DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND

DRUG DEVELOPMENT
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA

PHCG 202: ORGANIZED VEGETABLE DRUGS

(Leaves, Flowers, Fruits and Seeds)

A . Z. Abubakar (PhD)

Second semester 2019/2020 Session

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 Presentation Outline
• Introduction
• Classification of Crude drugs
• Morphological classification
• Organized vegetable drugs
• Over ground structures
• Leaves
• Flowers
• Fruits
• Seeds

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 Pharmacognosy
• Pharmacognosy can be defined as the;
 Study of medicines derived from natural sources.
 Study of naturally occurring substances having
medicinal importance
 Study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and
biological properties of drugs, drug substances or
potential drugs of natural origin as well as the
search for new drugs from natural sources

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 Pharmacognosy
• Materials having no pharmacological action
which are of interest to pharmacognosists are
natural fibres, flavouring and suspending
agents, colourants, disintegrants, stabilizers
and filtering and support media.
• Other areas that have natural associations
with the subject are poisonous and
hallucinogenic plants, allergens, herbicides,
insecticides and molluscicides.”

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 Phytochemicals
• All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal
metabolic activities. These phytochemicals are divided into
(1) Primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found
in all plants;
(2) Secondary metabolites—compounds which are found in a smaller
range of plants, serving a more specific function

• Phytochemicals
• some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predators
and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination.
• It is these secondary metabolites and pigments that may have
therapeutic actions in humans and which can be used or further
refined to produce medicines or drugs

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 Phytochemicals
• Plants synthesize variety of phytochemicals but most are
derivatives of a few biochemical motifs:
• Alkaloids • Phenolics • Glycosides • Terpenes

Phytochemicals
• Alkaloids are a class of chemical compounds containing a
nitrogen ring.
• Glycosides are molecules in which a sugar is bound to a non-
carbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule.
• Polyphenols are compounds containing phenol rings.
• Terpenes and terpenoids are the primary constituents of
resin, essential oils of many types of plants and flowers.

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 Crude Drug
• The term “crude drug” is referred in relation to the natural product that has

not been advanced in value or improved in condition by any process or

treatment beyond that which is essential for its proper packing and prevention

from deterioration.

 Importance of crude drugs

• Plant-derived medicines are useful therapeutic options and often

provide a safe form of therapy.

• Provide lead compounds for the development of new drugs.

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 Sources of crude drugs
• The most important natural sources of crude drugs are;

1- Plants

2- Animals

3- Minerals

 Types of Crude Drugs

1. Organized drugs

2. Unorganized drugs

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 Differences between organized
and unorganized drugs
Organized Drugs Unorganized Drugs

They may be of plant or animal They may be of plant, animal or

origin. mineral origin.

They are usually direct part of They are usually the products of
plants or animals. plant or animals.

They have well defined cellular They do not have well defined
structure. cellular structure.

Generally identified by Generally identified by

morphological character. organoleptic properties.

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 Classification of Crude Drugs
Crude drugs may be classified according to
• Alphabetical status
• Taxonomy of plants and animals from which
they are derived
• Morphology
• Chemical nature of their active constituents
• Chemotaxonomic status
• Pharmacological actions or therapeutic
applications

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 Morphological Classification
• The crude drugs are grouped according to the
part of the plant or animal represented into
organized or unorganized drugs.
• The organized drugs are divided into parts of
plants like leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, woods,
barks, roots and rhizomes.
• The unorganized drugs are dried latex, gums,
resins, extracts etc.
• This system of classification is more convenient
for practical study especially when the chemical
nature of the drug is not clearly understood.
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 ORGANIZED PLANT DRUGS
• Organized plant drugs comprises whole plants or
herbs or any of their organs or any morphological
or anatomical part derived from them which are
comprised of definite organized cellular structures.
• Organized plant drugs may be grouped according
to the plant organs from which they are derived
• Over ground structures e.g leaves, flowers, fruits,
seeds, barks and woods
• Subterranean structures e.g roots, rhizomes,
bulbs, corms and tubers.
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Scheme for Pharmacognostic studies
of a Crude Drug
 A systematic Pharmacognostic study of a crude drug involves its
description under the following headings:
 Official title, synonyms, or vernacular names, if any
 Biological source and family
 Geographical source and habitat
 History and introduction of crude drug
 Cultivation, collection, processing for market and commerce
 Morphological or macroscopical characters
 Microscopical or histological studies
 Chemical constituents and qualitative chemical tests
 Pharmacological actions, therapeutic and other pharmaceutical uses,
preparations
 Commercial varieties, substitutes and adulterants
 Quality control of crude drugs and phyto-pharmaceuticals derived from
them

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 OVERGROUND STRUCTURES
• LEAVES
• Leaves are flattened lateral outgrowths of the
stem which are generally green in colour and
form the foliage of a plant.
• Plant leaves help to sustain life on earth as they
generate food for both plant and animal life.
• Leaves are a part of the plant shoot system,
which also include stems and flowers.

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 Leaf Morphology

• Leaves can be found in a variety of shapes and

sizes.
• Most leaves are broad, flat and typically green in
color.
• Some plants, such as conifers, have leaves that
are shaped like needles or scales.
• Basic leaf features in flowering plants include the
leaf blade, petiole, and stipules.
• Leaf shape, margin and venation are the main
features used in plant identification.

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Leaf Anatomy

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 Leaf Description
• Blade - broad portion of a leaf.
• Apex - leaf tip.
• Margin - leaf edge boundary area. Margins can be
smooth, jagged (toothed), lobed, or parted.
• Veins - vascular tissue bundles that support the
leaf and transport nutrients.
• Midrib - central main vein arising from secondary
veins.
• Base - area of the leaf that connects the blade to
the petiole.
• Petiole - thin stalk that attaches the leaf to a stem.
• Stipules - leaf-like structures at the leaf base.
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IDENTIFICATION USING LEAF SHAPE, MARGIN AND VENATION

• The leaf shape, margin, arrangement and

venation are important diagnostic features for
the identification of medicinal plants.
• These structures are always species specific
and will consistently grow to a genetically
determined pattern and shape.

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 LEAF SHAPE AND ARRANGEMENT
• Leaf shape can vary considerably - the most
common shapes include oval, truncate,
elliptical, lanceolate and linear.
• Leaf tips and bases can also be unique with
names based on shape.
• Leaf arrangement is mainly limited to two
basic petiole attachments and called either a
simple leaf or a compound leaf.
• Compound leaves are further described as
pinnately, palmately and doubly compound.

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Types of leaf shapes

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 LEAF MARGIN

• Leaf margins can be finely classified as having a dozen or

more unique characteristics.
• There are four major classifications to which others can fit.
• An entire leaf margin is even and smooth around the entire
leaf edge.
• A toothed or serrated leaf margin has a series of tooth like
pointed teeth around the entire leaf edge.
• A lobed leaf is an indention or indentions around the leaf
edge that goes less than halfway to the leaf midrib or
midline.
• A parted leaf is an indention or indentions around the leaf
edge that go more than halfway to the leaf midrib or
midline.

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LEAF MARGIN

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LEAF VEINS AND VENATION PATTERNS

• A tree leaf has several types of veins, the basic central one
called the midrib or midvein.
• Other veins connect to the midrib and have their own
unique patterns.
• A leaf can be symmetric or asymmetric off the midvein.
• The Tree leaf veins in dicots are all considered to be net-
veined or reticulate-veined.
• These two classifications are important for tree
identification:
• Pinnate venation is when the veins extend from the midrib
to the leaf margin.
• Palmate venation is when veins radiate fan-shaped from
the leaf petiole.
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LEAF VEINS AND VENATION PATTERNS

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 Leaf tissues
• Leaf tissues are composed of layers of plant
cells
• Different plant cell types form three main
tissues found in leaves.
• These tissues include a mesophyll tissue layer
that is sandwiched between two layers of
epidermis.
• Leaf vascular tissue is located within the
mesophyll layer.
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 Leaf tissues
a. Epidermis
The outer leaf layer is known as the epidermis.
The epidermis in plant leaves also contains special cells called guard cells that
regulate gas exchange between the plant and the environment.
Guard cells control the size of pores called stomata (singular stoma) in the
epidermis.

b. Mesophyll
The middle mesophyll leaf layer is composed of a palisade mesophyll region and a
spongy mesophyll region.
Palisade mesophyll contains columnar cells with spaces between the cells. Most
plant chloroplasts are found in palisade mesophyll.
Spongy mesophyll is located below palisade mesophyll and is composed of
irregularly shaped cells. Leaf vascular tissue is found in the spongy mesophyll.

c. Vascular Tissue
Leaf veins are composed of vascular tissue.
Vascular tissue consists of tube-shaped structures called xylem and phloem that
provide pathways for water and nutrients to flow throughout the leaves and plant

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Photomicrograph of a Transverse
section of a leaf lamina

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 Microscopical characters
• Epidermal layers
• Trichomes
• Stomata
• Mesophyll
• Midrib region
• Crystals
• Location of active constituents

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SOME IMPORTANT LEAF DRUGS

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 1. DIGITALIS
• Synonyms: Digitalis leaves, Foxglove leaves
• Biological source:
Digitalis consists of dried leaves of Digitalis
purpurea from the family Scrophulariaceae.
• Geographical Source:
It is cultivated and collected in England, other parts
of Europe, United States of America and some
parts of Asia.
• Macroscopic characters:
• Colour – Dark grayish green
• Odour – Slight
• Taste – Bitter
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 Leaf description
• Size – The leaf sizes ranges between 10-40cm
long and 4-20cm wide
• Shape - The leaf shape are ovate- lanceolate
to broadly ovate with irregularly crenate or
serrate and occasionally dentate margin.
The leaf is slightly pubescent on both surfaces
with pinnate venation and prominent veinlets
on the under surface.

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Digitalis purpurea

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 D. purpurea
• Microscopic characters
 It has anomocytic stomata on both surfaces.
 The trichomes are uniseriate, multicellular (3-5 cells)
and bluntly pointed.
 There are also glandular trichomes with unicellular
stalk and unicellular or bicellular head.
 The glandular trichomes are generally located over the
veins.
 Collapsed celled covering trichomes is an important
characteristic diagnostic feature of Digitalis.
 It is also free of calcium oxalate crystals.
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 Chemical constituents Digitalis
• Digitalis contains 0.2 – 0.45% mixture of both
primary and secondary cardiac glycosides,
Digitoxin, giloxin gitaloxin etc.
• Uses
• Treatment of congestive heart failure and
other heart related diseases

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 2. DATURA STRAMONIUM
1. Origin:
They are believed to have evolved primarily in tropical areas, specifically in
Latin America.
2. Nomenclature
Scientific name: Datura stramonium L.,
Synonyms: Stramonii folia, Thorn apple Leaves, Jimson weed

3. Botanical Source:
Stramonium Leaves consist of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura
stramonium Linn and of Datura stramonium Var. tatula (Linn) Torr. The
plants are annual shrubby herbs of the family Solanaceae.

4. Geographical Source:
D. stramonium grows wild in most tropical countries including Nigeria, India,
South America and cultivated in Spain, France Germany and England

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 D. stramonium
5. Macroscopical characters:
 The drug consists of much shriveled and twisted mass of leaves,
flowers, young fruits and slender stems.

 Stramonium leaves are simple, petiolate, 8 – 25 cm long and 7 – 20

cm broad, ovate or triangular ovate with an acute apex.

 The particular characteristics of D. stramonium that are most

notable are its poisonous nature and noxious smell, probably
defenses against herbivores and attractive to some pollinators.

 The seed pods are also covered with sharp spines, to prevent
animal ingestion of the seeds.

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Datura stramonium

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 D. stramonium
• 6. Microscopical characters:
 Both surfaces of the leaves are covered with a smooth
cuticle and possess both stomata and trichomes.

 The epidermal cells have wavy anticlinal walls, the

stomata are anisocytic type, contains both clothing and
glandular trichomes.

 The clothing trichomes are conical, uniseriate with thin

warty walls, usually 2 – 5 cells long often with a large
basal cell.

 Glandular trichomes are small with one or two cell

stalk and a 2 to 7 – celled head.
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 D. stramonium
7. Constituents:
Stramonium contains 0.2 – 0.45 % of tropane alkaloids,
principal ones being hyocyamine and hyoscine.

8. Uses:
i. As a parasympatholytic and decreases the flow of
secretions of saliva, milk and sweat.
ii. As mydriatic agent
iii. As sedative.

9. Substitutes and adulterants:

The leaves of the following Datura species are used as
substitutes and those of other plants as adulterants e.g
Datura metel, D. innoxia and D. ferox
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 3. ARTEMISIA
• Synonyms: Sweet annie, Worm wood

• Botanical source:
Artemisia consists of the dried leaflet of Artemisia annua from the Family
Asteraceae. The plant is a annual herb.

• Geographical Source:
It is indigenous to China but grows wild in Europe, America and some
parts of Africa.

• Macroscopical characters:
 The plant grows to 0.7 – 1.75 m in height.
 The leaflets are bipinnate compound and are 0.25 – 0.5 cm in width and 5
– 7 cm in length, 1-2 pinnately divided into lanceolate, oblong deeply cut
segments and sub globuse
 dark green in colour.
 Strongly aromatic in flavour and bitter in taste.

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Picture of artemisia plant

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 Artemisia annua
• Microscopical characters:
 Stomata is anomocytic and is present on both the upper and the
lower epidermis of the leaf
 Trichomes: They are glandular and abundant on both surfaces with
very short stalk and multicellular head.
 T – shaped covering trichomes are a special characteristic feature

• Constituents:
Artemisinin, Deoxyartemisinin, Amyrin, Luteolin, Stigmasterol have
also been reported to be present in the plant.

• Uses:
As anti-malarial, other uses include anti-inflammatory properties.

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 4. PEPPERMINT
• Synonyms: Mentha, Mint leaf

• Botanical Source:
Peppermint consist of dried aerial parts of Mentha piperita
from the family Labiatae.

• Geographical source:
The plant grows wild in most parts of North Africa and
other parts of the world majorly Europe and America.

• Macroscopical characters:
The leaves are ovate, 3 – 8 cm long and 6 – 16 cm wide,
with serrate margin and acute apex.

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Mentha piperita

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 M. piperita
• Microscopical characters:
 Both covering and glandular trichomes are present.
 The covering trichomes occurs mainly on the margin and veins
 They are uniseriate made up of 3 – 5 cells and a tapering apex
 The shape and venation of the marginal teeth are characteristic of
the leaf
 The glandular trichomes are of two types
 Unicellular stalk and a globular head composed of eight radiating
cells
 Unicellular stalks and unicellular heads
• Constituents:
0.7 – 1.5% volatile oil which contains about 85% menthol, 6 – 12%
tannin.

• Uses:
As Condiments, carminative and as aromatic stimulants
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 5. Azadirachta
• Synonyms: nim tree, margosa, Melia Azadirachta.
• Biological Source:
• Neem consists of the fresh or dried leaves of
Azadirachta indica
• Family: Meliaceae.
• Geographical source:
• It is found in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaya,
Indonesia, Japan, Tropical region of Australia and
Africa.

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Azadirachta indica

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 Chemical Constituents:

i. Nimbin,
ii. 6- desacetylnimbinene.
iii. Nimbinene,
iv. Nimbandiol,
v. nimbolide.
vi. Quercetin,
vii. β-sitosterol.
viii. Nimbin etc

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 Uses

a. Poultice, applied to boils.

b. Treatment of jaundice
c. Treatment of skin diseases
d. Insect-repellent.
e. Antiviral and antifungal.

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 Other Leaf drugs include:

1. Moringa oleifera
2. Erythroxylum coca
3. Hyoscyamus niger
4. Lawsonia inermis
5. Atropa belladonna

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 FLOWERS
• The flower is a modified shoot meant for production of seeds.
• A typical flower consists of four different circles (whorls) arranged
in a definite manner.
• A flower is built upon stem or pedicel with the enlarged end known
as thalamus or receptacle.
• The whorls of the flowers are as follows.
 Calyx: it is the outermost whorl of flower and is generally green in
colour. The individual member of calyx is called sepal.
 Corolla: it is the second whorl of flower and is either white or bright
coloured. Each member of corolla is known as petal. The number of
petals varies with the type of flower.
 Androecium: it is the third circle of flower and constituents the
male part. The individual component is called stamen which
consists of filament, anther and connective.
 Gynoecium: This is the fourth circle of the flower and constitutes
the female part. Each component is known as carpel or pistil and is
made up of stigma, style and ovary.

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Flower

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 FLOWERS
• In Pharmacognosy, the term flower drug is used
in a collective sense for commercial purposes
and the sample include not only the flowers but
also a number of inflorescences.
• In some cases, the sample may not contain a
whole flower or inflorescence but only a part of
the flower.
• However , for the sake of identification and
detection of adulterants, there is need to be
familiar with the botanical description of a
flower.
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 FLOWERS
• Flowers develop on the stem either singly (solitary)
or collectively (clusters).
• The branch or branch system that bears a
collection of flowers is called inflorescence.
Inflorescence may be terminal or axillary in
position.
• The main axis of the inflorescence is called
peduncle.
• The drugs to be studied as flowers are either entire
flowers in botanical sense or the inflorescence or
single part of the flower used medicinally.
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 1. CANNABIS
• Synonyms: Cannabis indica, Indian hemp, marijuana

• Botanical source:
Cannabis consists of the flowering and fruiting tops of
the female plants of Cannabis sativa Family
Cannabinaceae.
It is a dioecious herb.

• Geographical source:
Indigenous to central and western Asia and is cultivated
under Government control in many countries including
India, East and Tropical African countries and the United
States of America.
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 C. sativa
• Macroscopical characters:
The whole drug occurs in dull green flattened
masses 10 -30 cm long and 5 – 10 cm wide.
It consists of a stem with branches bearing
numerous bracts enclosing the female flowers.
All parts of the drug bear numerous hairs and
large stalked glands (glandular trichomes)
containing the resin.
The drug has a powerful odour but no distinct
taste.
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 C. sativa
• Microscopical characters:
 The upper epidermis consists of cells with straight anticlinal walls, which
bear unicellular pointed, conical trichomes (150 – 250 µm long) with
enlarged bases which often contain cystoliths of calcium carbonate.

 Glandular trichomes with a secreting head of about eight radiating club -

shaped cells containing an oleo resinous fluid are also present on the
upper epidermis.

 Both covering and glandular trichomes occur in the lower epidermis, but
the covering trichomes are much longer and devoid of cystoliths.

 Some glands are sessile and others have cylindrical multicellular and
multiseriate stalks.

 Anomocytic type of stomata and clusters of crystals of calcium oxalate

occurs in the cortex and pitch of the stem.

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 C. sativa
• Constituents:
The chief constituent of the drug is a resinous substance
Canabinone – which on distillation yields a powerful narcotic
known as canabinol.
Other constituents are tetrahydrocanabinone and some alkaloid –
choline and a small amount of volatile oil.

• Uses:
 It is used as a sedative in mania and hysteria
 As an antispasmodic.

• Addiction:
 It is a strong addicting narcotic drug and causes hallucination.
 It is cultivated under government control

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 PYRETHRUM FLOWER

• Synonyms: Natural pyrethrum, insect flowers

• Biological source: Pyrethrum consists of more or less

fully expanded flower heads of Chrysanthenium
cinerarifolium Family: Compositae

• Geographical Source: The pyrethrum flower plant is

indigenous to the Balkans. The plant is widely
cultivated throughout the world. The principal sources
are Japan, Kenya, East and Central Africa and Brazil

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 Macroscopical characters:
• Pyrethrum flowers of commercial importance
include flowers of all ages and are usually
brownish – yellow in colour.
• The closed flowers are about 6-9mm in
diameter while the open flowers are about 9-
12 mm
• The odour is aromatic and the taste is bitter
and acrid

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 Microscopical characters
• The active principle is contained in the secretion
contained in the ducts of the ovary wall and in
the glandular trichomes.
• The pollen grains are spherical, 34 – 40 µm in
diameter.
• The exine is marked by radiating lines of fine
warts and by numerous spines.

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 Chemical constituents
• : Active constituents are Pyrethrins, which are
organic esters, chemicals made up of
carboxylic acid and keto alcohols. The main
constituents are Pyrethrin I and II. It also
contains Cinerin I and II, Jasmoline I and II.

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 Uses
1. Insecticide
2. Contact poison: It paralyses in short time, used in the
form of wettable powder, emulsion concentrate, kerosene
solution (20% of Pyrethrins)
3. Companion planting: Because chrysanthemums contain
pyrethrums, they are used as companion plants to repel
pest insects from nearby crops and ornamental plants.

• They are thought to repel aphids, bed bugs (Cimex

lectularius), leafhoppers, spider mites, harlequin bugs,
ticks, pickleworms, and imported cabbage worms, among
others, in gardens and farms. For example, they are planted
among broccoli plants for protection from several common
insect pests

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 3. CLOVE

Clove is a popular spice often used in Indian, African, Mexican and

Middle East.

Synonyms: Caryophyllum, clove flower, clove buds

Biological Source: Dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus

Family: Myrtaceae

Geographical source: Zanzibar, Madagascar, Sirilanka, and India

Macroscopical characters:
Colour: Crimson to dark brown
Odour: slightly aromatic
Taste: pungent & aromatic followed by numbness
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 Microscopical characters:
Epidermis: Straight walled cells and large anomocytic
stomata, covered with thick cuticle Oil Glands: ovoid
and schizolysigenous
Cluster crystals of calcium oxalate Starch was absent

Chemical constituents:
1. Eugenol
2. Vanillin
3. Tannin: 10-13% (Gallotannic acid)
4. Resin
5. Chromone
6. Eugenin etc

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 USES
1. Condiment.
2. Carminative.
3. Antiseptic.
4. Flavoring agent.
5. Dental uses: as filling material with Zinc Oxide
6. Local anesthetic (dental analgesic)

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 FRUITS
• The ovules of the flowers, after fertilization, are converted
into seeds, whereas the ovary wall develops further to form
the protective covering over the seeds, which is known as
fruit.
• In botany, this particular coating is called pericarp.
• The pericarp consists of three different layers.
• Epicarp: it is the outermost coating of the pericarp; it may
be thin, thick or even woody
• Mesocarp: A layer in between epicarp and endocarp, usually
pulpy or made up of spongy parenchymatous tissue
• Endocarp: The innermost layer of the pericarp may be thin,
thick or woody.
• If the ovules do not fertilize, the seedless fruits are formed.

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Fruit

68
 Type of Fruits
Simple fruits are formed from the single carpel or from syncarpous gynoecium,
Depending upon the mesocarp, whether it is dry or fleshy, they are classified
as dry fruits and fleshy fruits. Dry fruits are further classified into dehiscent
and indehiscent fruits
 Aggregate fruits:
These fruits are formed from many carpels or apocarpus gynoecium
 Compound fruits:
In this particular case, many more flowers come together and form the fruits
 False fruits:
Sometimes apart from the ovary, the other parts like thalamus, receptacle or
calyx grow and form part of the fruit, such a fruit is known as false fruit or
pseudocarp.

Examples
Strawberry (Thalamus)
Cashew nut (peduncle and thalamus)
Apple (thalamus)
Rose (thalamus)
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Types of fruits

70
 Pharmaceutical fruits:
• Unlike the botanical description of fruits,
pharmaceutical fruits may or may not contain
all the three layers. Example,
• Lemon and orange consists of only the epicarp
• Tamarind consist of mesocarp only
• Fennel and Dill contain all the layers enclosing
the seed

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 LEMON
• Synonyms: Lemon peel, Limonis fructus, Limonis cortex

• Botanical source: It is the fruit of Citrus lemon from Rutaceae

• Geographical source:
Lemons are widely cultivated in various countries of the world,
including Africa, The Mediterranean, Australlia, North and South
American countries.
• Macroscopical characters:
The whole fruit is ovoid in shape 6 – 10 cm long and 4 – 7 cm in
width with a nipple shaped apex.
It has 8 – 10 loculli, each of which is completely filled with juice.

The pulp has an agreeable strongly acidous taste. The lemon peel
occurs in small strips, about 2 cm wide and 3mm thick. It possesses a
strongly characteristic odour and an aromatic bitter taste.

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Photograph of lemon fruit

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 Constituents
• The constituents of the lemon peel include
volatile oil (2 – 4 %), pectin, hesperidin and
vitamin B. the chief constituent of the juice is
citric acid which is about 6 - 9 % and also
vitamin C.

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 Uses
• It is used as flavoring agent
• As sources of vitamin C and Citric acid

• Adulterant:
The peels which have been rejected by
machines after drying are mixed with the
drug. They can be identified by the presence
of scarification lines on the outer surfaces of
the peels.

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 Carica papaya
• Other common names: Papaw, Pawpaw.
• Scientific name: Carica papaya L.
• Botanical family: Caricaceae

• papaya, (Carica papaya), also

called papaw or pawpaw, succulent fruit of a
large plant of the family Caricaceae. Though its
origin is rather obscure, the papaya may
represent the fusion of two or more species
of Carica native to Mexico and Central America.

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77
• Characteristics,Properties & Chemical constituents of
Papaya.
•
• The Papaya is a small tree with single stem rarely
branched with leaves shaped like a plume at its distal
end. Lobed leaves, pale on the underside. Mostly
unisexual flowers. Fruit pear-shaped, pendant and with
lots of seeds.
• Its origin is unknown but the papaya is grown in many
tropical countries. Its main therapeutic action is to
combat skin boils due to its antibacterial proteolytic
action.

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• Properties of Papain
• Papain has been referred to as vegetable pepsin because it contains
enzymes somewhat similar to pepsin.
• Unlike pepsin, Papain acts in acid, neutral or alkaline media.
• Standard
• Papain can digest about 35 times its own weight of lean meat.
• The best grade of Papain can digest 300 times its own weight of egg
albumin.
• Chemical constituents of Papain
• Papain contains several enzymes such as
• Peptidase, capable of converting proteins into dipeptides and
polypeptides.
• A rennin like, coagulating enzyme that acts on the casein of milk.
• An amylolytic enzyme, which converts carbohydrates molecules into
simple units i.e. monosaccharide.

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• Content and active ingredients of Papaya
• The papaya´s principal active ingredient,
papayina, is a powerful digestive it very useful
in different uses.

The fruit is rich in vitamins C and E and

minerals (especially potassium). Contains
papain and chymopapain, strong proteolytic
enzymes.

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• Uses of papaya
• -Papain is the dried and purified latex of the fruit of
Carica papaya. Papain is substance which contains a
mixture of proteolytic enzymes found in the unripe
fruits of papaya tree.
• -Papain is used extensively for tenderizing meat.
• -Another use of this enzyme is an ingredient in
cleansing solution for soft lenses.
• -Papain is used as digestant for protein because it has
an action much like that of pepsin.
• -It is used to relieve the symptoms of episiotomy.that
acts on the casein of milk.
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• Papaya fruit
• It´s used in childish dysentery during the time of
teething, taking a tender slice of peeled papaya
fruit, boil moderately for 5-8 min, sweeten to
taste and dosed in the milk. It should be observed
carefully as it can have a reverse effect. On the
Island of Guadalupe is used to prepare a syrup
using ripe fruit baked and mixed with plenty of
sugar. It is very effective for cough, even in cases
of tuberculosis.

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 TAMARIND

• Synonyms: Tamarindus, Fructus Tamarind, Tamarind

pulp

• Botanical source: Tamarind consists of the ripe fruits of

Tamarindus indica Linn free from the brittle outer part
of the pericarp and preserved with sugar. The plant is a
tree from the family Papilionaceae.

• Geographical source: Tamarindus is indigenous to India

and Tropical Africa, it is cultivated throughout the west
Indies.
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Macroscopical characters of Tamarind
• The fruit is oblong pod-shaped curved legume
with a short stalk. 5 – 20 cm long and 2 cm
broad. The epicarp is pulpy, juicy and acrid.
• The drug is prepared by removing the epicarp,
thus the drug is principally consist of pulp
although the fibro vascular strands and seeds
are contained in it.
• The seeds are reddish-brown in colour and
about 15 mm long and 4 – 6 mm thick.

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Photograph of T. indicum

85
 Chemical Constituents
• The pulp of Tamarind contains about 10% of tartaric
acid, citric and malic acids as well as their salts
especially the potassium acid tartarate. It also contain a
little of nicotinic acid and about 30 to 40 % invert sugar.

• Uses:
It is used as an acid refrigerant and as a gentle laxative.

• Other fruit drugs of importance include Capsicum,

Pawpaw, Aniseed, Fennel, Colocynth e. t. c.

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 SEED
• The seed is the fertilized mature ovule of an ovary,
which contains an embryo - The baby plant in a
dormant state.
• A seed is attached to the placenta by the funiculus and
the scar left on the seed is called the Hilum.
• The micropyle is the entry channel for the pollen tube
to reach the ovule.
• The seeds often have fleshy appendage to attract
disseminators examples include Caruncle, Arillode or
Aril.
• The seed varies from plant to plant and is characteristic
of various plants.
• The seeds are characterized by the presence of three
parts i.e embryo, endosperm and seed coat.

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 SEED
• Endosperm: This is the nutritive tissue nourishing the embryo. The
endosperm may or may not be present in the seeds. Thus seeds
are classified as
• Endospermic or albuminous seeds
• Non – endospermic or exalbuminous seeds
• Perispermic seeds
• Endospermic seeds : a part of the endosperm remains until the
germination of seed and is partly absorbed by embryo. Examples
Colchicum, Linseed, Nux – vomica e.t.c.
• Non – endospermic seeds: During the development of seed, the
endosperm is fully absorbed by embryo and endosperm is not
represented in the seeds. Examples Tamarind, Soybean, Sunflower,
Cotton e. t. c.
• Perispermic seeds: The nucleus develops to such an extent that it
forms a big storage tissue and seed are found to contain the
embryo, endosperm, perisperm and seed coat. Examples Nutmeg,
Cardamon, pepper e. t. c.
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 Seeds
• Macroscopical features of seeds
• Seeds are characterized by the following:
• Hilum – this is the point of attachment of seed
to stalk
• Micropyle – It is the minute opening of the
tubular structure wherefrom water is provided
for the germination of seeds
• Raphe – It is the longitidunal markings of
adherent stalk of anatropous ovule
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 SEEDS
• Microscopical characters of seeds
• The seed coat provides the most characteristic histological
features. Some seeds the seed coat is made up of a single
layer of testa e.g Strophanthus, Belladonna, Plantain,
Calabar bean, Nux-vomica etc while others may have two
coats of Testa and Tegmen respectively e. g. Cardamon,
Linseed, Mustard e t c.
• The testa is usually made up of four layers of cells i.e the
epidermis, pigment layer, sclerenchymatous and nutrient
layers.
• The reserve food found in the endosperm and cotyledons
constitute mainly of protein reserves, which occur in the
form of aleurone grains.
• These grains vary in size, shape and structure from seed to
seed and thus offer good diagnostic characters of many
seeds.
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 SOME IMPORTANT SEED DRUGS

• CALABAR BEAN
• Synonyms: Ordeal bean, Esere Nut, Physostigma semina
•
• Botanical source: Calabar beans are the ripe seeds of the
legume Physostigma venenosun. It is a perennial woody
climbing plant of family papilionaceae
•
• Geographical source: The plant is indigenous to the West
coast of Africa and grows on the banks of streams of West
Africa.
•

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 Macroscopical characters:
• The legumes of Calabar beans are about 15 cm
long and contain two or three seeds, which are
25 – 30 mm long and 15 – 18 mm broad.
• The seed coat is hard, thick and shiny.
• It is reddish brown in colour.
• The micropyle is situated at the acute end of the
seed.
• The hilum extends throughout the length of the
curve edge.
• They possess no characteristic taste or odour and
are highly poisonous.
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CALABAR BEAN SEED

93
 P. venenosum
• Constituents:
Calabar beans contain the alkaloid, physostigmine (serine
0.04 – 0.3 %), protein (about 23 %), starch (about 48 %),
others are eseramine, calabatine, calabacine e.t.c.

• Uses:
i. Physostigmine is used to produce contraction of the pupil of
the eye.
ii. It is also used in the treatment of tetanus
iii. As an antidote for strychnine poisoning.
• Substitutes and Adulterants:
Seeds of Physostigma cylindrospermum, Entada scandens
and Pentaclethra macrophylla have been sometimes used
as substitutes for Calabar beans

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 Nux-vomica
• Synonyms
• Semen strychni, Nux vomica Seed, Poison Nut, Semen strychnos, Quaker
Buttons, Bachelor’s buttons, Dog buttons, Vomit nut, Crow fig.
•
• Biological Source
•
• Nux vomica consists of the dried ripe seeds of Strychnos nux vomica Linn,
belonging to family Loganiaceae; containing not less than 1.2% strychnine.
•
• Geographical Source
•
• It is mainly found in South India, Malabar Coast, Kerala, Bengal, Eastern
Ghats, North Australia and Ceylon.
•

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 Macroscopic features
• Seeds have the shape of flattened disks
densely covered with closely appressed satiny
hairs, size is 10–30 mm in diameter 3–5 mm
thick, radiating from the centre of the
flattened sides and giving to the seeds a
characteristic sheen; they are very hard, with
a dark grey horny endosperm in which the
small embryo is embedded; no odour but a
very bitter taste.
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Nux-vomica seeds

97
 Microscopy

• Epidermis consists of thick-waved, bent and

twisted lignified covering trichomes. The base of
the trichome is large thick walled with slit like
pits. The upper part of the trichome is nearly at
right angle to the base and has wavy walls.
Endosperm consists of thick walled isodiametric
cells consisting of hemicellulose which swells
with water and contains plasmodesma. Aleurone
grains and fixed oil are present in endosperm and
embryo.

98
Microscopy of T/S of Nux-vomica seeds

99
 Chemical Constituents
• Nux vomica contains the alkaloids, Strychnine
(1.25%) and Brucine (1.5%), also traces of
strychnicine, and a glucoside Loganin, about 3%
fatty matter, caffeotannic acid and a trace of
copper.
• It contains about 2.5–3.5% bitter indole alkaloids.
• Strychnine is therapeutically active and toxic
alkaloid and is located in central portion of
endosperm.
• Vomicine and pseudostrychnine are minor
alkaloids.

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 Uses
• The properties of nux vomica are substantially those of the alkaloid
Strychnine.
• In the mouth it acts as a bitter, increasing appetite; it stimulates
peristalsis, in chronic constipation due to atony of the bowel it is often
combined with cascara and other laxatives with good effects.
• Strychnine, the chief alkaloid constituent of the seeds, also acts as a
bitter, increasing the flow of gastric juice; it is rapidly absorbed as it
reaches the intestines, after which it exerts its characteristic effects
upon the CNS, the movements of respiration are deepened and
quickened and the heart slowed through excitation of the vagal centre.
• In toxic doses strychnine causes violent tetanus like convulsions and
death takes place due to asphyxia and respiratory failure.
• It is used in pruritis and as a local anodyne in inflammations of the
external ear.
• Nux vomica is also known as vomiting nut but it has no vomiting
properties.
• However Strychnos potatorum has emetic action.

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 CASTOR SEED
• Synonyms: Castor – oil seeds, Ricini Semina

• Biological source:
Castor seeds are obtained from the ripe fruits of
Ricinus communis Linn.
It is a small shrub or small tree of the family
Euphobiaceae.

• Geographical source:
Castor seeds are produced in almost all tropical and
sub-tropical countries. India is the largest producer of
castor seeds in the world. Others are Brazil, Thailand,
USA, Romania, Nigeria e. t. c.

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Castor seed

103
 R. communis
• Macroscopical characters:
 The plant growing in different geographical
areas vary greatly in size and nature.
 This variation is also apparent in the size of
the seeds.
 They are about 8 – 18 mm long, 4 – 12 mm
broad and 4 – 8 mm thick.
 Slightly flattened and oval in shape.
 The seeds possess little odour and an acrid
taste.
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 R. communis
• Constituents:
Castor seeds contain about 50 % fixed oil and 26 % protein. It also contain ricinie
(about 0.2 %), ricin which is a toxin and an enzyme lipase.

• Uses:
Castor seed extracts and Castor oil are used as strong purgative.

• Substitutes and Adulterants:

Seeds of Croton tiglium and Jatropa curcas are used as substitutes to Castor seeds.

• Other seed drugs include Pea nut, Cola, Strophanthus e. t. c.

• Further Readings:
• Textbook of Pharmacognosy by C. K. Kokate 52nd edition
• Introduction to Pharmacognosy By Abdul Ghani.
• Atlas of Pharmacognosy

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