~~~~

• • • • The Pastoral Epistles

• • • • by Martin Dibelius
and Hans Conzelmann
• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • • Hermeneia -

• • • • A Critical

• • • • and

• • • • Historical

• • • • Commentary

• • • • on the

• • • • B i b le
 "It is impossible to exaggerate the significance
of the new series of biblical commentaries
which Fortress Press is producing under the
title Hermeneia . This series will surely
constitute a milestone in American publishing."
W. D. Davies. The Divin1ty School.
Duke University

"Hermeneia promises to surpass any

biblical commentary series thus far produced.
The international and interconfessional
character of the contributors will enable this
commentary to provide a wide and healthy
perspective in biblical interpretation."
Roland E. Murphy, 0. Carm ..
Duke University

"The authors represent not only the best

scholarship of our period but they also have
the kind of interpretive energy and creativeness
that will influence significantly the whole field
of biblical studies and the study of religion
in this country and elsewhere."
Amos N. Wilder. The Divinity School.
Harvard University, Emeritus

"We have for too long been lacking a com-

mentary series with adequate historical.
cnt1cal and history of religions material. The
undertaking of the project of filling this need
is in itself a genuine accomplishment."
Gerhard Friednch. Kiel University and
editor. Theologisches Worterbuch zum
Neuen Testament

"I endorse Hermeneia enthusiasticall ~1 .

Once again a momentous commentary in
the English language is in production."
Claus Westermann.
Heidelberg University

"Hermeneia . . . will bring to serious students

of the Old and New Testaments. as well as to
pastors and ministers. the critical guide needed
for their biblical work."
Joseph A. Fitzmyer. S.J ..
Catholic University of America

.. naturally I am enthusiastic."
Raymond E. Brown. S.S.. •
Union Theologica l Seminary
\
lr

1
 The Pastors I Epistles

• •
•
• •
 Hermeneia
-A Critical
and Historical
Commentary
on the Bible

Old Testament Editorial Board

Frank Moore Cross, Harvard University, chairman
Klaus Baltzer, University of Munich
Paul D. Hanson, Harvard University
S. Dean McBride, Jr. , Union Theological Seminary in Virginia
Peter Machinist, Harvard University
Susan Niditch, Amherst College
Christopher R. Seitz, Yale University
Roland E. Murphy, 0 . Carm., emeritus

New Testament Editorial Board

Helmut Koester, Harvard University, chairman
Harold W. Attridge, University of Notre Dame
Adela Yarbro Collins, University of Chicago
Eldon jay Epp. Case Western Reserve University
James M. Robinson, Claremont Graduate School
The Pastora I Epistles

A Commentary on
the Pastoral Epistles

by Martin Dibelius t
and Hans Conzelmann

Translated by
Philip Buttalph and
Adela Yarbro

Edited by
Helmut Koester

Fortress
·Press Philadelphia
 Translated from the German Die Pastoralbritje by
Martin Dibeliust; fourth, revised edition by Hans
Conzelmann. Handbuch zum Neuen Testament
begriindet von Hans Lietzmann in Verbindung mit
Fachgenossen, herausgegeben von Gunther Born-
kamm, 13, 1966. C J . C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck),
Tiibingen, 1955.

© 1972 in the English translation

by Fortress Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-
mitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Ubrary of Congress Catalog Card Number 71-157549

ISBN-0-8006-6002-1

Printed in the United States of America

Design by Kenneth Hiebert
Type set by Maurice Jacobs, Inc., Philadelphia
1-6002
97 .96 95 94 8 9 10

iv
 The Authors

Martin Dibelius, 1883-1947, was for thirty-two years

Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Criticism at the
University of Heidelberg, Germany. A contributor to
both the Handbuch zum Neuen Testament and the Meyer
Kommentar, he is remembered for his contributions to the
Formgesclzichtliche studies. His major work, From Tradition
to Gospel, appeared in English in 1935.

Hans Conzelmann, born in 1915, served on the theo-

logical faculties at Tubingen, Heidelberg, and Zurich
before assuming his present position in the theological
faculty at Gottingen. He is well known in English for The
Theology of St. Luke (1960) and An Outline of the Theology
of the New Testament (1969). He has also contributed to
Kittel's Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Religion
in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Das Neue Testament Deutsch, the
Handbuch zum Neuen Testament and the Meyer Kommentar.

vi
Contents
Foreword to Hermeneia x
Foreword to the 3d and 4th
German Editions "ii
Reference Codes xm
Editor's Note xx
Introduction
1. The Question of Authenticity
2. The Literary Character of the
Pastoral Epistles 5
3. The Theological Character of the
Epistles 8

Firat Epistle 1:1-2 Initial Greeting 13

to Timothy 1:3-7 Combat the Heretics! 15
Excursus:
The Situation of the Writing of
1 Timothy 15
Myths and Genealogies 16
"Good Conscience" 18
1:8- 12 The Gospel Entrusted to Paul 22
Excursus:
The Terms" To Be Sound'' and "Sound'' 24
1:13-17 Paul, Example of God's Mercy 27
Excursus:
The Portrayal of Paul's Conversion 28
"The Word Stands Firm" 28
1:18-20 Exhortation Regarding Heretics 32
Excursus:
The Imagery of the Military
Service of the Pious 32
2:1-7 On Prayers for All Men 35
Excursus:
Prayer for the Pagan Authority 37
The Ideal of Good Christian
Citi<.enship 39
2:8-3:1a On Prayer by Men and Women 44
Excursus:
Instructionsfor Women 48
3:1b-7 Conduct of Bishops 50
Excursus:
Teachings About Duties 50
The Position of the Bishop in
the Pastoral Epistles 54
3:8-13 On Conduct of Deacons 58
3:14-16 Word Concerning the Church 60
4:1-5 Concerning the False Teaching 64

vii
 Excursus:
The" False Teachers" of the
Pastoral Epistles 65
4:6-10 Instructions for Timothy 68
4:11-5:2 Timothy as Example 70
Excursus:
The Laying on of Hands 70
5:3-16 On Widows 73
5:17-20 On Presbyters 77
Excursus:
Presbyter 77
5:21-25 Exhortation to Timothy 80
6:1, 2a On Slaves 82
6:2b-5 Warning Against False Doctrine 83
6:6-10 Warning Against Avarice 84
6:11-16 The Battle of Faith 87
6:17-19 Rules for the Wealthy 91
6:20-21 Warning Against False "Gnosis" 92

Second Epistle 1:1-14 Salutation; Christian Tradition

to Timothy
and Apostolic Suffering 97
Excursus:
"Savior" in the Pastoral Epistles 100
"Epiphany" in the Pastoral
Epistles 104
1:15-18 Apostasy or Authentication 106
2:1-13 Exhortation to Suffering 107
2:14-26 Personal Authentication in
view of Heretics 110
3:1-9 Heretics are the Sinners of Last Days 115
3:10-4:8 Summary Exhortation 118
4:9-12 Description of Paul's Situation 122
4:13-15 Instructions for Timothy 123
4:16-18 Personal Information About Paul 124
4:19-22 Greetings and Valediction 125
Excursus:
The Situation of 2 Timothy 126
Information about Persons 127

The Epistle 1:1-4 Initial Greeting 131

to Titus 1:5-9 Installation of Presbyters 132
1:10-16 Against Heretics in Crete 135
2:1-10 Regulations for Men, Women, Slaves 139
2:11-15 Conduct based on the History of
Salvation 142
Excursus:
The Soteriological Terminology
of Titus 2:11-14 and 3:4-7 143
3:1-8a General Exhortations 147

viii
 Excursus:
Rebirth 148
3:8b- 11 Exhortations and Warning About
Heretics 151
3:12- 14 Assignments and Greetings 152
Excursus:
The Situation of the Epistle
to Titus 152
3:15 Concluding Greeting 155

Appendices :
1. !socrates, Ad Nicoclem 40 and 41 158
2. Pseudo-Isocrates, Ad Demonicum 44 158
3. Onosander, De imperatoris officio 1 158
4. Lucian on the perfect dancer,
(Salt. 81) 160
Bibliography:
1. Commentaries 161
2. Select Monographs and Articles 162
Indices: 165
1. Passages
a/ Old Testament and Apocrypha 165
b/ Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
and other Jewish Literature 165
c/ New Testament 166
d/ Early Christian Literature and
the Ancient Church 167
e/ Greek and Latin Authors 168
2. Greek Words 170
3. Subjects 171
4. Modern Authors 173
Designer's Notes 174

ix
Foreword

The name Hermeneia, Greek EPJ.L7]Vda, has been chosen as the title of the com-
mentary series to which this volume belongs. The word Hermeneia has a rich
background in the history of biblical interpretation as a term used in the ancient
Greek-speaking world for the detailed, systematic exposition of a scriptural
work. It is hoped that the series, like its name, will carry forward this old and
venerable tradition. A second, entirely practical reason for selecting the name
lay in the desire to avoid a long descriptive title and its inevitable acronym,
or worse, an unpronounceable abbreviation.
The series is designed to be a critical and historical commentary to the Bible
without arbitrary limits in size or scope. It will utilize the full range of philo-
logical and historical tools including textual criticism (often ignored in modern
commentaries), the methods of the history of tradition (including genre and
prosodic analysis), and the history of religion.
Hermeneia is designed for the serious student of the Bible. It will make full use
of ancient Semitic and classical languages; at the same time, English translations
of all comparative materials-Greek, Latin, Canaanite, or Akkadian-will be
supplied alongside the citation of the source in its original language. Insofar
as possible, the aim is to provide the student or scholar with full critical discus-
sion of each problem of interpretation and with the primary data upon which
the discussion is based.
Hermeneia is designed to be international and interconfessional in the selection
of its authors; its editorial boards were also formed with this end in view. Oc-
casionally the series will offer translations of distinguished commentaries which
originally appeared in languages other than English. Published volumes of
the series will be revised continually, and, eventually, new commentaries will
replace older works in order to preserve the currency of the series. Commen-
taries are also being assigned for important literary works in the categories
of apocryphal and pseudepigraphical works of the Old and New Testaments,
including some of Essene or Gnostic authorship.
The editors of Hermeneia impose no systematic-theological perspective upon
the series (directly, or indirectly by its selection of authors) . It is expected that
authors will struggle to lay bare the ancient meaning of a biblical work or
pericope. In this way the text's human relevance should become transparent,
as is always the case in competent historical discourse. However, the series
eschews for itself homiletical translation of the Bible.
The editors are heavily indebted to Fortress Press for its energy and courage in
taking up an expensive, long-term project, the rewards of which will accrue
chiefly to the field of biblical scholarship.
We are grateful to Philip Buttolphfor a first draft of the translation of this
volume. Adela Yarbro of Harvard University and the Volume Editor are re-
sponsible for the final version of the text here presented. Professor John Strugnell
of Harvard University gave valuable help and advice in the translation of the
often difficult Greek texts. Miss Yarbro, untiring in her efforts, also assisted in
X
 the editing of the manuscript. We are indebted to Professor Hans Conzelmann,
who provided a list of corrections and addenda and permitted us to incorporate
the notes from his personal copy of the last German edition of this commentary.
Judith Dollenmayer undertook the meticulous task of copyediting with her
usual skill and tact. The editors wish to acknowledge that only the help and
cooperation of these and many other persons has made it possible to produce
this English edition of a book which is and will continue to be a classic of
biblical interpretation and, at.the same time, an up-to-date commentary on a
group of closely related New Testament writings.
The editor responsible for this volume is Helmut Koester of Harvard
University.

January 1972 Frank Moore Cross, Jr. Helmut Koester

For the Old Testament For the New Testament
Editorial Board Editorial Board

xi
Foreword to the Third and Fourth German Editions

Martin Dibelius, who died in 1947, left behind almost no preparations for the
revision of his commentary on the Pastoral Epistles. The undersigned is solely re-
sponsible, therefore, for changes from the preceding, second edition, which
had been published in 1931 (a few exceptions involve additions to the biblio-
graphical materials). It is my hope that the unity of the interpretation has been
preserved. In view ofDibelius' masterly accomplishment, I have been as careful
as possible with his text. Nevertheless, the changes are, of course, numerous,
for the revision could not be limited to including the voluminous literature
whicH has appeared in the meantime. Increased attention has been given to
historical and theological matters (see especially the Introduction). Yet the char-
acter of a "handbook" has been retained consciously. The scope of the work
has grown; condensations were possible in only a few places.(for example, in the
excursus on "The Imagery of the Military Service ofthe Pious," because the
newly revised excursus on Eph 6: 10ffis now available for reference) . In the
most important instances divergences in judgment from the second edition have
been indicated.
I would like to thank the editor (Professor Gunther Bornkamm) for much
valuable help. A fruitful exchange of ideas with him has, here and there, found
its way into the text. I was allowed to use the library of the Seminar in Ancient
Philology at Heidelberg, and I am indebted to Dr. Walter Bauhuis, Biblio-
theksrat in Heidelberg, for his valuable assistance in the often difficult task
of procuring the needed literature. Dr. Wolfgang Nauck, Privatdozent in
Tiibingen, permitted me to use his unpublished dissertation. Dr. Helmut
Koester, while Assistant in Heidelberg, undertook the task of proofreading. I am
indebted to my colleague here; Hans Wild berger, for the rendering of a diffi-
cult text from the Qumran scrolls.
Hans Conzelmann
Pfaffhausen bei Ziirich

23 May 1955

xii
Reference Codes

1. Sources and General Abbreviations Gen. Rabba The mid rash Genesis Rabba
GGA Giittingische Gelehrte An-teigen, 1839ff
Abbreviations used in this volume for sources and HAT Handbuch zum A! ten Testament, ed.
literature from antiquity are the same as those used 0 . Eissfeldt
in the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, HNT Handbuch zum Neuen Testament,
ed. Gerhard Kittel, tr. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol. 1 ed. Hans Lietzmann and Gunther
(Grand Rapids, Michigan, and London: Eerdmans, Bornkamm
1964 ), xvi- xl. Some abbreviations are adapted from HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual, 1924ff
that list and can be easily identified. ICC International Critical Commentary,
In addition, the following abbreviations have ed. S. R. Driver, A. Plummer, C. A.
been used: Briggs
ad loc. ad locum, at the place or passage dis- idem the same (person)
cussed Iren.
Ambst. Ambrosiaster Adv. haer. Irenaeus, Adversus haereses
ARW Archiv fUr Religionswissenschaft, item also, in addition
1898ff JBL Journal of Biblical Literature, 1881ff
Asc. Isa. Ascension oflsaiah KD Kerygma und Dogma: Zeitschrijtjiir theo-
b. Ber. Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berakoth logische Forschung und kirchliche Lehre,
b. roma Babylonian Talmud, tractate Yoma 1955ff
BFTh Beitriige zur Forderung der christli- KEK Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar
chen Theologie uber das Neue Testament begriindet
BHTh Beitriige zur historischen Theologie von Heinrich August Wilhelm
BWANT Beitriige zur Wissenschaft vom AI ten Meyer
und Neuen Testament KIT Kleine Texte fur Vorlesungen und
BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die neu- Ubungen, ed. Hans Lietzmann
testamentliche Wissenschaft und die Loeb The Loeb Classical Library, founded
Kunde der iilteren Kirche by James Loeb, ed. E. H. Warmington
CD The Cairo Genizah Damascus Document (Cambridge, Mass., and London:
cf. confer, compare with Harvard University Press and Heine-
Cll Corpus lnscriptionum Iudaicarum, ed.J. B. mann, 1912ff)
Frey (City of the Vatican: Rome's MPG Patrologia, Series Graeca, ed . .J. P.
Pontifical Institute of Christian Ar- Migne
chaeology, 1936-52) n. note
col. column(s) NF Neutestamentliche Forschungen
Con. Neot . Coniectanea Neotestamentica NGG Nachrichten von der koniglichen Ge-
ed. editor, edited by sellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
[Ed.] Editor of this volume ofHermeneia Gottingen, Philologisch-historische
ET English translation Klasse
EThR Etudes thtologiques et religieuses, 1 926ff N.S. New Series
EvT Evanglische Theologie NTAbh Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen
ExpT The Expository Times, 1 900ff NTD Das Neue Testament Deutsch, ed.
FGRH Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, Paul Althaus and Gerhard Friedrich
ed. FelixJacoby (Leiden: E.J. Brill, NTS New Testament Studies, 1 954ff
1 957-58) p. (pp.) page (s)
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Litera- P. Grenf. I, An Alexandrian Erotic Fragment and
tur des A! ten und Neuen Testaments Other Greek Papyri, chirfly Ptolemaic, ed.
GCS Die griechischen christlichen Schrift- B. P. Grenfell (Oxford: Clarendon
steller der ersten dreiJ ahrhunderte Press, 1896). II, New Classical Frag-
(Leipzig and Berlin: Hinrichs and ments, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt
Akademie-Verlag, 1897ff) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1897)

xiii
P. Reinach Papyrus grecs et demotiques recueillis en [trans. by Translated by editor of this volume of
Egypte, ed. Theodore Reinach (Paris: Ed.] Hermeneia
Leroux, 1905-40) TS Texts and Studies; Contributions to
P. Strassb. Der Griechische Papyrus der Kaiser lichen Biblical and Patristic Literature
Universitiits- und Landesbibliothek <.u TU Texte und Untersuchungen zur Ge-
Strassburg, ed. Friedrich Preisigke, vol. schichte der altchristlichen Literatur
1, 2 (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1906-20) TWNT Theologisches Wiirterbuch .tum Neuen
Pauly- Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel and
Wissowa Altertumswissenschaften, ed. A. Gerhard Friedrich, vol. 1-9 (Stuttgart:
Pauly, G. Wissowa, etc. (1893fr) Kohlhammer, 1933- 71)
Q Qumran documents: v(vss) verse(s)
1 Q27 The Book of Mysteries v.l. varia lectio, variant reading
1QpHab Pesher Habakkuk, the Commentary on vol. volume(s)
Habakkuk WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum
1 QS Serek hay-yai)ad, the Rule of the Com- Alten und Neuen Testament
munity :(DMG :(eitschrift der deutschen morgenliindischen
RAG Reallexikon fiir Antike und Christentum, Gesellschajt, 1847ff
ed. Theodor Klauser, vol. 1-7 (Stutt- :(KG :(eitschriftfiir Kirchengeschichte, 1877fl"
gart: Hiersemann, 1950) :(NW :(eitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissen-
RB Revue Biblique 1892ff, N.S. 1904fl" schajt und die Kunde der iilteren Kirche,
RechSR Recherches de science religieuse, 1910fl" 1900fl"
rev. revised by :(STh :(eitschrift fiir systematische Theologie,
RevSR Revue des sciences religieuses, 1921 fl. 1923ff
RGG Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart :(ThK :(eitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, 1891-
RHPR Revue d'histoire et de philosophic religieuses, 1917; N.S. 1920ff
1921 ff :(WTh :(eitschrift fiir wissmschajtliche Theologie,
RSPT Revue des sciences philosophiques et theolo- 1858-1914
giques, 1907 fl.
RSV Revised Standard Version of the
Bible
SAH Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philo-
logisch-historische Klasse
SAQ Sammlung ausgewiihlter kirchen-
und dogmengeschichtlicher Quel-
lenschriften
SBT Studies in Biblical Theology
S]T Scottish Journal of Theology, 1948ff
ST Studia Theologica
s.v. sub verbo or sub voce, under the word
(entry)
SVF Stoicorum veterumfragmenta, ed. H. F. A.
von Arnim (Leipzig: Teubner,
1903-24)
TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testa-
ment, ed. Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard
Friedrich, tr. and ed. Geoffrey Bromi-
ley, vols. 1-6 (Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Eerdmans, 1964-68)
ThL:( Theologische Literaturzeitung, 187 6ff
ThR Theologische Rundschau, 1898-1917;
N.S. 1929fl.
ThStKr Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1828-
1942
Th:( Theologische :(eitschrift der theologischen
Fakultiit der Universitiit Basel, 1945ff
tr. translator, translated by, translation
[Trans.] Trafl$1ator of this volume of
Heremeneia

xiv
2. Short Titles of Frequently Cited Literature (M unchen: Beck, 19 54-61).
Blass-Debrunner
Abramowski, "Der Christus der Salomooden" F. Blass and A. Debrunner, A Greek Grammar of the
R. Abramowski, "Der Christus der Salomooden,'' New Testament and other Early Christian Literature,
,ZNW35 (1936): 44- 69, tr. and rev. Robert W. Funk (Chicago: University
Almqvist, Plutarch und das NT of Chicago Press, 1961) [This work is cited by
Helge Almqvist, Plutarch und das Neue Testament; section numbers].
ein Beitrag zum Corpus Hellenisticum Novi Testamenti Bornkamm, Early Christian Experience
(Uppsala: Appelberg, 1946). Gunther Bornkamm, Early Christian Experience, tr.
Ante-Nicene Christian Library Paul Hammer (London: SCM Press, 1969) .
Alexander Roberts and james Donaldson, ed ., Bornkamm, "Hiiresie des Kolosserbriefes"
Ante- Nicene Christian Library 1-24 (Edinburgh: Gunther Bornkamm, "Die Hiiresie des Kolosser-
T. & T. Clark, 1867-72). briefes" in Das Ende des Gesetzes: Paulusstudien,
Asting, Verkiindigung Gesammelte Aufsiitze 1, Beitriige zur evangeli-
Ragnar Asting, Die Verkiindigung des Wortes Gottes schen Theologie 16 (Munchen: Chr. Kaiser,
im Urchristentum (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1939). 61966)' 139-56.
Baldensperger," 'II a rendu temoignage'" Bornkamm, "Homologia"
G. Baldensperger," 'II a rendu temoignage de- Gunther Bornkamm, "Homologia" in Geschichte
vant Ponce Pilate,' " RHPR 2 (1922): 1-25. und Glaube 1, Gesammelte Aufsiitze 3, Beitriige zur
Bartsch, Anfiinge evangelischen Theologie 48 (Munchen : Chr.
Hans Werner Bartsch, Die Anfiinge urchristlicher Kaiser, 1968), 140-56.
Rechtsbildungen: Studien zr1 den Pastoralbriefen (Ham- Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums
burg: Herbert Reich, 1965). Wilhelm Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums im
Bauer spiithellenistischen ,Zeitalter, ed. Hugo Gressmann
Walter Bauer, A Greek- English Lexicon, tr. William (Tubingen:J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 4 1966).
F . Arndt and F. Wilbur Gingrich (Chicago: Uni- Bover," 'Fidelis Sermo'"
versity of Chicago Press, 1957, 1965). Jose M . Bover," 'Fidelis Sermo,'" Biblica 19
Bauer, Johannesevangelium (1938): 74-9.
Walter Bauer, Das Johannesevangelium erkliirt, HNT Bruston "De Ia date"
6 (Tubingen:J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], Ch. B~uston, "De Ia date de Ia premiere Epltre de
• 3 1933). Paul a Timothee,'' EThR 5 (1930): 272-76.
Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy Bultmann, review of Cullmann, Les premieres confes-
Walter Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest sions de foi chretiennes
Christianity, tr. by the Philadelphia Seminar on RudolfBultmann, review of Oscar Cullmann,
Christian Origins (Philadelphia, Pa. : Fortress Les premieres confessions de foi chretiennes, ThL,Z 7 4
Press, 1971) . (1949): 40-2.
Bauer, Der Wortgottesdienst Bultmann, Theology
Walter Bauer, Der Wortgottesdienst der iiltesten Rudolf Bultmann, Th~ology of the New Testament,
Christen (Tubingen:J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], vol. 1, tr. Kendrick Grobel (New York: Charles
1930). Scribner's Sons, 1951); vol. 2, tr. Kendrick Grobel
Baur, Die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955).
Ferdinand Christian Baur, Die sogenannten Pastoral- Bultmann, "Untersuchungen zumjohannesevan-
briefe des Apostels Paulus aufs neue kritisch untersucht gelium"
(Stuttgart and Tubingen: Cotta, 1835). RudolfBultmann, "Untersuchungen zumjohan-
Behm, Handaujfegung nesevangelium" in Exegetica: Aufsiitze zur Erfor-
Johannes Behm, Die Handaujf~gung im Urchristenlum schungdesNeuen Testaments (Tubingen:J. C . B.
(Leipzig: A. Deichert, 1911 ). Mohr [Paul Siebeckl, 1967), 124-97.
Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt von Campenhausen, "Asceticism"
Harold ldris Belled., J ews and Christians in Egypt : Hans von Campenhausen, "Early Christian As-
the Jewish Troubles in Alexandria and the Athanasian ceticism," in Tradition and Life in the Church: Essays
Controversy. Illustrated by Texts from Greek Papyri in and Lectures in Church History, tr. A. V. Littledale
the British Museum (London: Quaritch, 1924). (Philadelphia, Pa.: Fortress Press, 1968), 99-122.
Belser von Campenhausen, Ecclesiastical Authority
J. E. Belser, Die Brieje des Apostel Paulus an Timo- Hans von Campenhausen, Ecclesiastical Authority
theus und Titus iibersetzt und erkliirt (Freiburg i.B. : and Spiritual Power, tr.J. A. Baker (Stanford,
Herder, 1907). Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1969).
Biller beck von Campenhausen, "Polykarp"
Hermann Strack and Paul Billerbeck, Kommentar Hans von Campenhausen, "Polykarp von Smyrna
zum N euen Testament aus Talmud und M idrasch 1-4 und die Pastoralbriefe," in A us der Friihzeit des

XV
 ChristenJums (Tubingen:J. C. B. Mohr [Paul [Paul Siebeck], 31937).
Siebeck], 1963), 197-252. von Dobschutz, Die urchristlichen Gemeinden
Charles, APO T Ernst von Dobschutz, Die urchristlichen Gemeinden
R. H . Charles, ed., The Apocrypha and Pseudepi- (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1 902).
grapha of the Old Testament in English, with Introduc- Dolger, lchthys
tions and Critical and Explanatory .Notes to the Several Franz Dolger, Ichthys {Freiburg i.B.: Herder,
Books, vol. 1 and 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910).
1913; reprint 1965). Dupont- Sommer, Essene Writings
Conzelmann, Luke A. Dupont- Sommer, The Essene Writings from
Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke, tr. Qumran, tr. G . Vermes {Cleveland, Ohio and
Geoffrey Buswell {London : Faber & Faber, 1960). New York : The World Publishing Co., 1962).
Cramer, Catene Easton
John A. Cramer, Catene in Sancti Pauli: Epistolas Burton Scott Easton, The Pastoral Epistles {Lon-
ad Timotheum, Titum, Philemona et ad Hebraeos, don: SCM Press, 1 948).
Catenae Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testa- Elliger, Habakuk- Kommentar
mentum 7 {Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1~43). Karl Elliger, Studien zum Habakuk-Kommentar vom
Cullmann, Confessions Tolen Meer, BHTh 15 {Tubingen : J. C. B. Mohr
Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest Christian Confessions , [Paul Siebeck], 1953).
tr.J . K . S. Reid (London: Lutterworth Press, Erbes, "Zeit und Ziel"
1949). K . Erbes, "Zeit und Ziel der Grusse Rom. 16,
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tungen zur Christusverkundigung," in .NT Studien Falconer
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AdolfDeissmann, Bible Studies, tr. A. Grieve Gerhard, Phoinix
(Edinburgh: T.&T. Clark, 1901). Gustav Gerhard, Phoinix von Kolophon (Leipzig
Deissmann, LAE and Berlin : Teubner, 1909) .
AdolfDeissmann, Light from the Ancient East, the Gerlach, Griechische Ehreninschrijten
.New Testament Illustrated by Recently Discovered T exts Gunther Gerlach, Griechische Ehreninschrijten
of the Graeco-Roman World, tr. Lionel R . M. (Halle: Niemeyer, 1908).
Strachan {New York: George H . Doran, 1927) . Gressmann, Altorientalische Texte
Delling, Stellung des Paulus zu Frau und Ehe Hugo Gressmann, Arthur U ngnad and Hermann
Gerhard Delling, Die Stellung des Paulus zu Frau Ranke, Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum Allen
und Ehe {Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1931). Testamente {Tubingen:J. C . B. Mohr [Paul Sie-
Dey, llAAirrENEl:IA beck], 1909) .
Joseph Dey, llAAirrENEl:IA : Ein Beitrag zur Haerens, "l:flTHP et l:flTHPIA"
Kliirung der religionsgeschichtlichen Bedeutung von Tit H. Haerens, "l:UTHP et l:OTIIPIA," Studia
3, 5, NTAbh 17, 5 {Munster : Aschendorff, 1937). Hellenistica 5 {1948) : 57-68.
Dibelius, Geisterwelt von Harnack, Chronologie
Martin Dibelius, Die Geisterwe/t im Glauben des Adolf von Harnack, Geschichte der a/tchristlichen
Paulus (Gottingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Literatur vol. 2 : Die Chronologie (Leipzig: Hinrichs,
1909). 2 1958).

Dibelius, Der Hirt des Hermas von Harnack, Constitution

Martin Dibelius, Der Hirt des Hermas, HNT, Adolf von Harnack, The Constitution and Law of the
Erglingungsband 4 {Tubingen:J. C . B. Mohr Church in the First Two Centuries, tr. F. L. Pogson,
[Paul Siebeck], 1923) . ed. H. D. A. Major (New York: G. P. Putnam's
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Martin Dibelius and Heinrich Greeven, An die von Harnack, Expansion of Christianity
Kolosser, Epheser , An Philemon, HNT 12 {Tubingen : Adolf von Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity in
J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 31953). the First Three Centuries, tr. and ed.James Moffatt
Dibelius, "Rom und die Christen" (New York: G . P. Putnam's Sons, 1904); repub-
Martin Dibelius, "Rom und die Christen im lished as The Mission and Expansion of Christianity
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Martin Dibelius, An die Thessalonicher I, ll, An die fremden Gott, eine Monographie zur Geschichte der
Philipper, HNT 11 (Tubingen:J. C. B. Mohr Grundlegung der katholischen Kirche (Leipzig: J. C.

xvi
 Hinrichs, 2 1924; reprinted 1960). (Tiibingen:J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1920).
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ed., The Odes and Psalms of Solomon vol. 2 (Man- Geschichte der christlichen Gemeinden vom Beginn der
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Hatch, Organization (Berlin : Besser'sche Buchhandlung, 1885).
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Wilhelm Schneemelcher, tr. and ed. R. MeL. Lietzmann-Kiimmel, Korinther
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Heinrich Julius Holtzmann, Die Pastoralbrieje Lietzmann, Riimer
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xvii
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Friedrich Preisigke, Wiirterbuch der grir.chischm Verlag, 1955).

xviii
Schweizer, Lordship and Discipleship ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum, Die
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Paul Wendland, Die hellenistisch- romische K ultur in

xix
Editor's Note

The English translation of the Greek text of the Pas-

toral Epistles printed in this volume was made by
the editor on the basis ofthe Greek text. It reflects
the author's exegetical decisions throughout. The
German translation of the author was consulted
in each instance.
Translators and editor are responsible for all
translations of other Biblical texts, but they have fol-
lowed the Revised Standard Version wherever possible.
Translations of ancient Greek and Latin texts are
taken from Loeb Classical Library in all instances in
which no particular source for the translation is
identified. In all other cases, the source of the trans-
lation is given in brackets [);or it is noted that the
translator or the editor has rendered the text into
English: [Trans.] or [trans. by Ed.).
Whenever available, recent scholarly works are
cited in their published English versions. Quotations
from literature not available in English translation
have been rendered by the translators.
With respect to all scholarly publications which
are available in English language, we have not
preserved the author's references to the original
publications in other languages, except in the Bib-
liography. Though it seemed desirable to maintain
such references, it would have overburdened the
footnotes considerably.
The Bibliography has been supplemented by a
few additional entries which have appeared since
1966.
The front endpaper of this volume shows a stretch-
ing frame used for the restoration of ancient papyri.
It is reproduced with the permission of the pub-
lisherfrom H.J. M. Milne and T . C. Skeat, Scribes
and Correctors of the Codex Sinaiticus (London, The
British Museum, 1938). The second endpaper is
Plate LXXVI (2 Timothy 2:1 9-3:5) from W. H . P.
Hatch, The Greek Manuscripts of the New Testament
at Mount Sinai (Paris, Librairie Orientaliste Paul
Geuthner, 1932). The plate reproduced on p. vis a
fragment from Titus (3:8-9, 14-15); it is Plate 6
(5.151-72) found in L. Casson and E. L. Hettich,
The Literary Papyri, Excavations at Nessana, Vol. II
(Copyright 1950 by the Princeton University Press),
and is reproduced here through the courtesy of the
publisher.

XX
 Introduction

1. The Question of Authenticity of the concept of tradition, and reflects the basic problem
Any judgment as to what the Pastorals are and intend to of the second and third generation. How did the kerygma
be depends in great measure upon the question of au- become a "deposit" (7rapaO~wq)?
thorship. The person who considers them to be genuine This transformation cannot be explained simply by
Pauline epistles must understand them as portions of reference to the fact that the apostle has become an
Paul's correspondence. In that case, 2 Tim best fits our authority, for it is not merely a question of "develop-
accustomed picture of the Pauline letter because 1) in ment" in a straight line. Rather, the transformation
2 Tim, especially in the last chapter, the personal element results from a considered change of position. The ques-
is strongly emphasized, and 2) because the exhortations tion is how and in what sense the kerygma of the apostles,
in the epistle really apply to the addressee and therefore during the course of transmission, becomes doctrinal
can well be accounted "correspondence." Finally, the authority. The self-understanding of this generation
letter displays a very loose train of thought, something becomes objectified in a particular image of the apostle
which is characteristic of parenesis as a whole and thus and a specific understanding of doctrine. In this process,
also of the parenesis of Paul (cf. Rom 12; Col 3 and 4) . two turning points can be observed: one in the transi-
1 Tim, on the other hand, affords the most difficulties. tion to the second generation, the other in the transition
For here, personal elements fade into the background, to the third. At the latter pcint, the figure of the apostle's
and the letter's primary purpose is to transmit regulations disciple plays a role; it is he who guarantees the genuine-
(see 1 Tim 2, 3, and 5) which are not intended for the ness of the tradition, but, on the other hand, he stands
addressee, but for other people. Timothy's duty could on the same level as those who received the tradition,
have been merely to pass them on-but that explanation inasmuch as he himself is already a recipient. (In the
is odd, for in such situations Paul was accustomed to Pastorals the apostle himself never stands on the level of
write to the congregations themselves. the recipient within a chain of tradition-in contrast
Here, as with respect to other questions, Tit holds a to 1 Cor 11 :23; 15:3.) In this case the Pastorals would
median position: the fact that the regulations are ad- represent one of the first attempts to assess the new
dressed to the apostle's disciple seems more justified in ecclesiastical situation, and in this connection it should
this case, since in Crete the foundation for church or- be noted that the concept of tradition was not yet bouhd
ganization had yet to be laid. Furthermore, the epistle, up with a concept of succession. The disciple of the
with its concern for the special circumstances of the local apostle is not yet a link in a rigid chain of succession in
situation (see below on Tit 1: 1Off), contains more "cor- which an office is transmitted. The process of contempla-
respondence" than 1 Tim. tion does not go beyond the elaboration of its own
Whoever regards the Pastoral Epistles as pseudonymous position, which is determined by the possession of right
will draw his conclusions concerning the literary char- doctrine. This distinguishes the Pastorals from lrenaeus,
acter of all three writings from those sections in which the for example, who also points out the mediating role of
features of letter-writing play a less prominent role- the second generation (so that he is able to link himself-
sections dealing with instructions and congregational via Polycarp-With the earliest possible point in the
rules-also taking into consideration the way in which chain); but with him the idea of succession is already
kerygmatic and liturgical traditions are employed. From constitutive.
this perspective, 2 Tim poses a special problem, for a The judgment concerning the Pastoral Epistles de-
motive underlying its composition is not readily apparent, pends less on a single argument than on the convergence
and the prominence of its epistolary character protects of a whole series of arguments: 1
it, in the opinion of many, from the charge of pseu- a) The testimony of the early Church : it is not very
donymity. It follows from all of this that one cannot strong. Literary dependence of Ignatius and Polycarp
discuss the question of authenticity without investigating
the literary character of the letters. In case they are See Hans von Campenhausen, "Polykarp von
spurious, it is not only the writer's immediate purpose Smyrna und die Pastoralbriefe" in Aus der Friih-
{.eit des Christentums (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul
that is characteristic; the couching of the letters as Siebeck], 1963), 200; Burton Scott Easton, The Pas-
epistles of Paul is itself symptomatic for the development toral Epistles (London : SCM Press, 1948), p. 15.
1
cannot be proven. 2 The Pastorals'are absent in the canon torals is reserved in its use. But while a reference to
of Marcion; whether he did not know them or was not Marcion cannot be proved, the style of the polemic
willing to include them is debatable. 3 Tatian rejected against heresy provides a clue for evaluating the authen-
1 and 2 Tim but not Tit. 4 The letters are also absent in ticity of the Pastorals. The tone and manner are very
the Chester Beatty Papyri (P 46). 5 2 Tim 2: 19 appears to different from the polemical style of the genuine Pauline
be quoted in a fragment from the beginning of the 3rd epistles (cf. the excursus to 1 Tim 4: 15) . The writer does
century. 6 not argue with his opponents. 8 The " false teaching"
b) The polemic against heretics. We would be able to is simply contrasted with the "correct teaching"; the fact
arrive at a decision regarding the question of authen- that the opponents "deny" (tipvliuOa.t), i.e. they de-
ticity and also at a fixed date for the Pastorafs, if the part from orthodoxy, is simply stated in a formal manner;
thesis to which Walter Bauer and Hans von Campen- the writer's own correct teaching is not presented but
hausen have again called attention were substantiated: taken for granted and quoted in fixed formulations. 9
namely, the thesis that the Pastorals were written against Hence a picture of the opponents can hardly be recon-
Marcion (or even that they were compiled by Polycarp). structed.10 The assertion that there is a connection
In that case, by the production of the Pastorals, Paul between false teaching and immorality is a characteristic
would be snatched away from the heretics once and for feature of this style of polemic. It is not just a personal
all, and made chief witness for the orthodoxy which mannerism of the author, but rather part of the fixed
was being formed. In fact the literary style is related to style of the heresy battle in its nascent stages, the style of
that of Polycarp's Epistle to t~e Philippians, as is the theo- what was becoming orthodoxy. 11
logical and ecclesiastical attitude. But neither the ar- Another typical feature of this style is the presentation
gument of literary dependence nor that of the author's of examples. If one contends that a relation exists be-
identity is needed to explain these agreements. 7 It is tween teaching and morality, he can see in the back-
more probable that they emerge from a common milieu. ground the Jewish view that godlessness (the heathen)
The specific details of Marcion's teaching cannot be produces immorality .(rf. Wisd Sol)-a theme which is
recognized in the heresy which is being attacked. The
Old Testament is not in contention; in fact, the opposing
side seems to work with it, while the author of the Pas-

2 About Polycarp see the comments below on 1 Tim 7 Cf. Ernst Kasemann, "Ein neutestamentlicher
6:7, 10. Uberblick," Verkiindigung und Forschung (1949-50):
3 On the question of whether the Pastorals were later 215. Polycarp quotes constantly; he appeals to Paul
accepted by the Marcionites cf. E. C. Blackman, directly as his authority; this makes him unsuitable
Marcion and His Influence (London: S.P.C.K ., 1948), as a pseudonymous writer. Between them also
52ff; von Campenhauscn, " Polykarp," 204. exist characteristic divergences in style.
4 See Adolf von Harnack, Marc ion: das Evangelium vom 8 Cf. his own statements to this effect 1 Tim 6:20;
Jremden Gott (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 2 1924; re- 2 Tim 2:16, 23; Tit 3:9.
printed 1960), 150 •r, 237 •r. 9 Cf. the schematic expressions, as in 1 Tim 4:6f; 6:3;
5 See F. G. Kenyon, The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri 2 Tim 2:14; Tit 3:8, and the contrasts: 1 Tim 6:4;
(London: E. Walker, Ltd., Fasc. III, Suppl. 1936), 2 Tim 3:10, 14; and Tit 2:1; etc.
pp. viii ff. But cf. M.J. Lagrange, "Les Papyrus 10 In contrast cf. the way in which the Epistle to the
Chester Beatty pour les Epitres deS. Paul et I' Apo- Colossians deals with the opponents. See Gunther
calypse," RB 43 (1934): 481-93; P. Benoit, "Le Bornkamm, "Die Hliresie des Kolosserbriefes,"
Codex paulinien Chester Beatty," RB 46 (1937): ThL( 73 (1948): 11 ff; reprinted in Das Ende des
·s8-82; alsojoachimjeremias and Hermann Strath- Gesetzes (Miinchen: Kaiser, 6 1966), 139-56.
mann, Die Briife an Timotheus und Titus, NTD 9 II Cf. the treatment in the Epistle of jude, the Second
(Giittingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 8 1963), p. 4. Epistle of Peter, Acts 20:29ff, and the book of Reve-
6 See H. ldris Bell and T. C. Skeat, Fragments of an Un- lation. On the whole question see Walter Bauer,
known Gospel (London: Trustees of the British Mu- Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, tr. by the
seum, 1935), pp. 48, 44; cf. Wilhelm Michaelis, Philadelphia Seminar on Christian Origins (Phila-
Einleitung in das Neue Testamml (Bern: Berchtold delphia, Pa.: Fortress Press, 1971 ).
Haller, 3 1961), 238.
2
 The Question of Authenticity

taken up and elaborated theologically in Paul's Letter to the Pastorals : the extensive detail of the regulations,
the Romans. The Pastorals are satisfied with the bare which are by no means emergency measures for the
assertion and apply it to groups within the Church; what present, but rather orders for a considerable length of
is new, in comparison with Paul's situation, is the phe- time-all this contradicts the assertion of the Pastorals
nomenon of heresy. The little that can be known defi- that Paul has not been gone very long from the place in
nitely about the opponents points not to the great question, and that he is not going to be away from the
Gnostic systems, but rather to a kind of Judaizing Gnos- addressee for very long (cf. the excursus on 1 Tim 1 : 3 and
ticism (with speculation and observance of the Law) Tit 3:14). So the Pastorals give the impression of being
as is to be found elsewhere (Col and Ign.). occasional letters, but really are not, as is shown by the
c) Situations. The situations presupposed in the Pas- artificial statement of purpose in 1 Tim 3: 14f.
toral E pis ties are discussed in the excursus on 1 Tim 1 : 3; d) The vocabulary of the Pastorals appears to diverge
2 Tim 4:21 and Tit 3:14. It is hard for us to find a place markedly from that of the other Pauline epistles. Heinrich
for them within the portion of Paul's life known to us; Julius Holtzmann counts 171 "new" words. But recent
only for Tit is there at least some possibility of doing so. debate has shown that the method of arguing against
Advocates of the Pastorals' authenticity can try to place authenticity on the basis of statistics is inadequate. The
them within the time between a first and an assumed value of word statistics is diminished from the start,
second or during such a second imprisonment, which because they ignore the fact that divergences are partially
would have to be inferred primarily from 7 Clem. 5.7. conditioned by adoption of traditional material. It would
But 7 Clem. does not present a pertinent biographical therefore be meaningful to use such statistics only in
orientation. It is concerned with the idea of the mission conjunction with a more comprehensive linguistic and
to the uttermost parts of the earth, as in Acts, except that form- critical investigation. Further, even the other
the goal in the latter is Rome, in the former perhaps Pauline epistles vary widely from each other in vocabu-
(?) Spain. But 7 Clem . and Acts agree that the goal is lary.15 To be sure, the Pastorals seem to have the largest
achieved before (or in Acts precisely during ) the one and percentage of divergences; 16 but the comparative figures
only imprisonment of Paul. 7 Clem. knows nothing about of each individual epistle give an essentially different
a release from such imprisonment. 12 picture from that of the three Pastorals taken together. 17
But in this point 7 Clem . also agrees with the conception Much more important than bare statistics is the fact
of the Pastorals, which likewise know of only one im- that the Pastorals' vocabulary, inasmuch as it differs
prisonment.13 Thus 1 Tim and Tit simply presuppose the from the vocabulary of the Pauline epistles, belongs
situation of the mission (known from Acts), and 2 Tim mainly to the higher Koine. Therefore, when compared
that of the (Roman? Caesarean?) imprisonment; there- with the whole of Hellenistic Greek it appears to be less
fore, any divergences from the real historical situation peculiar than the vocabulary of the rest of the NT. 18
result from the fact of a literary fiction . 14 Again, in This fact argues strongly against the authenticity of the
another connection, the closer scrutiny of the situations PastoralJ. The force of this argument can be diminished,
results in a strong argument against the authenticity of to be sure through certain observations-for example the

12 Karl Roll, "Der Kirchenbegriff des Paulus in seinem also Hans Conzelmann, "Miszelle zu Act 20.4f,"
Verhaltnis zu dem der Urgemeinde," in Gesammelte ,ZNW45 (1954): 266.
Aufsiitze zur Kirchengeschichte (Tubingen : J. C . B. 15 See F . Torm, "Uber die Sprache in den Pastoral-
Mohr [Paul Siebeck), 1927- 28; reprinted 1964), II : briefen," ,ZNW18 (1917-18) : 225-43.
p . 65, n . 2. 16 The most detailed account is found in P . N. Harri-
13 See the excursus mentioned above. Even 2 Tim 4:16 son, The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (London :
is not looking back to an earlier imprisonment. Oxford University Press, 1921 ).
14 Christian Maurer undertakes a more detailed at- 17 On the computations of Otto Roller, Das Formular
tempt to explain how the pseudonymous writer may der paulinischen Briefe (Stuttgart : W . Kohlhammer,
have envisaged the situation; see his article, "Eine 1933) , see Wilhelm Michaelis, "Pastoralbriefe und
Textvaria nte klart die Entstehung der Pastoral- Wortstatistik," ,ZNW28 (1929) : 69-76, and idem,
briefe auf," Th,Z (1947): 321 - 37 . A criticism of the Einleitung, 240.
article appears in Michaelis, Einleitung, 250ft'. See 18 See Theodor Nageli, Der Wortschatz des Apostel Paulus
3
consideration that the anti-Gnostic polemic provides found in Paul. For in both instances one can discern
new linguistic material-or through hypotheses which at formulas which have been borrowed from the tradition;
any rate are somewhat risky: e.g., the effect of the writer's in each case the traditional formulas are quite disparate
advanced age or the influence of Hellenistic secular in content and terminology. The difference could simply
literature. But the argument cannot be entirely nullified, be attributed to the traditional source which is cited.
especially since the writer has not absorbed and utilized But a difference must be noted in the way in which
the concepts and terminology of his opponents. Above traditional materials are used. Paul appropriates and
all, one fact cannot be simply wished away: in place of interprets the tradition; in the Pastorals it is not theo-
definite expressions with religious significance, expres- logically appropriated but learned, like a lesson.
sions which have already become "set" in Paul's lan- The linguistic arguments can be partially evaded by
guage, the Pastorals employ different terms; what is resorting to the fragment hypothesis and the secretary hy-
more, they use the vernacular designations instead of the pothesis. The former regards especially the personal
original Pauline words. 19 This is substantiated in the statements at the end of 2 Tim as a fragment of a genuine
excursus to 1 Tim 1 : 5 (Good Conscience), 1 : 10 (The Pauline letter. In recent times it has been most thoroughly
Terms "To Be Sound," etc.), and to Tit 2:14 (Soterio- presented by P. N. Harrison (cf. also Robert Falconer).22
logical Terminology ofTit, section 3). Whoever wishes to Harrison attempts, by means of wore! statistics (see
derive from Paul the words and sentences which are above), to prove the authenticity of five small epistles or
investigated in these instances must bear the burden of fragments. 23 One must recognize from the outset, how-
proof. ever, that the personal statements are likely to contain
e) Hans von Campenhausen has provided a new vie~­ fewer peculiar expressions than the other parts of the
point in his demonstration of the non-Pauline character Pastorals. But even apart from the fanciful partition of
of the church order in the Pastorals. 2o From the stand- 2 Tim 4, the strongest doubts must be raised against such
point of the history of development of church constitu- an hypothesis. We can scarcely assume that a stray
tions the epistles belong to the time of the turn of the fragment of a Pauline letter has accidentally found its way
century (or even later?). into one of the Pastorals !24 For even if the prescript and
f) In connection with these arguments still other ob- the conclusion of such a letter had been damaged, it
servations gain added weight: many passages give the still would have possessed, in the address on the other
impression of imitation. 21 Further, it is difficult to deny
the impression that the Pastorals know the book of the
Acts of the Apostles. One must be cautious, however, in
comparing the Christology of the Pastorals with that

(Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1905), ,ZNW31 (1932): 90, and Ernst von Dobschi.iz, "Die
85ff; Adolf Bonhoffer, Epiktet und das Neue Testament Pastoralbriefe (zu Costa Thornell, Pastoralbrevens
(Berlin: Topelmann, 1911; reprint 1964), 201 ff; Akthet)," ThStKr 104 (1932): 121-123.
Gottfried Thieme, Die Inschrijten von Magnesia am 20 See his Ecclesiastical Authority and Spiritual Power,
Miiander und das Neue Testament (Gottingen: Vanden- translated by J. A. Baker (Stanford, Calif.: Stan-
hoeck & Ruprecht, 1906), 33ff; Paul Wendland, ford University Press, 1969), especially 106-19.
Die hellenistisch-riimische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu 21 For example, 1 Tim 1: 12-16; cf. Gall: 13-16 and
Judentum und Christentum, Die urchristlichen Literatur- 1 Cor 15:9f; 2 Tim 1 :3-5; cf. Rom 1:8-11. See
formen, HNT I, 2 and 3 (Ti.ibingen: J. C. B. Mohr RudolfBultmann, "Pastoralbriefe," RGG 2 , 4:994.
[Paul Siebeck], 3 1912), p. 364, n. 5; K. Grayston 22 Robert Falconer, The Pastoral Epistles (Oxford:
and G. Berdan, "The Authorship of the Pastorals in Clarendon Press, 1937), 1-30, especially 13-17.
the Light of Statistical Linguistics," NTS 6 (1959- 23 Tit 3:12-15; 2 Tim 4:13-15,20, 21a; 2 Tim 4 : 16-
1960): 1-15. 18a; 2 Tim 4:9-12, 22b; 2 Tim 1: 16-18; 3: lOf; 4:1,
19 On the attempt by Costa Thornell, Pastoralbrevens 2a, 5b, 6-8, 18b, 19, 21b, and 22a.
it'kthet, Svenskt arkiv for jlUmanistika avhandlingar 24 See Hans Lietzmann and Werner Georg Ki.immel,
(Goteborg: Eranos' Forlag, 1931), to prove the An die Korinther /-II, HNT 9 (Tiibingen: J. C. B.
authenticity of the Pastorals by means of a collection Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 5 1969), on 2 Cor 7:1.
of stylistic parallels, cf. Hans Lietzmann, "Notizen,"
4
 The Literary Character

side, an indication of its independent status as a letter. 25 first of all from passages with a different content.
Thus, it would have been the pseudonymous "Paul" a) 1 Tim and Tit are of an essentially similar literary
after all who copied, for his own purposes, pieces from character. The core of the epistle to Titus is Tit 2, re-
Pauline letters which are unknown to us. The fragment sembling the "rules for the household" (Haustafel) which
hypothesis owes its popularity to interpreters who wish to give instructions to the individual members of the family,
avoid the conclusion that the wonderful ethos of 2 Tim 4 including the slaves. To this passage belong the verses
is the product of a "pseudonymous writer." But the in the first chapter which deal with the "Bishop" (E1r·L-
fragment hypothesis does not exonerate the "pseudony- O'K01T"OS, Tit 1:7-9) and thefirstversesofthethird
mous writer," but only ascribes to him a different method chapter, which may be regarded as the conclusion of
(cf. further the commentary below on 2 Tim 4:8). The these rules for the household. We cannot with equal
difficulty of taking the personal remarks as simply a part certainty identify a basic body of materials in 1 Tim. For
of the epistolary frame seems in itself to have led many there the interest is directed to two main points: church
exegetes to adopt the fragment hypothesis; but even this order and the refutation of heretics (in this regard cf.
difficulty is not as great as is often assumed, as will be also Tit 1 : 1Off and 3: 9ff-but this is in no sense the main
shown below. 26 concern in Tit). But even apart from this twofold in-
The secretary hypothesis has recently been set upon a terest, the character of the church order materials them-
new foundation by Roller. The rich diplomatic material, selves does not seem uniform. First of all, their arrange-
however, which he adduces proves no more in favor of ment is by no means clear : 1 Tim 2: 1ff deals with the
this hypothesis than his computations of the ancient worship service; 3: 1ffwith bishops and deacons; 5:3ff
writing speed. 27 Roller's attempt to prove authenticity with widows; 5: 17ffwith presbyters; and 6: 1fwith slaves.
by reference to the development of the Pauline letter Moreover, not all the regulations appear to have been
formula 28 is likewise unsuccessful, inasmuch as he pre- formulated for the situations into which they have here
supposes what is still to be demonstrated: the authen- been placed. Thus the argument in 1 Tim 2:13-15
ticity of all the canonical Pauline epistles. The secretary applies not to the conduct of women in the worship
hypothesis and the fragment hypothesis are nothing but service, but rather to the position of women in general;
modifications of the declaration of inauthenticity. The and even the instructions in 2:9-12 seem, in part at least,
relationship to the remaining Pauline epistles turns into not to apply exclusively to the worship service. The
an even greater puzzle; the situation of the origin of parallel to 2: 9f, 1 Petr 3: 3ff, is found in a table of rules
the Pastorals is not clarified at any point. for the household ! Even in the rules concerning widows,
some passages sound more like exhortations which we are
2. The Literary Character of the accustomed to find in rules for the household (cf. 1 Tim
Pastoral Epistles 5:5, 6). All these observations justify the hypothesis that
Whoever decides for these reasons to assume inauthen- the regulations in 1 Tim are not a uniform piece, but
ticity of the Pastorals must explain the existence and rather represent a collection of various materials.
genre of these pseudo-Pauline letters. In the light of this b) A good object of comparison is offered by the cor-
assumption, the personal sections of all three Epistles responding regulations in the Teaching of the Twelve
at once fade into the background; their primary purpose Apostles (Didache). There the regulations regarding the
is, at any rate, to demonstrate the authorship of Paul. worship and organization of the congregation (Did.
What the author himself wanted to say is to be inferred 7-10, 14, 15)-regulations which form the main struc-

25 Perhaps also in the vertical covering which served cf. the 13th Pseudo-Platonic Epistle.
as a binding and which is only partially separated 27 Cf. the critique by Ernst Percy, Die Probleme der
from the papyrus. See Hugo lbscher, "Beobach- Kolosser- und Epheserbriife (Lund : C. W . K. Gleerup,
tungen bei der Papyrusaufrollung," Archivfiir Pa- 1946; [Koebenhavn, Villadsen og Christensen, 1964,
pyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete, 5(1913): 192f. photomechanischer Neudruck]), 10ff, and Micha-
26 Cf. below pp. 127f, the excursus on 2 Tim 4:21; also elis, Einleitung, 242ff.
Wendland, Hellenistische Kultur, 367. As an example 28 Especially in his Das Formular, 92ff; cf. also the foot-
of personal references in pseudonymous writings, notes to these pages.
5
 ture of the second part of the book-are interrupted by a 1 Tim 2:8 Tit 2:1-6
passage of more pressing importance, dealing with Men and women Old men; old
apostles and prophets (Did. 11-13), in short, rules which women; young
seem to be of a later date than the regulations about women; young
worship and church organization. We can accordingly men
conclude, from the Pastorals as well as from the Did.,
that the core of these materials was a church order. This (? 1 Tim 5:1,2 (?Tit2:7f
may have been fixed in writing or in oral form and was Behavior of the The leader of the
stated with different nuances according to particular leader of the con- congregation as
needs. It must have been formed within the Christian gregation over example)
communities and was concerned firstly with the worship against the differ-
service, and secondly with the organization of the con- ent age groups)
gregation. (Cf. especially the relationship between Did. 14
and 1 Tim 2:8; see below ad loc.). Tit 1:7-9 would be (? 1 Tim 5:5f
very well explained as a quotation from such a church Ethical behavior
order, because in this case the exegetical difficulty of the of widows)
passage, which had led to the hypothesis of an inter-
polation, would be resolved (see below on Tit 1 :7ff) . 1 Tim 6:1ff Tit 2:9f
Thus the following schema would result : Slaves Slaves

Did. 7-10 1 Tim 2:1 The resulting amalgamation of church order and rules
Baptism, Fasting, Prayers, especially for the household has but one parallel: Polycarp's Epistle
Prayer, Eucharistic for those in au- to the Philippians. Otherwise the rules for the household
Prayers thority deal exclusively with natural "classes." Here, on the
contrary, they are applied to the "house of God" (1 Tim
Did. 14 1 Tim 2:8 3:15). 29
Ethical require- Ethical require- c) These rules and orders are applied to actual situa-
ments of the ments of the tions in a twofold connection in 1 Tim and Tit. First,
worship service worship service they are presented as instructions of the apostle to his
assistants, and second, they are brought into close connec-
Did. 15:1,2 1 Tim 3:1 Tit 1:7-9 tion with the refutation of the heresy. Did. 11-13 reveals
Bishops and Bishops and Bishops an analogous contemporary application within a church
deacons deacons order. But in the ~astorals the contemporaneity is more
strongly emphasized because of the epistolary form of
1 Tim 5:3ff the external frame. In Tit 1 :9f the connection between
Widows the refutation of the heretics and church organization is
clearly observable; but also in 1 Tim the proem 1 :3ff
1 Tim 5:17 and several details in the regulations reveal more or less
Presbyters clearly the position of the "front line." In the second
excursus on 2 Tim 4:21, the degree to which the reports
If the remaining regulations in 1 Tim and Tit are gath- on individual heretics may serve the same purpose is
ered, the results would fit into a table of rules for the investigated. 30 Again there is a close correspondence to
household (with minor necessary changes) : Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians. It is to be seen in the

29 Cf. von Campenhausen, "Polykarp," 228ff. For 30 On the special character of the Cretan heresy, cf.
further parallels, see Georg Strecker, Das Judm- below pp. 152ff the excursus on Tit. 3:14.
christmlum in den Puudoklementintn, TU 70 (Berlin :
Akademie-Verlag, 1958).
6
 The literary Character

combination of church order (of the same type as de- certain passages of 1 Tim and Tit which are only part of
scribed here!), polemic against heresy and general the external frame; thus, 1 Tim 2: 8ff is in reality ad-
parenesis. There is an appeal to tradition, in which a dressed directly to men and women, 1 Tim 3: 1ff directly
particular picture of the apostle is presumed; the whole is to bishops and deacons. 32
presented in the form of a letter. To be sure, the Pastorals d) In 2 Tim the personal elements become prominent
are pseudonymous, while Polycarp writes under his to a remarkable extent. Not only does the content of
own name. Polycarp, therefore, tries to lend authority the whole letter seem to be a genuine personal commu-
to his instructions by copious quotations; the Pastorals, on nication, even apart from the polemic, which appears
the other hand, already possess their authority through here too, but even the loose, unconstrained train of
the name of the writer. Corresponding to the observa- thought (e.g., in 3: 10-4:8) and the manner of exhorta-
tions regarding the literary character of the Pastorals, the tion (e.g., in 2:3ff) indicate that this piece of writing
motive for their composition is complex; the concern belongs to the genre of parenesis. Just as I socrates exhorts
for fundamental questions and their contemporary his Nicocles, as Pseudo-Isocrates exhorts Demonicus, or
application to actual problems cannot be separated. To as Basil exhorts his son Leon, 33 likewise Paul, as he goes
state the correct teaching is to mark the line of separation to his death, exhorts his "beloved child Timothy."
from heresy, and conversely, the struggle against heresy Indeed, if we change the formulation of the subject
leads to the formation of criteria, i.e. to the conscious matter, we could even say with regard to 2 Tim, as
establishment of orthodoxy. 31 The emphasis upon tradi- !socrates (Ad Nicoclem 2) says to Nicocles, that it teaches :
tion in the Pastorals means that Paul is being established "what pursuits you should aspire to, and from what you
as the authority for the church. By framing the church should abstain in order to govern to the best advantage
order as letters addressed to the disciples of the apostle, your state and kingdom." (1T'oLwv E1T'LT"'OEU/).aTWV opE-
two things are accomplished: first, the regulations are 'YOJ.J.EVOS KaL rLvwv 'Ep-ywv a1T'EXOJ.J.EVOS apLur' av KaL
transmitted to a large number of churches rather than to r~v 1T'O)uv Kat r~v {jauLXELav OLOLKOL"'s). Thus, if2 Tim
a single congregation, because they are addressed to is primarily personal parenesis in its content and a letter
men who are supposed to be in charge of whole provinces in its form, it is not surprising that its conclusion con-
and are expected to transmit everything which they tains more personal information than the other Pastorals.
receive from the apostle (cf. 2 Tim 2:2). (This in no The manner in which the pseudonymous author came
sense implies a fixed, official designation of a position, by this material will be dealt with in the second excursus
e.g., in the sense of a Metropolitan. It is simply a matter to 2 Tim 4:21. The motivation for the composition of
of preserving the tradition and seeing that it is applied to the "letter," however, seems clear if we consider the
the current situations.) Second, the responsibility for content of the parenesis: Paul sets himself up as an ex-
the wellbeing of the congregations thus becomes a matter ample of suffering in order to encourage Timothy to
of the education of the individual disposition of the similar endurance. 34 On the other hand, through the
church leader (cf. especially 2 Tim). On the other hand, exhortation to pass on what has been received (2 Tim
one must not be deceived by the personal elements in 2: 2), as well as through the universal application of the

31 cr. the procedure in 1 John, which is in a way anal- by an ordination of the ecclesiastical discipline."
ogous. See Hans Conzelmann," 'Was von Anfang [Translated by D . J. Theron in: Evidence of Tradition
war,'" in NT Studienfiir Rudolf Bultmann, BZNW (London: Bowes & Bowes, 1957), 111.]
21 (Berlin: Topelmann, 1954), 194-201. 33 Cf. MPG, Vol. 107, pp. 21ff.
32 Cf. the Muratorian Canon, lines 59ff, as reconstructed 34 Cf. the treatment in the second excursus to 2 Tim
by Hans Lietzmann, KIT 1, p. 9: verum ad Phile- 4:21, sect. 5, and see below on 2 Tim 1:3-14.
monem unam et ad Titum unam et ad Timotheum
duas pro affectu et dilectione, in honorem tamen
ecclesiae catholicae in ordinem ecclesiasticae disci-
plinae sanctificatae sunt. "But he [wrote] one [letter]
to Philemon and one to Titus, but two to Timothy
for the sake of affection and love. In honor of the
General Church, however, they have been sanctified
7
concept of suffering (3: 12), the whole letter takes on a concrete fulfillment of the demand "to serve" (Dov-
significance which goes beyond the personal appeal. Xtvt:tv). The Pastorals, on the other hand, derive it from
The attitude toward the enemy within and without, the order of creation and from the correct teaching in
which Paul recommends and requires of Timothy, i.e. general. To be sure, we cannot simply speak of the loss of
his behavior in the midst of conflict and persecution- a dialectical understanding of existence. Good citizenship
this attitude and this behavior become exemplary for all does not turn into secular piety; the appeal to the Creator
those who, coming after the apostle and the disciple of the and the order of creation is not developed into a reflec-
apostle, have the responsibility of leadership in the tion about the world. It appears in a polemical context
Christian congregations. The theme of the apostle as where the observance of ascetic regulations is being
example is a typical component of the understanding of opposed. In such a situation it makes good sense when
tradition as it is being formed at this time (cf. again the wives are required to bear children and when the
Polycarp). So the Pastoral Epistles, taken together, are disciple of the apostle is requested to drink a glass of wine .
all three expressions of one and the same concept. One must consider the historical situation in order to
understand the particular position which the author
3. The Theological Character of the Epistles assumes with respect to the "tradition." Naturally, our
The historical evaluation of the Pastorals suffers from judgment recognizes the fact that the Pastorals are to
onesided emphasis upon the question of authenticity. a great extent concerned with traditional material.
Such an emphasis leads both advocates and critics to a (Here we are concerned especially with the "kerygmatic"
onesided confrontation with Paul and hence to an un- passages, not with traditions of parenesis or church
historical "value judgment" based upon the Pauline order.) How was this material assimilated? What is the
theology. The historian must try to understand the relation between interpretation and tradition? It is in
Pastorals within the ecclesiastical situation of post- itself symptomatic that these materials appear in the
Apostolic times (the inauthenticity of the Pastorals being guise of Pauline epistles (see above), and that their
presupposed). The evaluation of the Epistles cannot be propensity for quoting is quite prominent. The apostle
made without taking into consideration the change in the serves directly as example (see above on 2 Tim). In
way the Church understood itself, a change which oc- comparison with the later development one is struck
curred during this epoch. 3 5 Their concept of" good again by the reticence: although the picture of the apostle
citizenship" places them beside Luke, 7 Clement, Poly- is already that of a later generation, it has not yet been
carp-in short, those writings to which they are closely developed in legendary form, and if has not yet become
related in their development of church constitution as the content of the communication in its own right . Even
well. 36 "Good citizenship," in the actual situation of in 2 Tim it remains related to the particular purpose
conflict, proves to be the taking of a position, a mode of of the letter. The office of the apostle is not in itself the
acting for the church's consolidation. The church must object of reflection . A general concept of apostolic au-
make adjustments for a prolonged stay in the world in the thority or tradition has not yet been developed. It is only
face of the evolution of both orthodoxy and heresy within the one man, Paul, who is important. This is consistent
the Christian communities. Elements of the concept of with the absence of the concept of succession. (Even the
"good citizenship" can already be found in the parenesis laying on of hands in 2 Tim 1:6 is not elaborated in the
of Paul. Now they are elaborated and thus the rationale sense of a ritual establishment and succession; cf. 1 Tim
is characteristically changed . In Paul, good citizenship is 4: 14). 37 The style is characterized by a combination
eschatologically conditioned. It results from the paradox of the kerygma, which is quoted, and the appeal to Paul
of change in the world and can be observed, for instance,
in the dialectical character of the demand to remain in
one's "calling" (1 Cor 7: 17ff) . Good citizenship is the

35 RudolfBultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 36 See von Campenhausen, Ecclesiastical Authority.
vol. 2, tr. Kendrick Grobe! (New York: Charles 37 Cf. Hans Windisch, "Zur Christologie der Pastoral-
Scribner's Sons, 1955), pp. 3-92. briefe," ,('NW34 (1935): 224.

8
 The Theological Character

as the guarantor. 38 This combination may cast some fixed; there is no thought of the evolution of a deposit of
light on the function of 2 Tim within the corpus of the faith (depositum fidei) in the sense of the Catholic "living
Pastorals. Paul appears as the guarantor of the tradition, tradition" (traditio viva). Another critical safeguard exists
as the interpreter of the present (1 Tim 4: 1ff; 2 Tim insofar as the representation of salvation is not trans-
3: 1ff) and as an example for life, especially an example formed into a cultic "mystery." To be sure, the Pastoral
of suffering. (1 Tim 1:15 especially demonstrates the Epistles presuppose a liturgy when they cite liturgical
validity of the preaching of salvation to sinners, and pieces; but the liturgy is not the object of reflection and
1 Tim 2:6 to pagans.) The combination of kerygma and teaching as if it were itself a factor in the process of salva-
apostle stands in the broader context of the general tion. Liturgy plays a part only inasmuch as in it the
understanding of revelation. In the passages already salvation event is recited. 40 In the interests of complete-
mentioned and elsewhere we can discern yet another ness, it may be added that yet another possibility for
fixed characteristic: together with the citing of tradition the connection of the present with the past is missing in
(whether in the form of confessional formulas, hymns, the Pastorals: there is no elaboration of a concept of
or liturgical pieces) the line is extended into the present. history of salvation (e.g. in the way in which it is used in
This is done in such a way that two things are explicitly Luke). The Pastorals do not reflect upon Israel and its
mentioned along with the objective fact of salvation : connection with the church (cf. below on 2 Tim 1: 5) .
(1) its proclamation in the present and (2) its contem- Even where the "mediator" is mentioned (1 Tim 2:5)
porary significance. This schema has not been created by this line is not extended; the "covenant" (oLa81JK'YJ) is not
the author. It is partly present in the material which he recalled (although obviously the idea of the covenant is
quotes, especially clearly in 1 Tim 3: 16 (see below inherent in the material that is used here).
ad loc.). Analogies, of course, can also be found outside The traditional material which has been taken over by
the Pastorals. 39 But it is especially clearly set forth in the the Pastorals is of a disparate nature, both in form and
Pastorals (cf., e.g., Tit 1 :2f) where the object of the content. Thus, for example, there is a diversity of Chris-
epiphany is the "word" (with the characteristic addition tological perspectives which must not be combined to
"in the preaching with which I have been entrusted" reconstruct "the" Christology of the Pastorals. The unity
o
[tv KrJp{ry}J.aTL E7rUrTEV0TJV E')'w]) . In Tit 2:11 "grace, does not lie in a particular Christological conception
favor" (xapL~) takes on a revelatory character; cf. fur- (several types stand side by side with no sign of theo-
ther Tit 3:4ff and 2 Tim 1:10. The comparison of these logical reflection). Rather unity results from the constant
passages shows that Tit 1: 2f does not intend to hyposta- emphasis upon the meaning of salvation for the present.
tize the "word." The writer is thinking rather of the This explains the strangely undefined relationship be-
actual proclamation (personifying expressions such as tween God and Christ. The latter, on the one hand,
2 Tim 2:9 prove nothing about hypostatization). Here appears (on the basis of the tradition) in a subordinate
we must of course also mention the formula "the word position. 41 On the other hand, however, since there is no
stands firm" (7rLCTTIJ~ 6 AO')'O~, see below, the excursus to metaphysical speculation regarding essence and nature,
1 Tim 1 :15). It serves to document a tendency which another viewpoint becomes prominent: from the per-
runs throughout the Pastorals. The traditional material spective of their saving activity, God and Christ stand
is not interpreted but inculcated and established as the side by side (as seen from the point of view of the commu-
means of salvation for the present. Once again, it is nity of faith). Thus, the soteriological concepts can be
necessary to make a distinction: the tradition remains used indiscriminately (and the question can remain open

38 Otto Michel, "Grundfragen der Pastoralbriefe" stant appeal to the church in the epistle to the Ephes-
in Max Loeser ed., Auf dem Grundt der Apostel und Pro- ians is a case in point; it occurs together with the
pheten, Festgabefiir Theophil Wurm (Stuttgart : Quell- references to the mythical salvation event; cf. Eph
Verlag, 1948), 86. See also 1 Tim 1 :15; 2:6; and 1:13, 22f; 3:8ff; cf. further Ign. Eph.19.
2 Tim 2 :8ff. 40 In contrast cf. Ignatius on the one hand, and the
39 For example, Lk 24:47. Cf. Eduard Schweizer, theological interpretation of" homology" in the
Lordship and Discipleship, translated from the German Epistle to the Hebrews on the other.
with revisions by the author, SBT 28 (Naperville, 41 Cf. Tit 3:4ff, esp. v 6, the concept of the "media-
Ill.: Alec R. Allenson, 1960), p. 66, n . 2. The con- tor," and the passive style of 1 Tim 3:16 and 6:15 .
9
whether in Tit 2 : 13 the divine title refers to Christ, see This consciousness of salvation forms the ultimate essen-
ad loc.). It is consistent with the unspeculative nature tial presupposition of the attitude toward the world
of the Pastorals that no interest is shown in developing which is expressed in the concept of good citizenship.
the idea of pre-existence. The manner in which the While the acute eschatological expectation has dimin-
soteriological perspective is formulated explains why the ished, the corrective is given, a corrective which forbids
delay of the Parousia presents no difficulties. The church the Christian to tread the path of salvation by works
has obviously adjusted to the thought of the world's that lies to the right, and the way of world-renunciation
duration and has learned to become at home in it. The and speculation that lies to the left.
presupposition is that salvation has become a reality
in the epiphany of the past; salvation in the future a p-
pears to be nothing but the shadow of this past epiphany.

10
 1 Timothy

•
• • •
•
 First Epistle to Timothy

Outline
Initial greeting (1: 1, 2).
Timothy must combat the heretics in Ephesus (1: 3-7) in
the spirit of the Gospel, as it was entrusted to Paul
(1 :8-12). For Paul, who was the foremost persecutor,
is now an example of God's mercy (1 :13-17) . In
view of the heretics Paul transmits exhortations to
Timothy (1: 18-20).
Church orders (2: 1-3:13): on prayers for all men,
especially for those in authority (2: 1-7); on the prayer
of men (2:8) and women (2:9-15); on the conduct
of bishops (3: 1-7) and deacons (3: 8-13); with a con-
cluding personal word to Timothy concerning the
church, to which the great divine secret is entrusted
(3 :14-16).
Church order: concerning heretics, who recommend
abstention from marriage and from certain foods
(4: 1-5); Timothy should enlighten the brethren on
this matter and combat this teaching (4: 6-10). Above
all, he should be an example in conduct, in leading
the congregation, and in his relationships with in-
dividual members of the congregation (4:11-5:2).
Church orders: on widows (5: 3-16; the true widows
[5: 3-8); certain duties of the older widows, the duty of
the younger widows to remarry [5: 9-16)); on pres-
byters ( 5: 17-20); on slaves (6: 1, 2); with a personal
exhortation to Timothy inserted at 5:21-25.
Warnings against false doctrine and against avarice
(6: 3-10); exhortations to Timothy to fight the battle
of faith (6: 11-16) ; pare netic rules for the wealthy
(6: 17-19). Conclusion, with a final warning against
false 'Gnosis' (6:20, 21).

12
 1 Timothy 1:1-2

1 Initial Greeting

1 Paul. Apostle of Christ Jesus by the com-

mission of God our Savior and of Christ
Jesus our hope, 2/ to Timothy. his true
child in faith: grace, mercy, and peace
from God the Father and Christ Jesus
our Lord.

•1 The form of the prescript is taken from the Pauline • 2 A "true child" ('YIIiJawll TEKIIOII) is actually the
epistles. 1 Genuine Pauline letters also mention in the legitimate child, the child born in wedlock. The expres-
introduction the commission of God, or of God and sion could be meant here as an allusion to what is re-
Christ (as in Gal). "By the commission etc." (KaT' ported in Acts 16: 1ff or 2 Tim 1:6. It would then have
E1rLTa"(~ll KTA.): this does not express the personal con- to be understood spiritually, as in Corp. Herm. 13.3:
sciousness of holding an office (as, e.g., 1 Cor 9: 16); "Do not refuse me, father; I am (your) true son; explain
rather it is a formulaic expression (see Bauer, s.v.) which to me the nature of the rebirth ." (J.L~ q,OoiiEL J.LOL 1 7raTEp·
is also found in Tit 1:3 and Rom 16:26 in a schema "flliJuwr; uior; ELJ.LL · oLaq,paaoll J.LOL T~r; 1ra'AL'Y"fEIIEuLar;
which will be discussed below. Noteworthy in the rhe- TOll Tp01ro11). Cf. the designation of the "mystagogue"
torically corresponding titles is the designation of God as (J.LUWII) in the mysteries as " father" (7raTfJp ). 4 But
"Savior" (uwTfJp, see the excursus to 2 Tim 1: 10) and perhaps "true" ('YIIiJaLor;) is not used at all technically.
the title of Christ as "hope" (EA 1rls). This latter predi- Therefore, "true child" is not a fixed expression, but
cate is used as a formula, as ii:i Ignatius. 2 In this passage rather a friendly, polite form of address. s The formulaic
the expression stands in the context of the soteriological use of the expression "in faith" (Ell 7rLUTEL) is not found
schema: formerly hidden- now openly preached- in the genuine Pauline epistles (1 Cor 16: 13; Gal 2:20;
a schema which appears frequently in the deutero- 2 Thess 2: 13 are not analogous). The usage is char-
Pauline epistles and especially in the Pastorals. 3 On the acteristic of a later time. 6 The salutation in 1 and 2 Tim
interpretation of these titles as they are used by the (cf. 2 J n) has a tripartite form which diverges from the
author of the Pastorals, cf. Tit 1 :1-3; 3:4-7, where there introductions of the other Pauline epistles, including Tit.
is reflection upon the relation of God and Christ as Since in the letter of S Bar. 78.2, a greeting is attested
"Savior" and exposition of the notion of "hope." The corresponding to the formula "mercy and peace" (EAEO'i
anchoring of the schema in the liturgy is clear from Kai. Elpf71171); and, moreover, since theN Text ofTob
Rom 16:25ff. 7:12, 7 as well as Paul in Gal6: 16, seem to presuppose

On the form of the Pauline prescript cf. Ernst Loh- 5 See the proof texts given by Martin Dibelius, An die
meyer, "Probleme paulinischer Theologie," ZNW Thessalonicher I, II. An die Philipper, HNT 11 (Tii-
26 (1927): 158- 73; see also Gerhard Friedrich, bingen : J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 3 1937), on
"Lohmeyers These tiber das paulinische Briefpra- Phi14:3. For an example of both meanings of"(JI~­
skript kritisch beleuchtet," ThLZ 81 (1956): 343- 46. ULOS, cf. the following passage (P. Lips. 28.17ff):
On the form of the prescript of the Pastorals in par- (Adoption) "(the person adopted) whom I feed and
ticular see Roller, Das Formular, 147ff. clothe nobly and truly as my lawful and natural son,
2 Ign. Eph. 21 :2; Mg. 11; Tr. in the salutation and as one who was born to me" (0117rEp (Jpf.if;w Ka.L l!la.-
2:2; Phld. 11 :2; cf. also Pol. Phil. 8:1. In the NT rli"w EtryEIIws Ka.L 'Y"71ulws ws vlo11 'Y"~uw11 Ka.l
cf. Colt :27. cf>vutKOJI ws E~ f.(!l]oil "(EIIOiJ.EIIOII).
3 See Nils A. Dahl, "Formgeschichtliche Beobach- 6 Bultmann, Theology 2, p. 184. Cf. 1 Tim 1 :4; Tit
tungen zur Christusverkiindigung in der Gemeinde- 3:15;Jas 1 :6; 2:5; Pol. Phil. 9:2; 12:2.
predigt" in NT Studienfiir Rudolf Bultmann, BZNW 7 Tob 7:12: "and grant you mercy and peace" (Ka.l
21 (Berlin: Topelmann, 1954), 4ff. 7rOt~ua.t f.cf>' ViJ.iis ~XEOs Ka.l Elp~"71") .
4 Cf. the references given in Martin Dibelius and
Heinrich Greeven, An die Kolosser, Epheser, An Phile-
mon, HNT 12 (Tiibingen: .J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Sie-
beck], 3 1953), on Phlmn 1:10.
13
this formula, we may accordingly regard the tri- rhythmical substitute. One must be careful in drawing
partite salutation as a combination of Jewish and "Paul- conclusions as to authenticity or imitation, since there are
ine" formulas. 8 A parallel development towards the no other Pauline letters addressed to a single person
tripartite form is seen in Jude 2 and in the salutation of (in Phlmn we find the plural "to you" [vp,'iv]).
Mart. Pol.; the keyword "mercy" (EAEOS) is also found in
the salutation of Pol. Phil. and in Ign. Sm. 12.2. The
latter passage shows that the use of the formula cannot
be limited to Asia Minor. 9 The additional member
"mercy" replaces, in the rhythm of the greeting, the
otherwise customary "to you" (plural : vp,'iv); for "to
you" (singular: uo£) would not have been adequate as a

8 Of. Wendland, Hellenistische Kultur, 413.

9 In this point I disagree with Jeremias, ad Zoe.

14
 1 Timothy 1 :3-7

1 Combat the Heretics

3 I commanded you to remain in Ephesus,

when I traveiJed to Macedonia, so that
you might forbid certain people to
proclaim other teachings 4/ and to indulge
in endless myths about genealogies,
which result more in the racking of
one's brain than in godly education
leading to salvation in faith. 5/ But the
purpose of the instruction is love, (born)
of a pure heart. of a good conscience
and a sincere faith. 6/ Some have re-
nounced these things to run after fool-
ish talk. 7 I They wish to be teachers of
the law and do not know what they are
saying, nor to what they are bearing
witness.

• 3 With "as" (KaOw<s, not reproduced in the transla- supposed here, twice during the portion of his life known
tion above) begins an anacoluthon, which results from to us. But, according to Acts 16: 11ff, Timothy was
the loose subordination of many clauses introduced by among the travelling companions. Furthermore, Paul
this conjunction. This phenomenon can be observed in had probably not yet preached in Ephesus at that time.
other instances. 1 Therefore, in this passage, it is im- And, according to Acts 20:1 , the apostle had sent ahead
possible to determine whether the main idea to which "as his assistant with the intention (according to 19 : 22)
I have . .. "is to be subordinated must be derived from of meeting him again in Macedonia. Acts 19:22, indeed,
the prescript ("I am writing to you just as I have pre- could be based on an error, 3 and consequently our
viously commanded you"), or from what follows ("as I passage could be a reference to the departure mentioned
have previously commanded you, now I give you an in Acts 20:1. Whoever assumes a fictitious Pa uline
order"). Every unprejudiced reader will translate 7rpou- framework will recognize this latter situation in 1 Tim 1:3
p.li:vaL EV 'Ec/>EU<tJ as "remain in Ephesus" and not and will take the reference to Timothy either in Acts
"stand fast in Ephesus," and will therefore infer that Paul or in the Pastorals as a mistake or as a legendary feature .
has travelled from Ephesus to Macedonia, and that It is not without precedent in legendary stories of the
Timothy has remained in Ephesus. On the basis of 1:20, apostles that a well-known situation is alluded to but at
it is probable that Paul had already been in Ephesus. 2 the same time modified . 4 A journey such as the one
presupposed in this passage could naturally have been
The Situation of the Writing of 1 Timothy
made during a time unknown to us; e.g., during the long
Paul traversed the route to Macedonia, which is pre- stay in Ephesus 5 or during the time between the first

As an example of such relative independence, cf. 4 Cf. Act. Pl. (Martyrdom of Paull, Ricard us Adelbertus
especially Gal3 :6; 1 Thess 1 :5; Eph 1 :4; but also Lipsius and Maximilianus Bonnet, Acta Apostolorum
1 Cor 1 :6 ; Phil 1 :7; 17:2; and finally the epistolary Apocrypha [Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell-
introductions with "since" (En£) in lgn Eph. 1.3; schaft, 1959], l, p. 104) with 2 Tim 4 : lOf. See also
Rom. 1:1. below pp. 126f, the first excursus to 2 Tim 4 :21.
2 Here I am in disagreement with Wilhelm Michaelis, 5 This stay was interrupted by an "interim visit" in
Pastoralbriefe und Gejangenschajtsbrieje and Zur Echt- Corinth ; but was that not just an excursion overseas?
heitsjrage der Pastoralbriefe NF 1, 6 (Gi.itersloh: Ber-
telsmann, 1930), 137; cf. Ch. Bruston, "De Ia date
de Ia premiere Epitre de Paul a Tim," EThR 5
(1930): 272-76, and Michaelis, Einleitung, p. 235.
3 Cf. the statement about Trophimus in Acts 21:29,
and see below on 2 Tim 4:20.
15
Roman imprisonment and a-second imprisonment in the is not sufficient to identify the doctrine being opposed
same place, which would have to be postulated. To be with any position known to us. This lack of clarity is con-
sure, one could hardly appeal to 1 Clem 5:7, as this nected with the whole style of the heresy polemic.1o
passage seems to know of only one imprisonment. But The position of the opponents is characterized by the
if it should in fact know of two imprisonments, and (what words "myths and genealogies."
is equally questionable) if it should be reliable, could
Myths and Genealogies
Paul have visited the East again in the time between these
Roman imprisonments? 6 But one decisive objection The coupling of the terms myths and genealogies is already
exists to placing the Pastorals during the time between found in Plato and elsewhere. 11 In the passage under
the two Roman imprisonments. The Pastorals them- discussion the use is, to be sure, not specifically literary.
selves know of only one such imprisonment aod they "Myth" (J.J.vOos) is used here, as is frequently the case
themselves claim to be written during the time before or elsewhere, to denote false and foolish stories. As a formal
during the first (and only) imprisonment. 7 But we must parallel, cf. the reproachful question in Epictetus Diss.
consider further the reason for which 1 Tim was sup- 3.24.18 "And do you take Homer and his tales as au-
posed to have been written. According to 3: 14f and 4: 13, thority for everything?" (uv o' 'OJ.J.fiP':J 1ravTa 7rpou-
Paul gives Timothy these directions-both the statutes EXE's Ka~ TOLS.j.J.Wots avTov;), 12 cf. Plut. Mar. 348a-b .
with more lasting relevancy and the advice given for See also the double meaning of "myth" in Clement of
specific cases-only in case his return to Ephesus should Alexandria, Quis div. salv. 42: "Hear a story that is
be delayed. One wonders why Paul did not make these no mere story, but a true account of john the Apostle
arrangements himself in Ephesus and why it is necessary that has been handed down and preserved in memory"
to write them at this time to Timothy, when the apostle's (aKouuov J.J.vOov, ou J.J.vOov, aX:>..a ovTa Ab"fov 7rEp~
speedy return can still be expected. This consideration 'Iwavvou TOV a7rOCTTOAOU 7rapaOEOOJ.I.EIIOII Kai. J.I.ViJJ.I.Tl
takes on special force when we observe that in 1 Tim 3 7rEcpuXa"fJ.I.EVov). "Endless" (a7rEpavTos) is used in the
the writer does not introduce the offices of bishops same sense in the criticism of"those who want to speak
and deacons, but rather gives an ethical injunction for at length" (J.J.aKpOAO"fELV E0EAOIITES) in Galen (ch.
the officeholders, as though that were something new. VIII, p. 748.8 [Kuhn]). What are we to understand by
Schleiermacher, who inaugurated the criticism of this "genealogies"? Is the commonly heard alternative
Epistle 8-though not of the other two Pastoral Epis- between Gnostic enumerations of aeons and jewish,
tles!- emphasized the difficulty which lies in the Biblical speculations adequately formulated in this way?
artificiality of the situation. This difficulty is resolved if Philo (Vit. Mos. 2.45-47) designates a portion of the
the verses in question are literary devices which serve historical presentation of the Pentateuch as "genealogical
to clothe the work in the guise of a Pauline epistle, and matters" ("fEVEaAO"f'Kov): "One division of the his-
which may be modelled on such passages as 1 Cor 4: 19; torical side deals with the creation of the world, the other
11 :34; 16:3ff. To be sure, the situation there is entirely with genealogical matters, and this last partly with the
different, since Paul had already left Corinth a good punishment of the impious, partly with the honouring of
while before.9 the just." (tunv ovv TOV i.uTop,Kov TO J.I.EV 7rEp~ T~S TOV
KOCT J.I.OU "fEIIECTEWS, TO o€ "fEVEaAO"f'Kov, TOV o€ "fE-
• 3. 4 What is said here about the "proclaiming other vEaAO"f'Kov TO J.I.EII 7rEp~ KOAclCTEWS auE{3wv' TO 0' au
teachings" (ETEpood)auKaXovvns, cf. Ign . Pol. 3:1) 7rEpi. TLJ.I.~S O'KaLwv) [Loeb modified]. The word is not

6 See below, pp. 124f, the excursus to 2 Tim 4 :21. 10 See the Introduction, Section I , and below p. 65,
7 See Ernst Findlay Scott, The Pastoral Epistles (Lon- the excursus to 1 Tim 4 : 5.
don : Hodder & Stoughton, 1936), p. XX. 11 Plato, Tim . 22a; cf. further Polybius 9.2.1 (FGRH
8 Friedrich Schleiermacher, Sendschreiben an]. C. Gass: 1:47f).
Uber den sog. ersten Briif des Paulos an den Timolheos 12 See further 2 Petr 1: 16; also Hans Windisch, Die
(Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung, 1807); also in his katholischen Briife, HNT 15 (Ttibingen:J. C. B. Mohr
Samtliche Werke, vol. 1, Pt. 2 (1836), pp. 221ff. [Paul Siebeck], 3 1951), ad loc.; see also 2Clem. 13:3
9 See the Introduction, Section 2, on the Pastorals and cf. below on 1 Tim 4:7.
16 as epistles; see also Appendices 1 and 2. 13 This seems to be the opinion of Friedrich Btichsel,
 Myths and Genealogies 1 Timothy 1 :3, 4

used here to designate a literary genre, 13 but rather they call them, of the disciples of Valentinus .... )" (E?r·l.
refers only to the content. Moreover there is no corre- T~V aA.~Ottav 7rapa7rE).L7rO).LEVOL 'TLVES E'TrELCTa)'OVCTL
sponding "mythological part" (J.Lv8oAo)'LKC>V)-which M-yovs if;Evolis Kal. )'EvEaAo-yLas ).LaTaLas, ainvH
is an impossibility for Philo. Since the genealogies are r11T~CTELS ).LfiAAov 7rapEXOUCTL 1 Ka8ws 0 a7rOCTTOA0S
mentioned together with "myths," they cannot, in this c/>17CTLV' i7 olKOOO).L~V 8Eov T~V Ell 7rLCTTEL ... 2 ... ava-y-
passage, refer to the jewish prooffor kinship of Abraham, Ka'iov ~'"Y1lCTaJ.L11V, EvTvxwv To 'is V'TrOJ.LV~J.LaCTL. Twv, ws
nor to the demonstration of Israel's historical con- avTol. AE)'OVCTLV, OvaAEVTLvov ).La811TWV). 1 5 Cf. also
tinuity. Neither Paul nor a pseudo-Paul could mention Tertullian, Praescr. haer. 33. Rather, we must think of
such things in the same breath with "fables." Kittel early Jewish or Judaizing forms of Gnosticism, which are
has pointed out that in post-exilic judaism genealogical reflected elsewhere within the horizon of deutero-Pauline
speculations about Biblical persons led to discussions literature. 16 Characteristic are: speculations about the
which could under certain circumstances be regarded as elements, but no systematic cosmology; a tendency
heretical, in view of their criticism of Biblical accounts. 14 towards soteriological dualism and the observation of
That Christians too could be involved in these discus- ascetic rules. All this applies to the false teachers opposed
-sions is shown by Baba Batra 91a, where statements by the Pastorals; a similar picture emerges from the
are made about the mothers of the men of the OT: "Why epistles of Ignatius. Thus we may view the different re-
does one have to know about that? To answer the Minim proaches ("teachers of the law," "ritualists," "Jews,"
(that is, the heretics)." To be sure, in the Pastorals it "Gnostics," and "speculators") as forming a unified pic-
is not a question of debates within the frame of (rabbinic) ture. A surprising parallel, which points in the same
interpretation of scripture, as the whole controversy direction, is found in the Manual of Discipline from Qum-
shows, but rather of a gnosticizingjudaism. (Cf. Tit 1: 14; ran: "For the man of understanding, that he instruct and
3:9 on the one hand; 1 Tim 4: 3; 6:20; 2 Tim 2: 18; teach all the sons of light concerning the succession of the
Tit 1:16 on the other.) . Gnosticizing interpretations in generations of all the sons of men, all the spirits which
which Old Testament genealogical registers are under- they possess with their distinctive characters; their works
stood mythologically (Iren. Adv. haer. 1.30.9) and, with classes; and the visitation with which they are
moreover, mythical speculations about sequences of smitten, together with the times when they are blessed." 17
principalities and aeons are as fundamental to the
theology of Gnosticism (see below the excursus to 1 Tim "Speculations" (EKr11T~CTELS or r11T~CTELS as MSS
4: 5) as they are destructive to the belief in the divine D G read) is meant contemptuously: "to rack one's
education for salvation (olKOVO).LLa) which is held by the brain." The opposite would be well expressed by "build-
writer of the Pastorals. To be sure, Irenaeus and Ter- ing up" (olKoOo).L~V D* !at Iren Ambst). The more
tupian are wrong to refer such passages from the Pastorals surprising term "economy" (olKoVo).LLav), which is
to the advanced Gnosticism of their time; they naturally better attested and therefore perhaps preferable, refers
took the statements as prophecy. Cf. Iren. Adv. haer. 1, either to God's plan of salvation (in contrast to the
Preface 1: "Inasmuch as certain men have set the truth "myths"), or to the education of men by God for salva-
aside, and bring in lying words and vain genealogies, tion. The latter meaning is attested in Clement of
which, as the apostle says, 'minister questions rather than Alexandria and Origen; cf. Clem. Alex. Paed. 1.8.69,
godly edifying which is in faith' ... 2 ... I have deemed 3 and 70,1 (Stahlin, TDNTIV p. 130): "Through
it my duty (after reading some of the Commentaries, as the Prophet Amos, the Word explains His economy

TDNT 1, pp. 665f. See also Jeremias, ad toe. on the jewish origin of early Gnosticism, see Georg
14 Gerhard Kittel, "Die 'YEJIEaAo'YLcu der Pastoral- Kretschmar, EvTh 13 (1953): 354ff.
briefe," .(NW20 (1921): 49-69. 17 1 QS III, 13-15; adapted from A. Dupont-Sommer,
15 Translated by Rev. Alexander Roberts and Rev. The Essene Writings from Qumran, tr. G. Vermes
W . H. Rambaut, The Writings of lrenaeus, vol. 1, in (Cleveland,· Ohio, and New York: The World Pub-
Ante-Nicene Christian Library, ed. Alexander Roberts lishing Company, 1962), 77f. On the history of reli-
and james Donaldson, vol. 5, (Edinburgh; T. & T. gions classification of the passage, cf. Karl-Georg
Clark, 1868), pp. lf. Kuhn, "Die in Paliistina gefundenen hebrii.ischen
16 Bornkamm, "Hiiresie des Kolosserbriefes," 139-56; 17
fully: (there follows Amos 4:11); notice how God seeks tus (c. 16, p. 481, Schenk!): "But the purpose of the
their conversion in loving kindness and, in the economy former (i.e. living well) is the praise of the good, but the
itself with which He makes His threats, sweetly reveals outcome of the latter (i.e., living sumptuously) is blame"
the love He has for men." (uacf>turara -youv OL!t rou (Ttf..os Ot TOU J.I.Ell [sci!., KaXws r~v] E'TraLIIO'S aXTJO~s'
'AJ.t.W'S rou 7rpocf>~rou r~v olKoliOJ.Li.av J.LEJ.L~IIUKEII o TOU Ot [sci!., 7rOXunXws r~v] if;o-yos) [Trans.); cf. also
Xo-yos r~v taurou [there follows a citation of Amos lgn. Eph. 14.1. The triad which follows shows the writer's
•
n
4 : 11] ; opaTE n • {) \ ' 1
'TrW'S 0 EO'S TTJII J.I.ETaliOLall • \ ,I. "\
U'TrO o/Lf\a-ya- tendency to form triadic expressions and exhibits his
{)[as fTJTEt tliOEi.Kvurai. TE 1rapO. r~v olKovoJ.Li.av r~s inclination to use edifying language. Admittedly Paul
a7rHX~s ~uuxfi TO c/>Lf..avOpw7rOll TO taurou. 18 To be could also describe the faith and life of the Christians
sure, this meaning is late and attested in a limited circle of with a formula (see 1 Thess 1 :3). By designating love as
literature, whereas for the earlier time the first meaning the purpose of the preaching, the author adopts a valu-
is general. l9 The rejection of the myths corresponds able thought of Paul's (see Gal. 5:6). This passage also
to a heightened stress upon terms which express the allows the assumption that "love" (a-ya7rTJ) means active
concept of "history of salvation." "In faith" (tv 7ri.CTTEL) love: for only in this case is it possible to explain the
is a formulaic expression; "in" (tv) is therefore not to be surprising mention of "faith" (7ri.uns) together with
understood as instrumental ("through"). "heart" (Kapo[a) and "conscience" (uwEi.OTJCTLs), among
• 5 "The purpose is" ( rtf..os turi.) corresponds to the causes of love. The expression "pure heart" (KaOapa
"result" (7raptXELll) of the preceding clause; rtf..os Kapoi.a) derives from the LXX. The adjective "sincere"
("purpose" or "goal") is common in Epictetus. Whether (avu7rOKpLros) does not fit the Pauline conception of
it refers to the factual outcome or to the intended pur- faith. 21 To be sure, even in Paul the use of"faith" (7ri.-
pose depends upon whether one understands "instruc- uns)shows that the word is not always fixed termino-
tions" (7rapa-y-yEXi.a) generally as preaching or rather logically, but it never stands in any other triad than the
as the special instruction about which v 3 spoke. 20 familiar faith-love-hope; one cannot help noticing the
Since the sentence wants to characterize something in transformation offaith into a human attitude .
general, and since in these terms of proclamation the
notions of promise and exhortation are not sharply "Good Conscience"

distinguished (cf. v 18 and Tit 1 :9), the expression seems What the expression "good conscience" means in the
to refer to the "purpose of the preaching" as opposed Pastorals can be demonstrated in a consideration of the
to the "racking of one's brain" (fTJT~CTH'S), which is the previous history of the word. Three problems confront
"outcome" of the activities of the false teachers. Cf. one in such an attempt.
the maxim about KaXws and 1roXunXws f~v in Epicte- 1. The first is raised by the very appearance of the term

Texte und das NT," .{_ThK 47 (1950): 192-211; pub. Diss. (Erlangen: 1956), and Martin Widmann,
Kurt Schubert, "Der Sektenkanon von En Feshcha Der BegqffOIKONOMIA im Werk des lrtniius und seine
und die Anfange der ji.idischen Gnosis," ThL.{_ 78 Vorgeschichte, Unpub. Diss. (Ti.ibingen: 1956).
(1953): 495-506. Oscar Cullmann, "Die neuent- 20 Adolf Schlatter, Die Kirche der Griechen im Urteil des
deckten Qumran-Texte und dasjudenchristentum Paulus (Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 2 1958) and Ces-
der Pseudoklementinen," in Neutestammtliche Studien laus Spicq, St-Paul: les epitres pastorales, Etudes Bib-
fur Bultmann, BZNW 21 (Berlin: Topelmann, 1954 ). liques (Paris: Gabalda, 4 1969), ad loc.; Michel,
On "genealogies" see Friedrich Bi.ichsel, TDNT 1, "Grundfragen," p. 88; Otto Schmitz, TDNT 5, p.
pp. 662- 65; on "myth" see Gustav Stiihlin, TDNT 764, n. 33 .
4, pp. 781-92, especially 786-89; Samuel Sandmel, 21 Hermann von Soden, Die Brieje an die Kolosser, Ephe-
"Myths, Genealogies, and jewish Myths and the ser, Philemon. Die Pastoralbriefe etc. in Handcommen-
Writing of Gospels," HUCA 27 (1956): 201-11; Olof tar zum NT 3 (Freiburg i. B. and Leipzig: J. C. B.
Linton, s_ynopsis historiae universalis (K~benhavn Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 2 1893), ad loc., and Bultmann,
[Lund]; 1957). Theology 2, p. 184.
18 For further examples see Eduard Schwartz, Tatiani 22 The comparison of the conscience with the Furies
Oralio ad Graecos, TUt4, 1 (Leipzig : Hinrichs, 1888), is found in Cicero (De legibus 40 and Pro Roscio Ame-
Index. rino 67).
19 0. Lillge, Das patristische Wort OIKONOMIA, Un- 23 The expression "for the sake of conscience" appears
18
 "Good Conscience" 1 Timothy 1 :5

"conscience" in the literature of antiquity. What this someone asserts his innocence "with a pure conscience"
term describes has existed ever since the final verdict of (EK KaOapov TOV CTVVELOOTo<;). A remark in Seneca (De
guilt was spoken within man himself, when the true tranquillitate animi 3.4) "secure and free is the blessing of a
Furies were recognized as the consciousness of guilt. 22 good conscience" (Quam tutum gratumque sit bona
But the word "consciousness" (crvvELOO<;), or "con- conscientia) can perhaps be attributed to Athenodorus,
science" (crvvdoTJCTL<;), for which there is no correspond- upon whom this paragraph in Seneca depends. Marcus
ing term in the OT, does not become prominent until Aurelius (6.30) says, in commending the Emperor
late, but then it becomes very prominent. It means Antoninus as an example, "that you may have as good
"consciousness" (as in josephus Ant. 16.100; 1 Petr 2:19; a conscience, when your last hour comes, as he had"
Heb 10:2), but can take on the specialized meaning (iv' OVTW<; EVCTVVELO~TC.p CTOL E1rLCTTfj iJ TEAEVTaLa wpa,
"what is within man" (as in Eccl10:20 for li1Q). It can w<; EKEtVCf). 25 The word is also found in Ign. Mag . 4;
also take on the connotation of moral consciousness- Ph/d. 6.3 and Clem. Alex. Strom. 7 .83.1. The sparsity of
at first primarily the consciousness of an evil act. In this evidence is understandable when one considers the
meaning, that of the witness and judge of human actions, origin of the concept; conscience is first of all accuser
it is still missing in early Stoicism. It appears perhaps and judge. Strangely, "good conscience" is much more
with the Epicurean teaching, which advises against frequent in Latin, where it is presupposed as a familiar
immoral behavior because of its ill effects, even those expression, above all by Seneca. 26 Perhaps the cause lies
within man himself. Notably, Stoicism too fails to define in the special character of the Latin word conscientia, or
the term further, but it appears quite frequently from that of Roman thought, or in the fact that the literary use
the first century on, also in for!llulaic expressions. 23 All of the word in Latin is closer to common usage.
these observations suggest that the term derives from 3. Especially interesting is the difference in usage
the vernacular language and from there was taken up into among the writings of the NT. In Paul (Rom 2: 15) con-
the language of philosophical ethics. 24 The way in which science appears as a general human phenomenon . At the
the term came into Hellenistic judaism (with the two basis of this conception lies the anthropology of popular
nuances: consciousness of one's self and a judgmental philosophy, which was taken up into Hellenistic judaism
self-consciousness) is shown by Wisd Sol17: 10 which (conscience as self- consciousness, an authority which
stands in close proximity to the passage from josephus demands and judges). It is from this background that the
Ant. 16.103 mentioned above. nuances of Pauline usage are to be explained. 2 7 The
2. The expression "good conscience" is even more conscience that judges and convicts also occurs in the
problematic. The subject matter is present when one Koine-text of the spurious passage john 8:9 and in
speaks of the consciousness of a life lived according Heb 9:14 (10:22). But it is necessary to distinguish
to one's destiny (Epict. Diss. 3.22.94: TO crvvELOO<;) or clearly between this usage and the meaning of the term
the consciousness of having fulfilled the Law (Josephus in the fixed formulaic expression "good conscience"
Ap. 2.218: TO CTVVELOO<;) . Outside of the NT the ex- (a:yaO~, Ka0ap6., KUA~, a:yv~, a7rpOCTK01rO<;). The
pression "good conscience" established itself in Greek latter is not found in the genuine Pauline epistles (nor in
only gradually. The sayings which Stobaeus (Eel. 3.24, the Gospels). It is only found in that portion of the
p. 603f, ed. Hense) ascribes to Bias and Periander which early Christian literature which, in comparison to the
praise the "correct" (bpO~) or "good conscience" Pauline writings, expresses a thought world both more
( a:ya()iJ CTVVEt01JCTL<;) are late. In Philo Spec. Leg. 1' 203 strongly Hellenistic and closer to the vernacular, espe-

in Pseudo Dio Chrysostomus, Oralio Corinthiaca 34; 26 Epistulae morales 12.9 and 43.5 (mala and bona
Ditt. Or., II, 484.37; Rom 13:5. conscimtia); cf. De dementia 1.1.1; Epistulae morales
24 On the origin of the word in Greek, see Bruno Snell's 23.7 and 97.12; De vita beata 19.1, among others.
review of Friedrich Zucker, Syneidesis--Conscientia, in 27 Max Pohlenz, "Paulus und die Stoa", ZNW 42
Gnomon6 (1930): 21-30. (1949): 77ff; Bultmann, Theology 1, pp. 216ff.
25 The translation is by G. Long in The Stoic and Epi-
curean Philosophers, ed. W.J. Oates (New York:
Random House, 1940).
19
cially in those instances where one can see the influence of praises the "soul free from evil acts and purposes"
the Hellenistic synagogue and its language. 28 The (1/;ux~ Ka0apEVOVUa 7rpa-yjJ.aTWV Kat {3ovAEVJJ.aTWV
opposite of"good" conscience is, according to this trans- 7rOVTfpwv) as that which "imparts calm and serenity of
formed understanding, no longer a "weak" but rather life" (EvoLav 7rapfxEt {3LqJ Kat -yaATJVTfV, De tranquillitate
an "evil" conscience. 2 9 The term here implies the animi 19, p. 477A). In the same sense, the author of the
necessarily binding moral alternative, whereas in Paul Pastorals includes a good conscience among fundamental
it expresses the critical possibility offreedom in relation presuppositions of a peaceful Christian life. It is for him
to the alternatives posed. The Pastorals too belong in the "best pillow," as in the popular German proverb.
the context of this vernacular-ecclesiastical usage of the He also has in mind the goal of a peaceful life in blessed-
term (1 Tim 1:5, 19; 3:9; 2 Tim 1:3 and 1 Tim 4:2; ness and respectability which he proclaims in 2:2. 33
Tit 1: 15). The term "good conscience" thus proves to be
a characteristic sign of a particular understanding of • 6 "To renounce" (auTOXE'i'v) is obviously used in a
faith which is expressed in the adoption of a typical very active sense. 3 4 Cf. in biblical usage Sir 7:19 "Do
terminology. It belongs among the qualities which char- not deprive yourself of a wise and good wife," (JJ.~ aurb-
acterize "Christian good citizenship." 30 It is a sign of XE' -yuvatKOS uocp~s Kat a-yaO~s see also 8:9?) , and
the transformation of an unbroken eschatological under- as a further example, P. Oxy. II , 291.21 "I am dis-
standing of the world into a view which must reckon traught, for my rooster has failed me'' (o -yap a[A]EKTWp
with the fact that, for the time being, the world is going *UTOXTfKE JJ.OV); and Ditt. Syll. 11.543.28ff: " They
to remain as it is (and that the Christians are to exist have renounced . . • what benefits the fatherland as well
within it). Furthermore, this view must accordingly work as my own cause" (*UTOXTJKHUav . .. Kat rou UVJJ.clJEpov-
out lasting norms for behavior. To this extent, the critical TOS T~' 1rarpLot Kat T~s EJJ.~S KpLuEws ) "To run
comparison with Paul is not to be taken as a value judg- after" (EKTpE7rEU0at) occurs frequently in the Pastorals ;
ment. One must bear in mind the comprehensive change see also Philo: "They fail of necessity to see the road
in the church's situation. It is only in view of this situa- before them and wander away into pathless wilds .. ."
tion that the adoption of generally acceptable ethical (T~V a-youuav ooov ovx opwVTES ELS avooLas EKTpE1rOV-
standards becomes understandable. 31 In a passage, Tat, Spec. leg. 2.23). See also Epict. Diss. 1.6.42. The
which is probably dependent upon Epicurus, 32 Plutarch rarity of these words in the NT does not at all correspond

28 Acts 23:1; 24:16 (in the speeches of Paul); 1 Petr Historia" in Studier och tankar tillaegnade ]. A. Eklund
3 :16,21; Heb 13: 18; then 1 Clem. 1.3 (in rules for paa hans sjuttioaarsdag den 7 Januari 1933 (Stockholm:
the household: to the women); Pol. Phil. 5.3 (in Svenska Kyrkans Diakonistyrelses BokfOrlag, 1933),
rules for the household: to virgins); 1 Clem. 41.1; 165ff; Ceslaus Spicq, "La conscience dans le Nou-
45.7; 2Clem. 16.4; cf. lgn. Tr. 7.2 . veau Testament," RB 47 (1938): 50-80; Spicq, ad
29 In contrast to this understanding, cf. 1 Cor 8 :7; Heb loc. excursus II (pp. 29ff); further literature in Spicq,
10:2, 22; Barn. 19.12; Did. 4.14 and Herm. mand. 3.4. ad loc., and Walter Bauer, A Greek- English Lexicon,
30 See below pp. 39ff, the second excursus to 1 Tim 2:2, tr. W. F. Arndt and F. W . Gingrich (Chicago: Uni-
and Bultmann, Theology 2, pp. 217f. versity of Chicago Press, 1957, 1965), s.v.;Johannes
31 The German original speaks of"biirgerliche Ethik." Stelzenberger, Die Beziehungen der friihchristlichen
32 See section 1 above in the present excursus; the case Sittenlehre zur Ethik der Stoa (Miinchen : Hueber,
for dependency is argued by Max Pohlenz in his 1933) ;Jacques Dupont, O.S.B., "Syneideis aux ori-
article, "Plutarchs Schrift llEPI ET8TMIA2:," gines de Ia nation chretienne de conscience morale,"
Hermes40 (1905): 275-300. Studia Hellenistica 5 (1948): 119-53; Otto See!, "Zur
33 On conscience cf. the following : Martin Kahler, Vorgeschichte des Gewissen-Begriffs im altgriechi-
DasGewissen 1 (Halle : Fricke, 1878); Martin Poh- schen Denken," Festschrift Franz Dornseijf (Leipzig:
lenz's review of Adolf:llonhoffer, Epiktet und das Neue 1953), 291-319 ; C. A. Pierce, Conscience in the New
Testament,inGGA 11 (Nov. 13, 1913): 633-50;H. Testament (London: S.C. M. Press, 1955);Johannes
Bohlig, "Das Gewissen bei Seneca und Paulus," Stelzenberger, Syneidesis im Neuen Testament (Pa-
ThStKr 37 (1914): 1ff; Friedrich Zucker, Syneidesis- derborn: Schoningh, 1961); Christian Maurer,
Conscientia, J enaer Akademische Red en 6 (1928); TWNT7, pp. 897-918.
Bruno Snell's review of Zucker's work in Gnomon 6 34 Cf. the use of" to deny" ( apiiE'iu8a.t) in 2 Tim 2 : 12;
(1930) : 21-30; Gunnar Rudberg, "Ur Samvetets Tit 1:16 and 2 :12; both together in 2 Clem 17.7.
20
 1 Timothy 1 :8, 7

to their usage in Koine Greek. Rather, the language of acter of this way of speaking in Heb 10:25; from the
the Pastorals has here enriched the NT with good Greek latter passage the use of this stylistic feature in the
expressions, as it does elsewhere. "Foolish talk" (JJ.a- heresy polemic can be easily understood (cf.Jude 4).
TaLOAO'YLa) and "the foolish talker" (JJ.aTaLOAO'YOS, Ignatius offers many parallels. 37 In the Pastoral Epistles,
Tit 1: 10) also belong to the higher Koine . 35 Note also the 1 Tim 6:10, 21 should be mentioned in this connection,
widespread usage of the catchword "foolish" (JJ.!lTaLOs) as well as v 19 in the chapter under discussion, where
in Hellenistic Judaism and Christianity: it is used to we also find the giving of examples as a further typical
characterize idol worship, and thus occurs in connection feature of this polemical style (cf. 2 Tim 2: 17f). The
with conversion (Acts 14: 15; 1 Petr 1: 18); to describe untenability of the opponents' position is demonstrated
worldliness (7 Clem. 7:2; Pol. Phil. 2.1 and 8.2); it is also by reference to its representatives. We must be cautious,
used in parenesis (J as 1 :26; 2 Petr 2: 18). 3 6 Here, as in however, in drawing conclusions as to the specifics of
1:4, 7b and 6:20, one feels strongly the difference be- their position. 38 It may be assumed that the designation
tween the Pastorals and the Pauline epistles in the style of VOJ..I.OOLOauKaAOL implies the typical interweaving of
the polemic. The Pastorals almost entirely avoid de- speculation and ascetic observance which is related to an
scribing the opponents; they only want to combat them, appeal to the OT. This is the simplest way of explaining
and indeed with the same reproaches which the popular the formulation of the reproach in v 7 and the positive
philosopher directs at his opponent. This fact is funda- answer in v 8. 39 Although Judaizing demands con-
mental for the evaluation of the anti-heretical purpose of cerning the law are nowhere attacked, "Jewish myths"
the Pastorals (see below, the excursus to 4:5, section 2), and ascetic commands (4:3) are. 40 The meaning of
and is also important for the exegesis of the following the reproach in v 7b can be derived from v 8; cf. Epict.
sentence, verse 7. Diss. 2.1.25, where the philosopher calls to the many
• 7 Fixed forms of polemical style have been developed "who say 'Only the free can be educated' " (ot AE'YOVUL
early. The Pastorals are representative of an early stage J..I.OVOLS E~e'ivaL 11'aLOeueu0aL ro'Ls EAEV0Epots) in a
of this style. It is characteristic to speak of disloyal and scornful tone: "How then shall we any longer trust you,
questionable persons as "some" (cf. 1 Clem . 1.1 and 0 dearest lawgivers?" (1rws ovv ETL VJ..I.LV 11'LUTEUUOJ..I.EV, w
47.6); this is foreshadowed in Paul (Rom 3:8; 1 Cor 4: 18; cp£'AraTOL VO)J.OfJETaL).
5:1, 22 ; 2 Cor 3: 1 etc.). One can see the parenetic char-

35 See Vettius Valens, ed. Wilhelm Kroll, Index. Cf. esy; the historical consequences are discussed on
Corp. Herm. 14.4 (Nock, Vol. II, p. 223): "therefore, pp. 61ff.
putting aside all verbosity and vain discourse, we 39 This statement contradicts the 2d German ed. of
must hold to [these two concepts] etc." (6u) T1j~ this commentary, where Dibelius wrote : "VOJ.I.0-
1T'OAuAo'YLa~ TE Kat J.l.aTataAO"YLa~ a?T'aAAa'YEV- 5t5auKaAo~ (teacher of the law) does not mean for
Ta~ XP~ JIOELJI KTA.) [Trans.]. our author a history-of- religions category, but
36 See the attestations in Bauer, s.v.; Otto Bauernfeind, rather a value judgment in Paul's sense . . . ."It also
TDNT 4, pp. 519- 22. contradicts Friedrich Buchsel, TDNT1 , pp. 662-
37 Ign. Eph. 7.1; 9.1 ; Mag. 4.1; 8.1; Tr . 10.1; Ph/d. 7.1; 65, and Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, TDNT2, p . 159.
8.2. The last named passage shows, in comparison 40 But see below on Tit 1:1Off.
with Ph/d. 2.2, that we may not draw hasty con-
clusions as to the number of people addressed as
"some" (cf. Rom 3:3) .
38 On the whole question see Bauer, Orthodoxy and Her-

21
 1 Timothy 1 :8-12

1 The Gospel Entrusted to

Paul

8 But we know: the law is good, if one

knows how t o use it accord ing t o the
law (or : appropriatel y), 9/ that is, in the
recognition that the law is not for the
righteous, but for people who live w ith-
out the law and w ithout obedience,
impious people and sinners, people who
are wicked and godless, patricides and
matri cides, murderers, 10/ forn icators,
pederasts, kidnappers, liars, perjurors-
and whatever else goes again st the
sound teaching. 11 I (Of this w e are
sure) according to the Gospel of the
maj esty of the blessed God wh ich has
been entrusted to me. 12/ I am t hankful
to our Lord Jesus Christ, who makes
me strong, that he has given me his
confidence and designated me for service.

• 8 The author reproduces literally a phrase from Paul's The connecting thought may lie in the allusion to the
reflections on the law (see Rom 7:16, 12), and intro- theory of the state, a new principle found in Stoicism. 2 In
duces it with the phrase "we know" (o'lOaJ.LEII) as an the golden age no law was required. 3 The author can
acknowledged principle. But the specific Pauline teaching now use the content of the law in order to characterize his
about the law is missing. The law does not serve to dis- opponents; at the same time he has safeguarded himself
close the paradoxical situation of man without faith. from a possible antinomian misunderstanding.
That the law is good is said unconditionally in Paul, but The analysis of vss 7-9 given here can be challenged
here only with qualifications. The play on words shows from two viewpoints. Whoever considers the Pastorals
how the understanding of the law has been transformed . genuine will evaluate these principles by analogy with
There is an order in life, which is a matter of course other passages in Paul. In the people attacked here
for decent people; the others rightfully experience it as he may perhaps even recognize affinities with other
compulsion. The connection with a view of the state, as opponents of Paul. 4 But whoever sees in the words "the
presented in Rom 13: 1ff, is clear. 1 Taken by itself, a o
law is good" (K aAos IIOJ.LOS) an antithesis, will take
positive exposition of the "lawful use" (IIOJ.LLJ.LWS XPfi- the position that the opponents are antinomians. 5 The
q{}at), as we find it in 2 Tim 3: 16f, might have followed. expression "teachers of the law" (IIOJ.LOOtOaCTKa Aot)
V 9 introduces instead a further, well-known principle, speaks against this assumption, not to mention 1 Tim
which implies something entirely different from the 4:1ff.
preceding clause. The tension results frorh the fact that, • 9, 10 This is a catalogue of vices. 6 In the passage
both times, the writer takes up common expressions. under discussion it is remarkable that only serious and

On the history of this kind of parenesis and its rela- this view see section 1 (on the heretics) of the Intro-
tion to tradition see Martin Dibelius, "Rom und duction.
die Christen im erstenJahrhundert," Botschajl rmd 5 Ferdinand C hristian Baur, Die sogenannlen Pastoral-
Gtschichle 2 (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Sie- briife des Aposlels Paulus aujs neue kritisch unlersucht
beck], 1956), 178f. (Stuttgart and Tiibingen: Cotta, 1835), 15.
2 Cf. SVF3, p. 519; Max Pohlenz, Die Stoa (Giittin- 6 On catalogues of vices in general see the excursus on
gen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1948f), 1, p. 133, Rom 1:31 in Hans Lietzmann, An die Romer, HNT 8
and 2, p. 75. (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 4 1933);
3 O vid, Metamorphoses 1.89f, and Tacitus, Annalts 3.26. Anton Viigtle, Die Tugend- und Lasterkataloge im
There is a variation of this theme applied to pre- Neuen Testameni (Munster i. W.: Aschendorff, 1936).
Mosaic times (Irenaeus Adv. haer. 4. 16.3).
4 See Wilhelm Liitgert, Die lrrlehrer der Pastoralbriife,
BITh 13, 3 (Giitersloh : Bertelsmann, 1909). Agai nst
22
 1 Timothy1 :8-12

unusual crimes are mentioned. This is to be explained on (KAf7rT7J'> OE rLs E<TTL Kat 0 avopa7rOO~<TT~<;' a "A "A TOV a
the basis of the style of such lists. They are intended to 7raVTWV apL<TTOV, O<Ta E7rt 'Y~'> Elva~ <TVJJ.{3E{31JKEV). One
have the effect of posters. 7 For this reason patricides and must recognize, however, that it is precisely the unique
matricides are mentioned in such catalogues. Since the features of this passage which cannot be derived from the
listing of virtues and vices in tabular form is a widespread Decalogue: the form of a catalogue, the division into four
form of presentation, one must not see the list as re- double members and four single members, and the
ferriQg to actual contemporary events or as closely related typical catechetical phrase at the end of the list. At the
to the historical or fictitious situation of the Epistle. As very least we are dealing with a Hellenistic transforma-
far as the order is concerned, the linking in this passage of tion of jewish ethics; cf. the similar phrases, which
crimes against gods, "wicked and godless people" only seem to be references to the Decalogue, in the list in
(avo<r~o~, {3E{31JAO~), with those against parents is con- Pseudo-Phocylides 3ff: "Not to commit adultery, nor
sistent with long-established usage. Polygnotus's picture excite a man to love. I Not to contrive plots, nor stain
of the descent (Karti{3a<r~s) of Odysseus in Delphi rep- one's hands with blood. I Not to become rich at the
resents patricides and temple desecrators (Pausanias expense of justice, but to gain one's livelihood from honest
10.28Af). 8 As in this passage, so also in Plato, murder is things, I nor to receive a profit or take what belongs to
added to other crimes named. 9 "Kidnappers" (avopa- others." (JJ.~TE "(aJJ.OKA07rfE~v, JJ.TJT' ap<TEVa KV7rp~v
7rOO~<TT~'>) in the passage under discussion is perhaps opLvHv.l JJ.~TE Obf.ou<; pa1rn~v, j.J.1}8' atJJ.aTL XE~pa
to be regarded as a special kind of theft. Notice the JJ.~aLvHv.l JJ.~ 1rAOVTE~V aoLKws, a"A"A' E~ o<rLwv {3~onv­
parallelism which occurs occasionally between "kid- HV, I apKE~<T8a~ 7rapEOV<T~ Kat a"A"AorpLwv a7rEXE<T8a~)
nappers" (avopa7roO~<TT~'>) and "cloth-stealers" ("Aw- [Trans.]. That the construction of the Decalogue was
7rOOVT1J'>), cf. Demosthenes 4.47 and Polybius 13.6.4. not considered normative is also evident from a compari-
Admittedly, the specific form of the catalogue is not to be son of LXX Bar 4:17 with 8:5 and 13:4: The order of the
explained from the lists of crimes given. 10 Beginning commandments is very loose. The catechetical conclusion
with the·fourth in the sequence, the list coincides with the is also found here (in the NT compare, e.g., Gal5:21;
Decalogue. 11 The coincidence is even clearer when one Rom 13: 9 and 1 Petr 5: 5). Considered as a whole, the
bears in mind the rabbinic interpretation of the Eighth material collected by Lietzmann and Vogtle (see above)
Commandment (by rabbinic count) as applied to kid- indicates that the early Christian catalogues are an
napping. (See Hermann Strack and Paul Billerbeck, adaptation of Hellenistic-jewish parenesis. The cata-
Kommentar ~um Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch logue form is not found in the writings of rabbinic
[Munich: Beck, 1961), vol. 1, pp. 810ff). In addition to Judaism. This fact makes it even more interesting that
the passages from ancient Greek literature cited under a double catalogue also appears in the Manual of Discipline
"kidnapper" ( avopa1r00~<TT~S), cf. also the following from from the Dead Sea (1 QS 111.15ff). In the clause which
the OT and judaism: Exod. 21 :17; Deut. 24:7; Philo rounds out the catalogue in 1 Tim, the term "to be
(Spec. leg. 4.13): "the kidnapper too is a kind of thief who sound," which is so characteristic of the Pastoral Epistles,
steals the best of all the things that exist on the earth." occurs for the first time.

7 Cf. the "Reproach of Ballio the Procurer" in the he had still greater requitals to tell of piety and im-
Pseudo/us of Plautus (Adolf Deissmann, Light from piety towards the gods and parents and of self-
the Ancient East, tr. Lionel R. M. Strachan [New slaughter." (Els OE 8EOvs auE/3ELa.s TE Kat EVO'E/3ELa.s
York: George H. Doran, 1927], p. 316f) and Al- Kat -yovea.s Kat a.VTOXELpos cf>Ovou J.LELtovs ETL Tovs
brecht Dieterich, Nekyia (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, J.I.Lu8ovs OLTJ'YE'iTo).
1893), p. 161. 10 See Vi:igtle, Tugend- und Lasterkataloge, 234f, who,
8 On the connection between worship of gods and to be sure, attempts to come to an understanding of
parents see Dibelius-Greeven, Ko/osser, Epheser, the form from the context of the epistle. How can
Philemon, on Eph 6:1ff. this be done?
9 "Sacrilege, murderers, patricides, matricides" (lEpo- 11 This coincidence has recently been emphasized by
uu"XLa. avopocf>OvoL 7ra.TpoAo'ia.L J.I.TJTpoAo'ia.L) are Jeremias, ad loc., and Wolfgang Nauck, Die Herkunft
mentioned in a row (Phaed. 113e, 114a). See also des Verjassers der Pastoralbrieje, Unpub. Diss. (Gi:it-
the following passage from the Resp. (10.615c): "and tingen: 1950).
23
 The Terms "To Be Sound" ( 'TriAINEIN) the word " sound," "healthy," is intended to describe
and "Sound" ( 'TriH~) the power of the gospel to bring healing and life. Nor is it
"To be sound" and "sound" (iryLaLVELv, U"(L~~ ), as possible to be content with the assumption that the ex-
terms which characterize the content of Christian preach- pressions in question were coined for the purposes of the
ing, do not occur anywhere else in the NT. In the Pas- heresy polemic. Rather we must understand them as
torals they are frequently used : " sound teaching" they must have been understood by the original readers.
(u"(Laf.voucra OLoacrKaXf.a, 1 Tim 1: 10 ; 2 Tim 4: 3; Tit In referring to the two speeches which say things about
1:9; 2: 1)_, "sound words" (U"(Laf.vovrE~ AO"(OL, 1 Tim Eros which are wrong, Plato writes " for while they
6: 3; 2 Tim 1: 13), "to be sound in faith" (U"(Laf.vELII [iv] were saying nothing sound or true, they put on airs as
TV7rLCTTEL , Tit 1: 13; 2: 2), "sound preaching" (AO"(OS though they amounted to something" (n) JJ.TJOEV U"(LE~
U"(L~~, Tit 2:8). But cf. also Justin, Dial. 3.3: " (to be AE"(OVTE JJ.TJOE aATJOE~ CTEJJ.VUVECT0aL w~ TL OVTE, Phaedr.
ruled by reason ... ) in order to recognize that the others 242e). In Epictetus the adjective and adverb " sound"
are in error and that, in their undertakings, they do (u"(L~~, U"(Lw~) designate the correct, because reasonable
nothing sound or pleasing to God. " (KaOopO.v T~ll TWII opinion. 12 The phrase " nothing sound" (ouoEv U"(LE~)
aXXwv 7rAaVTJV KaL T(l EKELVWV E1rLTTJOEUJJ.aTa, ws is common in the writings of Lucian. 13 In his usage,
OVOEV U"(LE~ opwCTLV OVOE OE~ cpf.Xov) [trans. by Ed.]. the term means "nothing that makes any sense." Cf. also
The singular use of these words in the Pauline litera- " (the grain) is correctly deposited into the earth" (Ka-
ture would offer no problem were it a question either raO~crETaL El~ T~v 'Yfiv U"(LW~ P. O~y . 1024.33); " ... the
of things which had no further importance for the content truth and the sound teaching, and virtue, and the knowl-
of the writings in which they occur, or of formulas coined edge of the righteous law" ( ... O..X~OELav "(E Kai U"(Lfj
ad hoc. AO"(ov, Kat apET~v, Kat "(VWCTLV VOJJ.OU OLKTJS Maximus
1. The first condition does not apply, for the Pastorals ofTyre 16.3f) [trans. by Ed.] ; "but the standards you
designate with "sound teaching" (u"(Laf.voucra OLOa- use are not sound" (cru OE KPLTTJPLOLS XPWJJ.EVO~ oux
CTKaXf.a) or "sound words" (u"(Laf.vovTE~ AO"(OL) the U"(LECTLV, Philo Cher. 36) [trans. by Ed.];" .. . had you
loftiest and holiest things they know: the true faith, with a healthy resolve come to be trained" (El a1ro
the true message about faith. According to the Pauline "(VWJJ.TJ~ U"(LOV~ E7rL T~V aCTKTJCTLV ~MEs' Philo, Det. pot.
use of language one could (e.g. in 1 Tim 6:3) substitute a ins. 10); " These opinions . .. do not belong to sound
phrase containing the term "gospel" (Eua"("(EAwv). doctrine" (ravra ra OO"(JJ.aTa . .. ouK Ecrnv U"(LOVS
We must assume that it is highly unlikely that in his old "(VWJJ.TJS, lrenaeus, ad Florinus, in Eusebius, Hist. eccl.
age Paul would have designated his gospel with other 5.20.4); " For people of sound judgment were very glad
formulas- unless he had to formulate new expressions to about the generosity of the Romans" (ol. JJ.EII "(ap U"(L-
meet new situations. But the basic terms of the Pastorals af.vovTE~ 7rEpLxapE'i:~ ~crav i1ri rf1 cpLAavOpw7rLfl. rwv
are not applied to an actual situation. 'PwJJ.al.wv, Polybius 28.17.12) [trans. by Ed.] ; "For these
2. Therefore the second condition is not fulfilled either. are the sound and true opinions about the gods" ( aVTaL
Such a use of"to be sound" (u"(LaLvELv) and its cog- "(ap ELCTLV U"(Laf.voucraL 7rEpL 0Ewv ob~aL KaL aXTJOE'i:s,
nates is ancient (u"(L~~ JJ.VOo~, AO"(O~ occur in Homer Plutarch, Aud. poet. 4) [trans. by Ed.]; " That it is no
and Herodotus) and was widespread in the philosophical sound inference to infer ... that our hero was a wiz-
terminology of the time. Therefore one must not read ard . . ." (on TOL~ "(OTJTa TOV avopa TI"(OUJJ.EIIOL~ oux
into these passages an original poetic viewpoint, e.g. that o
U"(LaLVEL AO"(o~, Philostratus, Vit. Ap. 5.12); "It is

12 Cf. e.g. Epict., Diss. 1.11.28 "if indeed what is said uou; ) [trans. by Ed.).
by the philosophers is sound" (Ei71"Ep iryLi:s EITTL TO 13 See the Index of Lucian us Samosatensis, Opera, 3
V1I"O TWJJ tj>LXoulxJ>wv XE-y6J.LEIIOJJ) ; 2.1 5.2 "but first vol., ed. by CarlJacobitz (Leipzig: Teubner, 1874-
what is judged ought to be sound [or reasonable)" 77).
(aXXa 7rpwTov v-yLEs Elva' ~E' To KEKPLJ.LEvov);
3.9.5 "Do we therefore all have sound opinions,
including you and your opponent?" (ap' o~v 71"clJJ-
TES EXOJ.LEJJ iryLij ~6-rJ.LaTa Kal. uv Kal. oavTL~LK6s
24
 "To Be Sound" and "Sound" 1 Timothy 1 :11

necessary to treat (those of tl}e female sex) rationally and teaching as "sound" is made concrete by the ideal which
not to allow oneself to become engaged in a quarrel" applies in each case. 1 5 In the passage 1 Tim 1: 10, the
(OEOII o' E<TTL KaTci TO iryLE<; XP~<T8aL KaL J.l.~ 1rp0<; EpLII next verse provides the concrete criterion: the gospel
avn7rpa<T<TELII, Ep. Ar. 250) [Trans.]. There are some which is a firm part of the church's teaching tradition.
passages which contrast the "healthy" opinion with There is some shift toward rationalism, inasmuch as the
"sick" views, thus retaining the original vividness of the gospel has become a principle which can be applied.
imagery: "to follow impulses which were healthy and It is the kind of rationalism which is widely documented
did not cause disease" (iryLaLIIOV<TaL<; KaL aVO<TOL<; in the post-Apostolic literature. 16 The dialectic of
OpJJ.aL<; E1raKo'Xov8~uaL, Philo, Abr. 275) [trans. by wisdom and foolishness bas been replaced by the cor-
Ed.]; "the passions and diseases still prevailed over the respondence of mystery and proclamation.
healthy principles" (En Twv 1ra8wv Kat vo<T1JJJ.aTwv
7rapEV1JJ.I.EpovvTwv TOV<; iryLaLvovTa<; AO')'OV<;, Philo, • 11 is a clause which rounds out the passage (like Rom
Abr. 223) [Loeb modified]. Therefore, if the Pastoral 2: 16) and provides a transition to the personal refer-
Epistles were Paul's work, Paul would have had to use ence (as in Eph 3:7); the Pastorals repeat such expressions
these common expressions designating rational speech frequently. 17 That "majesty" (oo~a) is the content of
and opinions with reference to his gospel. That is very im- Paul's gospel is also said in 2 Cor 4:4, 6 and Coil :27. This
probable, since nothing of the sort appears in the genuine usage apparently reflects liturgical style. 18 "Blessed"
epistles. (JJ.aKapw<;) is here (as in 1 Tim 6: 15) a predicate of the
3. This point is related to a third observation. The deity; it designates the sphere of the divine "incorrupt-
"sound teaching" (v')'LaLvovua oLoauKaXLa) is foreign, ibility" (acJ>OapuLa) and "true happiness" (EvoaL-
not only to Paul's language but also to his Christianity. J.I.OVLa) 19 and may be regarded-even in jewish writings
To be sure, elements of rational argumentation, "na- -as a Greek admixture. Cf. the Stoic expression in
tural" theology and ethics are found also in Paul (Rom Philo, "when I made its spirit my own in all its beauty
1: 19ff and Phil4: 8). But this does not alter the fact and loveliness and true blessedness ... " (TOll Ka'Xov KaL
that rationality does not provide the primary structure 1rEpL7r081JTov Kal. JJ.aKapLov lSvTw<; vovv EKap1rOVJ.1.1J"
for his Christian thinking; on the contrary, his Chris- Spec. leg. 3.1). Cf. further "But the nature of God is
tianity is pneumatic throughout-so that he can contrast without grief or fear and wholly exempt from passion
it to wisdom as foolishness and base his ethics upon the of any kind, and alone partakes of perfect happiness and
bliss" (aAV1rO<; OE KaL acJ>o{3o<; KaL 1raiiTO<; 7ra8ov<;
revelatory character of the commandment (cf. Rom 13:9
with this passage), elaborating obedience as a structural
el.e ment of faith. 14 Anyone who wishes the Pastorals
*
aJJ.ETOXO'> TOV 8EOV c/>V<TL<; EVOaLJJ.OIIta<; KaL JJ.aKa-
pLOT1JTO<; 1ra11TEAOV<; J.I.OII1J J.I.ETEXOV<Ta Abr. 202); "For
to be regarded as Pauline epistles must ask himself God is good, He is the maker and begetter of the universe
seriously whether he is not paying too high a price for the and His providence is over what He has begotten ; He
assumption of authenticity, if this implies mit; gating or is a saviour and a benefactor, and has the plenitude of all
eliminating an essential element in the thinking of blessedness and all happiness" (o ')'cip 8EO<; a:ya8o<; TE
the true Paul in order to adjust Paul's image to that of E<TTL KaL 1rOL1JTiJ<; KaL ')'EIIII1JT~<; TWII <SXwv KaL 7rpo-
the Pastorals. II01JTLKO<; wv E')'EIIII1J<TE 1 <TWT~p TE KaL EVEP'YET1J'>, JJ.a-
4. On the other hand one cannot quite ascribe "ra- KapLOT1JTO<; KaL 1ra<T1J<; EVOaLJJ.OIIta<; ava'Tr'AEW<; Spec.
tionalism" to the Pastorals. The formal designation of the leg. 1.209); "For God alone is happy and blessed" (JJ.OIIO<;

14 Max Pohlenz, "Paulus und die Stoa," .(;NW 42 19 Cf. Epicurus as cited in Diogenes Laertius 10.123
(1949): 77ff. (cited at 1:17 below).
15 Cf. the passages cited above, and, as a Jewish exam-
ple, Prov 31:8f.
16 See Bultmann, Theolog~ 2, p. 53.
17 Cf. 1 Tim 1 :15; 2:7; 2 Tim 1 :11; 2:8f; Tit 1:3.
18 Note the double genitive; cf. Johannes Schneider
Doxa (Giitersloh: Bertelsmann, 1932), 112.

25
-yap EVOaLp.wv KaL p.adJ.pw<;Spec.leg. 2.53); "the Im- "hope" (Ef..7rL<J Tit 2:13).
perishable Blessed One" (o aq>f)apro<; KaL p.aKapw<; •12 "I am thankful" (xaptv exw) is a phrase that
Deus imm. 26); "(which may truly be called) better than belongs to epistolary style; but it does not occur in
the good, more excellent than t.he excellent, more blessed the genuine Pauline epistles known to us. 20 The second
than blessedness, more happy than happiness itself, and half of the verse is reminiscent of 1 Cor 7:25. "Who
any perfection there may be, greater than these" (ro has received confidence" (7rturo<;) takes up "it has been
KpE'irrov p.€v 0.-yaOov, Kaf..f..wv o€ Kaf..ov, Kal. p.aKa- entrusted to me" (~7rtunu8'Y/v). 21 It is not only a ques-
ptbr'Y/ro<; jJ.EV p.aKaptwnpo<;' EVOatp.ovLa<; OE aur~<; tion of being taken into service in general, but rather
EUOatp.ov~unpov, KaL EL 0~ n rwv ELP'Y/JJ.~VWV TEAHO- of the special calling to serve as an apostle. 22 Indeed the
npov, Leg. Gaj. 5). See also in josephus: "that the uni- following statements are based on this concept. The
verse is directed by a blessed and immortal Being, to mention of the event of revelation (see the following vss)
the end that the whole of it may endure" (inro r*<; p.a- and of the apostolic office together form a fixed context in
KapLa<; KaL a<f>Oaprov 7rpo<; Otap.ov*v rwv of..wv ouuia<; the Pastorals (cf. 1 Tim 2:7 and Tit 1: 2f).
KV{3EpvO.u8at n1 uup.1ravra Ant. 10.278); "the universe
is in God's hands; perfect and blessed" (o 8Eo<; EXH n1
uup.7ravra, 7raVrEA*<; KaL p.aKapw<; Josephus, Ap.
2.190). Thus the gifts of the Divinity are also called
"blessed gifts" (p.aKapta owpa 1 Clem. 35.1), and
"blessed" (p.aKapto<;) can also be used to refer to the

20 But cf. 2 Tim 1:3 and P. 0-g. !.113.13: "I am thank- Lietzmann-Ktimmel, Korinther, on 1 Cor. 7:25, and
ful to all the gods, knowing etc." (xaptv EXW lho'Ls Bauer, s.v.
1raow "{tvwoKwv KTA.); see also Corp. Herm. 6.4. 22 See Eduard Schweizer, Church Order in the New Tes-
[Nock, I, p. 74]. tament, tr. Frank Clarke, STB 32 (Naperville, Ill.:
21 On the meaning "trusted person" or "delegate" see Alec R. Allenson, 1961 ), 179.

26
 1 Timothy1 :13-17

1 Paul, Example of God's

Mercy

13 I, who once was a blasphemer, persecutor,

and evil-doer; but I have received mercy,
because I acted from ignorance in
unbelief. 14/ Indeed, the grace of our
Lord has been abundantly rich with faith
and love in Christ Jesus. 15/ The word
stands firm and deserves all recognition:
"Christ Jesus came into the world, in
order to save sinners." I am the first
one among them. 16/ But it is precisely
for this reason that I received mercy, so
that Jesus Christ could show through
me, as the first one, the whole extent of
his forbearance, (that I might become) a
prototype for all those who will in the
future attain faith through fellowship
with him for eternallife.17/ B'"ut
(to him), to the king of the universe, to
the immortal, invisible, one God, to
him be honor and glory for all eternity!
Amen.

• 13, 14 As in 1 Cor 15:9f and Gall: 13ff, the pre- b) ignorance offers a relative excuse (as in Acts 27:30 and
Christian period in the life of Paul is contrasted with the in this passage of the Pastorals). Both aspects can be
Christian period. Neither in the genuine Pauline epistles combined; cf. Acts 3: 17 and the interesting attempt to
nor in the Pastorals is there any interest in a psychological reconcile both aspects in Wisd Sol13:1ff, 6ff. One must
process. The conversion is seen exclusively from the also bear in mind the common Jewish distinction between
viewpoint of contrast and from the perspective of re- conscious and unconscious transgressions (see Biller beck,
ceiving mercy. 1 The clause "because I acted etc." (on 2, 264). It plays a major role in the Manual of Discipline
KTA.) explains the possibility of such a pardon. This of the sect of Qumran. See also Josephus, where the
explanation is to be understood in connection with a distinction is made between sinning "out of ignorance"
widespread early Christian conception. The pagans are (Kant a')'VOtaV) and sinning "consciously and inten-
already for Paul those who "do not know God" (1 Thess tionally" (Eaun!J uuvEtOws, Ant. 3.231f). Naturally the
4:5). 2 Likewise, "to know God" (')'tVWUKEtv rov 8Eov) Christians soon began to apply this characterization
can designate conversion (1 Clem. 59.3; 2Clem. 17.1 to Judaism. Concepts of the Greek natural theology form
and Herm. sim. 9.18. 1). The theoretical element of know- the ultimate background for this terminology. 4 But
ing and the practical element of acknowledgement and early Christianity did not receive these concepts directly
moral fulfillment are combined in this terminology; 3 from Hellenism, but mediated through Judaism . The
it originates in Hellenistic Judaism . The statement about explanation which the author of the Pastorals thus gives
"ignorance" (a')'vota) can, however, be applied in for the possibility of pardon does not mean that he denies
two ways: a) ignorance is guilt (cf. Acts 13: 27ff); or the role of grace in the conversion. qn the contrary:

On "to receive mercy," cf. RudolfBultmann, 3 Bultmann, TDNT 1, pp. 704-08. Cf. the analogous
TDNT2, pp. 477f. use of"truth" ( a'A~8Ha) and "error" (7r'A av71) ,
2 Cf. the later stereotyped characterization of pagan- respectively.
ism as "ignorance" (ii-yvo~a) in Eph 4:18; 1 Petr 4 See Gunther Bornkamm, "The Revelation of God's
1 : 14; Acts 17:23, 30 ("the time of ignorance" [ii-y- Wrath," Early Christian Experience, tr. Paul Hammer
1/0~a] in an absolute sense); Aristides, Apol. 17.3; (London: S.C. M. Press, 1969), SOff.
Justin Martyr, Apol. 1.12.11; Athenagoras, Suppl.
28.2; Kg. Pt. 4; Act. Pt. 2 [Lipsius-Bonnet, 1, p. 47].
27
"grace has been abundantly rich" (inrEpE7rAEOvaCTE11), is conditioned by Kanl. r~v ~L~ax~v) . Since "word"
cf. 1 Cor 15:10. Paul also likes to emphasize that grace is (AO"'fOS) is used in these five passages without a recog-
incommensurable, surpassing all computation and nizable referent, it must mean "word," not "preaching, "
expectation. 5 Occasionally in the Pastorals (though not and 7T"LCTTOS characterizes this word as "trustworthy."
in Tit 2:2), "faith" (7rLCTns) and "love" (a:ya1r17) take Moreover, in this passage and in 4:9 this meaning is
the place of the early Christian triad (faith, love, hope) 6 confirmed by the parallel expression, "it deserves all
in the depiction of the Christian's status. Such a dual recognition" (7raCT1]S a7ro~oxijs a~ws). Cf. the attesta-
formula is already indicated in Phlmn 5; Eph 1:15: 3: 17; tions below. The phrase therefore receives its referent
6:23; cf. 2 Tim 1:13. There as well as here the formulaic only from the context; it is followed or preceded by the
character of the words stands out clearly, so that one particular "word" (AO"'fOS) to which it refers. There-
must not place special stress upon the preposition "with" liability of that "word" is established by the formula "the
(J.LETa) which connects "faith and love" with the rest o
word stands firm" (7rLCTTOS AO"'fOS); for a short expres-
of the sentence. What is meant is that grace made Paul a sion like this one, so often repeated and so self-contained,
person who had faith and love. Faith and love have must be regarded as a formula . Admittedly the question
become attributes of the Christian. remains whether we have a quotation formula or a
formula of affirmation. 1 0 As a rule, this formula is either
The Portrayal of Paul's Conversion
preceded or followed by a clause whose content goes
The portrayal of Paul's conversion does not have a beyond the particular context. Almost always of more
biographical effect, but rather constitutes an illustration general significance, this clause shows an especially fixed
of the well-known, edifying, preaching schema: "Once/ character; for example, the fragment (possibly of a
But Now." 7 In v 13 we encounter words belonging to hymn) 2 Tim 2:11-13 which is constructed in parallel-
the common catalogue of vices; 8 only the designation isms, or the faith-formula which follows the passage
"persecutor" (~LWKT1]S) applies to the specific case under discussion, or the aphorism preceding 1 Tim 4:8.
of Paul. In view of Phil 3: 4ff, it is inconceivable that the In Tit 3:8 one can debate the extent of the quotation. But
terms "blasphemer" and "evil-doer" could have been it seems credible that a quotation is contained in the
used by Paul in describing his past. 1 Tim presents a section beginning with 3:3 (first person plural! see below
portrayal of Paul from post-apostolic times, stylized for ad loc.), a passage which accords completely with the
use as a missionary paradigm. 9 Here, as in 2:7, a sec- parenetic tradition. It seems evident that the Pastorals
ondary picture of Paul is connected in a characteristic already cite Christian texts in other instances, texts
manner with the formulation of the kerygma. Two pertaining to the cult (1 Tim 1: 17; 3: 16; 6:13, 15f) and
motifs intersect: a) the typical character of the conversion, to church law (see the Introduction above, sections 2
from which even the worst of sinners may take hope, and 3). This indicates that the Pastorals stem from a
and b) the unique position of the apostle (cf. the following Christianity which has already found its mould. It is
verses). typical of this Christianity that it quotes truths about
salvation and presents them as proven. To be sure, this
• 16 The interpretation of this verse depends upon the does not in itself demonstrate that this formula is to
understanding of its introductory phrase. be designated as a quotation- formula in the strict sense.
Above all, 1 Tim 3:1 causes difficulties. It would be
"The Word Stands Firm" artificial to connect the formula with the following piece,
(ITI~TO~ '0 AOrO~) which has to do with church law (a passage which surely
o
The phrase "the word stands firm" (7rLCTTIJS AO"'fOS) comes from the tradition) . Since the formula is always
appears five times in the Pastoral Epistles: 1 Tim 1: 15; found in connection with statements about salvation
3:1; 4:9; 2 Tim 2:11; Tit 3:8 (not Tit 1:9, where AO"'fOS (or faith), it probably refers to what goes before (see

5 See Gilles P :son Wetter, Der Vergeltungsgedanke bei 7 Bultmann, Theology 1, pp. 105f.
Paulus (Gottingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 8 See the materials in Bauer, s.v., and in the Index
1912), 126f, 155. in Vogtle, Tugend- und Lasterkataloge.
6 Cf. Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on 1 Thess 1:3. 9 Cf. Michel, "Grundfragen," 86.
28
 "The Word Stands Firm" 1 Timothy 1 :15

below ad loc.). One would do better, therefore, to under- (1 Q27, I, 8) [Trans. from Dupont-Sommer, Essene
stand the formula as an affirmation: when the Pastorals Writings, p. 327]. "Recognition" ( a1rooox~) took on a
speak in coined expressions about salvation, they con- positive nuance in the Koine. It designates the recogni-
sistently combine this with an application to the present. tion which someone or something has been accorded . 12
In this context a remark is added to edify and to con- One must, therefore, not regard the phrase "to receive
firm: the word is true and does not deceive. In this way the word" (a7rOOEXECT0at rov AO')'ov) as an expression
we can explain why the formula occurs in the context for the acceptance of the gospel (Acts 2:41; cf. Enoch
of fixed tradition (likewise the unique passage Tit 1: 9). 94: 1), because we are dealing with common "fixed"
Not all quotations in the Pastorals are marked in this expressions. The double expression shows that the faith
way, by any means. Only a few pointed connections which is the object of belief (fides quae) and the faith
between tradition and present-day application are high- which believes (fides qua creditur) are more definitely
lighted in this fashion, with the encouragement of the separated than in Paul and must be brought together
apostolic word. again afterward. 13 From the verses which follow, one
cannot assume that the author used Gospel writings, but
"Trustworthy, firm" (1ncrrcr;) is frequently used with rather that he is passing on phrases from the tradition
"word" (AO')'O~) : see Rev 21 : 5; 22: 6 (with "true" of the community. The expression "he came into the
a:\rJ(hvb~); Plato, Tim. 49b "to use a word that is trust- world" (~A0EJJ El~ rov KOCT!J.OV) by no means contains
worthy and firm" (7rtcrr4J Kai {3E{3a['t' XP~cracrOat the conception of preexistence, although this conception
AO')'Cfl). 11 Perhaps even Jewish formulas are compar- can also be easily and naturally connected with it (3: 17).
able; namely, expressions of affirmation. To be sure, there We must also count on the possibility that the author
is no exact corresponding expression. Cf., for example, understands it differently from the way it was originally
the prayer following the Shema: "true and firm, estab- intended. Only other passages can give us information
lished and enduring, right, and faithful, beloved and about the Christology of the Pastorals. The relative
precious, desirable and pleasant, revered and mighty, clause ("I am the first among them") forms the bridge
well-ordered and acceptable, good and beautiful is to the theme "Paul," which is connected with the refer-
this thy word unto us for ever and ever." (The Authorized ence to the tradition and its application (see above) .
Daily Prayer Book, ed. Joseph H. Hertz [New York: Bloch • 16 Why Paul is represented as the "first" of the sinners
Publishing Company, 1948], p . 127). A passage from a
fragment from Qumran comes even closer: "This word is
certain to come to pass and this oracle is truth. And by
this it may be known to you that it is beyond recall."

10 J. M. Baver," 'Fidelis sermo,' "Biblica 19 (1938): (avopo5 OOKLf.IWTaTOU Kat 1raCT7J5 TLf-1~5 Kat a?rOOO-
74-9; Nauck, Die Herkunjt, and cf. Gerhard Kittel, X~5 a~Lou). Philo, Praem. Poen. 13: "He alone
T DNT, 4, pp. 100-43, esp. pp. 117f. is worthy of approval who has placed his hope in
11 Dionysius ofHalicarnassus, Ant. Roma. 3.23.17; Dio God" (f-101105 o' a?rOOOX~5 a~L05 0 ava0d5 T~J!
Chrys. 25.3. U,?r£oa 0Eci)); Ditt. Or. I.339 .13f; Ep.Ar. 257.308;
12 Thus in Inscr. Priene 108.311 (cf. also 109.233ff) it Hierocles in Stab., Eel. 4.27.20 (p. 662, ed. Hense):
designates the honor that is conferred: "in order that, "A man's work is worthy of great recognition, when
henceforth, those who see that men of this sort have it has (been able to) temper a stupid and clumsy
come into the highest recognition, might also render man by means of those who are acting for him"
themselves eager for the well-being of the city" (tva ( avopo5 ~p')'OJ! Kat 11"0AA~5 a~LOJ! a 1rOOOX~5' TOJ!
[K]at ol f.J.ETa ravra IIEw/poVJITE5 tJI a?rOOOX~L T~L a{31:XTEpov Kat CTKaLOV?rpaUvaL TOL5 Es avrov ?rpaT-
f.J.E')'tCTT7JL ')'LJIOf.J.EJIOU5 TO[V5 TOLOV ]TOU5/ avopa5 TOf.IEVOL5) [trans. by Ed.]; Diog. L. 5.64 "a man ...
1rpoOvf.J.ou5 taurov5 ?rapaCTKEuanw]CTw E£5 ra r~[L worthy of great recognition" (av~p . . . ?rOAA~5 T~5
?rOAEL]/ CTUf.J.t/ll:povra) [trans. by Ed.]; cf. ibid. a1rooox~5 a~L05) [trans. by Ed.]; see also 5.37.
109.170; Ditt. Syll. II, 799.29; 867 .21 (2d century 13 See Ragnar Asting, Die Verkiindigung des Wortes Got-
A.D.), where the expression has the same form as tes im Urchristentum (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1939),
in the passage under discussion: " .. . of a man of pp. 189ff.
sincerity and worthy of all honor and recognition"
29
is to be learned from v 16. 14 His conversion seems to struction is found, except in this passage, only in quota-
have no other purpose than to serve as a "prototype" tions of lsa 28:17 (Rom 9:33; 10:11; 1 Petr 2:7). Jere-
(inror{nrw(ns, not "example" as in 2 Petr 2:4). As "the mias assumes that the influence of this passage is
first," Paul is the typical representative of those who also present in 1 Tim 1: 16. 17
have received the mercy which the sinner can experience. •17 A solemn doxology rounds out the proem . It has its
The interest lies not in the historical or individual case, counterpart in 1 Tim 6: 15f. Both formulas should be
but rather in the edifying application. 15 A parallel is regarded as liturgical, as the Pastorals apparently quote
offered in the custom, widespread in the literary "world" formulaic liturgical material in other instances (1 Tim
of the time, of arranging and presenting the "life" ({3Los) 2:5, 6; 5:21; 6: 13-16; 2 Tim 1:9, 10; 2:8; 4: 1). Since it is
of the hero to fit into the pattern of instruction in vir- a question offormulaic language, it is difficult to define
tue.16 "Forbearance" (p.aKpo8vp.La) is in Judaism a the meaning of"universe," "aeons," "ages" (alwvES).
common characteristic of the behavior of God; here the "King of the ages" ({3 arTLAEUS rwv alwvwv) is found
word is used of Christ, who represents for the community in the hymn Tob 13:6, 10 and in the congregational
the actuality of the divine action, and accordingly as- prayer in 7 Clem . 61.2 as a designation of God. Since this
sumes to a great extent the designati<;ms of God's action prayer contains much Jewish material, we may assume
(this process takes place before the designations of God's that we are dealing with a Jewish cultic formula. 18 In
being are also transferred to Christ). Notice the twofold the magical papyri there occurs "King and Lord of the
prepositional modification of"to believe," "to attain Universe" ( alwvwv {3 arnXEv Kat Kup LE) 19 and "God
faith" (7rLrTTfVH11). The second ("for eternal life") is of the Universe" (alwvwv8Eos). 2 ° Cf. finally, Justin,
only loosely attached; such a construction is typical of the Apology 1.41.2 (in a quotation): "to the Father of the
pattern of edifying discourse; "to believe" (7rLrTTEVH11) Universe" (nf) 1rarp/. rwv alwvwv) and Odes cif Sol. 7:13:
with "for" (E7rL) and a following dative in the LXX "the perfection of the worlds and their father." 21 The
designates the relationship to God. In the NT this con- cultic language of Greek-speaking Judaism, which was

14 Cf. the related passage Barn. 5.9: "[but when he niot;)~;:t). On this see Adolf Schlatter, Wie Sprach
chose] his own apostles ... he chose those who were Josephus von Gott? (Giitersloh: Bertelsmann, 1910), 9;
iniquitous above all sin" (rovs lolovs Cl.1rouro"Aovs idem, Die Theologie des Judentums nach dem Bericht des
... E~EAE~a TO, ovras V1rEp trauav ap.aprlav avo- Josephus (Giitersloh: Bertelsmann, 1932), 26.
P.WTEpovs). 19 P. Leid. V, 7.36; Preis . .('aub. 2, Number XII, p. 75.
15 Gunther Klein, Die ~wiilf Apostel (Gottingen: Van- 20 P. Par. 174.629; see Theodor Schermann, Griechi-
denhoeck & RuprecHt, 1961), 136. sche .('auberpapyri und das Gemeinde- und Dankgebet im
16 Cf. Friedrich Leo, Die griechisch-romische Biographie ersten Klemensbriif (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1909), 23.
(Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1901 ), pp. 2ff and Geor- 21 Cf. Hermann Sasse, TDNT 1, p. 201 (especially
gi us Fraustadt, Encomiorum in Litten's Graecis usque ad 2a, excursus) .
Romanum aetatem historia, Unpub. Diss. (Leipzig: 22 D *reads a00.varos instead ofiiq,/Japros; see 6:16;
1909). K P L add uocpos after p.ovos, perhaps following
17 On the significance of this construction, cf. Bult- Rom 16:27; see Lietzmann, Romer, ad loc.; and Gun-
mann, Theology 1, p. 91. nar Rudberg, "Parallela. 3. Vorsokratisches," Con.
18 cr. the form of address: "king of the world (age)" Neot . 7 (1942): 9-16. On "invisible" ( aopa TOS) cf. 1
which is frequently found even today in Jewish Tim 6:16 and the commentaries on Rom 1 :20; Col
prayers (o'(iYi;11'(Q,Jer 10:10 without the article); 1:16 and 1:18. Also Philo, Abr. 75f; Vit. Mos. 2.65;
Tob 13 :6, 10; and countless examples in the Jewish Delegibusalienis3.206; Spec. leg. 1.18.46; Decal. 60,
prayerbook, Siddur Sephat Emeth, tr. Simeon Singer 120;Josephus, Bell. 7. 345f. Cf. Erich Fascher, "Deus
(London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 6 1900), p. 4. Cf. invisibilis," Marburger Theologische Studien 1 (1931):
also the prayer salutations in Josephus, Ant. 1.272: 41-77; RudolfBultmann, "Untersuchungen zum
"0 God, King of the All" (w BEE {3aut"AEv rwv Johannesevangelium," .('NW 29 (1930): 169-92,
o"Awv); cf. further "God of the ages" (OEOS TWV alw- reprinted in Exegetica (1967), 174ff; Wilhelm Micha-
vwv, Sir 36: 19) and "Lord of every age" (OEU1rOTa elis, TDNTS, pp. 368-70. On "Immortal"
travros alwvos,Josephus, Ant. 14.24). "Lord of the (aq,/Japros) see Epicurus as quoted in Diogenes L.
ages" (O'I,)'?iYi;l -?~ ]i!l!) is a Jewish prayer for- 10.123: "First believe that God is a living being,
mula; see Berakoth 60b, where the parallel expres- immortal and blessed, according to the notion of a
sion is "Lord of all the worlds [of creation]" (-?~ god indicated by the common sense of mankind; and
30
 1 Timothy 1 :16. 17

doubtless of great importance for the beginnings of the the very next formulaic expression is influenced by Greek
entire Christian cultus, seems also to have exerted its thought: "the immortal, invisible, one God" (a¢8apros
influence on the language of the congregation presented abparos p.ovos 8Eos) . 22 The style of the passage makes
in the Pastorals (see 1 Tim 2:10; 6: 15f; and on 4: 5). it improbable that it was formulated in direct polemic
It is possible that even a portion of the treasure of typical against the cult of the emperor. 2 3
H ellenistic formulas contained in the Pastorals came
to the Christian congregations by way of Judaism. Thus

so believing, thou shalt not affirm of him aught that uLas JJ.aKapd>T1/Ta 7rEpt aurov oo~atE ). But cf. also
is foreign to his immortality or that agrees not with Wisd Sol12 :1; Philo, Vit. Mos. 3.171 and Rom 1:23.
blessedness, but shalt believe about him whatever On "one," "only" (JJ.cwos), cf. Gerhard Delling,
may uphold his blessedness and his immortality." "MON02: 8E02:," ThL( 77 (1952): 469-76, where
(1rpwrov JJ.EV rov Bd:w twov ilcf>8aprov Kat JJ.aKapLov mention is made of the fixed cultic style which is
voJJ.Ltwv, ws ~ KOLV~ rou 8Eou vb71uLs inreypacf>1/ , found even in polytheism.
JJ.1/8Ev J.I.TJTE T~S acf>8apu[as a'J...Mrpwv J.I.TJTE T~S 23 As Spicq, ad. loc., argues. On the doxologies see L. G.
JJ.aKapLOT1/TOS avoLKELOIJ aurcjl 7rpOCTa7rTE. 7rav OE Champion, Benedictions and Doxologies in the Epistles
TO cf>u'AO. TTELIJ aurou OUIJaJJ.EVOIJ T~IJ J.I.ETa acf>8ap- of Paul, Unpub. Diss. (Heidelberg: 1934).

31
 1 Timothy 1 :18-20

1 Exhortation Regarding
Heretics

18 I transmit to you this instruction. Timothy

my child, (in remembrance) of the words
of the prophets, which were once given to
you, 19/ so that (strengthened) by them
you may fight the good fight in faith and
with good conscience. Certain people
have despised this and suffered shipwreck
in the faith; 20/ among these belong Hy-
menaeus and Alexander, whom I have
handed over to Satan, so that they may
be delivered from their blasphemy
through punishment.

1:18- 20 is important for the evaluation of the Pastorals' pletely with v 12. Indeed even in 1:5 the same term
literary "p·attern." Such summaries are found frequently ( ?rapa')'')'EAta) is used to designate the right proclama-
in 1 Tim (see 3:14, 4:11; 5:21 ; 6:3), both tosetoffthe tion in.general. So it would be better to take the words as
paragraph and at the same time to connect the exhorta- referring to the "instruction," as it is handed over to
tions with the situation (cf. also 2 Tim 2: 14 and Tit 2: 15). Timothy, in what follows and in the epistle as a whole. 2
In most of these passages the exhortation precedes a "I entrust" (?raparUJEJ.J.aL) refers to the handing over
warning against false teachers. This warning is a negative of tradition. 3
counterpart of the warning which seems to belong to
the schema. The (fictitious) situation of the epistle which The Imagery of the Military Service
of the Pious
is couched in personal terms and which assumes special
importance in 2 Tim, is emphasized here for the first This imagery was very common and widely used in
time: the reference to Timothy's calling. The analogous antiquity. 4 In the immediate environment of primitive
report in Acts 13 : 1- 3 suggests that prophets participated Christianity it is found in the texts of the Qumran sect.
in the installation of Timothy (see 1 Tim 4: 14; 2 Tim The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons
1 :6). The names of the two apostates, however, belong of Darkness gives a detailed account. 5 In view of such
perhaps to the real (and not the fictitious) situation of the evidence and considering the widespread usage of the
author, who gives the lie to famous fathers of a heresy imagery, it is not likely that the image arose sponta-
through the mouth ofPaul. 1 neously in primitive Christianity. To be sure, in the
•18 With regard to the "instruction". (?rapa')'')'EAta), passage in 1 Tim the widespread mythical image of armor
Bernhard Weiss refers to the commandment in 1:3 and offaith does not occur. The expression "the good fight"
thus understands 1:18 as an admonition to carry out is clearly a common one in the church and was under-
what was said there. But the author has dropped the sub- stood not mythically but parenetically. The closest
ject of opposition to heresy already in v 9, and com- analogies to this usage are offered, not by the mysteries, 6

(See below on 2 Tim 2 :17 and 4: 14, and the second [Paul Siebeck], 2 1911), 317. See also the use of"de-
excursus to 2 Tim 4:21.) These statements are also posit" (1rapa8~K'I'/) in 6:20. "To entrust," (1rapa-
significant for the question of whether orthodoxy or n8EPaL) is equivalent to "to transmit" (1rapafltflb-
heresy can claim historical priority (see the excur- "aL) in Herm.sim . 9.10.6.
sus to 1 Tim 4 :14, section 2). 4 This is demonstrated by Dibelius-Greeven, Epheser,
2 On "instruction" (1rapa-y-yEXla), cf. ?l'apa-y-yEAJ.La Kolosser, Philemon, excursus on Eph 6: 10ff. The var-
in Pseudo-Isocrates, Ad Demonicum 44 (cited below ious materials from early Christian literature which
in Appendix 2); the analogy of 3:14 and 4:11 speaks pertain to this topic are collected in Adolf von Har-
against the dependency of"so that" (t11a) upon nack, Militia Christi (Til bingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul
"instruction" (1rapa-y-yEXla, Chrysostom IX [Mont- Siebeck], 1905), pp. 93ff.
faucon, p. 575)). 5 See Karl-Georg Kuhn, TDNT 5, pp. 298-302 (espe-
3 See Heinrich Julius Holtzmann, Lehrbuch der neu- cially section 3c), and his article "Die in Pallistina
testammtlichm Theologie 2 (Til bingen: J. C. B. Mohr gefundenen hebrliischen Texte," 192-211.
32
 1 Timothy 1 :18-20

but by philosophical diatribe. ln order to characterize orwu), see 1:5 and the excursus ad loc. From "they have
the seriousness of the ethical task, the philosophers liked despised this" (a 7rWUaJ.LEIIOL), it is clear that the op-
to compare life to military service. 7 The image of God ponents are being denounced not only as false teachers
as the commander-in-chief was quite frequently used. 8 but also as persons with bad consciences (see 4:2). Of
Thus Epictetus can assume that the concept is familiar. 9 course the author states this without demonstrating it (see
And it is precisely the widespread distribution of this the excursus to 4: 5). Again we are dealing with an early
concept in the diatribe which makes it probable that the form of the heresy polemic, which is elaborated into a
early Christian use of the image is influenced by popular technique. 11 The image of shipwreck (Evava"(rJUav) is
philosophy, at least in those passages where the image found frequently in Greek philosophy. 12 It has already
appears in an almost proverbial way (as here and in been shown above at 1: 4ff that the author likes to char-
1 Cor 9:7; 2 Tim 2: 3f) or where it is argued in the style of acterize his opponents with words which are common in
the diatribe (as in 1 Clem . 37). Images based on athletic philosophy.
competition form a group related to this one. 10 • 20 Hymenaeus and Alexander are probably the same
as those mentioned in 2 Tim 2: 17 and perhaps 4: 14
• 19 On "faith" (1rLun~) and "conscience" (uuvd- (see below p. 71 the excursus to 1 Tim 4:14, section 2d).

6 See Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, are there, . . . accompanying the army of the gods,
excursus on Eph 6:10ff. in which it has been given a position by the leader
7 See Plato, Ap. 28: "So I should have done a terrible and general Zeus." (l:1moall of. a1raAXa-yfi ~ i/tux~
thing, ... if, when the commanders whom you chose Eli0EliOE EKELrJE ... TOTE owp~ KaL Xo-yLtEraL ra-
to command me stationed me, ... I remained where A7]01j aura, ... UUJ.L1rEpL1rOAOVUa KaL (JUliTEra-y-
they stationed me, like anybody else, and ran the J.LEli1J urpa n~ OEf;JJJ vcf>' ~'YEJ.LOliL KaL urpa T1J'Yc1 rc1
risk of death, but when the god gave me a station, t.d); see Wilhelm Capelle, "Die Schrift von 'der
... with orders to spend my life in philosophy and in Welt," Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische Allertum 15
examining myself and others, then I were to desert (1905): 558, n. 6.
my post through fear of death or anything else what- 9 Epictetus, Diss. 3.23.31: "Is that what you used
soever." (E'YW oiw OELJI(l. all EL1Jll Elp-ypaUJ.LEliOS . .. , to hear when you sat at the feet of the philosophers?
El 5TE J.LEll J.LE ol iipxoliTES erarroll, oils VJ.LELS Is that what you learned? Do you not know that
E'l.AErJ0E iiPXELll J.LOU ... , TOTE J.LEll oii EKELliOL harrell the business of life is a campaign?" (raura ~KOUES
EJ.LEliOll WrJ7rEP Kal iiXXos ns Kal EKLliOVliEUOll a7ro- 7rapa TOLS c/>LAOrJOc/>oLs, ravr' EJ.LCtll0aliE5; OVK oCuO',
OaliELll, TOV of. 0Eov Ta TTOliTOS ... c/>LAouocf>oVliTa J.LE 5n urpaTEla ro XP71J.La l:unll).
DELli s7ill Kal E~Erasollra EJ.Lauroll Kal rovs iiX- 10 Cf. Wendland, Hellenislische Kultur, 356f, n. 4.
Xous' EllrailOa OE cf>o(31]0Els ~ Oalla TOll ~ iiXX' OTLOVll 11 See Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy, passim.
7rpa-yJ.La AL7rOLJ.LL T~ll ra~Lll). See also Epictetus 12 See Cebes, Tabula 24.2 : "it is as though they were
Diss. 3.24.34: "each man's life is a campaign, and hard pressed, as though they lived wretchedly and
a long and complicated one at that" (urparELa rLs as though they were shipwrecked in life" (ws KaKws
ErJnll o (3£os EKaurou Kal aur7J J.LaKpa Kal 7rOLKLA1J). OLarpL(3ouuL KaL aOXLws twuL KaL WS llaua-yoVULll Ell
Cf.Johannes Leipoldt, "Das Bild vom Kriege in der r4J (3£'!') [Trans.]; Luc., Somnium 23: "But as for
griechischen Welt," Colt und die Cotter. Feslgabefiir the others ... you can see how sadly they come to
Erich Fascher (Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, grief when a Croesus with his wings clipped makes
1958), 16-30. sport of the Persians by mounting the pyre, or a
8 Especially in Epictetus; cf. also Sextus Emp., Math. Dionysius, expelled from his tyrant's throne, turns
9.26; Philo, On Providence 2 .102,]. B. Aucher, ed., up in Corinth as a schoolmaster, teaching children
Philonis ludaei, sermones Ires hac tenus inediti (Venice: their a, b, c after holding sway so widely." (rwll
1822), p. 112; this Latin translation of the Armenian J.LEliTOL'YE aAAWll ..• ra llaua-yLa 7rCtliU aluxpa
text Provid. is also available in C. E. Richter, ed., LOOLS all, 5rall 0 Kpo'iuos 7rEpLTETLAJ.LEliOS ra 1rTEpa
Philonis Judaei opera omnia (Leipzig: E. B. Schwi- -yi:Xwra 7rapl:xv IHpuaLs Ctlla{3aLliWll E7rL TO 7rVp
ckert, 1828-30), vol. 8; and in the reprint of Richter ~ t.LoliUrJLos KaraOVU1JS rijs rupallllloos Ell KopLliO'!'
in Philonis ludaei opera omnia (Leipzig: Carolus -ypaJ.LJ.Lanur~s (3AE1r7JTaL J.LETa T1JALKaUT1Jll apx~ll
Tauchnitius [Tauchnitz], 1851-53), vol. 8; Maxim. 7raL0La uuXXaf3£sELll odiauKwll); Galen, Prolreptikos
Tyr. 4.9; 13.3ff, and especially 10,9: "After the soul 2 (See Hermann Diels, CMA 1, p. 59): "When
has been delivered from this world to that, ... then greater shipwrecks occur to many households, than
it distinguishes and considers those very things which to ships at sea" (J.LELtiJllwll llaua-yLWll 7rEpl 7rOAAovs
33
"I have handed over to Satan"' (7ra.p€OwKa TctJ uarav(j. ): Of course, Paul himself could also have used the expres-
the author apparently knows 1 Cor 5: 5, where Paul sion in this sense. But whoever accepts the inauthenticity
uses the same expression to refer to the sinner's death. of the epistle will have the impression that the imitator
The author of the Pastorals, however, does not intend here presupposes, without further reflection on the
such an effect nor does he merely refer to the exclusion matter, that the apostle possesses magical powers. In this
from the congregation. That is unambiguously clear £rom case, one can, with Reitzenstein, compare this passage
the following final clause. The purpose here is "educa- with the description of the magician in Apuleius (Apo-
tion through punishment" (7ratotdJECT8at) which wants logia 26): "(it is he) who, having commerce with the
to prevent further blasphemy (whether such blasphemy is immortal gods, has the power to do whatever he wishes
seen as false teaching or, possibly, in the mere fact of by the mysterious force of certain incantations" (qui
opposition) . On "education through punishment" see communione loquendi cum deis immortalibus ad omnia
1 Cor 11:32 and 2 Cor 6:9; clearly the author is thinking quae vel it incredibili quadam vi cantaminum polleat)
more of punishment than education. 13 Since "Satan" [Trans.) . 15
here can only refer to his function as the destroyer of the
body and of life, one has to think of sickness or the like. 14

otKous 'Y''Yvop.hwv ~ 7rtpL n1 uKa<PTJ Kara OaA.au- chastiser and/or tutor see the parallels in Brock-
uav). Cf. Gustav Adolf Gerhard, Phoinix von Kolo- Utne," 'Der Feind.' Die alttestamentliche Satans-
phon (Leipzig and Berlin: Teubner, 1909), pp. 98f; gestalt im Lichte der sozialen Verhaltnisse des nahen
Philo, Mut. nom. 215 and Som . 2.147. Orients," Klio 28 (1935): 219-27; Rosa Scharf, Satan
13 Georg Bertram, TDNT 6, p. 624. But see also 1 Clem. in the Old Testament, tr. Hildegard Nagel (Evanston:
56.16 and 57.1. Northwestern University Press, 1967) .
14 See Lietzmann-Kummel, Korinther, excursus on 1 15 Cf. Richard Reitzenstein, Die hellenistischen Mysterien-
Cor 5:5 (also for additional literature); Richard religionen (Leipzig: Teubner, 3 1927; reprint 1956),
Wunsch, Antike Fluchtajeln (Bonn: Marcus & Weber, 364.
2 1912). On the function of Satan see Vverner

Jentsch, Urchristliches Erziehungsdenken (Gutersloh:

Bertelsmann, 1951), 179; Rudolf Bohren, Das Prob-
lem der Kirchenzucht im NT (Zollikon and Zurich:
Evangelischer Verlag, 1952), 113ff. On Satan as

34
 1 Timothy 2:1-7

2 On Prayers for All Men

1 First of alii .!xhort you to make petition,

prayer. intercession, and thanksgiving
for all men, 2/ for emperors and all
authorities, so that we may be able to
lead a quiet and peaceful life in all piety
and dignity. 3/ This is the way it should
be and is well-pleasing to God, our
Savior, 4/ who wants all men to be saved
and to come to the recognition of the
truth. 5/ For God is one, and there is one
mediator between God and men, the
man Christ Jesus, 6/ who gave himself
as a ransom for all, the testimony in
its (determined) time. 7 I I have been
appointed to be its preacher and apos-
tle-! speak the truth and do not lie- as
teacher of the gentiles in faith and
truth.

2: 1- 3: 13 contain the first part of the church order (see • 1 We are dealing with instructions for the life of the
the outline above). A summary of its content appears congregation; first of all, concerning prayer. Since it is
in the conclusion of this section : "how one ought to con- impossible that "for all men" (U7rEp 1ravrwv av0pw7rwv)
duct one's life in the household of God" (7rWS oli EV OLK'f belongs only with "thanksgiving" (EuxapLqr[as ), it
0Eov avaqrpE¢Eq0aL 3: 15) . This makes clear why the must be connected with all four preceding nouns. The
author clothes the instruction in the traditional schema request is, therefore, that petition and thanksgiving
of regulations for the household, thereby transforming be placed in a universal 3 perspective. The conception of
this schema in a peculiar way. 1 "thanksgiving for all men," which at first glance seems
1:1-7 form the introduction to the list of regulations strange, is explained if one recognizes that the prayer of
for the household. These injunctions actually contain thanksgiving is the natural correlative to the prayer
more exhortation to those concerned than to the ad- of petition (see Phil4:6). In the latter the prayer for "all
dressee of the epistle, Timothy. This is due to the literary men" is a fixed topos (see below on 2:2). We can also
character of these epistles. The epistolary guise, according refer to the conception found in 1 Thess 3: 9 and Col 1 : 12
to which all the "instructions" (7rapa-y-yE"ALaL) are that the prayer of thanksgiving-occasionally the cultic
presented as injunctions which Timothy is to carry out, prayer-is, as a matter of course, a work rendered to
has a specific purpose. The preceding transitional pas- God which increases God's "glory" (06~a). 4 An example
sage, 1: 18-20, already served this purpose, i.e. to give the of this usage in a specific case is offered in the Shepherd
church order direct apostolic authority, which in turn of Hermas, 5 where it is assumed that the poor man is rich
is sanctioned by the kerygma tic tradition. 2 in the power of prayer and uses this power for the benefit

See von Campenhausen, "Polykarp," p. 230. 5 Herm . sim . 2.6: "But the poor man, being helped by
2 Cf. the variant "exhort (imperative) therefore!" the rich, makes intercession to God, giving him
(1TapaKa>.H o~v) D • G in 2: 1. thanks, for him who gave to him" (o 7TEV1]S OE E1T'-
3 See the justification for this view in 1 Tim 2 :4 and XOP11/'0UJ.I.EVOS V1TO roil 1T>.ouuLou EVTU'}'X6.VE' a{m;l
Ign. Eph. 10.1. r4J 0E4l Euxap,urwv U1TEp TOV o'Obvros aurc;l ).
4 See G. H . Boobyer, "Thanksgiving" and the "G!ory
of God" in Paul, Unpub. Diss. (Heidelberg: 1929),
where this conception is located in its history-Qf-
religions framework. On 1 Thess 3:9 and Col 1:12,
see Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper; Dibelius-
Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, ad loc. ; cf. also
Eduard Lohse, Colossians and Philemon, Hermeneia
(Philadelphia, Pa.: Fortress Press, 1971), ad loc.
35
of the rich. The different terms for "prayer" do not ovras av8pw7rWV OJ.LOAO')'OVVTES,]ustin, Apol. 1.17.3). In
invite a systematic differentiation, 6 nor do they offer a both cases the plural in question is explained by the
complete list-"supplication" (iKECTia), for example, is parallelism with the following plural form and, above all,
missing (see 7 Clem 59.2). The word "intercession" by the intention of formulating the phrase in its most
(EVTEV~LS), attested here, 7 is known to us from the general form. It derives, therefore, from the traditional
papyri as a term for "application." 8 Thus, 2:1 introduces character of the intercession for those in authority. "For
the prayer instruction with a sentence which sounds the well-being of the Emperors" (Pro salute imperatorum)
catechetical and which anticipates the essentials of the is a fixed formula for a sacrifice for the benefit of the
following commands. 9 rulers . 12 Spicq 1 3 refers not only to the emperor, but also
• 2 "King" ({JaCTLAEVS) was, in the East, the title of to the petty kings of the East; the parallel, Pol. Phil. 12.3,
the Roman emperor. 10 It is tempting to take the plural speaks for this interpretation. 14 "To be in authority"
"kings" ({JaCTLAE'is) as including the co-ruler, which (Ev V7rEpoxv ~:TvaL or KEtCT8aL) in Hellenistic Greek
would enable us to date the time of the composition of the designates a distinguished position. 15 The mention of
epistle after 137 A.D . 11 But aside from the fact that those in authority in this passage seems to reflect the
chronological conclusions on the basis of an individual, pattern of the regulations for the household . That there is
and by no means certain phrase are generally dangerous, such a connection seems to be supported by the proxi-
it must also be added that the relationship between the mate reference to "all men ." 16 But this topos is not yet
apologies and their addressees provide no satisfying fixed as part of the early Christian rules for the household.
parallels to our text. Rather, more general sentences Rom 13, like Pol. Phil. 12.3, which is structurally re-
must be referred to as parallels, such as "Pray also for lated to the Pastorals, introduces the topos outside this
kings and potentates and rulers" (orate etiam pro regibus pattern. It is rather connected with the customary
et potestatibus et principibus, Pol. Phil. 12.3); "We recog- liturgical language of prayer (cf. 7 Clem. 60f).
nize you as kings and rulers of men" ({JaCTLAELS Ka/. apx-

6 Such a differentiation is made by Origen, Orationes ~O"TW WS OVII«TWII {3autAEWII E~Erauat El a)\7J(Jws
14.2 (p. 331, Koetschau) . railra OEOLoa")'!J.E(Ja Kat otoaUKO!J.EII) [trans. by Ed.];
7 Also 4:5; Herm . mand. 5.1.6; 10.3.2fand 11.9. Athenag. Suppl. 2.1. Ferdinand Christian Baur, Die
8 Cf. Ludwig Mitteis and Ulrich Wilcken, Grund<:iige sogenannten Pastoralbrieje, pp. 126fhad already pro-
und Chrestomatie der Papyruskunde 2.1.1 (Leipzig: posed this argument for a late date.
Teubner, 1912), 12ff; Richard Laqueur, Quaestiones 12 Franz Dolger, Antike und Christentum (Munster i. W.:
epigraph. etpapyrol., Unpub. Diss. (Strassburg: 1904) Aschendorff, 1932), pp. 1}7ff.
8ff; Ulrich Wilcken, "Bibliographie. Ein Authoren- 13 Spicq, ad loc.
verzeichnis. S. 265," Archivjiir Papyruiforschung und 14 On the position of the (3autAEUS as the essence of
verwandte Gebiete 4 (1908): 224; AdolfDeissmann, sovereignty see E. Bikermann, Institutions des Seleu-
Bible Studies, tr. A. Grieve (Edinburgh: T. & T . cides (Paris: Haut-Commissariat de Ia Republique
Clark, 1901 ), 121; Friedrich Preisigke, Wiirterbuch Franc;aise en Syrie et au Liban, 1938), 5ff; Franz
der griechischen Papyrusurkunden mit Einschluss der grie- Cumont, L' Egypte des Astrologues (Brussels: Fondation
chischen usw .. .. Ag~pten (Berlin: 1914- 27), s.v. egyptologique Reine Elisabeth, 1937), 25ff.
9 Cf. Herm . mand. 1.1 and vis. 5.5 in relation to the fol- 15 Cf. Inscr. Perg. 252.19f: "not less for the common
lowing commandments. people than for those in a distinguished position
10 Cf. IG 3.12.15, 17 ; GIG 2.2721.11 ; Josephus, Bell. (rovs OTJ ]~J.onKovs !J.TJOfll ~uuo11 rw11 I Ell v7rEpoxfit
3.351; 4.596 and 598; many other examples are o11rw11); 2 Mace 3:11: "a man of very prominent
given in E. Magie, D e Romanorum iuris publici sacrique position" (a11opos h V7rEpoxfi KEL!J.EIIov); Ep. Ar.
vocabulis sollemnibus in Graecum sermonem conversis 175: "envoys from kings or very important cities"
(Leipzig: Teubner, 1905), 62; in early Christianity (1rapa {3autA.i:wll ~ 7rOAEWII Ell v7rEpoxa'i:s) [trans.
cf. in addition to 1 Tim 2:2 : 1 Petr 2: 13, 17 (Rev Charles, APOT].
17:9); 1 Clem. 37.3; Aristid., Apol. 1 ;Just., Apol. 16 Cf. Stob. Eel. 4.27.23; Epict. Diss. 2.17.3 and Philo,
1.14.4; Athenag., Suppl. 1. Poster. C. 181.
11 Cf.Just.,Apo/.1.14.4.: "lshallleaveittoyou,as 17 See Eduard Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judentums
powerful kings, to examine, whether in truth this is (Halle: M. Niemeyer, 1896 ), 50ff; Wilhelm Ru-
what we have been taught and teach" (V!J.fTEPOII dolph, Esra und Nehemiah, HAT 1,20 (Tiibingen:

36
 Prayer for the Pagan Authority 1 Timothy 2:2

a matter of course, for precisely because of the imperial

Prayer for the Pagan Authority cult, the Christians were brought into a most severe
Prayer for the pagan authority is first attested among the conflict. Christianity had every reason to be hostile to the
Jews in the decree of Darius preserved in the book of state, and the book of Revelation proves that such hos-
Ezra, if it is genuine. 17 Darius issued the following decree tility was in fact present in certain circles. But the NT also
with regard to the Jewish temple and its priests (LXX testifies to the presence of loyalty to the state and its
1 Esdras 6: 9f): " ... for sacrifices to the Lord, for bulls officials. 19 The thoughts which Paul expresses in Rom
and rams and lambs, and likewise wheat and salt and 13: 1ffmay have helped bring about this stance. But
wine and oil, regularly every year, without quibbling, for besides these, other considerations certainly existed: con-
daily use as the priests in Jerusalem may indicate, in cern with missionary practice or apologetics, or the mere
order that libations may be made to the Most High God belief in authority. The widespread distribution of this
for the king and his children, and prayers be offered complex of ideas marks the changeover from an escha-
o
for their life." (Kai ll.v vurep?JJJ.a, Kai viovs {3owv Kai tological world view to an ecclesiastical form of existence
Kptwv KaL aJJ,VOVS Els OAOKavrwum rc;3 (}Ec;3 TOV ovpa- within an expanding world that provided more room
vov, 7rVpovs, aA.as, olvov, EAatov, Kar<l. TO pfjJJ,a iEpEWV for a Christian life. Thus the practice, as well as the
TWV EV 'IEpovuaA~JJ., f(]'TW OLOOJJ.EVOV avro'i:s ~JJ.Epav EV thought, of the popular Jewish ideology of the state could
~JJ.EPQ., a M.v alT~(]'U,l(]'tV, tva WULV 7rpoufj>EpOVTES be adopted. There are analogous phenomena in other
EVWOLas rc;3 0Ec;3 TOV ovpavov, KaL 7rpOUEVXWVTat Els cults; this is suggested by Apuleius, Metamorphoses 11.17:
tw~v TOV {3autAEWS KaL TWV viwv avrov). Bar 1: 10ff " (the grammateus in the temple ceremony of the Isis
claims-perhaps for reasons that reflect the interests of his mysteries began to read out of a book), praying for good
own time-that the origin of this custom of offering fortune for the great Prince, the Senate, to the noble
sacrifices and prayers goes back to the time of the exile order of Chivalry, and generally to all the Roman peo-
under Nebuchadnezzar (cf. also LXXJer 36:7). ple" (principi magno senatuique et equiti totoque
The offering for the pagan authority is mentioned fur- Romano populo) . Yet the adoption of such prayers by the
ther in Ep. Ar. 45; 1 Mace 7:33;Josephus, Bell. 2.197, mystery cults might presuppose the evolution of the
408ff; and Philo, Leg. Gaj. 15 7, 317. Philo mentions ideology of the state from the second century A.D . on-
prayers in the synagogues and in the houses of prayer. 1 8 ward; see, however, lnscr. Magn . 98 (quoted by Norden,
The special meaning of this custom, particularly among Agnostos Theos, Untersuchungen zur Formengeschichte religiiiser
the Jews, is clear: it is the equivalent of the cult ofthe Rede [Leipzig: Teubner 1913 =Darmstadt: 4 1956], 151f,
emperor and thus the most important sign ofloyalty. n. 4) from the second century B.C. The practice of the
That the custom was continued in Christianity was not synagogues, at any rate, offered the historical point of

J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1949), p . 59. On the alive" [tr. R. Travers Herford, Pirke Aboth (New
Persian custom see Herodotus 1.132.2: "To pray York: Schocken Books, 1962)]. Cf. further the in-
for blessings for himself alone is not lawful for the scription from Schedia, in Ditt. Or. II, p. 726 : "The
sacrificer; rather he prays that it may be well with Jews pray for the king Ptolemy and for the queen
the king and all the Persians" ( Ewur<!J J.LEV o-YJ r<!J Berenice, the sister and wife, and for the children"
Ovovn loLv J.I.OVV~ oil ol E')'')'LVETa~ apa<JOa~ a')'a0a, (v11'Ep {3aa~Xi:ws II roXEJ.LaLou Kal {3a<J~XL<J<17J~
o oE ro'i<J~ 11'a<J~ I1EP<111<1~ KanvxEra~ E~ ')'LvE<JOa~ BEpEVLKTJ~ aoEXcf>~~ Kal ')'UVa~KO~ Kal TWV TEKVWV
Kat r<!J {3aq~}..fi). TTJV 'll'po<JEUXTJV ol 'Iouoa'io~) . See Emil Schiirer,
18 Philo, Flacc. 49: "and you do not understand that A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ,
everywhere in the habitable world, the religious 1L 2 tr.John MacPherson, 2L 3 tr. Sophia Taylor
veneration of the jews for the Augustan house has and Peter Christie (Edinburgh: T . & T . Clark,
its basis, as all may see, in the meeting houses" (ro'i~ 1885-90), 1 2 pp. 76f; 2 1 pp. 360ff; 2 3 pp. 301, 303.
11'avrax60~ r~s olKoUJ.LEVTJS 'louoaLo~s OPJ.I.TJT~p~a 19 In addition to 1 Tim 2:2; cf. Rom 13:1ff; 1 Petr
T~S Els TOV '1:-E{3a<JTOV orKov O<J~6T7]T6s El<J~V al 2:14, 17; Tit 3:1 and the description in the book of
'll'pO<JEuxal E'll'~o~Xw~). Cf. Pirke Aboth 3.2: "R. Acts of the position taken by the civil authorities
Hanina, the deputy of the priests, said: Pray for the toward early Christianity. (For other points of con-
peace of the government (m;,?o), for, except for the tact between the Pastoral Epistles and Acts, see be-
fear of that, we should have swallowed each other low on 1 Tim 1 :13; 6:11; 2 Tim 1 :5; 4:17.)
37
connection with the Christian prayer. 20 The content of and may find mercy in thine eyes." (TOLS TE apXOVCTL Kat
the prayer in question as used in Carthage is given by 1,"(0VJ.LEVOLS 1,)J.wv E7rt r~s 'Y~S uv, oeu1rora, EOWKas
Tertullian, Apology 30: "we are constantly praying for all rr,v E~ovuiav T~S {3auLAELas avro'Ls OLa. TOU )J.E"(aAo-
Emperors; our prayers are that their life be abundant, 7rpE7rOUS Kat aVEKOL'YJ"f~TOV Kparovs uov, ELS TO "(L-
that the empire be secure, that their house be safe, that VWUKOVTas 1,)J.iis Tr,v iJ7ro uou ailro'Ls OEOO)J.EV'YJV oo~av
ihe armies be strong, the Senate faithful, the people Kat TL)J.r,v U1rOTaUUEU0aL avro'Ls, )J.'YJOEV EVaVTLOV)J.E-
reliable, the world peaceful, and whatever other prayers vovs r<;> OEMJ.Lari uov· ois oos, KVPLE, U"fLELav, Elp~­
there be for a man and for the Emperor." (precantes V1JV' O)J.OVOLav' EVUTa0ELav' ELS TO OLE'TrELV avrous rr,v
sum us semper pro omnibus imperatoribus vitam illis U1r0 uou OEOO)J.EV'YJV avro'is 1,"(E)J.OVLaV a7rpOUK01rWS 0 0 0

prolixam, imperium securum, domum tutam, exercitus uv, KVpLE, OLEuOvvol' rr,v {3ovA.r,v avrwv Kara. TO KaAOv
fortes, senatum fidelem, populum probum, orbem Kat EvapEuTov ivw1rLbv uov, o1rws oL€1rovns iv Elp~vv
quietum, quaecumque hominis et Caesaris vota sunt) Kat 7rpaUT'YJTL EVUE{3ws rr,v U7r0 uou avro'Ls OEOO)J.EV'YJV
[Trans.]. i~ovuiav tA.Ew uov rv"(xavwuLv). There is no infer-
ence that one is praying for the conversion of those in
Such a petition has been preserved verbatim for us in authority. 21 The prayer is rather for their prosperity, as
the prayer of the congregation in 7 Clem . 61: "to our in the jewish models. The conclusion of the prayer in
rulers and governors upon the earth. Thou, Master, hast 7 Clem. shows how the final clause in 1 Tim 2:2 ("so that
given the power of sovereignty (to them) through thy we .. .") is to be understood. 22 This is clear regardless
excellent and inexpressible might, that they may know of the answer to the further question, whether the final
the glory and honour given to them by thee, and be clause still belongs to the petition, 23 or is already an
subject to them, in nothing resisting thy will. And to injunction to the reader. Tit 2:11-14 does not enable us to
them, Lord, grant health, peace, concord, firmness that come to a decision; Pol. Phil. 12.3 and the two passages
they may administer the government which thou hast just cited speak against the inclusion of the final clause in
given them without offence ... do thou, 0 Lord, direct the petition. The ideal of a peaceful life expressed in
their counsels according to that which is 'good and pleas- this clause-Philo, Vit. Mos. 2.235 calls it the "quiet life
ing' before thee, that they may administer with piety in of an ordinary citizen" ({3ios a7rpa"()J.WV KatlOLWT'YJS)
peace and gentleness the power given to them by thee, -is described in terms which, to be sure, stand out as

20 Prayers of this kind are mentioned in Pol. Phil. 12.3; 21 Despite 1 Clem. 59.4; nor can Ign. Eph. 10 be cited
Justin, Apol. 1.17.3; Theophilus, Auto/. 1.11; Ter- as contradictory evidence; with respect to 1 Clem.
tullian, Apology 30, 39 and elsewhere. Cf. W . Man- 59.4, Bartsch is in disagreement; cf. Anfiinge, p. 45
gold, "De ecclesia primaeva pro Caesaribus ac ma- n. 27. But see Rudolf Knopf, Die Lehre der <;wolf
gistratibus Romanis preces fundente," Bonner Uni- Apostel, die ~wei Clemensbrieje, HNT, Erganzungs-
versitiits-Programm (Bonn: 1881); Adolf von Har- band 1 (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck],
nack, The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three 1920), on 1 Clem. 59.4.
Centuries, tr. and ed.James Moffatt, vol. 1 (New 22 See Theodoret (III, 64 7, Schulze): "As they obtain
York : G . P. Putnam's Sons, 1904), 321 - 24; Moffatt's peace, with them we also may obtain a share of quiet
translation was republished as The Mission and Ex- life" (EKE£VWV ')'ap 7rpUTO.VEUOVTWV Elp~VT/V, J.I.ETO.-
pansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries by AO.')'XaVOJ.I.EV Ka.l. T,J.I.ELS rijs 'Y«MVT/S) [trans. by
Harper's in 1962; Rudolf Knopf, Das nachapostolische Ed.]; Athenag., Suppl. 37.1: "we, who pray ... that
,Zeitalter (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], your empire may receive prosperity and increase.
1905), 107f; idem, on 1 Clem. 61 (see below, note 21); ... This is to our benefit too, that we should lead a
Ludwig Biehl, Das liturgische Gebetfiir Kaiser und quiet and a peaceful life." (EVXOJ.I.E80. tva. ... a.li~v
Reich (Paderborn: Schiiningh, 1937); Gerhard Kit- lU KO.L E7rl~outv KO.L r, apxr, VJ.I.[;!V 0 AO.J.1.{3aV"(I .
0 0

tel, Christus und Imperator (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, rovro ~· Eurl. Ka.l. 1rpos r,J.J.wv, il1rws ~PEJ.J.ov Kal.
1939); Dibelius, "Rom und die Christen," passim; T,uvxwv {3£ov ~ta')'OtJ.I.EV) [Trans. by Joseph Hugh
Otto Eck, Urgemeinde und Imperium, BFTh 42, 3 Crehan in Ancient Christian Writers 23 (Westminster,
Giitersloh: Bertelsmann, 1940); Hans Werner Md.: Newman Press, 1956), 78].
Bartsch, Die Anfiinge urchristlicher Rechtsbildungen: 23 So Anton Fridrichsen, "Exegetisches zu den Paulus-
Studien ~u den Pastoralbriefen (Hamburg: Herbert briefen" in Serta Rudbergiana, edited by H. Holst and
Reich, 1965), 34f. H. Mjiirland (Osloae: A. W. Brjiigger, 1931), pp.
38
 Ideal of Good Christian Citizenship 1 Timothy 2:2

peculiar in the context of the NT, but which are fre-

The Ideal of Good Christian Citizenship
quently used in the environment of early Christianity. 24
"Piety" (EVUE{3ELa) and "dignity" (UEJ.LliOT1J~) are In this passage the ideal of Christian citizenship is de-
obviously intended to illustrate the ideal of good, honor- picted in characteristic and, as has been shown above,
able citizenship; the parallel term "dignity," (UEJ.LliO- common words. It is an ideal to which the Pastorals refer
T'rJ~), makes it improbable that "piety" (Evu€{3ELa ) again and again . This ideal of a peaceful life differs
refers to one's behavior toward those in authority. Both greatly from Paul's understanding of existence, which
expressions indicate the Hellenistic linguistic character of reflects the many conflicts of his life. To illustrate this
the Pastorals; "piety" (Evu€{3ELa) in the NT is found difference, one need only compare this passage with the
only in writings with a markedly Hellenistic vocabulary, description which the apostle gives in 2 Cor 1 i :23-33
namely, besides the Pastorals, in Acts and 2 Petr. And of his life's difficulties and dangers. Paul lives in the
of the 59 passages cited in the LXX concordance under tension between this world and God's world . He joyfully
EVUE{3ELa (piety) , 47 belong to the Fourth Book of the affirmed (in 2 Cor 6:4-10) the suffering of this existence
Maccabees! As seldom as this term occurs elsewhere in as part of citizenship in the other kingdom. The author of
the Greek Bible, so frequently it appears in the inscrip- the Pastorals seeks to build the possibility of a life in
tions. 25 It designate~. not only the fulfillment _o f special this world, although on the basis of Christian principles.
cultic duties but also the general behavior which is He wishes to become part of the world. Thus, for him, the
pleasing to God. Thus in the honorary inscriptions peace of a secure life is a goal of the Christian. The
"piety" is found along with "virtue" (a pET~ ), "right- teaching is "reasonable" (see the excursus to 1: 10), en-
eousness" (OLKaLOUVllrJ), "goodness" (KaAoKa"(a8La), joys general approval and can claim that it derives from
etc. in those schematic catalogues of virtues which were tradition (2 Tim 2: 2; 3:14- 17; Tit 1: 9). It consists in
so popular. It is used in 1 Tim in the same sense. 26 the "recognition of truth," (1 Tim 2:3, 4). He knows that
"Dignity" (UEJ.LliOT1J~) designates the reverence due to piety is useful (1 Tim 4:8; 6:6). Teachers who arouse
holy things (2 Mace 3:12 and Ep. Ar. 171) as well as contention or are concerned with special personal accom-
external, 2 7 and interna!2 8 dignity. In 1 Tim 2:2, there- plishments are for this very reason objects of suspicion
fore, both nouns clearly refer to that behavior which (2 Tim 3:6 and 4: 3), because they diverge from the
is well-pleasing to God and men. 2 9 commandment of sobriety.

24-9. Here he contends that the whole sentence is J..LEVOS {3£ov).

an ~V1'EU~IS, which often expresses the idea that, if 25 See for instance the index in Ditt. Or.
the ruler fulfills the petition, then the petitioner can 26 See a lso below on Tit 2 : 11-14 and com pare the anal-
live as he is expected to live. ogous use of"holiness" (OCTIOT'I!S ) in 1 Cltm 60.2.
24 See GIG III.5361.13f (Jewish inscription of Bere- 27 E .g., the respect that is due to the beard according
nice): "In her conduct she displayed a quiet way of to Epict., Diss. 1.16.13.
life" (~JI 7'E -rfjl avaCTTpocj>fjl TtCTUXLOV ~8os EVOEIKVV- 28 With Ep. Ar. 5, cf. Ditt. Syll. II.807.11ff: "When he
J..LEVOS) [trans. by Ed.]; see also the addition to Esther came into his homeland, he made his stay corre-
3:13 B 2, according to manuscript A: "in order to spond to the dignity which was about his person in
make my kingdom peaceable and open to travel" every respect." (7rapa-yEPOJ..LEPOS I Els rT)v 1rarpLoa
(T~JI TE {3au1XELav ~PEJ..LOP Kat 7rOpEur~v ); Ditt. Or . avaXo-yov 'lrE'IrOL'I!Tal TTtV E'lr'IO'III J..LLav TV 'lr'Epi Eau-
II 519.9ff, which is a petition to the Emperor Philip- TOV EV 'lriiCTI CTEJ..LVOT'I!TL ) [trans. by Ed.] ; see also
pus Arabs and his son (note that both are called Or. II, 567.19.
"king" [{3au1XEvs]): "in these times of your most 29 Cf. 1 Cltm 62 .1: "most helpful for a virtuous life to
blessed reign, the most pious and beneficent of all the those who wish to guide their steps in piety and right-
kings anywhere, who lead a peaceful and quiet life" eousness" (TOtS 8i:Xouutv i:vapETOJI {3Lov EVCTE{3ws
(1ravrwv i:v rots J..LaKap1wraro1s vJ..Lwv Kalpots, Ev- Kat OLKaLws OLEufJvvELv );]osephus, Ant. 15.375 (the
CTE{3i:u[ TaTOI 'Kat aXu ]7rora 1'01 TWV 'lrW'IrOTE {3aCTI- Essene, Menaem, is speaking to H erod, as he proph-
Mwv, ~PEJ..LOII Kat -yaXrJVOV TOP {3£ov o1a[-yovrwv] ) esies to the latter that he will become ruler): "For
[Trans.]; see also Philo, Conj.ling . 43 "and live a life the best attitude for you to take would be to love
of calmness and fair weather" (EVOLOV Kai -yaXrJVOV justice and piety toward God and mildness toward
{3Lov twu1v); Rtr. div. htr. 285: "having gained a your citizens." (liptCTTOS -yap oTOLOVTOS Xo-yLCTJ..LOS ,
calm, unclouded life" (-yaX'I!vov Kat EVOIOJI KT'I!Cfa- EL Kai OLKaLOCTVV'I!V a-ya'lr~CTE!as Kai 7rpos 1'011 fJEOJI
39
 Furthermore, the description of the ideal of life betrays 1 Tim 3:2 and Tit 1 :6). There is a warning against the
(despite Tit 3:3, which probably reflects traditional dangers of riches; contentment is enjoined (1 Tim
ideas) nothing of the predicament from which, according 6:6-10) ; but a certain amount of ownership of property
to the genuine Pauline epistles, one is saved by faith. in the congregation is taken for granted (1 Tim 6: 17-19;
The description in 2 Tim of the preparedness for death is see also 5:16).
the only passage which goes beyond the realm of ideas The clearest sign of a Christianization of the world is
that describe the normal, virtuous life of the good citizen. seen in a developing family ethic, which goes substan-
To be sure, this exception must not be overlooked in tially beyond traditional injunctions of rules for the
evaluating the meaning of"good citizenship." This ideal household. 32 Already, a kind of religious family tradition
finds its limitation in the situation in which the Christian appears (2 Tim 1:3, 5; 3: 14f) . From the example of
must bear witness. 30 Here, as in Luke-Acts, the ethics Onesiphorus one learns that the piety of the father bene-
of good citizenship serve to regulate the time until the fits the members of the family (2 Tim 1: 16). Likewise,
parousia, which is no longer felt to be imminent. The caring for aged members of the family is now emphasized
components of the regulation are: a good conscience, the as a specifically Christian duty (1 Tim 5:4, 8, 16) . There
idea that the Christian life aims at good works, faith and is a similar emphasis on bringing up children so that
love, piety and dignity. 31 The Christian is supposed to they become faithful, obedient Christians (1 Tim 3:4, 12;
grow into this life with the help of his education in grace 5:10 and Tit 1 :6). 33 The duty of bearing children is
(Tit 2: 11) and the scriptures (2 Tim 3: 16). Significant for given a Christian motivation (1 Tim 2:15 and 5: 14) , and
this ideal of life is the relative frequency of the word is raised to equal standing beside the other duties of
"prudent" (uwcppwv) and its cognates: the group of women: discipline, reserve, and obedience (1 Tim 2:9ff) .
words occurs nine times in the Pastorals, in the entire rest Finally, the young women should be admonished by
of the NT only six times (of these, two more passages the older women to fulfill these duties (Tit 2: 4f).
must be omitted, since they refer to healed demoniacs). All this does not simply appear as a reproduction of
"Prudent" moderation also characterizes the attitude popular ethics, but has been given new motivation by
toward the goods and necessities of life: the asceticism of the Christian ideas. Further, the fulfillment of these demands
Gnostics is rejected; all food should be enjoyed with is urged for the church's sake. In no small degree the
thanksgiving (1 Tim 4:3ff). The Christian is warned significance of the Pastoral Epistles rests on the fact that
against the intemperate use of wine (1 Tim 3:3, 8; they are the only documents in the canon which enjoin
Tit 1 :7; 2: 3), but moderate use is recommended (1 Tim such a structuring of life under the ideal of good Chris-
5:23). Youthful desires are to be shunned (2 Tim 2:22), tian citizenship. For an historical understanding it is
but young women should marry (1 Tim 5:14; see also not enough simply to confront this ethical ideal with

Euuf:{JELav, E1nELKELav n 1rpos rovs 1roXhas) . 2: 10; 1: 14; 2:2 and Tit 2:12.
Spicq, ad loc., attempts to interpret the term "piety" 32 See Dibelius- Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon,
(Evul:fJELa) in closer association with the Roman excursus on Col 4 :1 ; Lohse, Colossians and Philemon,
concept of pietas and its political significance. See on Col 4: 1. Compare, on the other hand, the escha-
his excursus VI, pp. 125ff. Onpietas see Theodor tological viewpoints which dominate these issues
Ulrich, Pietas (pius) als politischer Begriff im riimischen in Paul; see Werner Georg Kiimmel, "Verlobung
Staate (Breslau: M. & H. Marcus, 1930). Further und Heirat bei Paulus," in Neutestamentliche Studien
literature can be found in Bauer, s.v.; and Friedrich fiir Bultmann, ed. Walther Eltester (Berlin: Ti:ipel-
Hauck, TDNT 5, p. 489-92. Werner Foerster, mann, 1954), 275-95.
"Evuf:{JELa in den Pastoralbriefen," NTS 5 (1959): 33 See the "education in Christ" (f:v XpLurcfl7rau5ELa )
213-18; idem, TWNT7, pp. 175-84. in 1 Clem 21.8; cf. Werner Jentsch, Urchristliches Er-
30 Cf. the political apologetics of Luke, who tirelessly ;;iehungsdenken; and Georg Bertram, TDNT 5, pp.
assures the state of the Christian's loyalty, but who is 596-625,esp. 619-25.
acutely aware of the limits of such loyalty. See Hans
Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke, tr. Geoffrey
Buswell (London: Faber & Faber, 1965), 138ff.
31 Cf. the excursus on Good Conscience, pp. 18ff
above; furthermore the commentary on 1 Tim 1 : 5;
40
 1 Timothy 2:3-6

the ethics of jesus or Paul. It is necessary to consider the ing the content which these terms now describe, the
changed situation of the church and to interpret the supernatural element is strongly accentuated, but their
Pastorals, together with contemporary writings (Luke usage is "rational," insofar as they are employed as
and the Apostolic Fathers), in the context of a changing criteria of knowledge in combatting misunderstanding
conceptual structure-change had to follow the re- and misuse. Since the "recognition of the truth" should
orientation toward a longer duration of life in the world. be accessible to everyone, it is in precisely this connection
If one keeps in mind the other alternative for dealing that the mission of the Christian message is emphasized
with this reorientation- i.e., the Gnostic alternative- as applying to all men. It is not a question of"recon-
one can understand this "Christian citizenship" as a ciliation of the All." 35 "Recognition" (E7rL"(vwuts)
genuine expression of an existence in the world based on designates not only rational comprehension but also
faith, although doubtless the dialectic of the eschato- acknowledgement, just as "truth" (aXT,Ot:ta) is not
logical existence is no longer understood in its original merely a fact to be grasped theoretically, but also a state
keenness. of affairs to be actualized. The phrase as a whole is a
technical term for conversion. 36
• 3, 4 The extension of the intercessory prayer to refer • 5, 6 These verses are not easy to connect with what
to all people is based on the universal plan of God's (not precedes. The contrast is not "one God and not many"
Christ's) salvation. Cf. Epict., Diss. 3.24.2: "For God (as in 1 Cor 8:6), but rather, looking back to "all men"
made all mankind to be happy, to be serene" (o "(ap Ot:os (1ravns), "since there is one God, all shall be saved"
7r<tvTas G.vOpw1rovs E7rL TO t:voaLJ.LOVt:tv, E7rL TO t:vuTa- (related to this are Rom 3:30 and Eph 4:6). However
Ot:tv E7rOL'17ut:v), and Odes of Sol. 9:13: "and wills that this connection seems secondary and the phrase is perhaps
you be saved." "Savior" (uwTf,p) is used because of the best explained by the assumption that the author con-
following "to be saved" (uwO~vaL). This word has cludes the thought with a solemn formula . 37 In that case,
therefore its own force here and is not a mere title (see the words of this passage belong to the large number of
below the excursus to 2 Tim 1: 10) . "Recognition of "One God" (t:Is OdJs) formulas. 38 If we are dealing with
truth" (E7rL"(VWULS aX178t:Las) in the Pastorals is a a quotation, it is to be explained first of all without
formula for Christianity, viz., conversion to the Christian reference to the context. These individual statements
faith. It is not explained nor more closely defined but need not be seen as ad hoc creations in the interests of an
rather presupposed as a phrase that has this explicit anti-Gnostic polemic. With respect to its form, this is
meaning. In Tit 1:1 it is thus parallel to and has the same not a "credal formula" or "confession," but rather a
weight as "faith," whereas in 2 Tim 2:25 and 3:7 it liturgical piece, as style and content indicate. The extent
serves as a paraphrase for the state of salvation attained. 34 of the quotation cannot be determined with certainty;
The origin of the expression is not to be sought in the does "the testimony ... " (ro J.LapTvpwv KTA.) still be-
terminology of mysticism, but rather in Hellenistic long to the quotation or is it the elaboration of the
Judaism's rich store of Greek rational terminology, which writer?39 The combination of statements about God
now undergoes a characteristic transformation. Regard- (especially the predication "One God" [t:Is Ot:bs]) and

34 On the meaning cf. Martin Dibelius, "'E7rL'}'vwu's urtis Els tiX~Oetav, referring to the conversion to
tiX7]1JELas" in Botschajt und Geschichte. Gesammelte Auj- Judaism).
siit;;e, 2: .Zum Urchristentum und .::;ur hellenistischen Re- 37 See Eph 4:5, 6; cf. Norden, Agnostos Theos, 381.
ligionsgeschichte, in Verbindung mit Heinz Kraft, ed. 38 See Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser , Epheser, Philemon on
Gunther Bornkamm (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Eph 4:5f; cf. Erik Peterson, EU: 8EO~ (Gottingen:
Siebeck], 1956), 1- 13; RudolfBultmann , TDNT1, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1926), pp. 254ff. "One"
pp. 238-51, esp. 246, and pp. 703-13. (Eis) is to be taken as a predicate, see Peterson, pp.
35 Against Wilhelm Michaelis, Die Versolmung des Alls 134 and 227ff; Albrecht Oepke, TDNT 4, p. 623.
(Giimligen [Bern]: Siloah, 1950); cf. Johannes 39 See Easton, ad loc., who assumes a formulated piece
Schneider's review of this work in ThLZ 77 (1952): of tradition in five lines.
158-61.
36 Heb 10:26; cf. also 2Johntl and Philo, Spec. leg.
4.178: "by coming as a pilgrim to truth" (J.LETava-'
41
about Christ is old, although even in the earliest times has, in addition to the legal, also cosmological and
it is not nearly so common as the Christological state- soteriological significance. 44 Although in this passage,
ments in just one part (see 1 Cor 8:6, 40 where Paul in contrast to Heb 8:6, the (haO~KTJ is not mentioned,
presupposes and comments upon a corresponding for - one must nevertheless presuppose the meaning "mediator
mula). For the further elaboration of the "first article," of the covenant," as the context shows. 45 The mention
i.e. , the part about God in these liturgical formulas, of avOpw1ros in this connection raises the question
cf. 1 Tim 6:13. 41 The statement about Christ can refer to whether the cosmological myth of the redeemer is in the
the person or to his work. In hymns and liturgical pieces background . In the Epistle to the Hebrews, this myth
the former appears to dominate. Both elements are then has been combined with the concepts of covenant and of
combined in such a way that the statement about the sacrifice. 46 Admittedly, in 1 Tim 2 this context can at
work is subordinated and taken as an interpretation of the best be assumed by inference: only the idea of reconcilia-
statement about the person. 42 The classic example is tion is fully stated. Nor is there any reference to pre-
the second article of the Apostolic Creed. 43 That the existence. 47 The title "man" ( avOpw1ros) is interpreted
Savior is of divine essence is implied in the predication of by the phrase which follows. In contrast to Phil2: 6ff,
his One- ness (t:Is). The term "mediator" (J..I.t: O' [TTJS) the work of salvation is not brought to completion by

40 Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest Christian Confessions, discussed passage in Plutarch, Isis et Osiris 46 p.
tr. from the French by]. K. S. Reid (London: Lut- 269 E : "and for this reason the Persians call Mithra
terworth Press, 1949); on the origin of the two-part the mediatrix" (DLo Kat MWpTJV IIi:puaL TOV J.L~uL­
formula see pp. 36f; cf. further Hans Lietzmann, TTJV bvoJ.Lar ovuLv). With regard to this latter pas-
"Symbolstudien, (Fortsetzung)," :(NW 22 (1923): sage see Albrecht Oepke, TDNT 4, p. 606; on the
268ff, and Ernst von Dobschiitz, "Zwei- und drei- concept in general, cf. ibid., p . 598ff. See also Hans
gliedrige Formeln," JBL 50 (1931): 117- 47. Lietzmann, An die Galater, HNT 10 (Tiibingen:
41 Lietzmann, "Symbolstudien," :(NW21 {1922): 6ff. .J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 3 1932) on Gal3: 19, 20;
42 RudolfBultmann, review of Oscar Cullmann, Les Hans Windisch, Der Hebriierbriej, HNT 14 (Tiibin-
premieres confessions de foi chretiennes (French original gen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 2 1931), on Heb
of The Earliest Christian Confessions), ThL:(74 (1949): 8:6; Heinrich Schlier, Der Brief an die Galater, KEK
41. 7 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1 21962),
43 On this see Ernst von Dobschlitz, Das Apostolicum in 151 ff.
biblisch-theologischer Beleuchtung (Giessen: Topel- 45 Cf. Test. Dan. 6.2: (concerning the angel who enters
mann, 1932), 45. with his petition on behalf of Israel) "that this is a
44 Cf. Philo, Vit . Mos. 2.166, concerning Moses, to mediator between God and men" (on OVTO~ i:un
whom God proclaimed on the mountain that the J..L~UtTTJ~ fJ~oi) KatavfJpW1l"WV).
people were serving idols: "Struck with dismay, and 46 See Ernst Kasemann, Das wandernde Gottesvollc,
compelled to believe the incredible tale, he yet took FRLANT 55 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Rup-
the part of mediator and reconciler and did not recht, 2 1957); cf. in this connection Odes of Sol. 41 . 9ff:
hurry away at once, but first made prayers and sup- "For the Father of Truth remembered me; / He who
plications, begging that their sins might be for- possessed me from the beginning .... And His Word
given." (KaTa1!"Aa")'El~ De Ko.tlr.va")'KaaB~t~ 1!"LUT~V­ is with us in all our way, / The Savior, who makes
£LV a1!"tO'TOL~ 1rpO.~~O'LV oia J.L~UtT'YJ ~ Kat DLaAAaKT~~ alive and does not reject our souls: the man who
OVK ~vfJvs a1!"~1l"TJDTJU~V, lr.XXd. 11'p0T~pov Ta~ V1l"EP was humbled, / and was exalted by His own right-
Toil ~fJvov~ lK~uLa~ Kat ALTa~ t1l"OL~'iTo uv")'")'vwvaL eousness; / the Son of the Most High appeared/in
TWV ~J.LapTTJJ.LEVWV D~OJ.L~Vo~). In what follows, Mo- the perfection of his Father. ... The Messiah is truly
ses is called "protector and intercessor" (o KTJD~J.L~!V one;/and He was known before the foundations of
Kat1!"apa L TTJTTJ~); cf. this with Rer. div. her. 206 the world that He might save souls for ever by the
(about Moses) " 'and I stood between the Lord and truth of His name." Tr. James Rende! Harris and
you' (Deut 5:5), that is neither uncreated as God, Alphonse Mingana, ed., The Odes and Psalms of Solo-
nor created as you, but midway between the two mon, val. 2 (Manchester: The University Press,
extremes, a surety to both sides." ("Ka")'w ~lUTTJK~Lv 1920), p. 400. Cf. R. Abramowski, "Der Christus
lr.va J.LEUov KvpLov Kat VJ.LWV" [Deut 5 : 5] oi!n lr.")'i:- der Salomooden," :(NW 35 (1936): 44- 69 .
o
VTJTO~ w~ o~o~ wv ouT~ "Y~VTJTO~ w~ VJ.L~L~, a.xxa. 47 Especially Windisch, "Zur Christologie.," doubts
J.LEUO~ TWV aKpwv, lr.wpoTi:pov~ OJ.LTJp~vwv) . The that the author had this in mind.
same understanding can be applied to the much
42
 1 Timothy 2 :6, 7

means of a cosmic descent understood as an act of obe- • 7 A similar connection exists in Eph 3:7. There, as
dience, but rather by means of the self-offering which is here, the mission to the pagans is rightly emphasized as
understood in the sense of the concept of "ransom." Paul's true calling. Here this certainty is emphasized by a
• 6 "Ransom" (avr['Avrpov), an intensive form of solemn assurance, which is unusual, because it seems
"price of release" ('Xvrpbv), is attested in Orphica superfluous to make such an assurance to Timothy. The
Lithica. 48 This verse is hardly a quotation from Mk 10:45, passage is perhaps modeled after Rom 9: 1. In any event
but rather a Hellenistically colored variant of that word the schema found in 1 : 15 is again present: the linking
of Jesus. 49 If we are dealing with a formula, it is pointless of the objective revelation with the person proclaiming it.
to ask to whom, in the author's opinion, the ransom is The explicit mention of the application to the present
to be paid. There is no indication that the background for through preaching is constitutive for the concept of
this idea is the lawsuit of God with Satan. 50 "The testi- revelation in the Pastorals, as is Ephesians' mention of the
mony" (ro J.J.aprvpwv) stands in apposition to "to hand church in a comparable context. 53 Paul is also referred
over, to sacrifice oneself" (lhoovaL) implied in "who to as "herald" (K~pv~) in 7 Clem. 5:6. It can mean simply
gave himself" (o oov<;, see Rom 12:1). 51 "In its own "preacher," see 2 Petr 2: 5. In the Greek societies the
(determined) times" (KaLpo'i<; lo[oL<;) can refer to the term was used to designate the functionary whose duty,
process of nature, 52 but in the Pastoral Epistles (here as at least in certain places, was to announce the honors
well as in 6:15 and Tit 1 :3) it is a term referring to the which had been voted for someone. 54 It is more appro-
history of salvation, a phrase which originally meant the priate, however, to refer to the cultic functions of the
time determined by God in the promises. herald which are also attested. 55

48 Orphica Lithica 593 (p. 129, Abel). See also Bauer, s.v. 53 On this see Windisch, "Zur Christologie."
49 On the Hellenistic character seeJoachimJeremias, 54 Cf. GIG II 2525b 31 (Rhodes), IG XII 1, 890.15
"Das Losegeld fUr Viele (Mk 10:45)," Judaica 3 (Netteia); Philippe Le Bas, Voyage archiologique en
(1948): 249-64. On the concept as such, cf. there- Grece et en Asie Mineure (Paris: P. Le Bas and W . H .
lated passages Tit 2:14 and Mk 10:45, and see Vin- Waddington, 1847ff), vol. II, explications, sect. VI,
cent Taylor, The Atonement in New Testament Teaching p. 203f, no. 341 a 3 (Tegea); and F. Poland, Ge-
(London: Epworth Press, 3 1958), pp. 45ff. schichte des griechischen Vereinswesen (Leipzig : Teubner,
50 Ragnar Asting, Verkiindigung, 631ff; one should 1909), 395.
rather compare Rom 3:24ff. On the whole constella- 55 See the attestations cited by Bauer and Gerhard
tion of the concept of reconciliation, sacrifice, re- Friedrich, TDNT3, pp. 683-96, esp. pp. 689ff. The
newal of the covenant, see Ernst Kasemann, "Zum Cynic appears in Epict., Diss. 3.22.69 as ii-y-yE'Aos,
Verstandnis von Romer 3:24- 26," .(NW 43 (1950- KarauK01I'OS and K~pv~ rwv fJEwv . Corp. Herm. 4:4
51) : 150-54; reprinted in Exegetische V ersuche und comes very near the NT usage. In Gen. Rabba 30
Besinnungen 1 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Rup- (18b) Noah, as the preacher of repentance, is called
recht, 1960), 96-100. "herald."
51 Cf. Lietzmann, Riimer, on Rom 12:1.
52 Cf. 1 Clem . 20:4: "the earth teems according to his
will at its proper seasons" ('Y~ Kvocfiopovua K::tTa ro
Ot:'A.,}J.a avrov TOLS lolots Katpo'Ls).

43
 1 Timothy 2:8-3:1a

2 On Prayer by Men and

Women

8 As far as prayer is concerned, I wish that

men everywhere would raise holy hands,
without a thought of anger and strife .
9/ And the women should do likewise, in
modest deportment with chastity and
prudence, (and) should not decorate
themselves with braids and gold, (nor
with) pearls or expensive clothes,
10/ but rather with what is fitting for
women who profess the worship of
God : with good works. 11 I A woman
should learn by being silent (listening
and) subordinating herself ; 12/ but I do
not allow a woman to teach nor to
have authority over a man, but rather
she should keep silent. 13/ For Adam
was created first and only then Eve.
14/ And Adam was not seduced, but
rather the woman succumbed to these-
duction and fell into sin. 15/ But she
shall be saved through bearing children,
if they (all) remain in faith, love and
sanctification with dignity. 1 a/ The
word stands firm .

The church order now details how men and women guarantor of the tradition, detailed instructions are given.
should pray. It seems to stay with the theme which was • 8 On "I wish" ({3ovf..op.at ) see below on 5:14. "Holy
raised in 2:1. But in regard to the regulations for women, hands" (OO"Wt xlipE5) in the Greek tragedians are
it is questionable whether the words really refer to cultic hands which are ritually pure. 2 Therefore in 1 Tim, the
behavior. They rather comprise a general rule for women, stress lies not on this formulaic expression, but rather
here applied to prayer (see below on 2: 11f). The ob- on what follows . 3 On "without a thought of anger etc."
servation that the regulations are somewhat artificially (xwpls op-yf]5 KT f.. .), cf. Phil2: 14. Cf. also the impres-
inserted into the pattern of rules for the household 1 points sive representation of the raised hands on the pillar at
in the same direction. After the general exhortation to Rheneia, together with the prayer of revenge for the
prayer, the quotation of the " faith " upon which prayer is Jewess, Heraclea, whose "innocent blood" (av aLnov
founded, and the reference to the apostle who is the

See von Campenhausen, "Polykarp," p. 229f. and josephus, Bell. 5.380: " uplifting pure hands"
2 On ocnos, "pure," see Erwin Rohde, Psyche: Tltt (Ka0apas o' avanlvas ras XEip as ). On the latter
Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks passage see Schlatter, Theologie des Judentums, p. 111.
(New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1925), p . 233 See also 1 Clem. 29.1: "Let us then approach him
n. 18 ; Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Platon in holiness of soul, raising pure and undefiled hands
(Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 2 1920), to him" (11'poutXOwp.Ev ovv aim;,~~~ OULOT'1/TL if;v-
vol. I, p . 61. Purity of the hands is also dealt with xfis, 0.-yvas Kat ap.Lavrovs XE'ipas atpoiiTES 1!'pos
in the Manual of Discipline (1 QS IX, 15). This purity avrov ) . The point is especially clearly illustrated in
is also interpreted morally outside Christianity; see Athenag. Suppl. 13.2: "Whensoever we raise holy
Seneca, Naturales Quaestiones 3 preface 14: "to raise hands to God ... what further need have we of heca-
pure hands to heaven" (pur as ad caelum manus tol- tombs?" (orav (ovv ) ... ~1!'aipwp.Ev oulovs XE'ipas
lere). The expression seems to have been widely used avrt;J , 1f'Oias ETL XPELall EKarop.f3'1/S EXEL) [Tr. J. H.
in this sense; see the Heliodorus fragment in Galen, Crehan in Ancient Christian Writers, vol. 23, p. 44).
De antidotis 2.7 (vol. XIV, p. 145, Kuhn) : "But pure 3 On gestures accompanying prayer, see Ludwig von
hands I raise into the bright air, and my mind is Sybel, Christliche Antike (Marburg: Elwert, 1906),
not at all defiled by any evil" (aXX ' aulas }J.EII XEL- pp. 256, 258 with notes; G . Appel, De Romanorum
pas ~s ~Epa Xap.1!'p011 O.dpw Kat KaKL'1/S ap.OAVII- precationibus (Giessen: A. Topelmann, 1908-Q9), 194.
TOII EXW Kara 1!'avra Xo-ytup.ov) (trans. by Ed.]; Cf. also Tertullian, Apology 30: "Looking up to
44
 1 Timothy 2 :8-3:1 a

alJ.La) was poured out. 4 By the words "without anger" plain the somewhat unmotivated phrase "everywhere"
(xwp/s bp-y~~) one is reminded ofMk 11:25 (Mt 6: 14). (Ev 7raVT~ T07r~) in 1 Tim 2:8. One has to assume that
An early Christian at prayer must have thought of such this expression (like "pure hands") was taken into the
words of the Lord, as is shown by Did. 15.4: "But Pastorals from an earlier instruction, and that Mall: 11
prayers ... perform as you find it in the Gospel of our was quoted there. 7
Lord" (nh o' EVXOS VJ.LWV . . . OVTW~ 1rOL~CTaTE w~ • 9 "Likewise the women" (wuaurw~) should be sup-
EXETE Ev r4l Eva-y-yE"AL~ rov KvpLov ~J.Lwv ). "Strife" plemented with " I wish them to pray" (7rpOCTEVXECT0at
(OtaAO'YLCTJ.LOV, ~ c G 33 read the plural) can refer to {3ou"AoJ.Lat), unless one combines it with "in modest
thoughts that hinder prayer because they cast doubt upon deportment they should decorate themselves" (Ev Kara-
the possibility that the request is answered (Herm. mand. uro"Afj KOCTJ.LL~ .. . KOCTJ.LE'iv Eavra~). 8 The rhetorical
9.lf). Theodoret and Theodore of Mopsuestia accept exchange of prepositions, "in" and "with" (EV-J.LET a,
this explanation. More recent scholars because of the EV-Ota ) makes it difficult to decide . 9 It is probable that
sense of the word (ota"Ao-yLCTJ.LO~) and the parallel term these regulations, here doubtless intended for the worship
"anger" (bp-y~), have been led to take it to mean "debate, service, originally referred to the behavior of women in
strife." 5 For this use of the word, one is reminded of Did. general. For the argument given in 2: 13ff refers to the
14.2f: "but let none who has a quarrel with his fellow join place of woman in creation, not to her behavior during
in your meeting until they be reconciled, that your sacri- the service. Also, the injunctions which immediately
fice be not defiled. For this is that which was spoken by follow refer to the behavior of women in life in general.
the Lord, 'In every place and time offer me a pure If we are dealing with traditional material, then the
sacrifice .... ' , (7ra~ OE exwv T~V awfn{3o"ALav J.LETa TOV asyndetic position of the infinitive "decorate themselves"
ETaLpov avrov J.L~ CTVVEMETW VJ.L'iv, EW~ ov Ota"A"Aa-ywuw, (KOCTJ.LE'iv Eavra~ ) would be explained. "Deportment"
tva J.L~ KotvwOfi ~ OvuLa VJ.LWV 1 aVT'IJ -yap Eunv ~ p1JOE'iua (Karauro"A~) can refer sometimes to external appear-
V7ro KvpLov. 'Ev 1ravr~ ro1r~ Ka~ xpov~ 7rpou1>EpELv ance, 10 sometimes to character and disposition, 11 some-
J.LOL OvuLav KaOapav). This passage, together with the
quotation from Mall: 11 "Everywhere incense is offered
to me and a pure offering" (Ev 1ravr~ T07r~ OvJ.LLaJ.La
7rpoua-yErat r<f)bvoJ.LaTL J.LOV Ka~ OvuLa KaOapa), 6 ex-

heaven the Christians-with hands outspread, be- p. 649, Schulze).

cause innocent" etc. (illuc [ad caelum] suspicientes 7 Bartsch, Anfiinge, 47ff. See the Introduction above,
Christiani manibus expansis, quia innocuis etc.); section 2, pp. 16f.
1 Clem. 2:3 "and with pious confidence you stretched 8 Gustav Wohlenberg, Die Pastoralbrieje, Zahn's Kom-
out your hands to Almighty God" (J.I.ET' EVCTE{3ovs mentar zum NT 13 (Leipzig: Deichert, 4 1923), ad
7rE7rot0~CTEws I:~ETEtliETE T<ts XELpas v)J.wv 1rpos loc.
TOll 7raJJToKpiJ.Topa 0Eiw) . 9 Cf. Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on 1 Thess 1:5.
4 Deissmann, LAE, 413ff. 10 Josephus, Bell. 2.126 (about the Essenes) "In their
5 Theodoret (III, 650, Schulze) : "Without doubting. dress and deportment they resemble children under
But believing that in all ways will you receive what rigorous discipline" (KaTaCTTOA~ OE Kat CTX~J.I.a
on
you ask for" ( a)J.cf>t{3o"Xlas xwp[s. 7rtCTTEVWll CTWJ.I.aTos OJ.I.OWII Tots J.I.ETa cf>o{3ov 7ratoa-yw-yov)J.i:-
Ml/111 1ra11Tws 01rEP alTEtS ); and Theodore of Mop- vots 7ratCTtll ). Cf. also Isa 61:3, and see Chrysostom
suestia (II, p. 91, Swete): "with a believing heart, commenting on this passage (XI, p. 590, Mont-
not in the least doubting that you will receive what faucon): "What does he say about the deportment?
you request" (fideli mente minime dubitantes ilia This: clothing should be put on everywhere well and
accipere quae postulant) [trans. by Ed .] See also with modesty, not elaborately" (KaTaCTTOA~ll Tt
Bernhard Weiss, Die Brieje Pauli an Timotheus und c/>7111'; TOVTECTn. T~ll a)J.7rEX01171ll 7ravTo0Ell 1rEptE-
Titus, KEK 11 (Giittingen: Vandenhoeck & Rup- CTTaA0at KaAws, KOCT)J.tws, J.l.~ 7rEpti:p-yws) [trans.
recht, 1902); Walter Lock, A Critical and Exegetical by Ed.] .
Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles, ICC (Edinburgh 11 Epict., Diss. 2.10.15 : " ... self-respect and a dignified
and New York : T. & T. Clark, 1924); andjerem ias, deportment and gentleness" (alow Kat KaTaCTTO-
ad loc. A~ll Kat ~J.I.EPOT71Ta) . Inscr. Prime 109.186f: "in mod-
6 This passage is also adduced by Theodoret (vol. III,
45
times to both. 12 Since "modest". (KOU)J.Lw<;) is stressed appears in bright light, when her mind shines." (~ uw-
in the honorary inscriptions precisely as a virtue of cppwv 'YW~ w<s vuJJ.cpL4.J Tc;l uic;J Tov Ot:ov KOvJJ.E~TaL,
women, and since the language of the Pastorals shows a f.vot:OVJJ.EVTJ To ut:JJ.vov cpw<s . .. KaA.O. cpapt:a. *JJ.cpLt:-
certain relationship with that of the inscriptions, the uTaL T~v alow, Kat TLJJ.Lou<; JJ.ap"(apha<; 7rt:pLKELTaL,
expression under discussion can hardly be restricted to Tov<s uwcppovLfovTa<; Ab"(ov<s, A.t:vK~ o€ Tv"fxavEL,
clothing.13 The reading "in modesty" (KOU)J.LW<;, ~ c D * OTav TO.<; cppEVa<; fJ At:Aa)J.7rpU)J.EV1J) [trans. by Ed.). 15
G 33 Origen) in 1 Tim 2:9 is probably a modification The accent in the Pastorals lies not in the idea that
occasioned by the frequent use of the adverb in such con- women should (modestly!) adorn themselves, but rather
texts . On the connection between "modesty" (KOI1')J.L6- that true ornamentation is not external at all. That
T1J'i) and "prudence" (uwcppouvv1J), see below on 3:2. Christian women are in a special sense " holy women"
"Prudence" (uwcppouvv1J) is also frequently mentioned (tt:pat "(Wa~Kt:<;) is explicitly stated in the following
as a womanly virtue, and in such contexts it has a special verse.
nuance: it is almost the equivalent of chastity. See Philo, • 10 " To profess," "to confess" (E7ra"("(EAAt:uOat), is
Spec.leg. 1.102: "For a harlot is profane in body and used as in Ign. Eph. 14.2: "No man who professes faith
soul, even if she has discarded her trade and assumed a sins, nor does he hate who has obtained love." (ouot:t<;
decent and chaste demeanor, and he is forbidden even to 7rLunv E7ra"("(t:AA.b)J.t:VO<; 0.)J.apTavEL, OUOE a"(a1r1JV
approach her" (1rbpvTJ JJ.EV "(0.p Kat {3t:{3*A4.J UWJJ.a Kt:KT1J)J.EVO<; )J.LUt:~), and further "they who profess to be
o
Kat 1/;vx~v oM€ 1rpout:A.Oliv f.Q, (scil. VOJJ.00ET1J<; Tov of Christ" (oi E7ra"("(t:AA.b)J.t:VOL XptuTov t:Ivat). See
Lt:pEa), Kliv T~IJ Ep"(auLav a7ro0t:)J.EV1J UX~JJ.a KbU)J.LOIJ also Lucian, Vit. auctio 7: "What creed does he profess?"
Kat uwcppov U1rOOV1JTaL). According to Spec. leg. 3.51, (TLva T~IJ aUK1JI1'Ll' E7ra"("(EAAt:TaL;); it is clear that the
the harlot knows nothing about "modesty, chastity, and object of the confession is implied in "religion," "worship
prudence" (KOUJJ.L6T1J<;, a low<;, uwcppouvv1J). 14 On the of God" (Ot:ouE{3t:La). Since there is no mention of
polemic against ornaments see 1 Petr 3:3 and especially Christ, one can assume that the expression is a self-
Ps. Clem. Hom. 13.16: "The prudent woman adorns designation which was already common in judaism, and
herselffor the Son of God as her bridegroom, clothed compare it with a passage from Philo: "Who among
with holy light as a beautiful mantle, dressed in chastity, those who profess piety deserve to be compared with
wearing precious pearls, the prudent words, and she these?" (OL<; TLva<; UV"(KpLvELV a~LOIJ TWIJ E7ra"("(EAAO-

esty and gracefulness" ('T~L {)€ KarauroXfi Kat 'T~L sidered the adornment of a believing woman" (7nurfi
EVO'X71J.t[Out1J1ll]) [trans. by Ed.]. 'YVVaLKt KOO'JlOS uwtj>pouvv71 VOJ.tLtEa8w) [trans.
12 Epict., Diss. 2.21.11 : "and now do you come to me by Ed.]. Musonius also seems to assume that "pru-
with a solemn deportment, like a philosopher" (Kat dence" is a virtue of woman: "To be prudent
EPXll JlOL KarauroXO.s 1rOL~uas ws uotj>os ) [Loeb (chaste) is praiseworthy in a woman, and it is equally
modified] . praiseworthy in a man" (uwtj>pove'i:v J.IEV av KaAOV
13 See Inscr. Magn. 162.6: "living in prudence and r~v 'YWaLKa, KaXov {)' OJ.toLws Kat rov il.vfJpa, Mu-
modesty" Ct~uavra uwtj>povws Kat KOO'J.ILWs ); "ln- son. p. 14, 12ff, Hense) [trans. by Ed.]. Cf. the burial
schriften von Herakleia" in Bulletin de correspondance column of Seratus cited in Dibelius, Thessalonicher,
he/Unique, 1898, p. 496, line 9: "The learned woman Philipper, on 1 Thess 1 :8; Inscr . Magn. 162.6 (see
lived with modesty" (~ t/>LMuotj>os t~uaua KOO'- aboven.13);seealsoTit2:4.
J.tLws); cf. also Ditt. Or., II, 474 A 5, and Philo, Spec. 15 Cf. the regulations concerning clothing in the great
leg. 1.102 (see below). Material may be found in mystery inscriptions of An dania (Ditt. Syll. II 736,
Gerhard Delling, Die Stellung des Paulus zu Frau und 15ff., esp. 22f. ), where it is said about the "holy
Ehe (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1931), 131, and women" (lepa1 'YVV«LKES): "She must not wear
Bartsch, Anfiinge, 60ff;J.J. B. Mulder, Quaestiones any gold ornament, nor put on rouge, nor white
nonnullae ad Athenensium matrimonio vitamque coniuga- paint, nor a wreath, nor braid her hair; nor put on
lempertinentes, Unpub. Diss. (Utrecht: 1920). shoes; but she should only wear clothes of felt or
14 In Josephus, Ant. 18.66ffthe "prudence" (uwtj>po- skins of sacrificed animals" (JJ..~ ~xhw {)€ JJ..1]f1EJJ..La
VELV, uwtj>poutiv71) of a certain Pauline is extolled, xpuu[a Jl1]f1E tj>vKoS JJ..1]f1E l/;LJJ..L8wv JJ..71f1E avafJEJJ..a JJ..1]f1E
a woman whose chastity is being emphasized; cf. Tas rpLxas aV11'E11'AE'YJJ..Evas JJ..7]f1E inrofJ~JJ..a'Ta el Jl.~
Sextus 235 (ed. Henry Chadwick, TS, N . S. 5, 1959): 1rLXLva ~ fJepJJ..anva lep68ura) [trans. by Ed.].
"It is prudence (=chastity) which should be con- See also the material provided by Karl Weidinger,
46
 1 Timothy 2:10-15

fJ.EVWV fVG'E{)f~av; Vit. cont. 3). 16 Even the parallel to verb in question did not originally have a more general
1 Tim 2:10, 1 Petr 3: 3ff (both passages probably derive meaning. 1 9 We now know of a passage from the first
from the same list of rules for the household), contains century B.C. which speaks of"self-assured, firm conduct"
a reminiscence of the "holy women" ( a')'~a~ ')'VJJatKES) (Ka}J.OV aWfVTr]KOTOS 7r pas avTov). 2 0
of the OT. The relationship of 1 Tim 2:11-12 to 1 Cor 14: 34f
The true ornamentation consists in "good works." It is will be evaluated in different ways, depending on whether
striking that again and again they are mentioned in one takes the passage in 1 Cor 14 as an interpolation. 21
the Pastoral Epistles as a sign of genuine Christianity, As for "to keep silent" (flva~ Ell ~uvxLf!.) one must
whereas the genuine Pauline epistles use only the singu- supply an "I wish" (f'ovAoJJ.a~) from the preceding" I
lar, and consequently understand the expression in a do not allow" (ovK E7r~TpE7rW) . On the thought, cf. a
different way (however, see Eph 2:10 and Heb 10: 24). fragment from the comedian, Philemon : "It is a good
The influence of jewish parenesis may be operative here; wife's duty, 0 Nikostrate, to be devoted to her husband,
but its terms would not have been appropriated if the but in subordination; a wife who prevails is a great evil."
ra tional conception of Christianity, with its goal of a (a')'a8~s ')'vva~Kos Eunv, w
N~KouTpaTr], fJ.~ KpfLTTov'
Christianized life, had not favored their adoption (cf. flva~ Tavopos aA.A.' U?r~KOOJJ. ')'VV~ OE JJ~KWG'' avopa
above, the second excursus to 2:2, pp. 39ff). KaKov Eunv JJ.E"{a). 22 In 1 Tim, to be sure, the com-
•11. 12 The context lets this injunction to silence ap- mandment was taken over from jewish parenesis, as is
pear as a commandment relating to the worship service. 17 shown by what follows.
The parallelism of vss 11 and 12 is helpful in explana- • 13- 15 Since the following proof is for the author
tion : "subordination" (inroTa')'~ ) means that women clearly a matter of course and unimpeac hable, 23 he can
should subordinate themselves to what the men in the content himself with allusions such as "salvation shall
congregation teach; "to be domineering" (aWfvn'Lv) come to her by bearing children" ( G'W8~G'fTa~ O~a T~S
would be the opposite, and would mean in this context TfKVO"(ovLas ). If this is taken into consideration, the
that they should not "interrupt" men who speak in hypothesis becomes credible that in using the phrase
church. But it is questionable whether the phrases were "succumbed to the seduction" (E~a?raT7}8ftG'a), the
originally intended as such an injunction for the wor-
ship service. 1 B Accordingly one must ask whether the

Die Haustajeln (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1928), pp. 'ArnKws, aWI:vr1Jv (aWEvn'i:v) 'EAA1JIILKWS.
65, and 67, and in Hans Windisch, Die katholischen 20 BGU IV 1208.37f (from 27-26 B.C.). The word ap-
Brieje, HNT 15, rev. Herbert Preisker (Tubingen: pears also in two other passages, but has there a tech-
J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck) 3 1951), on 1 Petr 3 :3. nical business sense BGU I 103.3, 5 (6th or 7th cent.
16 There is some question about the authenticity of the A.D.), and P. Masp. II 67,151.174 (6th cent. A.D.).
passage. On eEoai:{3ELa see the seat- inscription in 21 See Lietzmann- Kummel, Korinther, ad loe. Cf. also
the theater at Miletus: " Place of the jews who are Hans Windisch, "Sinn und Geltung des apostoli-
also called God- fearing" ( ro'll'o~ ElovMwv rwv KaL schen Mulier taeeat in eeclesia (Die Frau schweige in
(}EoaE{3lov) (Deissmann, LAE, 451f) . On this pas- der Gemeinde)," Christliehe Welt, 1930, col. 411-25
sage see Schurer, A History of the J ewish People, 2 2 [continued under the title: " Noch einmal: Mulier
p. 314n. 291. taeeat in eeclesia; Ein Wort zur Abwehr und zur Kla-
17 B. Weiss, ad loe., Heinrich julius Holtzmann, Die rung," ibid., Col. 837- 40); see also Martin Dibelius,
Pastoralbrieje kritiseh und exegetiseh bearbeitet (Leipzig: "Von Stellung und Dienst der Frau im Neuen Testa-
Wilhelm Engelmann, 1880),Jeremias, ad toe. agree ment," Die Theologin (1942): 33ff.
on this point, as do Theodore (II, 94, Swete) and 22 Philemon No. 132 (vol. 2, p. 519, Kock) [trans. by
Theodoret (III, 650, Schulze), all of whom appeal Ed.].
to 1 Cor 7:16. 23 Sir 25:24: "The beginning of sin was by the woman,
18 See above the introductory remark on 2:8-15; 2 :9 and through her we all die" ( a'll'o -yuvaLKos apx~
and the Introduction, section 2 (p. 44 and pp. 6f). Qj.taprLas Kat OL. aur~v a'll"oevflaKOJ.LEII 'li"QIITES );
19 That it did is confirmed by the lexicographer, Moe- cf. also 1 Cor 11 : 8f and Lietzmann- Kummel, Korin-
ris (p. 54, Pierson) who points out that the word is ther, ad toe.
the equivalent of an Attic word meaning "to have
one's own jurisdiction" auroOtK1Jll (aUTOOLKEtll)
47
author was referring to sexual seduction. 24 The jewish the natural order, its healing through faith viz. worship,
tradition, according to which the serpent indulged in are present here as well as in 1 Tim 3:4, 12; 5:10, 14.28
unchaste practices with Eve, is already mentioned in
2 Cor 11:3. 25 This assertion becomes even more convinc- Instructions f or Women

ing when we notice that any "being deceived" (a7rarii- In these instructions for women, rules for the worship
u(JaL) is categorically denied with respect to Adam. service and injunctions for daily life seem to stand side by
Furthermore, after such an interpretation of"succumbed side. This results from the fact that the church order
to seduction" (E~a7rarTJ(JEI:ua), the mention of the has been expanded with general parenetic material
feminine calling to motherhood (naturally influenced by (derived from rules for the household). The motivation
Gen 3: 16) receives a more comprehensive significance: and objectives of this extensive treatment of the questions
"where someone sins, through that he is saved" (quo relating to women are to be sought in the situation of
quis peccat, eo salvatur). The jewish parenesis (a fixed the congregations which the author has in mind. The
list of "rules for the household"?) which was the model for . commandment to silence during the assembly of the con-
all this probably expressed these ideas even more clearly. gregation was explained by Theodoret (III, 650, Schulze)
Since the word "sin, transgression" (7rapa{3aCTL<; ) has this way: "Since women too have the benefit of the
been mentioned, the question of salvation from divine prophetic gift, it was necessary that he give instructions
wrath becomes an urgent one. The answer is: "salvation also about that." (E7rELO~ Kat -yvvatKH 7rpo¢TJTLKfi<;
shall come to her by child-bearing" (uw(J~uEraL OLa a7r~Aavuav xapLTO<;' ava-yKatw<; Kat 7rEpL TOVTOV
rfi<; TEKvo-yovLa<;). The words do not refer to Eve, 26 nor VO}.Lo(}En'i) [trans. by Ed.] . That within the scope of
to all women, but only to Christian women, as the Paul's mission it was possible for women to teach is
qualifying clause shows (on "faith" and "love" see above shown by Acts 18:26. In Gnostic circles individual virgins
on 1 :14) . 1fwe compare Tit 2:4, we cannot exclude the had privileged positions. 2 Tim 3: 6 shows that women
possibility that the author here also has the education played some kind of role among the opponents of the
of children in mind; cf. b Ber. 17a: "How do women Pastoral Epistles. The Acts of Paul also provide material
attain merit? By letting their children be instructed in the on this question. To be sure, their relationship to the
house of learning." But the subject of the verb "tore- Pastorals is a matter of controversy. 29 But it seems likely
main" (J.LEtVWCTLV) is problematic in any case. According that they point to movements similar to those which
to E. G. Gulin, 27 what we have here is a reference to the must be presupposed for the context of our author, and
atoning power of the birth pangs. But it is not the suffer- especially of his opponents. The position which Thekla
ing which is emphasized, but the giving birth itself. It assumes in the Acts of Paut3° as teacher and preacher
may be that the same ideas about the Christianization of is very relevant to this context. 31 But Gnostic or semi-

24 See Martin Dibelius, Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des "For abuse and rage on their part, envy and malev-
Paulus (Giittingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, olence and jealousy, coupled with ill-will, are the
1909), 177ff. bane of those who are subject to these faults."
25 In addition to the texts given in Lietzmann-Ki.im- (8Xacr¢'fiJ.Lta' "fap Ka1 op"fa1 Ka1¢6ovot Ka1 KaKo~­
mel, Korinther, on 2 Cor 11 :3; cf. Gen. Rabba 18 on BHa' KaL S''fiAOTV7rta( J.I.ETa llvcrJ.LEVELas avrwv j.l.fJI
Gen 2:23; Protevangelium Jacobi 13.1. Elff( TWJI ExOJITWJI K~PES) .
26 Not to speak of referring it to Mary; see john A. 29 See Adolf von Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichm
Cramer, Catene in Sancti Pauli: Epistulas ad Timotheum, Literatur, vol. 2: Die Chronologie (Leipzig: Hinrichs,
Titum, Philemona et ad Hebraeos, Catenae Graecorum 2 1958), 498f; Carl Schlau, Die Acten des Paulus und

Patrum in Novum Testamentum 7 (Oxford: Cla- der Thekla (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1877), 79ff; Wend-
rendon Press, 1843), 7, 22: "through her giving land, He/lenistische Kultur, 337f.
birth, according to the fl~sh, to Christ" (llta rovE~ 30 Act. Pl. 37, 39, 41, 43, (Lipsius-Bonnet, 1, pp. 263ff;
avr~s Kara crapKa TLKTOj.l.fJIOV Xp!crrov) . see also pp. 269, 271 according to manuscript Gr).
27 "Die Freiheit in der Verkundigung des Paulus," 31 Leopold Zscharnack, Der Dienst der Frau im Neuen
ZSTh 18 {1941): 4 78. On the whole passage cf. also Testament (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
Robert Falconer, "1 Timothy 2:14-15, Interpreta- 1902), 53ff.
tive Notes," ]BL60 (1949): 375-79.
28 On the style of the list, cf. Plutarch, Tranq. An. 468 B:
48
 Instructions for Women 1 Timothy 2 :15

Gnostic ideas could also provide the background for important and the holiest function in life; and the man
the positive mention of"childbearing" (TEKVO')'ovLa ) in who leaves life without a child is regarded as the most
1 Tim. In the Gospel of the Egyptians, 32 the Lord answers unfortunate and miserable of men." (OLO Kai )J.E'')'tCTTTJ
the question: "How long will men continue to die?" ev rctl f3Lct> u1rovo~ Kai EuuE{3EuraTTJ rol.'~ EV <f>povovuLv
(JJ.EX PL r£vo~ oi av8pw7rOL a1ro8avovvraL;) by saying ECTTLV ~ 7raL007rOtta. Kai )J.E')'LCTTOV aTVXTJ)J.a Kai auE-
"As long as women give birth" (M EXPL~ av TtKTWULV ai !JTJ)J.a
R ' E'UTLV
' 't' 8 ' ' '- '-
1 aTE'KVOV TLVa E't; av pW7rWV a7raAAa-
" '
')'WaLKE~). Cf. Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 1.24.2, on the Gnos- ')'ijVaL) [Trans.] . That the author of the Pastorals advo-
tics (Saturninus): "He says that marriage and procrea- cated this "reasonable teaching" and the sound ethics
tion are from Satan" (nubere autem et generare a Satana of good citizenship can be regarded as his greatest
dicunt esse); Tertullian, Praescr. haer. 33 speaks in a contribution historically. We can appreciate this precisely
similar way of Marc ion and Apelles. And among the few if we see in him, not Paul, but a man of the second
characteristics of his opponents which our author is able generation who had to withstand the mighty assault of
to name is "they forbid marriage" (Kw\vovrwv ')'a)J.ELV, syncretistic and ascetic tendencies and movements. 33
1 Tim 4:3) . In this respect, in other instances, the author
of the Pastoral Epistles has advocated the position of
preserving the natural order (cf., above all, Tit 2: 3ff).
This view, incidentally, is also stressed in Corp. Herm. 2.17
(p. 39, Nock) with reference to the father: "For the
procreation of children is held by wise men to be the most

32 The passage is quoted in Clem. Alex., Strom. 3.9.64 M . Robbins, "St. Paul and the Ministry of Women,"
(KIT 8 2 , p. 12, No.1). ExpT46 (1934-35): 185-88.
33 On the whole problem see Zscharnack, Der Dienst
der Frau; Delling, Die Stellung des Paulus <;u Frau und
Ehe; Albrecht Oepke, TDNT 1, pp. 776-89; Irene

49
 1 Timothy3:1b-7

3 Conduct of Bishops

1b Whoever strives for the office of bishop,

desires to take upon himself a good
work. 2/ For the bishop should be with-
out reproach. the husband of one wife.
sober. prudent, moderate, hospitable.
skillful in teaching, 3/ not given to wine
nor brawling. but kind. peaceable,
and not covetous, 4/ one who governs
his own house well and keeps his chil-
dren in respectful obedience-S/ for
whoever does not know how to govern
his own house. how can he take care
of the church of God7-6/ nor should
he be newly baptized, lest he become
puffed up and fall into the condemna-
tion of the devil. 7 I He should also
have a good reputation among those
outside (of the congregation). so that he
may not fall into the devil's snare. (if)
something reproachful is said about him.

3 :1- 13. The following statements regarding bishops and

Teachings About Duties
deacons confront the interpreter not only with historical
problems (see the excursus to 3:7 below pp. 54ft'), but Teachings regarding duties , as we find them in early
also with exegetical ones. The most important of these Christianity (here, in Tit 1 : Sff and in Pol. Phil. 5:2), 3 are
are: why are "bishops" (E7rtUK07rOL) and "deacons" also known in the Hellenistic world. It corresponds to
(odr.Kovor. ) described in very similar ways? In the cata- the relation between "panegyric" (E7ratvo~) and parene-
logue of their duties, why are particular requirements for sis (mentioned above, p. 30, on 1: 16) which is illustrated
office not specified, but instead qualities which for the in descriptions of heroes, colored by the language of
most part are presupposed for every Christian? (On this moral philosophy. Aristotle writes: "The panegyric and
question see the following excursus.) Doubtless the the counsels have the same form" (EXH o€ KOLVOV Eloo~
existence of the episcopate and the diaconate is presup- o E7raLVo~ Kai ai UVJJ-{3ov'Aa[, Rhet., 1.9.35 [p. 1367b, 36])
posed. According to the .fictitious situation, Timothy is [trans. by Ed.]. Compare, say, Xenophon , Ag. 11, with
not supposed to appoint bishops and deacons, but rather Pseudo- lsocrates, Ad Demonicum; or see how the require-
to see to it that these functionaries comply \;Vith the ments which Socrates (in Xenophon) asks of the military
ethical demands laid upon them . The real interest of the commander are fulfilled in the representation of the
author, however, is directed not to instructing the disciple idealized Cyrus in Xenophon's Cyropaedia . 4 So it could
of the apostle, but rather to the ethical admonition of happen that in the biographies, "virtues" (apEra[)
the bishops and those who are to become bishops. 1 And of the heroes are mentioned which do not derive from
there are clearly many of these (see 3: 1). As a link with observation of their activity, but are mentioned because
what follows, therefore, it might be well to add: "to be the description of that activity was made to fit a fixed
sure it is 'good work' (KaAov Ep"(ov), but precisely for schema. Perhaps the most striking example of this phe-
this reason examine yourselves, viz. let yourselves be nomenon is provided by the imperial biographies of
examined (3: 10)." It follows that the author did not find Suetonius. 5 Conversely, this technique of biography
it necessary to describe the duties of the functionaries. 2 could be applied to the teaching of duties. As an example,
He could restrict his instructions to an exhortation to read the passage given in Appendix 3 from the Strategikos
office holders in the form of a schematic catalogue of by the tactician, Onosander (see below p. 158). In this
virtues. list, which is strikingly similar to the list in 1 Tim 3:2ff,

See above on 2:1, p. 35, and the Introduction sec- 3 Cf. the outline given below p. 133, on Tit 1 :7.
tion 2, pp. 5ff. 4 Socrates is quoted in Xenophon's Commentaries 3.1-5;
2 The case is slightly different in Tit 1 :5ff, see below cf. Xenophon, Cyrop. 1.6.26.
pp. 132f. 5 Friedrich Leo, Die griechisch-riimische Biographie
50
 Teachings about Duties 1 Timothy 3:1

we find scarcely one virtue which would be especially temper, sober, and not insistent on his rights" [Trans.
appropriate to a military commander. No doubt, we have Epstein] . It has not yet been clarified how extensively
a fixed pattern which is only applied to military leader- Hellenistic literature and thought influenced the parene-
ship by means of the explanatory notes . The instruction of sis of the sect of Qumran at the Dead Sea. 11
a future physician in Libanius 6 contains, in addition to
pieces of advice for the physician, also general schematic •1 Even ancient exegetes did not agree whether the
instruction: "practice kindness, cultivate love" (XPTJ- o
formula 7r~ITTOS Xo"(OS should be taken with what
ITTOT'Y}Ta atTKH, q>LXavOpw7rLav J.LEXEra); see also the goes before (Chrysostom XI, p . 596, Montfaucon) or
quotation below, p. 72. An interesting connection what follows (Theodore ofMopsuestia II, p. 97, Swete) .
between professional qualities and generally human If one sees in the words a quotation formula (see above
attributes is found in Lucian. De saltatione 81 . 7 pp. 28ff, the excursus to 1: 15), it is only possible to
Such a schema clearly underlies the teaching of duties connect the words with what follows; the result would
in 1 Tim 3. This explains why so little is mentioned then fit very well with the presuppositions of the chapter
which would especially characterize a bishop or deacon . sketched above. Cf. Theodoret (III, p. 651, Schulze) :
For this reason the specifically Christian element is "He teaches not to strive for honor but for virtue; not to
missing. The popularization of such schematic doctrines long for reputation, but to seek the work of (real) value."
of virtue was furthered not only by the philosophical (od)a tTKEL ).L~ TLJ.L~S aXX' apET~S opE"(eu0aL. J.L~ T~ll
definitions (e.g., the Platonic ''Opo~, the Aristotelian a~Lav 7r00ELll' a.xxa. T~S a~ Las TO Ep"(Oll E'lr~t'YJTELII)
divisions and the like) , but above all by the honorary [Trans.]. The words "Whoever strives for the office of
inscriptions. By listing the virtues of the person being bishop" (Et TLS E7r~ITK07r~S opE"(ETa~ KTX.) then would
honored, their intention was to inspire posterity to similar be derived from a common saying, which, to be sure,
accomplishment. 8 The relationship between the hon- Pseudo-Paul sanctions, but against which he asserts the
orary inscriptions and moral philosophy (see also below, ethical prerequisites of the episcopate. This understand-
pp. 72f on 1 Tim 5: 1)-which is very important pre- ing also underlies the variant reading "it is a human
cisely for the everyday ethics of early Christianity- 9 has o
word" (avOpw1r~vos AO"(os). Its originator wishes to
not as yet been thoroughly explored. stress what he clearly felt to be a discrepancy between 3:1
It is very probable that judaism also inherited some- and 3:2 and, therefore, designated the saying in 3:1 as
thing from the ancient popular morality depicted here. a human saying. 12 If one takes the formula as an affirma-
To be sure, the list pattern does not seem to have been tion and relates it to the preceding verse, 2: 15, the new
adopted in Rabbinic literature. But perhaps we can beginning in 3:16 admittedly creates a rou gh effect.
find its echo in the list given in the Babylonian Talmud 10 It can be explained by the sententious character of 3: 1 b,
attributed to Rabhs (3rd cent.)-a passage which, in which is obvious, no matter how one interprets the
its lack of context or connection, is reminiscent of 1 Tim formula. It is good literary style to introduce the pare-
3: "The forty-two lettered Name is entrusted only to nesis with the mention of something that is well-known.
him who is pious, meek, middle-aged, free from bad "Episcopate" (E7r~ ITK07r~ ) here refers to the office of

(Leipzig: Teubner, 1901 ), takes this occurrence as B.S. Easton, "New Testament Ethical Lists," JBL
his starting point. 51 (1932): lff; see also Vogtle, Tugend- und Laster-
6 Libanius, Progymnasmata in Loci communes 3.7 (7th kataloge (bibliography), where an extensive amount
ed., p. 184f, Forster), cited below p . 72 on 1 Tim of material is presented and organized according to
5 :1, 2. types (portraits of rulers, teachings as to professional
7 Quoted below, pp. 160fin Appendix 4. duties, praise and fault-finding in oratory) .
8 Cf. Inscr. Priene 108.311ff; 109.233ff (cit. above on 12 Among other scholars, Dibelius (2d German ed. of
1:15, p. 29). this commentary),Jeremias, and Spicq, ad loc., con-
9 Deissmann, LAE, 308ff, explicitly refers to this re- nect this phrase with what follows; Schlatter, ad loc.,
lationship. a·n d Bover," 'Fidelis sermo,' "74-79, relate it to
10 Talmud Kidduschin 71a. what has gone before. On the synthesis of the for-
11 Cf., e.g. the list in 1 QS 4! The literature on the sub- mula's use as a formula of quotation and affirma-
ject, teachings about duties, has been gathered by tion, see George William Knight, The Faithful Say-
51
the "bishop" ( E7rLCTK07r05), as "for" (ovv) in v 2 shows. 13 Mopsuestia could apply: "He who marries one wife,
• 2. 3 "Without reproach" ( avE7rL"\rJJ..L7rT05 ) 14 is lives with her prudently, keeps to her, and directs to her
found in the NT only in this epistle, but it is common in the desire of nature" (os a-ya')'OJ..LEV05 -yvvatKa uwcf>po-
the higher Koine. 15 With regard to "the husband of vws €{3[4J J..LETa ravT7)5, 1rpou€xwv avrfi Kat Ji-EXPL5
one wife" (J..LLOS ')'VVaLK05 avDpa, see v 12), the question avrijs opLtwv rijs c/>VCTEW5 T~V opE~LV' II' 103, Swete )
has long since been raised (as it has with regard to Tit 1:6 [trans. by Ed.]. On the other hand, according to the
and 1 Tim 5:9) whether unchastity, viz. polygamy, or a funerary inscriptions, special esteem is accorded the
second marriage, is excluded. 16 The arguments for the person who was married only once (especially in contrast
latter assumption are: 1. that the prohibition of un- to a multiplicity of marriages as the result of separa-
chastity among Christians is a matter of course- but this tion).19 Thus some scholars find here the prohibition of
depiction of the bishop is not specifically Christian (see remarriage for persons who are separated. 20 In either
above); and Rabbinic judaism still knows of polygamy, case we are not dealing with a special instruction for
at least in theory. 17 2. In the regulation regarding bishops.
widows in 5:9, the words would have to refer to the pro- The next virtue also belongs among those which are a
hibition of a second marriage-but even in that passage "matter of course" for everyone: "sober" (vrJcf>a"\ws)
such an interpretation is improbable (see below p. 75). is found in this form of the Greek word in the NT only in
3. If the author only wished to offer a warning against the Pastoral Epistles. 21 To be sure, a widespread inter-
unchastity, why did he not forbid "fornication" (7rop- pretation, one which takes into consideration both
vELa) directly? In answer to these questions, it would the use of"to be sober" (v*cf>Etv) in Paul and also the
be possible to appeal to the (probably non-Christian) following "not given to wine" (J..L~ 7rapotvov ), under-
tradition which influenced the author. But above all one stands "sober" (vrJcf>a"\ws) in a figurative sense. But if
would have to consider that, in view of his opponents one considers the literary character of such lists and
(see 1 Tim 4:3) and in view of the explicit high evalua- includes by analogy the catalogue of vices in one's con-
tion which he places upon the natural order, the author siderations, 22 one will find it possible that the word
wished to commend marriage to the "bishop" (E7rL- "sober" (vrJcf>a"\ws) is used in its literal sense together
CTK07r05). 18 But since nothing is said about a second with "not given to wine" (J..L~ 1rapotvos). Such lists
marriage, the following statement by Theodore of are often quite plentiful and profuse in their enumeration

ings in the Pastoral Letters (Kampen: Kok, 1968). excursus to 2:15 (see above pp. 48f) .
13 On the word brLCTK07ro~ see Knopf, Lehre der Zwiilj 19 Especially with regard to the jewish inscriptions see
Apostel, Clemensbrieje, on 1 Clem 44.1; as well as Prei- Jean-Baptiste Frey, "La signification des termes
sigke, s.v.; Bauer, s.v. See also U. Holzmeister, "Si p.ovavopo~ et univira," RechSR 20 (1930): 48-60;
quis episcopatum desiderat, bonum opus desiderat," idem, Gil (vol. I : Rome, 1936), e.g., Nos. 81,392,
Biblica 12 (1931): 41-69; Ceslaus Spicq, "Si quis 541.
episcopatum desiderat," RSPT29 (1940): 316-25, 20 E.g., Albrecht Oepke, TDNT, 1, pp. 776ff;Jeremias,
and excursus no. III in his commentary (p. 84). On ad loc.; cf. Cuthbert Lattey, "Unius uxoris vir (Tit.
the episcopacy itself, see also von Campenhausen, 1, 6)," Verbum Domini 28 (1950) : 288- 90; Wilhelm
Ecclesiastical Authority, p. 112. A. Schulze, "Ein Bischofsei eines Weibes Mann ... "
14 On the J.L before 7rT see Ludwig Radermacher, Neu- KD 4 (1958): 287- 300; B. Kotting, "Bigamus,"
testamentliche Grammatik, HNT 1, 1 (Tubingen: RAG 3 (1957), 1016-24.
J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 2 1925), 40. 21 But see Philo, Sobr. 2; Vit. Mos. 1.187;Josephus,
15 Cf. also the text given in Appendix 4, see below pp. Ant. 3.279; cf. the use of V~1rT7J~ in the list in Ono-
160f. sander (Appendix 3 below pp. 153f).
16 Cf. the extensive presentation in Theodore of Mop- 22 See Lietzmann, Romer, excursus to Rom 1:31, and
suestia (II, 99ff, Swetc). the material in Vogtle, Tugend- und Lasterkataloge,
17 See the documentation in Billerbeck, ad loc. passim.
18 It is different in the case of the Apostolic Church Order:
" It is good to be without a wife, otherwise one should
have only one wife" (KaAov J.LEV Efva' o:yvva'o~, El
5E p.~, a1ro J.l.'a~ -yuva,Ko~) [trans. by Ed.]; cf. the
second excursus to 2:2 (see above pp. 39f) and the
52
 1 Timothy 3:2-7

of virtues, without any very systematic delineation of appointments, splendidly and royally, in the matter of its
the concepts. Cf. also the parallel instructions in 3: 11 and revenues, strictly, in order that you may possess the
3:8. Whereas in the former the requirement is given IJy good opinion of your people" (oLKEL r~v 1!'0ALV OJJ-oLw~
the term "sober'; (vrJ cpaALov~ ), the latter uses instead W0'1l'Ep rov 1l'arpc;Jov otKov ra'i~ JJ-fV KaraO'KEva'i~
"not given to much wine" (JJ-~ OLV4J 7l'OAAclJ 1l'pOO'EXOV- AaJJ-1!'PW~ Kai. {3aO'LALKW~, ra'i~ Of 7rpa~EO'LV aKpL{3w~,
ra~). A specifically cultic character of the requirement tv' EVOOKLJJ-fi~ ajJ.a Kai. OLapKfi~); Pseudo-lsocrates,
is not implied. 23 Ad Demonicum 35: "Whenever you purpose to consult
The coupling of"prudent" (O'wcppwv) and "modest" with any one about your affairs, first observe how he has
(KOO'JJ-LO~ ) is very common. 24 On "hospitality" (c/>LAO- managed his own; for he who has shown poor judgment
~EvLa) in primitive Christianity see (in addition to 1 Tim in conducting his own business will never give wise
5:10) also Rom 12:13; Heb 13:2; 1 Petr4:9; 3Jn 5ff; counsel about the business of others." (orav V1l'Ep O'Eav-
7 Clem 1.2 and chs. 10-12, and the characteristic com - rov JJ-EAATI TLVL O'VJJ-{30VA4J XP~q(}aL, O'K01l'EL 7rpWTOV
IJination "bishops and hospitable men" (E1l'L O'K01l'OL Kai. 1l'W~ rd. Eavrov OLc/JK'YJO'EV. o -yO.p KaKw~ OLavorJ()Ei.~
c/>LAO~EVOL) in Herm. sim. 9.27 .2. "Skillful in teaching" 1l'Epi. rwv olKELwv oVOE1l'OTE KaAw~ {3ovAEVO'ETaL 1l'Epi.
(OLOaKTLKO~ ) does not prove that the bishop had already TWV aAAorpLwv ). 25 As in Tit 1:6 the existence of the
assumed, as his regular duty, the office of teaching (but Christian family is presupposed.
see below the following excursus, section 1), but only • 6, 7 These mention specifically episcopal character-
that some capability in this regard was desired. The term istics, and therefore have probably been added to the
"skillful in teaching" (OLOaKTLKO~) is found in Philo traditional schema. They express the experience of the
(Congr. 35; Praem. Poen. 27), but both times it is used to Christian communities who, e.g., feel that the approval of
designate Abraham's OLOaKTLK~ apf:ri,, i.e., virtue those outside the congregation is desirable. 26 The term
attained by means of teaching. In 1 Tim it stands as one "newly baptized" (vEocpvro~ ) in non-Christian litera-
virtue among others, as it does in 2 Tim 2:24. ture has so far been attested only in its literal meaning,
• 4, 5 Cf. Pol. Phil. 11.2 : "For how may he who cannot "newly planted." 27 Even those who hold that the Pas-
attain self-control in these matters enjoin it on another?" torals are genuine would not, precisely because of this re-
(qui autem non potest se in his gubernare, quomodo alii quirement, date them too early in Paul's life. For in
pronunciat hoc?). Greek parenesis provides a precedent the first years of the m ission this commandment could
for drawing conclusions from a person's private life about not have been carried out. It is clear what the author
his qualifications for office. See !socrates, Ad Nicoclem 19 fears with respect to a newly IJaptized person becoming
(the text is not quite certain): "Manage the city as IJishop: "If he had been elevated for this purpose, namely,
you would your ancestral estate: in the matter of its to teach others, should he be puffed up at this ordina-

23 Here I disagree with Otto Bauernfeind, TDNT 4, care of" (7rpo'tuTauOat) see Dibelius, Thessalonicher,
pp. 936-41. Philipper, on 1 Thess 5:12.
24 Plato, Corg. 508a; Lucian, Bis accusatus 17; lnscr. 26 Cf. the requirements in 1 Thess 4: 12; 1 Cor 10:32;
Magn. 162.6 (cited above p. 46 on 1 Tim 2:9). Co14 :5 ; and the way in which these demands are
25 Cf. also Euphronius, Fragments 4 (3d ed., p . 320, taken into account, both here and in 1 Tim 5: 14 ;
Kock): "He who cannot manage his own life, how 6:1; T it 2:5, 8, 10; 1 Petr 2:12, 15; 3:1, 16; Ign.
can he help another person?" (o -yap Tov t&ov olKo- Eph. 10.1.
VOJ..LWV KaKws (31ov, 1rws o ~Tws il.v O"WO"ELE TWV €~w 27 The word is attested in the LXX; in Pollux 1.231
nva;) [trans. by Ed.]; Plutarch, Lycurg. 19 (52A): (p. 72, Bethe), according to whose testimony the
" to one who demanded the establishment of democ- word is found in Aristophanes; see Fragments 828
racy in the city: 'Go thou,' said he, 'and first estab- (1st ed., p. 581, Kock); in the papyri (BGU II, 563,
lish democracy in thy household' " (7rpos TOV a~L­ I 9.14.16; II 6.12; 565.11; 566.3) seeDeissmann,
OVVTa 7rOLE'iv 01JJ..LOKpaTLav l:v TV 7rOAEL. uv -yap, Bible Studies, 220f; Joachim Jeremias, Infant Baptism
Ec/JTJ, 7rpWTOS l:v TV olKLQ. uov 7rOL7]uov 01JJ..LOKpaTLav ). in the First Four Centuries, tr. David Cairns (Phila-
Further information is found in Helge Almqvist, delphia, Pa.: Westminster Press, 1961), 33 .
Plutarch und das Neue Testament; ein Beitrag <;urn Cor-
pus Hellenisticum Novi Testamenti (Uppsala : Appel-
berg, 1946), 125. On the term "to govern," "to take
53
tion, he will have no understanding of the great things" The Position of the Bishop in
the Pastoral Epistles
(si productus fuerit ad hoc ut alios ipse doceat, ab ipsa
ordinatione elatus magna desipiet) [trans. by Ed.]. 2 8 The evidence pertaining to the meaning of"bishop"
Noteworthy in what follows is the double mention of ( E7rtUK07rO'>) has been collected by Dibelius and supple-
the "devil" (OLCL{Jo'Ao-;, see Eph 4: 27). V 6 cannot refer mented by Lietzmann. 32 On the basis of this evidence
to a "slanderous person," for the following verse would it becomes clear that" bishop" was admittedly the title of
then add nothing new. Therefore here (and naturally an office in the pagan world; the word was nevertheless
also in v 7) the meaning "devil" is to be assumed. A not used to designate one and the same office in all
reference to a human slanderer is also excluded by 2 Tim instances. The mere title therefore tells us nothing in
2:25£. Therefore we must take "condemnation of the itself about the "bishop" in the Pastorals. The historical
devil" (KptJ.J.a rov OLa{Jb'Aov) as referring either to the problems with which the passage under discussion con-
judgment which Satan, whose office it is to accuse or to fronts the exegete may be summarized in two questions:
tempt, 29 speaks over the fallen neophyte, or to the 1. What are the duties of the "bishop"? 2. What is the
judgment under which the devil himself once came. 30 relationship between the designations "bishop" (E?rL-
But perhaps we have no right to make the alternat ives so UKO?rO'> ) and "elder," "presbyter" (7rpEu{Jvupo-;)?
distinct, since obviously one cannot differentiate clearly 1. It is often assumed (even in the 2d German ed. of the
between "condemnation" (KptJ.J.a) and "snare of the present work) that the function of the "bishops" in the
devil" (1ra-yi-; rov OLa{Jb'Aov). 1 Tim 6:9 shows that the earliest times was primarily economic, having to do with
term "the snare" or "the devil's snare," could occur the care of the poor and perhaps also with the cult and
in edifying language without having a very exact sense. the correspondence of the congregation. The arguments
The mythological sense had long since faded. 31 "Fall into for this assumption are as follows: a) it was precisely
a snare" (EJ.J.7rt7rTELll El-; 1ra-yl.oa) is a common expres- within this circle of duties that the free activity of the
sion (Pr 12:13; Sir 9:3; Tob 14:10f). The Manual of charismatic gifts had to yield to the orderly efficiency of
Discipline shows how widely it was disseminated . During chosen functionaries (cf. the account in Acts 6). b) The
the initiation the priest and the Levites say: "Cursed parallelism of the "bishops" (E7r LUK07rOL) and the "dea-
be he when he passes, together with the idols of his heart, cons" (OLCLKOIIOL)-the latter doubtless had their duties in
who enters into this covenant putting before himself the these areas- 33 makes it possible that the bishops were
snares (?nv.:Jo) that cause him to fall into iniquity and to economic functionaries of the congregatiOn. c) In the
turn away from God .... the snare that causes him Greek associations the title "bishop" was also used to refer
to stumble into sin! May he place his lot among the to the financial officers; see the inscription 34 according
eternally damned" (1 QS II, 11f, 17) [trans. adapted to which the bishops Dion and Maleiptos are requested to
from Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings, p. 75]. Cf. also invest the money collected, at interest. Note also that
the Damascus Document: "These are Belial's three nets Symmachus 35 calls the financial officers (ro?r apxaL),
(m,1:1:o) .. . the first is lust, the second is riches, (and) the who are mentioned in Gen 41:34 (LXX), "bishops"
third is defilement of the Sanctuary." (CD IV, 15.17£). (E7rLUK07rOL ). For this reason Hatch stresses the technical

28 Theodore ofMopsuestia (II, p. 113, Swete) . 31 With regard to the mythological sense, see Isidor
29 See Dibelius, Geisterwelt, 38. Scheftelowitz, Das Schlingen- und Netzmotiv im Glau-
30 Theodore of Mopsuestia (II, p. 113, Swete): "But ben und Braucl: der Viilker (Giessen: A. Tiipelmann,
if he vainly pride himself because of the aspect of 1912),11.
teacher that has been laid upon him, he will seem 32 Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, excursus on Phil
in no way to differ from the devil, who, appointed a 1:1; Hans Lietzmann, "Zur altchristlichen Ver-
servant of God, strove to understand on his own fassungsgeschichte," ,ZWTh 55 (1914): 97- 153.
what things are great, usurping for himself both the 33 This is shown both here and Phil 1 :1 ; see also Rom
name and the office of God" (vane vero extollens se 12:7 and Lietzmann-Ktimmel, Korinther, on 1 Cor
propter inpositam magisterii speciem, nihil differre 16:15. We might also perhaps include the mention
videbitur diabolo, qui minister Dei creatus quae of both in the preface to Phil (with regard to sending
magna de se sapere est adnisus, Dei sibi adsciscens et money); see Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper,
nomen et honorem) [trans. by Ed.]. on Phil1: 1. Finally, cf. the description in Herm. sim .
54
 The Position of the Bishop 1 Timothy 3:7

character of the "episcopal office," in contrast to the with it (1 Tim 3 and Tit 1). The man described here-
charismatic and patriarchal offices, and illustrates this albeit in the usual moralizing way-is no welfare agent
with examples from the Greek societies. 36 The question or treasurer, but a significant representative of the con-
is, however, how much we can infer from the economic gregation, even to the outside world (see 1 Tim 3: 7).
functions, which were doubtless present, as to the concept If the later position of the monarchical bishop rests
and the development of the Christian episcopate as von upon the multiplicity of economic, authoritative, and
Campenhausen has argued. 37 H e does not deny the pastoral functions, the third group, especially the cultic
economic duties , but the essence of the episcopal office is duties , is less prominent in the Pastorals. The "pastoral"
not determined by these duties. Rather a sharp distinc- teaching activity is clearly desired in Tit 1:9 and also
tion is made between two basic forms of early Christian recommended in 1 Tim 3:2. But since, according to
church constitution: the Pauline episcopal-diaconate 1 Tim 2:2, the teaching office is still carried on charis-
constitution and the non-Pauline presbyterial constitu- matically, teaching cannot be presupposed as a special
tion. The consolidation took place in three types: Rome- function of the bishop. 39
First Epistle of Clement; Syria-Ignatius of Antioch; What we find here is apparently a stage of develop-
Asia Minor-Pastoral Epistles. ment which is also visible in Did. 15.1: "Appoint there-
To what extent, therefore , does the office of the bishop fore for yourselves bishops and deacons, worthy of the
imply a position of authority according to the Pastorals? ' Lord ... for they also minister to you the ministry of the
The solution of the problem is made more difficult by prophets and teachers" (XELporov~uan ouv tavro'i<;
> !. \ ~ !. l.tl ~ I < ~
the fact that the character of the episcopacy in 1 Tim 3 E7rLCTKU7rOV<; KaL uLaKuliOV<; a.c;;LOV<; TOV KVpLOV ... VJ.LLII
and Tit is not described but taken for granted, further- "(0.p AELTOVp"(OVCTL Kai. avroi. 7'~11 AELTOVp"(Lav TWII
more by the fact that the verbs in question can vary 7rpocf>TJTWV Kai. OLOaCTKaXwv). According to this, to be
in meaning between "undertake responsibility for wel- sure, the bishops do teach, but "prophets" and "teach-
fare" and "hold the chief office, the office of the director." ers" still engage in this activity; cf. also Eph. 4:11 where
In the case of the verb "to govern" (7rpo'turaaBat), the individual congregation has its "pastors" (7rOLJ.LEVE<;),
this double meaning is attested in 1 Thess 5:12 (cf. the but also-apparently in addition to these-its "teachers"
verb 1rpouran'iv); "to take care" (E7rLp.EAE'iuOat) (otoauKaAot).
could mean "to hold the office of a caretaker" (E7rL- 2. The relation between "bishop" (E7rLCTK07ro<;) and
J.UATJT~<;)."38 Despite the uncertainty in our under- "presbyter" (7rpEu(3vrEpo<;) in the Pastoral Epistles
standing, the text of the Pastoral Epistles, nevertheless, seems all the more problematic, since the questions relat-
allows one to assume a certain authori~y of the bishop. For ing to the Pastorals' unity and purpose are connected
only on the premise of such a position of authority is with this problem. From the present text of the Pastorals
it possible to explain the role accorded the bishop in Tit 1 the following observations can be made: a) mention is
in combatting heresy. That the episcopal office was made, on the one hand, of "presbyters" (1 Tim 5:1, 17;
accorded a high significance can also be inferred from Tit 1: 5) and, on the other hand, of"bishops" and "dea-
the fact that such a detailed list of virtues was associated cons" (1 Tim 3: 1ff; Tit 1 :7ff). But where the author

9.27.2: "and the bishops ever ceaselessly shelter the Hatch-;Harnack position by von Campenhausen,
destitute and the widows by their ministration" &clesiastical Authority, esp. pp. 65ff, 73f, 81f, and 85 .
(olliE f.7rtCTKo7ro' 1ravrorE rovs vurEpTfp.l:vous Ka£ 38 The "caretaker" (E7r'J.LE'XTJT~S) is the equivalent of
nl.s x~pas TV {j,aKOPtQ. ~aUTWP cili,aXEL'IrTWS ECTKE- the "bishop" (E7rtCTK07ros) in the Greek societies,
'IraCTaP). as Hatch, Organization, demonstrates.
34 IG 12.3.329; it is quoted in Dibelius, Thessalonicher, 39 This is true despite the strong emphasis upon the
Philipper, in the excursus to Phill.l, and in Lietz- bishop's task of supervising the teachers. See von
mann- Kummel, Korinther, Appendix 6. Campenhausen, &clesiastical Authority, 109f.
35 Cited in Origen, Hexapla (I, 59, Field).
36 Edwin Hatch, The Organization rif the Early Christian
Churches (London and New York: Longmans, Green
& Co., 4 1892).
37 cr. the wide-ranging fundamental criticism of the
55
speaks of the latter he does not speak of the former, and members of the presbytery after their appointment as
conversely; there is no mention of a structure of the bishops.
congregation in three hierarchically arranged offices. 40 Analogies for such a combination of administrative and
b) It seems at first that "presbyter" and "bishop" may patriarchal-organization are known from the culture of
refer to the same function; for 1 Tim 5:17 attributes that time. In civic assemblies of the Roman world the
the function "to govern" the church (1rpocrrfjvaL) to the government officials had ex officio votes, even the chair-
presbyter, whereas 1 Tim 3:5 ascribes the same function manship, but only during their years of office. 42 In Egypt
to the bishop; and "bishop" in Tit 1:7 is clearly con- the terms "president of the assembly" ( apXLCTVVO.')'W-
nected to the mention of the "presbyters" in Tit 1:5. But ')'0~)43 and "leader" (1rpocrrarq~) were occasionally
one important fact speaks against this conclusion; used to refer to the same person. 44 The "priests" (sacer-
hamely, "bishop" (E7rtCTK07ro~) is always used in the dotes) of Mithra were chosen, in part, from the circle
singular. of the "fathers" (patres). 45
There are two ways of resolving these contradictions: Provided there is a similar situation in the Pastorals,
The first is to see in the" bishop" (E7rtCTK07rO~) of the we would have to understand the "presiding presbyters"
Pastoral Epistles the monarchical bishop of later times. ( 1rpoEcrrwn~ 7rpEcr{JvnpoL) in 1 Tim 5:17 as 7rpEcr{Jv-
In that case, however, since there is no further mention of npoL E7rLCTK07rOUVTE~; that is, presbyters who, in addi-
the monarchical episcopate in the Pastorals, one must tion to the patriarchal position which they hold, also
assume that the passages in question (i.e., 1 Tim 3:1-13 exercise the administrative function of the "bishop"
and Tit 1 :7-9) are later interpolations. Such hypotheses ( E7rtCTK07rO~). Tit 1: 5, 7 would then mean that every
are more acceptable in principle for congregational presbyter must also be qualified to take over the "office of
regulations like the Pastoral Epistles, which could be the bishop" (E7rLCTK07r~ ). Perhaps there was only one
varied according to the changing needs of the times, than from the circle of presbyters who was to become bishop.
for actual letters. Moreover the assumption of an inter- This would explain the use of the word "bishop" in the
polation is not unfounded here, because 1 Tim 3: 14f singular. The strange interchange of"presbyter" and
logically continues the last verse before such an assumed "bishop" in Tit 1:5, 7 could then be explained by the
interpolation (2: 15), and Tit 1:10 would follow well thesis that Tit 1 :7ff (like 1 Tim 3:2ff) came from a tradi-
upon 1:6. On the other hand, the literary type of this tional regulation which only spoke of"the bishop." At
parenesis and the use of traditional material make it easy any rate, there could also have been, in addition to the
to see literary seams where none exist, or where a form- "presiding presbyters" (1r pEcr{JvnpoL 1r poEcrrwTE~),
critical explanation is appropriate. Thus we are left other presbyters who never became bishops. The rela-
with the second option for resolving the contradiction, tions among the various types of office may not have been
which is to explain the passages about the bishop as parts uniform from one congregation to another.
of the original text of the Pastorals, and to take the That the expressions are used side by side in the same
singular generically. 41 One will then assume that the sense seems to be demonstrated, if not by Tit 1:5, 7, at
"bishops" were members of the presbytery, whether or least by Acts 20: 17, 28, as well as by 7 Clem . 42.4 and
not they were "elders" in their own right. That is, they 44:1 in comparison with 44.5 and 47.6. In any event, the
either came from the college of the "presbyters" (7rpEcr- identification of the two offices was one which gradually
{JvnpoL); see below pp. 77f the excursus to 1 Tim 5:17, developed, 46 not one which existed from the beginning.
or, in case they did not already belong, they became In all this, it must not be forgotten that the church or-

40 Von Campenhausen, &clesiastical Authority, 120f. Jorschung 2 (1902): 430, No.5(?) and 429, No. 2 :
41 Cf. the singular "presbyter" (7rpEu{3urEpos) in 1 Tim "Synhistor, who founded the assembly and was its
5:1, where plurals also follow. leader" (l;upLurwp uupa-y[w-y~uas] Kal 7rpoura-
42 See Hatch, Organization, pp. 86f, n . 13. r~uas) [trans. by Ed.].
43 The word is understood in a patriarchal sense, even 45 F . Cumont, "Mithras," in W. H. Roscher, ed ., Aus-
in the sense of the "founder of the society," see Franz fiihrliches Lexikon der griechisch-riimischen Mythologie
Poland, Geschichte des Griechischen Vereinswesens (Leip- (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1884-1937), vol. II, col.
zig: Teubner, 1909), 357. 3028-71.
44 Cf. the inscription found in the Archivfiir Papyrus- 46 Cf. also Clem. Alex., Quis div. salv. 42, where the
56
 The Position of the Bishop 1 Timothy 3 :7

der of the Pastorals actually impljes a monarchical head concerned, the disciple of the apostle is not primarily
in the position of the addressee, a position which as an the representative of a type of office, but rather the
"office" is just as much a fiction as the instructions for guarantor of the genuine tradition. Thus his position
this office given in the epistles. Are they historical to the cannot at a ll be defined in terms of ecclesiastical or-
extent that the disciple of the apostle in fact inherited ganisation (e.g., as something like the position of a
a certain rank? Note how Theodore of Mopsuestia (II, metropolitan). Although the tradition is strongly emp ha-
p. 121, Swete) tries to reconstruct the situation : "Those sized, there is no concept of succession, no extension of
who had the authority to ordain, who are now called the position of the addressee into the present. 4 7
bishops, did not belong to a single congregation, but had
authority over a whole province, and were called apos-
tles" (oi o~ r~v rov XELporove'iv E~ovuLav i\xovre~,
ot vvv ovof.J.a!:of.J.EVOL E7rtuKo1roL, ov f.'Lii~ EKKXrwLa~
"(LVOf.J.EVOL aXX' E7rapxLa~ oXTJ~ EcpEUTWTE~, rfi TWV
a7rouroXwv EKaXovvro 7rpOUTJ"(OpLQ. ) [trans. by
Ed .). To be sure, as far as the Pastoral Epistles are

same person is referred to as "bishop," "presbyter," Allenson, 1961 ); Richard Loewe, Ordnung in der
and "elder" (E1rLuKo7ros, 7rp~u{3vTEpos, and 7rp~CT­ Kirche im Lichte des Titus (G iltersloh : Der Rufer,
{3vTTJS ). 1947); Philippe- H enri M enoud, L' i:glise et les mi-
47 On the whole question, aside from commentaries nisteres selon leNT (Paris : Delachaux & Niestle,
and general works on primitive Christianity, see Olof 1949); Joseph Brosch, Charismen und ifmter in der Ur-
Linton, Das Problem der Urkirche in der neueren For- kirche (Bonn: Hanstein, 1951 ); von Campenhausen,
schung (Uppsala: Lundequist, 1932) ; Boltzmann, Ecclesiastical Authority; on the connection between the
Die Pastoralbriife, 190fr; Ernst Kuhl, Die Gemeinde- episcopal office and the mebaqqer of the Damascus
ordnung in den Pastoralbriifen (Berlin : Besser'sche sect cf., in addition to CD 13.7- 11 , now also 1 QS
Buchhandlung, 1885) ; Adolf von Harnack, The Con- VI, 11f.Joachimjeremias argues that there is a
stitution and Law of the Church in the First Two Cen- connection: J erusalem in the Time of J esus, tr. F. H .
turies, tr. F . L. Pogson, ed. H. D . A. Major (New and C. H. Cave (Phi ladelphia, Pa.: Fortress Press,
York : G . P. Putnam's Sons, 1910); Burnett Hillman 1969), 261£, and in his commentary ad loc. The fol-
Streeter, The Primitive Church (New York: Macmillan lowing scholars are against any connection: K . G .
Co., 1929); Heinz Wolfgang Beyer, TDNT, 2, pp. Goetzin .(NW30 (1931 ) : 89ff;cf. Beyer, TDNT2,
608-20; idem and Heinz Karpp, "Bischof," RAG II pp. 618f; Alfred Adam," Die Entstehung des Bi-
(1954), col. 394- 407; Karl Ludwig Schmidt, " Le schofsamtes," Wort und Dienst NF 5 (1957): 104ff. On
ministere et les minis teres dans I' Eglise du Nouveau the tendency in Catholic scholarship to identify
Testament," RHPR 17 (1937): 313- 36; Arthu r Cay- bishops and presbyters, cf. U. Holzmeister, "Si quis
ley Headlam and Friedrich Gerke in Roderic Dun- episcopatum desiderat" ; this position is modified
kerley and A. C . Headlam, ed., The Ministry and the in Spicq, pp. 91ff.
Sacraments (New York: Macmillan, 1937), 326ff;
E.]. Palmer, ibid., 768ff; Eduard Schweizer, Church
Order in the New Testament (Naperville, Ill. : Alec R.

57
 1 Timothy3:8-13

3 On Conduct of Deacons

8 Likewise the deacons $hould be honorable,

not double-tongued, not given to
immoderate enjoyment of wine, not
greedy, 9/ (people) who cherish the
mystery of faith with a pure conscience.
10/ They should first be tested, then
they should execute their duty, if they
are irreproachable. 11 I The women
likewise should be honorable, not slan-
derous, sober, reliable in everything.
12/ The deacons should be the husband
of one wife and govern their children
and their homes well.13/ For those who
perform their service well obtain for
themselves a good position and real
cheerfulness in the faith which is in Christ
Jesus.

On deacons; this too is a traditional list of duties (see Christians of good conscience (see above pp. 18ff, the ex-
above pp. SOf, the excursus to 1 Tim 3: 1-13). It is only cursus to 1: 5).
in v 9 that peculiarly Christian conditions relating spe- • 10 is rightly understood, not as a specific examina-
cifically to this office are named. tion, but as a more general evaluation. This is indicated
• 8 "Likewise" (wuavTW'>) is used to introduce a new above in the qualifications for the bishop in vss 6, 7, and
list; this is typical of the style of parenesis; cf. v 11 and here by means of the word "irreproachable" (av€')'-
the corresponding OfJ.OLW'I in 1 Petr 3: 1, 7. KATJTOL).
• 9 If one compares the use of"mystery" (fJ.U<TT~pwv) •11 The question whether the reference here is to
in 1 Cor 2:7; 4:1; 13:2; 14:2; 15:51; Coil :26f; 2:2; deaconesses, 4 or to the wives of deacons 5 can hardly be
4:3, one notices divergence of usage in 1 Tim 3:9. But answered with certainty. If the entire passage, including
one must also note that, already at an earlier time, in the 3: 12, 13, is taken as a list of duties for deacons, then v 11
Epistle to the Ephesians, "mystery" (fJ.V<TT~pwv) and refers perhaps to the wives. But one could also hold
other expressions of this type are used to refer to the that the author is speaking of the deaconesses before he
fundamental realities of the gospel and of the life of the mentions (in v 12) those duties which apply only to
congregation. 1 Moreover in the Pastorals still other male deacons. The uncertainty of the interpretation is
sublime and weighty words have become formulas for perhaps connected with the fact that the author did not
ordinary Christian community life. 2 Here one finds the sufficiently modify the traditional list of duties, so that
solution to the riddle of the formulaic use of such terms in the application to Christian circumstances did not
the language of the congregation. 3 Indeed, "mystery become completely clear. 6
offaith" (fJ.V<TT~pwv Tij'l 7rL<TTEW'> ) is almost the equiva- •12 See above at 3:2-5.
lent of the simple expression "faith" (7rL<TTL'> ). Despite • 13 "Position" ({3 a0!J.O'>) is used in the sense of"de-
the elaborate term, the sentence does not emphasize that gree" or "rank." 7 Also the stage in which one has
the deacons are of the Christian faith, but that they are obtained "gnosis" can be designated in this way and even

Cf. Dibelius- Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, 5 As Ambrosiaster, B. Weiss, von Soden, and Easton,
excursus on Eph 4 : 16; Lohse, Colossians, Philemon, on ad loc., believe.
Col1:26. 6 See above pp. SOf, the excursus to 3:1 - 13; Karl Wei-
2 See above p . 41 on 1 Tim 2:4. dinger, Die Haustafeln: Ein Stiick urchristlicher Parii-
3 "Like a phrase that has been snatched up," Frie- nese, Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 14
drich Schleiermacher, Sendschreiben, 101. (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1928), pp. 69f.
4 As Theodoret, Theodore ofMopsuestia, Holtzmann, 7 See IG, II 243.16 on the rank of the office; P. Masp.
Wohlenberg, Lock, and Spicq, ad loc., hold. 67.169. 10 on the degree of relationship.

58
 1 Timothy3:8-13

one stage in the journey of the soul into heaven. 8 The sentence. For this reason the simplest explanation is to
meaning of the word in each instance can only be defined understand only the second promise ("real cheerfulness")
according to the context. The parallel "true cheerfulness" in a religious sense, and the first ("good position") as
( 7roXX~v 7rapprw[av) would point to a rank in the referring to reputation within the congregation. 10 Per-
kingdom of heaven, rather than to a promotion to the haps the author was trying to emphasize something that
rank of bishop. 9 However, in that case the term "posi- would form a contrast to service. 11
tion" ({3a8p.6~) would perhaps appear at the end of the

8 On the former see Clem. Alex., Strom . (II, 45.4, Erik Peterson, "Zur Bedeutungsgeschichte von
Stahlin); on the latter, Corp. Herm. 13.9. 1rapprwLa" in Reinhold-Seeberg-Festschrift 1: .(ur
9 Theodore of Mopsuestia and Theodoret, ad loc . Theorie des Christentums, ed. Wilhelm Koepp (Leip-
I 0 The latter meaning is similar to the meaning of" to zig: A. Deichertsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1929),
win glory" (KAEO~ 7rEpt7rotliq8at) in 1 Clem. 54.3 and 283-97.
of"honor" (Ttf..L~II) in Herm. mand. 4.4.2.
11 Cf. Mark 10:43 and parallels, which is also cited in
the section dealing with deacons in Didasc. 16 (p. 86,
Flemming). On "cheerfulness" (1rapprwLa) see

59
 1 Timothy 3:14- 16

3 Word Concerning the

Church

14 (All) this I am writing to you in the hope of

coming to you soon; 15/ but in case I
am delayed, you should (at least) know
how one ought to conduct one's life
in the household of God; that is the
church of the living God, the support
and fortress of the truth. 16/ And most
certainly great is the mystery of (our)
religion:
"(who) was revealed in the flesh-
vindicated in the spirit
made manifest to the angelic powers-
preached among the nations
believed in the world-
lifted up in glory."

This is a transitional passage. It does not intend primarily liturgical language, possibly of a Hellenistic-Jewish
to picture the situation of the writing of this epistle out Christian type: "house of God" is the community as it is
of a romantic biographical interest in the apostle's person. gathered together. 5 There is no development of the
Rather, the aim of the passage is to present the concept symbolism of "building" (despite the second half of the
of tradition. In 1 Tim 1:15 the apostle functioned as a verse). On the contrary, one can understand in retrospect
model for conversion. In 1:18-20 he authorized the why the author impressed upon his church order a cer-
controversy over the true teaching; in 2:7 he appeared tain pattern of rules for the household. Above all, the
as guarantor of the tradition; here his "testament" statement about the "church of God" (EKKXrwLa 8eov)
(4:1ff) is introduced, i.e. the church is prepared for the has a liturgical ring which is obvious in the phrase
post-apostolic per:iod. The basis for this testament is a "living God" and in the motif of the church's founda-
liturgical piece, which thus appears as apostolic tra- tion. 6 The image in v 15a is not carried further in 15b,
dition.1 but rather rep laced by a new one. It is clear that common
•14 "Soon" (nlxwv) is a colloquial term. 2 expressions are being used. "Support" (urDXo5), usually
•15 On "household of God" (olKo5 Oeov), Adolf meaning "pillar," has in Sir 36:29 (26) 7 the more general
Wilhelm 3 has demonstrated that "house" (olKo5), in- meaning "foundation," which is to be accepted here
stead of referring to the meeting place, can also be used because of the parallel "fortress" ( EopaLw~J.a ). On
to refer to the assembly itself, and hence to a religious "fortress of truth" (EopaLWIJ.a T~5 aXrJ0t:La5), cf. 1 QS v ,
community. 4 But for the meaning of the term, the NT Sf:" . . . in order to lay a foundation of truth for Israel ,
parallels point to another context; namely that of fixed for the Community of the everlasting covenant; that

On the artificiality of the situation see above p. 3, note).

the excursus to 1:3 and the Introduction (above 5 Cf. 1 Petr 4:17 (compare with 2:5); Heb 3:6; Ernst
pp. 15f). Kasemann, Das wandernde Gottesvolk, 109.
2 See Walter Bauer, Das Johannesevangelium erkliirt, 6 Cf. below, p. 112, on 2 Tim 2: 19 where similar dic-
HNT 6 (Til bingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck), tion occurs. On the imagery of building see Dibe-
3 1933), on john 13 :27; F. Blass and A. Debrunner, lius- Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, on Eph
A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and other Early 2:20; Philipp Vielhauer, Oikodome (Karlsruhe-
Christian Literature, tr. and rev. Robert W. Funk Durlach: G. Tron, 1940);]. Pfammatter, "Die
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961 ), 244, Kirche als Bau," Analecta Gregoriana 110 (1960):
1. 124ft'.
3 Beitriige ,c;ur griechischen Inschriftenkunde (Wien: A. 7 It is used in parallelism with "support" ({3o7}005);
Holder, 1909). cf. Gal 2:9 and 1 Clem 5.2; cf. also Heinrich Schlier,
4 lnscr. Magn. 94.5ff: "because of his virtue and the Christus und die Kirche im Epheserbrief, Beitrage zur
goodwill which he continuously displays toward the historischen Theologie (Til bingen: J. C. B. Mohr
holy community and the public" (6.perfj5 fJJEKEJJ KO.t fPaul Siebeck), 1930), 6, 30, 50f, 72.
EtwoLo.5 [~" EX]WP lho. TEAE't EL5 TE r(w oCKoJJ r(w
iEp(w KO.L ro[v OfjJ.LOV]) [trans. by Ed.]. Further illus-
trations in Wilhelm, Beitriige (see the preceding foot-
60
 1 Timothy 3:14-16

they may atone for all who are volunteers for the holiness from a hymn, and not, e.g., from a confessional formula, ts
of Aaron and for the House of truth in Israel." [Trans. is indicated by the comprehensive content and the
Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings, p. 83]. 8 From the hymnodic style, which can be compared with Odes of Sol.
liturgy it becomes understandable that the celebration 19.10ff: "10 And she brought forth a man, by (God's)
not only takes place in the church, but that the church will: (Or, of her own will) and she brought (him) forth
itself is also being praised. 9 This change is inaugurated by with demonstration and acquired (him) with great
the concept that the tradition is expressed and exercised dignity; 11 and loved (him) in majesty." (ws av0pW1T'OII
in the liturgy. This context is important in any con- ETEKEV EKovua Kat E"fEVVTJUEv Ell 7rpo0vJ,J.Lfl. Kat EKTf]-
sideration of the "moralism" of the Pastoral Epistles. uaro Ell ovvaJ,J.EL 1rof..t..fj Kat ~"{Ct1T'TJUEV Ell 1rpovoLfl. Kat
What follows, with its characteristic use of the word t
E'f'VI\at;EII
',!_''\ ' E1T'LELKELfl.
Ell ' ' KaL' 7rapEUT7JUEII
' ' j.J.E"{ai\ELO-
Ell '\ ,
"mystery" (J,J.vurf]pLOv), 10 also corresponds to this TTJTL) . 16 On the basis of this poetic style with its paral-
concept. lelism, we are also able to explain the otherwise puzzling
•16 "Mysteryofreligion" (J,J.vurf]pLOv T~S EVUE{3das) passive form "believed" (E1T'LUTEV0TJ). Dg. 11.3 seems
is practically synonymous with "mystery offaith" (J,J.v- to be influenced by the passage under discussion or by the
urf]pLOv T~S 1T'tUTEws) in 3:9, see above. The term here hymn cited here: "that He might be manifested to the
designates the core of the message of salvation, as it is world; and He, being despised by the people [of the
outlined in the following poetic quotation. "Mystery" Jews], was, when preached by the apostles, believed on
(J,J.vurf]pLOv) refers to the hidden occurrence as well as to by the Gentiles." (tva KIJUj.J.ctJ ¢avfi, OS U7T'O Xaov an-
its proclamation. 11 It therefore appears in the context j.J.aUOELs' OHt a 1T'OUT6Xwv K7]pvx0ds' U1T'O E0vwv E7T'L-
of the epiphany Christology (hidden from of old-now UTEV07]) [Trans. from Alexander Roberts and James
revealed, viz. proclaimed). 12 The rationalistic character Donaldson ed., Ante-Nicene Christian Library, vo!. 1 (Edin-
of the teaching, which was noted above in the discus- burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1867-72)].
sion of 1 Tim 2:4, and the prominent occurrence of the The content of the fragment in its present form must
"mystery" correspond to one another. That the words are not be understood as a chronological list of "the facts
to be regarded as a quotation is indicated by the division of salvation." In that case "lifted up" (avEAf]J.J.¢0TJ)
into three rhythmically equal couplets; by the content, would have to come before "preached" (EKTJPVXOTJ) and
which goes far beyond the immediate context; and by the "believed" (E1T'LUTEV07]). Rather, the contrasts "flesh-
introduction with "most certainly" (OJ.J.OAO"(OVJ.J.EIIWS). 13
It is, in fact, only a fragment that is quoted here. 14 To
take one or several of the verbs as the main clause would
destroy the parallelism. That. the fragment was taken

8 See also CD III, 19; on the significance of this latter Norden, Agnostos Theos, 254ff.
passage see Nauck, Die Herkunjt, p. 28. 14 The variant reading "God" (0Eos, P \(r Sf pi) instead
9 There is a similar combination of motifs in Heb; cf. of"who" (os), is intended to establish it as an inde-
Kiisemann, Das wandernde Gottesvolk, passim . pendent piece. The reading "that" (o, D * 061lat)
10 At the same time, there is a reminder of the mystery tries to establish a connection to what has gone be-
of the confession; cf. Gunther Bornkamm, "Homo- fore.
logia," in Geschichte und Glaube 7, Gesammelte Auf- 15 Joseph Kroll, "Die christliche H ymnodik" in the
siitze 3 (Munchen: Chr. Kaiser, 1968), 140- 56. Verzeichnis der Vorlesungen an der Akademie zu Brauns-
11 Gunther Bornkamm, TDNT 4, p. 820ff. berg Sommer 7921-sommer 1925 (Konigsberg and
12 Cf. Rom 16:25f; Colt :26; Eph 1:9 and 3:9f. Braunsberg: Bender's Buchhandlung, 1921 ), 16,
13 D* reads "we confess that" (OJ.I.OAO')'OVJ.I.EII ws). On tries to make the case for a confessional formula,
OJ.I.OAO')'OUJ.I.EIIWS see josephus, Ant. 1.180; 2.229. as does Walter Bauer, Der Wortgottesdienst der iiltesten
This passage has been pointed out by Alfred See- Christen (Tubingen: J. C . B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck),
berg, Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit (Leipzig: A. 1930), 59.
Deichert, 2 1913; reprint 1966), 113, n. 2. On the 16 [Trans. by Harris-Mingana, The Odes and Psalms of
Stoic usage cf. Bornkamm, "Homologia," 151ff; see, Solomon.] The Greek text is that of the retroversion by
e.g. Epict., Diss. 3.1.5. On the connection with a Hugo Gressmann, in his review ofJ. Laboust and P.
relative particle and on the style of the fragment, cf. Batiffol's Les Odes de Salomon, ZDMG 65 (1 911): 852.
61
spirit" (crap~-7rVEVJJ.a), "world-glory" (KOCTJJ.os-Ob~a) 17 in the Corp. Herm . 13.9: "See how it punished injustice
demonstrate clearly that the corresponding "angelic without a trial. We have been justified [exalted], 0 my
powers-nations" (a)')'EAOL-€0vrJ) is intended to rep- child, now that injustice is no longer there" (xwpis -yap
resent the same contrast between the heavenly and the I
KpLC1EW5 1~\
LUE ~~ I
1rW5 TrJV auLKLaV
n \ '1:''>
Et;rJI\aCTEV. ~~ '0 rJ-
EuLKaLW
earthly world: angels-man (the latter here designated by fJ.EV, WTfKVOV, aDLKtas a7rOVC1rJ5) [Trans.). 20

the missionary term "nations," "pagans" [€0vrJ]). It is then no longer surprising that the victory of the
The two problematic expressions "vindicated in the redeemer is also designated by "vindicated," or "justi-
spirit" (tOLKaLw0rJ tv 7rVEVJJ.aTL) and "made manifest fied." In this usage it occurs in the Odes of Sol. 31.5: "And
to angelic powers" (wcpOrJ a)')'fAOLS) must be inter- his face wasjustified;/For thus His Holy Father had given
preted on this basis. The first of these expressions is to Him." 21 Therefore "vindicated" refers to the exalta-
clearly a paraphrase for the exaltation into the sphere of tion of Jesus. 22 The exaltation was frequently represented
the "spirit" (7rVEVJJ.a), as is indicated in a very similar as the triumph over the world of the spirits. 23
manner in Rom 1:4. 18 The correspondence "in the That triumph is expressed in the next statement "made
flesh-in the spirit" excludes the possibility of under- manifest to angelic powers." Cf. Asc. Ira. 11.23: "and
standing "in" (tv) in an instrumental sense ("through"). he was in the firmament, but he had not changed to their
The phrases speak about realms of being. That the pro- form; and all the angels of the firmament and the Satan
cess is designated by "vindicated" (oLKawvcrOaL) shows saw him, and they worshipped him;" cf. 11.25, 26.2 4
a use of the word which in no way corresponds to the That this conception of the epiphany before semi-divine
usual usage in Paul. A parallel is Ign. Phld. 8.2: "I want beings for the purpose of exaltation is found in the
to be vindicated in your prayer" (0fAW Ell rfj 7rpOCTEUXfi thought of other religions is shown by Virgil, Ecloge 4.15f:
UJJ.WV OLKaLwO~vaL) [trans. by Ed.] where the last "(he) shall see heroes mingled with gods, and shall him-
word has approximately the meaning of "to attain to self be seen of them" (divisque videbit/permixtos heroas
God" (OEov E7rLTUXELV). 1 9 Therefore, "vindicated" or et ipse videbitur illis) . 25 Such passages as Eph 2:6f; 3:9ff,
"justified" (oLKawvcrOaL) does not refer to the forgive- show how well established this formal presentation of
ness of sins, but rather to the entrance into the divine the exalted person was in the nexus of motifs surrounding
realm, the realm of"righteousness" (OLKawcrvvrJ). In cosmic exaltation. One also finds here an elaborate
this sense the word is also found in the mystery of rebirth epiphany schema (see above) together with the desig-

17 oo~a refers here to the heavenly "glory" (,l::l:l) and the "Great Hymn" to Osiris: "0 brave one, 0 justi-
thus has almost a special meaning. fied one!" See Eduard Norden, Die Geburt des Kindes
18 It is further described in Phil 2: 9ff and Col 2:15; cf. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1924; reprint 1958), 124.
A. Klopper, "Zur Christologie der Pastoralbriefe 23 Cf. Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on Phil2:9f;
(1 Tim 3,16)," ,ZWTh 45 {1902): 347-61; Lohse, Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, and
Colossians, Philemon, on Col2:15. Lohse, Colossians, Philemon, on Col2:15. Somewhat
19 Heinrich Schlier, Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen diffen:nt is the explanation in Eduard Schweizer,
zu den Ignatiusbriefen, BZNW 8 (Giessen: Topel- Erniedrigung und Erhiihung bei Jesus und seinen Nach-
mann, 1929), 171. folgern (Zurich: Zwingli-Verlag, 1955), p. 64, n.
20 On this passage see Reitzenstein, Mysterienreligionen, 273 (only partially tr. in Lordship and Discipleship,
257f. p. 65, n. 2).
21 [Trans. Harris-Mingana]. See also Odes of Sol. 17.2, 24 Trans. by J. Flemming and H. Duensing, in Edgar
25.12 and 29.5, referring to the redeemer or there- Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha, 3d ed. Wilhelm
deemed; cf. RudolfBultmann "Die Bedeutung der Schneemelcher, tr. and ed. R. MeL. Wilson (Phila-
neuerschlossenen mandaischen und manichaischen delphia, Pa.: Westminster Press, 1965), val. 2, p.
Quellen fur das Verstandnis desJohannesevangeli- 662; see also Dibelius, Geisterwelt, 178ff.
ums," ,ZNW 24 (1925): 128ff {reprinted in Exegetica, 25 On this passage see Norden, Geburt des Kindes, 127£.
ed. by Erich Dinkier [Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr {Paul Further, cf.J. A. Festugiere, ed., Hermes Trismegiste 3
Siebeck), 1967), 55ff); cf. also RudolfBultmann, (Paris: I' Association Guillaume Bude, 1953), pp.
The Gospel of John, tr. G. R. Beasley-Murray (Ox- 137ff; Schweizer, Erniedrigung und Erhiihung, p. 64,
ford: Blackwell, 1971), on John 16:8. n. 274.
22 Possibly, this can also be compared with the greeting
to Horus at his entrance into the heavenly hall in
62
 1 Timothy 3:16

nation of the church as bearer of the announcement sarily belong to the epiphany schema as an essential
(cf. also Heb 1). In contrast to Phil2: 6ff, it is not the element, but is by nature eas ily combined with it . 2 7 How
death which is marked as the turning point, nor is the should the outline of the fragment be understood ?
contrast between humiliation and exaltation accentuated. Jeremias, ad lac., explains the whole passage as a hymn
The juxtapositions seem rather to emphasize the uni- that describes the ascension to the throne . Thus he
versality of this event throughout all (cosmic) regions. arrives at a unified conception, even structurally: 1. ex-
But the contrast between the world above and the world altation 2. presentation 3. enthronement, each before
below is not further elaborated. The epiphany appears as the earthly and the heavenly world (in chiastic struc-
a unified process, although it is divided into stages which ture). 28 At any rate, proclamation and faith itself are in-
begin with birth. 26 This is also the case in the related cluded in the salvation event (cf. Tit 1 : 3f and Ign. Eph.
passage, Ign. Eph. 19 (hence the uncertainty as to 19.1: "mysteries of a 'cry' " [.L.W<TT~pLa "Kp aU')'~s- "] ). 29
whether the signs of the incarnation or of the ascension Note the combination of the two in Ignatius and in the
are of primary importance). The use of the aorist passive Odes of Sol. (e.g., 41.1 Off, cit. above at 1 Tim 2: 5). 30
for the description of this event is also characteristic of
this hymnic style, in this case used without any change
(cf. on the other hand the change of subject between
Phil2 :8 and 9 !).
Some questions are still left open: Is the preexistence of
the redeemer presupposed? This concept does not neces-

26 Albert Descamps, Lesjustes et Ia justice dans les evan- and its soteriological application, see Abramowski ,
giles et le christianisme primitif (Lou vain : Gembloux, "Der Christus der Salomooden," 44ff.
1950), 87, and Schweizer, Erniedrigung und Erhiihung, 30 On the poetic verse used here, cf. Karl Heinrich
63ff. Rengstorf, Die Auferstehung J esu (Witten, Ruhr:
27 On this question see Windisch, "Zur Christologie," Luther-Verlag, 4 1960) , 125ff; Eduard Schweizer,
222. "New Testament Creeds Compared," Neotestamen-
28 Yet cf. the analysis by Schweizer, Erniedrigung und tica (Zurich: Zwingli Verlag·, 1963), 122ff.
Erhiihung, 65, n . 280.
29 On the relation between the Christological statement

63
 1 Timothy 4:1-5

4 Concerning the False

Teaching

1 The spirit says explicitly that in future

times people will fall away from faith,
will adhere to spirits of error and
demonic teachings, 2/ based on deceit-
ful preaching by liars, who carry a brand
on their consciences; 3/ they forbid
marriage and (demand) abstinence from
foods, which God created to be received
with thanksgiving by all those who
have come to the faith and to the recog-
nition of the truth. 4/ For everything
that God created is good and none
(of it) is to be rejected which is received
with thanksgiving; 5/ for it is made
holy through God's word and prayer.

This is the only part of the epistle which deals systemat- brands the error as demonic; Paul also saw behind the
ically with the false teaching. It is true that formally activity of his opponents in Corinth the work of Satan. 3
vss 1-5 do not make the assertion that the error which The author accuses his opponents of concealing secret
was prophesied has now begun (in this respect it is sins behind their teaching (see the excursus below on
different from 2 Tim 3:1, 6). It only makes the demand 1 Tim 4:5, section 3b) . Since we are dealing with a topos
upon Timothy to continue the appropriation of the of heresy polemic, one must be cautious in drawing his-
prophecy. But the very fact that the mention of the false torical conclusions. 4
teaching is directly continued by its refutation ( 4: 3-5) • 3- 5 The question as to why in these verses the pro-
shows that the author regards it as a present danger. hibition offood only, and not of marriage, is contested,
If one believes that the epistle is not genuine and sees the can best be answered from the context. The author
epistolary form as secondary, one understands why the argues in terms of the theme of" bodily training" (UWJ.La-
polemic against the heretics appears in the future tense: TLK~ "(VJ.LvauLa ). There can be no question in light of
Paul only warned Timothy that such people would 1 Tim as to the author's positive position with regard to
come-those who come later, who actually experience marriage. Perhaps he is conscious of being closer to
them (i.e., the author's actual readers) should admit that the historical Paul on the question of food than on mar-
they were warned. With respect to the motifs of a "fare- riage (see Col2:21ffin comparison with 1 Cor 7:1, 7) . In
well address" found in this section, see below at 2 Tim Col 2: 22f the rejection of asceticism with regard to food
3: 1ff. is based upon purely rational grounds. In 1 Tim there is
"Explicitly" (PTJTW<s) is found in prophecies, see justin, also a cultic motif involved: "those who have come to the
Apol. 1.35.10; 63.10. What is meant is the "prophetic faith a nd to the recognition of truth" (1nuroL KaL E7rE-
spirit" (7rVEVJ.La 7rpOf/>TJTLKOV, see ibid. 1.63.1 0), which "(VWKOTH r~v Q.)\~(JEtav)-a self-designation of the
had prophesied the coming apostasy, e.g., in an apoca- Christians, (see 1 Tim 2:4 and Tit 1 :1)-accept food with
lypse.1 On the appearance of transgressors "at the end thanksgivings and thereby make it holy. Also in 1 Cor
of days" cf. 1 QpHab II, Sf. 2 The choice of the expression 10 :30 the prayer of thanksgiving is woven into the train of
"future times" (vuTEpoL KatpoL), not "last days" (Euxa- thought in a similar manner. Thus "word of God"
rat ~J.LEpat) is perhaps conditioned by the artificial (AO')'O<s 0Eov) is best understood as referring to table
futuristic nature of the passage (see above) . The author prayers using Biblical expressions. The cultic language of

1 See Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on 2 Thess 2:3. >.tvovTwv ) must be supplied to "abstinence"-liter-
2 The text is translated in Dupont-Sommer, Essene ally "to abstain" (<i1rExtu8at), see Blass- Debrunner,
Writings, p. 259. See Karl Elliger, Studien zum Haba- 479.2. On the issue see the excursus below on 1 Tim
lculc-Kommenlar vom Toten Meer, BHT 15 (Tubingen: 4:5.
J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck], 1953), pp. 168, 278f. 5 "Thanksgiving" (EuxaptuTLa) in vss 3, 4 is equiva-
3 See 2 Cor 4:4; 11:3, 13f and Dibelius, Geisterwelt, lent to "prayer" (EJITEV~ts) in v 5.
48ff and 63ff.
4 On the zeugma (ellipsis), in which "demand" (Kt-
64
 The "False Teachers" 1 Timothy 4:1-5

Judaism seems to play a great role, precisely in the Chris- of the Hellenistic age on antimateria listic grounds. It is,
tianity attested by the Pastoral Epistles (see above at therefore, no wonder that we meet the prohibition of
1: 17). Others interpret "the word of God" as the divine marriage in connection with Gnostic and semi- Gnostic
word of creation. 6 ideas. (Attestations for this view are given above, pp. 48f,
in the excursus to 2: 15). Evidence can be found, above
The "False Teachers" of the Pastoral Epistles a ll , in certain of the apocryphal Acts of the Apostles.
The passages in the Pastorals devoted to the controversy In the Acts of Paul 5 (Lipsius-Bonnet, 1, p. 238) Paul
with false teachers are as follows: 1 Tim 4: 1- 10; 2 Tim preaches the "word of God concerning continence and
3:1-9; Tit 1: 10- 16; 1 Tim 1:3-11; 6:3-5, 20f; 2 Tim resurrection" ('Ab"'(05 0EOV 7rEp/. f"'(Kpan[a5 Ka/. ava-
2:14, 23; 3:13; 4:3, 4; Tit 3:9-11; in addition to these are O'TiiO'EW5). Inch. 11 (ibid., p. 243) he urges the young
a few personal remarks in 1 Tim 1 : 19, 20; 2 Tim 1: 15 men and women not to marry (cf. a lso ch. 12 and see
and 2:16- 18. If all these sections are interpreted as below section 1c). That the preaching of the false teach-
referring to the same heresy, and a distinction is made ers concerns itself to a great extent with women seems
only between the seducers and the seduced, a compara - to be proved by 2 Tim 3: 6f in conjunction with 1 Tim
tively clear picture can be obtained. This interpretation is 5:13. 8
especially justified if one doubts the epistolary nature b) Abstinence from foods is attested here directly ; in
of the Pastorals, and assumes that all polemical state- 1 Tim 5:23 and Tit 1: 15, indirectly. It derives partly
ments of the three "epistles" actua lly refer to the same from the same motivations as the sexual asceticism , and
heretical movement. If on the other hand , an actua l partly from traditional ritual (Judaism!) and other
epistolary situation is presupposed, it is of course neces- customs. 9 This kind of continence can assume very di-
sary to assume that certain definite allusions are com- verse forms: fasting, 10 viz. taking very little food , 11
prehensible only to the addressees, and that every such abstention from wine (on the basis of 1 Tim 5:23 this is to
allusion refers to a special case of which we have no be assumed for the ascetics mentioned in the Pastorals),
knowledge. 7 and vegetarianism. 12 Most of the attestations are derived
1. If, however, one holds firmly to the unity of the depic- from the same sources mentioned above, section a.
tion of the heretics, the following characteristic features Incidentally, asceticism with regard to food is also a
emerge: a) the prohibition of marriage- in the passage characteristic of the Colossian syncretism (of a Judaizing
under discussion, and indirectly attested by the posi- Gnosticism!). 1 3
tive stress upon marriage in 1 Tim 2: 15 ; 5: 14; Tit 2:4. c) Enthusiasm, together with a spiritualizing of the
Such continence-practiced in many religions for the hope of resurrection, is also directly attested in 2 Tim
most diverse motives-was especially congenial for a man 2:18 (see below ad loc.). Also, thefact that the opponents

6 On the connection between eucharist and thanks- (Lipsius-Bonnet, 3, p. 106).

giving for the gifts of the creator, cf. Did. 10; see 11 Act. Thorn . 20 (Lipsius-Bonnet, 3, p. 131): one date
also Martin Dibelius, "Die Mahlgebete der Dida- every Sunday.
che," :(NW37 (1938): 32-41. 12 In regard to the last two, see Rom 14: 1ff and Lietz-
7 See Michaelis, Echtheitsfrage, who distinguishes mann, Riimer, excursus on Rom 14:1ff; compare
between the pagan agitators opposed in 1 Tim 4 and also the correction of the gospel tradition in the
insincere Christian missionaries in 2 Tim 3. Gospel of the Ebionites; see Hennecke-Schneemelcher
8 See Wendland, Hellenistische Kultur, 237; Knopf, 1, pp. 155f.
Das nachapostolische :(eitalter, 41 Of; Ernst von Dob- 13 Gunther Bornkamm, " Haresie des Kolosserbriefes,"
schiitz, Die urchristlichen Gemeinden (Leipzig : Hin- 139ff; Lohse, Colossians and Philemon, on Col 2:21 ff;
richs, 1902), 181 ff; Hans von Campenhausen, Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, ex-
"Early Christian Asceticism" in Tradition and Life in cursus on Col2 :23; Knopf, Das nachapostolische Zeit-
the Church : Essays and Lectures in Church History, tr. alter, 410ff; von Dobschiitz, Die urchristlichen Gemein-
A. V. Littledale (Philadelphia, Pa.: Fortress Press, den, 274ff.
1968), 90-122.
9 P. R. Arbesmann, Das Fasten bei den Griechen und
Romern (Giessen: Topelmann, 1929), 19ff.
10 Act. Pl. 23 (Lipsius-Bonnet, 1, p . 251); Act. Thorn. 5
65
are called "sorcerers" ('yo7Jns) and their teaching to identify the particular heresy attacked here with one of
"false gnosis" (2 Tim 3:13 and 1 Tim 6:20) is relevant the Gnostic sects known to us. For one thing, the style
here, in addition perhaps to what is said about myths and of polemic of the author does not permit a more precise
genealogies and about the "racking of one's brain" definition. As is shown in the commentary, the author
(trJT~um 1 Tim 1 :4; 4:7 ; 6:4; 2 Tim 4:4). All this frequently uses the same weapons with which the phi-
would mean that these spiritualists were proud of their losophers attacked the sophists. 17 It is questionable
relations to the heavenly world, but their self-assurance whether certain other passages may be justifiably inter-
was scandalous. One can see polemic against such en- preted as heresy polemics. Thus, for example, it is very
thusiasm also in the emphasis upon "reasonable teach- doubtful whether one can draw conclusions about the
ing" as well as upon the order of nature and that of Christological errors of heretics from formulations like
the congregation, including the offices and the "scrip- 1 Tim 2: Sf and 3:16. We are, after all, dealing with
tures" (2 Tim 3: 15). Tendencies toward emancipation traditional christological formulations. What is.char-
could be connected with such a spiritualized understand- acteristic is precisely the general way in which the confes-
ing of Christianity and with the high regard for virginity sion as such is used.
(see above section a). These tendencies can be assumed There are two possible ways of explaining why the
on the basis of 1 Tim 2: 11 ff. The Acts of Paul offer note- author's polemic did not designate a particular group
worthy parallels both to the emancipation (see above more clearly. The first is to deal with the problem histor-
p. 48, the excursus to 2: 15) and to spiritualizing tenden- ically: the author already "confronts a colorful repertory
cies. In the present Greek text of these Acts , Paul connects of disagreeable phenomena." 18 The second is to seek a
resurrection with chastity, while his false friends Demas literary solution: The author attempts to characterize his
and Hermogenes 14 say that the resurrection has already opponents as broadly as possible, in order to create an
occurred in our children. 15 In the Latin fragment from apologetic uademecum for all sorts of anti- Gnostic con-
Brescia, the latter reference is missing and Paul's only flicts . If one accepts the literary characterization of the
magica ars is described as "we will not rise into the life of Pastoral Epistles given in the Introduction of this com-
the resurrection unless we lead a pure life" (in resurrec- mentary, one will take the latter option. The forms which
tionem vitae non resurgemus nisi castam duxerimus the polemic takes correspond to a concept of heresy just
vitam) [Trans.) . 16 It is clear that the image of Paul being developed . 1 9
is dominated by semi-Gnostic tendencies in the Acts of 3a) The position of the false teachers with regard to
Paul, and by anti-Gnostic tendencies in the Pastoral Judaism and the Law is uncertain. A connection between
Epistles. the heretical movement attacked here and Judaism
2. A combination at that particular period in history of seems to be indicated especially by Tit 1 : 10, 14, as well
the three components outlined above, possibly originat- as by the fact that a syncretistic "Judaism" is also attested
ing in Asia Minor, and containing clearly Judaizing in Colossae, Magnesia and Philadelphia. 20 Admittedly
components must always be attributed to a kind of the passages in Ignatius (Mag. 8- 11; Phld. 5-8) are
Gnosticism (see 1 Tim 6:20) . However, it is impossible controversial. Ultimately, any asceticism relating to food

14 On Demas see 2 Tim 4:10; on Hermogenes, 2 Tim 19 See Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy, passim .
1:15. 20 On Colossae see Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser,
15 Act. Pl. 12, 14 (Lipsius- Bonnet, 1, pp. 244f.); butcf. Philemon; Lohse, Colossians and Philemon, on Col
below p. 112 on 2 Tim 2:18. 2:16ff; and Bornkamm, "Haresie des Kolosserbrie-
16 The fragment from Brescia can be found in Oskar fes." On Magnesia and Philadelphia, see Ign. Mag.
von Gebhardt, Die lateinischen Uberset<;ungen der Acta 8- 11 and Phld. 5-9.
Pauli et Theclae, TU 22, 2 (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1902),
p. 134; with regard to this fragment seeP. Corssen,
"Die Urgestalt der Paulusakten," ZNW 4 (1903):
41.
17 See above pp. 20f on 1 Tim 1 :6; and cf. 1 Tim 1 :4;
4:7f; 6:3f; 2 Tim 2:23; 3:13; 4:3f; Tit 3:9.
18 Von Harnack, Chronologie, 481.
66
 The "False Teachers" 1 Timothy 4:5

or any special sanctification of a day could be called bly either from their position regarding his own gospel, or
"Judaism" by the Christians. The connection of the from their particular type of piety. But in the Pastoral
Gnostics of the Pastorals with Judaism cannot, there- Epistles, there is no such derivation ; no grounds are
fore, be asserted without qualifications, but it is highly given for the accusation of bad conscience. Therefore, one
probable. should not infer from the Pastoral Epistles that the op-
b) The question oflibertinism is vigorously contested . ponents were men of bad faith, or masquerading sinners.
The catalogues of vices, 21 which are products of a literary There are indications 22 that the Gnostics tended to
convention, of course prove nothing in this connection. preach asceticism to women who had been sinners.
1 Tim 1:8 and 2 Tim 3:6 do not prove antinomianism . So Regarding these accusations, one must always bear in
there remain only the charges of demonic teachings mind that ethical reproaches belong to the style of
(1 Tim 4:9; 2 Tim 2:26), bad conscience (1 Tim 1 :19; polemic. 23
Tit 1: 16), evil (1 Tim 6: 5; 2 Tim 3: 13), defilement
(Tit 1 :15) and greed (1 Tim 6:5; Tit 1 :11). However,
even the spirited polemicist Paul, in accusing his op-
ponents, derived his reproaches clearly and demonstra-

21 See 1 Tim 1 : 9f (and pp. 22f above on this passage); passim. On the whole issue see Wilhelm Mangold,
6:4f; 2 Tim 3:2ff (except 3:5, see below, p. 1 16). Die lrrlehrer der Pastoralbriefe (Frankfurt : Volcker,
22 Such an indication is found , namely, in 2 Tim 3:6, 1856); AdolfHilgenfeld, "Die Hirtenbriefe des Pau-
seep. 116 below. lus neu untersucht," .(;WTh 40 (1897): 1-86; Lut-
23 On polemical style, see Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy, gert, lrrlehrer; Michaelis, Echtheitsjrage, 102ff.

67
 1 T i mothy 4:6-10

4 Instr uctions for Timot hy

6 If you instruct the brothers in th is way,

you will be a true servant of Christ
Jesus, (one) who is being reared by the
wo r ds of fait h and of the good teaching
of which you have become a follower.
7 / But r eject godless old w i ves' tales .
Conti nue to train y ourself i n piety.
8/ Fo r bod i ly t r aining is of litt le benefit,
but piety brings the greatest possible
benefits, fo r it prom ises life now and in
eternity. 9 / Th e word stands and is
worthy o f all recognition ; 10/ for that is
the goal of our toil and labor ; because
we have placed our hope in the livi ng
God, the Savior of all men , especi ally of
t hose who bel ieve.

• 6 The transitional passage which begins here (see tion, see above on 1 Tim 1: 15. The first phrase of v 8,
3: 14; 1: 18; 5:21) deals with the way Timothy should indeed, sounds a lmost like an aphorism . But the author
conduct himself. On "to be reared by" (E11TpEc/>t:u8at) might have intended the formula in v 9 to refer to v 10, a
with the dative, see Epict., Diss. 4.4.48: "reared by these phrase from Coil :29, which has already become tradi-
arguments" (rourot<; r o'i:<; Ot a'Ao-ytUJ..LOL<; EIITpEc/>OJ..LEIIO<;) tional for him (see below). The aphorism in v 8 is pos-
and josephus, Bell. 6.102: "You, a jew, who has been sibly meant as a polemic against Gnostic asceticism
o o
reared by the law" (u v 'Iovoa'i:o<; r o'i:<; IIOJ.LOt<; Evrpa- (provided that this first clause is not simply adduced for
cf>t:[<;). "The good teaching" (KaA~ OtOauKa'A[a) is here the sake of the second, but see above on 4: 3-5) . But it
equivalent to "the sound teaching" (v-yta[vovua OtOa- was doubtless originally directed against the physical
UKa'A[a) of 1 Tim 1:10. "To follow," "to be a fo llower" training (a UKTJUt<;) of athletes. In contrast to this, intel-
( 7rapaKoAov8t:'i:v) is used to designate the intellectual lectual activity, perhaps originally philosophy, was rec-
grasp of the teaching and is an important term in ommended as especially "useful." In its place, jews or
Epictetus. 1 Christians who used the motif may have substituted piety
• 7 On "myths" (J..LU8ov<;) see above on 1 :4. "Of old with its corresponding promise. Philosophers would use
women" (-ypawOHs): the image is found not infre- "it promises" (E7r a-y-yt:'AL a v EXHII) with reference to
quently in philosophical polemic. 2 Likewise "to train" what proceeds from virtue, viz. philosophy. 4
('YVJ..LllatHv) is used even in earlier parenesis to refer • 10 "For that is the goal" (EL<; r ouro) is perhaps best
to the soul; e.g., in I socrates and Pseudo- Isocrates. 3 taken as a reference to the content of v 8, to the "goal"
• 8, 9 The formula in v 9 can be a sign of a quota- (TEAO<;) of Christian "training" ('YVJ.Lllau [a); for after

See Epict., Diss. 1.7.33: "to fail to follow an argu- his soul" (wuT' oMEvi Twv aUKTJTwv ovTw 1rpou~KEt
ment, or demonstration , or sophism" (JJ.~ 7rapaKo- To uwJJ.a 'YVJJ.vat'Hv ws To'is {3autXEuut T~v 1/;vx~v
Xov8liv M-yctJ JJ.TJO' a1rood~Et JJ.TJOt uo4JLuJJ.an); T~l! EavTwv); Pseudo-lsocrates, Ad Demonicum 21:
cf. 2.24.19. "Train yourself in self- imposed toils, that you may
2 See Epict., Diss. 2.16.39: "lamentations of old be able to endure those which others impose upon
women" (-ypawv a7rOKAavJJ.aTa) [Loeb modified] you" ('YVJJ.Vat'E UEaVTOJ! 1rOJ!OtS EKOvuLots, 01f'WS av
and Strabo 1.2.3: "declare that poetry is an old ovvv Kai Tovs aKovuLovs v7rOJJ.EVEtv). Cf. also Epict.
wives' tale" (T~II 7rOt1]TtK~P -ypaWOTJ JJ.v8oA.o-yLaP Diss. 2.18.27 and 3.3.14.
a1ro4JaLvwv) [trans. by Ed.]; and Lucian, Philopseu- 4 Cf. Epict., Diss. 1.4.3 and 4.8.6. On the Cynic-Stoic
des 9: "your stories still remain old wives' fables" aversion to athletes see Eduard Norden, "In Var-
(En uot -ypawv JJ.V8ot n1 AE)'OfJ.EPa l:unv). ronis saturas Menippeas observationes selectae,"
3 See !socrates Ad Nicoclem 11 : "Therefore, no athlete Jahrbiicher fiir Classische Philologie, Supplementband
is so called upon to train his body as a king to train 18 (1892): 299f; Paul Wendland, Philo und die ky-
68
 1 Timothy 4:6-10

all "to train" ('YUJJ.IICtStLV) of v 7 is resumed by "our stood in a causative way: "it is the living God who makes
toil" (Ko7rd;JJJ.Ell). The last clause is then introduced by the promise of life (t7ra-y-ytXLa 5w~~) come true." The
"because" (on). The first clause reproduces Coil :29 juxtaposition of "all men" and "those who believe" is
(see above on 1: 1). But the tone is different. In the indicative for the position of a later generation. For Paul
Epistle to the Colossians, "for this toil ... "refers to the all men are, theoretically, capable of becoming believers.
character of the Pauline mission; here the "training" The Pastorals are reconciled to the fact that the faithful
("(UJJ.llaCTLa) of piety is intended, in which both Paul and represent only a portion of humanity. Thus the church is
Timothy participate. On "savior" (CTWT~p) see below not just a preliminary form of the kingdom of God but
(pp. lOOff), the excursus to 2 Tim 1:10. Here the word already its substitute.
seems to have an especially pregnant meaning, in which
the divine predicate "the Living One" (5"wv) is under-

nisch-stoische Diatribe in Paul Wendland and Otto Winter, 1909), 22; Dibelius, "Rom und die Chris-
Kern, Beitriige ;;ur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie ten," 195f; and the excursus in Spicq, 151ff (who
und Religion (Berlin: Reimer, 1895), 43f;Johannes directs attention to the jewish passages like 1 Mace
Geffken, Kynica und Verwandtes (Heidelberg: Carl 1 :14; 2 Mace 4:9f;Josephus, Ant. 15.267ff).

69
 1 Timothy 4:11-5:2

4 Timothy as Example

11 Thus you should preach and teach.12/ Let

no one be contemptuous of your youth;
rather. become an example to those
who believe. in word and in conduct, in
love. faith. and purity.13/ Until I come
(again). continue the reading aloud
(of the scriptures). the exhortation. the
teaching. 14/ Use the gift of grace that
is in you. which was imparted to you
through the word of the prophet, when
the elders laid (their) hands upon you.
15/ Practice this. occupy yourself with
these things, in order that your progress
may be visible to everyone. 16/ Take
pains with yourself and with the teach-
ing. hold on to these things I If you do
5 that, you will save yourself as well as
your hearers.
1 Do not rebuke an older man, but admonish
him as (one would) a father, younger
men as brothers. 2/ older women as
mothers. younger women as sisters. in
all propriety.

In 4:11, the exhortation to the leader of the congrega- ' '() HKa, IIOJJ.L'I'"~ W TE aVTOV<;
EKTE ' I Ka/\011
"\' V7r0UH'YJJ.a
• IJ: I
tion, which was begun in 4:6, is continued. The problem p.tp.~uauOat, Ditt. Or. I, 383.212ff) [trans. by Ed.]. The
here is the youth of the addressee (cf. Ign. Mag. 3.1 ). style of this inscription (triads) betrays its edifying
That this problem is raised does not argue against authen- character, which is quite distinct from the paradoxical
ticity, for the historic Timothy need not have been born way in which Paul uses the concept "example."
before 30 A.D. If the epistle is held to be inauthentic •14 This is a significant reference to Timothy's dignity.
on other grounds, one will interpret this passage as a Ordination has the status of a sacramental act, in which
general word to youthful officeholders in the congrega- not only the apostolic tradition, but also the grace of
tion; for example, those who carry out the functions the office is transferred. 2
named in v 13. 1
• 12 On "example" ( r{nroo;), cf. the inscription of The Laying on of Hands
Antiochus I ofCommagene: "I have set forth clearly an 1. The passage 4:14, together with 5:22 and 2 Tim 1:6, is
example of that religious observance, which a holy man evidence for the laying on of hands in primitive Chris-
gives the gods and his ancestors, for my children and tianity. Here, as elsewhere, the hand serves as the means
grandchildren, both in these ways and in many other of transferring power, be it upon the sick for healing, 3
ways, and I trust that they have a fine example to imi- upon the young, the weak, or the religiously impure for
tate" (r{nrov 8€ t:v l ut:~t:La-; , ~~~ (Jt:o'Lo; Kal. 1rPO'YOIIOt<; I the purpose of blessing (Mk 10: 13ff), or upon those
t:lucptpt:tll outov, E'YW 1ratul.v II EK'YOIIOt<; rt: EJJ.OL<; who did not have the Spirit for transmitting the Spirit. 4
Ep.cpav~ < t > I Kal. Ot' €rtpwv 1roXXwv Kal. I ota rovrwv 1 Tim 4: 14 and 2 Tim 1:6 surely belong to the last named

On the connection between the public reading of ence originally to the hand of a god?
scriptures and preaching, see Knopf, Lehre der Z,wiiif 4 Laying on of hands, not connected with baptism, oc-
Apostel, Clemensbrieje, on 2 Clem. 19 .1. curs in Acts 8: 17; during baptism: Acts 19:6 and
2 See von Campenhausen, Ecclesiastical Authority, 115f; Heb 6:2; at an installation: Acts 6 :6 and 13 : 3; and
Joachim Jeremias, "IlPEl:BTTEPION ausser- later, at the ceremony where penitents and heretics
christlich bezeugt," Z,NW48 (1957): 127-32. were received back into the church (the practice is
3 See Otto Weinreich, Aftike Heilungswunder (Giessen: illustrated by Didasc. 7 [p. 28, Flemming]).
Tiipelmann, 1909), 1 ff. In this case, was the refer-
70
 The Laying on of Hands 1 Timothy4:11-14

group. Timothy had been consecrated to his office, 5 historical, the latter as an adjustment to the "apostolic
which gives him authority over several congregations, by tradition." Since he considers the rise of church law
the laying on of hands. 6 It is characteristic of the relation an indication of priority, he arrives at the sequence:
between the pneumatic and legal elements in the con- 1 Tim, Tit, 2 Tim.
cept of office that, according to 1 Tim 1:18 and to this d) The divergence in the question of the laying on of
passage, it is a pronouncement of a prophet which hands is perhaps most easily explained from the character
designates the future bearers of the spirit. 7 One can con- of the letters: congregational regulations in 1 Tim and
ceive of the event by analogy with Acts 13:2, 3. There are Tit, a "testament" of the apostle in 2 Tim. If church
difficulties in interpreting the laying on of hands in 1 Tim regulations are recognized as the core of 1 Tim and Tit
5:22 (see below), since the context excludes neither a (see the Introduction), then 2 Tim may have been de-
reference to ordination nor the readmission of sinners. 8 signed to provide for these regulations (which were
2. The passages relating to the laying on of hands are supposed to appear under the name of Paul) a personal,
sometimes used to decide the question of the Pastorals' historical background. 2 Tim also serves to represent
order of composition. The following points are relevant to the ecclesiastical authority of Paul (1 Tim and Tit) at the
such an investigation: a) the epistolary situation of the same time as an ethical authority. In this way the typical
Pastorals. Yet this is significant only if we assume au- functions of the apostle in post-apostolic times are
thenticity. In that case the problem largely resolves itself brought together. For this reason 2 Tim contains so many
after we come to a decision about the situation of 2 Tim. 9 personal references, such as the emphasis upon Paul's
b) The attitude toward the opponents. The heretics suffering (see below on 2 Tim 1 : 8). Other elements of this
mentioned in 2 Tim (2: 17) are to be treated gently function of 2 Tim are: the provision of a supplementary
(2: 24ff). According to the Epistle to Titus (1: 13 and background for 1 Tim 1:20 in 2 Tim 2: 17 and possi-
3: 10), the opponents should be briefly refuted. But ac- bly 4: 14; the careful distinction between present and
cording to 1 Tim (1: 19f), those who in 2 Tim 2:17 and future; 11 and finally, the close connection of the "or-
4:14 are merely threatened have already been "handed dination" of Timothy with Paul (2 Tim 1 :6). Since,
over to Satan." From this observation one has occa- throughout the three epistles, the participation of the
sionally deduced the sequence: 2 Tim, Tit, 1 Tim (but presbytery in the ordination is not explicitly excluded,
cf. section d below). one need not infer from the divergence between 1 Tim
c) In 1 Tim 4: 14, the laying on of hands is based on the 4:14 and 2 Tim 1:6 that two different authors ex-
authority of the assembled presbyters (the 7rpf.u{3vTE- isted. No conclusions can be drawn as to the sequence
pwv, see the epistles of Ignatius); in 2 Tim 1:6, on that of the letters except to say that they imply a unified,
of the apostle. Schwartz 10 regards the former as relatively consistent conception.

5 On the historicity of this office see above, pp. 55f, the (which contains abundant history-of-religions ma-
excursus to 1 Tim 3:7, section 2. terial), and Eduard Lohse, Die Ordination im Spiit-
6 On the variations between the epistles see below. On judentum und im Neuen Testament (Berlin: Evangeli-
the relation between the Christian and Jewish rites sche Verlagsanstalt, 19 51); Georg Strecker, Das
of ordination see Eduard Lohse (below n . 8). Judenchristentum in den Pseudoklementirzen, TU 70 (Ber-
7 This applies no matter whether 7rpOf/>'Y/TELas in 4:14 lin: Akademieverlag, 1958), 97- 116 (Exkurs: Die
is taken as an accusative plural ("as a result of," Ordination in den Pseudoklementinen).
"because of,") or as a genitive singular; cf. Theodore 9 But cf. Bruston, "De Ia date," 272ff. Bruston dates
of Mopsuestia (II, p. 149, Swete) who uses the sin- 2 Tim during the time of Paul's first imprisonment
gular expression "through prophesy" (per prophe- and 1 Tim during one of the following years.
tiam). In any case one need not distinguish be- 10 Eduard Schwartz, "Uber die pseudapostolischen
tween the two passages; cf. Johannes Behm, Die Kirchenordnungen," Schriften der wissenschajtlichen
Handauflegung im Urchristentum (Leipzig: A. Deichert, Gesellschaft Strassburg 6 (1910): 1.
1911 ), pp. 47f, who tries to differentiate between 11 2 Tim 3: 1ff. The false teaching is still in the process
them by arguing that in the former passage the of formation.
prophecy occurred before the laying on of hands,
while in the latter it was simultaneous with it.
8 On the entire question see Behm, Handauflegung,
71
• 15 "This" (TauT a) is clearly connected with the ex- ([aEL 1r]on p.f.v 7rpEu{3vTf[povs·np.wv ws 'YOVEys,
hortation in vss 13-14, which is to be taken as a whole: TOV<; of. Ka0fJALKa<; W'> aOEAcpovs' TOV<; of. [IIEWTfpOV<;
Do your duty and make use of your gift. "These things" ws 1ra~oas]) [Trans. by Ed.]; B. Latyschev, ed., IPE
(Ell TOVTOL'>) means: "in this kind of activity." 12 Such an 1.22.28ff (cf. Deissmann, LAE, 309f): "bearing himself to
accumulation of imperatives, with general references his equals in age as a brother, to his elders as a son, to
w the preceding exhortations, is also found in Pseudo- children as a father" (TO~'> p.f.v i]ALKLWTaL<; 7rpoucpEpo-
Pythagoras.13 "Progress" (7rpOK07rTJ) is of great impor- JJ.EIIO<; W'> aOEAcpos, TO~<; of. 7rpEU{3VTfpOL<; W<; vi.os, II
tance in Stoicism, but cf. also Sir 51:17 and 2 Mace 8:8 . TO~<; of. 7raLULJI W'> 7raTfJp) . Cf. also Iambl., Vit. Pyth.
The formula "that you may be visible to everyone" 8.40: "to exercise on the one hand, good will toward
(tva cpavEpov 1rClULII iJ . .. ) is found frequently in the fathers through the orderly behavior toward elders, and,
honorary inscriptions.l4 on the other hand, (to practice) fellowship with brothers
• 16 The first imperative of the verse suggests that "to through benevolence towards others" (p.EAETClll Ell JJ.Ell
these things" (auTo~<;) refers to "this" (TauTa ) and Tfj 1rpos Tous 7rpEu{3vT€povs EvKoup.[q. T*v 1rpos 7raTE-
"these things" (TOVTOL<;) in v 15. Promises given to pas Ei)voLaJI' Ell of. Tfj 1rp0<; aAAOV<; cpLAavOpw1r[Q. T*JI
teachers (or missionary preachers), and at the same time 1rpos Tovs aDEAcpovs Kotvwv[av) [trans. by Ed.]; Liba-
to the disciples, are also common elsewhere. 15 nius, Progymnasmata 7, (p. 185.3, Forster) (in an instruc-
• 5:1-2 These verses are often taken with what follows, tion to the would-be physician): "consider yourself
and placed under the heading : Timothy's behavior a brother of your peers, a child of your elders and a
toward certain classes of people in the congregation. In father to those younger" (Twv JJ.Ell i]ALKLWTwv vop.trE
fact, the regulation regarding widows would , from a UEaVTOJI aOEAcpov, TWJI of. 1rpEu{3vTEpWII 7ra~oa, TWJI
formal standpoint, be linked quite well with these exhor- of. JIEWTEpWII 7raTEpa) [trans. by Ed.]. It is clear from
tations. On the other hand, the regulations in 5: 3ff have these parallels that "elder" (7rpEu{3vnpos, see below,
been formed into an independent church order, whereas pp. 77f, the excursus to 5: 17) does not refer to an office,
in 5: 1f we are dealing with a different type of exhortation but rather to "any elderly person" (7rEpi. 7raJITO<; 'YE'YTJ-
which belongs to a pattern of popular moral philos- paKOTO'>). 1 7
ophy. 16 The proof of the dissemination of such expres-
sions throughout the culture is again supplied by the
inscriptions (see also the excursus to 3: 1). The following
passages may serve as examples : lnscr. Priene, (1st cent.
B.C.) 117.55f: "continually honoring older men as
parents, peers as brothers, and younger men as sons"

12 As in Xenophon, Hist. Graec. 4.8.7; see also Bauer, ava-ym;,UKOJITa Ell VJ.ILII).
s.v. tlJ.tL, section 4. 16 Cf. Plato, Resp. 5.463c: "for no matter whom he
13 Pseudo-Pythagoras, Carmen aureum 45f: "Gain these meets, he will feel that he is meeting a brother, a
by toil; practice these diligently; you must love these, sister, a father, a mother, a son, a daughter, or the
they will set you on the track of divine virtue" offspring or forebears of these" (1ravrl -yap i;l iiv
(ravra 'lrOJitL, ravr' EKJ.ItAha. TOVTWJI XP~ l:piiv l:vru-yxavv m, ~ ws aotXcp~ ~ ws aot"Acpfi ~ ws
ut, I ravra CTt rfjs 6tL17S aptrfjs tls LXPLa 6~CTEL) 1ra rpl ~ ws J:.17TPL ~ uit'i ~ 6u-ya rpl ~ rovrwv EK'YO-
[trans. by Ed.]. IIOLS ~ 1rpo-yovo's voJJ.Ltl. l:vru-yxavtLv).
14 Jean Rouffiac, Recherches sur les caracteres du Cree dans 17 J . A. Cramer, Catene, 7, p. 37.
leNT (Paris: Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes,
1911), 53.
15 Cf.Jas 5:20; 2Clem. 15.1 and 19.1: "that you may
save both yourselves and him who is the reader
among you" (tva Kai t!aurovs CTWCT'17H Kal TOV

72
 1 Timothy5:3-16

5 On Widows

3 Honor widows. if they are true widows!

4/ If a widow has children or grand-
children. they should first learn to show
piety toward their own family and to
show gratitude to their forebears. This
is well-pleasing before God. 5/ The
one who is a true widow and solitary,
however. has placed her hope in God and
remains in prayer and supplication day
and night. 6/ The one who lives volup-
tuously is dead while she lives. 7/ Give
this instruction so that their conduct
may be beyond reproach. 8/ But if some-
one does not provide for his own people.
not even for his own family, he has
denied the faith and has become worse
than an unbeliever.
9 She alone may be enrolled as a widow,
who is not younger than sixty, who was
the wife of one man. 10/ who is well
attested in good works, inasmuch as she
has raised children, practiced hospi-
tality. washed the .f eet of the saints, came
to the aid of the oppressed, and in general
devoted herself to every good work. 11 I Re-
ject younger widows. Because when sen-
suous impulses lead them away from Christ.
they want to marry 12/ and thus are under
the verdict that they have broken their first
faith. 13/ At the same time, they also learn
idleness. when they run from house to
house-not only idleness. but they also
become gossips and busybodies; then
they say what is not proper. 14/ Thus. I
wish that the younger ones should
marry. bear children. manage their
households. and do not give the adver-
sary an opportunity for slander, 15/ because
some have already turned away and
followed Satan . 16/lf a faithful woman
has widows, she should provide for
them; the congregation should not be
burdened, so that it can provide for the
true widows.

The regulations concerning widows include a regulation general, and 5: 9ff to the conduct of widows in the con-
about those widows who are to be regarded as "true gregation. But the section is unitary, and a parenesis on
widows" (ovrws xfipaL, see v 9), who serve the congrega- the conduct of widows is unknown in the non-Christian
tion (v 10) and who are supported by it (v 16). "Honor" lists of duties. 2 Again we are dealing with a section which
( rip.a ) in v 3 probably does not yet refer to the support intersperses a general teaching about duties with in-
by the congregation. Other scholars 1 divide the passage structions for specific classes within the congregation.
into two parts, referring 5: 3-8 to the care of widows in Formal discrepancies result from such a procedure. The

E.g., B. Weiss,Jeremias,J. E. Belser, Die Brieje des 2 See Weidinger, Die Haustajeln, 71.
Apostel Paulus an Timotheus und Titus uberseU;t under-
kliirt (Freiburg i. B.: Herder, 1907), ad loc.

73
"true widow" (ovrws xijpa) of 5:3, 5 is probably the a widow has a family, then she has no need of such honors
same as the "widow" (xijpa) ofvss 9ff. The passage by the church (see v 3). Rather, before the relatives de-
under discussion is, together with three other passages, 3 vote themselves to other works of love, they should first
the earliest attestation to a special class of widows. The of all "show piety toward their own family, etc." ( rov
origin of this class should probably be dated during the LOLOV oiKov evue{3e'Lv KTA.). This viewpoint is also
period of the consolidation of the churches in the world. consistent with the canon enunciated above in 3:5.
This passage attests to the fact that special duties and "Gratitude" ( aJ..Lo~{3~) is common in inscriptions about
rights were given those in the class of widows. But it also "gratitude of the fatherland" and the like. 7 Edifying
shows that not every widow could qualify as a "widow" in language is used in the endorsement of 4b (cf. 2:3), as well
the technical sense. This passage illustrates the develop- as in the following description of the behavior of the
ment of the technical use of the term, a process which "true widows."B
led to the definition of the office "widows of the congrega- • 5 On "day and night" (vVKTOS Kai TJJ..LEpas), cf.
tion," but which at the same time allowed the continued 1 Thess 3:1 0; on the expression "to place one's hope in
use of the word as a designation for anyone who had God," see 1 Tim 4:10; 6:17 .9
been widowed. The situation is very similar to that of • 6 As the second category, "the one who lives volup-
"elder" (1rpeu{3vnpos, see below pp. 77f, the excursus tuously" (u1raraXwua ) 10 is excluded from the number
to 5:1 7). 4 of"real widows." This is not intended as an actual in-
• 3, 4 The author takes pains to eliminate from the struction, but rather more as an admonition, as v 7
number of true widows all superfluous and unreliable shows. 11
persons ( cf. also vss 11 ff and 16). • 7 On" beyond reproach" ( aVE1rLA1]J..L1rTOS) see above
The first of these are the widows with families ( v 4) . on 3:2.
The regulation with regard to them is hard to interpret • 8 furnishes a supplement to v 4. Once again respon-
because of the change of subject. 5 The old interpreta- sibility is placed upon family members for providing
tion, which supplies "the widows" as the subject of the for their own widows (v 16 makes the same point). Here
clause "they shall learn," is made impossible by the the religious motif is stressed. "To deny the faith" ( T~V
term "to show piety" (evue{3e'Lv), which is a variant of 1riunv ~PV1JTa~) 12 means not apostasy, but practical
the word "to honor" (nJ..Lav), 6 and by the term "fore- disavowal. The unity of belief and action is presupposed.
bears" (1rpo-ybvo~s). Therefore, the "members of the (This presupposition illuminates the style of the heresy
family" must be seen as the subject of"they shall learn." polemic: dogmatic and moral reproaches are combined.)
The change of the subject can be explained as a bra- The passage shows how community duties are increasingly
chylogy. One could paraphrase the passage this way: "If felt to be specifically Christian. In this way a Christian

3 These are lgn. Sm. 13.1; lgn. Pol. 4.1; Pol. Phil. 4.3. dead while living, and some alive while dead"
4 On the whole question see Zscharnack, Der Dienst (twvrE~ tPWt TE8P~KaUt KaL r£8PTJKOTE~ twutv); on
der Frau, 1OOff. the thought, cf. Rev 3:1; see also Sextus 7 b (ed.
5 .Johannes Miiller- Bardoff, "Zur Exegese von I. Henry Chadwick, TS, N. S. 5, 1959): "The faithless
Timotheus 5, 3-16," in Gott und die Cotter, Festgabe in faith is a dead man in a living body" (ibnuro~
Jiir E. Fascher (Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, EP 7rLUTH JIEKpos av8pw7r0~ EP UW}J.an twvn) [trans.
1958), 113- 33. See also Wohlenberg, ad foe. by Ed.]; ibid. 175: "Dead before God are those
6 Cf. Belser, ad foe. through whom the name of God is blasphemed"
7 Cf. /nscr. Priene 119.27; 113.120; 112,17; IG XIV, (vEKpoL 1rapa BE~ ot' oil~ ro ovoJJ.a roll 8Eou >.moo-
744.5; 748.14. The verb a}J.EL{3Eu8at is also a term pE'irat) [trans. by Ed.].
for "honoring" someone. Gunther Gerlach, Griechi- 12 On this expression, cf. Anton Fridrichsen, "Einige
sche Ehreninschrijten (Halle: Niemeyer, 1908), 50. sprachliche und stilistische Beobachtungen," Con .
8 Bartsch, Anfiinge, 125f. Neol. 2 (1936): 8-13; and ibid., 6 (1942) : 94ff.
9 See also RudolfBultmann, TDNT2, p. 532f.
10 Is there perhaps an intentional rhyme with "twua"
(living)? On the word see Windisch-Preisker, Katho-
lische Brieje, on.Jas 5:5.
11 On the usage, cf. Philo, Fug. 55: "some people are
74
 1 Timothy 5:3-14

family ethic is formed, which goes essentially beyond the because of 5:4, not think of the children of widows but
traditional "rules for the household" (see above, pp. 39ff, rather, say, of orphans (see the passages from Hermas and
the second excursus to 2:2). 13 Lucian cited above). On foot washing seejn 13:4. 16
• 9 "To enroll" (KaraX€-yHv) is the technical term for the It is mentioned here as an example of Christian humility
registration, e.g., of levied troops. 14 Tertullian, Ad uxorem and hospitality. This attitude, not each and every work of
1. 7, seems to translate ecclesiastically: adlegere in or- love, is the prerequisite for service as a widow.
dinem ("to accept into the clergy"). "The wife of one • 11, 12 "Faith" ( T~ll1rtUTL11) here refers to an agree-
man" ( EIIOS avopos 'YVII~) see above at 3:2, especially if ment . 17 On antiquity's admiration for young, chaste
one takes 5:3-16 as a unity. There is no reason whatever widows see Delling, and cf. Plutarch andjosephus. 1B
to infer a prohibition of a second marriage here. Na- • 13 The continuation of the sentence "not only idleness
turally, in every case the requirement "if she is solitary" etc." (ov )1.011011 OE ap-ya£ KT X.) shows that in the first
(J.l.EJ.l.OVWJ.l.EII'YJ 5: 5), must be fulfilled, i.e. the woman half of the clause "idleness" ( ap-ya£) is the main concern.
must be without a family. The interpretation of this "They learn" (J.l.avOavovuLv) must, therefore, be con-
passage by Theodore ofMopsuestia is thus correct: "If nected with "idleness," and any attempt to connect
she has lived in chastity with her husband, no matter it with "they run from house to house" (1rEpLEPXOJ.l.EIIaL)
whether she has had only one, or whether she was mar- or with "what is not proper" (ra )1.~ o€ovra) is just as
ried a second time" (si pudice cum suo vixerit viro, sive much ruled out as it would be to take "they learn,"
unum lantum habuerit, sive et secundofuerit nupta) . 1 5 by analogy with 2 Tim 2:7, in an absolute sense. It also
• 10 On the works which widows are expected to per- eliminates the conjectural reading "they are hidden"
form, cf. 2:10 and Herm. vis. 2.4.3: "and Grapte shall (XavOavovuL). It is therefore to be supplemented with
exhort the widows and orphans" (fpa1rr~ o€ vovOEr~uH "to be" (EivaL), 19 i.e. they learn to be idle, viz. "idleness."
TOS x~pas Ka~ TOVS op</Javovs) . But above all, cf. the "To run from house to house" (1rEpLEPXEU0aL ras
description of the Christian work of love in Lucian, olKLas ) refers to pastoral house calls. The context clearly
De morte Peregrini 12 : "and from the very break of day indicates that such calls were among widows' duties,
aged widows and orphan children could be seen waiting and it is precisely in this connection that a danger might
near the prison" (Kat EW0Ev j.J.EII EV0vs ~~~ opav 1rapa rc;> arise for the younger ones. On" busybody" (1rEpLEp-yos)
OEUJ.l.WT'YJPt'f' [where Peregrinus, who has converted to see Acts 19:19 and 2 Thess 3:11.20
Christianity, lies captured] 1rEPLJ.l.EIIOIITa 'YP~OLa, x~pas • 14 "I wish" ({jovXo)J.aL) is used in legislative regu-
nvas Kal. 1raLOta op</Java); cf. ch. 13 where the Chris- lations. 21 The resolute formulation witnesses to the high
tians are described as: "to succour and defend and value placed upon morality and order in the Pastoral
encourage the hero" ({jo'YJO~uoVTES Ka~ ~vva-yopEvuov­ Epistles. The ideal of Christian citizenship of the Pastorals
TES Ka~ 1rapa)J.U0'YJUO)J.EIIOL TOll avopa). "To raise chil- (see above pp. 39ff, the excursus to 2: 2) is shown in an
dren" (TEKvorpo<jJliv) is here, as in Epict., Diss. 1.23.3, ordinance based upon the founding of families . Paul's
not to be limited to the provision of food. If one takes attitude (as expressed in 1 Cor 7:1, 7f, 29ff) is completely
the section as a unity (see above on 5: 3ff), one will, different. His point of view is eschatologically deter-

13 On the term oi 'Uiwt, see Bauer, ]ohannesevangelium, 17 Cf. Cramer, Catene 7, p. 40: "faith; he calls it an
onjn 1:11. agreement" (r~v 7rl<Tnv· uvvO~KT/11 A~')'EL).
14 Examples are to be found in Liddeii-Scott, s.v. But 18 Delling, Stellung des Paulus zu Frau und Ehe, 134; Plu-
in Plato, Leg. 743e, it is used with a double accusa- tarch, Aemilius Paulus 2 (p. 749 D);Josephus, Ant.
tive, meaning "to regard as." 18.66.
15 Theodore ofMopsuestia (II, p. 161, Swete); cf. also 19 See the translation, and Blass-Debrunner, 416.2.
Theodoret (III, p. 664, Schulze). A different inter- 20 Cf. Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on 2 Thess
pretation is given by Delling, Stellung des Paulus zu 3:11.
Frau und Ehe, 136f. See also Livy 10.23.9: service at 21 P. Lond. III 904.30, p. 125;Josephus,·Ant. 12.150;
the altar of Pudicitia was permitted only to matrons see 1 Tim 2:8.
who had been wedded to one man alone.
16 Cf. Bauer,]ohannesevan1elium, onjn 13:4; on a:ylwv
1r00as see Blass-Debrunner 295.3.
75
mined; here the world is expected to endure, and taking service, who was herself in the business of caring for
root in it is desirable. "The adversary" ( aVTLKfL)J.fVOS) widows. She should continue her work. But if "a faithful
is probably the one who casts blame, i.e., the opponent. 22 one" (7rLUTi]) refers to Christian women in general, or
•1&, 18 On "to turn away" (EKTpE7rt:u0aL), see 1:6. It if the reading "of a faithful man or woman" (fL TLS
is hard to say whether the sin is unchastity or false teach- sr
1rLUTO<; ~ 1rLUTi] D sy Ambst) is accepted, then the
ing, and it is equally hard to determine whether here, principle already mentioned in vss 4 and 8 is here empha-
and in the preceding verses, the author is still thinking sized once more.
about widows. If he is, and if the somewhat better
attested reading of v 16, "if a faithful, i.e. widow" (t:L TLS
7rLUTi], ~A C 33), is correct, then the case described is
that of a widow, otherwise qualified for congregational

22 See above on 3:6, 7; but cf. 1 Clem. 51.1 and Mart.

Po/.17.1: Satan.

76
 1 Timothy 5:17-20

5 On Presbyters

17 The presbyters who govern well as presid-

ing officers should be deemed worthy
of a double compensation. especially
those who are engaged in speaking and
teaching. 18/ For the scripture says:
"You shall not muzzle an ox when it is
treading out the grain," and "the worker
is worthy of his wages." 19/ Do not
accept a complaint against a presbyter,
unless on the basis of the witness of two
or three persons. 20/lf any (of them)
sin, convict them in the presence of all
(presbyters). so that the others too may
have fear.

"the aged" (-yepaw[) and "the senators" (-yepovuL-

Presbyter
auraL), they are also called "the seniors," "the elders"
The problem of the word "presbyter" (1rpeu{3vnpos) (7rpeu{3vnpoL) . 4 It is questionable whether titles such as
in the Pastoral Epistles lies in the ambiguous character of "the synod of the senior receivers" (uvvooos rwv Ell
the word, which is sometimes a reference to age, some- 'A'Ae~avopdaL 1rpeu{3urtpwv E-yooxtwv), 5 or "the
times a title. The use of"presbyter" as a title among senior craftsmen" (TEKTOVES 1rpeu{3vnpoL) 6 or "the
the Jews of the Diaspora is not attested until quite senior minstrels" (VJJ.VC!JOOi 7rpeu{3vnpoL) 7 belong to
late in inscriptions and imperial decrees. 1 On the other this group. It is not clear whether older members of the
hand, the LXX translation of the Hebrew title "elders" profession in question formed such clubs, 8 or whether
(c·~rH) with "presbyters" (1rpeu{3vrepoL) seems to in- the names of the clubs were intended to show that such
dicate that for the Judaism of the LXX the "elders" associations were older than their more recent competi-
stood at the head of the congregations. 2 tors. 9 The former interpretation seems to be corroborated
The non-Jewish texts attesting to the titular usage of by the analogous terminology of the inscription from
"presbyter" cannot be regarded as more than analogies Hypaepa: to "of the younger Jews" ('louoaLwv VEWTE-
to the Jewish and Christian use of the word . We can pwv); this probably designates younger Jews and not the
distinguish between two groups: younger of two Jewish congregations. 11
1. Associations of seniors, i.e. associations of older 2. At least in Egypt, "presbyters" (7rpeu{3vrepoL)
people in contrast to the associations of the "youths" referred to committees and councils of different kinds. 12
(vtoL). 3 In addition to the more common designations Regional managers are called "elders" ( 1rpeu{3vnpoL)

See Schiirer, A History of the Jewish People 2 2 p. 249. 6 The phrase is found in an Alexandrian inscription,
For a more complete treatment, see idem, Geschichte see Erich Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen (Leip-
desjiidischen Volkes 3, pp. 89 ff; Monumenta Asiae Mi- zig: Teubner, 1896), 213.
noris Antiqua 3 (1931), Nos. 344, 447; cf. .('NW 31 7 The phrase is found in an inscription from Rada-
(1932) : 313f; CJJ, p. LXXVI and Nos. 581,590, novo; Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen, 90.
595 and passim. 8 Max L. Strack, "Die Miillerinnung in Alexan-
2 Cf. also the synagogue inscription from jerusalem, drien," ZNW 4 (1903): 232.
Suppl. Epigr. Graec. 7, 170.9 (see Deissmann, LAE, 9 Ziebarth, Das griechische Vereinswesen, 30, 90, 213;
439fT). Note too that the "elders" (7rpEu/3vnpoL) Poland, Griechisches Vereinswesen, 171f, note.
were members of the Sanhedrin according to the 10 Salomon Reinach, "Lesjuifs d'Hypaepa," Revue des
Gospels, and see Lietzmann, "Verfassungsgeschich- itudesjuives 10 (1885) : 74-8.
te," 123f. 11 On the "presbyters" (7rpEu/3vTEpoL) of the Hyp-
3 The abundant literature is listed in Schiirer, Ge- sistarian congregations in the Crimea, cf. Lietz-
schichtedesjiidischen Volkes, vol. 3, p. 91, n. 57. mann, "Verfassungsgeschichte:" 118fT.
4 Attestations, mainly from Asia Minor and its insular 12 For instance, there were "the elders of the millers"
territory, are found in Poland, Griechisches Vereins- (or bakers) (7rpEu/3vTEpoL rwv bXupoKo7rwv); see
wesen, 98fT. Max L. Strack, "Referate und Besprechungen. In-
5 Ditt. Or. I, 140.7ff. schriften aus ptolemii.ischer Zeit. II," Archivfiir Papy-
77
in the emancipation petition Ila which was submitted the evidence in related writings, above all in the First
to the "elders and tax-officials of the village of Apias" Epistle of Clement.I6
(7rpEu(:JvrEpoL'; Ka.i 7rpaKropuL Kwp:YJ'; 'A7rta8o';) .
Especially important for the Pastoral Epistles is the oc- •17 The phrase "double compensation" (8L7rA~';
currence of the title of "elder" in the "Priesthood of TLJ.L~';) applied to "the presiding presbyters" (7rpo-
the Great God Soknopaios" : "The five elder priests" EUTWTE'; 7rpEu{3vnpoL) implies that two functions or
(rwv i 7rpEu{3vrEpwv iEpEwv) BGU 1, 16.5f and 387.7. 13 honorary positions were given to the same person. The
The early Christian usage of this term for a more or less patriarchal character of the congregation's leadership is
patriarchal committee is therefore not surprising. 14 not thereby excluded. One can hardly interpret the
From the Pastorals the following information may be expression "govern well as presiding officers" (oi. KO.AW';
obtained concerning the presbyters: they form a council 7rpOEUTWTH 7rpEu{3vnpoL) as referring only to a special
(1 Tim 4:14) and lay hands upon the man who is set quality of their service, a quality which was supposed
apart by the word of the prophet (1 Tim 1:18 and 4:14). to be honored doubly. Rather it is the expression of
The fact that they are presbyters does not imply that approval of their additional service. 1 7 A financial com-
they are already "presiding officers" (7r poEUTWTE';) or pensation is certainly intended here, 18 one which is
"engaged in speaking" (K07rLWVTE'; Ell Xl:ry4:J ), (1 Tim meant to be just twice that of other presbyters. 19 The next
5: 17). Certain requirements are made of them, require- verse makes the connection with material reimburse-
ments which are also made of the "bishop" ( E7rtUK07rO';, ment unmistakably clear. 20 Teaching is regarded as a
Tit 1: 5, 7; cf. above pp. 54ff, the excursus to 3: 7). The voluntary service.
evidence taken as a whole makes it impossible to see in • 18 The use of the technical term for "Holy Scripture"
the term "presbyter" only a designation of age. 15 It is ( -ypo.¢~) is noteworthy; while the first saying comes
characteristic of the Pastorals that physical state and from the OT (Deut 25:4; cf. 1 Cor 9:9), the second is
status within the congregation stand -side by side. Cf. also known to us from Lk 10:7 as a saying of jesus. This saying

rusjorschung und verwandte Gebiete 2 (1902): 544, and nity for the most part kept their regular occupations
idem, "Mlillerinnung," 230, where there is a list of and, hence, had no need of financial compensation.
the earlier attestations. Note also the frequent occur- 19 Cf. Bartsch, Anfiinge, 93ff. Lock, ad loc., substantiates
rence of"the elders of the farmers" (7rpEu{3vTEpoL this with his reference to Did. 13 (support of the
TWII 'YEWP/'Wll) in the P. Tebt. I, 13.5; 40.17f; 43.8; prophets) and Const. Ap. 2.28 (double compensation
50.20; P. Lond. II, 255.7, p. 117; BGU I, 6ff; and for deacons and presbyters).
Deissmann, Bible Studies, 154-57 and 233ff. 20 Cf. the statutes of the "worshippers of Diana and
12a Cf. Verojfentlichungen aus den badischen Papyrus-samm- Antinous" (cultores Dianae et Antinoi) GIL 14.2112
lungen 2: Graechische Papyri, ed. Friedrich Bilabel (reprinted as Appendix 2 in Lietzmann-Kiimmel,
(Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universitii.tsbuchhand- Korinther): according to ii.19, "double shares of all
lung, 1923), no. 32.1. allotments" (ex omnibus divisionibus partes dup-
13 See H . Hauschildt, "7rpEu{3vTEpoL in Agypten im l[as]) [trans. by Ed.].
I-IIIJahrhundert n. Chr.," ..(NW 4 (1903): 235-
42. On p. 239 of this article it is demonstrated that
these "elders" were sometimes not old at all, and
that the usage was thus only titular.
14 See Acts 11 :30; 14:23; ch. 15 passim; 20:17; 21 :18;
1 Petr 5:1;Jas 5:14.
15 Thus Jeremias, ad loc.
16 Von Campenhausen, &clesiastical Authority, 84ff; on
the entire question see Wilhelm Michaelis, Das
il."ltestenamt (Bern: Haller, 1953), and Gunther Born-
kamm, TDNT6, pp. 651-80.
17 Gunther Bornkamm, TDNT 6, p. 666f.
18 Michaelis, &htheitsjrage, believes that "double com-
pensation" (5L7rAijs TLJ.LijS) only refers to the honor,
since according to 3:4, 12, the officers of the commu-

78
 1 Timothy 5 :17-20

could be a quotation either from Lk or from one of his Finally, "Holy Scripture" could simply refer to the first
sources as "Holy Scripture" (which would indicate a late saying, with which the second is only loosely connected.
date for the Pastoral Epistles). The saying in question In light of this possibility, it is unnecessary to exclude
could also be of earlier origin, stemming from an "holy" the verse as a gloss, even though it designates a saying of
apocryphon (i.e. of the OT) . Lk 10 :7 almost gives the Jesus as ·a portion of Scripture. 21
impression that Jesus is appealing to a recognized saying • 19. 20 belong together; the "others," "all" (Aonroi.),
from Scripture, i.e. that such a saying is ascribed to him. then, are the rest of the presbyters. 22

21 Michaelis, Echtheitsfrage, 62, would exclude the say-

ing as a gloss.
22 Another opinion is that this refers to the congrega-
tion in general; seeJ. Hoh, Die kirchliche BujJe im
zweiten Jahrhundert (Breslau: Muller & Seiffert,
1932), p. 79; Bernhard Poschmann, Pamitentia se-
cunda (Bonn: Hanstein, 1940), p. 103; von Campen-
hausen, Ecclesiastical Authority. 146ff. On the signifi-
cance ofDt 19 :15, see Hendrick van Vliet, No Single
Testimony: A Study on the Adoption of the Law of Deut.
19:15 Par. into the New Testament (Utrecht: Kremink
en Zoon, 1958).

79
 1 Timothy 5:21-25

5 Exhortation to Timothy

21 I adjure you before God and Christ Jesus

and the chosen angels: observe this
without prejudice and do nothing ac-
cording to partiality. 22/ Do not be
hasty in the laying on of hands and do
not have any part in the sins of others.
Keep yourself pure. 23/ Do not drink
water only. but take some wine because
of your stomach and your frequent ill
health. 24/ Some peoples' sins are evi-
dent, since they go before them into the
judgment. but the sins of others follow
after them. 25 I Likewise. good works
are also evident. and those which are
not, cannot (ultimately) remain hidden.

• 21. 22 The context is problematic. If both verses be- usage "without human partisanship" (oixa 7rpO(TKAL-
long to v 20, then "this" (ravra) refers to the instruc- (TEWS av0pw7rLV'Y/S in 1 Clem. 50.2). "Prejudice" (7rpb-
tions given in 19f, and v 22 probably has to do with the KPLJ.la) 3 can refer to favorable or unfavorable judgment.
ordination of presbyters. "To have part in the sins of The triad God, Christ, angels arose originally perhaps
others" (KOLVWVE'i:v cij.lapTLaLS aAAOTpLaLS) would from an eschatological conception. Christ comes from
then refer to the possibility that Timothy had unknow- the father with the angels (cf. the change which Mk 8:38
ingly made a sinner a presbyter. If, on the other hand, has undergone in Lk 9 :26). Here the formula is perhaps
v 22 is unconnected with what has gone before, then already a liturgical one (see above at 1: 17). On the
the reference is to the readmission of sinners or heretics. expression "chosen angels" see Odes of Sol. 4.8: "for thy seal
The reference to "sins of others" is thus most easily is known: ... and the chosen archangels are clad with it."
explained. Since a transitional passage clearly begins On v 22, see above pp. 70ff, excursus on 1 Tim 4:14. 4
with 5:21 (see above on 4:6), a closer connection with • 23 is a qualification of "pure" ( ci')'vbv), which clearly
what has gone before is improbable. Therefore, it seems assumes that the fictional or real addressee has a ten-
more likely that the verse should be interpreted as a dency to abstinence. The author says this "not in order to
reference to the reconciliation of those who have fallen encourage luxury'' (ou 1rpos rpvf/J~v). 5 If one places
from faith. 1 Moreover, v 21 need not be limited to be- the epistle at the time of the incipient Gnostic contro-
havior toward presbyters. 2 "Partiality" (7rpO(TKAUTLS) versies, one will, however, see in the admonition not an
means taking sides, perhaps in the sense of favoritism advice concerning diet, but an anti-Gnostic motif: the
(as in 1 Clem. 21.7 and 47.3, 4). But there is also a neutral author wishes to keep his people from resembling in any

Cf. P. Gal tier, "La reconciliation des pecheurs dans von Karthago am 1. September 256," NGG 1909,
Ia premiere Epitre a Timothee," RechSR 39 (1951): p. 266.
317-20. 3 See Bauer, s.v.
2 Cf. the oath of Aurelius of Utica at the synod of 4 Cf. also on this verse Nikolaus Adler, "Die Handauf-
Carthage, Sept. 1, 256: "Though the apostle says legung im NT bereits ein Bussritus? Zur Auslegung
we must not share the sins of others, what is a man von I Tim. 5, 22," Neutestamentliche Aufsiit<,e: Fest-
doing, who has a share with heretics without the schrift fur Josef Schmid, ed.Joseph Blinzler, Otto
baptism of the church, except sharing the sins of Kuss und Franz Mussner (Regensburg: F. Pustet,
others?" cum dicat apostolus non communicandum pee- 1963), 1-6.
cat is alienis, quid aliud quam peccatis alimis communicat, 5 The phrase is from Chrysostom (XI, p. 691, Mont-
qui haueticis sine ecclesiae baptismo communicat?) [trans. faucon). The admonition thus expresses the same
by Ed.]; cf. Hermann von Soden "Sententiae thought as Pseudo-Pythagoras, Carmen aureum 32f:
LXXXVII episcoporum. Das Protokoll der Synode "There is no need to be indifferent to the health of
80
 1 Timothy 6:21-26

way the false teachers mention<:d in 4:3. "To drink water (KpLut~) is the divine judgment. On "they go before
only" (vopo7roTE'iv) among Jews as well as Greeks be- them" (7rpoa')'ovuat), cf. I sa 58 :8: "Your righteousness
longs to the pious life, the life full of renunciation. 6 goes out before you" (7rp07rOpEUO'ETaL EJ.L7rpou0Ev uov ~
• 24, 26 Here too the relation to the context is uncertain. OtKatouuvrJ uov); Barn. 4.12: "If he be good, his right-
In this transitional parenetic passage, which does not v
eousness will go before him" (Mv a')'a0b~, ~ OLKat-
seem to contain a systematic development of thought (see OO'UVTJ avrou 11'POTJ')'~O'ETaL avrou) [trans. by Ed.).
4: 11- 16), it is best to regard vss 23, 24, and 25 as sup-
plements to "keep yourself pure" (O'EaVTOV a')'VOV
r~pEL). We are therefore dealing in vss 24-25 neither with
warnings addressed specifically to presbyters, nor with
reflections about the drinking of wine. The "judgment"

the body, but rather one should observe moderation

in drink, food and exercise" (oM' iryLEL7JS rfjs 1I'Epl
a
uw,.,. • a,.,.EXELav EXE'" xp~· aX>. 'lf'orov rE ,.,.hpov
Kat u£rou 'YU!J.II4U£wJ1 TE 'lf'OLEtUIJaL) [Trans.].
6 See Dan 1 :12; Pirke Aboth 6.4; Epict., Diss. 3.13.21.

81
 1 Timothy 8:1 ,2a

6 On Slaves

1 All those who are slaves under the yoke

must count their masters worthy of all
respect, so that the name of God and the
teaching are not blasphemed. 2/ But
those who have masters who are
believers should not think lightly of
them because they are brothers, but
should serve (them) all the more eagerly,
because they are believers and beloved
(by God), who devote themselves to
good works.

• 1, 2a is a regulation concerning slaves. It is a piece of out of love for the masters. Therefore one has to supply
early Christian parenesis, the counterparts of which are "by God" (8Eou) to "beloved," as in Rom 11:28 and
found in the "rules for the household." 1 The verses form Ign. Ph/d. 9.2. "Beloved" (a')'a7r?JTOS), like "those who
therefore a kind of continuation of the ordinances for love God [or: him]" (a')'a1rwvns Tov 8Eov [avTov]),
presbyters in 5: 17ff. "Their (own)" (ioLos) is used here could have been first a Jewish, then a Christian title ;
in a weakened sense. z On the final clause ("so that ... "), cf. Odes of Sol. 8:23: "as beloved in the Beloved." On "to
see Isa 52:5; Rom 2:24, and above on 1 Tim 3:7. Both devote oneself to . .. , ( avnXaJ.Lf3avEu8aL) see Ditt. Or.
dependent clauses in v 2 ("because ... " [on]) are para- I, 51. 9f: "he devoted himself to each individually and
phrases of the description of the masters (OEU7rOTaL) as to all as a group" (Kat KaT' loLav EKauTov Kat Kani
Christians. It would not suit the context to relate them to KOLIIOII 7raVTWll avnXaJ.L{javETaL) [trans. by Ed.];
the slaves. "Good works" (EVEP')'EuLa) designates, then, especially 339.32f: "he devoted himself well and eagerly
a typically Christian virtue, and "beloved" ( a')'a7r?JTOL) to the other elegant activity that went on in the gym-
must somehow be connected with the Christianity of nasium" (T~S TE aAA?JS EVUX?JJ.LOUVII?JS T~S KaT TO a
the masters. The slaves who must be admonished to ')'VJ.LVaULOll avnXa{JETO KaAWS KaL cj>LAOTtf.LWS) [trans.
serve cannot, in the same injunction, be expected to act by Ed.] .

See Col3:22ff; Eph 6:5ff; 1 Petr 2:18ff. (Did. 4.11); Haustajeln, 72ff; Bartsch, Anfiinge, 144ff.
cf. also Tit 2:9f. On these passages see above pp. Sff 2 See Deissmann, Bible Studies, 123f;James Hope
(the Introduction, section 2); furthermore Dibelius- Moulton, A Grammar of the New Testament Greek 1:
Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, excursus on Col Prolegomena (London: The Epworth Press, 4 1952),
4: 1 ; Lohse, Colossians, on Col 4: 1ff; Weidinger, Die 87-90.

82
 1 Timothy 6 :2b-5

6 Warning Against False

Doctrine

2b This is the way you should teach and

preach. 3/ But if someone spreads false
teachings and does not adhere to the
sound words of our Lord Jesus Christ
and to the teaching which is in accord-
ance with (right) religion, 4/ then he is a
pompous (person) who does not un-
derstand anything, but is diseased with
racking of the brain and disputes about
words. Out of these comes jealousy,
quarreling, slandering, false suspi-
cions-51 (anyway) quarrelsome disputes
by people who have a corrupted mind,
who have been deprived of the truth,
and who think that religion is a profit-
making business.

2b-16 is a concluding exhortation to Timothy (see above formation about them . On the catalogue of vices see
on 1 Tim 1: 18-20) . It can be divided into three parts: above p. 67, the excursus to 1 Tim 4:5 (3b) . "Quarrel-
the refutation of heretics (6 :3-5), a sequence of sayings some disputes" (OLa1!'aparpL{3a[ or, as certain minus-
which are attached to the catchwords "business" (1!'0- cules read, 1!'apaOLaTpL{3a[) is an augmented form of the
pLUf..LOS) and "religion" (Evut{3ELa) (6:6-10), and a con- term "rubbing against each other," "friction" (7rapa-
cluding parenesis to Timothy (6: 11-16). TpL{3~), viz. the term "disputation," "diatribe" (OLa-
• 3-5 resumes the thought and the words of 1 Tim 1 : 3ff; rpL{3~) . 3 The accusation that the opponents think only
cf. "to spread false teachings" (ErEpolhoauKaAE'iv), of business and profits is also derived from the arsenal
"not understanding anything" (J.L7JOEV E1l'LUTaJ.LEl'OS, of polemic drawn upon by the wandering philosophers. 4
cf. 1:7 f..L~ voouvns). On "to adhere to" (1rpouf.p- What actually occasioned this attack upon the "false
XEU0aL), cf. Epict. Diss. 4.11.24: "to adhere to philos- teachers," is impossible to say with certainty. Quite
ophy." 1 If the expression "sound words" (iryLa[vovns probably their zealous propaganda (see 2 Tim 3:6)
AO'}'oL) is meant as a designation of the Gospel, then the gained them a following and an income (see also Tit
phrase "of our Lord Jesus Christ" (roil Kvp[ov ~f..LWV 1: 11). The inference of bad behavior from false teaching,
'17JUOU XpLurou) does not characterize these "words" viz. lack of understanding, is quite characteristic of
as sayings of Jesus- a meaning which we would associate polemical style. The false teachers are painted in colors
with the term "words of the Lord ." Rather, the expres- which the Jews used to mirror the gentiles, as this depic-
sion is analogous to "word of the Lord" (AO'}'OS rou tion in turn had assimilated motifs from the moral
Kvp[ov, 1 Thess 1 :8). 2 On "racking of the brain" (t'7Jr~­ teachings of popular philosophy. 5 Even the abrupt
UELS) and "disputes about words" (AO"fOJ.Lax[aL) see introduction of the heretics shows this characteristic
l Tim 1:4. Just as in the latter passage, the opponents are tendency.
here criticized with expressions coined in part by popular
philosophy, but such terms do not yield any factual in-

The reading "he (does not) follow" (7rpOUEXETaL, N * themselves against each other, fill also the healthy
1912lat) derives from 1 Tim 1:4. ones with disease" (7rp0{3aTa 7rapaTpL{JOJ.LEVa VO-
2 See Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper on 1 Thess 1:8. UOV Kat Ta iryLaLvovTa EJ.L11'L11'A1jULV) [trans. by
Cf. also " the manners of the Lord" (Tp07rOL KvpLov) Ed.].
Did.11:8. 4 For the evidence see Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philip-
3 Chrysostom's explanation of this passage is much per, on 1 Thess 2: Sf.
too learned (XI, p . 648, Montfaucon) . He is re- 5 See Vogtle, Tugend- und Lasterkataloge.
minded of"(mangy) ~heep, (which) as they rub
83
 1 Timothy 6:11-16

6 The Battle of Faith

11 But you, man of God, flee from (all) this I

Pursue uprightness, piety, faith, love,
patience, gentleness. 12/ Fight the good
fight of faith, take hold of eternal life I
To this you have been called, this you
professed in the good confession of
faith before many witnesses. 13/ I com-
mand you in the presence of God,
who gives life to everything, and of
Jesus Christ, who testified to the good
confession before Pontius Pilate,14/ to
keep (this) commandment unblemished
and undamaged until the appearance
of our Lord Jesus Christ, 16/ which the
blessed, the one ruler will show to us in
its own time-the king of kings, the
lord of lords,16/ the only immortal one,
who lives in inaccessible light, whom
no man has seen nor is able to see; to
him be honor and eternal power I Amen .

It is difficult to determine the position of these verses in mind the image of the "man of God" which the OT
relation to their context. To be sure, there is a formal suggests. In Philo, Gig . 61, there is already a mystical
connection reminiscent of the schema of the teaching of shading of this image : " But the men of God are priests and
the "two ways." 1 But as a whole, the section appears to be prophets who have refused to accept membership in the
an intrusion between vss 10 and 17. 2 Are these verses, commonwealth of the world and to become citizens
as a whole, a unit that was inserted here? If so, their therein, but have risen wholly above the sphere of sense-
source might have been a baptismal address 3 or a pare- perception and have been translated into the world of
nesis at an ordination. 4 If one accepts the latter hy- the intelligible and dwell there, registered as freemen of
pothesis, he must assume that the ordination address (to the commonwealth of Ideas which are imperishable
which the author of the epistle obviously refers) con- and incorporeal" (OEou OE all0pw7T'O' lEpELS Kal. 7rpo-
tained, in any case, elements of baptismal parenesis. </>~Ta,, otn11Es ovK *~lwCTall 7T'OA,TElas T~s 1rapa T4)
• 11 clearly points to such elements of baptismal pare- KOCTJ.L'tJ TVXELII Kal. KOCTJ.L07T'OALTa' 'YEIIECTOa,, TO OE
nesis. See, for instance, the contrast between what is alCT0YJTOII 1rii11 V7T'EpK{;lf;aiiTES Els TOll IIOYJTOII KOCTJ.LOII
to be avoided and what is to be accepted (cf. the list with J.LETaiiECTTYJCTall KaKELO, 4JKYJCTall E-y-ypa<j>EIITES a<j>Oap-
specifically Christian virtues), or the call to battle con- TWll [Kal.] aCTWJ.LaTWII loE(;)ll 7T'OA,TEL{t). In Corp. Herm.
nected with the image of eternal life. Thus the ambiguity 1.32 and 13.20, the reborn person is called "your man"
of the expression "man of God" (a110pw1ros 0Eou) can (o CTOS a110pW7T'OS ). The closest parallel is offered by
be explained. In this context it refers to Timothy in par- Ep. Ar. 140: "Hence the leading Egyptian priests ... call
ticular, not to the Christian in general. This seems to be us (the Jews!) 'men of God,' a title which does not belong
a secondary application. The expression no doubt comes to the rest of men, save to such as worship the true God"
from a Semitic background; more precisely, from the (oOEv Al-yv7T'TlWII ol Ka0YJ'YEJ.LOVES lEpELS .. . a110pw-
OT (1 Kings 2:27; Deut 33: 1; Ps 89: 1) . But the parallel 7T'OVS 0Eov olloJ.LatovCT'II r,J.Las , oTo 'is Xo,1ro'is ov 7rpOCTE-
in 2 Tim 3:17 shows that the author did not have in CTnll, El J.L~ ns CTE(3ETa' TOll KaT' aMOE,all 0EOII)

Upon the presentation of the vices (see the catalogue 2 Or, as Jeremias, ad foe., argues, vss 17-19 seem to
in 1 Tim 6:4), and of their consequences and causes, be a supplement.
follows the summons to walk on the right path. Cf. 3 Windisch, "Zur Christologie," p. 219.
Herm. mand. 6.1.2 and 11.1.17. 4 With regard to this suggestion see Ernst Klisemann,
87
[trans. by Ed.]. Cf. also Sextus 1- 3 (ed. Henry Chad- •13 The words from "in the presence of" (EVW7rLOV) to
wick, TS, N.S. 5, 1959): "The faithful man is an elect "Pilate" (ITt'A.6.rov ) probably come from a credal
man. The elect man is a man of God. The man of God is formula. They are not prompted by the context, at least
worthy of God" (IILUTOS av0pW1rOS EKAEKTOS EUTLV not in their present form (even if they came to the author
av0pW1rOS. EKAEKTOS av0pW7rOS avOpw7rOS EUTL 0EOV. of the Pastoral Epistles as a part of their present context;
0EOV avOpw7rOS 0 a~ LOS 0Eov) [trans. by Ed .]; cf. Ps. see above). With their direct naming of Pilate, they
Clem. Recg. 8.5.4. The term, therefore, refers to any are reminiscent ofkerygmatic formulations 9 as well as of
Christian, specifically to him who has been baptized; i.e., the ancient Roman Symbol itself. Influences of liturgical
one who has been endowed with the spirit of God, and language can be observed throughout the Pastoral
who henceforth "serves" God . This does not exclude the Epistles (see above on 1 Tim 1: 17) . On the basis of this
possibility that the author refers particularly to Timothy, passage (as on the basis of2 Tim 4:1 and 1 Cor 8:6), one
the prototype of a "man of God" since he is the leader can reconstruct an ancient confessional formula in two
of the congregation. parts. 10
"Uprightness," "righteousness" (OLKaLOUUV'tl) appears But it is precisely in such an understanding of the
as one virtue among others; cf. Chrysostom (XI p. 693, passage that the meaning of "who testified" (J.Laprv-
Montfaucon) who writes, in commenting on 2 Tim 2:22: pfJuas) becomes problematic. The question must be
"Virtue in general, he calls 'righteousness': godliness of raised whether a confession by word or by deed is meant.
life, 'faith, love, meekness'" (OLKaLOUUV'tlV TTllJ KaOb'Aov This question has consequences for the discussion of the
apErT,v AE"(EL, rT,v Ell r4J {3L'f' EVUE{3ELav' 7rLUTLV' title "martyr." 11 In this connection one must also ask
6.-y6.7r't1V, 1rpaOT't7Ta) [trans. by Ed.]. Tit 3:5ffshows how the parallel between Timothy and Christ is to be
that the Pastorals did not forget Paul's concept of "right- understood, and whether on the basis of such a parallel,
eousness" (OLKaLOUUV'tl). But in the understanding of the "confession" (oJ.LoAo-yLa) of Timothy is to be in-
"righteousness," which means "the right behavior," terpreted as a confession offaith before public authori-
"upright conduct" (cf. 2 Tim 2:22 and 3:16) , the Pas- ties.12 But in no case is there any emphasis upon a
toral Epistles agree with Acts. 5 confrontation with the Roman empire. 13 The questions
•12 6 "Confession" (oJ.LoAo-yLa) refers to baptism or raised can be answered by means of the following hy-
"ordination"; see 1 Tim 1: 18; 4: 14; 2 Tim 1 :6; 2:2. 7 potheses: the traditional kerygmatic statement originally
The reference to the "calling" seems to indicate that the said only that jesus "testified" before Pilate, but it did
former is meant. But the mention of many witnesses not speak about the "confession" (OJ.LOAo-yLa). Thus
reminds some scholars of 2 Tim 2:2, which speaks of in- it did not refer to Jesus' behavior, but rather to his fate.
stallation in an office. s

"Das Formular einer ne~testamentlichen Ordina- Reinhold Seeberg, "Zur Geschichte der Entstehung
tionspariinese," NT Studienfiir Bultmann, 261-68. des apostolischen Symbols," ZKG 3 (1921): 2. On
5 See Acts 10:35; 13:10; 24:25; so also 1 Clem. 5.7. Cf. the formula "God who gives life to everything," cf.
also Pseudo-Pythagoras, Carmen aureum 13: "Then Joseph and Aseneth 8.10 (ed. Marc Philonenko) :
practice uprightness, both in deed and in word" " ... who has given life to everything, and has called
(tlra 0LK4LOUlJII'f/ll aUKEL fP'YC¥ TE AO'YC{J TE) [trans. (everything) out of darkness into light" (. . . t"wo7rOL-
by Ed.]. ~ua5 ra 1ravra Ka1 KaAEUa5 a1ro rov uKorov5 tl5
6 On the image of the fight, see Wendland, Hellenisti- TO cpw5) [tran~ . by Ed.]; cf. ibid. 8.2.
sche Kultur, 357. 11 See Hans von Campenhausen, Die Idee des Martyri-
7 See Kiisemann, "Formular." ums in der Allen Kirche (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck &
8 On the question of the formulation of this creed see Ruprecht, 1936), pp. 50f; Strathmann, TDNT 4,
Seeberg, Katechismus, 143, 172 and 186; Otto Michel, pp. 504-D8, and the bibliography in Bauer, s.v.,
TDNT5, pp. 207-12. J.l.apTV5 and J.l.4PTVpEW.
9 See Acts 3:13; 4:27; 13:28; Ign. Mag. 11.11; Tr. 12 Cf. G. Baldensperger," 'II a rendu temoignage de-
9.1;Sm.1.2. vant Ponce Pilate,'" RHPR 2 (1922): 1ff, 95ff;
10 See von Harnack, Chronologie, 525; Lietzmann, Maurice Goguel, Jesus the Nazarene. Myth or History?
"Symbolstudien" (2), 269. Cf. also the quite differ- tr. Frederick Stephas (London: T. Fisher Unwin,
ent, essentially Christological, reconstruction by 1926), p. 178; Cullmann, Confessions, pp. 20ff;
88
 1 Timothy 6:11-15

All analogies corroborate this. 14 On "to testify," "to ( Kara\ EVX'Y/

'
v )J.OV avE7rLI\'Y/)J.1rTOV
I [ ] ' 1).
KaL\ a1ra
' [
p] EVOXI\'Y/-
I "\

be a witness" (JJ.aprvpll.v ) in this sense, cf. 1 Clem. 5.4: rov a1ro 1ravror; KA'Y/POVOJJ.OV), IPE II 52, 8ff [traris. by
"Peter who .. . suffered ... many trials, and having thus Ed.]. Therefore, the words "unblemished" and "un-
given his testimony etc ." 5.7: Paul "gave his testimony damaged" could well be applied to "the commandment"
before the rulers" ([IHrpos'] 7rAELovar; inr~veyKE 7rO- (EvroA.~v) rather than to Timothy.
vovr; ... ourw )J.aprvp~uar; KTA., and 5.7 IIaiJA.or; ... The use of the same term "appearance" (E7rLcj>avELa
JJ.aprvp~uar; E7rL rwv ~"fOV)J.Evwv ). For the sake of the see below pp. 104f, the excursus to 2 Tim 1:1 0) for both
parallel with Timothy's confession, the author added the past and future appearances of the Lord gives an
the word "the good confession" ( r~v KaA.~v O)J.OAO"(Lav) intimation of the schema of the two advents which is
in the quotation of the kerygma tic formula in v 13. But just being developed (similarly in the Lucan writings),
this addition gave the formula a reference to the verbal although it is not yet conceptually elaborated to its full
confession, and the meaning of"to testify" (JJ.aprvpll.v) extent. Here, as in Luke, one finds the characteristic
became ambiguous, which has often been noticed . The emphasis upon God's authority to establish the appointed
tendency to employ Christological statements in a time (cf. 1 Tim 2:6 and Tit 1: 3). In this way the escha-
secondary, paradigmatic way is present in 1 Petr (2:21; tological expectation, as well as the present understand-
3:18) . 15 ing of salvation (and here especially the establishment
• 14 "Commandment" (EvroA.~) has been taken to of a basis for the parenesis), have become independent of
refer to v 11 16 or even to the decalogue.' 7 Neither inter- the imminent expectation of the parousia.
pretation is in any way indicated. This word must •15 " Blessed" (JJ.aKapwr;) is used to refer to God (see
therefore be taken as designating everything entrusted above on 1 Tim 1 : 11). On "ruler" (DvvaUT'Y/'i) see
to Timothy, by analogy with "deposit" (7rapa0~K'Y/) 2 Mace 12: 15 and Sir 46: 5. The designation of God as
in 1 Tim 6:20. the "one" or "only" (JJ.OIIO'i) is common in such for-
"Unblemished" (au7rtA.ov) and "undamaged" (avE- mulas.19 "King of kings, lord of lords" ({3auLAEV'i rwv
7rLA'Y/J1.7rTov ) need in no way be considered personal {3auLAEwv Kat KVpLO'i rwv Kvpiwv) are titles of God
qualities, as in 1 Tim 3:2 (see above, p. 52). Cf. also the which were already current in judaism. It is obvious that
use of"unblemished" (au7rtA.or;) injas 1 :27; 1 Petr 1 :19; they had already become part of the cultic langua ge of
2 Petr 3: 14. 18 Compare to this the use of aU7rLAO') in Christianity by the time of the Pastoral Epistles. These
the Anthologia Palatina (6.252.3) concerning an apple, and liturgical designations belong to the same history- of-
/G I I ( vol. 4, 1054 c. 4) concerning stones: "in good con- religions context reflected in 1 Tim 1: 17 and 2: 10. The
dition, white, without blemish" (V"fLEL'i AEVKOV'i aU7rL- particular designation here seems to have been formed in
A.ovr;). In 1 Tim 6: 14, it seems to mean something like contrast to the titles of oriental kings. 20 This title also
"uninjured," "unhurt," or the like. On "undamaged" appears as a designation of God outside the jewish
(aVE7rLA'Y/J1.1rTO'i ), cf. the j ewish emancipation document
from Panticapaeum : "According to my vow not liable
to be damaged or to be troubled by any heir of mine"

against this view see Rudolf:Sultmann, review of 19 See above on 1 Tim 1 :17; cf. Rev 15:4; Philo, Abr.
Cullmann's Les premieres corifessions, p. 40, and Win- 202 (cited above at 1:11 ) .
disch, "Zur Christologie," 219 (according to Win- 20 Cf. 2 Mace 13:4; 3 Mace 5:35 with Ez 26:7; Dan
disch, the parallelism lies only in the content of the 2:37; 2 Ezra 7:12. Cf. further Philo, Cher. 99; Spec.
testimony : that Jesus is the Christ-Matt 27: 11). leg. 1.18; and the synagogal d esignation "King of
13 Against Cullmann, Confessions, pp. 20ff; Spicq, ad the kings of kings" (O';;l?Q::t •_;;,';oQ 1?~) in Sanh. 4.5,
foe . and "king of kings" (o•:;>'?rt 1?~) in the song of the
14 See Lietzmann, "Symbolstudien" (2),passim. prayer leader, Mose ben Samuel. This song is found
15 See Windisch- Preisker, K atholische Briife, on 1 Petr in Leopold Zunz, Die Synagogale Poesie des Mittel-
2:21. alters (Berlin: Springer, 1855), 247, mentioned by
16 B. Weiss, ad foe. Hermann Strack. See also Adolf Schlatter, Das Alte
17 Baldensperger," 'II a rendu temoignage.' " Testament in der Johanneischen Apoka!ypse (Giitersloh:
18 Cf. B. Weiss and von Soden, ad foe . C. Bertelsmann, 1912), 34.
89
world. 21 The ongoing opposition to the glorification of following have a parallel in the concept of God of the
kings and emperors again and again lent new pathos Kerygma Petri. 25 The rich variety of titles results from
to the jewish and Christian formulations of titles for the combination of jewish and Hellenistic material. This
God. 22 indicates that the process took place in the Hellenistic
Notice how strongly the antithetical character of the synagogues. "Light" (cpw<s) in Hellenistic, as well as in
title was felt by the Scilitan martyrs; cf. Acts of the Christian literature, is used, in general, to designate
Scilitan Martyrs 3 and 6: against the statement of the the essence of God or Christ 26 and that which is the inher-
Roman proconsul "we take oaths by the genius of our itance of Christians. 2 7 Here, however, it refers to the
lord, the emperor" (iuramus per genium domni nostri place where God lives. 28
imperatoris), one of the Christians states: "I acknowl-
edge as my lord the king of kings and emperor of all
nations" (cognosco domnum meum, regem regum et impera-
torem omnium gentium) [trans. by Ed.]. 23
•16 On "the only immortal one" (f.J.OVO<; EXWV O.Oava-
crl.av) see above on 1 Tim 1:17. 24 This title and the one

21 Dio Chrysostom 2.75. A survey of the occurrence of ter, 1933) p. 13 (fr. 2); ET in Hennecke-Schnee-
the title as a designation of oriental rulers is given melcher 2, p. 99; cf. further Dibelius, Hirt des Her-
by Friedrich Bilabel and Adolf Grohmann, Ge- mas, on Herm. mand. 1.
schichte Vorderasiens und ;(gyptens (Heidelberg: Carl 26 The idea is expressed as "unapproachable light"
Winter Verlag, 1927), 207-14. (a1rpoutTOJJ cpw~) in Clem. Alex., Exc. Theod. 12.3.
22 Cf. Rev 17: 14 and 19:16. On the problem see Deiss- 27 See Col 1 :12. The phrase lumen inaccessibile is found
mann, LAE, 356, 362f. in the Acts tif Peter 20 (Lipsius-Bonnet, 1, p. 66).
23 Text according to Gustav Kruger, Ausgewiihlte Miir- 28 Cf., e.g., the description given in 7 Enoch 14.15ff.
tyrerakten, SAQ 3 (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul On the motif "whom no man has seen," see Bult-
Siebeck], 4 1965), 23; cf.Joseph Arwitage Robinson, mann, "Untersuchungen zumJohannesevange-
The Passion of S. Perpetua with an Appendix on the Scilitan lium," Exegetica; Aufsiit~e ~ur Erjorschung das Neuen
Martyrdom, TS 1, 2 (Cambridge: The University Testaments (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck],
Press, 1891), 112f. 1967), 124ff.
24 Cf. also Theodor Schermann, Griechische ,(auber-
papyri und das Gemeinde- und Dankgebet im ersten Kle-
mensbriif (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1909), p. 18, n. to line
4.
25 Cited in Clem. Alex., Strom. 6.5.39; text in Erich
Klostermann, Apocrypha 1, KIT 3 (Berlin: DeGruy-

90
 1 Timothy 6:17-19

6 Rules for the Wealthy

17 Command those who are rich in this world

not to be proud, nor to place their hope
in the uncertainty of riches, but in God
who grants us everything richly for
enjoyment. 18/ They should do good, be
rich in good works, generous and
ready to share; 19/ they should lay up
a good foundation for the future that
they may obtain eternal life.

This passage presents an admonition which is directed to the object of hope is an intended paradox. Notice also
rich people. It could refer to 1 Tim 6:9f, but it appears the wordplay with the terms "riches," "rich," "richly"
to be just as much out of context as the ordinance for (1rAOUTOS, 1rAOVTEtV, 1rAOVCTLws) in different meanings.
slaves in 1 Tim 6:1. It cannot be convincingly demon- "For enjoyment" (Els or 1rp0S a1rOAaVCTtV) is a Hellen-
strated that these clauses are interpolations. 2 9 It is istic expression. 30
characteristic of parenetic texts that certain passages • 19 On the figurative meaning of "foundation" (8E-
seem out of context. Since this passage is clearly par- J.LEAtov [-os]), see Philo, Sacr. AC. 81: "The bad man's
enetic, and since parenetical passages are scattered foundation is vice and passion" (8EJ.LEAtOS -yap rc;J
throughout 1 Tim, one should not be surprised to find <jJavA.<tJ KaKLa Kal. 1ra8os) [Loeb modified]. Thus the
such a lack of logical coherence here. As far as the content word seems to have taken on a meaning approaching the
is concerned, one should not overlook the fact that the ambiguous word "funds."
judgment concerning the rich is not nearly as sharp as in
Jas 1:10, 11; 5: 1ff; further, it avoids any ideology of
poverty (one may compare Lk 12:21).
• 17, 18 The stress upon "uncertainty" (a~7JAOT7JS) as

29 This has been argued by von Harnack, Chronologie 1,

p.482.
30 See Niigeli, Wortschat.t, 30, and cf. IG XII, vol. III,
326.12; 1 Clem. 20.10; Did. 10.3 (in a prayer) .

91
 1 Timothy 6:20-21

6 Warning Against False

"Gnosis"

20 0 Timothy. guard the deposit (which has

been entrusted to you). turn away from
godless chatter and the contradictions
of the false "knowledge:· 21 I which
some have professed and have fallen
away from faith.
The grace be with you.

• 20 "Deposit" (1rapa8~K'TJ) , here as in 2 Tim 1: 12, 14, XOVJ.LEV) (Loeb modified).

designates what the individual Christian, as a Christian, "Contradictions" (avn8€uELs ), together with "end-
has received. The use of this term in 2 Tim 1 : 12 speaks less talk" (a7rEpavro"Ao-yLa ) (see 1 :4), are among the
against its complete identification with the related term things .which the rhetorician in Lucian's Dialogi Mortu-
"tradition" (1rapaoocns) . 31 The word, which is equiva- orum (10.10) wants to take with him in Charon's ferry .
lent to the Attic term for a deposit of money or property Even if "contradictions" ( avn8€uELS) is not used in
(7rapaKara8~KTJ ), designates a "deposit," 32 but is also the rhetorical, technical sense, this passage supports the
used, already in earlier literature, in a figurative sense. observation which was made above on 1 Tim 1 :6;
For example, it can refer to "words" (E7rEa) in Herodotus namely, that the opponents in the Pastoral Epistles are
9.45; cf. especially Pseudo- lsocrates, Ad Demonicum 22: often attacked with weapons which were used in the
"Guard more faithfully the secret which is confided non-Christian world against false rhetoricians and
to you than the money which is deposited in your care" philosophers. It is not necessary to connect this reference
(p, aAAOV r~pEL nl.s 'TWII )\(rywv ~ T<ls 'TWII XP'TJJ.La'TWV to "contradictions" or " antitheses" ( avn8EUELS ) with
7rapaKara8~Kas) [Loeb modified]; Philo, Det. pot. ins. the work of the same name by Marcion. The fact that
65: "(to do this is to commit) a fair deposit of knowledge later Marcionites accepted the Pastoral Epistles 34 also
(to a trustworthy guardian)" (E7rLU'T~J.L'TJS KaArfll 7rapa- speaks against such an assumption. "Knowledge"
Kara8~K'TJV). The author has characteristically used (-yvwuLs) is used here in the technical sense as the self-
the word in a special sense to designate the apostolic designation of the false teachers . The question as to what
traditions which "Timothy" has received in order to kind of Gnosis is represented by these people is not an-
transmit them. 33 The content of the "deposit" can be swered by this designation. But it certainly was a particu-
naturally derived from the epistle. On "chatter" (KEVO- lar teaching which could be differentiated from that
<f>wvLa), cf. Epict., Diss. 2.17 .8: "Or were we sounding of the church.
for the mere chatter" (KEIIWS ras <f>wvd.s rauras a7r'T}- • 21 demonstrates this by the word "to profess" (E7ra-y-

31 This was argued by Seeberg, Katechismus, 108ff. But many others.

see Hans von Campenhausen, "Lehrreihen und 33 On the concept, see Ceslaus Spicq, "St. Paul et Ia
Bischofsreihen im zweitenJahrhundert" in In me- loi des depots," RB 40 (1931): 481 - 502; and Spicq,
moriam Ernst Lohmeyer, ed. Werner Schmauch (Stutt- ad foe. Spicq derives this term from the Roman legal
gart: Evangelisches Verlagswerk, 1951), 244ff. Von regulations regarding deposits; J. Ranft ("Depo-
Campenhausen assumes that the word "tradition" situm," RAG 3 [1957]: 78 1) assumes that the term
(1rapaoocn~ ) had become an object of suspicion be- must be understood on the basis of Rabbinic and
cause of its use in Gnosticism. It is avoided by the Hellenistic- Roman literature in general.
Pastoral Epistles and replaced by the juridical term 34 See von Harnack, M arcion, 150f (but cf. von Cam-
"deposit" (7rapa8fJK1J ), which stresses the idea of penhausen, "Polykarp," 204). A reference to Mar-
inviolability, not that of the chain of transmission. cion has been assumed by Bauer, Rechtgliiubigkeit,
This fits well with the fact that the Pastoral Epistles p. 229; see also von Campenhausen, "Polykarp,"
stress the tradition but do not emphasize the con- 204ff. On the other hand, Oscar Cullmann, Le Prob-
cept of succession. leme litteraire et historique du Roman Pseudo-Cltmentin
32 On the Attic term, see Nageli, Wortschat<;, 27. On (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1930), p. 246, connects this term
the use of the word, see the papyri, e.g., P. Oxy. VII, with the Jewish-Christian concept of syzygies.
1039.12f: "According to the law of deposits" (KaT!!.
TOll TW117rap(a)81)Kw[vvo,uov]) [trans. by Ed.], and
92
 1 Timothy 6:20-21 · ·

'Yf>-..>•. Eu8aL), which, as in 1 Tim 2:10, designates alle- with this particular content is directed to a wider circle,
giance to a particular group or school. The plural "with despite the address. 35
you" (VJJ.WV) reflects the acknowledgement that a writing

35 The singular "with thee" (p.Era crov) in D ~ vg sy

is an understandable correction.

93
 2 Timothy

•
• • •
• •
• •
• • • • •
•
 Second Epistle to Timothy

Outline
Salutation 1:1,2
Proem: thankful remembrance of the Christian tradition,
in which Paul and Timothy stand by extracti<?n and
upbringing, as well as of the significance of the apos-
tolic suffering, 1:3-14. Apostasy or authentication of
the individual Christian, 1: 15-18.
Exhortation to suffering, introduced by the request to
transmit the tradition, 2: 1-13. Exhortation to personal
authentication in view of the heretics, 2: 14-26. The
sinners of the last days, 3: 1-5, have appeared in the
heretics, 3: 6-9.
Summary exhortation referring to the idea of suffering,
the danger of heretics and the security of the tradition,
3:10-4:8.
Personal conclusion: description of Paul's situation,
4:9-12, instructions 4:13-15, some information
4:16-18, greetings 4:19-21, valediction 4:22.

96
 2 Timothy 1 :1-2; 3-14

1 Salutation; Christian Tradi-

tion and Apostolic Suffering

1 Paul, apostle of Christ Jesus through the

will of God, (entrusted) with the
promise of life in Christ Jesus. 2/ to
Timothy, his beloved child: grace, mercy
and peace from God the father and
Christ Jesus our Lord.
3/1 must (always) thank God, whom I serve, as
my ancestors did, with a pure conscience,
when I remember you constantly, day
and night, in my prayers. 4/llong to see
you and I recall your tears, in order to
be filled with joy. 5/ For In my mind Is
the sincere faith, that (lives) in you, as It
lived first in your grandmother, Lois,
and In your mother, Eunice, (and now)-
of this I am sure-also in you. 6/ Therefore
I remind you: rekindle the gift of God,
which is In you through the laying on of
my hands. 7/ For it was not a spirit of fear
that God gave us, but rather of strength
and love and prudence. 8/ Thus do not be
ashamed of the witness about our Lord,
nor of me, his prisoner, but join with
me in the sufferings of the gospel in the
power of God, 9/ who saved us and
called us with a holy calling, not accord-
ing to our works, but according to his
own design and grace; it was granted
unto us before time began,10/ but now
it has been revealed through the appear-
ance of our savior Christ Jesus. who
dethroned death and brought immortal
life to light through the gospel,11/ for
which I have been appointed herald.
apostle, and teacher. 12/ For this reason
I (must) also suffer this, but I am not
ashamed, because I know who it is In
whom I have placed my trust. and I
am convinced that he has power to
guard the deposit entrusted to me until
that dayl13/ Take as an example of
sound preaching what you have heard
from me (and thus remain) In faith and
love, as they are (contained) In Christ
Jesus. 14/ Guard the wonderful deposit
(that was) entrusted (to you) through
the holy spirit that dwells In us.

•1. 2 On "promise of life" (E1r4'Y'YEALav rw~s), cf. K71PV~4L)

(trans. by Ed.]. On v 2 see above pp. 13ft', on
1 Tim 4:8. As the "promise oflife" is the mark of piety in 1Tim1:2.
the latter passage, so it appears here as characteristic of
the apostleship of Paul who is entrusted with it. Cf. Thea-
claret's explanation (III, p. 676, Schulze): "So that I
proclaim the promised eternal life to men" (&Ju-rE J.LE
T~V E1r0.'Y'YEME'iuav o.l&mov rw~v TOLS avOpw?rOLS

97
The proem of the "epistle" is in the epistolary style of from one to the other is more abrupt here than it is in
thanksgiving and of the assurance of intercession. 1 Such a Paul.
proem does not appear in the other Pastoral Epistles, • 6 The mention of the mother and grandmother 4 of
and even here it is formed with "I must thank" (xaptv Timothy has its counterpart in the reference to the
EXELII), not with "I give thanks" (EVXO.PLUTEtv). It is, "ancestors" of Paul in 2 Tim 1:3. This reference to fore-
therefore, at least not a slavish imitation of the Pauline bears does not include a theory of a history of salvation to
epistles which are known to us. But taken as a whole, explain the relationship between Israel and the
1:3-5 is perhaps reminiscent of the proem in Rom 1:8-11 . church. What dominates is rather the concept of a reli-
The content is made up of expositions on the Christian gious upbringing. Furthermore, the virtue of reverence,
tradition offaith, in which the apostle and the disciple which the Pastorals also stress in other connections
stand by extraction and education (see '1: 3, 5, 6, 13). (1 Tim 5:4), can also have meaning in the religious area.
In this way a traditional motif is stressed (see 3: 14ff) There is no indication that it is limited to persons of
that well suits the Pastorals' concept of Christian citizen- Jewish extraction, as on the other hand, there is no men-
ship. 2 But it is foreign to the most primitive stage of tion whether Lois was a Christian (cf. Acts 16 :1) . In
Christianity. contrast to the Pastorals, Luke understands the reference
The Second Epistle to Timothy bases the exhortation to the "fathers" in terms of a history of salvation (Acts
to suffer for the faith upon the bond between teacher 23: 1; 24: 14f; 26:6, 22f). In the Pastorals, as well as in
and disciple. This exhortation recurs throughout the Luke, mention is made of the good conscience (Acts 23:1;
epistle (1 :8, 12; 2:3-q; 3:10-12; 4: 5- 8) . This complex 24: 16 ; see above pp. 18ff, the excursus to 1 Tim 1: 5.)
of ideas in 2 Tim presents a problem. The advocate of • 6 On the laying on of hands see above pp. 70f, the ex-
authenticity will resolve it by reference to the historical cursus to 1 Tim 4: 14. In 2 Tim 1:6, the author refers to
situation of Paul. But then he must leave unresolved the participation of the apostle, not, as in 1 Tim 4:14, to
the even greater problem of such an early date for the that of the presbytery. This is in line with the concept of
Pastoral Epistles' concept of Christian citizenship. If the tradition of2 Tim, which is understood in terms of
inauthenticity of the epistles is assumed, the situation personal relation, as was pointed out above in the intro-
of the readers must be reconstructed. They too know duction to this passage. The preposition "through" (c5ta)
persecutions (see below on 2 Tim 3: 12) , and in their must not be accorded too much importance. The grace
tribulations they look to the apostle, who becomes a is not yet understood as an habitual disposition trans-
model of suffering for his disciple as well as for the ferred from person to person.
reader. Thus, in addition to the tradition of the apostle as • 7 On the basis ofv 6, Belser interprets "spirit" (1rVEVJ.LO.)
teacher (2 Tim 2:2), the Pastoral Epistles also proclaim here as referring to the grace of the profession. 5 But the
an image of the apostle, valid for all times , as the proto- connection between the two verses can be explained
type of life, especially of suffering. in a different way : 6 because the spirit of Christ is not a
• 3 The phrase " as my ancestors did" (a1ro 1rPO'YOvwv) spirit offear, therefore the Christian should use his " gift"
is a reference to the virtue of the forebears. It appears (xapLUJ.LO.) bravely. If the verse is interpreted thus, its
frequently in inscriptions . 3 relation to Rom 8: 15 should not be considered merely
• 4 The paradoxical coupling of mourning and joy is an accidental. Rather, one must assume that the author
attempt to recapture Paul's feelings as they are expressed intended to support the concept of tradition expressed in
in Phil 2: 17 and, above all, in 2 Cor 7: Sf. But the change v 6 with a genuine Pauline thought. To the charismatic

See Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, excursus to lnscr. Magn. 163.2; Inscr. Prime 102.5; 107.10;
1 Thess 1 :2; Paul Schubert, Form und Function of the 108.19; furthermore, cf. below on v 5.
Pauline Thanksgivings, BZNW 20 (Berlin : Topel- 4 On "grandmother" {J.I0.J.LJ.L1J), see Ditt. Syll. II, 844
mann, 1939). B5.
2 See above pp. 39ff, the second excursus to 1 Tim 2 :2. 5 Belser, ad loc. ; see also Chrysostom (XI, p . 661,
On the presuppositions of this traditional motif, cf. Montfaucon).
below on 2 Tim 1:5. 6 See B. Weiss, ad loc.
3 See, e.g., Ditt. Or. II, 485.3; 504.14; 529.1; 771.8;
98
 2 Timothy 1 :3-10

virtues of strength and love, which are effected by the above on 1 Tim 3: 16) . 9 Characteristic of such an escha-
spirit, "prudence" (qw~poliLlTJ.LOS) is added as a third tology is the extension of the statement about the objec-
virtue. On the usc of this word-stem in the Pastorals, see tive past occurrence of the salvation event into the
above p. 40, the second excursus to 1 Tim 2:2; cf. also present proclamation, which thereby explicitly becomes
Cramer, Catene 7, " ... he refers either to the soundness of part of the salvation event. Salvation is made a present
the mind or the soul (cf. above pp. 24f, the excursus on reality in the liturgical recitation and preaching. Further-
1 Tim 1 :10), or (speaks) so that we become prudent, and more, the firm connection with Paul (not the "apostle"
thus make further progress" (~TOL TTJll irylELa.ll T~S in general), 10 as bearer of the proclamation, is a typical
oLa.llola.s ~ r~s if;ux~s ~ WlTTE qw~polllfEqlJa.L r,J.LoS feature of such statements. This connection is made from
Ka.l. rei. 7rEpLrrci. 7rpOK01rTELll) [trans. by Ed .]. the standpoint of the receiver, not from the perspective
• 8 On the situation, see below pp. 126f, the excursus of the apostle who offers the proclamation. "To save"
on 4:21. Here too the echo of the Epistle to the Romans (qciJfELll) and "to call" (Ka.AE~ll) are perhaps intro-
(1: 16) is probably intentional. The exhortation to suffer- duced in this order because the event of salvation and its
ing which follows gives, to be sure, a speci~l meaning mediation in the proclamation form the entirety of the
to the term "witness" (J.La.prvpLOll). One is reminded of salvation occurrence "for us" (ad nos) . "Holy calling"
the absolute use of the word "to witness" (J.La.pruplill) (KA~lTLS a"(la): if one observes how Paul uses the expres-
in 7 Clem. 5.4 and 7 (see above at 1 Tim 6: 13) . One is led sions "to call in" (Ka.AE~ll Ell) and "to call into" (Ka.-
to ask whether the understanding "witness through AE~ll Els) as synonymous, 11 one will also interpret the
deed" is not also intended here (see above, the introduc- "holy calling" by this analogy. "He called us in holiness"
tion to 1:3-14) . On "join in suffering" (lTU"(Ka.Ko7ra- (EKaAElTEll Ell a"(LO.lTJ.Lct') in 1 Thess 4:7 means : "He
lJTflTOll), see Chrysostom (XI, p. 666, Montfaucon): called us to be holy." See Cramer, Catene, 7, p. 59: " i.e.,
"(He says this) not as if the Gospel were suffering, but by he made them holy, who were sinners and enemies"
way of arousing his disciple to suffer (with him) on behalf (TOUTElTTLll 1 a"(LOUS Elp"(aqaro, aJ.LapTWAOVS 6liTO.S
of the Gospel" (ovx ws rov EVO."f"fEAlou Ka.Ko7ra.Oovll- Ka.l. EXlJpovs) [trans. by Ed .]. Only in this passage and in
ros, ci"A"Aci. TOll J.La.O.,rT,ll OLE"(Elpwll V7rEp roll EVa."(- Tit 3:5 do the Pastoral Epistles take a position with re-
"fEAlou 7ralTXELll) [trans. by Ed.]. gard to righteousness by works; elsewhere they simply
• 9, 10 are apparently formulated in a kerygma tic style, enjoin a new Christian righteousness (see 1 Tim 6:11 and
for they contain elements which are unnecessaty to the 2 Tim 2: 22). Since here, as in Tit 3: 5, kerygma tic formu-
context, and they exhibit the characteristics offormulaic lations are reproduced or even quoted, these clauses
participial predication. 7 They also reproduce a well- must be seen as traditional Pauline teachings which have
known schema of early Christian preaching, which con- been adopted.
trasts the "now" of the revelation of salvation with the •10 The use of the terms "savior" (lTWT~p) and "epi-
"then," when salvation was still hidden. 8 One could phany," "appearance" (E1rLcpaliELa) is particularly
debate the question how firmly fixed these sentences characteristic of the language of the Pastorals. It is clear
were, and whether they are simply stylized or whether that the author found both terms (and a connection
they are a quotation. One can observe again the Chris- between them) already firmly established, but also that
tology of epiphany characteristic of passages coined he used them in a unique configuration (cf. the prescripts
for liturgical purposes, with its "realized eschatology" of 1 Tim and Tit).
(C. H. Dodd) that appears in the Pauline school (see

7 See Norden, Agnostos Theos, 201ft' and 381. in denpaulinischen Gemeinden, WMANT 16 (Neu-
8 See Eph 3:4f; 3:9-11; Rom 16:25f; 1 Petr 1 :2; see kirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchen, 1965), 124-33.
also below on Tit 1 :2. On the "schema of revela- 9 On the question whether personal preexistence is
tion" see Dahl, "Formgeschichtliche Beobachtun- to be assumed, see Windisch, "Zur Christologie,''
gen,'' 3ff; Ceslaus Spicq, Agape in the New Testament, 224f.
tr. Marie Aquinas McNamara and Mary Honoria 10 Cf. Windisch, "Zur Christologie," 224f.
Richter, vol. 3 (St. Louis : Herder, 1966), 15ff; Dieter 11 Cf. Lietzmann- Kilmmel, Korinther, on 1 Cor 7:15.
Liihrmann, Das Offenbarungsuerstiindnis bei Paulus und
99
 2. a) With this we must compare the position of the
"Savior" in the Pastoral Epistles
LXX. There "savior" is used of men: it refers to the
The term "Savior" (uwr~p) in early Christian literature judges injudg 3:9, 15; Neh 19:27; in a more general
has many shades of meaning. Since the word is doubt- sense it refers to the helper in battle (Judg 12:3). 14 This
less used in a technical sense in certain expressions, it is usage does not come from a specifically religious ter-
necessary to investigate not only the word's meaning, but minology and is necessitated by the Hebrew original. It is
also the associations it evokes. We must also distinguish difficult to say whether the use of the word in the LXX
between passages in which the sense requires the word is influenced by the Greek usage, where "savior" can be
"savior" (see below on 1, 2b, 3b), and those in which the an honorary title of worthy men; see Xenophon, Ag.
use of the term is technical, i.e. in which the meaning 11.13. 15
is a special one which cannot be etymologically derived b) In several passages "savior" (uwr~p) is equivalent
from the verb "to save" (see below on 4, 5). to "he who saves" (u4>!;wv) or "he who delivers" (pu-
1. The first attestation for the word "savior" (uwr~p) OJJ.EIIOS), as can be seen from the context. 16
in early Christianity is from Paul in Phil. 3:20. There c) Among the many other passages, those which show
the context clearly indicates an eschatological reference. the formulaic use of"God and Savior" (OEos Kat [oro]
In contrast to "those who think earthly things" (rd. uwr~p) in the Prophets and Psalms may be noted as a
E7rL'YELa ¢povovvTEs ), the Christians are citizens of special group. However, since the expression is necessi-
heaven. In support of this, a clause is added which can tated by the Hebrew original, and since conceptions
be interpreted differently depending on where the em- already listed under b) are present, Hellenistic influence
phasis is placed: either, they wait for their "savior" (in may not be presupposed under any circumstances. The
contrast to other saviors) from heaven; in this case same point may also apply to the remaining LXX
"savior" would be a Hellenistic term designating gods or passages with two exceptions.
princes (see below). Or it is from heaven that they also d) Est 5: 1a 1 7 which reads "invoking the all-see-
expect the "savior" on the last day; in this case "savior" ing God and Savior" (E7rLKaAEUaJJ.EVTJ rov 1ravrwv
would stand for the participle: "he who will save us." E7r07rT'TJII 0Eov Kat uwrijpa), can, because of the term
Since nothing is said in the context about the "saviors" "all-seeing" (E7r07rTTJS), 18 be regarded as Hellenistic.
of other people, 12 and furthermore, since Paul is clearly The same applies to Bar (LXX) 4:22: "mercy will
using a common expression that also appears in 1 Thess come ... from your eternal savior" (EAETJJJ.OUVII'TJ ~~EL . ..
1:10 with the participle of the verb "to save," the latter 1rapO. rov alwvLou uwr~pos VJJ.WV), where at least the
explanation must be adopted. "Savior" in this case has no use of"eternal" (alwvLOs) as a designation of the divine
technical Hellenistic meaning. 13 sphere points to Hellenistic influence. 19 In view of what

12 On the term "citizenship," "commonwealth" (7roXl- (E~ov8EP~KaTE) in 1 Kings 10:19, and the connec-
TEVJ.Ia), see Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on tion with "to save" (u~tELP) and "he who delivers"
Phil3:20. (pvOJ.IEPO~) in Wisd Sol16:7f.
13 A different view is held by Adolf von Harnack, "Der 17 This verse is 5:1a in Rahlfs' LXX edition, verse
Heiland," Reden und Aujsat::;e (Giessen: Topelmann, 15:2 in the OT Apocrypha "Additions to Esther"
1904), 310; Hans Lietzmann, Der Welthtiland (Bonn: (RSV).
Marcus & Weber, 1909), 56; and Ernst Lohmeyer, 18 On the use of"all-seeing" (E7r07rT7]~), see 2 Mace
Christuskult und Kaiserkult (Tiibingen: J. C. B. Mohr 3:39; 7:35; 3 Mace 2:21; Ep. Ar. 16; Epict., Diss.
[Paul Siebeck], 1919), 27f. 3.11.6.
14 Manuscript A reads the participial form "he who 19 "Eternal" (alwPLO~) is equivalent to "immortal"
saves" (u~tw11). (a8aParo~); see BMI, p. 894.1, reprinted in Wend-
15 See Gunther Gerlach, Griechische Ehreninschrijten land, Hellenistische Kultur, p. 410. An opposing view
(Halle: Niemeyer, 1908), p. 60. is given by Karl Priimm, "Herrscherkult and Neues
16 Note the parallelism with "he who made him" Testament," Biblica 9 (1928): 138.
(7rOL~ua~) in Deut 32:15, or with "helper" <f30TJ8o~) 20 Ludwig Kohler, "Christus im Alten und im Neuen
injdth 9:11, or with other, similar terms. Note the Testament," ThZ9 (1953): 242f.
connection with "he saved" (EUWUEP) in 1 Chr 21 Cf., for example, PsSo/3:6; 8:33; 16:4; 17. Further
16:35 S •, the antithesis to "you have rejected" information can be found in Wilhelm Bousset, Die
100
 "Savior" 2 Timothy 1 :10

follows we must note that "savior" (uwr~p) does not Jude 25 and 7 Clem. 59.3 27 may be traced back to the
appear in the Greek OT as the equivalent of the Hebrew formulaic usage of Hellenistic Judaism. 1 Tim 2: 3 is
word "redeemer" (?t:~il). 2 0 somewhat more pointed, for here we have the correspond-
3. a) The conception of the savior inJ udaism raises a ing verb "to be saved" (uwO~vaL, see above, section
problem which cannot be completely resolved with the 2b). On the other hand, Lk 1:47 belongs to the group
means available to us. We may assume from the LXX, discussed in section 2c.
that "savior" (uwr~p) was a designation for God in The technical designation of Christ as "savior," how-
Hellenistic judaism. We can conclude indirectly from ever, cannot have its origin in a jewish designation for the
a number of passages that God was called "savior" also in messiah. In that case the title would not be absent in
Semjtjc circles. 21 It is difficult to answer the question the earliest strata of Christian literature, and it would be
as to whether "savior" was already a designation for the hard to explain why it only makes its appearance in
Messiah in pre- Christian times . 7 En 48:7, as also the the Christian Hellenistic literature : the Pastorals, Luke-
Prayer of the Eighteen Petitions in the Babylonian recen- Acts, thejohannine writings, the Second Epistle of Peter,
sion,22 and a number of later midrashim 23 speak of the and the letters of Ignatius of Antioch. Even if a jewish
coming "redeemer" (?~il). 24 But even if earlier and less context is occasionally suggested, 28 it is necessary to
doubtful attestations for "redeemer" as a designation assume that non- Jewish influences have been predomi-
of the Messiah were available, the problem of the origin nant. There are two primary Hellenistic, i.e., oriental-
of the term would not be resolved . Was the Messiah Greek, conceptual contexts to be considered.
understood as avenger, and thus received the title "re- 4. "Savior" designates not only "saving" deities in
deemer" (?~il)? Or does the influence of oriental- general, like Asclepius and the Dioscuri, but in the
Hellenistic expectations of the redeemer come into play mystery religions it designates the god who gives new life
herc? 25 to the mystic by effecting his rebirth. 29 The word takes
b) A connection between Hellenistic and jewish ter- on this meaning for the first time during the Hellenistic
minology is perhaps present in Philo : Spec. leg. 1.209 period, and not without the influence of the general
sounds Hellenistic since "savior and benefactor" (uwr~p
TE Kat EVEP'YETTJS) is found beside "maker and begetter
of the universe" (7rOLTJT~S KaL 'YEIIIITJT~S rwv oXwv) .26
Since the usage of the Pastoral Epistles, like that of the
prayer in 7 Clem. 59£1', is influenced by Hellenistic- jewish
formulas, the formulaic designation of God as "savior"
in 1 Tim 1:1; Tit 1: 3; 2: 10; 3:4 (but see below under 5),

Religion des Judentums im spiithellenistischen .<:_eitalter, God' proclaim Him master and benefactor of the
ed. Hugo Gressmann (Ttibingen: J. C. B. Mohr world which is open to our senses, to that goodness
[Paul Siebeck], 4 1966) p . 362 n. 2. which our minds perceive He is saviour and benefac-
22 For the text of this prayer, see Oskar Holtzmann's tor only, not master or lord. For wisdom is rather
edition of the Mishnah, 1, 1, p. 13. God's friend than His servant" (roD J.I.EV "(ap alu87]-
23 Biller beck 1, p. 69. rov KOU!J.OV 0EU11'0T7J~ KaL EUEP"fEr7JS avELp7]rat Ota
24 It is very questionable whether " he who saves" TOV KUpto~ KaL 8Eo~ I TOV OE V07JTOV a"{a8ov uwr~p
(ucjltwv) in Test. L. 2:11 belongs to the original Kat EUEP"fEr7J~ auro J.I.OVOV, OUXL 0EU11'0T7J~ ~ KUpto~.
Jewish text. tj>LXov "{ap ro uotf>ovBE'iJ J.l.a>..>..ov ~ ooi!Xov). In
25 Cf. Lietzmann, Der Weltheiland; Wilhelm Bousset, Migr. Abr. 124, it is significant that God is called
KyriosChristos, tr.John E. Steeby (Nashville, Tenn. "savior" (uwr~p ) as giver of the "most all-healing
and New York: Abingdon, 1970); Norden, Geburt remedy" (7raJJaKI:uraroJI tf>ap!J.aKoP). "The Father
des Kindes,passim . On the discrepancy between the and Saviour in pity (gave)" (o 1rar~p Kat uwr~p
Jewish title "redeemer" and the Christian title ~AE7JUE) in Praem.poen. 39, suggests a more general
"savior," see Willy Staerk, Soter, 1 (Gtitersloh: meaning for the term (see above, section 2c).
Bertelsmann, 1933), p. 133. On the entire history 27 1 Clem. 59.3 quotesJdth 9:11 verbatim.
of religions problem see Ibid. 1 (1933) and 2 (1938). 28 Lk 2:11; Acts 13 :23; perhaps also 5:31.
26 Cf. also Sobr . 55: "For while the words 'Lord and 29 See Reitzenstein, Mysterienreligionen, p. 39.
101
oriental conception of redemption, 30 which also exerted TWV f.V cPPOVOUVTWV Ta TWV 1T'OAAWV av0pW7rWV lowv
an influence upon the cult of the ruler (see below, sec- 'Ep"(a ... uc/Joopa KaTT/cP~uat Kat 1rpos Tov J.LOvov
tion 5). The predications of Isis and Sara pis as "bringers uwTijpa 0Eov EK{3o~uat, tva Ta J.LEV E7rtKovcjJ[un, M-
of salvati0n" are probably best understood in the sense Tpa oE Kat uwuTpa KaTa0Et'> Tijs if;vxijs Els EAEv0Ep[av
of such a granting of life. 31 One should neither isolate auTT,v E~EAT/Tat; ). 1 Tim 4: 10 also belongs here, if the
nor overestimate these texts. 32 It may be asserted, how- assumption made above, ad loc., is correct, that God is
ever, that the use of the title "savior," especially in the conceived as the fulfiller of the "promise of life" (E7ra"(-
case of deities coming from the East, does suggest the "fEA[a S'wijs). Likewise in Acts 5:31 the parallel term
power to endow with divine life. Philo provides passages "leader" (aPXT/'YOS, see also Acts 3:15) can mean
attesting to this meaning, passages which diverge widely "founder of a new life"; cf. 2 Clem. 20.5: "the savior and
from those cited above, section 3b; cf. Leg. all. 3.27: initiator of immortality" (TOV O'WTijpa Kat apxT/'YOV Tij<;
"What soul, then, was it that succeeded in hiding away acjJOapu[as), and perhaps even Eph 5:23. The idea
wickedness and removing it from sight, but the soul to under discussion is very clearly stated in Dg. 9.6: "Having
which God manifested Himself, and which He deemed convinced us then of the inability of our nature to attain
worthy of His secret mysteries?" (T[vt ovv if;vxfl a7ro- life in time past, and now having shown the Saviour
KpinrTHV Kat acjJavLS'EtV KaK[av E"(EVETO, EL J.Lr, 0 v who is able to save, even where it was impossible" (EAE'Y-
0EO'i EVEc/Jav[uOT/, ~~~Kat TWV a7ropp~TWV J.LVO'TT/p[wv ~as ovv EV J.LEV Tc/) 7rpou0Ev XPOVl{J TO aouvaTOV Tijs
T,~[wuE;). After the quotation of Gen 18: 17 follows: T,J.LETEpas cjJuuEws Els TO TVXEtV S'wijs, vuv OE Tov
"It is meet, 0 Saviour, that thou displayest Thine own ~ .., 'l:. .., \ , >- \ \ , ..,, ) d
O'WTT/pa uH.,as uvvaTov O'l{J~ HV Kat Ta auvvaTa ; an
works to the soul that longs for all beauteous things, and Odes of Sol. 41.12: "the Savior, who makes alive ... our
that Thou hast concealed from it none of Thy works" souls." Perhaps this meaning of the term also explains the
on
(Eu, O'WTEp, Ta O'EaVTOU Ep"(a E11"tOE[KVVO'at Tfl preference of both Gnostic 34 and anti-Gnostic 35 writers
1I"00ouuv Ta KaXa if;vxfl Kat OVOEV avTT,v TWV O'WV for the designation of Jesus as the "savior."
Ep"fWV E11"tKEKpvif;at ); 33 and Conf. ling. 93: "Which of 5. "God, the Savior" (OEos O'WT~p) became a tech-
the wisely-minded, when he sees the tasks which many nical term, not only in the language of the mystery reli-
men endure (and the extravagance of the zeal which they tions, but also in the cult of the ruler. Paul Wendland 36
commonly put forth to win money or glory or the en- has shown how the tendency to make certain human
joyment which pleasures give), would not in the exceed- beings into demigods was active in the religion of Hellen-
ing bitterness of his heart cry aloud to God the only ism and was intensified in the apotheosis of the living
Savior to lighten their tasks and provide a price of the ruler. This cult of the ruler was given new life and
soul's salvation to redeem it into liberty?" (T[s o' OVK liv strength around the beginning of the Christian era

30 On this conception, see Staerk, Soter, passim. du paganismegreco-romain," RSPT15 (1926):

31 See Friedrich Preisigke, Sammelbuch griechischer Ur- 5-34. The latter author argues onesidedly against
kunden aus it'gypten, 2 vol. (Strasbourg: 1915 and 1922; the overvaluation of the concept of salvation in con-
rev. ed. 1 927-50), No. 169: "To Serapis Osiris, the nection with such gods, as does H. Haerens,
greatest savi01·" (~apa1!'tot 'OuEiptot JJ.E'Yiurwt "2:flTHP et 2:flTHPIA," Studia Hellenistica 5 (1948):
uwrfjpt, Ptolemaic age); ibid. No. 596 (deals with 57-68.
Serapis); No. 597: "To Serapis and Isis, saviors" 33 On this passage see Oskar Holtzmann, "Zwei Stel-
(~apa11'tOt Ka1 "Iutot ~wrfjputJJ, 3rd cent. B. C.); len zum Gottesbegriff des Philo," ..(NW 13 (191 2):
GIG 4930b "The greatest goddess, the mighty savior 270f.
Isis" (n}11 JI.E'YiCTT71" 0Ecl.ll KupiaJJ CTWTEtpall •IutJJ); 34 See lrenaeus writing on the Valentinians, Adv. haer.
Aelius Aristides, In Sarapin 20 (II, p. 358, Keil): 1 .2.6.
"God, protector and savior of man, all-sufficient." 35 See Georg Wobbermin, Religionsgeschichtliche Studien
(K1JOEJI.OIIa Kat uwrfjpa aJJ0pW1!'WII avrapK1) 0EOII); zur Frage der Beeinjfussung des Urchrislenlums durch das
ibid., 25 (p. 360): "himself savior and conductor of antikeMysterienwesen (Berlin: E. Ebering, 1896),
souls" (CTWT~p auras Kat VtUX01!'0J1.1!'0S) (trans. by 105ff.
Ed.]. 36 "Soter: Eine religionsgeschichtliche Untersu-
32 See Franz Dolger, Ichthys, 1 (Freiburg i. B.: Herder, chung," ..(NW 5 (1 904): 335-53; cf. idem, Hellenis-
1910), 406-22; and E. B. Allo, "Les dieux sauveurs tische Kultur, 1 23ff. Further bibliography is given
102
 "Savior" 2 Timothy 1:10

through the mood of the Empire, which after many years was meant as an antithesis to the usage of the cult of
of disorder was finally pacified under Augustus' rule the ruler. In documents written during the time of ex-
and which celebrated the emperor as a being who was, in plicit opposition to Rome, the latter assumption is
a special sense, its "savior." 37 Examples are provided probable (see above on 1 Tim 6: 15). Yet this does not
in the inscriptions cited by Wendland. 38 One ancient apply to all passages. After all, even in the cult of the
example is the inscription to honor "Ptolemy, the Savior ruler, many terms used were designations for divine
and God" (IlToAEJLalov Tov uwT~pos Kal 8Eov, 3rd figures which were only secondarily applied to the em-
cent. B.C.). 39 peror. The use of"savior" in Christianity can, accord-
The religious meaning of this term is about as follows : ingly, be traced back just as easily to a naive borrowing as
one sees in the man so designated a revelation of the to a polemical intention. The fact that the earliest usage
divinity, in his works divine blessings, in his government is not polemically determined, and a glance at the way
a time of salvation. Thus, what is historical is raised to Philo uses the term, seem to substantiate the former
the level of the metaphysical; the history of the ruler assumption. Hellenistic Judaism may have been an
becomes a history of salvation. For the understanding of intermediary.
the term "savior" in the NT, one may refer to the ruler 6. It therefore seems impossible to find only one deriva-
cult whenever the context speaks about the dawn of a tion for the Christian title "savior." Nor are we limited
new world epoch, especially when the terminology used to the three possibilities discussed: Jewish predicate, giver
in such contexts is similar to that of the emperor cult. of life, or ruler of the time of salvation. In the first place,
This is especially true in 2 Tim 1:10, which describes the the Hellenistic usage of the term is much more varied.
emergence of the new age with the "appearance" (E1n- The epithet "savior" was given not only to figures who
<f>avELa) of the Savior (to be sure, the giving of life is were seen primarily as gods of salvation, such as Ascle-
then mentioned). 40 This interpretation also applies to pius, but to many other gods as well. 42 Moreover, in
2: 10 (E7rL</>aliELa, see below); Tit 3: 6 (see the terms in some passages the Christian usage is formulaic and hence
3:4, where "savior" is used to refer to God); 2 Petr 1:11 cannot be;: explained with any precision (Tit 1 :4; 2 Petr
("everlasting kingdom" [alwvLos ,BauLAELa]), and 1:1; 2:20; 3:2, 18; Ign. Eph. 1.1; Mg . pref.; Ph/d. 9.2;
perhaps also in Ign. Phld. 9.2 ("advent" [1rapovula]). Sm. 7.1) . Thus the title, which gradually became current
The formula "Savior of the world" (uwT~p TOV KOtTJLOV, even in narrative materials as a substitute for "Jesus," 43
Jn 4:42; 1 Jn 4:14) belongs here because of its univer- did not essentially modify the christological frame of
salism, if for no other reason. 41 In the early Christian use reference. Christians who later called Jesus "savior," such
of the term, it is still questionable whether the Christians as Ignatius, simply wanted to attest to his divinity. 4 4
simply adopted the "pagan" word, or whether its usage

in the latter work. 38 Wendland, Hellenistische Kultur, 406ff.

37 See Wendland, He/lenistische Kultur, 142ff; Lietz- 39 The inscription is found in BM I IV, 1, 906.2f.
mann, Der Weltheiland,passim; Lohmeyer, Christus- 40 This would belong to the pattern described above
kult und Kaiserkult,passim; Eduard Meyer, Ursprung in section 4. See also the criticism by Windisch, "Zur
und Anfiinge des Christentums 3 (Stuttgart: Cotta, Nach- Christologie," p. 213, and Karl Priimm's skeptical
folger, 1923), 390ff;Julius Kaerst, Geschichte des Hel- attitude in "Der Herrscherkult im Neuen Testa-
lenismus (Leipzig: Teubner, 1 1926), 309ff; Heinrich ment," Biblica 9 (1928) : 3ff, 129ff.
Linssen, "Entwicklung und Verbreitung einer litur- 41 Cf. Bauer, Johannesevangelium, onJn 4:42.
gischen Formelgruppe," Jahrbuchfiir Liturgiewissen- 42 See D5lger, lchthys, I, 420ff. See also a usage in-
schajt 8 (1928): 1-75; Karl Priimm, Der christliche spired by Stoicism, mentioned in Haerens, "l:OTHP
Glaube und die altheidnische Welt (Leipzig: Hegner, et l:OTHPIA ," 57ff.
1935), 195ff; the material on uwr~p can be found 43 P. Oxy. VIII 1081 a, 5.
in Wendland, "Soter;" David Magie, De Romantn'um 44 See D5lger, Ichthys I, p. 422. On the entire issue see
iuris publici sacrique vocabulis sollemnibus in Graecum F . Dornseiff, "Soter," in Pauly-Wissowa, III A 1
sermonem conversis (Leipzig: Teubner, 1905); Wil- (1929), 1211-21. Franz Joseph D5lger, Antike und
helm Weber, Untersuchungen ;:.ur Geschichte des Kaisers Christentum 6, 4 (MUnster: Aschendorff, 1950), 241-
Hadrianus (Leipzig: Teubner, 1907), 225ff; Walter 72.
Otto, "Augustus Soter," Hermes45 (1910) : 448ff.
103
 In the cult the epiphany is celebrated as the birth-
"Epiphany" in the Pastoral Epistles
festival of the god, as the feast of his accession to power,
"Epiphany," "appearance" (E7r,f/>ave,a) in 2 Tim 1:10 as the festival of an individual miracle, 49 or, finally, as
is intimately related to the term "savior" (uwr~p). the festival of his return from a foreign country. 50 This
Strictly speaking, the religious term "epiphany" means "visitation" (E7r,Of1JJ.la) corresponds, in the Christian
the appearance of a divinity that is otherwise hidden, context, to the eschatological coming, to the parousia,
manifested as a deus praesens either in a vision, by a healing which is designated as "epiphany" (E7r,f/>avE,a) in
or some other helping action, or by any manifestation several passages. 51 However, according to the usage of
of power. In any of these instances, the emphasis is not on the word elsewhere, it is not surprising that the Christians
revelations in myth, but rather on events in history and came to apply the term "epiphany," and later the word
in the present. The god is thus "such as he appears and is "parousia," 52 also to the earthly "appearance" of Jesus,
shown forth by his deeds" (o!os EK TWJI Ep"(wv E?r,f/>alvE- namely his birth. 53 Even the life of jesus is seen as the
Ta' Ka~ oelKJIVTa'). 45 The term "epiphany" (E7r,f/>a- breaking in of the time of salvation and the proclamation
JIE,a) is also applied to entire incidents related in leg- of God on earth. This interpretation of jesus' earthly
endary form, which focus upon an appearance and work is based on the same patterns of thought which the
action of the divinity. Thus the narrative portion of the Hellenistic cult of the ruler applied to the rule of the
temple chronicle ofLindos is entitled "Epiphanies" god-king. In fact, the word "epiphany" (E7r,f/>ave,a)
(E7r,cf>avHa,), while the revelations taken as a whole are appears together with cognates in this context as well; cf.
designated by the singular "Epiphany" (E7r,cf>avHa) .46 Caesar's title, "God manifest, descendent of Ares and
The LXX passages 2 Kings 7:23; 2 Mace 3:24; 5:5; Aphrodite, common savior of human life" (TOll a?ro
12 :22 ; 14: 15; 47 3 Mace 2:9; 5:8; 5:51 belong in this con- "Apews Ka~ 'Acf>pooe[l] TflS 0Eov E?r,f/>avij Ka~ Ko,vov
text. The passages from 2 Mace are especially instruc- TOV avOpw7rtJIOV {3lov uwrijpa.) 54
tive, for they show that it is completely irrelevant to the
use of the term, in what manner one becomes certain Passages like these show how the delay of the parousia
of the presence of the god (deus praesens) . 48 Thus "appear- caused no disappointment. The consciousness of the
ance" in 2 Mace 3:24 designates the miraculous ap- gresence of the gifts of salvation dominates. The whole
pearance of the rider before Heliodorus, while the clause, sequence of concepts with its terminology (examined in
"upholds his own heritage by manifesting himself" (J.J.ET' the excursus) is intended to transfer to Christ's first
E?r,f/>avelas avn'AaJJ.f3aveuOa,), in 2 Mace 14: 15 epiphany all those effects which were originally expected
simply means "to extend help in a visible (in any way
apprehensible) form."

45 Aelius Aristides, In Sarapin 15 (II, p. 357, Keil); cf., any to Lk 2 or Matt 2, to the baptism of jesus, or to
e.g., the manifestation of Zeus Tropaios and ofSaba- the miracle in Cana.
zios in Pergamon {lnscr. Perg. I, 247; II, 4.248, 52), 50 The attestations are found in F. Pfister, "Epipha-
of Artemis in Ephesus (Ditt. Sy/1. II, 867.35), Mag- nie" in Pauly-Wissowa, Suppl. IV (1924): 277ff
nesia (Inscr. Magn. 16-87,passim, cf. Index), and (see below).
Knidos (see Rudolf Herzog, "Vorlaufiger Bericht 51 2 Thess 2:8; 1 Tim 6:14; 2 Tim 4 :1, 8; 2Clem 12.1;
uber die koische Expedition imjahre 1904," Jalzr- 17.4 (cf. Acts 2:20).
buclz des deulsclzen arclzaologisclzen lnsliluls 20 [1905], 52 See Dibelius, Tlzessaloniclzer, Plzilipper, the excursus
Beiblatt 11, pp. 1-15); cf. "the appearances of the to 1 Thess 2:10.
Virgin" (n1[s brupav]~las rijs IIap8Evov) IPE I, 53 See 2 Tim 1 :10;Just. Apol. 1.14.3; 40.1; cf. the use
184. Cf. A. Wilhelm in: Arclzaologisclze- epigraplzisclze of"he appeared" (E11'E</>cl11T/) in Tit 2:11; 3:4.
Mitteilungen aus Osterreiclz 20 (1897): 87, and Michael 54 Ditt. Syll. II, 760.6ff. Cf. further lnscr. Magn. 157.
Rostovtzeff, "'E?n</>aPEtat," Klio 16 (1920): 204. c 6; 256.14; W . R. Paton and E. L . Hicks, ed., The
46 KIT 131, p. 34 D 1, and p. 4 A 3. Inscriptions of Cos (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1891),
47 15: 27 in the codex Venetus. 391.4; Weber, Hadrianus, p. 196. Also W. M. Ram-
48 Cf. the similarly lax, yet just as technical usage of sey, "The Greek of the Early Church and the Pagan
"he appeared" (w<l>fJrJ) in the LXX. Ritual," ExpT 10 (1899): 208; Thieme, lnsclzriften
49 Cf. the relation of the Christian festival of the Epiph- von Magnesia, 34ff; Deissmann, LAE, 373f. On the
104
 "Epiphany" 2 Timothy 1:10-14

from the glorious epiphany in the last days. 55 The words EKELII'fJII r~v ~JLEpav]), the link with v 13- 5 9 all these
regarding the death already point in this direction (cf. things require that we understand "deposit" (7rapa-
1 Cor 15:26). 56 "To bring to light" (</>wrLtELv) is less 0~K'fJ) as "faith" entrusted to the church in the form of
fraught with meaning here than in 1 Cor 4:5, where the tradition; cf. v 14. 60 Paul and the tradition are
"darkness" (CTKOros) appears in the context as a con- essential components of the event of salvation. Note the
trast. To bring to light is not used as a technical term of change from "my" to the "good" tradition, and see above
mysticism in either case. 57 Rather, we find here liturgical on 1 Tim 1:12.
language of revelation. 58 • 13 On "sound preaching" (iryLa£vovrEs Xo-yoL), see
• 11 The mention of the gospel forms a connecting link the excursus to 1 Tim 1:10 (above pp. 24£). " Example"
to the "personal" conclusion of the kerygma tic exposition (V7rOTV7rWCTL11) (see above on 1 Tim 1: 16) is perhaps to
(see above on 1 Tim 1: 11). This transitional passage be taken as predicate object (see the translation); then we
again applies the kerygma to the present and binds would have to supply as the object "the words, which
together the two functions of the apostle, that of the you have heard from me" (rous Xo-yovs [oOs 1rap'
guarantor of the teaching and that of the prototype for EJLOV ~KOVCTas]). On "in faith and love" (Ell 7rLCTTEL Kat
suffering (see the introduction above to 2 Tim 1 : 3-14) . cl"fcl7r71),seeaboveon 1 Tim 1:14. Such expressions,
On "herald" (K~pv~) see above on 1 Tim 2:7. which seem to be formulaic, are often found at the end of
•12 The exemplary character of the apostle is empha- clauses. Hence the phrase "in faith and love" is not to
sized in such a way that the admonitions to Timothy be connected with v 14, 61 but with v 13, specifically with
become statements about Paul: that he is not ashamed the main verb, because they characterize the religious
(see 1:8, 14; also 1 :16), and that the "deposit" (7rapa- status of the Christian.
0~K'fJ) is being preserved (see 1: 14; cf. 1 Tim 6:20) . The •14 On "deposit" (7rap a0~K'fJ ), see above, v 12.6 2
general use of this term in the Pastorals (see also v 14),
the eschatological orientation ("until that day" [Els

entire issue see Odo Case!, "Die Epiphanie im 58 There is also a purely figurative use of the term; see
Lichte der Religionsgeschichte," Benediktinische Epict., Diss. 1.4.31 : "but to him who found the
Monatsschrijt 4 {1922): 13ff; F . Pfister, "Epiphanie" truth, and brought it to light" (Tell OE T~v &.X*OHav
in Pauly-Wissowa, Suppl. IV {1924): 277ff; Evpovn Kal t/>wTLuavn).
Priimm, "Herrscherkult," 3ff, 129ff, and 289ff. Ac- 59 The phrase "sound preaching" (v-yLalvovrn Xo-yoL)
cording to the last article cited, the word belongs in v 13 refers back to "deposit" (1rapaO*K7J) in v 12.
rather to the courtly style than to the sacral; W. 60 In v 14 it becomes clear that "deposit" (7rapa0*K7J)
Grossow, "Epiphania in de pastorale brieven," does not mean the inner equipment of the mission-
Nederlandse katholieke stemmen 49 (1953) : 353ff; Elpi- ary {this disagrees with the 2d German ed. of the
dius Pax, 'EIII<l>ANEIA {Miinchen: Zink, 1955). present commentary). The latter is described instead
55 Indeed, in the Pastoral Epistles, "epiphany" is used by the concept of the spirit.
in two ways, referring to the past as well as to the 61 B. Weiss, ad loc., connects them with v 14.
future appearance of Christ, whereas the formula 62 On the link between tradition and spirit, see Mau-
quoted in v 10 knows only of the first epiphany (cf. rice Goguel, The Birth of Christianity, tr. H. C . Snape
the analogous Christology in 1 Tim 3: 16) . (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1953), 355.
56 This shift can already be observed in the writings
of Paul; cf. Dibelius, Geisterwelt, 199ff; 206.
57 See Reitzenstein, Mysterienuligionen, Index, s.v.
t/>wTltELV.

105
 2 Timothy 1 :16-18

1 Apostasy or Authentication

16 This you know, that all those in Asia

have turned away from me, including
Phygelus and Hermogenes. 16/ But may
the Lord give (his) mercy to the family of
Onesiphorus, for he has often refreshed
me and was not ashamed of my chains,
17/ but rather, when he came to Rome,
he diligently sought and found me:
18/ may the Lord (now also) grant that
he find mercy with the Lord on that
day. And you know best what his
service has accomplished in Ephesus.

The personal references (see 1 Tim 1: 19f) are intimately was already dead at the (alleged) time of the writing
connected with the preceding section. "He was not of the epistle. Thus v 18 becomes, for the Roman Cath-
ashamed" (o{n, E7raUTXUIIfl-TJ) is reminiscent ofv 8. Onesi- olic interpretation, a proof-text for the intercession for
phorus is set up as a good example for Timothy; the case the dead. But nothing of the sort is implied. 1 For the im-
ofPhygelus and Hermogenes is described as a warning; partial reader the phrase "when he came to Rome"
and Timothy is requested to come to Paul (see 2 Tim ('YEIIOJ.I.EIIOS Ell 'PWJL17 ) can only be interpreted in this
4:9). This connection is worthy of notice with respect to way: "Onesiphorus came to Rome, sought me and found
the problem of the personal references (see below pp. me there." One can escape this interpretation if one
127f, the second excursus to 2 Tim 4:21). translates these words as "when he regained his strength"
•16 The phrase "all have turned away from me" (a7rE- (reading pWJ.1.17 ="strength" instead of "Rome"). But
urpa¢TfUall J.I.E 1ra11TEs) cannot be understood to imply since nothing was said before about a sickness, such a hint
apostasy from the gospel, because of the comparatively is improbable, especially in a pseudonymous epistle.
mild terminology and because of the word "all" (7raii- Paul is therefore seen as being in Rome, and, more
TES) . The phrase probably refers to an event like that precisely, as experiencing his first and only imprisonment
described in 2 Tim 4: 1Of. According to the Acts of Paul, (see below pp. 126f, the first excursus to 4:21).
the Demas mentioned there is joined with the Hermo- •18 In "to find" (EvpEtll) is there a reference to "he
genes referred to here (Act. Pl. 12, Lipsius-Bonnet 1, found" (EvpEII) in v 17? I~ the roughness of the formula-
p. 244). tion (with the double "Lord" [Kup,os]) to be explained
•16, 17 On Onesiphorus, see the Acts of Paul (Act. by postulating the combination of two formulaic ex-
Pl. 2f, Lipsius-Bonnet 1, pp. 236ff). On the basis of2 Tim pressions?2 "You know best" ({3E'Xno11) is to be taken
1:18 and the mention of Onesiphorus's family, exclud- as an elative (see the translation) or, if translated as
ing the master of the house (here and in 2 Tim 4: 19), "better," supplied with "than I know."
scholars have occasionally concluded that Onesiphorus

1 Jeremias, Easton, ad loc., disagree.

2 See Jeremias and Easton, ad loc., on these questions.

106
 2 Timothy 2:1-13

2 Exhortation to Suffering

But you, my child, be strong in the grace

(as it is) in Christ Jesus, 2/ and that
which you have heard from me before
many witnesses, entrust to reliable
people who, in turn, .are capable of
teaching others. 31 As a good soldier of
Christ Jesus accept your share in
suffering. 41 No one who goes forth
into the battlefield becomes entangled
with business affairs: (he only wishes)
to please his commander. 51 Also, if
someone competes in an athletic
contest, he does not receive the wreath
unless he competes according to the
rules. 61 The farmer who has done the
work should be the first to enjoy the
fruits. 7 I Consider what I say-the Lord
will give you understanding in all things.
81 Remember Jesus Christ, raised from
the dead, from the seed of David,
(thus he is proclaimed) in my gospel.
91 In this (proclamation) I suffer hard-
ship, even bonds like a criminal, but the
word of God is not fettered . 101 There-
fore I endure everything for the sake
of those who are chosen, so that they
too may obtain salvation in Christ Jesus
and eternal glory.
11 I The word stands firm:
"For if we died with him, we shall also
live with him,
121 if we endure, we shall also rule with
him,
if we deny, he will also deny us,
131 if we are unfaithful, he remains
faithful, because he cannot deny
himself."

After" Pau l" has introduced himself as an example in the significant, together with 7 Clem . 42:1 - 4, for the concept
first section, the next section of 2 Tim presents die actual of the apostolic tradition in early Christianity (see also on
parenesis (extending to 2 Tim 4:8). It is a summary Tit 1:9 below). Here one can see early, as is the case
statement of the several regulations upon which the cen- with the regulations in 1 Tim, that the author is less in-
tral sections of 1 Tim were based. The parenesis of 2 Tim terested in the fictional addressee of the epistle than in
has the character of a testament. 1 the members of the congregation who are to be instructed
• 1, 2 The introduction comprises an exhortation of hy him. His concern is to extend the line of tradition
fundamental importance to the understanding of the into his own times. The personal parenesis of the epistle,
"epistle." Timothy himself must become strong (see Paul therefore, is significant because it goes beyond Timothy
in 1 Tim 1: 12), and he must begin to pass on the tradi- and applies to later generations of Christian readers.
tion which he has received from Paul. The passage is In contrast to 7 Clem., the concept of tradition is not sup-

On this point see j ohannes Munck, "Discours tienne (Neuchatel and Paris : Delachaux & Niestle,
d'adieu dans le Nouveau Testament et dans Ia lit- S.A., 1950), 155-70. See also below, on 2 Tim 3:1ff.
tcrature biblique" in Aux sources de la tradition chri-

107
plemented by a concept of succession. Nor do the Pas- Rather the emphasis rests upon the one "who has done
torals develop a general concept of the apostle. They are the work" (Ko7rdl)JITa), which corresponds to "compete
oriented only to Paul. according to the rules" (IIOJ.LLJ.LW~ aO'Aliv) and to the
"Before many witnesses" (oui 1ro'A'Awv J.Laprvpwv): renunciation of interest in "business affairs" in the
the solemnity involved in the appeal to many witnesses preceding verses. Only thus can one understand the
makes it improbable that "you have heard" (~Kovua~) meaning common to all three examples: hard work brings
refers only to the missionary preaching and teaching, its reward. Although the author may have patterned
whose content was to be verified "through" many per- the passage after 1 Cor 9:7, he has given the idea a com-
sons. The reference must be to baptism, or rather to pletely different emphasis. To be sure, this emphasis is
"ordination," which provided the occasion on which the to be gathered from the composition and combination of
"deposit" (1rapaO~K1]) was transmitted to Timothy. the three examples rather than from the wording of the
Then "through" (OLa), here translated as "before," phrases. That characteristic perhaps results from the
designates the circumstances. Since, according to this fact that the author has appropriated well-known para-
passage, Timothy is supposed to transmit the "deposit" bles without reformulating them for their new context. 6
(1rapaO~K1J) to the future leaders of the congregation- • 8 is apparently a kerygma tic formulation. 7 The
not to all Christians-it is the "Great Catechism," not source is probably a two-part formula of the same type
the "Small Catechism," 2 which is at issue. Therefore, the as Rom 1 :3f. It implies no preexistence, but rather
act alluded to here is the appointment of Timothy to distinguishes between the earthly status of the son of
his office. "What you have heard" (a ~Kovua~) refers to David and the stage of exaltation (in Rom 1: 3f this is
a formulated summary of the teaching, cf. 1 Cor 15: 3ff; designated as sonship) after the raising from the dead
Rom 6:17. 3 (not "resurrection"). The Pastoral Epistles work with
• 3-7 The first part of the parenesis is permeated with conflicting Christological materials. The development of
the thought of suffering and of Paul as the prototype of a reflection about the Son of David appears in Ignatius. 8
suffering (see above on 1: 3-14). 4 The first exhortation is "My gospel" (ro EVa"('ye'AdJII J.LOV) is also found in
further substantiated by three metaphorical sayings, Rom 2:16 and 16:25. The latter passage is not Pauline,
which doubtless come from the tradition. The first of these and the former has been suspected of being a gloss. 9
is connected to the key word "soldier" (O'TpaTLWT1J~) . It Again the confession is immediately connected with the
is not explicitly stated how these metaphors are to be ap- person of Paul, as is also what follows.
plied; the reader is left to find out for himself (see 2: 7). • 9 See above, on 2 Tim 1 :8. "In this" (Ell c;J) refers to
All three images are also common in the diatribe. 5 The the "gospel" (Eua"'("'(EALOII), represented in the following
idea that "he who has done the work" (K01T'LWII) is en- clause by "the word of God" (o AO"'(O~ rov 0Eov). On
titled to a share in the fruits is also found in Deut 20:6 and "even bonds" (J.LEXPL OEO'J.LWII), cf. Phil2:8. A kind of
'pr 27: 18. As proof for this idea Paul uses three similar personification of the "word" is also found in 2 Thess
images in 1 Cor 9:7. But in 2 Tim 2, no interest is shown 3:1.10
in the concept of a reward that is simply presupposed. • 10 The preceding verse had already shifted from the

2 The reference is to the analogous distinction between tenses of"to compete" (6.8XEtll) in v 5, see Rader-
Martin Luther's Small and Great Catechism [Ed.]. macher, Grammatik, 178.
3 See Seeberg, Katechismus, 143, 172 and 186; Norden, 7 See 2 Tim 1 :9f; 1 Tim 6:13. Cf. Seeberg, Katechis-
Agnostos Theos, 269ff. mus, 173; Norden, Agnostos Theos, 381.
4 On "soldier" (urpanWT'I]S), see the excursus above, 8 Ign. Tr. 9; Sm. 1.1. Cf. Lietzmann, "Symbolstudien"
pp. 32f on 1 Tim 1 :18; furthermore Dibelius-Gree- (2), pp. 264ff; Cullmann, Confessions, 50.
ven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, the excursus on Eph 9 See RudolfBultmann, "Glossen im Romerbrief,"
6:10. ThLZ 72 (194 7) : 201; reprinted in idem, Exegetica
5 On "soldier" (urpanWT'I]S) see the excursus men- (Tiibingen:J. C . B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1967),
tioned, n . 4 above. On "athlete" (6.8XT]T~s) see 283.
Wendland, Hellenistische Kultur, 357. On "farm- 10 See Asting, Verkiindigung, 187.
er" (-yEWp-yos), see Epictetus (ed. Schenk), Index).
6 See also below on 2:20. On the differences in the
108
 2 Timothy 2:3-13

theme of the kerygma to the concept of suffering. Here The first two couplets of the quotation entirely agree
the suffering of the apostle is evaluated in terms of its with one another, from the standpoint of both form and
significance for the history of salvation. In this context content (except for the change in tense in the first clause) .
one is tempted to refer to the concept of the suffering The third is different in content, but contains, like the
of Christ in the apostle; 11 but nothing of the sort is im- first, two parts that are parallel to one another. 12 The
plied in 2 Tim 2. Thus the final clause must refer to fourth, in three parts, rounds out the whole very impres-
the mission. sively. But it stands in contrast to all three preceding
• 11-13 The author concludes this section with a quota- couplets because of its paradox. The idea ofv 13 does not
tion of unknown origin, in the style of a hymn, confirming belong in the context of2 Tim 2; this too proves that
the promise of salvation made in v 10. Oo the introduc- it is a quotation. On "to deny" (apvE'LuOaL), cf. the
. tory formula see above, pp. 28f, the excursus to 1 Tim translation : "if we fail, he fails us." 13 "He remains faith-
1:15. A close parallel is found in Pol. Phil. 5.2: "even as ful" (11"LCTTO~ JJ.EIIEL) cannot refer to God's insistence
he promised us to raise us from the dead , and that if upon formal recompense ; such an interpretation contra-
we are worthy citizens of his community, ' we shall also dicts the usage of the terms. Rather it is the thought of
reign with him ,' if we but have faith" (KaOw~ inrECTXETO God's faithfulness to the covenant (cf. Rom 3:2f). On the
~JJ.Lil E"fEtpaL ~JJ.o.s EK vEKpwv, Kal. i>n, Mv 1I"OALTEV- coexistence offormal retaliation and its suppression, cf.
' () a a<;LW~
' 1:' ' ~ R ... I ~
CTWJJ.E avrov, KaL\ CTVJJ.~JaCTLI\EVCTOJJ.Eil '
aVTC~, also the Manual of Discipline from Qumran (1 QS XI ,
EhE 11"LCTTEUOJJ.Eil) . This passage is not necessarily based 11f) : "And I, if I stagger, God's mercies are my salvation
on 2 Tim 2: 11ff, but both could rely upon a common forever ; if I stumble because of the sin of the flesh, my
source (especially if the Pastorals and Pol. Phil. originated justification is in the righteousness of God which existed
in the same area, as von Campenhausen believes) . Pol. forever" [Trans. Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings, p. 102].
Phil. conceived of"word" (A6"(o~) as a saying of the
Lord. Actually, he may have been influenced by the state-
ment of Paul in Rom 6:8, because, in contrast to other
quotations in this epistle, here life is understood strictly in
reference to the future-a fact which is significant in
view of2 Tim 2:18.

11 See Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, natsschrijt fur Pastoraltheologie 34 (1938) : 108-18.
the excursus to Colt :24; Lohse, Colossians and Phil- 13 "Wenn wir versagen, gibt er uns Absage," Anton
emon, on Colt :24. Fridrichsen, "Einige sprachliche und stilistische
12 Is there dependence on Matt 10: 33? See Gunther Beobachtungen," Con. Neot . 2 (1936): 8- 13, and 6
Bornkamm, "Das WortJesu vom Bekennen," Mo- (1942) : 96 .

109
 2 Timothy 2:14-26

2 Personal Authentication in
View of Heretics

14 You must remind (the people) of this and

adjure (them) in the face of God not
to bring ruin upon their hearers through
disputes about words (which are) useful
for nothing. 16/ Make every effort to
present yourself before God as proven,
as a worker who need not be ashamed,
who teaches the word of truth rightly.
16/ But flee from godless chatter:
because (throughout) they will make
more and more progress into godless-
ness. 17/ and their teaching will feed
upon (them) like gangrene. Among them
are Hymenaeus and Philetus, 18/ who
have missed the mark with regard to
truth, for they say that the resurrection
has already happened, and (thus) they
destroy the faith of some people. 19/ But
the firm foundation of God stands and
it bears this seal: "The Lord knows
his own," and "Whoever names the
name of the Lord, stay away from injus-
tice I" 20/ln a large house there are
not only vessels of gold and silver, but
also of wood and clay, and some are
(designated) for honorable (use), some
for disreputable (use). 21/lf a man
cleanse himself of these things, then he
will be a vessel (that is destined) for
honor, sanctified, useful to the master,
prepared for every good work. 22/ Flee
the desires of youth, but pursue up-
rightness, faith, love, peace, together
with (all) those who call upon the Lord
with a pure heart. 23/ Reject foolish and
uninstructed speculations, since you
know that they will (only) create
quarrels. 24/ But a servant of the Lord
should not quarrel: rather he should
be gentle toward everyone, skillful in
teaching, without resentment: 25/ he
should instruct his opponents in gentle-
ness, that God might perhaps grant
them repentance for the recognition of
truth, 26/ and that they might escape
from the snare of the devil, since they
have been captured by him to do his will.

The second part of the parenesis is formulated with a "upon" and "for"). If"useful for nothing" (E7r' oM~v
view to the heretics (see 3: 1ff). It begins with a summary XP~O',J.I.OV) is not to be deleted as a gloss, it must be in
reference to the preceding exhortations (see above on apposition to the preceding infinitive, literally, "to
1 Tim 1:18-20). dispute about words" (AO')'OJ.I.«XELV); in this interpreta-
• 14 This is difficult to interpret because of the lack of tion, "for nothing" (E7r' oiJOEv) is seen as dependent
any connecting or contrasting particle in the clauses on "useful" (XP~O',J.I.OV). If the reading "do not dispute
introduced by the Greek particle E7rL (translated with about words" (JJ.T, AO')'OJJ.aXE') 1 is adopted, a rather
110
 2 Timothy 2:14-17

clumsy asyndeton results, since only one of the two clauses weakened to the same ex tent as in the compound with
in question can be dependent upon this main verb. If "new" (KaLvo-). 5 Here too the stress is on "right"
the reading" [not] to dispute ... " (Ao')'OJ.Laxt'Lv) is (opOo-) and not on the verbal meaning "to cut" (see
adopted, then "ruin upon the hearers" completes the the translation) . On the formation of the word, cf. "to
thought of this infinitive, and the particle introducing walk rightly" (opOo7rOOOVC1L1') in Gal 2: 14; or is this an
this clause (E7rL) refers to the accompanying condition, idiom? 6 "The word of truth" (AO')'OS T~S aATJ(Jtias) is
as in Rom 8:20. In this case also, the meaning "to bring here, as in Eph 1:13, equivalent to the gospel. 7
ruin" for the Greek words E7rt Karacrrpocf>fi fits; 2 cf. •16 On "chatter" (Ktvocf>wvLaL ), see above on 1 Tim
Herm. mand. 5.2.1 and 6.2.4, in which "to ruin" (Kara- 6:20. The subject of"they will make progress" (7rpoK6-
crrpEc/>tLV) is used to refer to the effect of wrath. t/;ovcrLv ) which is used ironically, is, as the context shows,
•16 The best medicine against the disease of"disputes "people who engage in chatter" (Ktvocf>wvovvns). Their
about words" 3 is Timothy's good conduct itself. "Who talk leads further into godlessness.
need not be ashamed" (avt1raLcrxwros) is used in the • 17 The image of gangrene (')'a')'')'p aLva) is also found
same sense as in 2 Tim 1 : 8. 4 "Worker" (EP'Y ci TTJS) is in Plutarch. 8 The image may therefore be a common
used in 2 Cor 11: 13 and Phil 3:2 to refer to the activity of one, and need not be derived from an [alleged] medical
the missionary; here it refers to the work of the leader of counselor of the author. 9 "To feed (upon)," "graze"
mission congregations. The Greek term translated with (VOJ.L~V EXH) is consistent with the image. 10 It thus refers
"teach rightly" (opOoroJ.Lttv) has not been adequately to the spread of the sickness- here, the spread of the
explained so far. It seems-in view of its occurrence godless teaching-perhaps among the congregations (but
in Pr 3:6 and 11: 5, where it is connected with "ways" sec 2 Tim 3:9). Therefore one might better think of it as
(oooL) in a figurative sense-to presuppose the meaning the spread of godlessness in human souls; thus , in the
"to clear a way" (TEJ.LI'ELI' o06v); cf. Plato, Leg. 810: sense of 2 Tim 3:13. Hymenaeus is probably the same
"to proceed along the way of legislation which has been person as the one mentioned in 1 Tim 1 :20 ; here he has
cleared by our present discourse" (r~v vvv EK rwv 7rap- obviously not yet been "handed over to Satan." In decid-
6vrwv AO')'WV TETJ.LTJJ.LEVTJV ooov r~s VOJ.LoOtcrLas 7rop- ing the question of priority, this state of affairs can be
tvtcr0aL) [Loeb modified]. But in a compound with interpreted in different ways (see above p. 71, the excur-
"right" (opOo - ), the verb "to cut" (TEJ.LVttv) could be sus to 1 Tim 4:14, section 2) .

1 This is the reading of A C • lat. friends: "In fact it was by such scars, or rather such
2 Wohlenberg, ad loc., interprets it differently as "sub- gangrenes and cancers, that Alexander was con-
jugation." sumed so that he destroyed Callisthenes etc." ( rau-
3 That is, of heretical preachers; cf. 2 Tim 2 :23; 1 Tim rats J.lEIITOL ra'is o&Xa'is , J.laXXov OE 'Y«"f'ypaLvaLs
1 :4; 6:4; Tit 3:9. Kai KaKpLIIWJ..IaCTL OLa{3pwfJEis •AXt~avopos a7rWAE<TE
4 The word is also used in Josephus, Ant. 18.243; the Kai KaHtuOtv'T/ KTA.).
adverb in Agapetus, De officio boni principis 57 (p. 9 In view of 4:11, Belser, ad loc., suggests Luke. Sam-
174, Groebel), and Hippolytus, Philos. 1 (p. 3.14, ples from the medical writings are given in Wett-
Wendland). stein (JoannesJacobus Wetstenius), Novum Testa-
5 Cf. Lucian, Phalaris 2. 9: "Therefore we ought not mentum Graecum II (Amsterdam: Ex Officiana Dom-
to make any innovation in the present case" (OEt meriana, 1752), ad loc.
roLvuv J.l'T/O' Ell rcll 1rapovn KaLvOTOJ.lEtv J.l'T/OEII), 10 Cf. Galen, De simp/. medicam. temp .. etjac. 9 (12, p.
where it means "to make an innovation"; cf. also 179, Kuhn):" ... the dysenteri£ ulcers, before the
Tatian, Or. Graec. 35.2: "Tatian ... renews the ulcers become inclined to putrefy, it is customary
teachings of the barbarians" ( T a navos ... KaLJIO- among physicians to call such conditions 'pastur-
TOj.lEt ra {3ap{3apwvoo'YJ.l«Ta) [trans. by Ed.]. ages' because the putrefaction grazes outwards to-
6 Cf. b. Ber . 61a (with p::t, un) : "the kidneys prompt, wards the adjacent parts and corrupts them together
the heart discerns, the tongue shapes (the words), with the part first affected." (ras ou<TEIITEpLKas iX-
the mouth articulates" (,Ol ;'l!llnno prv?). KW<TELS 1rpo rov u 11 1rEoovwo11 'YEvtufJa, ra i!XK'T/,
7 See Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon; K«AEtJI o' 'EfJos EO'Ttll TOtS larpo'is ras TOLauras
Lohse, Colossians, Philemon, on Coil :6. otaOtuELs voJ..tas a1ro rov IIEJ..IEl!fJaL r~v <TT/1rEOOva
8 Plut., Adulat. 24 (p. 65 D) says of Alexander, whose 1rpos ra 1rA1/<TLauavra J..!OpLa uuvotacpfJELpouuav
band of flatterers spreads slander against his best a{m1 r4l 7rpWTf1 KaKwOtvn) [trans. by Ed.]; cf. also
111
• 18 If one contests the unity of the description of the "first generation" (7rpWT1J 'YEVEa) . Of the two "inscrip-
heretics in the Pastorals (see above pp. 65ff, the excursus tions" of the "foundation," the first certainly depends
to 1 Tim 4: 3), one will try to relate 2 Tim 2: 14, 17f to upon the LXX (Nurn 16: 5), the second probably so. 17
special occurrences in the life of the congregation. 11 But Yet the author is probably not quoting the LXX here,
the sharpness of the criticism speaks decidedly against but early Christian poetry, whose language had been
the assumption that the opponents are still legitimate influenced by the Greek OT. This is indicated by the
authorities within the congregation. The thesis which is form of the second saying, perhaps also by the use of
opposed here regarding the resurrection is best explained "knows" (E-yvw) in the first. The latter was perhaps un-
as a spiritualized teaching of Gnostics, a teaching which derstood by the author, not mystically, 18 but in line
was already contested by Paul in 1 Cor 15. 12 To what with the conception of the church and of election. 1 9 Odes
degree the passage in the Acts of Paul 13 contributes to the of Sol. 8.14f also points to the origin of the first saying in
clarification of this passage is debatable; the words there early Christian poetry: "For I do not turn away my
are spoken in opposition to the teaching of the semi- face from them that are rnine;/For I know thern;/Before
Gnostic Paul of the Acts of Paul, and are thus perhaps they carne into being,/ I took knowledge of them,/And on
conditioned by that polemical situation. Moreover, this their faces I set my seal." 20 On the re:ation between the
passage is absent from the Latin fragment of Brescia. 14 symbolism of building and the idea of election, see also
•19 "Foundation" (8EJJ.EALOS) may refer to the corner- the Manual of Discipline, (1 QS VIII, 4-8): "When these
stone, 15 and "seal" (u<J>pa-yLs) to the inscription on the things come to pass in Israel, the Council of the Com-
stone which certifies it. But it is improbable that "founda- munity shall be established in the truth as an everlasting
tion" refers to Christ, to the first generation, or to both. planting. It is the house of holiness for Israel and the
The group of images relating to housebuilding 16 is so Company of infinite holiness for Aaron; they are the
commonly used in early Christianity that it is possible the witnesses of truth unto J udgernent and the chosen of
metaphor in this case was not even recognized any more. Loving-kindness appointed to offer expiation for the
Otherwise, one could mention Herm. sim. 9.4.2., where earth and to bring down punishment upon the wicked. It
the ten stones upon the rock over the gate form the is the tried wall, the precious cornerstone; its founda-
tower's foundation (of the "church" [EKKA1JO'La]); in tions shall not tremble nor flee from their place" [trans.
Herm. sim. 9.15 .4 they are explained as referring to the Dupont-Sornrner, Essene Writings, p. 91]. 21 This text also

Plutarch, Super st. 3 (p. 165 E): "the passions feed (on 17~71 "(E"(OIIEII (scil. ~ aPaUTautr) l:cf>' oh EXO-
savagely upon the flesh" (c/>AE"(J.l.OPai ... Kai POJJ.ai J.l.EII TEKPotr).
UapKor IJ7JptW~ELS). 14 See the excursus to 1 Tim 4:5, section 1. Further
11 Thus Michaelis, &htheitsfrage, 117f, refers to the material can be found in Theodor Zahn, Introduction
officers of the church, because people in the church to the New Testament 2, tr. and ed. Melanchthon Wil-
are referred to as "hearers" of such disputations. liams .Jacobus and Charles Snow Thayer (New York:
12 Justin, Apol. 1.26.4, writes concerning Menander: Charles Scribner's Sons, 3 1917), sect. 37, n. 17.
"who even convinced those who followed him that 15 See Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Philemon, on
they would never die" (or Kai Tour aim~ E7rOJ.l.EPovr Eph 2:20.
wr J.l.7J~E a7roiJP~UKOtEII E7rEtUE). Likewise, Irenaeus 16 Vielhauer, Oikodome,passim.
(Adv. haer. 1.23.5) writes concerning Menander: 17 See also I sa 52 :13: "Depart, depart ... you who
"for his disciples obtain the resurrection by being bear the vessels of the Lord" (a7rOUT7JTE a7rOUT7JTE
baptized into him, and can die no more, but never ... ol cf>l:poPTEr Tli UKEV7J KvpLov) ; Isa 26:13: "Thy
grow old and are immortal" (resurrectionem enim name (alone) we acknowledge" (To oPOJ.l.a uov oPo-
per id, quod est in eum baptisma, accipere eius discipu- JJ.asoJJ.EP).
los, et ultra non posse mori, sed perseverare non senescentes 18 Here I diverge from the 2d German edition of this
et immortales) [trans. by Ed.]. Cf. also De Resurrec- commentary. Cf. on this question Corp. Herm. 10:15:
tione (Letter to Rheginus) 45.23ff; "But then as the "For God is not ignorant with regard to man; on the
Apostle said, we suffered with him, and we went to contrary, he knows him very well and wishes to be
heaven with him"; and 49.15f: "and already thou known by him" (ov "(ap a"(POEL TOll apiJpw7rOII 0
hast the Resurrection" (Malinine, ed.). IJEor, aA'ha Kai 1ra11v "(11Wp£s Et Kai IJEAEt "(IIWp£-
13 Act. Pl. 14 (Lipsius-Bonnet, 1, p. 245), "that it has SEUIJat) [trans. by Ed.].
already taken place in the children whom we have" 19 See RudolfBultmann, TDNT 1, p. 705.
112
 2 Timothy 2:18-25

contains an allusion to the OT: Isa 28:16. the interpretation which, in view of 2:19, one would
If"the Lord knows his own" originally referred to the hope to find here is not expressed . It is not explicitly
election of the church, it now refers to the chosen people stated that the church must purify itself and rid itself of
within it. That corresponds to the shift in the conception the false teachers.
of the church brought about by the emerging distinc- • 22 The personal parenesis of 2:15, which was inter-
tion between orthodoxy and heresy. The separation rupted by the statements about heretics and the church,
which occurred within Israel is repeated in the church is taken up again with a warning to Timothy against
(Schlatter) . It becomes quite clear that the parenesis desires. It is a warning actually meant to apply to all
derives its fundamental motivation from the conscious- youthful leaders of churches (see 1 Tim 4: 12). The
ness of election. exhortation to virtue begins again with "uprightness"
• 20 The question as to why there are disloyal persons (OLKO.LOCTVII'Yl) [seeaboveat1 Tim6:11].
in the congregation at all is answered in v 20 by the • 23 "Uninstructed" (a?ra.LoEvros) in Epictetus means
image of vessels. This image appears without any prior "the man who has not learned to think." It is used in
preparation. It is probably influenced by Rom 9:21 and 7 Clem . 30:1, as well as here, in a general sense parallel to
Wisd SoilS: 7. The introductory clause, to be sure, sug- "stupid, senseless, foolish" (a<j>pwv, aCTVIIETOS 1 J.LWpOS) .
gests an interpretation along the lines of 1 Cor 12: 22f. Notice again the tendency of the polemic, as noted above
The point would then be that the weaker members of the on 1 Tim 1:6 and 6:20, which is directed against the
congregation should also be given the appropriate recog- form of the "false teaching," not against its actual con-
nition. But the context speaks against this interpretation. tent. This consistency in the manner of opposing the
We are not dealing with a problem of those who are less heresy is a strong argument against the individualizing
gifted, but with the seducers and the seduced. This interpretation zz which would relate 2 Tim 2:23, but not
interpretation is demanded by the context, but it is not 2 Tim 2: 14ff, to members of the congregation.
expressed in verse 20's presentation of the image itself. • 24 On "skillful in teaching" (OLOO.KTLKoL), see above
The reason for this is that the point which such images on 1 Tim 3:2. The phrase "servant of the Lord" is
originally had has been shifted toward a new meaning reminiscent of"man of God" in the parallel passages
(see above at 1 Tim 1 :1) . (1 Tim 6:11; cf. 2 Tim 3:17).
• 21 This interpretation is confirmed here. The image is • 25 "Quarrels" (J.Laxa.L) and "to quarrel" (J.LaXECT0a.L)
turned in an unmistakably parenetic direction: "even in the preceding verses refer to opposition to the "false
though these vessels for disreputable use (CTKEinJ Els teachers." Thus "opponents" in this verse probably
aTLJ.LLa.v) are present in the house, nevertheless be sure refers to the same people-at least primarily.z3 "Repent-
that you yourself remain a vessel for honorable use ance" (J.LETavoLa.) is the return to the "truth," as the
(CTKEVOS Els TLJ.L~ll) by cleansing yourself of these (a 1r0 Pastorals understand it (see above on 1 Tim 2:3, 4) . The
rovrwv)." "These" (rovrwv) refers perhaps to the "sin" which is presupposed by the word "repentance"
actions designated as "disreputable" ( aTLJ.LLa.). But it is was mentioned in v 23. The expression "grant repent-
significant for the traditional character of the image that ance" (oovva.L J.LETavoLa.v) derives from judaism. Z 4

20 See Abramowski, "Der Christus der Salomooden", strangely archaic (the case is different in Lk 3:15)
44ff. the subjunctive «5Wz7 or «54l (.It' 33) is preferable after
21 On the "foundation," see Anton Fridrichsen, "Neu- all. See Moulton, Prolegomena, 55, 193; Blass- De-
testamentliche Wortforschung. Themelios, 1. Kor. brunner, 370.3.
3, 11," ThZ2 (1946): 316-17. 24 See Sib. 4.168f; cf. Joseph Thomas, Le mouvement
22 The reference is to the interpretation of Michaelis, baptiste in Palestine et Syrie (150av. J. C.-300ap. J. C.)
&htheitsfrage, on 1 Tim 2:18. (Gembloux [Belgium] : Duculot, 1935), 46, 52f.
23 The clumsy sequence of the optative "he may
grant" («5c[Jf]) and the subjunctive "they might
escape" (aJJaJJ~,YwcnJJ) is not without parallel; see
2 Mace 9:24 (a11'o{3alf1 KaL 7rpoO'a11'£X8n); P. Rei-
nach 17.15 (109 B.C.) (a11'oKaraC1[ra]lM1fTVxWC1t).
Since, however, such an optative would seem
113
It is used without the necessary implication that "repent- rou) then refers neither to God nor to the "servant of the
ance" must be understood strictly as a "gift." 25 Since Lord" (oou;\os KvpLov), but rather to the devil. "To
the expression is common, 26 it is not advisable to assume do his will" (Els TO EKELvov IJEA'YJJ.£0.) can be seen as
literary dependence between the Pastoral Epistles and continuing the thought "they might escape from the
Pol. Phil. 11.4: "to these may the Lord give true re- snare" ( ava.v~tf;wutll EK T~S . . . -rra.-yLoos). But "cap-
pentance" (quibus det dominus poenitentiam veram). Nor can tured" (Et'W'YP'YJJ.I.EIIOt), then standing alone, would not
one prove on the basis of this passage any sort of liber- completely explain the image of the snare. Therefore
tinism of the Gnostics, who are here opposed. "to do his will" probably belongs to the participial clause
• 26 In "to escape," literally "to return to sobriety" ("since they have been captured") after all. "That one"
(ava.v~cpEtv), the image has receded into the back- (EKELIIO!i) is then so weakened that it is almost equivalent
ground, as is shown by the continuation of the sentence. to "he" (a.vr6s). It is used here to avoid a repetition
On the connection of this term with "repentance" after "by him" (v-rr' a.vrou). Both pronouns thus refer
(P,ETavota.), cf. Ign. Sm. 9.1: "Moreover it is reasonable to the devil.
for us to return to soberness and ... to repent towards
God." (EiiAo-y6v EO'Ttll A0t1r011 ava.v~t/;a.t Ka.l. . .. Els
IJEOII p,ETO.IIOELII) . On the "snares of the devil," see above
on 1 Tim 3:7. "Captured" (Et'W'YP'YJJ.I.EIIOt), because it
comes directly after "snare" (-rra.-yLs), is surely meant as
an explanation of the latter image. "By him" (v-rr' a.v-

25 See Acts 5:31; 11 :18; and, in addition, 17:30. Cf. 26 See also 1 Clem. 7.4; Barn. 16.9; Herm. sim. 8.6.1f.
Conzelmann, Luke, 1OOf. See also Wisd Sol 12:19 in
comparison with 12:10. Cf.Johannes Behm, TDNT
4, pp. 976-1008, esp. 989fT.

114
 1 Timothy 6:6-10

6 Warning Against Avarice

8 (And indeed) religion is of great profit if it

is coupled with self-sufficiency. 7I After
all, we brought nothing into the world
with us, as also we can take nothing
with us out (of this world). 8/ If we
have food and clothing, then we will be
content. 9/ But those who want to
become rich, fall into temptation and
snares and many foolish and harmful
desires. which cause men to sink into
destruction and ruin. 10/ For the love of
money is the root of all evil; inflamed
by such desire some have gone astray
from the faith, and have pierced them-
selves with many pains.

This is a warning against greed which is only super- Gnomology) which says that "The art of living well . . . is
ficially connected with the polemic against heresy in contingent upon self-control, self-sufficiency, orderliness,
6:3-5. It is apparently an exhortation of (Jewish-)Hellen- propriety, and thrift" (ro KaAws 5~v .. . EK uwf/>po-
istic origin, as is shown by the lack of any specifically ,
UVV1]S KaL\ avrapKELaS
' , KaL' EVTat;LaS
' t' KaL\ KOUJ.I.LUT1]TOS
1
KaL'
Christian motivation. The absence of a strict connection EVTEAELas 7rapa"(LvEraL) (trans. by Ed.]. 6
between the sayings, which are simply placed in a series, • 7 On the relation of v 7 to what has gone before,
is also significant. The viewpoint of lhe source is that compare the first similitude in the Shepherd of Hermas,
of a naive eudaemonism, such as was prevalent in popular which is full of ideas taken from popular philosophy; 7
philosophy and in the teaching of "wisdom." This naive cf. especially Herm. sim . 1.6: "Take heed, then, make no
perspective stands in some tension with the last verse further preparations for yourself beyond a sufficient
of the preceding section (6: 5b). competence for yourself, as though you were living in a
• 6 The term "profit" ('TropLUJ.I.OS) is used here in the foreign country, and be ready in order that, whenever
same way as in 4:8. Of course, religion is of some benefit, the master of this city wishes to expel you for resisting his
naturally so to those who are religious. The view that law, you may go from his city, and depart to your own
the "religion" (EVUE{3ELa) of man is "profitable" (7rOpL- city" ({3AE7rE ovv uv· WS E'TrL ~Eli1]S KaTOLKWV J.1.1]0Ell
UTLK~) for God is categorically denied by Philo (Del.
"\ I j I ]" n I \ \ I I \
7r/\EOII t:.TOLJ.I.a~ E UEaVT'f' EL J.1.1] T1]ll avrapKELaV T1]ll
pot. ins. 55) . But it is not exactly religion of which the apKET~ll UOL KaL frOLJ.I.OS "(Lvov, tva 8rav 0EA1J 0 OE-
author speaks, but rather "self-sufficiency" ( avrapKEta), U7rOT1]S T~S 7r0AEWS TaVT1]S EK{3aAELV UE avnra~aJ.J.E-
the favorite virtue of the Stoics and Cynics. See the 11011 r4JVOJ.I.Cf> avrov, E~EMvs EK T~S 7r0AEWS avrov Kal.
apothegm in Stobaeus, Eel. 3 (p. 265.13, Hense): "Self- a7rEA07Js Ell TV7r0AEL uov). 8 The thought expressed in
sufficiency is nature's wealth" (avrapKEta "(ap f/>vuEws this verse occurs only late in Greek literature, though
EUTL 7rAovros) (trans. by Ed.], and the saying of Epic-
tetus (quoted by Stobaeus, who ascribes it to Epictetus'

6 See further "Being content with the present state of and "I am contented" (a11'a.pKEUJ.IO.L) in Veriif-
affairs" (apK{iuOa.t ro'is 1ra.pouutv) Teles (ed. fentlichungen aus der Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung IV,
Hense, pp. 11.5; 38.10f;41.12f); Pseudo-Phocylides 1:310.46 (ed. G. A. Gerhard ) ; see on the latter pas-
Sf; Dio Chrys. Or. 30.33. Examples of the contrast sage, as well as on the theme itself, Gerhard, Phoinix,
between "self-sufficiency" (a.vrapKtta.) and "love of 61; also Windisch, Hebriierbriej, on Heb 13:5.
money" (cf>t"Xa.p"'(vpLa.) are found in Gerhard, Phoi- 7 On the theme see Paul Wendland, "Philo und die
nix, pp. 57ff; see also the use of "things sufficient in kynisch-stoische Diatribe," 59 f.
themselves" (rd. a.vrapK'T/) in Philo, Leg. all. 3.165; 8 Cf. the parallels which are quoted in Martin Dibe-
84
 1 Timothy 6:6-10

perhaps as traditional material. 9 But it is also found in UIJ.aTa ) refers naturally to clothing first of all; still , the
Jewish literature, IO and in Hellenistic Jewish writings. 11 idea of housing ("roofing") may be included in the word
Naturally there are also parallels outside the circle of used. 16 Whether the future tense serves to make a state-
Jewish and Greco-Roman literatur~. 12 Since the thought ment ("we shall be content") or to exhort ("we should,
is so widely attested, the passage Pol. Phil. 4.1 13 cannot or will be content") cannot be determined, since in
be regarded as conclusive prooffor the dependency of such a loosely connected list of sayings the context does
Polycarp upon the Pastoral Epistles (see also below on not offer any firm proof.
1 Tim 6: 10). 14 • 9 "To sink" ({3vOL!;w ) is used in a figurative sense. 1 7
• 8 The reference to food and clothing reflects the spirit • 10 The first part of the verse is a maxim which occurs
of Stoicism. 15 But, on the Cynics, see Diogenes Laertius frequently elsewhere; cf. Stobaeus, Eel. 3 (p. 417, Hense):
6.105: "It pleased them also to live simply, (taking) "Bion the Sophist used to say that love of money is the
just sufficient food and using a single worn garment." o
motiler-city of all evil." (BLwv uo~tUT~~ r~v ~tA.ap­
(apEUKH OE auro'i~ Kat ALTW~ {3wvv, aurapKEUL xpw- -yvpLav 1J.7JTp67roAtv EAE'}'E 1rau7J~ KaKLa~ Eivat ) [trans.
IJ.EIIOL~ utrLot~ Kat rpL{3wut ~J.bvot~ ) [trans. by Ed.); by Ed.) . 18 The obvious disparity between the first
see also 10.131. In this context the second term (UKE7ra- and second halves of the verse may be another proof of

!ius, D er Hirt des Hermas, HNT, Erganzungsband 4 13 Pol. Phil. 4.1: "Knowing therefore that 'we brought
(Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1923), on nothing into the world and we can take nothing
Herm. sim. 1.1. out of it'" (ElOOTE~ ou11 on OUOEII ElrYTJIIE)'KaJ.I.EII El~
9 See the Anthologia Palatina 10 :58: "Naked I came TOll KOCJ"jlOII, ciXX' OUOE E~EIIE)'KEtll n EXOJ.I.EII .. . ).
onto the earth, naked I go beneath the earth; and 14 The linking of both clauses in this verse by means of
why should I vainly toil, since I see that the end is on (translated above by "as") is quite peculiar. For
nakedness" ('Yfi~ E1r€{3rw f'VJ.I.IIO~, f'VJ.I.IIO~ inro )'atall this reading(~* A G) is to be retained, since the
a1!'ELJ.I.t. Kai TL j.l.aTTJII J.l.ox8w f'VJ.I.IIOII opwll TO TEAO~) other readings can best be explained on its basis: "it
[trans: by Ed.]. is true that" ( ciXTJ(Jf.~ on, D * Ambst) and "it is clear
10 See Job 1:21 : "Naked I carp.e forth from my that" (of7Xo11 on,~ sy). The on could have resulted
mother's belly, and naked shall I return there" from dittography of KOrYJ.I. o 11 (as Hort suggests).
(/'VJ.I.IIO~ E~f7Mo11 EK KOLAia~ J.I.TJTpo~ J.I.OV, f'VJ.I.IIO~ Kai Otherwise, it must be taken as a conjunction without
a1l'EAEUrYOJ.I.aL EKE'i); cf. Eccl 5:14. a strictly causal force.
11 See Wisd Sol 7.6: "There is one entrance into life 15 One can find the evidence most easily by reading
and a like exit for a ll men" (JJ.La of. 1!'aiiTWII Etrrooo~ El~ the sections in which Musonius treats of"food" (7rEpt
TOll {3lo11 e~ooo~ TE LrYTJ). Above all see Philo, Spec. Tpocpfi~) and "shelter" (7rEpi rYKE1l'TJ~), pp. 94-109,
leg. 1.294f: "how ought you to treat other men ... ed. Hense.
you who brought nothing into the world, not even 16 See Musonius (p. 107, Hense) : "But since we make
yourself? For naked you came into the world, worthy ourselves also houses with a view to covering, I say
sir, and naked will you again depart" (rrf. TL 1l'OLEtll that also these must be made with a view to what is
apJJ.oTTEL 1rpo~ a118pw1rov~ .. . Toll JJ.TJOEII El~ Toll absolutely necessary for our needs." (E7rEL Of CJ"KE'II'TJ~
a.xxo.
KOrYJ.I.OII J.I.T/OE rraVTOII ElrrEIITJIIOXOTa; f'VJ.I.IIO~ EIIEKa Kai Ta~ olKLa~ 1l'OLOVJ.I.E8a, cf>TJJ.I.L Kai Tavm~
J.I.EII f'ap, OavJJ.arrLE, ~ME~, f'VJ.I.IIo~ of. 1ra~u11 a'II'EL~). oE'ill 1I'OtE'irr0aL 1rpo~ To Tfi~ XPELa~ ~~~a )'Ka'io11). On
Cf. also Seneca, Epistulae morales 102.25: "Nature the treatment of the theme in the diatribe see Wend-
strips you as bare at your departure as at your en- land, "Philo und die kynisch-stoische Diatribe,"
trance. You may take away no more than you 15ff.
brought in" (excutit redeuntem natura sicut intrantem. 17 An analogous usage is found in Alciphro 1.16.1 (p.
non licet plus efferre quam intuleris). 19, Schepers): "The sober element in me is continu-
12 See Hans Schmidt and Paul Kahle, Volkserziihltmgen ally sinking under the weight of passion" (TO 11f7cpo11
aus Paliistina (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Ell EJ.I.OL rrwExw~ v1ro Tov 1raOov~ {3v8LI;Emt); Ditt. Syll.
1918), 17, n. 3; or the conclusion of the Egyptian 2.730.7. "the city brought to the point of sinking by
song of the harpist in Hugo Gressmann, Altorienta- continual wars" (rYVIIEXErYL 1l'OAEJ.I.OL~ KaTa{3v8t-
lische Texle und Bilder zum Allen Teslamenle (Tubingen : rr0( E)t[ rra11 T~ll 1l'OALII]) [both passages trans. by
J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1909), 29. A second- Ed.] .
ary expression of the thought is found in bYoma 86b : 18 Cf. Diogenes Laertius 6.50: "He called love of money
"naked did man come into the world, naked he the mother- city of all evils" (T~ll cptAap)'vpLall E[ 7l'E
leaves it" ("naked" here means "without sin"). J.I.TJTpo7roALII 1ra11Tw11 Twll KaKwll). Diod. S. (Library
85
the fact that the author is using a traditional concept. above "by such") to the "money" (ap'YVptov) in the
" The love of money" is itself a desire (opE~ts). Thus composite noun "love of money" (q,,'Aap'YvpLa) : "in
some interpreters refer the relative pronoun (translated the desire of which (i.e. of the money). " 1 9

of History 21 .1) makes a similar statement concern- Spec. leg. 4.65 ; Sib. 8.17 [all Trans. in this note by
ing "greed" (1r},rovE~la) . See further, De Gnomo- Ed.].
logio Vaticano inedito 265 (ed. Sternbach, Wiener Stu- 19 Pol. Phil. 4.1 quotes the same common maxim: "But
dim 10 [1888]: 231) : "Democritus used to call love the beginning of all evils is the love of money" ( apx~
of money the mother-city of all evil" (il1]J.ICJI<PLTO~ OE 11'aVTWV xaXE'If'WV </!LXap'Yupla). In view of the
T~V </JLXap'Yup£av tXE'YE J.11]TpcnroXLv 1ra0'1]~ Ka- frequent use of the phrase elsewhere, its occurrence
K£a~); Apollodorus Comicus, Philadelph. Fragmenta in Polycarp is even less valuable than the parallel to
4, (III, 280, Kock) : "But you have named what 1 Tim 4:7 (see above) for the proof that Polycarp
is pretty much the chief of all evils: they are all in- was directly dependent upon the Pastoral Epistles.
cluded in love of money." (aXXa UXEOOV n ro On the other hand, this parallel can point to a rela-
KE</laXaLov rwv KaKwv Etp1JKa~· tv </JLXap'YuplQ. tionship in the tradition used by both authors; cf.
'YaP 1ravr' tvL); Pseudo-Phocylides 42: "Love of also von Campenhausen, "Polykarp," 229.
money is the mother of all wickedness" (~ </JLXoxp1J-
J.IOO'UV1J J.I~T1JP KI1KOT1]TO~ a1f'a0'7]~). Cf. also Philo,

86
 2 Timothy 3:1-9

3 Heretics are the Sinners of

the Last Days

1 You should know that in the last days hard

times will come. 2/ For men will be
selfish and greedy, boastful, arrogant,
blasphemers, disobedient to their
parents, ungrat~tful, wicked, 3/ intoler-
ant, intransigent, slanderers, without
self-control, savage, not loving the
good, 4/ traitors, reckless, puffed up,
devoted to pleasure rather than devout,
6/ who appear to be religious but deny
the power of religion. Avoid such
people. 8/ Among them are those people
who make their way into households
and (with their talk) ensnare idle women
who, overwhelmed with sins and driven
by all kinds of desires, 7/ study con-
tinually but are never able to come to
the recognition of the truth. 8/ Just as
Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so
also these people oppose the truth: their
minds are corrupted and their faith
does not pass the test. 9/ But they will
not make further progress: for their
folly will become plain to everyone, just
as it was with their (Jannea' and Jam-
bras') folly.

This is the section of the letter actually dealing with Such an identification was not necessary in 1 Tim 4:1; it
heretics. Its introduction shows such a great affinity with was obvious. In the case of 2 Tim 3, it is a concomitant
1 Tim 4: 1ff that one must regard both pericopes as of the stylization of the whole epistle as a testament of
variants of the same theme. That is altogether clear when Paul. The catalogue of vices is intended to be taken as a
one considers the characterization of the opponents in whole, since it is traditional, and is not meant to accuse
vss 8 and 9: The judgment will naturally be different if a the opponents of having committed any or all of the
fundamental distinction is made by the interpreter of particular sins mentioned. Only v 5 seems an exception;
these epistles between the polemic against heretics and on this see below.
the battle against notorious sinners. 1 The form of the • 2-4 Notice the coupling of adjectives. It is not carried
presentation does not invite this interpretation. Motifs out consistently, but is achieved frequently by means of
deriving from the form of the farewell address are more
apparent here than in the parallel passage. 2.
• 1 V ss 1-5 depict the corruption of the last days 3 in a
long list of vices. 4 In v 1 the opponents attacked are
explicitly identified with those sinners of the last days .

Such a distinction is made by B. Weiss, ad loc., and 4 See Lietzmann, Romer, the excursus to Rom 1 :31;
Michaelis, &htheitsjrage; see above, pp. 65f, the Vogtle, Tugend- und Lasterkataloge, 15ff and 232ff;
excursus to 1 Tim 4:5, section 1. cf. above on 1 Tim 1:9.
2 See Johannes Munck, "Discours d'adieu", 155ff.
3 On this see the Commentary on Habakkuk from
Qumran (1 QpHab II. 5ff); cf. Eliiger, Habakuk-
Kommentar, 168ff and 278f; see also Kuhn, "Die in
Pallistina gefundenen hebrliischen Texte," 208f.
115
assonance either at the beginning or at the end of words. 5 primarily to women 7 with an unsavory past. s The repri-
The list of vices is in many ways reminiscent of Rom mand that they do nothing but learn recalls the Stoic
1: 30f. On "intransigent" ( aU11'01100S) and "not loving warning not to remain in the stage of learning. 9 Above all
the good" (Q.rp,Xa:yaOos), see Bauer, s.v.; on the latter one is reminded of the repudiation of women who are
term also below on Tit 1:8. On "selfish" (rp£Xavros) see eager to learn and ask questions in 1 Cor 14:35 and
Aristotle. 6 On "savage" (aii~JJ.Epos), see Epict., Diss. 1 Tim 2: 11 . From the latter passage we concluded that
1.3.7: "and others (of us become like) lions, wild and emancipation tendencies may be present. That agrees
savage and untamed" (oi OE AEOVU'II (scil. 8J.J.o'o' "f'IIO- with the Gnostic spiritualism which must be presupposed
J.J.E8a) a"(p'o' Kal. 871ptrMm Kal. aii~J.J.Epo,) . On "reck- on the opponents' part. It is precisely the philosophical-
less" (7rp071'ET~S) see 1 Clem. 1.1; the word occurs also religious propaganda of syncretism, with its claim to
several times in Epictetus. On "devoted to pleasure" supernatural authority, which seems to have found an
(rp,)l.~oovos) see the sayings of Epictetus in Stob., Eel. audience among women. 10 A bad reputation clearly
3.170 (169, Hense). made little difference in such cases. 11 If one assumes a
• 6 Here the list of vices loses its traditional character; libertine tendency among the heretics, one could point to
the following words thus contain a specific reproach the "desires" which the author mentions here. But if he
against the heretics. On "appearance" (J.J.OpfjJwu,s, had wished to accuse his opponents of unchastity, he
translated as "appear to be"), cf. Philo, Plant. 70 "for would probably have said it much more clearly. 12
even now there are some who wear the appearance of Judging by the accounts of the conversion of women in
piety, men who in a petty spirit find fault with the literal the apocryphal acts of the apostles, the Gnostics instead
sense of the word, urging that it is irreligious and dan- brought such women to a strict personal asceticism.
gerous to speak of God as the portion of man" (E71'EL Kal. One may trace the preference of the Gnostics for this
... , I ... , A.. J-l. , IR " '
IIVII E'U' 'TtiiES TWII E11''J.J.Op'#"a~ uiiTWII EVO'E!JHall, 0' TO activity to repressed sexuality (Liitgert); but as far as
11'pOXE,pov rou AO"(ov 7rapauvKof/Javrouu' fjJauKovrEs their characterization is concerned, nothing is gained by
oW' au,ov olJr' aufjJaXEs Elva' AE"fE'II av8pW11'0V 8EOII doing so. 13
KAijpov) [Loeb modified] . See also Rom 2:20. • 8 The subject is naturally "those who make their way
• 6, 7 The opponents who have been spoken of as sinners into households" (EvOiJIIOIITES, v 6), not "the idle
are now depicted ironically. Their propaganda spreads women" ("(vva,Kap,a). Accordingtojewish tradi-

5 This is, of course, difficult to imitate in a translation, (~8E'Xov En J.la.vOavEtv).

but has been attempted in a few instances above, 10 See Lucian, Alex. 6, and Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 1.13.3,
e.g. "intolerant, intransigent" [Ed.]. A good exam- writing on the Gnostic Marcus: "For he especially
ple of this stylistic technique in a catalogue is the occupied himself with women, and among women,
long catalogue of vices in Philo, Sacr AC. 32 (re- those who wore fine and purple garments and were
printed also in Lietzmann, Romer, Appendix 2) . the most wealthy" (!la'XtuTa. -yap 1f'EPL -yvva.'LKa.s
6 Cf. Arisloteles, ed. Bekker (Academia Regia Horus- auxo"XE'L TO.t KO.L TOVTWJI Tas EV7ra.pv!fx>vs KO.L 7rEpt-
sica : 1831ff), 4: Index, p . 818. 1f'Opcpvpovs Ka.l 7r"XovutWTaTa.s) [trans. by Ed.].
7 "Little" or "idle women'" (-yvv(uKapta.) is a mock- 11 See justin, Apol. 1.26.3 writing on Simon Magus:
ing diminutive form, also used in Epictetus. "And they call a certain Helen, who went about
8 On "heap up," "overwhelm" (uwpEVw) see Barn. with him at that time and who had formerly been in
4.6: "heaping up your sins" (1:.7rtiTWPEVoJITO.S TO.LS a brothel, the First Thought, generated by him."
aJ.Ia.pTLats VJ.IWV) . (KO.L 'E'XEJI'I]JI nva, TfJJ17rEptVOITT~ITO.ITO.JI a.vTc;J Ka.r'
9 See Musonius (pp. 22f, Hense) and Epict., Diss. I:.KE'Lvo Toil Ka.ti>oil, 1rpOTEpov l:.7rl Tf:-yovs uTa.8E'Lua.v,
2.9.13: "That is why the p':lllosophers admonish TTJV v7r' a.vroil tvvota.v 1r'fJWT'IJV'YEVOJ.IEV'IJV 'Xhovut)
us not to be satisfied with merely learning, but to [trans. by Ed.]. See also Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 1.23.2.
add thereto practice also and then training" (15tc1 12 See Irenaeus, Adv. haer. 1.13.3; and the story of the
TOVTO 1f'O.pa.-y-yt:'X"XovUtJI ol c/ltMucxfxn !lfJ apKE'Lu8a.t lying prophets Ahab and Zedekiah, Tanl;uma tnp'l
J.IOJI4' Tc;l J.I0.8ELJI aXha KO.L J.IE'Xkqv 7rpoiT 'Xa.!lf3avEtJI 134a (quoted in Billerbeck, 3, p. 659).
Et TO. aiTK'IJITtJI) . Cf. especially the ridicule which 13 For further discussion, see the excursus to 1 Tim 4:5.
Epictetus (Diss. 1.29.35) pours on the young man
who "weeps when the crisis calls" (Ka.'Xf:ua.vTos TOV
Ka.tpoil) and says: "I wanted to keep on learning"
116
 2 Timothy 3:6-9

tion, 14 Jannes andJambres are the names of the magi- J.LEIIWII E~ Al-yv1rTov) [trans. by Ed.] . 15 The mid rash
cians who argued against Moses before Pharaoh (Ex Tan~uma, commenting on Ex 32:1, relates: "and the
7: 8ff). No mention is made of these names in Philo two magicians of Egypt with them, and their names were
(Vit. Mos. 1.91ff). A new attestation (and for the time Jonos andJombros, who did all these works of magic
being the earliest one) of this tradition occurs in The before Pharaoh, as it is written in Exodus (7: 11)"
Damascus Document (CD V 17-19): "For formerly Moses [Trans.] . 16 See the Evangelium Nicodemi (Acta Pilati A)
and Aaron arose by the hand of the Prince of Light; 5 (p. 239, Tischendorf): "And there were the servants
but Belial raised up Jar.nes and his brother, in his cun- of Pharaoh, and they also did signs not a few which Moses
ning, when Israel was saved for the first time" [trans. by did, and the Egyptians held them as gods,Jannes and
Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings, p. 130] . Further, see Jambres. And since the signs which they did were not
Pliny, Hist. Nat. 30.2.11: "There is yet another branch of from God, they perished themselves and those who
magic, derived from Moses,Jannes, Lotapes and the believed in them." (Kat ~O'all EKEL aiiOpES fJEpa1rOIITES
Jews, but living many thousand years after Zoroaster" -Yapaw
,.1;. ' 'I aii117JS
~ KaL''I aJ.LfJP7JS
(.1 ~
1 KaL E1r'OL7JO'all KaL
' ' I '

(est et alia magicesfactio a Mose et ]anne et Lotape ac a

avTOt 0'7JJ.LELa OVK oX£-ya E1rOLEL Mwvuijs, KaL ElXOII
Judaeis pendens, sed mult1s milibus annorum-post aUTOUS ol Al-yv1r'TLOL ws fJEOUS' TOll 'Iallllijll Kat TOll
,(oroastrem). See also Apuleius, Apologia 90: "I am ready 'I aJ.LfJP7JII.
r.1 ~ • r' Ta' 0'7JJ.LELa
KaL' E1rELU7J ~ .1! •
14 E1r0L7JO'all OVK
1 •

to be any magician you please-the great Carmendas ~O'all EK fJEOV a1rWAOIITO Kat aUTOt Kat OL1rLO'TEVOIITES
himself or Damigeron or Moses of whom you have heard, auTo'is) [trans. Hennecke- Schneemelcher 1, p. 456].
or Jannes or Apollobex or Dardanus himself or any See also the Mart. Pt. et Pl. 34 (Lipsius-Bonnet 1, p. 148):
sorcerer of note from the time of Zoroaster and Ostanes "For just as the EgyptiansJannes andJambres deceived
till now" (ego ille sim Carmendas uel Damigeron uel his Pharaoh and his army until they were drowned in the
Moses uel Johannes uel Apollobex uel ipse Dardanus uel sea, so also etc." (Kat &u1rEp ol. Al-yv7rTLOL 'Ia1111~s Kal.
quicumque a/ius post ,(oroastren et Hostanen inter magos 'IaJ.Lf3pijs E1rAa117JO"all TOll <l>apaw Kat To O"TpaT01rEOOII
celebratus est). See also Numenius as cited in Eusebius of aUTOV ~WS TOV KaTa1rOIITLO'fJijllaL Ell TV fJaAaO'O'TJ,
Caesarea, Praep. Ev. 9, 8 (GCS 43, 1, ed. Karl Mras): OVTWS KTA.) [Trans.] . 17 There is no typology of the
"Next wereJannes andJambres, sacred scribes of the wilderness generation in the Pastoral Epistles; there-
Egyptians, men considered to be inferior to no one in proach has parenetic significance.
magical ability, at the time when the Jews were being ex- • 9 rounds out the preceding material by means of an
pelled from Egypt" (TCi o' E~ijs 'Iallllijs Kat,'IaJ.Lf3pijs encouraging look to the future.
'
AL'YV1rTLOL LEpo-ypapp.aTELS ~ r •r ' .:1.
1 allupES OVuEIIOS ttTTOVS
1 • ,

J.La'YEVO'aL KpLfJEIITES Etllat, E7rt 'Iovoa£w11 E~iXav11o-

14 See Theodoret (III, p . 689, Schulze): "from the 17 Further detailed Rabbinic quotations can be found
unwritten teachingofthejews" (EK T~S o:ypatj>ou in Biller beck, 3, pp. 661 ff; the Christian literature
rw11 'louoaiw11 &oauKaA.Las) [trans. by Ed.]. and attestations for the "Book ofjannes andjam-
15 Cf. also Origen, Gels. 4.51 (GCS I, p. 324, Koet- bres" are found in Schi.irer, A History of the Jewish
schau), on Numenius. People, 2 3 , pp. 149f; cf. further Hugo Odeberg,
16 For the text of this midrash, seeS. Buber, IV,,o TDNT 3, pp. 192f; Albrecht Oepke, TDNT 3, pp.
H01nln (Wilna: 1885); for further literature, see 990f. On the occurrence of the names in pagan lit-
Strack, Introduction, 336. According to the targum erature, see joseph Bidez and Franz Cumont, Les
Pseudo-Jonathan, the magicians named here appear Mages helllnisis: Zoroaster, Ostanu et Hystaspe d'apres la
in Exod 1:15, 7:11, and Num 22 :22 (as servants of tradition grecque, (Paris : Societe d'editions "Les Belles
Bileam). Cf. also Menachoth 85 a and the Shemoth Lettres," 1938), pp. 11ff.
Rabba on Exod 7:12 (See The MidraJh Rabbah, gen.
ed. H. Freedman, vol. 3, Exodus, ed. S. M. Lehrman
[London: Soncino, 1939], p. 123f).

117
 2 Timothy 3:1 ~ :8

3 Summary Exhortation

10 But you have faithf1,1lly followed my teach-

ing, my conduct, my resolve, faith,
patience, Jove, eni:turance, 11/ persecu-
tions and sufferings, which I encoun-
tered in Antioch, Jconium, and Lystra.
Some of these I endured, and from all of
them the Lord rescued me. 12/ But all
those who want to lead a pious life
in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution
(in the same way). 13/ Bad people and
sorcerers, however, will progress from
bad to worse-"Deceived deceiversl"-
14/ But you must stand by these things
which you have learned and by which
you became convinced. And consider
from whom you learned it, 15/ and
(be aware of the fact) that ever since
you were a child you have known the
holy writings which enable you to have
wisdom for salvation through the faith
in Christ Jesus. 16/ Every scripture
that is inspired by God is also salutary
for teaching, for reproof, for improve-
ment, and for education in righteous-
ness, 17/ so that the man of God may
4 be fit, and prepared for every good
work.
1 I adjure you before God and Christ Jesus
who will judge (the) living and (the)
dead, and at his appearance and his
kingdom: 2/ preach the word, stand
by-whether you are expected or not-.
reprove, threaten, admonish with all
patience and instruction. 3/ For the time
will come when they will not endure
the sound teaching, but will gather
together teachers after their own fancy,
because their ears are itching (for their
wisdom), 4/and then they will turn
their ears away from truth and turn to
fables. 5/ But you must be sober in all
things, endure in sufferings, do the
work of the evangelist, fulfill your
service I 6/1 (to be sure) am already sac-
rificed, and the time of my departure
has come. 7/1 have fought the good
fight. I have completed my course. I
have remained faithful. 8/ Now the
crown of righteousness is reserved for
me which the Lord, the just judge,
will bestow on me on that day-not only
on me, but on all those who long for
his appearance.

The concluding parenesis addressed to Timothy stresses heresy in 3:13 and 4:3, 4, and the role of the tradition 2 in
once again the central ideas of the entire epistle: the 3:14-17.
sufferings of Paul 1 in 3: 1Of and 4:6-8, the fight against
118
 2 Timothy 3:10-15

• 10 "Conduct" (a:yw-y~) is the way in which one leads TE<; TclJ 8Ei4J AO'Y4J) [Loeb modified]; Porphyr. Vit. Plot. 16:
one's life. 3 "they were deceiving them, though being themselves
• 11 The reference is to events like those reported in deceived" (E~'T]7raTWV Kat aUTOL ~7raT'T'J).J,EVO~); Augus- .
Acts 13: 50; 14:2, 19. Paul's persecutions in Timothy's tine, Confessions 7.2: "those deceived deceivers" (deceptos
native country are listed. In a genuine Pauline epistle it illos et deceptores). 5 If, however, we are dealing with a
would seem strange that the troublesome experiences common phrase consisting of two parts, then these two
which Paul and Timothy had had together are missing parts, "those who deceive" (1r'AavwvTEs) and "those who
here (Acts 16 and 17)-although this is not to say that au- are deceived" (1r'Aavwp,Evo~), do not each designate a
thenticity could be denied on this basis alone . separate class of people. The familiar phrase refers as
• 12 The apostle's experience of suffering is applied to a whole rather to the "sorcerers" who have been seduced
all Christians in the form of a general thesis. Thus the themselves, either by the devil (see 2 Tim 2:26) or by
verse expresses the intention of these biographical other sorcerers.
allusions. • 14 The concept of tradition is first stressed by means
• 13 "Deceived deceivers" is a common phrase. 4 Cf. of the expression "from whom you have learned" (1rapa
above all Dio Chrysostom 4.33: "If, however, he falls in TLvwv). In addition perhaps to Timothy's mother and
with some ignorant and charlatan sophist, the fellow will grandmother (see 2 Tim 1: 5), the reference is to his
wear him out by leading him hither and thither, ... not teachers, above all to Paul. Cf. Marcus Aurelius' reflec-
knowing anything himself but merely guessing, after tion about himself (M. Ant. 1.1ff) in which he traces
having been led far afield himself long before by imposters his own character traits to his forebears and teachers.
like himself" (Eciv OE a-yvoovvn Kai a'Aatov~ uoq>LuTfi •15 The concept of tradition is, however, also empha-
(sci/. 1rEp~1rEUTJ) KaTaTpL1/m 1rEp~a'}'WV aUTOV ... , sized with "ever since you were a child" (a1r0 {3pf:cf>ou<;).
OUOEV auTO<; Elow<; a'A'Aa ElKaswv, Kai 1rOAU 7rpOTEpov To be sure, one cannot take the secondary clause "that
> \ >'\.
aUTO<; t \ I
U1r0 TOLOUTWV al\a~ uVWV 7rE7r '1.1\aV'T]).J,EVO<; ;
)-L 1 )
you have known" (<Sn oloa<;) as parallel with "con-
48.10 : "and is it that you are the victims of deception sider" (Elow<;), and therefore also directly dependent on
now, or were you guilty of deception then?" (Kai vvv the main clause "you must stand by those things";
a7raTW).J,EVO~ p,a'A'Aov ~TOTE E~a7raTWVTE<;;); Philo, rather, it must be subordinated to "consider" (Elows):
Migr. Abr. 83 : "they are deceived while they think they "consider first of all from whom you have learned, and
are deceiving" (a7raTav OOKOVVTE<; a7raTWVTa~). re- secondly, how early you learned it." "Holy writings"
ferring to "those who use charms and enchantments, (iEpa -ypap,p,aTa) is the name for the holy scriptures of
when they bring their trickery to play against the Divine the OT in Greek-speaking judaism. 6 The lack of an
Word" (E7raO~OOL Kai cf>app,aKEUTai avnuocf>~UTEVOV- article may be explained by the technical character of the

1 On these see above pp. 98ff, on 2 Tim 1 :3-14. J..llll)J..IOIIEVETaL);Josephus, Ant. 10.210 : "let him
2 On this see above pp. 98ff, 107f, on 2 Tim 1:3- 14 take the trouble to read the book of Daniel which
and 2:1, 2. he will find among the sacred writings" (0"1rOVOa-
3 See Diu. Or. I, 223.15: "And you seem in general to u6.rw TO {3L{3'Aiov ava-yvwvaL TO LlavL~AOV. Eup~O"EL
conduct your life this way" (r/>aivEu8E -yap Ka86Xov OE Tour' fell ro'is lEpo'is -ypaJ..IJ..IaO"LV). See further
0.-yw')'~L TaVTT/ xp~u8aL) [trans. by Ed.]; cf. ibid. Diu. Or. I 56.36 : "On the day on which the star of
474.9; 485.3; P. Tebt . I 24.57; P. Par. 61.12; 63 col. Isis rises, which is considered, becaus·! of the Holy
9.38; M . Ant. 1.6; 1 Clem. 47.6 . Scriptures, to mark the new year" (T~L ~J..IEpaL fell ~L
4 This has been demonstrated by Paul Wendland, hLTEAAEL TO aO"Tpoll TO T~S "luLOs, 1) JIOJ.LLtETaL
"Miszellen. Betrogene Betriiger," Rheinisches Museum OLa rwvlEpwv -ypaJ.LJ..IaTwv vfeov Eros ELvaL) [trans.
fiir Philologie 49 (1894): 309-10. by Ed.].
5 This passage need not be dependent on 2 Tim 3:13
[trans. of the last two passages above by Ed.].
6 See Philo, Vit . Mos. 2.292: "Such, as recorded by the
Holy Scriptures, was ... the end of Moses, king,
lawgiver, high-priest, prophet" (ToLaVTl) OE Kal ~
TEAEVT~ TOU {3aO"LAEWS Kal JIOJ.to8ETOV Kal apXLEpEWS
Kal7rpor/>~Tov Mwvul:ws OLa TwvlEpwv -ypaJ.LJ..IaTwv
119
expression. 7 The Greek word translated by "holy" 71"allra ravra V71"0 TWII 71"aAaLW11) .
(lEpos) is used in this sense only here in the entire NT. 8 •17 On "man of God" (a118pw7ros 8Eou), see above on
•18 "Every scripture" (7rO.ua "fpacJ>~) means either 1 Tim 6:11; on "good work" (Ep"fOII a"fa8o11), see above
"any passage of scripture" -then "scripture" ('Y pacJ>~) is on 1 Tim 2: 10. The understanding of the scriptures
used as in Acts 8: 35-or "every scripture"-in that case (i.e. of the OT) which is transmitted by the tradition
"scripture" ("fpacJ>~) takes the place of the singular of makes the leader of the congregation fit for the fight
"writings" ('YPILJ..LJ..Lara). The solemn word "scripture" against the false teaching.
does not necessarily require a determining attribute like • 4:1 After the doctrinal portion of 3:15-17, the pare-
"inspired by God" (8E071"11EUO'TOS) . Yet the emphasis nesis is taken up again by means of a solemn entreaty.
of the passage doubtless lies, not on the concept of inspira- It is to be regarded as formulaic, as in 1 Tim 5:21, and is
tion, but on the usefulness of the inspired scriptures. For to an even greater extent kerygma tic in character. 11
the question is here to what extent "holy writings" en- · • 2 "Stand by" (E11"LO'TTJ8L), since it receives its tone
able a man "to have wisdom ." Thus "inspired by God" only from the word-play "whether you are requested or
(8E011"11EVO'TOS) is perhaps to be taken attributively. 9 not," literally "in season-out of season," (EUKaLpws
On the doctrine of inspiration injudaism, see josephus, aKa£pws), can be taken in its original meaning. On the
Ap. 1.31ff; and, above all, the depiction of the "prophet style of the parenesis (unconnected exhortations), cf.
possessed by God" (7rpocp~TTJS flEocpopTJTOS) in Philo, 1 Petr 5: 10 and Plutarch. 12
Spec. leg. 1.65; 4.49. 10 In Christianity, see 2 Petr 1:21; • 3 On "sound teaching" (V"fLaLIIouua OLoauKa"ALa),
Justin, Apol. 1.36; Athenagoras, Suppl. 9; Theophilus, see the excursus to 1 Tim 1: 10. aKO~ here has the mean-
Auto/. 2. 9. On the usefulness of scripture, see Epictetus ing "ear"; see Acts 17:20. 13 On the expression "their
Diss. 3.21 .15 (on the Eleusinian mysteries): "Only thus ears are itching," see Clem. Alex., Strom. I, 3.22.5 (p. 15,
do the Mysteries become helpful, only thus do we arrive Stahlin): "Tickling and titillating in an unmanly fashion,
at the impression that all these things were established I think, ears which are plagued with itching" (KII~Ooll-
L ~ ~ '~ ~
by men of old time for the purpose of education and for TES KaL' "fap"fai\L~
"\'1-OIITES OUK
' u.llupLKWS
1 EJ.I.OL uOKELII 1 Tas
' '

the amendment of our life." (o~TWS wcpEALJ.I.a "f£11ETaL aKod.s TWII KII~O'au8aL "fALXOJ..LEIIWII) [trans. by Ed.].
rd. J..LVO'T~pLa, o~rws Els cpa11rau£a11 EPXOJ..LE8a, C5n In 2 Tim 4:3, as in 1 Tim 4: 1ff, it is obvious that the
E11"l11"aLodQ. Kal E71"allop8wuEL rov {3£ou KarEur6.8TJ future which "Paul" predicts is already a present reality

7 This is corrected in the manuscripts in A C • .R. Cf. p. 46.1ff} : "But the brethren besought Paul by the
Philo, Posta. C. 158 : "For it is said in the sacred coming of our Lord Jesus Christ etc." (lucebant
books" (XeyEraL -yap EvlEpa'i~ {3L{3Xo,~); Rn. div. [perhaps urgebant?] autem fratres Paulum per ad-
h.!r. 106 "in the sacred scripture" (tvlEpa'i~ -ypa- ventum domini nostriJesu Christi etc.); as well as
¢a'i~) [Loeb modified]. the second article of the Apostles' Creed; see Ernst
8 See Eduard Williger, Hagios (Giessen: Topelmann, von Dobschiitz, Das Apostolicum in biblisch-theolo-
1922), p. 96. gischer Bedeutung, Aus der Welt der Religion, Bib-
9 See also Theodore of Mopsuestia and Ambst. On lische Reihe (Giessen : Topelmann, 1932}, 32. On
"inspired by God" (8w7rvEvuro~). cf. Pseudo- "appearance" (t7rLcpavELa) see above p. 104, the
Phocylides 129: "The doctrine of the divinely in- second excursus to 2 Tim 1 : 10; on the "kingdom
spired wisdom is the best" (r~~ OE 8E07riiEVUTOV of Christ" see Bultmann, Theology, 1, p. 78.
uo¢LTJ~ Xb-yo~ turLv O.pLUTo~) [trans. by Ed.]; Plu- 12 1 Petr 5:10; Plutarch, Lib. educ. 16 (p. 12 C); see
tarch, Moralia, p. 904 F (variant 8E07rEI-!1f'TO~); Almqvist, Plutarch und das NT, p. 127.
Sib. 5.308 and 406 (Geffcken}. Cf.Johannes Lei- 1::, See also Hans Windisch, Der Hebriierbriif, HNT 14
poldt, "Die Friihgeschichte der Lehre von der gott- {Tiibingen: J . C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1 1931} on
lichen Eingebung," .('NW 44 {1952- 53}: 118-45. Heb 5:11; Liddell-Scott, s.v.
10 Cf. also Rn. div. her. 263fT. In this passage, in a refer- 14 See above pp. 24f and 65f, the excursus to 1 Tim
ence to Plato (Ion 534 b), it is said that, in the 1:10and 1 Tim4 :5 (section 1c) .
prophet, human mental activity is replaced by the
sole rulership of the divine spirit.
11 See above pp. 30f and 88f, on l Tim 1:17 and 6: 13;
cf. Lietzmann, "Symbolstudien" {2), p. 269. Cf.
also Act. Pt. 1 (Actus Vnee/lenses) (Lipsius-Bonnet 1,
120
 2 Timothy 3:16--4:8

for the situation of the letters. For the enemies of future by Ed.]. 19
times who are named here are none other than the • 8 "It is reserved for" (a7rOKELTaL) is an expression
heretical opponents of the Pastoral Epistles; note the which has almost become technical in edicts of com-
use of"fables" (p.V8oL) and the contrast to the "sound mendation, in which recognition was bestowed on some-
teaching" (v-yLalvovua OLOauKa'ALa). 14 one by oriental kings. It is perhaps originally connected
• 4, 6 On "to turn to" (EKTPE7rEu0aL), see above on with the fact that the names of those who received such
1 Ti~ 1:6. On "to be sober" (vMmv), see Corp. Herm. honors were entered in the annals of the state. 20 This
7.1 : "Stop and be sober" (urijrE v~l/;avrEs). 1 s expression is reminiscent of the terminology of martyr-
Vss 6-8 comprise the solemn conclusion of the pare- dom. In accounts of martyrdom it appears first in the
nesis. Martyrdom ofPolycarp (cf. 17.1; 19.2), and celebrates
• 8 The words "I am sacrificed" (u7rEJIOOJ.LaL) and "my the virtues of the martyrs in a typical Hellenistic fashion
departure" (avaAV«TLS) are strongly reminiscent of (as in 4 Macc). 21
Paul's epistle to the Philippians. 16 "Departure" is also According to the tenor of the passage (see also 2 Tim
used in 1 Clem. 44.5 and by Philo to designate the end of 4: 1), "appearance" (E7rLcpavELa) is best understood
life; cf. Philo, Flacc. 187: "at the final departure from as a reference to the parousia. The success of the apostolic
life" (T~JI EK TOV {jlov TEAEvraLav avaAV«TLJ!) [Loeb life is described here in classic formulations. The sensi-
modified]. bilities of modern scholars balk at having to deny the
• 7 follows upon v 6, which strongly reflects the aware- Pauline authorship of such passages as this; the "fragment
ness of impending death, like a triumphant proclamation hypothesis" finds support in such words. But one may
which reviews the life of the apostle. It consists of three still ask (without claiming that the answer decides the
parallel clauses, of which two use images from the sta- question of authenticity) whether Paul himself in such a
dium, well-known from 1 Cor 9: 24ff. 1 7 "To keep faith" situation would have spoken only of his success and
(1rl«TTLJ1 TrtpE'iv) is a fixed expression. 18 On "I have not also of his weakness, whether he would have praised
completed my course" (rov opop.ov TETEAEKa), cf. only his actions and not much rather God's action.
Virgil, Aen. 4.653, in which Dido says: "I have lived and
accomplished the course which fortune appointed"
(vixi et quem dederat cursum Fortuna peregi) [trans.

15 See also Dibelius, Thusalonicher, Philipper, on 1 Thess. is reserved for them from gods and heroes" (ols
5:6. ci1roKEluua' 1rapa fJEwll Kal ~,WW11 x.cip's EU<TE-
16 Phil2:17 and 1 :23; see Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Phi- {:Mas); Ditt. Sy/1. I, 22.15ff: "Therefore great fa-
lipper, on Phil1 :23 and 2:17. vour is reserved for you in the king's household"
17 See also 2 Tim 2:5; 1 Tim 6:11; cf. BMIIII, 604, ([ 6],ci ravrci <TO' KEl<TETa' JlE'Ycl'Af/ x.cip's Ejl {Jaq,_
lines 7ff: "He competed in three contests and won 'AEws otKw'); Demophilus, Similitudines No. 22 (p. 6,
the crown in two" (~'Ywlliuaro ci-yw11as rpE'is, Orelli): "For those who run in the foot races, there
E<TrE¢8rl6flw) [trans. by Ed.]. is reserved for them, at the finishing line, the prize
18 See Polybius 6.56.13 and 10.37.9;Josephus, Bell. of victory, and for those who have loved toils, at
6.345 in the speech of Titus: "I gave pledges of pro- old age, the first prize for wisdom" (ro'is JlEII <TTa-
tection to deserters, I kept the faith with them when 6w6poJlOV<T'JI E?rl r4l TEpjlan TO {Jpa{JE'ioll T~S lll-
they fled to me." (6E~'cis auTOJlo'Ao's ~6wKa, Kara- Kf/S, ro'is 6t 4>''Ao?roJI~<Ta<T'" E?rl r4l -y~povs ro ?rpw-
¢vyoi)u, 1rlurm ET~P'T/<Ta); BMI III, 587b lines 5ff: TE'ioll T~S ¢po11~<TEWS a?rOKE,Ta'); P. Par. 63, col. 9,
"I have kept faith" (n}111rl<Tn11 ET~Pf/<Ta); Ditt. line 47: "For a vengeance is reserved from God for
Or. I, 339.46f: "Those who will keep the faith pi- those who have not preferred to live according to
ously and righteously" (roils T~ll'lrl<Tnll EU<TE/3ws TE the best principles" (ci'lroKE,ra' -yap 1rapa fJ[EOv]
Kal6,Kalws Tf/P~<TOJITas) [trans. by Ed.]. Jl~llu ro'is Jl~ Kara ro {JE'Anuro11 [1rpoa,]povJlEIIO's
19 I am indebted to Gunther Bornkamm for this refer- r~11); Thucydides 1.120; Achilles Tatius 3.22 (p.
ence. 107, Hercher) [trans. in this footnote by Ed.].
20 See F. Pfister, "Zur Wendung a'lrOKE,Tal JlO' o ri7s 21 On the "crown" see Ludwig Deubner, "Die Be-
6'KaW<TUJif/S urf¢a11os," Z.NW15 (1914): 94-6. deutung des Kranzes im klassischen Altertum,"
See also the inscription of Antiochus I of Comma- ARW30 (1933): 70-104;KarlBaus,DerKran.tin
gene in Ditt. Or. I, 383.189ff: "Favor for their piety Antilu und Christentum (Bonn: Hanstein, 1940).
121
 2 Timothy 4:9-12

4 Description of Paul's
Situation

9 Make every effort to come to me quickly.

10/ For Demas has left me, because
he fell in love with this world, and he
has gone to Thessalonica, Crescens to
Galatia, Titus to Dalmatia; 11 I only Luke
is staying with me. Get Mark and bring
him with you, for I can make good use of
his services. 12/ Tychicus I have sent
to Ephesus.

4:9-21 is made up of personal references and greetings. Moreover, even the better attested reading "Galatia"
• 10, 11 The depiction of Paul deserted by almost every- (ra:\arLav) can be understood as referring to Gaul, if
one supplements 2 Tim 1:15. The picture is stylized: the context suggests it. 3 Therefore, the translation of
note the contradiction to v 21, a contradiction which is 2 Tim 4:10 will depend upon the interpretation of the
not to be brushed aside by literary critical manipulations situation (see the excursus to 2 Tim 4:21) . If Caesarea is
(cf. Mk 13:13 and Lk 21: 16). As a result, the motif of meant to be conceived of as the place of composition,
abandonment is characteristically complemented with Galatia is more probable; if Rome, Gaul is preferable. 4
the motif of support provided by the Lord (this concept "Dalmatia" (Lla:\J.LarLa) is the southern part of Illyria. 5
was already intimated in 3: 11) . It is also typical of the Perhaps it is essential for understanding the origin of
writer that he places side by side a rebuke (for Demas), this passage that the same area may be meant here, as the
and a commendation (for Mark). Among the proper one Paul mentions in Rom 15: 19. 6
names which follow, Demas, Luke, and Mark recall the • 12 It is impossible to conclude, on the basis of the
lists of greetings in the letters to the Colossians and to reference to Ephesus, that Timothy is not thought of as
Philemon; but in the latter Demas is spoken of as being being in Ephesus at this time (nor does 2 Tim 1:18 allow
(still?) present, and Mark as absent (again?). In the such a conclusion). Paul also mentions the city by name
Acts of Paul (12ff; Lipsius-Bonnet 1, pp. 244f) Demas, in 1 Cor, which was written in Ephesus (1 Cor 15:32
together with Hermogenes, is counted among the enemies and 16:8; but see below on 2 Tim 4: 19).
of Paul. (Does this indicate dependence upon 2 Tim or
reliance upon the tradition used by the Pastorals?) On the
personal references in general, see below, the excursus
to 2 Tim 4:21; on the "innuendo against Thessalonica,"
see Bauer. 1 At least later scribes (unless that is the original
reading) assumed that Crescens was sent to Gaul. 2

1 See Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy, 74f. raXarLas, also 13.20; 14.4f); 16.tf: "From Spain
2 See the reading "Gaul" (raXXLav) in tot C Eus and Galatia and from the Dalmatians" (f:~ 'lu?ra-
Epiph instead of"Galatia"; this tradition may be vLas Kal raXarLas Kal ?rapa t:.aA}J.aTwv). Further
reflected also in the Act. Pl. 1 (Lipsius-Bonnet 1, examples can be found in Zahn, Introduction, 2,
p . 104), where Titus, who is corning from Dalmatia, section 33, n . 8.
and Luke (not Crescens) are mentioned as corning 4 See Theodoret (III, p . 694, Schulze).
from Gaul (but the Latin text has "Galilee"!). On 5 See Theodor Mornrnsen, Riimische Geschichte (Berlin :
Titus see below pp. 153f, the excursus to Tit 3:14, Weidmann, 2 1856-57), 5, pp. 19f; GIL III, part 1,
section 3. On the substitution of Luke for Crescens, pp. 271, 279fT; on the extension of the concept 11-
see Theodor Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen lyria, see Weber, Hadrianus, p . 55.
Kanons (Erlangen and Leipzig: Deichert, 1890-92), 6 See below pp. 127£, the second excursus to 2 Tim
2, p. 888. 4:21, section 2.
3 Cf. Monumentum Ancyranum 6.20 (in: KIT 29f):
"From Spain and Galatia" (~~ 'lu?ravLas Kal

122
 2 Timothy 4:13-15

4 Instructions for Timothy

13 When you come, bring the coat that I left

in Troas with Carpus. and also the
books, especially the parchments.
14/ Alexander the coppersmith did me
a great deal of harm-the Lord will give
him (his) recompense according to his
deedl-15/ you should also be on your
guard against him, because he re-
sisted our words very much.

•13 "Coat" (f/>atA.lwq~) is a word that has been formed papyrus at that time. I I
by inversion from the Greek word f/>atvOA'YJ~ (is there a • 14 "Alexander" (' AA.t~avopo~) is usually identified
connection with the Latin word "cloak" (paenula)?). 7 with the man mentioned in 1 Tim 1:20. In that case, the
But now we also know the word and its diminutive, in the person in question clearly had not yet been "handed
form attested here, from the papyri. 8 One should not over to Satan." 12
try to interpret the word as a reference to the leather case It cannot be determined with certainty whether the
for papyrus scrolls (otf/>Otpa) . 9 Is there a connection author himself had heard of an apostate Christian by this
between the reference to the coat which was left behind name, or if this is simply an allusion to Acts 19: 33f. 13
in Troas and the march which Paul made on foot from Is "the Lord will give him his recompense" (a1roOW<TEt
Troas to Assos, which is mentioned in Acts 20: 13? The KTA.) perhaps ajewish curse formula formed on the
"parchments" (J.LEJ.Lf3pavat-a Latin loan word) is analogy of Ps 61 : 13 and Pr 24: 12? Cf. the wish ex-
perhaps a reference to scrolls. 10 By "books" the author pressed in v 16, where the use of the optative already
means these "parchments" (J.LEJ.L/3pavat) and other points to formulaic language.14
things, hence perhaps also books of papyri. The usual
writing material (even for the writers of the NT) was still

7 On the derivation of the Latin word from the Greek, (n11i~ ol: cpacrt TO ')''XwcrcroKop.oll, "E110a Ta {3t{3XLa
see Blass-Debrunner 32.30. On the inversion see EKEtTo) (trans. by Ed.].
G. B. Winer, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Sprach- 10 Do these scrolls include perhaps the Greek OT? See
idioms, 1867; rev. P. Schmiedel, 1894ff, sect. 5.18; Theodoret (III, p. 695, Schulze) : "He called the
James Hope Moulton and W. F. Howard, A Gram- scrolls 'parchments,' for that is what the Romans
mar of New Testament Greek 2: Accidence and Word- call skins (prepared for writing). In former times
Formation (Edinburgh: T . & T. Clark, 1929), pp. they had the divine scriptures in rolls, and even up
70, 106 and 155. On the meaning "coat" for c/>at- to the present time the jews have them in this form"
IIO'X1]~ and cpat11o'Xw11 seeP. Oxy. III, 531.14; IV, (p.Ep.{3pava~ Ta El'X1]Ta KEK'X1]KEII" oiiTw ')'ap 'Pw-
736.4; VI, 936.18f; XII, 1584.7, 8; XIV, 1737.9, 15; p.a'tot KaXoilcn Ta Upp.aTa. tv El'XTJTOt~ OE Erxo11
P. Giess. I, 10.21; 79, col. IV 2f; P. Hamb. 10.19. 1ra'Xat Ta~ OELa~ ')'pacpa~, oiiTw ot
Kat JJEXP' Toil
8 See BGU III, 816.23f: "and he did not pay the price 1rapbvTo~ "Exoucrwol 'louoa'tot) (trans. by Ed.].
of the coats" (Kat T~ll np.~[11 T]WII cpat[Xo]lllwll ovK 11 On the relation between scroll and codex see Karl
EOWKE); P. Oxy. VI, 933.29f: "if it is no trouble to Preisendanz, "Zur Papyruskunde," Handbuch der
you, find out from Antinoos, whether he bought Bibliothekswissenschaft 1, ed. G. Leyh (Wiesbaden :
the coat for your child, and if not, buy it" (Eci11 crot Harrassowitz, 2 1950), 163ff;Joachimjeremias,
v
0.{3apE~ [1rEV8ou]1rapa 'A11n11oou El ~')'bparu11 "Der gegenwartige Stand der fruhchristlichen Papy-
T4)1fatOt4J CTOU TO cpatllo'Xwll, El O(E J.'~ a')'O]pacroll); rologie," ThL-?_75 (1950) : 55-8; C. C. McCown,
P. Giess. I, 12.2ff: "You sent me in good condition "Codex and Roll in the New Testament," HTR 34
the warp and wooffor the coats" (E'IfEp.if;a~ p.ot (1941): 219-50.
irytw~ TOll CTT~p.o11a Kat T~ll KpOK1]11 TWII cpatXw- 12 On the relation between the two epistles in general
lllwll). The fact that the word was common in this see above p. 71, the excursus to 1 Tim 4:14, section 2.
form is demonstrated by its appearance in bills and 13 But cf. below pp. 126ff, the two excursus to 4:21. On
lists; seeP. Fay. 347: c/>E'Xollwll; P. Gen . 80.14: cp(E]- Acts 19: 33f, see Ernst Haenchen, Die Apostelge-
Xo11£0II. The word also occurs as o~i'q in the Talmud schichte KEK 3 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Rup-
(see Billerbeck 3, 666) (trans. \n this footnote by Ed.]. recht, 6 1968), ad loc.
9 See Chrysostom (XI, p. 721, Montfaucon): "but 14 Cf. Radermacher, Grammatik, p. 164f.
some say it is the box where the books were kept"
123
 2 Timothy 4:16-18

4 Personal Information
about Paul

16 At my first defense no one stood by me,

but everyone had deserted me-may it
not be counted against theml-17/ but
the Lord stood by me and gave me
strength-that through me the preach-
ing might be proclaimed far and wide,
and that all nations might be able to
hear it-and thus I was rescued from the
lion's mouth. 18/ The Lord will (hence-
forth) rescue me from every evil act,
and he will give me safe conduct into his
heavenly kingdom. Glory be to him for
ever and ever I Amen.

• 16-18 The traditional interpretation of this passage 1 5 only one imprisonment). In that case, "lion" refers to the
is that Paul, now in his second Roman imprisonment, imperial power. 16 But whoever thinks that this epistle,
is looking back to the first one and to his successful libera- or a portion of the epistle, points to a Caesarean setting,
tion. The "lion" from which he was rescued would then will be reminded of the hearing in Acts 23: 1ff, and even of
be Nero. According to this assumption, the apostle would the appearance of the Lord in Acts 23: 11.
have visited the eastern provinces again during the If that is possible, the final clause in v 17 would refer
interval between the two imprisonments (see 2 Tim to the promise given in Acts 23: 11 "you must be a wit-
4:13, 20). In this case, however, Timothy would have ness also in Rome" (Kat Els 'Pwp:.JV p,aprvpijuaL). The
known about the release. Moreover, reading these verses, description of Paul, as one who has been abandoned
one has the impression that Paul is still in the same period by all, would reflect what the author thinks about the
of imprisonment in which the "first defense" took place. attitude toward Paul in the primitive Christian commu-
For, after all, he is narrating his fate in order to enjoin nity in Palestine. "Lion" could be taken figuratively-
Timothy to come as soon as possible-perhaps even not necessarily influenced by the language of the OT; 17
before an anticipated second defense. It is therefore more see the comparison of the soldiers with leopards in Ign.
probable to understand "defense" (a7roAo-yLa) as re- Rom. 5.1. 18 The ethos of suffering which permeates the
ferring only to a portion of one and the same legal process whole epistle (see above on 2 Tim 1:3-14) comes once
against Paul, especially if one assumes that the apostle's again into play in the impressive connection between
situation is that of a first or second Roman imprisonment information, prayerful petition, and thanksgiving, as well
(note, however, that the Pastorals themselves know of as in the prospect of victory in v 18.

15 This interpretation goes back as far as Eusebius, 17 One might think of Ps 21 :22: "save me from the
Hist. eccl. 2.22.2, 3, and Theodoret (III, p . 695f, mouth of the lion" (uwu(JJI J..LE EK UTOJ..LO.TOS ~Eoll·
Schulze). TOS) .
16 See Josephus, Ant. 18.228: "the lion is dead" (-rfJJ- 18 For further discussion of the situation in general, see
o
111'/KEII ~Ewll), a reference to the death of Tiberi us. below, the excursus to 4:21.

124
 2 Timothy 4:19-22

4 Greetings and Valediction

19 Greet Prisca, Aquila, and the family of

Onesiphorus. 20/ Erastus remained in
Corinth. I had to leave Trophimus
behind in Miletus. because he was sick.
21 I Make every effort to come before
the winter. Eubulus, Pudens, Linus.
Claudia, and all the brothers here send
their greetings.
22 The Lord be with your spirit. Grace be
with you.

•19-21 bring the final greetings of the letter. The family and 2 Tim 4:20 in favor of Acts. But there are other
of Onesiphorus is believed by some scholars to have explanations for the contradiction. For example, one
resided in Ephesus; the basis for this assumption is 2 Tim might take "left behind" ((brEAt7rOII) as the third person
1: 18. According to the Acts of Paul, Onesiphorus lives ("he left behind")-but that is impossible in this con-
in Iconium. 1 It is perhaps from this source that manu- text. Or one might change MtA~T~ (Miletus) to ME-
scripts 181 and 460 have inserted the three names Lectra, Xi.rv (Malta), thereby alluding to what took place on the
Simmias, and Zenon into the text. But the insertion was journey to Rome. In that case Trophimus would not
made mechanically after "Aquila" so that "Lectra, have been mentioned in Acts 27:2. 3 The fact that the
his wife" (AEKTpav T~ll ')'UIIaLKa avrou) seems to refer Roman poet Martial names a Claudia and a Pudens is
to Aquila. He and his wife would be present in Rome unimportant since the names are common. Irenaeus
according to Rom 16: 3-if that chapter belongs to the (Adv. haer. 3.3.3.) asserts that this Linus was the "bishop"
Epistle to the Romans. The author might, however, have of Rome . This would be probable only if this name,
known of a new journey to Asia Minor, or-what is more known from Greek mythology, were really so unusual
probable-he may have presupposed, on the basis of as is often believed. Against this assumption is the fact
Acts 18: 19, 26, that the couple was living in Ephesus. that Martial calls one of his fictitious individuals Linus. 4
According to Acts 19:22 Paul sent Erastus ahead to Another consideration is the inscriptions, 5 which are,
Macedonia with Timothy. It is not known whether this after all, more or less random, and hence ought to be
Erastus is identical with the city accountant of Corinth weighed heavily in an assessment of how common the
mentioned in Rom 16:23. According to Acts 20:4, names were. That the names are in part Latin proves
Trophimus belongs with Tychicus among those who were nothing with respect to the idea that the Pastorals were
sent out to make the collection. According to Acts 21:29, written in Rome. There is great support for the assump-
he was with Paul in Jerusalem. K. Erbes 2 has attempted tion that Roman names were common in the East. 6
to resolve the contradiction between the latter passage

See the Act. Pl. 2 (Lipsius-Bonnet 1, p. 236), in Zahn, Introduction 2, section 33, n. 2.
which it says of him: "(he) went out with his chi!- 4 On this point, see the edition of Martial by Fried-
dren Simmias and Zeno and his wife Lectra to meet Hinder, 2, pp. 373fT. The passages from Martial are :
Paul" (E~ijMEv uuv ro'Ls TEKVots atirov ~LJ.IJ.Il~ Kat 1.75.1; 2.38.1; 54.1; 4.66.1; 7.10:1; 95.4; 11.25.2;
Z~vwvt K4L TV -yuvatKL atirov AEKTP~ Els uvvav- 12.49.1.
T'T/ULJI ITav>.ov) [trans. Hennecke-Schneemelcher 2, 5 See GIG IV, 8518 p. 261.53; IG XIV, 2276.8ff; GIL
p. 353]. V, 2119; 2528; 3699. On a very doubtful Linus in-
2 "Zeit und Ziel der Griisse Rom 16, 3-15 und der scription seeK. Erbes, "Das Alter der Graber und
Mitteilungen 2 Tim 4, 9-21," :(NW 10 (1 909): Kirchen des Paulus und Petrus in Rom . Eine histo-
207fT. risch-antiquarische Untersuchung," :(KG 7 (1883):
3 For further discussion see the next two excursi be- 20.
low pp. 126fT. On ancient and modern legends which 6 Cf. the indices of the collections of inscriptions men-
have been attached to the names given in 4:21, see tioned above, or simply compare the names in Rom
125
 that chapter; according to 1 Tim 4:20, he is lying there
The Situation of 2 Timothy
as a sick man, years later. Timothy, who is in Ephesus
On the basis of 2 Tim 1: 17, with less certainty on the or somewhere nearby, is pictured as knowing nothing
basis of 4: 16f (see above), and with even less certainty on about this fact as yet; he only discovers it through a letter
the basis of 4: 6ff (where "Paul" expresses his readiness from Paul, who is in Rome!
for death), ancient and modern scholars have considered On the other hand, all the personal information in
Rome as the place of composition of 2 Tim. For the most 2 Tim 4: 1Off appears to speak for Caesarea as the place of
part this thesis is based, espeCially if the authenticity of composition (while Ephesus seems to be the residence of the
the epistle is assumed, on a postulated second Roman addressee). Consider the place names: the apostle's
imprisonment of Paul. This imprisonment is usually placed assistants have travelled to Dalmatia, Thessalonica,
after a second stay in the East and a second visit to the Ephesus and Galatia (as 4: 10 would then naturally be
mission stations in Greece and Asia Minor. 7 But the explained); the addressee is in Asia Minor; Paul stopped
assumption of a second Roman imprisonment and of a in Corinth, Troas and Miletus along his way-all this
journey to Spain before that imprisonment can be based agrees with the route attested in Acts 20f. According to
on 1 Clem. 5:7 (as well as on the Muratorian Canon 38f), the account in Acts the stay in Miletus was not long
only if one includes in that hypothesis the second assump- before. The reference to the coat left in Troas, according
tion that the apostle had left the East forever at the time to 2 Tim 4: 13, can be connected with the report of the
of the first (and probably only) journey to Rome, which is journey on foot to Assos in Acts 20:13. Moreover, there is
mentioned in Acts 27f. Acts 20:25 and the scanty in- a good correspondence between Acts 23: 1-10, 11 and
formation about a journey to Spain in general prove that 2 Tim 4: 16f. The list of names in 4:21 (see above) does
the apostle never again returned to the East. If, there- not provide an argument against the Caesarean hypothe-
fore, the hypothesis that 2 Tim was written in Rome is sis. But perhaps Timothy's participation in Paul's journey
based upon the hypothesis of a second imprisonment, the to Jerusalem, apparently implied by Acts 20:4, does
latter is in danger of being automatically rejected along supply such an argument, for it would make notices such
with the former. If they are accepted, it is difficult to as 2 Tim 4:20 superfluous. Most of all, however, the
situate the writing of 1 Tim and Tit-since the Pastorals mention of Rome in 2 Tim 1: 17 seems to exclude the
themselves know of only one imprisonment. possibility of locating the letter in Caesarea. If one is un-
2 Tim 4:13, 17 make it improbable, though perhaps willing to take refuge in improbable assumptions (see
not impossible, that the epistle belongs to the ''first" above on 2 Tim 1: 17), the advocate of authenticity may
imprisonment (if we assume authenticity) . The reference still take flight into areas about which we know nothing,
to the evangelization of"all the nations," (1r&.vra ni i.e. to periods in Paul's life which cannot be accounted for
Wv71) which is to be made possible by the success of (e.g., the hypothesis of a trip to the East after the first
the first defense, must refer to the plans for a journey to Roman imprisonment, see above).
Spain. It is rather strange that the coat (</>«tAOV7JS) and If one holds that the Pastorals are pseudonymous, then
the books (f3tfJA.la) should have been stored with it is best to assume that the author simply made mistakes.
Carpus for such a long time-about three years. But the Perhaps he was also incorrect in presuming that Aquila
hypothesis in question is entirely impossible in light of and Prisca were in Ephesus (see above on 4: 19; on 4:20
4:20. According to Acts 20, Trophimus was left behind in see the next excursus). It is quite possible that in his
Miletus by Paul at the time of the events reported in statements about Onesiphorus in 2 Tim 1:17, the author

t6:21ff; one should also recall the role of the Roman justments [London, t 927)); George Duncan (St.
army. On this whole question see C . Wessely, "Die Paul's Ephesian Ministry [London: Hodder & Stough-
lateinischen Elemente in der Grazitat der agypti- ton, 1929]); P. N . Harrison, The Problem; Heinrich
schen Papyrusurkunden," Wiener Studien 24 (1 902): Lisco (Vincula Sanctorum [Berlin: Schneider & Co.,
99-151. 1907]); and W . Hartke (Die Sammlung und die iil-
7 See 2 Tim 4:9ff. Michaelis holds this opinion, see testen Ausgaben der Paulusbriife, Unpub. Diss. [Bonn:
&htheitsfrage, 153ft'; cf. ibid., 140ft', the review and t 91 7]) . See also Spicq, pp. LXXVff and 398ft'.
criticism of the dating by L. Davies (Pauline Read-
126
 The Situation of 2 Timothy; Persons 2 Timothy 4:21

did not consider the fact that, according to 2 Tim 4, some portions of them, is provided by the information
Paul had not yet visited Rome at all. Naturally the au- about persons. Therefore, whoever holds, on the basis of
thor did not have the sequence of events in Paul's life the arguments given in the Introduction, that the Pas-
(reconstructed by the modern historian) as clearly in torals are non-Pauline, must try to explain the purpose of
mind as does a theologian today, though he was familiar the inclusion of such information. In general, it must
withActs and some of the Pauline epistles. first be noted that whoever could compose fictitious letters
The attitude of the Acts of Paul is also instructive for could also compose fictitious greetings and personal
understanding these contradictions . If, as is probable, references. Furthermore, in an age rich in pseudonymous
only one journey of Paul is presupposed in this work, then writings, one need not postulate any special craftiness
the imprisonment in Philippi it reports is identical with nor an ethically questionable character on the part of the
the one described in Acts 16. At the time of that arrest, creator of such fictitious information. But the abundance
Paul had not yet been in Corinth. Nevertheless, the of personal references in 2 Tim is perhaps best explained
(apocryphal) Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul (which, by the fact that several motifs came together in such a
according to the Acts of Paul, is addressed to the apostle way as to require the insertion of such notices (see below,
being held captive in Philippi!) presupposes Paul's visit in especially sections 3, 4, and 5 of the following consid-
Corinth, and so does the apostle's letter in response! It erations).
is clearly inconceivable for the author of the Acts of Paul 1. It must be said first of all that certain statements can
that a time existed in the ministry of the great founder be considered authentic, even if they do not come from
of the Corinthian church, in which he had not yet Paul's own hand. Thus, what is reported in 2 Tim 4:20,
founded the church in Corinth. Thus the author of the as distinct from the conflicting information in Acts 21:29,
Pastorals, defying all chronological sequence, could have is perhaps historically correct (see above, on 2 Tim 4:20) .
put 2 Tim 1: 17 in the mouth of Paul, under the dominant It is also quite possible that the author was referring to
influence of the picture of his hero residing in Rome, historical facts when he specially honored Onesiphorus in
even though he writes 2 Tim 4: 9ff in order to give the 2 Tim 1 : 16ff, or cast blame upon certain heretics in 2: 17
impression that the epistle was composed in Caesarea. It (see also 1 Tim 2:20). These facts may belong to the life
is also conceivable that in this case the author purposely of Paul or, what is perhaps more probable, to a some-
modified what was a well-known situation. 8 If that is what later time even though they are otherwise unknown
so, the author may have written 2 Tim 1: 19 quite de- to us. It is indeed unlikely that all this information about
liberately in order to alter the usual picture of Paul's im- persons was simply invented by the author (see also
prisonment in Caesarea. below, sections 2 and 3); they are probably supported by
Finally, an advocate of the fragment hypothesis may correct or false (see below, section 2) tradition. Indeed,
regard the last part of2 Tim 4 as a fragment of a genuine the fragment hypothesis wants to emphasize this par-
Pauline epistle from Caesarea. 9 For the argument ticular point; the problem is, that thereby it creates new
against this hypothesis, see above the Introduction to difficulties. 11
the present commentary, section 1. 1 0 2. At the time of the composition of the Pastoral Epis-
tles, an interest in the story of the apostle's life (see above
Information About Persons
on 1 Tim 1:16 and 2 Tim 1:3, 5) obviously existed
The strongest basis for all positions which assert the au- already. Thus it seems plausible that the formation of
thenticity of the present text of the Pastoral Epistles, or of legends about Paul had already begun, legends like those

8 See above pp. 15f, the excursus to 1 Tim 1 :3. 11 On the fragment hypothesis see above p . 4, the
9 SeeK. Erbes, "Zeit und Ziel," 121fT, 195fT, and P. Introduction, section 1.
N . Harrison, The Problem, 121fT (with reference to
4: 16-18a).
10 See Spitta's treatment of the passage, which he con-
siders genuine, in his article" Uber die pers<inlichen
Notizen im zweiten Briefe an Timotheus," ThStKr
51 , 1 (1878): 582-607.

127
attested in the Acts of Paul. In these apocryphal Acts, Colossians and to Philemon only partially and freely. He
legendary accounts are particularly attached to those also uses the information from the canonical book of
places in the tradition of Paul's journeys which received Acts about the journey to Jerusalem, but he seems to vary
less attention in the canonical book of Acts, such as and .to correct it insofar as it relates to Trophimus. The
!conium. In 2 Tim 1:15 and 4:10 names are mentioned occurrence of similar processes in other pseudonymous
which also appear in the Acts of Paul. Perhaps even the works proves that it is not a question of an individual
list in 2 Tim 4:21 derives from the influence oflegends, as writer's craftiness, but of a common technique of pseu-
might the notice regarding the mission of Titus in Dal- donymous writers in genera!.l4
matia in 2 Tim 4:10 (see above). This latter notice may 5. But what gives the situation presupposed in 2 Tim
be a legendary expansion of Rom 15: 19 (Illyria) . The its special importance and justifies the extensive presenta-
assertion that the legend-making process had such an in- tion of information about persons is the special character
fluence becomes more credible if one takes into con- of this "epistle." Its purpose is to portray Paul as the
sideration the use of Paul's image in parenetic and model of patient endurance in suffering, and thereby of
dogmatic formulations (see below, section 5). the Christian life in general (see the general rule in 3: 12) .
3. Finally, some of the information may have been One can understand this intention by seeing this portrait
created by conjecture. It is possible that the author knew of Paul in the context of the typical transitional passages
of the Erastus in Corinth and identified him with the of the other two epistles. This portrait is used to con-
apostle's assistant (see 2 Tim 4:20). Perhaps he took the firm the validity of the teaching which is presented
Ephesian jew Alexander from Acts 19:33 and trans- (faith, church order, and parenesis) . This purpose is also
formed him into a "coppersmith," a member of a guild served by the picture of the abandoned prisoner and
closely related to that of Demetrius the "silversmith" the description of his exemplary attitude; this picture is
(ap"(vpoKinros) of Acts 19 :24. 12 He probably also knew enhanced by the addition of information about other
that Aquila and his wife had once stayed in Ephesus, persons. The wonderful ethos of the final portion, which
and that Onesiphorus had visited Paul in Rome, and used expresses the sense of vocation in suffering felt by the
both data without regard to chronology (2 Tim 1: 17; apostle and missionary, has caused some interpreters to
4: 19; see also the preceding excursus) . defend this epistle, or at least the last portion of it, against
4. The information about persons in pseudonymous the suspicion of inauthenticity. But it is meaningless to
epistles serves, in some instances, as proof of the (ficti- assert that such passages are too "true" to have been
tious) authorship; see, for example, 1 Petr 5:12, 13. "invented"-how many scenes which truly represent the
In other instances, they are intended as a description of nearness of death, both in ancient and modern literature,
the situation in which the epistle is supposed to have been have after all been "invented"? Such a consideration
composed; see, for example, Eph. 6:21f. In the process proves nothing. But if the personal element in 2 Tim is
by which information is adapted for these purposes, valued in the proper way, especially for its significance for
situations can be modified to such a degree that it is church history (see above, section 2), it will no longer
impossible to identify them with certainty. This is illus- be hard to believe that the "epistle" is not Pauline,
trated again by the Acts of Paul, which (perhaps con- despite the personal information it contains.
sciously) slightly changes the references from 2 Tim
4:10. 13 In the same way, the author of2 Tim uses the • 22 The concluding greeting resembles the greetings in
information about persons from the Epistles to the the Epistles to the Galatians, Philippians, and Philemon.

12 The same designation "the coppersmith" (o xaX- [trans. Hennecke- Schneemelcher 2, p. 383].
KEvs) is given to Hermogenes in the Act. Pl. 1 (Lip- 14 On the problem see Frederik Torm, Die Psychologie
sius-Bonnet 1, p. 235) . der Pseudonymitiit im Hinblick auf die Literatur des Ur-
13 See theMartyrdom of the Holy Apostle Paul1 (Lipsius- christentums (Giitersloh: Bertelsmann, 1932).
Bonnet 1, p. 104): "There were awaiting Paul at
Rome, Luke from Gaul and Titus from Dalmatia"
(~uav 8E 7rEptJ.1.EvovrEs rov ITavXov i:v rfi 'PWJ.I.l1
AovKas ci7ro raXXtwv Kai TLros ci7ro AaXJ.I.aTLas)
128
 Titus

•
• • •
• •
• • •
•
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
 Epistle to Titus

Outline
Initial greeting, 1:1-4.
Titus must install "presbyters" on Crete, 1: 5, 6; in order
to give a basis for this request, a church order for bis-
hops is appended which also mentions the opponents,
1:7-9. There are many such opponents, especially
on Crete, 1:10-16.
Church order in the form of lists of rules for the house-
hold, 2: 1; for the old men, 2:2; the old and the young
women, 2:3-5; the young men, for whom Titus should
be a model, 2:6-8; and the slaves, 2:9, 10. The basis
for these directions is found in the history of salvation,
2:11-15.
Conclusion of the church regulation with general exhor-
tations, 3: 1, 2, which are based on the history of salva-
tion, 3:3-7. Renewed exhortation and warning about
the heretics 3:8-11. Assignments, greetings, and the
concluding greeting 3:12-15.

130
 Epistle to Titus

Outline
Initial greeting, 1:1-4.
Titus must install "presbyters" on Crete, 1: 5, 6; in order
to give a basis for this request, a church order for bis-
hops is appended which also mentions the opponents,
1:7-9. There are many such opponents, especially
on Crete, 1:10-16.
Church order in the form of lists of rules for the house-
hold, 2: 1; for the old men, 2:2; the old and the young
women, 2:3-5; the young men, for whom Titus should
be a model, 2:6-8; and the slaves, 2:9, 10. The basis
for these directions is found in the history of salvation,
2:11-15.
Conclusion of the church regulation with general exhor-
tations, 3: 1, 2, which are based on the history of salva-
tion, 3:3-7. Renewed exhortation and warning about
the heretics 3:8-11. Assignments, greetings, and the
concluding greeting 3:12-15.

130
 Titus 1 :1-4

1 Initial Greeting

1 Paul. servant of God and apostle of Christ

Jesus-according to the faith (which
those possess who are) chosen by God.
and according to the recognition of
truth, as it corresponds to our religion.
2/ on the basis of the hope of eternal
life: God, who cannot lie, has promised
this to us before time began, 3/ but in
his own time he has revealed his word in
the proclamation with which I have
been entrusted, according to the com-
mission of God our savior-4/ to Titus.
his true child in the common faith:
grace and peace from God the father
and Christ Jesus our savior.

This is a long prescript. Its structure may well be ana- are free from falsehood" (7raPT77 iipa. cil/IEVOES TO oa.L-
lyzed by analogy with the other Pastoral Epistles. J.I.OPLOP TE KO.L TO OE'iov) ; see also 383b (in a quotation
• 1, 2a V 2 doubtless corresponds to "according to the from Aeschylus) : "that Phoebus' divine mouth could not
promise oflife" (Ka.T' E7rO.')'')'EALa.v twijs) in 2 Tim 1:1. In lie" (To cf.>oL{3ov 0E'iov cil/IEVOES <TTOJJ.a.) [trans. by Ed .] ;
that case "on the basis of the hope etc." (E7r' EA7rLOL KT A.. , compare this with lgn. Rom . 8.2, where it is said of Christ
see below on 3:7), which is parallel to the two expressions that he is "the mouth which cannot lie, by which the
with "according to" (Ka.Ta) in the other epistles, must Father has spoken truly" (TO cil/IEVOES <TTOJJ.a., EP c;> o
be taken as a third predicate of" apostle" (a 1r0<TTOAOS). 7rO.TTJP EAaATJ<TEP ciA.TJOws ). But see also Wisd Sol 7:16 :
Thus the Christian religion for which the "apostle" "a knowledge of the things that does not lie" (TWP OPTWP
works in his ministry is characterized by means of three ')'PW<TLP al/!Evoij) . 4 On "in its own time" (Ka.Lpo'is loLoLs ),
expressions: as the faith of those who have been chosen, 1 see above on 1 Tim 2:6. Tit 1: 3 is the passage in the Pas-
as the "recognition of truth" (E7rL')'PW<TLS ciA.TJOELa.s ), 2 torals which most clearly expresses the inclusion of
and finally as "hope" (EA7rLs), in a way analogous to the "word" (which is again immediately linked with the
that of 2 Tim 1: 1. office of Paul) in the process of revelation and its ac-
• 2b, 3 What follows is a description of salvation based tualization. It corresponds to the style of this schema that
on the pattern of the contrast between "then" and "now," God, himself, is directly referred to as the one who enacts
a pattern which was popular in preaching. 3 The motif of the work of salvation.
the "commission" (E7rLTO.')'~), which was used in 1 Tim • 4 The greeting here, in contrast to 1 and 2 Tim, is in
1: 1 to explain the title of apostle, appears here at the only two parts, as in the genuine Pauline epistles. 5 On
end of a relati've clause reminiscent of 1 Tim 1: 11. "He " true child" ('YPTJ<TLOP TEKPOP ), see above on 1 Tim 1 :2;
who cannot lie" (cil/!Evo~s) is also used by the Greeks to on "savior" (<TWT~p ) see above, the excursus to 2 Tim
designate gods and divine things . See Plato, Resp. 2.382e: 1:10.
"From every point of view, the divine and the divinity

"The chosen ones" is a self-designation of Christians "Die Theologie des Neuen Testaments," ThR N .S.
in Rom 8 :33; Mk 13:20ffand parallels; 2 Tim 2:10; 22 (1954) : 38; idem, " Formgeschichtliche Beobach-
1Clem. 1:1; and frequently in the Shepherd ofHermas. tungen," 3ff.
2 See above p. 41, on 1 Tim 2:4. The expression is 4 Cf. Philo, Omn. prob. lib. 46 ; Deus immut. 61; a her-
more closely defined by the term "piety", "religion" metic saying in Stobaeus calls that which is " bodi-
(EVITE{3ELa), as is "teaching" (OtOauKaXla) in 1 Tim less" (ciuw~taTov) "that which cannot lie" (aif!Ev-
6 :3; cf. 1 Tim 2 :2. Otf) (I, 274, Wachsmuth; III, 55, Nock).
3 It has been analyzed above p . 99, on 2 Tim 1 :9f. 5 In the manuscripts A R pl, "mercy" (~~EOf ) is
Cf. Bultmann, Theology 1, p. 106; Nils Astrup Dahl, added as in the other Pastorals.
131
 Titus 1 :5-9

1 Installation of Presbyters
and Regulations for the Bishop

5 I have left you i n Crete' so that you m ight

set r ight what remain s and install
presbyters in each city according to my
directions (which I gave) to you.
6/ ( Such a man should be) w ithout re-
proach, the husband of one wife, (and
should) have children who are believers
and who cannot be accused of loose
l iv i ng and disobedience . 7 I For a b ishop,
as t he householder of God , shou ld be
without reproach, not arrogant, not
irasci b le, not g iven t o wine o r brawling,
nor f ond of dishonest gai n . 8/ But he
should be devoted to hospitality and to
what is good, prudent, just, pious,
self-controlled ; 9/ he should be con -
cerned with the preaching that is
reliable with respect to the teac hing, so
that he may be able to give instr uctions
in the sound teach i ng and t o convict
the opponents.

The section tha1 begins in v 5 maintains the style of a the tradition in action. The word 7T'LCTTbs means "be-
letter. It suggests the situation and introduces the ques- lieving" as in 1 Tim 6:2. The existence of the Christian
tion of heresy. A description of the duties of the bishop family is presupposed; cf. 1 Tim 3:4. Nor in this case
is included. On the situation see below, the excursus can one speak of a development . 3
to Tit 3: 14; on the expression "to set right what remains," • 7- 9 This "epistle" was also intended to be used as a
cf. Philo, Flacc. 124: "that you will amend what remains regulation. This is demonstrated not only by the chapters
for amendment" (1repi r 7is rwv AEL7T'O)J.EVWV E7ravop- that follow, but already in these verses. Without any
0wCTEWS). In this passage the titular use of" presbyter" is regard to a particular situation, they reproduce in modi-
unambiguous. 1 fied form the same schema that was given in 1 Tim 3: 2ff. 4
• 6 On "the husband of one wife" (p.Liis 'YUVaLKOS But the variations do not reveal a tendency in any par-
av~p), see above, on 1 Tim 3:2. It is noteworthy that, ticular direction. The abrupt beginning of the statute and
according to this passage, it is the apostle's assistant who the sudden appearance of"bishop" (E7rlCTK07ros) as a
must install the presbyters, whereas in 1 Tim the existence title (and in the singular!) provide strong support for the
of the congregation and its offices is presupposed. But interpolation hypothesis. 5 But these observations can
it is not possible to draw the conclusion with respect to the also be explained if one assumes that Tit 1:7-9 quote a
historical situations that Tit represents less developed traditional regulation, upon which both 1 Tim and Tit
conditions than 1 Tim. 2 Rather, Tit gives a concrete perhaps depend. 6 On the other hand, the commentator
example; once the basic presuppositions have been who believes he can find an interpolation here, one which
described in 1 Tim, this last epistle shows the bearer of is intended to bring in the monarchial episcopate, will

The translation given by Jeremias, ad loc., "to in- 5 On this hypothesis, see above p. 56, the excursus
stall older men," is not possible linguistically. to 1 Tim 3:7, section 2.
2 On this point the present edition contradicts the 6 On the question of dependence upon traditional
2d German edition of this commentary by Martin materials, see above p. Sff, Introduction, section 2.
Dibelius.
3 On the ideal of a Christian upbringing, see above,
p . 40, the second excursus to 1 Tim 2:2.
4 See above pp. SOf, the excursus to 1 Tim 3: 1.
132
 Titus 1:5-9

have to supply the following between vss 6 and 7: "for the (rtKva ~xw" 1rtura
bishop (E71"tUK071"0S) comes from among the presbyters 1 :6)
uwtjlpwv uwtjlpwll•
and the bishop should be" etc. The variations on the avnxoJ.~Evos roil ~~~aKTLKOS
schema in 1 Tim 3: 1ff and Tit 1 :7ff may be illustrated by 1rLO'TOV M'Yov?
the following chart. 7 ~LKaLOS
OO'LOS
1 Tim 1-1~ aW0.~71S E7rLELK~S
Tit
without reproach irreproachable ~-~~ OP'YLAOS iiJ.~axos
J.l~ 1rapoL110S J.l~ ?rapoLIIOS
(the husband of one wife the husband of one wife
1:6) ~-~~ 1rX~KT71S J.l~ 7rA~K'T71S
1-1~ aluxpoKEp~~s atjJLXli.p'YVpos
hospitable hospitable
( rtKva EXW" ?rLurO. roil l~Lov olKov KaXws
devoted to what is good ? respectable
1 :6)? 1rpoLO'TaJ.IEPOS
self-controlled ? sober•
children who are obedient • J.l~ PEOtPVTOS
(children who are believers
1 :~)
prudent prudent•
• 7 Paul refers to himself as "householder of God" (olKo-
concerned with the preaching? able to teach
just IIOJl.OS Otov) in 1 Cor 4: 1. "Arrogant" (aiJ8a01JS) occurs
pious in the OT in Gen 59:3,7 and Pr 21 :24; but in the NT
not arrogant gentle it is found only here and in 2 Petr 2:10. 8
not irascible peaceable • 8 The linking of "devoted to hospitality" and " de-
not given to wine not given to wine
not given to brawling
voted to what is good" ({j>LM~tvos and (j>LAa'Ya8os) is
not given to brawling
not fond of dishonest gain not greedy derived from the same rhetorical motifs which have been
(children who are believers able to govern his own observed in the catalogues of vices. 9 "Love of what is
1 :6)? house well good" ((j>LAa'YaOLa) appears frequently in the honorary
not newly converted inscriptions. It is also mentioned by itself as a quality
worthy ofhonor. 10 Moreover, in Asia Minor (j>LAa'YaOos
Tit 1 Tim also became the title of an office in the associations. 11
ch•E'YKA71'TOS aPE1rtA 71J.11rTOS • 9 To translate avTEXtu8aL as "to hold fast" 12 would
(J.~L0.s 'YVPCUKOS ap~p J.IL0.S 'YVII«LKOS a11~p be very weak. It is, therefore, perhaps better to translate
1 :6)
it as "to be concerned with something"; AO'YOS should
tjJLXb~EPOS t/JLM~EPOS
tjJLM'Ya8os ? KOO'J.ILOS then be translated as "preaching," as in 1 Tim 5: 17. 13
E'YKP«T~S ? P71¢0.Xtos • Here the ability to teach, which 1 Tim 3:2 only recom-

7 The asterisk indicates parallels in Onosander (for 107.10, 16; on the adverb (tjJLXa'Y0.8ws), see Ditt.
the text, see pp. 158ff, Appendix 3). See also above Syll. II, 762.13; Ditt. Or. I, 339.27, 68.
pp. 50f, the excursus to 1 Tim 3: 1. In Onosander 11 See IPE II, pp. 60-4 and 438-43.
as in 1 Tim, it is often a question only of qualities 12 See the formula "We hold fast and will hold fast
corresponding to those referred to in Tit, not of iden- to the rights which remain to us" (rwv V1rOIITWP
tical predicates. ~).Lliv ~LKatWP ?raPTWII aPTEXOJ.IE8a Kat aJI8E~O).LE8a )
8 For the other predicates, see on 1 Tim 3:2ff; cf. in P. Oxy. IX, 1203.29ff, and similarly P. Strassb.
Vogtle, Tugend- und Lasterkataloge, pp. 52ff and 74.17ff [trans. by Ed.].
239ff. 13 On aPTEXEU8aL in this meaning, cf.Jer 2:8 : "those
9 See Philo, Sacr. AC. 20ff (which is also cited in who are concerned with the law" (ol avTEXOJ.IEPOL roil
Lietzmann, Romer, Appendix 2). POJ.IOV); and P. Par. 14.22: "not concerned with any
10 See Ditt. Or. I, 146.1ff: "The assembly of the Lyci- right" (ou8EIIOS ~LKaLov aPTEXOJ.IEPOL) . On the rela-
ans stationed (?) on the island (honors) Diasthenes, tion of the office of"bishop" to the teaching office,
the kinsman of the king, on account of his devotion see above pp. 54f, the excursus to 1 Tim 3:7, sec-
to what is good" (To KOLIIOP TWII EP r7it II~O'WL I tion 1 [trans. in this footnote by Ed.].
rauuOJ.IEPWP AvKLwv tuau8tv71, I TOP O'V'Y'YEP1j roil
f3auLAEWS, I tjJLXa'Ya8Las EIIEKEII) [trans. by Ed.]; see
also 148.3; 163.4; Ditt. Syll. III, 1101.9; lnscr. Priene
133
mends, seems to be required . The reason for this is and the following clauses were regarded as statutes is
perhaps not so much for the sake of the worship service; proven by the addenda of miniscule 460 here and after
the following clause shows an interest in the bishop's v 11, 14 which clearly seek to satisfy the need for the treat-
authority over against Christians and heretics. With this ment of specific cases by the apostle.
in mind, the phrase "(reliable) with respect to the teach-
ing" (KarcX. r1,v OLoaxfJv) seems to refer to the ecclesi-
astical tradition which the bishop is expected to represent
(see 2 Tim 2: 1f and 3: 14f). In that case the meaning
"believing" for 7rLCTTOS is redundant; rather, chiefly be-
cause of the idea of tradition (cf. 2 Tim 2:2 !) , the mean-
ing "reliable" is suggested. To what a great extent this

14 Minuscule 460 reads: "Not to appoint bigamists, not apparatus of Nestle's edition of the NT (trans. by
even as deacons; nor should they have wives who Ed.] .
are married for the second time. Such should not
approach the altar to administer the sacrament. The
rulers who are unjust judges or robbers or liars or
unmerciful, he must reprove as a servant of God;"
in v 11: "Silence the children who mistreat and beat
their own parents; reprove and admonish them like
a father to children." The Greek text is given in the

134
 Titus 1 :10-16

1 Against Heretics in Crete

10 For there are many insubordinate men.

foolish talkers and deceivers. especially
those of the circumcision; 11 I these
must be silenced . For they ruin entire
families and teach what is not becoming
for the sake of dishonest gain.12/ In
fact one of them said, (speaking) as
their own prophet,
"Cretans are mostly liars I brutes and
loitering gluttons."
13 This testimony is true! Therefore admon-
ish them strictly that they may come
to the sound faith 14/ and not follow
Jewish fables and commandments
of men who turn their back on the truth .
15/ Everything is pure for those who
are pure, but for those who are defiled
and who do not believe. nothing is
pure. but their mind and conscience
are defiled. 16/ They claim to know
God, but deny him with their works,
abominable as they are, and disobedient
and useless for any good deed.

What follows, as well as 3:9, is similar to the controversy sages in the Pastorals. 3 But even though we do not know
with the heretics in the other Pastoral Epistles. On to what extent we are justified in drawing conclusions
"foolish talkers" (J.LaTaLO"Ao-yos), see 1 Tim 1 :6; on "for about the heretics of the Pastorals in general from these
dishonest gain" (alcrxpov KEpOOVS xapLv), 1 Tim 6:5; local references, this passage probably indicates that
on "turning their back to the truth" (a7rocrrpE~OJ.LEIIOL the entire heretical movement had something to do with
T~ll a"A~8ELav), see 2 Tim 2:18; "everything is pure" Judaism. 4
(1ravra Ka8apa KTA.), 1 Tim 4:4; and on "they are •1 0 "Deceiver" (~pEva1rarrr;) is attested in P. Grenf.
defiled" (J.LEJ.LLavraL KTA.), 1 Tim 4:2. "They ruin en- 1.1.10 (2d century B.C.): "The deceiver who hitherto
tire families" (OLKOVS avarpE7rOVCTL11) recalls what is was presumptuous and who said that sexual desire was
related in 2 Tim 3:6 about the false teachers. "What is not the cause of my loving, did not bear very well the
not becoming" (Cl J.L~ OE'i) is related to the description of injustice that befell." (o ~pEva1raT71S o1rpo rov p.E-ya
the "widows who are busybodies" (xfjpaL 7rEpLEp-yoL) o
~povwv Kat r~v KV7rpLv ov ~aJ.LEvos ElvaL rov EpO.v
in 1 Tim 5:13. JJ.OL alrlav OVK ~IIE'YKE "Alav T~ll rvxovcrav aOLKLav)
But this section is to be distinguished in two ways from [trans. by Ed.]; cf. also the occurrence of the verb ~pE­
the heresy polemic in the other Pastoral Epistles. Cretan va7rarO.v in Gal6: 3.
characteristics are mentioned (1: 12), and the Jewish • 11 The phrase "for the sake of dishonest gain" (alux-
origin of the opponents is stressed (1: 10, 14). The two pov KEpoovs xapLII) is paralleled by 1 Tim 6:5, but
motifs might belong together, for the mention of Jews might also have been meant to contribute to the pas-
might also be intended to give the writing local color. The sage's local color. In that case, cf. Polybius 6.46: "So
Jews of Crete were, according to Josephus, 1 victims of much in fact do sordid love of gain and lust for wealth
the false Alexander; aJewess from Crete was the last wife prevail among them, that the Cretans are the only people
ofJosephus. 2 It is hard to say why the author chose to in the world in whose eyes no gain is disgraceful" (Ka-
give more local color to this passage than to other pas- OUI\OV
L "\ 8' 0' 7rEpL' T7lll
' aLCTXPOKEpuELall
' ' ~ KaL' 'Tri\EOIIEt;Lall
"\ t'

1 Ant. 17.327 and Bell. 2.103. Tacitus, History 5.2.

2 See Vit. 76. Other attestations are 1 Mace 15:23 3 See below pp. 150f, the excursus to Tit 3:14, section 3.
(mentions theJewish population in Gortyn, Crete) ; 4 See above pp. 66f, the excursus to 1 Tim 4:5, section
the epistle of Agrippa in Philo, Leg. Gaj. 282; cf. also 3a.
135
rplnro'l oiJrW'> E1rLXWpLatEL 7rap' avTOL'> WUTE 7rapa entitled the Theogony or the Chresmoi. 9 It has been sug-
JJ.OIIOL'> Kp71TaLEUUL TWII a7raVTWII avOpw7rWV J.1.710EV gested that this book might be ascribed to a Cretan priest
aluxpov VOJJ.LteuOat KEpOo'>). On the variant reading in who lived shortly before the Persian war and called
the text of this verse see above, on 1:9. himself Epimenides-possibly after the Attic hero-and
•12 "Their" (avrwv) with "own" (LoLO'>) here, as in about whose life many incredible legends have sprung
other instances, 5 proves that the word "own" (LOLOS') up.10
has been weakened, and hence requires an auxiliary The verse seems to be formed in imitation of Hesiod,
pronoun. 6 Epimenides (see below), who composed the Theog. 26 : "Shepherds dwelling in the fields, base re-
quotation that follows, is probably considered a prophet proaches (upon you), nothing but gluttons!" (7rOLJJ.EIIE'>
by the author of the Pastorals, because of the correctness ii'YpavXot, KaK' EAE'YXEa, 'Ya<TTEPE'> oiov ) [trans. by
of his testimony. But it is possible that the author wished Ed.]. It has been imitated by Callimachus, Hymnus in
to characterize the Epimenides, whom Cicero (Divin. Iovern Sf (cited in Athenagoras, Suppl. 30) : "Cretans are
1.18, sec. 34) counts among those who "forecast the always liars. For a tomb, 0 Lord, Cretans build for you;
future while under the influence of mental 'excitement, or but you did not die, for you are forever" (KpijTE'> ae'L
of some free and unrestrained emotion" (concitatione .t, ~
't'EVUTaL· KaL\ 'Yap \ Ta'f'OII
I A.. .,. "
1 W ava, UELO
~ I K P71TE'>
~ '
ETE-
quadam animi aut soluto liberoque motu futura praesen- '
KT'17VaVTO ' <TV\ u~· OV' OLaVE'> ' EUUL
' \ 'Yap ' ') [trans. by
\ aLEL
tiunt) . If this is the case, the following passage from Ed.]. Theodore of Mopsuestia (II, p . 243, Swete) is re-
Aristotle becomes very important: Rhet. 3.17.10 (p. 1418 ferring to the derivation of this verse from Callimachus
a, 23): " . .. the past, which is already known, even by when he writes: "Those who have composed books
diviners, as Epimenides the Cretan said; for he used to against Christian teachings have said in them that the
divine, not the future, but only things that were past but blessed Paul agrees with the voice of the poet and wit-
o
obscure" (ro 'YE'YOIIO'> E7rLUT77TOV ~071 Ka'L TOL'> JJ.av- nesses in his behalf, namely that he (the poet) had spoken
TEULV w" o
e</>11 'E7rLJJ.evLo71" Kp~,· EKet:vo" 'YaP 1rep'L rightly on behalf of Zeus concerning the Cretans ... But
TWV EUOJJ.EVWV OVK EJJ.aVTEUETO, a.xxa 7rEpL TWV 'YE- he (Paul) neither agrees with the poem nor with the
'YOVOTWV JJ.EV, ao~Xwv OE). On the origin of the hexa- voice of the poet; rather, he only uses the poet's voice as a
meter7 see Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 1.59.2; it is said proverb, as if by chance and since people at that time
there that some persons include Epimenides of Crete as were using the expression" (oi Kara rwv XPLUTLaVLKWV
one of the seven wise men: "whom the apostle Paul cites UVVTa~aVTE'> OO'YJJ.aTWV EVTauOa e<f>auav KaL TOV
o
in the letter to Titus when he says" (ov JJ.EJJ.V71TaL a7rO- }J.aKapLOV ITauXov a7rOOEXEU0aL T~V TOU 1rOL71TOU
UTOAO'> ITauXo'> Ev TV7rPO'> TLrov E7rLuroXv, XE-ywv <f>wv~v KaL E1rLJJ.aprvpe'i:v avrc';J, W'> av OLKatW'> rauTa
oiJTW'> [the hexameter follows]). See also jerome: "but V1rEP TOU LlLO'> 7rEPL Kp77TWV elp71KOTL ••. ov 'YaP TO
this verse is said to be found in the oracles of the poet 1r0t71JJ.a OVOE T~ll TOU 1rOL71TOU a7rOOEXETaL <f>wv~v, aXX'
Epimenides of Crete" (dicitur autem iste versiculus in W'> 7rapoLJJ.tfl. TV rou 7rOL71Tou <f>wvv XP71UaJJ.evo'>, TV-
Epimenidis Cretensis poetae oraculis reperiri) [Trans.]. 8 xov Kat rwv TOTE TV </>f.·JVV KEXP71JJ.EVwv) [trans. by
According to this testimony, the verse comes from a book Ed.] . 11

5 Examples have been collected by W. Kuhring, De 9 The fragments are collected in Hermann Diels ed.,
praepositionum graec. in chartis egypt. usu quaestiones se- Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (ZUrich: Weidmann,
11 1964), 1, p. 31ff; translated by Kathleen Freeman
lectae, Unpub. Diss. (Bonn: 1906), p.13.
6 Moulton, Prolegomena, 87-90, mentions as a charac- as Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers (Oxford:
teristic parallel a passage in BGU IV, 1110.8, where B. H. Blackwell, 1956), pp. 9ff. On the sources for
au(-rij~ ) has been written over the words -r<fjl~LCf' the life of Epimenides see Diels, op. cit., pp. 27ff.
'YaAaKn for the sake of clarity. 10 Otto Kern, "Epimenides," in Pauly-Wissowa, VI,
7 The quotation in 1:12 is an hexameter. The German col. 173-78. Whether this hexameter belongs to this
original of this commentary, as well as the present or to another work of Epimenides has been settled
edition, attempt to reproduce the hexameter in their by Pohlenz, "Paulus und die Stoa," 101ff; see also
translations [Ed.]. below.
8 Hieronymus, Commentaria in epistulam ad Titum 7 (p. 11 Theodoret also derives this verse from Callimachus;
707, Vallarsi). cf. Theodoret (III, p. 701, Schulze). On the further
136
 Titus 1 :12-15

The assertion that the Cretans are liars is, according to •13 On "strictly" (a1rorbp.w~), see 2 Cor 13:10; 1 6on
the Hymn of Callimachus to Zeus and other writings, "to be sound" (v"(LatVELv), see above pp. 24f, the ex-
based on the fact that they claim to have the grave of Zeus cursusto1 Tim 1:10.
on their island. 12 Anthologia Palatina 7, 275: "But on •14 On the Jewish question, see above on Tit 1: 10ff.
the land they raised me a lying tomb. What wonder! The emphasis upon the "commandments of men"
since 'Cretans are liars,' and even Zeus has a tomb there." (evro'Aa/. av8pw1rwv, cf. Col 2:8 and perhaps Tit
(TOV 1/;EVO'Tav Of )J.E rvp.{3ov E11'L x8ov/. 8€vro. rL 8aup.a; 1 :22) might justify the suspicion that the term "Jewish"
KpijTE~ 67rOV 1/;EUO'TaL, Kal. ALO~ EO'TL racf>o~). Cf. ('lovoatKoL) refers to method rather than to origin. 17
Lucian, Philopseudes 3: "The Cretans exhibit the tomb In that case "fable" (p.u8o~) lacks any special emphasis
of Zeus and are not ashamed of it" (El KpijTE~ p.ev TOU or force (see 1 Tim 1 :4); otherwise the term might recall
ALO~ racf>ov OELKVVOVTE~ OUK aluxvvovTaL); Lucian, Jewish angel worship or some related phenomenon.
Timon 6: "Unless indeed the tale is true that the Cretans "Turn one's back to" (a7rourpecf>Eu8aL) is used as in
tell about you and your tomb in their island" (El p.~ 2Tim 1:15.
aX7J8ij EO'TL Ta V11'0 KpTJTWV 11'EpL O'OU Kal. rij~ EKli Ta- •15 The first "pure" (Ka8apo~) is to be understood
cf>ij~ p.v8o'Ao"(ovp.Eva); Theodoret (III, p. 701, Schulze): in the same sense as 1 Tim 4:4; "everything is pure"
"But the poet called the Cretans liars because of the (1ravra Ka8apa) is the equivalent of"nothing is to be
o
matter of the tomb of Zeus" (aXX' p.ev 71'0L7JT~~ oLa rejected" (ouoev a7ro{3A7JTOV)-a statement to which
TOV TOU ALO~ racf>ov TOU~ Kpijra~ wvbp.auE 1/;EVO'Ta~) enlightened persons of all countries subscribe as against
[trans. by Ed.] . 13 It is interesting that in the source of cultic asceticism regarding food. In Rom 14:20 this view
the Isho'dad commentary on Acts, 14 the Epimenides is presupposed as the opinion of enlightened Christians
verse quoted in Tit 1:12 is combined with the Callima- in Rome. The adoption of this maxim by Christian
chus quotation and Acts 17:28. There the eulogy of congregations as valid for themselves was perhaps condi-
Minos, the son of Zeus, is quoted: "The Cretans carve tioned by a saying of Jesus (Lk 11 :41). 18 In Tit 1:15
a tomb for thee, 0 holy and high! Liars! Evil beasts and this principle is not restricted for the sake of the "weak"
slow bellies; for thou art not dead for ever; thou art alive brothers, i.e. the ascetics, as is the case in Paul. Rather, by
and risen; for in thee we live and are moved, and have means of the addition of"for the pure" (ro'L~ Ka8apo'L~),
our being." 15 it is pointed particularly against the ascetic tendencies
After the seriousness of the situation in Crete has of the opponents: for us everything which you forbid
been explained, together with the bad tendencies of the (1 Tim 4:3) is pure, for we are "pure," but you are
Cretans-untruthfulness, coarseness (KaKa 8TJpLa), love "defiled." In this polemical use of the sentence, the
of pleasure-further warnings are made. author plays with the various levels of meaning that the

consequences of this derivation, see Pohlenz, "Pau- p. XIVff), by Theodor Zahn (Die Apostelgeschichte des
lus und die Stoa." Lukas, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, ed. The-
12 See Rohde, Psyche, 130f. odor Zahn, 5; 1, 2 [Leipzig and Erlangen: Deichert,
13 Cf. also Ovid, Amores 3.10.19: "and the Cretans are 1922, 1927) on Acts 17 :28) and by Kirsopp Lake
not wholly false" (nee fingunt omnia Cretes); and Ars (The Beginnings of Christianity Part I, The Acts of the
amatoria 1.298: "Crete ... cannot deny this, liar Apostles, ed. F.J. Foakes-Jackson and Kirsopp Lake,
though she be" (quamvis sit mendax, Creta negare 5 [London: Macmillan, 1933), 247ff) have been
potest). On the word KP71Tt!;ELV meaning "to lie" refuted by Pohlenz, "Paulus und die Stoa," who
see Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus 23 (II, p. 63, Sintenis); shows that the confusion goes back to an error of
Lysander 20 (II, p. 404, Sintenis); Zenobius 4.62 (I, Chrysostom. See also Martin Dibelius, Studies in the
p. 101, von Leutsch). Acts of the Apostles, ed. Heinrich Greeven, tr. Mary
14 Ed. Margaret Dunlop Gibson, The Commentaries of Ling (London: SCM Press, 1956), pp. 48ff, and the
lsho'dad of Merv, Introduction by James Rende! correction in p. 153, n. 37.
Harris, Horae Semiticae 10-11 (Cambridge: The 16 Cf. Lietzmann- Kiimmel, Korinther, on 2 Cor 13 :10.
University Press, 1913), 4-5; see 4, p. 39 of the 17 See above pp. 66f, the excursus to 1 Tim 4:5, section
Syriac text. 3a; cf. Lohse, Colossians, Philemon, on Col2 :8; 2:22.
15 The conclusions drawn from this passage by Harris 18 J. Horst, "Die Wortejesu tiber die kultische Rein-
(Introduction to Gibson, op. cit., 4, p. XIIff; 5, heit und ihre Bearbeitung in den evangelischen Be-
137
terms "pure" and "defiled" have. The second " pure" themselves to the actors" (ECTTW oe,
cp7Ju[v, aKa0apra
(KaOapos) refers to ethical purity; the third "nothing Kai Ta aAAa OCTWII O.v 0 aKaOapros 7rpoual/17Jra~,
is pure" (ovoev KaOapbv) refers again to cultic purity. J.LETovuLq. roD J.L* KaOapou J.L~a~VOJ.LEva [cultic]. Kcx8o-
Then, where one would expect "nothing is pure, but the ALKw-r£pcxv s·cX1to<PcxaLV 0 XPYJG!J.O~ OU"rO~ lOLK£
creation of God has become defiled for them" (ovoev 1tw~ &YJAouv, ouK i1tl. aw!J.cx-ro~ cxu-ro !J.6vov la-ra-
KaOapov, aAAa TO KTtCTJ.La Oeou avro'is J.LEJ.L~aJ.LJ.LEIIOII), fLEVo~, cXAAa lj8Yj Kcxl. -rpo1tOU~ 1tpoaSLEpEUVWfJ.EVO~
the thought again shifts toward the ethical by the in- o
~uxij~. aKa0apros -yap Kvp£ws aO~KOS Kai auE{3~s 1
troduction of the terms "mind" (vous) and "conscience" OT'!J J.L~TE TWIJ avOpw7rLIIWII J.L~TE TWIJ OELwv alows TLS
( CTVIIEt07JCT~S ). The opponents are accused of raising their ElCTEPXETa~, 1ravra cpvpwv Kai CTV"fXEWII O~a TE ras
ascetic demands with a sinful purpose. They are thus aJ.LETpLas TWII 7ra0wv Kai ras TWII KaK~WII V1rEp{3o:>..as,
'' 't' " 'A,. I,./, I I ,
criticized more severely than the ascetics in 1 Cor 8:7. For WCTTE Wll all E'l'a'Y7JTaL 7rpa-yj.LaTWII 1ra11T J \ t
ECTTLII E1r~- I

the latter, their consciences were said to be defiled if A7J1rTa rjj TOU opwvros CTVJ.LJ.LETa{3aAAOIITa J.LOX07JpLq.·
I I I I I t It ~ 1. ()~
they did what they could not justify in their consciences; Ka~ -yap KaTa TOVIIaiJTLOII a~ 7rpat;;E~S TWII a"fa WIJ

here the demand for ascetic practice itself is held as E7raLVEral, {3EATLOVJ.LEVa~ ra'is rwv EVEp-youvrwv
proof that their consciences are already defiled. 19 iz.pEra'is' E7rELO* 1rEcpVKE 1rWS ra 'Y~IIOJ.LEIIa ro'is opw-
The author of the Pastorals is not alone in stressing the CTLII E~OJ.LOLouuOaL) . Yet one must not overlook the fact
ethical component of this concept. Seneca, Epistulae that the passage from Philo is an interpretation of pre-
Morales 98.3, writes that "the evil man turns everything scriptions for purity (Num 19: 22), whereas Tit 1: 15 is a
to evil" (malus omnia in malum vertit). But the entire polemic against such regulations.
thought complex finds a parallel in Philo, Spec. leg. 3.208f: • 16 contains a reproach similar to that found in 2 Tim
"Everything else too, he says, that the unclean person 3:5. Here we may relate "denying God" to the op-
touches must be unclean, being defiled by its participa- ponents' negative position toward God's creation; com-
tion in the uncleanness. This pronouncement may be thought to pare 1 Tim 4:4. "Disobedient" (a7rEL0e'is) can be in-
include a more far-reaching veto, not merely stopping short with terpreted in the same way: they are disobedient to God .
the body but extending its inquiry to matters of temperament and "Abominable" ({3oEAVKrol) may have an especially
characteristics of the soul. For the unjust and impious man is ironic note: 20 these persons who find "abomination"
in the truest sense unclean. No thought of respect for everywhere are themselves "abominable." The conclu-
things human or divine ever enters his mind . He puts sion asserts their total uselessness; cf. similar formulas
everything into chaos and confusion, so inordinate are in Tit 3:1; 2 Tim 3:17; and in Plutarch. 21
his passions and so prodigious his vices, and thus every
deed to which he sets his hand is reprehensible, changing
in conformity with the worthlessness of the doer. For
conversely all the doings of the good are laudable, gaining
merit through the virtues of the agents in accordance
with the general law that the results of actions assimilate

richten," ThStKr 87 (1914): 449, assumes that even olvoArJ7rrov Kat Xlxvov, 1rpos 1rO.uav 7rpa')'J.LaTElav
Rom 14:20 is a quotation of this saying and that axP71UTOll); see Almqvist, Plutarch und das NT, p.
Tit 1 :15 also alludes to it. 127; on the ethicaljudgment about the heretics, see
19 On the concept of conscience see above pp. 18fT, the above p. 67, the excursus to 1 Tim 4:5, section 3 b .
excursus to 1 Tim 1:5.
20 B. Weiss, ad loc.
21 Plut., Lib. Educ. 7 (p. 4 B) : "(but any) slave (whom
they find) to be a wine-bibber and a glutton, and
useless for any kind of business ... " (O.vfJpl11rooov

138
 Titus 2:1-10

2 Regulations for Men.

Women, Slaves

1 But as for you, proclaim what is proper to

the sound teaching. 2/ Old men should
be sober, dignified, prudent, sound in
faith, love, (and) endurance. 3/ In
the same way old women: priestly in
their conduct, not given to gossip nor to
a great deal of drinking, teachers of all
good things. 4/ Then they can advise the
young women to love their husbands
and children, 5/ to live prudently and in
sincerity, to fulfill their household
duties well and to obey their husbands,
that God's word may not be blasphemed
(as a result of their behavior). 6/ In the
same way exhort the young men to
conduct their lives prudently 7/ in all
respects: and show yourself to be an ex-
ample through good works, pure and
dignified as a teacher, 8/ with irre-
proachable, sound preaching, so that
the opponent may be converted, If he
cannot say anything bad about us.
9/ Slaves should obey their masters in
all respects, they should be well-
pleasing and should not contradict
them. 10/ They should not pilfer any-
thing, but show that they are entirely
faithful and worthy, so that they are a
credit to the teaching of God, our
savior, in every way.

•1 1 A personal appeal introduces regulations which The early Christian triad "faith, love, endurance" is
are presented in the form of rules for the household. 2 It is connected with "sound" (iryLalvELV) .4 "Endurance"
significant that Tit 2: 2ff is not formulated as a sequence (V7rOIJ.OV~) appears here instead of"hope" (EA7rls), as in
of imperatives, as is usually the case in these rules for Ign. Pol. 6.2.
the household, but primarily as a series of adjectives • 3 "Conduct," "attitude," "constitution" (KaTa-
(with "to be" [ElvaL] ). As a result, the section looks more UTTJIJ.a) is probably used in a broad sense as in 3 Mace
like a catalogue of duties than a list of rules for the house- 5:45, and as "deportment" (KaTaUTOA~) is used in
hold. In external features it is therefore related to the 1 Tim 2:9 (see above). The word refers to an inner
regulations for bishops and deacons in 1 Tim 3:2ff (see "bearing," as in Ep. Ar. 210: " ... of piety" (... T~S
also Tit 1 :7ff) . The infinitive "to be" (ElvaL) does not EUUE{3Elas ) and 278: " .. . of virtue"( ... T~S apET~s) .
have the force of an imperative, but is subordinated to It refers to external bearing in Josephus, Bell. 1.40 : "The
"proclaim," or "it is proper," or an implicit "exhort" city was just recovering its hallowed constitution" (Aa!J.-
(X aXEL, 7rpE7rEL, or 1rapaKclAEL) from 2: 1; nor are the {3avovUTJS oE 6.pn To it:pov KaTaUTTJIJ.a T~s 1roXt:ws)
infinitives in vss 4f and 6 independent. 3
• 2 On "sober" (vTJ</>clALOS) see above on 1 Tim 3:3.

On "sound doctrine" (iryLalvovua OLOauKaXLa) 3 See Blass-Debrunner, 389.

and "sound in faith" (tryLalvELJI rfi 7rLUTEL, v 2), see 4 See Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on 1 Thess
above pp. 18ff, the excursus to 1 Tim 1 :10. 1 :3; Lietzmann-Ki.immel, Korinther, on 1 Cor 13:13;
2 On this point, see von Campenhausen, "Polykarp," and see the bibliographical study by Harald Rie-
229ff. On the significance of the rules for the house- senfeld, "Etude bibliographique sur Ia notion bib-
hold, see Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosser, Epheser, Phile- lique d' Ar AIIH; surtout dans 1 Cor. 13," Con. Neot.
mon, excursus to Col4 : 1; Lohse, Colossians, Philemon, 5 (1941): 1ff; Gi.inther Bornkamm, "The More Ex-
on Col4:1ff. cellent Way (1 Cor 13)," Early Christian Experience,
139
[Loeb modified] ;5 Ditt. Or. II, 669.3f: "Taking all fore- taken in 1 Tim 2: 12. But it is explained by what follows .
thought to persevere in the constitution appropriate • 4 The older women are supposed to remind the young-
to the city" (1rO.uav 7rpbvoLav 7rOLOUJ.LEVOS Tov oLaJ.LEVELv er ones of their duties; this is their task by virtue of age,
Tc!) 7rpOU~KOJITL KaTaUT~J.LaTL TijS 7rOAEWS) (trans. not by virtue of an office. The assumption of an "official"
by Ed.]. The following passage (as does Tit 2: 3) seems to function is not possible because of the structure of this
refer to both external and internal bearing; Ign. Tr. 3.2: regulation, i.e., according to age groups. 8 "Advise"
"in the person of your bishop, whose very demeanour (uwcj>povLtELV) is used in the sense of"to admonish"
is a great lesson, and whose meekness is a miracle [or, (vou8ETELJI). 9 The following injunction for the younger
possibly, "is his power"], and I believe that even the women is thus embedded in that for the older ones. That
godless pay respect to him" (Ell Tc!) E7rLUK07rqJ VJ.LWV 1 this is only an external feature is shown by the fact that
o~ avTo To KaTaUTTJJ.La J.LE"'(aATJ J.La8TJnLa, ~ oE 7rpa- the regulations for the young men are separate. In fact, all
OTT'JS aVTOV OUJI4j.J.LS" OJI AO"'(LtoJ.LaL Kal. TOVS a8EOUS the regulations for the members of the congregation are
EVTpE7rEu8aL) . "Priestly" (lEpo7rpE7r~s) can have the disguised this way in the Pastorals: as regulations which
general meaning "holy," as in Philo, Abr. 101 and Decal. are handed over to the apostle's assistant! The regulation
60. But the peculiar nuance of the parallel passage, for young women corresponds to what is expected of
1 Tim 2:10, must be taken into account : "Christian the young widows in 1 Tim 5: 14. "Love of husbands"
women are holy women" (see above). Accordingly, Tit (cj>t"AavopLa) and "love of children" (cj>LAOTEKvLa) are
2:3 may also be understood as a demand placed on older praised in the literature 10 and in the inscriptions as
women to achieve a kind of"priestly" dignity. 6 womanly virtues. 11
The following verses warn against vices which should • 5 Another virtue, named after those quoted above in
be avoided by the Christian as a matter of course. That some of these passages, is "prudent" (uwcj>pwv). Note
the warning is still presented, even though it would the use of"prudence" (uwcj>pouuv7J) in 1 Tim 2:9. The
seem superfluous, is explained by the consideration that virtue referred to by "with modesty" (J.LETa aloovs)
both the rules for the household and the list of virtues in the latter passage is reproduced here by "in sincerity"
frequently use traditional material. 7 "Teacher of all good (ci."'(vos) . "To fulfill their household duties" (olKoup-
things" (KaAOOLoauKaAos), which occurs here for the "'(OUS) could stand alone without a laudatory epithet; cf.
first time, seems unusual at first, in light of the position the use of"to govern the house" (olKoOEU1rOTELV) in

p. 186f. 7 See Weidinger, Die Haustajeln, 54.

5 What is meant is the reinstitution of the divine wor- 8 Theodoret (III, p. 703, Schulze): "He referred in
ship in jerusalem by Judas Maccabaeus. this manner to women who were aged, not to those
6 Regarding this narrower meaning of the word, see who had been deemed worthy of some official func-
the inscription in Paul Fram;ois Foucart, Des asso- tion" (nis 'YE'Y71PaKulas oilrws WIIOJ.IaUEJJ 1 ou rcis
ciations religieuses chu; les Crees (Paris: Klincksieck, }..ELroup-ylas nvos ~~LWJ.IEJJas) [trans. by Ed.].
1873), p. 240, No. 66.3, 13: "in a priestly manner 9 See Gerhard, Phoinix, 35ff.
and zealous for honor" (lEpo7rpE1rws Kal q,,}..ol)b~ws, 10 Apart from 4 Mace 15:4ff, note the use of these terms
referring to religious accomplishments); Ditt. Syll. especially in Plutarch, passim.
II, 708.23f: "in processions of priestly dignity" 11 As examples of the inscriptions about women, see
(1rOJ.I7ra'i[s lE]po7rpE?rEow); C. Michel, Recu~il d'in- GIG II, 1812.2; 2384.7; III, 3813.1; Bulletin de Cor-
scriptions grecques (Brussels, 1900), p. 163,line 21 (re- respondance Hellenique 22 (1898): 496.9; ibid., 23
ferring to offerings); lnscr. Priene 109.215f: "he (1899): 301 No. 29.8; 25 (1901): 88 No. 210.4; N.
marched at the head in a priestlike manner" (7rpoE- Muller and N. A. Bees, Die lnschrijten der jiidischen
7rOJ.11f'EIJUEJI •• • lEpo?rpE1rWS) [preceding trans. by Katalcomben am Monteverde .tu Rom (Leipzig: 1919),
Ed.]; on the extension of the meaning of the term, No.7 (fj>L)\oraLKJJos); moreover, see /nscr. Perg. II,
note how it is used in Philo, Omn. prob. lib. 75 "they 604ff, "To the most sweet woman who loved her
have shown themselves especially devout in the serv- husband and her children." (rfi -y}..uKuTa'T17 [-y]u-
ice of God, not by offering sacrifices of animals, but JJaLKL fj>LMv8p['!J] Kalfj>L)\oTEKII'!J) [trans. by Ed.].
by resolving to become like priests in their minds"
(0Epa7rEural Orov -yE-yovauLv, ov t<fla KaraOlJovTEs,
ci)\)1.' lEpo?rpE7rE'is nis Eaurwv 8Lavolas KarauKEua-
tELJJ a~LOVIITES) (Loeb modified].
140
 Titus 2:3-10

1 Tim 5:14. But since the gener<j.l predicate "good" "freedom from envy" (a~Oov£av) in P32 G; or "in-
( 6.-yafJIJ.S) would then stand alone at the end of the list, tegrity" (aoLa~OopLav) in Sl' al. Even "incorruptibility"
and since the meaning" benevolent" 12 cannot be de- (6.~0apuLav), which was added to the end of the verse in
rived from the context (as is the case in 1 Petr 2: 18), the ~ pm, could originally have been a variant of 6.~0opLav.
two words olKoup-yous and 6.-yafJas should be taken • 8 On "sound" (U'YL~s) see above pp. 18ff, the excursus
together and translated "fulfill their households duties to 1 Tim 1:10. On "irreproachable" (6.Kara-yvwuros)
well." 13 see IG XIV, 2139.3: "blameless, irreproachable, un-
The entire list of duties here is written in view of the reviled" (llJ.LEJ.L7rTos, 6.Kara-yvwuros, 6.AoLOOP1'/Tos) . 16
opponents. This motif can be felt throughout. 14 It is The accusatives are still dependent upon "show yourself
symptomatic of the way in which the church tries to find to be ... " (7raPEXOJ.LEI'OS). On the purpose clause "so
its bearings in the world, and is thus a typical feature of that ... ," (tva), see v 5.
the concept of "good Christian citizenship." This concept • 9, 10 form a regulation for slaves; see above on 1 Tim
must be understood in the context of a transformed 6:1. "Well pleasing" (EvapEuros) is used here, as in
self-understanding of the church. The formation of Rom 12:2, without being closely defined, and is not to be
Christian moral conduct with a view to the surrounding supplemented by a specific object such as "to God"
world also implies a demarcation from the Gnostic move- (fJEci>). It is in the emphasis placed upon such purely
ment, and in turn demands the preservation of the social values 17 that the originally secular character of the
tradition in a new situation. parenesis is shown. 18 Paul was able to adopt ethical
• 8, 7 Since the duties of the young men are included material from secular sources because of the structure of
under the single infinitive "to be prudent" (uw~pov{iv), his theology. The Pastoral Epistles also base their ethics
it seems appropriate to connect it with "in all respects" of Christian citizenship on the concept of revelation
(7rEpL 1r6.vra) from v 7. On "example" (Tv1ros), see (see the following verses).
above on 1 Tim 4:12. 15 The addressee assumes, as far as "God the savior" (fJEos uwr~p) does not refer to
age is concerned, a position among the members of the Christ; cf. the formulaic usage of"God the savior" else-
congregation similar to that held by Timothy, according where in the Pastorals, and see above pp. 100ff, the ex-
to 1 Tim 5: lf. In reality, therefore, the exhortations di- cursus to 2 Tim 1:10. That a reference to Christ is missing
rected to him still belong to the regulations for young is perhaps a further indication of the pre-Christian
men, and the fact that they appear in the disguise of origin of the list of rules for the household . On the geni-
exhortations to Titus does not change their general tive "the teaching of .. .," cf. 2 Tim 1 : 8.
character; see above on Tit 2:4. 6.~0op£a (here trans-
lated as "pure") means "innocence," as is shown by
Justin's use of the adjective ll~opos. In Apol. 1.15.6, he
uses it in the sense "chaste"; in Dial. 100. 5, it describes
Eve before the fall. The fact that it is seldom used as a
noun appears to have occasioned the textual variants:

12 See the Vulgate reading, benignas; and Lock, ad loc. )'JIWUTOS and ciJIE7rLX'T/J.£7rTOS are synonyms; cf.
13 It follows from this interpretation that the reading Liddell-Scott, s.v.
olKoup-yous is to be preferred to the Koine reading 17 The case is different in Col3:23 and Eph 6:6.
olKoupous ("to stay at home"). On the use of ol- 18 See Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on Phil4 :8.
Koup-ybs as a noun see Moulton-Howard, p. 274. Cf. the inscriptions from Nisyros found in Mitteilun-
14 See Tit 2:8, 10; cf. above on 1 Tim 3:6, 7. gen des deutschen archiiologiscMn Instituts, AtMnische Ab-
15 On EC1UTOJI 1rC1PEXEU8a' ("to show oneself to be teilung 15 (1890): 134.11f: "pleasing in all regards"
something") see J. Rouffiac, RecMrches sur les carac- ()'EJIOJjEJIOJI EuapEUTOJI rau,); and especially /nscr .
t2res du Grec dans leNT d' apr2s les inscriptions de Priene Priene 114.15: "well-pleasing in the expenditures of
(Paris: 1911), p . 52. the office of gymnasiarch" ()'EJ17j8Els {JE EUcipEu [ros]
16 Cf. also 2 Mace 4:47; GIG II, 1911b 5 (2d century Ell ro'ts r~s )'UJ.'IIau,apxLas ciJictM1J,£C1U'II) [trans.
A.D.); furthermore, P. Giess. I, 56.15 (where it by Ed.].
stands beside "blameless" [ciJ,£EJ.'7rTWS]). aKa rei-
141
 Titus 2:11-15

2 Conduct Based on the

History of Salvation

11 For the grace of God has appeared, bring-

ing salvation to all men, 12/ and it
educates us to renounce godlessness
and worldly desires, and to lead a
prudent, upright, and pious life in this
age. 13/ Because we await the blessed
hope and the appearance of the glory of
the great God and of our savior Christ
Jesus: 14/ he gave himself for us, in
order to redeem us from all injustice and
to consecrate us for himself as his
special people who are eager for good
works.-15/ In this way you must teach,
exhort, and reprove with all impressive-
ness; no one should look down on you.

This section provides a basis in the history of salvation TYJP~O'OIITas); lnscr. Magn. 162.6: "Living prudently
not only for the regulation for slaves, but also for the and in modesty" (t~qavra qw<J>povws Kal KOO'JJ.Lws)
entire list of rules for the household. The possession of the [trans. by Ed.]. Cf. also above pp. 39ff, the second excursus
grace of salvation should result in "leading a prudent, to 1 Tim 2:2.
upright, and pious life" (O'w<f>povws Kal OLKaLws Kal On the particular words by which salvation is de-
EVO'E{Jws t~v). The Christianization of the rules for the scribed here, see below. Instead of the epiphany of
household 1 is illustrated in the later texts, which base Christ, 5 this passage speaks of the epiphany of grace.
these rules upon the Christian faith. 2 The use of the This is consistent with the prescript (Tit 1: 1ff, "the
kerygma as a motivating force for the parenesis is a pat- revelation of the word"). In general, in the Pastoral Epis-
tern that had been created even before Paul. Paul pro- tles the actualization of the salvation event is a part of
vided the theological foundation for this pattern, and his the fixed content of the kerygma tic statements. 6 To be
thought, naturally, had its aftereffects, even if the rela- sure, there is no concept of hypostatization; 7 rather the
tionship between indicative and imperative which he character of the revelation as word is further elaborated,
defined was modified. 3 What is presented in Tit 2: 12 as as is the case in 1:3 (cf. 3:4). One can see the basis for
the content of the Christian life is almost identical with this in Paul (of which the author is quite aware: see Tit
"the ideal of Greek ethics." 4 Of the four cardinal virtues 3: 5); one can also see its modification. In Paul the accent
only "courage" (avopELa) is missing. See Ditt. Or. I, is placed upon justification, here upon education in
339.47f: "Those who have kept the faith piously and the faith. 8
righteously" (rovs rf!v 1rLO'TLII EVO'E{Jws TE Kal OtKaLws Even the word "to educate" (7ratOEVEL11) shows an

Dibelius-Greeven, Kolosstr, Ephestr, Philemon, ex- 7 .Here the present edition differs with the 2d German
cursus to Col4:1; Lohse, Colossians, Philemon, on Col edition of this commentary.
4:1ff. 8 See Gilles P:sun Wetter, Charis; tin Beitrag zur Gt-
2 This is partly the case even in Eph 5 :22ff, but it is schichtt des iilttsttn Christmtums (Leipzig: Hinrichs,
especially clear in 1 Petr 2: 18ff. 1913), pp. 55ff.
3 On this see Bultmann, Theology 1, pp. 203ff. 9 See 1 Cor 11:32 and 2 Cor 6:9; also 1 Cltm. 56.2,
4 Eduard Meyer, Ursprung und Anfiingt dts Christen- which contains copious quotations of OT passages.
turns, 3, p. 396. Cf. also 1 Tim 1:20 and Heb 12:5ff.
5 See above p. 104, the second excursus to 2 Tim
1:10.
6 See Windisch, "Zur Christologie," 213ff. In fact a
myth of such a revelation existed in Gnosticism, see
Odes of Sol. 33.
142
 Soteriological Terminology Titus 2:11-14

important change in meaning from the usage in the "epiphany passages" of the Pastoral Epistles, supports
genuine Pauline epistles. Paul uses the word in its LXX the latter alternative. 11 The fact that the title "savior"
meaning, "to discipline through punishment." 9 But here (uwr~p) is applied to Christ does not prove that the
the word is used in its actual Hellenic sense, which con- designation "God" is also given to him. We have here a
trasts the "uninstructed" (loLWT'YJS) with the one who level ofChristological development which corresponds to
"is educated" (1T'f1T'aLOfVJ.LEVOS) . 10 On the use of the that in the Lucan writings: transfer of the soteriological
word in Jewish contexts, cf. Ep. Ar. 287, where it is said functions from God to Christ, while maintaining clear
of the "lovers of learning" (cjJLAOJ.La0fLs) that "these subordination. 12
are beloved by God, for they have educated their minds • 14 The formulation is primarily influenced by Ex
toward what is excellent" (ovToL "(ap 0focjJLAfLS fLUL 19 : 5 (see Deut 14 : 2) : "You shall be for me a special
7rpos ra Ka'J...'J...,ura 1T'f1T'a,ofvKons ras oLavoLas) people, distinct from all the nations" (~ufu0E J.LOL 'Aaos
[trans. by Ed .]. This concept is already applied to Christ 1T'fpLOUULOS a1T'O 1T'aVTWV TWV E0vwv) . The same in-
in the congregational prayer of 7 Clem. 59.3: "through fluence is seen in 1 Petr 2: 9f; cf. also 1 Clem. 64: "who
Jesus Christ . .. through him have you taught us, made us chose out the Lord Jesus Christ, and us through him for
holy, and brought us to honour" (oLa 'I7Juov XpL- 'a special people'" (o EKAf~aJ.Lfvos rov Kupwv '11Juovv
urov ... ' OL' ov ~J.LfiS E1T'atOfVUas' ~"(Lauas' ETtJ.L1J- XpLUTOV KaL ~J.LfiS (),' avrov fls 'Aaov 1T'fpLOUULOV)
uas). Tat ian used the word very characteristically in [Loeb modified]. On "consecrate" (KaOapLtHv) see
Or. Graec. 42: " I Tatian, adherent of a foreign philosophy, Heb 9:14. It is most characteristic of the origin of Chris-
have composed this book, I who was born in the land tian cultic language that the honorary title of the people
of the Assyrians, but afterward was educated first in your of Israel, which was adopted by the Christians from
beliefs, and then in those which I now profess to pro- the LXX, is placed here between a Hellenistic soterio-
claim" (o Kara {3ap{3apovs cjJL'AouocpwvTanavos logical statement and an equaV}r Hellenistic conclusion.
uvvETa~a, "(fi!V1J0fLS J.LEII Ell rfj rwv 'AuuvpLwv 'Yfi, 1T'aL- For the word "eager for" (t1JAW1~S), used in contexts
Ofv0ds OE 1T'pWTOV J.LEV Ta VJ.LETfpa, OfUTfpOV OE anva similar to Tit 2: 15, derives from the terminology of the in-
vvv K1JpUTTHI! E1T'a"("(EAAOJ.LaL) [trans. by Ed .] . scriptions. 13 The Hellenistic Jewish-Christian genesis
"Worldly" (KOUJ.LLKOS) is used here, just as "world" of the entire context is clear. 1 4
(KOUJ.LOS) is often used, with a pessimistic nuance; cf.
2Clem. 17.3 : "and let us not be dragged aside by worldly The Soteriological Terminology of
Titus 2:11-14 and 3:4-7
lusts" (J.L~ avn1T'apfAKWJ.Lf0a a1T'O TWV KOUJ.LLKWV E1T'L-
0VJ.LtWI!). Note the use of"desire of the flesh" (E1T'L- 1. In the two excursus to 2 Tim 1: 10, it was demonstrated
0vJ.LLa [r~s] uapKos) in Gal 5: 16 and Eph 2:3 . that the Pastorals prefer terms which had long been
•13 "Blessed" (J.LaKapws) designates the sphere of the common in the hieratic language of the Greeks, but
"hope" (EA7T'tS), the object of hope. It is debated whether which at the time of these epistles had received a new
the divine predicate in this passage ("our great God tone and new weight through the emperor cult. These
and savior") is applied to Jesus, or whether a distinction two passages in Titus bear this hieratic stamp perhaps
is made between the "great God" and the "savior Jesus more clearly than any other passage in the Pastoral
Christ." The formulation of the expression itself speaks Epistles. For the concept of"the God who appeared"
for the former alternative. The subordination of Christ to (Ofos E7T'Lc/Jav~s)-represented here by the term "ap-
God , which is consistently retained precisely in the pearance" (E1T'LcpavHa )-and of the "savior" (uwr~p)

10 For documentation see Liddell-Scott, s.v., and other 13 See, for example, Ditt. Or. I, 339.90 : "eager for the
lexica; see also the text given below in Appendix 4. best" <t11Xwrai TWJJ KaXXLurwv); similarly lnscr.
11 See Windisch, "Zur Christologie," 226;Jeremias, Prime 110.11£; cf. Ditt. Syll. II, 717.33; 756.32;
ad loc. 714.46; but also Philo, Migr. Abr. 62. "Eager" (tl'I-
12 See Conzelmann, Luke, 170fT. On this particular Xwr~s) is used with 7rEp£ ("for") in 1 Clem. 45.1 and
verse in Tit, see A. W. Wainwright, "The Confes- Pol. Phil. 6.3.
sion 'Jesus is God' in the New Testament," SJT 10 14 Cf. also the following excursus; on the concepts and
(1957): 274ff. the terminology, see above p. 43 on 1 Tim 2:6.

143
is still further elaborated by terms belonging to the same been appropriated by Hellenistic judaism (see section 2
constellation of concepts. "The grace that brings sal- bel~w). "The greatest God" (o J.LE"fLUTO<; 0Eo<>) is com-
vation" (UWTTJpLO<; xapL<;): "bringing salvation" (UWTTJ- mon in josephus, and "the greatness of God" (J.LE"fa-
pLO'S) 15 is used in religious terminology both in cultic 16 AELOT'YJ'> rou 0Eov) occurs in Aristobulus andjosephus, 22
and spiritual 17 contexts. "Grace" (xapL<;) in this con- as well as Lk 9:43 and 1 Clem. 24.5. The "greatness"
text does not recall the grace of God of which Paul writes, (J.LE"faAELOT'YJ<;) of Christ is attested in 2 Petr 1 : 16. "Lov-
but rather the "graces" of the epiphanous gods in their ing kindness" ((j>L'AavOpw7rLa) is the one virtue typical
manifestations (as they are praised, e.g., in the cult of the of the ruler. 23 "Loving kindness" and "generosity"
ruler). 18 What is meant in Tit 2:11 by the phrase "bring- ((j>L'AavOpw1rLa and XP'YJUTOT'YJ'>) are often mentioned
ing salvation to all men" (UWTTJpLO<; 1r8.ULV av0pW1rOL<;) together. 24 Both words are also found in the LXX. In
is expressed in the inscriptions by "the common savior this context it is significant that they are both used to
of human life" (KOLVO<; TOU avOpw7rLvov {3Lov UWTTJP ), refer to God 25 and that "loving kindness" ((j>L'AavOpw-
or something similar. 19 "Blessed hope" (J.LaKapLa EA7rL<;, 7rLa) is commonly mentioned as a virtue of the ruler.26
see above on 1 Tim 1: 11) and "great God" (J.LE"fa<; 0EO<;) Thus the terms under discussion, including "savior"
belong to the same category of expressions. Divinities (uwrfJp) and'"appearance" (E7rL{j>avELa), prove to be,
coming from the East frequently received the attribute first of all, quite clearly part of the higher Koine, and
"great" (J.LE"fa<;) . 20 Thus the word was also used as secondly, technical terms from Hellenistic cults, espe-
a title for the regent in the cult of the ruler, since that cult cially from the cult of the ruler. More important is the
was influenced by the East. 21 The expression had already fact that there is a close relationship in tone. If one is

15 See Wisd Soil :14; 3 Mace 6:31; 7:18 (codex Vene- whole race of men" (1rapO. TOU t7rLAa~-tif;aPTOS ~J.tELP
tus); 4 Mace 12:6 (according to codex S); 15:26. E7rt CTWTf]pLQ. TOU 1r0.PTOS av8pW7rWP '}'EPOUS EVEp')'E-
16 On CTWT~pLa. 8fJua.L, see Ditt. Syll. I, 384.23; TOU) [trans. by Ed.].
391.22; Or. I, 4.43; as well as Amos 5:22. 20 This has been documented in the extensive collec-
17 Corp. Herm. 10.15 (1, 120, N ock): "This is the only tion of materials by Bruno Muller, MEr A~ 8EO~,
saving thing for men, the knowledge of God" (TOUTO Dissertationes philologicae Halenses 21 (1913),
J.tOVOV CTWT~PLOV av8pw7r~ ECTTLv, ~ '}'VWCTLS TOU 281ff.
8EofJ) [Trans.] . 21 Ibid., 389ff.
18 See Ditt. Syll. II, 798.7ff about Caligula: "But those 22 See Adolf Schlatter, Wie sprach]osephus von Gott?
who enjoy the fruits of the abundance of immortal (Giitersloh: Bertelsmann, 1910), 18f and 21.
grace are in this respect greater than former genera- 23 See Ditt. Or. I, 90.12; 139.20; Syll. II, 888.101;
tions, for they shared an inheritance from their fa- Harold ldris Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt (Lon-
thers, while these, by the grace of Gaius Caesar, by don: Quaritch, 1924), 1912.81; further attestations
sharing the administration with such gods have be- are given in Preisigke, 2, p. 692 (with a reference
come kings; and the graces of gods are as different to "Your loving kindness" [~ u~ cpLAav8pw7rla] in
from mortal inheritance as is the sun from night or petitions directed to the emperor and the governor);
incorruptibility from mortal nature" (ol [liE] Tfis see also 3, pp. 201£.
a8avaTOU I xapLTOS T~V acp8ov£ap Kap7rOVJ.tEPOL, 24 SeePhilo,Jos.176;Josephus,Ant.10.163;0no-
T«VTTJL TWP 1raAaL J.tELtovEs, on ol J.tEV 1rapO. 7r«- sander, Strategikos 381 (p. 112, Schwebel); further
TEpwv OLalioxfis ECTXOP, OVTOL I li' E[K] Tfis ratou references in Wettstein, Novum Testamentum Graecum,
Kalua.pos xapLTOS Els uuvapxlav Tf]ALKOVTWP ad loc.
8EwP '}'E'}'OPO.CTL f3auLAE'"is, 8EwP OE xapLTES TOUT~ 25 "Loving kindness" (cpLAav8pw7rla.) is found in Mu-
OLacpl:pouluLP av8pw7rtPWP &aooxwv, cJ! ~ PUKTOS sonius (p. 90.12, Hense); "kindly" (cpLAav8pw7ros)
i]Xws Kat TO acp8apTOP 8P7JTfis cpvuEws). Antio- in Philo, Virt. 77; "generosity" (XP7JCTTOT7]S) in the
chus I of Commagene says at the beginning of his LXX; Josephus, Ant. 20.90; Rom 2:4; 11:22.
great inscription (Ditt. Or. I, 383.9f), that he "wrote 26 See, e.g., lnscr. Magn . 18.17; 201.2; Ditt. Or. I,
down the works of his own grace for eternity" (Ep')'a 90.12; 139.20; 168.12, 46; see Wendland, ""J:.wT~p,"
XapLTOS lolas Els I XPOPOP aPE'}' paif;EP alwPLOP) p. 345, note 2. Cf. also Dg 9.2 "the time came which
[trans. in this footnote by Ed.]. God had appointed to manifest his generosity and
19 See Ditt. Syll. II, 760.7; BMIIV, 894.6f; cf. Ditt. power-0 the excellence of the kindness and love of
Or. II, 669.7: (about Galba) "from the benefactor God!" (~ME liE o KaLpos ov 8Eos 1rpoWETO AoL7rov
who shone forth upon us for the salvation of the cpavEpwuaL T~P EauTou XP7JCTTOT7JTa Kat livva.J.tLv-w
144
 Soteriological Terminology Titus 2:14

familiar with the lofty, stylized manner in which the expressions were not formulated ad hoc.
emperor was honored as a god in the inscriptions, 27 he 3. The passages in question are also of special impor-
will sense that it is the same language being spoken both tance in deciding the question of authenticity. First of
there and here.2s all, we may state that in the "accepted" epistles, Paul uses
2. The manner in which these terms are introduced the linguistic material discussed here to a very limited
indicates quite clearly that the author is aware that he is extent. The statistics on "savior" (uwr~p), 30 even if only
not saying something new, but is passing on what he accidental, are nevertheless symptomatic. Even more
has received. The importance of this style for the lan- important, however, is a second observation. It is pre-
guage of the church from the time of the Apologists on cisely the history of salvation experience of the Christian
makes it difficult to imagine that the author of the which Paul describes in a completely different style.
Pastorals introduced this kind of language into Christian His soteriologicallanguage remains original, despite all
literature singlehandedly. Since the other cultic expres- dependence upon jewish and pre-Pauline Christian
sions in the Pastorals (see above on 1 Tim 1: 17 and 2: 10) tradition. The Pastorals speak in the lofty style used
apparently derive from the usage of the Judaism of the by the Greek world and occasionally even by Greek-
Diaspora, these formulas may, by analogy, be said to have speaking judaism. Insofar as a lofty style of language can
come to the author of the Pastorals through the same become commonplace, it has done so here. One should
process. The passages quoted above from Greek Jewish not be deceived by the fact that the language of the
texts confirm this. Thus, one exegetical difficulty is Pastoral Epistles (and, for example, that of the 2nd Epis-
eliminated: a cluster of related expressions, but applied tle of Peter as well, which is related to it) 31 seems rela-
to different persons, God and Christ, can be explained; tively unique within the NT.
cf. the "epiphany" of the "savior" God, viz . Christ. 29 One solution to the problem raised by this contradic-
Hence the variation of meaning in the use of other expres- tion is to resort to the explanation that Paul's language
sions in the Pastorals is also explained . For instance went through a development. But this argument cannot
"grace" (xapts) in Tit 2:11 means divine power, whereas stand. If the Pastoral Epistles could be dated at the
in 3:7 it is used in a Pauline sense. "Bringing salvation" beginning of his activity, then (purely from a linguistic
(uwr~pLos) in 2:11 refers to the power of grace, while standpoint) a progression might seem conceivable: a
"he saved" (EUWUEII) in 3:5 refers to salvation through progression from the common language of Hellenistic
baptism. The expressions are already formulaic and .Judaism to a more original way of speaking. But the
are used without any attempt to relate them to each situation presupposed in the Pastorals makes it impossible
other. There is no conscious reflection upon the relation- to do this. The mission, the congregations, the teaching,
ship between the titles given to God and to Christ. the heresies- all these things show that the great mis-
Finally, the fact, which is especially obvious in Tit 2:14 sionary step into the pagan world was not made only
and 3:5, that ideas of a completely different nature and recently. Thus there remains only one possible assump-
origin could be combined with those discussed in this tion for anyone who considers the epistles Pauline. That is
excursus (see above on Tit 2: 14) is explained if the latter the assumption that Paul changed his original manner

T~S inrEp{3aX'Aovcrqs ~tXavfJpw7r£as Kat a')'a11"1jS TOV 28 See Meyer, Ursprung und Anfiinge des Christentums 3,
fJEOv) [Loeb modified). See also just. Dial. 47.5 : "The p . 396; F. Bilabel, "Aegyptische Thronbesteigungs-
generosity and loving kindness of God and his rich- urkunden," in Festschrift Cimbria (Dortmund: Fried-
ness without measure consider him who repents from rich Wilhelm Ruhfus, 1926), 63ff.
his sins ... as just and innocent" (?j ')'ap XP1jUTOT1jS 29 The transfer of the divine title belongs here as well,
Kat 7j ~tXavfJpw1r£a TOV fJEov Kat TO iip.ETpov TOV if Tit 2: 13 is to he taken in this sense (see above).
11"AOVTOU aVTOU TOll J.LETaJIOOUJITa a7ro TWJI ap.apT1j- 30 See above pp. lOOff, the excursus to 2 Tim 1:10.
p.aTWJI . . . WS oLKaLOJI Kat avap.apT1jTOJI ExEL) [trans. 31 See Ernst Kiisemann, "An Apologia for Primitive
by Ed.). See also S. Lorenz, De progressu notionis Christian Eschatology," Essays on New Testament
~LAavfJpw1rlas, Unpub. Diss. (Leipzig, 1914), espe- Themes, SBT 41 (Naperville: Allenson, 1964), 181ff.
cially pp. 42f.
27 See, e.g., Appendices 8- 121n Wendland, Hellenis-
tische Kultur, 409ff, where the evidence is collected.
145
of speaking in his old age and adopted more worldly "It is necessary to teach and to admonish with confi-
expressions, to express precisely those thoughts which dence" (uvv?rapp'YJCTLfl. OLOaCTKELII Kal. E1rLTLJ.Lav f.vOa
form the very center of his Christianity. Whoever is OE'i) [trans. by Ed.). On the concluding exhortation
unwilling to accept this assumption (and if I may say so, seeaboveon 1 Tim 1:18-20.
it is an extremely hazardous one) will deny the Pauline
authorship of these epistles.

•15 "With all impressiveness" (J.LETd. ?raCT'YJS E1rLTa-yijs)

is to be regarded as a heightened form of"by command"
(KaT' E1rLTa-y~v) as found in 1 Cor 7:6. Theodoret
(III, p. 706, Schulze) paraphrases the expression thus :

146
 Titus 3 :1-8a

3 General Exhortations Based

on History of Salvation

Admonish them to be subject to magis-

trates and authorities, to be obedient,
to be prepared for every good work,
2/ not to defame anyone, to be peace-
able (and) kind (and) to show all gentle-
ness to all men. 3/ Once we too were
(caught) in foolishness, disobedience,
and error, slaves to all kinds of desires
and lusts, spending our lives in malice
and envy, hateful (to others) and hating
one another. 4/ But when the generosity
and loving kindness of God our savior
appeared, 5/ he saved us, not because of
the works of righteousness we had done,
but according to his mercy through the
bath of rebirth and renewal, (as it is
worked by) the holy spirit, 6/ which he
richly poured out over us through Jesus
Christ our savior; 7/ thus, justified by his
grace we should become heirs, as we
hope for eternal life. Sa/ The word
stands firm I

• 1, 2 contain exhortations of a more general nature tian, 5 followed by a description of his condition as a
which are introduced by the demand for obedience to Christian, was one of the most common topics of early
those in authority. This commandment, to which the au- Christian preaching. The turning point was described
thor refers briefly, was extensively treated by Paul in either from the standpoint of the mission or that of the
Rom 13: 1ff as an independent unit of the parenesis. In history of salvation. If the former, the conversion was
1 Petr 2: 13ff, it already has its place at the beginning stressed; if the latter, the appearance of Christ, as is
of the rules for the household . 1 "To be obedient" (11'EL- the case here (see also Gal 4:4). A direct literary depend-
8apxE'i:v) can be used in an absolute sense. 2 "Prepared ence of any of these passages upon one another is unlikely
for every good work" (7rpos 1!'0.V ~P'YOV a-yaOov ETOLJ.LOS) in view of their differences in wording. Only the pattern
is used as in 1 Clem. 2. 7. 3 "To show all gentleness . . . " was transmitted by the parenetic tradition.
(11'0.CTav EVOELKVVJ.LEVOS KTA.) is a conventional expression ; In Tit 3:3ff, however, the formula "the word stands
cf. Jude 3 and 2 Petr 1:5.4 o
firm" (11'LCTTOS "Xo-yos) 6 indicates that these sentences
• 3-7 speak of the state of the reader with regard to sal- were derived from the tradition. That the passage is
vation, before and after becoming a Christian. Note that based on a particular schema also explains the use of the
the author includes himself in this characterization. In first person plural. To be sure, the passage is not of a
the comparison of Tit 3:3-7 with Rom 6: 17f; 1 Cor uniform character; terms described in the excursus to Tit
6:9-11; Col3:7, 8; Eph 2:2ff; 2 Clem . 1.6-8, a significant 2: 14 stand side by side with terms used by Paul. 7 Ap-
similarity in the train of thought is apparent. Such a parently the author supplemented these traditional
presentation of a person's past before becoming a Chris- soteriological statements with Pauline interpretations,

1 See above p. 37f, the first excursus to 1 Tim 2:2. Ep. Ar. 190, and many other passages.
2 It is so used in the law from Pergamon, Ditt. Or. II, 5 "We were" or "you were" (~Jl.EV or ~TE) and a cata-
483.70f: "and if private persons are not obedient in logue of vices were common features of such a pres-
this fashion .. ." (Mv 5E p.7J5' oilrw 71'EL8apxwlcnv entation.
oll&wraL KrX.) [trans. by Ed.]. 6 See below on Tit 3:8 and above pp. 28f, the ex-
3 SeealsoTit1:16. cursus to 1 Tim 1:15.
4 Similar expressions are found in P. Giess. I, 56.14; 7 See Tit 3:5, 7, and above, the excursus to Tit 2:14
79, col. II.7; Ditt. Or. II, 669.3 (cited at Tit 2:2); section 3.

147
which stand out, even stylistically, as pure prose. In Tit 3: 5, the parallel "of renewal etc." (avaKaL-
Again, as in Tit 2: 11 and 2:13, the subject of the epiph- VWUEWS KTA.) makes clear what is expected from the
any is the personified power of revelation, although one "bath of rebirth." The understanding of baptism as
may not yet speak of hypostatization. Again the salvation rebirth expressed in Tit 3: 5ff is similar to that of Rom 6:4
is made a present reality, in this case by the reference to and J n 3:3, 5; cf. also 1 Petr 1:3, 23. The understanding
the sacrament and the explicit statement of the conse- of rebirth common to these passages is analogous to
quences of salvation. certain concepts of the mysteries. It is an understanding
• 3 "Hateful" (uTU"Y11T6s) is found only here in the en- related to the image of baptism as death or burial, but it is
tire NT, but it is attested also in 1 Clem. 35.6; 45.7; and not elaborated further here. It seems that "bath of re-
in Philo, Decal. 131. birth" (A.ourpov 11"«AL"'("'(EVEuLas) as a term for baptism
• 4 On the terminology of this verse, see the excursus was well known and frequently used by the author of
toTit2:14. the Pastorals and in his congregations. That Paul did not
• 5 As in 2 Tim 1:9 (sec above), righteousness by works use the word "rebirth" in the genuine epistles, was em-
is here repudiated; such expressions have been taken phasized by Albert Schweitzer as a fact of the highest
over from Paul. They, in the meantime, had themselves importance; he takes it as an indication that for Paul the
become part of the tradition, as is shown by their use new state of life is attained only through a real dying
in the Epistle to the Ephesians (2: 5, 8; 3: 12) and 1 Clem . and rising with Christ; therefore it cannot be expressed by
32.4. "Bath" (A.ourpbv) refers to baptism, as in Eph 5:26. a different and, in this case, purely symbolic term such
The event connected with baptism is called "rebirth" as rebirth. 1 0 It is an open question, however, whether
(7raAL"'("'(EVEuLa), although it is not said how this re- terms like this one in common Christian usage still sug-
birth is effected. gested a specific type of experience or event. Completely
different expressions are frequently used for the same
Rebirth
thing as early as the second and third Christian genera-
1. Philo (Vit. Mos. 2.65) and 1 Clem. 9.4 use the word tions. Such a state of affairs speaks against such an
"rebirth" (11"«AL"'("'(EVEula) in a cosmological sense assumption. 11 But the very frequency and currency of
(after the Flood) ;Josephus (Ant . 11.66), in a national these terms might support the thesis that the Christians
sense; and Matthew (19:28), in a messianic-escha- adopted them from some other source.
tological sense. One may also compare the Stoic use of 2. Although the word is not unknown in Judaism, there
the word: rebirth of the cosmos. Between these meanings is no real analogy to its usage in Tit 3:5. The comparison
of the word on the one hand, and the mystical sense to between a proselyte and a newborn child is not analo-
be discussed below on the other hand, is the intermediate gous. 12 The thought-world of the mysteries seems to
definition which equates "rebirth" (11"«AL"'("'(EVEuLa) provide better parallels. 1 3 Here "rebirth" can designate
with "reincarnation" (J.LETEVUWJ.dtTWULS). This defini- the life after death, as in a passage from Philo that derives
tion seems to be presupposed in Nemesius, 8 and possibly from some unh10wn source, Philo, Cher. 114: ''What of
Plutarch as well. 9 it after death? But then we who are here joined to the

8 See Nemesius, De natura hominis 2 (p. 51, Matthaei) Von Harnack, however, does not assume that these
"For Kronios in his work 'On Rebirth' {that is his terms were derived from a non-Christian source.
term for 're-incarnation')" (Kp<ivw~ J.I.EII -yap Ell rc;l 12 See Windisch-Preisker, Katholische Brieje, excursus to
llEpl 'li'4X''Y'YEJJEULcu-oiirw ~E KaXE' T~ll J.I.ETEJJ- 1 Petr 2 :2.
UWJ.I.UTWU'II) [trans. by Ed.). 13 See Bauer, s.v.
9 Plutarch, Is. et Os. 72, p. 379 e. Cf. Reiuenstein,
Mysterienreligionen, 262.
10 Albert Schweitzer, The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle,
tr. William Montgomery (London: Adam & Charles
Black, 1953), 13ff.
11 See Adolf von Harnack, Die T erminologie der Wieder-
geburt und verwandter Erlebnisse in der iiltesten Kirche,
TU 42,3-4, (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1918-19), pp. 97ff.
148
 Rebirth Titus3:3-5

body, creatures of composition and quality, shall be no For further clarification one may refer to the Hermetic
more, but shall go forward to our rebirth, to be with "Secret discourse on rebirth" (AO')'O~ a7rOKpv<J>o~ 1rep/.
the unbodied , without composition and without quality" 7raAL"f"fEIIEUta~ ) in Corp. Herm . 13; in 13.3 Hermes
(J.l.ETa Tov8avaToll; a:\:\' OUK EUOJ,J.E8a ol J.l.ETa uw- responds to Tat's request, "show me in detail the manner
J,J.aTWII u(ryKpLTOt 7rOLOt, clAA' el~ 7raAL"f"fEIIEUtall of rebirth" (ota<J>paubv J.l.OL T~~ 7raAL"f"fEveu£as Tov
OPJ.l.~UOJ.l.EII ol J.l.ETa clUWJ.l.aTWII clUV"fKPLTOL 7rOLOt). 14 Tp07rov) by answering: "I cannot say anything but this;
But the mysteries also mediate a new birth which takes as I see in myself something, an immaterial vision pro-
place in this life; see Apuleius, Met. 11.21 (p. 283, Helm): duced by the mercy of God, I both have gone forth from
"considering that it was in her power (that of the goddess) myself into an immortal body, and I am no longer who
both to damn and to save all persons, and that the tak- I was, but have been born in the mind" (ouK EXW AE-
ing of such orders was like to a voluntary death and a "fELv, 1rATJII TOVTO' opwv tTL tEll EJ.l.OL a7rAaUTOII
difficult recovery to health: and if anywhere there were
1 1 't EI\EOV
8Eall ')'E')'EII1JJ.l.EII1JII Et; )"\ I {)
EOV~ KaLI EJ.l.aVToll
' 1 >t "\ 1
E<;EI\TJ-
any at the point of death and at the end and limit of their AV8a el~ ciOavarov uwJJ.a, Ka£ elJJ.L vvv oux 1rplv, o
life ... it was in her power by divine providence to make 6.:\:\' E')'EI/11~81711 Ell vc;l) [Trans.] .
them, as it were, new-born and to reduce them to the "Renewal etc." (avaKaLvwuL~ KTA.) describes the
path of health." (nam et inferum claustra et salutis same process with a different expression. It is the divine
tutelam in deae manu posita ipsamque traditionem ad "spirit" (7r11EUJ.l.a) which creates man anew, see Col
instar voluntariae mortis et precariae salutis celebrari, 3:10. 16
quippe cum transactis vitae temporibus iam in ipso 3. Therefore, some relationship in conception and ter-
finitae lucis limine constitutos: ... numen deae soleat minology seems to exist between the Hellenistic and the
eligere et sua providentia quodam modo renatos ad novae Christian "rebirth," as Tertullian, Bapt., affirms. Never-
reponere rursus salutis curricula) . 1 5 Itjs clear that the theless, one ought not underestimate the differences.
term rebirth is closely connected with the transfer of vital Notice, e.g., the difference in the presentation of the
powers in the cult. Cf. further the great Parisian magical so-called "Mithras Liturgy": there "the perishable na-
papyrus (the so-called "Mithras Liturgy") in Preis. ture of mortals" (¢8apr1J {3poTwv <J>vuL~ ), the "human
.(aub. 499ff: "But if it seem good to you to hand me over psychic power" (av8pw7rtii1Jl/IVXLKTJ OVIIaJ.l.L~ ) 17 must
once more to the birth that is immortal" (Eo.v OE VJ.l.LII stand still, "that I may be reborn in thought and that
06~71 J.l.ETa7rapaowva£ J.l.E TV ciOavaTC¥ "fEIIEUEL); "0 the sacred spirit may breathe upon me" (Yva IIO~J.l.aTL
Lord, in being born again I die, as I increase and as J.l.ETa')'Ev[v]1J8w Kal. 1rilevuv Ev EJJ.ol. ro lepov 7rvEVJ.l.a ) . 1 s
I have increased I come to an end, born through the birth But in the Christian concept, there is no ecstasy " for a
which generates life and departed into death I go my brief time" (1rpo~ OAt')'ov ), but a new and lasting life in
way ... " (KVpLE, 7raALII')'EIIOJ.l.EIIO~ cl7rO')'t')'IIOJ.l.aL au~O­ the spirit, which furthermore does not require a renewal
J.l.EIIO~ Kal. au~778el.~ TEAEVTw, a1ro ')'EIIEUEW~ two')'ovov of such a rebirth, as does the mystery described by
')'EIIOJ.l.EIIO~ fl~ a 7rO"fEIIEUtall ava:\v8e/.~ 7rOpEVOJ.l.aL) Apuleius (Met . 11) . Nor is that life available only within
[trans. by Ed.]. a special mystical Christian group; it is the state of

14 Cf.Joseph Pascher, ~ {3arn">uK~ Mos (Paderborn: 16 The genitive "of the spirit" (7rJIEVp.aros) is there-
Schoningh, 1931), passim, especially pp. 246ff and fore not an objective, but a causative genitive; in
252; see also pp. 259ff for a discussion of the relation Rom 12:2 and Herm. vis. 3.8.9: "the renewal of your
between cosmology and soteriology.Joseph Dey, spirits"(~ avaKalvwuts TWJI1rJIEVIJ.aTWJI up.wv) it is
TIAAII'I'ENEI:IA, ein Beitrag zur Kliirung der religions- an objective genitive. Moreover, since "rebirth"
geschichtlichen Bedeutung von Tit3,5, NTAbh 17, 5, (7raAt'Y'YEJIEO"la) unlike "renewal" (avaKalvwuts)
(Munster: Aschendorff, 1937), 34f, however, holds needs no explanation, it belongs perhaps only to the
a different opinion. latter substantive (against Spicq, ad loc. ).
15 See also GIL VI, 510.17ff: "Reborn forever by the 17 Preis . .(:aub. IV, 533 and 523f. The phrases are syn-
sacrifice of a bull and a ram" (taurobolio criobo- onymous.
lioq[ue] in aeternum renatus); Dey, TIAAII'I'ENE- 18 Preis . .(:aub. IV, 508ff.
I:IA, 99 and 73f, doubts the value of these two pas-
sages as evidence.
149
salvation which is available to all. This fact points to a does not say "heirs of eternal life" (KATfpov6J.LOL tw17~
process in which mystical expressions were adopted alwv£ov). The explanation is perhaps to be found in Tit
and modified in common usage. 19 Therefore two points 1 ;2. From this passage it can be inferred that "hope for
of difference exist between the concept of rebirth in eternal life" (EA7r~~ tw17~ alwv£ov) constitutes a for-
the mysteries and the understanding of this term in the mulaic entity in itself; therefore, it cannot be divided into
passage under discussion. Tit 3: 5 knows nothing of its constituent parts, but is simply joined to "heirs"
ecstasy, but only of the lasting power of a new life. Re- (KATfpov6J.LoL) by means of"according to" (Karel.).
birth is thus not solely available to certain individual • Sa The phrase "the word stands firm" (7rL(J"TO~ o
mystics, but is the fundamental event and experience of >..6-yo~ ) 21 is best understood here as a formula of affirma-
all Christians. 2 0 tion, not as a quotation formula, even though the pre-
ceding statement about the appearance of salvation
• 7 As far as the words are concerned,' the passage is employs fixed traditional sentences. It is precisely as such
reminiscent of the genuine Pauline epistles. But one might stylized tradition that the formula affirms the passage.
ask whether the act of justification itself is actually meant,
or rather a life which is righteous by virtue of grace (as
substantiation for the latter alternative, see above on
Tit 2: 11-14). But one cannot decide with certainty how
the author interpreted what for him was already a tra-
ditional expression. It might seem surprising that the text

19 Dibelius- Greeven, Ko/osser, Epheser, Philemon, ex- RudolfBultmann, The Gospel of John, tr. G. R.
cursus to Eph 4:16, section 4. Beasley-Murray (Philadelphia: Westminster Press,
20 See also the following literature: Paul Gennrich, Die 1971), p. 135, n . 4 ; Joseph Ysebaert, Greek Baptismal
Lehre von der Wiedergeburt (Leipzig: Deichert, 1907), Terminology (Nijmegen [Netherlands]: Dekker &
who denies non-Christian influence; Richard Van de Vegt, 1962), pp. 87ff; Erik Sjoberg, "Wie-
Reitzenstein, Die Vorgeschichte der christlichen Taufe dergeburt und Neuschopfung im palastinischen
(Leipzig: Teubner 1929); Windisch- Preisker, Katho- Judentum," ST 4 (1951-52): 44- 85; Carl-Martin
lische Brieje, excursus on 1 Petr 2: 1-10 and 1 J n 3: 9; Edsman, "Schopfung und Wiedergeburt : Nochmals
V.Jacono, "La IIAAirrENEl:IA inS. Paolo e Jac. 1: 18," in Spiritus und Veritas. Festschrift fur K .
nell'-ambiente pagano," Biblica 15 (1934): 369ff; Kundsin, ed. Auseklis (Eutin [Germany]: Ozolins
Dey, IIAAirrENEl:IA, which contains comprehen- Buchdruckerei, 1953), 43-55.
sive presentation of the material and calls attention to 21 On the significance of this phrase, see above pp. 28ff
the wide, unspecific usage of the word; on the latter excursus on 1 Tim 1 : 15 .
point see Friedrich Bi.idtsel, TDNT, 1, pp. 686-89;

150
 Titus 3:8b-11

·3 Exhortations and Warning

about Heretics

8b About all this you must speak firmly, in

order that (all) those who have put their
confidence in God learn to be con-
cerned with good works.
That is good and beneficial for men.
9/ But avoid foolish investigations about
genealogies. quarrels, and disputes
about the law, because they are useless
and fruitless. 10/ Reject a factious
person after warning him once or twice.
11 I since you know that such a person
is (hopelessly) perverted and has
condemned himself through his sin.

The ideal of an active piety is described once more, in adverb is also attested as synonymous with "exercising a
this instance in sharp contrast to the heresy which for a ll choice" (EKAEKTLKWS). But Paul had already used the
practical purposes did not produce good works. The word "faction" (aipECTLS) in a pejorative sense in 1 Cor
heresy was attacked in the same way in Tit 1: 1Off. As in 11: 19 and Gal 5:20. In the latter passage it appears
that passage, there are a great many reminiscences here of without any explanation in the middle of a catalogue of
polemics against heretics in the other Pastorals : "inves- vices, after "disputes" (EpL8E'iaL) and "dissensions"
tigations" (t7Jrf7um, 1 Tim 1 :4; 6:4; 2 Tim 2: 23); (OLXOCTrauLaL). This meaning is by no means suggested
"foolish" (J.Lwpas) is also found in the latter passage; by the usage of the word in the LXX. In light of these
"genealogies" ('YEliEaAo-yiaL, 1 Tim 1:4); "quarrels" facts one must assume that this pejorative sense was not
(~pLs, 1 Tim 6:4); "fights," "disputes" (J.LaxaL, 2 Tim first created by Paul. It is, therefore, not at all certain
2:23; cf. also 2:14 and 1 Tim 6:4); in the case of"dis- that the meaning "factious," which is presupposed in Tit
putes about the law" (J.LaXaL liOJ.LLKa£), one is reminded 3:10 for the adjective (aipETLKOS), was created by the
of the statements in 1 Tim 1 :Sf (see above, p. 22). The Christians. But it remains a question whether the word
controversy here might also be about ascetic (not spe- here alludes only to the divisions implied in Tit 1:11 , or
cifically Jewish) commandments, but see above on Tit whether it indicates membership in sects.
1: 1Off and the excursus to 1 Tim 4:3, section 3a. On •11 "One who has condemned himself" (avroKara-
"avoid" (7rEpLturau8aL), see 2 Tim 2: 16; on "fruitless" KpLros) is attested in a fragment from Philo: " Reproach
(J.LaTaLOs), 1 Tim 1 :6 ; on "reject" (7rapaLrELu8aL), no one for misfortune ... lest, if you be caught by the
1 Tim 4 :7 and 2 Tim 2:23. same, you be found self- condemned by your conscience"
• 8b The verb 7rpoturau8aL is here used in the sense of (J.L7J0Elll CTVJ.Lc/>Opall CWELOluvs .. . J.Lii1rOTE ro'is avro'is
"to be concerned with," "to care for"; 1 see also Epicte- a>.ovs aVroKaTaKpLTOS Ell T~ CTUJIELOOTL EVpE8fis). 3
tus, Diss. 3.24.3: (referring to God as) '~the one who It is clear what it means here. If the person being ex-
provides for us and cares for us like a father" (roll K7JOO- horted still does not listen, error becomes sin; that which
J.LEliOll ~J.LWll Kal7raTpLKWS 7rpOLCTTtlJ.LEliOll) (trans. by was "involuntary" (fLKOVCTLOll) becomes "voluntary"
Ed.]. "Those who put their confidence in God" (oi (EKOVCTLOll). 4 Such a person has spoken his own judgment
7rE1rLCTTEVKOTES 8E~) corresponds perhaps to "our peo- by his refusal to listen.
ple" (~J.LETEPOL) in v 14, and is therefore a name for
the Christians. It might seem surprising that no relation- Cf. Dibelius, Thessalonicher, Philipper, on 1 Thess 5:12.
ship to Christ is indicated by this name, but cf. what 2 Hierolcles' Ethische Elementarlehrt nebst den bti Stobiius
erhaltenen ethischen Ex;;erpten aus Hierolcles, ed. H. von
was said on 1 Tim 2:10 about "reverence for God"
Arnim and W . Schubart, Berliner Klassikertexte 4
(8EOCTE/3ELa). (Berlin : Weidmann, 1906), pp. 40f {9.5ff) .
•10 "Factious" (aipETLKOS, "heretical") is not a 3 The passage is taken from John of Damascus and
"Christian" word. It is found in Pseudo- Plato, Dif. 412a, can be found in Philo's Fragmenta {II, 652, Mangey)
in the meaning "able to choose," parallel to "careful [trans. by Ed.].
4 On this point see Philo, Spec.leg. 1.227 and 235.
to avoid" (EvAa/37JTLKOS); also in Hierocles 2 where the
151
 Titus 3:12-14

3 Assignments and Greetings

12 When I send Artemas or Tychicus to you.

make every effort to come to me in
Nicopolis; because I have decided to
spend the winter there. 13/ Equip Zenas
the lawyer and Apollos well for the
winter journey so that they lack nothing.
14/ Our people should learn anyway to
take care of the necessities of life
through good works, so that they do not
lead an unproductive life.

• 12, 1 3 On these vss, see also the following excursus. It Philo, Decal. 99: "every man being a partaker of mortal
is improbable that VOJ.LLKOS refers, as it does in the gospels, nature and needing a vast multitude of things to supply
to a (former) rabbi, because for the Pastorals "teacher of the necessaries oflife" (av0pW1I"WV 0' ~KaUTOS aTE
the law" (VOJ.LOOLOauKaXos), as it is used in 1 Tim 1:7, OvrrTijs cf>vuEws J.LETEXWV Kat J.LVplwv EvOET!s wv 7rpos
has another meaning and not a good one. The term must, TclS ava-yKalas TOV {J£ov xpElas); lnscr. Priene 108.80 :
therefore, refer to a jurist. s "To equip well etc." (U1I"OV- "(he gave him a sum of money) for the necessities of life"
oa£ws 11"p01I"EJ.I.11"ELV) means, as the dependent clause (Els xpElas ava-yKalas MwKEV) [trans. by Ed.].
"so that . . ."(tva) shows, "to provide them well with
everything and so send them on their way." 6 The de- The Situation of the Epistle to Titus
pendent clause is almost consecutive, although the expres- 1. From Tit 1:5 one can conclude that Paul had been
sion of intention is not completely excluded. 7 with Titus in Crete, and that they had either founded
•14 On "to take care of" (7rpotuTauOat), see above on Christian congregations there, or had found them already
v 8. The clause is, in any case, a generalization of the in existence. These congregations are still in need of
preceding verse. It means either that all Christians should organization, all the more so in view of the rise of heresy
learn from the "equip well ... " (u7rovoa£ws 7rp01I"EJ.L- on the island (1: 10ff and 3:9ff) . It is Titus' task to do
11"ELv); or (as Lock interprets it) that our people too (like this work of organization; it is the task of the epistle to
the pagans, and in order to show them that we are not guide him in this assignment. Paul plans to spend the
"unproductive" [c'iKap11"0L]) should learn to contribute winter in Nicopolis, but at the time of the composition of
with good works "to the necessities of life" (Els Tch the epistle, he is obviously not there yet. A number of
ava-yKalas xpElas). The primary emphasis lies on the cities by the name ofNicopolis can be eliminated on the
last phrase, which naturally refers to material needs. basis of their location or the time of their founding, 9
These words often have this mejining in popular phi- but the following cities still come under consideration:
losophy; 8 'see Diodorus Siculus 1.34.11: "Many other a) Nicopolis in Cilicia 10 may be considered eligible only
plants, capable of supplying men with the necessities of under certain presuppositions regarding the time of
life, grow in Egypt in great abundance" (7rOAAcl OE Kat composition of Titus. Moreover, because of its location,
c'iXXa Tel OVVaJ.LEVa TclS ava-yKalas xpElas 11"aPEXEU0aL it does not seem suitable for winter quarters. b) Nicopolis
TOtS av0pw1I"OLS, oatf;tXij c/>VETaL KaTcl TT!v At-yv11"TOV);

5 On the use of the word in this sense see BGU I, -r[o]cras cf>aKWJI tJJa apKtcr[v] ~[,u]tv) [trans. by Ed.].
326.22; 361 col. 3.2; III, 2.15; /nscr. Magn. 191.4 8 See Wendland, "Philo und die kynisch- stoische
with note; Epict., Diss. 2.13.6-8. Diatribe," 10; Gerhard, Phoinix, 122.
6 See Windisch-Preisker, KatholiscM Brieje, on 3 Jn 6; 9 See Zahn, Introduction 2, section 35, n. 3.
Theodore of Mopsuestia (II, p. 256, Swete): "with 10 SeeStrabo 14.5.19, and Ptolemy 5.7.7.
sufficient money" (cum sumptu sufficienti).
7 SeeP. Lond., III, p. 212,lines 12ff: "Taking as many
cupfuls oflentils as will suffice" (}..a{3wP Ko-rv}..as
152
 The Situation of Titus Titus 3:12-14

in Thrace, now Nikopoli. 11 But the city was founded such an important occurrence as the evangelization of
by Trajan. Did the author of the Pastorals overlook this Crete. As the last possibility, then, there remains the
fact, assuming that he wrote even later? At least it is more time after the first Roman imprisonment; but against
probable to think of c) Nicopolis in Epirus, 12 the city such an assumption, see the first excursus to 2 Tim 4:21.
of Epictetus' activity. 13 There was a change in the 3. If the theory is adopted that Titus, like the other
province to which the city belonged. 14 The reference to Pastoral Epistles, is non- Pauline, it follows that here as
Zenas and Apollos implies that "these are those by whom well as elsewhere, 17 a known situation-in this case
he (Paul) wrote, sending them to him (Titus)." 1 sAc- Acts 20: 3-was used as a point of departure by the
cording to the Acts of Paul 2 (Lipsius-Bonnet 1, p. 236), Pastorals' author. He may have been either more or less
Zenon is the name of a son of Onesiphorus. It is possible informed about that situation than the author of Acts,
that a connection exists between him and the Zenas or he may have deliberately altered it. As far as the
mentioned here. Apollos is the man known from Acts and personal references are concerned, the basic considera-
1 Cor. 16 Tychicus (see 2 Tim 4: 12), or an otherwise tions given in the second excursus to 2 Tim 4:21 apply
unknown Artemas, is supposed to arrive perhaps some here as well. Some possible connections with the Pauline
time after the epistle itself to relieve Titus. legend are indicated above. 18 The reference to Nicopolis
2. It seems credible that Paul was once in Nicopolis and may also have originated in a similar context: Rom 15:19
Epirus. However, one can point out that the winter stay probably occasioned a legendary expansion of Paul's
there was only planned; we have no evidence that it travels into the northwestern part of the Balkan penin-
was carried out. It is more difficult to find a time in Paul's sula; cf. also the note on Titus in 2 Tim 4: 10.
life for the stay in Crete. The so-called second missionary If the situation indicated in the Epistle to Titus can be
journey-starting from Cilicia or, better, from Corinth- explained on the basis of the assumption of inauthenticity,
has been suggested by some scholars. But was Titus al- this explanation does not in itself provide conclusive
ready in Paul's company at this time and did Titus prooffor that assumption. Such proof must rather be
already know Apollos? Paul's visit in Corinth between sought in the reason for the epistle's composition. Paul
the writing of 1 and 2 Cor (such a visit must be assumed left Titus behind to organize the congregations. Must he
on the basis of 2 Cor) has also been used to support the now send him even the most elementary directions about
assumption of a stay in Crete, but such a visit could only this in written form-directions such as the list of duties
have been a short detour. It seems more probable to for the bishop and rules for the household? The same
assume that Paul and Titus were in Crete at the time of applies to the instruction regarding the heresies, assuming
Acts 20:3. In that case, the epistle to Titus would have that Paul himself witnessed their rise in Crete. If, how-
been composed during Paul's return journey to the North ever, he knew about them only through Titus , 1 9 what
(consider the location ofNicopolis !) . The only possible purpose has the characterization of the heresies in 1: 1Off?
objections to this reconstruction would be that, according The artificiality of the occasion for the letter is obvious .
to Acts 20:4, Tychicus went with Paul to jerusalem, and Because of this artificiality and other considerations
that the author of Acts would probably not have omitted (see above pp. 1ff of the Introduction), the following

11 See Ptolemy 3.1 1.7; and cf. Theodoret (III, p. 709, suestia (II, p. 256, Swete).
Schulze). 16 On Apollos, see Acts 18:24; 19:1; 1 Cor 1 :12; 3:4-6,
12 Dio C., 50.12.3- 5; 51.1.3; Strabo 7.7.5; 10.2.2. 22; 4:6; 16:12.
13 See Aulus Gellius, Noctes atticae 15.11.5: "And it 17 See above pp. 15f and 126f, the excursus to 1 Tim
was at that time that the philosopher Epictetus also 1:3 and 2 Tim 4 :21.
withdrew from Rome to Nicopolis because of that 18 See section 1 of the present excursus on the discus-
senatorial decree" (qua tempestate Epictetus quo- sion ofthe name Zenas. Cf. Onesiphorus in 2 Tim
que philosoph us propter id senatusconsultum Nico- 1 :16ff and 4 :19.
polim Roma decessit); cf. Suidas: "he settled in 19 But observe that, as in the other Pastoral Epistles,
Nicopolis in New Epeirus" (Ell N LKO'ITOAEL rfis IIEOS there is nothing to suggest a mutual exchange of
'H7TEtpou i(JK'f/UE). letters; indeed, the style of writing practically ex-
14 Zahn, Introduction 2, section 35, n. 3. cludes a previous letter by Titus to Paul.
15 Per hos scripsit ad eum mittens eos, Theodore of Mop-
153
hypothesis is quite probable: the author wanted to invest can with equal right claim its place beside the other in the
congregational regulations, which were already prac- canon of the NT. Of course, no conclusions as to the
ticed in part, with the authority of the apostle and to sequence of the epistles can be drawn from their purposes.
direct them against the heretics. In conclusion, it should be emphasized again that the
But it is precisely at this point that the question must hypotheses put forth here and in the related excursus
be asked, why an epistle to Titus was necessary after the should be regarded as tentative. But the duty of the
first epistle to Timothy, or vice versa. The answer is exegete, once he has declared a work "inauthentic," is
implied by the situation indicated by Tit. The letter does to set out to answer the question why these "epistles"
not deal with congregations which were already or- were written, and why they were written in their present
ganized, but with congregations which needed to be form.
organized. Consequently Tit is not concerned primarily
with the duties of church officers, but rather with duties
pertaining to families. 1 Tim is thus intended mainly
for the leader of the congregation, while Titus is written
primarily for the missionary. Therefore, each epistle

154
 Titus 3:15

3 Concluding Greeting

15 All those who are with me send their greet-

ings to you. Greet those who love us in
faith. Grace be with you all.

In the formulation of the greeting addressed to "those TEpEvll Kal rov<; ¢t"Xovllra<; erE ?rallra<;). BGUIII,
who love us in faith" ((j>tAOVIlTE<; ~JJ.OS Ell 7rlCTTEt), some 814.39. Cf. also the related formula: "Greet all those to
scholars see an explicit exclusion of the heretics, who whom we are well disposed, each by name" ([ C1cr1rarE]
are only remembered in the more inclusive final greeting. o0<; ~OEW<; EXOJJ.Eil KaT' OllOJJ.a) in P. Oxy. IX, 1218.12.
But it may merely be a conventional expression, Chris- [preceding translations by Ed.].
tianized by the phrase "in faith" (Ell 7rtCTTEL) . 1 The
following serve as examples of such a conventional expres-
sion : P. Giess. I, 12.7ff: "I visit your wife and all those
who love you" (E7rtCTK01rOVJJ.at T~ll CT~Il CTUil{3toll Kal
TOV<; (j>tAOVIlTCJS CTE 7rCtllTa<;); P. Greci e Latini 94.10ff:
"Greet Terens and all those who love you" (C1cr?racrat

On the Christianization of the proem, see Dibelius,

ThessalonicMr, Philipper, the excursus to 1 Thess 1:2.

155
Appendices
Bibliography
Indices
 Appendices

1. !socrates, Ad Nicoclem 40 and 41

(See the Introduction, 2.).
40. Kal JJ.~ 8avJJ.auv~, El?roXXel rw11 XeyoJJ.EIIWII " And do not be surprised that in what I have said there
a
EUTLv, Kal uv ')'L')'IIWUKEL~· OVOE ')'elp EjJ.E TOVTO ?rap€- are many things which you know as well as I. This is
Xa8EII, a.xx· ~1rLUTa}J.'fJII, an TOUOVTWII511TWII TO not from inadvertence on my part, for I have realized all
7rA~8o~ Kal TWII aAAWII Kal TWII apXOIITWII ol }J-Ell TL along that among so great a multitude both of mankind
TOVTWII Elp~KaULII, ol o' aKTJKOauLV, ol o' ETEpOV~ 1rOL- in general and of their rulers there are some who have
OVIITa~ EwpaKaULII, ol o' avrol TV')'XaiiOVULII E1rLTTJOEV- uttered one or another of these precepts, some who have
OIITE~. 41. a.xxel 'YelP ouK Ell ro.'i~ M')'o'~ xP~ rovroL~ heard them, some who have observed other people put
(rw11 E?rLTTJOEVJJ.aTwll) STJTELII Tel~ KaLIIOTTJTa~, Ell ol~ them into practice. 41. But the truth is that in discourses
OUTE ?rapaoo~OII our' a?rLUTOII our' E~W TWII IIOJJ.Lso- of this sort we should not seek novelties, for in these
}J.EIIWII ovo€11 ll~Eun11 El1rE'i11, O.XX' ~'YE'iu8a, rovro11 discourses it is not possible to say what is paradoxical or .
xapLEUTaTOII, a~ all TWII OLEU?rapjJ.EIIWII Ell TaL~ TWII incredible or outside the circle of accepted belief; but
aAAWII OLalloLaL~ 6.8po'iuaL Tel 7r AELUTa 0VIITJ8fi Kal rather, we should regard that man as the most accom-
~pauaL KaAALUTa 7rEpL aUTWII . plished in his field who can collect the greatest number of
ideas scattered among the thoughts of all the rest and
present them in the best form ."

2. Pseudo-lsocrates. Ad Demonicum 44
44. Kal JJ.~ 8avJJ.auv~, El?roXXel rw11 ElPTJJJ.EIIWII ov "Do not be surprised that many things which I have said
7rpE7rEL uot 1rpo~ r~11 11v11 1rapovua11 ~ALKLa11· oM€ 'YelP do not apply to you at your present age. For I also have
EjJ.E TOVTO OL€Xa8EV' aAAel 7rpOELAOJJ.TJII OLel T~~ auT~~ not overlooked this fact, but I have deliberately chosen to
?rpa')'JJ.aTELa~ a}J.a TOV TE ?rapOIITO~ {3Lov UV}J.{3ovXLall employ this one treatise, not only to convey to you advice
E~EIIE"fKELII Kal rov JJ.EXXo11ro~ xpo11ov ?rapa"f')'EAJJ.a for your life now, but also to leave with you precepts
KaraAL?rELII. r~11 JJ-EII 'YelP rovrw11 XPE£a11 pQ.OLw~ Elo~­ for the years to come; for you will then readily perceive
UEL~, TOll OE jJ.ET' EUIIoLa~ UV}J.{30VAEVOIITa xaXE7rW~ the application of my precepts, but you will not easily
Evp~um. 81rw~ ov11 JJ.~ 1rap' ETEpov Tel AOL7rel STJT~~, find a man who will give you friendly counsel. In order,
O.XX' EIITEv8EII wu1rEp EK raJJ.tELov 1rpo~€pv~, 4;~8TJII therefore, that you may not seek the rest from another
OELII JJ.TJOEII ?rapaAL7rEL11 1 Wll llxw uoL uv}J.{3ovXEuELII. source, but that you may draw from this as from a
treasure house, I thought that I ought not to omit any of
the counsels which I have to give you."

3. Onosander, De imperatoris officio 11

(IIEPI 'AIPEl:EOl: l:TPA THrOT)
1. <I>TJJJ.LroLIIvv alpE'iu8at TOll urpaTTJ"fOII ov KaTel 1. I believe, then, that we must choose a general, not be-
')'EIITJ KpLIIOIITa~, WU1rEp TOV~ lEpEa~, OVOE KaT' ovuLa~, cause of noble birth as priests are chosen, nor because of
w~ TOV~ ')'VJJ.IIaULapxov~, aAAel awcJ>pova, iyxpa<tjj, wealth as the superintendents of the gymnasia, but
VYj1t't'YjV, Al'tOV, 6ubtovov, voepov, acJ>L:Aapyupov, because he is temperate, self- restrained, vigilant, frugal,
p.-ljn veov p.-ljn npea~u<tepov, iiv 'tVxn xalna<tepa hardened to labour, alert, free from avarice, neither
na(6wv, lxavov :AeyeLv, lv&o;ov. 2 too young nor too old, indeed a father of children if possi-
ble, a ready speaker, and a man with a good reputation.

Pp. 11 ff in the edition by Schwebel. The work was utes little that is especially appropriate for the "gen-
also edited by Kiichly, Leipzig, 1860. eral" (urpanryo~ ). For this very reason (as Wett-
2 In this introduction the catalogue of virtues contrib- stein has remarked), it resembles the list of duties for

158
2. a'. awcl>povcx p.f.v, tva p.~ ra'Ls cpvcnKa'Ls av0EA- 2. The general m ust be temperate in ordt.r that he may
KOp.Evos ~oova'Ls 0.7roAEL7rl/ r~v u1rf.p rwv p.eyLurwv not be so distracted by the pleasures of the body as to
cppovrLOa · neglect the consideration of matters of the highest im-
portance.
3. {3 '. lyxpcxtij of., E71"ELO~ 'T1]ALKaVT1JS apx~s jJ.EA- 3. He must be self-restrained, since he is to be a man of
"\1\EL 'TV')'XaVELV'
, aL• ')'ap
\ aKpaTELS
' ~ •
opp.aL\ 7rpOU I\
"\ a {3 OV-
~
so great authority; for the licentious impulses, when
UaL 'T~V 'TOV ovvauOaL 'TL 11"0LELV E~ovuLav aKaTau- combined with the authority which confers the power of
XE'TOL 'YL'YvovraL 1rpos Tels E7rL0vp.Las· action, become uncontrollable in the gratification of
the passions.
4. ,, . vlj7t'OjV of., i>11"WS E11"a')'pV7rVfi ra'Ls jJ.E')'tCT'TaLs 4. Vigilant, that he may spend wakeful nights over the
1rpa~Euw f.v vvKri. 'YelP ws Tel 7roAAell/;ux~s ~pEp.ovu1Js most important projects; for at night, as a rule, with
urpaT1J')'OV ')'VWJJ.1] TEAELOVTaL · the mind at rest, the general perfects his plans.
5. o'. AL"t"OV of., E71"ELO~ KaTaCTKEAE'TEUOVCTLV ai. 11"0AV- 5. Frugal, since expensive attendance upon the luxu-
'TEAELS 0Epa7rELaL Oa7ravwuaL XPOVOV a7rpaK'TOV Els rious tastes of commanders consumes time unprofitably
'T~V 'TWV ~')'OVjJ.EVWV Tpvcp~v · and causes resources to waste away.
6. E'. 8LCX7tOVOV of., tva jJ.~ 7rpW'TOS 'TWV UTpaTEVO- 6. Hardened to labour, that he may not be the first but
p.f.vwv, 0.)1.)1.' vuraros Kap.vv. the last of the army to grow weary .
7 • SI . VOEpuVl. ~I
uE. 'l:' ')'ap
Ot,;VV \ ELVaL
T ~ ~
uEL I
'TOll UTpaT7]')'0VI
7. Alert, for the general must be quick, with swiftness of
E7rL 1rB.v ~Trovra oL' WKVT1JTOS 1/;vx~s Karel rov ''0p.7]- mind darting at every subject-quick, as Homer says,
pov •'wuEi. 11"TEpov ~f. vo7Jp.a · '' 'as a bird, or as thought.' For very frequently unexpected
7rOAAaKLS ')'elp a7rp0A1]1r'TOL rapaxai. 7rpOU11"ECTOUCTaL disorders arise which may compel him to decide on the
U)\.EOLQ.t'ELv ava')'KaSOVCTL TO uvp.cpf.pov · spur of the moment what is expedient.
8.t. cici>L:Acipyupov of.· ~ 'YelP acj>LAap')'vpLa OOKL- 8. Free from avarice; for this quality offreedom from
p.auO.~CTE'TaL KaL 7rpW'T1]' 'TOV 'YelP aowpoooK~'TWS KaL avarice will be valued most highly, since it is largely
JJ.E')'a)\.ocppovws 1rpoturauOaL rwv 1rpa')'p.arwv aVT1J responsible for the incorruptible and large-minded man-
7rapaLr£a· 11"0AAOL ')'elp, Kliv OLel 'T~V avopLav aCT7rtCTL agement of affairs . For many who can face the shields
11"0AAa'Ls KaL oopaCTLV avn{3)\.f.l/;wuLv, 7rEpL 'TOll XPVCTOV and spears of a host with courage arc blinded by gold; but
ap.avpovvTaL' OELVOV 'YelP 7rOAEjJ.tOLS <571"AOIJ 'TOV'TO KaL gold is a strong weapon against the enemy and effective
opaur~pLOV Els 'TO VLKB.v· for victory.
9. 1J '. o\hE 8£ v£ov o\hE 7tpEa(3u"t"Epov, E7rELO~ p.f.v o 9. Neither too young nor too old; since the young man
aAO')'LCT'TOS' 0 o' auOEv~s' OUOETEpos o' aucj>a)\.~s' 0 jJ.Ell does not inspire confidence, the old man is feeble, and
vf.os, tva jJ.~ 'TL OLel 'T~V aAO')'LCT'TOV 11"Ta£uv 'TOAp.av, neither is free from danger, the young man lest he err
J. ~ j {3 I ol I ~I\ A,
U Ut: 7rpECT V'TEpOS 1 Lila jJ.1] 'TL uLa 'T1]V 'f'VCTLK1]V aCTuE-
I ) fj I
throu gh reckless daring, the older lest he neglect some-
VELaV EAAEi7rT1 ••. thing through physical weakness ...
12. 0'. 7tCX"t"Epcx of. 7rpovKpLva p.Q.)\.)\.ov, ovof. rov 12. I should prefer our general to be a father, though I
a7raLoa 7rapaL'TOVjJ.EVOS, Mv a')'a0os fr f.av 'TE 'YelP would not refuse a childless man, provided he be a good
!f. I I , /, ~ ) '
I A,l"\
uV'TES 'TVXWULV V1]11"LOL 1 tyVX1JS ELCTLV LCTXVpa 'f'LI\Tpa
man . For if he happens to have young ch ildren, they
11"EpL 'T~V EVVOLaV E~OjJ.7]pEUCTau0aL ovvap.Eva urpa'T7]')'0V are potent spells to keep his heart loyal, availing to bind
1rpos 1rarp£oa •.. him to the fatherland . . .
13. L,. AEYELV s· lxcxvov· EV0Ev 'YelP ~'YOVjJ.aL 'TO 13. A ready speaker; for I believe that the greatest bene-
p.E')'LCT'TOV wcj>EAEias t~Eu0aL OLel urpaTEUjJ.aTos· fit can accrue from the work of a general only through
fall 'TE 'YelP EK'Ta'T'TTI 7rpos p.ax7Jv urpaT1J'YOS' ~ 'TOV this gift. For if a general is drawing up his men before
AO')'ov 7rapaKEAEVCTLS rwv p.f.v OELvwv E7rOt1JCTE Kara- battle, the encouragement of his words makes them

the bishop in 1 Tim 2 and Tit 1. After the introduc- theme of the treatise. It would not be difficult to
tion, there follows a commentary which treats the write an analogous commentary to 1 Tim 3, except
individual qualities as they relate to the specific of course it would sound quite different.

159
4Jpovliv, Twv o€ Ka'Awv f:Trd}vJ.Le'i.v . .• 16. oM€ xwpts despise the danger and covet the honour; . .. 16. No city
aTpaTrryou oVOEJ.LLa 7rOALs EK7rEJ.Ll/;EL aTpaToTreoov, at all will put an army in the field without generals nor
OVOE OLxa TOU ovvaa8aL AE"'fELII aip~a'ETaL aTparrnov . choose a general who lacks the ability to make an effective
speech.
17. La'. 't"OV 8. £v8o;ov, OTL TOLS aoo~OLS aaxa'AAEL 17. The general should be a man of good reputation,
To 1r'Afj8os vTroTaTTOJ.LEvov· oWets "(ap EKwv V7rOJ.LEVEL because the majority of men, when placed under the com-
TOll aVTOU xeLpova KVpLOII avaof:xea8aL Kat ~'YEJ.LOVa. mand of unknown generals, feel uneasy. For no one
1
18. Trfiaa 0 ava"(K11 TOll TOLOUTOII 01/Ta KaL ToaauTas voluntarily submits to a leader or an officer who is an
apETas ~xovTa Tfjs if;vxfis' oaas ELP17Ka, Kat ~1100- inferior man to himself. 18. It is absolutely essential, then,
~011 elvaL. that a general be such a man, of such excellent traits of
character as I have enumerated, and besides this, that he
have a good reputation.

4. lucian, Salt. 81 (Pantomimus)l

o'Aws OE TOll OPX17UT~II OEL 7ravrax68ev a7r11KPLf3w- "In general, the dancer should be perfect in every point,
a8aL, ws elvaL TO 1rCiv e(JpvOJ,Lov, e(JJ.Lop4Jov, UVJ.tJ.LETpov, so as to be wholly rhythmical, graceful, symmetrical,
aiJTo auT~ EOLKos-aavKo4JaVT17TOII, al/E7rtA177rTOII, consistent,-unexceptionable, impeccable, not wanting
J.L170aJ.LWS EAAL7rES, EK TWII apLaTWII KEKpaJ.LEIIOII, Tas in any way, blent of the highest qualities, keen in his
I (} I ltl \ ~ I {3 (}' \ I I
Ell VJ.L17UELS Ot;VII 1 T'17ll 7raLuELall a Vl/ 1 TaS EIIIIOLaS ideas, profound in his culture, and above all, human in
av8pW7rLIIOII J,LaALUTa. 0 "'fOUl/ ~7raLIIOS aUT~ TOT liv
1
his sentiments. In fact , the praise that he gets from the
"(t"(IIOLTO EIITEA~S 7rapa TWII OeaTWII, OTall EKaUTOS spectators will be consummate when each of those who
TWII opwiiTWII "'fiiWpLtv Ta auTou, J,LCi'A'A.ov OE WU7rEp behold him recognizes his own traits, or rather sees in the
a
Ell KaT07rTP'!J T~ OPX17UTfl EaVTOII {3'AE7r11 Kat 7raa- dancer as in a mirror his very self, with his customary
a
XELII aUTOS Kat 7rOLELII e'lw8e • .•• anxvws "(ap feelings and actions .... Really, that Delphic monition
TO lle'A4JLKOII EKELIIO TO rvw8L aEaVTOII EK Tfjs (}f:as EKEtii17S 'Know thyself' realises itself in them from the spectacle,
aUTOLS 7rEPL"'ft"(IIETaL" Kat a7rEPXOVTaL a7ro TOU and when they go away from the theatre they have
a
OeaTpov aTE XP~ aipe'i.a8aL Kat 4JEV"'fELII J.LEJ,La811- learned what they should choose and what avoid, and
a
KOTES Kat 7rpOTEpov ~"'fiiOOVII OLoaxOf:vns. have been taught what they did not know before."

Vol. 2, p. 149f, ed. Sommerbrodt. There is some because the requirement of general human qualities
doubt concerning the authenticity of this work. is derived in an original way from the requirements
Lucian relates certain professional qualities to a of an occupation. (In the text I have separated the
greater number of general traits in his description special from the general traits by means of a dash.)
of the perfect dancer. The description is unusual

160
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Die lrrlehrer der Pastoralbrieje (Frankfurt: Volcker, "Si quis episcopatum desiderat," RSPT29 (1940):
1856). 316-25.
Maurer, Christian Spicq, Ceslaus
"Eine Textvariante klart die Entstehung der "St. Paul et Ia loi des dep6ts." RB 40 (1931):
Pastoralbriefeauf," Th.(3 (1947): 321-37. 481-502.
Mayer, Hans Helmut Spitta, F.
Uber die Pastoralbrieje (Gottingen: V andenhoeck & "Uber die personlichen Notizen im zweiten
Ruprecht, 1913). Briefe an Timotheus," ThStKr 51, 1 (1878): 582-
Michaelis, Wilhelm 607.
Pastoralbrieje und Gejangenschaftsbrieje . .(ur Echt- Stenger, W.
heitsjrage der Pastoralbrieje, NF 1, 6 (Giitersloh : "Der Christushymnus in 1 Tim. 3, 16. Aufbau-
Bertelsmann, 1930). Christologie-Sitz im Leben," Trierer Theologische
Michaelis, Wilhelm .(eitschrift 78 (1969) : 33-48.
"Pastoralbriefe und Wortstatistik" .(NW 28 Strobel, August
(1929): 69-76. "Schreiben des Lukas? Zum sprachlichen Prob-
Michel, Otto lem der Pastoralbriefe," NTS 15 (1968-69): 191-
"Grundfragen der Pastoralbriefe" in Auf dem 210.
Grunde der Apostel und Propheten, Festgabefiir Thea- Thornell, Gosta
phil Wurm, ed. Max Loeser (Stuttgart: Quell- Pastoralbrevens Aekthet (Uppsala: Svenskt arkiv fOr
Verlag, 1948), 83-99. humanistika avhandlingar, 1931 ).
Moule, C. F . D. Torm, F.
"The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles: A Reap- "Uber die Sprache in den Pastoralbriefen,"
praisal," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 47 .(NW18 (1917-18): 225-43.
(1965): 430-52. Wendland, Paul
M iiller-Bardorff, Johannes "Miszellen: Betrogene Betriiger," Rheinisches
"Zur Exegese von I. Timotheus 5, 3-16" in Colt Museumfiir Philologie 49 (1894): 309-10.
und die Giitter, Festgabe fiir Erich Fascher (Berlin: Windisch, Hans
Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1958), 113-33. "Sinn und Geltung des apostolischen Mulier
Nauck, Wolfgang taceat in eccltsia (Die Frau schweige in der Ge-
Die Herkunft der Verfassers der Pastoralbriejes, meinde)," Christliche Welt, 1930, col. 411-25
Unpub. Diss. (Gottingen: 1950). [Continued under the title] "Noch einmal: Mulier
Oates, W. E. taceat in ecclesia; Ein Wort zur Abwehr und zur
"The Conception of Ministry in the Pastoral Klarung," col. 837-40.
Epistles," Review and Expositor 56 (1959): 388-410. Windisch, Hans
Phister, F. "Zur Christologie der Pastoralbriefe," .(NW 34
o
"Zur Wendung CJ.1rOKELTa.L IJ.OL rfis 8LKO.Lo- (1935): 213-38.

163
 Indices•

1. Passages Mal 6.102 68

1:11 45 6.345 121 (18)
a I Old Testament and Apocrypha Isa Vit. 76 135(2)
26:13 112(17) Midrash
Gen 52:13 112(17) Tanhuma on Ex 32: 1 117
59:3,7 133 58 :8 81 Mishnah
Ex Jer Pirke Aboth 3.2 (37(18)
7:8ft' 117 2:8 133(13) Philo
19:5 143 Bar (LXX) Abr.
Num 1: !Off 37 101 140
19:22 138 4 :22 100 202 25
Deut 223 25
14:2 143 275 25
32:15 100(16) Chtr.
Judg b I Old Testament 36 24
3:9, 15 100 Pseudepigrapha 114 148
12:3 100 and Other Jewish Literature Conj.ling.
1 Kings 43 39(24)
10:19 100(16) CD 93 102
1 Chr XIII.7- 11 57(47) Decal.
t6:35S* 100(16) IV.15 54 60 140
1 Esdras (LXX) IV.17ft' 54 99 152
6:9f 37 V.17- 19 117 Det. pot. ins.
Neh 1 En. 10 24
19:27 100 48.7 101 65 92
Est (LXX) Ep.Ar. Deus. imm.
3:13b (13:2) 39(24) 140 87 26 26
5:1a (15:2) 100 175 36(15) Flacc.
Jdth 250 25 49 37(18)
9:11 100(16) 287 143 124 132
Tob Joseph and 187 121
7:12 13(7) Aseneth Fragmenta
1 Mace 8.10 88(10) II, 652 (Mangey) 151 (3)
15:23 135(2) Josephus Fug. 55 74(11)
2Macc Ant. Gig. 61 87
3: 11 36(15) 1.272 30(18) Leg. all. 3.27 102
Ps 3.231f 27 Leg. Gaj. 5 26
21:22 124(17) 10.210 119(6) Migr. Abr. 83 119
Prov 10.278 26 Omn.prob . lib . 75 140(6)
21:24 133 11.66 148 Plant. 70 116
Job 14.24 30(18) Praem. poen. 13 29(12)
1:21 85(10) 15.375 39(29) Rer. div. her .
Wisd Sol 17.327 135(1) 206 42(44)
7:6 85(11) 18.228 124(16) 263ft' 120(10)
7:16 131 Ap. 285 39(24)
13:1 ft' 27 1.31ft' 120 Sacr. Ac. 81 91
13:6ff 27 2.190 26 Sobr. 55 101 (26)
15:7 113 Bell. Spec.leg.
16:7f 100(16) 1.40 139 1.65 120
Sir 2.103 135 (1) 1.102 46
25:24 47(23) 2.126 45(10) 1.209 25
36:19 30(18) 5.380 44(2) 1.227 151 (4)

*Numbers in parentheses following page citations

for this volume refer to footnotes.

165
 1.235 151 (4) c I New Testament 8 :7 138
1.294f 85 (11 ) 11 :19 151
Matt
2.23 20 11:23 1
19 :28 148
2.53 26 11:32 34
Lk
3.1 25 12:22f 113
9:43 144
3.208f 138 15 :3 1
10:7 78
4.13 23 2 Cor
11:41 137
4.178 41 (36) 6:4- 10 39
12:21 91
4.49 120 6 :9 34
Jn
Vit . cont. 11:23-33 39
3:3,5 148
3 46 Gal
Acts
Vit.Mos. 4 :4 147
3:17 27
1.91ff 11 7 5:20 151
5:31 102
2.45- 47 16 Eph
13:1-3 32
2.166 42 (44) 2 :2ff 147
13:27fr 27
2.235 38 2 :5,8 148
13:50 119
2.292 119(6) 3:12 148
14:2, 19 119
Pseud&-Phocy lides 4 :6 41
16 119,127
3ff 23 5:22ff 142 (2)
16:1ff 13
42 86 (18) 6 :21f 128
17 119
129 120(9) Phil
17 :28 137
IQ27, I, 8 29 3:20 100
18 :19,26 125
IQpHab II, Sf 64 4 :6 35
19 :22 125
IQS II, llf 54 Col
19 :24 128
II, 17 54 1:12 35
19 :33 128
III, 13- 15 17 (17) 3: 7,8 147
20 126
V, Sf 60 3:10 149
20 :3 153
VI, llf 57(47) 3:23 141 (17 )
20 :4 125, 153
VIII, 4- 8 112 1 Thess
20:13 123
XI, 11f 109 3:9 35
20 :17,28 56
Talmud Heb
20 :25 126
Baba Batra 91a 17 9:14 143
21 :29 125, 127
Berakoth Jas
23:tfr 124
60b 30 (18) 1:10,11 91
23:11 124
61a 111(6) 5:1 ff 91
27f 126
Kidduschin 71 a 51 (10) 1 Petr
27 :30 27
r oma 86b 85 (12) 1:3, 23 148
Rom
T est. Dan 6.2 42 (45) 2:9f 143
1:8- 11 98
2 :13fr 147
1:16 99
3:30 41 2:18ff 142 (2)
6:4 148 5:12,13 128
6:17f 147 2 Petr
8:15 98 1:5 147
9:21 113 1:16 144
12 :2 149 (16) 2:10 133
13 :1ff 37, 147 Jude
14:20 137 3 147
15:19 128, 153
16:3 125
16:23 125
1 Cor
4:1 133
5:5 34
6:9- 11 147
7:6 146
8:6 41
166
d I Early Christian Literature Clement of Alex andria Sm . 9.1 114
and the Ancient Church Exc. Theod. 12.3 90 (26 ) Tr . 3.2 140
Paed. lrenaeus
Acts of Paul
1.69.3 17 Adv. haer.
1 128 (12)
1.70.1 17 l.preface 1- 2 17
2 125(1 ), 153
Quis div. salv. 42 16, 56(46) 1.13.3 116 (10)
5 65
12ft" Strom . 1.23.5 112 (12)
122
1.22.5 120 1.24.2 49
12, 14 66 (15)
1.59.2 136 3.3.3 125
14 112 (13)
3.64.1 49 (32) Jerome
Acts of Peter
Const. Commentaria in
1 120 (11 )
Ap. 2.28 78 (19) epistulam ad T itum 7 136 (8)
20 90 (27)
Didache Justin
Acts of the Scilitan
7-15 5- 6 Apol. 1
Martyrs
13 78 (19) 14.4 36 (1 1)
3 and 6 90
14.2f 45 17. 3 36
Asc. lsa.
15.1 55 26.3 116 (11 )
11.23 62
15.4 45 26.4 112 (12)
A then agoras
Suppl.
Diognetus 41.2 30
9.2 144(26) Dial.
13.2 44 (2)
9.6 102 3.3 24
30 136
11.3 61 47.5 145 (26)
37.1 38(22)
Eusebius Martyrdom of Paul
Augustine
Hist . eccl. 1 122 (2),
Con]. 7.2 119
2.22 .2, 3 124(15 ) 128 (13)
Barnabas
5.20.4 24 Martyrdom of Peter and
4.12 81
Praep. ev. 9.8 11 7 Paul
5.9 30(14)
Evangelium Nicodemi 34 11 7
Chrysostom (Montfaucon )
(Acta Pilati A) 5 117 Nemesius
XI , 590 45 (10)
Her mas De natura hominis 2 148 (8)
666 99
Mand. Udes ~~Solomon
693 88
6.1.2 87 (1 ) 4.8 80
721 123 (9)
11.1.17 87(1) 7.13 30
1 Clement
Sim. 8.14f 112
2.3 45 (3)
1.6 84 8.23 82
2.7 147
2.6 35(5) 9.13 41
5.4 89
9.4.2 112 19.10f 61
5.7 3, 89
9.10.6 32(3) 31.5 62
20.4 43 (52)
9.15.4 112 33 142 (6)
24.5 144
9.27.2 54(33) 41.9ff 42 (46 )
29.1 44(2 )
Vis . 41.12 102
32.4 148
2.4.3 75 Origen
42.4 56
3.8.9 149(16) Orationes
44.1 56
14.2 36 (6)
59.3 143 Ignatius Polycarp
59.4 38 (21 ) Eph. Phil.
60.2 39 (26 ) 10 38(21)
4.1 85 (13),
61 38 10.1 35(3)
86 (19)
62.1 39 (29 ) 14.2 46
5.2 109
64 143 Phld.
11.2 53
2Clement 2.2 21 (37)
11.4 114
1.6- 8 147 7.1 21 (37)
12.3 36, 38
17. 3 143 8.2 22 (37), 62
Ps. Clem . Hom .
19.1 72 (15) Rom.
13.16 46
20.5 102 5.1 124
8.2 131

167
De resurrectione e J Greek and latin Authors Diogenes Laertius
(Letter to Rheginus) 5.64 29(12)
Aelius Aristides
45.23fl" 112(12) 6.50 85(18)
In Sarapin
49.15f 112(12) 6.105 85
15 104(45)
Sextus, Sentences of 10.123 30(22)
20 102(31)
1- 3 88 Di t ten berger
Alciphro
7b 74(11) Or. I
1.16.1 85(17)
175 74(11) 51.9f 82
Anthologia Palatina
235 46 (14) 56.36 119(6)
7.275 137
Tatian 146.1fl" 133(10)
10.58 85 (9)
Or. Graec. 223.15 119(3)
Apollodorus Comicus
35.2 111 (5) 339.32f 82
Philadelph. Fragmenta 4 86(18)
42 143 339.46f 121 (18)
Apuleius
Tertullian 339.47f 142
Apologia
Ad uxorem 339.90 143 (13)
26 34
1.7 75 383.9f 144(18)
90 117
Apol. 30 38, 44(3) 383.189fl" 121 (20)
Metamorph.
Bapt. 149 383.212fl" 70
11.17 37
Theodore of Or. II
11.21 149
Mopsuestia (Swete) 483.70£ 147(2)
Aristotle
II, 91 45 (5) 519 .9ff 39(24)
Rhet.
103 52 669.3f 140
1.9.35 (p.1367b, 36) 50
113 54(28), 54(30) 669.7 144(19)
3.17.10 (p.1418a, 23) 136
121 57 726 37(18)
Au! us Gellius
161 75(15) Syll. 1.22.15fl. 121 (20)
Noctes atticae 15.11.5 153(13)
243 136 Syll. II
BGU
256 152(6), 543.28fl" 20
II 1.816.23£ 123 (8)
153(15) 708.23£ 140(6)
BMI
Theodoret (Schulze) 730.7 85(17)
111.587b.5f 121(18)
III, 647 38(22) 736.15ff, 22f 46(15)
111.604.7f 121(17)
650 45(5) , 48 760.6ff 104(54)
IV.906.2f 103(39)
651 51 798.7ff 144(18)
Calli mach us
664 75(15) 807.11ff 39(28)
Hymnus in Io uem 8f 136
676 97 867.21 29(12)
Cebes
695 123(1 O) Epictetus
Tabula 24.2 33(12)
695f 124(15) Diss.
Cicero
701 136(11 ), 137 1.3.7 116
Diuin . 1.18.34 136
703 140(8) 1.4.31 105(58)
GIG
706 146 1.7.33 68(1)
III.5361.13f 39 (24)
1.11.28 24(12)
GIL
1.16.13 39(27)
VI.510.17fl. 149(15)
1.29.35 116(9)
XIV.2112.ii.19 78(20)
2.1.25 21
Corp. Herm.
2.9.13 116(9)
2.17 49
2.10.15 45(11)
10.15 112(18),
2.15.2 24(12)
144(17)
2.16.39 68(2)
13.3 13, 149
2.17.8 92
13.9 62
2.21.11 46(12)
14.4 21 (35)
3.9.5 24(12)
Demophilus
3.21.15 120
Similitudines 22 121(20)
3.23.31 33(9)
Dio Chrysostom
3.24.2 41
4.33 119
3.24.18 16
48.10 119
3.24.34 33(7)
Diodorus Siculus
4.4.48 68
1.34.11 152
168
 4.11.24 83 Musonius Tranq. an.
C. 16 (p. 481, Schenk!) 18 p.14.12fl. (Hense) 46(14) 6(468B) 48(28)
Euphro p.107 (Hense) 85(16) 19(477 A) 20
Fragment 4 53(25) Onosander Polybius
Galen Stralegikos 1.1 - 18 50,158 6.46 135
De antidotis 2. 7 44(2) Ovid 28.17 .12 24
Protreptikos 2 33(12) Amores 3.10.19 137(13) Porphyrius, Vit. Plot. 16 119
De simp!. medicam. Ars amatoria 1.298 137(13) Preisendanz, .(aub. 499ft. 149
temp. etjac. 9 111(10) P. Giess. Pseudo-Isocrates
Herodotus 1.12.2fl" 123(8) Ad Demonicum
1.132.2 37(17 ) 1.12.7ff 155 21 68(3)
Hesiod P. Greci e Latini 22 92
Theog. 26 136 94.10fl" 155 35 53
Iamblichus P. Grenj. 44 32(2), 158
Vit. Pyth. 1.1.10 135 Pseudo-Pythagoras
8.40 72 P. Lips. Carmen aureum
lnscr. Magn. 28.17fl" 13(5). 13 88(5)
94.5ff 60(4) P. Lond. 32f 80(5)
162.6 46(13), 142 111.212.12fl" 152(7) 45f 72(13)
lnscr. Perg. P. Oxy. Seneca
252.19£ 36(15) 1.113.13 26(20) Epistulae morales
604.3ff 140(11) 11.291.21 20 98.3 138
lnscr. Priene Vl.933.29f 123(8) 102.25 85(1 t)
108.80 152 Vll.1024.33 24 Naturales quaestiones
108.311 29(12) VII.1039.12f 92(32) 3, preface 14 44(2)
109.186£ 45 (1 1) IX.1203.29ff 133(12) De lranquillitate animi
109.215£ 140(6) IX.1218.12 155 3.4 19
114.15 141 (18) P. Par. Stobaeus
117.55£ 72 14.22f 133(13) Eel. 3
IPE 63, col. 9.4 7f 121 (20) p. 265 (Hense) 84
1.22.28ff 72 Philemon, p. 417 (Hense) 85
!socrates Fragment 132 47(22) pp. 603f (Hense) 19
Ad Nicoelem Philostratus Eel. 4
2 7 Vit. Ap. 5.12 24 p. 662 (Hense) 29(12)
11 68(3) Plato Strabo
19 53 Ap. 28 33(7) 1.2.3 68(2)
40, 41 158 Leg. 810 111 Virgil
Libanius Phaed. 113e, 11 4a 23(9) Aen. 4.653 121
Progymnasmala 7.3.7 51(6),72 Phaedr. 242e 24 Eel. 4.15f 62
Livy Resp.
10.23.9 75(15) 2.382e 131
Lucian 2.383b 131
De morle Peregrini 12-13 75 5.463c 72(16)
Phalaris 2. 9 111 (5) 10.615c 23(9)
Philopseudes Tim. 49b 29
3 137 Pliny
9 68(2) Hist. nat. 30.2.11 117
De saltalione 81 51, 160 Plutarch
Somnium 23 33(12) Adulal. 24(65D) 111 (8)
Timon 6 137 Aud. poel. 4 24
Vii . auctio 7 46 Is. el Us. 46(369E) 42(44)
Marcus Aurelius Lib. educ. 7(4B) 138(21)
6.30 19 Lycurg. 19 (52A) 53(25)
Maximus ofTyre Superset. 3(165E) 112(10)
10.9 33(8)
16.3f 24
169
2. Greek Words EJITEU~ts J!.HTtrT/S rUp.IIOTT/S
0.-ycbrl) 36, 39(23) 42 39
18,28 f:vroXfJ p.Eravota CTUJIE£611 OU
ii-yvota 89 113,114 18, 19, 33,138
27, 27(2) bra-y-yl:XXEuOat p.VOos CTUJIHOOS
0.-yw-yfJ 46,92 16 19
119 br£-yvc.luts ( r~s) J!.VCTTTJptOJI ucppa-yls
a.lc:.w O.XT/(Mas 58, 61. 63 112
30 41,64,131 CTWTTJP
iiv0pw7ros E71'LCTK011'0S vava')'EtJI 13,41,69,99-101,143-
42 50,52- 56,132 33 45
avrl0Euts E71'tcpavEta Jll)cpO.Xtos CTWTTJptOS
92 89,99, 103,104,121, 52,53 144, 145
O.vr£Xvrpov 143, 144 vop.o6t00.uKaXos uwcppwv, uwcppoCTVJITI
43 Ep')'OJI 21,22,152 40,46,53,99,140
a'/I'OOOXTJ 50. See KaMv Ep-yov. vop.os
29 EUOatp.ov£a 22 TEKJIO')'OJ!La
a1I'OKHTat 25 48,49
121 EVEP')'Eula olKOJIOp.La TV'/I'OS
apETTJ 82 17 70
50 Evul:{JHa orKOS 0EOV
O.cp8apula 39,84 60 v-ytaLvEtJ/1 il')'tfJs
25 op.oXo-yLa 24
at/;EU6TJS rTJTI)CTtS 88 u-ytalvovua 6t6auKaXLa
131 17, 18, 66,151. See 24,25,68,121
EKrTJTI)CT's. 11'at6EvEtv
{JautXEvs 142 cpt"Xo~Evla
36 0Ep.l:Xws 11'a"Xt')'')'EJIECT£a 53, 133
112 148 cpws
')'EJ!Ea"Xo-yla Owul:{JHa 1rapa-y-yEXLa 90
151 46 18,32,35
')'IITJCTWS 7rapaoouts xapts
13 KaOapbs 92 144, 145
')'JIWCTtS 137 1l'apa01JK11 xaptup.a
92 Katpo1s lolots 89,92, 105,108 98
-ypacpfJ 43 7rapan0l:vat xfJpa
78, 120 KaMv tp-yov 32 73
50. See tp-yov. 11'tCTTEVHJI
&O.{JoXos KarauroXfJ 30
54. See uaraviis. 45 71'LCTns
6taKOJIOS KEvocpwvLa 18,28,58, 75
54 92 11'tCTTOS
6tKatOCTVJITI K~p v~ 132, 134
88, 131 43 71'tCTTOS oM-yos
6tKatOVJI KOCTp.tos, KOCTJ!.tOTT/S 28, 51, 147, 150
62 46,53 11'Aaviiv
oo~a 119
25,35 M-yos 11'JIEVJ!.a
133, 147, 150 98, 149
EKriiTT/CT's 71' pEu{Jvupos
17. See rTJTI)CTtS. p.aKaptOS 54-56, 71, 72, 77,
EA11'LS 25,26,89,143 78
13, 26, 131,143,144 p.aKpoOvp.la
EJI11'LCTTEt 30 uaraviis
13, 18, 155 p.aprvpliv, p.aprvpwv 34. See 6t0.{1o:Xos.
89,99
170
3. Subjects Citizenship, Good Emperor, Cult of the Heresy, Heretics
Acts of the Apostles 8,1 0,39, 75,98,141 143. See Ruler, Cult of 2,6,7 ,21 ,32,33,65,66,83,
4,37 {19),40,88 Clement, First Epistle of the. 110,112,113,115,116,135,
Acts of Paul 78 Entrust 137,151,152,154
112,127,128 Colossians, Epistle to the 32 Hermogenes
Aeons 2(10) Ephesus 66,106,122,128 (12)
See Ages. Commandment 122,125,126,128 Holy Scripture
Ages 89 Epimenides 78
30 Communication, Personal 136 Hope
Alexander 7,71,106, 127,128,153 Epiphany 13, 18,26,28,131 '143, 144
33,123,128 Conduct 104,142,143,145,148 Hospitality
Ambrosiaster 119 See Appearance. 53
58{5) Confess Epirus Household, Rules for the
Apollos 46 153 5,6,35,40,75,82, 139,140,
153{16),153 Confession Erastus 141,142
Apostle 88 125,128 Hymenaeus
1,8,26,28,34,35,60, 71 '98, Conscience, Good Eschatology 33,111
105,108,131,154 18,19,33,40,98,138 10,20,37,41 ,75,89,99, 104 Hypothesis, Fragment
Appearance Contradictions Ethics 4,5,127
89,99,103,1 04,121 '143, 92 19,23,40,51,142 Hypothesis, Secretary
144 Crescens Example 4,5
See Epiphany. 122 70
Aquila Crete I conium
125,126,128 135,136,137,152,153 Faith 125,128
Artemas 18,20,24,28,29 ,40,41 ,58, Ignatius
153 Date 75,98,105,155 17
Asceticism 36 Forbearance Ignorance
17,40,49,68,116,137 Dalmatia 30 27,27{2)
Authenticity 128 Foundation Incorruptibility
1,2,3,5,8,24,25,28, 70, 98, Deaconesses 112 25
128,145,153 58 Instruction{s)
Deacons Gaul 18,32,35
Baptism 50,54,58 122 Irenaeus
148 Deceived Deceivers Genealogies
Believe 119 16,18 {17) ,66,151
30 Demas Gift Jambres
Bishop 66,106,122 98 117
50,52,53,54,55,56, 132, Deportment Gnosis, Gnosticism Jannes
134 45 3,17,48,66,80,92,112,114, 117
Blessed Deposit 116,141 Justified
25,89,143 89,92,105,108 God and Christ 62
Devil 9,30,41 ,42, 143,145 Judaism, Hellenistic
Caesarea 54,114. See Satan. God, Household of 19,23,27 ,30,41 '143, 144,
122,126,127 Diatribe 60 145
Chatter 33 Good Works
92 Didache 40,47,82 Kerygma
Childbearing 5 Gospel 1 ,8,28,35,88,99, 105,142
49 Dignity 25 King
Christ 39,40 Grace 36
See God and Christ. 27 ,40, 142,144,145,150 Knowledge
Christology Educate 92
4,9,29,42,61 ,63,99, 108, 142 Hebrews, Epistle to the Koine
143 Elder 42 3,21 ,52,144
Church Order 54,56,72. See Presbyter. Herald
5,6,35,55,56 43 Law
22
171
Lectra Paul, Imprisonment of Ruler, Cult of the Titus
125 3,16,124,126 102,103,104,143,144 122(2),128(13)
Light Paul, Legends about See Emperor, Cult of the . Tradition
90 127,153 1,7,8,9,29,32,57,60,61 ,92,
Linus Paul, Theology of Salvation 105,107' 132,134,141
125 18,22,29,62 10,17 ,18,28,29,41 ,61 ,89, Trophimus
Literary Character Paul, Vocabulary of 99,105,109,131 '142, 144, 125,126,128
5-8,32,35,98,153 145,146 145,148 Truth, Recognition of
Liturgy, Liturgical Material Peter, Second Epistle of Salvation, History of 41,64,131
9,30,41 ,60,61 ,99, 105 145 18,43, 142,145,147 Tychicus
Love Philosophy, Moral Salvation, Plan of 153
18,28,40 50,51 '72,83 17,18,41
Luke Philosophy, Popular Satan Universe, Elements of the
40(30),89,98, 122,128{13) 33,84,152 34 17
Phygelus See Devil.
Marc ion 106 Savior Vices, Catalogue of
2 Piety 13,41 ,42,69,99, 100,101' 22,28,67,115
Mark 39,40 102,103,143,144,145 Virtues, Catalogue of
122 Polycarp Scripture 50
Mediator 1,2,6 120 Vocabulary
42 Prayer Seal 3,19,21,39,144
Military Imagery 35,36,37,41,44 112
32 Prescript Septuagint {LXX) Widows
Modest, Modesty 13,131 100,143 73,74,75
46 Presbyter Simmias Witness
Muratorian Canon 54,55,56,71 ,77 '78,80, 132 125 89,99
7(32) See Elder. Situations Women
Mystery Proclamation 3,6,15,32,98, 106,122,125, 40,44,45,46,47 ,48 ,116,140
25,58,61,63 9, 18,25,32,61 ,99 126,132,152,153
Mystery Religions Profess Slaves Zenas
101,102,148 46,92 82 153
Myth, Myths Prudence, Prudent Sober Zenon
16,17' 18, 18(17),66 40,46,53,140 52,53 125,153
Pseudonymity Sound
Nicopolis 1,5,7 24,25
152,153 Sound Teaching
Qumran Sect 24,25,68,121
Onesiphorus 32,51 Speculations
40,106,125,126,127,128, 17,18
153 Ransom Spirit
Orthodoxy 43 98,149
113 Rebirth State, the
148,149 22,37 ,40{30)
Parenesis Recognition Stoicism
7 ,22{1 ),23,50,87 ,89,91 ,98, 29. See Truth, Recogni- 19,22,85,116,148
107,110,113,120,142,147 tion of. Succession
Parousia Redeemer 1,8,92{31),108
10,121 101 Suetonius
Paul, Anthropology of Redeemer, Myth of the 50
19 42
Paul, Conversion of Repentance Teacher{s) of the Law
27,28,30 113,114 21 {39),22,152
Paul, Example of Suffering Righteousness Theodore of Mopsuestia
7,119,128 88,99 58{4)
Paul, Gospel of Rome Theodoret
25 126 58{4)

172
4. Modern Authors Fridrichsen, Anton Mi.iller, Bruno Zahn, Theodor
38(23) 144(20) 137(15)
Adam, Alfred
57(47) Gennrich, Paul Nauck, Wolfgang
Allo, E. B. 150(20) 23(11)
102(32) Goetz, K. G.
57(47) Pascher,Joseph
Baldensperger, G. Goguel, Maurice 149(14)
88(12),89(17) 88(12) Pohlenz, Max
Bartsch; Hans Werner Gulin, E. G. 137(15)
38(21) 48 Poschmann, Bernhard
Bauer, Walter 79(22)
2,61 (15),92(34) Haerens, H. Prtimm, Karl
Behm, Johannes 102(32) 100{19), 103(40), 105(54)
71 (7) von Harnack, Adolf
Belser,]. E. 91 (29),100(13),148(11) Ranft,J .
73(1),74(6a),98,111 (9) Harris, James Rendel 92(33)
Bikermann, E. 137(15) Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich
36(14) Harrison, P. N . 21(39)
Boobyer, G. H. 3(16),4 Roller, Otto
35(4) Hatch, Edwin 3(17),5
Bover,Jose M . 54
51 (12) Hauschildt, H . Schlatter, Adolf
Bruston, Ch. 78(13) 51(12)
71(9) Hoh,J. Schwartz, Eduard
Bi.ichsel, Friedrich 79(22) 71
17 (13),21 (39), 150(20) Holtzmann, H . J . Schweitzer, Albert
Bultmann, Rudolf 58(4) 148
89(12) Hol.zmeister, U. Seeberg, Reinhold
57(47) 88(10),92(31)
von Campenhausen, Hans Horst,]. von Soden, H .
1 ,4,55, 79(22),92(31) 137(18) 58(5)
Cramer,John A. Spicq, Ceslaus
48(26),75(17),99 Jeremias, Joachim 31 (23),36,40{29),51 (12),
Cullmann, Oscar 14(9),23(11),30,57(12), 57 (47),58(4 ),89(13),
88(12),89(13),92(34) 57 (47),63, 73(1 ),78 (15), 92(33),149(16)
87 (2), 106(1 ), 132(1) Staerk, Willy
Delling, Gerhard 101(25)
31(22),75(15) Kroll, joseph
Dey,Joseph 61 (15) Vogtle, Anton
149(14) (15), 150(20) 23(10),51 (11)
Dibelius, Martin Lake, Kirsopp
21 (39),51 (12),54, 132(2), 137(15) Weiss, Bernhard
142(7),155(1) Lietzmann, Hans 32,58(5),73(1 ),89 (16),
Dibelius-Greeven 100(13) 105(61 ),115(1)
32(4) Lock, Walter Wendland, Paul
Dodd, C. H. 58(4),78(19) 102,119(4)
99 Lohmeyer, Ernst Wettstein,J.J.
100(13) 158 (2)
Easton, Burton Scott Wilhelm, Adolf
1,41 (39),58(5),106(1) Maurer, Christian 60
Erbes, K. 3(14) Windisch, Hans
125 Michaelis, Wilhelm 42(47),89 (12),103(40)
15(2),41 (35),78(18), Wohlenberg, Gustav
Falconer, Robert 79(21 ),112{11 ),115 (1 ), 58(4),111(2)
4 126(7)
173
 Designer's Notes

In the design of the visual aspects of Hermeneia, con- Horizontal markings at gradated levels on the spine
sideration has been given to relating the form to the will assist in grouping the volumes according to these
content by symbolic means. conventional categories.
The letters of the logotype Hermeneia are a fusion of The type has been set with unjustified right mar-
forms alluding simultaneously to Hebrew (dotted gins so as to preserve the internal consistency of word
vowel markings) and Greek (geometric round shapes) spacing. This is a major factor in both legibility and
letter forms. In their modern treatment they remind aesthetic quality; the resultant uneven line endings
us of the electronic age as well, the vantage point from are only slight impairments to legibility by compari-
which this investigation of the past begins. son. In this respect the type resembles the hand
The Lion ofJudah used as a visual identification written manuscript where the quality of the calli-
for the series is based on the Seal of Shema. The ver- graphic writing is dependent on establishing and hold-
sion for Hermeneia is again a fusion of Hebrew calli- ing to integral spacing patterns.
graphic forms, especially the legs of the lion, and All of the type faces in common use today have been
Greek elements characterized by the geometric. In designed between 1500 A.D. and the present. For
the sequence of arcs, which can be understood as the biblical text a face was chosen which does not ar-
scroll-like images, the first is the lion's mouth. It is bitrarily date the text, but rather one which is un-
reasserted and accelerated in the whorl and returns in compromisingly modern and unembellished so that
the aggressively arched tail: tradition is passed from its feel is of the universal. The type style is Univers 65
one age to the next, rediscovered and re-formed. by Adrian Frutiger.
"Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its The expository texts and footnotes are set in Bas-
seals .. ." kerville, chosen for its compatibility with the many
Then one of the elders said to me brief Greek and Hebrew insertions. The double col-
"weep not; lo, the Lion of the tribe of David, umn format and the shorter line length facilitate speed
the Root of David, has conquered, reading and the wide margins to the left of footnotes
so that he can open the scroll and provide for the scholar's own notations.
its seven seals."
Rev. 5:2,5 Kenneth Hiebert, Designer
To celebrate the signal achievement in biblical
scholarship which Hermeneia represents, the entire
series will by its color constitute a signal on the theo-
logian's bookshelf: the Old Testament will be bound
in yellow and the New Testament in red, traceable to
a commonly used color coding for synagogue and
church in medieval painting; in pure color terms,
varying degrees of intensity of the warm segment of
the color spectrum. The colors interpenetrate when
the binding color for the Old Testament is used to
imprint volumes from the New and vice versa.
Wherever possible, a photograph of the oldest ex-
tant manuscript, or a historically significant docu-
ment pertaining to the biblical sources, will be dis-
piayed on the end papers of each volume to give a
feel for the tangible reality and beauty of the source
material.
The title page motifs are expressive derivations from
the Hermeneia logotype, repeated seven times to form
a matrix and debossed on the cover of each volume.
These sifted out elements will be seen to be in their
exact positions within the parent matrix. These motifs
and their expressional character are noted on the fol-
lowing page.

174
 Category of biblical writing,
key symbolic characteristic,
and volumes so identified

~ 5
II IG ~. Law New Testament Narrative
I
ll<:'f~<:'~<:'i~ (boundaries described) (focus on One)

II I ~.
Genesis Matthew
I ~
Exodus Mark

II I ";...A
Leviticus Luke
I Numbers John
I I ~ Deuteronomy Acts

2 6

...
~
History
(trek through time and space)
Epistles
(directed instruction)
Joshua Romans
Judges 1 Corinthians
...
~ r"\.
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Corinthians
Galatians
,...;... •• r"\ • 2Samuel Ephesians
~ r"\. 1 Kings Philippians
2Kings Colossians
1 Chronicles 1 Thessalonians
2 Chronicles 2 Thessalonians
~<:' ..
h r Ezra
Nehemiah
1 Timothy
2Timothy
<:' . ~<:'1 Esther Titus
. .r...
\..: . .
• Philemon
Hebrews
3
Poetry James
(lyric emotional expression) 1 Peter
Job 2 Peter
Psalms 1john
<:' . . <:'. .<:' Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
2John
3John
<:' . . <:'. .<:' Song of Songs Jude
<:' . <:',:... . . .
" .. 4
Prophets
7
Apocalypse
(inspired seers) (vision of the future)
Isaiah Revelation
Jeremiah
Lamentations 8
Ezekiel Extracanonical Writings
Daniel (peripheral records)
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

175
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~E
"You have a strong team. and the assurance
of success lies just there. "
Henry Chadwick. Regius Professor of
Divinity and Dean of Chnst Church .
Oxford

" I see the great importance of the plan for an

edition of the biblical commen tary,
Hermeneia ."
David Flusser.
Hebrew University, Jerusalem

" ... the Hermeneia series has a strong

claim on being a trailblazer for the Spirit. It is
my hope that the series will be a vehicle of
renewal in the life of the church and in our
own lives ."
Krister Stendahl.
The Divinity School . Harvard University

"Biblical studies should receive from this

project significant encouragement and in-
vigoration . It comes at a time when there is
in reality an increasing interest in the scholarly
understanding of the Bible. "
Herbert G. May,
The Divinity School. Vanderbilt University,
Emeritus

"Our students are in desperate need for an

up -to -date critical commentary."
Glenn W. Barker.
Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary

" I am impressed by the quality of the com-

mentaries which this series proposes to make
available in English. "
George Johnston,
McGill University

"As I see our Swedish situation I am led to be

eager for the writing and publication of this
senes.
Lars Hartman.
Uppsala University

" I welcome the fact that the series will include

commentaries on related extra-biblical
writings."
Jacob Jervell.
Oslo University