Myanmar Protected Areas: Context, Current Status ... - Istituto Oikos

Myanmar Protected Areas 

Context, Current Status and Challenges

In memory of U Uga 

Forewords 


We, at the European Union, have been fully committed to environmental protection and conservation. 

Our engagement principles are embedded in the European Union Consensus on Development published 

in 2005 that outlines our support for biodiversity conservation, water and energy supply as well as the 

fight against climate change. 

Environmental protection underpins sustainable development, the more so in a country as Burma/ 

Myanmar where large parts of the population rely on natural resources for their food, shelter and energy 

needs. The world’s poorest are those directly dependent on natural resources for their daily survival 

and therefore most vulnerable to environmental hazards. This is why the European Union has made 

the protection and sustainable management of natural resources a priority in its poverty reduction 

policies. 

In Burma/Myanmar, a key instrument for cooperation has been the Non State Actors (NSA) Programme. 

The overall objective of the NSA programme is to support the emergence of civil society organizations 

and enable them to fight poverty across a range of sectors such as education, health and livelihoods. The 

project “Strengthening environmental NGOs in Burma/Myanmar” implemented jointly by Istituto Oikos 

and BANCA was the first environment initiative funded by the European Union under this programme. 

Sound environmental conservation is only effective if based on accurate data and analysis on the 

state of the environment. This project was a wonderful opportunity to build the knowledge base on 

biodiversity resources while, at the same time, building capacity for better data collection and analysis. 

In 2009-2010, the project brokered information exchange among 24 local environmental organisations, 

and the collection of data in line with internationally approved standards on the natural resources, 

management, land use, tourism and research in 30 protected areas. 

Ultimately, BANCA and other local organisations will be better equipped with tools and methodologies 

to assess biodiversity resources. In addition, we will have a comprehensive database on the state of 

biodiversity and protected areas across the country. This will allow biodiversity resources to be better 

understood and we hope it will lead other actors to invest more and better in biodiversity protection 

and resources conservation. 

Burma/Myanmar has a unique environment and we must all join forces to ensure that natural resources 

are sustainably exploited. 

David Lipman 

Ambassador 

Head of Delegation of the European Union to Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar 

III

Istituto Oikos believes that biodiversity conservation and equitable natural resources management 

are crucial to ensure the livelihood of local people, where land degradation and poverty are strictly 

connected. The approach is based on the following assumption: a well conserved environment is the 

only guarantee for socio-economic development, poverty alleviation, food security, health and wellbeing 

for current and future generations. That is why the core of all Istituto Oikos’ projects, whether they 

be technical-scientific assistance, environmental evaluations programs, fauna monitoring or support 

for youth or women’s cooperatives, is the relationship between man and nature. Many actions focus on 

protected areas and on natural areas risking deterioration due to irrational and unplanned use of natural 

resources. Moreover, the projects never leave aside the awareness-raising factor, so that those involved 

can understand and share Istituto Oikos’ objectives, as well as the training of local personnel to ensure 

the sustainability of work. After 15 years of field activities and more than 150 projects implemented, in 

Italy and abroad, on biodiversity conservation and sustainable development, Istituto Oikos has gained 

a wealth of experience in the definition and implementation of methodologies and strategies aimed 

at integrating the environmental dimension into the socio-economic processes. To reach concrete and 

sustainable results, as well as to ensure the highest standards of quality in its activities, Istituto Oikos 

has established firm collaboration with local and national governments, universities, research institutes, 

conservation, development organisations and business companies, both in Italy and worldwide. Istituto 

Oikos has been operating in Myanmar since 2006 in order to improve the conservation of natural 

resources and the capacity building of local NGOs as a tool of sustainable development. Myanmar is a 

country where natural resources are still well conserved, biodiversity is high and forests cover almost 

half of the territory. The protected areas of Myanmar conserve spectacular natural, cultural and spiritual 

values and provide communities with opportunities for recreation and education. As natural areas are 

progressively being destroyed under different types of human pressure, it becomes increasingly urgent 

to maintain and improve the condition and management of protected areas. The PA system of Myanmar 

is essential to continue providing environmental services at community and national level, to prevent 

climate change and the loss of biodiversity. The protection of cultural values is another important role 

of the PA system that contributes to spiritual life and Myanmar’s historical traditions. Understanding 

the values within the PA system and evaluating the outcome of management is essential to being 

able to adapt and improve management practices. In the period 2009-2010, Istituto Oikos and BANCA, 

with the support of the European Union, the Lombardy Region and Stiftung Drittens Millenium, have 

managed the project “Strengthening environmental NGOs in Burma/Myanmar” aimed at improving 

the capacity of local NGOs to engage in biodiversity conservation and sustainable development 

programs and coordinate sustainable environmental development investments and activities. The 

publication “Myanmar Protected Areas: Context, Current Status and Challenges”, one of the outputs of 

the project, presents information on the status of the protected areas in Myanmar. We hope it will help 

to promote cost-effective initiatives and innovative approaches, to provide technical inputs for policy 

review processes and to mobilise international awareness and financial support to conserve the unique 

heritage of Myanmar’s protected areas. 

Rossella Rossi 

President 

Istituto Oikos 


Among South-East Asian countries there is no doubt that Myanmar is the most biologically diverse 

country on the mainland. It possess a long coastal line of 2,000 kilometers, over 800 islands, mangroves, 

high mountains of the Eastern Himalayas in the north, a dry zone in the center, Sundaic forest in the 

south and many types of habitats and ecosystems. There are only few types of habitats left on earth that 

cannot be found in Myanmar. It still has a high percentage of natural forest cover which is home to a rich 

diversity of flora and fauna. It is also one of the least explored countries in the world. There have been 

expressions like“ after walking two days we found nothing but primeval forest”, “ we barely see a person 

coming along during our exploration” and “there is one new bird found in every step we took” from 

nature lovers and bird watchers who have visited Myanmar. The Leaf deer Muntiacus putaonensis and 

the Myanmar Snub-nosed Monkey Rhinopithecus strykeri are some of the new discoveries within recent 

years in the Northern part of Myanmar. Other species of reptiles and amphibians new to science have 

also been reported. The Ministry of Forestry has been trying to protect representative type of forests 

and up till now has gazetted, nominated and proposed 43 protected areas which cover 7.3 % of total 

land. But as a developing nation, Myanmar has financial as well as environmental issues. Unfortunately 

conserving biodiversity and environment is not the top priority of the government. Out of 43 protected 

area systems only a few have been properly gazetted and have a management system in place. Some 

are nominated and some are only in a proposal stage. Very few of the gazetted protected areas have full 

management resources and staff. Even big national parks are short of resources. For them top priorities 

like regular biodiversity surveys and patrolling are beyond their capacity. As a result very few parks have 

a comprehensive checklist of flora and fauna. Lampi Island Marine National Park falls in the category 

that does not have a proper management system and a checklist of flora and fauna that exist in the 

park. We BANCA and Oikos do sincerely feel honored to conduct this much needed survey which we 

hope will help the forest department to form a proper management system and serve as a baseline for 

further evaluation and monitoring of this park. Moreover, we also hope that this publication will serve as 

a good reference for all existing parks of Myanmar. During recent years people have changed. Their new 

lifestyle has become more advanced and sophisticated. New changes need new solutions. Population 

has also increased dramatically and consequently more space becomes essential for their livelihoods and 

sustainability. The more space they need the more destruction was made to nature and the environment. 

The lifestyle of people and the changes in the environment have become more interconnected. Issues 

have become too big and complicated to be handled by a single department or organization alone. 

Therefore people in the conservation field also have to change. All stakeholders including governments, 

private and public sectors have to work together to have successful conservation programs. BANCA and 

Istituto Oikos as stakeholders look forward to assist Myanmar within our capacity especially in the field 

of biodiversity for successful conservations programs. BANCA appreciates the support of international 

organizations and the European Union to meet the conservation challenge. 

Dr Htin Hla 

Chairman 

BANCA 


IV V

Acknowledgments 

VI 


A. Bonetti 

The authors of this publication are researchers affiliated with Istituto Oikos and BANCA. 

Chapter 1 “Context” was written by Lara Beffasti (Project Manager, Istituto Oikos) and Valeria Galanti 

(Biologist, Istituto Oikos). 

Chapter 2 “Protected Areas” is co-authored by Lara Beffasti, Valeria Galanti and Tint Tun (Project Manager, 

BANCA). The maps were produced by Simone Bianchi (GIS expert, Istituto Oikos), Mi Mi Choe (GIS expert, 

Forest Department) and Thein Ko (GIS expert, BANCA) thanks to data provided by Forest Department 

and Wildlife Conservation Society, and data collected in the field. Photographs are by project staff in 

Myanmar during project period 2009-2010. 

Chapter 3 “In-depth study of Lampi Island Marine National Park” was written by Lara Beffasti and Valeria 

Galanti, also based on the reports of the field surveys undertaken between 2008 and 2010 by researchers 

affiliated to MEP and MABR projects listed in Table 15. Photos of the Myeik archipelago 2006-2007 have 

been made available by Andrea Bonetti (www.andreabonetti.com). 

Chapter 4 “In-depth study of Rakhine state” is co-authored by Simone Bianchi and Roberto Colombo 

(Researcher, Università Milano Bicocca). 

Chapter 5 “Conclusions and Recommendations” was written by Lara Beffasti and Valeria Galanti, also 

including the results of the stakeholder workshop held in Yangon in March 2011. 

Serena Arduino reviewed the draft text and provided valuable corrections and suggestions. Useful 

revisions and translations to and from Myanmar language were ably made by Tint Tun and Htoo Htoo. 

English language editorial support was provided by Guy Waley. 

The authors wish to express their gratitude for the valuable inputs and involvement to all Istituto 

Oikos, BANCA and Forest Department staff and others who have made various contributions to the 

implementation of project activities or in the preparation of this publication and in particular to (in 

alphabetical order) U Aung Than, U Aye Myint Maung, U Bo Ni, Daw Dewi Thant San, Alessandra 

Gagliardi, Paola Mariani, Dr. Maung Maung Kyi, Dr. Maung Maung Than,U Maung Maung Thein Pe, 

U Myint Sein, Daw San San Nwe, Francesca Santapaola, Dr. San Win, U Saw Han, Dr. Saw Mon Theint, 

U Ohn, U Saw Tun Khaing, U Shein Gai Lai, Sara Stingelin, Daw Thandar Win, U Than Latt Shein, Daw Than 

Than Aye, U Tin Tun, U Tint Wai, Guido Tosi, Brunella Visaggi, U Win Maung and U Win Naing Thaw. 

We especially acknowledge U Uga, former Chairman of BANCA, who passed away in April 2010, and 

without whom this project would have not been possible. 

We warmly acknowledge Delphine Brissonneau, Programme Officer of the European Union Delegation, 

and Rossella Rossi, President of Istituto Oikos, who went beyond the call of duty in the support to the 

programme in Myanmar. 

Istituto Oikos is grateful to Luca Schueli for the invaluable introduction to Myanmar. 

All project team wish to thank the participants in all of the meetings, discussions and interviews 

organized by this project – villagers, scientists, foresters, protected area managers, NGO workers and 

executives alike – who shared the willingness to make a positive contribution to the conservation of 

Myanmar natural resources. 

1 

1.1 

1.2 

1.3 

2. 

2.1 

2.2 

Contents 

Forewords III 

Acknowledgements VI 

Acronyms used in the text VIII 

Introduction IX 

Executive Summary X 

Executive Summary (Myanmar language) XII 

Background on Myanmar 1 

Natural Features 1 

Environmental Policy and Practice 4 

Environmental Non-governmental 

Organizations (ENGOs) 8 

Myanmar Protected Areas 11 

Methodology 11 

Results 14 

Alaungdaw Kathapa 22 

Bawditataung 24 

Bumhpabum 26 

Chatthin 28 

Hlawga 30 

Hponkanrazi 32 

Htamanthi 33 

Hukaung Valley 34 

Hukaung Valley (Extension) 34 

Indawgyi Lake 36 

Inlay Lake 38 

Kahilu 40 

Kelatha 42 

Khakaborazi 44 

Kyaikhtiyoe 46 

Kyauk-Pan-Taung 48 

Lampi Island 50 

Lawkananda 52 

Lenya 54 

Lenya (Extension)* 54 

Loimwe 56 

Maharmyaing 58 

Mainmahla Kyun 60 

Minsontaung 62 

Minwuntaung 64 

Moscos Island 66 

Moyingyi Wetland 68 

Mulayit 70 

Natma Taung 72 

Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave 74 

Par Sar 76 

Pidaung 78 

Popa 80 

Pyin-O-Lwin 82 

Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range 84 

Shinpinkyetthauk 86 

Shwesettaw 88 

Shwe-U-Daung 90 

Tanintharyi National Park 92 

3. 

3.1 

3.2 

3.3 

4. 

4.1 

4.2 

4.3 

5. 

5.1 

5.2 


Tanintharyi Nature Reserve 94 

Taunggyi 96 

Thamihla Kyun 98 

Wenthtikan 99 

In-depth Study of Lampi Island Marine 

National Park 101 

Purpose 101 

Results 101 

Conclusions and recommendations 118 

Box 1 Plain-pouched Hornbill 119 

Box 2 Moken Sea Gypsies 120 

3.4 Checklist of Lampi MNP resources 122 

In-depth Study of Rakhine Yoma Elephant 

Range Wildlife Reserve 133 

Data and methods 135 

Results 139 

Conclusions and recommendations 144 

Conclusion 145 

Progress and priorities for Myanmar PAs 146 

Recommendations 146 

References 148 

Appendices 150

Acronyms used in the text 

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations 

BANCA Biodiversity And Nature Conservation Association 

BLI BirdLife International 

CAS California Academy of Science 

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity 

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered 

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 

DOF Department of Fisheries 

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment 

EBA Endemic Bird Area 

ENGO Environmental Non-governmental Organisation 

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization 

FD Forest Department 

FRA Forest Resource Assessment 

GEF Global Environment Facility 

IBA Important Bird Area 

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature 

KBA Key Biodiversity Area 

MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs 

MOF Ministry Of Forestry 

MPA Marine Protected Area 

MoU Memorandum of Understanding 

NCEA National Commission for Environmental Affairs 

NFMP National Forest Master Plan 

NGO Non-governmental Organization 

NSDS National Sustainable Development Strategy 

NWCD Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division 

PA Protected Area 

PFE Permanent Forest Estate 

SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 

SI Smithsonian Institution 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme 

WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas 

WCS Wildlife Conservation Society 

WR Wildlife Reserve 

WS Wildlife Sanctuary 

Introduction 


Protected areas (PAs) are important tools for biodiversity 

conservation and sustainable development. PAs safeguard 

ecosystems and their services, such as water provision, food 

production, carbon sequestration and climate regulation, 

thus improving people’s livelihoods. They preserve the 

integrity of spiritual and cultural values placed by indigenous 

people on wild areas and offer opportunities of inspiration, 

study and recreation. Due to a long period of isolation, 

Myanmar has conserved an extraordinary natural and 

cultural heritage that is in part represented in its protected 

area system. The expansion of agriculture and industry, 

pollution, population growth, along with uncontrolled use 

and extraction of resources, are causing severe environmental 

and ecosystem degradation. Loss of biodiversity is the 

most pressing environmental problem because species 

extinction is irreversible. Realising the urgency of Myanmar 

environmental challenges, several stakeholders, at national, 

international and regional level, have committed to support 

conservation and management of PAs. However, baseline 

information on natural resources, threats, management, staff, 

infrastructure, land use, tourism and research in Myanmar PAs 

was hardly ever updated and not systematically organised, 

thus limiting the subsequent planning and management of 

resources. Therefore, the aim of this publication is twofold: 

to raise awareness on the condition of the conservation of 

PAs and to mobilise national and international support for 

cost-effective initiatives, innovative approaches and targeted 

research in priority sites. The document provides background 

information on Myanmar natural features, environmental, 

government and non-government frameworks (Chapter 1). 

The core section makes available the information retrieved in 

the period 2009-2010 on the status of Myanmar PAs (Chapter 

2) and the results of the research conducted in Lampi 

Island Marine National Park (Chapter 3) and Rakhine Yoma 

Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve (Chapter 4). Data collection, 

analysis and organisation were part of the larger Myanmar 

Environmental Project (MEP) managed by Istituto Oikos in 

partnership with BANCA. Conclusion and recommendations 

for the management of Myanmar PAs (Chapter 5) were jointly 

formulated by stakeholders during the MEP closing workshop 

held on March 17th 2011 in Yangon. The information presented 

in this publication is also organised in a database available to 

stakeholders that will be updated with new data provided 

by PA managers, academic institutions, environmental 

organisations and community-based groups working in 

Myanmar PAs to fill the existing gaps. 

VIII IX

Executive summary 

This publication presents the information 

collected on Myanmar protected areas (PAs), 

with the objective of mobilising national 

and international support for cost-effective 

initiatives, innovative approaches and 

targeted research implemented by non- 

State actors in collaboration with authorities 

and communities in sites needing priority 

conservation actions. Myanmar presents a 

great variety of habitats and ecosystems, 

from snow-capped mountains to coral reefs, 

supporting a rich biodiversity. Demographic 

and socio-economic pressures have been 

identified as the main causes of environmental 

degradation and biodiversity loss. The environmental protection framework set up by Myanmar during 

the 1990s shows legal and institutional constraints. Environmental laws are very sector-specific and 

institutions lack capacity and resources for their implementation. Nonetheless, progress has been made 

towards the integration of environmental issues in the national development process and stakeholders 

consultation mechanisms have increased coordination in planning. A small but growing number of 

Myanmar environmental NGOs has emerged and is playing an important role to facilitate environmental 

education, research work and co-management of resources at local level. 

In Myanmar there are currently 43 officially-recognised PAs but so far the information on their status 

has been poor, scattered and not updated. A comprehensive datasheet was prepared to organize in a 

systematic way the information collected on natural resources, management, staff and infrastructure, 

tourism, land use and human activities and research, following internationally approved criteria 

and standards. Existing information was first retrieved from authorities, organisations and academic 

institutions; then it was verified and integrated through field visits and meetings with stakeholders for 

30 PAs while maps were produced for all 43 PAs. All information is organised in a database available to 

stakeholders. Myanmar PA system currently covers 7.3 % of the country. Despite the long coastline there 

are only 4 marine protected areas and there is little capacity to conserve and manage marine resources. 

The number and size of PAs have increased over the years but also some terrestrial habitat types are still 

underrepresented, in particular beach and dune, mangrove and swamp forests. Human encroachment 

in PAs is common and requires intervention to limit it, however in most cases the conservation status is 

considered to be within an acceptable range of variation. Only half of the PAs have partial biodiversity 

inventories and an operational or management plan including actions that are regularly implemented 

despite inadequate human, technical and financial resources. Seventeen PAs are only paper parks. 

Religious tourism and ecotourism exist in many PAs but most lack the resources and skills to invest in 

effective tourism management and consequently forego the opportunity to generate revenues from 

it. Scientific research has been conducted in 28 PAs by national and international organisations and 

universities without a coordinated research programme. 

Two PAs were selected for in-depth studies: Lampi Island Marine National Park and Rakhine Yoma 

Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve. Lampi Island Marine National Park (MNP) is the only MNP in Myanmar 

and the only protected area of the Myeik archipelago. Very little information was available on this area 

and it had not been updated since 1995. Collecting data on this area was considered very important 

to raise the awareness of Myanmar and international stakeholders on the importance of conserving 

the archipelago and involving the local heterogeneous population composed by indigenous minorities 

and migrants from different areas of Myanmar in participatory resources management. The rapid 


assessment survey conducted in January 

2009 confirmed the great value of the 

archipelago in terms of biological and cultural 

attributes, threatened by the uncontrolled 

and rapid increase of human settlements 

and activities. Field surveys identified 195 

species of plants of the evergreen forest, 63 

mangroves and associates, 19 mammals, 

228 birds, 19 reptiles, 10 amphibians. Among 

the marine resources, 333 plankton species, 

L.Beffasti 

73 seaweeds, 11 seagrass, 50 gastropods, 42 

crabs, 41 bivalves, 35 sea cucumbers and 42 

fish species. 29 species are new records for 

Myanmar (1 phytoplankton, 7 zooplanktons, 

2 seagrasses, 1 mangrove tree, 7 fishes, 3 amphibians, 8 birds). Furthermore, the issues of the Salone (or 

Moken) people were collected, as well as those of other human settlements in the area. As population 

grows inside and outside the park, the natural resources are increasingly threatened by unsustainable 

use. Consultations among authorities, organisations and communities were initiated to launch the 

participatory development of a management plan for the MNP to ensure the incorporation of the needs 

and aspirations of local communities along with conservations goals. The Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range 

Wildlife Reserve encompasses a great variety of habitats supporting high biodiversity and many endemic 

and endangered species, but it is one of the most encroached PAs. Local communities are dependent on 

natural resources for their livelihoods and are often damaging the environment and using its resources 

without due regard to sustainability. A GIS database was set up to propose a preliminary classification of 

vegetation types, which was then verified through a ground-truthing campaign. Ten vegetation classes 

were identified and land cover maps produced. The vegetation change between 1974 and 2003 was 

analysed showing the conversion of natural forests to agricultural areas and vice-versa. The main finding 

is the invasion of Melocanna bambusoides in the area, probably subsequent to forest fires and shifting 

cultivation practices; creation of a buffer zone and implementation of environmental education and 

sustainable development activities are crucial to prevent the degradation of the last patches of forest. 

New data and maps on vegetation change and land use can thus support sustainable development 

plans and activities, and raise awareness on the current threats to this ecosystem. 

According to project findings, Myanmar PA system should be reviewed giving emphasis to the 

management objective and strategically expanded to address gaps in coverage of globally threatened 

species, underrepresented mangrove and marine habitats, Key Biodiversity Areas and wildlife corridors. 

It is crucial to improve coordination between Forest Department (FD) and other departments and 

it is also advisable to pilot joint governance initiatives at local level in collaboration with NGOs and 

communities. While public awareness needs to be raised, from top to grass root level, on the role and 

benefits of protected areas in order to achieve comprehensive stakeholder participation in conservation, 

FD staff, especially young generations, should receive intensive training in ecology and management. 

This would enable the preparation of a management plan and a biodiversity inventory for every PA 

to be organised in a central database to facilitate coordination and information sharing at national 

and international level, also to develop coordinated research programmes. The human impacts of PAs 

should be measured in order to identify and implement innovative poverty reduction strategies that 

can contribute to meet the conservation and development goals. To ensure the allocation of adequate 

resources, sustainable financing mechanisms should be identified, including grants and donations and 

local business development. 

X XI

Executive summary (Myanmar language) 


XII XIII

Background on Myanmar 

XIV 1 

L. Beffasti 

1 

1.1 

Natural Features 

Introduction 

Myanmar, the largest country in South East Asia, is part of the Sundaic subregion of the Indo-Malayan 

Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986). Due to the combination and interaction of geography, 

topography, climate, pattern of seasonal rainfall, presence of high mountains and major rivers, Myanmar 

presents a great variety of different habitats and ecosystems supporting a rich biodiversity. With about 

half (48%) of mainland covered by forests (FAO 2010), Myanmar ranks 6 out of 11 among the Southeast 

Asian countries in terms of percentage of land area covered by forest (FAO 2009). 

Figure 1 Myanmar Land Area (Source: NCEA 2009b) 

Forest 

48% 

Other land 

16% 

Other wooded lands 

33% 

Inland water bodies 

3% 

Northern Myanmar presents the highest mountains with permanent snow and glaciers, with Mount 

Khakaborazi (6,000 m) being the highest in Myanmar and in South East Asia. The country includes 

extensive lowland plains, major rivers running parallel to each other, one of the largest river deltas in 

Asia (Ayeyawaddy Delta) and plateau around 1,000 m above sea level like the Shan Plateau. Myanmar, 

with its 2,280 km long coast and more than 800 small islands, has important coast and marine habitats 

supporting an abundance of species. The climate is a tropical monsoon climate with three distinctive 

seasons: hot season from March to May, rainy season from June to October, cold season from November 

to February, with high rainfall variability, from 500 mm in the Dry Zone up to over 6,000 mm in 

Tanintharyi Region and northern Rakhine State. 

Biodiversity 

About 250 mammal species, more than 1,000 birds, 370 reptiles and 7,000 plants are recorded in Myanmar, 

including 39 species of mammals, 45 of birds, 21 of reptiles and 38 of plants which are globally threatened 

(NCEA, 2009a). More species could be added since new discoveries continue to be made every year, 

including the exceptional discovery, during a survey of FFI and BANCA in Kachin state, of a new species 

of primate in 2010, the Burmese snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus strykeri, immediately classified as 

critically endangered by IUCN. 76 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) have been identified, out of which 54 

are recognized as Important Birds Areas (IBAs) (BLI 2005). Endemism is relatively low compared to other 

countries in South East Asia. There are seven Endemic Birds Areas EBAs and secondary endemic areas 

(BLI 2005 and IUCN-WCPA 2007), three exclusively located in Myanmar (Eastern Himalayas, Irrawaddy 

plains and North Myanmar Lowlands), two stretching across Myanmar and Thailand (Myanmar-Thailand 

mountains and Peninsular Thailand lowland forests) and two others centered mainly in other countries 

but extending in Myanmar (Andaman Islands and Yunnan mountains). Natma Taung National Park is a 

particular area of local endemism.

Habitats 

Important habitat types represented in Myanmar are forests, wetlands and the marine habitat. Eight 

different forest types are found in Myanmar: tropical evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, dry 

forest, deciduous dipterocarp forest, hill and temperate evergreen forest, tidal forest or mangrove forest, 

beach and dune forest, swamp forest (Tint, 1995). 

Figure 2 Forest Types of Myanmar (Source: NCEA 2009b) 

38% Mixed Deciduous Forest 

25% Hill and Temperate Evergreen Forest 

16% Tropical Evergreen Forest 

10% Dry Forest 

5% Deciduous Dipterocarp (Indaing) Forest 

4% Tidal Forest, Beach and Dune Forest, 

Swamp Forest 

2% Fallow Land 

The tropical evergreen forest is mainly represented in Myanmar by the lowland wet evergreen forest, a lush 

vegetation forest dominated by high value commercial species like the evergreen Dipterocarpus species. 

This forest is found quite well conserved along the coast of the Tanintharyi Region. The mixed deciduous 

forest is the major forest type of Myanmar and is characterized by the high-value timber species of Tectona 

grandis, commonly known as teak, often found in association with Xylia dolabriformis and different 

species of Terminalia. The presence of Tectona grandis makes this forest also the most economically 

important forest of the country. The mixed deciduous forest is strictly associated with bamboo species, 

which represent an important source of food for many wildlife species, and supports endangered species 

like the Hoolock Gibbon. The dry forest, represented by thorn scrub and forest, it is found in the Central 

Dry Zone, characterized by dry and seasonal climate, where the rainfall is usually under 1,000 mm. 

The dominant species are Terminalia oliveri and Tectona hamiltoniana, with a number of thorny Acacia 

species. The deciduous dipterocarp forest is found only in five countries in the world, namely Myanmar, 

Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand. Also known as Indaing forest in Myanmar, is commonly found 

at higher altitudes in the northern part of the country. It is characterized by open canopy of deciduous 

species of Dipterocarpaceae. This forest type has remained isolated from other similar forests of South 

East Asia, making it one of the centres of endemism in Myanmar. It hosts endemic species like the critically 

endangered Burmese Star Tortoise and many threatened species like the vulnerable Eld’s Deer. The hill 

and temperate evergreen forest is found in high rainfall areas, on slopes between 900 m and 1,800 m 

(hill forests) and over 1,800 m (montane forest). Dominated by tree species of Quercus, Castanopsis, 

Schima, Fagaceae, Magnoliaceae, Lauraceae and Ericaceae, this forest type is characterized by many 

climber species and rich and lush undergrowth. Beyond the coniferous forests, sub-alpine forest and 


alpine meadows are found at the highest elevations on the mountains, before the level of permanent 

snow and ice. Mangrove forests (or tidal forests), found along alluvial flats of river deltas and on muddy 

coastal areas, are salt tolerant and are flooded by seawater during high tide. This type of forest has 

a very important ecological function since it stabilises the shoreline, protects the coast from erosion 

and is a particularly important habitat for migratory waterbirds. Mangroves offer a variety of forest and 

aquatic products to many coastal people and largely support fish production. Myanmar hosts 8.8% of 

the total mangrove forests area of South East Asia, being the third richest country after Indonesia and 

Malaysia. Of the total mangroves area in Myanmar, 46% is located in Ayeyawaddy Region, 37% in the 

Tanintharyi Region and 17% in the Rakhine State (Giesen et al. 2006). They are all considered under 

threat, although many areas are nominally protected. Beach and dune forest represents a minority of 

total forest area in Myanmar, and it is found in narrow strips on beaches and dunes along the coasts, 

usually dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia. The swamp forest, found in the Ayeyawaddy Delta and 

in the floodplains of other rivers and lakes, and wetlands are of high ecological importance for many 

bird species which have suffered dramatic population declines across their global distributions. Many of 

these wetland sites have been recognized as Important Bird Areas and some proposed as Ramsar sites. 

The marine habitat, supporting a high biomass of fish and other aquatic organism, represents an important 

source of income for the country, with the fishery sector as the fourth largest sector in Myanmar, and 

shrimp export accounting for nearly 50% of the total value of fishery export. Coral reefs are extensive 

on the south east coast of Myanmar (fringing reefs and patch) and around the islands, extending further 

south into Thailand, covering 1,870 km², with the majority of coral reefs found in the Myeik Archipelago 

of the Tanintharyi Region. Coral reefs in Myanmar need to be more fully surveyed and better protected 

since they provide many functions, services and goods in terms of coastal protection and sediment 

retention, nurseries and habitats for aquatic organism, feeding grounds for economically important 

species of fish and other seafood products, potential revenues from tourism. Seagrasses are mainly 

found in Rakhine and Tanintharyi marine areas, while they are absent in the Ayeyawaddy Delta because 

of high turbidity. Seagrass beds represent a food source and shelter habitat for many economically 

important species of marine invertebrates and fishes, and globally threatened species like the Dugong 

(Dugong dugon). Seagrass habitat has an important role in stabilizing the coast, reducing waves and the 

effects of currents and trapping the sediments, thus protecting coral reefs from sedimentation. 

2 3 

L. Beffasti

Environmental problems 

In 2001, a report of the Myanmar Ministry of Forestry identified the following major threats to forest and 

biodiversity: conversion of closed forests to other land uses, shifting cultivation, invasive species, illegal 

fishing and water pollution, wildlife and timber trade, lack of environmental impact assessment (EIA) for 

development projects. The 4th National Report on Biodiversity (2009) confirms that Myanmar is losing 

biodiversity due to socio-economic pressure, with the main threats identified in habitat destruction, 

especially related to forest depletion, degradation and cover change, hunting and illegal wildlife 

trade. Invasive alien species are considered a minor threat. The net loss of 435,000 hectares of forest 

per year reported for the period 1990-2000, corresponding to a loss of 1.17%, was reduced to 310,000 

hectares per year in the period 2000–2010, corresponding to a loss of 0.93%. Despite this positive trend, 

Myanmar still remains one of the ten countries in the world with the largest annual net loss of forest 

area and among the five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Myanmar, Madagascar and Mozambique) with 

the largest net loss of mangrove area during the period 2000–2010 (FAO 2010). In the Ayeyawaddy 

Region, mangrove forest has been seriously degraded in recent years due to agricultural conversion and 

the high demand for firewood and charcoal from Yangon, with consequent decline of fish catches and 

increased vulnerability to natural disasters. In Tanintharyi Region the best conserved mangrove forests 

are found, especially in the Myeik Archipelago, but still a decrease of 2.4 % per annum is estimated (U 

Myint Pe 2003). In Rahkine, shrimp farming, representing 89% of all the shrimp farming in the country, 

has seriously contributed to mangrove depletion and prevented reforestation in many areas. Since 

shrimp farming is still encouraged without any proper planning, mangrove forests are expected to 

continue to decrease (Angell 2004). Agricultural expansion, shifting cultivation, conversion of forest 

to plantations are the main causes of habitat degradation and loss. Rubber plantations have almost 

doubled from 1990 to 2010 (FAO 2010) and together with large scale palm oil plantations are among 

the most impacting threats on biodiversity. Although accurate updated estimates are difficult to obtain, 

illegal wildlife trade in Myanmar is considered to be widespread, causing, with illegal hunting, a general 

decrease of wildlife population. 

L.Beffasti 

1.2 Environmental Policy and Practice 

Introduction 

After a period of intense exploitation of natural resources during the colonial and post-colonial period, 

Myanmar leaders showed their commitment to conserving the environment and promoting sustainable 

development with the creation in 1990 of ad hoc institutions in charge of preparing new environmental 

policies and legislation, of strengthening international cooperation on environmental issues and 

of improving the management of natural resources. However, the current environmental protection 

framework shows critical legal and institutional constraints, for instance very sector-specific laws that 

often exceed the technical and financial capability of the relevant government agencies. 

The future success of environmental protection in Myanmar depends on the formulation of policies 

reflecting a more integrated approach to planning and management of resources, as well as on the 

improved coordination between stakeholders and the allocation of the necessary resources for policy 

implementation. 


Colonial period (1826-1948) 

After an initial phase of uncontrolled overharvesting of forest resources, the colonial government 

gradually shifted to the systematic management of forests (Bryant 1994). The first Forest Rules (1856), 

later adopted for the whole Indian province (1865), promoted the adoption of a scientific forestry 

method set up by the German forester Dietrich Brandis including the adoption of 30-year felling cycles 

and the prescription of exploitable tree sizes to fix the annual sustainable yield. Brandis’ guidelines 

were integrated into the Indian Forest Policy (1894) and Burma Forest Act (1902) and reviewed into 

the Myanmar Selection System for forest management in use since 1920, marking the government 

ownership of teak forests. Reserved forests and protected forests were created, whereas government 

timber-extraction was allowed, thereby restricting only resource access and use by local people. Shifting 

cultivation (taungya) practices, forest fires for hunting and non-timber forest products extraction 

were prohibited but difficult to control. To gain popular support for reserved forests, the government 

promoted the participation of local peasants, in particular Karen hill farmers, in forestry activities by 

encouraging them to sow teak trees in their taungya fields in exchange for tax exemption, paid labour 

and land, and thereby creating new plantations. The concern for wildlife conservation aroused only 

at the beginning of 20th century with the creation of the first wildlife sanctuary of Pidaung for the 

protection of Sumatran rhinoceros. At the end of the colonial period (1948), the protected areas system 

included 11 bird and wildlife sanctuaries 1 covering less than 0.3% of total country area. 

Development of Myanmar environmental governance and legislation 

In the first thirty years following independence (1948-1978), little attention was paid to environmental 

protection because the country was facing economic and political struggles. In the 1980s the Forest 

Department initiated, in collaboration with UNDP and FAO, the “Nature Conservation and National Parks 

project (1981-1984)” for the expansion of the protected area system 2 and the establishment of a new 

institution with specific competence on conservation and PA management. 

In the 1990s the legal and institutional framework of environmental governance was completely reviewed 

and updated resulting in the creation of new institutions and the formulation of new policies for forest 

and protected areas management (a list of environmental laws and policies is given in Appendix 1). 

Table 1: Chronology of Environmental Governance in Myanmar 

1 Chatthin, Kahilu, Kelatha, Moscos Islands, Mulayit, Pidaung, Pyin-O-Lwin, Shwesettaw, Shwe-U-Daung, Taunggyi, Wenthtikan. 

2 14 designated protected areas (Htamanti, Minwuntaung and Thamila Kyun were established in the 1970s) for a total area of 4150 km², representing 0,6% of total country area. 

3 The original name was Nature Conservation and National Parks Division (NCNPD). 

4 5 

1990 

1990 

1992 

Creation of the National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) within 

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) with competence on environmental policy 

and management with the objective of promoting environmental awareness, 

sustainable use of natural resources and collaboration with international 

organisations and foreign governments on environmental matters. 

Creation of the Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division (NWCD 3 ) within the 

Forest Department to supervise protected areas and wildlife conservation. 

Creation of the Ministry of Forestry constituted by four entities: 

1) Forest Department (FD) which is responsible for conservation and 

sustainable management of forest, 

2) Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE) in charge of commercial forest activities, 

3) Dry Zone Greening Department coordinating reforestation 

activities in central Myanmar, 

4) Planning and Statistics Department in charge of overall supervision.

% cover of total country area 

The Ministry of Forestry (MOF) gradually took over the coordination of environmental protection in 

Myanmar, especially after the nomination of the Minister of Forestry as chairman of the Environmental 

Conservation Committee in 2004 and the transfer of NCEA from MFA to MOF in 2005. As a consequence, 

the environmental policies and laws are very sectoral and focused on forest management and nature 

conservation instead of considering environmental issues as cross-cutting within the economic and 

social development of the country. Furthermore, MOF inherited the extractive mentality of the colonial 

government and its first priority remains the commercial exploitation of forests. NWCD and NCEA are 

the lowest institutions in the internal hierarchy of MOF, thus they have little capacity, opportunity 

and resources to mainstream environmental protection at national level. Nevertheless, both agencies 

have collaborated in the formulation of the Forest Law (1992) which regulates forest protection and 

management, establishment of forest plantations, extraction of forest products, as well as administrative 

action towards offences, replacing the old Burma Forest Act (1902). The importance given to public 

participation in forest management as well as to private sector involvement is highlighted in the 

Forest Rules and Community Forestry Instructions issued in 1995 to fulfill this law. In the same year 

the national Forest Policy was promulgated with the assistance of FAO, aiming for a more integrated 

approach towards environmental protection. The Forest Policy (1995) recognises different categories of 

forest: i) reserve (reserved) forests which are fully protected for commercial and local supply, watershed 

protection and biodiversity conservation, ii) public protected forests protecting trees but allowing 

other activities, iii) unclass (unclassified) forests where access is open to local people. The protected area 

system falls under the “Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law” 

(1994), which replaced the old “Wildlife Protection Act” (1936). This law regulates the establishment 

of six categories of PAs (scientific nature reserve, national park, marine national park, nature reserve, 

wildlife sanctuary, geo-physically significant reserve) and of other nature reserves determined by the 

Minister of Forestry, which can be compared to international categories as further explained in chapter 

2. In 2001 a 30-year Forest Master Plan was approved mandating the increase of the Permanent Forest 

Estate PFE (constituted by reserved forests and public protected forests) to 30% and of PAs to 10% of 

the total country area. These targets reinforced and replaced those set by the Forest Policy (1995), 

respectively the increase of PFE to 30% and PA system to 5% of the total land area by 2010. Furthermore, 

the Forest Master Plan encourages the registration of unclassified forests into community or private 

forests. Data collected from combined sources 4 show that although in the 1999-2009 decade the forest 

cover of Myanmar has decreased, the area protected or managed under PFE, PA or community/private 

forestry has increased, which is indicative of the effort to prevent the conversion of unprotected forest 

areas to other land uses (see Figure 3). 

Figure 3 Trend of Forest and Protected Area 4 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

forest cover Reserve forests and Protected 

Public protected 

forests 

Areas 

Community and 

private forests 

Status 1999-2000 

Status 2004 




Since the 1990s Myanmar has also increased the participation in the international fora regarding 

environmental matters which resulted in the signing of several international environmental agreements 

which are given in Appendix 2. 

Policy implementation 

As for any other government policy, the effectiveness of environmental policies depends mostly on 

the political will and the availability of resources to implement it. Biodiversity conservation is hardly 

being given the first priority, especially in developing countries where it is generally perceived as a 

constraint to economic development. Furthermore, the legal and institutional constraints described 

above have an impact on the execution and enforcement of such policies. On one hand, the sectorspecific 

policies leave gray areas (e.g. no procedures or rules for Environmental Impact Assessments) 

or produce overlapping (e.g. marine national parks fall under both Ministry of Forestry as protected 

areas and Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries for the conservation of marine resources). The lack of 

coordination is not only between different ministries or departments but also between centre and 

peripheries. Although Myanmar state is highly centralised and most decisions are taken from centre, 

localities have ways of blocking and influencing decisions, for instance through slow and inaccurate 

information flow. Alongside the legal and institutional framework, it is important to consider the 

attitudes of the individuals towards conservation. The conservation and management of PAs rest with 

forest officers who are specifically trained in planning and implementing forestry operations. Most forest 

officers are not acknowledgeable of the ecological functions of ecosystems and recognize only a few 

tree species as valuable. Thus their professional judgment, summed up with the lack of incentives (low 

salaries and no travel allowance) and the low perceived control from the centre, reinforces the general 

attitude of neglecting PAs. However, many of NWCD staff are very dedicated to conservation, especially 

those who have received training abroad or from international agencies, and play a remarkable role 

4 Data for the period 1999-2000 are from FAO, Asia and the Pacific National Forestry Programmes: Update 34, December 2000. Data for 2004 are from Forest 

Research Institute, Status of forest genetic resources, their conservation and management in Myanmar, Presentation by Aung Zoe Moe 2004. Data for 2009 are 

from NCEA, Sustainable Forest Management: Perspectives on REDD development, Presentation by Htwe Nyo Nyo 2009. 

5 One example is the famous Buddhist monk Maing Fone of Par Sar, thanks to whom the protected area has been established and conserved so far without the 

allocation of staff and resources by FD. 

6 In 2010 the Forest Department reported international cooperation with the following organisations: Asian Wetland Census (AWC), Birdlife International 

(BLI), California Academy of Science (CAS), Global Tiger Forum (GTF), International Crane Foundation (ICF), Istituto Oikos, Makino Botanical Garden (MBK), 

Smithsonian Institute (SI), Wild Bird Society of Japan (WBSJ), Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), World Conservation Union (IUCN), World Pheasant Association 

(WPA). Other organizations are working in Myanmar without official recognition. 

6 7 

L. Beffasti

in the protection of the areas where they are assigned. Other actors seem to have a positive influence 

on the effectiveness of conservation policies, for instance religious figures 5 and non-governmental 

organizations (NGOs). In particular, the cooperation with international organisations 6 , albeit limited by 

the economic sanctions and the complicated bureaucratical procedures that apply to foreign subjects 

in Myanmar, has supported research surveys that have resulted in the discovery of new species and the 

establishment of new PAs, and has provided funding and training for the management of PAs, including 

development actions to encourage grassroots support for conservation. International cooperation is 

also contributing to strengthen the civil society of Myanmar by building the capacity of national and 

local organizations to plan and manage conservation and development initiatives. 

Recent developments and future trends 

In 2009 NCEA published the National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) for Myanmar which 

has been formulated in collaboration with UNEP through the combination of consultative forums and 

multi-stakeholders mechanisms. This represents an important step towards the improved coordination 

between relevant stakeholders and the integration of environmental considerations into development. 

Nevertheless, as of 2010 the members of the National Council for Sustainable Development, who shall be 

in charge of the implementation of NSDS, still have not been selected, thus deferring the promulgation 

and enforcement of detailed regulations. 

Further restructuring of the environmental policies and concerned institutions is expected in 2011, 

following the election of a new government in November 2010. 

1.3 Environmental Non-governmental Organizations (ENGOs) 

Introduction 

Myanmar has a small but growing number of NGOs working in the field of biodiversity 

conservation and sustainable development. Not only the number but also the capacity of ENGOs 

has increased, with bigger projects in the field and emerging networks of coordination between 

them. The recent participation of Myanmar ENGOs in stakeholder consultation mechanisms 

at national level is an indicator of the mounting recognition of their role in the development 

and implementation of environmental policies, including research work, awareness raising 

and environmental education. If existing constraints to their operations are overcome, ENGOs 

can contribute to processes of co-management of resources and sustainable development by 

coordinating and channeling the opinions, problems and expectations of the most vulnerable groups 

living in and around key biodiversity areas of Myanmar. 

Figure 4 Trend of Growth of Myanmar ENGOs (Source: MEP project) 

No. of ENGOs 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-20004 2005-2009 

Year of establishment 


Overview 

The number of ENGOs operating in Myanmar is very small compared to neighbouring countries due to 

the existing restrictions to civil society and the shortage of funding for environmental activities. However, 

during project duration (2009-2010) 24 organisations working in environment-related sectors have 

been identified, starting from a baseline data of 10 organisations provided by Local Resource Centre of 

Yangon in 2009. The information collected is also organised in a directory available to stakeholders. 

Most ENGOs were established by a strong charismatic leader. In particular, the bigger ones have been 

founded and managed by retired officials of the Forest Department, thus being able to implement 

their activities with lesser restrictions by township and district authorities. In addition, high-rank forest 

officers received during their career many opportunities of training and study abroad and collaboration 

with international agencies. With well-trained executives, direct access to local communities and easier 

collaboration with authorities, ENGOs seem to be in the best position to implement conservation 

activities in Myanmar and their potential is recognised by international organisations providing funding. 

On the other hand, ENGOs mirror to a certain extent some specific features of government departments, 

for instance very hierarchical management structure with low numbers of women and young people in 

high positions and weak strategic planning. The internal organisation is generally poor and, although 

most ENGOs have a management board, one third of them relies only on volunteers. 

ENGOs coordination was initially based on personal relations among the executives, sharing common 

education or work patterns, but it has lately become more consistent. The project got underway in 

March 2010 with the organisation of monthly meetings of the Environmental Working Group within 

Myanmar NGO Network, chaired in succession by different ENGOs which can hold discussions among 

themselves in Myanmar language. Parallel to this, the bigger ENGOs have also participated since 2009 in 

the Environmental Thematic Working Group chaired by UNDP, where government and non-government 

actors discuss the most pressing Myanmar environmental issues. 

Table 2 Facts about Myanmar ENGOs (Total number of ENGOs reviewed: 24) 

Category: 

Non-governmental organisation 67% 

Community-based organisation 17% 

Professional organisation 8% 

Association 4% 

Consortium of NGOs 4% 

Percentage of ENGOs formally registered 50% 

Percentage of ENGOs with management board 88% 

Volunteers number: 

No volunteers 20% 

>10 15% 

10-50 15% 

Over 50 50% 

Location of activities: 

Ayeyawaddy Region 67% 

Yangon Region 54% 

Chin State 50% 

Shan State 42% 

Kachin State 33% 

Mon State 21% 

Rakhine State 21% 

Tanintharyi Region 17% 

Mandalay Region 17% 

Sagaing Region 13% 

Magwe Region 13% 

Kayah State 4% 

Kayin State 4% 

Bago Region 4% 

Staff number: 

No staff 17% 

>10 25% 

10-50 29% 

Over 50 29% 

Sectors of activities: 

Forestry and Agroforestry 50% 

General Environmental Protection 33% 

Education 33% 

Water supply 29% 

Relief 21% 

Energy 13% 

Fisheries 8% 

Health 4% 

Banking and Financial Services 4% 

8 9 

L. Beffasti

Operations and challenges 

Environmental protection, forestry and public education are the main sectors of activities for Myanmar 

ENGOs. These are increasingly being integrated with the provision of water, energy and other social 

services. Some ENGOs also take part in relief operations following natural disasters. 

Most ENGOs have their main office in Yangon and field offices spread all over Myanmar, except for securityrestricted 

areas. In particular, most operate in cyclone-affected areas 7 of Yangon and Ayeyawaddy 

Regions. Only four organisations are based in the ethnic states of Chin, Kachin and Rakhine, where they 

operate with a strong network of volunteers. 

In the implementation of their programmes, ENGOs face several constraints. First the funding for 

environmental activities, especially terrestrial and marine conservation, waste and recycling, climate 

change, is limited because of the international sanctions 8 . At present, funding comes mainly in form 

of partnership agreements with (or sub-granting by) international organisations. Larger ENGOs have 

recently been awarded small grants locally from Embassies and other donors based in Yangon. Many 

ENGOs do not meet the requirements to access either type of funding. Out of 24 organisations, only half 

are officially recognised by the Myanmar state as non-governmental organisations 9 , 2 are registered 

as professional organisations and the remaining 8 have not yet concluded the registration process. 

Moreover only registered ENGOs can open a foreign currency bank account at Myanmar Foreign Trade 

Bank and be exempted from 10% tax that applies to all international transactions. 

Indeed, the ultimate challenge for ENGOs is to gain the trust of local communities. ENGO workers may 

be regarded with some suspicion by local people, especially when they are not native to the area or are 

former forest officers. What is more, ENGOs can work mostly in the least valuable forest areas, waste 

lands that have become unproductive after few years of intensive exploitation with many difficulties in 

raising local interest for participation. People start to trust NGOs only when they see that they are not 

after profiting from forests and that they are bringing solutions for the most pressing issues such as 

land rights, water and energy supply. However, trust has to be constantly renegotiated by encouraging 

local participation in planning and implementing sustainable development strategies with immediate 

effects on poverty reduction. 

7 Areas hit by the Nargis Cyclone in May 2008. 

8 EU adopted the Common Position on Myanmar in 1996 (tightened in 2009 and renewed in 2010) including suspension of all bilateral aid except humanitarian 

assistance; US sanctions are in force since 1997 (stiffened in 2003 and 2010), Canada sanctions since 2007. 

9 Non-governmental organisations must register at the Home Affairs Ministry. The registration process is long and difficult, and must be renewed periodically 

(e.g. every other year) and submit monthly reports of their activities to the authorities at township level. 


10 

L. Beffasti 

11 

2 

2.1 Methodology 

In 2009 Forest Department provided a list of 43 sites, 

reported in Table 3, which has been updated with the 

recent designation in August 2010 of the proposed 

Hukaung Valley wildlife sanctuary extension, for a total 

of 35 designated and 8 proposed protected areas. 

Existing information about all the 43 PAs was collected 

from authorities, universities and organizations in 

Myanmar, and verified during the years 2009-2010; 

rapid assessment surveys to fill the gaps and to verify 

on-site the existing data were conducted in 30 out of 

43 PAs, mainly due to time and logistic constraints. Key 

information and maps are reported for all PAs. Detailed 

information is reported only for the 30 surveyed sites. 

Two in-depth studies were conducted in Lampi Island 

Marine National Park and Rakhine Yoma Elephant 

Range Wildlife Reserve and are presented respectively 

in chapters 3 and 4. 

To collect information in a systematic way, a 

comprehensive datasheet was prepared, including 

sections on 1) general information of the protected 

area; 2) natural resources: type and status of biodiversity 

resources; key protected resources; type, extension 

and severity of threats; flora and fauna checklists; 

3) management: availability of management/ 

operational plans; implementation of management 

and development actions; type of management 

problems and respective required actions; 4) staff/ 

resources: number and qualification of staff; existing 

infrastructure; needs; 5) tourism; accommodation and 

facilities; 6) land use and human activities; 7) research: 

type of activities carried out or in the PAs. 

The information was collected following criteria and 

standards identified and/or approved by international 

organizations like IUCN (Hockings et al. 2006), WWF 

(Ervin, 2003), IUCN-CMP (2006) and FAO (Young 1994). 

The information collected is also organised in a 

database available to stakeholders.

Table 3 List of Myanmar PAs* 

ID Site name National Designation Status Establishment Area 

Year (km2) 

1 Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park Designated 1989 1597.62 

2 Bawditataung Nature Reserve Proposed 2008 72.52 

3 Bumhpabum Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2004 1854.43 

4 Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1941 269.36 

5 Hlawga Wildlife Park Designated 1989 6.24 

6 Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2003 2703.95 

7 Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1974 2150.73 

8 Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2004 6371.37 

9 Hukaung Valley (Extension) Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2004 15431.16 

10 Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2004 814.99 

11 Inlay Lake Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1985 641.90 

12 Kahilu Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1928 160.56 

13 Kelatha Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1942 23.93 

14 Khakaborazi National Park Designated 1998 3812.46 

15 Kyaikhtiyoe Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2001 156.23 

16 Kyauk-Pan-Taung Wildlife Sanctuary Proposed 2001 132.61 

17 Lampi Island Marine National Park Designated 1996 204.84 

18 Lawkananda Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1995 0.47 

19 Lenya National Park Proposed 2002 1761.19 

20 Lenya (Extension) National Park Proposed 2004 1398.59 

21 Loimwe Protected Area Designated 1996 42.84 

22 Maharmyaing Wildlife Sanctuary Proposed 2002 1180.39 

23 Mainmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1993 136.69 

24 Minsontaung Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2001 22.60 

25 Minwuntaung Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1972 205.88 

26 Moscos Island Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1927 49.19 

27 Moyingyi Wetland Bird Sanctuary Designated 1988 103.60 

28 Mulayit Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1936 138.54 

29 Natma Taung National Park Proposed 1997 722.61 

30 Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 2002 333.80 

31 Parasar (Par Sar) Protected Area Designated 1996 77.02 

32 Pidaung Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1918 122.08 

33 Popa Mountain Park Designated 1989 128.54 

34 Pyin-O-Lwin Bird Sanctuary Designated 1918 127.25 

35 Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve Designated 2002 1755.70 

36 Shinpinkyetthauk Wildlife Sanctuary Proposed 2006 71.90 

37 Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1940 552.70 

38 Shwe-U-Daung Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1918 325.95 

39 Tanintharyi National Park Proposed 2002 2071.81 

40 Tanintharyi Nature Reserve Designated 2005 1699.99 

41 Taunggyi Bird Sanctuary Designated 1930 16.06 

42 Thamihla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary Designated 1970 0.88 

43 Wenthtikan Bird Sanctuary Designated 1939 4.40 

*PAs in bold have been visited by the MEP project staff in the period 2009-2010 


12 13

Number of PAs 

2.2 

Results 

1. General Information 

Number and size 

According to Forest Department (2009), 43 protected areas exist in Myanmar. Thirty-five sites were 

designated in the period 1918-2010, including the extension of Hukaung Valley wildlife sanctuary in 

2010. Eight additional sites have been proposed in the period 1997-2008, also thanks to the efforts 

of international organizations and conventions, and are still at the proposal stage. Of these, the 

notification of Natma Taung National Park (proposed in 1997) is expected as soon as boundary 

demarcation is completed. There is no available information on the status of designation process of the 

remaining 7 proposed sites. The 35 designated protected areas cover approximately 42,000 km² of land, 

representing 6.2% of the total country area. With the establishment of 8 additional protected areas, 

proposed from 2001 to 2008, Myanmar would increase by 7,400 km² (1.1%) the total protected land, 

reaching 49,500 km² and representing 7.3% of the total land area, surpassing the 5% target set by the 

Myanmar’s Forest Policy (1995), but still under the 10% set by the National Forest Master Plan (2001). 

PAs range in size from 0.5 km² (Lawkananda Wildlife Sanctuary) to 22,000 km² (Hukaung Valley Wildlife 

Sanctuary including extension), with 28% of PAs under 100 km² wide, 42% between 100 and 1,000 

km², and 30% over 1,000 km². The average size is 930 km² and 1,200 km², respectively for proposed 

and designated areas. Differences in size are largely reflected by the different years of establishment. 

Old protected areas were very small in size because they aimed at protecting specific resources. Later 

established protected areas are larger in order to protect entire landscapes and ecosystems and wideranging 

species (Rao et al. 2002). In particular, Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary (2010) covers 44% of 

the total protected area coverage. Eleven protected areas were established in the first half of the 20th 

century covering 1,336 km² of land, fourteen between 1970 and 2000 adding 9,110 km², and nine new 

protected areas were declared in the first decade of the 21st century, adding 15,713 km² of protected 

areas to the system corresponding to an increase of 1.6% of national protected land. The trend is 

illustrated in the graph below. 

50 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Figure 5 Trend of growth of Myanmar PAs (Source: MEP project) 

1910 

1919 

1920 

1929 

1930 

1939 

1940 

1949 

1950 

1959 

1960 

1969 

Categories 

Myanmar PAs fall under seven categories recognized by the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and 

Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994) which have been compared to international categories 

(Salter 1997). 

1970 

1979 

Date of PA establishment 

1980 

1989 

No. of PAs Size 

1990 

1999 

2000 

2010 

60.000 

50.000 

40.000 

30.000 

20.000 

10.000 

0 

Size in Km 2 

Table 4 Classification of Myanmar Protected Areas 

Myanmar categories N. of PAs 

Designated 

N. of PAs 

Proposed 


TOT IUCN categories 

a. Scientific Nature Reserve 0 0 0 I (Strict Nature Reserve) 

b. National Park 2 4 6 II (National Park) 

c. Marine National Park 1 0 1 II (National Park) 

d. Nature Reserve 1 1 2 VI (Protected Area 

with Sustainable Use of 

Natural Resources) 

e. Wildlife Sanctuary 26* 3 29 IV (Habitat/Species 

Management Area) 

f. Geo-physically Significant 

Reserve 

g. Other Nature Reserve 

determined by the Minister 

0 0 0 V (Protected Landscape/ 

Seascape) 

5** 0 5 NA 

* including 4 Bird Sanctuaries 

** including 1 Wildlife Park, 1 Mountain Park, 1 Wildlife Reserve, 2 Protected Areas 

None of the existing PAs are classified in the two categories “Scientific Nature Reserve” and “Geo-physically 

Significant Reserve”, while the majority of PAs are included in the category wildlife sanctuary. The list 

includes five protected areas lying under the seventh category of “other Nature Reserve established by 

the Minister”. In particular Hlawga Wildlife Park and Popa Mountain Park were established with the main 

objective of education and recreation, Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve aims to combine 

conservation and controlled timber extraction to meet the needs of wildlife and local communities; 

Loimwe Protected Area was established to preserve the scenic beauty of the landscape and Par Sar 

Protected Area was upgraded from the status of reserved forest thanks to the influence of a famous 

Buddhist monk willing to protect the area around the pagoda. Referred to IUCN categories (Dudley, 

2008), the majority of Myanmar PAs belongs to category IV “Habitat/species management area”, where 

the PA is managed mainly for conservation through management interventions, while all the other 

IUCN categories are under-represented. In spite of the rich marine and coastal habitat, there are only 

4 marine protected areas (MPA) 10 including 1 marine national park and 3 wildlife sanctuaries. Currently, 

only Thamihla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary is classified as MPA while the remaining three are considered as 

both terrestrial and marine. Conservation efforts in all sites seem more focused on forest resources and 

terrestrial wildlife protection than on marine ecosystems. 

Site governance 

All Myanmar protected areas were until very recently government managed, in particular 22 by Forest 

Department and 21 by NWCD (which is the competent division for conservation within the Forest 

Department). In 2010 the site governance of Hlawga Wildlife Park has changed to joint management 

between government and private companies. The site was established in 1989 with the main objective 

of providing an environmental education centre near Yangon. The joint venture has strengthened 

the recreation purpose of the park by increasing tourist infrastructures and facilities. MOF is currently 

considering handing over the governance of other PAs, including Khakaborazi National Park, to private 

entrepreneurs, which raises greater concerns for biodiversity conservation. Indeed, Khakaborazi National 

Park could benefit from the establishment of a “Park for Peace” with the neighbouring protected areas 

in China and Nepal (UNEP-WCM 2007 Global List of Transboundary Protected Areas). Although some 

10 Lampi Island, Mainmahla Kyunn, Moscos islands, Thamila Kyunn. 

14 15

PAs are located close to national borders, like the Khakaborazi National Park, Lenya National Park 

with Namtok Huay Yang in Thailand, Tanintharyi Nature Reserve with Kaengkrachan Forest Complex 

in Thailand, there is no experience of transboundary protected area management which could play a 

crucial role in preserving biodiversity, as already noted by U Uga (in Henning 2007, 251). Lampi Marine 

National Park could also become part, together with the surrounding Myeik Archipelago, of the Ranong 

Biosphere Reserve already established in Thailand. There are at present no areas of governmentdelegated 

management to NGOs although, for instance, the role played by WCS in the management of 

Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary is very important, both in terms of provision of training and funding. 

There are also no examples of collaborative management with communities, nor areas established and 

run by indigenous groups. 

Boundaries 

About half of the 43 PAs have demarcated boundaries, most of them by road signs (boundary posts 

and board signals) or natural features like rivers and islands. The areas where the demarcation process 

is incomplete (Lenya, Lenya extension and Tanintharyi Nature Reserve) are not accessible by FD staff 

due to the presence of insurgents. The boundaries of Natma Taung National Park are also still under 

demarcation within the process of notification of the PA that is not yet concluded. 

Protection level 

Thirty-one of the PAs are totally protected and 12 are partially protected, whereas permanent 

settlements and activities like tourism, fishing, agriculture, logging and industry are explicitly allowed 

in the notification. 

Key resources 

All the designated and proposed protected areas support threatened species of mammal, bird and 

reptile (Appendix 3). Six PAs were designated/proposed to protect not only threatened species but their 

habitats. Specifically, Bawditataung Nature Reserve (proposed), Popa Mountain Park and Shwesettaw 

Wildlife Sanctuary have the main objective of protecting the dry forest of the central dry zone of 

Myanmar; Lampi Island Marine National Park was designated to protect coral reefs; Moyingyi Wetland 

Bird Sanctuary the wetland area; Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary was designated to conserve the Indaing 

Forest (the only PA in Myanmar to support this type of forest). 

L. Beffasti 

L. Beffasti L. Beffasti 


2. Natural Resources 

Habitat representation 

With an occurrence of 28%, the mixed deciduous forest is the main forest type in the PAs, with 17% 

represented by the moist upper type, followed by hill and temperate evergreen forest with an occurrence 

of 24%, hill forest (21%, of which 11% is coniferous forest ) and dry forest (6%). The mangrove forest is 

present only in the 3% of the sample PAs, in Mainmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary, where mangrove forest 

cover is almost total, in Lampi Island Marine National Park, where mangrove forest cover is approximately 

only 2% of total forest cover, and in Tanintharyi National Park. Considering the importance of mangroves, 

this habitat type is still under represented in the protected area system. Hlawga Wildlife Park is the only 

PA containing swamp forest with an approximate cover of 20% of the site, thus leaving a gap in the 

conservation of this important habitat type. 

Figure 6 Representation of habitat types in Myanmar PAs (Source: MEP project) 

Marine Habitat 

Wetland 

Swamp Forest 

Beach And Dune Forest 

Mangrove Forest 

Grassland 

Alpine Shrubs 

Hill And Temperate Evergreen Forest 

Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest 

Dry Forest 

Mixed Deciduos Forest 

Evergreen Forest 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 

N° of protected areas 

16 17

Threats 

According to park staff, the conservation status of most protected area is good, i.e. within acceptable 

range of variation but requires some intervention. Significant concern has been expressed for areas like 

Kahilu, Lenya and Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range where large areas have been encroached or are not 

accessible to FD staff for security reasons. Information on the threats to biodiversity inside and outside 

the PAs have been collected following the classification proposed by IUCN-CMP (2006), that classifies 

threats into eleven main categories and from three to six subcategories as indicated in the table below. 

Table 5 Classification of threats to biodiversity (IUCN – CMP 2006) 

1 Residential & Commercial Development 

2 Agriculture & Aquaculture 

3 Energy Production & Mining 

4 Transportation & Service Corridors 

5 Biological Resource Use 

6 Human Intrusions & Disturbance 

7 Natural System Modifications 

8 Invasive & Other Problematic Species & Genes 

9 Pollution 

10 Geological Events 

11 Climate Change & Severe Weather 

1.1 Housing & Urban Areas 

1.2 Commercial & Industrial Areas 

1.3 Tourism & Recreation Areas 

2.1 Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops 

2.2 Wood & Pulp Plantations 

2.3 Livestock Farming & Ranching 

2.4 Marine & Freshwater Aquaculture 

3.1 Oil & Gas Drilling 

3.2 Mining & Quarrying 

3.3 Renewable Energy 

4.1 Roads & Railroads 

4.2 Utility & Service Lines 

4.3 Shipping Lanes 

4.4 Flight Paths 

5.1 Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals 

5.2 Gathering Terrestrial Plants 

5.3 Logging & Wood Harvesting 

5.4 Fishing & Harvesting Aquatic Resources 

6.1 Recreational Activities 

6.2 War, Civil Unrest & Military Exercises 

6.3 Work & Other Activities 

7.1 Fire & Fire Suppression 

7.2 Dams & Water Management/Use 

7.3 Other Ecosystem Modifications 

8.1 Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species 

8.2 Problematic Native Species 

8.3 Introduced Genetic Material 

9.1 Household Sewage & Urban Waste Water 

9.2 Industrial & Military Effluents 

9.3 Agricultural & Forestry Effluents 

9.4 Garbage & Solid Waste 

9.5 Air-Borne Pollutants 

9.6 Excess Energy 

10.1 Volcanoes 

10.2 Earthquakes/Tsunamis 

10.3 Avalanches/Landslides 

11.1 Habitat Shifting & Alteration 

11.2 Droughts 

11.3 Temperature Extremes 

11.4 Storms & Flooding 


Threats inside 

Hunting, logging, agriculture and human settlements are the most common threats occurring in the 

30 PAs surveyed on the ground. Biological Resource Use (threat 5) is reported in 25 out of 30 surveyed 

PAs, with hunting and collecting terrestrial animals (sub-threat 5.1) as the main threat of the category 

followed by logging and wood harvesting (5.3). Fishing (5.4) and gathering terrestrial plants (5.2) occur 

respectively in 8 and 6 sites. Shifting cultivation and/or permanent agricultural fields (2.1) are present 

inside 11 PAs linked to the presence of housing and urban areas. Forest fires (7.1) are also reported in 6 

PAs, connected to traditional agricultural and hunting practices of local people. 

Figure 7 Recorded threats inside the PAs. (Source: MEP project) 

Figure 8 Recorded threats outside the PAs. (Source: MEP project) 

subth 4 subth 3 subth 2 subth 1 

Th. 1 Th. 2 Th. 3 Th. 4 Th. 5 Th. 6 Th. 7 Th. 8 Th. 9 Th. 10 Th. 11 

The mere presence of illegal activities inside the PAs does not necessarily mean that they are a serious 

threat to biodiversity. In fact, in terms of severity of threats, the most widespread threats like the n.5 

(Biological Resource Use), are considered by local managers and staff of mild to moderate severity, while 

uncommon threats like n. 7 that includes dams and water management use and n. 8 including invasive 

non native species, are considered of high impact with a widespread extension. 

Threats outside 

The findings of threat occurrence outside the PAs reflect largely the trend inside the PAs (Fig.8). Among 

the main threats recorded outside, the most common threat is related to hunting and collecting terrestrial 

animals (5.1) and logging and wood harvesting (5.3), with an incidence of 18% and 14% respectively of 

all the threats recorded. Another important threat outside the PAs, with a frequency of 16% is related to 

commercial plantation (2.1). Threats n.8 (Invasive species) and n. 9 (Pollution) are not recorded outside 

PAs but this is probably due to a different perception of the problem. 

18 19 

% of PAs 

reporting threat 

% of PAs reporting 

threat outside 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

Type of threat 

subth 4 subth 3 subth 2 subth 1 

Th. 1 Th. 2 Th. 3 Th. 4 Th. 5 Th. 6 Th. 7 Th. 8 Th. 9 Th. 10 Th. 11 

Type of threat

Fauna and Flora checklist 

Many PAs have partial or complete checklists of some natural resources, due to research activities on 

specific topics carried out, or because resources identification is part of the annual operational plan. 

The most common checklists are those on mammals, trees and birds owned respectively by 25, 23 and 

22 of PAs. Fewer PAs (9-11) possess checklists on insects, amphibians and reptiles. The PAs which do 

more inventories of different biological resources are Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, Lampi Island 

Marine National Park, Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, Htamanthi Wildlife 

Sanctuary, Khakaborazi National Park, Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary and Shwesettaw 

Wildlife Sanctuary. All these sites are managed by NWCD. 

3. Management 

In terms of management 20 PAs have a planning document, in most cases an annual operational plan, 

and park wardens have to report about its completion to headquarters at the end of every year. 

Patrolling, environmental education and wildlife surveys are implemented in approximately half of 

the surveyed PAs. Development actions performed by park staff include, in 23% of the visited sites, 

community based natural resources management and community forestry in the surroundings areas 

of the PA. Outreach programs are implemented in 30% of the PA visited, in form of collaboration and 

meetings with neighbouring communities, but also in terms of education programs. In 70% of the PAs 

visited, lack of budget and staff (both in numbers and quality) are mentioned as the main constraints 

to the implementation of management actions. Conflicts with local communities and insurgents are 

identified as main limit to management in 15% of the visited sites. 

4. Staff/Resources 

Over 65% of the sample has some infrastructure for management, at least the park warden office, and 

staff assigned with some level of training. In most cases physical and human resources were judged 

inadequate by PA authority or staff. There are 17 out of 43 PAs with no allocated staff and all are under 

the governance of FD. Staff is missing in all proposed areas except Bawditataung and Natma Taung. 

The number of staff allocated to remaining 26 sites ranges from a minimum of 4 for Kelatha to a 

maximum of 131 for Hlawga without any correlation to the size of the PA. For instance, only 17 staff are 

allocated to the largest (Hukaung Valley, 22.000 km²) and over 30 to the smallest (Lawkananda, 0,5 km2 ). 

In general, PAs governed under NWCD have more infrastructure and staff, and consequently perform 

more conservation and management activities than those governed by FD, where the office is in general 

quite far from the PA and management actions are limited to sporadic patrolling and gap planting. 

Lack of financial resources is reported as the main cause of insufficient monitoring and patrolling; staff 

is not paid any travel allowance and vehicles and tools are inadequate. 

5. Tourism 

Tourism is permitted in some PAs, especially those that are listed among the Myanmar ecotourism sites 

(Moyingyi, Popa, Shwesettaw, Inlay Lake, Alaungdaw Kathapa, Natma Taung, Khakaborazi, Hponkanrazi, 

Mainmahla Kyun, Lampi Island, Hukaung Valley, Chatthin). Furthermore, religious tourism is present in 

other areas such as Kyaikhtiyoe, Bumhpabum and Par Sar. Tourism facilities are available in 19 sites but 

tourism statistics were not available at the park offices because they are managed under the Myanmar 

Travel and Tourism. No community-based tourism activities were recorded inside or in the proximity of 

protected areas except for Inlay lake, which is one of the main tourist destinations in Myanmar. 

Figures for international tourism are very small for Myanmar compared to neighbouring countries but 

more investments are expected in the future, with special attention to ecotourism. 

6. Land use and Human activities 

Land use classification consists of 10 categories according to Young (1994) namely: 1) not used 2) 

conservation 3) collection 4) forestry 5) agricultural production 6) fisheries production 7) recreation 8) 

mineral extraction 9) settlement 10) use restricted by security. Data confirm that agricultural production, 

forestry and fisheries production are implemented in the majority of protected areas. Tourism and 

recreation areas are present in 32% of the analysed PAs, mining activities are reported in 10 sites, and 

security issues related to the presence of either insurgents or army compounds inside 6 sites. 


7. Research 

Research surveys have been implemented in 65% of sites, mainly by local universities, local NGOs 

and a few international organisations (WCS, California Academy of Science, Smithsonian Institute, 

Istituto Oikos). There are no clear procedures to undertake research in the PAs. Local researchers make 

agreements with park wardens while international scientists are required to get security clearance from 

the central FD office. Furthermore, research results are often not available at the park office. 

2.3 Protected Areas Datasheets 

In the following section, we report the general information provided by Forest Department and the 

maps produced by project GIS experts for all 43 PAs and selected information collected by the project 

on natural resources, threats, management, tourism, land use and human activities, research, about 

the 30 surveyed sites. All the information retrieved during the project has been inserted in a database 

available to stakeholders upon request. Such database has been created using MS Access 2007 and 

comprises a Graphic User Interface to easily browse all the Protected Areas. The instructions on how 

to use the Database are present in the Database itself. The maps displayed in the present publication 

have been created using data retrieved from different sources such as: SRTM for the digital elevation 

model (USGS 2004, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, Global Land Cover Facility); Landsat 5 and 7 for 

satellite images (NASA); the UN agency MIMU-OCHA for the administrative boundaries, towns and road 

connections (Myanmar Information Management Unit, http://themimu.info/). The boundaries of the 

Protected Areas have been retrieved from the Forest Department and the Wildlife Conservation Society. 

Such boundaries, as well as the position of the Head Quarters and Ranger Posts, have been corrected 

when necessary after the field trips in the PAs of the present project. The two resulting maps have the 

objective to display the general topographic location and characteristics of each PA, and give more 

detailed information on the vegetation cover from remotely sensed data. To appreciate such information 

a colour scale is provided: black means generally presence of water; cyan-white means bare soils or 

artificial surfaces; red, on the other side, means presence of any kind of vegetation. 

20 21 

A.Bonetti

ALAUNGDAW KATHAPA 

Site ID 1 

Locality Sagaing Region, Kani and Mingin Townships 

Coordinates N22° 23’, E94°25’ 

Size (km²) 1597 

Altitude (m. asl) 135-1335 

Myanmar category National Park 

IUCN category II 

Site Governance Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division 

Boundaries Demarcated 

Year gazetted 1989 

Protection level Partial (Recreation/Tourism allowed) 

Main purposes Conservation, Cultural Heritage, Recreation/Tourism 

Habitat 

Key resources 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Mixed Deciduous Forest 

(Moist and Dry Upper Forest, Lower Forest), Hill Forest (Pine) 

Asian Elephant, Leopard, Gaur, Sambar Deer, 

Serow, Asiatic Black Bear 

Legend of topographic maps 

Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 

Protected Areas 

State/Region Boundaries 

Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 

Legend of satellite maps 

Water Depth 

Deep 

Shallow 

Vegetation Density 

High 

Low 

SITE DESCRIPTION 

Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park is located in Kani and 

Mingin Townships of Sagaing Region in upper Myanmar. 

It is also an ASEAN Heritage Park. Sandy, gravel, very sticky 

clay, limestone, shale and rock are the ground types of the 

site. Average rainfall ranges from 25 to 50mm and average 

temperature is recorded as 10 to 40°C. Elevation ranges from 

135 to 1335m in the site. Two rivers, Pahtolone and Taungdwin 

Chaung Magyi, flow in the park. 

NATURAL RESOURCES 

Mixed deciduous forest (moist upper, dry upper and lower) 

is the typical forest type of the site. Other forest types are 

evergreen forest and pine forest. About 150 tree species, 42 

orchid species, 10 bamboo species, 4 cane species and more 

than 50 medicinal plants have been recorded from the park. 

Regarding the wildlife, the Indian tiger (Panthera tigris) 

is probably not present anymore. Twenty to 40 leopards 

(Panthera pardus), about 50 Asian elephants (Elephas 

maximus), 40 gaurs (Bos gaurus), 300 sambar deers (Cervus 

unicolor), muntjac, bear, cat species, insects and aquatic 

animals have been observed by park staff. Thirteen reptile 

species, 240 butterfly species and more than 240 bird species 

are also recorded from the park. 


MANAGEMENT 

Annual management plan. 

Buffer zone designated. 

Management actions in place: 

• Monthly patrolling by two patrol groups 

• Occasional special inspection by park warden 

• Meetings with the local communities 

Management problems: 

• Insufficient budget 

• Insufficient manpower 

• Conflicts with local communities (such as poachers) 

STAFF / RESOURCES 

A total of 86 staff is working for the site. Four ranger posts 

are built with 27 assigned staff. Local and international 

trainings are arranged for the staff. 

TOURISM 

Alaungdaw Kathapa is the name of the legendary monk 

living there in historical times. The site is famous for 

the cave and pagoda and receives every year many 

local and pilgrims and tourists, especially during the 

annual pagoda festival. 

22 23 

THREATS 

INSIDE 

• Tourism & Recreation Areas 

• Oil & Gas Drilling 

• Roads & Railroads 

• Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals 

• Gathering Terrestrial Plants 

OUTSIDE 

• Logging & Wood Harvesting 


• Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops 

• Oil & Gas Drilling 

LAND USE AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES 

INSIDE 

• Conservation 

• Cultural heritage 

• Research 

• Recreation 

OUTSIDE 

• Management of natural forests by Myanmar 

Timber Enterprise 

• Permanent cropping 

RESEARCH 

No information available.

BAWDITATAUNG 

Site ID 2 

Locality Sagaing Region, Monywa and Chaung Oo Townships 

Coordinates N22° 04’, E 95° 18’ 

Size (km²) 73 

Altitude (m. asl) 85 – 375 

Myanmar category Nature Reserve 

IUCN category VI 

Site Governance Forest Department 


Year proposed 2008 

Protection level Total 

Main purposes Conservation, Cultural heritage 

Habitat Dry Forest 

Key resources Dry Zone Ecosystem 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 


Water Depth Vegetation Density 

Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Bawditataung Nature Reserve is situated in Monywa and 

Chaung Oo Townships of Sagaing Region in middle Myanmar. 

The reserve is 20 km away from Monywa town. Kyaukkar (375 

m) is the highest hill of the Bawditataung range. The site 

is marked with 21 boundary posts on the ground. Young 

sandstone is upper layer and old sand stone is lower layer of 

the ground. The site has ridges, slopes and streams. The site 

has been designed to conserve the dry zone ecosystem and 

to promote the cultural heritage site of the pagodas. It has a 

hot and a dry season and the temperature ranges from 8° to 

40°C. 


Tropical dry forest is the forest type of the Reserve. About 40% 

of the area is covered by dry forest, 30% by agricultural fields 

and plantations, 25% by urban/industrial areas and 5% by 

geological formations. 


MANAGEMENT 

Annual management plan 


• Reforestation 

• Nature conservation 


2 rangers and 8 foresters from the Forest Department and 

Tropical Region Greening Department have been working 

for the site. There are no ranger posts in Bawditataung but 

there are some buildings in the Pagoda Compound, not too 

far from head office based at Monywa. 

Access to the site is easy due to the presence of motor roads 

and nearby Monywa town. 

TOURISM 

The Bawditataung Nature Reserve is a national cultural 

heritage site. Standing Buddha concrete image is built in the 

site and it is the tallest and biggest standing Buddha image in 

Myanmar. The site is visited by many local and foreign pilgrims 

and tourists every year. Various types of accommodation are 

located at nearby Monywa town 

24 25 

THREATS 

INSIDE 

• Housing & Urban Areas 


The site is frequented by visitors from various parts of 

Myanmar, with consequent issues of pollution, littering 

and disturbance to the environment. 

OUTSIDE 



• Livestock Farming & Ranching 

There are many villages outside the PA. However, it is 

reported that the villagers respect the site because of its 

religious value and the presence of the monks. 


INSIDE 

• Forest plantations 



• Reforestation activities are carried out by FD and 

local authorities 

OUTSIDE 

• Agriculture 

RESEARCH 


BUMHPABUM 

Site ID 3 

Locality Kachin State, Sumprabom Township 

Coordinates N 26° 31’, E 97° 23’ 

Size (km²) 1,854 

Altitude (m. asl) 140 – 3,435 

Myanmar category Wildlife Sanctuary 

IUCN category IV 





Main purposes Conservation 

Habitat 

Key resources 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Hill Forest (Evergreen), 

Hill Forest (Pine Forest) 

Asian Elephant, Gaur, Serow, Deer Spp., Clouded Leopard, 

Asiatic Golden Cat, Golden Jackal, Red Goral, Leopard, Birds Spp. 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


26 27

CHATTHIN 

Site ID 4 

Locality Sagaing Region, Kanbalu and Kawlin Townships 

Coordinates N 23° 34’, E 95° 32 









Main purposes Conservation, Research/Education , Recreation/Tourism 

Habitat 

Indaing Forest, Mixed Deciduous Forest (Dry Upper), 

Grassland 

Key resources Eld’s Deer, Sambar Deer, Barking Deer, Gaur 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Kanbalu and Kawlin 

Townships of Sagaing Region in upper Myanmar. Boundary of 

the site is marked with posts and board signals on the ground. 

Elevation of the site ranges from 165 to 260 m. 


Indaing forest is the main forest type covering about 90% of 

the site. Checklists of 263 tree species, 240 birds, 160 insects, 

47 fishes, 38 reptiles, 15 amphibians and 13 mammals are 

available at the Zoology Department of the University of 

Yangon. Eld’s deer (Cervus eldi thamin), is one of the three 

subspecies of Eld’s deer and is native to Myanmar. 

MANAGEMENT 

There is an annual management plan in place whose 

effectiveness is judged good. A buffer zone is present and the 

following activities are allowed in it: agriculture, fuel wood 

collection and fishing. Park staff patrol the buffer zone in 

cooperation with local villagers. 


• Patrolling in order to reduce illegal hunting and logging 

• Environmental education to reduce timber exploitation 

pressure 

• Faunal surveys of Eld’s deer, Birds, Dhole, Squirrel. 


• Management of Natural Forests 

• Forest replantation through Community forestry is also 

implemented. 


• insufficient manpower 

• insufficient budget 

Required actions: 

• Provision of GPS, binoculars and computer 

• Training to staff for communication and awareness raising 

activities with local communities 

• Training to local community for the management of 

community forests 


39 Staff from the Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division 

of the Forest Department are assigned to the site, including 

1 warden, 8 rangers, 21 foresters and 9 labourers. 7 staff 

members have graduate level education. In addition, the 

warden and two rangers attended trainings. Only park warden 

can use computer at intermediate level. 

Park Warden office is situated in Kanbalu Township of Sagaing 

Region. 5 ranger posts are located in the surrounding villages 

(San Myaung, Kin san, Nyaung Gon, Pe Tabin, Let Khot Pin) 

each with at least 1 ranger and 1 forest guard allocated. 

28 29 

THREATS 

INSIDE 

• Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial Animals (subsistence) 



• Fishing & Harvesting Aquatic Resources 

• Fire & Fire suppression. 

OUTSIDE 




INSIDE 

• Forest plantations for reforestation 

• Extensive grazing 

• Shifting cultivation during rainy season 

• Fishing with poison 

OUTSIDE 


• Fishing 

RESEARCH 

The NWCD and the Zoology Department of Yangon 

University have implemented research on the following 

subjects: Dipterocarp forest ecology, Myanmar hare habitat, 

ant and earthworm ecology, human impact assessment on 

fish species.

HLAWGA 

Site ID 5 

Locality Yangon Region, Mingaladon Township 

Coordinates N17°02’, E96°06’ 

Size (km²) 6 


Myanmar category Wildlife Park 

IUCN category NA 

Site Governance Joint management by NWCD and private companies 



Protection level Partial (Recreation/Tourism allowed) 

Main purposes Research/Education, Conservation 

Habitat 


(Lower), Swamp Forest 

Key resources Eld’s Deer, Sambar Deer,Barking Deer, Hog Deer, Migratory birds 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Hlawga Wildlife Park is an open zoo created in 1982 by the 

Forest Department in the proximity of Yangon with the 

objectives of providing environmental education facilities, 

protecting the forest and plant cover in the catchment of the 

Hlawga lake, and establishing a representative collection of 

Myanmar indigenous plants and wildlife species. In 2010 the 

site has passed to joint management of NWCD and private 

entities. 


The site preserves three types of habitat: evergreen forests, 

mixed deciduous forests and swamp forests. 108 tree species 

have been identified. Common tree species are Dipterocarps. 

Deciduous species like teak (Tectona grandis) are also found. 

Barking deer, hog deer and wild boar are the most common 

of the 12 mammal species from the retrieved checklist. The 

overpopulation of non-native macaques (Macaca spp.) is 

negatively influencing the ecological balance of the site. 

Resident and migratory birds are abundant inside the park, 

with 191 identified species. 

MANAGEMENT 


Buffer zone designated 


• Weekly monitoring of animal populations and tree cover 

• Regular patrolling of the Buffer Zone 


• Introduction of non-native spp. 


• Park staff routinely allocated to other sites 


• Increased patrolling 

The park is zoned in 3 areas: the mini zoo (where the education 

and management buildings are located), the open zoo (with 

facilities for jungle trekking, bird watching and wildlife safaris) 

and the buffer zone (where plantations are allowed). Change 

in management strategies is expected after the change of 

governance of the site. 


At the time of the visit (2009) the site was well equipped with 

human resources (130 staff) and adequate infrastructure. 

The rangers (30) had been trained by Forest Department on 

forestry issues. Capacity building had been provided with the 

help from international organizations (Smithsonian Institute 

and WCS) to the Forest staff. The park facilities include one 

head office, 6 ranger posts, an education centre, an information 

centre, a veterinary clinic and an engineer section. 

In 2010, as a result of the joint management of the park with 

a private company, the staff was reorganised (rangers were 

sent back to central offices) and infrastructures are under 

renovation. 

TOURISM 

The site is visited every year by more than 100.000 local 

tourists and 400 foreigners, mainly coming from Yangon city. 

Tourists can use park facilities (tea shops, picnic sites, 

recreation sites, aviary, mini-zoo, biodiversity museum, 

environmental education centre and chalets). 

30 31 

THREATS 



• Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species 

The site is highly frequented by visitors from Yangon and 

is used as a set for shooting local movies which is the 

main cause of littering, security problems and wildlife 

disturbance. 


INSIDE 


OUTSIDE 


• Army compound (restricted area) 

The site is surrounded by anthropical activities due to 

the closeness to the biggest city in Myanmar. To decrease 

the pressure on natural resources, a buffer zone has been 

designated where only plantations are allowed.

HPONKANRAZI 

Site ID 6 

Locality Kachin State; Putao, Machanbaw and Naungmon Townships 

Coordinates N27° 38’, E97° 16’ 

Size (km²) 2,704 








Main purposes Conservation, Research/ Education, Recreation/ Ecotourism 

Habitat 

Key resources 

Alpine Shrubs, Mountainous Temperate Forest, Hill Forest 

(Pine), Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper) 

Barking Deer, Birds spp., Eastern Hoolock Gibbon, Red 

Goral, Small Asian Mongoose, Wild Dog 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 

HTAMANTHI 

Site ID 7 

Locality Sagaing Region, Homalin and Kamti Townships 


Size (km²) 2,151 








Main purposes Conservation, Research/Education 


32 33 

Habitat 

Key resources 


(Moist Upper) 

White-winged Duck, Asian Elephant, Tiger, Western 

Hoolock Gibbon, Masked Finfoot, Sumatran and Javan 

Rhinoceros (extinct since 1980) 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low

HUKAUNG VALLEY / HUKAUNG VALLEY (EXTENSION) 

HUKAUNG VALLEY 

Site ID 8 

Locality Kachin State, Tanaing Township 


Size (km²) 6,371 









Habitat 

Key resources 

Site ID 9 

Locality 


Size (km²) 15,431 




Site Governance 

Kachin State; Kamaing and Tanaing Townships. 

Sagaing Region, Nayun and Kamti Townships 

Nature and Wildlife 

Conservation Division 




Main purposes Conservation, Research/Education, Recreation/Ecotourism 

Habitat 

Key resources 


(Moist Upper), Hill Forest (Evergreen And Pine) 

Tiger, Asian Elephant, Hoolock Gibbon, Sun Bear, 

Asiatic Black Bear, White-bellied heron, 

White-winged duck, Masked Finfoot, Green Peafowl 

HUKAUNG VALLEY (EXTENSION) 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper), Hill Forest 

(Evergreen and Pine) 

Tiger, Asian Elephant, Hoolock gibbon, Sun Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, 

White- bellied Heron, White-winged Duck, Masked Finfoot, Green Peafowl 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Hukaung valley wildlife sanctuary is situated in Northern Forest 

Complex of Myanmar. In combination with its extension, the site 

is the world’s biggest tiger reserved area. However, over 3,500 km² 

inside the PA extension are occupied by commercial plantations. 

The two sites are managed as one protected area and share staff 

and infrastructure. 


The area has been created with the purpose of conserving the 

tigers and their habitat. The area is mostly covered by evergreen 

forest (typical). Mixed deciduous forest (moist upper), hill forest 

(evergreen) and hill forest (pine forest) are the other forest types 

of the site. Checklists of 40 mammals and 140 birds are available 

at the park warden’s office. 

MANAGEMENT 

Soon after the declaration of the protected area, the FD made a 

cooperation agreement with the US-based Wildlife 

Conservation Society (WCS) for the conservation and management 

of the site. 

An annual management plan with good effectiveness is in 

place including management and conservation actions, also 

supported by two international organizations (Panthera and 

WCS): 

• Tiger survey 

• Elephant survey and protection 

• Bird survey 

• Patrolling 

• Conservation and environmental education 

• Community-based natural resources management 


• More human resources to perform patrolling in such a wide 

area. 

• More environmental awareness seminars for local community, 

also to raise knowledge of community forestry. 


A joint project between FD and WCS has provided the site 

with the necessary infrastructure, equipment and tools. The 

park warden’s office is situated at Tanaing town and the office 


has 17 staff. Four ranger posts have been positioned with 

two forest guards at each station. An education centre has been 

set up. 

Staff received specific training. They have basic IT knowledge. 

Staff and infrastructures have not been upgraded with the 

extension of the site. Consequently they are not sufficient to 

properly manage both sites. 

TOURISM 

Two guest houses were built in the office compound and two 

persons can stay at each house. 


NSIDE 

• Management of natural resources 

• Forest plantation 

• Grazing 

• Small-scale gold mining 

• Agriculture (commercial farms) 

OUTSIDE 

• Agriculture (commercial farms) 

• Fishing 

• Mining 

• Road and railroad 

RESEARCH 

Since 1999 tiger surveys have been undertaken in the Hukaung 

valley by the Forest Department in cooperation with WCS, 

facilitating the designation of the site and its extension. 

THREATS 

INSIDE 

• Housing & Urban Areas (temporary human settlements) 

• Mining & Quarrying (gold) 


OUTSIDE 


• Mining & Quarrying (commercial goldmine) 

• Commercial & Industrial Areas (farms owned by one 

of the biggest Myanmar business groups) 

34 35

INDAWGYI LAKE 

Site ID 10 

Locality Kachin State, Monyin Township 



Altitude (m. asl) 105 -1,400 






Protection level Partial (Recreation/Tourism and Fishing allowed) 

Main purposes 

Habitat 

Key resources 

Conservation, Cultural heritage, Research/Education, 

Recreation/Tourism 

Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper), Wetland, Evergreen 

Forest (Riverine), Mixed Deciduous Forest (Bamboo), 

Hill Forest (Pine Forest) 

Hoolock Gibbon, Burmese Bushlark, Hooded Treepie, 

Great Hornbill, Slender-billed Vulture, White-rumped 

Vulture, Himalayan Vulture 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Monyin 

Township of Kachin State in northern Myanmar. It is an 

Important Bird Area (IBA) and an ASEAN Heritage site. 


50% of the site is covered by mixed deciduous forest and 30% 

is wetland. Evergreen forest (riverine), mixed deciduous forest 

(bamboo), hill forest (pine forest) are other forest types of the 

site. 

Checklists of 165 different types of trees and medicinal plants, 

38 mammals, 448 birds, 41 reptiles, 34 amphibians and 50 

butterflies are available at the park warden’s office. BLI has 

designated the area as IBA in 2004 for the presence of 10 

threatened bird species, including the critically endangered 

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis and the near 

threatened Hooded Treepie Crypsirina cucullata endemic to 

Myanmar. 

MANAGEMENT 


Buffer zone designated 



• Environmental education 

• Participatory rural assessment 

• Biodiversity surveys 



36 37 

THREATS 

INSIDE 






OUTSIDE 



• Budget 

• Manpower 

Required equipment: 

• computer, camera, GPS, binoculars, telescope, bird watching 

tower and rest house for departmental visitors 

Required actions inside 

• Shifting cultivation control 

• Fishing regulation according to spawning seasons 

• Electric fishing prevention 

Required actions outside 

• Gold mining control 


A total of 14 staff has been working at the site. The park 

warden’s office is situated in Monyin township. Ranger posts 

are situated at Monyin, Lonton sp. and Nantmon. Three 

ranger posts with four staff in Monyin, five buildings with six 

staff at Loneton and one building with four staff at Nantmon 

guard post. Staff attended local training and training in other 

countries. 

TOURISM 

The site is visited every year by local and foreign tourists but 

statistics on numbers of tourists are missing. A military guest 

house and a guest house which belongs to the local authority 

are present at the site. The pagoda at the site is famous in 



INSIDE 

• Fishing 

OUTSIDE 

• Gold mining 

• Cultivation 

RESEARCH 

Gibbon project: evaluation of the status of Hoolock Gibbon 

conducted by BANCA in 2009-2010.

INLAY LAKE 

Site ID 11 

Locality 

Coordinates N20°13, E96°56’ 





Shan State (Nyaung Shwe, Pinlaung and Peh Kon 

Townships) 




Protection level Partial (Fishing and Agriculture allowed) 

Main purposes 

Habitat Wetland, Hill Forest 

Conservation, Natural resources maintenance, 

Cultural heritage, Recreation/Ecotourism 

Key resources Wetland Ecosystem; Migratory birds 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The site is located on the Shan plateau of East Myanmar, in 

the Thanlwin river basin. The natural lake is fairly shallow 

and is located in a broad valley between two limestone 

ridges rising up to 1,200 m asl and covered by hill forest. The 

wetland sanctuary has been established to protect migratory 

birds and their habitats. It is famous for its traditional floating 

agriculture and it is also a major source of hydropower for 



The key resource of the site is a large population of many 

migratory and resident birds (according to the Park staff, 175 

species have been recorded), besides native aquatic plants 

and freshwater fishes. 

MANAGEMENT 

Annual operation plan 

Buffer zone proposed 



• Census of aquatic species and resident and migratory bird 

species 

• Plantations outside the PA 

• Environmental education activities with schools 

• Community forestry outside 



• Budget constraints 

Actions required: 

• Zone management 

• Equipment maintenance 


The human resources (13 staff) are barely sufficient to manage 

the site. More foresters are needed to carry out conservation 

activities on the surrounding slopes. Many infrastructures 

are present, such as office, ranger posts and a bird watching 

centre, and equipment is provided. Staff has a different level 

of training in environmental issues and computer literacy is 

higher than elsewhere. 

Access to the site is easy due to the presence of motor roads 

around the lake and boat transportation inside. 

TOURISM 

Inlay Lake is one of Myanmar ecotourism sites and ASEAN 

heritage site. It is visited every year by a large number of local 

and foreign visitors. Cultural highlights are the traditional 

Intha leg-rowing, fishing techniques, floating cultivations, 

traditional weaving and tobacco production, as well as 

important pagodas. Many accommodation and lodging 

facilities are provided around the lake as well as trekking 

opportunities in the surrounding hills. Community-based 

tourism options are available. 

38 39 

THREATS 

The site is in a state of environmental emergency. Poor 

agricultural practices based on the inappropriate use of 

chemical fertilizers and pesticides are polluting the water. 

The growing tourism industry is an increasing threat to 

water quality due to the growing facilities that have been 

built inside and outside the protected area without due 

respect to environmental issues. Zoning recommendations 

are not respected by local fishermen that are increasingly 

abandoning traditional practices. Soil erosion in the 

surrounding slopes, which have been largely converted to 

agriculture, is the main cause of a severe sedimentation in 

the water body. All this is resulting in the alarming lowering 

of the water level and of its quality. 

Poaching, the collection of firewood and housepoles, 

gathering orchids, traditional gold mining are localized 

threats considered to be of limited impact. 


• Agricultural production 

• Fisheries production 


Floating plantations (tomato, flowers) and fishing represent 

the main income-generation strategy for the local 

communities. Tourism is a boost for the local economy. 

RESEARCH 

Yangon University in collaboration with BANCA studied 

the sedimentation of the site and the use of pesticides. 

Taunggyi University studied the plankton.

KAHILU 

Site ID 12 

Locality Kayin State, Phapon and Paan Townships 



Altitude (m. asl) 20 -260 

Myanmar 

category 


Wildlife Sanctuary 






Habitat Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper) 

Key resources Mouse Deer, Hog Deer, Serow 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Kahilu Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Phapon and Paan 

Townships of Kayin State. The Sanctuary is located on the 

west side of the road which links between Kamamaung and 

Phapon. The topography of the Sanctuary is mostly flat with 

some hills gradually lowering from north-west to south-east. 

Two streams, Yepu chaung and Kayindone chaung, flow in the 

Sanctuary. Rainfall is recorded at about 3,800 mm per year. 


Moist upper mixed deciduous forest is the main forest type of 

the Kahilu Wildlife Sanctuary. Many bird species (junglefowl, 

parrot, myna, hornbill, woodpecker, dove, partridge, lapwing, 

drongos, kite and owl), monkeys and the Barking deer are 

found in the site. Teak and iron wood trees also occur inside 

the Sanctuary. 


40 41 

THREATS 

• Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops (shifting 

cultivation) 



• Dams & Water Management/Use 

Occurrence of Sumatran rhinoceros was reported about 65 

years ago. In 1946-47, tracks of two Sumatran rhinoceros were 

seen in the site. In 1947-48, one animal had still been spotted. 

But, no information later than 1948 is available. 

MANAGEMENT 

The area is not managed because of security issues. 

The presence of insurgents is the main constraint to the 

occasional visits of forest staff and other researchers. 

Required resources: 

electricity; phone line; field equipment. 


No human resources nor infrastructure is allocated to the site. 

At least 10 Park staff are considered necessary. 

TOURISM 

No available information. 

Access to foreign visitors is restricted. 


A dam is to be built near to Myaingyingu, about 33 km 

downstream from the Salween-Moei River confluence. 

Here, there is a particularly powerful rapid that becomes 

a waterfall which belongs to the Kahilu Wildlife Sanctuary. 

Part of the sanctuary may be flooded if the development 

project is carried out. 

RESEARCH 


KELATHA 

Site ID 13 

Locality Mon State, Belin Township 









Protection level Partial 


Habitat 

Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper), Evergreen Forest 

(Typical) 

Key resources Monkeys, Wild Cats, Pangolin, Barking Deer 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Kelatha Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Belin Township, Mon 

State. It is a small sanctuary of about 24 square kilometers 

whose boundaries are demarcated by a road running 

all around the site. Settlements, farming and collection of 

non-timber-forest-products are allowed. 


Forest types of the Kelatha Wildlife Sanctuary are mixed 

deciduous and typical evergreen forest. According to the 

information obtained in the park, leopard, serow, barking 

deer, sambar deer, wild boar, different species of monkeys, 

wildfowl, pheasant, hornbill and peacock were observed in 

the site in 1996. 

MANAGEMENT 

Forest Department Office is located at Belin town. 


• No available information 







Two rangers and two foresters are assigned from FD office 

in Belin. There are no field office, ranger posts or any other 

buildings inside. Staff didn’t receive any special training and 

doesn’t have any field equipment. Accessibility to the site is 

good thanks to a concrete road taking to the Kelatha pagoda. 

No field office for the site. Access to the site is easy due to the 

presence of motor roads and tracks. 

TOURISM 

The site receives many local pilgrims who visit the pagoda 

and monasteries. Visitor statistics are not available. 

42 43 

THREATS 

• Annual & Perennial Non Timber Crops 



Shifting cultivation farmers are encroaching park borders. 

Poaching and illegal logging for subsistence are moderate 

and localized threats. 


INSIDE 


• Mining 

In the area there are 42 monasteries and granite stone 

production for road construction is underway. 

OUTSIDE 


• Human settlement 

The site is surrounded by villages and anthropical activities. 

According to a survey conducted in 1996, there were 

no villagers who earn their living from forest and forest 

products of the site. Paddy fields in the surrounding area 

are fertile and they produce a good harvest. Villages and 

horticulture farms are located almost continuously one 

beside another and villagers are very concerned by forest 

fire outbreaks.

KHAKABORAZI 

Site ID 14 

Locality Kachin State, Naungmon Township 


Size (km²) 3,812 








Main purposes Conservation, Research/ Education 

Habitat 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Hill Forest (Pine Forest), 

Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper) 

Key resources Black Musk Deer, Red Panda, Takin, Red Goral 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


44 45

KYAIKHTIYOE 

Site ID 15 

Locality Mon State, Kyaikhto Township 









Protection level Partial 


Habitat 


(Moist Upper) 

Key resources Leopard, Serow, Red Goral, Tiger 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The site was proposed as Wildlife Sanctuary in 1998 and 

gazetted in 2001 in order to conserve the flora and fauna 

of the surroundings of Kyaikhtiyoe Pagoda which is a 

National Heritage monument. The Kyaikhtiyoe Pagoda 

is built on a spectacular geological rock formation and 

has become a site of worship. The rock is a massive stone 

close to the top of the mountain and on the brink of a 

cliff. Now the rock has been covered by the golden leaves 

left by the Buddhist pilgrims and it is called the Golden 

Rock Pagoda. 


The wildlife sanctuary was established to protect globally 

threatened species (Leopard, Serow, Goral). 

Leopard is still spotted in the wildlife sanctuary while 

there is no other recent available information on the 

presence of other species in the Sanctuary. 

MANAGEMENT 

An annual operation plan is present. According to Park 

staff, more patrolling and inspecting is needed. 


Some staff is present (1 Park Warden, at least 2 rangers 

and 2 more foresters), but it is not sufficient: more 

administrative and field staff are needed. Only the Park 

Warden has received specific environmental training by 

Forest Department and local NGOs. The IT skills are low 

and digital equipment is required. One Park Office and 4 

Ranger Posts are present. 

TOURISM 

The Kyaikhtiyoe Pagoda on the Golden Rock (Golden Rock 

Pagoda) is considered one of the most famous tourist 

spots of Myanmar and is visited every year by thousands 

of pilgrims and tourists, especially during pagoda festival. 

Many facilities are present for tourists (hotels, restaurants 

and transport, etc.). A 15-km-long road crosses was built 

inside the sanctuary to take the pilgrims to the pagoda 

with trucks. Private vehicles are not allowed. 


46 47 

THREATS 



• Fire & Fire Suppression 

The main dangers to the area are the illegal logging of 

bamboo and poles for housing and working tools, and the 

poaching of the protected populations of Barking Deer 

and Wild Boar for subsistence by local hunters. Forest fires 

during the dry season are becoming a serious threat. 

RESEARCH 

Yangon university studied orchids and ferns (2005) and 

bamboo rats (2008). A bird survey was implemented by 

local NGO Myanmar Birds and Nature Society (2008) and 

an herpetology survey by CAS (2008). 


INSIDE 


The site is highly used for the tourist activities 

and facilities. 

OUTSIDE 

• Agricultural production (Temporary and Permanent 

cropping) 

• Forestry (Forest Plantation) 

Apart from tourism, there are many agricultural activities, 

for subsistence (with crops like rice, peanuts, pepper and 

durian) and commercial rubber forest plantations

KYAUK-PAN-TAUNG 

Site ID 16 

Locality Chin State, Paletwa Township 










Main purposes 

Conservation, Research/ Education, Recreation/ 

Ecotourism 

Habitat Evergreen Forest (Typical), Hill Forest (Evergreen) 

Key resources 

Wild Boar, Leopard, Jungle Cat, Barking Deer, Serow, Red 

Goral, Clouded Leopard, Barking Deer, Sambar Deer 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


48 49 

M. Karim

LAMPI ISLAND 

Site ID 17 

Locality Tanintharyi Region (Boke Pyin Township) 











Habitat 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Mangrove Forest, Beach and 

Dune Forest, Sea Grass Beds, Coral Reefs 

Key resources Coral Reefs, Mouse Deer and Salone Ethnic Groups 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Lampi Island Marine National Park encompasses a section of 

the Myeik Archipelago including Lampi Island, several smaller 

islands and the seas around them. The sea between Lampi 

and the mainland is on average 12 m deep and nowhere 

deeper than 24 m. Lampi island is generally hilly and rises 

steeply from sea level up to 455 m. The majority of the coast is 

rocky, presenting also sandy beaches, bays and inlets. Lampi 

island has two major perennial rivers and many small seasonal 

streams. Lampi habitats are mostly intact, and if measures are 

put into place soon, the representativeness and key attributes 

of this vast island ecosystem can be conserved at this site. 

Lampi is an ASEAN heritage site, an Important Bird Area (IBA) 

and a designated Myanmar ecotourism site. 


Evergreen forest is the major forest type of the site. Mangrove 

and beach & dune forests are also present at the site. Coral 

reefs fringe the islands. Seagrass beds are present especially 

in the east side of the island. 

MANAGEMENT 

In 2009 the MEP project initiated consultations among the 

different stakeholders aimed at launching the process for a 

participatory development of the management plan to ensure 

50 51 

THREATS 





• Wood & Pulp Plantations 

• Garbage & Solid Waste 

For a detailed list see chapter 3. 

LAND USE 

• Residential (4 villages inside and 1 outside) 

• Industrial (fish factory in War Kyunn) 

• Fishing 

• Temporary and permanent cropping 

the involvement of local communities and the incorporation 

of their needs and aspirations. It has also supported field 

surveys to gather scientific data on the naturalistic and 

cultural features of the area, to enable participatory planning 

and management of natural resources. 


The planned staff will include 25 people but none has been 

assigned yet. 

Istituto Oikos and BANCA have supported the construction of 

a field camp at Makyone Galet village on Bo Cho Island which 

is very near to the southern coast of Lampi island. The camp 

includes a basic office and a rest house and is equipped with 

1 motorboat, 3 GPS, 2 binoculars, 1 laptop, 1 printer, camping 

equipment, field guides. 

TOURISM 

At present there is no tourist accommodation on Lampi Island 

or on the other islands inside the marine national park, and 

visitors are not allowed to spend the night on these islands. 

Therefore, visitor opportunities to Lampi are limited to sailing 

cruises including diving opportunities. The few boats allowed 

to bring tourists in the Myeik Archipelago belong to Myanmar 

or Thai companies which have license from Myanmar Ministry 

of Hotel and Tourism. 

RESEARCH 


Surveys to Lampi were conducted by FAO in 1983, WCS 

in 1995-96) and Ecoswiss in 2006-7. Since 2008 Istituto 

Oikos and BANCA have been conducting field research on 

several topics. 

In the Myeik Archipelago, marine biological surveys were 

conducted by the Department of Botany and Zoology of 

Moulmein (Mawlamyine) University. The Department of 

Marine Science at Mawlamyine and Myeik Universities also 

conducted marine biological studies

LAWKANANDA 

Site ID 18 

Locality Mandalay Region (Nyaung Oo Township) 


Size (km²) 0.47 







Protection level Partial (Recreation allowed) 



Key resources Burmese Star Tortoise and Rare Birds 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Lawkananda wildlife sanctuary has been created with the main 

purpose of conserving the dry forest ecosystem of central 

Myanmar which is threatened by advancing desertification. 

This small protected area is strategically located close to the 

famous pagodas of Bagan and it borders with the Ayeyawaddy 

river which is one of Myanmar’s major rivers. 


The protected area is entirely covered by dry forest hosting 

four types of deer (barking, sambar, hog and eld’s deer), the 

endangered (but not native) star tortoise and rare birds. 

MANAGEMENT 

The area doesn’t have any management plan. Nevertheless 

the park staff implement several conservation activities, 

including conservation of commercial timber trees (Tectona 

grandis, Dipterocarpus species), captive animals breeding 

(star tortoise, eld’s deer), bird annual survey, as well as 

management activities such as patrolling, cleaning, floods and 

fire protection. In addition, there is a mobile environmental 

education programme for the surrounding villages. 


The park has 31 staff members including 1 warden, 

3 rangers, 4 foresters and 23 clerks and labourers. These are 

52 53 

THREATS 

Because of the advancing desertification and the local 

reliance on firewood, local people often encroach the park 

in search of dry wood. Besides, during the dry season they 

take their cattle to graze in the Ayeyawaddy river bed, 

thereby damaging the habitat for birds. However, drought 

periods, forest fires and the poaching of snakes represent 

the main threats to the dry forest ecosystem. 

Illegal fishing is reported in the park creek. In addition, 

some tourists try to access the park without paying entry 

fees, some of them also take away valuable relics. Most 

worringly, tourism businessmen are very interested in 

building hotel facilities inside the area. 

based at the park head office and park staff quarters. The 

park warden and the rangers have received several trainings 

from the Forest Department and the Smithsonian Institution. 

As yet, although they have some basic IT skills, there is no 

computer available. 

TOURISM 

In 2008 the park received about 4,500 visitors, less than 10% 

were foreigners. Tourist statistics are kept at park head office. 

There are no tourist facilities except for a restaurant which is 

privately owned and managed. 

LAND USE 

The only allowed land use within the park boundaries 

is recreation. There are several high value pagodas and 

archeological sites which are protected by the Forest 

Department and conserved by the Archeology Department. 

The population living in the surrounding areas is very poor 

and, except for those employed in tourism, most rely on 

subsistence agriculture, fisheries and livestock herding. All 

these activities have a high impact on the fragile dry forest 

ecosystem and are as well very vulnerable to the frequent 

droughts with consequent issues of water scarcity and food 

insecurity. 

RESEARCH 


Research on the star tortoise has been implemented by 

a PhD student of Mandalay University. Furthermore, the 

Forest Department has further researched the ecology and 

biology of star tortoises in order to plan the reintroduction 

of 400 confiscated animals to the Minsontaung Wildlife 

Sanctuary.

LENYA / LENYA (EXTENSION) 

LENYA 

Site ID 19 

Locality Tanintharyi Region, Bokepyin Township 


Size (km²) 1,761 



category 


Site ID 20 

Locality 

Tanintharyi Region, Bokepyin 

Township 

Coordinates N 11° 35’, E99° 19’ 

Size (km²) 1,399 





Boundaries Demarcation in course 


Protection level 

Partial (Tree logging, Forest 

plantations allowed) 

Main purposes Natural resources maintenance 

Habitat Evergreen forest (typical) 

Key resources 

National Park 




Protection level Partial (Tree logging, Forest plantations allowed) 

Main purposes Natural resources maintenance 

Habitat Evergreen Forest (Typical) 

Key resources 

LENYA (EXTENSION) 

Gurney’s Pitta, Tapir, Asian Elephant, Barking Deer, 

Sambar Deer, Wild Boar, Bear, Pangolin, Hoolock 

Gibbon, Porcupine, Mouse Deer, Wild Cat, Civet 

Asian Elephant, Tapir, Gaur, 

Banteng, Sambar Deer, Gurney’s Pitta 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The creation of Lenya National Park and its extension was 

proposed after the rediscovery of the endangered bird species 

of Gurney’s Pitta, but it has not been gazetted yet. Therefore, 

the area is still unprotected and its conservation status is 

considered only fair due to the presence of commercial 

plantations and human settlements within its borders. 


The area is covered by evergreen forest of medium 

conservation value. The highlight is the discovery in 2008 by 

BLI of 9,300-35,000 Gurney’s Pitta (Pitta gurneyi) territories in 

the Lenya area. This bird species was considered extinct until 

the rediscovery of a population in Thailand in 1986. After this 

discovery the species was downlisted by IUCN from “critically 

endangered” to “endangered” and 99% of the population is in 

Myanmar. The lowland extension of Lenya National Park will 

contain much of the Gurney’s Pitta population, thus ensuring 

the species’ long-term survival. 

MANAGEMENT 

The protected area is still only a proposal and there is 

neither management plan nor staff allocated. BLI received 

funding for the designation and protection of Lenya National 

Park and its extension which is still on hold pending the 

signing of a memorandum of understanding with FD. The 

staff of Kawthoung Forest Department is in charge of the 

management of both sites (Lenya and its extension) but they 

have no financial resources to implement any enforcement. 

In addition, they haven’t been able to conclude the boundary 

demarcation in the north-eastern part due to the alleged 

presence of insurgents. 


No infrastructure is present in the site and its extension. No 

staff is assigned but the Forest Department of Kawthoung is 

in charge of inspections. 

LAND USE 

Although the area should be reserved for natural resources 

maintenance, a big portion of the land has been or is being 

converted to oilpalm and timber plantations. 

54 55 

THREATS 

Loss of lowland Sundaic forest for the establishment 

of palm oil plantation along with encroachment from 

surrounding human settlements, is the main threat to 

the Gurney’s Pitta and other wildlife. 

RESEARCH 


Ornithological research was funded by the UK 

government’s Darwin Initiative and led by the Royal 

Society for the Protection of Birds, the British arm of 

BLI, in partnership with the Myanmar NGO, Biodiversity 

and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA) and the 

Indochina programme of BLI.

LOIMWE 

Site ID 21 

Locality Shan State, Kyaing Tong Township 




Myanmar category Protected Area 







Habitat Hill Forest (Dry), Hill Forest (Pine) 

Key resources Asiatic Black Bear, Pangolin, Pheasant 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Loimwe is a Protected Area established in 1996 around a 

hill station which was built by the British government as a 

location for officers’ summer vacations during colonial times. 

Old buildings are still present and some have been renewed. 

The site is endowed with beautiful mountain scenery, and the 

surroundings are inhabited by several ethnic tribes (Ann, Wa, 

Palaung, etc.). 


Dry hill forest is the forest type of the site as it covers 80% 

and the other forest type is pine forest which covers 20% of 

the site. 

MANAGEMENT 

The site is managed from the Forest Department of Kyaing 

Tong Township. However, the only activities carried out are 

scattered tree planting in forest gaps. No management 

plan is present. Around the town of Loimwe, experimental 

agricultural plots are run from the Ministry of Agriculture and 

Irrigation and/or local NGOs. 


Proper staff needs to be allocated to the site. No facilities are 

present. 

56 57 

THREATS 


TOURISM 

From the town of Kyaing Tong it is possible to request a 

permit to visit the place and do trekking in the surrounding 

mountains, with the opportunity to meet the local tribes and 

buy traditional handicraft. Overnight stays are allowed only in 

the town of Kyaing Tong where a variety of hotels and other 

forms of accommodation are available. 


INSIDE 


• Shifting cultivation 

• Residential 

• Security restricted areas 

The most famous crops in the area are the paddy rice, tea, 

fruit plantation (apples), tomatoes. Other important sources 

of income are beekeeping and the production of local spirits. 

A few herds of cows are present over an extended area. The 

town of Loimwe is inhabited by local farmers and government 

officers. 

OUTSIDE 

The agricultural activities outside the site are similar. Human 

settlements increase in the proximity of Kyaing Tong. 

RESEARCH 

No research records available at FD office. 




Even if the population density in and around the site is not high, increasing practices of shifting cultivation and conversion 

of slopes to paddy rice cultivation are becoming more dangerous threats. Another important problem is the exploitation of 

timber and the magnitude of the logs collected seems to be very high. Few poachers for their own subsistence are present.

MAHARMYAING 

Site ID 22 

Locality Sagaing Region, Kalay and Mawlaik Townships 


Size (km²) 1,180 









Habitat 

Key resources 


(Moist Upper) 

Banteng, Sambar Deer, Asiatic Wild Dog, Hoolock Gibbon, 

Small Asian Mongoose, Wild Boar, Mongoose, Asian 

Elephant, Jungle Cat 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


58 59

MAINMAHLA KYUN 

Site ID 23 

Locality Ayeyawaddy Region, Bogale Township 










Main purposes 

Habitat Mangrove Forest 

Conservation, Cultural heritage, Recreation/ Ecotourism, 

Research/ Education 

Key resources Mangroves, Salt-water Crocodile, Birds spp. 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Mainmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Bogalay 

Township, Ayeyawaddy Region. It is an island of low flat land 

delta area and it is located very near to the open sea. The site is 

fringed by the Bogalay River in the east and by the Kadonkani 

River in the west. Many small streams are present as a network 

in the Sanctuary and accessibility into the streams is governed 

by the tide. The Sanctuary is covered with mangrove forest 

only. Soil type is tidal mud and silt. Annual rainfall of the 

site ranges from 2,500 to 3,000 mm. Myauktayar pagoda, a 

famous pagoda of the region, is situated to the south-east of 

the Sanctuary. Mainmahla Kyun is one of Myanmar’s ASEAN 

Heritage sites. 


Mangroves are the main resources of the site. About 40 

mangrove species have been recorded; 53 medicine plant 

species, 11 orchid species, 18 mammals, including Irrawaddy 

dolphin species, 117 bird species, 59 fish species, 12 shrimp 

species, 10 crab species, 35 butterfly species and 26 snake 

species have been recorded by the Sanctuary staff. 

MANAGEMENT 



• Fire protection and infrastructure renovation 

• Crocodile conservation 

• Monitoring animal populations and tree cover 

• Regular patrolling 

• Awareness raising 



• Budget 

• Inadequate staff 


• Increase patrolling 

• Communication equipments 

• Field equipments 

• Guard post 


The administrative office is located in Bogalay town which is 

12 miles away from the site in the north. The conservation and 

research activities have been performed with 14 permanent 

forest staff and seven daily wages staff. Two crocodile 

conservation camps with natural pond are located on the west 

side of the island. Monitoring, research and capacity building 

activities have also been conducted in coordination and 

collaboration with both local and international organizations 

and agencies. The park facilities include one head office, 2 

ranger posts, three small field camps, an education centre 

and a boat. 

TOURISM 

The site is occasionally busy with pilgrims mainly from 

the villages of that area to the Myauktayar pagoda. The 

development of ecotourism is an objective of the site and a 

few foreign tourists have visited the site. 

A guest house was built by a local environmental NGO, FREDA, 

on the Byone hmwe Island which is situated on the west side 

of the Kadonkani River facing the Sanctuary in the east. 

60 61 

THREATS 

• Gathering Terrestrial Plants (collection of ferns, tha bot 

and nipa palm) 

• Logging & Wood Harvesting (mangrove wood for charcoal 

and firewood) 

• Fishing & Harvesting of Aquatic Resources (poison fishing 

practice) 


INSIDE 


• Research 


Conservationists, researchers and tourists are allowed to 

come to the Sanctuary with permission. 

OUTSIDE 

• Fishery 

• Restricted area (reserved forest) 

• Mangrove plantation

MINSONTAUNG 

Site ID 24 

Locality Mandalay Region, Nwahtogyi Township 










Main purposes 


Key resources Burmese Star Tortoise 

Recreation/Ecotourism, Research/Education, 

Conservation 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Minsontaung Wildlife Sanctuary was established for 

the promotion of ecotourism, public education and the 

conservation of dry zone ecosystem. 


The area is covered by dry forest hosting over seventy bird 

species, including 3 Myanmar endemic species (Whitethroated 

Babbler, Hooded Treepie and Burmese Bushlark). 

Barking deers, civets, rodents and bats can be found in the 

site. Furthermore, checklists of 9 species of amphibians, 

26 reptiles, over 50 butterflies are available at park office. A 

highlight is the critically endangered Burmese Star Tortoise. 

MANAGEMENT 

A 5-year management plan is available at the site and 

conservation and management actions are implemented by 

park staff, in some cases, with the support of university and 


62 63 

THREATS 

The main threat to Minsontaung forest and biodiversity 

is the occurrence of bush/forest fire outbreaks. Another 

issue is the poaching of star tortoise to be sold to foreign 

markets, especially Japan, as a pet. Occasionally local 

people encroach the protected forest to collect firewood 

or in search of pasture land for their livestock. 

international agencies. Park staff patrol the site twice a week 

and perform an annual bird survey. In 2008 the star tortoise 

was reintroduced from Lawkananda Wildlife Sanctuary. 

In addition, park staff are educating the population of 

neighbouring villages on environmental issues with the 

support of Conservation International. 


10 staff members are permanently allocated to the site, 

including 1 warden, 2 rangers, 3 foresters and 4 clerks 

and labourers. All staff has been trained by Conservation 

International on the conservation of the star tortoises. Park 

infrastructure is constituted by a park warden office and five 

water ponds against droughts. The office needs electricity 

and computers. 

TOURISM 



Conservation is the only land use allowed inside the 

area. Outside local people depend on shifting cultivation 

(sesame, peas, etc.). 

RESEARCH 

Herpetological research has been conducted by the 

California Academy of Science.

MINWUNTAUNG 

Site ID 25 

Locality Sagaing Region, Sagaing Township 












Key resources Barking Deer, Hog Deer, Birds spp. 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


64 65

MOSCOS ISLAND 

Site ID 26 

Locality Tanintharyi Region, Yebyu and Launglon Townships 



Altitude (m. asl) 0 - 355 







Main purposes Conservation, Natural resources maintenance 

Habitat Evergreen Forest (Typical) 

Key resources Sambar Deer, Swiftlets, Barking Deer 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Moscos Island Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Dawei District, 

Tanintharyi Region. The sanctuary comprises the south, 

middle and north Moscos group of islands in the northern 

part of the Andaman Sea. Except for some rocky islands, they 

are covered with evergreen forest. The size reported in the list 

provided by FD in 2009 (49 km²) is not consistent with the size 

calculated with the GIS boundary (17.5 km²). 


Although it is one of the four marine protected areas, mostly 

the terrestrial part of the islands is protected. The most 

common forest type (75%) is evergreen forest. Swiftlets, 

Collocalia fuciphaga, make nests on the rocky islands of the 

sanctuary which have a very high commercial value. 

MANAGEMENT 

The site is not managed. Occasional visits by the Forester 

Department staff based in the coast are aimed at the collection 

of edible birdnests. No further information is available as we 

weren’t given access to the site and local offices don’t have 

any data. 


The site is situated on the remote island groups and it has 

no field office and staff. It can only be reached by boat after 

receiving permits from the Navy. 

TOURISM 

No tourism is allowed in the island but Maungmagan scenic 

beach, which is situated on the coast in front of middle Moscos, 


66 67 

THREATS 

The islands of Maungma Kan (middle islands) are under the 

control of the Navy but fishing and harvesting of aquatic 

resources still represents the main threat together with the 

overextraction of birdnests. 

is one of the most famous tourist attractions of Myanmar. It is 

15 km south from Dawei town and airport, thus accessible in 

less than 2 hours travel from Yangon. There is only one beach 

resort in Kanton village, mostly hosting Myanmar tourists. 


INSIDE 

• Edible birdnest collection 

• Turtle Conservation 

• Restricted area 

• Regional Development Project 

• Military frontier base 

Sea turtle conservation has been conducted by the 

Department of Fishery at the South Moscos (Longlon boak) 

Island. An army base is also stationed on the South Moscos 

Island. Birdnest collection at some rocky islands of the 

Sanctuary is permitted to the private sector by the Forest 

Department. Some northern Islands are included in the 

Dawei deepsea port and industrial zone development project 

area which has been jointly implemented with Thailand. 

OUTSIDE 

• Fishery 

• Restricted area 

• Regional Development Project 

The site is surrounded by sea and some villages on the 

mainland are fish landing sites and they are busy with 

artisanal nearshore fishing boats 

RESEARCH 


MOYINGYI WETLAND 

Site ID 27 

Locality Bago Region, Bago and Waw Townships 




Myanmar category Bird Sanctuary 





Protection level Partial (fishing allowed) 


Habitat Wetland 

Key resources Wetland Ecosystem, Water Birds 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The site is located around an artificial lake constructed in 

1904 in the Bago Region, 113 km far from Yangon City. The 

area is mostly flat. Therefore, it becomes flooded during 

the rainy season and dry during summer, although some 

permanent water bodies exist. It aims to conserve resident 

and migratory birds and their habitats, which also constitute 

the main attraction for tourists. 


The site supports several wetland habitats with high 

ecological value for resident and migratory waterbirds. More 

than 20 aquatic plants are present, including Kaing grass and 

Nwaysaba (Oxyza officinalis), growing especially in the shallow 

areas of the site, which are a breeding ground for water birds. 

Checklists of 130 bird species, 20 reptiles, 9 amphibians, 45 

fish and 30 insects are compiled at the sanctuary office. 

MANAGEMENT 

The site is managed according to an annual management plan 

that includes patrolling activities, maintenance of roads and 

building and zoning programme. No human access is allowed 

in the core zone which is delimited by nets. In addition, a 

no-fishing zone is marked by poles. Nevertheless increasing 

conflicts with the poor local communities are reported. More 

patrolling against illegal fishing, environmental education 

campaigns and the involvement of local authorities are 

necessary actions for the conservation of site. 


68 69 

THREATS 

Overfishing, including illegal fishing techniques such as 

electric fishing, is the main threat for the site. Of moderate 

concern is the large number of water buffalos and other 

livestock grazing in the marshy areas of the sanctuary 

during the dry season. In addition, rice cultivation and 

human settlements are encroaching as the water level 

recedes within the basin. 


The sanctuary has eight staff. The staff training level is 

satisfactory. Park warden, rangers and clerks have universitylevel 

education in environmental subjects. In addition, 

warden and rangers have received further training from 

Forest Department and NGOs. Nevertheless the level of IT 

skills is very low. 

In terms of infrastructure, the park warden office, where five 

staff are based, is located in the Pyin Bon Gyi village. Three 

ranger posts (1 staff each) are located in the villages of Kapin, 

Pyun Chaung and Pauk Taw. The information centre, nine 

boat houses and two rest houses are located close to the 

reservoir and are accessible by motor road. Another road (32 

km) surrounds the reservoir but is accessible only during the 

dry season. Basic tools and equipment (binoculars, telescope, 

GPS, camera, etc.) are available in the site. The office doesn’t 

have electricity or phone line for budget limitations. The birdwatching 

towers were destroyed by the Nargis cyclone in 

2007 and need to be rebuilt. 

TOURISM 

The site was visited by over 2,000 tourists in 2009. The 

potential is high for bird-watchers and nature lovers 


Fishing is tolerated in the basin for daily subsistence of local 

communities. 17 villages surround the site and mainly rely on 

rice cultivation. Rice fields are expanding inside because they 

are allowed by local authorities against the recommendations 

of Forest Department. 

RESEARCH 

Wetland biodiversity of the site has been studied by the 

Zoology Department of Yangon University, California 

Academy of Science, Wild Bird Society of Myanmar and the 

Forest Department.

MULAYIT 

Site ID 28 

Locality Kayin State (Kya-in Seik-kyi Township) 









Protection level Unknown 


Habitat 

Key resources 

Grassland, Evergreen Forest (Typical), Mixed Deciduous 

Forest (Moist Upper), Hill Forest (Evergreen) 

Barking Deer, Tiger, Leopard, Javan Rhinoceros (extinct 

since 1948) 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


70 71

NATMA TAUNG 

Site ID 29 

Locality Chin State; Matupi, Mindat and Kanpetlet Townships 











Habitat Hill Forest (Evergreen and Pine), Grassland 

Key resources Gaur, Serow, Goral, White-blowed Nuthatch, Avifauna 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The site has been proposed as a National Park in 1997 but 

the designation process along with boundary demarcation is 

still ongoing. The area preserves plant species endemism. it 

is an Important Bird Area (IBA, designated by BLI 2004) and 

one of the world’s high plant diversity site (IUCN 2005). Natma 

Taung is also an important catchment of two big rivers and 

nine medium and small rivers, on which 3 million people 

depend for their livelihood. The highest elevation is 3,200 m 

at Natmataung Peak while Kanpetlet area is about 1,390 m 

which is the most populated area. 


The forest cover is made up of hill forest and comprises 

dipterocarp forest, pine forest, laurel and stone oak forest, 

oak forests, oak and rhododendron forests and meadows. 

808 species of plants (including 70 ferns), 299 birds, 23 

amphibians, 65 reptiles and 77 butterflies have been identified 

and checklists are available at the park office. A rich variety of 

wild orchid species, including endangered medicinal orchids, 

occurs at altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 m and are very 

important for the livelihood of local people in terms of local 

use and tourism. 

MANAGEMENT 

The park is managed according to an annual plan based 

on zoning principles. In the core zone, flora and fauna are 


72 73 

THREATS 

The presence of human settlements inside and outside 

the site is increasingly impacting upon biodiversity and 

forests. Some villagers are poaching wildlife and illegally 

extracting forest products from Natma Taung forests. The 

fire from shifting cultivations is spreading also into the 

protected forests and is difficult to control. Furthermore, 

fallow period between two successive cultivation periods 

has been reduced to 3-4 years resulting in erosion, 

landslides, loss of land fertility and productivity. 

regularly monitored by park staff and biodiversity surveys are 

occasionally conducted with international agencies. Patrolling 

is undermined by the lack of tools and financial resources. In 

the buffer zone, livelihood inputs have been provided to the 

local communities by a network of international and national 

agencies (JICA, UNDP, CARE, BLI, BANCA) in collaboration with 

park authorities and community-based organisations. 


Although the site has not been officially designated yet, 32 

staff members (1 Park warden, 5 rangers, 6 foresters, 3 clerks 

and 17 labourers) work in the park during the open season. 

The head office is located in Kanpetlet town where the 

warden and clerks are based. Remaining staff is allocated to 

two offices in Mindat and Matupi towns. Two guardposts, a 

colonial building and bungalows are present but are not 

currently in use. 

TOURISM 

The park is considered as an ecotourism site and is visited 

by a few hundred visitors every year. Three lodges can 

accommodate local and foreign tourists who are mostly 

interested in bird watching, trekking and meeting the local 

Chin communities. Foreigners need special permission to 

access the area which can be obtained only by local tour 

agencies. 




Natma Taung National Park and its buffer zone are populated 

by about 120 villages and 32 of which are located inside 

the park. Forest degradation is caused not only by forest 

fires and shifting cultivation but also by encroachment of 

government-promoted tea plantations. 

RESEARCH 

BLI, CAS, Makino Botanical Garden have undertaken research 

in the site in collaboration with the park authorities.

PANLAUNG-PYADALIN CAVE 

Site ID 30 

Locality Shan State, Ywa Ngan Township 










Main purposes 

Habitat 

Conservation, Cultural heritage, Research/ Education, 

Recreation/ Ecotourism 

Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper), Mixed Deciduous 

Forest (Dry Upper), Indaing Forest 

Key resources Asian Elephant, Banteng, Gaur, Clouded Leopard, Serow 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Panlaung-Pyadalin Cave Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Ywa 

Ngan Township of Shan State. It was established with the 

purpose of preserving the archeological site of the Pyadalin 

limestone caves, to conserve the surrounding environment 

and habitat for mammals like Wild Elephants, Gaur, Leopard, 

Banteng, Sambar, many species of monkeys and many species 

of birds. The sanctuary is an important watershed area for the 

Kingda dam. The climate is hot and dry in lower elevation and 

moderate in higher elevation, with average rainfall recorded 

between 1,250 – 2,000 mm per year. 


Moist upper and dry upper mixed deciduous forests and 

deciduous dipterocarp (Indaing) forest are the forest types of 

the site. A new species of lizard, Cyrtodactylus chrysopylos, was 

discovered in 2003 by the California Academy of Science. 

MANAGEMENT 





• Budget 

74 75 

THREATS 

INSIDE 


OUTSIDE 


• Man power 


• To build a field office and guard posts 

• Settlement for the encroaching people 

• Provision of communication and field equipments 


The site is administered by the Nature and Wildlife 

Conservation Division of the Forest Department. The office 

with 12 staff for the site is located at Ywa Ngan town. Four 

ranger posts have been built. Local and international trainings 

were given for the staff. 

TOURISM 

The site is easily accessible all season to local tourists who can 

reach it by car 37 km east from Kume on Yangon Mandalay 

Highway. 

The main attractions are the two limestone Pyadalin caves 

located in the Panlaung forest reserve. The smaller contains 

paintings that are over 11,000 years old, dated between the 

Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Both caves contain over 

1,600 stone relics and many animal and human bones and 

red ochre. 


INSIDE 



OUTSIDE 


Myanmar Protected Areas

PAR SAR 

Site ID 31 

Locality Shan State, Tachilek Township 




Myanmar category Protected Area 







Habitat Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper), Hill Forest (Dry) 

Key resources Jungle Fowl, Chinese Pangolin 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The site was a Reserved Forest until 1996, and then it 

was upgraded to the status of protected area thanks 

to the efforts of Reverend Maing Fone, a famous Shan 

ethnic Buddhist monk, who has been promoting nature 

conservation activities around the Pagoda of Lwan Lin 

town. 


Very little information is available. Park staff report the 

presence of the Sun Bear (Ursus malayanus). 

MANAGEMENT 

The site is managed by the Forest Department of the Keng 

Tung Township. However, the only activities carried out 

are scattered tree planting in forest gaps. No management 

plan is present. Security problems are reported as one of 

the major management constraints. 


No park staff, no infrastructure, no facilities and equipment 

are present on site. 

TOURISM 

No information on tourism is available and access is 

restricted for security reasons. There are local pilgrims 

visiting the Pagoda. Foreign tourists are allowed in 

Tachilek town with a special visa which can be obtained 

at the Thai border or a special permit from Yangon from 

where they can reach the area only by plane. 


76 77 

THREATS 




The natural resources of the area are threatened by the 

increasing pressure of shifting cultivation. Moreover, 

being villages so close to the PA borders, illegal 

logging or poaching activities may occur in the forest. 

Around the area artificial plantations (like Rubber tree 

and Tea) could cause an encroachment of the natural 

habitats. 


INSIDE 


OUTSIDE 

• Management of natural forests 

• Forest Plantations 


Around the site there are some activities of Community 

Forestry. However, the main land uses are plantations 

of Rubber tree and Tea. 

RESEARCH 


PIDAUNG 

Site ID 32 

Locality Kachin State (Myitkyina Township) 










Main purposes Conservation , Research/Education 

Habitat Evergreen Forest (Typical), Agricultural/Plantation Areas 

Key resources 

Leopard, Gaur, Sambar Deer, Hog Deer, Wild Boar, Asiatic 

Black Bear, Rhesus Macaque, Hoolock Gibbon, Wreathed 

Hornbill, Oriental Pied Hornbill 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The sanctuary was the first Protected Area to be designated 

in Myanmar. It is situated in Myitkyina Township of Kachin 

State in northern Myanmar. The Sanctuary was established 

in order to conserve biodiversity, to educate local people in 

environmental conservation, to encourage local people to 

participate in conservation activities and to develop their 

socio-economic conditions. 


Evergreen forest covers 80% of the site. 

The site was established to protect many threatened species, 

but only leopard and Hoolock Gibbon, among the most 

threatened species, were observed recently. 

MANAGEMENT 




• General observation of animal distribution 

• Collection of medicinal plants 

• Educational talks on conservation and protected area at 

villages 

• Erection of boundary marker boards 

78 79 

THREATS 

INSIDE and OUTSIDE 



• Hunting & Collecting Terrestrial animals 

• Border line inspection 



• Financial constraint 

• Inadequate manpower 

• Difficult access to the site 


• More patrolling 

• More staff 

• Staff training 

• Budget 

• Computer training 

• Provision of field and communication equipments 

• Staff quarters 


The Warden’s office is situated at Myitkyina town and nine 

permanent forest staff and two daily wages staff are assigned 

duties for the site. Two ranger posts have been built. Local 

and international training were provided for the staff. 

TOURISM 

No available information 


INSIDE 



• Forest replantation 

OUTSIDE 


• Temporary buildings 

RESEARCH 


Myanmar Protected Areas

POPA 

Site ID 33 

Locality Mandalay Region, Kyaukpadaung Township 




Myanmar category Mountain Park 





Protection level Partial (Tourism and settlements allowed) 

Main purposes 

Habitat 

Conservation, Natural resources maintenance, Research/ 

Education, Recreation/Ecotourism 

Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest (Indaing) Forest, Mixed 

Deciduous Forest (Dry Upper), Dry Forest 

Key resources Dry Zone Ecosystem, Traditional Medicinal Plants 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Popa mountain is an extinct volcano in middle Myanmar. 

Popa Mountain Park was established to protect the dry zone 

ecosystem, conserve the watershed area of Kyetmauk Taung 

reservoir, conserve medicinal plant species of Popa mountain, 

to conduct public education and research, and to promote 

ecotourism. 


The deciduous dipterocarp forest (Indaing) and the dry forest 

(Than-Dahat) are the main forest types of the site. Checklists 

of trees, mammals, birds and butterflies of the park are 

compiled at the office. Medicinal plants of Popa Mountain are 

famous all over Myanmar. Many globally threatened species 

of mammals are recorded in the area (Eld’s Deer, Dusky 

Langur, Capped Langur, Dhole). Checklists of trees, mammals, 

birds and insects are available. 

MANAGEMENT 

The site has a 4-year management plan. There is a buffer zone 

where the Forest Department (and in particular former NWCD 

directors) has supported the local people to establish cash 

crops and firewood plantations. Management actions include 

weekly patrolling and annual biodiversity surveys. Special 

80 81 

THREATS 


• Annual & Perennial Non-Timber Crops plantation 




There are severe conflicts with neighbouring communities 

who clear the forest for tourism activities, tea plantations 

and agricultural expansion (banana and mango). Several 

villages and extensive banana and mango plantations are 

located in the buffer zone. Illegal collection of firewood 

and medicinal plants (especially Michelia champaca) is 

conducted but impact is difficult to estimate. 

conservation actions target the dusky leaf monkey population 

inhabiting the old crater. The establishment of banana and 

mango plantations have supported the development of 

the villagers located in the buffer zone, although further 

assistance is needed. 


About 120 staff are allocated to the protected area and have 

been trained over time by Forest Department, the Smithsonian 

Institute, WCS and Japan Makino Botanical Garden. Existing 

infrastructure includes 1 park warden office, 4 ranger posts, 

1 guest house, 1 environmental education centre, 1 library 

for medicinal plants, staff quarters. The park is in need of field 

and communication equipment and tools such as computers, 

GPS and binoculars. 

TOURISM 

Popa mountain is a famous tour site of Myanmar and many 

local and foreign tourists visit Popa throughout the year due 

to its good location on the way to or from famous ancient 

Bagan pagodas. Most only pay a one-day visit to the Nats 

temples and have a walk in the mountain trails. Restaurants 

are available inside the area as well as a government guest 

house and a private luxury hotel for overnight guests. 



Permitted land uses inside the area are conservation, 

research, recreation and extraction of medicinal plants. 

Neighbouring villages depend on tourism and the 

cultivation of permanent crops (Bean, Pea, Maize, Sesame, 

Onion). 

RESEARCH 

Herpetological research was conducted by CAS and a 

PhD thesis was written on the ecology of the Dusky Leaf 

Monkey.

PYIN-O-LWIN 

Site ID 34 

Locality Mandalay Region, Pyin-O-Lwin Township 










Main purposes Conservation, Research/ Education 

Habitat Hill Forest (Evergreen) 

Key resources Green Peafowl, Barking Deer, Grey Peacock Pheasant 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


82 83

RAKHINE YOMA ELEPHANT RANGE 

Site ID 35 

Locality Rakhine State , Thandwe and Gwa Townships) 

Coordinates N18° 00’, E94°45’ 

Size (km²) 1,756 


Myanmar category Wildlife Reserve 







Habitat 

Evergreen Forest, Bamboo Brakes, Mixed Deciduous 

Forest (Moist Upper) 

Key resources Elephant, Gaur, Leopard, Jackal, Asiatic Black Bear 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The site is located in the southern part of the Rakhine Yoma 

mountain range. The topography consists of a series of steep 

ridges running from north to south, with the main drainage 

lines cutting them from east to west. The area is famous for 

luxurious patches of evergreen forest as well as the presence 

of bamboo brakes (mainly Melocanna bambusoides). The 

key protected resources are 150 Asian Elephants, which 

constitutes the largest remaining population of wild elephants 

in Myanmar, and the endemic species of Rakhine Forest Turtle 

(Heosemys depressa). 


Most of the site is covered with evergreen forest, bamboo 

brakes and mixed deciduous forest (moist upper). Nine 

mammals are recorded: Asian Elephant, Clouded Leopard, 

Leopard, Gaur, Common Otter, Hoolock Gibbon, Barking 

Deer, Sambar Deer, Hog Deer, Malaysian Sun Bear, Himalayan 

Black Bear. Tigers were present until 30 years ago but are now 

extinct. Rakhine Forest Turtle (Heosemys depressa) is endemic 

to the range and critically endangered. 123 bird species 

including Bamboo Woodpecker, Oriental Pied Hornbill, Great 

Hornbill, Red-headed Trogon, Green-billed Malkoha, Vernal 

Hanging Parrot and Green Lora have been recorded and a 

checklist is compiled at the park warden’s office. 


84 85 

THREATS 

INSIDE 

Many poachers enter the sanctuary from the southern 

point, at the boundary between Ayeyawaddy Division and 

Rakhine State. Gaur and Barking Deer are mainly hunted 

for meat; elephant for trade; Malaysian sun bear for selling 

legs to Thailand; otter for selling parts of the body to 

Thailand. River poisoning for fishing is also reported. 

OUTSIDE 

Shifting cultivation fields in the buffer zone by poor 

landless families who are encroaching into the protected 

area. Tree cutting for charcoal production to be sold to 

Yangon. Poison fishing is mainly done by outsiders. 

MANAGEMENT 

An annual plan is present, as well as indications for a Buffer 

zone. However, both tools are not implemented. Conflicts 

between wild elephants and agricultural activities have been 

reported in the villages around the site. 


A Park Warden is present, along with 15 other staff from 

the Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division of the Forest 

Department. More rangers for patrolling activities are needed. 

The Park Office is located in the town of Gwa, and four Ranger 

posts are present in the surrounding areas of the PA, outside 

its border. Equipment such as boats and motorbikes are 

needed in order to patrol the area and a new ranger post is 

required in the southern part to control poaching. 

TOURISM 

Access to the site is difficult with no transportation except 

footpath. 

The area is restricted to foreign visitors and special permits 

are needed to access it. Permits can be requested through 

local travel agencies in Yangon. Nevertheless, the potential 

for ecotourism is very high due to the proximity to a major 

tourism destination, Ngapali beach, on the Rakhine coast. 


INSIDE 


OUTSIDE 

• Permanent cultivation 

• Fishing (capture) 

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 

Surveys on tortoises and gibbons were implemented 

respectively by WCS and FFI in collaboration with the 

community-based organisation Rakhine Coastal Area 

Conservation Association (RCA).

SHINPINKYETTHAUK 

Site ID 36 

Locality Bago Region , Taungoo and Oaktwin Townships 











Habitat 

Key resources 


(Moist Upper) 

Asiatic Wild Dog, Sunda Pangolin, Reptile Spp., Wild Boar, 

Barking Deer, Hog Deer 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


86 87

SHWESETTAW 

Site ID 37 

Locality 






Magway Region, Minbu, Pwintphyu, Ngape 

and Saytotetaya Townships 






Habitat 

Key resources 

Mixed Deciduous Forest (Dry Upper), Mixed Deciduous 

Forest (Moist Upper) 

Eld’s Deer, Sambar Deer, Barking Deer, Gaur, Burmese 

Star Tortoise, Dry Zone Ecosystem 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Minbu, Pwint 

Phyu, Ngape and Saytotetaya Townships of Magwe Region 

in middle Myanmar. The site boundaries are well marked by 

the Mone and Mann streams. The site was established to 

conserve the dry zone ecosystem conservation and especially 

the habitat of Eld’s deer Cervus eldii. 


Dry upper and moist upper mixed deciduous forests cover 

respectively 80% and 20% of the Sanctuary. The critically 

endangered Burmese Star Tortoise Geochelone platynota 

endemic to Myanmar, is present in the site, together with 

other globally threatened species like the endangered 

Dhole Cuon alpinus and the Sunda Pangolin Manis javanica. 

Checklists of trees, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and 

butterflies are available. 

MANAGEMENT 


Buffer zone designated (firewood, post and bamboo 

collection allowed) 


• Recovery centre for Burmese star tortoise 

(Geochelone platynota) 


• Erection of warning and notification signboards 

• Annual Eld’s deer counting 

• Annual migratory birds observation 


88 89 

THREATS 

INSIDE 

The most severe threat is the hydropower dam and power 

cable line construction. Collection of Burmese star tortoise 

and poaching of deer, shifting cultivation and forest 

encroachment occur in the site. 

OUTSIDE 

Increasing human pressure in the buffer zone in terms of 

human settlement, collection of firewood and house poles, 

agriculture expansion. 

• Public environmental education 


• Budget constraint 

• Human capacity constraint 


• More staff 

• More patrolling 

• Improvement of water ponds 

• Building of one watchtower 

• Improve the livelihood of people in buffer area 


The site is well conserved with 54 forest staff and adequate 

infrastructure. The park warden’s office is situated in the site. 

Twelve ranger posts are stationed with 1 range officer and 2 

forest guards at each post. Trainings for the forest staff were 

conducted in collaboration with SI, WCS and CAS. There is 

neither capacity nor equipment for computer operation. One 

well furnished guest house, provided by FREDA, for 12 people 

is built in the administrative office compound. Access to the 

site is easy due to the presence of motor roads and tracks. 

TOURISM 

Shwesettaw pagoda is situated in the site and it is one of the 

most famous pagodas of Myanmar. The site is visited every 

year by about 200,000 local pilgrims and tourists. Private 

temporary lodges for 800 guests are built along the Man 

Stream during the pagoda festival. 


INSIDE 



• Fishing 

• Research 

OUTSIDE 


RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 

A study on the eld’s deer was undertaken by FD in collaboration 

with SI. Star tortoise was studied by FD. The Zoology 

department of Yangon university has studied endemic and 

endangered species (2004) and wildlife trade (2008).

SHWE-U-DAUNG 

Site ID 38 

Locality 

Coordinates N 23° 01’, E96° 13’ 





Mandalay Region, Thabaikkyin and Mogok Townships; 

Shan State, Mong Mit Township 






Habitat 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Mixed Deciduous Forest (Dry 

Upper), Indaing Forest 

Key resources Gaur, Elephant, Banteng, Bears, Sambar Deer, Serow Deer 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Shwe-U-Daung Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Thabaikkyin 

and Moegoke Townships of Mandalay Region and Moemate 

Township of Shan State. Objectives of the Sanctuary are: 

to prevent biodiversity habitat loss and degradation; to 

support the agriculture and livestock breeding activities 

of the surrounding villages; to conserve elephants; to 

prevent poaching and hill-side cultivation and to serve as an 

ecotourism site. 


Evergreen forest is the main forest type of the site. Mixed 

deciduous and deciduous dipterocarp (Indaing) forests are 

also present. Checklists of plants, mammals, are available at 

the park warden office and WCS. 

MANAGEMENT 





• Research 


90 91 

THREATS 

INSIDE 






OUTSIDE 



• Roads & Railroads 




• Inadequate manpower 

• Budget 


• Environmental awareness raising 

• Enhance patrolling activities 

• More ranger posts 

• Provision of communication and field equipments 

• Education center building 

• Computer training. 


Headquarters is situated in Thabaikkyin town and a total of 15 

permanent and one temporary staff are working at the office. 

Four ranger posts are built. Local and international training 

have been provided to the staff. Computer knowledge is at 

a basic level. 

TOURISM 

No information available. 


INSIDE 


• Research 


OUTSIDE 

• Forest plantations 

• Gold mining 

• Human settlement 

RESEARCH 

The Zoology department of Yangon university studied 

the habitat utilization and distribution of wild elephant 

Elephas maximus

TANINTHARYI NATIONAL PARK 

Site ID 39 

Locality Tanintharyi Region, Tanintharyi Township 


Size (km²) 2072 

Altitude (m. asl) 0 - 1,490 








Habitat 

Key resources 

Evergreen Forest (Typical), Hill Forest (Evergreen), 


Sambar Deer, Asian Elephant, Barking Deer, Serow, 

Red Goral, Leopard, Birds Spp 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


92 93

TANINTHARYI NATURE RESERVE 

Site ID 40 

Locality Tanintharyi Region (Yebyu and Tavoy Townships) 


Size (km²) 1,700 

Altitude (m. asl) 20 -130 

Myanmar category Nature Reserve 

IUCN category VI 




Protection level Partial (Industry allowed) 

Main purposes 

Habitat 

Conservation, Scientific research and education, 

Natural Resources Maintenance 

Evergreen Forest (Giant and Riverine), Mixed Deciduous 

Forest (Bamboo), Grassland 

Key resources Gurney’s Pitta, Elephant 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


The protected area has been created with the main purpose 

of conserving the tropical rain forest and constituent 

biodiversity in the Tanintharyi region. The management 

plan also says that it aims to contribute to the reduction of 

climate change and to support the management of natural 

gas transportation corridor from offshore drilling rigs in an 

ecologically sound manner. 


Over 75% of the area is covered by evergreen forest which 

supports a rich biodiversity. Checklists of trees, mammals and 

birds are available. 

The site hosts the endangered Gurney’s Pitta (Pitta gurneyi) 

endemic to Thailand and Myanmar, and almost 70 species of 

mammals, many of which are globally threatened. 

Checklists of trees, mammals and birds are available. 

MANAGEMENT 

The Total company has funded a multi-year project to the 

Forest Department for the conservation and management of 

the reserve. The project has supported all human resources 

(staff and consultants) as well as park infrastructure and 

equipment. The project has prepared a 4-year management 

plan of the area to last until 2013. The plan extends to 

the buffer zone where several villages are located whose 

livelihoods depend on agriculture, fishing, hunting and 


94 95 

THREATS 

Main threats to the conservation of the area are shifting 

cultivations, illegal hunting and logging, outbreak of 

frequent forest fires and catastrophic floods associated 

with massive landslides. Outside the area, forest is rapidly 

being converted into rubber plantations. 

subsistence logging. Park staff is conducting environmental 

education seminars for the communities in order to try to 

encourage the establishment of community forestry. 


A total of 32 staff members are allocated to the reserve, 3 of 

which are based in Yangon (project director and clerks). The 

park warden, 9 rangers, 7 foresters and labourers are based 

at Gangaw taung village. Former staff received training from 

WCS and CAS but at the end of the first phase of the project 

they were all transferred to other sites. Access to the area is 

possible thanks to a main road which cuts longitudinally from 

the coast to the mountains on the top of the gas pipeline. 

There is 1 head office, 4 ranger posts and 1 forest nursery. 

The facilities are equipped with necessary tools to perform 

patrolling and monitoring activities. 

TOURISM 

No tourists allowed in the site. 


Allowed land uses are only conservation and infrastructure 

(gas pipeline). Part of the area is restricted for security reasons, 

both for the presence of an army quarter and for insurgents. 

The villagers in the buffer zone rely on the paddy fields 

associated to shifting cultivation while rubber plantations 

belong to the businessmen. 

RESEARCH 

Research has been carried out by park staff in association 

with the University of Forestry, Yezin, on socio-economic 

and flora studies and by NWCD on mammals and birds. CAS 

has studied reptiles and fish of the site.

TAUNGGYI 

Site ID 41 

Locality Shan State, Taunggyi Township 



Altitude (m. asl) 1,045 – 1,750 






Protection level Unknown 


Habitat Hill Forest (Pine and Dry) 

Key resources Birds spp. 


Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 



Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 


Established since August 1906 as the Taunggyi Wildlife 

Reserve, the area was redesignated as a Bird Sanctuary in 

1989. The size reported in the list provided by FD in 2009 (16 

km²) is not consistent with the size calculated with the GIS 

boundary (8 km²). The purpose of the area is to conserve 

resident birds and the dry hill forest ecosystem. It is very 

famous for the beautiful Shwe Pon Pwint pagoda on the top 

of the hill, which is visited by many pilgrims, especially during 

the annual Balloon Festival. 


The area is covered by dry hill forest; pine forest and moist 

forest types. Main species are Pine (Pinus species); Wetthitcha 

(Quercus semiserrata); Cherry (Betula alnoides); Laukya 

(Schima khassina); Zi phyu (Emblica officinalis). The forest 

is supposedly habitat for a variety of resident birds, but no 

checklist is available. 

MANAGEMENT 

The area falls under the responsibility of the Shan state 

Forest Department of Taunggyi town which has demarcated 

its boundaries with visible signs and performs occasional 


96 97 

THREATS 

• Fire & Fire Suppression 

• Logging & Wood Harvesting (firewood and turpentine oil) 

• Housing & Urban areas (proximity to Taunggyi town) 

patrolling. There is no management plan. 

PARK RESOURCES 

There is no park infrastructure and no staff assigned to protect 

and conserve the area. 

TOURISM 

The area offers various opportunities for Study and Recreation: 

a) Observation of Dry hill forest and Pine forest ecosystem; 

b) Observation of Resident Bird species; c) Observation and 

enjoyment of scenic beauty of the Shan Plateau. In spite of 

that, it is mostly accessed by Myanmar pilgrims visiting the 

pagoda. Many of the international tourists come from nearby 

Inlay lake (site 11) and occasionally proceed to visit Pyadalin 

caves (site 30). 


INSIDE 

• Recreation (Religious tourism) 

OUTSIDE 

The site is surrounded by Taunggyi town which is the fourth 

largest city in Myanmar, which used to be a trading centre 

for agricultural goods. The north-eastern part of the city is 

occupied by an important army compound. 

RESEARCH 

According to the FD, no research survey has been 

implemented in the site.

THAMIHLA KYUN 

Site ID 42 

Locality Ayeyawaddy Region, Ngaputaw Township 


Size (km²) 0.88 









Habitat Mixed Deciduous Forest (Lower), Evergreen Forest (Typical) 

Key resources 

Olive Ridley, Green Turtle, Logger Head Turtle, 

Leatherback, Hawksbill Turtle 

WENTHTIKAN 

Legend of topographic maps Site ID 43 


Head Quarters 

Locality Magway Region,Salin Township 

Head Quarters 

Ranger Post 

Towns 


Ranger Post 

Towns 


Size (km²) 4.4 





Roads 

Water areas 


Roads 

Water areas 

Rivers 


Rivers 

Elevation Site Governance Forest Department 

Elevation 

5.800 m. asl 


5.800 m. asl 

0 m. asl 



Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low 




Habitat Mixed Deciduous Forest (Moist Upper), Dry Forest, Wetland 

Key resources Water Bird species 




98 99 

0 m. asl 

Deep 

Shallow 

High 

Low

L. Beffasti 

100 101 

3 

3.1 

3.2 

In-depth Study of Lampi Island Marine National Park 

A. Bonetti 

Purpose 

The objective of this in-depth study was to verify existing information and to collect new – mainly 

qualitative – data to fill in some of the gaps in the existing information on the protected area, with 

the available resources and under the strong limitations of accessibility (permits and climate). Prior to 

the current surveys, information on the occurrence and status of critical biodiversity in Lampi Island 

Marine National Park (MNP) were collected from reputable sources: FAO 1983b; FD-UNDP-FAO 1986; 

Rabinowitz 1995; Fischer 1996 & 1997. Up-to-date, reliable and more comprehensive information are 

needed to guide future planning and management strategies. To fulfil this objectives, surveys were 

undertaken of marine and terrestrial flora and fauna, specifically on plant, mammal, bird, reptile, 

amphibian, fish, crab, mollusc, sea-cucumber, seaweed and plankton species. Interviews to local 

villagers to asses socio-economic conditions were also conducted. Time and resource constraints 

allowed the organization of a limited number of surveys of the flora and fauna of Lampi Island MNP. 

The focus of the surveys was selected based on the analysis of the main gaps concerning biodiversity 

information and on the consensus agreed between stakeholders, in particular Istituto Oikos, BANCA 

and FD. Priority was given to qualitative surveys in order to produce information on the type of 

biodiversity resources present in the protected area. Surveys took place in the period 2006 – 2010 

in the framework of the MABR (2006-2009) and MEP (2009-2010) projects. A detailed list of surveys 

is given under paragraph 7 - Research (current chapter). The description of the Lampi Island MNP 

contained in this chapter therefore present the preliminary findings of the surveys carried out under the 

MABR and MEP projects, being fully aware that further investigation is required and desired to bring more 

significant results, fill the remaining information gaps and continue to update the data. 

Results 

Geography 

The Myeik Archipelago, located in the Tanintharyi Region, the most southern Region of Myanmar, comprises 

800 islands distributed along 600 km of coastline in the Andaman sea. The Archipelago was formed by a 

combination of tectonic movement and volcanic activity. The islands, ranging in size from very small to 

hundreds of square kilometers, are covered by tropical lowland wet evergreen forests with a high biodiversity 

and surrounded by an extensive coral reef system. Lampi Island Marine National Park is one of the four 

marine protected areas in Myanmar and the only protected site in the Myeik Archipelago. It protects a variety 

of different habitats (evergreen forest, mangrove forest, beach and dune forest, coral reefs, sea grass) and a 

rich biodiversity. 195 plant species of the evergreen forest and 63 species typical of the mangrove forest, 19 

mammal, 228 bird, 19 reptile, 10 amphibian, 42 fish, 42 crab, 50 gastropod, 41 bivalves, 35 sea-cucumber 

(holothurians), 73 seaweed, 11 seagrass and 333 plankton species have been identified so far and more 

are likely to be added with further surveys (see paragraph 3.4 checklist). The protected area provides food, 

water and energy sources to the local population (3,000 people in 5 settlements). Spiritual and cultural 

values are attributed to the site by Moken sea gypsies who consider Lampi as a “Mother island”. Socioeconomic 

and demographic pressures are the main threats to the natural and cultural values of the park.


1. General Information 

Lampi Island Marine National Park is located in Boke Pyin Township of Tanintharyi Region. The protected 

area was designated in 1996 to include an area extending two miles from the outer islands but there is 

no demarcation buoy or signal. Lampi Island is the biggest island and the core of the site. It is 205 km² 

and is oriented in a north-south direction, with a length of 48 km and a maximum width of about 6 km. 

Lampi Island is generally hilly (150 – 270 m), presenting a rocky coast with presence of sandy beaches, 

bays and inlets. The sea depth between Lampi Island MNP and the mainland is on average 12 m and 

nowhere deeper than 24m. The protection level of the site is total. According to the notification no. 

40/96, the boundaries of Lampi Island Marine National Park are as follows: 

North boundary: two nautical miles north from the shoreline of Two Hill Island. 

East Boundary: two nautical miles east from the shoreline of Pulo Gabon Island, Dolphin Islands (War 

Kyunn), Marble Island, Gregory Group Islands, Palo Taban Islands. 

South Boundary: two nautical miles south from the shoreline of Pulo Tuhan Island which is south east of 

Lampi Island, Palo Nalo (Bo Cho) Island, Gu Gyi (Kyun) Island, Pulo Lobiaung Island. 

West Boundary: two nautical miles west from the shoreline of Kanzagyi Island, Wa Ale Kyun Island, Ko 

Phawt Island, Pulo Tayu Island, Kular Island, Observation Island, Pulo Tu-ante Island, Pulo Lobiaung 

(Lin Shu) Island. 

Legal reference 

Notification letter No. 40/96 from Minister of Forestry Lieutenant Gen. Chit Swe (1996 August 20th) 

Laws and policy framework affecting the MNP 

Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law, Art. 8A, 1994 

Forest Department: Notification letter to DOF, 2004 February 23rd, REF: No fishing within 2 miles offshore 

from the low water level around Lampi Island 

Ministry of Home Affairs, General Administration Office, Boke Pyin: Notification of Lampi Island Marine 

National Park, N. 7/96, 1st September 1996 

Key protected resources 

Coral reefs, Lesser Mouse-deer Tragulus javanicus subsp. Lampensis, Salone ethnic culture (see Box 2). 

2. Natural Resources 

Lampi Island MNP is covered by tropical lowland wet evergreen forest in the interior, mangrove forest 

along rivers and fresh-water sources, and beach and dune forest along the coast. Other important habitat 

types are coral reefs, seagrass, freshwater streams and swamps. The main island of Lampi has two major 

perennial rivers and many small seasonal streams. Fresh-water resources are abundant. The variety of 

habitats supports a high diversity of both terrestrial and marine resources. The whole area of the Myeik 

Archipelago is rich in coral reefs, seaweed and seagrass beds which serve as important habitats for 

molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and fishes, of which many species are of economic importance as 

food resources for local use and export. The seagrass meadows around Lampi Island MNP also supports 

threatened species like the green turtle and the dugong that feed on seagrass, and a variety of birds 

that feed in the intertidal zone and sublittoral zone. Mangrove forests, found in the park in a very good 

conservation status, also provide an important habitat for many species of molluscs, crustaceans and 

fishes. The evergreen forest, characterized by a high diversity of plants, still has small populations of 

valuable tree species like Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Vatica and Hopea, although mature exemplars are quite 

scarce due to illegal selected logging. The interior of Lampi, covered by thick evergreen forest, supports 

a good variety of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The rational management and conservation 

of the different habitats of Lampi Island Marine National Park is essential for the conservation of the rich 

biodiversity of the area. 

HABITAT TYPES 

Evergreen forest type covers 22% of the MNP area, mangrove forest 2%, dune and beach forest 1%; 75% 

of the MNP coverage is represented by marine habitat. 

Forest habitat 

A total of 195 tree species representing 120 genera and 50 families were recorded in the studied area 

102 103

(MEP, 2009-2010), belonging to evergreen forest and beach and dune forest and 63 species were 

identified in the mangrove forest. The evergreen forest is the dominant vegetation type in Lampi Island 

MNP, characterized by large trees that can reach more than 26 meter in height. Common species are 

Bouea burmanica, Cinnamonum sp., Dipterocarpus costatus, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Firmicana colorata, 

Homalium griffithianum, Lophopetalum filiforme, Macaranga gigantean, Phoebe tavoyana, Pterospermum 

acerifolium, Parashorea stellata, Strombosia javanica, Shorea farinose, Vatica dyeri, Xerospermum 

noronhianum, Wendlandia glabrata. 

Evergreen Forest in Lampi Island MNP (A. Bonetti) 

17 tree species found in Lampi Island MNP are threatened according to IUCN categories: 

Scientific name Status (Red List 2010) 

Anisoptera curtisii CR 

Dipterocarpus dyeri CR 

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus CR 

Dipterocarpus turbinatus CR 

Hopea helferi CR 

Hopea sangal CR 

Parashorea stellata CR 

Shorea farinosa CR 

Diospyros crumenata EN 

Dipterocarpus alatus EN 

Dipterocarpus costatus EN 

Shorea gratissima EN 

Syzygium zeylanicum EN 

Ternstroemia penangiana EN 

Abarema bigemina VU 

Hopea odorata VU 

Memecylon grande VU 

Table 6 

Threatened tree species 

of Lampi Island MNP 

CR = Critically Endangered 

EN = Endangered 

VU = Vulnerable 

Scientific name Status (Red List 2010) 

Sonneratia griffithii CR 

Heritiera fomes EN 

Aegialitis rotundifolia NT 

Brownlowia tersa NT 


The beach and dune forest is found along narrow strips on beaches and dunes along the coast in 

the locality of Baik Aw or Tourist River, Balaik Aw and Bawin Aw. It supports pure stands of Casuarina 

equisetifolia and species of Dillenia and Calophyllum. 

Beach and dune forest in Lampi Island MNP (L. Beffasti) 

The mangrove forest, although minor in terms of extension, is in almost intact conditions with high 

ecological value. The pristine areas are located at Labi Chaung, Khe Chaung, Mi Gyaung Aw and Thit 

Wa Aw on the west coast and in Bulet Aw on the east coast of Lampi Island. The mangrove survey 

conducted in Lampi Island MNP area in February-April 2010 recorded a total of 63 species belonging 

to 31 families, comprising both woody species (40 species) and mangrove associates (23 species of 

shrubs and climbers), which is a reflection of the fact that the Myeik Archipelago is located within 

the Indo-Malayan biogeographic region which has the highest diversity of mangroves in the world. 

Two community types of mangrove forests are found in Lampi Island MNP, the Rhizophora apiculata 

community and the Bruguiera cylindrica community, well correlated to the level of tidal zone and the 

sediment types. Dominant species of mangroves are Rhizophora apiculata (Byu-che-dauk-apo) and 

Rhizophora mucronata (Byu-che-dauk-ama), species that in the seashore where salinity is very high are 

the only ones present. One species Pemphis acidula recorded during the mangrove study is of particular 

interest since it is known to occur in East Africa but absent from South India to Sumatra, and it reappears 

in East Malaysia. Its presence on Lampi and adjacent islands fills a critical gap in the available information 

about the distribution of this species. On the other hand, some mangrove species such as Sonneratia 

apuitala (Kan-pa-la), Sonneratia cassiolaris (La-mu), Xylocarpus mulocensis (Kya-na) and Amoora cucullata 

(Pan-tha-ka), present in other mangrove areas of Myanmar, are not found in Lampi area, due to high 

salinity (3.5% - 3.8%) and soil types (loamy sand and sandy loam soils are common). 

Table 7 

Threatened and near threatened 

mangrove species of Lampi Island MNP 

CR = Critically Endangered 

EN = Endangered 

NT = Near Threatened 

104 105

Marine habitat 

The marine habitat is more difficult to study, in part due to the fact that the NWCD has no trained 

staff for marine protected areas, and in part because marine surveys require specific equipment and 

tools that are not readily available in a remote area. Coral reefs remain largely unexplored despite 

being one of the main resources of the MNP for notification letter. On the other hand, it was possible 

to conduct research on plankton, seagrass, seaweeds and some aquatic fauna (echinoderms, molluscs, 

crustaceans and fishes). Data available on coral reefs as from Fischer (1985), Reef Check Europe (2001) 

and GCRMN (2005), affirm that the Myeik Archipelago contains 1,700 km² of coral formations, with the 

major ones around the smaller islands, especially in the Gregory Group, and relatively poor formations 

around the main island of Lampi. The coral formations consists of fringing reefs, submerged pinnacles 

and seamounts, limestone caves, sheer and sloping rock walls, and boulder-strewn sand bottoms. Reef 

Check Europe in 2001 identified in the Myeik Archipelago 61 species and 31 genera of hermatypic 

corals, and 4 species and 3 genera of ahermatypic corals. Reef Check Europe estimated that between 

60 and 95 species of hard corals are to be found in the Myeik Archipelago. According to the recent 

research by the Department of Marine Science at Mawlamyine University, a total of 512 species of hard 

corals (Scleractenian and Hydrozoa corals) were identified from 24 islands of the Myeik Archipelago. 

The highest species composition was observed at Pa lei Island (Sir J. Malcolm Island) representing 104 

species and 42 genera, and followed by Sin Island (High Island), Ka mar Island (Sir E. Owen Island) and 

Thayawthedangyi Island (Elphinstone Island). Additional coral reef surveys are required, specifically in 

Lampi Island MNP, to confirm species composition and to verify the conservation status. 

Coral reefs of Pony island (A. Bonetti) 

In the seagrass meadows around Lampi Island MNP, 11 species of seagrass were found, among which 

Halophila minor and Thalassia hemprichii (dominant species in Lampi Island) are new records for 

Myanmar. Cymodocea serrulata is the rarest species in the area, as it was recorded at only one site on 

the east of Lampi Island. There is evidence that seagrass beds in the park provide feeding habitat for 

dugongs (Dugong dugon) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas), both of which are threatened and are the 

object of considerable conservation efforts. Halophila ovalis is the dominant species in the seagrass beds 


grazed by dugongs. The number, size and species composition of the meadows observed in the Lampi 

Island MNP suggest that there is enough seagrass in the area to support a small population of dugongs. 

The plankton survey of March 2010 recorded 136 species of phytoplankton belonging to 49 genera 

and 150 species of zooplankton belonging to 93 genera were observed. Eight species of plankton are 

identified as new records for Myanmar: one phytoplankton species, the pinnate diatom Pleurosigma 

nicobaricum, and seven zooplankton species, namely: Pegantha sp. (Hydromedusa), Pelagia noctiluca 

(Jelly fish), Pleurobranchia rhodopis (Ctenophore) Phtisica marina (Amphipod), Thallassomysis sewelli 

(Mysid), Salpa maxima (Salp), Iasis zonaria (Salp). The seaweed surveys recorded 73 species belonging to 

46 genus, belonging to blue-green algae Cyanophyta (2 species), green algae Chlorophyta (24 species), 

brown algae Phaeophyta (9 species) and red algae Rhodophyta (38). Some important economically, 

industrially and medicinally seaweed species were observed. Some green algae, such as Catenella, 

Caulerpa and Ulva can be used for the production of health foods and sea vegetables. Catenella which is 

known as “Kyauk Pwint” in Myanmar, is a famous seafood item and it is also used as food and medicine 

to cure or prevent gout. Certain species of brown algae, for example, Dicthyota, Padina, Turbinaria and 

Sargassum, could be utilized for the production of alginates, manitol and iodine. Certain species of red 

algae, such as Gracilaria could be used for the production of agar-agar while species of Catenella, Hypnea 

and Acanthophora are harvested for the production of carrageenan compounds. 

Fauna 

The project identified 32 species of sea cucumbers, 17 of these were found in the catches of fishermen of 

Lampi Island MNP. The diverse sea cucumber fauna supports a small-scale industry that is an important 

source of income for local fishers. Interviews with local fishers of sea-cucumbers and dry fish revealed 

that the sea-cucumber market is a very profitable one, both for the local and for the foreign market, with 

prices ranging from 9 euros/kg for species like Holothuria atra up to more than 30 euros/kg for species 

like the sandfish Holothuria scabra, one of the most valuable species. The uncontrolled fishing of sea 

cucumber inside the park is arguably leading to over-exploitation, as is the case with other sea cucumber 

fisheries in the region. However, the existence of some apparently healthy stocks in some bays of Lampi 

Island provides an opportunity to conserve this important fishery through proper management. The 

survey of molluscs fauna revealed in the water surrounding the MNP, both within and outside the two 

miles of protection, 50 gastropod species belonging to 27 families and 41 bivalve species belonging 

to 18 families. Among the Gastropods found in Lampi Island MNP, many species are of economic 

importance as food resource and for traditional decoration and shell jewellery: i) Trochus niloticus is the 

most economically important shell, collected for commercial use by local divers; ii) Strombus canarium 

(Strombidae), very common and abundant in mud, muddy sand habitat and algae bottom of south and 

southeast part of Lampi, is collected for food and traditional decoration, for both local use and export 

to neighbouring countries; iii) Cerithidea cingulata (Potamidae), a shell traditionally used for decoration 

in other coastal areas of Myanmar but not in Lampi Island MNP, is abundant in muddy sand, muddy rock 

and mangrove fringe habitats; iv) Babylonia areolata (Buccinidae), harvested on sand and mud grounds 

near Ko Phawt Island, for food and traditional decoration, both for local use and for export to Thailand; v) 

Turbo marmoratus is collected for export to Thailand as a food resource and for shell jewellery. Most of 

the species of Family Cypraeidae, generally known as “Kywe poke kha yu”, are very common and inhabit 

reef areas and sandy habitats among rock environments, tidal pools, branch corals and seaweed of the 

intertidal and sublittoral zone. Almost all species are collected for the food and shell market. The most 

famous is Cypraea tigris (tiger cowrie), collected for its shell. Only one individual of this species was found 

in Lampi Island MNP, suggesting the need for further investigation. Among the Bivalves found in Lampi 

Island MNP, the species of economic importance are: i) pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera found on hard 

substrate in clear water along the coast of Lampi Island and several nearby islands north of Lampi Island; 

ii) three species of hammer oyster (Malleidae), Malleus malleus, Malleus albus, Malleus regula, abundant 

in rocky and coral reef habitats around the Island, are used by Moken people as traditional food; iii) 

edible Polymesoda bangalensis found in brackish water in mangrove swamps area of Crocodile River 

bank. Giant clams (Tridacna spp.), collected for their flesh and shell, have also high commercial value 

both for the export market and for local trade. 

106 107

Hermit crab in Lampi Island MNP (A. Bonetti) 

The crustaceans survey concentrated only on crabs, recording 42 crab species belonging to 25 genera 

and 11 families. Among these, families Grapsidae, Potunidae and Ocypodidae are the most diverse 

groups represented respectively by 11, 9 and 8 species. The species Sesarma intermedia has the highest 

abundance followed by Sesarma minutum and Sesarma picta. Highest abundance of crabs were 

observed in the seagrass habitat type with 15 species (Charybdids and Matuta species) followed by 

mangrove, sandy beach and sea habitat types respectively with 10, 8 and 7 species. Many of these crabs 

are potentially economically important as primary food species such as the mud crab, Scylla serrata, and 

the larger species belonging to the genus Sesarma, which is also the most abundant in Lampi Island 

MNP. A species with commercial potential is the mangrove stone crab of the genus Potunus. Many 

species, in particular the sesarmines and ocypodids, are ecologically important in mangrove energetics, 

being involved in nutrient cycling. A partial preliminary icthyological (fish) assessment survey at Lampi 

Island MNP recorded a total of 42 fish species belonging to 22 families, including 7 new records for 

Myanmar belonging to the family Oryziatidae. A more detailed fish surveys is needed, including a fish 

stock assessment. The herpetofauna surveys was carried out only in the west part of Lampi Island MNP 

and adjacent to Bo Cho Island for time and logistic constraints; 10 amphibians and 19 reptiles, out of 

which one species Leptolalax heteropus (amphibians, order Anura) is a new record for Myanmar. Two 

species of Amphibians (Ichthyophis spp. order Gymnophiona and Occidozyga spp. Order Anura ) could 

be new to science but still need verification. From local people knowledge, eight more species have 

been recorded to occur in Lampi Island MNP but need confirmation. 

Table 8 Threatened and near threatened herpetofauna of Lampi Island 

Scientific name Common name Status (Red List 2010) 

Indotestudo elongata Yellow Tortoise EN 

Limnonectes blythii Blyth’s Giant Frog NT 

EN= Endangered; 

NT=Near Threatened 

Mangrove Pit-Viper in Lampi Island MNP (A. Bonetti) 

Most of the amphibians and reptiles found in Lampi MNP are restricted to evergreen and mangrove 

forests in good conditions, proving the importance of the forests for the diversity of amphibians and 

reptiles. Mountain streams represent another important habitat for many species like Limnonectes blythii 

and Leptolalax heteropus. The species of the genus Ichthyophis was found in agriculture habitat of muddy 

area and beside of stream. Species utilizing the mangrove streams consist mainly of arboreal snakes 

(Cryptetytrops purpureomaculatus) and larger species of giant frogs (Limnonectes blythii, Limnonectes 

doriae, Limnonectes hascheanus, Limnonectes cf.macrognathus, Ingerana tenasserimensis and Occidozyga 

s.) found on fresh water creek and spring. Cyrtodactylus oldhami (Slender toe gecko) is found in 

evergreen forest, while forest crested Lizard Draco blanfordii and flying Dragon Calotes emma inhabit 

the mangrove habitat at Tourist River site. Three species of sea turtles are reported to inhabit Lampi 

Island MNP and surroundings, out of the five species considered to be living in the waters of Myanmar, 

although Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) are considered 

extremely rare. Carapaces of Green Turtle and Loggerhead Turtle were found on the beaches of the park, 

confirming the existence of these species in the area, while for the Olive Ridley Turtle information are 

coming only from interviews to local people and no direct observations were done by the survey team. 

Table 9 Threatened sea turtlesof Lampi Island 

Scientific name Common name Status (Red List 2010) Note 

Caretta caretta Loggerhead Turtle EN Carapaces found 

Chelonia mydas Green Turtle EN Carapaces found 

Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley Turtle VU Information from local people 

EN = Endangered ; VU = Vulnerable 


Several beaches on the main Lampi Island and on smaller islands of the MNP were indicated by local 

people as sea turtle breeding sites. Evidences were found only on a beach close to Sitta Galet village, 

where two nests with open eggshells were found. Local people reported that the turtles hatchlings 

occurred between 15 and 20 November. 

108 109

Several bird surveys were carried out in different years and periods of the year, first under the MABR 

project (2006-2009) and then in the framework of the MEP project (2009-2010). 

Beach Thicknee in Lampi Island MNP (A. Bonetti) 

Table 10 Threatened and near threatened birds of Lampi Island MNP 

A total of 228 species were observed in Lampi 

Island Marine National Park and surrounding 

areas. Out of these, 8 species are new records 

for Myanmar: Malaysian Plover (Charadrius 

peronii), Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica), 

Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), Rusty-breasted 

Cuckoo (Cacomantis sepulcralis), Short-tailed 

Babbler (Malacocincla malaccensis), Little 

Curlew (Numenius minitus), Grey-chested Jungle 

Flycatcher (Rhinomyias umbratilis), Golden-bellied 

Gerygone (Gerygone sulphurea). 19 species are 

listed as threatened and near threatened in the 

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 

Scientific name Common name Status (Red List 2010) 

Aceros subruficollis Plain-pouched Hornbill VU 

Spizaetus nanus Wallace’s Hawk Eagle VU 

Rollulus rouloul Crested Partridge NT 

Caloperdix oculea Ferruginous Partridge NT 

Megalaima mystacophanos Red-throated Barbet NT 

Buceros bicornis Great Hornbill NT 

Halcyon amauroptera Brown-winged Kingfisher NT 

Phaenicophaeus diardi Black-bellied Malkoha NT 

Treron fulvicollis Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon NT 

Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew NT 

Esacus neglectus Beach Thicknee NT 

Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus Grey-headed Fish Eagle NT 

Pitta megarhyncha Mangrove Pitta NT 

Pericrocotus igneus Fiery Minivet NT 

Aegithina viridissima Green Lora NT 

Rhinomyias umbratilis Gray-chested Jungle Flycatcher NT 

Anthreptes rhodolaema Red-throated Sunbird NT 

Charadrius peronii Malaysian Plover NT 

Platysmurus leucopterus Black Magpie NT 

VU=Vulnerable; NT=Near Threatened 

Additional surveys in different periods of the year are needed as well as specific studies on population 

densities and dynamics for species of conservation concern like the vulnerable Plain-pouched Hornbill 

(see Box 1) and Wallace’s Hawk Eagle. 

The assessment survey on mammals recorded 19 species of small, medium and large size mammal. 

Out of these, 7 species are in danger according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2010). 

Table 11 Threatened and near threatened mammals of Lampi Island MNP 

Scientific name Common name Status (IUCN Red List 2010) 

Elephas maximus Asian Elephant EN 

Sunda pangolin Sunda Pangolin EN 

Dugong dugon Dugong VU 

Macaca nemestrina Southern Pig-tailed Macaque VU 

Aonyx cinerea Oriental Small-clawed Otter VU 

Ratufa bicolor Black Giant Squirrel NT 

Trachypithecus obscurus Dusky Langur NT 

EN=Endangered; VU=Vulnerable; NT=Near Threatened 

The Lesser Mouse-deer can be considered abundant on Lampi Island since it is very common to find 

traces of this animal in the forest, but the high incidence of illegal hunting reported by the villagers 

and directly observed by the project team, poses serious concern about the long term survival of the 

population of Lesser Mouse-deer in Lampi. The Lesser Mouse-deer found in Lampi is considered a 

subspecies (Tragulus kanchil subsp. lampensis) although further investigation is required to confirm it. 11 

A large colony of island flying foxes Pteropus hypomelanus, between 3500-4000 individuals, was recorded 

(MABR, MEP) on the small island of Than dar Ni Island in the Gregory Group, although in 2010 only few 

individuals were observed. The Dugong (Dugong dugon) occurs in the area since feeding trails were 

observed several times starting from 2008, on a dense seagrass meadow in the east coast of Lampi 

Island, where Halophila ovalis is the dominant seagrass species (one of the dugong’s favourite seagrass 

species). Occurrence of dugong at some islands of Myeik Archipelago such as Sular Island, La Ngan 

Island, Bo Lut Island and War Kyunn Island was also reported by local people. The feeding trails found in 

Lampi constitute the first proof of the occurrence of the dugong in the Myeik Archipelago. 

Mammal species mentioned by the FAO report (1983) and in the notification letter for the establishment 

of Lampi Island MNP, like the Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak), the capped Langur (Trachypithecus 

pileatus) and the White-handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar), were not found during the current surveys and 

nor had they been observed by local people. 

Threats 

Lampi Island Marine National Park has total protection, but its status until now of paper park, with no staff 

and infrastructure, has caused an increasing development of illegal human activities and settlements. 

The main island of Lampi is the only one where also local people have the perception that activities 

conducted there are in a sort of illegality framework, while on the minor islands, although part of the 

marine NP, there is an unwritten consensus about the possibility to exercise different types of activity and 

to establish temporary or even permanent settlements. Therefore the MNP is coming under increasing 

threat from settlements and human activities even within the park’s boundaries. As human population 

increases in its immediate vicinity, there is a corresponding increase in the use of natural resources also 

inside the protected area to satisfy human needs. The main threats recorded by the project in the area 

can be classified as follows, according to the IUCN and the Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP) 

classification of threats: 

11 For a discussion on mouse-deer systematics, see Miller (1903) and Meijaard & Groves (2004). 


110 111

Table 12 Threats recorded in Lampi Island MNP 

IUCN-CMP THREATS 

CLASSIFICATION 

1 Residential & 

Commercial Development 

1.1 Housing & Urban Areas 

2 Agriculture & Aquaculture 

2.1 Annual & Perennial 

Non-Timber Crops 

5 Biological Resource Use 

5.1 Hunting & Collecting 

Terrestrial Animals 

5.3 Logging & Wood 

Harvesting 

5.4 Fishing & Harvesting 

Aquatic Resources 

7 Natural System 

Modifications 

7.2 Dams & Water 

Management/Use 

7.3 Other Ecosystem 

Modifications 

9 Pollution 

9.1 Household Sewage & 

Urban Waste Water 

11 Climate Change 

& Severe Weather 

11.1 Climate change 

11.4 Storms & Flooding 

THREATS IDENTIFIED INSIDE 

LAMPI ISLAND MNP 

Illegal and legal human settlements 

on 4 small islands causing forest 

destruction 

Agricultural expansion (rubber, 

beetlenut, mango and other 

plantations in Makyone Galet village) 

Heavy poaching of forest mammals 

(mouse-deer, wild pig, monkeys, 

civet) 

Extraction of akarwood and rattan 

Logging of mangroves in Crocodile 

river and Ko Phawt 

Logging of mature trees of 

Dipterocarpus and other valuable 

species 

Overfishing, illegal fishing techniques 

incl. dynamite fishing 

Overharvesting of marine flora and 

fauna (including sea cucumbers, sea 

shells, echinoderms, etc.) 

Unplanned/illegal water use from 

springs and rivers, for domestic use 

and commercial use (fish factory 

located in War Kyunn) 

Sedimentation especially in the 

East side 

Waste disposal from existing 

settlements and visiting fishing boats 

THREATS IDENTIFIED 

OUTSIDE LAMPI ISLAND MNP 

Growing population in Nyaung 

Wee and increasing number of 

fishing boats. 

Forest clearing for rubber 

plantation in Kyun Pila. 

Heavy poaching of forest 

mammals (mouse-deer, wild 

pig, monkeys, civet) 

Logging of mature trees 

of Dipterocarpus and other 

valuable species in Nyaung 

Wee. 

Overfishing, illegal fishing 

techniques including 

dynamite fishing 

Overharvesting of marine 

flora and fauna (including 

sea cucumbers, sea shells, 

echinoderms, etc.) 

Sand digging on Pine Tree 

Island 

Waste disposal from fishing 

boats 

Change in sea currents 

Sea level rise Change in sea currents 

Forest destruction due to storm in 

1989 in War Kyunn 

3. Management 

Although Lampi Island Marine National Park was designated in 1996, no management or operational 

plan was prepared and systematically implemented. As a consequence of weak control over the territory, 

the human settlements inside and outside the protected area have considerably and rapidly increased. 

In 2009 the MEP project initiated consultations among the different stakeholders aimed at launching 

the process for a participatory development of the management plan to ensure the involvement of local 

communities and the incorporation of their needs and aspirations. It has also supported field surveys 

to gather scientific data on the naturalistic and cultural features of the area, the results of which are 

reported in this publication, to enable participatory planning and management of natural resources. 

Low levels of social cohesion among the heterogeneous population groups and of trust towards the 

authorities are a major obstacle to the organization of successful meetings where all people feel free 

to express their opinion. In order to ensure productive discussion during multi-stakeholder workshops, 

focus group discussions (FGDs) have been conducted to obtain a better insight into local perceptions of 

the status of the environment, threats, problems and solutions, as they emerge, while a small number 

of people with the same livelihood strategy interacts. Furthermore, every focus group has elected a 

representative who would participate at the first general workshop on “Conservation and Sustainable 

Management of Lampi Island Marine National Park” which took place in the village of Makyone Galet 

on 8th and 9th December 2010 with representatives from authorities, communities and NGOs. All 

stakeholders took part in mixed group discussion on the values and threats of the park and the objectives 

of the management plan. Finally, a zoning exercise was conducted to receive suggestions on how to 

plan conservation and sustainable use of resources. More workshops need to be conducted during the 

preparation of the general management plan which aims to be finalized in 2011. Yet the implementation 

of the GMP hangs on the resource allocation by the FD with the possible support from NGOs. 

4. Park staff and other resources 

At present Lampi Island MNP has no staff assigned on site but only on paper. 25 people were formally 

assigned as park staff - wardens and rangers, but they are not yet present in the park. In 2010 Istituto 

Oikos and BANCA supported the construction of a field camp at Makyone Galet village on Bo Cho 

Island which is very near to the southern coast of Lampi Island. The camp includes a basic office and 

a rest house and is equipped with 1 motorboat, 3 GPS, 2 binoculars, 1 laptop, 1 printer, field guides. 

Four ranger posts will be necessary to facilitate patrolling especially in the proximity of human 

settlements, equipped with a 48 miles radar station. Since the area has no or very basic services, there 

is the need to have park staff who are well trained in boat handling and maintenance procedures, 

swimming, diving, first aid and basic life saving techniques. Wardens and rangers should be specifically 

trained on field surveys and monitoring techniques, especially on marine ecosystem management. 

Furthermore, park staff organization should include a community outreach program. 

Table 13 Park staff assigned to Lampi MNP 

112 113 

Park 

Warden 

Range 

officer 

Rangers Foresters 

Forest 

guards 

Upper 

clerk 

Lower 

clerk 


Typewriter Permanent 

Labourer 

1 1 3 5 5 1 1 1 7 

L. Beffasti

5. Tourism 

Ecotourism was identified as one of the main vocation of the site by the 1995 joint survey prior to the 

designation of the Marine National Park. At that time the whole archipelago was closed to tourism 

due to security concerns. In January 1997 the Ministry of Tourism issued the Tourist Transport Business 

licence to three companies based in Phuket, Thailand. Nowadays the number of companies allowed to 

bring tourists to Lampi Island MNP and other selected islands of the archipelago has increased to 34, 

including both Thai and Myanmar companies. Nonetheless, the development of tourist infrastructures 

has been slow and limited to three sites: 

· Andaman Resort - Kha Yin Gwa (MacLeod) Island 

· Andaman club - Thu Htay Island 

· Treasure Island Resort - Pakchan river, off Kawthaung 

At present there is no accommodation for tourists on Lampi Island or on the other islands closer to 

Lampi. Opportunities to visit Lampi are limited to sailing cruises including diving opportunities. There 

are no recreation facilities inside the MNP. Tea shops and restaurants offer very low standard of food 

options. Local authorities look at ecotourism as a possible tool to boost the local economy, also including 

community-based tourism opportunities, in form of guided walks or boat trips. 

6. Land use 

Table 14 Household (HH) trend in Lampi Island MNP 

1 

Survey 

year 

1995 2008 2010 

Source FD BANCA Istituto 

Oikos 

Makyone 

Galet 

55 12 88 191 

2 War Kyunn 172 243 255 

3 Ko Phawt 

4 Sitta Galet 

5 

Nyaung 

Wee 

Not 

existing 

Not 

existing 

Only 

boats 

8 30 

9 26 

27 62 

TOTAL 227 375 564 

12 In 1995 two Salone villages were situated on the southern tip of Lampi island on the passage (“Galet” in local language) that faces up to Bo Cho 

island. After designation of Lampi Island MNP in 1996, the villages have been resettled on the northern coast of Bo Cho island, facing the same 

passage and maintaining the same name. 

During the survey period (2009-10), 4 permanent human settlements (Makyone Galet, War Kyunn, Ko 

Phawt and Sittat Galet) were identified in Lampi Island MNP core area and 1 in the proposed buffer 

zone (Nyaung Wee). Only Makyone Galet is an officially recognised village, War Kyunn is a private work 

camp and Ko Phawt, Sittat Galet and Nyaung Wee were until 2008 only temporary camps. Since the area 

has been opened to tourism and business in 1996 13 , the population size of the area has dramatically 

increased through several flows of migration in the last 15 years as illustrated in table 1. 

Although human settlements are officially not allowed in the park, this rule has been applied so far only 

to Lampi main island, for instance the former Moken settlement has been moved from southern Lampi 

Island to Bo Cho Island (still inside park boundaries). The proposal (field report 1995) to move War Kyunn 

fish factory to the coast has been diresgarded. There are no official rules for land allocation and use in 

the five human settlements of Lampi area but the informal tenure system is respected by all community 

members, thus secure in its own context. In the former days a person who was the first to use a parcel 

of land for dwelling or farming was recognized as having land rights. Land resources were relatively 

abundant to local population so that every household could easily find suitable lands for settlement 

and cultivation. Hence, there have, till recently, been very few land disputes and all disputes could be 

settled personally or locally through mediation by community leaders. The land tenure system of War 

Kyunn camp is an interesting exception to this rule. According to local informants, War Kyunn land 

has been almost entirely leased to Annawarsoe company for the last 25 years. The company brought 

migrant workers from various places of Tanintharyi Region, especially from Palaw Township, to establish 

a huge fishing industry, raising the number of residents in the War Kyunn who are only tenants. 

Rational planning of human settlements is required to avoid future conflicts among villagers and 

destructive impact on natural resources 

HUMAN ACTIVITIES 

The project livelihood survey (2010) shows that fishery is still the most important economic activity of 

the area. The number of fishing boats, both in-shore and off-shore, has increased, as well as the type 

of catches and fishing gear and techniques. This has induced the opening of other smaller economic 

activities to provide fishers with a wide range of consumer goods and services (from karaoke to 

mechanical workshops). The living standards and education level of most households surveyed in 

Lampi area are low. Many are self-employed fishers, yet they contracted large debts to buy the fishing 

equipment. Access to electricity and safe water is limited. In addition, the health facilities and waste 

management (and infrastructure) is lacking and people stress that these issues need urgent attention. 

Sea cucumber collector in Lampi Island MNP (L. Beffasti) 

13 Formerly the area was designated as a restricted or “ black” area with security problems, namely insurgents and pirates 


114 115

Agriculture in Makyone Galet (Lampi Island MNP) (A.Bonetti) 

Fisheries 

Although fishing is prohibited inside the park boundaries, a variety of fishing gears are used by 

subsistence and commercial fishermen for different catches. Lines, net and set gillnet are used for prawn 

fishing especially in War Kyunn area; traps, bag and artificial prawn baits are used to catch squid in the 

area of Makyone Galet, Ko Phawt, Sitta Galet and War Kyunn. A very small minority of fishermen has the 

necessary collection and carrying license from the Fishery Department. Local fishers use fishing vessels 

of small-medium dimension and they have frequent disputes with large fishing vessels illegally coming 

to catch near the shore destroying their traps and nets as well as the fishing ground. The collection of 

molluscs and sea cucumber is common amongst the Moken-Salone and Karen people respectively. The 

main market for the Lampi catches is neighboring Thailand. The illegal practice of dynamite fishing (or 

blast fishing) is common in this area and its destructive effects are visible on the corals around Lampi 

Island. 

Secondary occupations 

Grocery, general stores and tea shops are common in the five human settlements. Shopkeepers buy 

food supply directly from Kawthoung (border town in Myanmar) and/or Ranong (border town in 

Thailand) and resell to the local inhabitants and fishers from passing fishing boats. Hunting, especially 

by Karen migrants, is an illegal yet very lucrative livelihood. A single hunter can kill daily 10 to 20 animals 

such as mouse-deer, pangolin, giant lizard and wild-pigs, which he sells to the local fishermen or keeps 

conserved in cool box and then sends to Makyone Galet market. Although on small scale and with basic 

equipment, hunting in Lampi area could have severe consequences on the biodiversity of the site. 

Horticultural farming is only present in Makyone Galet village and War Kyunn work camp. Cashew, betel 

and rubber are the main crops of Makyone Galet and cashew betel and mango are primary cash crops 

in War Kyunn. The vegetables consumed in the area are mainly imported from Kawthoung. 

Very recently, due to the State policy encouraging rubber plantations under an agricultural. 

commercialization scheme, local people of Makyone Galet have started to convert the natural forest of 

Bo Cho Island into private rubber plantations. Logging is illegal but common in the site, especially in Bo 

Cho Island during rainy season when the transport of logs from the forest to the boats is made easier 

by water streams. The most common trees felled in the forest are Shorea sp., Dipterocarpus sp., Firmiana 

sp., Syzygium sp., Cinnamomum sp., Shorea farinose Fischer Mitra, Heritiera javanica (Blume), Artocarpus 

calophyllus Kurz, Hopea sangol Korth, Hopea odorata Roxb., Strombosia javanica Blume. 

7. Research 

The isolation of the Myeik Archipelago precluded for many years the possibility to conduct scientific 

expeditions in the area. Only recently Istituto Oikos and the local partner BANCA, in collaboration with 

other organizations like Ecoswiss, and with the support of Forest Department, had the opportunities to 

jointly organize some basic resource assessments in Lampi Island Marine National Park. 

Table 15 Survey reports about Lampi Island MNP 

Survey title Conducted by Timeframe 

Birds of the Mergui Archipelago: 

preliminary observations 

Andrea Bonetti 2006-2007 

Sea Cucumber Report Barry Bendel May 2008 

Socio-economic survey report Tint Tun and Aung Myint Oo May 2008 

Lampi fish report Tint Swe, San Tha Tun and Tint Tun September 2008 

Seagrass report Barry Bendel and Tint Tun December 2008 

Mangrove of Myeik Archipelago rapid 

survey assessment 

Hornbills of Myanmar (poster 

presented at the fifth International 

Hornbill conference in Singapore 

22-25 March 2009) 

Win Maung January 2009 

Lara Beffasti and Tint Tun March 2009 

Birds survey report San San Nwe and Nila Pwin April 2010 

Flora survey report Ei Ei Phyo and Myint Sein April 2010 

Livelihoods survey report Lara Beffasti and Saw Mon Theint April 2010 

Mammals survey report Khin Maung Soe, Thaw Sin, Pyi Phyo Swe April 2010 

Mangroves survey report Moe Min Win April 2010 

Marine resources survey report 

Birds survey report 

Saw Han Shein (plankton), Tint Tun, Tint 

Wai and Thuang Htut (seagrass and 

seaweeds) 

Sein Myo Aung, Saw Moises, San San 

Nwe and Nila Pwint 


List of technical reports on Lampi Island MNP 

produced in the framework of the MABR and MEP projects. 

Surveys implemented in the period 2006-2008 were part of the Mergui Archipelago Biodiversity 

Research (MABR) project managed by Ecoswiss in partnership with Istituto Oikos and BANCA, funded by 

Stiftung Drittes Millennium. Surveys implemented in the period 2009-2010 were part of the Myanmar 

Environmental Project (MEP) and Conservation and Sustainable Management of Lampi MNP (COSMO) 

project, both managed by Istituto Oikos in partnership with BANCA, co-funded by European Union, 

Regione Lombardia and Stiftung Dritt Millennium. Survey reports are reported in chronological order in 

Table 15. They are available under request (coverpage for contacts). 

116 117 

April 2010 

December 2010 

Crabs survey report Tat Su Mar December 2010 

Dugongs status survey report Tint Tun December 2010 

Focus Group Discussion Report Saw Mon Theint and Than Than Aye December 2010 

Molluscs survey report Tint Tun, Tint Wai and Thaung Htut December 2010 

Reptiles and amphibians survey report Kyo Soe Lwin and Khin Mar Tin December 2010 

Salone cultural ecology study Mya Thidar Aung and Moe Thidar Twe December 2010 

Sea turtles survey report Aung Hlaing Win and Htet Myint Aung December 2010

3.3 Conclusions and recommendations 

Lampi Island Marine National Park preserves important natural and cultural resources. It is the only 

protected area of the Myeik Archipelago and the only marine national park of Myanmar. The diversity 

of marine and terrestrial biodiversity is of significant value at national, international and regional level 

(IBA, ASEAN heritage site). A total of fifty globally protected species have been identified so far but it 

is likely that further and more detailed surveys inside and outside Lampi Island MNP will lead to more 

discoveries. Lampi mangrove forests are the best conserved of Myanmar and, possibly, of the region. 

Seagrass beds provide a feeding habitat for endangered species such as dugongs and sea turtles. Both 

habitats are under threat of degradation. Some 3,000 people depend on the natural resources of Lampi 

Island Marine National Park. The current conflicts between resource protection and use by people 

need to be addressed in time. Destruction and overexploitation must be prevented by promoting the 

participation of all stakeholders in conservation and wise management of resources and encouraging 

sustainable revenue-generating activities. If it is set in such a way as successful, the participatory approach 

initiated in Lampi Island MNP will be the cornerstone of how Myanmar can work to protect its precious 

resources and natural environment. The following recommendations are made for the conservation and 

sustainable development of the Lampi Island MNP. The conservation and management goals of the 

protected area should be realistically achievable in the present situation, considering that, although not 

allowed on paper, there are already not only permanent villages and settlements, but many commercial 

activities. At present, only Lampi Island is to some extent protected while smaller islands and the marine 

side have been left totally unprotected ever since the park designation. A 4-year management plan, 

where different uses and limits of use are defined according to different zones, should be prepared and 

enacted in time. The creation of a management/advisory committee including representatives of Forest 

Department, Navy and Fisheries Department (as recommended by Rabinowitz 1995), as well as civil 

society is envisaged to support the park staff in accomplishing the conservation and development goals. 

Zoning: total protection should be granted to the main Lampi Island and to priority habitats inside the 

park boundaries, for instance mangrove forests, seagrass beds and coral reefs. Sustainable management 

of resources in the other minor islands of Lampi Island MNP should be encouraged, starting with the 

legalization of existing villages and definition of a land plan. In particular, further expansion of human 

settlements should be contained and support to the livelihoods of current settlers should be given 

to promote wise resource use and participation in controlling illegal activities, like logging, poaching, 

fishing with illegal techniques. Park staff should be permanently allocated to the newly constructed 

park office in Makyone Galet for the implementation of the activities according to the management plan, 

monitoring key resources and patrolling illegal activities, in particular logging and dynamite fishing. 

More research should be conducted to monitor the status of key resources and to fill information gaps, 

in particular on coral reefs, sea turtles nesting sites, dugongs, plain-pouched hornbill. Information about 

the park should be divulgated to the villages and boats, signs should be installed around the perimeter. 

Stakeholder consultations should continue to be organised on a regular basis with attention to gender 

and ethnic balance. Collaboration between the park staff and organised groups of villagers should be 

encouraged, especially to control illegal logging and fishing, and to regulate the access and use of 

water resources. Environmental education should be included in the school programmes and seminars 

regularly organised for the communities. Sound waste management should be initiated starting with 

cleaning campaigns on the beach and around water springs. Water, energy and health programmes 

are needed to address current problems. As recommended by Rabinowitz (1995) and Fischer (1996), 

ecotourism should be developed only after park management is in place and in a manner that favours 

community-based initiatives. As the only protected area of Myeik Archipelago in the Myanmar side, 

the site ought to be connected to Surin and Similan MPAs in Thailand within a large transboundary 

reserve to apply the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ecosystem approach and accommodate 

different land uses and planning needs. 

BOX 1 

Plain-pouched Hornbill 

Plain-pouched Hornbill in Lampi Island MNP (A. Bonetti) 

The Plain-pouched hornbill Aceros subruficollis is an endangered species listed as vulnerable in the IUCN 

Red List (2010) due to its small and declining population. The main threats are hunting and shrinking of 

the preferred habitat, the lowland wet evergreen forest. The species is confined to Southern Myanmar 

and adjacent Thailand, and to northern Malaysia. Historically described (Anderson, 1889) as common 

in Myanmar and occurring in great numbers in the Myeik Archipelago, being the commonest hornbill 

in the area, it was not recorded in Myanmar since as far back as 1941 (Smith 1942) and in the Myeik 

Archipelago since 1920 (unknown source in BLI 2005). It appears to have undergone a rapid and huge 

decline in the last century (Rasmussen in litt. 1999). During the MABR and MEP project surveys in Myeik 

Archipelago and Lampi Island MNP (2006-2010), two roosting sites were localized, a major one with 

up to 150 individuals in Hornbill Island, and a minor one, comprising 20-25 individuals, on an islet 

immediately south of Bo Cho Island. At least one count per year was done at the Hornbill Island roost 

from 2006 and 2010, in the period between December and April, recording a maximum of 149 (end of 

January 2006) and a minimum of 43 (beginning of December 2010) individuals. More counts at fixed 

period should be carried out to understand if the variation in numbers is related to the breeding season 

or to a population decline. Furthermore, to assess the conservation status of the species, more surveys 

in the whole Myeik Archipelago are needed. 

Plain-pouched Hornbill trend in Lampi Island MNP (Source: MABR 2006-2008; MEP 2009-2010) 

118 119 

N° individuals 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

3 January 

2006 

31 January 

2006 

April 

2006 

March 

2007 

March 

2008 

Survey period 

January 

2009 


March 

2009 

March 

2010 

December 

2010

BOX 2 

Moken Sea Gypsies 

An indigenous population arisen from aboriginal Malay stock, the Moken (as they call themselves or 

“Salone” as they are called in Myanmar) have lived in the Myeik Archipelago since the last century, roaming 

the sea from island to island, collecting and trading sea products. During the rainy season the sea gypsies 

used to settle in some islands that offered good shelter and whose forests provided food when the sea 

was too rough for navigation. They built their huts on stilts very close to the shore, in order to be able to 

constantly check the sea and their boats. Most live also during the dry season in the huts, except when 

they have to embark in longer fishing trips. It is estimated that a total population of 4,000 Moken still 

inhabit the archipelago both on the Myanmar and Thai side. However, in the surroundings of Lampi 

Island Marine National Park the project (2009-2010) recorded less than 100 Moken households (about 

400 individuals) based, at the villages of Makyone Galet, Nyaung Wee and Ko Phawt. A reason for their 

sedentarisation, is the decrease in number of the traditional Moken big boats kabang in the archipelago. In 

Lampi area, there are only a few kabangs left and they are either owned by non-Moken fishermen or they 

are stranded on the shore out of use. Moken nowadays own smaller dug-out canoes and row close to the 

coastline in search of sea products or have one big boat pull many canoes to the fishing ground and back. 

There are still a few men in the Nyaung Wee village able to build boats in the traditional way. They carve 

a type of wood which is not hard 

but very floatable such as Taungpain-hne 

(Artocarpus chaplasha), 

Katut (Aporusa wallichii), 

Kan-soe (Heritiera javanica), 

Zi (Zizyphus sp.) and Tha-pyay 

(Sizygium sp.). The raw boat is 

then heated using Tha-naigther 

(Hopea odorata) wood over 

bamboo slats or dry coconut 

shells to brighten the original 

colour and kill moths, and 

eventually it is smeared with oil 

dregs. Finally, the boat is heated 

again to become light on the 

surface of the water. The boat 

can be used continuously for six 

years if some basic maintenance 

work, such as clearing away the 

moss and occasional heating, is 

regularly done. For their housing they mostly use a kind of wood called La-nga-dote which lasts long 

without being eaten by moths or worm-holed. The roofing is made of thatch which they cut from the 

plants themselves. The Moken of Makyone Galet now build their houses with timber and corrugated iron 

like the other migrants. But they usually choose as building site the sand beach along the coastal line. 

Moken do not traditionally conserve any specific area or resource. They have never perceived resources 

as limited because under such a limited population pressure and low impact activities, resources would 

regenerate during their movements from island to island or during the rainy season. Yet they believe 

that one shouldn’t be greedy but take from the sea and the forest only what is necessary for subsistence. 

Livelihoods 

In former days the Mokens’ livelihood depended on the collection of a variety of molluscs and other marine 

creatures together with subsistence spear fishing and hunting. A good income generating activity was the 

collection of sea cucumbers at low tide or even up to 10-12 m deep grounds. Moken are famous for being 

good divers14 . Nevertheless, recently the resources in and around the park have become scarcer and 

Moken can not compete with the better equipped divers from Dawei and Ayeyawaddy region in search 

14 A study demonstrates that Moken children have a 50% better underwater vision than European children (Gislen et al., 2003). 

15 1 kg of squid is sold for 1,5-2 USD (2010). 


of valuable sea cucumbers for the Chinese market. Since 1998-99 the main economic activity of Moken 

living in and around Lampi has become squid fishing (Loligo sp.). However, as opposite to Myanmar fishers 

who use kerosene lamps to attract and catch a variety of squid known as Kin-mon yet fout, they only catch 

the small squids Kin-mon gandu with a very basic technique of putting a fake fish as bait into the water. In 

the former days the bait was carved out of wood but now it has been replaced by a Thai made plastic toy. 

A good catch is said to be about 5-7 kg whereas on unlucky days it is just about 1-2 kg or none. During 

moon waxing days, when best catches are expected, several canoes tied together with a long rope go 

out fishing pulled by a motorboat. The trip may last for a few days, during which Moken, mainly women, 

will have to sleep in the small canoe and eventually sell all the catch to the motorboat owner at a very 

low price15 , in exchange for the diesel and food rations consumed during the trip. For their subsistence 

the Moken collect mainly sea worms, sea urchins and different kinds of molluscs. These activities are 

exclusively performed by women, while men try to catch several kinds of crabs among the rocks at ebb 

tide or fish by spearing in the open sea. Though sea people, they use forest products for a number of 

purposes apart from boat and house construction, mainly for food, firewood and traditional medicine. 

Especially during the rainy season, Moken hunt in the forests with their dogs for wildboars, mouse-deer 

and bats, and they gather wild 

vegetables and fruits. They 

especially look for a big tuber 

kywe-ou, small fruits called 

Ma-yan, purgative crotons and 

cockscomb flowers which they 

call Taw-kyet-mauk. They use 

a variety of medicinal herbs 

to treat the most common 

diseases. A mixture of honey 

and the gum of a creeper Lar-lat 

is prepared as a remedy for high 

temperature. Boiled leaves and 

branches of Ba-ine are taken by 

women that have recently given 

birth. The same medicinal herb 

is also used as a medication 

when their babies suffer from 

stomach ache by grinding the 

branch and smearing it over the 

belly. The scale of a pangolin is believed to be useful in preventing infantile ailments that can result in 

nervous disorders and muscular dysfunctions. 

What future for the sea gypsies? 

The quickening and broadening processes of economic, political, social and technological development 

in the archipelago are leading to the marginalisation and impoverishment of the Moken. The reliance on a 

single catch (squid) is eroding their ecological knowledge of the archipelago and its resources. In addition, 

without motorboats they have no choice but to work as underpaid temporary labourers for traders from 

the mainland coming to settle in the park. Without ID cards Moken can not access the, albeit poor, public 

education and health services and they can’t own land or fishing license. With these premises, integration 

into Myanmar society is difficult and almost limited to women choosing to marry a Myanmar man, learn 

his language and adopt Buddhist religion. Pure Moken households live in the smaller huts without water 

and electricity, separated from the other migrants. The rate of alcoholism and drug abuse is alarming and, 

summed up with low hygienic standards and an increasingly polluted environment, is leading towards 

shorter life- spans especially among men. As the competition over resources in Lampi steadily increases, 

a few Moken groups have chosen to move to more distant islands, resuming the nomadic lifestyle from 

which they derived their identity and freedom. 

Moken village in Nyaung Wee (A. Bonetti) Moken kabang and dug-out canoes in Lampi Island MNP (A. Bonetti) 

120 121

3.4 Checklist of Lampi Island MNP resources 

Species that are new records for Myanmar or possible new species, are indicated in red. 

PHYTOPLANKTON 

(in alphabetical order) 

Scientific Name 

1 Bacillaria paradoxa 

2 Bacteriastrum comosum 

3 Bacteriastrum elongatum 

4 Bacteriastrum hyalinum 

5 Bacteriastrum varians 

6 Bellerochea malleus 

7 Biddulphia sinensis 

8 Campylodiscus undulatus 

9 Cerataulina bergoni 

10 Ceratium candelabrum 

11 Ceratium deflexum 

12 Ceratium dens 

13 Ceratium extensum 

14 Ceratium fusus 

15 Ceratium macroceros 

16 Ceratium pennatum 

17 Ceratium ponectum 

18 Ceratium pulchellum 

19 Ceratium sumatranum 

20 Ceratium tenue 

21 Ceratium trichoceros 

22 Ceratium tripos 

23 Ceratium turca 

24 Ceratium vulture 

25 Chaetoceros affinis 

26 Chaetoceros coarctatus 

27 Chaetoceros compressus 

28 Chaetoceros curvisetus 

29 Chaetoceros decipiens 

30 Chaetoceros denticulatum 

31 Chaetoceros lauderi 

32 Chaetoceros lorenzianus 

33 Chaetoceros paradoxum 

34 Chaetoceros peruvianus 

35 Chaetoceros pseudicrinatus 

36 Chaetoceros pseudicurvisetus 

37 Chaetoceros rostratus 

38 Chaetoceros siamensis 

39 Chaetoceros subtilis 

40 Chaetoceros tortissimus 

41 Chaetoceros weisfiogii 

42 Climacodium biconcavum 

43 Climacodium frauenfeldianum 

44 Cocconeid pediculus 

45 Coscinodiscus astromphalus 

46 Coscinodiscus cintrales 

47 Coscinodiscus concinnus 

48 Coscinodiscus excentricus 

49 Coscinodiscus gigas 

50 Coscinodiscus janesianus 

51 Coscinodiscus lineatus 

52 Coscinodiscus nodulifer 

53 Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis 

54 Coscinodiscus radiatus 

55 Coscinodiscus subtilis 

56 Cyclotella comta 

57 Dictyocha fibula 

58 Dinophysis homunculus 

59 Dinophysis miles 

60 Diplosalis lenticulata 

61 Ditylum brightwelll 

62 Ditylum sol 

63 Eucampia cornuta 

64 Eucampia zoodiacus 

65 Frgilaria oceanica 

66 Gonyaulax polygramma 

67 Gonyaulax sp. 

68 Guinardia flaccida 

69 Gymnodinium sp 

70 Gyrosigma sp 

71 Hemiaulus indica 

72 Hemiaulus sinensis 

73 Hemidiscus cuneiformis 

74 Hyalodiscus stelliger 

75 Lauderia borealis(annulata ) 

76 Leptocylindrus danicus 

77 Melosira borreri 

78 Navicula cuspidata 

79 Navicula sp.1 

80 Navicula sp.2 

81 Nitzschia closterium 

82 Nitzschia seriata 

83 Nitzschia sigma 

84 Nitzschia sp 

85 Noctiluca scintillans 

86 Ornithocercus magnificus 

87 Ornithocercus steini 

88 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) catenatum 

89 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) cerasus 

90 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) conicum 

91 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) depressum 

92 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) divergens 

93 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) oceanicum 

94 Peridinum (Protoperidinium) steini 

95 Pinnularia sp. 

96 Pleurosigma aesturii 

97 Pleurosigma intermedia 

98 Pleurosigma nicobaricum 

99 Pleurosigma normani 

100 Pleurosigma sp.1 

101 Pleurosigma sp.2 

102 Podolampas biped 

103 Pyrocystis fusiformis 

104 Pyrocystis lunula 

105 Pyrocystis noctiluca 

106 Pyrophacus horologicum 

107 Rhizosolenia (Proboscia)alata 

108 Rhizosolenia (Pseudosolinia) calcaravis 

109 Rhizosolenia alata f. innermis 

110 Rhizosolenia alata f. indica 

111 Rhizosolenia bergoni 

112 Rhizosolenia castracenei 

113 Rhizosolenia clevei 

114 Rhizosolenia imbricata 

115 Rhizosolenia rhombus 

116 Rhizosolenia robusta 

117 Rhizosolenia setigera 

118 Rhizosolenia stoltertofothii 

119 Rhizosolenia styliformis 

120 Schrodirella delicatula 

121 Skeletonema costatum 

122 Stephanopyxis palmeriana 

123 Streptotheca thamensis 

124 Thalassiaosira sp.1 

125 Thalassioira gravida 

126 Thalassionema nitzschioides 

127 Thalassiosira rotula 

128 Thalassiosira subtilis 

129 Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii 

130 Thallassiothrix longissima 

131 Thallassiothrix mediterranea 

132 Triceratium favus 

133 Triceratium reticulatum 

134 Triceratium revale 

135 Trichodesmium theibauti 

136 Trichodesmiun (Oscillatoria) erythraeum 

ZOOPLANKTON 



1 Abyla hakaeli 

2 Abylopsis eschscholtzi 

3 Acartia centula 

4 Acartia erythraea 

5 Acartia spinicauda 

6 Acetes indicus 

7 Acrocalanus gibbe 

8 Acrocalanus gracilis 

9 Aequorea macrodactyla 

10 Aequorea sp. 

11 Alciopa sp. 

12 Aulophaera sp. 

MEROPLANKTON 



1 Actinotrocha of Phoronids 

2 Alim of Stomatopods (various) 

3 Arachnactis larva of anthozoa 

4 Auricularia of Holothurouds 

5 Bipinnaria of Starfish 

6 

Copepodite of various taxa of Copepods 

(various development states 1-4) 

7 Cydippid larva of ctenophore 

8 Cypris of Acorn barnacle 

9 Echinopluteus of Echinoids 

10 Juvenile of Acetes 

11 Juvenile of Cryptonisidis 

12 Juvenile of Leptochela 

13 Lanice larva 

14 Larvae of Alciopids 

15 Larvae of alpheid caridean (various) 

16 Larvae of Anomuran (Pagurid) 

17 Larvae of Megalonids 

18 Larvae of Nereid (various) 

19 

Larvae of Palae monid caridean 

(various) 

20 Larvae of Processid caridean (various) 

21 Larvae of Savellarids 

22 Larvae of Spionids 

23 Larvae of Tuberellids 

122 123 

13 Aurellia sp. 

14 Beroe cucumis 

15 Beroe forskali 

16 Bolivina sp. 

17 Bougainvilea pyramidata 

18 Brachycelus sp. 

19 Calanopia elliptica 

20 Calanus sp. 

21 Callizona sp. 

22 Candacia bradyi 

23 Canthocalanus pouper 

24 Cavolinia longirostris 

25 Centropages furcatus 

26 Clytemnestra rostrata 

27 Clytemnestra scutellata 

28 Codonellopsis morchella 

29 Codonellopsis ostenfeldi 

30 Codonellopsis parva 

31 Conchoecia elegans 

32 Conchoecia sp. 

33 Corycaeus andrewsi 

34 Corycaeus catus 

35 Corycaeus latus 

36 Corycaeus sp.1 

37 Corycaeus sp.2 

38 Corycaeus speciosus 

39 Creseis acicula 

40 Cypridina noctiluca 

41 Dactylometra pacifica 

42 Diphyes appendiculata 

43 Diphyes chamisonis 

44 Diphyes dispar 

45 Disoma sp. 

46 Doliolum denticulatum 

47 Doliolum nationalis 

48 Dromosphoera sp. 

49 Eirene sp. 

50 Eucalanus crassus 

51 Eucalanus minachus 

52 Eucalanus subcrassus 

53 Euchaeta concinna 

54 Euphysa bigelowi 

55 Euterpona acutifrons 

56 Eutintinnus lusus-undae 

57 Evadne teroestina 

58 Fritillaria formica 

59 Fritillaria haplostoma 

60 Fritillaria pellucid 

61 Fritillaria venusta 

62 Gammaris sp. 

63 Gastrosaccus sp. 

64 Globigerina bulloides 

65 Globoquadrina sp. 

66 Heliocladus sp. 

67 Hyperia sp. 

68 Iasis zonaria (solitary forms) 

69 Krohnitta subtilis 

70 Labidocera acuta 

71 Labidocera bengaliensis 

72 Labidocera euchaeta 

73 Labidocera minuta 

74 Labidocera pectinata 

75 Laophonte sp. 

76 Lensia conoidea 

77 Lensia sp. 

78 Leprotintinnus nordqvisti 

79 Leucosolenia(spicules) sp. 

80 Liriope tetraphylla 

81 Lopadorhynchus sp. 

82 Lucicutia flavicornis 

83 Lucifer penicilifer 

84 Macrosetella gracilis 

85 Mastigias papua 

86 Metacalanus sp. 

87 Microsetella morvigeca 

88 Microsetella rosea 

89 Notholca sp. (Loricas) 

90 Obelia sp. 

91 Oikopleura cophocerca 

92 Oikopleura dioica 

93 Oikopleura longicauda 

94 Oithona brevicornis 

95 Oithona linearis 

96 Oithona nana 

97 Oithona plumefera 

98 Oithona rigesa 

99 Oithona similis 

100 Oncaea conifer 

101 Oncaea venusta 

102 Paracalanus aculetus 

103 Paracalanus crassirostris 

104 Paracalanus parvus 

105 Pegantha sp. 

106 Pegea confoederata 

107 Pelagia noctiluca 

108 Pelagobia longicirrata 

109 Penilia avirostris 

110 Phialidium discoid 

111 Phtisica marina 

112 Pleurobranchia pileus 

113 Pleurobranchia rhodopis 

114 Pontella andersoni 

115 Pontella danae 

116 Pontellopsis scotti 

117 Pseudodiaptomus aurivilli 

118 Pterosagitta draco 

119 Pyrocypris sp. 

120 Rhopilema asamushi 

121 Rhopilema esculenta 

122 Sagitta bedoti 

123 Sagitta crassa 

124 Sagitta enflata 


125 Sagitta hexaptera 

126 Sagitta neglecta 

127 Sagitta pulchra 

128 Sagitta terox 

129 

Salpa fusiformis 

(solitary and aggregate forms) 

130 Salpa maxima (solitary form) 

131 Saphirella sp. 

132 Sapphirina nigromaculata 

133 Stegosoma magnum 

134 Stomolophus sp 

135 Sulculeoria biloba 

136 Temora discaudata 

137 Temora turbinate 

138 Thalassomysis sewelli 

139 Thalia democratica (solitary form) 

140 Tintinnopsis aperta 

141 Tintinnopsis beroidea 

142 Tintinnopsis butschlii 

143 Tintinnopsis cylindrical 

144 Tintinnopsis gracilis 

145 Tintinnopsis mortenseni 

146 Tintinnopsis nana 

147 Tintinnopsis radix 

148 Tortanus forcipatus 

149 Undinula vulgaris 

150 Vorticella oceanica

24 Megalopa of brachyuran (various) 

25 Metanectochaete (late) larvae (various) 

26 Mitraria larvae 

27 Mysis of Penaeids (various) 

28 Nauplius of Acorn barnacle 

29 Nauplius of Calanoids (various) 

30 Nauplius of Cyclopoids (various) 

31 Nauplius of Goose barnacle 

32 Nauplius of Pontillids (various) 

33 Nectochaete larvae (various) 

34 Ophipluteus of Brittle Star 

35 Pilidium larvae 

36 Planktonic fish eggs 

37 Planktonic fish larvae 

38 Planula larva of hydrozoa 

39 Polydora larva 

40 Trochophora larvae (various) 

41 Veligers of gastropods (various) 

42 Viligers of bivalves (various) 

43 Young nematodes (unidentified) 

44 Zoea and juveniles of Lucifer 

45 Zoea of brachyuran (various) 

46 Zoea of Penaeids (various) 

47 Zoea of Porcellanids (various) 

SEAGRASS 


1 Cymodocea rotundata 

2 Cymodocea serrulata 

3 Syringodium isoetifolium 

4 Enhalus accoroides 

5 Halodule pinifolia 

6 Halodule uninervis 

7 Halophila baccarii 

8 Halophila minor 

9 Halophila ovalis 

10 Halophila decipiens 

11 Thalassia hemprichii 

SEAWEEDS 


Blue green algae (Phylum: Cyanophyta) 

1 Lyngbya sp. 

2 Oscillatoria sp. 

Green algae (Phyum: Chlorophyta) 

1 Anadyomene stellata 

2 Avrainvillea erecta 

3 Boergesenia forbesii 

4 Boodlea composita 

5 Caulerpa racemosa 

6 Caulerpa serrulata 

7 Caulerpa sertulariodes 

8 Caulerpa taxifolia 

9 Caulerpa verticillata 

10 Chaetomorpha gracilis 

11 Chaetomorpha sp1. 

12 Chaetomorpha sp2. 

13 Cladophora sp1. 

14 Cladophora sp2. 

15 Codium arabicum 

16 Codium edule 

17 Codium geppei 

18 Halimeda discoidea 

19 Halimeda macroloba 

20 Halimeda opuntia 

21 Rhizoclonium sp. 

22 Ulva intestinalis 

23 Ulva reticulata 

24 Ulva sp. 

Brown algae (Phylum: Phaeophyta) 

1 Dictyota bartayresiana 

2 Dictyota divaricata 

3 Lobophora variegata 

4 Padina minor 

5 Padina australis 

6 Padina sp. 

7 Sargassum stolonifolium 

8 Sargassum polycystum 

9 Turbinaria ornata 

Red algae (Phylum: Rhodophyta) 

1 Acanthophora spicifera 

2 Actinotrichia fragilis 

3 Amphiroa fragilissima 

4 Asterocystes ornate 

5 Bostrychia binderii 

6 Catenella nipae 

7 Centroceras clavulatum 

8 Ceramium sp1. 

9 Ceramium sp2. 

10 Dichotomaria marginata 

11 Dichotomaria obtusata 

12 Endosiphonia clavigera 

13 Galaxaura filamentosa 

14 Galaxaura rugosa 

15 Gelidiella acerosa 

16 Gelidium arenarium 

17 Gracilaria 

18 Gracilaria canaliculata 

19 Grateloupia durvillaei 

20 Grateloupia filicina 

21 Hydropuntia eucheumoides 

22 Hypnea pannosa 

23 Hypnea charoides 

24 Hypnea musciformis var. Hippuriodes 

25 Hypnea saidana 

26 Jania sp. 

27 Martensia fragilis 

28 Phyllophora sp. 

29 Plocamium cartilagineum 

30 Polysiphonia sp1. 

31 Polysiphonia subtilissima 

32 Portieria hornemanii 

33 Rhodymenia sp. 

34 Spondylothamnion sp. 

35 Tolypiocladia calodictyon 

36 Tolypiocladia glomerulata 

37 Vanvoorstia spectabilis 

38 Wrangelia hainanensis 

A. Bonetti 

SPECIES OF THE EVERGREEN FOREST & 

DUNE AND BEACH FOREST (in alphabetical order) 

N° Scientific Name Myanmar Name 

1 Abarema bigemina (L.) Kosterm. Hin-cho-gyi 

2 Actinodaphne sesquipetalis Me-daung 

3 Adenanthera pavonina L. Ywe-gyi 

4 Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. Taung-ma-gyi 

5 Albizia sp. Sit_myaw 

6 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Taung-mayo 

7 Anacardium occidentale L. Thiho-thayet 

8 Anisoptera curtisii Dyer Kaung-hmu 

9 Anthocephalus chinensis Rich Ma-U 

10 Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. Hmya-seik 

11 Aporusa frutescens Blume Liyo 

12 Aporusa villosula Kurz. Thit-khauk 

13 Aporusa wallichii Hook.f. Ka-dauk 

14 Aquilania agallocha Roxb. Akyaw 

15 Archidendron jiringa Jack Da-nyin 

16 Ardisia polycephala Wall. Kyet-ma-oke 

17 Artocarpus calophyllus Kurz Taung-bein 

18 Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb. Taung-peinne 

19 Baccaurea parviflora Muell. Arg. Kana-so 

20 Baccaurea sapida Muell. Arg. Sha-yu-tar 

21 Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng Ye-kyi 

22 Bischofia javanica Blume Ye-pa-don 

23 Bombax insigne Wall Taung-let-pan 

24 Bouea burmanica Griff. Ma-yan 

25 Bridelia sp. Not known 

26 Bruguiera conjugata (L.) Merr. Byu-u-talon 

27 Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lamk. Byu-oak-song 

28 Calophyllum amoenum Wall. Tha-ra-phi 

29 Calophylum inophyllum L. Pon-nyet 

30 Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Yap-pin 

31 Carallia sp. Ma-ni-awl-za 

32 Castanopsis argyrophylla King Thit-tat 

33 Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. Lae-tha-pin 

34 Celtis sp. Thit-pok-taing 

35 Cerbera manghas L. Ye-za-lat 

36 Cinnamomum iners Hman-thin 

37 Cinnamomum sp. (1) Taung-pa-yon 

38 Cinnamomum sp. (2) Kara-way-yaing 

39 Cinnamomum sp. (3) Kyam-bo 

40 Cinnamomum verum Pres Thit-kya-bo 

41 Citrus hystrix DC. Bya-thi 

42 Coccoceras plicatum Muell. Arg. Yaung-ban 

43 Crateva sp. Not known 

44 Croton robustus Kurz. Tha-yin-phyu 

45 Crptocarya griffithina Wight Ka-lak-thiang 

46 Crypteronia sp. Yon-bin 

47 Cynometra ramiflora L. Myin-ga 

48 Dalbergia rimosa Roxb. Not known 

49 Derris indica Burrel Than-that 

50 Dialium indum L. Taung-ka-ye 

51 Dillenia parviflora Griff. Zin-byun 

52 Dillenia sp. Thaung-thami-laung 


53 Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn) Gurte Bot-the 

54 Diospyros crumentata Thwaites Taung-bok 

55 Diospyros ehretioides Wall. Auk-chin-sa 

56 Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. Ka-nyin-phyu 

57 Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertm.f. Ka-nyin-ni 

58 Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre Ka-nyin 

59 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Blanco Kanyin 

60 Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teysm Ka-nyin 

61 Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. In 

62 Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gaertn.f. Ka-nyin 

63 Dolichandrone serrulata L.f. Tha-kut 

64 Dolichandrone sp. Ye-tha-kut 

65 Dracontomelon sp. Payar-koe-su-pin 

66 Duabanga grandiflora Walp. Myauk-ngo 

67 Elaeocarpus sp. Moo-ti-ya 

68 Engelhardtia spicata Blume Taung-min-sok 

69 Eriolaena sp. Taung-tha-yaw 

70 Erythrina stricta Roxb. Taung-kathit 

71 Exoecaria agallocha L. Ta-yaw 

72 Ficus glomerata Roxb. Taung-tha-phan 

73 Ficus hispida L. Kha-aung 

74 Ficus pisocarpa Nyaung 

75 Ficus sp.(1) Pa-aung 

76 Ficus sp.(2) Ye-tha-phan 

77 Ficus sp.(3) Ka-dut-pho 

78 Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R. Br. Gant-phyu 

79 Firmiana sp. Gan-ni 

80 Garcinia cowa Roxb. Taung-tha-le 

81 Garcinia heterandra Wall. Taung-min-gut 

82 Glycosmis cyanocarpa Spreng. Mat-paw 

83 Gmelina arborea Roxb. Ye-ma-nae 

84 Heritiera fomes Buch._ham. Ye-ka-na-zo 

85 Heritiera javanica (Blume) Kosterm. Kant-so 

86 Heritiera sp.(1) Taung-ka-naso-phyu 

87 Heritiera sp.(2) Taung-ka-naso-ani 

88 Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Pin-le-shaw 

89 Holigarna kurzii King Che-po 

90 Homalium griffithianum Kurz. Taung-ka-byaw 

91 Homalium tomentosun Benth. Myauk-chaw 

92 Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis Thingan-kyauk 

93 Hopea odorata Roxb. Thin-gan 

94 Hopea sangal Korth. Thingan-magale 

95 Hopea sp. Thinganwar 

96 Hypobathrum racemosum Kurz Pinle-kyetyo 

97 Lagerstroemia floribunda Jack Pyinma 

98 Lagerstroemia sp. Tha-beik-kyan 

99 Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Pyin-ma 

100 Lagerstroemia tomentosa Presl. Le-sa 

101 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Ye-kyaung-sha 

102 Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vabl) Radlk Myauk-nyo 

103 Limonia acidissima L. Thee-pin 

104 Linociera terniflora Wall. San-sae-pin 

105 Litsea grandis (Nees) Hook. F. Tha-ku-mae-nal 

106 Litsea lancifolia On-don 

107 Litsea sp. Taung-ta-gu 

108 Lophopetalum filiforme Laws. Yemane-ani 

124 125

109 Lophopetalum fimbriatum Wight Yemane-aphyu 

110 Lophopetalum sp. Yae-ma-nae-chauk 

111 Macaranga denticulata Muell. Arg. Not known 

112 Macaranga gigantea Phet-wun 

113 Maesa ramentacea A.DC. Nga-nwa 

114 Mallotus floribundus Muell. Arg. Taung-ka-do 

115 Mallotus oblongifolius Mull.Arg. Not known 

116 Mallotus sp. Not known 

117 Manglietia insignis (Wall.) Blume Taung-saga-wa 

118 Melanorrhoea glabra Wall. Thit-sae 

119 Memecylon grande Retz. Taung-phyu 

120 Mesua nervosa Planch.&Triana Gan-gaw 

121 Mesua sp. Gant-gwe-paung 

122 Michelia champaca L. Sa-ga-pin 

123 Millettia atropurpurea Dunn. Kywe-da-nyin 

124 Mitragyna rotundifoliaKuntze Bin-ga 

125 Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Nibase 

126 Myristica angustifolia Roxb. Kywe-thwe 

127 Myrsine sp. Min-ka-zaw 

128 Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw. Ka-la-zaung 

129 Ormosia watsonii Fisch Le-zin 

130 Palaquium obovatum (Griff.) Engl. Pinle-byin 

131 Parashorea stellata Kurz Lay-tha-yet 

132 Payena paralleloneura Kurz Zin-zwel 

133 Pemphis acidula Forst. Not-known 

134 Phoebe tavoyana Hook. F. Kye-se 

135 Podocarpus neriifolicus D.Don Thit-min 

136 Prismatomeris albidiflora Thwaites Kyet-yon 

137 Pterocarpus sp. Pa-dauk-pho 

138 Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. Taung-phet-wun 

139 Pterospermum jackiamun Nwa-ba-byin 

140 Pterygota alata (Roxb.) R.Br. Khok-thin-nya 

141 Quercus sp. Not known 

142 Rhizophora candelaria DC. Byu-chidauk-apo 

143 Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Byu-chidauk-ama 

144 Samadera lucida Wall Ka-the 

145 Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f) Merr. Thit-to 

146 Sapium baccatum Roxb. Aw-le 

147 Sapium insigne (Muell.Arg.) Trimen Taung-kala 

148 Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. Not known 

149 Semecarpus heterophyllus Blume Kyae-pin 

150 Senna timoriensis DC. Taw-me-za-li 

151 Shorea cinerea Fisher Ka-dut-ni 

152 Shorea farinosa Fischer U-ban 

153 Shorea gratissima Dyner U-ban-hput 

154 Shorea sp.(1) Not known 

155 Shorea sp.(2) Hput-ma-tet 

156 Shorea sp.(3) Ka-dut-phyu 

157 Spondias sp.(1) Taw-gwe 

158 Spondias sp.(2) Not known 

159 Sterculia foetida Linn. Let-khok 

160 Sterculia sp. Not known 

161 Sterculia urens Roxb. Shaw 

162 Strombosia javanica Blume Ban-na-tha 

163 Swintonia floribunda Griff. Taung-tha-yet 

164 Syzygium cymosum DC. Thabye-kyetter 

165 Syzygium formosum (Wall) Masam. Tha-bye-phyu 

166 Syzygium fruticosum Kyet-yoe_tha-bye 

167 Syzygium grande (ight) Walp. Thabye-ywet-gyi 

168 Syzygium gratum (Wight) SN. Mitra Thebye-pauk-pauk 

169 Syzygium inophyllum DC. Thabye-satche 

170 Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp. Mat-la-ga 

171 Syzygium sp.(1) Tha-bye 

172 Syzygium sp.(2) Thabyae-khun-bya 

173 Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC. Thabye-ni 

174 Tamarindus indica L. Ma-gyi 

175 Tarennoidea wallichii (Hook.f.) D. Khat-mya 

176 Terminalia catappa L. Ban-da 

177 Ternstroemia penangiana Choisy Let-put-thi-pin 

178 Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br. Thit-pok 

179 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Kywe-sa 

180 Tristania merguensis Griff. Mya-kamaung 

181 Unknown Not-known 

182 Unknown Not-known 

183 Unknown 1 Pin-sein 

184 Unknown 2 Man-bar 

185 Unknown 3 Pan-da-nyin 

186 Unknown 4 Sanwin-pok 

187 Vatica dyeri King Kanyin-Kyaung-che 

188 Vitex pubescens Vahl. Kyet-yo 

189 Wendlandia tinctoria DC. Thit-me 

190 Wendlandia glabrata DC. Thit-phyu 

191 Wendlandia sp.(1) Kywe-nan 

192 Wendlandia sp.(2) Sa-kit-pin 

193 Xerospermum noronhianum Blume Taung-kyetmauk 

194 Xylocarpus gangeticus C.E.Park. Pinle-on 

195 Ziziphus sp. Not known 

SPECIES OF THE MANGROVE FOREST 


N° Scientific Name Myanmar Name 

1 Acanthus illicifolius Kha-ya 

2 Acrostichum aureum Nyet-kyi-taung-gyi 

3 Acrostichum speciosum Nyet-kyi-taung-thay 

4 Aegialitis rotundifolia Sar-pin 

5 Aegialitis annulata 

6 Aegiceras corniculatum Yae-kha-ya 

7 Aegiceras iripa - 

8 Avicennia alba Tha-me-kyet-tet 

9 Avicennia marina Tha-me-phyu 

10 Avicennia officinalis Tha-me-gyi 

11 Barringtonia asiatica - 

12 Brownlowia tersa Yae-tha-man 

13 Bruguiera cylindrica Bue-khar-kyeik-leim 

14 Bruguiera gymnorhiza Byu-oak-sung 

15 Bruguiera parviflora Hni-phyu 

16 Bruguiera sexangula Byu-shwe-war 

17 Caesalpinia crista Alo-lay-new 

18 Calamus arborescens Da-non 

19 Calophyllum inophyllum Pon-nyet 

20 Calycopteris floribunda Kywet-new 

21 Cerbera manghas - 

22 Cerbera odollam - 

23 Ceriops decandra Ma-da-ma 

24 Ceriops targal Ma-da-ma-myaw 

25 Clerodendrum inerme Taw-kyaung-pan 

26 Cynometra iripa - 

27 Derris indica Thin-win-phyu 

28 Derris trifoliata New-net 

29 Diospyros embryopteris Tae 

30 Dolichandrone spathacea Yae-tha-kut 

31 Ecoecaria agallocha Tha-yaw 

32 Erythrina indica Pin-le-ka-thit 

33 Finlaysonia maritima Byauk-new 

34 Flagellaria indica Myauk-kyein 

35 Heritiera fomes Ye-ka-na-so 

36 Heritiera littoralis Kon-ka-na-so 

37 Hibscus tiliaceus Tha-man-shaw 

38 Intsia bijuge Sa-gar-lun 

39 Ipomoea pes-caprae Pin-le-kazun 

40 Lumnitzera littorea Eik-ma-thwe-ni 

41 Lumnitzera racemosa Eik-ma-thwe-phyu 

42 Merope angulata Taw-shauk 

43 Nypa fruticans Da-ni 

44 Oncoperma tigillarium Ka-zaung 

45 Pandanas foetidus Tha-baw 

46 Pandanas tectorius - 

47 Pemphis acidula - 

48 Phoemix paludosa - 

49 Premna obtusifolia Taw-taung-tan-gyi 

50 Rhizophora apiculata Byu-chae-dauk-pho 

51 Rhizophora mucronata Byu-chae-dauk-ma 

52 Sarcolobus carinatus Sut-kha-mon-new 

53 Scaevola taccada - 

54 Scyphiphora hydrophyllaceae - 

55 Sesuvium portulacastrum - 

56 Sonneratia alba La-mu-ka-thet 

57 Sonneratia griffithii La-ba 

58 Terminalia catappa Ban-da 

59 Thespesia populnea - 

60 Xylocarpus moluccensis 

61 Xylocarpus granatum Pin-le-ohn 

62 Xylocarpus rumphii - 

63 Morinda citrifolia - 

ECHINODERMS-HOLOTHUROIDEA 

(SEA CUCUMBERS) 

N° Species Name Scientific Name 

1 Stonefish Actinopyga lecanora 

2 Actinopyga sp. ** 

3 Bohadschia atra 

4 Bohadschia marmorata 

5 Chalkfish Morph tenuissima 

6 Morph vitiensis 

GASTROPODS (MOLLUSCS) 

N° Scientific Name Common Name 

1 Architectonica maxima (Philippi, 1849) Giant Sundial 

2 Babylonia areolata (Link, 1807) 

126 127 

Maculated Ivory 

Whelk 

3 Casis cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) Horned Helmet 

4 Rhinoclavis vertagus (Linnaeus, 1758) Common Vertagus 

5 Conus suratensis Hwass,1792 Suratan Cone 

6 Conus litteratus Linnaeus, 1758 Lettered Cone 

7 Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, 1758 Tiger Cowrie 

8 Cypraea vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 Pacific Deer Cowrie 

9 Cypraea talpa Linnaeus, 1758 Mole Cowrie 

10 Cypraea eglantine Duclos, 1833 Eglamtine Cowrie 

11 Cypraea mauritiana Linnaeus, 1758 Humpback Cowrie 

12 Pleuroplaea trapezium (Linnaeus, 1758) 


7 Morph cousteaui 

8 Lollyfish Holothuria atra 

9 Pinkfish Holothuria edulis 

10 Holothuria fuscocinerea 

11 Holothuria hilla 

12 Holothuria impatiens 

13 Holothuria leucospilota 

14 Holothuria moebii 

15 Sandfish Holothuria scabra 

16 Holothuria verrucosa 

17 Holothuria pardalis 

18 Holothuria sp. ** 



21 Holothuria sp. 

22 Flowerfish Pearsonothuria graeffei 

23 Greenfish Stichopus chloronotus ** 

24 Curryfish Stichopus hermanni 

25 Dragonfish Stichopus c.f. horrens sp. 1 

26 Stichopus c.f. horrens sp. 2 

27 Stichopus c.f. naso 

28 Stichopus vastus 

29 Opheodesma sp. 1 



32 Protankyra sp. 

33 Synaptula sp. 1 

34 Synaptula sp. 2 

35 Ohshimella ehrenbergii 

Rapizium Horse 

Conch 

13 Fusinus colus (Linnaeus,1758) Distaff Spidle

14 Ficus subintermedia (Orbigny,1852) Underlined Fig Shell 

15 Marginella ventricosa 

16 Ellobium aurismidae (Linnaeus, 1758) 

17 Pugilina cochlidium (Linnaeus,1758) Spiral Melongena 

18 Chicireus torrefactus (Sowerby, 1841) Firebrand Murex 

19 Chicoreus ramosus (Linnaeus,1758) Ramose Murex 

20 Murex ternispina Lamaeck, 1822 Black Spined Murex 

21 Thais alouina (Roding, 1798) Alou Rock Shell 

22 Nassarius dorsatus (Roding, 1798) Channeled Nassa 

23 Polinices mammilla (Linnaeus,1758) 

Pear Shaped Moon 

Snail 

24 Natica lineate (Roding, 1798) Lined Moon Anail 

25 Natica vitellus (Linnaeus,1758) Calf Moon Snail 

26 Nerita costata Gmelin, 1791 Costate Nerite 

27 Nerita polita Linnaeus, 1758 Polished Nerite 

28 Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758 Oxpalate Nerite 

29 Nerita chameleon Linnaeus, 1758 Chamelon Nerite 

30 Oliva miniacea (Roding, 1798) Redmouth Oliver 

31 Cellana rota (Gmelin, 1791) Rayed Limpet 

32 Cerithidea cingulata (Gmelin, 1791) Girdled Horn Shell 

33 Cymatium sp. Triton Shell 

34 Strombus canarium Linnaeus, 1758 Dog Conch 

35 Strombus luhuanus Linnaeus, 1758 Strawberry Conch 

36 Strombus variabilis Swainson, 1820 Variable Conch 

37 Strombus urceus Linnaeus, 1758 Little Pitcher Conch 

38 Lambis lambis (Linnaeus,1758) 

39 

Lambis chiragra chiragra 

(Linnaeus,1758) 

Common Spider 

Conch 

Chiragra Spider Conch 

40 Terebra areolata (Link, 1807) Fly Spotted Auger 

41 Tonna dolium (Linnaeus, 1758) Spotted Tun 

42 Tonna olearium (Linnaeus, 1758) Oily Tun 

43 Trochus niloticus Linnaeus, 1767 Commercial Top 

44 Tectus pyramis (Born, 1778) Pyramid Top 

45 Turbo argyrostomus Linnaeus, 1758 Silvermouth Turban 

46 Turbo marmoratus Linnaeus, 1758 Green Turban 

47 Turritella duplicate (Linnaeus, 1758) Duplicate Turret 

48 Turritella terebra (Linnaeus,1758) Screw Turret 

49 Melo melo (Lightfoot, 1786) Indian Volute 

50 Xenophora solaris (Linnaeus, 1764) 

BIVALVES (MOLLUSCS) 

Sunburust Carrier 

Shell 


1 

Scapharca inaequivalvis 

(Bruguiere,1789) 

Inequivalve Ark 

2 Arca ventricosa Lamarck,1819 Ventricose Ark 

3 Barbatia foliate (Firsskal,1775) Decussate Ark 

4 Scapharca indica (Gmelin,1791) Rudder Ark 

5 Fragum unedo (Linnaeus,1758) 

Pacific Strawberry 

Cockle 

6 Fragum fragum (Linnaeus,1758) 

White Strawberry 

Cockle 

7 

Trachycardium rugosum 

(Lamarck,1819) 

Pacific Yellow Cockle 

8 Fulvia papyraea (Bruguiere,1789) Paper Cockle 

9 

Polymesoda bangalensis 

(Larmarck,1818) 

Bengali Geloina 

10 Donax socortum (Linnaeus, 1758) Leather Donax 

11 Donax faba Gmelin, 1791 Pacific Bean Donax 

12 Hyotissa hyotis (Linnaeus, 1758) Honeycomb Oyster 

13 

Isognomon isognomum 

(Linnaeus, 1758) 

Wader Tree Oyster 

14 Anondontia edentula (Linnaeus, 1758) Toothless Lucine 

15 Mactra sp. Trough Shell 

16 Malleus malleus (Linnaeus, 1758) Black Hummer Oyster 

17 Malleus regula (Fosskal, 1775) 

Straight Hummer 

Oyster 

18 Malleus albus (Lamarck,1819) White Hammer Oyster 

19 Septifer bilocularis (Linnaeus, 1758) Box Mussel 

20 Modiolus aratus (Dunker,1857) 

Furrowed Horse 

Mussel 

21 Modiolus metcafei (Hanley,1843) 

Yellow Banded Horse 

Mussel 

22 Minnivola pyxidata (Born, 1778) Box Scallop 

23 Gloripallium pallium (Linnaeus, 1758) Royal Cloak Scallop 

24 Atlrina vexillum (Born,1778) Flag Pen Shell 

25 Placuna ephippium (Philipsson,1788) Saddle Oyster 

26 Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus,1758) Blacklip Pearl Oyster 

27 Pinctada maculate (Gould, 1850) Spotted Pearl Oyster 

28 Solen grandis Dunker, 1861 Grand Razer Shell 

29 Solen roseomaculatus Pilsbry, 1901 Spotted Razer Shell 

30 Siliqua radiate Radar Clam 

31 Spondylus barbatus Reeve, 1856 

Bearded Thorny 

Oyster 

32 Spondylus sp.1 Thorny Oyster 

33 Spondylus sp.2 Thorny Oyster 

34 Tridacna crocea Lamarck, 1819 Crocus Giant Clam 

35 Paphia textile (Gmelin,1791) Textile Venus 

36 Placamen tiara (Dillwyn, 1817) Tiar Venus 

37 Katelysia hiantina (Lamarck, 1818) Hiant Venus 

38 Paphia sp.1 Venus 

39 Periglypta puerpera (Linnaeus, 1771) Youthful Venus 

40 Cyclina sinensis (Gmelin, 1791) Oriential Cyclina 

41 Sunetta menstruali (Menke, 1843) Mauve Sunetta 

CRAB (CRUSTACEAN) 


1 Dorippe astuta 

2 Philyra pisum 

3 Matuta lunaris 

4 Matuta planipes 

5 Matuta cuetispina 

6 Calappi japonica 

7 Calappi lophos 

8 Doclea andersoni 

9 Dromia dehaani 

10 Scylla serrata 

11 Potunus pelagicus 

12 Potunus sanguinolentus 

13 Charybdids cruciata 

14 Charybdids annulata 

15 Charybdids merguiensis Mangrove crab 

16 Charybdids rivers-andersoni 

17 Charybdids callianassa 

18 Thalamita prymna 

19 Leptodicus exaratus 

20 Etisus laevimanus 

21 Etisus rhynchophorus 

22 Pilumnus vespertilio 

23 Geocarcinus logostoma 

24 Ocypoda routandus 

25 Ocypoda stimpsons 

26 Gelasimus annulipes Venigar crab 

27 Gelasimus tetragonun Venigar crab 

28 Macrophthalamus depressus Venigar crab 

29 Scopimera globosa Mangrove crab 

30 Dottila myctiroides 

31 Grapsus strigosus Mangrove crab 

32 Pseudograpsus intermedius Mangrove crab 

33 Clistocoeloma Mangrove crab 

34 Varuna littreta Hairy crab 

35 Sesarma quadratum Paddler crab 

36 Sesarma biden - 

37 Sesarma singaporensis 

38 Sesarma andersoni 

39 Sesarma picta 

40 Sesarma intermedia 

41 Sesarma minutum 

42 Raninia ranina 

FISH (in alphabetical order) 

N° Scientific Name 

1 Albula neoguinaica 

2 Alepes djeddaba 

3 Ambassis interruptus 

4 Ambassis vachelli 

5 Atherinomorus endrachtensis 

6 Atherinomorus ogilbyi 

128 129 

7 Blenny 

8 Carangoides chrysophrys 

9 Carangoides ferdau 

10 Epinephelus areolatus 

11 Epinephelus sp. 

12 Gerres abbreviatus 

13 Gerres oyena 

14 Gerres filamentosus 

15 Half beak larvae (Hemirhamphus sp.) 

16 Hemirhamphus far 

17 Hyporhamphus offinis 

18 Ilisha melastoma 

19 Leiognathus equulus 

20 Liza tade 

21 Liza vaigiensis 

22 Megalaspis cordyla 

23 Megalops cyprinoids 

24 Opisthopterus tardoore 

25 Opisthopterus valenciennesi 

26 Oryzias sp. 

27 Pentaprion longimanus 

28 Periophthalmus koelreuteri 

29 Platybelone platyura 

30 Pomadasys olivaceun 

31 Rastrelliger karnagurta 

32 Rhoniscus sp. 

33 Saurida micropectoralis 

34 Scomberoides tol 

35 Selar crumenophthalmus 

36 Selaroides leptolepis 

37 Siganus canaliculatus 

38 Siganus lineatus 

39 Sillago sihama 

40 Tetraodon sp. 

41 Therapon jarbua 

42 Tylosurus gavialoides 

AMPHIBIAN 


Common 

Name 

Note 

1 Bufo melanostictus Common Toad 

2 Leptolalax heteropus 

Variable Slender 

Frog 

3 Ingerana tenasserimensis Tanintharyi Frog 

4 Limnonectes blythii 

Blyth's Giant 

Frog 

5 Limnonectes doriae Frog 

6 Limnonectes hascheanus Frog 

7 Limnonectes macrognathus Big-headed Frog 

8 Occidozyga spp. Floating Frog 

Possible new 

species

9 Polypedates leucomystax 

REPTILE 


1 Caretta caretta Loggerhead Turtle 

2 Chelonia mydas Green Turtle 

3 Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley Turtle 

4 Indotestudo elongata Yellow Tortoise 

5 Calotes emma Forest Creasted Lizard 

6 Draco blanfordii Flying Dragon 

7 Cyrtodactylus oldhami Slender Toe Gecko 

8 Gekko gecko Tocky 

9 Hemidactylus spp. House Gecko 

10 Dasia olivacea Olive Tree Skink 

11 Eutropis multifasciata Common Sun Skink 

12 Sphenomorphus maculatus Streamside Skink 

13 Tropidophorus spp. Water Skink 

14 Varanus salvator Water Monitor Lizard 

15 Python reticulatus Reticulated Python 

16 Ahaetulla prasina Oriental Whip Snake 

17 Boiga cyanea Green Cat Snake 

18 Dendrelaphis spp. Bronzebacks Snake 

19 Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus Mangrove Pit-viper 

BIRD 


Common Tree 

Frog 

10 Ichthyophis spp. Caecilians 

Possible new 

species 

Common 

Name 

1 Rollulus rouloul Crested Partridge 

2 Caloperdix oculea Ferruginous Partridge 

3 Dinopium javanense Common Flameback 

4 Chrysocolaptes lucidus Greater Flameback 

5 Hemicircus canente 

Heart-spotted 

Woodpecker 

6 Mulleripicus pulverulentus 

Great Slaty 

Woodpecker 

7 Megalaima haemacephala Coppersmith Barbet 

8 Megalaima australis Blue-eared Barbet 

9 Megalaima asiatica Blue-throated Barbet 

10 Megalaima mystacophanos Red-throated Barbet 

11 Buceros bicornis Great Hornbill 

12 Anthracoceros albirostris Oriental Pied Hornbill 

13 Anorrhinus galeritus 

Bushy-crested 

Hornbill 

14 Aceros subruficollis 

Plain-pouched 

Hornbill 

15 Harpactes oreskios 

Orange-breasted 

Trogon 

16 Eurystomus orientalis Dollarbird 

17 Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher 

18 Ceyx rufidorsa 

Rufous-backed 

Kingfisher 

19 Halcyon amauroptera 

Brown-winged 

Kingfisher 

20 Halcyon capensis 

Stork-billed 

Kingfisher 

21 Halcyon smyrnensis 

White-throated 

Kingfisher 

22 Halcyon pileata 

Black-capped 

Kingfisher 

23 Halcyon coromanda Ruddy Kingfisher 

24 Todiramphus chloris Collared Kingfisher 

25 Merops leschenaulti 

Chestnut-eeaded 

Bee-eater 

26 Cacomantis sepulcralis 

Rusty-breasted 

Cuckoo 

27 Hiercoccyx fugax 

Malaysian Hawk 

Cuckoo 

28 Eudynamys scolopacea Asian Koel 

29 Phaenicophaeus diardi Black-bellied Malkoha 

30 Phaenicophaeus tristis Green-billed Malkoha 

31 Phaenicophaeus sumatranus 

Chestnut-bellied 

Malkoha 

32 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal 

33 Loriculus vernalis Vernal Hanging Parrot 

34 Loriculus galgulus 

Blue-crowned 

Hanging Parrot 

35 Collocalia esculenta Glossy Swiftlet 

36 Collocalia maxima Black-nest Swiftlet 

37 Collocalia fuciphaga Edible Nest Swiftlet 

38 Collocallia germane Germain Swiftlet 

39 Hirundapus giganteus 

Brown-backed 

Needletail 

40 Rhaphidura leucopygialis 

Silver-rumped 

Needletail 

41 Apus affinis House Swift 

42 Hemiprocne longipennis 

Grey-rumped 

Treeswift 

43 Hemiprocne comate Whiskered Treeswift 

44 Otus sunia Oriental Scops Owl 

45 Otus bakkamoena Collared Scops Owl 

46 Bubo sumatranus Barred Eagle Owl 

47 Glaucidium cuculoides Asian Barred Owlet 

48 Glaucidium brodiei Collared Owlet 

49 Ninox scutulata Brown Hawk Owl 

50 Tyto alba Barn Owl 

51 Strix leptogrammica Brown Wood Owl 

52 Caprimulgus macrurus Large-tailed Nightjar 

53 Eurostopodus macrotis Great Eared Nightjar 

54 Columba livia Rock Pigeon 

55 Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove 

56 Chalcophaps indica Emerald Dove 

57 Caloenas nicobarica Nicobar Pigeon 

58 Treron vernans 

Pink-necked Green 

Pigeon 

59 Treron bicincta 

Orange-breasted 

Green Pigeon 

60 Treron pompadora 

Pompadour Green 

Pigeon 

61 Treron curvirostra 

Thick-billed Green 

Pigeon 

62 Treron fulvicollis 

Cinnamon-Headed 

Green Pigeon 

63 Ducula bicolar Pied Imperial Pigeon 

64 Ducula aenea 

Green Imperial 

Pigeon 

65 Ducula badia 

Mountain Imperial 

Pigeon 

66 Rallina spp Crake 

67 Lymnocryptes minimus Jack Snipe 

68 Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit 

69 Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit 

70 Numenius minutus Little Curlew 

71 Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel 

72 Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew 

73 Tringa totanus Common Redshank 

74 Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank 

75 Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper 

76 Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper 

77 Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone 

78 Esacus recurvirostris Great Thick-knee 

79 Esacus neglectus Beach Thick-knee 

80 Charadrius peronii Malaysian Plover 

81 Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover 

82 Charadrius leschenaultii Greater Sand Plover 

83 Gelocbelidon nilotica Gull-billed Tern 

84 Sterna anaethetus Bridled Tern 

85 Sterna aurantia River Tern 

86 Sterna bengalensis Lesser Crested Tern 

87 Sterna bergii Great Creasted Tern 

88 Sterna hirundo Common Tern 

89 Sterna albifrons Little Tern 

90 Sterna dougallii Roseate Tern 

91 Sterna sumatrana Black-naped Tern 

92 Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern 

93 Chlidonias leucopterus White-winged Tern 

94 Pandion haliaetus Osprey 

95 Pernis ptilorhyncus 

Oriental Honey 

Buzzard 

96 Milvus migrans Black Kite 

97 Aviceda jerdoni Jerdon’s Baza 

98 Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite 

99 Haliaeetus leucogaster 

White-bellied Sea 

Eagle 

100 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus 

Grey-headed Fish 

Eagle 

101 Accipiter trivirgatus Crested Goshawk 

102 Accipiter badius Shikra 

103 Accipiter Soloensis 

Chinese 

Sparrowhawk 

104 Accipiter gularis 

Japanese 

Sparrowhawk 

105 Accipiter virgatus Besra 

106 Butastur teesa White-eyed Buzzard 

107 Butastur indicus Grey-faced Buzzard 

108 Buteo buteo Common Buzzard 

109 Spizaetus cirrhatus 

Changeable Hawk 

Eagle 

110 Spizaetus nanus Wallace's Hawk Eagle 

111 Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle 

112 Hieraaetus pennatus Booted Eagle 

113 Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel 


114 Falco Peregrinus Peregrine Falcon 

115 Egretta sacra Pacific Reef Egret 

116 Ardea sumatrana Great-billed Heron 

117 Ardea cinerea Grey Heron 

118 Casmerodius albus Great Egret 

119 Mesophoyx intermedia Intermediate Egret 

120 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret 

121 Ardeola spp Pond Heron 

122 Butorides striatus Little Heron 

123 Gorsa chius melano lophus Malayan Night Haron 

124 Nycticorax nycticorax 

Black-crowned Night 

Heron 

125 Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bittern 

126 Calyptomena viridis Green Broadbill 

127 Pitta cyanea Blue Pitta 

128 Pitta sordid Hooded Pitta 

129 Pitta megarhyncha Mangrove Pitta 

130 Irena puella Asian Fairy Bluebird 

131 Chloropsis sonnerati 

Greater Green 

Leafbird 

132 Chloropsis cyanopogon Lesser Green Leafbird 

133 Lanius cristatussuperciliosus Brown Shrike 

134 Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike 

135 Corvus macrorhynchos Large-Billed Crow 

136 Platysmurus leucopterus Black Magpie 

137 Cissa chinensis 

Common Green 

Magpie 

138 Oriolus chinensis Black-naped Oriole 

139 Pericrocotus cantonensis Swinhoe's Minivet 

140 Pericrocotus divaricatus Ashy Minivet 

141 Pericrocotus igneus Fiery Minivet 

142 Pericrocotus flammeus Scarlet Minivet 

143 Rhipidura albicollis 

White-throated 

Fantail 

144 Rhipidura javanica Pied Fantail 

145 Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo 

146 Dicrurus leucophaeus Ashy Drongo 

147 Dicrurus remifer 

Lesser Racket-tailed 

Drongo 

148 Dicrurus paradiseus 

Greater Racket-tailed 

Drongo 

149 Pachycephala grisola Mangrove Whistler 

150 Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch 

151 Terpsiphone paradisi 

Asian Paradise 

Flycatcher 

152 Philentoma pyrhopterum 

Rufous-winged 

Philentoma 

153 Aegithina tiphia Common Iora 

154 Aegithina viridissima Green Iora 

155 Tephrodornis gularis Large Woodshrike 

156 Monticola solitarius Blue Rock Thrush 

157 Zoothera citrina 

Orange-headed 

Thrush 

158 Rhinomyias umbratilis 

Grey-chested Jungle 

Flycatcher 

159 Muscicapa sibirica Dark-sided Flycatcher 

160 Muscicapa dauurica 

Asian Brown 

Flycatcher 

130 131

161 Ficedula parva 

Red-throated 

Flycatcher 

162 Copsychus saularis 

Oriental Magpie 

Robin 

163 Copsychus malabaricus White-rumped Shama 

164 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna 

165 Gracula religiosa Hill Myna 

166 Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna 

167 Riparia paludicola Plain Martin 

168 Riparia riparia Sand Martin 

169 Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow 

170 Hirundo daurica Red-rumped Swallow 

171 Delichon dasypus Asian House Martin 

172 Hirundo tahitica Pacific Swallow 

173 Pycnonotus atriceps Black-headed Bulbul 

174 Pycnonotus finlaysoni 

Stripe-throated 

Bulbul 

175 Pycnonotus goiavier Yellow-vented Bulbul 

176 Pycnonotus brunneus Red-eyed Bulbul 

177 Pycnonotus plumosus Olive-winged Bulbul 

178 Alophoixus pallidus Puff-throated Bulbul 

179 Alophoixus ochraceus Ochraceous Bulbul 

180 Alophoixus bres Grey-cheeked Bulbul 

181 Iole virescens Olive Bulbul 

182 Iole propinqua Grey-Eyed Bulbul 

183 Prinia hodgsonii Grey-breasted Prinia 

184 Zosterops palpebrosus Oriental White-eye 

185 Zosterops everetti Everett’s White-eye 

186 Gerygone sulphurea 

Golden-bellied 

Gerygone 

187 Acrocephalus aedon Thick-billed Warbler 

188 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird 

189 Orthotomus atrogularis 

Dark-necked 

Tailorbird 

190 Orthotomus sericeus 

Rufous-tailed 

Tailorbird 

191 Phylloscopus fuscatus Dusky Warbler 

192 Phylloscopus inornatus 

Yellow-browed 

Warbler 

193 Phylloscopus borealis Arctic Warbler 

194 Phylloscopus trochiloides Greenish Warbler 

195 Phylloscopus magnirostris 

Large-billed Leaf 

Warbler 

196 Phylloscopus tenellipes Pale-legged Warbler 

197 Phylloscopus coronatus 

Eastern Crowned 

Warbler 

198 Garrulax pectoralis 

Greater Necklaced 

Laughingthrush 

199 Malacocincla abbotti Abbott's Babbler 

200 Pellorneum tickelli Buff-breasted Babbler 

201 Pellorneum ruficeps Puff-throated Babbler 

202 Macronous gularis Striped Tit Babbler 

203 Alcippe poioicephala 

Brown-cheeked 

Fulvetta 

204 Malacocincla malaccensis Short-tailed Babbler 

205 Pellorneum capistratum Black-capped Babbler 

206 Trichastoma bicolor Ferruginous Babbler 

207 Malacopteron magnirostre Moustached Babbler 

208 Malacopteron magnum 

Rufous-crowned 

Babbler 

209 Stachyris erythroptera 

Chest-nut Winged 

Babbler 

210 Erpornis zantholeuca 

White-bellied 

Erpornis 

211 Dicaeum agile 

Thick-billed 

Flowerpecker 

212 Dicaeum trigonostigma 

Orange-bellied 

Flowerpecker 

213 Dicaeum concolor Plain Flowerpecker 

214 Dicaeum cruentatum 

Scarlet-backed 

Flowerpecker 

215 Anthreptes simplex Plain Sunbird 

216 Anthreptes malacensis 

Brown-throated 

Sunbird 

217 Anthreptes rhodolaema Red-throated Sunbird 

218 Nectarinia sperata 

Purple-throated 

Sunbird 

219 Nectarinia calcostetha 

Copper-throated 

Sunbird 

220 Nectarinia asiatica Purple Sunbird 

221 Nectarinia jugularis Olive-backed Sunbird 

222 Aethopyga saturata 

Black-throated 

Sunbird 

223 Aethopyga siparaja Crimson Sunbird 

224 Arachnothera longirostra Little Spiderhunter 

225 Dendronanthus indicus Forest Wagtail 

226 Motacilla citreola Citrine Wagtail 

227 Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail 

228 Motacilla cinerea Grey Wagtail 

MAMMAL 


1 Elephas maximus Asian Elephant 

2 Dugong dugon Dugong 

3 Ratufa bicolor Black Giant Squirrel 

4 Callosciurus erythraeus Pallas's Squirrel 

5 Galeopterus variegatus Sunda Colugo 

6 Macaca fascicularis 

Long-Tailed Macacque (Crab 

Eating Monkey) 

7 Macaca nemestrina Southern Pig-Tailed Macaque 

8 Trachypithecus obscurus Dusky Langur 

9 Tragulus kanchil Lesser Mouse-Deer 

10 Sus scrofa Eurasian Wild Pig 

11 Tursiops aduncus Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin 

12 Aonyx cinerea Oriental Small Clawed-Otter 

13 Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Common Palm Civet 

14 Arctogalidia trivirgata 

Small-Toothed Palm Civet 

(Three Stripe Palm Civet) 

15 Pteropus hypomelanus Island Flying Fox 

16 Cynopterus sphinx Greater Short-Nosed Fruit Bat 

17 Megaderma lyra Greater False Vampire 

18 Taphozous longimanus Long-Winged Tomb Bat 

19 Manis javanica Sunda Pangolin 

In-depth Study of Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve 

132 133 

4 

F. Bianchi 

Introduction 

The Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve has been selected for in-depth study because of 

its vulnerability to the loss of biodiversity due to human pressure in the area. The threats are several: 

logging for timber, fuel wood or poles; forest encroachment for cultivation (both permanent and 

shifting); trade-driven hunting of endangered species. BANCA has already worked in the area alongside 

the Rakhine Coastal Conservation Association (RCCA), among the most important and diffused CBOs 

operating in southern Rakhine State, in projects about environmental awareness, community forestry 

and biodiversity assessment. RCCA itself has expressed its interest in the result of a research involving 

the Rakhine Yoma region; therefore, after a joint consultation, the following objectives for this in-depth 

study have been decided: 

1) to prepare a land cover map of the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve and of the 

surrounding areas; 

2) to conduct a study of the vegetation changes which have occurred in the last decades; 

3) to draw up management-relevant recommendations 

Land Cover maps usually represent the different vegetation types covering a portion of the Earth’s 

surface. Due to the lack of existing reliable maps of the study area, it has been decided to use the 

knowledge of both BANCA and RCCA experts, alongside the photointerpretation of remotely sensed 

data, such as from Landsat Satellite. BANCA and RCCA experts successfully contributed to the field 

survey and actively participated to the map legend formulation. Images acquired from the space are a 

powerful tool to discriminate the different vegetation types present on the Earth’s surface, and, given 

the possibility to analyse data coming from different years, to study the vegetation change dynamics. 

The outputs of this project will provide RCCA with a valuable tool for planning future conservation 

activities and addressing current threats, identifying the most vulnerable areas in the Rakhine Yoma. 

Although some land cover maps derived from satellite imageries exist for this area, none of these maps 

has a fine spatial resolution and an appropriate legend derived from a field survey. The study has also 

been extended to the surroundings of the PA to better understand the situation in the more inhabited 

regions, and because it is not possible to separate the environment of the Rakhine Yoma from the close 

coastal and valley regions situated around it. The Department of Environmental Sciences, Remote 

Sensing Lab., University of Milano – Bicocca (Italy), has been directly involved in the process.

Geography 

The Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range Wildlife Reserve (WR) is located in the southern portion of the 

Rakhine State, in the Thandwe District, inside the homonymous mountain range. The central area of 

the Yoma consists of a series of ridges running more or less from north to south, although the main 

drainage lines cut across them from east to west. The streams are in steep valleys with many waterfalls. 

The geology is dominated by Cretaceous Flysch-type sediments and limestones. The main lithologies 

found are sandstone, shales and limestone, where the soils are principally of the red brown forest type. 

The steep slopes and the friable soils result in frequent landslides. The area experiences a monsoonal 

climate typical of that found throughout Southern Myanmar. Rainfall occurs only between May and 

September, with an annual rainfall on the coast of more than 4000 mm (source: World Meteorological 

Organization and FAOCLIM database), decreasing towards the mainland to the east. The humidity is 

highly intercepted by the mountains, and in the valley of the Ayeyawaddy annual rainfall drops to 

around 1000 mm. Temperatures are usually between 20° C in January and less than 30° C during April/ 

May. The leafless season for the deciduous species starts in December and ends at the beginning of the 

rainy season in May. The protected area was established in 2002 and is more than 1,700 Km². large. The 

main key protected resources are wildlife species, among the most important is a population of wild 

Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus): according to the Park staff, currently there are around 150 living in the 

area. The topography of the protected 

area is mountainous, ranging from 

80 meters asl. in the valleys of the 

southern region, to more than 1,200 

meters asl in the northern heights. 

Several streams and rivers dissect the 

area and are all part of the western 

catchment (e.g. Kyeintali river), flowing 

westwards to the sea which is located 

only around 15 km from the border 

of the PA. Moving towards the east 

side, outside the protected area, the 

elevation decreases as well, eventually 

reaching the large alluvial valley of the 

Ayeyawaddy river.The main vegetation 

types occurring inside the mountain 

range and in the protected area are 

the evergreen forest and the bamboo 

brakes. Going towards the sea there 

are many deciduous species mixing 

with the evergreen, and occasional 

mangrove forests or agricultural areas 

on the coast and in the narrow valleys. 

The pattern of vegetation types is 

determined by rainfall, altitude and 

exposure, therefore an interesting 

natural mosaic of different habitats was 

observed also in previous surveys (FAO 

1983a). On the east side dry deciduous 

species became quickly dominant, 

and eventually the agricultural areas 

prevail close the Ayeyawaddy River: 

the pattern of the vegetation seems to 

Location of Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range WR 

be more homogenous. 


4.1 Data and methods 

The study was conducted following subsequent steps. In this context, a simple overview of the 

methodology used is given; for more information it is possible to contact the authors. 

Step 1. Data harmonisation and collection 

The first step was to carry out consultation meetings with Forestry experts from BANCA and 

Environmental experts from RCCA to review the baseline knowledge about the vegetation of the study 

area. At the same time, a GIS database was set up using, as a basis, topographic maps, Landsat satellite 

images and Digital Elevation Models, alongside many shapefiles coming from the Myanmar Information 

Management Unit (MIMU), the mapping facility of United Nations operating in Yangon. Combining all 

the information, a preliminary land cover classification of years 2000-2003 was carried out. The most 

evident land cover classes were drawn in a map, such as mangrove forests, bamboo brakes, evergreen 

forests, mixed deciduous forest and agricultural areas. With the same approach, a satellite image dating 

from 1974 was analyzed using as a primary source of information the knowledge of the past situation of 

the RCCA expert, eventually producing another draft vegetation map. 

Vegetation maps from international organizations, such as the JRC GLC2000 Project, UNEP 2001 Land Use/ 

Land Cover, and ESA Ionia GlobCover, have been retrieved and their accuracy analysed. Unfortunately 

their spatial accuracy is very low compared to the needs of the present ²project, and some errors were 

found in such maps mainly due to the lack of a ground survey. For example, the UNEP 2001 land cover 

map erroneously classified some areas as covered by coniferous forest that are in fact absent in the study 

area. Therefore it has been chosen not to use them. Data used in this study are summarised in Table 1. 

Table 16 GIS data used 

LIST OF GIS DATA USED: 

Digital Elevation Models: 

Aster GDEM (a product of METI and NASA), 30 m of resolution 

Landsat Satellite Images (USGS – NASA): 

1) Landsat 7 ETM+, p133r048, Date: 03.03.2000 



4) Landsat 1 TM, p143r048, Date: 11.02.1974 

Topographic Maps: 

Indian Grid IVB, Sheets 85J-85K-85L, Half-Inch to One Mile 

Climate: 

FAOCLIM database 

Shapefiles: 

Administrative boundaries, Road network, Hydrology 

(all from Myanmar Information Management Unit) 

Step 2. Ground truth campaign 

Subsequently, a field trip of five days (from 22nd to 26th March 2010) was organized to collect ground 

truth data, in order to refine the preliminary classification and define a complete legend of the vegetation 

types occurring in the area. The map below indicates the route followed by the field team, comprising: a 

remote Sensing researcher from the University of Milano - Bicocca, a GIS expert from the Istituto Oikos, 

a forestry expert from BANCA, an environmental expert from RCCA. 

134 135

During all the stops the following data was collected: 

• vegetation type; 

• dominant tree species; 

• qualitative assessment of the vegetation status; 

• observations on morphology, soil and lithology; 

• panoramic views of the inaccessible areas; 

• observation of the possible vegetation changes in place. 

For the last item the local knowledge of the RCCA expert and of all the local inhabitants interviewed 

was crucial. 

Topography of the Rakhine Yoma 

and Ground Survey trip route 

(March 2010) 

The main constraint of the trip 

was the lack of roads accessible 

by vehicles: the team could 

not enter inside the protected 

area itself. Paths permitted 

walking access only to the park 

border and, in future, it will be 

useful to plan a walking tour 

of a few days within the Park, 

identifying some strategic 

environmental points/areas. 

However, all the different 

regions have been crossed 

and four main transects have 

been carried out to cover all 

the possible situations: one 

East-West transect in the 

southern mountain range; one South-North in the coastal area; another one West-East in the northern 

range; and finally one in the inland valley region. Although the ground-truth of the land cover were 

collected far away from the PA, satellite multispectral data allowed to derive transfer keys based on 

multispectral signatures, colour and spatial patterns typical of each land cover and hence to extrapolate 

the information at regional level. 

Land cover map of Rakhine area 1974 (left) and 2000-2003 (right) 


Step 3. Land cover maps 

After organizing all the data collected, 10 land cover classes were defined as indicated in the legend 

below.It was possible to identify the same land cover classes in all the satellite maps utilised for the 

analysis, with the exception for the 1974 map which do not include category 9 “Plantation and degraded 

dry deciduous land”, that was not yet present in the past. 

By means of visual interpretation of satellite images and using the previously described legend the 

Land Cover map of years 2000-2003 and the Land Cover map of 1974 were drawn up. 

In spite of the technical differences in the maps of different years that make difficult an accurate 

comparison, the land cover maps from 1974 and 2000-2003 have been overlapped and a spatial analysis 

has been carried out to underline the areas where changes have occurred. Small changes, less than 1 

hectare, have been excluded because are caused probably only by an imperfect overlapping of the 

maps caused by the technical differences of the dataset of satellite images used. 

136 137

Step 4. Change detection analysis 

In order to detect and to evaluate the land cover changes (decreasing and recovering process over time) 

the multi-temporal Landsat MSS and ETM+ images, acquired respectively on 23 November 1978 and 17 

November 2001 at full vegetation cover in the cool season, were initially pre-processed and adopted for 

a NDVI (Normalised Difference Vegetation Index) Image Differencing algorithm for change detection. 

Changes were classified into 5 categories such as “increase”, “moderate increase”, “no-change”, “moderate 

decrease” and “decrease” of NDVI change. A final map illustrating the types of change found in the study 

area was produced. 

Land cover change in Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range WR 


4.2 Results 

Description of land cover classes 

A brief description of each land cover classes is presented, including mention of the causes of 

degradation. 


This class can be commonly encountered around the coastal area, principally along the estuaries. Main 

species are trees such as Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora spp. Largely diffused by human activities is 

the palm Nipa fruticans, used for its fibres. Even if their extension is limited as total surface (only 2% of 

the study area), mangrove forests cover a big portion of the seaside. The importance of this ecosystem 

for the coastal region is very high in terms of biodiversity, coastal stabilisation, primary production 

and provision of nursery habitat for marine fish. The main threats to this habitat are the permanent 

conversion to agriculture or fish nurseries, and the degradation due to over-collection of fuel wood and 

poles. 

Western Coastal and Valley Agricultural Areas 

This class comprises three different kinds of vegetation: the large agricultural fields situated on the 

coastal region; the small farms in the narrow valleys of the eastern side of the Rakhine Yoma; the seminatural 

dune and beach forests, often substituted with artificial plantation of palm species (such as 

coconut). The main crops are: dry paddy rice; different kinds of nuts and beans; chilli; tobacco. The 

surface of this class is around the 4% of the total. 

Western Mixed Deciduous Forest 

This forest type is encountered in the lowest western slopes of the Rakhine Yoma, where the evergreen 

species are reduced in abundance and mostly only deciduous trees are present: Xylia dolabriformis 

(Pyinkado or Iron Wood), Lannea grandis (Nabe), and Lagerstromea speciosa (Pyinma). Due to their close 

location to the most inhabited areas of the coastal region, this class is highly threatened by human 

pressure for timber, fuelwood and housing material. Moreover, as a result of traditional practices of weed 

and vermin control in the bordering agricultural areas, these forests are usually disturbed by fires. As a 

result, generally the fertility of this class seems to be severely degraded. Some artificial plantations have 

been found of Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber tree), Tectona grandis (Kyun or Teak), and Xylia dolabriformis, 

established mostly more than 10 years ago. The surface of this class is limited, covering only around the 

3% of the study area. 

Closed Semi-Evergreen Forest 

An intermediate step between the lowland mixed deciduous woodland and the evergreen forest present 

at the higher altitude, in this class deciduous and evergreen species are intimately mixed together. The 

most common species are Xylia dolabriformis and Dipterocarpus spp. (Kanyin), which are particularly 

characteristic of this ecosystem and can both form almost pure patches. Other trees occurring are Lannea 

grandis, Lagerstromea speciosa, as well as other evergreen species. Bamboos, like Bambusa polymorpha 

(Kyathaung Wa), and rattans (Calamus sp) are also found. The overall status of these forests seems to 

be better than the previous Western Mixed Deciduous Forest, although they cover only 4% and are 

increasingly threatened by human activities such as wood collection and fire disturbances. 

138 139

Evergreen Forest 

Typical vegetation of the central Rakhine Yoma, these forests are located mainly in the mountainous 

regions of the study area, covering around 19% of the total. The dominant trees are Dipterocarpus spp., 

but also examples of Swintonia floribunda (Taung Theyet), Michelia champaca (Sagawa) and Mesua 

ferrea (Gangaw) have been found. Some scattered deciduous trees are present, like Xylia dolabriformis, 

Lannea grandis and Lagerstromea speciosa. The lower storey is rich in many species, mainly evergreen 

and bamboos like Melocanna bambusoides (Kayin-Wa). The main threats are timber exploitation and 

shifting cultivation that are causing a dangerous fragmentation and encroachment of this habitat. The 

overall status of the remaining patches of forests seems to be still good. 

Sparse Semi-evergreen Forest 

The identification of this class turned out to be the most difficult due to the high habitat fragmentation. 

This situation comprises a deeply intermixed mosaic of evergreen trees and deciduous trees, as scattered 

big examples or small plots, and pure patches of Melocanna bambusoides, with different percentages of 

composition. The process that has led to the creation of this vegetation seems generally the introduction 

of Melocanna bambusoides in the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and then the establishment of 

this aggressive species as pure patches. Totally this class comprises about 22% of the surface. 

Bamboo Brakes 

Other typical vegetation of the area, this class covers around 15% of the study area and is dominated 

by Melocanna bambusoides, accompanied by scattered deciduous or evergreen individual trees. This 

intrusive species has been signaled since 1956 (Chein Hoe 1956) and has the potential to spread to and 

substitute many other forest types. As the dense growth of this bamboo precludes natural regeneration 

of most species, the tendency is to produce pure plots of Melocanna bambusoides. The flowering of this 

species occurs in mass after 30-40 years, and then they all wither and die. Other bamboo species present 

in the region are Dendrocalamus longispatus (Talagu Wa), Gigantochloa macrostachya (Wa Pyu Gyi) and 

Bambusa polymorpha. 

Eastern dry deciduous forest and shrubs 

Due to the low rainfall occurring on the eastern slopes, the vegetation is here formed entirely by 

deciduous species. Generally the dominant layer is close but not dense, and there is a thick understorey 

of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus or Hmyin Wa). The main trees found are Lannea grandis and Albizzia 

procera (Sit). The area covered by this class is around 12% of the entire study area. Close to the road 

many evidences of wood collection and over-exploitation have been observed, and the overall status 

seems to decrease heading more and more to the lowest eastern slopes where the population density 

is higher. 

Plantation and degraded dry deciduous land 

Moving towards the lowest slopes on the east side, the natural dry vegetation becomes highly 

degraded by over-logging and forest fires. Remaining scattered patches of the so called Indaing forest 

can be found: the main species present are Dipterocarpus obtusifolius (Inbo) and Dendrocalamus strictus. 

Common in the area are large plantations of Tectona grandis, established in the last 2 to 3 years, or 

other tree crops like cashew nuts. This class is covering around 13% of the total. Serious evidences of 

soil erosion, in forms of both rills and gullies, are widely present. The habitat degradation due to human 

over-exploitation of natural resources and modification on the natural vegetation cover is high. 

Eastern Agricultural Areas 

Differences from its western counterparts come from the diverse topographic location: the valley of the 

Ayeyawaddy River. Due to the presence of extensive terraces of both alluvial and colluvial material, the 

size of the farms is usually bigger, with a more homogenous distribution. Main crops are paddy rice, 

both dry and irrigated, fruit trees, cotton, nuts, palms. The surface of this class is around 6% of the total. 

Between the fields, some remaining patches of degraded dry deciduous forest are present. 

DESCRIPTION OF VEGETATION COVER CHANGE 

AND IDENTIFICATION OF MAIN CAUSES OF CHANGE 

The overlapping of the land cover maps from 1974 and 2000/2003 has allowed to identify main changes 

in the vegetation cover of the area. 

The conversion from any type of natural vegetation to agriculture areas has been estimated at around 

173 km² on the Ayeyawaddy valley and 92 Km² on the coastal side. This is consistent with the higher 

rate of agricultural development possible in the lowlands close to the Ayeyawaddy River. An inverse 

process, still to be analysed, has been the conversion of agricultural or degraded forest areas in mixed 

deciduous forest: the surface involved has been estimated at 92 km². Also the conversion from Eastern 

Dry Deciduous Forest to Plantation & Dry Degraded Forest is an indication of the high negative human 

impact on the eastern slopes. This change has been noted in about 99 km². The lower rainfalls and worst 

soil conditions could be enhancing the degradation process, giving to the vegetation fewer chances to 

regenerate properly. The largest change has been identified however in the transformation from any 

class to the Sparse Semi-Evergreen Forest or Bamboo Brakes (Table 17), evidence of the invasion of 

Melocanna bambusoides in the area. More than 1,455 km² has been identified as being subject to this 

trend. Although the Melocanna bambusoides is found naturally in the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range WR, 

it has been confirmed from this study that human practices in the area, like shifting cultivation and forest 

fires, are a cause of first spreading of bamboo in new areas, where later it established itself as pure patches. 

Vegetation class AREA 

(Km2) 

1974 2000 

PERCENTAGE 

of COVER 


Vegetation class AREA 

(Km2) 

PERCENTAGE 

of COVER 

Bamboo brakes 455 27% Bamboo brakes 492 29% 

Evergreen forest 913 54% Evergreen forest 508 30% 

Sparse semi-evergreen 

forest 

320 19% Sparse semi-evergreen 

forest 

710 42% 

Table 17 Main changes occurred in the vegetation cover classes from 1974 to 2000 in Rakhine Yoma 

Elephant Range WR 

140 141

The main drivers identified during field survey as causes of the vegetation cover changes are: woodlands 

clearing to establish agricultural fields; conversion of natural vegetation to artificial plantation; fires 

and shifting cultivation followed by bamboo invasion. In general in the field a general degradation has 

been observed due to wood over-exploitation and forest fires, higher in the forests close to the lowland 

inhabited areas than in the highest mountains. This process seems to be severe in both sides, even if it 

is generally higher on the eastern valley, maybe for differences in climate regimes. 

IDENTIFICATION OF TYPES OF CHANGE 

Figure 5 shows the final map, and a more detailed subset, to illustrate the types of change found in the 

study area. In Figure 5 the magnitude of increase and decrease of vegetation NDVI is expressed in tones 

of cyan and red, respectively. Recent road networks, quarries and dams constitute large decrease of 

vegetation and are easily detected from their spatial pattern. There are also clearly visible negative and 

positive changes due to clear cutting and regeneration which represent the traditional slash and burn 

cultivations in hilly and mountainous forest. 

Vegetation change 

in Rakhine Yoma Elephant 

Range WR 


Overall, within the protected area about 70% of surface remain stable in time and this area cannot be 

considered to be a hot spot of degradation. On the contrary the western and eastern mixed deciduous 

forest are more affected by damage (prevalently human-induced) with variable intensity and recovering 

in relation to distance from the coast line and hence to the spatial pattern of rainfall (data not shown). 

Within the park a net decrease of NDVI of about 10% was however observed from 1974 to 2001. The 

main land cover found in the area consists of Bamboo Brakes, Evergreen and Sparse Semi-Evergreen 

forest. Overall, it appears that evergreen forests are subjected to subtle degradation associated to an 

increase of vigour in bamboo formations. 

NDVI changes for land cover (2000) 

within the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range WR 

142 143

4.3 Conclusions and recommendations 

The study has achieved the objectives agreed among stakeholders. 


A land cover map representing the different vegetation types covering the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Range 

Wildlife Reserve and the surrounding areas is now available. Local stakeholders have the possibility 

to use the maps and data produced during the present activity to conduct future activities and raise 

awareness on the problems threatening ecosystem and biodiversity in relation to the generation of a 

protected area. 

Overall, it seems that from the 1974 this remote protected area has not undergone major changes 

in terms of vegetation reduction and cannot be considered as a hot spot of degradation. Generally, 

human activities are reduced inside the Wildlife Sanctuary compared with the surrounding areas and 

the vegetation status seems to be better, even if it is subject to fragmentation mainly due to shifting 

cultivation. Moreover, due to the high impact of the human activities all around the border, also the 

protected area may be at risk for future encroachment due to agricultural expansion or commercial 

plantation. 

In this context it should be useful to quantify the human-pressure and potential future market which 

may determine uncontrolled change in the protected area. 

As well as the danger of encroachment, also the degradation of the remaining patches of forest owing 

to over-exploitation of timber, fires started by people and soil erosion seem to be a major concern. Many 

small landslides have been also detected on satellite images and during field survey, but they have not 

been quantified. Creation of a buffer zone, accessibility tracks, elephant inventory, spring and water 

points, should be evaluated in the future in order to generate a strategic and sustainable plan for the 

development of the PA. 

An interesting scientific point would be to evaluate the ecological/biological effect of the expansion 

of Melocanna bambusoides, and to understand how much human activity is enhancing this process. 

Also the impacts of this process on the wildlife could not been assessed in the present study, but they 

are nevertheless of critical importance and should be investigated in the future. For example, the 

population of wild elephants widely feeds on bamboos. At the same time, a population of Hoolock 

Gibbons (Bunopithecus hoolock) seems to be present in the southern fringes of the Rakhine Yoma, and 

for this monkey large patches of bamboo brakes are a barrier (Pers. comm., Gibbon Project from BANCA). 

Overall a reduction of greenness was found using the satellite images and, although some trends can be 

outlined, evergreen forests appear subject to degradation while bamboo formations increase in vigour. 

Conclusion 

144 145 

L. Beffasti 

5

5.1 

Progress and priorities for Myanmar PAs 

The Myanmar protected area system currently includes 35 designated and 8 proposed PAs that were 

established in the period 1918-2010. The 43 PAs cover 49,500 km² which is equivalent to 7.3% of total 

country area. 

PAs fall under five of the seven categories foreseen by the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and 

Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994). In particular, 29 PAs are Wildlife Sanctuaries comparable 

to IUCN category IV (Habitat/Species management area). However, the category description is often 

inconsistent with the current protection level and restrictions on site. 

In spite of Myanmar’s long coastline, only 4 out of 43 sites are MPAs. The capacity and resources for 

marine resources management by park authorities need to be enhanced also by increasing coordination 

with DOF and universities. 

In terms of governance, 22 sites fall under FD and 21 under NWCD. Two experiences of joint governance 

with private companies in Hlawga Wildlife Park and Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary present 

incompatibilities between conservation and economic goals, highlighting the need for coordinated 

land use planning and a clear and transparent regulatory system. No other forms of joint governance 

(including transboundary PAs) exist in Myanmar. 

The number and the size of Myanmar PAs have increased over the years in a positive trend aimed 

at the protection of entire ecosystems instead of single species. Nonetheless, some habitats are still 

underrepresented, in particular beach and dune, mangrove and swamp forests. 

The conservation status of most PAs is generally judged good by park staff, i.e. within acceptable range 

of variation but requires some intervention. Biological resource use, agriculture and human settlements 

occur respectively in 87%, 47% and 43% of surveyed PAs. Less common threats, such as infrastructure 

and invasive species, are considered of higher impact on biodiversity conservation. 

About half of PAs have partial biodiversity inventories and management or operational plans. In these 

sites which, interestingly, fall under NWCD governance, monitoring, patrolling and environmental 

education are implemented regularly despite the inadequate human, technical and financial resources. 

Absence of infrastructure and staff is reported in 17 sites 16 where no conservation and management 

actions are systematically implemented. 

Twelve out of 43 PAs are listed among Myanmar ecotourism sites but access to 8 of them is difficult and 

in most cases special permits for foreign visitors are required. Religious tourism occurs in many areas 

related to the presence of famous Buddhist pagodas. Nevertheless, the presence of tourists is reported 

more as a threat than as a resource due to the fact that tourist revenues do not directly contribute to 

support PA management. 

Research surveys have been implemented in 65% of sites by national and international organisations 

and universities as well as by FD staff, without coordinated research programmes. Consequently, 

information was not always made available to park wardens and data are difficult to compare. 

5.2 Recommendations 

1. Review and strengthen the protected area system 

• The legal framework of PAs should be rationalised and updated. Existing PAs should be re-categorised 

according to updated information with emphasis given to the purpose of management. More 

importantly, objectives need to be realistically achievable in respective sites. 

• The protected area system should be strategically expanded to reach the target of 10% of total country 

area (NFMP 2001) by addressing gaps in coverage of globally threatened species and Key Biodiversity 

Areas (BLI 2005) as well as wildlife corridors, in full compliance with the rights of indigenous peoples 

mobile peoples and local communities (Durban Action Plan 2003). Underrepresented habitats, in 

particular mangroves and swamp forests, should be protected. The constitution of more MPAs is also 

to be considered a priority. 

16 Bumhpabum, Hponkarazi, Kahilu, Kelatha, Kyauk-Pan-Taung, Lenya, Lenya (ext.), Loimwe, Maharmyaing, Mulayit, Par Sar, Pyin-O-Lwin, 

Shinpinkyetthauk, Tanintharyi National Park, Taunggy, Thamila Kyun, Wenthtikan. 

146 147 

Conclusion 

• PA governance should be enhanced to ensure effectiveness. The coordination of FD/NWCD with other 

stakeholders is crucial to achieve the management objectives, share costs and benefits, and create 

long-term support to conservation. Other forms of governance should be piloted, in particular 

co-managed protected areas (including transboundary PAs) and community conserved areas, to 

build a flexible and responsive PA system (Borrini-Feyerabend et al. 2004) as recommended by CBD 

convention ratified by Myanmar in 1994. 

2. Raise awareness and build capacity for conservation 

• Communication and education on the role and benefits of protected areas need to be increased 

through awareness raising campaign targeting from decision makers to grassroots levels, also using 

the media. 

• Intensified capacity-building of FD staff at local and national level, with special attention to the young 

generations, is needed to address timely the complex issues related to PA management and secure 

effective implementation of conservation actions. 

• The creation of a platform on conservation and protected areas among policy-makers, practitioners 

and communities is essential to achieve comprehensive stakeholder participation 

• The knowledge at national and international level of natural, cultural and social values of Myanmar 

PAs should be improved, also through the international designation of PAs (e.g. World Heritage Sites, 

Biosphere Reserves, Ramsar sites, etc.), to enhance technical, technological, scientific and financial 

cooperation. 

3. Improve protected area management 

• All PAs should have at least an annual management plan that needs to be site-specific and include a 

land use plan agreed with local authorities and other relevant stakeholders. In those sites containing 

cultural heritage premises, human settlements or permanent economic activities, the plan should be 

sensitive to the spiritual values and contain different management zones. However, the majority of 

the area should be managed for the primary purpose of the site according to the legal category. 

• PAs should be provided with adequate human, technical and financial resources to implement 

effectively the conservation and management activities foreseen by the management plan. Priority 

should be given to the 17 under-resourced PAs. The management effectiveness of PAs should be 

periodically assessed using IUCN procedures. 

• An inventory of biodiversity should be compiled in all PAs through the collaboration with academic 

institutions and NGOs. Procedures for monitoring should be standardised and based on globally- 

agreed criteria. Checklists should be organized in a database at the central office of NWCD to facilitate 

information sharing on priority species at national and international level. Information should be 

periodically sent to the WCPA website and ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACP). 

• The human impacts of PAs should be measured in order to identify and implement innovative poverty 

reduction strategies that can contribute to meet the conservation and development goals. Such 

mechanisms may include: community forestry, payments for environmental services, fish spillover, 

ecotourism and protected area jobs. 

4. Support collaboration and sustainable financing 

• Collaboration of PAs with NGOs and universities is essential and needs to be enhanced. In particular, 

there is a need for coordinated research programmes related to conservation actions. Every site should 

establish research priorities and researchers should give a copy of their findings to the park warden 

who communicates to central office. 

• A combination of financing mechanisms should be identified to ensure stable revenue sources for 

PAs, to support the management of the area and the sustainable development of its surroundings. 

Donor-funded projects in collaboration with INGOs can support the preparation of management plans 

and/or biodiversity inventories can train the park staff and provide infrastructure and tools. However, 

a sustainable strategy should create a stable cash flow for management operations through the 

involvement of all stakeholders benefitting from the ecosystem services provided by the site. Besides 

grants and donations, PAs could benefit from the development of local businesses (e.g. community- 

based initiatives, marketing ecosystem services, ecotourism) that are also more flexible to amend 

based on impacts and needs.

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Appendices 

Appendix 1 Major Myanmar Environmental Laws and Policies 

Laws and policies are given in chronological order according to the date of approval. 

# Legislation Year Purposes/objectives 

1 Forest Rules 1856 

To regulate teak harvesting (All India, including the then Province 

of Burma) 

2 Elephant Preservation Act 1879 To regulate the capturing of wild elephants 

3 Burma Forest Act 1881 

4 Indian Forest Policy 1894 

To impose law enforcement in forests throughout the country (not 

applicable to private land) 

To ensure maintenance of adequate forest cover for the general wellbeing 

of the country, meeting needs of local people and maximum 

revenue collection. 

5 Burma Forest Act & Rules 1902 To impose sustainable management of forests 

6 Wild Birds & Animals Protection Act 1912 

7 Burma Village Act 1921 

8 Burma Game Rules 1927 

9 

10 

Wild Birds and Animals Protection 

Act Amendment 

Wild Birds and Animals Protection 

Act Amendment 

11 The Wildlife Protection Act 1936 

12 

The Wildlife Protection Act 

Amendment 

To protect the fauna (birds and mammals) (applied to all of British 

India) 

To encourage forest conservation and teak plantation through the 

establishment of forest taungya villages 

To establish seasons and bag limits on game birds and mammals 

(under Burma Forest Act) 

1929 To increase the number of protected species 

1934 To increase the number of protected species 

To establish wildlife sanctuaries, to designate hunting seasons, and to 

accord complete and partial protection to mammals, birds and reptiles 

(except snakes) 

1956 To accord protected status to additional wildlife species 

13 Burma Forest Act Amendment 1956 To regulate timber harvesting 

14 Forest Law 1992 

To conserve and manage the forest systematically, and to control 

timber extraction 

15 National Environmental Policy 1994 

16 

Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants 

and Conservation of Natural Areas 

Law 

1994 

17 Myanmar Forest Policy 1995 

18 

Forest Rules and Community 

Forestry Instructions 

1995 

19 Myanmar Agenda 21 1997 

To enhance the quality of the life of all Myanmar citizens through the 

integration of environmental considerations into the development 

process 

To protect wild animals and plants, conserve natural areas, and fulfil 

Myanmar’s obligations under international agreements 

To conserve the environment and biodiversity; to promote sustainable 

management of natural forests, and to establish forest plantations 

To regulate sustainable forest management and forest plantations, and 

promote community participation 

To promote biodiversity conservation through the involvement of local 

communities in designing and planning protected area management, 

gathering data, consultation and decision-making. 

20 National Forest Master Plan 2001 To maintain the forest and biodiversity of Myanmar. 

21 

22 

Rules on Protection of Wildlife, and 

Protected Area Conservation Law 

National Sustainable Development 

Strategy 

2003 

2009 

To establish a procedural framework for the 1994 Protection of Flora 

and Fauna, and Protected Area Conservation Law 

Sustainable management of natural resources, integrated economic 

development, sustainable social development. 

International Convention Place Year 

Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna Convention) Vienna 1988 1993 (Ac) 

Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal 

Protocol) 

Montreal 1989 1993 (Ac) 

London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol London 1992 1993 (Ac) 

Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage Paris 1972 1994 (At) 

Convention on Biological Diversity Rio de Janeiro 1992 1994 (R) 

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries 

Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in 

Africa 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna 

and Flora (CITES) 

Paris 1994 1997(Ac) 

Bonn 1979 1997(Ac) 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change New York 1992 2003 (Ac) 

Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) Ramsar 1971 2005 (R) 

Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol Copenhagen 1994 2009 (Ac) 

150 151 

Conclusion 

Appendix 2 Major International Conventions related to protected areas and 

forest lands signed by Myanmar 

Conventions are given in chronological order according to the date of accession (Ac), acceptance (At) 

or ratification (R) by Myanmar. 

Date of deposit 

by Myanmar

Appendix 3 Key resources supported by PAs as for notification letter 

LC=Least Concern, NT=Near Threatened, VU=Vulnerable, EN=Endagered, CR=Critically Endangered 

Common name Scientific name 

Reptiles 

STATUS 

Red List 

PAs supporting 

threatened 

species 

Loggerhead Turtle Caretta caretta EN 42 

Green Turtle Chelonia mydas EN 42 

Salt-Water Crocodile Crocodylus porosus LR/LC 23 

Leatherback Dermochelys coriacea CR 42 

Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata CR 42 

Endemic to 


Burmese Star Tortoise Geochelone platynota CR 18,24,37 Endemic 

Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea VU 42 

Birds 

Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus LC 32 

Plain-Pouched Hornbill Aceros subruficollis VU 17 

Oriental Pied Hornbill Antharcoceros albirostris LC 32 

White Bellied Heron Ardea insignis CR 8, 9 

Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis NT 10 

White-Winged Duck Cairina scutulata EN 7,8,9 

Edible Nest Swiftlet Collocalia fuciphaga LC 26 

Hooded Treepie Crypsirina cucullata NT 10 Endemic 

Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus LC 31 

White-Rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis CR 10 

Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis LC 10 

Slender-Billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris CR 10 

Masked Finfoot Heliopais personatus EN 7,8,9 

Burmese Bushlark Mirafra microptera LC 10 endemic 

Green Peafowl Pavo muticus EN 8,9,34 

Gurney's Pitta Pitta gurneyi EN 19,20,40 

Grey Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron bicalcaratum LC 34 

White-Browed Nuthatch Sitta victoriae EN 29 endemic 

152 153 

Mammals 

Red Panda Ailurus fulgens VU 14 

Hog Deer Axis porcinus EN 5,12,25 

Gaur Bos gaurus VU 3, 29, 32,35,37,38 

Banteng Bos javanicus EN 22,38 

Takin Budorcas taxicolor VU 14 

Golden Jackal Canis aureus LC 3 

Serow Capricornis milneedwardsii NT 1,3,12,15,16,29,38,39 

Eld’s Deer Cervus eldi thamin EN 4,5,37 endemic 

Wild Boar Sus scrofa 

not 

threatened 

32,36 

Sambar Deer Cervus unicolor VU 1,5,16,19,22,26,32,37,38,39 

Dhole (Asiatic Wild Dog) Cuon alpinus EN 6,22,36 

Asian Elephant Elephas maximus EN 

1,3,7,8,9,19,22,35,38, 

39,40 

Jungle Cat Felis chaus LC 16,22 

Small Asian Mongoose Herpestes javanicus LC 6,22 

Western Hoolock Gibbon 

Hoolock hoolock (Bunopithecus 

hoolock) 

EN 7,8,9,10,19,32 

Eastern Hoolock Gibbon Hoolock leuconedys VU 6,22 

Rhesus Monkey Macaca mulatta LC 32 

Sunda Pangolin Manis javanica EN 13,19,21,36 

Chinese Pangolin Manis pentadactyla EN 31 

Black Musk Deer Moschus fuscus EN 14 

Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak LC 

5,6,13,16,19,25,26,28, 

34,36,37,39 

Red Goral Naemorhedus baileyi VU 3,6,14,15,16,29,39 

Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa VU 3,16 

Leopard Panthera pardus NT 1,3,15,16,28,32,35, 39 

Tiger Panthera tigris EN 1,7,8,9,15,28 

Asiatic Golden Cat Pardofelis temminckii NT 3 endemic 

Wild Boar Sus scrofa LC 16,19,22,28,32,36 

Asian Tapir Tapirus indicus EN 19 

Lesser Mouse-deer 

Tragulus kanchil (javanicus) 

Tragulus javanicus subsp. 

Lampensis 

LC 

Unknownn 

Sun Bear Ursus malayanus unknown 8,9 

12,19 

Asiatic Black Bear Ursus thibetanus VU 1,8,9,19,21,32,35,38 

17 

Conclusion

Myanmar Protected Areas: Context, Current Status ... - Istituto Oikos

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