REP126 Ecology and Biodiversity of upper Tabalong,J Payne,Ap

SOUTH and CENTRAL KALIMANTAN PRODUCTION FOREST PROJECT
Jalan A. Yani, No. 37 (km35), Banjarbaru 70711, Indonesia
Tel. (62) 0511 781 975 – 979, Fax: (62) 0511 781 613
EUROPEAN COMMISSION – INDONESIA FOREST PROGRAMME
Ecology and Biodiversity of Upper
Tabalong, South Kalimantan
Report No. 126
April 2002

Ecology and Biodiversity of Upper Tabalong, South Kalimantan
Report No. 126 – April 2002
i
PREFACE
The South and Central Kalimantan Production Forest Project (SCKPFP) is a
technical co-operation project jointly funded, in terms of the financing
memorandum ALA/95/18, by the European Commission and by the Government
of the Republic of Indonesia through the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops
(MoFEC).
This report has been completed in accordance with the project Phase I Overall
Work Plan (OWP) and
in part fulfilment of Activities 6.1 “To undertake environmental assessments”, 6.2
“To strengthen the capacity to implement and maintain environmental integrity in
production forestry”, and 6.4 “To recommend any improvement to increase the
capacity of forest protection”
to achieve Result 6 “The forest ecosystem and associated ecosystems within the
project sites managed to maintain viability and diversity”,
to realise the three-year project Phase I purpose, which is “SFM model developed
that incorporates the ITTO guidelines and principles developed and implemented in
the forestry operation of Aya Yayang and a central Kalimantan pilot concession.”
This report has been prepared with financial assistance from the Commission of the
European Communities. The opinions, views and recommendations expressed are
those of the author(s) and in no way reflect the official opinion of the Commission.
The report has been prepared by:
• Dr Junaidi Payne (Ecologist, SCKPFP)
Edited by Ir. Alfan Subekti, M.Sc (Environmental Specialist, SCKPFP)
The report is acknowledged and approved for circulation by the Project Co-
Directors when duly signed below.
Banjarbaru, April 2002
Dr. John Tew
International Co-Director
Dr. Silver Hutabarat
National Co-Director

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to the staff of PT AYI (especially the field staff of the Research and
Development section), the various specialist experts who conducted botanical and
zoological field work for SCKPFP, and the people of upper Tabalong.
Front cover :
(left) Hill dipterocarp forest, lightly logged, showing good regeneration of a
diverse undergrowth and a Shorea (meranti merah) tree (east of PT AYI main road,
km 59, 2001)
(right) Maintenance of a thick layer of decaying leaves represents a key factor in
conserving soil condition and retaining potential for damaged forest to regenerate
with a floral composition similar to that of the original forest. The seedling is a
two-year old Durio lanceolata (east of PT AYI main road, km 59, 2001)

iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report covers three aspects of the ecology and biodiversity the upper Tabalong
area in South Kalimantan. Firstly, the habitats, flora and fauna of this area are
described (sections 3, 4 and 5). The report represents the first detailed investigation
of biodiversity of any forest site in South Kalimantan province. Secondly, the
various issues relevant to conservation of biodiversity and ecological processes in
upper Tabalong are discussed, at the levels of habitat and species (sections 6 and
7). Thirdly, a study of possible means for biological monitoring of production
forests is described and conclusions drawn. This was conducted as part of the
process of investigating biodiversity in the PT. Aya Yayang Indonesia production
forest concession in upper Tabalong.
The information used to compile the report is based mainly on surveys by the
SCKPFP Ecologist and various specialists.
The taxonomic groups of plants and animals chosen for investigation by specialists
are those initially believed to possess characteristics that might render them
suitable for biological monitoring of forest condition.
All taxonomic experts engaged by SCKPFP made scientific collections. For plants
collected in upper Tabalong, permanent specimens are retained at Wanariset
Samboja herbarium, East Kalimantan (a division under Balai Penelitian Kehutanan,
Samarinda, and / or Herbarium Bogoriense (the Indonesian national herbarium, a
division of Litbang Biologi, LIPI, in Bogor). For animals, invertebrate and fish
specimens are retained at Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (the national zoological
museum at Cibinong) while amphibian and reptile specimens are retained at the
biology museum of Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Institut
Teknologi Bandung.
The natural vegetation of all land in upper Tabalong is forest, containing a diverse
array of plant and animal species. Overall, the remaining forests of upper Tabalong
are ecologically and biologically typical of hill dipterocarp forests in Kalimantan.
Almost 400 trees species were recorded in upper Tabalong. In general, the upper
Tabalong area appears to be relatively poor in dipterocarp diversity (with about 37
species recorded to date) compared to low-altitude hill ranges in many other parts
of Borneo island.
The following ecological vegetation types present in upper Tabalong are described
:

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Forest Type Key features
Hill dipterocarp Commonest forest type, mainly logged. Variable in tree
composition.
Lowland & valley
bottom dipterocarp
Relatively species poor, but with some tree species rare
elsewhere (e.g. ulin Eusideroxylon zwageri). Important
for wildlife.
Biwan Areas where biwan (Endertia spectabilis) trees are
dominant, and commercial trees rare or absent.
Dipterocarp-poor
(a) old secondary, &
(b) South & Central
Kalimantan border
(a) Land cultivated or settled more than 50 years ago;
recognised by preponderance of edible fruit trees,
legumes, strangling figs and sungkai
(b) Western volcanic hills; most large trees are not
dipterocarps.
Riverine Along banks of rivers and larger streams; few or no
dipterocarps present.
Limestone : lower
slopes & scree
Distinctive tree flora, rather species poor, but variable
from site-to-site.
Limestone : cliffs &
ridges
Gunung Tanggur, and upper Ayu & Pasuang Rivers.
Suspectible to drought and fire.
Secondary growth - Secondary forest on alluvium
- Secondary forest on other soils
- Roadside growth
- “Jungle rubber”
- Scrub & alang-alang
Perhaps the most notable feature is the existence of biwan forest, which has not
been recorded elsewhere. To date, no “new” plant species have been identified in
upper Tabalong, but several rare tree species occur.
Caves exist in the Gunung Tanggur and upper Ayu – Pasuang River limestone
areas and some are inhabited by edible nest swiftlets and bats. The potential
archaeological value of these sites merits attention. Some of the oldest known
human artifacts in Kalimantan have been found in Gua Babi cave, also in upper
Tabalong.
One new genus of termite was discovered. In general, diversity and abundance of
soil and leaf litter invertebrates appears to be positively correlated with a thick,
moist leaf litter
Ten previously undescribed, “new” fish species were collected in the upper
Tabalong River in June 2001. Due to lack of scientific collecting of freshwater fish
in forest areas of south-eastern Kalimantan, and lack of information on the
occurrence of damaging fishing methods in more remote areas, it is unknown
whether these “new” species can be considered threatened.
Amphibian diversity and density is typical of that for Borneo dipterocarp forests.
Population densities of mammals and birds appear to be lower than is usual in
Borneo forests, probably due to a combination of naturally low biological
productivity, a long history of logging and hunting, drought and fire (1982-83 and
1997-98), and loss of lowland forest.

v
Gibbons (small apes) can be easily found and hunted due to their loud calls, yet
they are common. This suggests that the low abundance of other mammals in upper
Tabalong may be primarily a function of the low productivity of certain animal
foods in these forests (notably young leaves, seeds and insects) rather than hunting.
A very small population of banteng (wild cattle; Bos javanicus) exists in upper
Tabalong. Other rare large mammals are sun bear, clouded leopard and proboscis
monkeys. Orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) is absent from upper Tabalong, probably
naturally so, because of insufficient wild fruit production through the year. Even if
hunting could be prevented, it is very unlikely that upper Tabalong could support a
breeding population of orang-utans if this species were to be introduced from
elsewhere.
Efforts to conserve ecological processes and biodiversity can be directed at habitats
or at individual species, but the most important means to conserve wild species is
to maintain large samples of original forest and habitat types in good condition.
The near total loss of lowland forest in upper Tabalong has reduced the biological
value of the overall forest area, because lowland areas tend to be more productive
of biomass that serves as food for animal life; also, some plant and animal species
normally breed only in lowlands.
The difference between conservation areas (mainly protection forest in the context
of upper Tabalong) and production forest is largely academic because, under
prevailing circumstances all accessible forests are being logged and some
converted to non-forest use.
If properly managed for commercial wood production, industrial tree plantations
can help to sustain populations of some wild species, but all plantations support
very few species in comparison to natural forests, and cannot support naturally rare
and sensitive species.
According to the Forestry Law (41/1999), forest is classified as one of
conservation, protection or production. Conservation forest (hutan konservasi) has
not been designated in upper Tabalong, and in view of the practical problems
involved in following the necessary administrative and legal procedures for
changing forest function, it is considered best not to propose conservation forest in
this area, but to use the categories of protection and production only.
Protection forest (= hutan lindung, which is a category of protection area –
kawasan lindung – on the RTRW mapping system) is allocated on land above 45%
slope and land with lesser slopes that has sensitive soils and high rainfall. Several
significant problems associated with allocation of protection forest status in this
way are discussed in the report. In upper Tabalong, significant land areas classified
as protection and production forest on the official land use plans (RTRW) are non
forest land, including villages and industrial tree plantation areas.
It is necessary that RTRW be revised to (a) (in general, for all areas including
deforested land) reflect a practical combination of actual existing land use and an
optimum goal for the future and (b) (for remaining forest land) definitively
determine the long term allocation of protection forest, so that management plans
can be developed for the remaining production forest.

vi
In addition to allocation of protection forest, it will be necessary (and
administratively easier) to designate protection zones within production (and
limited production) forest, in the context of long term sustainable forest
management plans and 5 year logging work plans.
Issues relating to production forestry and biological conservation are discussed in
the report. Overall, by maintaining a strong element of the original forest structure,
the full complement of native species and ecological processes can survive in
production forests. The most important factors contributing to survival of sensitive
species and to good regeneration of disturbed forest are retention of some tall,
mature trees throughout the forest and maintenance of a thick organic layer on the
soil surface.
The single most beneficial way in which production forestry can be improved to
favour maintenance of ecological processes and survival of sensitive and rare
species, is to minimize damage to the original mature forest structure, by any and
all means possible, during logging operations.
The implications of illegal logging, fire and ladang enroachment are discussed.
Use of electric shocks and poisons for catching fish for consumption is widespread
and frequent in upper Tabalong.
“Protected” (by law) and “endangered, rare or threatened” (according to
international listings) species must be given attention, because certain national and
international institutions demand this. The relevant species which occur in upper
Tabalong are identified. However, the significance of such lists must be placed in
perspective of habitat conservation. The significance of hunting, harvesting and
collecting wild birds in upper Tabalong is outlined. Generally, direct attention to
conserving rare species is needed only in the case of local endemic species that are
intensively hunted or harvested.
Issues associated with monitoring biodiversity, forest condition and ecological
functions are discussed.
Attention to such issues as preparation and implementation of sustainable forest
management plans, improved road making and harvesting procedures, and law
enforcement is needed more than monitoring. In particular, illegal logging and
encroachment by farmers need to be tackled in preference to relatively minor
adjustments to legal logging practices that might be revealed by any monitoring
programme.
Despite these problems, forest concession-holders that wish to obtain
internationally recognised certification of sustainable management are expected to
provide evidence that conservation of biodiversity, forest condition and / or
ecological functions are being addressed with the aid of monitoring programmes.
Unless one knows fairly precisely what is being monitored by indicators and if data
recording is done to a consistent standard, then it is doubtful if the monitoring is
worthwhile.
For any chosen parameter or biological taxon, there is typically a wide range of
variation in space and time in a large forest concession. A poorly managed

vii
concession may contain patches of good quality forest, whereas a well-managed
forest inevitably contains many damaged areas.
Criteria for choice of organisms suitable for monitoring are discussed in the report.
It is concluded that none of the selected plant and animal groups investigated in the
PT AYI area 1999 – 2001 are suitable, because of the need for specialist expertise
and long periods for sampling and identification. The same will apply to all other
groups.
A proposal to monitor forest condition through pioneer plants was investigated in
the PT AYI area, as these plants are easily seen and identified, and their abundance
is inversely related to original forest condition.
Based on field checks, however, it was found that use of pioneer plants to monitor
changes over time in forest quality could yield misleading results.
Mature dry land forests in Kalimantan are characterised by the presence of many
large trees rather than by any other feature. Probably the most practical means to
monitor forest condition that could be used by concession staff, that does not
require specialist knowledge or skills, is to monitor density per hectare of large
trees (e.g. > 60 cm dbh).
A logged forest can contain more species than an undisturbed forest, due to influx
of non-forest and forest-edge specialists. Thus, merely collecting lists of species in
accessible sites will not reveal much about “biodiversity” in a particular area.
The majority of plant and animal species which occur in any particular area of
dipterocarp forest also occur in many other areas of Borneo island or even South-
east Asia. It is not so much the total numbers of species that reflect the biological
significance of a particular area, as the presence of breeding populations of locally
endemic, rare, threatened and endangered species.
In order to support conservation of biodiversity in production forests, therefore, it
is best to place emphasis on identifying sensitive, endemic, rare, threatened and
endangered taxa within a particular area and on seeking means to help conserve
them in situ.

viii
RINGKASAN (INDONESIAN SUMMARY)
Laporan ini melingkup 3 aspek ekologi dan keragaman hayati di kawasan Hulu
Tabalong Kalimantan Selatan. Pertama, habitat, flora dan fauna di kawasan ini
sebagaimana diuraikan pada bab 3, 4 dan 5. Laporan ini merupakan penelitian
pertama di Kalimantan Selatan yang mengurai keragaman hayati secara rinci pada
berbagai tapak hutan. Kedua, berbagai permasalahan yang terkait dengan upaya
konservasi keragaman hayati dan ekologi di Hulu Tabalong juga didiskusikan pada
tingkat habitat dan jenis (bab 6 dan 7). Ketiga, laporan ini juga menguraikan serta
menyimpulkan satu studi terhadap pengertian-pengertian yang paling mungkin
untuk pemantauan biologis hutan produksi. Semua ini dilakukan sebagai bagian
dari proses penelitian keragaman hayati di HPH PT Aya Yayang Indonesia di Hulu
Tabalong.
Informasi yang digunakan untuk menyatukan laporan ini utamanya berdasarkan
pada survei yang dilakukan oleh Ahli Ekologi SCKPFP dan beberapa tenaga ahli
proyek lainnya.
Kelompok tanaman dan hewan yang dipilih untuk penelitian oleh tenaga ahli,
semuanya awalnya dipercaya untuk mengelompokkan karakteristik yang mungkin
membuatnya sesuai untuk pemantauan biologis kondisi hutan.
Semua tenaga ahli taxonomi yang bekerjasama dengan SCKPFP telah membuat
koleksi ilmiah. Untuk tumbuhan yang dikumpulkan di Hulu Tabalong, specimen
permanen disimpan di Herbarium Wanariset Samboja, Kalimantan Timur (dibawah
Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Samarinda) dan atau ke Herbarium Bogoriense
(Herbarium Nasional dibawah PUSLITBANG Biologi LIPI,di Bogor). Untuk
specimen hewan, invertebrata, dan ikan disimpan di Museum Zoologi Bogoriense,
Bogor. Sementara specimen katak dan reptil disimpan di museum biologi Fakultas
Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Hutan merupakan vegetasi alami dari semua lahan di Hulu Tabalong, yang berisi
berbagai jenis tanaman dan hewan. Secara keseluruhan, hutan-hutan yang tersisa di
Hulu Tabalong, secara ekologis dan biologis merupakan tipe hutan dipterocarp
pegunungan di Kalimantan.
Hampir 400 jenis pohon yang tercatat di Hulu Tabalong. Umumnya, kawasan di
Hulu Tabalong merupakan kawasan dimana keragaman dipterocarp-nya relatif
miskin (hanya 37 jenis yang tercatat hingga kini) dibandingkan dengan sebaran
pegunungan yang berketinggian rendah di beberapa daerah di pulau Kalimantan.
Tipe-tipe vegetasi ekologi berikut terdapat di Hulu Tabalong:
Tipe Hutan Gambaran kunci
Dipterocarp
pegunungan
Tipe hutan yang paling banyak, umumnya sudah
ditebang. Komposisi pohon sangat beragam.
Dipterocarp dataran
rendah dan dasar
lembah
Jenisnya relatif miskin, namun beberapa jenis pohon
jarang terdapat di tempat lain (misalnya ulin
Eusideroxylon zwageri). Penting untuk kehidupan liar.
Biwan Daerah dimana pohon-pohon biwan (Endertia
spectabilis) dominan dan pohon-pohon komersial sangat
jarang bahkan tidak ada.

ix
Tipe Hutan Gambaran kunci
Dipterocarp yang
miskin (a) sekunder
tua, & (b) perbata-
san Kalsel-Kalteng
(a) Lahan yang ditanamai atau didiami lebih dari 50 th
yang lalu; dihuni oleh pohon buah-buahan yang
berlimpah; legum, sungkai dan tumbuhan pencekik.
(b) Pegunungan vulkanik dibagian barat; umumnya
pohon-pohon besar non dipterocarp
Tepi sungai Sepanjang tepi sungai dan aliran yang lebih besar,
beberapa atau tidak ada dipterocarp
Bukit kapur: lereng
lebih rendah dan
landai
Flora pohon yang khas, namun miskin jenis, tetapi
beragam dari satu tapak ke tapak yang lainnya.
Batu kapur: karang
terjal dan punggung
bukit
Gunung Tanggur, dan Hulu Ayu dan Pasuang. Mudah
terbakar dan mengalami kekeringan.
Hutan sekunder - Hutan sekunder pada tanah aluvial
- Hutan sekunder pada jenis tanah yang lain
- Tepi jalan
- “Rimba karet”
- Alang-alang dan semak belukar
Kemungkinan gambaran yang paling penting adalah keberadaan hutan biwan, yang
tidak pernah tercatat di manapun. Hingga saat ini, tidak ada jenis tumbuhan baru
yang telah diidentifikasi di Hulu Tabalong, namun ada beberapa jenis pohon yang
tergolong langka.
Gua-gua yang terdapat di Gunung Tanggur dan di kawasan batu kapur di Hulu
Sungai Ayu dan Pasuang merupakan habitat burung penghasil sarang yang bernilai
ekonomi tinggi serta habitat berbagai jenis kelelawar. Nilai arkeologi yang
potensial dari kawasan ini perlu mendapatkan perhatian. Beberapa artefak kuno
manusia yang paling tua di Kalimantan ditemukan di Gua Babi, di Hulu Tabalong.
Satu marga baru rayap telah ditemukan. Secara umum, keragaman dan kelimpahan
invertebrata tanah dan serasah daun tampaknya berkorelasi positif dengan
ketebalan dan kelembaban serasah daun.
Sepuluh jenis ikan baru yang sebelumnya tidak pernah diuraikan telah
dikumpulkan di Hulu Tabalong pada Juni 2001. Karena kurangnya pengumpulan
ilmiah terhadap ikan air tawar di kawasan hutan di Kalimantan bagian tenggara dan
kurangnya informasi terhadap keberadaan metode penangkapan ikan yang merusak
di beberapa daerah terpencil, hal ini mengakibatkan apakah jenis-jenis baru
tersebut merupakan jenis yang terancam punah.
Keragaman dan kerapatan amfibi adalah merupakan cirri dari hutan dipterocarp
Borneo.
Kepadatan populasi mamalia dan burung yang tampak lebih rendah dari umumnya
di hutan Borneo, mungkin akibat kombinasi dari produktifitas biologis yang rendah
secara alami, sejarah panjang pembalakan dan perburuan, kemarau dan kebakaran
hutan (1982-1983 dan 1997-1998) serta hilangnya hutan dataran rendah.
Owa-owa (ekor pendek) dapat ditemukan dengan mudah dan diburu karena
suaranya yang keras serta umum. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa rendahnya jenis
mamalia di Hulu Tabalong mungkin lebih disebabkan oleh fungsi produktifitas

x
yang rendah terhadap produksi makanan untuk jenis hewan tertentu di hutan-hutan
tersebut (daun-daun muda, biji, dan serangga) daripada perburuan.
Di Hulu Tabalong juga terdapat banteng (Bos Javanicus, liar) dalam populasi yang
sangat kecil. Jenis mamalia besar yang juga sudah jarang ditemukan adalah
beruang matahari, macan dahan, dan bekantan. Orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus)
tidak terdapat di Hulu Tabalong, kemungkinan secara alami akibat ketidakcukupan
produksi buah liar dalam setahun. Sekalipun jika perburuan dapat dicegah,
tampaknya hal ini tidak mungkin dapat mendukung pembiakan populasi orang utan
jika jenis ini dicoba dilepaskan dari daerah lain.
Upaya-upaya untuk melindungi proses ekologi dan keragaman hayati dapat
diarahkan pada habitat atau jenis individu. Namun modal yang paling penting
untuk melindungi jenis-jenis liar adalah dengan memelihara percontohan yang luas
dari hutan yang masih asli dan tipe habitat pada kondisi hutan yang masih baik.
Hampir seluruh total kehilangan hutan dataran rendah di Hulu Tabalong telah
mengurangi nilai biologis dan kawasan hutan yang ada, karena kawasan dataran
rendah lebih memproduksi biomasa yang menyediakan makanan bagi kehidupan
hewani, serta beberapa jenis tanaman dan hewan umumnya berkembang biak
hanya pada dataran rendah.
Perbedaan antara kawasan konservasi (terutama hutan lindung dalam konteks Hulu
Tabalong) dan hutan produksi secara akademis sangat luas karena kondisi saat ini,
semua hutan yang dapat dijangkau telah ditebang dan sisanya telah dikonversi
menjadi penggunaan non hutan.
Jika dikelola dengan lebih baik untuk produksi kayu komersial, hutan tanaman
indsutri dapat membantu melestarikan populasi beberapa jenis liar, namun semua
hutan tanaman hanya mendukung beberapa jenis dibandingkan hutan alam, dan
tidak dapat mendukung jenis-jenis yang mulai jarang serta jenis sensitif.
Menurut UU Kehutanan No. 41/1999, hutan dibagi menjadi konservasi, lindung
dan produksi. Hutan konservasi tidak terdapat di Hulu Tabalong, dan dalam hal
permasalahan praktis yang terlibat berikut prosedur hukum dan administratif untuk
merubah fungsi hutan, sangat baik untuk tidak mengusulkan hutan konservasi pada
daerah ini tetapi hanya menggunakan kategori lindung dan produksi.
Hutan lindung yang merupakan bagian dari kawasan lindung (sesuai dengan sistem
pemetaan RTRW) dialokasikan pada lahan dengan kelerengan lebih dari 45% dan
atau berkelerengan kurang namun memiliki jenis tanah yang sensitive dan curah
hujan yang tinggi. Beberapa permasalahan penting yang terkait dengan alokasi
status hutan lindung juga dibahas dalam laporan ini. Di hulu Tabalong, kawasan
penting yang digolongkan sebagai hutan lindung dan produksi pada RTRW adalah
bukan kawasan hutan, termasuk desa-desa dan kawasan HTI.
Adalah sangat perlu untuk merevisi RTRW dengan alasan (a) (secara umum,
semua kawasan termasuk lahan terdeforestasi) mencerminkan kombinasi praktis
dari penggunaan lahan saat ini yang aktual dan tujuan yang optimal untuk masa
mendatang, dan (b) (terhadap kawasan hutan yang tersisa) secara definitif
menentukan alokasi jangka panjang hutan produksi, sehingga rencana pengelolaan
dapat dikembangkan bagi hutan produksi yang masih tersisa.

xi
Terhadap alokasi hutan produksi, akan sangat perlu (dan secara administratif lebih
mudah) untuk merancang kawasan lindung dalam hutan produksi (dan hutan
produksi terbatas), dalam konteks rencana pengelolaan hutan jangka panjang serta
rencana karya lima tahunan.
Permasalahan terkait dengan hutan produksi dan konservasi biologi juga dibahas
dalam laporan ini. Secara umum, dengan memelihara elemen yang kuat terhadap
struktur hutan yang asli, keseimbangan terhadap jenis asli dan proses ekologi dapat
bertahan di hutan produksi. Faktor-faktor yang paling penting berkontribusi
terhadap daya tahan jenis-jenis yang sensitif dan regenerasi yang baik dari hutan
yang telah terganggu adalah perlindungan beberapa pohon masak tebang dan tinggi
dan memelihara lapisan organik yang tebal pada permukaan tanah.
Satu-satunya cara yang paling menguntungkan hutan produksi agar dapat
disempurnakan dengan pemeliharaan yang lebih baik terhadap proses ekologi dan
daya tahan jenis-jenis yang sensitif dan jarang, adalah dengan meminimasi
kerusakan terhadap struktur hutan masak tebang yang masih asli , dengan beberapa
dan semua sumberdaya yang mungkin, selama kegiatan pembalakan berlangsung.
Juga dibahas implikasi dari penebangan ilegal, kebakaran dan pembukaan ladang.
Penangkapan ikan untuk konsumsi dengan menggunakan racun dan listrik tersebar
luas dan merata di Hulu Tabalong.
Jenis-jenis yang “dilindungi” (oleh undang-undang) dan “terancam, jarang dan
hampir punah” (menurut daftar international) harus diperhatikan karena lembaga
nasional dan internasional tertentu menekankan hal tersebut. Jenis-jenis terkait
yang terdapat di Hulu Tabalong perlu diidentifikasi. Namun, perlunya daftar-daftar
tersebut di atas harus ditempatkan pada perspektif konservasi habitat. Perlu juga
untuk memperhatikan perburuan, pemanenan dan penangkapan burung-burung
kicauan yang ada di hulu Tabalong. Secara umum, perhatian langsung terhadap
perlindungan jenis-jenis yang semakin jarang hanya diperlukan pada kasus dimana
perburuan dan pemanenan jenis-jenis setempat dilakukan secara intensif.
Permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan pemantauan keragaman hayati, kondisi hutan
dan fungsi ekologi juga diuraikan.
Perhatian pada beberapa permasalahan seperti persiapan dan pelaksanaan rencana
pengelolaan hutan lestari, penyempurnaan prosedur pembuatan jalan dan
pemanenan, serta penegakkan hukum dirasakan lebih penting ketimbang
pemantauan. Secara khusus, penebangan illegal dan perambahan oleh petani perlu
dihambat untuk memulai perubahan minor relatif terhadap praktek penebangan
illegal yang mungkin dapat diketahui melalui program pemantauan.
Dalam permasalah tersebut, para pemegang HPH yang berharap untuk
mendapatkan sertifikasi internasional terhadap pengelolaan hutan yang lestari
diharapkan untuk membuktikan bahwa konservasi keragaman hayati, kondisi hutan
dan atau fungsi ekologi telah diperhatikan melalui program pemantauan.
Pemantauan tersebut menjadi sangat meragukan kegunaannya jika pencacahan data
dilakukan sesuai dengan standar yang konsisten. Kecuali ada yang mengetahui
secara tepat apa yang dipantau melalui indikator-indikator yang ada.

xii
Untuk paramater atau tata nama biologi yang dipilih, terdapat jarak yang lebar
terhadap variasi dalam ruang dan waktu pada HPH yang luas. HPH yang dikelola
dengan tidak baik akan memiliki kelompok-kelompok hutan yang berkualitas baik,
sedangkan hutan yang dikelola lebih baik justru memiliki banyak kawasan yang
rusak.
Kriteria untuk memilih organisme yang sesuai untuk pemantauan juga diuraikan
dalam laporan ini. Disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada satupun kelompok tumbuhan dan
hewan terpilih yang diteliti selama kurung 1999-2001 di PT AYI yang sesuai,
karena kebutuhan akan tenaga ahli dan periode pengamatan dan identifikasi yang
panjang. Hal ini juga berlaku terhadap semua kelompok lainnya.
Usulan untuk memantau kondisi hutan melalui jenis tumbuhan pioneer telah diteliti
di kawasan PT AYI, karena jenis ini sangat mudah dilihat dan diidentifikasi, dan
kelimpahannya merupakan hubungan yang terbalik dengan kondisi hutan yang asli.
Sesuai dengan pemeriksaan lapangan, bagaimanapun, telah ditemukan bahwa
penggunaan tumbuhan pioneer untuk memantau perubahan yang terjadi setiap
waktu terhadap kualitas hutan dapat membuahkan hasil yang membingungkan.
Hutan kering di Kalimantan dicirikan dengan hadirnya banyak pohon-pohon besar
dibandingkan yang lainnya. Kemungkinan cara yang sangat praktis untuk
memantau kondisi hutan yang dapat digunakan oleh staf HPH dan tidak
memerlukan pengetahuan atau keahlian tertentu adalah dengan memantau
kerapatan per hektar dari pohon-pohon besar (misalnya dbh > 60 cm).
Hutan bekas tebangan berisikan lebih banyak jenis yang terdapat pada daerah
tertentu hutan dipterocarp, juga terdapat di daerah lainnya di pulau Borneo bahkan
di Asia Tenggara. Total jumlah jenis yang menggambarkan pentingya biologis
daerah tertentu tidaklah terlalu besar, akibat adanya pembiakan populasi jenis-jenis
endemis lokal, serta jenis-jenis yang jarang, terancam dan langka.
Untuk mendukung konservasi keragaman hayati di hutan produksi, maka kemudian
sangat baik menekankan pada identifikasi jenis-jenis yang peka, endemis, jarang,
terancam dan langka dalam kawasan tertentu dan membantu melindungi mereka
secara in situ.

xiii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AMDAL Analysis Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan (= Environmental Impact Analysis, equivalent
to Environmental Impact Assessment)
AYI Aya Yayang Indonesia
BBTHB Balai Benihan Tanaman Hutan Banjarbaru (forest planting seed source agency)
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora
Dbh diameter at breast height
FSC Forest Stewardship Council
Ha hectare(s)
HTI Hutan Tanaman Industri (industrial tree plantation)
IDR Indonesian rupiah
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources
Kg kilogram(s)
KPPN Kawasan Pelestarian Plasma Nutfah (germ plasma conservation area)
LEI Lembaga Ekolabel Indonesia
NTFP non timber forest product
RTRW government land use planning maps
SPAS satuan pemantauan arus sungai (River flow monitoring site)
UNLAM Universitas Lambung Mangkurat (Banjarbaru)

xiv
Table of Contents
PREFACE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................................................ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................................iii
RINGKASAN (Indonesian Summary)...............................................................................................................................viii
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope of “biodiversity” in this report.................................................................................................................1
1.2 Geographical coverage.......................................................................................................................................1
2 Methods.............................................................................................................................................................2
2.1 Examination of published materials on Kalimantan flora and fauna..................................................................2
2.2 Examination of unpublished materials on Kalimantan flora and fauna..............................................................2
2.3 Ecologist field surveys .......................................................................................................................................3
2.4 Specialist flora and fauna surveys......................................................................................................................3
3 Forest types and other natural habitats .........................................................................................................4
3.1 Ecological forest types in upper Tabalong.........................................................................................................4
3.1.1 Hill dipterocarp forest ........................................................................................................................................5
3.1.2 Lowland and valley bottom dipterocarp forest...................................................................................................7
3.1.3 Biwan forest.......................................................................................................................................................7
3.1.4 Dipterocarp-poor hill forest................................................................................................................................8
3.1.5 Riverine forest....................................................................................................................................................9
3.1.6 Forest on limestone : lower slopes and scree .....................................................................................................9
3.1.7 Forest on limestone : cliffs and ridges..............................................................................................................10
3.2 Secondary growth.............................................................................................................................................10
3.3 Rivers and streams ...........................................................................................................................................12
3.4 Ponds................................................................................................................................................................12
3.5 Caves................................................................................................................................................................12
3.6 Biomass of vegetation......................................................................................................................................12
4 Flora ................................................................................................................................................................14
4.1 Overview..........................................................................................................................................................14
4.2 Lichens.............................................................................................................................................................14
4.3 Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) ................................................................................................................14
4.4 Ferns.................................................................................................................................................................14
4.5 Grasses and bamboos.......................................................................................................................................15
4.6 Pandans and similar plants...............................................................................................................................15
4.7 Gingers and ginger relatives (order Zingiberales)............................................................................................15
4.8 Other herbaceous plants and shrubs.................................................................................................................16
4.9 Other epiphytes ................................................................................................................................................16
4.10 Creeping & scrambling plants..........................................................................................................................16
4.11 Lianas...............................................................................................................................................................17
4.12 Rattans..............................................................................................................................................................17
4.13 Other palms......................................................................................................................................................17
4.14 Small trees........................................................................................................................................................18
4.15 Trees.................................................................................................................................................................18
4.16 Non-native plants in the forest .........................................................................................................................20

xv
5 Fauna...............................................................................................................................................................21
5.1 Overview..........................................................................................................................................................21
5.2 Soil invertebrates..............................................................................................................................................21
5.3 Termites ...........................................................................................................................................................21
5.4 Cave invertebrates............................................................................................................................................22
5.5 Molluscs on limestone......................................................................................................................................22
5.6 Leeches.............................................................................................................................................................23
5.7 Freshwater fish.................................................................................................................................................23
5.8 Amphibians......................................................................................................................................................23
5.9 Reptiles.............................................................................................................................................................23
5.10 Birds.................................................................................................................................................................23
5.11 Mammals..........................................................................................................................................................23
5.12 Factors limiting vertebrate populations............................................................................................................27
6 Conservation of ecological processes and biodiversity in upper Tabalong ...............................................28
6.1 General.............................................................................................................................................................28
6.2 Extent of forest.................................................................................................................................................28
6.2.1 Lowland forests................................................................................................................................................28
6.2.2 Tree plantations................................................................................................................................................28
6.3 Protection and conservation forest ...................................................................................................................30
6.3.1 Legal basis........................................................................................................................................................30
6.3.2 Problems...........................................................................................................................................................30
6.3.3 Needs................................................................................................................................................................31
6.4 Production forest..............................................................................................................................................31
6.4.1 Current legal provisions ...................................................................................................................................31
6.4.2 Road and skid trail alignment...........................................................................................................................32
6.4.3 Lianas...............................................................................................................................................................32
6.4.4 Production forestry and conservation...............................................................................................................32
6.5 Illegal logging ..................................................................................................................................................33
6.6 Fire...................................................................................................................................................................34
6.7 Ladang encroachment ......................................................................................................................................35
6.8 Rivers & streams (freshwater life) ...................................................................................................................35
6.8.1 Damaging fishing methods...............................................................................................................................35
6.8.2 Mercury from illegal gold mining....................................................................................................................35
6.8.3 Excessive suspended solids..............................................................................................................................35
6.9 Caves................................................................................................................................................................36
7 Species conservation issues in upper Tabalong ...........................................................................................37
7.1 General.............................................................................................................................................................37
7.2 Protected species..............................................................................................................................................37
7.3 IUCN Red List species.....................................................................................................................................37
7.4 Endangered, rare an threatened species............................................................................................................38
7.5 Non timber plant harvesting.............................................................................................................................39
7.6 Hunting & animal product harvesting..............................................................................................................39
7.6.1 Wild meat species ............................................................................................................................................39
7.6.2 Large animals...................................................................................................................................................40
7.6.3 Edible bird nests...............................................................................................................................................40
7.6.4 Song birds ........................................................................................................................................................40
7.7 Non ERT species..............................................................................................................................................41
8 Monitoring biodiversity, forest condition and ecological functions...........................................................42
8.1 General background .........................................................................................................................................42
8.1.1 Monitoring tropical production forests – Why and What?...............................................................................42

xvi
8.1.2 What can field studies and monitoring reveal? ................................................................................................42
8.1.3 Theory and practice..........................................................................................................................................43
8.2 Some key issues ...............................................................................................................................................43
8.2.1 Indicators of what?...........................................................................................................................................43
8.2.2 Who conducts monitoring? ..............................................................................................................................43
8.2.3 Variation through a forest concession..............................................................................................................44
8.2.4 Criteria for choice of organisms suitable for monitoring ................................................................................44
8.2.5 Organisms proposed, rejected and tested for suitability...................................................................................45
8.2.6 Possible approaches to designing a forest condition monitoring programme ..................................................47
8.3 Does the presence and abundance of pioneer plants reflect forest condition? .................................................48
8.3.1 Concept ............................................................................................................................................................48
8.3.2 Field checks......................................................................................................................................................48
8.4 Conclusions......................................................................................................................................................49
8.4.1 Biodiversity versus endangered, rare and threatened species...........................................................................49
8.4.2 Forest condition and ecological functions........................................................................................................50
9 References.......................................................................................................................................................51
List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Major guide books to the tree flora and vertebrate fauna of Borneo / Kalimantan............................................55
Appendix 2 Ecologist field surveys in upper Tabalong.........................................................................................................57
Appendix 3 Specialist surveys of flora and fauna in upper Tabalong ...................................................................................62
Appendix 4 Examples of habitats in upper Tabalong............................................................................................................64
List of Tables
Table 1 : Estimates of above-ground plant biomass of various vegetation types in south-eastern Kalimantan......................12
Table 2 : Some significant tree species in upper Tabalong.....................................................................................................18
Table 3 : Molluscs from Tanggur limestone...........................................................................................................................22
Table 4 : Mammals in upper Tabalong...................................................................................................................................24
Table 5 : Endangered, rare and threatened species in upper Tabalong...................................................................................38
Table 6. Criteria for choice of indicator organisms suitable for monitoring...........................................................................44
Table 7. Animal and plant groups investigated as possible indicators of forest condition .....................................................46
Table 8 : Pioneer plants of upper Tabalong that indicate poor forest or non-forest................................................................48
List of Figures
Figure 1. Some significant issues in ecological and biodiversity conservation......................................................................29
Figure 2. A patch of hill dipterocarp forest remaining in the HTI “Murni” of PT. AYI about 2 km east of Panaan village
(2001).............................................................................................................................................................................65
Figure 3. Hill dipterocarp forest logged two years previously, showing prolific growth of pioneer plants such as Macaranga
and Melastoma (PT. AYI 1998-99 felling block; 2000) ................................................................................................65
Figure 4. Lowland dipterocarp forest showing a good example of the rare tree Canarium decumanum with its pale smooth
bark (Arberetum; 2000) .................................................................................................................................................65
Figure 5. Valley bottom dipterocarp forest, showing numerous small and medium-sized trees, lush undergrowth and
remains of a Shorea johorensis tree (right of centre), felled by gold miners for the buttresses (used to make pans);
between Gunung Tanggur and Missim River (1999).....................................................................................................66
Figure 6. Lowland dipterocarp forest, showing Gunung Tanggur limestone in the background (west of Upper Tutui River;
1999)..............................................................................................................................................................................66
Figure 7. Biwan (Endertia spectabilis) forest, with typical features of coppicing from the tree trunk, and moist, rocky soils
(north side of Sinangoh River; 2001..............................................................................................................................66

xvii
Figure 8. Canopy of a biwan tree with unripe fruits (November 2001)..................................................................................66
Figure 9. Dipterocarp-poor hill forest: this is old secondary forest (with charecteristic strangling fig and sungkai Peronema
canescens tree) in the Upper Tutui River, presumably site of a Lawangan settlement about a century ago (1999)......67
Figure 10. Dipterocarp-poor hill forest, typical of that on the South and Central Kalimantan border hills, here showing
Octomeles sumatrana (2000).........................................................................................................................................67
Figure 11. Riverine forest at junction of the Sinangoh and Tutui Rivers; ulin wood harvesters trail is visible on right (1999).67
Figure 12. The rare and beautiful Ficus albipila tree (superficially similar to Koompassia excelsa), previously recorded in
Borneo only from Banjarmasin (19th century record) and eastern Sabah; the species occurs along the Missim and
Ayu-Pasuang Rivers.......................................................................................................................................................67
Figure 13. Forest on the lower slopes of Gunung Tanggur limestone (1999).........................................................................68
Figure 14. Secondary forest on non-alluvial soil, dominated by the Borneo endemic tree Macaranga glandibracteolata (Km
83, PT. AYI road; 2000) ................................................................................................................................................68
Figure 15. Secondary forest on moist alluvial soil (Missim) showing lush growth of small trees and herbs (1999) .............68
Figure 16. Forest on the Upper part of Gunung Tanggur limestone, showing absence of large trees (1999).........................68
Figure 17. Roadside growth At km 56, PT. AYI road, showing a young Dillenia reticulata tree, with secondary forest
burned by ladang makers behind (2001)........................................................................................................................69
Figure 18. Roadside growth at km 76, PT. AYI road, showing good regrowth of various pioneer trees near the road, and a
remnant Shorea laevis (bangkirai) tree (top right) in the logged hill dipterocarp forest behind (2001).........................69
Figure 19. Jungle rubber” near Binjai, Ayu River, with a Durio kutejensis (pampakin) tree in the foreground ....................69
Figure 20. Scrub and alang-alang grass landscape South of Amparibura, the typical vegetation over much of the land
between Tanjung and Panaan, which contributes nothing to species conservation or to the economy or welfare of local
people (2001) .................................................................................................................................................................69
Figure 21. A typical stream within hill dipterocarp forest in Upper Tabalong, with exposed rock and coarse gravel as the
main substrate ( Arboretum; 2001) ................................................................................................................................70
Figure 22. Upper Missim above the Pasuang junction, with limestone and alluvium forming the riverbanks (1999) ...........70
Figure 23. One of many patches of burned forest scattered over the Upper Tabalong far from any road or human habitation,
ranging in extent from less than 1 hectare to saveral hectares. This one is half way between the Upper Tutui River and
Gunung tanggur limestone.............................................................................................................................................70
Figure 24. Entrance to cave in the Gunung Tanggur limestone..............................................................................................70
Figure 25. Vatica javanica scaphifolia (Dipterocarpaceae) a tree recorded only from the Balikpapan-Samarinda area and
the PT. AYI Arboretum. ................................................................................................................................................71
Figure 26. An infant honey bear (Helarctos malyanus), one of the few threatened mammal species found in Upper
Tabalong ........................................................................................................................................................................71
Figure 27. A natural concentrated mineral source (probably rich in magnesium) on the bank of the Upper Tutui River (at 10
32’ 50” S, 1150
29’ 16” E), visited by mammals, pigeons and large flying insects.......................................................71

1
1 Introduction
This report covers three aspects of the ecology and biodiversity the upper Tabalong
area in South Kalimantan. Firstly, the habitats, flora and fauna of this area are
described (sections 3, 4 and 5). The report represents the first detailed investigation
of biodiversity of any forest site in South Kalimantan province. Secondly, the
various issues relevant to conservation of biodiversity and ecological processes in
upper Tabalong are discussed, at the levels of habitat and species (sections 6 and
7). Thirdly, a study of possible means for biological monitoring of production
forests is described and conclusions drawn. This was conducted as part of the
process of investigating biodiversity in the PT. Aya Yayang Indonesia production
forest concession in upper Tabalong. The main purpose is to provide information,
analyses and recommendations which can assist land use policy-makers, forest
managers and others to play a role in supporting biodiversity conservation in upper
Tabalong.
1.1 Scope of “biodiversity” in this report
The term “biodiversity” is used in the report to refer to flora, fauna and the habitats
in which they occur. The levels of biodiversity discussed in this report are species
and habitats; genetic diversity is not addressed.
This report does not provide a comprehensive listing of the species present in upper
Tabalong, an endeavour which would require very many years of intensive work
by many taxonomic specialists. Instead, the emphasis is on those groups of plants
and animals which (a) are well-known in other areas of Borneo, thus allowing
comparison, (b) typically include rare and endangered species, and (c) are likely to
be sensitive to forest disturbance.
1.2 Geographical coverage
The term “upper Tabalong” is an approximation of the area covered in this report.
The surveys done are not comprehensive for the upper Tabalong River catchment.
For example, the highest altitudes of Gunung Luang (more than 1,000 metres
above sea leve) were not covered. Some surveys done during the course of
gathering information in the field entered the catchments of the Kenarem River
which flows into the Karau River in Central Kalimantan, and the Pemaraian River
which flows into the Rongan River in East Kalimantan.

2
2 Methods
Unless indicated otherwise, all species referred to in this report have been observed
or collected in the upper Tabalong area and identified either by using published
books, or by reference to herbarium specimens, or by specialist experts.
Information of uncertain origin or reliability is not included in this report.
2.1 Examination of published materials on Kalimantan flora and fauna
Published materials were obtained and examined. The most significant readily-
available sources are published books relating to trees, orchids and vertebrate fauna
of Borneo in general or particular regions of Borneo (Appendix 1). These books
provided important means to identify trees and vertebrates. An interactive key to
the tree genera of Kalimantan is available at website
http://django.harvard.edu/users/jjarvie/borneo.htm. The “CDNFI” system of
cataloguing Indonesian trees (Boden, 2001) has too many omissions and errors
(including species which are not trees, and non-native species) to be useful. Apart
from orchids, there are no similar comprehensive guides for non-tree flora or
invertebrates.
None of the above sources refer specifically to south-eastern Kalimantan. In
general, the flora and fauna of Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia) are better researched
that of Kalimantan (Indonesia). No published scientific papers relevant to the upper
Tabalong area were located.
2.2 Examination of unpublished materials on Kalimantan flora and fauna
There are some botanical records but no zoological records for Tabalong area in
the Indonesian Biodiversity Information System (IBIS) held at Museum
Zoologicum Bogoriense, Widyasatwaloka Building, Jl. Raya Bogor Km. 46,
Cibinong. These records consist of botanical collections mainly of gingers, orchids
and palms, made in the Jaro area in 1970’s by John Dransfield (Kew), E. de Vogel
(Leiden) and Kuswata Kartawinata (Indonesia). No other records of botanical
surveys or collections from Tabalong prior to SCKPFP work are known.
Great caution is needed in use of unpublished materials relating to the flora and
fauna of south-eastern Kalimantan where the records are not related to collections
made by experts. In particular, lists of tree species based on local names are highly
misleading. Some local names refer to one species, some to one or more genera,
some to a whole family, and some to a mix of unrelated genera. Some names are
used to refer to a certain species in one area, but to a different species in another
area; and some local names used in upper Tabalong do not appear in any existing
lists. The unpublished list of Hildebrand (1949), available in Universitas Lambung
Mangkurat (Banjarbaru) is interesting as a guide, but not as a means to compile
lists of species.
Species lists of plants and animals in the Environmental Impact Assessment
(AMDAL, 1998) for the P.T. Aya Yayang Indonesia production forest area in
upper Tabalong have no indication of the information sources. Of the “ten most
common tree species” reported for upper Tabalong in this AMDAL, six have not

3
been seen during SCKPFP work done by Kalimantan tree specialists, while two are
present but relatively rare.
2.3 Ecologist field surveys
Much of the time involved in investigating the ecology and biodiversity of upper
Tabalong consisted of field surveys in upper Tabalong, mainly in the P.T. Aya
Yayang Indonesia production forest area (Appendix 2). Some of these surveys
were done especially to obtain information on wild species and habitats, but many
surveys also had other purposes and some were done in collaboration with experts
from other components of SCKPFP.
2.4 Specialist flora and fauna surveys
Surveys of the flora and fauna of upper Tabalong were conducted by specialists
(national and European), in and near the P.T. Aya Yayang Indonesia production
forest area (see list in Appendix 3). In selecting taxonomic groups for investigation,
emphasis was given to those groups which were considered possible candidates for
biological monitoring of forest condition. Thus, trees and rattans were chosen
because they are prominent and might be suitable for monitoring by HPH field
staff; lianas, orchids, lichens and bryophytes were chosen because they represent
groups that tend to be sensitive to changes in light, moisture and temperatue
resulting from logging disturbance; soil invertebrates, including termites, were
chosen because top-soil and leaf litter are stongly influenced by logging methods
and intensity; frogs and fish were chosen because they are likely to be affected by
changes in water quality resulting from logging on slopes.
For almost all plant and animal groups, it is necessary to collect samples for
identification of species. In general, only for birds and large mammals is it possible
to reliably indentify species by field observation alone. For plants, accurate
identification requires collection of samples and preparation of dried specimens,
ideally with flower or fruits. For animals, accurate identification requires collection
of samples and retention in preservatives (formalin or alcohol). All taxonomic
experts engaged by SCKPFP made such collections. For plants collected in upper
Tabalong, permanent specimens are retained at one or both of Wanariset Samboja
herbarium, East Kalimantan (a division under Balai Penelitian Kehutanan,
Samarinda, and the foremost taxonomic botanical research institution in
Kalimantan) and / or Herbarium Bogoriense (the Indonesian national herbarium, a
division of Litbang Biologi, LIPI, in Bogor). Where available, duplicate specimens
have been sent to other institutions including Rijksherbarium (the national
herbarium of the Netherlands). For animals, invertebrate and fish specimens are
retained at Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (the national zoological museum at
Cibinong) while amphibian and reptile specimens are retained at the biology
museum of Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Institut Teknologi
Bandung (which contains one of the major scientific collections of amphibia and
reptiles in Indonesia).

4
3 Forest types and other natural habitats
3.1 Ecological forest types in upper Tabalong
The natural vegetation of all land in upper Tabalong is forest, containing a diverse
array of plant and animal species. Relatively few species are confined to only one
kind of physical situation. Thus, a classification of vegetation types is somewhat
arbitrary, depending mainly on a combination of the most prominent plant species
and on prominent physical features. The classification provided here uses trees and
other natural characteristics as a basis.
The descriptions and discussion below combine observations made by the SCKPFP
Ecologist, the SCKPFP site classification specialist (Boden, 2001), the botanical
staff of the Wanariset Samboja herbarium, East Kalimantan (Sidiyasa & Zainal,
2001) and Dr Paul Kessler of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands. The term
“ecological forest types” is used to distinguish other classifications based on the
needs of timber production management. In practice, the various forest types
described here may merge into one another without a sharply defined boundary.
The majority of natural forest remaining in upper Tabalong can be described as
commercially logged dipterocarp forest, in which at least some of the large trees
are members of the family Dipterocarpaceae. Based on SCKPFP field surveys in
upper Tabalong, four types of dipterocarp forest are recognized in this report, of
which two are dominated by dipterocarp trees, while two contain but are not
dominated by dipterocarp trees. Two areas where additional forest types might
occur have not been visited, due to their relatively remote locations. Firstly, local
informants state that the water in Sungai Merah (a tributary of the Tutui River, just
outside the northern boundary of the PT AYI concession at around 115o
34’ E, 1o
28’ S) is tea-coloured, suggesting the presence of sandy, podsolic or peaty soils in
this area. Secondly, PT AYI field staff report the presence of forest containing
Agathis trees in the north-western corner of the concession. Agathis has not been
seen by the Ecologist in upper Tabalong, although the superficially similar conifer
Nageia wallichiana (Podocarpaceae; locally referred to as “agatis”) has been seen
as very rare, scattered trees and seedlings in the PT AYI concession.
Apart from the more detailed descriptions (below), the dipterocarp forests of upper
Tabalong have a number of characteristics in common. Firstly, the exact species
composition of trees and other plants varies greatly from site to site, both within as
well as between forest types. Secondly, although certain tendencies and species
associations are clear, the exact composition of even the most prominent tree
species is not consistently related to slope, altitude, aspect or distance from top or
bottom of a hill.
In general, the upper Tabalong area appears to be relatively poor in dipterocarp
species diversity compared to low-altitude hill ranges in many other parts of
Borneo island. Although about 37 species of Dipterocarpaceae have been recorded
in upper Tabalong to date, this is rather low in view of the heterogeneity in altitude,
slope and soil types. In the Labanan production forest concession at Berau,
northern East Kalimantan, for example, 62 dipterocarp species have been recorded
(Kessler, 2000). The difference is in part due to the more intensive tree
identification surveys by specialists done at Berau, but there is also a natural

5
biogeographical difference. Within Borneo island, the diversity of dipterocarp
species is highest in the west and north. Kessler (pers. comm.) has suggested that
the Barito and Mahakam Rivers, and also the limestone hills of Sangkulirang in
East Kalimantan, may have acted as partial barriers to dispersal of plants from the
north (including Philippines) and west (including Sumatera).
3.1.1 Hill dipterocarp forest
This is the most widespread natural forest type in upper Tabalong. Most has been
logged (see below, this section). The common characteristics of this forest are (a)
that trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae are more common than any other single
plant family amongst trees greater than 10 cm. dbh (although locally the family
Euphorbiaceae may dominate amongst the smaller trees) and (b) the land form
consists of slopes, generally of gradient 20 – 80%, except on ridge tops. The
natural range of biomass of dipterocarps in this forest type cannot be estimated
with certainty, as most of this forest type has been exploited. Based on 24 “FSES”
(forest, soil and ecological survey) plots of 40 x 40 m (Boden, 2001), it appears
that basal area of trees > 10 cm DBH in this forest type would typically exceed 40
m2 and basal area of trees > 50 cm DBH would exceed 20 m2.
The commonest dipterocarps in most areas of upper Tabalong are the red meranti
(with reddish or pinkish-brown inner bark and pale or brownish damar resin), with
Shorea parvistipulata, S. leprosula, S. johorensis, S. parvifolia and S. smithiana
probably the most common species overall, all of which are classed a “light red
meranti” for timber purposes. Other species in the meranti merah group include S.
ovalis, S. beccariana, S.macrophylla and S. pinanga. The last three species are also
catgeorised as tengkawang, the group of Shorea that produces seeds containing an
edible fat. The only “dark red meranti” recorded in upper Tabalong is Shorea
pauciflora. Yellow meranti (with clear black damar resin; including S. mujongensis
and S. cf. patoiensis) are much less common than red meranti, and tend to occur
localized as clumps of very large trees on the middle to upper parts of hill slopes.
White meranti (with laminated inner bark; only S. lamellata recorded to date) are
very rare and scattered. The genus Parashorea has not been found in upper
Tabalong.
In upper Tabalong, it is notable that only two species of the heavy hardwood
Shorea species (= the selangan batu = balau group) have been recorded : S. laevis
(local name : bangkirai, also angih or jengan) and S. seminis (which is also
classified as a tengkawang). Bangkirai is scattered in occurrence, in many sites
totally absent in upper Tabalong, but locally common (with good regeneration of
saplings) on well-drained upper parts of hill slopes at medium elevations. In
contrast, there are 8 species of balau in Berau, northern East Kalimantan, and these
trees often dominate steep hill ranges in Sabah and Sarawak.
Kapur (Dryobalanops lanceolata; no other species of the genus have been found in
upper Tabalong) is widespread but rather patchy in distribution, with some
tendency to predominate on the gentler, moister parts of slopes, sometimes in
association with biwan (3.1.3).
At least nine species of keruing (Dipterocarpus borneensis, D. cornutus, D.
crinitus, D. grandiflorus, D. humeratus, D. pachypyllus, D.palembanicus, D.
stellatus and D. tempehes recorded to date) are widespread but tend to be localized,
often towards the lower end of hill slopes or on gentle slopes, and more rarely on
steep slopes or at the highest altitudes.

6
Two species of mersawa (Anisoptera costata and A. marginata) are rare.
At least four Hopea species (H. dryobalanoides, H. mengerawan, H. rudiformis
and H.semicuneata; local name : merawan) have been recorded in upper Tabalong.
Hopea trees rarely reach 100 cm dbh (the largest recorded in the FSES plots was
75 cm dbh), and tend to be either absent from a particular area or locally gregarious
(an extreme case was FSES Plot No. 22, where 27% of all trees above 10 cm dbh
were two species of Hopea).
At least six species of Vatica (V. javanica scaphifolia, V. oblongifolia, V. rassak, V.
sarawakensis, V. umbonata and V. venuolosa) local name : resak) have been
recorded in upper Tabalong, but all are rare. Only 18 Vatica trees were recorded in
6.63 ha of FSES plots and transects, all well below commercial size.
The composition of trees other than dipterocarps in this forest type is highly
variable. There are tendencies for certain tree species or groups of species to be
found in similar situations of position on slopes. Examples include the following :
Elateriospermum tapos (Euphorbiaceae; local name = wayan or tapos, and
favoured for firewood) tends to occur gregariously on the slopes of lower hills
where there are yellowish, rather sandy soils; this tree rarely exceeds about 40 cm
dbh. Syzygium species (Myrtaceae; local name = jambu-jambu or duhat) of all
species tend to be more common at higher altitudes and on the upper slopes of
hills. Dyera costulata (Apocynaceae; local name = pantung or jelutung) is now
very rare, being largely confined to the accessible southern parts of the remaining
forest on low hills. Two families (Ebenaceae, with only one genus, Diospyros, and
Myristicaceae with four genera Gymnacanthera, Horsfieldia, Knema and
Myristica) contain trees which are characteristic of closed-canopy, mature forest
throughout much of upper Tabalong. These trees, which represent 8% of all trees in
the FSES plots (Boden, 2001) rarely reach commercial size.
In comparison to forest which has not been logged, hill dipterocarp forest which
has been logged during the past twenty years or so has a generally lower and more
broken canopy, with noticeably fewer large trees, relatively more thin-stemmed
lianas (compared to fewer, thicker lianas in unlogged forest), generally more
monocotyledonous plants (grasses, gingers, climbing and small palms), with more
light reaching the ground and lower humidity at ground level. Gaps remaining
where trees were cut or knocked over during logging contain some trees which
represent saplings present before logging, but many of the trees in these gaps are
pioneers which have appeared because the gaps created suitable growing
conditions. Common pioneer trees growing in the gaps in logged dipterocarp forest
in upper Tabalong are : at least 13 Macaranga species and at least 10 Mallotus
species (Euphorbiaceae), Anthocephalus chinensis (= Neolamarckia cadamba;
Rubiaceae; known locally as jabon, bunto, melampayon, kelempayan), Cananga
odorata (Annonaceae; kenanga), Duabanga moluccana (Sonneratiaceae; often
known locally as binuang laki), Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae; binuang), and
Ficus species (Moraceae). Locally abundant on higher land in logged forest is
Xylopia stenopetala (Annonaceae; banitan jankang) and Campnosperma
auriculatum (Anacardiaceae; terentang, tapau), while Tristaniopsis whiteana
(Myrtaceae; pelawan) is prominent on rocky slopes. Based on FSES plot data in the
PT AYI concession, pioneer trees may outnumber dipterocarps by a ratio of about
3 : 1 in forest logged “properly” within the last twenty years, away from roads (all
trees > 10 cm dbh). The term “properly” logged is used because logging intensity
in upper Tabalong is very variable. Some sites were logged using the very
damaging highline yarding (“Skaget” logging) or have been logged over twice,

7
leaving very damaged areas which will not readily regenerate as dipterocarp forest.
Other sites have experienced minimal damage probably due to a combination of
steep slopes, distance from a road, and inefficiency when the block was being
worked. Despite the prominence of pioneer trees in hill dipterocarp forest logged
during the past twenty years or so, Dipterocarpaceae normally regain their
prominence as the most common trees if the forest is left undisturbed for several
decades.
3.1.2 Lowland and valley bottom dipterocarp forest
This forest differs from hill dipterocarp forest in (a) having predominantly gentle
gradients (mainly less than 20%) and (b) containing several tree species which are
very rarely found in hill dipterocarp forest. The soils are likely to be more
constantly moist than those under hill dipterocarp forest, favoring survival of
seedlings during dry periods and plant growth potential in general. This forest
occurs between the Tutui River and Gunung Tanggur limestone, along parts of the
Missim, Kumap and Ayu river valleys, and in narrow zones along streams within
hilly areas at lower elevations.
“Indicator” tee species which normally occur in this forest type, and rarely in hill
dipterocarp forest, are Eusideroxylon zwageri (Lauraceae; ulin) and Koompassia
excelsa (Leguminosae; kusi or mengaris). Other tree species which tend to occur
mainly in this forest type in upper Tablong include Shorea pinanga (tengkawang),
Pometia pinnata (Sapindaceae; often referred to locally but incorrectly as anglai,
which is the traditional South Kalimantan name for the legume Intsia
palembanica), Magnolia lasia, Canarium decumanum (Burseraceae; locally called
gagala, a name which is confusingly used also for the unrelated Koordersiodendron
pinnatum) and Scorodocarpus borneensis (Olacaceae; kayu bawang). Biwan (see
below) occurs in some but not all of this forest type.
The impacts of logging on this forest type are similar to those observed in hill
dipterocarp forest. However, presumably due to the easier operating conditions for
bulldozers, most dipterocarp trees above 50 cm dbh have been removed, and
damage to the forest structure is typically greater than is seen in hill dipterocarp
forest. Thus, most of this forest type is currently poor in dipterocarps, and large
trees of other families, notably Leguminosae, Burseraceae, Sapindaceae,
Meliaceae, Anacardiaceae and Lauraceae, are more prominent.
3.1.3 Biwan forest
Biwan is the name used locally in upper Tabalong by Dayak and Banjar people for
Endertia spectabilis (Leguminosae sub-family Caesalpinioideae), a tree commonly
reaching in excess of 60 cm. dbh and 30 metres height. It is known only from the
upper Tabalong catchment, adjacent provincial border areas, and parts of northern
East Kalimantan. The type specimen is a tree in the Bogor Botanic Gardens
believed to have been derived from material collected in the Kutai area by the
explorer F M Nieuwenhuis in May 1897 (P. Kessler, pers. comm.).
This tree species is extraordinary in that it has an extremely limited natural
distribution, yet is locally abundant in parts of upper Tabalong, and regenerates
robustly from seed in logged areas, and by coppicing from over-mature trees.

8
The wood is superficially attractive in being dense with a rich, dark reddish colour.
However, it is reported to warp and split even after seasoning, and almost
impossible to peel or plane (pers. comm. staff of Barito Pacific mill, Banjarmasin).
Hence it is not felled by PTAYI or by illegal cutters. Biwan appears to occur as the
dominant tree in most or all sites in PTAYI which are a combination of (a) lower
slopes (as opposed to higher slopes and ridges), (b) mixed rockiness and rather
dark-coloured soil, and (c) very moist. It occurs on sedimentary, volcanic and
limestone substrates. Although zones exist where typical dipterocarp forest merges
with Biwan forest, a distinctive Biwan forest can be recognized in some places,
where this species is the commonest tree species and where dipterocarps are in a
clear minority. Kayu arang (Diospyros; Ebenaceae) is often one of the more
common trees wherever biwan occurs on slopes; it has not been determined if this
represents one or more than one Diospyros species.
Nine out of 24 FSES plots (37.5% of all plots), contained biwan trees, and in four
of these (16.7% of all plots), biwan constituted more than 10% of all trees and the
most common tree species locally. Based on this, it seems likely that about 15% of
the PT AYI concession area may consist of Biwan forest.
Biwan forest contains high densities and diversity of soil invertebrates in general,
but very few termites (section 5.3).
It is believed locally that biwan flowers are an important source of nectar for wild
honey bees. Some young biwan trees in forest logged in the late 1970’s were seen
flowering in year 2001. Not every biwan tree flowers every year, but a high
percentage of all biwan trees flower annually between August – October, with ripe
fruits appearing in December.
3.1.4 Dipterocarp-poor hill forest
Mature forest with few dipterocarp trees can be found in two situations : (b) very
old secondary forest on sites of former human settlements, and (b) South – Central
Kalimantan border hills of volcanic origin where the reasons for existence of this
forest type are unclear.
(a) Secondary forest refers here to forest which has grown on land that was once
totally cleared of forest cover. The occurrence of very old secondary forest is
inferred for sites where forest structure resembles dipterocarp forest but tree
species composition indicates human influence. Such forest, which has been seen
along the Tutui River and its tributaries, is at least 50 years old and possibly more
than 100 years old. This forest is rich in trees which bear fruits edible to man,
notably Artocarpus, Durio, Baccaurea and trees of the families Sapindaceae and
Meliaceae. A clear example was seen on the hill slopes north-east of where the
Sinango River meets the Tutui River, at about 200 metres asl, where a fragment of
pottery was found in the soil. Large Artocarpus and Durio species occur, along
with strangling figs and large Peronema canescens (Verbenaceae; sungkai) trees,
the latter an indicator of past forest disturbance. Another example is just south of
FSES plot 5, also above a tributary of the Tutui River, at about 150 metres asl,
where Durio kutejensis (Bombacaceae; pampakin) and Artocarpus integer
(Moraceae; cempedak) occur along with Dinochloa climbing bamboo, also an
indicator of forest disturbance which is elsewhere rare in upper Tabalong.
(b) Tree species composition is variable but in many sites poor in dipterocarps on
the hills which form the border area between South and Central Kalimantan

9
(known as Kasali hills at the southern end). On the Systematic Geological Map,
Indonesia for Buntok (Quadrangle 1714, 1994, 1:250,000 scale) the southern part
of the zone on which this forest occurs is described as “Kasale volcanics” (mostly
greyish green pyroxene basalt) and the northern part as “correlated to the Pitap
Formation” (interbedded sedimentary and volcanic rocks).
This forest is unexploited or hardly exploited for timber and the paucity of
dipterocarps appears not to be associated with direct human activity, as the location
is on high hill slopes not near to permanent streams. Also, there are few trees
producing fruits edible to man, and sungkai (an indicator of past forest loss) is rare
or absent. However, the presence of mature old individuals of some tree species
that tend to be pioneers on deforested land suggests that past drought, fire, strong
winds and (on very steep slopes) landslips may have contributed to the unusual tree
species composition.
Large trees seen in this area included Lauraceae species (local name = medang),
Sterculia macrophylla, Pometia species, Octomeles sumatrana, Duabanga
moluccana and Koompassia excelsa. Small-crowned, large stangling figs are fairly
common. Perhaps the most distinctive feature is the presence of a Pterygota
species, possibly P. trinervia (Sterculiaceae), which was seen in the northern part
of this forest, and which represents a genus previously recorded in Borneo only
from Sarawak.
3.1.5 Riverine forest
This forest has a very limited distribution along river banks in the valleys of rivers
(Missim, Tutui, Kumap, Ayu, Pasuang) and larger streams. It is not clearly distinct
from lowland and valley bottom dipterocarp forest. Dipterocarps are scarce or
absent; Dipterocarpus oblongifolius, a tree often characteristic of inland
Kalimantan river banks, has not been seen in upper Tabalong. Tree species
composition varies from site to site. Riverside forest along the larger rivers (Tutui,
Missim, upper Ayu) normally contains tall legumes (Koompassia excelsa, Parkia
species), tree Ficus species including F. albipila, and Dracontomelon dao
(Anacardiaceae; dao or sengkuang). A common tree along some streams is Saraca
declinata (Leguminosae; which also occurs on moist rocky slopes), which often
occurs on rocky river sides together with biwan.
3.1.6 Forest on limestone : lower slopes and scree
Plant species composition of forest on limestone slopes and scree (boulders at the
base of limestone outcrops) clearly varies from site to site, but total species
diversity of trees (FSES plot data) and lianas (Gardette, 2001) is lower than in
dipterocarp forest.
In FSES plot 20 (limestone slopes north of Pasuang River) 11 out of 60 live trees
were dipterocarps (mostly Dipterocarpus, with some meranti merah, meranti
kuning and Hopea), but the names of 32 trees were unknown to the most
experienced staff of the PT AYI “Litbang”, representing the highest percentage of
“unknowns” of all the FSES plots. Ulin and biwan are present in this forest.
Undergrowth includes woody seedlings and saplings, gingers, herbs, lianas (mostly
small diameter) and rattans.

10
Forest on the west side of Gunung Tanggur (between Missim and Tutui Rivers)
was found to differ from place to place. In FSES plot 24 (limestone slope east of
Missim River), not one tree out of 65 was a dipterocarp. Trees locally common in
and near the plot included Aglaia sylvestris, Polyalthia species, Endertia
spectabilis, Diopyros species and Cleistanthus megacarpus (Sidiyasa & Zainal,
2001). Elsewhere, Heritiera cf. elata (dungun) was a common large tree on this
limestone. Only one dipterocarp (Shorea johorensis) was seen on the Gunung
Tanggur limestone.
3.1.7 Forest on limestone : cliffs and ridges
No botanical surveys were done on this habitat. There are no large trees. Plant
composition and diversity is limited by water stress, which presumably occurs
annually during dry periods. This habitat is also susceptible to fire. Much of the
vegetation on limestone cliffs and ridges, particularly in the Ayu-Pasuang area, was
heavily burned during the 1997 drought.
3.2 Secondary growth
Apart from the existence of natural forests modified by long past cultivation and by
commercial logging over the past thirty years (described above), much of the land
in upper Tabalong is covered in a variety of secondary growth. In order to simplify
this variety, five main types are described here, three of which can be regarded as
“forest”. The key features of secondary forest are that : all trees have been totally
removed from the site at some time during the past few decades; all or most trees
now present are native species, having arrived through dispersal by animals, wind,
water or gravity; if left undisturbed, the forest will remain and grow in terms of
wood biomass and species diversity. The five types of secondary growth are
arranged in decreasing order of their value for biodiversity and soil quality.
(a) Secondary forest on alluvial soils The presence of secondary forest on the
alluvial soils near to river banks is usually a sign of former rice fields of native
residents. This forest can now be found mainly on Missim River above Missim
village and on the Ayu River. Prominent trees may include Endospermum
diadenum, Pterospermum diversifolium, Artocarpus anisophyllus, Monocarpia
kalimantensis and Dillenia excelsa, along with remnant biwan, but Macaranga
and Mallotus species are not especially prominent. Soils under this forest are
fertile and moist. The high biodiversity value accorded to this habitat is
because all forest on alluvium is rare and under pressure for cultivation, but it
supports plant species which are rare or absent elsewhere, and there is high
natural productivity of resources (flowers, fruits and young leaves) which are
important to sustaining animal life.
(b) Secondary forest on non-alluvial soils Plant species composition is different
from secondary forest on alluvium, with Macaranga and Mallotus species
normally prominent. Other common trees include Trema species and Euodia
species. Soils under this forest are generally less fertile than alluvium, and
productivity of wild animal foods is lower. This forest is widespread, and may
have developed on patches of production forest land heavily damaged by
logging operations, or on land burned unintentionally, as well as on former rice
fields.

11
(c) Roadside growth Roadsides attract people who plant hill rice and rubber, but
many roadsides within the PT AYI concession have so far escaped clearance.
The plant species composition of roadside growth is affected by the fact that
logging intensity has been high and, along major roads, because the original
forest was cleared to allow maximum sunlight for drying the road. Tree species
composition varies from place to place. Tristaniopsis whiteana grows on
barren rocky cuttings. Neonauclea gigantea (Rubiaceae; bangkal) tends to
predominate on damper exposed rocky sites. Where soil has been pushed off
the original road and conditions are relatively moist, Anthocephalus cadamba
occurs abundantly, reaching 40 cm dbh within 20 years on optimum sites. Due
to the good form of these trees, their proximity to roadsides and the existence
of a market unexploited by PT AYI, this species has become a favoured target
of illegal loggers since mid 2000. Macaranga species, Mallotus species,
Geunsia pentandra (Verbenaceae) and Trema orientalis occur patchily, and
gregariously in some sites. Ficus grossularoides is also locally abundant in
some sites. Dillenia reticulata (Dilleniaceae) occurs patchily but is widespread
throughout the upper Tabalong region (including in industrial tree plantations
and in rural village roads). The seeds of most of these secondary trees are
probably dispersed mainly by fruit bats, small terrestrial mammals, and certain
birds, notably bulbuls and pigeons. Octomeles sumatrana and Duabanga
moluccana are prominent along some old roads, but not as abundant as the
other tree species noted above. Of the above tree species, Tristaniopsis
whiteana, Macaranga hypoleuca and Dillenia reticulata have been tested by
the Barito Pacific mill and found to be suitable for peeling. Melastoma
malabathricum (a shrub), Rubus moluccana (Rosaceae; scrambling plant) and
Uncaria species (Rubiaceae; lianas) are prominent roadside plants, especially
along abandoned roads. Soils under this vegetation have suffered disturbance
due to past impacts of bulldozers and exposure, and so are not suitable for
regeneration with a wide variety of plants (e.g. dipterocarps rarely regenerate
in this zone, perhaps because of loss of mycorrhizae). The regeneration of
secondary forest along roads is ecologically important in order to help bridge
the physical gaps caused by roads, which act as a barrier to movement and
dispersal for some sensitive plant and animal species.
(d) “Jungle rubber” Traditional hill rice farming involved abandoning fields after
one or two years, allowing forest to regenerate through natural dispersal of
wild tree seeds. Starting a few decades ago, hill rice farmers in upper Tabalong
now usually plant tree crops in their rice fields, partly as a sign of “ownership”
of the site and partly to provide a potential source of future income. Rubber is
the most favoured crop, but fruit trees may also be planted. Except along the
sides of long-term roads, these sites are typically abandoned, presumably
because the physical and economic costs of transporting any produce outweigh
any benefits. With time, an increasing variety of plant and animal life invades
the planted land, which comes to resemble secondary forest dominated by
planted trees.
(e) Scrub and alang-alang grass Where land has been cleared, burned, planted with
hill rice for one or two seasons, and then abandoned, forest usually regenerates.
However, where land has burned two or more times within the space of a few
years, either deliberately for farming or as a sign of “ownership”, or
unintentionally during long dry periods, then prospects for forest regeneration
become much worse. Instead of forest, scrub or alang-alang (Imperata
cylindrica) grass take hold of the land. Some small trees survive in these
conditions (such as Vitex species and Fordia splendidissima). Soils under this

12
vegetation have entirely lost their topsoil, as a result of fire, exposure and
erosion.
3.3 Rivers and streams
In their investigation of fish in the upper Tabalong catchment, Tjakrawidjaja &
Pramudyagarini (2001) classify ten habitat types for rivers and streams. Their
classification is based on water depth, substrate, proximity to the bank, and water
quality, not on the overall width or size of the river. No studies of freshwater
invertebrates have been done in upper Tabalong.
Riverbanks and rocks in streams support “rheophtyic” plants. Sidiyasa & Zainal
(2001) record the presence of Myrmeconauclea surianii, Freycinetia, Nephrolepis,
Raphidophora and Schismatoglottis in the PT AYI concession.
3.4 Ponds
Some streams in the PT AYI concession area are blocked partially or entirely by
logs, rocks and soil which were used to form crossing sites for bulldozers or other
vehicles. In some cases, this effect is increased as water-borne solids from logging
activities upstream settle and add to the blockage site. This results in the formation
of temporary or long-term ponds above the blockage. At the waterlogged fringes,
trees die. These ponds form habitats for some fish species, dragonflies and insect
larvae including mosquitoes, thereby helping to sustain malaria.
3.5 Caves
Caves in the Gunung Tanggur limestone and in the Pasuang-Ayu River area have
been surveyed by Rosdy et al. (2002a & b). In Gunung Tanggur, Penyanggar cave
is about 750 m in length, passing through a side-peak on the hill. Surat is about 280
m long. Three caves named Buonosi, Misi and Takayo were located and surveyed
in Pasuang-Ayu area. These caves support a fauna seemingly typical of that for
caves in Borneo, including bats and two species of cave-nesting swiftlets. The
edible white nest swiftlet population is threatened by excessive nest harvesting
(Payne, 2001b,c; Rosdy et al, 2002a). The vegetation around the caves of Gunung
Tanggur is in good condition, due to absence of commercial logging on the
limestone, but massive illegal logging by outsiders in the Pasuang-Ayu limestone
areas has caused significant environmental damage.
3.6 Biomass of vegetation
No studies were done to estimate the above-ground biomass in the various
vegetation types in upper Tabalong. However, results from other studies in south-
eastern Kalimantan (Table 1) provide an indication of the differences.
Table 1 : Estimates of above-ground plant biomass of various vegetation types in south-eastern
Kalimantan

13
Location Vegetation type Biomass
tonne/ha
Information source
Sebulu Primary dipterocarp forest 509 Yamakura et al., 1986
Meratus Primary dipterocarp forest 460 Ruhiyat, 1996
Bukit Soeharto Dipterocarp forest lightly-logged &
lightly-burned (1982), measured
in 1988
303 Toma et al., 2000
Bukit Soeharto Dipterocarp forest lightly-logged &
lightly-burned (1982), measured
in 1997
315 Toma et al., 2000
Bukit Soeharto Logged dipterocarp, heavily
burned (1982), measured in 1989
87 Toma et al., 2000
Bukit Soeharto Logged dipterocarp, heavily
burned (1982), measured in 1994
106 Toma et al., 2000
Memcimai 33-year old secondary forest 97 Toma et al., 2000
Bukit Soeharto Alang-alang grassland with scrub
& some trees
8 Kiyono & Hastaniah, 2000
(All these sites are in East Kalimantan)

REP126 Ecology and Biodiversity of upper Tabalong,J Payne,Ap

REP126 Ecology and Biodiversity of upper Tabalong,J Payne,Ap

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REP126 Ecology and Biodiversity of upper Tabalong,J Payne,Ap