities, found that SDR had entered the 

park by more than 1 km (by logging rail), that linked up with AHL river. This 

was reported to the Ministry in Jakarta, and as a result all of the permits were 

revoked by the Minister (including izin areal, izin fabrik, izin industrian) – this 

although the then Governor of Jambi was part-owner of PT SDR. PT SDR left 

13 This is confirmed by reports from KSDA staff formerly based at Berbak. 


3.3 


ii) 

iii) 

iv) 

the area immediately, but all of their infrastructure was left behind in the field, 

and according to local sources, the rails were still being used until recently. 

On the 1992 satellite image (fig. 2.3) one can see that this rail system extends 

up to the AHL. In October 2003, 26 camps – most of them belonging to illegal 

loggers – were observed along the Air Hitam Laut between the border of 

Berbak NP and Simpang ‘T’ in the central burnt part of the AHL. Rafts of 

poached timber were being taken out of the park via the AHL up to the rail 

system of PDIW, from where they were further transported via ‘lorries’ on the 

PDIW rail system. 

Simpang Melaka. On the satellite images (Fig. 2.2) one may observe that the 

area along the Simpang Melaka that was burnt in 1997, is contiguous with a 

larger burnt area that extends right up to the coast. There have been various 

reports of local farmers extending irrigation and drainage canals from the 

coastal zone into the park (this already began decades ago; see Silvius et al. 

1984). These canals also form a possible conduit for transport of illegal timber 

out of the park. 

Benuh River. PDIW illegally encroached upon Berbak NP in 1990 in the Sungei 

Benuh area, at Simpang Kiri. They were caught red-handed by KSDA staff and 

forced to leave, but apparently no permits were revoked. Since then, illegal 

activities have resumed, reportedly mainly by groups operating out of 

adjacent South Sumatra. 

Air Hitam Dalam. Illegal logging has been ongoing for decades in this area, 

mainly being carried out by small operators out of Sungai Aur and Sungai 

Rasau villages, near the confluence with the Batanghari River. Sawn timber is 

smuggled out of the park in pompongs (large, diesel-powered boats), and 

transferred to large pinisi vessels lying in wait on the Batanghari River. 

The two largest burnt areas – the central Air Hitam Laut and the Simpang Melaka area – are 

largely inaccessible from the downstream side because of vast mats of floating Hanguana 

malayana and Pandanus helicopus vegetation. This was already the case in 1983 (Silvius et al., 

1984) and 1990 (Giesen, 1991), and is not caused by the fires, although the abundance of dead 

trees in the water and the release of nutrients at the time of the fires may have made access 

even more difficult. In all likelihood, these areas were subject to illegal logging because they 

were inaccessible from the downstream side, where KSDA (and later Taman Nasional) staff 

are based, and could therefore avoid scrutiny from park staff. 

LIKELY HISTORY/SCENARIOS LEADING TO PRESENT CONDITION OF BERBAK NP 

Likely sequence of events at Berbak NP 

Related to the burning of the Core Zone along the Air Hitam Laut and Simpang Melaka 

rivers. 

1. Pristine Forest phase – up to the mid-1980s. 

2. 

a. 1983: forest appears intact – still pristine. 

Large-scale illegal logging and burning phase – mid to late 1980s to mid-1990s. 

a. Satellite images of 1989 and 1992 show that the core area has a vegetation 

that has a very fine grain, indicative of small canopies, compared to 

adjacent areas. This vegetation in all likelihood consists of secondary 

scrub (belukar), following logging and burning. Large-scale illegal logging 

seems the cause, and the probable route of access is via the logging trail of 


3.4 


3. 

4. 

PT SDR, that runs from the Batanghari River (at Sungai Aur) to the Air 

Hitam Laut, just upstream of what is now the large, central burnt area. 

Illegal logging at Simpang Melaka appears to be occurring by means of 

access from the coast (via canals). 

b. 1994. The Berbak Management Plan (Wetlands International – Indonesia 

Programme, 2000) mentions the occurrence of fires in Berbak NP in this 

year. 

Second stage of large scale illegal activities & associated fires – 1996-1997. 

a. Two relatively small (


awareness, poor training, and lack of resources is leading to mismanagement (vie 

Management Plan for Berbak NP, and WI-IP, 2002). Judging from the scale of illegal logging 

and the reported role of local government in these activities, one may include that i) they are 

aware of the value of the park, but mainly see this in terms of the value of standing timber; 

and ii), mismanage existing resources in order to extract resources from the park (e.g. the 

extending of canals in order to create better access). 

Direct effects on habitats At present, a true fire sere (vegetation type) has not yet emerged at Berbak NP, but likely to 

consist of a combination of surviving species, along with pioneer species. Following largescale 

fires, only a few plant species survive, as this phenomenon is uncommon under 

natural conditions and selective pressures for this characteristic have generally been absent. 

Species that may survive one or more fires include: 

palms (Pholidocarpus, Licuala), which have their growth points in the upper regions 

that may be out of reach of the flames. Fire seres dominated by palms are common 

in South America (so-called ‘palmares’ or palm savannahs 

 

 

14 ; Walter, 1979), and 

palm tolerance of burning was noted by Nuyim (2003) in Thailand, where 

especially sago palms were found to survive fires; 

species with a thick, protective bark such as Combretocarpus rotundatus, several 

Eugenia’s (and possibly Melaleuca cajuputi; however, the latter has as yet not been 

recorded in Berbak NP); and 

species that resprout from the roots, such as Mallotus muticus 15 

, Combretocarpus 

rotundatus and Elaeocarpus petiolatus. 

This list is not exhaustive, and extensive surveys in burnt areas are likely to identify more 

surviving species. The ability of these species to survive fires will of course depend on the 

nature of the fires (e.g. how hot, which in turn depends on fuel, humidity, wind, etc…), and 

how often these fires occur. 

In addition to surviving species, burnt areas are characterised by a secondary vegetation 

dominated by fast-growing pioneer species such as the trees Alstonia pneumatophora, 

Syzygium spp. (esp. S.cerina), Ficus spp., Macaranga spp., Neolamarckia cadamba. and Pandanus 

helicopus, climbers such as Morinda philippensis, Stenochlaena palustris and Uncaria glabrata, 

ferns such as Blechnum indicum, Lygodium microphyllum and Stenochlaena palustris, and 

sedges/grasses such as Hymenachne acutigluma, Paspalum conjugatum, Scleria purpurescens 

and Thoracostachyum species. As fires are likely to have killed most seeds in situ, the 

seeds/fruits of most of these species are likely to have been transported via wind (e.g. 

Alstonia penumatophora) and water (e.g. Syzygium, Morinda, Pandanus). In the Air Hitam 

Dalam area, many more species are involved as this area is floristically much richer. 

Characteristics of Indonesian pioneer species are listed in Table 3.1, which may be used as a 

guide to identify other potential pioneer species. Tomita et al. (2000) found that Melaleuca 

recolonising burnt peatland arrived as wind-borne seeds, while Blechnum, Stenochlaena and 

Lepironia large recovered from their subterranean parts (see 4.1.1). 

14 

According to Walter (1979), palms are resistant to fire because they possess no damageable cambium. 

The dead leaves sheathing the trunk are burned, and the outermost vascular bundles are charred, but 

the resulting layer of carbon acts as an insulation against later fires. The apical meristem, surrounded by 

young leaves, survives. 

15 

Formerly known as Coccoceras borneense. 


TABLE 3.1 

Characteristics of pioneer 

species 


Characteristic Adaptation 

Seeds abundant 

produced by even very small plants 

rigid epicarp, adding to longevity, sometimes requiring fire 

for germination (esp. cracking & absorbing water) 

macrobiocarpy: ripe fruits may continue to grow and become 

woody, while still borne on the mother plant (e.g. 

Leptospermum, Melaleuca) 

Growth fast-growing, especially by ephemeral plants (esp. annuals). 

Flowering abundant flowering, often all year round and apparently 

independent of the season 

very small and young specimens may already begin flowering 

Morphology bark: thick and even fleshy, or thin but consisting of many 

layers - fire resistant, able to protect the cambium against 

heat; species include: Melaleuca, Fragraea fragrans, Morinda 

tinctoria 

tunica: protective sheath consisting of layers of leaves 

remaining around young shoots – protects against frost 

and/or fire; possessed by many sedges (Gahnia, Fimbristylis 

sericea) 

resprouting from the trunk/base of the trunk (e.g. Leea 

aquatica, Grewia) 

resprouting from the roots (e.g. Casuarina, Trema) 

runners: especially beach species 

geophytes: species that may survive belowground by means of 

bulbs, or specially adapted roots or shoots 

thorns: e.g. Flacourtia indica, Gmelina asiatica, Zizyphus, 

Randia dumetorum Soils and roots survives on many types of soil 

Climate 

Source: Van Steenis (1941) 

apparently unaffected by different climate regimes 


FIGURE 3.1 

Hypothetical succession 

following fires in peat 

swamp forest in Berbak NP 

Mixed peat swamp forest in 

undisturbed areas: 

characterised by many tree 

and shrub species, and a 

limited herbaceous layer. 

A fire in mixed peat swamp 

forest leads to a decline in 

the peat layer, and habitats 

characterised by survivers 

(e.g. Combretocarpus 

rotundatus, palms), 

resprouting from surviving 

roots, and occurrence of 

pioneer shrubs/trees and 

annuals. 

Repeated fires leads to a 

loss of survivor species, and 

an increase in pioneer 

species and especially 

annuals. Where fires have 

significantly reduced the 

peat layer, prolonged deep 

flooding may lead to the 

arise of seasonal lake 

habitats, where only 

Pandanus helicopus and 

Thoracostachyum 

bancanum occurs. 




In addition to the eventual emergence of s true fire sere, the occurrence of repeated fires will 

also lead to the emergence of (seasonal) lake habitats (see Figure 3.1). Usup et al. (2000) 

typically report a loss of 100-150 cm of peat in the areas studied in Central Kalimantan, but 

in Berbak NP this loss appears to have been less, more in the range of 50-100 cm. As peat 

layers are burnt, it will become more and more difficult for peat swamp forest species to 

establish themselves in the degraded areas, as the depth and duration of flooding will 

become inimical to their growth. The emergence of the peat swamp lake habitat can already 

be observed along the Air Hitam Laut, where the only species that can be found in areas that 

have burnt repeatedly are Pandanus helicopus and Thoracostachyum bancanum. Pandanus 

helicopus may float and thereby survive deep, prolonged flooding, while Thoracostachyum 

bancanum dies off aboveground during floods, and later resprouts or re-emerges from the 

abundant ‘seeds’. Satellite images taken in the wet season show that large areas are covered 

with extensive water bodies, and reports by others (e.g. Wetlands International – Indonesia 

Programme, 2002) indicate that the central burnt area along the Air Hitam Laut ‘appears like 

a lake during the wet season’. Kostermans (1958) considers the shallow lakes of Kayu 

Agung (near Palembang in South Sumatra) to have formerly been peat areas. The string of 

lakes that have developed along the Siak Kecil River in Riau (Giesen and van Balen, 1991b), 

have probably also developed after burning had removed (part of) the peat layer nearest to 

the river. 


4.1 

SERES 

A series of plant 

communities resulting from 

the process of succession. 

Various types exist, 

depending on type of 

disturbance or influence, 

e.g. fire sere, xerosere, 

hydrosere. 


4Peat swamp forest 

restoration opportunities 

CHAPTER 

DEGRADATION SERES AND NATURAL REGENERATION OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST IN 

SOUTHEAST ASIA 

According to Van Steenis (1957), nothing was known at the time about (fire) seres in peat 

swamp forests, although Kostermans (1958) tried to rectify this by providing some initial 

notes. The occurrence of fire seres in humid Southeast Asian peat swamp forests is an 

anomaly. As Rieley et al. (1996) point out, most pristine tropical peat swamps are 

permanently wet, with the water table close to, or above, the surface throughout the year. 

Fluctuation of the water table in an ombrogenous peat swamp in Sarawak, for example, was 

19 centimetres in the centre and 10 centimetres near the edge, throughout the year. Also, 

relative humidity is high: in wet season this is 90-96% both in forested and gap areas, and in 

the dry season this is 80-84%. However, it is obvious that fire (and other degradation) seres 

have emerged, and have been subjected to various studies/targeted by various management 

regimes during the past decades. Summaries are provided below. 

4.1.1 DEGRADATION SERES & REGENERATION IN THE REGION 

Malaysia 

According to Wyatt-Smith (1959) there is a comparative wealth of natural regeneration of all 

sizes of economic species in the peat swamp forests of Malaysia. He notes, however, that 

even a slight drop in the mean water table may result in changes to the species composition 

of the forest, with plants that are more suited to the drier soils succeeding those of the 

original wetter conditions. Thus Tetramerista glabra and Gonystylus bancanus often do not 

regenerate following logging. However, Koompassia malaccensis, Calophyllum retusum and 

Shorea spp. do well – so good timber crop can be expected in regenerated forest. 

Natural regeneration and reforestation studies in the peat swamp forests of Sarawak by Lee 

(1979) found that in the Alan Batu forest, the amount of Shorea albida dropped from 28% to 

2% over a period of 17 years, as S. albida seedlings are quickly out competed after logging. 

Fast-growing species such as Xylopia coriifolia, Litsea spp. and Cratoxylon spp. increase 

significantly after logging, while those with medium rates of growth such as Dactylocladus 

stenostachys, Ganua spp. and Shorea inaequilateralis showed about 20% increase in 

distribution. Slower growing species such as Combretocarpus rotundatus, Melanorrhoea spp. 

(now Gluta), Palaquium spp. and Gonystylus bancanus decreased in distribution by about 30%. 



Silvicultural treatment aimed at eliminating vegetation competing with a potential tree crop, 

appear to have a stimulating effect (as measured after 10 years) on growth of fast growing 

species such as Cratoxylon spp., Dryobalanops rappa, Shorea spp. and Dactylocladus bancanus. 

Whitmore (1984) describes secondary vegetation types in peat swamp areas. Melaleuca 

cajuputi is an understorey tree that become gregarious after repeated burning, owing to 

thick, loose, corky bark, and the production of root suckers and coppice shoots. In Malaysia, 

species commonly associated with Melaleuca cajuputi are Alstonia spatulata, Cratoxylum 

cochinchinense, Excoecaria agallocha, Fagraea fragrans, Ilex cymosa, Macaranga pruinosa, Ploiarium 

alternifolium, Randia dasycarpa, Scleria species and Stenochlaena palustris. 

Whitmore (1984) found that following logging of Shorea albida-Gonystylus-Stemonurus forest 

in Sarawak, Shore albida presence dropped from 28% to 2% as seedlings were killed by 

competition. In contrast, fast growers such as Cratoxylon, Litsea species and Xylopia coriifolia 

had greatly increased; medium growers such as Dactylocladus stenostachys, Ganua species 

and Shorea inequilateralis increased by 20%, and slow growers such as Combretocarpus 

rotundatus, Gluta species, Palaquium species and Gonystylus bancanus decreased by about 

30%. In the Shorea albida-Litsea-Parastemon forest type, natural regeneration of Shorea albida, 

and other large trees such as Litsea crassifolia and Combretocarpus rotundatus is mainly 

vegetative, by suckers or coppice shoots. This forest then has no value for timber, but low 

extraction costs and high volume makes it valuable for chips or pulp. Extensive pure stands 

of Macaranga pruinosa and Campnosperma coriaceum in Malaysia of same-sized trees with an 

even canopy are believed to represent stages in a secondary succession back to mixed 

swamp forest after clearing (Whitmore, 1984). 

Appanah et al. (1989) note that in peat swamp forests of Peninsular Malaysia there is an 

increase in the regeneration of Shorea species, Koompassia malaccensis and Calophyllum 

retusum after final felling or when the surrounding forest is converted to agriculture. This 

increase has been attributed to the desiccation of the forest, favouring these species at the 

expense of species such as Gonystylus 

According to Bruenig (1990), commercial tree felling results in a drastic shift in species 

composition in favour of species which are tolerant to sudden change, such as Cratoxylon 

arborescens, but not species such as ramin Gonystylus bancanus. The latter is a naturally slow 

starting species, and in silvicultural trials, reacted poorly to felling and release operations. In 

renegerating areas with even canopies there is a risk of a dense, slender pole vegetation 

resulting which is susceptible to wind damage. Another hazard of commercially felled areas 

is that of nutrient loss by interrupting the nutrient cycle. Growth can be almost static in 

secondary growth areas in Borneo (e.g. dominated by Ploiarium), where monitored 

secondary forest showed almost zero growth even after 30 years. 

Under post-logging conditions in peat swamp forests in Malaysia, Ibrahim (1996) reports 

that cleaning operations are required to reduce competition for sunlight and nutrients. 

Where this does not occur, disturbed peat swamp forests are rapidly dominated by fast 

growing species such as Macaranga. In Sarawak, defective and weakened trees are removed 

by means of girdling and liberation in the first year after logging, and again after 10 years. 

Some enrichment planting has been carried out, especially of Gonystylus bancanus in 

Sarawak, but no routine silvicultural treatments are performed in logged-over peat swamp 

forest in Peninsular Malaysia. Seedlings and small trees of commercial trees tend to cluster 



around the mother tree, and removal of the latter in uncontrolled logging operations results 

in serious damage , and reduced opportunities for natural regeneration. 

Enrichment planting is probably the most logical solution if natural regeneration fails to 

restock degraded peat swamp forest. The main problems associated with enrichment 

planting of peat swamp forests is obtaining an adequate seed supply of selected species, the 

remoteness of planting areas, and a lack of process planting techniques in areas which 

contain much undecomposed organic matter. 

Brunei Darussalam 

In his study on secondary succession in logged over peat swamp forest dominated by Shorea 

albida, at Sungei Damit, Belait, Kobayashi (2000) found that natural regeneration of Shorea 

albida forests following logging operations is poor. After a four year recovery period he 

found that less than 10% of the former Shorea albida forests were likely to recover as S. albida 

forest, while more than 80% was found to be heavily colonised by Pandanus andersonii and 

Nepholepis biserrata and developing into a shrub-fern vegetation. 

Thailand 

Only a relatively small area (64,000 ha) of peat swamp forest remains in Thailand (Hankaew, 

2003). Whereas a total of 437 angiosperms were recorded in primary peat swamp forest, 

only 82 species are found in secondary, degraded peat swamp forests. The latter are 

dominated by Melaleuca cajuputi and are characterised by the presence of many Cyperaceae. 

Peat swamp forest disturbed by repeated fires loses all or most of its peat layer, and 

underlying clay soils are invariably potential acid sulphate soils. Upon exposure to the air 

these become strongly acidic, and this favours Melaleuca, which is generally tolerant of such 

conditions. If fires are not only incidental, Melaleuca–dominated communities may be 

replaced by a further degraded Cyperaceae ‘grassland’. 

Mixed peat swamp forests are generally of two types, one dominated by Eugenia kunstleri, 

the second dominated by Ganua motleyana. Upon opening of the canopy, for example, by 

felling of trees, the vegetation becomes dominated by Macaranga pruinosa. Further 

disturbance and especially fires then leads to the fourth community type already described, 

dominated by Melaleuca cajuputi. Herbaceous species commonly associated with the latter 

secondary vegetation are Cyperus spp., Lepironia articulata, Lygodium microphyllum, Medinilla 

crassifolia, Melastoma decemfidum, Nepenthes gracilis, Stenochlaena palustris and various grasses. 

According to Hankaew (2003), recovery of disturbed peat swamp forests via natural 

succession occurs via the following stages: 

Melaleuca cajuputi community type 

Macaranga pruinosa community type 

Eugenia kunstleri – Goniothalamus giganteus – Macaranga pruinosa community sub-type 

Eugenia kunstleri – Ganua motleyana community sub-type 

Ganua motleyana – Xylopia fusca community type. 

For natural regeneration to occur, it is most important that fires are prevented, and other 

factors appear to be secondary to this. 

Tomita et al. (2000) studied in detail the natural regeneration process of Melaleuca– 

dominated peat swamp forest in southern Thailand following a severe fire. The area 

studied had been drained, cleared, abandoned and burnt, after which the area was rapidly 

colonised by Melaleuca cajuputi, along with Melastoma malabathricum, a host of ferns 

including Blechnum indicum, Stenochlaena palustris and Lygodium microphyllum, and the 



sedges Lepironia articulata and Scleria sumatrana. According to Tomita et al. (2000), who 

studied dispersal and recovery in great detail, these species either arrived as wind-borne 

seeds (Melaleuca) or from surviving subterranean clones (Lepironia, Blechnum). In the three 

year study, Melaleuca was observed to grow very rapidly, increasingto a height of 2-3 

metres, covering much of the quadrats analysed, and out-competing other species after only 

1.5 years. 

Papua New Guinea 

According to Eden (1973), the current distribution of savannah and grassland in southern 

Papua is not wholly consistent with environmental conditions, and he concludes that these 

habitats have been formed as a result of clearing and burning, perhaps influenced by recent 

climatic fluctuations. 

4.1.2 DEGRADATION SERES & REGENERATION IN INDONESIA 

Indonesia in general 

In their assessment of the TPTI selective logging system in Indonesia, Dwiyono and 

Rachman (1996) conclude that this system does not always allow regeneration, due to: 

poor felling techniques which severely damage young/valuable trees; 

use of young trees (20-30cm dbh class) to construct logging tracks, ramps, etc..; 

some tree species produce seed only once a decade or so; 

suppression of preferred species by other (less valuable) species; 

luxuriant growth of climbers, creepers or rattans; and 

appropriateness of enrichment planting not examined and suitable species 

unknown. 

As a result of felling, there is a decrease in old and large trees, with higher densities of 

younger and smaller ones as a result. In peripheral peat swamps, Shorea species tend to 

dominate regrowth, while in most open places (e.g. along extraction routes) Cratoxylon 

arborescens, C. glaucum and Dactylocladus stenostachys are pioneer species colonizing newly 

available space. On the whole, such fast growing trees become dominant in the regenerating 

peat swamp forest. Regeneration is also often quite patchy, and forest stands are often 

replaced by low growing species such as ferns and shrubs. Other changes noted by 

Dwiyono and Rachman are structural changes, a reduced structural diversity, and changes 

in micro-climate. 

South Kalimantan 

Giesen (1990) considers that virtually all vegetation types in the Sungai Negara wetlands of 

South Kalimantan are of a secondary nature, derived from primary types by tree felling and 

burning. Mixed freshwater swamp forests were found to have all been converted to 

Melaleuca cajuputi (gelam) 16 dominated swamp forest, sedge and grass swamp or rice 

paddies, a process that was already observed and noted early in the 20 th century. Elsewhere 

(West Kalimantan, East Kalimantan) freshwater swamp forest is observed to be converted to 

16 Melaleuca cajuputi is an understorey tree in the primary swampforest (Whitmore, 1984). 



a vegetation dominated by Shorea balangeran. This also appear to have been the case in South 

Kalimantan, and historic accounts record gelam and S. balangeran fire seres being replaced by 

sedge, fern and grass swamps. Giesen (1990) notes that the herb layer of degraded wetlands 

often dominated by Stenochlaena palustris and Blechnum indicum. 

Giesen (1990) further describes five types of secondary peat swamp forests (fire seres) 

derived from mixed peat swamp forest that formerly included Gonystylus bancanus, 

dipterocarps and wild mangoes. These five types are: 

Eugenia – dominated fire/logging sere. 

Shorea balangeran – dominated fire/logging sere. 

Combretocarpus rotundatus – pure stands; also a fire sere, possibly intermediate 

between the former two. 

Melaleuca cajuputi swamp forest – possibly a next degradation stage, following a 

long history of fires in peat swamp forests on acid sulphate soils. 

Sedge and grass swamp – final stage of degradation. Many species of sedge 

(Cyperus, Scleria, Eleocharis, Fimbristylis, Fuirena, Scirpus, Rhynchospora) and grass 

(Ischaemum, Echinochloa, Phragmites, Rottboellia), and invasive Mimosa pigra shrubs. 

Central Kalimantan 

Kostermans (1958) reports that species such as Alstonia, Campnosperma and Ctenolophon 

lophopetalum only develop alongside Combretocarpus rotundatus if burning is not too frequent. 

Both Shorea balangeran and Combretocarpus rotundatus appear to be stimulated by fire, and 

show a marked tendency towards gregariousness, each forming nearly pure stands. 

According to Rieley et al. (1996), Bornean dipterocarps are not only tolerant of shade in early 

stages of growth, but develop faster under these conditions. Opening up of the canopy 

during logging operations may therefore have adverse effects on these species. Regeneration 

of burnt areas may be hampered by falling timber, and Rieley et al., (1996) found that “since 

the fires ended there has been a constant collapse of burned trees to the forest 

floor causing damage to new growth.” 

In their assessment of the effects of the 1997/98 forest fires and deforestation in Central 

Kalimantan, D’Arcy and Page (2002) found that mixed peat swamp forest lost about 75% of 

tree density in burnt areas, compared to a maximum loss of 40% in selectively logged areas. 

Primary forest had the highest mean number of saplings per plot, while burnt areas had the 

highest mean dbh. Interestingly, they found that Combretocarpus rotundatus is one of the 

main species able to survive fires (see 4.3.1). Forest fires can greatly restrict the regeneration 

of an area through the deterioration of seed banks, the reduction in plants that normally 

resprout post disturbance, and a decline of soil fertility due to the loss of organic material. 

An IPB study of the recovery of a large area of former peat swamp forest at Kelampangan, 

Central Kalimantan, has produced some interesting results. A 1 ha plot of 100 by 100 metres 

was studied over the course of several years after the 1997 fires. Immediately after the fires it 

was concluded that all species had died, apart from two specimens of jelutung Dyera lowii 

that had miraculously escaped. In the first four months after the fire, very little regeneration 

occurred except for resprouting of Combretocarpus rotundatus, and it was therefore concluded 

that the seed bank in the peat soil had also been killed. By May 2003, i.e. 6 years after the 



fires, Simbolon et al. (2003) found that there were 1158 individual trees (with a dbh of 15 cm 

or more) growing in the plot. 103 tree species were identified, dominated by Combretocarpus 

rotundatus, Cratoxylon arborescens, Palaquium gutta, Shorea teysmanniana and Syzygium 

ochneocarpa. Common species (in terms of number) were: C. arborescens (256 indiv.), S. 

teysmanniana (104), S. ochneocarpa (50), Horsfieldia crassifolia (47) and Campnosperma 

squamatum (46). On the whole, the investigators were surprised by the vigorous regrowth. 

According to Simbolon (pers. comm., 2003), the seeds did not arrive by wind, as most are 

too heavy, and they were probably brought by birds and mammals, or by floodwaters. 

However, the latter happened only once since the IPB team began monitoring the area. One 

must note, however, that the plot is located only 300 metres from a patch of good peat 

swamp forest. Simbolon expected dbh to have recovered by 30-40 years, but full floristic 

recovery would take more than 100 years, and perhaps even several hundred years. In any 

case, this will depend on the proximity of good forest as a source of seeds. 

A WWF-Indonesia team conducted an initial fire impact study in the peat swamp forests of 

Tanjung Puting National Park, Central Kalimantan in December 1997 17 

. They found that the 

average number of tree species declined from 60 per hectare in unburned areas to fewer 

than 15 after burning, that the total number of trees that survived the burn is highly 

correlated with the degree of prior disturbance, and that areas that had burned twice or 

more generally were devoid of trees. Peat swamps differ from other forests in that fires can 

travel below the ground surface killing trees by destroying their root systems. 

Sumatra 

Kostermans (1958) regarded the lakes at Kayu Agung in South Sumatra as being the result 

of peat disappearance due to extensive burning. Giesen and van Balen (1991b) describe the 

lakes along the Siak Kecil River in Riau, which forms part of a large peat dome where the 

deepest peat in Indonesia has been recorded – 24 metres. The string of lakes along the Siak- 

Kecil – like pearls on a string – and the ongoing peat degradation and burning strongly 

suggest that the lakes are in the process of being formed due to peat degradation. 

4.2 ATTEMPTS AT PEAT SWAMP FOREST RESTORATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 

4.2.1 Peat swamp FOREST RESTORATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 

Peat swamp forest restoration and rehabilitation in Thailand 

Although Thailand has little peat swamp forest (


Village-based efforts at reforestation have been undertaken in Thailand, for example, at 

Phru Kantulee18 . Phru Kantulee was heavily degraded and largely drained for rice paddies, 

when 40 years ago efforts began to convince local villagers of the importance of restoring 

this area. Each village household was asked to manage 30-40 ‘rai’ (1 rai measures about 40 

by 40 metres), improve by means of planting and prevent outsiders from cutting trees. 

Almost 400 rai has been revised and reforestation efforts have turned rice paddies and fruit 

orchards into one of South Thailand’s most pristine peat swamp forests. The area is 

important for supplying water to adjacent orchards, and has become an important area for 

both fish and wildlife. Reportedly, the project has been so successful that the swamp is now 

being considered for listing as a wetland of national and international importance. 

According to Urapeepatanapong and Pitayakajornwute (1996), programmes initiated by the 

RFD in the 1990s that are relevant to PSF restoration and rehabilitation include: 

Silvicultural traits of peat swamp forest trees project; this was initiated to identify 

which species have the greatest potential for regeneration and plantations. 

Species selection experimental project; focused on 15 tree species (Acacia mangium, 

Baccaurea bracteata, Dialium patens, Eugenia kunstleri, Eugenia oblata, Fagraea fragrans, 

Ganua motleyana, Litsea johorensis, Melaleuca spp., Polyalthia glauca, Stemonurus 

secundiflora), to determine appropriate methods for reforestation. 

Soils improvement for tree planting, examining fertility constraints for five species 

(Baccaurea bracteata, Eugenia kunstleri, Eugenia oblata, Macaranga spp., Polyalthia 

glauca) under different fertiliser conditions. 

Growth rate studies under different plant spacings (1x1, 2x2, 3x3, 4x4 metres) for 

five species (Baccaurea bracteata, Blumeodendron kurzii, Eugenia kunstleri, Syzygium 

obloatum (Eugenia oblata), Macaranga sp.). 

Nursery techniques study, for raising seedlings on forest floor, tested on four 

palm species: Areca triandra, Cyrtostachys lakka, Eleiodoxa (Salacca) conferta and 

Licuala spinosa. 

Relationship between weeds and growth rates study, to study effects of different 

weeding regimes (every 1,2,4 or 6 months) on the growth of Macaranga sp. planted 

in 20x20 metre plots. 

In order to develop reforestation techniques for degraded peat swamp and sand dunes in 

Narathiwat, Southeast Thailand, physiological characteristics of Melaleuca cajuputi Powell 

were studied (Satohoko et al., undated). Melaleuca cajuputi is a main pioneer species in peat 

swamp and sand dune habitats in the Narathiwat region. M. cajuputi germinated, survived 

and grew well under flooding conditions, and its seeds did not lose their germination 

capacity even after heating to 100oC for one hour. These characteristics are advantageous for 

M. Cajuputi to grow and develop in peat swamps. 

According to Nuyim (2003), dominant tree species in primary peat swamp forest are 

Syzygium pyrifolium, Ganua motleyana, Campnosperma coriaceum, Macaranga pruinosa, 

Calophyllum teysmannii, Neesia malayana, Endiandra macrophylla, Syzygium obatum, Sterculia 

bicolor, Stermonurus secundiflorus, Syzygium muelleri and Baccaurea bracteata. Dominant tree 

species in secondary peat swamp forest are Melaleuca cajuputi and Macaranga pruinosa. 

18 

www.BangkokPost.com, 5 February 2003 



Peat swamp forest degradation has mainly occurred due to drainage, followed by 

subsequent fires. Following fires, three scenarios may follow: i) Melaleuca cajuputi regrowth 

area; ii) Macaranga spp. regrowth area, and iii). no tree regrowth. Fruits of Melaleuca are 

opened by the high temperatures that occur during fires, and the seeds are dispersed to the 

ground, so it is not surprising that this species is a dominant pioneer following fires. The 

areas dominated by Macaranga are a bit puzzling, as Macaranga species are rarely found in 

these area before fire damage, and Nuyim recommends that Macaranga’s seed disperse 

system needs to be studied. 

Nuyim (2003) found that native palm species (esp. sago, Metroxylon sagu) have very strong 

tolerance to fire and easily recover their growth; he considers that they may be useful as a 

barrier for fire protection. Areas that a repeatedly burnt, however, are soon dominated by 

Melaleuca cajuputi. Because of this, natural regeneration of deforested (mainly fire damaged) 

peat swamp areas therefore seems to lead to Melaleuca forests, and therefore assisted 

reforestation is required for recovery of original peat swamp forest. 

Reforestation techniques have been developed for peat swamp areas by the Royal Forest 

Department during the past 10 years, which has replanted a total area of 640 hectares. 

Experience during these ten years of reforestation has shown that the following species are 

most suited: Ganua motleyana, Melaleuca cajuputi, Syzygium oblatum, Syzygium pyrifolium, 

Sterculia bicolor, Sandoricum beccarianum, Alstonia spathulata, Calophyllum teysmannii, Ixora 

grandifolia and Alstonia spathulata. 

Nuyim (2000) reports that under natural conditions, peat swamp forest trees appear to grow 

best on naturally occurring mounds. In restoration programmes, the effect of artificial 

mound construction was tested on five species, and it was found that trees grew better on 

mounds than the same species planted in untreated areas. Tree height of Syzygium species, 

for example, was found to be almost double on mounds compared to unmounded areas 

(Nuyim, 2000; 2003). However, as mound cconstruction is expensive, Nuyim recommends 

further studies before recommending this for larger areas. Application of organic or 

chemical fertiliser and liming did not have any significant effects on growth. Regular 

(monthly) weeding, however, significantly improved stem diameter, stem biomass and 

branch biomass (at rates of 2-6x), but survival percentage, tree height, and width of crown 

were not affected. 

Peat swamp forest restoration and rehabilitation in Malaysia 

PSF restoration activities in Malaysia are still at an early stage, and to date are limited to 

trials and small-scale activities undertaken by the Forestry Department and FRIM (pers. 

comm., Ismail Parlan, 2003 19 ). The project on Sustainable Management of Peat Swamp Forest in 

Peninsular Malaysia (SMPSF) was initiated in September 1996 and had a duration of 3 years. 20 

This was a bilateral project between the governments of Malaysia and Denmark, and was 

implemented by the Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia and DANCED (Danish 

Cooperation for Environment and Development). The project’s main objective was to 

19 FRIM, Malaysia. 

20 http://www.usm.my/bio/peat swamp/abstracts/Palle_Havmoller.html 



ensure that sustained social, economic and environmental benefits are derived from the 

management of the peat swamp forests. Baseline studies were carried out in and around the 

heavily logged over peat swamp forest areas in North Selangor (70,000 ha) and still 

untouched peat swamp forests in Pahang (80,000ha). The studies have focused on 

silviculture and forest management, growth and yield, ecology, hydrology and socioeconomics. 

Field activities have included establishment and monitoring of peat swamp 

plots, conducting of reduced impact logging trials (RIL), rehabilitation trials in disturbed 

areas, thinning intensity trials, flora and fauna inventories and collection and monitoring of 

hydrology data, socio-economic survey and GIS - mapping including forest zoning and 

infrastructure. Guidelines for integrated, sustainable management of peat swamp forests 

have been produced, to form the basis for the production of 10 years management plans for 

the two different peat swamp forests areas. 

As part of the SMPSF project, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) has been 

involved in the production of PSF planting materials, and the rehabilitation of degraded 

PSF. Planting trials were carried out in previously burnt grassland areas, secondary forests, 

logging trails, and fern vegetation, in order to provide guidelines to forest managers on PSF 

restoration. FRIM also has plans for larger scale trials in secondary Macaranga forest. 

The trials on replanting of Imperata cylindrica (alang-alang) grassland areas were carried out 

on an area of 1.55 ha in the Raja Musa Forest Reserve in Kuala Selangor, Peninsular 

Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2001). Six indigenous PSF species were used: Anisoptera marginata 

(Mersawa paya), Calophyllum ferrugenium (Bintangor gambut), Durio carinatus (Durian paya), 

Madhuca motleyana (Nyatoh ketiau), Gonystylus bancanus (Ramin melawis) and Shorea 

platycarpa (Meranti paya). Four planting techniques were tried: open planting, open planting 

with mulching, open planting with topsoil and open planting with nursery trees. These 

techniques were tried for all six species under three different relative light intensities (RLI): 

100%, 70% and 30%. Results show that the most cost effective approach is open planting, 

using A. marginata, M. motleyana, G. bancanus and S. platycarpa, which have survival rates of 

73-92% under these conditions. Other planting techniques do not result in significantly 

higher survival rates; also, C. ferrugineum and D. carinatus have a low survival rate and 

require low to moderate RLIs. 

Peat swamp forest restoration and rehabilitation in Vietnam 

Melaleuca-dominated peat swamp forests in the Mekong Delta were largely destroyed 

during the Vietnam-American war by chemical defoliants, napalm and bombing, and more 

recently by clearing for agriculture, and draining by canals and for road construction 

(Maltby et al., 1996). In 1991, the IUCN Wetlands Programme was asked by the Vietnamese 

authorities to provide technical assistance to rehabilitate Melaleuca dominated swamps in An 

Giang province. Since 1975, considerable efforts were made in re-establishing 50,000ha of 

Melaleuca, but by the mid-1990s only 3,000ha remained, due to a combination of: 

poor management (broadcast seeding; no thinning; build-up of litter leading to fire 

hazard; canals used as fire breaks provide unwanted access; poor seed stock used), 

social problems (few economic alternatives to exploiting newly established 

Melaleuca stands; intentional fires; preference for agriculture to Melaleuca), 

land use conflicts (short-term benefits from even poor rice harvests appear better 

than long-term benefits from Melaleuca; central government support for agriculture 



and irrigation/drainage; little coordination between government departments), 

and 

lack of financial resources (insufficient funds for successful rehabilitation and 

management of Melaleuca stands). 

The IUCN programme aimed at tackling these issues, for example, by better land use 

planning, improving inter-agency coordination, improved seed selection, thinning regimes, 

reduction of fire hazard, improvement of water management, and provision of financial 

assistance. 

U Minh Thuong NP 

Building upon efforts initiated by IUCN and the Royal Holloway College, Melaleuca peat 

swamp restoration activities at U Minh Thuong National Park have been carried out with 

assistance from BirdLife International since 1997 (BirdLife International, 2002). The main 

problem has been devastation by fires, which was the focus of a workshop held in Ho Chi 

Minh City in June 2002. Key conclusions reached at this workshop were that: 

no new canals should be constructed in the area, and a new hydrological 

management regime is needed, in order to keep the peat wet all year round; 

Melaleuca forest should be allowed to regenerate by itself. Re-seeding is not 

necessary, as Melaleuca cajuputi is a robust species, tolerant of fire, drought and 

poor soils. It rapidly re-grows and colonises areas after fire. 

Fire is part of Melaleuca ecology. Hydrological restoration is essential for the proper 

control, management and use of fire. 

Peat swamp forest restoration and rehabilitation in Indonesia 

Kalimantan 

The project on Rehabilitation of peatlands and establishment of sustainable agro-system in Central 

Kalimantan, carried out under the LIPI – JSPS Core University Program on “Environmental 

Conservation and Land Use Management of Wetland Ecosystems in Southeast Asia”, 

focused on the rehabilitation of intensively disturbed peat swamp forest areas in Central 

Kalimantan (Takahashi et al., 2001). Activities include trial planting of 0.75ha of disturbed 

PSF under different regimes (with and without clearing, fertilizer application, and mounds) 

and with different species (Shorea balangeran, S. pinanga, S. seminis, Peronema canescens, 

Palaquium sp.), and observations on natural regeneration in a fixed sample plot of 50m² 

affected by wildfire, compared with a non-affected reference plot of 100m². Trials indicate 

that Shorea balangeran and Palaquium are best suited for replanting, as they have 

considerably higher survival rates (65-100%) compared to the other species (6-65%), and this 

seems irrespective of preparation techniques. Also, both species appear to be suited to 

heavily disturbed areas affected by repeated fires, and do not require innoculation by 

mycorrhizal fungi. 

Riau, Sumatra 

Bogor Agricultural University (Institut Pertanian Bogor/IPB) carried out a restoration 

programme (Implementation of Native Forest Restoration pilot project) for PT Caltex Pacific 

Indonesia in 2002, in the Duri and Minas Oil Field Operation areas in Riau province. The 

programme has five objectives, namely to: 

ensure that the nursery is developed correctly in terms of lay-out, capacity, 

supporting facilities and equipment; and supporting seedling growth; 


4.2.2 


 

 

 

 

provide technology transfer to CPI’s re-vegetation field personnel re-vegetation 

including native species selection and their planting stock propagation techniques; 

develop a re-vegetation plan and strategy that considers the varied conditions of 

proposed restoration areas (including degraded peat areas, heavily disturbed 

secondary forest, moderately disturbed secondary forest); 

provide technical assistance for implementation of the re-vegetation activities for 

restoration program. 

develop Standard Operating Procedures for key nursery operation, re-vegetation 

activities and monitoring. 

Activities involved a preliminary study on selecting native pioneer species as catalytic 

species to speed up recolonization of heavily degraded and moderately degraded land 

(including peat swamp) after oil extraction operations (pers. comm., Yadi Setiadi, 2003 21 

). 

Among the species tested, Macaranga hypoleuca (potted seedling) and Hibiscus sp. (stem 

cuttings) seem to be best adapted to poor, degraded peat sites. IPB are still monitoring their 

survival, growth performance, root development, recolonization of native species, crown 

recovery and litter production. In addition to this, IPB are also evaluating the mycorrhizal 

status of pioneer species grown in peat swamps, as this may help early seedling 

establishment in peatlands. They are also expanding their programme by selecting native 

pioneer species and developed propagation techniques, as this seems very imprortant in 

support of the peat rehabilitation programme. 

Prior to the activities with IPB (2001-2003), PT Caltex Pacific Indonesia developed activities 

in the same locations with the private firm PT. Hatfindo Prima. These aimed at establishing 

and operating the nursery, and developing a plan and strategy for forest restoration by 

considering variations in local conditions in the degraded areas. 

RESTORATION ATTEMPTS IN AND AROUND BERBAK NP 

Various attempts at replanting degraded peat swamp forest have been carried out in and 

around Berbak NP, but all are small scale and can be regarded as trials only: there is no 

active restoration or rehabilitation programmme ongoing. An exception to this is the 

jelutung and pulai plantation of PT. Dyera Hutan Lestari (PT. DHL), as this company has 

successfully replanted large areas – a significant achievement given the constraints. 

However, the latter remain plantations and are virtually monocultures rather than mixed 

forests characteristic of the former natural vegetation. 

PT Dyera Hutan Lestari PT. Dyera Hutan Lestari (PT. DHL) has a concession area of 8,000 hectares near Sungai Aur, 

of which 7,200 hectares can effectively be used. The aim of the company is to establish a 

viable jelutung Dyera lowii plantation in a secondary, degraded peat swamp. In the first year 

of operation, 1991-1992, 60 hectares were planted, followed by 260 hectares in 1992-1993, 

and 593 hectares in 1993-1994. Initially, enrichment line planting in secondary scrub was 

carried out using Dyera lowii, Gonystylus bancanus and Endospermum diadenum (Muub, 1996), 

but although relatively successful this was soon switched to clearing followed by line 

planting. Survival rates have been high – on the whole more than 90%, and growth has been 

21 Head of Forest Biotechnology Laboratory and Environment, Biotechnology Research Center. Bogor 

Agriculture University, Campus IPB, PO Box 01. Darmaga Bogor. 



rapid: an average girth increment of more than 2 centimetres per year has been recorded. PT 

DHL has also begun tapping latex, and trials tappings under different regimes have been 

carried out. 

In spite of this apparent success, there have been many pitfalls. Firstly, investments in 

infrastructure have been high because of the difficulty of access in the peat swamp forest. 

Secondly, obtaining a sufficient supply of jelutung seeds has proven to be difficult, as Dyera 

lowii flowers and sets seed only every 4-5 years, and during operations seed has been set 

only in 1993 and 1997. (PT. DHL has a large and professional, 2-hectare nursery at its main 

field station along the Batanghari River.) Thirdly, security is a problem, and company staff 

have been threatened and attacked on various occasions, for example, by local illegal 

loggers caught felling ‘mother trees’ in the PT DHL concession area. Lastly, there is the issue 

of wildfires. In 1997, 7,000 hectares burnt including 1,769 hectares of jelutung plantation, due 

to a fire that began in the adjacent HPH PT. Kamiaka Surya. In June 2003 a second fire raged 

through PT DHL’s concession, burning 5,000 hectares including 1,775 hectares of jelutung 

and pulai plantation; this fire began at an illegal sawmill located along the Batanghari 1 

kilometre upstream of the concession area. Interestingly, not all jelutung trees were killed by 

the 1997 fire, and it was observed that >10% survived. 

PT Putra Duta Indah Wood 

According to the Management Plan for Berbak NP (WI-IP, 2000), PDIW’s efforts at 

reforestation appear to be economically motivated rather than aiming to restoration of the 

natural peat swamp forest. Lubis (2002), reports that efforts by PDIW for restoration of 

degraded areas since 2001 have focused on planting meranti rawa Shorea pauciflora, durian 

burung Durio carinatus, ramin and jelutung. 

The consultant visited the nurseries of PDIW, both at their main camp at Suka Berajo (on 4 

October 2003) and at their field camp (Kem Pembinaan) on 5 October 2003. The Suka Berajo 

nursery included a wide array of species indigenous to peat swamp forests such as ramin 

Gonystylus bancanus, rengas Gluta (formerly Melanorrhoea) wallichii, jelutung Dyera lowii, 

meranti rawa Shorea pauciflora, nyatoh Palaquium sp., durian Durio carinatus, tanah-tanah 

Combreocarpus rotundatus and punak Tetramerista glabra. Most of these seedlings were 

wildlings gathered as seedlings in the forest and tended further in the nursery. However, 

the nursery is tiny (providing for only 10-20,000 seedlings at most) given the area requiring 

replanting (PT PDIW’s concession area measures at least several tens of thousands of 

hectares). Also, the focus seems to have moved to commercial species of interest to local 

villagers, such as papaya, cocoa, duku, mengkudu and kemiri. 

The nursery at Kem Pembinaan is larger, with three shaded seedbed areas catering for 

>30,000 seedlings, but even this is far too small for a full-scale reforestation drive. Also, 

while species such as jelutung, nyatoh, rengas, ramin and arang-arang are being raised, PDIW 

appears to be placing a major emphasis on planting the exotic Acacia crassicarpa. Several 

replanted areas were visited along the rail linking Suka Berajo and Kem Pembinaan – none 

of these sites provided evidence of PDIW’s restoration of natural peat swamp forest. At 

some sites, Acacia crassicarpa was the main species being planted, while at other sites canals 

had been excavated prior to planting (of rengas and Acacia) in order to lower the water table 

and reduce flooding. 



PT Wana Teladan 

In addition to PDIW and PT DHL, a third private company has been involved in reforestion 

attempts in peat swamps of Jambi Province, namely PT Wana Teladan. This company 

planted pulai Alstonia penumatophora in peat swamp areas, but has now apparently stopped 

all activities (pers. comm., H. Rosera22 ). 

Department Kehutanan and Berbak NP 

According to H. Soemarna (pers. comm., 2003 23 

) a 1 ha trial plot (plot percobaan) of burnt 

former peat swamp forest was replanted along the Air Hitam Laut River in 2001-2002. Trees 

were planted on the burnt peat, and not on mounds. Two species were planted: jelutung 

Dyera lowii and pulai Alstonia pneumatophora. Seedlings were obtained locally, and from 

Pemerinta Daerah (Local Government), while locals assisted with the planting. Mr. 

Soemarna has not seen the results, and does not know of an evaluation report – he fears that 

because they weren’t planted on mounds that all succumbed during subsequent floods. 

Two trial plantings carried out in 2002 by the Forestry Department at the burnt area along 

the Simpang Melaka river in Berbak NP, namely at: 

a 1 hectare site in the first, smaller burnt area to the east of the Simpang Melaka 

river, closest to the confluence with the Air Hitam Laut; and 

5 hectares, in the middle of the large burnt area, also to the east of the Simpang 

Melaka. 

At both sites a combination of pulai, jelutung and medang were planted at a density of one 

seedling per 10 m². Seedlings were planted directly in the soil, straight into the soil 24 , 

without mound construction. Seedlings were small (in the case of jelutung and medang), and 

about 1m tall in the case of pulai. Seedlings were not of a high quality as most were from 

cuttings rather than seeds. The seedlings were taken from the polybag before planting, 

which occurred in August (1 ha site) and December (5 ha site) 2002. A quick survey of both 

areas on 12 October 2003 revealed that seedling mortality is close to or at 100%, probably 

due to long, deep flooding (about 1.2-1.3 m, as observed on marks left on trees). According 

to a local fisherman living near the site (Pak Leman), a few seedlings may have survived at 

the far end of the 5 ha plot (not observed). A proposal for replanting trial areas in the large, 

central burnt area along the Air Hitam Laut has been submitted to the central government 

by Berbak NP staff for approval and funding for 2004. 

South Sumatra 

Two other companies in South Sumatra province Ogan-Komering district have tried 

restoration of PSF, namely PT Sribunian and PT SBA Wood. The emphasis is on changing 

the status of the sites to Industrial Plantations (HTI), and planting has focused on Acacia, 

rubber and oil palm. Evaluation by Lubis is that rehabilitation is geared towards improving 

economic gains, rather than ecological restoration, and that this process is supported by the 

Forestry Department and local universities. 

22 

Mr. Hamri P. Rosera (Director of Production, PT. Dyera Hutan Lestari), 3 October 2003. 

23 

Mr. H. Soemarna, Wakil Kepala (Acting/Deputy Head) of Berbak NP; 2 October 2003. 

24 

Largely mineral, with patches of shallow peat, at the 5 ha site; shallow peat at the first 1 ha site. 


4.3 


CCFPI 

4.3.1 RECOGNISED BY OTHERS 

The Climate Change and Fire Prevention in Indonesia project is undertaking trial replanting 

in the western part of Berbak NP, along the Air Hitam Laut. Use is made of the PT. PDIW 

nursery located at Kem Pembinaan, and local community members are involved. At the time 

of the survey in the area (5-8 October 2003), mound construction was ongoing (see Photo 24, 

Annex 7), but planting had not yet started. Three types of areas have been chosen for the 

reforestation programme: i) open areas, ii) areas with some regrowth occurring, and iii) 

areas with a cover of shrubs/small trees. In all, 20 hectares will be treated. In October 2003 

there were five teams preparing mounds, on which later (once the wet season has truly 

arrived) seedlings were to be planted from the PDIW nursery. Each team will prepare 4,000 

mounds, so in all 20,000 trees will be planted (about 1000/ha). In practice, 50 centimetre tall 

mounds are built on the highest parts of the micro-topography, and the edges of the mound 

supported (e.g. by compacting or adding some branches) to prevent rapid erosion. Species 

to be planted are jelutung Dyera lowii, ramin Gonystylus bancanus, temasam Eugenia spp., punak 

Tetramerista glabra, tanah-tanah Combreocarpus rotundatus, and rengas Gluta wallichii. 

IDENTIFICATION OF PROMISING SPECIES FOR RESTORATION PROGRAMMES 

Traditional forestry approaches to reforestation in Indonesia (e.g. Soekotjo, undated), focus 

primarily on dipterocarps, Pinus merkusii and exotics such as Acacia mangium, Pinus radiata 

and various eucalypts. Species used in various reforestation and rehabilitation programmes 

in Southeast Asia including Indonesia are listed below in Table 4.1. Of these, nine species 

have both been successfully planted and are known to occur at Berbak National Park, 

namely Alstonia pneumatophora (pulai), Combretocarpus rotundatus (tanah-tanah), Dyera lowii 

Ganua motleyana, (jelutung), Gluta wallichii (rengas), Gonystylus bancanus (ramin), Macaranga 

sp. (mahang), Palquium sp. (nyatoh) and Shorea pauciflora (meranti rawa). 


TABLE 4.1 

Species used in PSF 

reforestation in SE Asia 


Species Family 

Performance 

** 

Occurs 

at BNP 

Author/ 

company* 

Location/ 

country 

Alstonia pneumatophora Apoc. ++ + PT.DHL Jambi 

Anisoptera marginata Dipt. ++ 2 Malaysia 

Baccaurea brateata Euph. ++ 1 Thailand 

Calophyllum ferrugineum Gutt. ± 2 Malaysia 

Combretocarpus rotundatus Rhiz. ++ + PT.PDIW Jambi 

Dialium patens Legum. ± 1 Thailand 

Durio carinatus Bomb. ± + PT.PDIW 

Dyera lowii Apoc. ++ + PT.DHL 

2 

PT.PDIW 

Jambi 

Malaysia 

Jambi 

Eugenia kunsterli Myrt. ++ 1 Thailand 

Ganua motleyana 

aka Madhuca motleyana 

Sapot. ++ + 1,2 Thailand, 

Malaysia 

Gluta wallichii Anac. ++ + PT.PDIW Jambi 

Gonystylus bancanus Thymel. ++ + PT.PDIW, 

2 

Jambi 

Malaysia 

Hibiscu sp. Malva. ++ 5 Riau 

Litsea johorensis 

Laura. ± 1 Thailand 

Macaranga hypoleuca Euph. ++ 5 Riau 

Macaranga sp. Euph. ++ (+) 1 Thailand 

Melaleuca cajuputi Myrt. ++ 2,3 Thailand 

Vietnam 

Palaquium sp. Sapot. ++ (+) PT.PDIW Jambi 

Kalimantan 

Peronema canescens Verb. ± 4 Kalimantan 

Polyalthia glauca Annon. ++ 1 Thailand 

Shorea balangeran Dipt. ++ 4 Kalimantan 

Shorea pauciflora Dipt. ++ + PT.PDIW Jambi 

Shorea pinanga Dipt. ± 4 Kalimantan 

Shorea platycarpa Dipt. ++ 2 Malaysia 

Shorea seminis Dipt. ± 4 Kalimantan 

Stemonurus secundiflora Icacin. ± 1 Thailand 

Syzygium oblatum (Eugenia 

oblata) 

Myrt. ++ 1 Thailand 

Tetramerista glabra Theac. ± + PT.PDIW Jambi 

* 1 = Urapeepatanapong and Pitayakajornwute (1996); 2 = Ismail et al., 2001 

3 = Maltby et al., 1996 

5 = Setiadi, pers. Comm. 2003 

** ++ = grows well ; ± = does not grow well. 

4 = Takahashi et al., 2001 

Alstonia pneumatophora Backer ex den Berger pulai 

Alstonia is a member of the Apocynaceae (see Photo 28, Annex 7), characterised by a milky 

latex (as jelutung, another member of this family) and paired seed pods. According to the 

Tree Flora of Malaya (vol. 2, p.11), this species may attain a height of up to 39 metres and a 

girth of 240 centimetres. Found in freshwater swamp forests and peat swamp forests of 

Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Sulawesi. Observed in field to have small, fluffy 

seeds that are easily dispersed by wind. Often found as a pioneer in burnt and disturbed 

habitats (observed during present survey). Fast growing, with soft wood that is used for 

pencils and boxes. 



Combretocarpus rotundatus (Miq.) Danser tanah-tanah 

Combreocarpus is a monotypic genus of the Rhizophoraceae 25 

, found in Sumatra, Banka, 

Belitung and on Borneo, from sealevel to about 100 m asl (Ding Hou, 1958; see Photo 25, 

Annex 7). It was also previous found in Johore, but is now regarded as extinct in Peninsular 

Malaysia (Kochummen, 1989). C. rotundatus is a gregarious species of coastal swamps, 

mixed swamps, padang paya, and kerangas heath forests. According to Ding Hou, 

Combretocarpus rotundatus tends to coppice vigorously, for example after felling, and 

branches of wind-blown trees may easily take root. He also notes that when an old tree 

disintegrates, 4-6 young trees may take its place. Kostermans (1958) reports that 

Combretocarpus rotundatus appears to be stimulated by fire. D’Arcy and Page (2002) found 

that “In the burnt forest, the largest number of trees that survived the fires, albeit with 

scarring, were Combretocarpus rotundatus. This species has an extremely thick bark that 

allows scorching of the outer lignified layer, without damage to underlying vascular and 

cambium tissues. The data indicate, however, that only large trees were able to survive.’ 

During present survey, often observed in secondary vegetation of burnt areas. 

Dyera lowii Hook.f. jelutung 

This is the swamp forest and peat swamp forest jelutung, closely related to and often 

confused with Dyera costulata, which is a dryland species. As Alstonia, it is a member of the 

Apocynaceae and is characterised by white latex and paired pods. Dyera lowii is common in 

peat swamp forests of Sumatra, Malaysia and Borneo, where it may either form a 

canopy/emergent species or form part of the understorey stratum. On Borneo it is often 

found together with Alan Shorea albida. Apart from the latex, which is used in chewing gum, 

the wood is highly valued for the production of high quality pencils. It flowers irregularly, 

probably only every 4-5 years. In nurseries, it does not germinate if the seed is not planted 

upright, with the rachis pointing down. Most of the latex is harvested from wild 

populations, which are becoming increasingly scarce, and much is now poached from 

populations remaining in protected areas such as Berbak NP. 

Ganua motleyana (de Vr.) Pierre ex Dubard 

Formerly also known as Madhuca motleyana, this species is a member of the Sapotaceae, as is 

Palaquium. The species is common in both freshwater and peat swamp forests of Thailand, 

Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. It is a medium to very large tree, attaining a 

height of up to 40 metres, and a girth of more than 2.5 metres. Not obserbed in burnt areas 

during the present survey. 

Gluta wallichii (Hook.f.) Ding Hou rengas 

Gluta is a genus belonging to the Anacardiaceae (Ding Hou, 1978), most of which have an 

irritating clear resin that turns black after exposure to air (hence the former name of this 

genus: Melanorrhoea). Rengas is a generic name for various Gluta species, plus some other 

genera in the family. However, only a few are commonly found in peat swamp forests, and 

Gluta wallichii is sometimes also referred to as rengas manuk, which was also used by locals 

for this species during fieldwork. Gluta wallichii is a large tree, growing up to 45 metres tall 

and a trunk diameter of 70 centimetres. Identified using Department of Forestry (1986). 

Being replanted by PT. PDIW (see Photo 18, Annex 7). 

25 

Some plant taxonomists place the genus Combretocarpus in the family Anisophylleaceae together with 

the genus Anisophyllea. However, the author prefers to adhere to the opinions of Ding Hou (1958), 

Hutchinson (1959), Hsuan Keng (1983), Heywood (1993) and Kochummen (1989), who recognise both 

genera as members of the Rhizophoraceae. 



Gonystylus bancanus (Miq.) Kurz ramin 

Gonystylus bancanus is a gregarious, (formerly) often dominant tree of lowland freshwater 

swampforest and peat swamp forest. The species – a member of the Thymelaeaceae family 

(Airy-Shaw, 1953) – occurs in Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua) and Malaysia 

(Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah). Usually in coastal peat and freshwater swamps 

(on sandy soil), but also in dryland areas up to 100 metres asl (Airy-Shaw, 1953). Once the 

premier species harvested in these habitats, it is now vastly over-exploited in most areas and 

has become heavily depleted (www.unep-wcmc.org/species/tree_study/asia). It is listed as 

Vulnerable by IUCN, and logging of this species has been banned in Indonesia since 2000. 

Not observed in burnt areas during the present survey. 

Macaranga species mahang 

Macaranga species belong to the Euphorbiaceae family, and are all fast-growing, short-lived 

pioneer species. Many are associated with ants, and have special secreting glands and/or 

hollow stems to accommodate these ‘guests’. A number of species are regularly found in 

peat swamp forests, and some (e.g. Macaranga hypoleuca) have been used in replanting trials. 

Wyatt-Smith (1959) reports that Macaranga maingayi (=M. pruinosa) is interesting ecologically 

as it is dominant in natural succession ten years or so after the felling of any low-lying wet 

forest including peat swamp forest; under these circumstances it can form an almost 

complete upper canopy 9-15 metres. Several species have also been recorded in the past at 

Berbak NP, namely Macaranga conifera and Macaranga triloba (Giesen, 1991). During the 

present surveys, three Macaranga species were collected and identified by the Herbarium 

Bogoriense as Macaranga pruinosa (Miq.) M.A., Macaranga cf. semiglobosa J.J.Sm. and 

Macaranga motleyana (M.A.) M.A.. Commonly observed in burnt areas during the present 

survey (See Photo’s 13 and 14, Annex 7). 

Palaquium sp. nyatoh 

As with Ganua, Palaquium is a member of the Sapotaceae, and is characterised by a thick, 

milky latex – this is tapped from some species and sold as gutta percha. There are about 20-30 

Palaquium species in Sumatra, of which at least eight are known to occur in swamp forests 

(P. burckii, P.confertum, P.hexandrum, P.macrocarpum, P.ridleyi, P.rostratum, P.semaram, 

P.xanthochymum). The most common species in peat swamp forests is Palaquium ridleyi. This 

is a large tree, up to 40 metres tal and with a girth of 3 metres (Tree Flora of Malaya, vol. 1, 

p.426). 

Shorea pauciflora King. J.R. meranti rawa 

Meranti rawa is a large, buttressed dipterocarp. The identity is uncertain, as according to 

Ashton (1982), this species occurs on “deep soils on undulating ground and hills below 

700m”. However, this is the identity given by PDIW and CCFPI, and until this is locally 

collected and identified by a trained botanist, the name Shorea ?pauciflora will be used. 

In addition to species used in reforestation of degraded peat swamp areas, other species 

useful for replanting may also be recognised based on a description of their characterisctics. 

Van der Laan (1925), for example, recognises a number of “weed species of wet areas”, such 

as Campnosperma macrophylla, Combetocarpus rotundatus, Elaeocarpus petiolatus, Fagraea 

crenulata, Polyalthia, Shorea balangeran and Trema orientalis. These are generally occurring, fast 

growing pioneer species, and are likely to be promising for restoration programmes. Lee 

(1979) observed Melaleuca ‘leucadendron’ (in all likelihood Melaleuca cajuputi) in Alan (Shorea 

albida) peat swamp forests of Sarawak. This species has not yet been identified at Berbak, but 



as it is very common in freshwater swamps of adjacent South Sumatra (e.g. OKI and Kayu 

Agung), it may also eventually be found here as well. 

4.3.2 IDENTIFIED DURING THE PRESENT SURVEY 

During the present survey, the following trees and palms were identified as being common 

in burnt areas (see Table 2.2), and therefore of interest to future restoration programmes in 

Berbak NP: 

trees: Alstonia pneumatophora, Combretocarpus rotundatus, Elaeocarpus petiolatus, 

Eugenia spicata, Ficus spp., Macaranga pruinosa, Mallotus muticus (also known as 

Coccoceras borneense), Neolamarckia cadamba, Pandanus helicopus, Syzygium (Eugenia) 

cerina; 

palms: Licuala paludosa and Pholidocarpus sumatranus. 

Some of these tree species have already been described above (in 4.3.1) as they are being 

used in other reforestation programmes. Species not listed in 4.3.1 are described in relative 

detail below. 

Elaeocarpus petiolatus Wall. Ex Steud. 

Giesen (1991) identified the following Elaeocarpus species at Berbak NP: Elaeocarpus glaber, E. 

littoralis, E. oxypyren, E. palembanica and E. cf. palembanica. Elaeocarpus petiolatus is one of the 

most common lowland species of this genus, being very common in old secondary forest, 

forest edges and low hills from India to Borneo (Tree Flora of Malaya/IV-p.92). 

Eugenia spicata Lamk. gelam tikus 

This member of the Myrtaceae is usually found along rivers, including streams in peat 

swamp areas. Can either be shrubby or a small tree, usually less than 10 metres tall (Corner, 

1988), but occasionally up to 18 metres (Tree Flora of Malaya, vol.3 p.217). Usually flowers 

profusely and nearly all year round – small white flowers, and small white fruit, readily 

taken by frugivorous birds, tupai and squirrels. Found resprouting after fires, and 

colonising (riparian edges of) burnt areas along the Air Hitam Laut. 

Syzygium cerina Hend. temasaman 

Synonym: Eugenia cerina Hend. Giesen (1991) identified the following Eugenia/Syzygium 

species at Berbak NP: Eugenia chloroleuca, E. jambos, E. punctata, E. cf. pseudosubtilits, E. 

spicata, E. zippeliana, Syzygium antisepticum, S.cumini, S.lineatum, S.racemosum, S.zeylanicum. 

Other Syzygium species identified during the present study are S. cf. nigricans and S. setosa. 

Described in the Tree Flora of Malaya and by Corner (1988) as being common in lowland 

swamp forests and along rivers, from Penang to Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo. 

Licuala paludosa Griff. palas 

Licuala paludosa is one of several fan palms found in swamps of lowland Sumatra; however, 

unlike the similar Licuala spinosa the swamp fan palm is unarmed and does not have an 

array of spines along the petiole (see Photo 1, Annex 7). In all, there are about 25-30 species 

of Licuala in Sumatra, of which several may occur at any one locality. All are small, and 

Licuala paludosa – found throughout Southeast Asia – may form dense clumps of up to about 

4 metres tall. It is fairly common in some former burnt areas, and it appears likely that the 

species survives fires rather than being an invading pioneer following burning of a site. 

Synonyms include Licuala amplifrons, L. oxleyi, L. paniculata and L. auricutiaca. 

http://www.pacsoa.org.au/palms/Licuala/paludosa.html 



Macaranga pruinosa (Miq.) M.A. mahang 

Typical for lowland freshwater and peat swamps on Borneo (Airy Shaw, 1975), W. Malaysia 

(Corner, 1988) and called Macaranga maingayi Hk.f. in all older Malaysian publications (Tree 

Flora of Malaya, vol. 2; see Photo 13, Annex 7). Occasionally on dry land, at least on Borneo. 

It is the Macaranga maingayi refered to by Wyatt-Smith (1959) as being interesting 

ecologically as it is dominant in natural succession ten years or so after the felling of any 

low-lying wet forest including peat swamp forest; under these circumstances it can form an 

almost complete upper canopy 9-15 metres. Extensive pure stands of Macaranga pruinosa in 

Malaysia of same-sized trees with an even canopy are believed to represent stages in a 

secondary succession back to mixed swamp forest after clearing (Whitmore, 1984). Upon 

opening of the canopy of peat swamp forest in Thailand, for example, by felling of trees, the 

vegetation becomes dominated by Macaranga pruinosa (Hankaew, 2003). 

Mallotus muticus (Muell.Arg.) Airy Shaw perupuk 

Mallotus muticus (also known as Coccoceras borneense) is a member of the Euphorbiaceae, 

common in both freshwater swamp forests and peat swamp forests. It has characteristic, 

large pneumatophores that may extend for up to more than 1 metre out of the substrate 

(Photo 26, Annex 7). Skin contact with it’s bark may cause irritation and/or violent rashes. 

Found in Borneo, Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. A tall tree, up to 35 metres, found in 

primary and secondary lowland vegetation, up to an altitude of 300 metres, on river banks, 

in swamps, usually on clayey soils and alluvium (Airy Shaw, 1975). 

Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser bengkal 

Neolamarckia cadamba (also known as Anthocephalus cadamba, A.indicus, A. chinensis, Nauclea 

indica) is a member of the Rubiaceae. The species is a very common species in Peninsular 

Malaysia, where it commonly occurs in secondary forest, lowland forest and along river 

banks and in swampy areas (Corner, 1988). Found from India through Southeast Asia, 

Sumatra, Borneo, up to New Guinea. It is a fast growing pioneer species that may be up to 

30 metres (Corner, 1988) or even 40 metres tall (Tree Flora of Malaya, vol. 4, p.381-382). 

Frequently gregarious, up to an elevation of 1,000 metres; seeds dispersed by bats. Good 

source of pulpwood and for plywood, sort and pliable, occasionally grown in plantations. 

Pandanus helicopus Kurz. rasau 

This is one of the commonest members of the screwpine family (Pandanaceae) in Southeast 

Asia, being common in waterways from Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra., Borneo and 

Sulawesi (http://users.bart.nl/~edcolijn/floraputing.html; Giesen et al., 1991). Stems are 

much branched and 5-7(8) metres tall, 8-10 centimetres diameter. Forms dense thickets in 

rivers, often for many kilometres, completely blocking waterways (Ridley, 1925; p.77). 

Pandanus helicopus colonises and dominates in deeply flooded areas, including burnt areas 

where a significant layer of peat has disappeared. Propagation can be both from fruit (which 

is not present all year round) and from vegetative cuttings. 

Pholidocarpus sumatranus Becc. liran Pholidocarpus sumatranus is known from Sumatra only, where it occurs both in west Sumatra 

and along the east coast (http://www.pacsoa.org.au/palms/Pholidocarpus/index.html). Of 

the six species of this genus, it is the only oneknownfrom Sumatra. It is a tall palm, 

distinguishable from Livistona saribus (also known as liran, occasionally confused with serdang, 

the local name for Livistona fan palms) by the deeply incised leaves and the larger, characteristic 

fruit. Often one of the few surviving species found in burnt swamp forest areas (see Photo 12, 

Annex 7). 



4.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR REPLANTING PROGRAMMES 

Species & provenance 

The restoration/rehabilitation programme at Berbak NP should focus on the following tree 

and palm species: Alstonia pneumatophora, Combretocarpus rotundatus, Dyera lowii, Elaeocarpus 

sp.43, Eugenia spicata, Eugenia sp.8, Ganua motleyana, Gluta wallichii, Gonystylus bancanus, 

Licuala paludosa, Macaranga pruinosa, Mallotus mutica, Neolamarckia cadamba, Palaquium sp., 

Pandanus helicopus, Pholidocarpus sumatranus and Shorea pauciflora (meranti rawa). Seeds, fruits 

and cuttings of these species should be of local provenance (i.e. obtained locally in or 

around Berbak NP), as specimens of the same species taken from other populations may 

have other characteristics (e.g. not as well adapted to flooding and/or being resistant to 

fires). 

Nurseries 

At least two new nurseries should be established for restoration/rehabilitation programmes, 

namely: i) near the newly refurbished National Park resort office near the mouth of the Air 

Hitam Dalam, and ii) in the lower course of the Air Hitam Laut, between Air Hitam Laut 

village and the park border. NP staff should be trained in nursery management and 

propagation techniques and involved from the beginning, while local community members 

should be recruited for planting trials and eventual replanting programmes. The nurseries 

will need to be established in areas that are not subject to prolonged, deep flooding 

(although some flooding would be permissible), and should be able to eventually increase to 

a size of about 1-2 ha. Netting will be required for shading, along with plastic sheeting for 

establishing beds, polybags, trays, soil for planting medium, fertiliser and labels. Training 

should be provided by a skilled person – intensively during nursery establishment, and 

intermittently thereafter to solve possible problems encountered. A small boat (ketek) will be 

required for obtaining propagules, and for transport of seedlings during trials. Various trials 

will be needed, as knowledge of propagation of peat swamp forest species is limited, 

although it appears that propagation by seeds, from wildlings, and from vegetative cuttings 

are all viable methods for most species (Ismail & Shamsudin, 2003). Training may be 

provided by nursery staff of PT. PDIW or PT. DHL, for example at their own nurseries. The 

western part of the park can be covered from the PT. PDIW nursery located at Kem 

Pembinaan, as is currently being done by CCFPI planting trials. Although this dependence 

on PDIW is not ideal, it does not make any sense to establish a new, independent nursery as 

long as Berbak NP does not have a resort in this part of Berbak. The two proposed nurseries 

should be established as soon as possible, so that the first seedlings will become available by 

the middle of 2004, and trial planting can be undertaken. 

Planting regime & timing 

Trials will need to be carried out to assess the best planting regime and timing of replanting. 

Trials carried out by Forestry Department staff in 2002 along the Simpang Melaka had a 

failure rate of almost 100%, so it would appear that planting without mounds just before the 

wet season is not ideal. Mound-planting trials being carried out by the CCFPI project in the 

south-western part of the park has only just begun, and results will not be available until the 

middle of 2004. By that time the first seedlings may become available from the CCFPI 

mound trials. It is recommended, however, that more systematic trials be undertaken as 

well, as the CCFPI approach (locate higher ground, add about 50cm of ‘soil’ and plant) may 

not lead to clear results applicable elsewhere. Although choice of seedling, timing of 


FIGURE 4.1 

Recommended mound trials, 

with mound levels varied 

relative to the maximum 

level of flooding 


planting, adding of fertiliser, and possible tending of seedling after planting are important, 

flooding regime of the site being planted appears to be the most important factor 

determining success of replanting. 

A more systematic approach would be to identify the level of maximum flooding at a given 

site, and in planting trials plant seedlings at various levels relative to this reference. For 

example, if the maximum flooding level is +1.35 metres, trials should be carried out by 

constructing a series of mounds that attain levels of, for example, zero, +0.25, +0.50, +0.75, 

+1.00, +1.25, +1.35, +1.50 metres (say, 20-50 mounds at each level, for each species being 

tried), all measured relative to the maximum flooding depth. The aim of this would be to 

find an optimum mound level for each species, where this has a good/acceptable survival 

rate. For one species, for example, a survival rate of 100% may be attained at 1.50 metres, but 

at 0.75 metres it may still have a survival rate of 95%. Given the cost of mound construction, 

mounds of 0.75 metres may therefore be the optimum 

The consultant initially had some misgivings about the construction of mounds, as such 

structures seemed “unnatural” and appeared to be adding to the level of disturbance. 

However, as attention was paid to this aspect, it became apparent that mounds were a 

natural phenomenon in the swamp forests of Berbak NP, especially in freshwater swamp 

forests, where virtually all large trees appear to be located on natural elevations in the 

micro-topography. What appears to be occurring in such swamps is that when a tree topples 

(e.g. during a storm or after dying), a mound of soil is raised by the roots. This is then 

colonised, and as such an elevation reduces the level of flooding while at the same time 

providing access to nutrients (raised soil and a decomposing tree), trees colonising these 

natural mounds are probably more successful. Over the course of time, a swamp forest may 

therefore have a hummocky appearance, with most large trees occurring on natural mounds 

(Photo 23, Annex 7). 

Tending of seedlings 

Apart from varying species and mound size, trials should vary size of seedlings, timing of 

planting (e.g. end of wet season, dry season, beginning of wet season), amount of fertiliser 

applied (none, small amount, significant amount), and amount of tending (clearing prior to 

planting, clearing again after 6 months and one year). This way, an optimum strategy can be 

identified, both for individual species and for the overall planting programme. 



Burnt areas are often characterised by a profuse growth of ferns and climbers (Photo 16, 

Annex 7). While this may help prevent fires by rapidly providing a dense ground cover that 

reduces desiccation, such a dense growth may smother tree seedlings and retard or even 

prevent regeneration of peat swamp forest. Especially species such as the climbing fern 

Stenochlaena palustris was be troublesome, as it not only forms a dense ground cover, but 

may also climb and smother larger saplings as well. Some tending of replanted areas is 

therefore probably required, at least to clear the growth on and immediately around the 

young trees. Recommended is that this is done upon planting, and again after 6 and 12 

months. 


5.1 


5Recommendations for 

restoration of degraded peat 

swamp forest at Berbak NP 

CHAPTER 

MID-UPPER CATCHMENT OF THE AIR HITAM LAUT RIVER BASIN 

The areas outside Berbak NP but within the bufferzone area – the Hutan Produksi Terbatas 

(HPT; Limited Production Forest) and the Hutan Lindung Gambut (HLG; Peat Protection 

Forest), have both been heavily logged by PT. PDIW and are in the process of being stripped 

clear of all utilisable timber by many groups of illegal loggers. 26 

There is no difference 

between limited production forest (HPT) and peat protection forest (HLG), both have been 

equally heavily damaged. No actions are being undertaken to stop illegal logging, and 

poachers make free and frequent use of PT. PDIW’s infrastructure to take timber out of the 

area – indeed, all timber poached in the western part of Berbak NP, and the adjacent HPT 

and HLG are taken out of the area via PT. PDIW’s rail system. As this process continues 

unabated, it is only a matter of time before fires break out and this area is degraded even 

further. 

PT. PDIW’s attempt at reforestation of ‘selectively logged’ areas is very limited in scope (i.e. 

only covering a small, readily accessible area), and appears to be window dressing only. 

Much of what has been replanted has been done with the exotic Acacia crassicarpa, and done 

in conjunction with lowering of the water table by means of canals excavated explicitly for 

this purpose. This is in complete violation of Forestry Department regulations, as the forest 

is to be allowed to recover as a natural forest, and at most this natural regeneration process 

is allowed to be assisted by means of enrichment planting. Lowering of the water table 

further increases the fire risk in the area. It is reported that PT. PDIW (together with Local 

Government) has applied for a change of status of the concession area from HPT to that of 

Conversion Forest, in order to establish a pulpwood plantation. In their application, Local 

Government has reportedly stated that “peat layers are thin and negligible”, although 

average peat depth is more than six metres. 

26 

A total of 8 illegal logging camps were seen between PT. PDIW’s Kem Pembinaan and the border of 

Berbak NP. A further 26 camps were seen from the border up to Simpang ‘T’, i.e. within the Park. 


5.2 


At present, restoration of this area is not the primary concern. What urgently needs to be 

done is: 

i) Immediately halt illegal logging activities in the area. As the main outlet for illegally 

felled timber is PT. PDIW’s rail system, the best option for protection of remaining 

forests is to close dismantle the rail system as soon as possible. This should not pose 

significant problems with PT. PDIW, as their logging operations are completed, the 

company describes itself as ‘dormant’, and their licence is up for renewal or 

cancellation next year. As two canals run parallel to the rail system, these must also 

be filled in so that this does not provide an alternative route. This process should be 

checked, as when PT. SDR was evicted from what is now the Berbak NP bufferzone 

in 1990-91, it simply left its infrastructure in place, and logging continued under 

another guise. 

ii) Lobby the Ministry of Forestry in Jakarta to prevent the change in status of the area 

from HPT to that of Conversion Forest. This area is one of the last production forest 

areas in lowland Jambi Province, and given the peat depth generally unsuitable for 

the establishment of pulpwood plantation. Also, conversion will involve drainage, 

and this will have highly significant negative impacts on Berbak NP. 

iii) Establish a Berbak NP (Taman Nasional) presence in the western half of the Park. At 

least one well-staffed resort needs to be established on the western side of the Park, in 

the PDIW area, where there is currently no BNP presence. Boats, housing, office, 

radios, operational budget will be required. Also, apart from a small, inconspicuous 

border post (pal batas) there is no signage indicating that one is entering Berbak NP 

from the western side. 

Parallel to this, trials need to be carried out to assess the possibilities and best approach for 

reforestation of degraded areas, so that once the area has been safeguarded, restoration 

activities can commence. However, unless i) and ii) have taken place, it is useless and a 

waste of resources to invest in peat swamp forest restoration in this area. 

CENTRE OF BERBAK NP 

Within Berbak NP, two main areas that warrant immediate attention when it comes to 

restoration and rehabilitation of peat swamp forest, namely the central Air Hitam Laut 

burnt area (about 12,000 ha), and the Simpang Melaka burnt area (4,000 ha). 

Air Hitam Laut 

The central Air Hitam Laut burnt area forms a major part of the Core Zone of Berbak NP, 

and unless regulations are changed or the Core Zone status is transferred to another (more 

intact) part of Berbak NP, restoration activities are not permitted. Forests to the west and 

southwest of this burnt area are still actively been felled by many teams of illegal loggers, 

(see footnote 24) and unless this process is halted, it is not recommended that efforts be 

invested in reforestation and peat swamp forest restoration (see 5.1). Trials should, however, 

be carried out so that when prospects have improved, large-scale restoration may 

commence. Once illegal felling appears to have more-or-less stopped it would be 

worthwhile investing in large-scale restoration activities. The best approach for the large 

central area in the park would be to directly involve local communities, and replant these 

areas with indigenous species, including ones that are locally considered as ‘useful’, such as 

jelutung. Local communities involved in the replanting should be granted the right to exploit 



these non-timber forest product resources sustainably, and boundaries of which areas may 

be used by which village should be clearly defined. At present, this approach is not possible, 

for various reasons: replanting is not allowed in core zones, and such rights cannot be 

granted. Apparently, a proposal for such an approach has been submitted by Berbak NP 

management to their headquarters, and this is currently being discussed within the 

Ministry. While trials should of course be conducted at various sites, to test species, planting 

regimes and provide examples, large scale restoration should only occur once the area can 

be regarded as ‘secure’, as if planted areas should subsequently burn within a few years, this 

may mean the end of local support and input. 

Simpang Melaka 

The Simpang Melaka burnt area does not form part of the Core Zone of Berbak NP, and 

regulations of what can and cannot be undertaken are less strict. The Forestry Department 

has already undertaken (unsuccessful) reforestation trials in this area in 2002, and wants to 

undertake additional trials in 2004. As in the Air Hitam Laut burnt area, however, illegal 

logging must be halted prior to large-scale investment in restoration. Most poached timber 

appears to be taken out of the area via canals to the east – these should be investigated and 

sections that have encroached upon the part filled in. Also, patrolling by Park staff should 

also include patrolling of this part of the coast, to ascertain that these canals remain closed, 

and that the remaining canals are not be used for similar purposes. 

A nursery for providing seedlings for both trial plantings and for restoration activities is to 

be established between Air Hitam Laut village and the Park border (see 4.4). This is to be 

managed and operated by Berbak NP staff, while replanting programmes are will need to be 

based on temporary recruitment of local community members. As in the Air Hitam Laut 

area, the planting of indigenous species that are useful to the local community (such as 

jelutung) should be considered, so that the granting of local exploitation of NTFPs may be 

considered in order to generate local interest in restoration programmes and protection of 

the Park. 


6.1 



the Project’s peat swamp forest 

restoration programme 

CHAPTER 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF THE EXISTING PROGRAMME 

Based on the present assessment of the conditions at Berbak NP, restoration/rehabilitation 

of degraded peat swamp forest at Berbak NP will require the following: 

i) Species identification. Species suitable for restoration programmes at Berbak have 

been identified and are being used by locally based companies and projects (e.g. 

PT.PDIW, PT. DHL, CCFPI). Some additional species have also been identified by 

the present study, but this needs to be refined to identify further additional species 

suitable for restoration and rehabilitation. This will be continued by two Dutch 

students who are scheduled to carry out an ecological study in the first quarter of 

2004, focusing on natural regeneration process in burnt areas. Two Indonesian 

students are to focus on modes of seed dispersal – this will also help identify which 

areas may restore unassisted under natural circumstances, or at least understand 

the underlying processes. 27 

27 

SEED DISPERSAL study. Natural regeneration of peat swamp forests in burnt sites is to a large degree 

dependent on the arrival of seeds/fruit, as fire destroys most – if not all – of the seed stock in the soil. 

Also, only a few species survive fires and resprout from charred trunks or roots. Seed dispersal is 

mainly via three avenues: wind, water and via wildlife. Peat swamps that are regularly flooded 

probably receive most (floating) seeds via incoming waters, while wind and wildlife dispersal may play 

a more important role in areas that are rarely flooded. Seeds and fruits of common peat swamp forest 

species are to be studied and an assessment made of the main mode of dispersal. Seeds and fruit can be 

tested for buoyancy (can they float? And for how long?). Are they adapted for wind dispersal (light, 

with wings, hairs, and other adaptations for drifting in the wind)? Are they readily ingested by animals 

and can they germinate after passing through the digestive tract? Do they stick to feathers or fur? For 

each type of dispersal (wind, water, wildlife), a scoring system is to be developed (e.g. 1=none; 5=very 

likely mode of dispersal), and each seed/fruit given a score. For example, pulai (Alstonia pneumatophora) 

has small, light seeds adapted for wind, but they also can float somewhat; wind score =5; water score=3; 

wildlife score=1. 



ii) 

iii) 

Site identification. Vast areas (>20,000 ha) in Berbak NP are heavily degraded and 

all degraded sites may potentially be targeted by restoration programmes. 

However, funds are limited, and there are various constraints to such a ‘blanket’ 

approach: 

a. Legal. Restoration programmes are currently not permitted in the central 

core zone of Berbak NP (along the Air Hitam Laut). Secondly, planting of 

useful NTFP species in restoration programmes (for later use by local 

communities involved in restoration) is also not permitted. These issues 

are being addressed by Berbak NP staff in Jambi, and Taman Nasional in 

Jakarta. 

b. Social. Restoration programmes at Berbak NP will be impossible to 

implement without active participation of the local communities, as 

Taman Nasional does not have the staff or resources to implement 

planting, and local community support is required to ensure that 

replanted areas are well tended. Once sites are selected on a physical basis 

(see below), discussions must be held with local communities to identify 

their willingness to participate. This will depend on possibilities to 

provide some form of incentive (e.g. the outcome of a), above). Such 

discussions should be held by the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist, 

perhaps assisted by Berbak NP staff. 

c. Physical. Not all degraded areas are equally suitable for restoration. Some 

sites may be able to regenerate naturally (e.g. due to proximity of natural 

forest), while some are so degraded and deeply flooded that significant 

investments are required (e.g. very tall mounds) for restoration. One of 

the outputs of the Dutch student project will be a decision support system 

to guide the selection process, based on physical criteria. The Indonesian 

students are to focus on modes of seed dispersal – this will also help 

identify which areas may restore unassisted under natural circumstances, 

or at least understand the underlying processes. 

d. Site selection plan. Once a), b) and c) are completed or have been clarified, 

a site selection plan may be developed by the Silviculture/Rehabilitation 

Specialist, together with Berbak NP staff. This plan should focus on high 

priority areas first (high value, high chance of success) and be realistic:, i.e. 

being aware that not all areas can be restored, and operating within the 

budgetary, time and human constraints. One major caveat is required 

here, and that is that large-scale restoration/rehabilitation should not take 

place unless illegal logging is brought to a halt (see v) below). This major 

hurdle must be cleared, otherwise any investment in restoration is a waste 

of funds, and may squander local community goodwill. 

Trials. These can and should be carried out parallel to the above, as information 

and experience regarding the performance of species, planting and tending 

techniques is urgently required. These trials should be carried out by the 

Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist, supported by 1-2 field assistants, Berbak NP 

staff, and members of the local community. Trials should focus on: 

a. Sourcing. Identification of suitable sites/populations for sourcing seeds, 

fruits, cuttings of each species to be used in planting trials. 

b. Propagation techniques, both in nurseries and for planting in the field: 

with/without clearing, using various levels of fertiliser application, 

various forms of shading, etc… 



iv) 

v) 

c. Tending: determining which level of tending is required once seedlings 

have been planted in the field 

d. Hydrology. Trials using various mound levels relative to maximum 

e. 

flooding need to be carried out to determine an optimum mound level (for 

each species; see 4.4). 

Regular reporting on monitoring and evaluation. Trial planting to be 

carried out in readily accessible and tended areas, which are to be 

regularly evaluated and reported on, so that timely adjustments in 

techniques can be carried out. 

f. Apart from evaluation reports, one of the main outcomes of the trials is to 

be a “Manual for restoration/rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp 

forests”, that includes guidelines on silvicultural techniques, species 

selection and propagation, and site selection. This is to be produced by the 

Silviculture/ Rehabilitation Specialist. 

Nurseries. As indicated in 4.4, At least two new nurseries should be established as 

soon as possible for restoration/rehabilitation programmes, namely: a) near the 

newly refurbished National Park resort office near the mouth of the Air Hitam 

Dalam, and b) in the lower course of the Air Hitam Laut, between Air Hitam Laut 

village and the park border. NP staff should be trained in nursery management 

and propagation techniques and involved from the beginning, while local 

community members should be recruited for planting trials and eventual 

replanting programmes. The nurseries will need to be established in areas that are 

not subject to prolonged, deep flooding (although some flooding would be 

permissible), and should be able to eventually increase to a size of about 1-2 ha. 

Netting will be required for shading, along with plastic sheeting for establishing 

beds, polybags, trays, soil for planting medium, fertiliser and labels. Training 

should be provided by a skilled person – intensively during nursery establishment, 

and intermittently thereafter to solve possible problems encountered. A small boat 

(ketek) will be required (at each nursery) for obtaining propagules, and for 

transport of seedlings during trials. A section on propagation techniques and 

nursery establishment and management is to be included in the manual mentioned 

in iii.f. 

Restoration/rehabilitation programme. This is to be based on the site selection 

plan and the outcome of the trials, but will also be strongly dependent on local 

willingness to participate and the availability of funds. With the exception of PT. 

DHL’s jelutung plantation, only trial planting has been carried out in and around 

peat swamp forests at Berbak NP to date. The present project will also not be able 

to achieve more than trials as well, as there are too many uncertainties regarding 

species suitability, planting methodology, tending required after planting. More 

importantly, the situation in and around Berbak NP is not conducive to a largescale 

replanting programme, as illegal logging is widespread and rampant. This 

will need to be controlled before any significant investment is made in restoration. 

Such a programme should be developed by the SRS towards the end of the current 

project. 


TABLE 6.1 

Comments on the present 

rehabilitation programme 


The rehabilitation/restoration programme developed by the Project and presented at the 

Inception Workshop in Jambi on 21-22 May 2003, identified eight activities that are to be 

carried out at Berbak NP. These are commented on in Table 6.1. A Terms of Reference for 

the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist is provided in Annex 6. 

Activity identified during inception workshop Comments 

1. Survey to identify Rehabilitation Sites in Dutch students will focus on 1.i, and the 

BNP. a. Physical survey b.Social survey related Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist (SRS) 

to rehabilitation activity. Target of the survey: should focus on discussions with local 

i) identification of indigenous species; ii) community members (1.iv) and the production 

identification of appropriate sites for 

of a site selection plan (1.ii/1.v). 

rehabilitation; iii) supporting data, consisting 

of soil, depth of peat, vegetation, etc; iv) 

perception and willingness to rehabilitate; and 

v) grouping of rehabilitation sites into zones. 

2. Formulating of rehabilitation plan. This is to One of the main outputs of the project is to be 

include a work plan for rehabilitation 

a “Manual for restoration/rehabilitation of 

including: silviculture techniques, appropriate degraded peat swamp forests”, which should 

species, schedule, budget, etc. 

largely be drafted by the SRS, with inputs from 

other specialists. 

3. Community empowerment in villages While awareness creation will occur during 

surrounding BNP. Community awareness of discussions with the SRS, a fully-fledged 

the importance of rehabilitation. 

awareness programme is uncalled for until 

initiation of a large-scale restoration 

programme; this is beyond the scope of 

present project. 

4. Rehabilitation training for villagers 

This will occur when local community members 

surrounding BNP. 

are involved in restoration trials and nursery 

establishment/management. Further training is 

beyond the scope of present project. 

5. Ex-burnt forest rehabilitation in BNP; a. Apart from nursery establishment and trials 

seedling production; b. planting; c. tending. planting, this is beyond the scope of present 

project. 

6. Provide small grant to villagers to carry out While some incentive is required to generate 

rehabilitation in degraded peatlands. 

local interest in participating in restoration 

trials and nursery establishment, simply 

providing grants to locals for peatland 

rehabilitation is unlikely to be effective and is 

not advised. 

7. Monitoring and Evaluation. M&E forms an essential part of any project or 

programme, and is vital in order to learn from 

restoration trials, nursery establishment, and 

species selection programme. 

8. Inventory of existing seedlings in Hutan Unnecessary and not advised, apart from a 

Lindung Gambut (peat protected forest), rapid assessment of each site targeted by the 

Taman hutan raya (grand forest park), and site selection programme prior to restoration 

BNP; to determine the treatment for each site; trials. 

is there a need or no need for “enrichment 

planting. Present forest condition of peat 

swamp forest, Tahura , Berbak National Park 

identified. 



6.2 BUDGET AND RECOMMENDED WORK PLAN FOR THE CURRENT PROJECT 

TABLE 6.2 

Budget for the restoration & 

rehabilitation programme 

As described in 6.1, activities of the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist should concentrate 

on site identification for trials, implementation of restoration trials, and the establishment of 

nurseries. In addition, species selection is to be refined, and this can best be done by 

drawing upon the studies that are to be carried out by the Dutch and Indonesian students in 

the first quarter of 2004. A proposed budget for the restoration and rehabilitation 

programme is provided in table 6.2, and a proposed time table for implementation is given 

in table 6.3. 

No. ACTIVITY Items covered US$ 

Indonesian Rupiah 

equivalent 

1. Suitable species identification support for 2 Indonesian students 

identification of species at Bogor 

1500 Rp12.450.000,00 

Herbarium 1500 Rp12.450.000,00 

Subtotal 1: 3000 Rp24.900.000,00 

2. Site identification 

a. Legal aspects meetings 

transportation, awareness material, 

200 Rp1.660.000,00 

b. Social aspects 

meetings 2000 Rp16.600.000,00 

c. Physical aspects ketek, fuel, maps 3500 Rp29.050.000,00 

d. Site Selection Plan meetings, transportation 1200 Rp9.960.000,00 

Subtotal 2: 6900 Rp57.270.000,00 

3. Trials 

a. Sourcing of plants transport, daily labour 3000 Rp24.900.000,00 

b. Propagation techniques 7000 Rp58.100.000,00 

c. Tending 5000 Rp41.500.000,00 

d. Hydrology 

construction of mounds at various 

levels, planting 15000 Rp124.500.000,00 

e. Reporting on M&E Report production 

Report production, including colour 

200 Rp1.660.000,00 

f. Manual for restoration/rehabilitation prints 3500 Rp29.050.000,00 

Subtotal 3: 33700 Rp279.710.000,00 

4. Nurseries 

a. Site selection compensation & transportation 12500 Rp103.750.000,00 

b. Site preparation clearing, mulching, netting, field camp 5000 Rp41.500.000,00 

c. Purchase of materials & equipment 

fertilisers, polybags, sprays, obat, 

shovels, pruners, secateurs, bags, rope 2500 Rp20.750.000,00 

d. Trial planting of propagules daily wages 7500 Rp62.250.000,00 

4. M&E reports reports 350 Rp2.905.000,00 

Subtotal 4: 27850 Rp231.155.000,00 

5. Restoration & Rehabilitation programme 

formulation draft and final report 1000 Rp8.300.000,00 

Study tour(s) 2500 

Assistants (field assistant + support 

staff) 4900 Rp40.670.000,00 

TOTAL 79850 Rp662.755.000,00 


TABLE 6.3 

Work Plan for the restoration & rehabilitation programme 


ARCADIS 74

7.1 



capacity building in reforestation 

techniques & peat swamp 

management 

CHAPTER 

LOCAL CONCESSION HOLDER 

7.2 NATIONAL PARK STAFF 

The ToR of the consultant states that he should “Support the development of capacity 

building activities for concession holder and National Park staff in reforestation techniques 

and peat swamp management”. However, there appears to be a lack of genuine interest by 

PT. PDIW in peat swamp forest restoration (e.g. the company’s minimal investment to date, 

inappropriate techniques used 28 

, and it’s proposal to convert the area), and PDIW also 

appears to be involved in illegal logging activities in Berbak NP (at a minimum, by default, 

by allowing teams of illegal loggers to use its rail system). The consultant therefore 

considers any investment in capacity building of PT. PDIW as a waste of scarce resources, 

better spent on other components of the Project. 

National Park staff are to be closely involved in the restoration and rehabilitation 

programme, and will be ultimately responsible for implementing the programme beyond 

the life of the Project. Training will be required for: 

establishing and managing the two nurseries, to produce material for replanting in 

Berbak NP; and 

planting techniques and managing replanted areas. 

Most of this will be achieved by on-the-job training, i.e. provided by the SRS, who will 

involve Berbak NP staff in all field activities. Berbak NP should appoint staff who are to be 

primarily responsible for these field activities, notably one staff member at Air Hitam 

Dalam resort, and a second at Air Hitam Laut resort. At the same time, one staff member 

based in Nipah Panjang park field hq and one based in Jambi should also be involved. The 

latter are to be responsible for coordination within Park administration, and need not to be 

28 

Especially the widespread planting of the exotic Acacia crassicarpa, and the excavation of drainage 

canals in the few areas that have been replanted are considered totally inappropriate. 

Final draft ARCADIS 75


physically involved, but only have an understanding of activities to be undertaken. The SRS 

will produce a manual for peat swamp forest restoration, in cooperation with other 

specialists on the Project, and this will include techniques for sourcing of material, 

propagation, nursery establishment and management, replanting of degraded areas, and 

tending and further management of replanted areas. 

In addition to on-the-job training, Berbak NP staff may also receive training by 

apprenticeship at an already established nursery in the area, for example at PT. DHL or PT. 

PDIW. The former would seem most suitable, as this is by far the more professional 

example in the area. 

Provided that trial results are positive and that both client (PT. Caltex Pacific Indonesia) 

and implementing agency (IPT, Bogor) agree, a study tour to the trial areas in Riau by the 

SRS and several staff of Berbak NP may also be considered. 



CHAPTER 

8Conclusions 

1. Peat swamp forests of Southeast Asia have long been poorly studied, and our current 

knowledge of their composition, dynamics and ecology remains incomplete in spite of a 

surge in studies during the past decade. During the past decade-and-a-half interest in this 

habitat increased significantly. 

2. Although large tracts of peatland remain, peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia have been 

reduced to a fraction of their former area. By 1990, 54.6% of all wetland and marsh 

ecosystem had been lost in the Indo-Malayan realm – much of this habitat formerly 

consisted of swamp forest. With most of the remaining peat swamp forests occurring in 

Indonesia and Malaysia, developments in these two countries is particularly pertinent to the 

conservation and sustainable use of these ecosystems. 

3. Most of western Indonesia’s swamp forests have not fared well during the past decades, 

and much has disappeared, either being converted for agriculture (esp. rice paddies) or tree 

crop estates (HTI, e.g. oil palm), or having been severely degraded and abandoned (e.g. 

large tracts of sedge-fern belukar). Peat swamp and freshwater swamp forests in Sumatra 

formerly covered an area of 92,865 km², but by 1982-3 only two-thirds (63,790 km² or 68.7%) 

remained. By 1988 this had decreased to 57,506 km² (61.9% of original area), of which only 

8,683 km² (9.3%) could be considered primary forest. Logging and conversion has continued 

in these habitats since then. By 2003, most of the logging concession companies have 

discontinued operations as the resource has been depleted, and the logging industry is now 

largely the realm of rogue companies. Peat swamp forests – most of which had the status 

limited production forest (HPT) or peat protection forest (HLG) – have been severely 

degraded, converted (e.g. for pulp production), and have been the locus of widespread fires 

that have been common in lowland Sumatra since the mid-1990s. 

4. A significant proportion (>3/4’s) of the remaining peat swamp forest in Jambi province 

occurs in Berbak NP. The part has, unfortunately, been degraded since 1990, mainly due to 

illegal logging and fires. Fires occurred in 1994, and major fires occurred again in 1997, 

destroying >12,000ha in the central, core area of the Park along the Air Hitam Laut, and 

±4,000ha along the Simpang Melaka River. It is estimated that at least 25% of the Park has 

been affected by ilegal logging and subsequent fires. 



5. A wide variety of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are harvested in Berbak NP, 

including jelutung, honey, fruit and rattan. Also, the area has long been populated by 

fisherfolk that mainly target large species such as Wallago catfish and snakeheads Channa 

species. Although these activities add to a general disturbance in the park, lead to the 

decline or disappearance of certain species, and their presence may be the direct cause of 

accidental fires, harvesters of NTFPs and fisherfolk are not considered to be the main threat 

to the integrity of the park. 

6. The main cause of the fires appears to be illegal logging – analysis of satellite images from 

1983-2003 shows logging disturbance occurring in areas that were later burnt. In spite of an 

upgrade in status to that of National Park following the 1997 fires, illegal logging is still 

rampant and widespread in Berbak NP. During October 2003, 26 illegal camps – mainly 

being used by illegal loggers – were recorded in the Park along the upper course of the Air 

Hitam Laut River alone. Active signs of illegal felling were also recorded at the Air Hitam 

Dalam and along the Simpang Melaka. Reportedly, local government, military and police 

are actively involved in illegal logging, along with local entrepreneurs. HPH’s also share in 

the blame for illegal logging activities. Most of the illegal logging in the core zone of the 

Park prior to the 1997 fires made use of the infrastructure put in place by PT. SDR, while 

current illegal logging along the upper course of the Air Hitam Laut makes full and 

unimpeded use of PT. PDIW’s rail system, which is the only outlet for timber poached in the 

western part of the Park. 

7. The current survey visited Berbak NP from three sides: upper Air Hitam Laut (via PT. 

PDIW’s rail system and along the river), lower Air Hitam Laut and Simpang Melaka (via the 

coast), and the Air Hitam Dalam (via the Batanghari River). In all three areas, known burnt 

sites (as previously identified on the satellite images) were visited, and rapid surveys were 

conducted at each site. The consultant had previously visited the latter two areas in 1990, 

and concludes that the changes in these areas (and degradation of the Park) during the past 

13 years have been very significant. 

8. In all, 142 plant species belonging to 57 families and representing 119 genera were 

identified during the rapid surveys. On average, 18.6 species were identified per site 

surveyed, varying from only 2 species (site 1; a repeatedly burnt site) on the upper AHL, to 

68 species (site 19, riparian) on the Air Hitam Dalam. On the whole, there is little difference 

in species diversity between burnt sites and riparian vegetation in the Air Hitam Laut and 

Simpang Melaka area, while in the Air Hitam Dalam area riparian vegetation is about twice 

as biodiverse. There is a marked difference in diversity between Air Hitam Laut and 

Simpang Melaka on the one side, and Air Hitam Dalam on the other side, and the latter is 2- 

4 times as diverse, depending on the condition of the site. 

9. A total of 87 plant species were recorded at the burnt sites, of which 26 species can be 

considered common in these areas. These include 11 tree species, 6 climbers, 3 ferns, 3 

sedges 2 palms and 2 grasses. Burnt areas are often characterised by a prolific growth of a 

limited number of species. In the upstream Air Hitam Laut area and along the Simpang 

Melaka, most sites are dominated by the ferns Stenochlaena palustis and Blechnum indicum, 

often accompanied by Pandanus helicopus and the sedges Thoracostachyum bancanum, T. 

sumatranum and Scleria purpurescens. In the downstream section of the large burnt area along 

the Air Hitam Laut, near Simpang Kubu, secondary vegetation is dominated by Macaranga 



and palms (esp. Licuala). Burnt areas along the Air Hitam Dalam are characterised by the 

presence of many saplings, and dense thickets of bamboo and Zingiberaceae. 

10. The burnt areas varied widely in terms of total vegetation cover and tree cover. At some 

sites of repeated burning, total vegetation cover was very low and not more than about 5-10 

%. In all, though, total vegetation cover in the burnt sites averaged at 67%, while that of 

riparian habitats, primary peat swamp and selectively logged peat swamp was close to 

100%. 

11. Tree cover in the non-burnt sites varied from 1-10% in the riparian habitats, and was 90- 

100% in the primary and selectively logged peat swamp sites. Most trees found in the burnt 

areas appeared to be newly established (esp. Alstonia and Macaranga), but it was also 

observed that Mallotus, Combretocarpus and Eugenia species were resprouting from 

previously established and partly charred trunks. Both of the palm species found in burnt 

areas – Licuala paludosa and Pholidocarpus sumatranus – appear able to withstand (limited) 

fires. 

12. In addition to the eventual emergence of s true fire sere, the occurrence of repeated fires 

is expected to lead to the emergence of (seasonal) lake habitats. As peat layers are burnt, it 

will become more and more difficult for peat swamp forest species to establish themselves 

in the degraded areas, as the depth and duration of flooding will become inimical to their 

growth. The emergence of the peat swamp lake habitat can already be observed along the 

Air Hitam Laut, where the only species that can be found in areas that have burnt 

repeatedly (and are deeply flooded) are Pandanus helicopus and Thoracostachyum bancanum. 

13. Although Thailand has little peat swamp forest compared to Malaysia and Indonesia, it 

has the most experience and longest history of peat swamp forest restoration and 

rehabilitation in the region. Some of these efforts date back to more than 40 years, while 

those of the Royal Forest Department date back more than a decade. Examples from 

Vietnam and Malaysia are limited and most consist of trials still at an early stage. There has 

been very little restoration and rehabilitation of peat swamp forests in Indonesia, and the 

few examples available (e.g. Rehabilitation of peatlands and establishment of sustainable agrosystem 

in Central Kalimantan, and IPB’s reforestation of degraded areas for PT Caltex Pacific 

Indonesia in 2002, in the Duri and Minas Oil Field Operation areas in Riau province) are 

little more than trials. Various attempts at replanting degraded peat swamp forest have been 

carried out in and around Berbak NP, but all are small scale and can be regarded as trials 

only: there is no active restoration or rehabilitation programmme ongoing. An exception to 

this is the jelutung and pulai plantation of PT. Dyera Hutan Lestari (PT. DHL), as this 

company has successfully replanted large (albeit monoculture) areas (>1700 ha) – a 

significant achievement given the constraints. Two trial plantings were carried out in 2002 

by the Forestry Department at the burnt area along the Simpang Melaka River in Berbak NP, 

on a 1-ha and on a 5-ha site, using jelutung, pulai and medang. However, both areas had a 

100% mortality rate, probably due to deep, prolonged flooding. CCFPI is carrying out trials 

using mounds (October 2003) to overcome the flooding problem, but these are only just 

being planted at present, and results will not be available until mid-2004. 



14. About 28 species are used in various reforestation and rehabilitation programmes in 

Southeast Asia, and of these, nine species have both been successfully planted and are 

known to occur at Berbak National Park, namely Alstonia pneumatophora (pulai), 

Combretocarpus rotundatus (tanah-tanah), Dyera lowii Ganua motleyana, (jelutung), Gluta wallichii 

(rengas), Gonystylus bancanus (ramin), Macaranga sp. (esp. M. pruinosa - mahang), Palquium sp. 

(nyatoh) and Shorea pauciflora (meranti rawa). During the present survey, the following trees 

and palms were identified as being common in burnt areas, and therefore of interest to 

future restoration programmes in Berbak NP: 

trees: Alstonia pneumatophora, Combretocarpus rotundatus, Elaeocarpus sp.43, Eugenia 

spicata, Eugenia sp.8, Ficus spp., Macaranga pruinosa, Mallotus muticus (also known as 

Coccoceras borneense), Neolamarckia cadamba (‘Nauclea’ sp.47), Pandanus helicopus; 

 

palms: Licuala paludosa and Pholidocarpus sumatranus. 

15. Restoration of the concession areas adjacent Berbak NP is not of primary concern at 

present, but what urgently needs to be done is: 

Immediately halt illegal logging activities in the area. As the main outlet for 

illegally felled timber is PT. PDIW’s rail system, the best option for protection of 

remaining forests is to close and dismantle the rail system (and associated canals) 

as soon as possible. 

Lobby the Ministry of Forestry in Jakarta to prevent the change in status of the area 

from HPT to that of Conversion Forest (the latter is being lobbied by PT. PDIW and 

Local Government). 

Establish a Berbak NP (Taman Nasional) presence in the western half of the Park 

(notably absent at present). 

16. Based on the present assessment of the conditions at Berbak NP, restoration and 

rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp forest at Berbak NP will require the following: 

1. Species identification, of species suitable for restoration programmes. 

2. Site identification. Vast areas (>20,000 ha) in Berbak NP are heavily degraded and all 

degraded sites may potentially be targeted by restoration programmes. However, funds are 

limited, and there are various constraints to such a ‘blanket’ approach, including legal, 

social and physical contraints. These will need to be addressed, followed by the subsequent 

production of a Site Selection Plan. 

3. Trials. Trials should be carried out by the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist, supported 

by 1-2 field assistants, Berbak NP staff, and members of the local community. Trials should 

focus on sourcing, propagation techniques, tending techniques, (coping with changes in) 

hydrology, regular reporting on monitoring and evaluation, and the production of a 

“Manual for restoration/rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp forests’. 

4. Nurseries. At least two new nurseries should be established as soon as possible, one in the 

lower Air Hitam Laut area, the second near the mouth of the Air Hitam Dalam. 

5. Restoration/rehabilitation programme. This is to be based on the site selection plan and 

the outcome of the trials, but will also be strongly dependent on local willingness to 

participate and the availability of funds. More importantly, the current situation in and 

around Berbak NP is not conducive to a large-scale replanting programme, as illegal logging 

is widespread and rampant. This will need to be controlled before any significant 

investment is made in restoration. 



17. As there appears to be a lack of genuine interest by PT. PDIW in peat swamp forest 

restoration, and PDIW also appears to be involved in illegal logging activities in Berbak NP, 

any investment in capacity building of PT. PDIW is considered a waste of scarce funds, 

better spent on other components of the Project. 

18. National Park staff are to be closely involved in the restoration and rehabilitation 

programme, and will be ultimately responsible for implementing the programme beyond 

the life of the Project. Training will mainly be required for establishing and managing the 

two nurseries, to produce material for replanting in Berbak NP; and planting techniques and 

managing replanted areas. 



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ANNEX 

1 Itinerary 


Date Location Activities 

29 September Amsterdam – Jakarta Leave home base at 06:30, flight MH 711 from 

Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur at 12:00. 

30 September Jakarta – Bogor Arrive in Jakarta Cengkareng at 10:30, and in Bogor 

at 12:30. Meeting at Wetlands International – 

Indonesia Programme office from 15:00-17:30. Meet 

and discuss project with Nyoman Suryadiputra and 

Yus Rusila Noor. 

1 October Bogor 08:30 WI-IP meet with Nyoman and Pak Dibyo. 

10:00-11:00 Bogor Herbarium, meet with: 

Herwint Simbolon (research scientist LIPI) to 

discuss regeneration plot monitoring 

Ms. Afriastini (plant taxonomist of herbarium) to 

discuss plant identification 

1:30-14:30 CIFOR, meet with: 

Takeshi Toma (Scientist Rehabilitation of 

Degraded Tropical Forest Ecosystems), discuss 

rehabilitation programme & evaluation study 

Daniel Murdiyarso (Scientist), discuss past 

activities on forest fire programme in 

Jambi/Sumsel 

Tini Gumartini (Research Assistant of TT) 

Nia Sabarniati (Communications Administration) 

2 October Bogor – Jambi Leave Bogor for Cenkareng airport at 07:00; flight 

Mandala 020 to Jambi at 10:50; arrive Jambi 12:00, 

check in at Hotel Tepian Ratu. Meet with Iwan 

Tricahyo Wibisono (Yoyok), responsible for the 

project’s rehabilitation programme. 14:00-15:00, 

Dinas Kehutanan, meet with 

Ir. Gatot Moeryanto (Kepala Dinas) 

15:00-16:00, meet at Taman Nasional, meet with: 

H. Soemarno (Wakil Kepala TN) 

Mr. Rohman Fauzi (field staff Berbak NP) 

3 October Jambi 

Meeting with Yoyok & Pak Farit (TN) 19:30-20:45 to 

discuss field work itinerary, further meetings, and 

student involvement. 

08:30-9:45 meeting at BP-DAS (formerly RLKT): 

Ir. H. Ahriman Ahmed (head) to discuss problems 

associated with reforestation, previously and 

under the current decentralisation programme. 

09:45-10:30 meeting with PUSDALKARHUTLA, met: 

Ir. Joko Fajar Kiswanto (Coordinator) 



4 October Jambi-BNP 

(western section) 

5 October BNP 


6 October BNP 


Mr. O. Soeparman (technical head), to discuss fire 

monitoring programme, and # fires in Berbak NP. 

10:30-11:15 meeting at Bappeda, with: 

Ir. Helbar (MTP), to discuss land use issues in and 

around Berbak NP 

11:30-12:15 meeting at PT Dyera Hutan Lestari, met: 

Mr. Hamri P. Rosera (Director of Production), to 

discuss their jelutung Dyera lowii plantation on 

deep peat near Sungai Aur, along the Batanghari 

River. 

10:00-11:00 meet Ir. Hari Subagyo, Alas Kusuma 

Group (PT Putra Duta Indah Wood). 

12:45 leave Jambi for Suka Berajo, ±60km from Jambi; 

arrive 13:45; take boat (pompong) from there to 

PDIW’s Log Pond Camp located along the Sungei 

Kumpei (10 minute journey). Visit camp nursery. 

Leave camp at 19:00 by logging rail (naik lori) to 

PDIW’s Kem Pembinaan, located 13 km from the Log 

Pond Camp; arrive 20:30. Spend night at Kem 

Pembinaan. Field team = WG, Iwan Tricahyo Wibisono 

& Hendarto (both WI) & Habibi (TNB). 

Leave Kem Pembinaan at 07:00 with a small ketek, 

boatsman is Dawi M. from Pematang Ram; team 

further includes Kadri (PDIW). Survey a number of 

burnt sites, and spend the night at Kem Panjang, a 

location with 6 pondok (huts), about 1.5 km from the 

large burnt area in the BNP core zone. 

07:00: Travel to Simpang “T”, located at the centre of 

the burnt core zone area, and survey burnt sites on 

the way back to Kem Panjang. Stop at Kem Raket for 

lunch and discussion with fishermen and the 

Pemadam Kebakaran TN. Berbak (BNP’s fire-fighting 

team). Spend night at Kem Panjang. 

7 October BNP 

Leave Kem Panjang at 07:15; stop at hydrology 

(western section) transect #3 in ‘intact’ forest (the site is in fact being 

illegally logged); meet up with the hydrology team 

and two Dutch guests (including Henk Wösten, Henk 

Ritzema). Travel to Kem Pembinaan. Visit and survey 

hydrology transects 1 & 2 in afternoon. Spend night 

in Kem Panjang. 

8 October BNP-Jambi 07:30, leave Kem Pembinaan by lori. Visit PDIW’s 

reforestation sites – Acacia crassicarp and rengas – 

on the way to the Log Pond Camp. Arrive at LPC at 

10:00; take boat to Suka Berajo, spend the better part 

of an hour locating a vehicle to take us to Jambi. 

Arrive in Jambi at 12:30; spend night in Abadi Hotel. 



9 October Jambi 09:00-10:00 meeting at Dinas Pertambangan dan 

Energi (Mining & Energy Service); meet with: 

Ir. Akhmad Bakhtiar Amin, Kepala Dinas, to 

discuss possible mining activities in and around 

BNP. 

10:15-11:30, meeting at the KSDA office with 

Aziz Sembiring (ex head of Berbak Wildlife 

Reserve, before it became a NP; now kepala Seksi 

Wilayah 2, Batanghari) & Pak Saring (KSDA) to 

discuss past activities / disturbances in/around 

BNP. 

10 October Jambi-Nipah Panjang 

12:00-13:45: meeting and lunch with the field team to 

prepare/discuss the next field trip. 

Prepare field notes for report. 

By vehicle to Suak Kandis (80 km from centre of 

Jambi township); from there take project speedboat 

to Nipah Panjang. Arrive early afternoon. Arrange 

large boat (pompong) for trip to Air Hitam Laut the 

next day. Discussions with Berbak NP staff (esp. Pak 

Ismail) at the park headquarters. 

11 October Nipah Panjang-Air Leave Nipah Panjang by pompong at 09:00 (awaiting 

Hitam Laut-Simpang incoming tide), arrive at Air Hitam Laut at 14:15. 

Melaka 

Meet with Kepala Desa to discuss itinerary. Meet with 

BNP Air Hitam Laut Resort staff (including Ponimon, 

Farit). Move on to Simpang Melaka to spend the 

night (some on the boat, some in the pos jaga / 

guardpost). 

12 October Simpang Melaka Survey of the burnt areas along the Simpang Melaka, 

the riverine forest, and the trial planting areas of the 

Forestry Department. Spend night as on 11 October. 

13 October Simpang Melaka-Air Survey of burnt areas along the Air Hitam Laut in the 

Hitam Laut 

direction of Simpang Kubu.Return to Air Hitam Laut 

village in the late afternoon – spend the night at the 

‘Resort’ office. 

14 October Air Hitam Laut-Nipah Leave Air Hitam Laut by pompong at 06:00; arrive at 

Panjang-Jambi 

Nipah Panjang at 11:00. Visit the Berbak NP office. 

Travel back to Jambi by speedboat, arriving midafternoon. 

15 October Jambi Morning: field note compilation + meeting with 

Yoyok. 

Afternoon: meeting from 14:30-15:30 with: 

Istanto (Kepala Balai TN Berbak), and 

Indra Arinal (WI-IP Sumatra Site Coordinator for 

the CCFPI project), to discuss changes Berbak NP. 

Late afternoon meeting with Agus (University of 

Jambi, Hydology Department) to discuss drying of 

herbarium samples at their laboratory. 



16 October Jambi-Air Hitam 

Dalam 

08:30 leave for Air Hitam Dalam by speedboat. Visit 

PT Dyera Hutan Lestari; meet with manager Mr. 

Bambang Handoko; discuss management issues, and 

visit the nursery. Head for AHD; visit new BNP AHD 

resort (under construction); survey riparian section of 

AHD. Spend night at DHL field station. 

17 October Air Hitam Dalam – Leave for AHD at 07:00; travel by sampan and survey 

Jambi 

burnt areas. Return to DHL at 14:00. Visit jelutung 

plantation with field operations manager, Mr. Tulus. 

Leave for Jambi at 16:00, arriving at 18:30. Spend 

evening handling herbarium samples. 

18 October Jambi – Bogor Morning: work on field notes and produce photo CDs 

of Berbak NP for Yoyok and Mr. Istanto, head of TN. 

Meet with Pak Nyoman (WI-IP) at 13:30-14:00. Join 

CCFPI evaluation workshop from 14:00-16:00. Leave 

for Jakarta via Merpati at 17:40, arriving 19:00. Arrive 

in Bogor at 21:00. 

19 October Bogor Treat herbarium samples with methylated spirits. 

Work on field notes, and draft outline for final 

report. 

20 October Bogor Visit Herbarium Bogoriense to submit herbarium 

samples from Berbak NP. Work on draft report at 

Wetlands International office. Return to herbarium in 

afternoon to collect dried samples of specimens to be 

identified by the consultant. 

21 October Bogor Identification of subset of herbarium samples at the 

Wetlands International office, using flora’s available 

at the office (e.g. Flora Malesiana). Work on draft 

report. 

22 October Bogor Works on draft report at the Wetlands International 

office. Visit Bogor Herbarium; check specimens and 

leave note on which priority species to concentrate on 

for identifcation. 

23 October Bogor Early morning: work on report. Rest of day = leave. 

24 October Bogor Leave. 

25 October Bogor-JKT-Kuala Meeting with Faizal Parish (Global Environment 

Lumpur 

Center) from 09:00-10:00. Leave for airport at 10:15. 

Flight to Kuala Lumpur (MH720) at 15:00. Arrive at KL 

at 18:00; work on report until 22:00. Flight MH 016 to 

AMS leaves at 23:45. 


ANNEX 2 


2 Site survey results: relevees 



ANNEX 2. 

Site survey results: relevees 

Relevee Sites 

Family 

Species 

Coll. Local name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum ? + 

Anacardiaceae Campnosperma auriculata terentang + + + + 

Anacardiaceae Gluta renghas rengas + 

Anacardiaceae Gluta wallichi 

rengas (manuk) 

+ + + + + + 

mangga 

Anacardiaceae Mangifera foetida 

hutan + 

Annonaceae ? pisang-pisang + + 

Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora pulai + + + + + + ++ + 

Apocynaceae Cerbera odollam ? + 

Apocynaceae Dyera lowii jelutung + + + + 

Apocynaceae Palaquium sp. balam + 

Araceae Lasia spinosa ? + + 

Araliaceae Schefflera sp. + 

Arecaceae Calamus sp. rotan + + 

Arecaceae Caryota mitis ? + 

Arecaceae Eleiodoxa (Salacca) conferta asem payau + 

Arecaceae Korthalsia ?flagellaria rotan + + + + 

Arecaceae Licuala paludosa palas + + ++ ++ 

Arecaceae Pinanga salicifolia #29 ? + + + 

Arecaceae Oncosperma horridum ? + 

Arecaceae Oncosperma tigillaria nibung + 

Arecaceae Pholidocarpus sumatranus liran + + + 


Family Species Coll. Local name 

Asclepiadaceae Dischidia nummularia ? + + 

Aspleniaceae Asplenium nidus ? + 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Asteraceae Mikania micrantha ? + 

Asteraceae Crassocephalum crepidioides #68 ? + 

Asteraceae Emilia sonchifolia #69 ? + 

Bambusidae Gigantochloa sp. #62 bambu + ++ + 

Blechnaceae Blechnum indicum #12 pakis + ++ + ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ 

Blechnaceae Stenochlaena palustris pakis ++ ++ + +++ ++ ++ + +++ +++ ++ +++ ++ +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ 

Bombaceae Durio carinatus 

durian 

burung + + 

kedondong 

Burseraceae ? 

hutan + 

Clusiaceae Garcinia sp. asem-asem + + + + 

Combretaceae Terminalia catappa ketapang + 

Connaraceae Connarus sp. #32 ? ++ 

Cyperaceae Cyperus halpan ? + + 

Mapania cuspidata var. 

Cyperaceae cuspidata #63 ? + 

Cyperaceae Rhynchospora corymbosa #35 ? + 

Cyperaceae Scirpus grossus ? + 

Cyperaceae Scleria purpurascens #14+15 ? ++ ++ + + + ++ + + + + 

Cyperaceae Scleria sumatrana #13 ? + 

Cyperaceae Scleria terrestris #19 ? + + 

Cyperaceae Thoracostachyum bancanum ? +++ + + + + + + + 

Cyperaceae Thoracostachyum sumatranum ? + ++ ++ + + ++ + + 

Final draft ARCADIS 96 

Relevee Sites



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Dilleniaceae Dillenia serrata + + 

Dilleniaceae Dillenia excelsa #55 simpur + + 

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea palembanica #59 gelabak + 

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea pauciflora meranti rawa + + + 

Ebenaceae Diospyros sp. #58 kayu hitam + + 

Ebenaceae Diospyros siamang #18 arang-arang + + + + + + + 

Euphorbiaceae Aleurites moluccana kemiri + 

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus palembanicus #43 ? + 

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus petiolatus #23 ? + ++ + + + 

Euphorbiaceae Bridelia stipularis #51 + 

Euphorbiaceae Croton caudatus #52 + 

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa #6 mahang 

mahang 

sarang 

+ + + ++ + ++ ++ + + + 

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga cf. semiglobosa #17 semut 

sarang 

+ + + + 

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga motleyana #66 semut + ++ + 

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus muticus (Coccoceras borneensperupuk + + + + + + 

Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia rukam rukam + + 

Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica ? + + + + 

Flagellariaceae Hanguana malayana bakung + ++ + ++ 

Gleicheniaceae Dicranopteris linearis #33 ++ +++ 

Hypericaceae Cratoxylon ?arborescens gerongang + 

Hypolepidaceae Pteridium aquilinum ? + + 

Icacinaceae Stemonurus secundifolius pasir-pasir + 

Lauraceae ? medang + + 

Lecythidaceae Barringtonia reticulata #31 putat + + + + + + 


Relevee Sites



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa #57 putat + 

Leguminosae Archidendron clypearia ? + + 

Leguminosae Derris heterophylla #30 ? + 

Leguminosae Derris tetraphylla #60 

kacangkacang 

+ 

Leguminosae Koompassia malaccensis kempas + 

Lentibulariaceae Utricularia exoleta ? + + 

Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa bungur + 

Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus waru + 

Malvaceae Thespesia populnea waru + 

Marantaceae Donax canaeformis #67 berembang + + 

Melastomaceae Medinilla ?motleyi #7 ? + + + + 

Melastomaceae Melastoma affine harendong + 

Melastomaceae Melastoma malabathricum harendong + + + ++ + + + ++ 

Melastomaceae Memecylon myrsinoides #40 + 

Moraceae Artocarpus elasticus terap + + 

Moraceae Ficus deltoidea #27+28ara + + + + 

Moraceae Ficus globosa #24 ara + + 

Moraceae Ficus microcarpa beringin + 

Moraceae Ficus sumatrana ara + 

Moraceae Ficus sundaica #41 ara + 

Moraceae Ficus sp. 1 ara + + 

Moraceae Ficus sp. 2 #45 ara + 

Moraceae Poikilospermum suaveolens #9 arah hantu + + + + 

Moraceae Poikilospermum scortechinii #61 ? + 

Myristicaceae Myristica iners #56 ? + + 

Myristicaceae ? ? + 


Relevee Sites



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata temasaman + + + + + + + + + 

Myrtaceae Eugenia sp.2 ? + 

Myrtaceae Syzygium cerina #8 ? + + + + + + + + + + + 

Myrtaceae Syzygium setosa #20 ? + 

Myrtaceae Syzygium zippelianum #39 ? + 

Nepenthaceae Nepenthes mirabilis ? + + 

NephrolepidaceaeNephrolepis biserrata #34 pakis ++ + + + + + 

Ochnaceae Brackenridgea palustris #37 

?arangarang 

+ 

Pandanaceae Freycinetia sp. ? + + + 

Pandanaceae Pandanus helicopus rasau ++ ++ + +++ + + + +++ + 

Poaceae Hymenachne acutigluma #11 ++ + ++ +++ ++ 

Poaceae Imperata cylindrica alang-alang +++ ++ 

Poaceae Paspalum conjugatum #10 ++ +++ ++ + 

Poaceae Phragmites karka ? ++ 

Poaceae Saccharum spontaneum gelagah + 

Polygonaceae Polygonum barbatum ? + 

Polypodaceae Drynaria quercifolia ? + 

eceng 

Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes 

gondok + 

Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum piai + + 

Rhamnaceae Zizyphus calophylla #70 + + + 

Rhizophoraceae Carallia brachiata tenggeris + 

Rhizophoraceae Combretocarpus rotundatus #16 tanah-tanah + + ++ 

Rosaceae Parastemon urophyllum malas + 

Rubiaceae Gardenia tubifera #46 asem-asem + 

Rubiaceae Ixora blumei #36 kopi-kopi + ++ + + 


Relevee Sites



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Rubiaceae Morinda philippensis #4 ? + + + 

Rubiaceae Mussaendopsis beccariana #53 + 

Rubiaceae Neolamarckia cadamba bengkal + + ++ + 

Rubiaceae Psychotria montensis ? + + + 

Rubiaceae Timonius flavescens #26 ? + 

Rubiaceae Uncaria glabrata #3 akar elang + + + + + + + + + + + 

Rutaceae Acronychia porteri #2 + 

Rutaceae Evodia aromatica #21 + + + + 

Sapindaceae Pometia pinnata matoa + 

Sapotaceae Ganua motleyana #49 + 

Schizaceae Lygodium microphyllum ? + ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ 

Theaceae Thea sp. #64 + 

Theaceae Tetramerista glabra punak + + 

Thymelaeaceae Gonystylus bancanus ramin + + 

Verbenaceae Premna ?corymbosa ? + 

Verbenaceae Teysmanniodendron hollrungii #54 ? + + + 

Verbenaceae Teysmanniodendron pteropodum#65+5 gak + + + 

Verbenaceae Teysmanniodendron simplicifolium ? + 

Vitaceae Cayratia trifolia ? + 

Vitaceae Tetrastigma lanceolarium #50 ? + 

Zingiberaceae Nicolaia speciosa #72 puak + + 

?Rubiaceae ? #38 + 

#42 kacang-kacang + 

medang seluang + + 

pagar + 

TOTAL number of species: 2 9 11 19 18 13 3 18 28 14 24 13 21 15 13 17 12 19 68 27 27 


Relevee Sites


site 1 burnt area, 3 km upstream of BNP boundary 

5 October 

site 2 riparian zone, between 1 and 3, along river 

5 October 

site 3 burnt area, large area within BNP, several km upstream of border 

5 October 

site 4 riparian zone, along AHL in burnt core zone 

6 October 

site 5 burnt area Simpang T 

6 October 

site 6 2nd site in burnt core, 2 km southwest of Simpang T 

6 October 

site 7 Simpang Raket burnt area (part of core area) 

6 October 

site 8 IF#1 (first hydrology transect, in undisturbed forest) (NOTE: not exhaustive survey) 

7 October 

site 9 IF#2 (second hydrology transect, in selectively logged forest) 

7 October 

site 10 IF#3 (third hydrology transect, in logged and burnt area) 

7 October 

site 11 burnt and regrown area between two PDIW camps 

8 October 

site 12 Simpang Melaka 1 12 October 

st burnt area on eastern bank 

site 13 riparian zone, along Simpang Melaka river in burnt area 

12 October 

site 14 about 1 km (from SE) into large burnt area along Simpang Melaka 

12 October 

site 15 5 ha replanting trial area in middle of burnt area along Simpang Melaka 

12 October 

site 16 burnt area Air Hitam Laut, east bank, 3 km into large burnt area approached from downstream side (coast) 13 October 

site 17 riparian zone, along AHL river in large burnt area 

13 October 

site 18 burnt area Air Hitam Laut, west bank, 2 km into large burnt area approached from downstream side (coast) 13 October 

site 19 riparian zone along the Air Hitam Dalam 16-17 October 

site 20 first large area on east bank, burnt in 1997 17 October 

site 21 first area on west bank burnt in 1994 (closer to Batanghari than site 20) 17 October 


ANNEX 


3 Summary of site characteristics 

%tree 

vegetation 

site # type of site 

degraded peatswamp 

cover cover burning soil flooding 

1 forest 0* 40-50 repeated deep peat deep 

2 riparian habitat 

degraded peatswamp 

1 100 edge effects mineral? very deep 

3 forest

ANNEX 4 Bird observations 



ANNEX 4. 

Bird observations at 

Berbak NP, 

October 2003 

No. 

Species* 

Common name* 


Date of Approximate 

observation (-s) location*** 

Habitat type Primary food source 

(peat-) 

Degraded Fish, Insects & 

swamp- 

/ burnt amphibians, other Fruit & 

forest Riparian habitat crustaceans invertebrates seeds Other 

1 Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher 5, 12 October AHLhulu/ hilir + + 

2 Alcedo meninting Blue-eared Kingfisher 5 October AHL hulu + + + 

3 Anhinga melanogaster Oriental Darter 7 October AHL hulu + + 

4 Anthracoceros albirostris Oriental Pied Hornbill 5 October AHL hulu + + 

5 Anthracoceros malayanus Asian Black Hornbill 11,12 October AHL hilir, SM + + 

6 Ardea purpurea Purple Heron 5,6,13 October AHL hulu, hilir + + 

7 Artamus leucorhynchus White-breasted Wood-Swallow 6 October AHL hulu + + + 

8 Butorides striatus Striated Heron 7,13 October AHL hulu, hilir + + 

9 Cairina scutulata White-winged Duck 13, 16 October SM confl.; AHD + + + 

10 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal 12 October SM hilir + + + 

11 Chloropsis venusta Blue-masked Leafbird 7 October AHL hulu + (+) + 

12 Ciconia stormi** Storms Stork 17 October AHD + + + + 

13 Collocalia fuciphaga Edible-nest Swiftlet 10 October AHL hilir, SM + + + 

14 Copsychus saularis Magpie Robin 5,12 October AHL hulu, SM + + + + 

15 Corvus enca Slender-billed Crow 6 October AHL hulu + + 

16 Cymbirhynchus macrorhync Black-and-red Broadbill 16 October AHD + + + 

17 Dicrurus hottentottus Hair-crested Drongo 5 October AHL hulu + + 

18 Dicrurus paradiseus Greater Racket-tailed Drongo 6 October AHL hulu + + + 

19 Dryocopus javensis White-bellied Woodpecker 12,13 October SM, AHL hilir + + + + 

20 Ducula aenea Green Imperial-Pigeon 11 October AHL hilir, SM + + 

21 Eurystomus orientalis Dollarbird daily most locations (+) + + 

22 Gracula religiosa Hill myna 12 October SM + + + + 



Habitat type 

Primary 

Primary food source 

(peat-) 

Degraded Fish, Insects & 

Date of Approximate swamp- 

/ burnt amphibians, other Fruit & 

No. Species* Common name* 

observation (-s) 

location*** forest Riparian habitat crustaceans invertebrates seeds Other 

23 Halcyon smyrnensis White-throated Kingfisher 5 October AHL hulu + + 

24 Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite 6 October AHL hulu + + + + 

25 Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow 6 October AHL hulu + + + 

26 Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch 17 October AHD + + 

27 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus Grey-headed Fish-Eagle 6,13,17 October AHL hulu, hilir + + + + 

28 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bittern 12 October SM hilir + + + 

29 Ketupa ketupa Buffy Fish-Owl 12 October SM hilir + + 

30 Leptoptilos javanicus** Lesser Adjutant 6 October AHL hulu + + + + 

31 Loriculus galgulus Blue-crowned Hanging-Parrot 12 October AHL hilir, SM + + + + 

32 Megalaima rafflesii Red-crowned Barbet 7 October AHL hulu + + + 

33 Merops philippinus Blue-tailed Bee-Eater daily most locations (+) + + 

34 Microhierax fringillarius Black-thighed Falconet 6 October AHL hulu + + + + 

35 Muscicapa sp. Flycatcher 5,6 October AHL hulu + + + 

36 Nectarinia sp. Sunbird 13 October SM confluence + + + 

37 Pelargopsis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher 5 October AHL hulu + + + 

38 Psittacula longicauda Long-tailed Parakeet 11 October most locations + + + + 

39 Pycnonotus simplex Cream-vented Bulbul 13 October SM confluence + (+) + 

40 Rhinomyias sp. Jungle-Flycatcher 7 October AHL hulu + + 

41 Rhipidura javanica Pied Fantail 5,7,12 October AHL hulu, SM (+) + + 

42 Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent-Eagle 6,12 October AHL hulu, SM + + + + 

43 Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove 6,7 October AHL hulu + + + 

44 Todirhamphus chloris Collared Kingfisher 13 October AHL hilir + + 

45 Treron sp. Green-Pigeon daily most locations + + 

* names follow MacKinnon & Phillipps (1993); **observed flying overhead; ***AHL = Air Hitam Laut; AHD= Air Hitam Dalam; SM = Simpang Melaka 


ANNEX 5 


5 Species common in burnt areas 


ANNEX 5. 

Plant species common in 

burnt areas 

Family Species 

Habit Coll. Local name 


Relevee Sites 

times 

1 3 5 6 7 10 11 12 14 15 16 18 20 21 observed 

Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora tree pulai + + + ++ + 5 

Arecaceae Licuala paludosa palm palas + + ++ 3 

Arecaceae Pholidocarpus sumatranus palm liran + + + 3 

Bambusidae Gigantochloa sp. shrub #62 bambu + ++ + 3 

Blechnaceae Blechnum indicum fern #12 pakis + ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ 6 

Blechnaceae Stenochlaena palustris climbing fern pakis ++ + +++ ++ + +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ 13 

Cyperaceae Scleria purpurascens sedge #14+15 ? ++ ++ + + + ++ + + + 9 

Cyperaceae Thoracostachyum bancanum sedge ? +++ + + + + 5 

Cyperaceae Thoracostachyum sumatranum sedge ? + ++ + + + 5 

Ebenaceae Diospyros siamang tree #18 arang-arang + + + + + 5 

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus petiolatus tree #23 ? ++ + + 3 

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa tree #6 mahang + + ++ + ++ ++ + + 8 

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus muticus (Coccoceras tree perupuk + + + + + 5 

Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica climber ? + + + 3 

Melastomaceae Melastoma malabathricum shrublet harendong + + + ++ + + ++ 7 

Moraceae Ficus spp. tree, climber many ara + + + 3 

Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata tree temasaman + + + 3 

Myrtaceae Syzygium cerina tree #8 ? + + + + + + + + 8 

Pandanaceae Pandanus helicopus small tree rasau ++ + + + 4 

Poaceae Hymenachne acutigluma grass #11 ++ + +++ ++ 4 

Poaceae Paspalum conjugatum grass #10 ++ +++ ++ + 4 

Rhizophoraceae Combretocarpus rotundatus tree #16 tanah-tanah + + ++ 3 

Rubiaceae Morinda philippensis climber #4 ? + + + 3 

Rubiaceae Uncaria glabrata climber #3 ? + + + + + + + 7 

Rubiaceae Ixora blumei tree #36 kopi-kopi + ++ + 3 

Rubiaceae Neolamarckia cadamba tree bengkal + + ++ + 4 

Schizaceae Lygodium microphyllum climbing fern ? + ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ 8 


ANNEX 


6 Terms of reference for SRS 

The Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist (SRS) is to be responsible for the development of 

the peat swamp forest restoration and rehabilitation programme at Berbak NP, the 

supervision of support staff and students involved in this programme, and close 

coordination of these activities with Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme in 

Bogor and Berbak NP administration in Jambi. 

Specifically, the SRS will focus on: 

1. Species identification. Species suitable for restoration programmes at Berbak have already 

been identified and are being used by locally based companies and projects (e.g. PT.PDIW, 

PT. DHL, CCFPI). Some additional species have also been identified by Giesen (2003), but 

this needs to be refined to identify further additional species suitable for restoration and 

rehabilitation. This will be continued by two Dutch students who are scheduled to carry out 

an ecological study in the first quarter of 2004, focusing on natural regeneration process in 

burnt areas. Two Indonesian students are to focus on modes of seed dispersal – this will also 

help identify which areas may restore unassisted under natural circumstances, or at least 

understand the underlying processes. The SRS will supervise these student activities, and 

following these studies, identify a final selection of species. This is to be reported in a 

progress report. A reference herbarium collection is to be established by the SRS, supported 

by the students; this should be made at least in duplicate, with one set sent to Bogor 

Herbaium for identification, and a second set retained in Jambi. The latter should be 

transferred to Berbak NP (Jambi hq) after the project has been finalised. 

2. Site identification. Vast areas (>20,000 ha) in Berbak NP are heavily degraded and all 

degraded sites may potentially be targeted by restoration programmes. However, funds are 

limited, and there are various constraints to such a ‘blanket’ approach. 

2.1 Legal constraints. Restoration programmes are currently not permitted in the central 

core zone of Berbak NP (along the Air Hitam Laut). Secondly, planting of useful NTFP 

species in restoration programmes (for later use by local communities involved in 

restoration) is also not permitted. These issues are being addressed by Berbak NP staff in 

Jambi, and Taman Nasional in Jakarta. The SRS is to liaise with BNP administration on this 

matter, and report on developments in progress reports. 

2.2 Social limitations. Restoration programmes at Berbak NP will be impossible to 

implement without active participation of the local communities, as Taman Nasional does 

not have the staff or resources to implement planting, and local community support is 

required to ensure that replanted areas are well tended. Once sites are selected on a physical 

basis (see 2.3), the SRS is to hold discussion with local community representatives to identify 

villagers’ willingness to participate. Berbak NP staff are also to be involved in these 

discussions as much as possible, and the outcome is to be reported on in progress reports. 



2.3 Physical constraints. Not all degraded areas are equally suitable for restoration. Some 

sites may be able to regenerate naturally (e.g. due to proximity of natural forest), while some 

are so degraded and deeply flooded that significant investments are required (e.g. very tall 

mounds) for restoration. One of the outputs of the Dutch student project will be a decision 

support system to guide the selection process, based on physical criteria. The Indonesian 

students are to focus on modes of seed dispersal – this will also help identify which areas 

may restore unassisted under natural circumstances. The SRS is to supervise these student 

activities in the field. 

2.4 Site selection plan. Once a), b) and c) are completed or have been clarified, a site selection 

plan may be developed by the Silviculture/Rehabilitation Specialist, together with Berbak 

NP staff. This plan should focus on high priority areas first (high value, high chance of 

success) and be realistic:, i.e. being aware that not all areas can be restored, and operating 

within the budgetary, time and human constraints. 

3. Trials. These can and should be carried out by the SRS parallel to 1 and 2, as information 

and experience regarding the performance of species, planting and tending techniques is 

urgently required. Support for implementation of these trials will be provided by 2 field 

assistants (to be recruited b y the SRS), Berbak NP staff, and members of the local 

community. Trials should focus on: 

a. Sourcing. Identification of suitable sites/populations for sourcing seeds, fruits, 

cuttings of each species to be used in planting trials. 

b. Propagation techniques, both in nurseries and for planting in the field: 

c. 

with/without clearing, using various levels of fertiliser application, various forms 

of shading, etc… 

Tending: determining which level of tending is required once seedlings have been 

planted in the field 

d. Hydrology. Trials using various mound levels relative to maximum flooding need 

to be carried out to determine an optimum mound level (for each species; see 4.4). 

e. Regular reporting on monitoring and evaluation. Trial planting to be carried out in 

readily accessible and tended areas, which are to be regularly evaluated and 

reported on, so that timely adjustments in techniques can be carried out. 

f. Apart from evaluation reports, one of the main outcomes of the trials is to be a 

“Manual for restoration/rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp forests”, that 

includes guidelines on silvicultural techniques, species selection and propagation, 

and site selection. This is to be produced by the Silviculture/ Rehabilitation 

Specialist in draft form by July 2004, and finalised by the end of November 2004. 

4. Nurseries. Two new nurseries are to be established as soon as possible for 

restoration/rehabilitation programmes, namely: a) near the newly refurbished National 

Park resort office near the mouth of the Air Hitam Dalam, and b) in the lower course of the 

Air Hitam Laut, between Air Hitam Laut village and the park border. The SRS is to begin 

with site selection as soon as possible, together with Berbak NP administration, and 

involving local community representatives. The nurseries will need to be established in 

areas that are not subject to prolonged, deep flooding (although some flooding would be 

permissible), and should be able to eventually increase to a size of about 1-2 ha. 

NP staff are to be provided on-the-job training in nursery establishment, management and 

propagation techniques, and are to be involved from the beginning. Training should be 



provided intensively during nursery establishment, and intermittently thereafter to solve 

possible problems encountered. It should be made clear from the beginning that the 

nurseries are to be fully transferred to Berbak NP administration at the end of the project, 

and BNP commitment should be verified early in this process. Local community members 

should be recruited for planting trials and eventual replanting programmes. 

The SRS will be responsible for supervision of site preparation, and the pruchase of 

equipment and materials required. E.g., netting will be required for shading, along with 

plastic sheeting for establishing beds, polybags, trays, soil for planting medium, fertiliser 

and labels. A small boat (ketek) will be required (at each nursery) for obtaining propagules, 

and for transport of seedlings during trials. The SRS is to draft a section on propagation 

techniques and nursery establishment and management; this is to be included in the manual 

mentioned in 3.f. 

5. Restoration/rehabilitation programme. This programme is to be drafted by the SRS 

towards the end of the project, with a draft completed by the end of October 2004, and a 

final draft programme ready by December 2004. This programme is to be based on the site 

selection plan and the outcome of the trials, but will also be strongly dependent on local 

willingness to participate and the availability of funds. 


ANNEX 

PHOTO 1. 

Primary swamp forest along 

the Simpang Melaka 

PHOTO 2. 

Primary swamp forest along 

the Air Hitam Dalam is at 

least twice as rich in species 

as the Air Hitam Laut and 

Simpang Melaka forests 


7 Photographic summary 


PHOTO 3. 

The orchid Vanda 

hookeriana, which occurs 

naturally in Hanguana 

malayan and Pandanus 

helicopus dominated 

swamps, used to be fairly 

common, but due to the 

disappearance of much of 

this primary habitat it has 

become quite rare. 

PHOTO 4. 

Teijsmanniodendron 

hollrungii (Verb.) is an 

uncommon tree species of 

swamp and riverine 

habitats. At Berbak NP it is 

found in the Air Hitam 

Dalam area. 



PHOTO 5. 

Latex of jelutung Dyera 

lowii is collected from trees 

and allowed to harden in 

large box-like molds. It is 

sold on the regional market 

in these 20kg blocks (photo 

taken along Air Hitam Laut). 

Virtually all jelutung is 

derived from wild trees, 

which are becoming scarce 

as primary forests disappear 

and unsustainable tapping 

procedures are used. 

PHOTO 6. 

Many fisherfolk live in 

Berbak NP, at least on a 

temporary basis. Large 

catfish (Wallago) and 

snakehead fish (Channa) are 

kept in cages for sale to 

traders as fresh fish. 



PHOTO 7. 

Sawn timber poached from 

Berbak NP is transported out 

of the western part of the 

Park via the rail and lorry 

system of PT. Putra Duta 

Indah Wood. Each day large 

quantities were observed 

being taken along this 

route. Depicted is where the 

rail crosses the Air Hitam 

Laut, near PT PDIW’s field 

camp. 

PHOTO 8. 

Rafts of sawn timber 

poached in Berbak NP along 

the Air Hitam Dalam, were 

observed being taken out of 

the area. 



PHOTO 9. 

At least 17,000 ha of swamp 

forest in Berbak NP has 

burnt during the past 

decade, such as here along 

the upper reaches of the Air 

Hitam Laut. Almost all of 

this appears to be linked to 

illegal logging in the Park. 

PHOTO 10. 

Repeatedly burnt areas are 

deeply flooded during the 

wet season, and the only 

species that survive are the 

sedge Thoracostachyum 

bancanum, and Pandanus 

helicopus (background), 

depicted here along the 

upper reaches of the Air 

Hitam Laut. 



PHOTO 11. 

The Air Hitam Laut is 

blocked by a very dense 

growth of floating bakung 

Hanguana malayana, along 

much of its length, from 

Simpang T (depicted here) 

to Simpang Kubu. It is 

virtually impassible for 

boats. 

PHOTO 12. 

Regrowth of the large 

central burnt area along the 

Air Hitam Laut, here near 

Simpang T. Note the small 

size of the still standing 

trunks, the undergrowth of 

Imperata cylindrica, and the 

surviving palm liran 

Pholidocarpus sumatranus. 



PHOTO 13. 

Secondary vegetation on a 

burnt area along the 

Simpang Melaka. Note the 

young pulai Alstonia 

pneumatophora in the 

foreground, along with 

mahang Macaranga 

pruinosa (back left) and 

climbing fern Stenochlaena 

palustris (back right). 

PHOTO 14. 

Secondary vegetation on a 

burnt area along the Air 

Hitam Dalam. Note the 

profuse growth of wild 

gingers (Nicolaia speciosa) 

to the left, and mahang 

Macaranga motleyana to 

the right. 



PHOTO 15. 

Lareg amounts of 

combustible material remain 

in some former peat swamp 

forest areas affected by fire. 

This hinders recovery, but 

also forms a major threat as 

the danger of future fires 

looms ahead. 

PHOTO 16. 

A very dense cover of ferns – 

here mainly Stenochlaena 

palustris, but also Blechnum 

indicum and Nephrolepis 

biserrata – competes for 

space with shrubs and trees 

and may prevent recovery 

processes. 



PHOTO 17. 

PT. Putra Duta Indah Wood’s 

nursery at Suka Berajo 

camp. A second nursery is 

located at Kem Pembinaan - 

the field camp. Indigenous 

species are grown, along 

with some local garden 

species. Activities in this area 

are small-scale, certainly 

compared to reforestation 

efforts required. 

PHOTO 18. 

Planting of renghas Gluta 

wallichii along the central 

part of PT. PDIW’s rail 

system. The approach used 

by PDIW is one whereby 

water tables are lowered by 

means of drainage ditches 

prior to planting. This is 

inappropriate and adds to 

the risk of future fires in the 

area. 



PHOTO 19. 

PT. Dyera Hutam Lestari’s 

nursery along the 

Batanghari River, between 

Suak Kandis and Sungai 

Rambut. Grown are mainly 

jelutung Dyera lowii and 

pulai Alstonia 

pneumatophora. The 

nursery is large, efficient 

and of an apprpriate scale. 

PHOTO 20. 

PT. Dyera Hutan Lestari’s 12year 

old jelutung plantation 

on deep peat – a former 

peat swamp forest area. 

Growth is good, and latext 

has been tapped on an 

experimental basis. The 

greatest threat is form by 

fire escaping from adjacent 

areas – two such events over 

the past decade have wiped 

out much of what has been 

invested in this otheriwse 

very successful operation. 



PHOTO 21. 

Berbak NP’s forest fire 

fighting unit (Tim Pemadam 

Kebakaran) seen here 

training at Simpang Raket, 

along the upstream part of 

large burnt area along the 

Air Hitam Laut. Although 

perhaps effective at 

managing a small fire that 

has just been detected, this 

approach is likely to be 

totally ineffective in 

managing large fires that 

have ravaged the Park 

during the past decade. 

PHOTO 22. 

In 2002, Berbak NP staff 

carried out two trial 

reforestation efforts in 

burnt areas along the 

Simpang Melaka, one 

covering 5ha, the other 2ha, 

using Alstonia, Dyera and 

‘medang’. Mortality of 

planted seedlings was 

observed to be 100%, 

possibly due to planting just 

prior to a prolonged period 

deep flooding. 



PHOTO 23. 

In peat swamp and 

freshwater swamp forests, 

many trees appear to thrive 

best on natural mounds, 

such as here in swamp forest 

along the upper Air Hitam 

Laut. Reforestation trials 

carried out in Thailand show 

that growth rates can be 

twice as high on artificial 

mounds, but are relatively 

expensive. 

PHOTO 24. 

Artificial mound contructed 

in a burnt peat swamp area 

in Berbak NP, along the 

upper part of the Air Hitam 

Laut, under the CCFPI 

project. 50-cm high mounds 

are constructed on the 

highest points in the 

microtopography. These are 

to be planted with 

indigenous peat swamp 

forest tree species once 

water levels drop. 



PHOTO 25. 

Combretocarpus rotundatus 

(tanah-tanah) is a promising 

species for restoration of 

disturbed peat swamp 

forest, as it is fire tolerant, 

grows relatively fast, and 

readily produces large 

amounts of seeds. 

PHOTO 26. 

Another promising species 

for peat swamp forest 

restoration is Mallotus 

muticus (perupuk, a.k.a. 

Coccoceras bornensis). This 

species produces typical 

pneumatophores, and like 

tanah-tanah it is fire 

tolerant. 



PHOTO 27. 

Species of Eugenia (a.k.a 

Syzygium) often rapidly 

colonise disturbed and burnt 

areas. Fruits float and are 

easily dispersed by 

floodwaters. Also, many 

fruits are also eaten by birds 

and mammals which also 

adds to dispersal. 

PHOTO 28. 

Pulai Alstonia 

pneumatophora was found 

to be one of the first 

colonising species found in 

burnt areas. Pulai trees 

produce large amounts of 

seed, which are small, fluffy 

and easily dispersed by wind 

over long distances. The tree 

itself grows rapidly, and may 

be one of the tallest swamp 

forest emergents. 



PHOTO 29. 

The robust sedge 

Thoracostachyum 

sumatranum is one of the 

main herb species that 

rapidly colonises burnt 

areas. 

PHOTO 30. 

The fern Stenochlaena 

palustris occurs in both peat 

and freshwater swamp 

forests, where it may form a 

dense ondergrowth or 

adopt a climbing habit. 

Dense, prolific growth of 

this species may slow down 

the recovery of peat swamp 

forest if it outcompetes 

trees and shrubs. On the 

other hand it also reduces 

evaporation and lowers 

temperatures, lowering the 

fire risk.

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