Prosea 12.3 Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 3

TEELT
NOBIS
Plant Resources ofSouth-East Asia
No 12(3)
Medicinal and poisonous plants 3
R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Bunyapraphatsara

(Editors)
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden 2003
ISN/ i 6 ? / ^
D R R.H.M.J. LEMMENS is a plant taxonomist who graduated as a biologist from
Wageningen Agricultural University in 1984 and has since held a post in the
Department of Plant Taxonomy of Wageningen University. His doctoral thesis,
defended in 1989, was a taxonomie revision ofthe family Connaraceae, with em-
phasis on Africa. He has published on aspects of tropical botany, and has done
fieldwork in Africa and Asia. He has been on the staff of the Prosea Publication
Office since 1989, where his tasks so far include co-editing Prosea 3: Dye and
tannin-producing plants, which was published in 1991, and Prosea 5: Timber
trees, which was published in 3 parts between 1993 and 1998. He was coordina-
tor of the Prosea Task Force on medicinal and poisonous plants and one of the
editors ofthe first part of Prosea 12:Medicinal and poisonous plants, published
in 1999. From 1997 to 1999 he was associate professor and coordinator of the
botanical research programmes in tropical Africa at the Department of Plant
Taxonomy of Wageningen University. He is involved in the Prota (Plant Re-
sources ofTropical Africa) programme as editor on botanical aspects.
DR N. BUNYAPRAPHATSARA graduated in pharmacy from Mahidol University in
Bangkok, Thailand, in 1970. She earned her MSc degree in pharmacognosy at
the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy in Boston, United States in 1973, and
the PhD degree in phytochemistry at the same college in 1975. In 1981 she had
postdoctoral training at the Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmacology
of the School of Pharmacy, University of Illinois in Chicago, United States. She
has been associate professor of pharmacognosy at the Faculty of Pharmacy of
the Mahidol University in Bangkok since 1984. She has been a consultant for
various organizations, particularly in the field of herbal medicine programmes
in Thailand, and has organized several international seminars and presented
papers at various national and international scientific meetings. From 1983 to
1998 she was Director of the Medicinal Plant Information Centre in Bangkok.
She also has been member of the committee on traditional drug registration at
the Ministry of Public Health. She has published numerous research papers,
mainly on phytochemistry, and some handbooks on Thai medicinal plants. She
is involved as editor in the Prosea volumes on medicinal and poisonous plants
since 1996.
ISBN 90-5782-125-7
NUGI 835
Design: Frits Stoepman bNO.
© Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 2003.
No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations
embodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in
any form including print, photocopy, microfilm, electric or electromagnetic
record without written permission from the copyright holder, Prosea Founda-
tion, P.O. Box 332, Bogor 16122, Indonesia.
Printed in The Netherlands byVeenman drukkers, Ede.

Published and distributed for the Prosea Foundation by Backhuys Publishers,
P.O. Box 321,2300 AH Leiden, the Netherlands.
Contents
Editors and contributors 12
Prosea Board ofTrustees and Personnel 19
Foreword 21
1 Introduction 23
1.1 Choice of species 23

1.2 Collection from the wild versus cultivation 23
1.2.1 The need for conservation 24
1.2.2 Joint efforts for conservation 24
1.2.3 Germplasm collection 25
1.2.4 Cultivation and breeding 25
1.2.5 Recommendations for the wise use of medicinal plants 26
1.3 The medicinal and poisonous plants ofSouth-East Asia
in retrospect 27
2 Alphabetical treatment ofgenera, species and groups 29
Acacia soap pod tree 31

Acriopsis javanica 33
Acrotrema costatum 34
Actinorhytis calapparia calappa palm 34
Adenia 35
Adenosma 38
Aeginetia indica 40
Aeschynanthus 41
Aganosma 43
Agelaea macrophylla 44
Aglaia Chinese rice-flower 45
Aglaonema 50
Aidia 52
Ajuga bracteosa 54
Albizia myriophylla 55
Alchornea 56
Allomorphia 58
Alocasia giant taro 59
Amischotolype 61
Ammannia baccifera blistering ammannia 62
Amorphophallus konjac devil's tongue 63
Ampelocissus 65
Amydrium zippelianum 67
A 71nriOYtri r*ii m
microstachyum 68
Anaxagorea 68
Ancistrocladus tectorius 70
Anneslea fragrans 71
Anredera Madeira vine 72
Antidesma montanum 74
Apostasia nuda 74
Aquilaria cumingiana 75
Aralidium pinnatifidum 76
Ardisia 77
Arenga 81
Argostemma 82
Argyreia elephant climber 83
Asystasia 86
Baliospermum montanum 88
Bauhinia orchid tree, mountain ebony tree 89
Beilschmiedia 93
Blastus borneensis 95
Blechum pyramidatum 95
Buchnera 96
Buddleja asiatica white butterfly bush 98
Butea flame ofthe forest 99
Buxus rolfei 102
Calophyllum Alexandrian laurel 102
Calycopteris floribunda 106
Canscora diffusa 107
Canthium 108
Carallia suffruticosa 110
Catunaregam 110
Cecropia peltata trumpet tree 112
Ceriscoides curranii 114
Cestrum nocturnum night blooming cestrum 114
Chionachne macrophylla 115
Chroesthes longifolia 116
Chydenanthus excelsus 117
Cleidion spiciflorum 117
Clematis 118
Clusia balsam apple 121
Cnesmone javanica 123
Cnestis palala 124
Cocculus 125
Codonopsis javanica 127
Coldenia procumbens 129
Colocasia esculenta taro 130
Connarus 132
Conyza sumatrensis fleabane 134
Coptosapelta tomentosa 135
Coriaria intermedia 136
Corymborkis veratrifolia 137
Coscinium fenestratum 139
Crassocephalum
crepidioides 140
Crocosmia xcrocosmiiflora garden montbretia 142
Crossostephium chinense 143
Cryptocoryne cordata 143
Cuscuta australis 144
Cyathostemma micranthum 146
Cymbidium 146
Cynoglossum 148
Cyrtandra 150
Cyrtandromoea 151
Dalbergia 152
Dalea cliffortiana 155
Dasymaschalon 156
Dendrophthoe 157
Dendrotrophe umbellata 159
Dentella repens 159
Desmos 160
Dichapetalum griffithii 162
Didissandra frutescens 163
Dieffenbachia seguine 163
Dioclea hexandra marbles vine 164
Diospyros 165
Diplectria 168
Dipteracanthus repens 169
Dischidia 171
Dissochaeta 173
Dracaena 175
Dregea volubilis 177
Drosera 178
Drymaria cordata chickweed 180
Dunbaria incana 182
Ehretia philippinensis 182
Elatostema 183
Ellipanthus tomentosus 185
Emilia prenanthoidea 185
Enicostema axillare 186
Epiphyllum oxypetalum 188
Epipremnum pinnatum 189
Epirixanthes elongata 190
Eranthemum viscidum 191
Eria pannea 192
Erismanthus obliquus 193
Erycibe 193
Euchresta 195
Euodia hortensis 196
Fagerlindia fasciculata 197
Fimbristylis 198
Fissistigma 200
Floscopa scandens 203
Friesodielsia 203
Galbulimima belgraveana white magnolia 205
Galearia 206
Gardenia pseudopsidium 207
Gentiana quadrifaria 208
Geophila repens 209
Geunsia pentandra 211
Globba 212
Glochidion 214
Gomphandra quadrifida 217
Gomphostemma 218
Gonocaryum gracile 219
Gordonia penangensis 219
Gouania 220
Grammatophyllum tiger orchid 222
Grangea maderaspatana 223
Greenea corymbosa 224
Grewia 225
Gunnera macrophylla 226
Gymnema 228
Gynochtodes 230
Gynura 231
Harmsiopanax harmsii 233
Hemigraphis alternata metal-leaf 234
Henckelia 235
Hetaeria obliqua 237
Heterostemma cuspidatum 237
Heynea trijuga 238
Hiptage benghalensis 238
Homalanthus 239
Homalomena 242
Hoya 244
Hunteria zeylanica 247
Hydnophytum formicarum 248
Hydrolea zeylanica 249
Hygrophila ringens 250
Hymenocallis littoralis spider lily 252
Hypobathrum 253
Hypoestes polythyrsa 254
Hypoxis aurea 255
Hyptis 256
Uligera luzonensis 259
Indigofera 261
Indorouchera griffithiana 263
Kigelia africana sausage tree 264
Labisia pumila 266
Legazpia polygonoides 266
Leonotis nepetifolia 267
Lepidagathis 268
Lepionurus sylvestris 270
Leptonychia caudata 270
Leucosyke capitellata 271
Limacia 271
Liparis treubii 273
Liriope graminifolia 274
Lophatherum gracile 275
Lophopyxis maingayi 276
Luvunga 277
Macaranga 278
Macrosolen 284
Maesa 286
Mallotus kamala tree 287
Mapania cuspidata 291
Matthaea 292
Mazus pumilus 293
Medinilla radicans 294
Melicope 295
Melissa axillaris 298
Merope angulata 299
Microglossa pyrifolia 300
Microstachys chamaelea 301
Mitrella kentii 302
Morinda Indian mulberry 302
Mucuna velvet bean 305
Mukia maderaspatana 309
Murdannia 310
Mussaenda 311
Myrmecodia tuberosa 314
Myxopyrum nervosum 315
Nervilia 316
Nothocnide repanda 318
Oberonia 318
Octamyrtus behrmannii 319
Orchidantha fimbriatum 320
Osbeckia chinensis 320
Pandanus 321
Papuechites aambe 323
Paramignya scandens 324
Pararuellia napifera 325
Pentaphragma
begoniifolium 325
Peristrophe acuminata 326
Philydrum lanuginosum 327
Phyllagathis 328
Picrasma javanica 329
Pilea microphylla artillery plant 330
Polyalthia 332
Pothos scandens 334
Prismatomeris tetrandra 336
Pseuderanthemum 337
Pterisanthes 339
Pterocaulon redolens 340
Ptyssiglottis kunthiana 341
Pyramidanthe prismatica 341
Rafflesia 342
Reissantia indica 344
Rennellia 344
Rhaphidophora 346
Rhododendron 347
Rinorea 350
Rotula aquatica 352
Ruellia tuberosa 352
Rungia laxiflora 353
Salomonia cantoniensis 354
Salvia plebeia 355
Sambucus javanica Javanese elder 356
Sapindus soap-berry tree 357
Saprosma 359
Sarcolobus globosus 361
Sarcotheca laxa 362
Sauropus star gooseberry 363
Saxifraga stolonifera 365
Scindapsus hederaceus 366
Scleria 367
Scurrula 370
Senecio scandens 372
Setaria palmifolia palm grass 373
Smithia sensitiva 375
Sonerila 375
Spatholobus 376
Sphenodesme 378
Spigelia anthelmia worm weed 379
Staurogyne 380
Stenotaphrum helferi 381
Stichoneuron caudatum 382
Streptocaulon 382
Striga asiatica witchweed 384
Strobilanthes Assam indigo 385
Styphelia 388
Suregada 389
Swinglea glutinosa tabog 391
Symplocos 392
Tacca 394
Tapeinochilos ananassae 396
Taxus sumatrana 397
Tecoma stans yellow bells 399
Tetrastigma 400
Tiliacora triandra 401
Tournefortia velvet leaf 402
Toxocarpus villosus 404
Trapa natans water chestnut 405
Trevesia burckii ghost's foot 406
Trichodesma 407
Trigonostemon 409
Tropidia curculigoides 410
Typhonium 410
Uvaria 413
Ventüago 415
Viscum 416
Wahlenbergia marginata 418
Woodfordia fruticosa 419
Xyris 421
Zehneria indica 422
Ziziphus 423
3 Medicinal and poisonous plants with other primary use 425
Literature 475
Acknowledgments 538
Acronyms oforganizations 539
Glossary 540
Sources ofillustrations 567
Index ofcompounds 579
Index ofpharmaceutical terms 583
Index ofscientific plant names 589
Index ofvernacular plant names 636
General index of species, genera and families ofVolume 12 651
The Prosea Foundation 659

Editors and contributors
General editors of the Prosea Handbook
P.C.M. Jansen, E. Westphal and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto
Editorial staff of this volume
- Editors: R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Bunyapraphatsara

- Associate editors: Sjamsul Arifin Achmad (properties), S.F.A.J. Horsten
(properties), Nguyen Tien Ban (Vietnam) and J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
- Illustrators: Achmad Satiri Nurhaman, Iskak Syamsudin and P. Verheij-
Hayes
- Language corrector: S. van Otterloo-Butler
Contributors
- Sjamsul Arifin Achmad, Department of Chemistry, Institut Teknologi Ban-

dung, Jl. Ganesha 10,Bandung 40132, Indonesia (associate editor)
- S. Aggarwal, PNG University of Technology, Department of Forestry, Pri-
vate Mail Bag, Lae, Papua New Guinea (Acacia, Macaranga)
- N.O. Aguilar, Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences,
University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031, The Philip-
pines (Coldenia procumbens, Tournefortia, Trichodesma)
- A.M. Aguinaldo, University of Santo Tomas, Research Center for Natural
Sciences, Espana, Manila 1008, The Philippines (Gouania, Heterostemma
cuspidatum, Pterocaulon redolens, Rotula aquatica, Ventilago)
- Andria Agusta, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122,
Indonesia (Coscinium fenestratum)
- D.S. Alonzo, Forest Product Research and Development Institute, Depart-
ment of Science and Technology, College, Laguna 4031, The Philippines
(Hiptage benghalensis, Hydrolea zeylanica, Liriope graminifolia, Lophopyxis
maingayi, Matthaea)
- Inggit Puji Astuti, Botanical Gardens of Indonesia-LIPI, INetPC, Kebun
Raya Bogor, Jl. Ir. H. J u a n d a 13, P.O. Box 309, Bogor 16122, Indonesia
(Symplocos)
- Sriana Azis, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and De-
velopment Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, Jakarta 10560,
Indonesia (Hunteria zeylanica, Labisia pumila, Sauropus)
- Reza Azmi, WWF Malaysia, 147B Sri Hartamas 2, Sri Hartamas, 50480
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Aidia)
- R.A. Banka, Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, P.O. 314, Lae,
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 13
Morobe Province 411,Papua New Guinea (Harmsiopanax harmsii)

S. Brotonegoro, PROSEA Network Office, Research and Development Centre
for Biology - LIPI, P.O. Box 332, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Coptosapelta to-
mentosa, Heynea trijuga, Mazus pumilus)
N. Bunyapraphatsara, Department ofPharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Mahidol University, 447 Sri Ayutthaya Road, Ratchathevi, Bangkok 10400,
Thailand (editor)
L.B. Cardenas, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines
at Los Bafios, College of Arts and Sciences, College, Laguna 4031, The
Philippines (Senecio scandens)
Wongsatit Chuakul, Medicinal Plant Information Center, Faculty of Phar-
macy, Mahidol University, 447 Sri Ayutthaya Road, Ratchathevi, Bangkok
10400, Thailand (Baliospermum montanum, Buchnera, Dendrotrophe umbel-
lata, Dischidia, Gonocaryum gracile, Grewia, Murdannia, Prismatomeris
tetrandra, Streptocaulon, Suregada, Tiliacora triandra, Typhonium)
K.R. Dahal, IAAS, Department ofAgronomy, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal (Mu-
cuna)
Dodi Darmakusuma, MIPA-Kimia, Universitas Nusa Cendana, Kupang, In-
donesia (Saprosma, Scindapsus hederaceus, Staurogyne)
Juliasri Djamal, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122,
Indonesia (Euodia hortensis, Melicope)
Dzuong Due Huyen, PROSEA Country Office, IEBR-NCNST, Hoang Quoc
Viet Road, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam (Cymbidium, Eria pannea, Nervilia,
Oberonia)
Sri Endreswari, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and
Development Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, J a k a r t a
10560, Indonesia (Arenga, Asystasia)
R.P. Escobin, Forest Product Research and Development Institute, Depart-
ment of Science and Technology, College, Laguna 4031, The Philippines
(Crocosmia xcrocosmiiflora, Gunnera macrophylla, Philydrum lanuginosum,
Sarcotheca laxa, Wahlenbergia marginata, Xyris)
Fitmawati, Department Biology, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Ceremai
Ujung 17, RT 3/RW 2, Banjarjati Atas, Bogor Utara 16153, Indonesia (Can-
thium, Galearia)
Mindarti Harapini, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor
16122, Indonesia {Tecoma stans)
Noorma Wati Haron, University of Malaya, Faculty of Science, Institute of
Biological Sciences (Botany), 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Amischoto-
lype, Hymenocallis littoralis, Striga asiatica)
Max Joseph Herman, National Institute ofHealth, Pharmaceutical Research
and Development Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, J a k a r t a
10560, Indonesia (Hydnophyturn formicarurn, Liparis treubii, Uvaria)
Syamsul Hidayat, Botanic Gardens of Indonesia, Indonesian Network for
Plant Conservation, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 13,P.O. Box 309, Bogor 16122, Indone-
sia (Picrasma javanica)
J.W. Hildebrand, Tarthorst 88, 6708 JC Wageningen, The Netherlands (Ce-
cropia peltata)
Djadja Siti Hazar Hoesen, Herbarium Bogoriense, Treub Laboratory, Jl. Ir.
H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Cuscuta australis)
14 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS
S.F.J.A. Horsten, Steenmarterakker 1, 3994 GE Houten, the Netherlands

(associate editor)
Juliana Jonathan, Fakultas Pertanian Unsrat, Kampus Unsrat Kleak Bahu,
Manado 95115, Indonesia (Actinorhytis calapparia, Drymaria cordata)
Titi Juhaeti, Lab. Treub Balitbang Botani, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H.
Juanda 22, Bogor 16122, Indonesia {Drosera, Ziziphus)
Titi Kalima, Pusat Litbang Hutan dan Konservasi Alam, Jl. Gunung Batu,
P.O. Box 165, Bogor 16001, Indonesia (Gomphandra quadrifida, Gordonia
penangensis)
Amor T. Karyawati, Komplek Dosen UNDANA No E36, Jl. Adi Sucipto, Ku-
pang, Indonesia (Scleria, Tapeinochilos ananassae)
R. Kiew, The Herbarium, Singapore Botanic Gardens, Cluny Road, Singa-
pore 259569, Singapore (Didissandra frutescens, Epirixanthes elongata,
Henckelia, Myxopyrum nervosum, Pentaphragma begoniifolium, Salomonia
cantoniensis)
R.H.M.J. Lemmens, PROSEA Publication Office, Wageningen University,
P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands (editor, introduction,
Aeginetia indica, Agelaea macrophylla, Ajuga bracteosa, Albizia myriophyl-
la, Alchornea, Ammannia baccifera, Amorphophallus konjac, Anadendrum
microstachyum, Anaxagorea, Anneslea fragrans, Anredera, Antidesma mon-
tanum, Ardisia, Argostemma, Blastus borneensis, Blechum pyramidatum,
Buxus rolfei, Calophyllum, Calycopteris floribunda, Canscora diffusa, Catu-
naregam, Ceriscoides curranii, Chionachne macrophylla, Chroesthes longifo-
lia, Coriaria intermedia, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Crossostephium chi-
nense, Cryptocoryne cordata, Cyathostemma micranthum, Cynoglossum,
Dentella repens, Desmos, Dichapetalum griffithii, Dieffenbachia seguine,
Diplectria, Dracaena, Ellipanthus tomentosus, Enicostema axillare, Epiphyl-
lum oxypetalum, Eranthemum viscidum, Erycibe, Fagerlindia fasciculata,
Fimbristylis, Fissistigma, Friesodielsia, Gardenia pseudopsidium, Gentiana
quadrifaria, Geophila repens, Geunsia pentandra, Globba, Greenea corym-
bosa, Gymnema, Gynochtodes, Hetaeria obliqua, Hygrophila ringens, Hy-
poestes polythyrsa, Hypoxis aurea, Kigelia africana, Legazpia polygonoides,
Lepidagathis, Leucosyke capitellata, Mapania cuspidata, Medinilla radicans,
Merope angulata, Mitrella kentii, Mussaenda, Myrmecodia tuberosa, Nothoc-
nide repanda, Octamyrtus behrmannii, Orchidantha fimbriatum, Osbeckia
chinensis, Papuechites aambe, Peristrophe acuminata, Pilea microphylla,
Polyalthia, Pseuderanthemum, Pterisanthes, Ptyssiglottis kunthiana, Pyra-
midanthe prismatica, Rungia laxiflora, Sphenodesme, Stenotaphrum helferi,
Stichoneuron caudatum, Tacca, Tetrastigma, Tropidia curculigoides)
Ch.B. Lugt, Borneostraat 124, 2585 TW Den Haag, The Netherlands
{Cynoglossum, Mallotus)
Muhammad Mansur, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor
16122, Indonesia {Adenia, Hoya)
J a n a h a r Murad, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and
Development Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, Jakarta
10560, Indonesia {Cleidion spiciflorum)
D. Mutiatikum, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and
Development Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, Jakarta
10560, Indonesia {Luvunga, Woodfordia fruticosa)
R.E. Nasution, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, P.O. Box 332,
Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Aeschynanthus, Clusia, Corymborkis veratrifolia,
Dasymaschalon, Kigelia africana)
Lean Teik Ng, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Jalan FRIM, Ke-
pong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia {Gynura, Pandanus)
Nguyen Huu Hien, Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources-NCNST,
Department of Botany, Hoang Quoc Viet Road, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
(Ampelocissus, Zehneria indica)
Nguyen Kim Bich, Institute of Materia Medica, 3B, Quang Trung, Hoan
Kiem, Hanoi, Vietnam (Adenosma, Morinda, Strobilanthes)
Nguyen Kim Dao, IEBR-NCNST, Department of Botany, Hoang Quoc Viet
Road, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam (Beilschmiedia)
Nguyen Tap, Institute of Materia Medica, 3B Quang Trung, Hoan Kiem,
Hanoi, Vietnam (Adenosma, Morinda, Strobilanthes)
Nguyen Tien Ban, PROSEA Country Office, Institute of Ecology and Biologi-
cal Resources-NCNST, Nghia Do, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam (associate edi-
tor)
Nguyen Van Dzu, PROSEA Country Office, Institute of Ecology and Biologi-
cal Resources, Nghia Do, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam (Amydrium zippelia-
num, Epipremnum pinnatum, Pothos scandens)
Yun Astuti Nugroho, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research
and Development Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, Jakarta
10560, Indonesia (Dipter-acanthus repens, Glochidion, Pararuellia napifera,
Ruellia tuberosa)
H.C. Ong, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Acrotrema costatum, Allomorphia,
Ancistrocladus tectorius, Aralidium pinnatifidum, Cnestis palala, Dis-
sochaeta, Indorouchera griffithiana, Paramignya scandens, Phyllagathis,
Rennellia, Sarcolobus globosus)
Gilmour Panggabean, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor
16122, Indonesia (Swinglea glutinosa)
F.C. Pitargue, Forest Products Research & Development Institute, College,
Laguna 4031, The Philippines (Taxus sumatrana)
Yuyu Suryasari Poerba, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor
16122, Indonesia (Emilia prenanthoidea)
Praptiwi, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122, Indone-
sia (Setaria palmifolia, Sonerila)
Hurip Pratomo, Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural
Sciences, University Terbuka, Jl. Pondok Cabe, Ciputat, Indonesia (Hypo-
bathrum, Indigofera)
Pudjiastuti, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and De-
velopment Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, Jakarta 10560,
Indonesia (Reissantia indica)
Erlin Rachman, Treub Laboratory LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 16, Bogor 16122,
Indonesia (Henckelia, Melissa axillaris)
Raharni, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and Devel-
opment Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226, J a k a r t a 10560, In-
donesia (Butea, Cnesmone javanica)
Slamet Sutanti Budi Rahayu, Gadjah Mada University, Faculty of Biology,
Sekip Utara, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia (Cestrum nocturnum, Macroso-

len,Rafflesia)
Mariana Raini, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and
10560, Indonesia (Mukia maderaspatana)
J.W.A. Ridder-Numan, Leeuwendaallaan 39, 2281 GK Rijswijk, The Nether-
lands (Bauhinia, Spatholobus)
Orawan Ruangsomboon, Mahidol University, Department of Physiology,
Faculty of Pharmacy, 447 Sri Ayutthaya Road, Ratchathevi, Bangkok 10400,
Thailand (Baliospermum montanum, Buchnera, Dendrotrophe umbellata,
Dischidia, Gonocaryum gracile, Grewia, Murdannia, Prismatomeris tetran-
dra, Streptocaulon, Suregada, Tiliacora triandra, Typhonium)
Harini M. Sangat, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122,
Indonesia (Homalomena)
Rini Sasanti Handayani, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Re-
search and Development Centre, Jl. Percetakan Negara 29, P.O. Box 1226,
J a k a r t a 10560, Indonesia (Hyptis, Limacia, Rinorea)
G.H. Schmelzer, PROSEA Publication Office, Wageningen University, P.O.
Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands (Ehretia philippinensis,
Hemigraphis alternata)
Francisca Murti Setyowati, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bo-
gor 16122, Indonesia (Aglaonema, Cocculus)
Hartutiningsih M. Siregar, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bo-
gor 16122, Indonesia (Rhododendron)
Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon, Mahidol University, Department of Phar-
macognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, 447 Sri Ayutthaya Road, Ratchathevi,
Bangkok 10400, Thailand (Baliospermum montanum, Buchnera, Dendrotro-
phe umbellata, Dischidia, Gonocaryum gracile, Grewia, Murdannia, Pris-
matomeris tetrandra, Streptocaulon, Suregada, Tiliacora triandra, Typhoni-
um)
Diah Sulistiarini, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122,
Indonesia (Acriopsis javanica, Apostasia nuda, Grammatophyllum)
Sudibyo Supardi, National Institute ofHealth, Pharmaceutical Research and
10560, Indonesia (Hypobathrum, Indigofera)
Siti Susiarti, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122, In-
donesia (Buddleja asiatica)
Hadi Sutarno, PROSEA Indonesia, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda
22, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Alocasia)
Rosna Mat Taha, University of Malaya, Institute of Biological Sciences
(Botany), Faculty of Science, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Colocasia es-
culenta, Trapa natans)
Cheksum S. Tawan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Faculty of Resource Sci-
ence and Technology, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia (Aquilaria
cumingiana)
Stephen P. Teo, Sarawak Herbarium, Forest Research Centre, Department
of Forestry, 93250 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia (Styphelia)
B. Thomas, 83 Payne Road, The Gap, Q 4061, Australia (Galbulimima bel-
graveana)
Tran Cong Khanh, Hanoi College of Pharmacy, 9 Vu Huu Loi St., 13-15 Le
Thanh Tong, Hanoi, Vietnam (Rhaphidophora)
Tran Dinh Ly, IEBR-NCSNT, Hoang Quoc Viet Road, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Viet-
nam (Aganosma, Dregea volubilis, Toxocarpus villosus)
Tran The Bach, IEBR-NCSNT, Hoang Quoc Viet Road, Cau Giay, Hanoi,
Vietnam {Aganosma, Dregea volubilis, Toxocarpus villosus)
Tahan Uji, Herbarium Bogoriense, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda
22, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Lophatherum gracile)
Nanda Utami, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor 16122, In-
donesia (Elatostema)
Ning Wikan Utami, Herbarium Bogoriense, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 22, Bogor
16122, Indonesia (Dalbergia)
T.M.A. Utteridge, The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9
3AB, United Kingdom (Maesa)
L.J.G. van der Maesen, Wageningen University, Biosystematics Group, Gen.
Foulkesweg 37, P.O. Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
(Dalea cliffortiana, Dioclea hexandra, Dunbaria incana, Smithia sensitiva)
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg, Herbier National du Gabon, B.P. 1156, Libreville,
Gabon (associate editor, Chydenanthus excelsus, Clematis, Codonopsis ja-
vanica, Conyza sumatrensis, Dendrophthoe, Euchresta, Grangea maderas-
patana, Uligera luzonensis, Lepionurus sylvestris, Leptonychia caudata,
Maesa, Melicope, Microglossa pyrifolia, Mucuna, Salvia plebeia, Sambucus
javanica, Saxifraga stolonifera, Scurrula, Spigelia anthelmia, Trevesia bur-
ckii, Viscum)
P.C. van Weizen, Nationaal Herbarium Nederland, University of Leiden,
P.O. Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands (Erismanthus obliquus,
Homalanthus, Microstachys chamaelea)
Wardah, Herbarium Bogoriense, Puslitbang Biologi LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda
22, Bogor 16122, Indonesia (Connarus, Diospyros)
Marfu'ah Wardani, Pusat Litbang Hutan dan Konservasi Alam, Jl. Gunung
Batu, P.O. Box 165,Bogor 16001, Indonesia (Carallia suffruticosa)
Trimurti H. Wardini, Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Department of
Biology, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia (Argyreia, Gomphostem-
ma)
Sri Hayati Widodo, Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Department of
Biology, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia (Aglaia, Leonotis nepeti-
folia)
Lucie Widowati, National Institute of Health, Pharmaceutical Research and
10560, Indonesia (Sapindus)
W. Wiharti, PROSEA Indonesia, PROSEA Network Office, Research and De-
velopment Centre for Biology - LIPI, P.O. Box 332, Bogor 16122, Indonesia
(Heynea trijuga)
Su Foong Yap, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Jalan FRIM, Ke-
pong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Gynura, Pandanus)
Umi Kalsom Yusuf, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Science & Envi-
ronmental Studies, Department of Biology, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia (Floscopa scandens, Trigonostemon)
Zumaidar, Department Biology, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Ceremai
Ujung 17, RT 3/RW 2 Banjarjati Atas, Bogor Utara 16153, Indonesia (Cyr-
tandra, Cyrtandromoea)
Prosea Board ofTrustees and Personnel
(October 2002)
Board of Trustees
Aprilani Soegiarto (LIPI, Indonesia), chairman

C.M. Karssen (WU, The Netherlands), vice-chairman
Abdul Razak Mohd. Ali (FRIM, Malaysia)
M. Baloiloi (UNITECH, Papua New Guinea)
P.S. Faylon (PCARRD, The Philippines)
Birasak Varasundharosoth (TISTR, Thailand)
Vu Quang Con (IEBR, Vietnam)
J.M. Schippers (PUDOC-DLO)
Soekiman Atmosoedaryo (à titre personnel)

Sampurno Kadarsan (à titre personnel)
Personnel
Indonesia
A. Budiman, Programme Leader

Hadi Sutarno, Country Officer
Hernowo, Assistant Country Officer
S. Rochani, Assistant Country Officer
Z. Chairani, Assistant Country Officer
Malaysia
Abdul Razak Mohd. Ali, Programme Leader

Elizabeth Philip, Country Officer
Mohd. Rizal bin Mohd. Kassim, Assistant Country Officer
Papua New Guinea
P. Siaguru, Programme Leader

T. Brookings, Acting Country Officer
The Philippines
P.S. Faylon, Programme Leader

J.T. Batalon, Country Officer
J.L. Solivas,Assistant Country Officer
L.M. Melegrito, Assistant Country Officer
M.Viado,Assistant Country Officer
E.M. Naval, Assistant Country Officer.
Thailand
Soonthorn Duriyaprapan, Programme Leader

Sayan Tanpanich, Country Officer
C.Niwaspragit, Assistant Country Officer
Vietnam
Nguyen Tien Ban, Programme Leader

Dzuong Due Huyen, Country Officer
La Dinh Moi,Assistant Country Officer
Nguyen Van Dzu, Assistant Country Officer
Network Office, Bogor, Indonesia
Made S. Prana, Head

F. Indi, Secretary
I. Afandi, IT Coordinator
Darlina, IT Assistant
J. Kartasubrata, Scientific Advisor/Webdatabase Editor
A. Rahmat Hadi, Distribution Officer
N. Setyowati, IT Assistant
A. Suharno, Financial Officer
M. Wartaka, IT Officer
W. Wiharti, IT Assistant
N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto, General Editor
Jajang bin Musli, Office Assistant
Publication Office, Wageningen, The Netherlands
J.S. Siemonsma, Head

A.D. Bosch-Jonkers, Secretary
E. Boer, Forestry Officer
M. Brink, Agronomy Officer
P.C.M. Jansen, General Editor
R.H.M.J. Lemmens, Plant Taxonomy Officer
L.P.A. Oyen, Agronomy Officer
G.C.P. Schaafsma, Databank Manager
G.H. Schmelzer, Plant Taxonomy Officer
E. Westphal, General Editor
Foreword
When the Prosea Task Force on Medicinal and Poisonous Plants met in Bogor
(Indonesia) in March 1996 it soon became clear that the task of the editorial
team of Prosea 12: 'Medicinal and poisonous plants' would be immense but
challenging. Now, almost seven years later, with the publication ofthis present
volume, the work has finally come to an end. Almost 1300 medicinal and poiso-
nous plants have been reviewed in nearly 550 papers, in which local knowledge
has been combined with up-to-date information on their pharmacological prop-
erties, and all other aspects have also been covered. Such a comprehensive and
complete overview of this large and complicated commodity group is unparal-
leled.
This third volume covers principally the lesser-known species, on which often
little or no information is available concerning their phytochemistry and phar-
macology. However, amongst these may well be medicinal plants that accumu-
late active principles with future importance in the medical treatment of life-
threatening diseases, such as malaria, AIDS and cancer. Ethnomedical knowl-
edge still represents a valuable lead element in today's innovative approaches
in drug discovery. Together with advances in the understanding of pharmaco-
logical activity and therapeutic efficacy on a molecular interaction level, this
aspect contributes to screening and experimental strategies. This publication
may serve as a starting point for research and development of novel plant
drugs and new targets in therapy, and will hopefully play a role in improving
the primary health care for the fast-growing population of South-East Asia.
Nieuwegein, October 2002
Prof. Dr. Rudi P. Labadie

Emeritus Professor ofPharmacognosy, Universiteit Utrecht, the Netherlands
1 Introduction
The general aspects of medicinal and poisonous plants were highlighted in the
introduction of Prosea 12(1): 'Medicinal and poisonous plants 1'. These includ-
ed definitions, subgrouping, role, phytochemistry, biological and pharmacologi-
cal activities, therapeutical applications, botany, ecology, agronomy, harvest-
ing, handling after harvest, processing, utilization, quality control, genetic re-
sources, breeding, research and development, from plant to drug and prospects.
The introduction of Prosea 12(2): 'Medicinal and poisonous plants 2' provided
more detailed information on quality control of herbal drugs. The focus of the
introduction of the present volume is on conservation aspects of medicinal
plants.
1.1 Choice of species
The choice of the genera/species covered in each of the 3 volumes on medicinal

and poisonous plants has been somewhat arbitrary, although the 3volumes es-
sentially reflect the importance of species: the most important ones in Prosea
12(1), the least important ones in Prosea 12(3). This implies that on the whole
the medicinal and poisonous plants treated in the present volume are less
known. Generally, little or no information is available on their phytochemistry
and pharmacology. However, several genera/species covered in this volume
have recently attracted attention because of interesting pharmacological prop-
erties (e.g.Butea, Calophyllum, Galbulimima belgraveana, Gynura and Morin-
da). Others are poorly known in South-East Asia, but have at least some medi-
cinal reputation outside the region (e.g.Ajuga bracteosa, Cecropia peltata, Oes-
trum nocturnum, Clusia, Cocculus, Hymenocallis, Kigelia africana, Leonotis
nepetifolia, Ruellia tuberosa and Tecoma stans). The latter category comprises
many species introduced in South-East Asia. In addition, some genera are
unimportant in South-East Asia, but include species that are medicinally im-
portant elsewhere (e.g. Cynoglossum, Drosera, Gentiana, Melissa and Taxus).
1.2 Collection from the wild versus cultivation
In general, plant species used as a source of drugs receive high priority in con-
servation activity. The extent of the trade in drugs of plant origin is enormous
and largely unmonitored, and harvesting from the wild predominates. Compar-
atively few medicinal plants are cultivated. It is estimated that 70-90% of ma-
terial for medicinal use is collected from wild populations (Lange & Schipp-
mann, 1997).
1.2.1 The need for conservation
A number of medicinal plant species have become rare due to thoughtless ex-
ploitation of the natural resources. Several species are close to extinction, e.g.
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz which has been included in Appendix
II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES). Particularly in India many plant species used in lo-
cal medicine are threatened or even close to extinction.
Many countries of the world, including those of South-East Asia, do not have
an inventory oftheir medicinal plants. Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines
recently started to make such an inventory. Lack of population data of species
is prevalent. An assessment ofthreat is therefore difficult to achieve. However,
such information is essential to conservation efforts. The greatest conservation
threat is posed by the high demand for slow-growing, slow-reproducing, habi-
tat-specific species. Any intended use of a wild species requires an effective
management system and a legal framework based on sound scientific informa-
tion. For plant species used as a source of drugs, the resource management
plan must address the following aspects (Lange &Schippmann, 1997):
- Assessment ofthreat according to the literature and experience of experts.
- Collection ofpopulation data by field research.
- Investigation of data on the biology of species: distribution, life form, habitat
requirements, plant community aspects, growth rates, reproductive biology
and breeding system.
- Review of existing harvesting systems: plant parts used, detrimental collec-
tion techniques and socio-economic aspects.
- Review ofnational regulations for the utilization in the source country.
- Extent ofwild-harvesting versus cultivation.
- Review ofvolume ofplant material harvested and traded.
- Establishment of a management system: annual harvesting quota, seasonal
restrictions, regional restrictions, restrictions to certain plant parts or size
classes and domestication projects.
- Installation of a continuous monitoring and re-evaluation system.
Conservation ofmedicinal plants is hampered by the fact that they form a very
large and heterogenous group concerning growth habit, distribution, reproduc-
tion, phenology and ecological requirements. The diverse conservation needs of
the species make it extremely difficult to develop a coherent conservation strat-
egy for the commodity group as a whole.
1.2.2 Joint efforts for conservation
Coordinated international work on medicinal plant conservation on a global

scale has only just started. The World Conservation Union (IUCN), the World
Health Organization (WHO) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
jointly published 'Guidelines for the conservation ofmedicinal plants' (1993). A
joint programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), WWF and Royal Botanic Gardens Kew has launched
the 'Peoples and Plants Initiative'. The 'Directory for Medicinal Plant Conser-
vation' (Kasparek, Gröger & Schippmann, 1996) lists more than 200 networks,
organizations and projects in this field. To coordinate the various efforts in
INTRODUCTION 25
medicinal plant conservation worldwide, the IUCN Species Survival Commis-

sion established the Medicinal Plant Specialists Group in 1994. In all these
programmes the term 'medicinal plant' is applied in a very broad sense, cover-
ing also plants used in adjacent fields such as cosmetics or functional food
products, because nowadays cosmetics and food products are developed to add
certain biological effects (e.g. anti-ageing and antioxidant activities). The Inter-
national Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) furthers the conservation
and use of genetic diversity, and may provide a logical framework to support,
guide and lead the global effort to conserve medicinal plant species and for
their sustainable exploitation.
1.2.3 Germplasm collection
In Asia organized efforts to collect and conserve germplasm of medicinal plants

are rare. In most countries, no germplasm collection of medicinal plants takes
place at all (Chomchalow in Chomchalow & Henle, 1993). Traditional cultivars
and their wild relatives represent particularly valuable sources for e.g. resis-
tance to diseases, and therefore need to be collected, evaluated and conserved.
Plant germplasm can be stored in seed genebanks and field collections (ex
situ), or protected in its natural habitat (in situ). The first method of storage is
only possible for species with seeds that do not lose their viability within a
short time. Appropriate seed storage technologies have to be worked out for the
different species. In-vitro culture of organs, tissues, cells and protoplasts may
be suitable for species with recalcitrant seeds. The second method is appropri-
ate for conservation, but existing field collections are often for exhibition pur-
poses and do not cover the genetic diversity of the species concerned. Collec-
tions of medicinal plants in South-East Asia are present in Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand, each consisting of a few hundred ac-
cessions. For ex-situ conservation, priority should be given to those plants
whose natural habitats have been destroyed or cannot be conserved, or to
plants which have become rare or extinct at the local level. In-situ conservation
is the best method for conserving germplasm, but is only useful when conserva-
tion areas are large enough, well chosen and effectively protected. In-situ and
ex-situ conservation complement each other in conserving a maximum of ge-
netic diversity.
An important objective ofgenetic conservation is to make germplasm more eas-
ily available to breeders. Samples from germplasm collections should be freely
available to professional plant scientists, but property rights should be respect-
ed.
1.2.4 Cultivation and breeding
In several tropical countries a kind of transition exists between plants raised

by cultivation and those collected from the wild. Young plants are collected in
the wild and then planted out in fields. This kind of production may be called
'wild cultivation'. Botanical drugs obtained in this way are traded as cultivated
products (Lange &Schippmann, 1997).
Loss of genetic diversity may cause problems when attempts are made to do-
mesticate medicinal plants. A well-known example is the genus Cinchona, the
bark of which has been used for quinine extraction to treat malaria since the
end of the 19th Century. Overcollecting led to a drastic decline of the natural
populations in South America. Domestication has prevented Cinchona from be-
coming extinct, but the genetic variability became very narrow. Therefore con-
servation of the last wild stands of Cinchona is important for future breeding
efforts (Lange &Schippmann, 1997).
Availability of land limits the large-scale planting of medicinal plants. Agro-
forestry may be an option, combining the cultivation of agricultural crops such
as oil palm or rubber with medicinal plants. Enrichment planting with selected
species is also possible, both in natural forest and in plantation forest. Tests
with enrichment planting of Eurycoma longifolia Jack showed promising re-
sults in Malaysia, and cultivation trials in oil-palm plantations also indicate in-
teresting possibilities (Azizol Abdul Kadir & Mohd. Ilham Adenan in Nair &
Ganapathi, 1998).
It should be checked whether the cultivated plants have the same qualities as
the mother stock from the wild, as qualities often depend on growing condi-
tions. Large pharmaceutical companies have well-established laboratories and
nurseries to study and grow economically important medicinal plants, but the
results are often not freely available because of economic and commercial im-
plications (Rao &Rao in Nair &Ganapathi, 1998).
Genetic improvement of medicinal plants has hardly begun. When plant breed-
ers have exploited most of the available variability in a certain species they
look for other sources of variability through hybridization with wild species.
Some of the difficulties in breeding quantitative characters can be overcome by
combining the traditional techniques with modern molecular techniques. These
latter techniques can provide genes to traditional plant breeders from previ-
ously inaccessible sources (e.g. unrelated plant species, viruses and bacteria)
(Nazmul Haq in Chomchalow &Henle, 1993).
1.2.5 Recommendations for the wise use of medicinal plants
According to IUCN, WHO and WWF (1993) the cultivation of plants as sources
of drugs is the best and most promising way to satisfy the market's expanding
demand for these raw materials. For wild plant species that are endangered
through overexploitation this is certainly the only method to stop their decline
and to secure their long-term survival. However, as long as there is a lack of
knowledge concerning efficient species-specific cultivation techniques, collect-
ing in the wild will continue to play an important role.
In 2002 the Bonn Guidelines were adopted at the sixth meeting of the Confer-
ence of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. These guidelines
were developed in response to growing concerns in many developing countries
that the commercial and scientific gains realized from their genetic resources
were being reaped only by bio-prospectors based in foreign countries. Although
voluntary, the guidelines should improve the way foreign companies, collectors,
researchers and other users gain access to valuable genetic resources in return
for sharing the benefits with the countries of origin and with local and indige-
nous communities. This refers especially to medicinal plant resources. For the
commercialization ofnatural resources, benefit sharing may be an incentive for
their long-term conservation through local communities. To achieve conserva-
INTRODUCTION 27
tion goals, commercial users of plant resources should incorporate the costs of
sustainable use into their marketing calculations.
1.3 The medicinal and poisonous plants of South-East Asia

in retrospect
In the three Prosea volumes on medicinal and poisonous plants about 1290
species are reviewed belonging to 548 genera. All genera have been rated con-
cerning their medicinal importance (based on the text of the papers). The 269
genera valued as having regional or at least local medicinal importance are
used for the determination ofthe most important families ofmedicinal and poi-
sonous plants, and habit and habitat ratios (Tables 1, 2 and 3, respectively).
They belong to 92 different families, illustrating the great diversity of South-
East Asian medicinal plants. It should be noted that there are many more med-
icinally used plants in South-East Asia, but they have another primary use and
are treated in other Prosea volumes (see chapter 3 on medicinal and poisonous
plants with other primary use). The total number of South-East Asian medici-
nal and poisonous plants (with recorded uses in the literature) amounts to ap-
proximately 2200 species.
Some plant families comprise markedly more medicinal plants than others.
Table 1 shows the 10 most important families in terms of number of genera
with at least local medicinal importance treated in the Prosea volumes 12(1),
12(2) and 12(3). The weighted importance is determined by dividing this num-
ber by the total number of genera classified in the family in the Prosea Basic
list of species and commodity grouping (Jansen et al., 1991), which is consid-
ered to level down the size of the family. However, families with many small
genera in South-East Asia (such as Compositae) are probably underestimated
and those with few but often large genera (such as Verbenaceae) overestimated.
It is evident that Compositae is an important family of medicinal plants in
South-East Asia, but smaller families such as Amaranthaceae, Labiatae,
Menispermaceae and Simaroubaceae are also of considerable importance. This
can be at least partly explained by the common presence of active compounds,
such as sesquiterpenoid lactones in Compositae, essential oils containing phe-
nolic compounds in Labiatae, bisbenzylisoquinoline and protoberberine alka-
Table 1. The 10 most prominent families of medicinal plants in South-East Asia and
their weighted importance.
Family Number ofgenera Weighted importance
Compositae 23 0.354
Leguminosae 22 0.158
Apocynaceae 14 0.292
Rubiaceae 12 0.164
Euphorbiaceae 11 0.167
Labiatae 10 0.435
Menispermaceae 10 0.667
Verbenaceae 9 0.391
Simaroubaceae 7 0.875
Amaranthaceae 6 0.600
loids in Menispermaceae and quassinoids in Simaroubaceae.

Table 2 presents the share ofthe predominant habit ofthe genera with at least
local medicinal importance treated in Prosea 12.Table 3 shows the share of the
predominant habitat ofthese genera. It can be concluded from these tables that
herbs of open, often disturbed habitats, which are often weeds, form the most
important group of well-documented medicinal and poisonous plants in South-
East Asia. Species restricted to a forest habitat account for a comparatively
small share (31%) of the more important medicinal plants. This is a remark-
able result considering the fact that forest is still the prevailing land cover in
South-East Asia and comprises the most species-rich habitat types, being espe-
cially rich in woody species. It seems most likely that the high proportion of
herbs from disturbed habitats amongst the more important medicinal plants is
because they are so widely distributed and common that they are the most ob-
vious plants to be tried for medicinal purposes. This also suggests that the for-
est in South-East Asia still accommodates a vast reservoir of potential drug
species awaiting pharmacological investigation.
Table 2. Habit of more important South- Table 3. Habitat of more important

East Asian medicinal and poisonous South-East Asian medicinal and poiso-
plants (in %). nousplants (in %).
Habit Proportion Habit Proportion
Tree 18% Forest habitat (wild) 31%

Shrub 26% Open habitat (wild) 59%
Liana 12% Cultivated 10%
Herb 44%
2 Alphabetical treatment ofgenera and species
ACACIA 31
Acacia Miller a known cause of dietary migraine. The fruit pulp

ofA. concinna and A.pennata has fish stupefying
Gard. Diet., abr. ed.: 4 (1754). properties and is used in India to catch fish in
LEGUMINOSAE ponds. The bark contains lupeol, a-spinasterol
x = 13;A. concinna, A. pennata: 2n = 26 and tannin (about 9%), and the stem contains
Origin and geographic distribution Acacia sitosterol. The fruit pulp of A. concinna contains
is a very large genus of over 1300 species and oc- about 5% saponin. A saponin fraction of the bark
curs throughout tropical and subtropical regions. showed strong cytotoxic activity against KB cells,
Australia is richest with about 700 species occur- as well as spermicidal activity in vitro. Upon alka-
ring naturally. In Malesia, about 30 species have line hydrolysis this saponin mixture gave prosa-
been found. pogenols. A monoterpenoidal amide, concin-
Uses The 4 Acacia species treated here are all namide, was isolated from the seeds; it can be syn-
used medicinally in South-East Asia. In tradition- thesized from (-)-linalool, which has antimicrobial
al medicine in Peninsular Malaysia a poultice of activity. Kinmoonosides A-C were isolated as cy-
leaves is applied to the head for headache, and in totoxic saponins from the fruits.
Java leaves are used to treat fever. Boiled roots Extracts of A. nilotica bark and pods showed in-
are applied as a poultice against rheumatism and hibitory effects against HIV-1 replication, and al-
smallpox in Malaysia, and the roots are used so antibacterial and molluscicidal activities. They
against cough and in a complex mixture of dart inhibited platelet aggregation and had inhibitory
poison. The stem juice is used in Sumatra to treat effects on paw oedema and pyrexia in rats; they
sprue. Ash from the pods has been used in Penin- also produced a significant increase in the hot
sular Malaysia to treat itch. In Thailand the roots plate reaction time in mice. Triterpenoid saponins
are used as an antipyretic and pods as an expecto- isolated from A. auriculiformis showed anthel-
rant and to treat cough. mintic properties and antifilarial activity. Several
species (e.g.A. nilotica and A. farnesiana) showed
Acacia species are economically important as
antimicrobial effects. Some ofthe pharmacological
sources of timber (e.g. A. mangium. Willd.), gum
properties of Acacia species are reported to be at
(e.g. A. nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del.), tannin (e.g. A.
least partly due to the presence of tannins.
catechu (L.f.) Willd. andA. mearnsii De Wild.) and
essential oil (e.g. A. farnesiana (L.) Willd.). More- Botany The following description is applicable
over, they may be useful in reafforestation (e.g. A. to the 4 species treated here.
auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.), for fire protec- Scandent shrubs or woody climbers up to 40 m
tion, to prevent soil erosion, to rehabilitate poor long; branchlets armed with prickles. Leaves al-
and degraded soils as nitrogen-fixing plants, and ternate, bipinnate, stipulate; petiole and rachis
as ornamentals. Several of these species have with extrafloral nectaries; leaflets opposite, nu-
medicinal importance. For example, cutch isolated merous, small, asymmetrical at base. Inflores-
from the heartwood ofA. catechu is used to treat cence consisting of pedunculate glomerules aggre-
cough and sore throat, and its bark is said to be ef- gated into a raceme or panicle. Flowers bisexual
fective against dysentery, diarrhoea and in heal- or male, 5-merous, yellowish or creamy, with nu-
ing wounds. A. farnesiana has numerous medici- merous stamens. Fruit a pod, brownish. Seeds
nal applications in South-East Asia, e.g. the bark flattened, with a hard blackish-brown testa with
is used to treat cough, bleeding gums, gonorrhoea pleurogram.
and bladder complaints, the leaves are applied to In Malesia, A. pennata flowers from November to
ulcers and sores, the roots are used against sore March and fruits have been found from April to
throat and tuberculosis, and the fruits against August, A. concinna and A. pluricapitata can be
dysentery and inflammation of the skin and mu- found flowering and fruiting throughout the year.
cous membranes. A. concinna, A. pennata, A. pluricapitata and A.
Properties The seeds ofA.pennata contain the pseudointsia all belong to the subgenus Aculeife-
biogenic amine N-methyltyramine (about 0.5% on rum. They are closely related and sometimes con-
a dry weight basis). This compound increased fused. A. pennata is a variable species in which 4
blood pressure in anaesthetized rats, relaxed subspecies have been distinguished; only subsp.
guinea-pig ileum and increased the force and rate kerrii Nielsen is found in Malesia.
ofcontraction of guinea-pig right atrium by induc- Ecology A. concinna, A. pluricapitata and A.
ing the release of noradrenaline. It has similar pseudointsia occur in primary and secondary rain
pharmacological properties to tyramine, which is forests, often at riversides, the former two species
also in forest margins and clearings, up to 1000 m

altitude. A. pennata is found in the drier parts of
Malesia in monsoon forest and scrub vegetation,
up to 1200 m altitude.
Management In tests in India, vegetative prop-
agation by cuttings proved successful. Terminal
branch cuttings treated with indole-butyric acid
(1500 ppm) showed the highest percentage of root-
ing (54%).
Genetic resources The 4 Acacia species treat-
ed here do not seem to be endangered because
they often occur in secondary forest and scrub veg-
etation and are widespread. However, in some re-
gions a species can be rare, e.g. A. pluricapitata
and A.pseudointsia in Thailand.
Prospects The bioactivity of the saponins pre-
sent in the Acacia species treated here deserves
more attention, particularly the antimicrobial and
cytotoxic activities.
Literature 239, 247,263,541,542, 711,760.
Selection of species
Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC.

Prodr. 2:464 (1825).
Synonyms Acacia rugata (Lamk) Buch.-Ham.
ex Benth. (1842), Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC. - 1, branch with
(1935). leaves; 2,flowering branch; 3, flower; 4, fruit.
Vernacular names Soap pod tree (En). Indone-
sia: kate-kate kecil (Moluccas), gongai (Banda). for ablution during the Water Festival and New
Cambodia: bânla: sâ-'ot, ba:y dâmna:èb. Laos: Year celebration in Thailand.
'sôm2 poiy1. Thailand: som khon, som poi (north- Observations An erect, spreading or scram-
ern). Vietnam: keo l[as] me. bling shrub or liana, up to 18(-30) m long; leaflets
Distribution A. concinna is widely distributed membranous, lateral veins of leaflets forming a
in tropical Asia and occurs throughout South-East reticulate pattern beneath, glands on petiole and
Asia. rachis circular to elliptical; flower glomerules
Uses In India and Thailand, a decoction of 7-12 mm in diameter; pod oblong, often with con-
young leaves is taken for body pain, headache and strictions, 4.5-15 cm x 1.5-2 cm. A. concinna oc-
fever. A decoction of the pods is said to relieve bil- curs in primary and secondary rain forests, often
iousness and acts as a purgative. The pods are in at riversides, also in forest margins and clearings,
great demand in India as an Ayurvedic product up to 1000 m altitude.
for promoting hair growth and to remove dan- Selected sources 247, 249, 250, 263, 334, 760,
druff; they are sold dried and as powder in the 778, 833,922.
market. They have emetic, laxative and diuretic
properties and are ingested to treat constipation Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.
and kidney and bladder affections. The seeds are Sp. pi. 4: 1090 (1806).
used externally in Thailand and India to treat Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy garut
skin diseases.A. concinna is used as a hedge plant (Sundanese), ri got, rembete (Javanese). Cambo-
in Indonesia, whereas the tips of stems are occa- dia: thmâ: roèb'. Laos: 'han, 'han 'kha:w (Louang
sionally eaten as a vegetable. In India, tender Prabang). Thailand: nam khi raet (south-west-
leaves are used in chutneys; they are acidic. The ern), cha om (central, peninsular), phakla (north-
fruits are sometimes used in cooking in the Philip- ern). Vietnam: d[oj]c t[aw]ng (Binh Tri Thiên),
pines. The dried pods are steeped in scented water m[os]c m[efJo (Bac Thai), d[aa]y s[oos]ng r[aws]n.
AcRiopsis 33
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo- U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, ash from the
China, Thailand, Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands fruits has been used as powder to treat itch.
and south-western Sulawesi. Observations A straggling shrub or liana up to
Uses A. pennata has been used in Laos against 40 m long; leaflets chartaceous, lateral veins of
anaemia. In India, a decoction of young leaves is leaflets forming a reticulate pattern beneath,
taken to treat body pain, headache and fever, and glands on petiole and rachis elliptical to oblong;
a decoction ofthe roots is applied against rheuma- flower glomerules 9-10 mm in diameter; pod ob-
tism and cough. The bark is used in India as a long to lanceolate, 18-25 cm x 3.5-5 cm. A. pseu-
substitute for soap, and for tanning fishing nets dointsia occurs in primary and secondary rain
and to produce reddish-brown leather with a stiff, forests, often at riversides, up to 1000 m altitude.
somewhat harsh structure. A. pennata is some- Selected sources 121,247, 249, 334.
times cultivated in hedges in Thailand, and the S. Aggarwal
leaves are occasionally used as a vegetable.
Observations A scandent shrub or liana;
leaflets chartaceous, lateral veins of leaflets not Acriopsisjavanica Reinw. ex Blume
forming a reticulate pattern beneath, glands on
petiole and rachis circular to broadly elliptical or Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 377 (1825).
patelliform; flower glomerules 6-8 mm in diame- ORCHIDACEAE
ter; pod oblong, (6.5-)9-15.5 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm. A. 2n =40
pennata is found in the drier parts of Malesia in Vernacular names Brunei: kambang sa-ta-
monsoon forest and scrub vegetation, up to 1200 hun. Indonesia: ki plengpeng (Sundanese), tong-
m altitude. kil-tongkil (Batak), bosur-bosur hau (Sumatra).
Selected sources 121, 182, 237, 247, 249, 250, Malaysia: anggerek darat, sakat bawang, sakat
334, 512. ubat kepialu (Peninsular). Papua New Guinea:
gaere (Musa), sakko (Amele), sandaru (Orokaiva).
Acacia pluricapitata Steudel ex Benth. Thailand: ruuhinee (Nakhon Si Thammarat).
Lond. Journ. Bot. 1:516 (1842). Vietnam: t[oor] y[ees]n.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: segani recop Origin and geographic distribution A. ja-
bulung (Lampung), garut areuy (Sundanese), got vanica occurs from Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi-
(Javanese). Vietnam: sfoosjng r[aws]n (Sông Bé). na and Thailand, throughout Malesia, to the
Distribution Southern Vietnam, Thailand, Pe- Solomon Islands and Australia (Cape York Penin-
ninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Java. sula); possibly also in India (Sikkim).
Uses In traditional medicine in Peninsular Ma- Uses There are records from Malaysia of a de-
laysia, a poultice of leaves has been applied to the coction of A. javanica roots and leaves used inter-
head to treat headache, and in Indonesia the stem nally to treat fever.
juice has been used against sprue. Properties Traces of alkaloids have been iden-
Observations A scandent shrub or liana up to tified inA. javanica.
21 m long; leaflets chartaceous, lateral veins of Botany An epiphytic herb up to 115 cm tall,
leaflets not forming a reticulate pattern beneath, with creeping, branched rhizome; main roots
glands on petiole and rachis obconical or cylindri- fleshy, with many thin catch roots; pseudobulbs
cal; flower glomerules 7-8 mm in diameter; pod crowded, ovoid, 1.5-6 cm x 1-3 cm, each pseudo-
linear-oblong, often with constrictions, 7-12.5 cm bulb with (2-)3-4 leaves. Leaves linear, 5-32 cm x
x 2-2.5 cm.A. pluricapitata occurs in primary and 0.5-2 cm. Inflorescence a many-flowered panicle,
secondary rain forest, often at riversides, also in erect or drooping, peduncle up to 60 cm long.
forest margins and clearings, up to 1000 m alti- Flowers 8-14 mm in diameter, greenish-white to
tude. cream-coloured with purple markings, with 2
Selected sources 247, 249, 250, 334. boat-shaped sepals, 2 spreading petals and a 3-
lobed lip placed before the lower sepal (together
Acacia pseudointsia Miq. giving a cross-shaped outline to the flower); col-
Fl. Ind. Bat. 1: 12 (1855). umn straight, hood covering the anther which has
Vernacular names Malaysia: kelichi, kayap 4 pollinia in 2 pairs attached to a slender stipe.
(Peninsular). Thailand: khee chaang (northern). Fruit globular, ellipsoid or obovoid, 1-2.5 cm x 1
Distribution Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, cm, opening with 3 valves. Seeds very small,
Sumatra, Java and Borneo. fusiform, situated between long hairs.
A. javanica can be found flowering and fruiting ing singly, c. 3 cm in diameter; petals yellow; sta-
throughout the year. mens numerous, in 3 bundles; carpels 3. Fruit a
Acriopsis is a genus of 6 species, of which A. java- follicle enclosed by the persistent sepals, irregu-
nica is the most widely distributed. Three varieties larly dehiscent, with up to 15 seeds. Seeds finely
are distinguished, based on the shape ofthe lip. echinate, with a white aril.
Ecology A. javanica is a common epiphyte on Acrotrema comprises 9 species, 7 of which are en-
trees in primary and secondary rain forests, fresh- demic to Sri Lanka and 1to southern India.
water and coastal swamp forests, up to 1600 m al- Ecology A. costatum occurs in dense rain forest,
titude. also in secondary forest, often on moist shady
Genetic resources A. javanica is widely dis- rocks, up to 1000 m altitude. It is common in
tributed and common and does not seem to be many localities.
threatened. However, var. floribunda (Ames) Min- Management A. costatum can be cultivated
derhoud & de Vogel is only known from 2 collec- successfully under partial shade, but hard soils
tions in the Philippines. and strong sunlight are not suitable. Leaf litter
Prospects It is not possible to determine the provides nutrients and conserves moisture around
potential of A. javanica as a medicinal plant be- plants, and is therefore recommended.
cause no information exists on the phytochemistry Genetic resources A. costatum has a rather
and pharmacological properties. limited area of distribution and is largely confined
Literature 121,628. to dense lowland rain forest, a habitat which is
Other selected sources 331,334. under increasing pressure. Therefore, it is likely
Diah Sulistiarini to be liable to genetic erosion, although it is still
locally common. The presence of genetic diversity
is reflected in a fair morphological variation, but
Acrotrema costatum Jack this has not yet been investigated.
Prospects Very little is known about A. costa-
Mai. Misc. 1(5):36 (1820). tum. There is little prospect of any increase in its
DILLENIACEAE importance as a herbal medicine, which is now mi-
In =unknown nor. However, the presence of flavonoids, of which
Vernacular names Malaysia: meroyan punai some have proven anti-inflammatory and anti-
tanah (Pahang, Peninsular). Thailand: pot khon, spasmodic activities (e.g. apigenin, luteolin and
wan chai maha prap, san tao (peninsular). quercetin) in A. costatum and related species
Origin and geographic distribution South- might be a starting point for research. It may have
ern Burma (Myanmar), peninsular Thailand, ornamental value because of its decorative foliage
Peninsular Malaysia and northern Sumatra; pos- and flowers.
sibly also in Bangka. Literature 121, 247.
Uses A. costatum has been mentioned in Penin- Other selected sources 249, 331, 731.
sular Malaysia as one ofthe many plant resources H.C. Ong
used as protective medicine after childbirth.
Properties The presence of the flavonoids api-
genin and luteolin has been recorded for A. costa- A c t i n o r h y t i s c a l a p p a r i a ( B l u m e ) H.A.
tum. 0.12% (dry weight) of betulinic acid (a triter- Wendland &Drude ex Scheffer
pene) has been found in A. uniflorum Hook, from
Sri Lanka. Several flavonoids have been isolated Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 1: 156 (1876).
from the latter, ofwhich kaempferol and quercetin PALMAE
occur in the largest amounts. In = unknown
Botany A small perennial herb with a horizon- Synonyms Areca calapparia Blume (1838-
tal woody rhizome. Leaves in a rosette or on a very 1843).
short stem and then arranged spirally, simple, Vernacular n a m e s Calappa palm (En). In-
obovate, 7-25 cm x 3-10 cm, dentate, auriculate at donesia: jambe sinagar (Sundanese), jawar (Java-
base, hairy, deep green, usually with a whitish or nese), pinang kalapa (Ambon). Malaysia: pinang
greyish area along the midrib or marked with red; penawar, pinang sendawa, pinang hantu (Penin-
petiole l-2(-6) cm long. Inflorescence a terminal sular). Philippines: tangalo (Bagobo).
erect raceme, red-hairy, bracteate, up to 12-flow- Origin and geographic distribution Calappa
ered. Flowers regular, 5-merous, bisexual, open- palm is native to New Guinea and the Solomon Is-
ADENIA 35
lands, but has been introduced and is now wide- Management Calappa palm is propagated by
spread throughout Malesia. seed. Fully ripe fruits are dried for a few days and
U s e s The fruit of calappa palm is sometimes then planted in shallow pits 2-5 cm apart; later
used in a lotion to treat scurf. Powdered seeds are the seedlings are transferred to nursery beds at a
occasionally used as baby powder. The fruit kernel spacing of 30 cm. The young trees are transplant-
can be eaten, although it is tough, and it is used ed into the field when 1-2 years old.
for chewing as a substitute for betel nut from are- Genetic resources Although calappa palm
ca palm (Areca catechu L.). Calappa palm is also originally had a limited area of distribution, it is
planted as ornamental, e.g. in gardens, as it is now widespread in Malesia. It does not seem to be
very decorative. It is also considered a magic endangered, but some protection of wild popula-
plant, protecting the person who carries a fruit. It tions in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands is
is often planted around villages. The fruit kernel recommended to prevent genetic erosion.
is often used as a toy by children. Prospects Calappa palm is an interesting mul-
Properties There is no information available tipurpose tree. However, almost nothing is known
on the properties of calappa palm. The fruit ker- about its properties. Research is needed to deter-
nels of areca palm, however, contain polyphenolics mine the scientific basis for the medicinal applica-
(e.g. (+)-catechin and procyanidin), especially tions. Selection and breeding work combined with
when unmature. It is possible that the fruits of research on methods of propagation might en-
calappa palm contain similar compounds. hance its ornamental value.
Botany A medium-sized tree up to 15 m tall, Literature 334,941.
with slender, erect, bare stem, conspicuously Other selected sources 117, 121, 437, 760,
marked with leaf scars and with a large conical 821.
mass of roots at base. Leaves alternate, pinnate, Juliana Jonathan
arching, up to 3 m long, with tubular sheaths
forming a long, slender crown shaft; leaflets very
numerous. Inflorescences on the stem below the Adenia Forssk.
leaves, large, widely spreading, horizontal or pen-
dulous, branching to 3 orders proximally, to 1 or- Fl. Aegypt.-Arab.: 77 (1775).
der distally, with tubular prophyll entirely enclos- PASSIFLORACEAE
ing the inflorescence in bud; ultimate branches x = 12
bearing spirally arranged triads (consisting of 2 Origin and geographic distribution Adenia
lateral staminate flowers and a central pistillate comprises almost 100 species and is distributed in
flower) in the proximal half to two-thirds, and the tropical and subtropical regions of the Old
paired or solitary staminate flowers distally. World. Africa is richest in species (about 60), fol-
Flowers unisexual, 3-merous, petals about twice lowed by Madagascar (about 20) and southern
as long as sepals; male flowers with numerous Asia (about 15). In Malesia, 6 species occur, of
stamens and rudimentary pistil; female flowers which A. heterophylla is the most widespread, oc-
larger, with superior unilocular ovary crowned by curring from Indo-China to the Solomon Islands
3 large stigmas, and 3 rudimentary stamens. and northern Australia.
Fruit an ovoid drupe, c. 6 cm long, turning red at Uses In South-East Asia Adenia is used medici-
maturity, endocarp with circular operculum, 1- nally for various complaints. The stem juice of A.
seeded. Seed globose, with lateral, longitudinal cordifolia is applied as an eyewash against con-
hilum, endosperm deeply ruminate. junctivitis, and the leaves are used to treat convul-
A. calapparia starts flowering when 4-5 years old. sions. A decoction ofA. heterophylla roots has been
Actinorhytis comprises 2 species. Most character- used to treat stomach troubles.A poultice of leaves
istic are the arching leaves, slender crown shafts, ofA. macrophylla is applied to treat headache, and
conical masses of roots at the base of the trunk, a lotion of the roots to treat ringworm. A. penan-
widely spreading inflorescences below the leaves, giana is used to treat chest and body pain.
and comparatively large fruits. The genus is A. hondala (Gaertner) W.J. de Wilde from south-
ranked in the tribe Areceae. ern India and Sri Lanka possesses antiseptic
Ecology In its native area, calappa palm is properties. The juice is used to treat chest com-
found in lowland rain forest up to 1000 m altitude. plaints. The roots are an ingredient of tonics, and
It can not stand too dry soils, and prefers clayey or the juice of roots and leaves is applied externally
loamy soils. against skin troubles.
Several Adenia species are important medicinal shaped, cup-shaped or tubiform hypanthium;
plants in Africa, the most important being A. cis- sepals free or partially connate; petals free or par-
sampeloides (Planchon ex Hook.) Harms, A. lobata tially connate with the calyx tube, corona present
(Jacq.) Engl, and A. volkensii Harms. The most or absent; disk mostly composed of 5 strap-shaped
common uses include external application of stem or clavate appendages; stamens 5,free or partially
decoctions as a sedative, and internal application connate, anthers mostly acute or acuminate, re-
of stem and leaf decoctions to treat gastro-intesti- duced to staminodes in female flowers; ovary su-
nal troubles, chest complaints, cough and fever. perior, vestigial in male flowers, with 3(-5) styles.
The poison present in various plant parts is some- Fruit a 3-valved capsule, leathery or woody, stipi-
times used in hunting. In Indo-China, rice grains tate, red when mature. Seeds compressed, with
soaked in a maceration of A. cardiophylla (Mas- pitted testa, enclosed in an aril. Seedling with
ters) Engl, are used to capture birds; the birds die epigeal germination; cotyledons foliaceous.
almost immediately after ingesting the rice, but All species treated here can be found flowering
their meat remains edible. In Africa, pounded and fruiting throughout the year, but flowering
stems and roots of several species are applied as occurs mostly in the rainy season. Pollination is
fish poison. probably carried out by insects; bees and ants
The stems are sometimes used as binding materi- have been observed visiting the flowers.
al. In Adenia, 6 sections have been distinguished.
Properties In an in-vitro test, an extract of The species found in Malesia belong to section
stems and leaves ofA. cordifolia showed antibac- Erythrocarpus (e.g. A. cordifolia, A. heterophylla,
terial activity, i.e. total inhibition of growth of A. macrophylla) and section Microblepharis (A.
Staphylococcus aureus and partial inhibition of penangiana).
growth of Escherichia coli. However, biological Ecology Adenia occurs in primary and sec-
screening of a 1:1 ethanol-water extract showed ondary forest, also in scrub vegetation and forest
negative results for antiviral, antibacterial, anti- edges and clearings, up to 1200(-2000) m altitude.
fungal and spasmolytic activities. Toxicity tests All species are found in regions with per-humid
showed a LD50 of 681 mg/kg body weight when ad- climatic conditions, except A. heterophylla, which
ministered intraperitoneally to mice. shows a preference for seasonal climates.
Cyanogenic compounds and toxic proteins are the Genetic resources The species treated here
cause of the poisonous properties of roots and have fairly large areas of distribution, are locally
stems. Several of these compounds are pharma- common, and occur in various habitats. They do
ceutically interesting and have been studied in not seem to be at risk of genetic erosion. However,
African Adenia. The polyacetylenic di-epoxide two other Malesian species,A. kinabaluensis W.J.
gummiferol isolated from the leaves ofA. cissam- de Wilde from Sabah and A. crassa Merr. from the
peloides exhibits significant activity against the Philippines, have very restricted distributions and
KB human cell line and a broad spectrum against may easily become endangered.
other human cancer cell lines.Volkensin is a high- Prospects Very little is known about the prop-
ly toxic compound from the roots ofA. volkensii; it erties and pharmacological activity of South-East
is a galactose-specific lectin and a potent inhibitor Asian Adenia. There is more information avail-
ofeukaryotic protein synthesis. This ricin-like tox- able on the African species, and as several phar-
in resembles modeccin, which is purified from the macologically interesting compounds have been
roots of the African A. digitata (Harv.) Engl. Mod- found, research on South-East Asian Adenia
eccin agglutinates erythrocytes of several mam- seems worthwhile.
malian species. Furthermore, the cyanogenic gly- Literature 120,182, 247, 296.
cosides tetraphyllin B and epi-tetraphyllin B have
been isolated from the roots of A. cissampeloides,
A. glauca Schinz and A. volkensii. Selection of species
Botany Woody or herbaceous perennial climb-
ers, usually dioecious, often with tubers. Leaves Adenia cordifolia (Blume) Engl.
simple, entire or lobed, pinnately or palmately Bot. Jahrb. 14:376 (1891).
veined; petiole with 1-2 glands at apex; stipules Synonyms Adenia obtusa (Blume) Engl. (1891),
minute. Inflorescence axillary, cymose, often with Adenia populifolia auct. non (Blume) Engl.
l(-3) tendrils. Flowers unisexual, (4-)5(-6)-mer- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy babaling-
ous, mostly greenish to yellowish, with saucer- bingan, areuy calingcing (Sundanese), layang-
ADENIA 37
Adenia heterophylla (Blume) Koord.

Exkurs.-Fl. Java 2: 637 (1912).
Synonyms Adenia populifolia (Blume) Engl.
(1891),Adenia acuminata (Blume) King (1903).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy patuk
manuk (Sundanese), kabelo (Kangean), sasariwu
(Talaud Islands). Papua New Guinea: malasibi.
Philippines: binoyok-boyok (Tagalog), saka-saka
(Ilokano), tabungau (Mindoro). Cambodia: var
kombo. Laos: khua 'phak poun, khua ngouang
bouang. Vietnam: th[uw] di[eej]p d[ij] di[eej]p.
Distribution The Andaman Islands, Indo-Chi-
na, southern China, Thailand, Malesia (except
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo), the
Solomon Islands and northern Australia.
Uses In the Philippines, a decoction of the root
is considered a remedy for stomach troubles. The
poisonous fruit is sometimes used for hunting, al-
though the juicy aril has been mentioned as being
edible and sweet. The poison from the fruit is used
in the Andaman Islands as an arrow-poison.
Observations A liana up to 30 m long; leaves
entire to 5-partite, not peltate at base, with 2
glands on shallowly concave auricles at the apex
of the petiole, auricles more or less adnate to leaf
blade; flowers tubiform with connate sepals hav-
ing reflexed lobes, corona absent; fruit ellipsoid to
Adenia cordifolia (Blume) Engl. - 1, branch with oblong. A. heterophylla is a variable species in
male inflorescence; 2, male flower in longitudinal which 4 subspecies and 2 varieties have been dis-
section; 3, branch with fruit; 4, dehisced fruit; 5, tinguished. In Malesia, subsp. heterophylla var.
seed with aril removed. heterophylla, subsp. heterophylla var. celebica
(Koord.) W.J. de Wilde and subsp. australis (R.Br,
layang (Kedayan). Malaysia: akar kail, akar ke- ex DC.) W.J. de Wilde are found. A. heterophylla
lipunang (Peninsular). occurs both in scrub and forest vegetation up to
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, 1000 m altitude (in New Guinea up to 2000 m),
western Java, Borneo and the Philippines (Pala- and shows a preference for seasonal climates.
wan). Selected sources 182, 205, 247, 250.
Uses The stem juice is used in an eyewash in
Sumatra to treat conjunctivitis. In Malaysia the Adenia macrophylla (Blume) Koord.
leaves have been used for fumigating children suf- Exkurs.-Fl. Java 2: 637 (1912).
fering from convulsions. The stems are used for Synonyms Adenia singaporeana (Wallich ex G.
binding purposes under water. Don) Engl. (1891), Adenia acuminata auct. non
Observations A liana up to 20 m long; leaves (Blume) King.
entire, rounded to deeply cordate and not peltate Vernacular n a m e s Brunei: akar petjah tu-
at base, with 2 glands on deeply hollowed auricles tuban. Indonesia: akar jala, akar talun tungang,
at the apex of the petiole, auricles separate from sautan (Sumatra). Malaysia: akar saut, men-
the leaf blade; flowers tubiform-urceolate with timun paya, pedendang (Peninsular).
connate sepals with erect lobes, corona absent; Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
fruit ellipsoid-oblong to fusiform. A. cordifolia oc- western and central Java, and Borneo.
curs both in scrub and forest vegetation, also in U s e s A poultice ofthe leaves is applied in Penin-
peat swamp forest, up to 1200 m altitude. sular Malaysia to headache, and a lotion made
Selected sources 87,121, 205, 247, 296, 334. from the roots is used against ringworm. In Suma-
tra, the inner bark has been used for spinning
threads for fishing tackle.
Observations A liana up to 25 m long; leaves species have been found, in Thailand 7 species.
entire to slightly lobed, acute-acuminate to round- Approximately 5 species occur in Malesia, of
ed and not peltate at base, with 2 glands on semi- which A. caerulea, A. indiana and A. javanica
orbicular auricles at the apex of the petiole, auri- (Blume) Koord, are the most widespread.
cles more or less adnate to leaf blade; flowers U s e s In Malaysia, a decoction of Adenosma
narrowly tubiform-urceolate with connate sepals roots has been used internally to treat bowel com-
having refexed lobes, corona absent; fruit globular plaints and rheumatism. In Vietnam, the flower-
to fusiform. A. macrophylla is a variable species in ing tops are applied as a diuretic, diaphoretic and
which 3 varieties have been distinguished; these cholagogue, as a tonic and alterative for women
all occur in Malesia. A. macrophylla occurs in pri- after childbirth, and to treat fever, jaundice, viral
mary and secondary forest up to 1000(-1500) m al- hepatitis, oliguria, ophthalmia, vertigo and dys-
titude, also in forest edges, on many different soils. pepsia. Extracts and decoctions ofA. caerulea are
Selected sources 121,205, 247, 334. commonly used in Vietnam; they are considered to
have powerful antibacterial, cholagogue, diuretic
A d e n i a p e n a n g i a n a ( W a l l i c h e x G. and stomachic effects. In China, A. caerulea is ap-
D o n ) W.J. d e W i l d e plied to treat rheumatoid arthritis and skin dis-
Blumea 15:266 (1967). eases, and A. indiana to treat fever, headache,
Synonyms Adenia nicobarica (Kurz ex Trim.) dyspepsia, gastroenteritis and skin inflamma-
King (1903), Adenia parvifolia Pierre ex Gagnep. tions. The latter species is also used to make a po-
(1920). tion to soothe the body. It is also applied as insec-
Vernacular n a m e s Laos: sa ya nang. Thailand: ticide; it is put in bundles in rooms or spread on
paak kaa, moak mok, khee kaa (peninsular). Viet- beds. The plants are also put on the body for per-
nam: th[uw] di[eej]p l[as] nh[or], d[aa]y say fume and decoration.
n[aws]ng. A. bracteosa Bonati is also considered a valuable
Distribution The Nicobar Islands, Indo-China medicinal plant in Indo-China.
(Laos, southern Vietnam), peninsular Thailand, Properties Plants are fragrant, both in fresh
Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. and dry condition, due to the presence of an essen-
Uses A. penangiana is used in the Nicobar Is- tial oil (up to 1%). More than 35 constituents have
lands (India) to treat chest and body pain. been identified in the essential oil from the aerial
Observations A small climber or creeper up to parts of Vietnamese A. caerulea, the major con-
6 m long; leaves entire, peltate at base, with 2 free stituents being a-pinene (about 23%), 1,8-cineol
or contiguous glands at base of leaf blade; flowers (18%) and y-terpinene (17%). L-fenchone was the
campanulate with free, spreading sepals, corona main component of the essential oil ofA. indiana
of fine hairs or a finely laciniate membrane pre- (about 34%); other compounds include L-limonene
sent; fruit ellipsoid to oblong. A. penangiana is a (23%) and a-humulene (12%).In essential oil from
variable species in which 2 varieties are distin- Vietnamese A. bracteosa thymol (about 26%) was
guished: var. penangiana is found throughout the the major component, followed by linalool (13%)
range of the species, var. parviflora (Pierre ex and (E)-ß-farnesene (10%); however, a different
Gagnep.) W.J. de Wilde in peninsular Thailand chemotype of A. bracteosa has also been found,
and north-western Peninsular Malaysia. A. pe- which contains 1,8-cineole, carvacrol (34%), me-
nangiana occurs both in scrub and forest vegeta- thyl carvacrol (19%) and ß-bisabolene (17%).
tion, also on limestone, up to 1200 m altitude. Studies in Vietnam showed that Adenosma drugs
Selected sources 205,247,250, 867. are non-toxic; they display antibacterial and an-
Muhammad Mansur tiphlogistic activity and increase bile secretion.
Extracts of A. caerulea and A. indiana showed
marked anti-inflammatory activity in tests on lab-
A d e n o s m a R.Br. oratory animals. Treatment of patients suffering
from hepatitis showed positive results.
Prodr.: 442 (1810). Botany Annual or perennial herbs, often aro-
SCROPHULARIACEAE matic. Leaves opposite, simple, serrate, petiolate
x =unknown;A. indiana: n = 36 or subsessile; stipules absent. Inflorescence axil-
Origin and geographic distribution Adenos- lary and terminal, head-like or spike-like. Flowers
ma comprises about 15 species and is distributed bisexual, with 2 bracteoles at base of calyx; calyx
in tropical Asia and Australia. In Indo-China, 9 irregularly 5-lobed; corolla with cylindrical tube,
ADENOSMA 39
bilabiate, upper lipentire to emarginate, lower lip land: ya khao kam (north-eastern), sanam chao
3-lobed; stamens 4,included, didynamous, adnate (south-eastern). Vietnam: nh[aa]n tr[aaf]n, ch[ef]
to halfway thecorolla tube; ovary superior, 2-locu- c[as]t, ch[ef] n[ooj]i.
lar, style filiform, stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a capsule, Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China,
dehiscent with 4 valves, many-seeded. Seeds southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
small, with reticulate testa. Java, Borneo and Australia.
Ecology Adenosma is found in open forest and Uses In Malaysia, a decoction of the roots has
forest edges, grassland, rainfed rice fields and been used internally to treat bowel complaints
along watercourses, upto 1300m altitude. and rheumatism. In Vietnam, the flowering tops
Management In Vietnam, A. caerulea is culti- are used asa diuretic, diaphoretic andcholagogue,
vated for medicinal purposes; it is propagated by and in tonics andalterative forwomen after child-
seed. When seedlings attain a height of 15-20cm, birth as well as to treat fever, jaundice, viral he-
they are transplanted in the field at a planting patitis andeyeinflammations. In China,A. caeru-
distance ofabout 20cm.They should be kept free lea is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and skin
ofweeds andtop-dressed with manure. The plants complaints.
can beharvested 3.5-4months after planting.The Observations An erect perennial herb up to
yield is2.5-3 t/ha ofair-dry material. 100 cmtall, stems densely glandular hairy; corolla
In some areas ofChina,A. Indiana is intercropped 8-25 mmlong, pilose outside, purple; fruit 7mmx
with upland rice. It is planted together with the 5 mm.A. caerulea occurs in edges ofevergreen for-
rice at the beginning of the rainy season, but in est, in open, grassy forest, upland rice fields and
different planting holes. It is harvested 1-2 on sandy locations along watercourses, upto1300
months after rice harvesting. m altitude.
Plants areusually collected attheflowering stage. Selected sources 6, 121,217, 249, 250, 671,
The whole plant except for the root is gathered. 673,731,741,971.
Plants are dried in the shade; overheating should
be avoided. Adenosma indiana (Lour.) Merr.
Genetic resources The Adenosma species Comm. Fl. cochinch.: 351 (1935).
treated here arewidely distributed andoccur com- Synonyms Adenosma capitata (Benth.) Benth.
monly in disturbed vegetation. This makes them ex Hance (1873), Adenosma buchneroides Bona-
in general unlikely tobeat risk ofgenetic erosion. ti (1913),Adenosma bilabiata (Roxb.)Merr. (1923).
However, up to 100t ofdryA. caerulea plant ma- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: rumput kuching-
terial is collected annually from the wild in Viet- kuching, ruku hutan, tasek-tasek (Peninsular).
nam, and this has led to a decline in population Cambodia: mréch' te:hs (general). Laos: hnha:z
size. Forthis reason, the species has started tobe khauz kamx (Sédone). Thailand: phrik kratai
cultivated inrecent years. (south-eastern), kratai cham (south-western),
Prospects The Adenosma species in Malesia khao kam (eastern). Vietnam: nh[aa]n tr[aaf]n
seem tobepoorly known andlittle used. However, hoa d[aaf]u, b[oof] b[oof], ch[ef] n[ooj]i.
elsewhere in mainland South-East Asia they are Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan-
popular medicinal plants. They contain pharmaco- mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, Pe-
logically interesting compounds, particularly in ninsular Malaysia, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
the essential oil,and seem tohave potential asin- pines.
secticide as well. Uses In Malaysia, a decoction of the roots has
Literature 250, 673,741. been used internally to treat bowel complaints
and rheumatism. The plant was also used as a
poultice against pain intheabdomen. In Vietnam,
Selection of species the flowering tops are used as a diuretic, di-
aphoretic andcholagogue, andin tonics and alter-
Adenosma caerulea R.Br. ative forwomen after childbirth andtotreat fever
Prodr.: 443(1810). and jaundice. In China, A. indiana is used to
Synonyms Adenosma glutinosa (L.)Druce var. make a potion tosoothe thebody. Itisalso applied
caerulea (R.Br.) Tsoong (1974). as an insecticide; it is put in bunches in rooms or
Vernacular names Malaysia: rumput gembot, spread on beds. The plants are also put on the
magun jantan, berpulut (Peninsular). Laos: ha:x body forperfume and decoration.
na: (Borikhane), hlak na: (Khammounane). Thai- Observations Anerect annual herb upto70 cm
Origin and geographic distribution A. indi-

ca occurs throughout tropical and subtropical
Asia, from India and Sri Lanka to China and
Japan, and throughout South-East Asia, but its
distribution is poorly known. In Malesia, it is
recorded from Java and the Philippines; possibly
also in Peninsular Malaysia and New Guinea.
Uses In the Philippines an infusion ofA. indica
is used internally against diabetes, and a decoc-
tion to treat fluid accumulations due to acute
nephritis. In Vietnam and Thailand, A. indica is
also applied to treat diabetes, and in Taiwan
against hepatitis and other liver diseases.
Properties Aeginetic acid, the monoterpenoid
lactone aeginetolide, 3 polyene compounds and ß-
sitosterol were identified in an ethanolic extract
of the whole plant, and the glycosides hydroxy-ß-
ionone glucoside, aeginetoside and the iridoid
isoaucubin were identified in an n-butanol ex-
tract.
The extract from seeds induced potent antitumour
immunity against fibrosarcomas in mice. It was
demonstrated that the extract contained polysac-
charides and proteins. The polysaccharides in-
duced B cell mitogenic and thymocyte co-stimula-
tory effects in vitro, whereas the proteins mediat-
ed antitumour activity in vivo. In-vitro activities
Adenosma Indiana (Lour.) Merr. - 1, habit of of the extract on the induction of cytokine produc-
plant; 2, flower with corolla removed; 3, opened tion and lymphocyte proliferation have been
corolla showing stamens. recorded; these might contribute to the in-vivo an-
titumour effect. Antihepatotoxic activity has also
tall, stems white-hirsute; corolla 5-6 mm long, been recorded forA. indica.
glabrous outside, violet; fruit 3.5 mm x 2.5 mm. A. Botany A slightly fleshy parasitic herb up to 40
Indiana occurs in open deciduous forest, open cm tall, somewhat reddish; stem subterranean or
shady grassland, rice fields and along watercours- scarcely emergent above the ground, with few
es up to 1200 m altitude. scale-like leaves. Flowers on long pedicels up to 30
Selected sources 121, 217, 249, 250, 533,671, cm long from the axils of scales, bisexual, zy-
731,854,971. gomorphic; calyx spathe-like, split in front nearly
Nguyen Tap &Nguyen Kim Bich to the base, 2-3 cm long; corolla gamopetalous,
3-5 cm long, with elongate, curved tube, limb ob-
scurely 2-lipped having 5 subequal lobes, pinkish-
A e g i n e t i a i n d i c a L. purple; stamens 4, inserted on the corolla tube, in-
cluded; ovary superior, 1-celled, style slender with
Sp. pi. 2: 632 (1753). large peltate stigma. Fruit an ovoid to globose
OROBANCHACEAE capsule, many-seeded. Seeds very small, brown-
71 = 1 5 ish.
Synonyms Aeginetia pedunculata auct. non The seeds germinate slowly and show distinct dor-
(Roxb.) Wallich. mancy.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: rajatawa (Ja- Aeginetia is a small genus of approximately 6-10
vanese). Philippines: dapong-tubo (Tagalog), sua- species and is distributed in tropical and subtropi-
ko-ti-uak (Iloko), lapo (Ibanag). Thailand: so-suai cal Asia, from India and Sri Lanka to Japan and
(Karen, Mae Hong Son), dok din daeng (Trat), New Guinea. A. indica has probably often been
paak cha khe (north-eastern). Vietnam: l[eej] confused with A. pedunculata (Roxb.) Wallich,
du[uw][ow]ng, tai d[aas]t. which usually has shorter pedicels and larger
AESCHYNANTHUS 41
against diabetes should also be investigated. A

thorough taxonomie revision of Aeginetia is need-
ed.
Literature 129, 130, 131,231, 694, 697, 760.
Other selected sources 62,121, 182, 334, 544.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Aeschynanthus Jack
Trans. Linn. Soc. London 14:42, t. 2,f. 3 (1823).

GESNERIACEAE
x =15, 16;A. lamponga: 2n =64,A. longicaulis:
2n = 28,30,A. radicans: 2n =30, 32
Origin and geographic distribution Aeschy-
nanthus comprises about 150 species, and is dis-
tributed from Nepal, India and Sri Lanka,
through Indo-China, southern China, Thailand
and the whole of Malesia, to the Solomon Islands.
The total number of species occurring in South-
East Asia is not known, but about 30 species have
been recorded for Borneo as well as the Philip-
pines.
Uses Some medicinal uses have been recorded
for Aeschynanthus in Peninsular Malaysia: an in-
fusion has been given to children as a vermifuge,
and the leaves have been used to poultice boils
Aeginetia indica L. - 1, habit offlowering plant; 2, and to treat headache. Several species are culti-
flower with calyx removed and opened corolla; 3, vated as an ornamental and also as indoor pot
fruit. plant in temperate regions. This is due to their
vividly coloured flowers and/or attractively mot-
whitish or yellowish flowers with purplish or tled foliage, e.g.A. longicaulis, A. radicans and A.
bluish corolla lobes. speciosus Hook.
Ecology A. indica is parasitic on the roots of Properties Very little is known about the prop-
grasses, and occurs mainly in grassland, but erties and phytochemistry ofAeschynanthus. Caf-
sometimes also in forest. Imperata and rice (Oryza feic acid has been isolated from the leaves of A.
sativa L.) are common hosts in Java, Miscanthus longiflorus (Blume) DC.
in Taiwan and Japan. However, several other A.pulcher (Blume) G. Don (perhaps only a form of
hosts have been mentioned, e.g. millet (Panicum A. radicans) has been recorded as causing der-
miliaceum L.), maize (Zea mays L.), but also matitis, but the allergenic compounds are un-
Carex, Luzula, Zingiber and Canna spp.A. indica known.
can be a destructive parasite in rice, and some- Botany Epiphytic shrubs or herbs, often scan-
times in other crops as well. dent or drooping. Leaves opposite or in whorls,
Genetic resources A. indica has an extremely more or less fleshy, pinnately veined. Inflores-
large area of distribution and occurs in anthro- cence an axillary or terminal fascicle or cyme, or
pogenic habitats. It is not threatened by genetic flowers solitary. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; calyx
erosion. dentate to partite; corolla gamopetalous, with
Prospects The antitumour activity ofA. indica terete-funnel-shaped, curved tube and 2-lipped
found in tests with mice warrants more research limb having 5 unequal lobes; fertile stamens 4, in-
concerning the active compounds and to establish serted at the base of the corolla, didynamous,
the value in human cancer treatment. The find- exserted, staminode 1, inserted on the posterior
ings show that proteins are present that may be wall of the corolla tube; disk annular; ovary supe-
useful immunotherapeutic agents for patients rior, linear, shortly stipitate, style with broad stig-
with malignant diseases. The reported activity ma. Fruit a linear 2-valved capsule, many-seeded.
Seeds ellipsoid, acutely tuberculate, often with an late-ovate, obtuse; corolla much longer than calyx,
elaiosome, on each end with a single white hair, or c. 5 cm long, red; fruit unknown. A. lamponga oc-
on one end with a single hair and on the other curs as an epiphyte in forest up to 1000 m alti-
with a tuft of hairs. Seedling with epigeal germi- tude.
nation; cotyledons unequal in size; first leaves pu- Selected sources 121,789.
bescent, later leaves more or less glabrous.
The flowers are probably pollinated by birds, hav- A e s c h y n a n t h u s l o n g i c a u l i s R.Br.
ing exserted anthers shedding pollen downwards, Benn., PLjav. rar. 2: 116 (1840).
strong protandry and copious nectar. Synonyms Aeschynanthus marmoratus T.
Aeschynanthus has been subdivided into 5 sec- Moore (1853), Trichosporum marmoratum (T.
tions. In older literature, the species are ranked in Moore) O. Kuntze (1891).
the genus Trichosporum, which is older than Vernacular names Malaysia: maman kurai
Aeschynanthus. However, Aeschynanthus has (Peninsular). Thailand: taanlaai, nommia hin
been conserved against Trichosporum. (Surat Thani), uleang khaao kam (Chiang Mai).
Ecology The plants are usually epiphytic on Vietnam: m[as] d[af]o th[aa]n d[af]i.
trees, but they sometimes also grow on rocks. Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam,
Management Aeschynanthus can be easily Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia.
grown from seed, but even more easily propagated U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves have
from cuttings. In-vitro micropropagation is prac- been used for poulticing boils. A. longicaulis is a
tised successfully with some ornamental species. popular ornamental, particularly for its foliage.
Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeospori- Observations A tufted herb of c. 30 cm tall;
oides has been observed in cultivated A. radicans. leaves lanceolate, acute, with dark green mark-
Tobacco mosaic virus has been recorded in pot ings above and purple markings beneath; corolla
plants of some cultivated Aeschynanthus. much longer than calyx, 2-3.5 cm long, greenish
Genetic resources As is often the case in large with brown bars in the mouth; seeds with 1 hair
genera, some species have large areas of distribu- at one end and with a tuft of hairs at the other. A.
tion and are common (e.g. A. radicans), whereas longicaulis grows on trees, bamboos and lime-
others are endemic to a small region or have been stone rocks, up to 850 m altitude.
collected in a few locations. Moreover, the distrib- Selected sources 121,123, 770, 789.
ution of most species is not completely known. A
large-flowered form of A. radicans has been no- Aeschynanthus radicans J a c k
ticed on Java. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 14:43 (1823).
Prospects Although Aeschynanthus is probably Synonyms Trichosporum radicans (Jack) Nees
not much used in traditional medicine, research (1825).
on its phytochemistry and biological activity is de- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar berenas,
sirable. A thorough taxonomie revision of the akar setebal, akar kechubong ayer (Peninsular).
genus is still lacking. Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
Literature 121,123,331. Sumatra, Java and Borneo.
Uses The leaves have been used for a poultice
on the head to treat headache.
Selection of species Observations A creeping herb up to 150 cm
long; leaves broadly ovate to ovate-lanceolate, ob-
A e s c h y n a n t h u s l a m p o n g a Miq. tuse to subacute; corolla much longer than calyx,
Fl. Ned. Ind., Suppl. 1(3):563 (1861). 4.5-7.5 cm long, bright red; seeds with 1 hair at
Synonyms Trichosporum lampongum (Miq.) each end. A. radicans grows in forests on trees
Burkill (1935). and rocks up to 1750 m altitude, and is common in
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar melukut many regions.
(Peninsular). Selected sources 62,121, 731,770, 789, 952.
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma- R.E. Nasution
tra.
Uses The leaves have been used for poulticing in
Malaysia, but it is not clear for what complaints.
Observations A herb with slender, creeping
and rooting stem; leaves elliptical-ovate to lanceo-
AGANOSMA 43
sweetish taste. Flavonoids such as rutin, robinin

and other glycosides of kaempferol and quercetin
have been isolated from Aganosma.
Botany Lianas or scramblers, producing latex;
stems often lenticellate. Leaves opposite, simple
and entire, petiolate; stipules absent, but often
with an interpetiolar ridge bearing glands. Inflo-
rescence a terminal or sometimes axillary panicle.
Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, actinomorphic, usual-
ly fragrant; sepals with free lobes; corolla gamo-
petalous, with narrowly cylindrical tube some-
times somewhat inflated below and spreading to
erect lobes in bud overlapping to the right, white,
sometimes yellowish; stamens inserted to a slight-
ly widening part of the corolla tube, included, at-
tached in a ring to the pistil head; disk of 5 fused,
occasionally free lobes surrounding the ovary;
ovary superior, consisting of 2 separate carpels
united into a common style, pistil head ovoid with
a short sharp projection on top. Fruit consisting of
2 linear or somewhat fusiform follicles, longitudi-
nally dehiscent, many-seeded. Seeds narrowly el-
liptical, flattened, with numerous long hairs at
apex.
Aeschynanthus radicans Jack -flowering stem.
The flowers are pollinated by insects such as bees
and flies. Aganosma belongs to the subfamily
A g a n o s m a ( B l u m e ) G. D o n Apocynoideae. A. caryophyllata G. Don is a syn-
onym ofA. wallichii, but the name A. caryophylla-
Gen. Syst. 4: 77 (1837). ta has also often been used forA. dichotoma.
APOCYNACEAE Ecology A. marginata occurs in many different
x = unknown;A. dichotoma: In = 22 habitats, but especially in drier evergreen and de-
Origin and geographic distribution Aganos- ciduous forest and in scrub vegetation, up to 850
ma comprises 8 species and is distributed from In- m altitude. A. wallichii is found in evergreen for-
dia and Sri Lanka, through Indo-China, southern est up to 400 m altitude.
China, Thailand and western Malesia to the Management Aganosma is usually propagated
Philippines and the Moluccas. Only 2 species oc- by seed; stem cuttings can also be used.
cur naturally in Malesia, but a third one (A. di- Genetic resources A. marginata and A. wal-
chotoma) is cultivated in gardens. 6 species have lichii have fairly large areas of distribution, but
been found in Thailand, and 4 in Vietnam. they seem to be rare in some regions, e.g. in
Uses In India, A. dichotoma is credited with an- Sumatra, Java and Borneo for the first species,
tiseptic, emetic and anthelmintic properties and is and in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra for the
also used to treat bronchitis. The leaves are used second. A. dichotoma is almost only known from
against biliousness, and the flowers for treating cultivation; only few collections seem to represent
eye troubles. In Malaysia, a decoction of A. mar- wild specimens, and these come from a small area
ginata roots is commonly used internally to treat in eastern India (near Puri, Orissa). Several other
urinary troubles, as a tonic during fever, and as Aganosma species from Vietnam and Thailand,
an emmenagogue. In Thailand, roots, stems, which are scattered in occurrence, seem vulnera-
leaves, flowers and fruits of the latter species are ble to genetic erosion.
applied against fever. In India, A. wallichii is said Prospects Too little is known about properties
to be useful in diseases of the bile and blood. The and phytochemistry of Aganosma to be specific
latex of some species is occasionally used as rub- about its prospects. However, the widespread use
ber in Indo-China. The fibrous bark is sometimes of some species, e.g. A. marginata, in traditional
used for binding purposes. medicine warrants modern research.
Properties The leaves of A. marginata have a Literature 182, 331,625.
Selection of species length, disk shorter than or as long as ovary; folli-

cle linear. A. marginata occurs in many different
Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. habitats, but especially in drier evergreen and de-
Schumann ciduous forest and in scrubland, up to 850 m alti-
Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 4(2): 173 tude.
(1895). Selected sources 62,121,182, 249, 625, 789.
Synonyms Aganosma caryophyllata auct. non
G. Don. Aganosma wallichii G. Don
Distribution Probably native to India and com- Gen. Syst. 4: 77 (1837).
monly cultivated there, but sometimes also in gar- Synonyms Aganosma caryophyllata G. Don
dens in Malesia (e.g. Peninsular Malaysia, Singa- (1837), Aganosma blumei A.DC. p.p. (1844), Aga-
pore and Java). nosma calycina A.DC. (1844).
Uses In India, A. dichotoma is credited with an- Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: khao haai (Pat-
tiseptic, emetic and anthelmintic properties and is tani), ta khloi yaan, thao man daeng (Surat
used to treat bronchitis. The leaves are used Thani).
against biliousness, and the flowers for treating Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Thai-
eye troubles. It is also an ingredient of Ayurvedic land, Peninsular Malaysia, northern Sumatra,
medicine. western and central Java.
Observations Aliana; leaves without a distinct Uses In India, A. wallichii is credited as useful
intramarginal vein, lateral veins 2-4(-6) pairs; in diseases ofthe bile and blood.
sepals longer than the corolla tube, stamens in- Observations A large liana; leaves without a
serted at 0.4-0.5 ofcorolla tube length, disk longer distinct intramarginal vein, lateral veins 5-13
than ovary; follicle fusiform. pairs; sepals longer than corolla tube, stamens in-
Selected sources 182,625. serted at 0.2-0.4 ofcorolla tube length, disk longer
than ovary; fruit unknown. A. wallichii occurs in
Aganosma marginata (Roxb.) G. Don evergreen forest up to 400 m altitude.
Gen. Syst. 4: 77 (1837). Selected sources 62,121,182, 249, 625, 789.
Synonyms Aganosma acuminata G. Don Tran Dinh Ly &Tran The Bach
(1837).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: sekati lima, akar
gerit puteh, akar ara tanah (Peninsular). Thai- Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh.
land: maduea din (general), duea khruea (north-
ern), yaan duei bit (Surat Thani). Vietnam: ch[ef] Fl. Mal. Ser. I, Vol. 5: 502 (1958).
l[oo]ng, luy[ees]n h[uw][ow]ng. CONNARACEAE
Distribution Eastern India, Bangladesh, the 2n = unknown
Andaman Islands, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi- Synonyms Agelaea wallichii Hook.f. (1876),
na, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Ma- Agelaea trinervis (Llanos) Merr. (1918), Castanola
laysia, Singapore, northern Sumatra, western Ja- macrophylla Schellenb. (1938).
va, northern Borneo (Sabah), Sulawesi, the Lesser Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy koko-
Sunda Islands, the Moluccas (Seram) and the tokan (Sundanese), anceng (Javanese), akar tan-
Philippines. duk (Sumatra). Malaysia: akar pinang kutai, akar
Uses In Malaysia and Vietnam, a decoction of nyamok, kelentit nyamok (Peninsular). Philip-
the roots and/or leaves is commonly used internal- pines: tayabak, ulali (Tagalog), dagtung (Manobo).
ly to treat urinary troubles, as a tonic during Thailand: thao som ching (Surat Thani), ma
fever, as an emmenagogue, and to treat anaemia khroh (Krabi). Vietnam: d[aa]y tr[uw][owf]ng
and loss of appetite. In Thailand, roots, stems, ng[aa]n.
leaves, flowers and fruits have been used against Origin a n d geographic distribution A.
fever. The latex is occasionally used as rubber in macrophylla occurs in Indo-China, Thailand,
Indo-China, and the fibrous bark for binding pur- Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Bor-
poses. neo, the Moluccas and the Philippines.
Observations A liana or scrambler; leaves with Uses In Malaysia, a decoction ofA. macrophylla
a distinct intramarginal vein, lateral veins 8-18 roots has been used to treat rheumatism and
pairs; sepals shorter than or as long as the corolla stomach-ache, and, together with Smilax sp., as
tube, stamens inserted at 0.3-0.5 of corolla tube an aphrodisiac. In the Moluccas (Seram) the
AGLAIA 45
leaves are made into a poultice, which is applied diameter. Leaves trifoliolate; petiole up to 15 cm
to wounds and cuts; the warm liquid from boiled long; stipules absent; leaflets ovate to elliptical-
roots is used in the same way. oblong, 4-34 cm x 2-14 cm, entire, upper surface
The stem can be used as a rope; it is strong and with many mucous cells looking like small pits in
durable, also under water, and can be used to bind dried material. Inflorescence axillary, paniculate,
rafts and nets. The oil from the seeds has been often several together in the axil of a sometimes
used as lamp-oil in Vietnam. rudimentary leaf, up to 5 cm long. Flowers bisexu-
Properties Very little research has been done al, (4-)5-merous, up to 6 mm long, sweet-scented,
on the phytochemistry of Connaraceae in general more or less heterodistylous; pedicels jointed;
and none at all on Asian species. Tannins are sepals nearly free; petals much longer than sepa-
known to be common, whereas bark, fruits and ls, free, whitish; stamens 10, shortly united at
seeds are often toxic, and sometimes used to poi- base, 5 slightly longer than other 5; carpels 5, su-
son mammals such as rats and dogs. Glabrin, a perior, free. Fruit consisting of 1-5 follicles, these
low molecular weight (<500) compound with a obovoid, with or without a beak at apex, veluti-
possible amino acid nature, has been isolated as nous, orange to red, dehiscing by a ventral suture,
the toxic principle from the bark of several Con- 1-seeded. Seeds with fleshy, yellow to red testa in
naraceae species from Madagascar, including A. lower part and black, glossy testa in upper part,
pentagyna (Lamk) Bâillon. This species is used in without endosperm; cotyledons thick, planocon-
Ghana to treat mouth infections. However, in a vex.
test, extracts from roots, stems and leaves did not A. macrophylla shows a type of heterostyly which
show antibacterial activity, although extracts can be considered as transitional between het-
from several other Connaraceae species did show erodistylous and heterotristylous.
significant antibacterial activity. Agelaea is a genus of 6 species, 4 of which occur in
Botany A large liana, with stem up to 4 cm in tropical Africa and 2 in South-East Asia. Several
species are extremely variable and consequently
numerous species have been described in the past.
A. macrophylla belongs to the section Troostwy-
kia, together with the only other South-East
Asian Agelaea species, A. borneensis (Hook.f.)
Merr., and the African A.paradoxa Gilg.
Ecology A. macrophylla occurs in all kinds of
forest, primary as well as secondary, on marshy
soils to limestone rocks, up to 800 m altitude.
Genetic resources A. macrophylla is common
in all types of forest and has a large area of distri-
bution. It is not threatened or liable to genetic ero-
sion.
Prospects Too little is known about the phyto-
chemistry and biological activity ofA. macrophyl-
la tojudge its prospects as a medicinal plant.
Literature 79, 96, 113,247.
Other selected sources 121,249, 250,331.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Aglaia Lour.
Fl. cochinch. 1: 173 (1790).
MELIACEAE
x - unknown; A. edulis: n = 40,A. elliptica: In =
68
Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh. - 1, part of Origin and geographic distribution Aglaia
flowering stem; 2, flower; 3, dehisced fruit showing currently consists of 105 species, but it is expected
seed. that more will be discovered. It is distributed from
southern India and Sri Lanka, through Burma tivity of vinblastine. The antileukaemic diamide
(Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, towards the (-)-odorinol has been isolated from leaves and
Malesian area, northern Australia, New Caledo- twigs ofA. odorata. Odorine and odorinol isolated
nia, the Solomon Islands, Fiji and Samoa. Within from A. odorata inhibited both the initiation and
Malesia, the largest number of species is found in promotion stages of mouse skin carcinogenesis.
Borneo (50), followed by Peninsular Malaysia (48), Fruit extracts of A. elaeagnoidea showed an in-
Sumatra (38), the Philippines (35) and New hibitory effect on lipid peroxidation in biological
Guinea (33). membranes.
Uses Several Aglaia species are used in tradi- Foliar, flower, fruit and twig extracts ofA. elaeag-
tional medicine: leaves to treat wounds, fever, noidea, A. elliptica and A. odorata showed in-
headache, asthma, jaundice, and as a tonic e.g. af- hibitory activity on larval growth and antifeedant
ter childbirth; flowers against fever, asthma, jaun- effect against the polyphagous lepidopteran lar-
dice and after childbirth; fruits to treat inflamma- vae of Spodoptera spp. and Helicoverpa armigera.
tory diseases, and bark against tumours. In A. elaeagnoidea, cyclopenta[b]benzofurans we-
Most Aglaia species are known for their hard- re found to be responsible for the activity. These
wood, which is mainly used for construction. How- compounds also showed antifungal activity. In A.
ever, Aglaia wood is suitable for a wide range of elliptica and A. odorata, rocaglamide derivatives
purposes. The fruit and the seed aril of some were identified as the active compounds, with
species are edible. The flowers, particularly those pannellin and pannellin-1-O-acetate as the most
ofA. odorata, are aromatic and may be used in tea active.
or to perfume household textiles. Investigation of the oil from root bark of an
Properties Several cyclopenta[b]benzofurans unidentified species in India has revealed antimi-
have been isolated from stems and fruits ofA. el- crobial and anthelmintic activities in vitro, and
liptica. These were found to be very potent cyto- central nervous system depressant action in mice.
toxic substances when evaluated against a panel Botany Dioecious, usually small or medium-
of human cancer cell lines. Rocaglamide deriva- sized trees, sometimes large and up to 40(-50) m
tives (cyclopentatetrahydrobenzofurans) isolated tall, rarely shrubs. Indumentum consisting of stel-
from several Aglaia species showed growth-in- late hairs, or stellate or peltate scales present, at
hibiting properties on human cancer cell lines, least on the younger parts. Leaves arranged spi-
didesmethyl-rocaglamide being the most active rally, usually imparipinnate, rarely with a single
compound. The cyclopenta[b]benzofuran 4'-deme- leaflet, stipules absent; leaflets entire, acuminate
thoxy-3',4'-methylenedioxy-methyl rocaglate was to caudate at apex. Inflorescence usually axillary,
capable of delaying tumour growth in an in vivo occasionally ramiflorous or cauliflorous; male in-
mouse model. Aglafolin and rocaglamide, isolated florescence large, much divaricately branched,
from the stems of A. rimosa, showed significant with up to several thousand flowers; female inflo-
cytotoxicity in 6 cancer cell lines. Aglafolin was al- rescence similar but usually smaller. Flowers
so found to completely block platelet aggregation functionally unisexual, 3(-4) or 5(-6)-merous; ca-
caused by arachidonic acid and platelet-activating lyx cup-shaped; petals free or united at base, often
factor (in vitro and in vivo). A number of 3,4- yellow, sometimes white or pink; stamens united
secoapotirucallanes with moderate cytotoxic activ- to form a tube, anthers (3-)5-10(-21), inserted on
ity against KB cells have been isolated from A. ar- the inner face of the tube; ovary superior,
gentea bark. The cycloartanes, argenteanones A-E l-3(-10)-locular, style short or absent, style-head
and argenteanols A-E, isolated from A. argentea small. Fruit a globose to pear-shaped berry or nut,
leaves also display significant cytotoxic activity less frequently a l-3(-4)-valved capsule, l-4(-6)-
against KB cells. Aglain A, B and C and odorine seeded. Seeds large, usually with an aril nearly or
were also isolated from A. argentea. Bisamide al- completely covering the seed, without endosperm.
kaloids have also been isolated from Aglaia: pyra- Seedling with semi-hypogeal germination; cotyle-
midatine from leaves of A. silvestris, piriferine, dons peltate; first 2 leaves simple and opposite,
aglaedithioduline and aglaiduline from A. edulis, subsequent leaves arranged spirally, simple at
and odorine and 5'-epi-odorine from A. odorata. first, later with increasing number of leaflets.
None of these bisamides showed significant cyto- Small insects, probably mainly dipterans, are
toxicity, but piriferine, odorine and 5'-epi-odorine most likely the main pollinators ofAglaia flowers.
were found to inhibit the growth of vinblastine-re- Two main types of fruits can be distinguished: de-
sistant KB cells by enhancing the anticancer ac- hiscent fruits containing seeds with a red odour-
AGLAIA 47
less aril which are dispersed by birds, and indé- Vernacular names Indonesia: bayur (Suma-
hiscent fruits containing seeds with a white, yel- tra), tanglar (Java), luka-lukam (Moluccas). Ma-
low, orange or brown and sweet-tasting aril which laysia: pasak (Peninsular),jalongan sasak (Sabah,
are dispersed by primates. Sarawak), lantupak (Dusun, Sarawak). Philip-
Aglaia belongs to the tribe Aglaieae and is most pines: kansulud (Panay Bisaya). Burma (Myan-
closely related to the genus Lansium. It is divided mar): tagat-thitto. Thailand: sangkhriat-klong
into 2 sections on the basis of whether the fruits (Trang).
are dehiscent; section Amoora was formerly re- Distribution Burma (Myanmar), peninsular
garded as a separate genus. The genus Aphana- Thailand, throughout Malesia but rare in the
mixis is closely related to Aglaia. Aphanamixis Philippines, the Solomon Islands and northern
polystachya (Wallich) R.N. Parker has medicinal Australia (Cape York Peninsula).
value in India, e.g. the bark is used in a liniment U s e s A. argentea is a potential source of com-
to treat rheumatism, and research has shown that pounds with anticancer and insecticidal proper-
it also contains compounds with antitumour, an- ties. It is a fairly important source of timber. The
tiviral and insecticidal activities. aril ofthe seed is edible.
Ecology Aglaia usually occurs scattered and is Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
locally common but never dominant. It is found in to 30 m tall; leaflets 9-19, subopposite, with 11-25
both primary and secondary forest, generally in pairs of secondary veins, smooth, glabrescent
evergreen rain forest, sometimes in monsoon or above, below densely covered with white and some
deciduous forest. Aglaia is found up to 1500 m al- brown peltate scales, often having a short fimbri-
titude, but some species ascend as high as ate margin; flowers 5-merous, anthers 5, style-
2500(-3800) m. head subglobose or ovoid, longitudinally ridged;
Management Seeds should be sown as soon as fruit indéhiscent, 2(-3)-locular. A. argentea is fair-
possible after harvesting; they do not need any ly common and occurs scattered in primary or sec-
pretreatment. The seed germination rate of A. ondary evergreen to semi-evergreen forest, up to
lawii is 50%, ofA. silvestris 100% in 27-43 days. 1300 m altitude.
Seed ofAglaia is sometimes destroyed by larvae of Selected sources 182, 247, 541,635,636, 702.
various groups of insects.
Genetic resources Several species of Aglaia Aglaia edulis (Roxb.) Wallich
show considerable morphological variation, which Calcutta Gard. Rep.:26 (1840).
is often correlated with geographical distribution. Synonyms Aglaia sulingi Blume (1825), Aglaia
Possible future germplasm collection activities latifolia Miq. (1868),Aglaia pirifera Hance (1877).
should take this into account. Vernacular names Indonesia: balik-balik (Su-
Prospects Rocaglamide derivatives and bisa- matra), langsatan (Java), langsat-lotung (Bali).
mide alkaloids found in several Aglaia species Philippines: kaniue, curran kaniue (Tagalog),
could play a potential role in the treatment of ma- malasaging (Filipino). Thailand: khangkhao
lignant diseases and are worth investigating in (north-eastern, eastern), kholaen (Prachuap Khiri
further studies of experimental medicine and Khan), changkru (Khmer, Chanthaburi). Viet-
pharmacology. Some of the insecticidal com- nam: ng[aa]u diu, g[ooj]i [oor]i.
pounds are similar with regard to their activity to Distribution Western India, Bhutan, the Nico-
azadirachtin (from Azadirachta indica A.H.L. bar Islands, peninsular Burma (Myanmar), Cam-
Juss.), a well-known plant-based insecticide, and bodia, Vietnam, southern China, peninsular Thai-
therefore have good prospects as a pesticide. land, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali,
Literature 98, 185, 247, 328, 492, 536, 541, Borneo, Sulawesi, Halmahera, and the Philip-
635, 636, 695, 702, 805, 1012. pines.
Uses The pericarp ofthe fruit is used to treat di-
arrhoea. The wood is used e.g. for construction,
Selection of species but supplies are limited. The aril ofthe seed is ed-
ible.
Aglaia argentea Blume Observations A generally small to medium-
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 170 (1825). sized tree up to 20 m tall; leaflets 5-9(-ll), subop-
Synonyms Aglaia splendens (Koord. & Valeton) posite to alternate, with 5-16 pairs of secondary
Koord. & Valeton (1897), Aglaia multifoliola veins, usually with numerous pits on both sur-
Merr. (1915),Aglaia discolor Merr. (1929). faces, glabrous above, below with few to numerous
48 MEDICINAL ANDPOISONOUS PLANTS
reddish or pale brownish stellate hairs and scales (Sulawesi). Malaysia: peler tupai (Peninsular),
or peltate scales with an irregular or fimbriate segera, bunyau (Iban, Sarawak). Philippines: ma-
margin; flowers usually 5-merous, anthers 5, latumbaga (general), mata-mata (Bikol), malasag-
style-head ovoid or depressed globose, longitudi- ing (Filipino).
nally ridged; fruit indéhiscent, 3-locular.A. edulis Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), pe-
occurs scattered and is comparatively rare. It is ninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Suma-
found in primary evergreen forest along the tra, Java, Bali, Flores, Borneo, Sulawesi andthe
seashore, but also in secondary forest, up to1700 Philippines.
m altitude. Uses Bathing in water boiled with the bark is a
Selected sources 182, 247, 541,805. remedy against tumours, and the leaves are ap-
plied to wounds. The wood is used e.g. for furni-
Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A.H.L. Juss.) ture, general construction and agricultural imple-
Benth. ments.
Fl. Austr. 1:383 (1863). Observations A small to medium-sized, some-
Synonyms Aglaia roxburghiana (Wight & times fairly large tree upto20(-40) mtall; leaflets
Arnott) Miq. (1868),Aglaia wallichii Hiern (1875), (5-)7-ll(-15), subopposite to alternate, with 6-19
Aglaia canariifolia Koord. (1898). pairs of secondary veins, sometimes pitted, with
Vernacular names Indonesia: kemubang,pan- numerous reddish-brown to pale orange-brown
cal kidang (Java), mata-mata (Bajau, Bali). Phi- stellate hairs or scales, especially ontheveins be-
lippines: mata-mata (general), gupak (Cebu Bi- low; flowers 5-merous, anthers 5,style-head ovoid
saya). Thailand: kradukkhiat (Nakhon Ratcha- or depressed globose, with 2 small apical lobes or
sima), khangkhao. Vietnam: g[ooj]i n[us]i, g[ooj]i a central depression; fruit indéhiscent, 2-locular.
d[or]. A. elliptica is locally common in primary and sec-
Distribution Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Cambo- ondary evergreen forest on various soils, up to
dia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Thailand, Peninsular Ma- 2000 m altitude.
laysia (rare), throughout the rest of Malesia ex- Selected sources 185,247, 536, 541, 686.
cept for Sumatra, towards northern Australia,
New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Samoa. A g l a i a l a w i i ( W i g h t ) C.J. S a l d a n h a e x
Uses Fruit extracts areused in traditional med- Ramamoorthy
icine in Nepal and India to treat inflammatory C.J. Saldanha & Nicolson, Fl. Hassan Distr.:
diseases andfebrile complaints; the seeds are said 392, pi. 76(1976).
to be useful for relieving painful micturition. The Synonyms Aglaia littoralis Zippelius exMiq.
wood is used e.g. for house construction. The aril (1868), Amoora korthalsii Miq. (1868), Amoora
ofthe seed isedible and sweet. lawii (Wight) Beddome (1871).
Observations A shrub or small to medium- Vernacular names Indonesia: lasih (Sumatra),
sized tree up to 20m tall; leaflets (l-)3-7, subop- langsat lutung (Java), kayu jangan (Sulawesi).
posite, with 5-10 pairs of secondary veins, with Malaysia: bekak (Peninsular), segera (Iban,
numerous pits and numerous pale brown or pale Sarawak), lasat-lasat (Dayak, Sabah). Philip-
orange-brown peltate scales with a short fimbriate pines: talisaian (Ibanag), salotoi (Ibanag), sulmin
margin on both surfaces; flowers 5-merous, an- (Tagalog). Burma (Myanmar): tagat-thitto. Thai-
thers 5, style-head ovoid, with 2 small apical land: sang katong (peninsular). Vietnam: g[ooj]i
lobes; fruit indéhiscent, 2-locular.A. elaeagnoidea duy[ee]n h[ar]i.
is fairly common andoften found in coastal areas, Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
but also in primary or secondary, deciduous or China, Thailand, throughout Malesia and the
evergreen inland forest upto 1100 m altitude. Solomon Islands.
Selected sources 182, 247, 505,513,541. Uses In the Philippines, the leaves have been
used to treat headache. A. lawii is an important
Aglaia elliptica Blume source of timber.
Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 171 (1825). Observations A medium-sized to fairly large
Synonyms Aglaia oxypetala Valeton (1901), tree upto40mtall; leaflets ( l - ) 2 - 7 ( - l l ) , suboppo-
Aglaia harmsiana Perk. (1903),Aglaia havilandii site to alternate, with 5-21 pairs of secondary
Ridley (1930). veins, with numerous pits on both surfaces,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: bajing talang glabrous or with numerous pale brown or pale or-
(Sumatra), langsat-langsat (Kalimantan), pisek ange-brown peltate scales with an irregular to
AGLAIA 49
fimbriate margin on the lower surface; flowers Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia,
3-4(-6)-merous, anthers (5-)6-10(-ll), style-head Vietnam, Hainan (China) and Thailand; possibly
ovoid, with (2-)3 apical lobes or columnar with a in Laos and the Moluccas. Cultivated in India, Sri
truncate apex; fruit dehiscent, (2-)3(-4)-locular. A. Lanka, Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra
lawii is locally common in primary and secondary and Java.
evergreen to deciduous forest, up to 1650 m alti- U s e s The flowers are applied externally to the
tude. body after childbirth or internally against fever,
Selected sources 247,541. and they are used for scenting tea and cigarettes,
and to perfume clothes. In Indonesia, an infusion
Aglaia odorata Lour. of the leaves is drunk as a tonic to treat excessive
Fl. cochinch. 1: 173 (1790). menses and venereal diseases. In the Philippines,
Synonyms Aglaia chaudocensis Pierre (1896), a decoction ofthe roots and leaves is used as a ton-
Aglaia duperreana Pierre (1896),Aglaia oblanceo- ic. The flowers and leaves are used in Vietnam to
lata Craib (1926). treat fever, asthma and jaundice. The leaves are
Vernacular n a m e s Chinese rice-flower (En). considered expectorant, stimulant and antipyret-
Indonesia: pacar cina (Sumatra, Java), bunga ic, and they are used to treat convulsions and
maniran (Kalimantan), pacar culam (Java, Moluc- menorrhagia. The wood is excellent for turnery.
cas). Malaysia: me shui Ian (Chinese, Peninsular), More important is its use as an ornamental, e.g. in
chulan, pokok telur belangkas (Peninsular). Phi- hedges.
lippines: cinamomo (Sp), sinamomong-sunsong Observations A shrub or small tree up to 10 m
(Tagalog). Burma (Myanmar): thanat-ka-wa. tall; leaflets 3-5(-7), opposite, with 5-9 pairs of
Cambodia: trayang. Laos: 'khai 1 pou. Thailand: secondary veins, usually smooth and glabrous or
homklai (peninsular), khayong (northern), pray- occasionally with few yellowish-brown stellate
ong (central).Vietnam: ng[aa]u, hoa ng[aa]u. scales with a fimbriate margin below; flowers 5-
merous, anthers 5, style-head ovoid or narrowly
ovoid, longitudinally ridged and with 2 small api-
cal lobes; fruit indéhiscent, 1-locular. A. odorata
occurs scattered but is locally common and found
3 ~ in evergreen primary and secondary forest, some-
times along the coast, up to 700 m altitude.
Selected sources 121, 182, 247, 298, 328, 395,
505, 541, 671, 695,760,805.
Aglaia rimosa (Blanco) Merr.

Sp. Blanc: 212 (1918).
Synonyms Aglaia llanosiana C D C . (1878),
Aglaia goebeliana Warb. (1891),Aglaia elliptifolia
Merr. (1909),Aglaia lanceolata Merr. (1910).
Vernacular names Indonesia: hitang mararu
(Moluccas), mansaambra (Biak). Papua New
Guinea: chokere'n (Plitty, Manus Province). Phi-
lippines: bayanti (Tagalog), botgo (Bikol, Tagalog),
gasatin (Iloko).
Distribution Taiwan, the Philippines, Sulawe-
si, the Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain and
New Ireland.
Uses In Papua New Guinea, the scraped bark is
boiled in water and the decoction drunk daily by
patients with a badly swollen stomach. A. rimosa
is a potential source ofcompounds with anticancer
Aglaia odorata Lour. - 1, flowering branch; 2, properties. The wood is used for house construc-
male flower; 3, male flower with sepals and petals tion.
removed; 4, longitudinal section of male flower Observations A shrub to medium-sized tree up
with sepals and petals removed. to 30 m tall; leaflets (3-)9-ll(-15), subopposite,
sometimes alternate, with 7-17(-20) pairs of sec- water has been used in Peninsular Malaysia for
ondary veins, above glossy and often rugulose, washing the body after childbirth. The aril of the
sometimes pitted and glabrescent, below some- seed is edible.
times pitted and with few to numerous radiating Observations A shrub or small tree up to 5 m
peltate scales with a dark orange-brown or dark tall; leaflets 3-5, with 9-15 pairs of secondary
reddish-brown centre and a paler, entire to ragged veins, glabrous or with a few brown or yellowish-
margin, sometimes interspersed with few darker brown scales below; flowers 5-merous, anthers 5;
scales; flowers 4-5-merous, anthers 5, rarely 6, fruit indéhiscent, 1-2-locular. In Peninsular Ma-
style-head broadly ovoid or subglobose, with 2 laysia, A. yzermannii is a common rheophyte of
small apical lobes; fruit indéhiscent, 2-locular. A. riverine forest, up to 100 m altitude. There is only
rimosa is locally common in secondary forest, one collected specimen known from Sumatra.
along rivers and along the coast, up to 1350 m al- Selected sources 121,247.
titude. Sri Hayati Widodo
Selected sources 247, 492, 541,1012.
Aglaia silvestris (M.Roemer) Merr. Aglaonema Schott

Interpr. Herb, amboin.: 210 (1917).
Synonyms Aglaia ganggo Miq. (1861), Aglaia Wiener Z.Kunst 1829(3):892 (1829).
pyramidata Hance (1877), Aglaia cedreloides ARACEAE
Harms (1942). x = 20;A. commutation: n = 40, In =120,A. sim-
Vernacular names Indonesia: ganggo (gener- plex: n = 20
al), pacar kidang (Sumatra), kayu wole (Sulawesi). Origin and geographic distribution Aglao-
Malaysia: bekak (Peninsular), segera (Sarawak), nema consists of approximately 25 species, and is
lantupak (Dusun, Sabah). Philippines: salamingai native to tropical Asia from north-eastern India
(Tagalog), panuhan (Negrito). Thailand: chan- and southern China through the whole of Malesia.
chamot (Chanthaburi). Vietnam: g[ooj]i n[us]i. About 17 species have been found in Malesia, of
Distribution The Andaman and Nicobar Is- which A. simplex is the most widely distributed.
lands, Cambodia, southern Vietnam, peninsular Several species are widely cultivated as an orna-
Thailand, throughout Malesia (except for the mental. The first plants were brought under culti-
Lesser Sunda Islands) and the Solomon Islands. vation in Europe at the beginning ofthe 19th Cen-
Uses A. silvestris is a potential source of com- tury.
pounds with anticancer properties. It is an impor- Uses Several uses of Aglaonema in traditional
tant source of timber. medicine have been recorded in South-East Asia.
Observations A medium-sized to sometimes In Malaysia, the roots are used as a tonic for chil-
large tree up to 30(-50) m tall; leaflets (5-)13-19, dren and as anthelmintic, and a decoction of the
alternate, with 12-21 pairs of secondary veins, roots is drunk to treat fever and dropsy. In the
smooth and glabrescent above, below sparsely to Moluccas, heated leaves are used to reduce
densely set with peltate scales having a dark swellings, but this sometimes results in sores. A.
brown centre and pale margin; flowers 5-merous, tenuipes Engl, (synonym: A. siamense Engl.) is
anthers 5, style-head ovoid, longitudinally ridged used in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam externally
and with 2 small apical lobes; fruit indéhiscent, as a poultice for carbuncles, and a decoction of the
l-2(-3)-locular. A. silvestris is locally common in stem is used as a laxative.
primary and secondary evergreen to semi-decidu- The leaves are reputedly occasionally eaten as a
ous forest, up to 2100 m altitude. vegetable.Aglaonema species are commonly grown
Selected sources 247, 541,805. as ornamental plants for their variegated foliage
and bright red fruits, e.g.A. commutatum, A. nebu-
Aglaia yzermannii Boerl. & Koord. losum, A. simplex, A. nitidum (Jack) Kunth (syn-
Icon. Bogor.: t. 87 (1901). onym: A. oblongifolium Schott) and A. crispum
Synonyms Aglaia salicifolia Ridley (1910). (Pitcher & Manda) Nicolson (synonym: A. roebe-
Vernacular names Malaysia: tado ikan, sikjot linii auct.). In tropical regions they are cultivated
(Peninsular). in gardens, but they are also commonly grown as
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma- an indoor pot plant, also in temperate regions.
tra. Properties A 50% aqueous ethanolic extract of
Uses A preparation of pounded leaves in cold wholeA. commutatum plants was found to strong-
AGLAONEMA 51
ly inhibit the enzyme oc-glucosidase. Active com- However, the most serious disease is root rot
pounds were identified as a- and ß-homonojir- caused byPythium splendens.
imycin. Glycosidase inhibitors are potentially use- Genetic resources Several Aglaonema species
ful as antidiabetic, antiviral, antimetastatic and are widely cultivated, and breeding activities have
immunomodulatory agents. They have shown po- resulted in numerous cultivars. However, in the
tential as additional therapeutics for diabetes wild, many species are restricted to moist lowland
type 2 and HIV-1 infection. However, although re- rain forest, a habitat under pressure in many re-
lated compounds show antihyperglycaemic effect, gions. Special attention might therefore be wise to
intraperitoneal administration of a-homonojir- prevent genetic erosion.
imycin had no effect on blood glucose levels in Prospects Aglaonema is well known as an or-
streptozotocin diabetic mice. namental, but little information is available on
Botany Herbs with creeping to erect stem, the pharmacological value. It is known that gly-
sometimes rooting at nodes, having distinct, cosidase-inhibiting compounds are present, and
smooth and green internodes. Leaves alternate, this might be ofinterest for further research.
ovate-elliptical to lanceolate-narrowly elliptical, Literature 53,407, 671,678, 684.
often unequal at base, often variegated; petiole
usually as long as or slightly shorter than leaf-
blade, with petiolar sheath. Inflorescence a spadix, Selection of species
1-9 together, peduncle deflexing in fruit; spathe
ovate, green to yellowish-white; spadix cylindrical Aglaonema commutatum Schott
to clavate, subsessile to stipitate, female zone be- Syn. Aroid.: 123 (1856).
low, few-flowered, male zone longer. Flowers Synonyms Aglaonema oblongifolium Merr.
small, unisexual; male flowers tightly situated, (1923) non Schott, Aglaonema treubii auct. non
with a single stamen having a more or less distinct Engl.
filament, anthers opening with 2 apical pores; fe- Vernacular names Philippines: damping-ba-
male flowers with subglobose ovary, 1-locular, 1- nal (Tagalog), pamitagen (Mangyan), pauangkilon
ovulate, style short and thick, stigma broad and (Cebu Bisaya).
disk-like. Fruit an ellipsoid berry, red at maturity, Distribution The Philippines and north-east-
1-seeded. Seed ellipsoid, without endosperm. ern Sulawesi; A. commutatum occasionally es-
A. commutatum is extremely variable. Several capes from cultivation and is sometimes natural-
botanical varieties and many cultivars have been ized.
described. A hybrid origin of this species has been Uses A. commutatum is a source of compounds
postulated. This is supported by cytological data with potential glycosidase-inhibitory activity. It is
(plants tetraploid or hexaploid) and by the fact commonly cultivated as an ornamental, also as a
that plants are pollen-sterile and apomictic. The pot plant.
name A. oblongifolium is confusing as it has been Observations An erect herb up to 150 cm tall;
used for several species. leaves broadly acute, obtuse or subrounded at
Ecology Aglaonema thrives well in damp and base, variegated along lateral veins, margin of
shady localities. Locally it is amongst the domi- petiole sheath usually membranous; spathe elon-
nant species in the undergrowth of the forest, e.g. gate, spadix cylindrical, usually much shorter
in Seram where a density of 680 plants/ha has than spathe. A. commutatum occurs in primary
been recorded. In cultivation, they require a forest, mainly along streams.
porous soil, preferably composed of equal parts of Selected sources 53, 678, 684.
loam, sand, peat and organic matter. When culti-
vated indoors, plants are often susceptible to low Aglaonema marantifolium Blume
relative humidity, resulting in brown leaf mar- Rumphia 1: 153,pi. 66 (1837).
gins. Synonyms Aglaonema oblongifolium auct. non
Management Aglaonema can be easily propa- Schott.
gated by terminal or node cuttings ofthe stem and Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: anapur ayer, bi-
by divisions of the basal shoot. Tissue culture ra ayer (Moluccas).
techniques have also been developed for large- Distribution The Moluccas and New Guinea.
scale propagation as ornamental plants. Several Uses In the Moluccas, heated leaves have been
diseases are known to attack cultivated Aglaone- used to reduce swellings, but this sometimes re-
ma, e.g. leaf spot caused by anthracnose fungi. sults in sores.
Observations An erect or ascending herb up to Selected sources 121,678.

100 cm tall; leaves obtuse to subrounded at base,
not variegated, margin of petiole sheath membra- Aglaonema simplex Blume
nous; spathe elongate, spadix cylindrical, much Rumphia 1: 152,pi. 36D, 65 (1837).
shorter than spathe. A. marantifolium occurs in Synonyms Aglaonema angustifolium N.E.Br.
lowland rain forest in humid and shaded loca- (1895),Aglaonema latius Alderw. (1922).
tions. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: wetune (Moluc-
Selected sources 334, 678. cas). Malaysia: sumpuh bulan, sumpuh kering,
penggeheh (Peninsular). Thailand: waan ngot hin
Aglaonema nebulosum N.E.Br. (Trang).
111.Hort. 31:67,pi. 24 (1887). Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), pe-
Synonyms Aglaonema pictum Ridley (1925) ninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Suma-
non (Roxb.) Kunth. tra, Java, Bali, Borneo, Sulawesi, the Moluccas
Vernacular names Malaysia: mata bisul, mata and the Philippines.
hudang, selimpat ayer (Peninsular). Uses In Malaysia, a decoction of the roots is
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, drunk to treat fever and dropsy. A. simplex is cul-
Borneo. tivated as an ornamental, also as a pot plant.
Uses The roots are used as a tonic for children Observations An erect herb up to 120 cm tall;
and as an anthelmintic. The leaves are reputedly leaves obtuse, rounded or subtruncate at base, not
eaten as a vegetable. A. nebulosum is cultivated variegated, margin of petiole usually with a mem-
as an ornamental, also as a pot plant. branous margin; spathe elongate, spadix cylindri-
Observations An erect herb up to 60 cm tall; cal, about as long as spathe. A. simplex occurs in
leaves acute to obtuse at base, rarely variegated, primary and secondary forest, in shady and humid
margin of petiole sheath membranous; spathe glo- locations, up to 1500(-2000) m altitude.
bose, spadix clavate, about as long as spathe. A. Selected sources 121,678,731.
nebulosum occurs in freshwater swamp forest and Francisca Murti Setyowati
peat swamp forest.
Aidia Lour.
Fl. cochinch.: 143 (1790).
RUBIACEAE
x =unknown;A. racemosa: 2« = 22
Origin and geographic distribution Aidia
comprises approximately 50 species, and is dis-
tributed in tropical Africa (about 5 species) and
tropical Asia (some species extending to subtropi-
cal and temperate regions of China and Japan). In
Malesia about 30 species have been found.
Uses A decoction ofAidia roots has been used to
cure bowel complaints, and the bark has reputedly
been applied as a febrifuge. The bitter bark of A.
cochinchinensis Lour, has been used in Vietnam
to treat malaria, and as a purgative against hives
(urticaria). The timber is occasionally used for
house construction, walking sticks and handles of
implements.
Properties In a screening test with Australian
bark and leaf material ofA. racemosa no alkaloids
were found; a test on in-vitro antitumour proper-
ties showed negative results. No further informa-
tion on properties of Asian species is available,
Aglaonema simplex Blume 1, plant habit; 2, but abundant quantities ofthe carbohydrate man-
spathe and spadix; 3, spadix. nitol have been found in root bark of the African
AiDiA 53
species A. micrantha (K. Schumann) Bullock ex F. Selection of species

White and A. ochroleuca (K. Schumann) Petit.
Botany Small to medium-sized trees, shrubs, Aidia densiflora (Wallich) M a s a m .
lianas or hemi-epiphytes. Leaves opposite, often Sei. Rep. Kanazawa Univ. 4: 85 (1955).
elliptical, simple and entire; stipules interpetiolar, Synonyms Randia densiflora (Wallich) Benth.
usually triangular. Inflorescence often appearing (1861), Aidia wallichiana Tirveng. (1986), Aidia
leaf-opposed, or pseudo-axillary, pseudo-terminal cochinchinensis auct. non Lour.
or from a leafless node, dichasially cymose or Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: jarum-jarum,
cincinnoid, sometimes fasciculate. Flowers bisexu- gading tulang, mata ular (Peninsular). Thailand:
al, (4-)5(-9)-merous; calyx toothed; corolla gamo- khem chaang (Phitsanulok), khat khao thong,
petalous, tube often about as long as or shorter saeo ton (Chumphon).
than lobes, pilose inside in upper part, lobes often Distribution India, the Andaman Islands, Bur-
reflexed; stamens inserted in the upper part of the ma (Myanmar), Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
corolla tube, filaments usually short; ovary inferi- Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago and Borneo.
or, 2-locular, style about as long as the linear to Uses In Malaysia a decoction of the roots has
clavate stigma. Fruit berrylike, usually globose, been used to cure bowel complaints. The timber is
small, often becoming red and ultimately black. used e.g. in house construction.
The seeds are probably dispersed by animals; in Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
southern China silver pheasants have been re- to 20 m tall; leaves glabrous; inflorescence basical-
ported to feed onAidia fruits. ly a dichasial cyme, flowers on ultimate branches
In older literature, species now included in Aidia basically 2 at each inflorescence node, bracts
were considered to belong to the large genus Ran- widely spaced at each divarication, pedicels dense-
dia. However, Randia has been split up into nu- ly finely pubescent, filaments glabrous; fruit glo-
merous smaller genera. There has been much dis- bose, c. 5 mm in diameter. A. densiflora occurs
agreement on the delimitation ofAidia from relat- both in primary and secondary forest.
ed genera. In the most restricted sense, only tree Selected sources 121,791.
species were included in Aidia. Here, a broader
view of the genus is followed, including e.g.
A i d i a r a c e m o s a (Cav.) T i r v e n g .
Anomanthodia and Gynopachis which are lianes-
Tirveng. &Sastre, Bull. Mus. Nation. Hist. Nat.,
cent. Further studies are needed to clarify the
B, Adansonia, 4e sér., 8: 262 (1986).
generic limits ofAidia and related genera.
Synonyms Randia racemosa (Cav.) Fern.-Vill.
A. densiflora and A. racemosa have been often
(1880), Aidia spicata (Valeton) Tirveng. (1986),
confused with each other and with A. cochinchi-
Randia cochinchinensis auct. non (Lour.) Merr.
nensis Lour., which is restricted to Vietnam and
Vernacular names Malaysia: jarum-jarum,
Hainan. All three species have been confused with
geruseh, mata ular (Peninsular). Philippines: su-
Fagraea (Loganiaceae).
sulin (Tagalog), dolo (Tagbanua), uring (Kuy-
Ecology The Aidia species treated here occur in onon).
primary as well as secondary forest. Several Distribution China (Hainan), peninsular Thai-
South-East Asian species are restricted to drier land, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Christmas Is-
habitats (e.g. coastal and limestone vegetation, land, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Philippines,
kerangas forest). Sulawesi, the Moluccas, New Guinea, the Solomon
Genetic resources A. densiflora and A. race- Islands and Australia.
mosa have large areas of distribution and occur in Uses In Malaysia a decoction of the roots has
many forest types including secondary forest. been used to cure bowel complaints. In the Philip-
Therefore, they do not seem to be liable to genetic pines, the bark has reputedly been applied as a
erosion. febrifuge, especially in agues. The timber is used
Prospects Since too little is known about the for house construction, walking sticks and han-
properties and biological and pharmacological ac- dles of implements.
tivities, no judgement can be given on the Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
prospects ofthe South-East AsianAidia species. to 15(-25) m tall; leaves glabrous; inflorescence
Literature 121,731,791. cincinnoid, flowers on ultimate branches basically
one at each inflorescence node, axis with numer-
ous bracts, pedicels more or less glabrous, fila-
ments glabrous; fruit subglobose, 4-8 mm in di-
ameter. A. racemosa occurs both in primary and toecdysteroids in A. turkestanica (Regel) Briq.
secondary forest; in Thailand, Peninsular Malay- from central Asia showed a marked effect on blood
sia and Java apparently it is restricted to lime- regeneration in haemotoxic Phenylhydrazine
stone. anaemia in rats and furthermore stimulated bile
Selected sources 121,760,791. secretion in rats. In addition, an iridoid glycoside
Reza Azmi which is a nonsteroidal ecdysteroid agonist, and
an iridoid with vasoconstrictor activity is present
in the European A. reptans L. Other interesting
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex Benth. compounds include diterpenoids with antibacteri-
al activity from the Chinese A. lupulina Maxim.,
Wallich, PI. asiat. rar. 1:59 (1830). and a flavone in the Chinese and Japanese A. de-
LABIATAE cumbens Thunberg with inhibitory activity on
2n = 32, 64 HIV reverse transcriptase. The iridoid glycoside 8-
Synonyms Ajuga remota Benth. (1830). acetylharpagide isolated from A. decumbens ex-
Vernacular names Indonesia: tilad (Sulawesi), hibited potent anti-tumour-promoting activity in
sabasasi (Yapen Island). mice.
Origin and geographic distribution A. brac- Botany A low, diffuse, much-branched hispid
teosa is widely distributed, from Afghanistan and herb, usually less than 20 cm tall, with rhizome
India, through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China and erect to ascending branches. Leaves opposite,
and Thailand, to the Philippines, the Talaud Is- simple, oblanceolate to narrowly obovate or sub-
lands, northern and eastern Sulawesi, the Moluc- spatulate, 4-8 cm x 2-3 cm, margin undulate;
cas (Ternate, Halmahera) and Yapen Island. petiole short in lower leaves, absent in upper
U s e s In the Ayurvedic system of medicine in In- leaves; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary
dia A. bracteosa is credited with astringent, verticillaster. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; calyx
febrifugal, stimulant, aperient, tonic, diuretic and campanulate, oblique, with triangular teeth;
depurative properties, and it is used to treat gout,
rheumatism, palsy and amenorrhoea. The leaf
juice is used to purify the blood and against fever,
and powdered leaves are applied to burns and
boils. In Pakistan, the plant juice is used to treat
bile duct problems.
The leaves of an eastern African Ajuga species are
used as a remedy for fever, toothache, dysentery
and high blood pressure.
Properties From the petroleum-ether extract of
the plant, ceryl alcohol, ß-sitosterol, y-sitosterol,
daucosterol, hexacosan-1-ol, triacontan-1-ol-do-
cosanoate, and cerotic and palmitic acids have
been isolated.
The ethanol (50%) extract ofA. bracteosa exhibit-
ed antispasmodic activity in guinea-pigs. It also
showed antitumour activity against sarcoma HS1,
but was inactive against Ca-9KB cell lines.
An aqueous extract of the leaves showed diuretic
activity in rats almost equal to that ofurea. An al-
kaloidal fraction isolated from the leaves showed
stimulant action on isolated perfused frog heart,
rabbit auricle and rat ventricle preparations.
In tests with rats, treatment with a leaf extract of
an Ajuga species from eastern Africa arrested and
reversed the progression of an induced hyperten-
sive cardiovascular disease.
Several pharmacologically interesting compounds Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex Benth. - 1,plant habit;
have been isolated from other Ajuga species: phy- 2, flower; 3, nutlets.
ALBIZIA 55
corolla gamopetalous, 2-lipped with upper lip very wan (northern), cha-em thai (central), oi chang
short and lower lip long and 3-lobed, white or pale (peninsular). Vietnam: d[aa]y cam th[ar]o nam
blue; stamens 4, exserted; ovary superior, shortly (Tây Ninh), s[oos]ng r[aws]n (Dông Nai).
4-lobed, style bifid at the apex. Fruit consisting of Origin and geographic distribution A. my-
4 dry 1-seeded schizocarpous nutlets enclosed in riophylla occurs from the Himalayas and India,
the persistent calyx; nutlets obovoid, 1.5-2 mm x 1 through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China (Cambo-
mm, shallowly rugose-reticulate, yellowish, with dia, Laos and southern Vietnam) and Thailand, to
large scar. northern Peninsular Malaysia.
A. bracteosa is capable of flowering throughout Uses In Malaysia an infusion ofA. myriophylla
the year. roots is used internally against fever. A lotion
Ajuga consists of approximately 50 species and oc- made from the roots is used as a substitute for
curs mainly in temperate regions of the Old liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) and, in combina-
World, with few species extending into tropical re- tion with other plants, is applied to the head for
gions. Specific delimitation is often difficult in this children with fever. A lotion prepared by boiling
genus, and differs considerably between taxono- the leaves is applied to the head to treat earache.
mists and floras. Some authors consider A. The bark is used in traditional medicine in Indo-
bracteosa a variable species with an extremely China to treat bronchitis and cough, and the
large area of distribution including e.g. eastern leaves are applied to wounds to stop bleeding. The
Africa and Japan, but others distinguish a num- bark is also used as a substitute for liquorice. In
ber of closely related species within the complex. Thailand the root is used to alleviate thirst, and
Until recently onlyA. bracteosa was mentioned for as a laxative and mucolytic, and the wood and
the Malesian region, but the closely related A. tai- fruit are used as an expectorant.
wanensis Nakai ex Murata is recorded for the Properties Stem and root bark ofA. myriophyl-
Philippines. la have a sweet taste, but the quality of sweetness
Ecology A. bracteosa occurs on stream banks is different from that of glycyrrhizin (from li-
and in shaded ravines, but also in grassland, for- quorice) or sugars. Lignan glycosides (albizzio-
est clearings, rice fields and coffee plantations, sides A, B and C) have been isolated from the
mostly in damp locations in the lowland, but in bark, but these do not taste sweet. A macrocyclic
the Philippines up to 1700 m altitude. spermidine alkaloid was also isolated from the
Genetic resources A. bracteosa has a large bark. It is striking that the bark is used for simi-
area of distribution and also occurs in anthro- lar complaints as liquorice, such as against bron-
pogenic habitats, and is not endangered. chitis and cough, although glycyrrhizin does not
Prospects A. bracteosa and related species seem to be the active compound.
show interesting pharmacological properties, Saponins have been demonstrated in many Al-
which deserve more attention. There is much con- bizia species, including A. myriophylla; they are
fusion in the literature about the specific delimita- accordingly often used as fish poison. Cytotoxic ac-
tions within the A. bracteosa complex and other tivity is reported for some species. An example is
groups of Ajuga species, and this can only be A. lebbeck (L.) Benth., of which the roots and
solved by a worldwide revision ofthe genus Ajuga. fruits showed anticancer activity, as well as hypo-
Literature 182, 247, 690. glycaemic and antiprotozoal activity.
Other selected sources 501,760. Botany A scandent shrub or liana; branches
R.H.M.J. Lemmens armed with hook-like prickles. Leaves arranged
spirally, stipulate, bipinnate with 8-20 pairs of
pinnae, rachis and pinnae with extrafloral nec-
Albizia myriophylla Benth. taries; leaflets opposite, 25-60 pairs per pinna,
entire. Inflorescence consisting of pedunculate
Lond. Journ. Bot. 3:90 (1844). glomerules arranged into a terminal panicle.
LEGUMINOSAE Flowers sessile, bisexual but the central flower in
2n =unknown a glomerule male and enlarged, 5-merous; calyx
Synonyms Albizia thorelii Pierre (1899). funnel-shaped to campanulate; corolla funnel-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar manis, shaped, 3.5-5.5 mm long; stamens numerous,
akar kulit manis, tebu gajah (Peninsular). Cambo- united into a tube, white; ovary superior, stipi-
dia: voë 'a:èm, ph-'a:èm, sâmbu:ër kâk'. Laos: tate. Fruit an oblong, flat pod, c. 14 cm x 2.5 cm.
khua kha:ng hung 1 khuang. Thailand: som poi Seeds orbicular to obovoid, with distinct pleuro-
gram; cotyledons thick, endosperm absent. tidote for poisoning. In Indonesia, the leaf juice
Albizia comprises about 150 species and has a has been applied to cure fever and a poultice of
pantropical distribution, with centres of specia- leaves to treat headache. Leaves and fruits of A.
tion in Africa, Madagascar and tropical America. parviflora and A. sicca are used in the Philippines
It occurs throughout the Asian tropics and 20 as fish poison. The bark of A. villosa provides a
species are indigenous within the Malesian re- good fibre; it is very tough.
gion. Most species have a tree habit; however, few A. cordifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Müll. Arg. is
are armed lianas like A. myriophylla, and are ofapplied extensively in traditional medicine in
ten confused with lianescent Acacia species, but Africa. It is used to treat cough, bronchial trou-
can be distinguished by the stems which are bles, gonorrhoea, yaws, ulcers, rheumatic pains
armed by a single, recurved prickle from the base and fever. The root bark is an ingredient of tradi-
of the leaf-scar (stems armed with prickles at the tional preparations to treat diarrhoea.
internodes or paired just below the internodes in Properties There are only very few reports on
Acacia), and by the united stamens (more or less properties of Asian Alchornea. The 1:1 methanol-
free in Acacia). dichloromethane extract of an unidentified Al-
Ecology A. myriophylla occurs in a wide range chornea species exhibited phorbal ester antago-
of lowland habitats, often in forest margins, on nist activity.
sandy river banks and in disturbed habitats, up to The tropical African A. cordifolia has a very broad
300 m altitude in Malaysia, up to 900 m in Indo- spectrum of biological activities. An aqueous ex-
China and Thailand. tract ofthe root bark exhibited antibacterial, anti-
Genetic resources Although A. myriophylla amoebic and antispasmodic activities; smooth
has a limited distribution in Malesia, it is wide- muscle-relaxing flavonoids have been isolated
spread and not uncommon in Indo-China and from the leaves. A. floribunda Müll. Arg. from
Thailand. It does not seem easily liable to genetic tropical Africa is reputed to have hallucinogenic
erosion, the more so because it also occurs in sec- properties.
ondary habitats and is not much collected. Alkaloids are known to occur in bark and leaves of
Prospects Information on pharmacological ac- several Alchornea species, including A. rugosa.
tivities of A. myriophylla is lacking and research These are guanidin-derivatives of the alchornin
is needed to judge its potential importance. The type. The alkaloid alchorneine is found in A. flori-
sweetening properties might be of commercial in- bunda.
terest, but the identity and safety of the com- Botany Trees or shrubs, monoecious or dioe-
pounds responsible should be determined. cious. Leaves alternate, simple, crenate or den-
Literature 160, 247, 399, 400. tate, short- to long-petiolate, stipulate, often also
Other selected sources 121,249, 250,671. stipellate. Inflorescence a simple or compound
R.H.M.J. Lemmens raceme or spike, bracteate. Flowers unisexual,
petals and disk absent; male flowers with a calyx
of 2-5 segments and 3-8 stamens; female flowers
Alchornea Sw. with 4-8 free sepals and a (2-)3-locular ovary
crowned by (2-)3 more or less free styles. Fruit a
Prodr.: 6, 98 (1788). (2-)3-locular capsule, lobed or unlobed, smooth or
EUPHORBIACEAE muricate. Seedling with epigeal germination;
X= 9 hypocotyl elongate; cotyledons thin and leaf-like.
Origin and geographic distribution Alchor- A. sicca flowers in the Philippines from March to
nea is a pantropical genus of about 50 species. In June.
South-East Asia, approximately 10 species occur, Ecology Alchornea occurs in lowland forest up
of which A. rugosa is the most widely distributed. to 1000 m altitude, often in secondary forest, for-
Peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines are richest edges, and also in scrub vegetation.
est in species, each with about 5 species. Genetic resources Alchornea often occurs in
U s e s A decoction ofleaves and roots ofA. rugosa secondary forest and seems unlikely to be at risk
has been used in Malaysia to treat fever and ague. of genetic erosion, the more so because it is not
In Indonesia, there is mention of the fruits being much sought after for timber or other products.
applied as purgative. The roots and leaves of A. Prospects Although several South-East Asian
villosa have been prescribed in Malaysia to treat Alchornea species are used medicinally, very little
itch; this species is reportedly also used as an an- is known about their properties. The interesting
ALCHORNEA 57
properties of African species, about which much

more information is available, warrant research
on the Asiatic ones.
Literature 84, 121,331,334.
A l c h o r n e a parviflora (Benth.) Müll.

Arg.
Linnaea 34: 168 (1865).
Distribution The Philippines (Luzon, Palawan,
Leyte, Negros).
Uses Leaves and fruits are used as fish poison.
Observations A shrub or small tree; leaves
ovate to oblong-ovate, palmately 3-veined, long-
petiolate, stipulate; male inflorescence simply ra-
cemose, female one simple, many-flowered; flow-
ers small. A. parviflora occurs in secondary forest
and scrub vegetation at low and medium alti-
tudes.
Selected sources 121,621.
A l c h o r n e a r u g o s a (Lour.) M ü l l . A r g .
Linnaea 34: 170(1865).
Synonyms Alchornea javanensis (Blume)
Backer &Bakh.f. (1963).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kedung leutik, Alchornea rugosa (Lour.) Müll. Arg. - 1, branch
ki bewok (Sundanese), drejeg (Javanese). Ma- with male inflorescences; 2, male flower; 3, branch
laysia: julong jantan, akar serimbong, rabu kum- with female inflorescence and fruits; 4, female
bang (Peninsular). Philippines: aguioi (Tagalog). flower.
Thailand: khaangpoi (central), sa maakfai (Loei),
dap yaang (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: b[oj] n[ej]t, Alchornea sicca (Blanco) Merr.
dom d[os]m. Philipp. Journ. Sei., Bot., 5: 192 (1910).
Distribution From Burma (Myanmar), Indo- Synonyms Alchornea philippinensis Pax &
China, southern China and Thailand, throughout Hoffm. (1914).
Malesia, to Australia (Queensland). Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: balanti (Taga-
Uses A decoction of leaves and roots has been log).
used in Malaysia to treat fever and ague. In In- Distribution The Philippines (Luzon).
donesia and Vietnam, the fruits have been applied Uses Leaves and fruits are used as fish poison.
as a purgative. The leaf juice is used in Papua Observations A shrub up to 2 m tall; leaves
New Guinea as an abortifacient. ovate, palmately 3-veined, glandular at base; male
Observations A shrub or small, usually many- inflorescence axillary, catkin-like, female one spi-
stemmed tree up to 10 m tall; leaves cuneate-obo- cate. A. sicca occurs locally, especially in thickets
vate, pinnately veined, with very short petiole, along streams in the lowland.
exstipulate; male inflorescence terminal, branch- Selected sources 117, 618,621.
ed, female one simply racemose. A. rugosa occurs
in primary and secondary, evergreen and decidu- A l c h o r n e a villosa (Benth.) Müll. Arg.
ous forest up to 1000 m altitude; it is one of the Linnaea 34: 168 (1865).
most common shrubs of Euphorbiaceae in Male- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: rami bukit, rami
sia. hutan, malam petai (Peninsular).
Selected sources 19, 20, 21, 22, 62, 121,331, Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma-
334, 621, 990. tra.
U s e s The roots and leaves have been prescribed
in Malaysia to treat itch; this species is also used thers equal or subequal in shape, without ap-
as an antidote for poisoning. In Indonesia, the leaf pendages, pinkish or purplish, opening by a single
juice has been applied to cure fever and a poultice pore; ovary inferior, 3-4-celled, style filiform with
of leaves to treat headache. The bark provides a minute stigma. Fruit a capsule, urceolate to sub-
good fibre; it is very tough. globose, about as long as wide, 6-8-ribbed, dehisc-
Observations A shrub up to 6 m tall; leaves ing apically with minute valves, many-seeded.
ovate, palmately 3-5-veined from the base, golden Seeds irregular, beaked.
hairy beneath, long-petiolate, stipulate; male in- Allomorphia is closely related to Oxyspora, and is
florescence axillary, slender, female one terminal reduced by some authors to a synonym of the last
and stout. A. villosa is locally common in lowland genus. In general, Allomorphia has smaller inflo-
forest, particularly in secondary forest and edges, rescences and flowers, equal or subequal anthers
up to 300 m altitude. without appendages (in Oxyspora dimorphic an-
Selected sources 22,121, 178,334, 990. thers with appendages), and smaller urceolate or
R.H.M.J. Lemmens subglobose fruits (in Oxyspora ellipsoid or obconi-
cal).
Ecology Allomorphia occurs particularly in the
Allomorphia Blume undergrowth of lowland forest, sometimes also in
abandoned plantations near the forest. The
Flora 14: 522 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch. species treated here are locally common in Penin-
6:262(1831). sular Malaysia.
MELASTOMATACEAE Management Allomorphia can be grown in gar-
x =unknown;A. alata: 2n =30-32 dens under partial shade. For this purpose, seed is
Origin and geographic distribution Allo- sometimes collected from wild plants.
morphia consists of approximately 20 species, and Genetic resources Not much is known about
occurs in tropical Asia: Indo-China, southern Chi- the exact distribution of Allomorphia species, but
na, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and those treated here seem locally common and not
northern Borneo. Indo-China, Thailand and Pe- particularly endangered.
ninsular Malaysia are richest in species, each Prospects Research on properties and phyto-
with about 5-7 species. chemistry is needed in order to evaluate the prop-
U s e s There is some information on medicinal erties and prospects of Allomorphia as medicinal
uses ofAllomorphia in Peninsular Malaysia. Poul- plants. Moreover, a thorough taxonomical study of
tices of leaves have been applied to treat head- the genus and related genera is badly needed.
ache, fever and skin diseases, whereas a decoction Literature 121,282, 331,707,731.
ofthe roots is given to women after childbirth.
Properties Almost nothing is known about the
biological activities and phytochemistry of Allo- Selection of species
morphia. Ellagitannins are commonly present, as
is the case in many other Melastomataceae. A gen- Allomorphia alata Scort. ex King
eral phytochemical screening showed that A. bul- Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 69(2): 12 (1900).
lata leaves and stems contain some alkaloids and Synonyms Oxyspora curtisii King (1900), Allo-
terpenes but no saponins, but the presence of al- morphia curtisii (King) Ridley (1911).
kaloids could not be demonstrated for A. alata or Vernacular names Malaysia: keduduk gajah
A. exigua. batu, senduduk hutan, puding hutan (Peninsular).
Botany Shrubs or half-shrubby herbs, up to 3 m Thailand: ma re hin, mang re hin (peninsular).
tall. Leaves opposite, those of a pair equal or Distribution Peninsular Thailand, northern
slightly unequal, simple and entire, symmetrical, half ofPeninsular Malaysia.
usually membranous, 3-5-veined, with coarsely Uses A poultice made by bruising the leaves in
reticulate fine veins; petiole usually long; stipules cold water is applied to treat headache. Leaves,
absent. Inflorescence a terminal panicle or ra- stems and roots have been used to cure stomach-
ceme, with terminal branchlets 3-flowered. Flow- ache, probably as a poultice.
ers bisexual, 3-4-merous; calyx with cylindrical or Observations A small shrub up to 180 cm tall,
obconical tube, toothed; petals inserted at the rim with winged branches; leaves ovate to elliptical-
of the calyx limb, free, whitish or yellowish-green; ovate, 12.5-25 cm x 6-11 cm, bristle-toothed; inflo-
stamens 6 or 8, equal or unequal in length, an- rescence small, few-flowered; calyx tube cylindri-
ALOCASIA 59
cal; fruit subglobose.A. alata occurs in forest. sian distribution. In Malesia, 57 species are in-
Selected sources 121,609, 789. digenous; Borneo is the main centre of diversity
with about 23 species, 20 of which are endemic,
A l l o m o r p h i a b u l l a t a (Griffith) C o g n . followed by the Philippines with 14 species, all en-
A.DC. &C.DC, Monogr. phan. 7:465 (1891). demic.A. macrorrhizos is planted and naturalized
Synonyms Allomorphia magnifica (Miq.) Guill. pantropically, and A. cucullata (Lour.) G. Don is
(1913), Allomorphia malaccensis Ridley (1918), widely cultivated in tropical Asia.
Oxyspora bullata (Griffith) J.F. Maxwell (1982). A. macrorrhizos was an important food plant,
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: senduduk hutan, even a staple food, in various regions, e.g. in India
keduduk gajah, pakan rimba (Peninsular). and the Pacific islands, but this declined as Colo-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. casia was introduced. Due to its ability to become
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a poultice made naturalized and its value as a food in times of
from the leaves has reputedly been used to treat famine, A. macrorrhizos can be commonly found
leprosy, and a decoction of the roots has been giv- in regions where extensive cultivation was for-
en to women after childbirth. Pounded leaves merly practised. It is still the principal aroid food
mixed with salt are applied on sores. plant on a few western Polynesian islands.
Observations A half-shrub or shrub up to 180 Uses Several medicinal applications of Alocasia
cm tall, with obtusely quadrangular branches; have been reported for South-East Asia. Boiled
leaves ovate or ovate-oblong, up to 25 cm x 15 cm; stems of A. macrorrhizos are used as a laxative,
inflorescence large, many-flowered; calyx tube chopped-up roots and leaves as a rubefacient, and
urceolate; fruit urceolate. A. bullata is common in juice from the petiole against cough. The plants
lowland forest. are applied for stimulating the skin, e.g. in cases
Selected sources 66, 121,609, 789. of fever and to remove blotches. The rhizome is
sometimes used as a poultice to treat furuncles.
Allomorphia exigua (Jack) Blume The pounded stems are applied as a paste to
Flora 14: 522 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch. snakebites and scorpion stings. The irritant juice
6:262(1831). of A. longiloba is included in dart poisons, as an
Synonyms Oxyspora exigua (Jack) J.F. Max- addition to the really active poison.A. cucullata is
well (1982). used to treat snakebites in China.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: keduduk hutan, The rhizomes, stems and leaves, mainly of A.
keduduk gajah, senduduk gajah (Peninsular). macrorrhizos, are used as food, vegetable and for-
Thailand: kamao khao (Surat Thani). age. The rhizome is a source of very white, easily
Distribution Peninsular Thailand and north- digested starch or flour. Several species are im-
ern Peninsular Malaysia. portant as ornamentals.
Uses A decoction of the roots is given to women Properties The tissues contain calcium oxalate
after childbirth, and the leaves are used for poul- crystals, which produce irritation of the skin and
ticing the abdomen against remittent fever. inflammations of the oral cavity and mucous
Observations A small shrub up to 60 cm tall, membranes. Sapotoxin is also present, and the
with obtusely quadrangular branches; leaves lan- toxic effects include gastroenteritis and paralysis
ceolate, 8.5-15 cm x 3-6 cm; inflorescence small, of the nerve centres. Hydrocyanic acid is often
few-flowered; calyx urceolate; fruit urceolate.A. ex- present. A few cases of fatal poisoning following
igua is found in rocky locations in the forest. ingestion of A. cucullata fruits have been record-
Selected sources 121,609, 789. ed; the clinical manifestations were similar to
H.C. Ong these of cyanogenic glycoside poisoning. The poi-
sonous substances can be removed by repeated
cooking, but the rhizomes and bases of petioles of
A l o c a s i a ( S c h o t t ) G. D o n A. macrorrhizos which are sometimes used for
food usually contain few poisonous substances.
Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 3:631 (1839). A lectin has been isolated from the rhizome of A.
ARACEAE macrorrhizos, which showed potent mitogenic ac-
x =14;A. longiloba: 2n = 28,A. macrorrhizos: 2n tivity on human peripheral blood lymphocytes in
= 24, 28, 42 the [3H]-thymidine uptake assay. It was a T-cell
Origin and geographic distribution Alocasia mitogen and did not induce any appreciable DNA
consists of about 65 species and has an Indo-Male- synthesis in B-enriched lymphocytes. This species
also contains a protein which inhibits both the en- est for conferring insect resistance in transgenic
zymes trypsin and chymotrypsin. The seed extract plants. Some other compounds also deserve more
showed antifungal activity. There is also a report attention, e.g. the lymphocyte-stimulating lectins,
on HIV-1protease inhibitory activity. as well as the toxic principles, which are occasion-
Botany Small to large perennial herbs, with ally responsible for poisoning in humans.
elongate rhizomes. Leaves alternate, simple, Literature 245, 325,445, 566.
sometimes deeply pinnatifid, sagittate to hastate,
sometimes peltate, sometimes partly purplish
and/or with whitish veins; petiole long, with Selection of species
sheath in basal part. Inflorescence a spadix short-
er than or subequal to the spathe, with a zone of Alocasia longiloba Miq.
female flowers at base, followed by a zone of ster- Bot. Zeit. 14: 561 (1856); Fl. Ned. Ind. 3: 207
ile flowers, then a zone ofmale flowers and ending (1856).
in a well-developed appendix. Fruit a red to or- Synonyms Alocasia lowii Hook. (1863), Aloca-
ange berry, several-seeded, infructescence en- sia denudata Engl. (1879), Alocasia watsoniana
closed in the persistent spathe. Seeds 3-5 mm in Masters (1893).
diameter, albuminous. Vernacular names Malaysia: birah kijang, bi-
A. longiloba is a variable species, or perhaps a rah hitam, keladi rimau (Peninsular). Thailand:
complex of species. Many of the species described klaa-dee kae-la (Malay, Pattani), kaeo naamaa
in the past are based on cultivated forms, and (Bangkok), ka choh nok (Ranong). Vietnam:
should be regarded as cultivars or cultivar groups. r[as]y, th[uf]y d[af]i, r[as]y l[as] d[af]i.
Ecology A. longiloba and A. macrorrhizos pre- Distribution Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular
fer moist conditions and occur in a wide altitudi- Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Sulawesi.
nal range, up to 2000 m altitude. Uses In Malaysia, the sap is used in dart poison,
Management Any part of the stem of Alocasia, as an addition to really active poison. A. longiloba
as well as suckers, can be used as planting materi- is planted as ornamental.
al. A. macrorrhizos is usually planted at the be- Observations A small to large herb up to 150
ginning of the rainy season, in either full sun or cm tall, with rhizome up to 60 cm long and up to 8
partial shade. When cultivated for the starch, cm in diameter; leaves usually peltate, 25-65(-85)
plants are allowed to grow for 10 months to sever- cm x 14-40 cm, petiole often strikingly obliquely
al years before the stems are harvested. mottled chocolate brown; spadix 6-13 cm long. A.
Genetic resources Several Alocasia species longiloba occurs in rain forest and swamp forest
are only known from a few collections and/or local- at low and medium altitudes, sometimes up to
ities; this applies particularly to approximately 8 2000 m, but also in regrowth and on exposed cliffs
species endemic to Borneo. Several species with and ravines.
ornamental value are on the one hand potentially Selected sources 121,325,331.
threatened by unsustainable collecting from the
wild, and on the other hand are open to ex situ A l o c a s i a m a c r o r r h i z o s (L.) G. D o n
conservation through ornamental horticulture, Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 3:631 (1839).
sometimes even sustained by tissue culture. A. Synonyms Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach
longiloba is widely distributed and locally com- (1846).
mon and seems not threatened, although some Vernacular n a m e s Giant taro, giant alocasia,
forms of this variable species with ornamental elephant ear (En). Grande tayove (Fr). Indonesia:
value fall in the group indicated above.A. macror- bira (general), sente (Javanese), mael (Timor).
rhizos seems to be distributed directly by human Malaysia: birah negeri, keladi sebaring. Papua
activity and is perhaps merely a cultigen. New Guinea: abir, pia, via. Philippines: biga (gen-
Germplasm collections ofAlocasia exist in several eral), bira (Ilokano), badiang (Tagalog, Bisaya).
parts ofthe world, the most important being locat- Burma (Myanmar): pein-mohawaya. Cambodia:
ed in Bangi (Selangor, Malaysia; National Univer- k'da:t haôra:. Laos: kaph'uk. Thailand: kradaat
sity) with 53 accessions, Hanoi (Vietnam; Nation- (Bangkok), kradaat dam (Kanchanaburi), horaa
al Genebank) with 33 accessions, and Apia (Sa- (Songkhla, Yala).Vietnam: r[as]y, r[as]y [aw]n.
moa; IRETA University) with 108 accessions. Distribution It is unclear where A. macrorrhi-
Prospects The trypsin and chymotrypsin in- zos is indigenous. It does not appear to be wild in
hibitor found in A. macrorrhizos might be of inter- Malesia, but has been introduced and is often nat-
AMISCHOTOLYPE 61
Amischotolype Hassk.
Flora 46: 391 (1863).
COMMELINACEAE
x = 9,10
Origin and geographic distribution Ami-
schotolype comprises approximately 15 species,
and occurs in tropical Africa (1 species) and tropi-
cal Asia, from India to southern China and New
Guinea.
Uses Some records exist of medicinal applica-
tions of Amischotolype roots in Peninsular Ma-
laysia: an infusion or decoction is drunk to treat
rheumatism and fever, and both are applied as a
fly 'j% T poultice against headache.
w N
Young shoots are sometimes cooked and eaten as
a vegetable, e.g. those of A. mollissima (Blume)
Hassk. in Indonesia.
Properties The steroid ecdysterone (commis-
terone) has been isolated from whole A. mollissi-
ma plants.
Botany Robust perennial herbs, often with
stems creeping at base and erect higher up.
Leaves arranged spirally, simple and entire,
lanceolate, petiolate and with cylindrical, usually
hairy leaf-sheaths at base. Inflorescence an axil-
lary, dense, often head-like cyme. Flowers bisexu-
Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G.Don - 1,plant habit; al, regular, 3-merous, subsessile to shortly pedi-
2, spathe and spadix; 3, spadix. cellate; sepals free, subequal, keeled to boat-
shaped, accrescent after anthesis; petals free,
uralized in the Malesian region and Oceania, and subequal, about as long as sepals; stamens 6, all
elsewhere in the tropics. Perhaps it should be con- fertile, subequal, filaments often bearded; ovary
sidered a cultigen. superior, sessile, 3-celled. Fruit a 3-celled capsule,
Uses Boiled stems are used as a laxative, opening loculicidally with 3 valves, each cell 1-2-
chopped-up roots and leaves as a rubefacient, and seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, embedded in a red aril,
juice from the petiole against cough. In Papua with linear hilum.
New Guinea, young leaves and sap are used exter- The Amischotolype species treated here are often
nally to treat headache, and leaves cooked in co- better known under the name Forrestia. However,
conut milk are eaten to treat sexual insufficiency. this name is incorrect because it was published
In Thailand, the rhizome is applied to snakebites earlier as a genus name in Rhamnaceae (a syn-
and wounds. The rhizome is a source of starch or onym oïCeanothus).
flour. A. macrorrhizos is often planted as an orna- Ecology Amischotolype occurs in the under-
mental. storey oflowland and lower montane forest.
Observations A very large herb up to 400 cm Genetic resources The Amischotolype species
tall, with erect or decumbent stem; leaves not treated here are all recorded as endemic to Penin-
peltate, over 80 cm x 60 cm, petiole up to 130 cm sular Malaysia, although A. griffithii has recently
long, not mottled; spadix 13-20 cm long. A. ma- been collected in Borneo. They seem easily liable
crorrhizos occurs along roadsides, in waste places to genetic erosion, but their status is still unclear
and gardens, mostly in wet locations at low and as long as Amischotolype remains so poorly stud-
medium altitudes. ied taxonomically and, as a consequence, the exact
Selected sources 47, 91, 121, 245, 325, 327, areas ofdistribution ofthe species are unclear.
331, 347,445, 566, 760, 1020. Prospects Very little information is available
Hadi Sutarno on all aspects ofAmischotolype. More research on
phytochemistry and pharmacological properties
as well as on botany is still needed before the all over; inflorescence c. 3 cm in diameter, com-
prospects as medicinal plants can be judged. pact, covered with red spiny hairs. A. irritans is
Literature 331,853. rather uncommon in hill forest.
Noorma Wati Haron
Amischotolype gracilis (Ridley) I.M. Ammannia baccifera L.

Turner
Gard. Bull. Sing. 45(1): 53 (1993). Sp.pl. 1:120(1753).
Synonyms Forrestia gracilis Ridley (1903). LYTHRACEAE
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: setawar betina, « = 12
tebu kera, buah anku (Peninsular). Vernacular n a m e s Blistering ammannia (En).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia. Philippines: bias-pugo (Tagalog), apoy-apoyan
Uses An infusion or decoction of the roots is (Pangasinan, Tagalog), parapit-angit (Pampan-
drunk to treat rheumatism. gan). Thailand: kaeo raknaa (Ratchaburi), mafai
Observations A herb up to 100 cm tall, with nok khum (Bangkok), yaa raknaa (northern).
slender, c. 0.5 cm thick stems shortly creeping at Vietnam: m[uf]I ch[os].
base; leaves c. 20 cm x 5 cm, glabrous above, vel- Origin a n d geographic distribution A. bac-
vety beneath, red-hairy at edges; inflorescence cifera has a very large distribution comprising
small, few-flowered. A. gracilis is common in low- Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka,
land forest. Indo-China, China, Thailand, throughout Malesia
Selected sources 121,789. (except Borneo, as far as is known) and Australia;
recently introduced into the Caribbean (Guade-
A m i s c h o t o l y p e g r i f f i t h i i (C.B. C l a r k e ) loupe, Jamaica).
I.M. T u r n e r Uses In the Philippines, A. baccifera is used in
Novon 6(2): 221 (1996). place of cantharides as a blistering plaster. In
Synonyms Forrestia griffithii C.B. Clarke Pakistan and India, bruised fresh leaves are used
(1881). for raising blisters against rheumatic pains and
Vernacular names Malaysia: setawar hutan, fever. A. auriculata Willd. is used for similar pur-
setawar jantan, pokok sampu landak (Peninsu- poses. The leaves or the ash ofA. baccifera, mixed
lar). with oil, are applied externally to cure herpetic
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo eruptions and other skin diseases, and as remedy
(Brunei). for ringworm and parasitic skin affections. An in-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the fusion made from entire plants is claimed to have
roots is drunk against fever. aphrodisiac activity.
Observations A herb up to 100 cm tall, with c. Properties A. baccifera is intensely acrid. Food
2.5 cm thick stems creeping at base; leaves c. 22.5 contaminated with the leaf extract may produce
cm x 7.5 cm, hairy all over; inflorescence small, c. severe burning pain in the abdomen. Betulinic
1.5 cm in diameter, compact, subglabrous. A. grif- acid, daucosterol, ellagic acid, n-hentricontane, lu-
fithii occurs in lowland forest. peol, quercetin and triacontane-l,30-diol have
Selected sources 121,789. been found in chemical studies.
Tests with rats showed anti-urolithic activity for
A m i s c h o t o l y p e i r r i t a n s ( R i d l e y ) I.M. an ethanolic extract of A. baccifera. A dose of 2
Turner g/kg/day of the extract was effective in reducing
Novon 6(2):221 (1996). the formation of urinary stones as well as in dis-
Synonyms Forrestia irritans Ridley (1903). solving pre-formed ones. An aqueous ethanol ex-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: setawar gajah tract showed hypotensive activity in dogs and
(Peninsular). mice. Extracts showed antibacterial activity
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia. against several plant pathogenic and human pa-
U s e s A poultice of the roots is applied to treat thogenic bacteria; extracts obtained from stems,
headache. leaves and inflorescences were more effective than
Observations A tall herb with thick stems those from roots and seeds.
creeping at base; leaves c. 22.5 cm x 7.5 cm, hairy A compound with strong piscicidal activity, a-
AMORPHOPHALLUS 63
naphthoquinone, was isolated from A. baccifera. within one week, with the majority ofseeds germi-
Leaves are used to reduce sexual libido in animals. nating in two weeks.
Botany An erect, annual or short-lived peren- Ammannia consists of about 25 species and is cos-
nial herb up to 100 cm tall, glabrous, much- mopolitan, with the greatest diversity in Africa
branched. Leaves decussately opposite, lanceolate (16 species). It is often difficult to identify speci-
to oblanceolate, l-5(-7) cm x 0.5-l(-1.5) cm, usu- mens: they appear to be intermediate between the
ally attenuate at base, acute to subobtuse at apex, accepted species. Apossible reason for this may be
entire, glabrous, subsessile; stipules absent. Inflo- that the plants are predominantly autogamous,
rescence an axillary, dense, more or less sessile but with at least a low level of outcrossing. Appar-
cyme. Flowers sessile or subsessile, 4(-5)-merous, ently they sometimes hybridize. Ammannia is re-
with 2 small bracteoles at base; hypanthium per- lated to Rotala and Nesaea, which differ in the
sistent in fruit; sepals inserted on the hypanthi- fruits having dense transverse striations and
um, persistent in fruit; petals absent; stamens in- opening with 2-5 septicidal valves in Rotala and
serted on the hypanthium, equal in length; ovary dehiscing first by a small apical operculum and
superior, style absent or very short, stigma ca- then irregularly in Nesaea. A. baccifera is a vari-
pitate. Fruit a globose capsule, l-1.5(-2) mm in able species.
diameter, slightly exceeding the hypanthium, ir- Ecology A. baccifera occurs in wet locations,
regularly circumscissile, many-seeded. Seeds obo- very often as a weed in rice fields in the lowland,
void, concave-convex, up to 0.5 mm long. up to 1200 m altitude. Like other Ammannia
Seeds may remain viable for many years. They species, it can be a problematic weed in rice fields.
float in water due to their convex-concave shape Management Maximum alkaloid synthesis was
and by a large aerenchymatous float on the con- found in plants at the fruiting stage, under moder-
cave side. Under conditions ofhigh humidity, light ate light intensity and with a photoperiod of 16
intensity and temperature, germination may start hours. The application of NPK-fertilizer enhanced
the alkaloid content. For controlling A. baccifera
as a weed of rice, 1 kg/ha of oxadiazon has been
applied successfully in India, and in Taiwan ben-
sulfuron-methyl showed good results at 0.5 kg/ha.
High rates of 2,4-D are recommended in Indone-
sia. The chrysomelid beetle Altica cyanea was
found feeding on A. baccifera in rice fields in In-
dia, defoliating the plants completely, but no dam-
age to the rice crop was observed. Apparently the
beetle may be a biological control agent.
Genetic resources Efforts are being directed
towards eradication of A. baccifera as a noxious
weed ofrice, and not towards protection.
Prospects Some interesting properties of A.
baccifera deserve more attention, particularly the
antibacterial activity, the anti-urolithic activity,
and the reputed effectiveness against skin dis-
eases.
Literature 289, 470, 752, 760, 879.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Amorphophallus konjac Koch

Wochenschr. Gärtn. Pflanzenk. 1:262 (1858).
ARACEAE
In =26 (24, 36)
Ammannia baccifera L. - 1,plant habit; 2, flower; Synonyms Amorphophallus rivieri Durieu ex
3,fruit; 4, seed. Carrière (1870), Hydrosme rivieri (Durieu ex Car-
rière) Engl. var. konjac (Koch) Engl. (1879), Amor- latex from Antiaris toxicaria Lesch., is sometimes
phophallus mairei H. Lev. (1915). used as dart poison.
Vernacular n a m e s Devil's tongue, konjac (En). Properties In tests with miceA. konjac powder
Philippines: pungapung (Tagalog), bulangan exerted a positive effect on the rate of induced
(Mangyan). Vietnam: c[ur] n[uw]a, khoai n[uw]a. lung cancer, and it prolonged the survival time of
Origin and geographic distribution A. kon- the mice. There were no noticeable adverse reac-
jac originates from southern and south-eastern tions ofthe powder. The powder markedly lowered
China, Vietnam and possibly Laos. It occurs wild the cholesterol levels in the serum and liver of
and cultivated and easily escapes from cultiva- rats eating hypercholesterolemic diets. Some aro-
tion. Its cultivation is most important in China matic compounds (e.g. serotonin) with peroxyni-
and Japan ('konnyaku'), but it is also known in In- trite scavenging activity have been isolated from
do-China and the Philippines, and occasionally the powder. The tubers ofA. paeoniifolius exhibit
elsewhere (e.g. Hawaii). antiprotease activity.
Uses The flour resulting from milling dried A. The carbohydrates of the tubers consist of starch,
konjac tubers is recommended as an adjunct in but mainly (more than 50%) of a glucomannan, a
low-calorie diets and to control the blood chol- polysaccharide of mannose and glucose, which, in
esterol level. The tuber is used in traditional combination with water becomes very viscous and
medicine in Vietnam as a poultice against furun- is therefore attractive for many industrial pro-
cles. cesses. Fresh Amorphophallus tubers are irritant
The tubers of A. konjac can be made edible in due to the presence ofcalcium oxalate.
times offood scarcity, usually after peeling, slicing Botany A perennial herb with subterranean tu-
and repeated washing and boiling in water to re- ber up to 30 cm in diameter and 20 cm long,
move toxic and irritating substances. In Japan, weighing up to 10(-13) kg. Leaves usually soli-
they are used to prepare a traditional dish ('ito tary, tripartite, up to 2 m in diameter, each of the
konnyaku') which is gel-like in appearance and 3 segments highly dissected; leaflets elliptical,
texture and is made by adding slaked lime to a
colloidal solution of the flour in water, and then
heating this. The glucomannan in the tubers has
film-forming characteristics useful in preparing
stabilizers and emulsifiers for food, drinks, cos-
metics and in drilling fluids. Glucomannan is also
a good sieving additive for capillary electrophore-
sis. The tubers can also be used to prepare acid
and alcohol.
The tubers of A. paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson
(synonym: A. campanulatus Decne.) are used in
traditional medicine in India. They are, however,
far more important as a tuber crop. They are con-
sidered aperient, carminative and expectorant,
and are also applied externally as an irritant to
treat acute rheumatism; the seeds are used for the
same purpose. The tubers are administered inter-
nally to treat dysentery and haemorrhoids. In the
Philippines, the tubers are considered caustic, and
are also used as antirheumatic poultice. In India,
the roots are used against ophthalmia, and ap-
plied to boils and as an emmenagogue. The fer-
mented juice of the petioles is used to cure diar-
rhoea in India and Papua New Guinea. The tuber
is given in Thailand as a food supplement for dia-
betic patients.
Some Amorphophallus species are used as poiso-
nous plants. In Peninsular Malaysia, the juice of Amorphophallus konjac Koch — 1, plant with leaf;
A.paeoniifolius and A.prainii Hook.f. mixed with 2, spathe and spadix; 3, lower part ofspadix.
AMPELOCISSUS 65
3-10 cm x 2-6 cm; petiole up to 100 cm x 8 cm, (Kunming, China) and the Gunma Agricultural
smooth or with scattered punctiform warts at the Experiment Station (Konnyaku Branch, Gunma-
base, dirty whitish-pinkish with large green spots ken, Japan).
and smaller white dots. Inflorescence a spadix Prospects Studies in animals and humans in-
15-110 cm long, female in lower part, becoming dicate a potential use for the glucomannans in
male higher up via a transitional zone, with a the tubers, particularly as anti-atherosclerosis
well-developed asexual part at the top, spadix agents. Complementary studies are needed, also
partly enveloped by the spathe 10-60 cm x 10-55 to define quality criteria for the drug. It is unlike-
cm, spathe limb erect, undulate or folded longitu- ly that A. konjac will gain more prominence in
dinally with spreading margins, outside dark pur- agriculture as a food crop. However, in Thailand
plish-brown with scattered blackish-green spots, the market is expanding due to low-calorie value
inside dark brown, glossy. Fruit unknown. of the tubers and because the product decreases
The plants normally start flowering when 4 years fat and cholesterol absorption.
old. Seed does not develop. Literature 118,245,369, 580,683.
Because A. konjac has been cultivated in China Other selected sources 121, 671.
for about 2000 years and also naturalizes easily R.H.M.J. Lemmens
after escaping from cultivation, it is not clear
which characters belong to the true wild plant. It
can best be subclassified into cultivar groups and Ampelocissus P l a n c h o n
cultivars.
Amorphophallus originates from and is mainly Vigne amer. 8: 371 (1884).
distributed in the Old World, especially in the VlTACEAE
tropics from Africa to the Pacific Islands, but also x = 20
extends to temperate areas in China and Japan. Origin and geographic distribution Ampe-
The total number ofspecies is approximately 170. locissus consists of about 100 species and occurs in
Ecology A. konjac usually grows in secondary all tropical regions. Tropical Africa and Asia are
vegetation, in forest margins and thickets, village richest in species. At least several dozens of
groves, usually under some shade, up to 2500 m al- species have been recorded for Malesia, and about
titude. The optimum average temperature ranges 8 for Vietnam.
from 20-25°C. In China, it develops best when soil Uses Some Ampelocissus species are used in
moisture is at 75%of the field capacity, preferably traditional medicine in Peninsular Malaysia and
dropping to 60%when the tuber is maturing. Vietnam, mainly in decoctions of the roots or
Management A. konjac can be propagated from leaves which are used externally in poultices to
tubers or tuber parts and by tissue culture. Plant- treat wounds, oedema, orchitis, rheumatism, lum-
ing holes of60 cm x 60 cm x 45 cm are recommend- bago, and during childbirth. Sometimes a root or
ed, the bottom filled with a mixture ofsoil, manure leaf decoction is used internally, e.g. to treat vene-
and fertilizer. Planting is done at the beginning of real diseases or cholera.
the rainy season. In estate farming, A. konjac is Some other Ampelocissus species are used in tradi-
interplanted with cereals such as maize and tional medicine in India: the sliced and dried
sorghum, or grown under shade trees. Mulching is tuberous rootstocks of A. araneosa (Dalz. & Gib-
recommended. In Japan, a permanent cropping son) Planchon possess astringent and cooling prop-
system exists, in which young and old plants are erties; the root juice of A. indica (L.) Planchon
grown mixed together like a semi-natural vegeta- (synonym: A. arnottiana (Wight & Arnott) Plan-
tion, in which only older tubers are harvested at chon), mixed with coconut oil, is employed as a
the end of the growing season. In this system, a depurative, aperient and diuretic, and to treat eye
minimum input of chemical fertilizers, herbicides diseases and ulcers; the juice of tender leaves ofA.
and pesticides is combined with large amounts of latifolia (Roxb.) Planchon is used to treat tooth-
mulch, and remarkably few diseases and pests oc- ache and ulcers, whereas a decoction of the roots is
cur. In China and Japan, the tubers cultivated for taken against chronic dysentery, and the roots and
food are harvested one year after planting, when bark ofA. tomentosa (Heyne ex Roth) Planchon are
they are small but sweet and juicy. For industrial used to treat swellings and haemorrhoids. In Chi-
purposes, they are harvested after 3 years. na, the tuberous rootstocks of A. artemisiaefolia
Genetic resources Germplasm collections ofA. Planchon are applied externally to sores, wounds,
konjac are available in the Institute of Botany burns and fractures.
Properties Very little is known about the phy- Selection of species

tochemistry and biological activities of Ampelocis-
sus. Ellagic acid, kaempferol and myrcetin have Ampelocissus arachnoidea Planchon
been isolated from A. cinnamomea leaves. The A.DC. &C D C , Monogr. phan. 5(2): 375 (1887).
flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin and several Vernacular n a m e s Vietnam: nho r[uwf]ng,
phenolic acids have been identified in leaves of h[oof] nho nh[eej]n.
some Indian species (A. latifolia and A. rugosa Distribution Cambodia, Vietnam and Java.
(Wallich) Planchon); however, proanthocyanidins, U s e s In Cambodia, the roots are used to treat
which are often present in other Vitaceae, were venereal diseases. The fruits are edible, but acid
lacking in the leaves. Poultices made from the and astringent, and without much flavour; they
leaves or roots seem to act as slight irritants, pro- are sometimes used as a substitute for vinegar.
moting the local blood flow and thus accelerating Observations A climber or creeper up to 10 m
healing. long, with tuberous rootstock; leaves simple, sub-
Botany Perennial climbing herbs or lianas, orbicular, 3-5-angular or lobed, deeply cordate at
sometimes erect shrubs, with tuberous rootstock, base, coarsely toothed, densely arachnoid be-
climbing by tendrils on the peduncles. Leaves al- neath; inflorescence erect, ovoid, dense; flowers
ternate, simple and entire to more or less deeply small, usually 5-merous; fruit globose, dark red.
lobed or digitately 3-11-foliolate, margin shallow- A. arachnoidea occurs in open forest and brush-
ly serrate or entire; stipules triangular, inconspic- wood, up to 400 m altitude.
uous, caducous. Inflorescence consisting of cymes Selected sources 62,971.
or heads forming a lax to condensed leaf-opposed
panicle. Flowers usually bisexual, 4-5-merous; ca- A m p e l o c i s s u s c i n n a m o m e a (Wallich)
lyx cup-shaped, more or less distinctly lobed; Planchon
petals free, spreading; stamens inserted on the re- A.DC. &C D C , Monogr. phan. 5(2):403 (1887).
ceptacle, opposite the petals; disk adnate to and Synonyms Vitis cinnamomea Wallich (1824).
entirely surrounding the ovary, 5-10-ridged; Vernacular names Malaysia: akar puding rim-
ovary superior, 2-locular, style short, conical, stig- ba, akar charek puteri, akar sebengkak (Peninsu-
ma minute. Fruit a fleshy berry, 2-4-seeded. lar).
Seeds elliptical, flattened, with marked longitudi- Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapo-
nal keel or ridge on one side and a median furrow re.
or pit on the other side. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
Ampelocissus is often difficult to distinguish from leaves is used internally and externally to treat
other Vitaceae genera. It is characterized by pan- cholera and oedema of the legs, and a poultice of
iculate inflorescences bearing a tendril and by a crushed leaves is applied to wounds and sore legs,
disk adnate to the ovary. However, authors men- and on the abdomen during childbirth. Young
tion different characters as being characteristic, leaves are used in betel-quid. The roots have been
depending on the region. used to dye cotton a brownish colour.
Ecology Ampelocissus species are climbers in Observations A climber with rather slender,
lowland forest, and can be locally common. They whitish or reddish-woolly stem; leaves simple,
are often found at forest edges or in gaps in the ovate-cordate, sometimes 3-lobed, toothed, dense-
forest, where they may cover the trees completely. ly red-tomentose beneath; inflorescence slender,
Genetic resources The Ampelocissus species woolly; flowers small, 4-merous; fruit globose to el-
treated here are common, at least locally, and do lipsoid, reddish to purplish. A. cinnamomea is lo-
not seem to be under threat ofgenetic erosion. cally common in lowland forest.
Prospects Too little is known about the proper- Selected sources 121,528, 789.
ties and phytochemistry of Ampelocissus species
to judge their potential as medicinal plants. Re- A m p e l o c i s s u s gracilis (Wallich)
search could be worthwhile, as the related grape Planchon
(Vitis vinifera L.) has interesting pharmacological A.DC. &C D C , Monogr. phan. 5(2):407 (1887).
activities (particularly the procyanidins present in Synonyms Vitis gracilis Wallich (1824).
the seeds) such as vascular protective activity. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar iang-iang
Ampelocissus is, like other genera in Vitaceae, in rimba, akar keladi tanah (Peninsular).
urgent need of a taxonomie revision. Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
Literature 121, 182,943. Sumatra, Borneo.
AMYDRIUM 67
Uses A poultice made from the roots is used to A. sinensis (Engl.) H. Li is used in traditional
treat orchitis. medicine in China to treat traumatic injury, frac-
Observations A climber with slender, whitish tures and angina pectoris, and has sedative prop-
to reddish-woolly stem; leaves simple, ovate, with erties. It has also been found in northern Viet-
cuspidate teeth, sparsely pubescent beneath; in- nam.
florescence very slender, reddish-woolly; flowers Botany A low climber with stem up to 3.5 cm in
very small, 4-merous; fruit ovoid to oblong.A. gra- diameter. Leaves distichously alternate, simple,
cilis is common in lowland forest. ovate to rotund in outline, 70-125 cm x 60-90 cm,
Selected sources 121,789. cordate at base, acute to acuminate at apex,
deeply laciniate, venation clearly reticulate; peti-
ole 25-85 cm long, geniculate at both ends, with a
Ampelocissus polythyrsa (Miq.) short deciduous sheath; stipules absent. Inflores-
Gagnep. cence a sessile to distinctly stipitate spadix, 3-8
Bull. Soc. hist. nat. Autun 23:20 (1911). cm x 1-2 cm when flowering, up to 22 cm x 5.5 cm
Synonyms Vitis polystachya Wallich (1828; when fruiting, enclosed in a reflexing and quickly
nom. nud.), Vitis polythyrsa Miq. (1863), Ampe- deciduous yellowish spathe. Flowers bisexual;
locissus polystachya Planchon (1887). tepals absent; stamens 4; ovary superior, 1-locu-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar chabang tu- lar. Fruit a fleshy berry, whitish-green to orange,
joh, akar charek biawak (Peninsular). Vietnam: 1-2-seeded. Seeds subglobose, endosperm present.
h[oor] nho nhi[eef]u ch[uf]m. Amydrium consists of 5 species and occurs in Chi-
Distribution Cambodia, Vietnam, Peninsular na, Thailand and throughout Malesia, where 3
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo. species have been recorded. It is classified in the
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a poultice made subfamily Monsteroideae and tribe Monstereae, to-
from a root decoction is used to treat rheumatism gether with e.g. Monstera from tropical America,
and lumbago. and the closely related genera Epipremnum,
Observations A liana with thick, corky stem; Rhaphidophora and Scindapsus which also occur
leaves 5-9-foliolate, leaflets elliptical-oblong, in tropical Asia.Amydrium is characterized by the
toothed, glabrous; inflorescence large, sparsely virtual absence of trichosclereids (abundant in
hairy; flowers 4-merous; fruit globose-oblong, other genera), a completely reticulate venation,
greenish to purplish. A. polythyrsa is locally com- and a 1-locular ovary with a single, deeply intru-
mon in lowland forest. sive placenta.
Selected sources 121,334, 789. Ecology A. zippelianum occurs mainly in pri-
Nguyen Huu Hien mary rain forest, sometimes also in disturbed for-
est, in shady locations, up to 1800 m altitude. It
climbs on trees and rocks.
A m y d r i u m zippelianum (Schott) Management A. zippelianum can be propagat-
Nicolson ed by stem cuttings. Stem sections 10-15 cm long
can, after removal of leaves, be placed on a seed
Blumea 16: 126 (1968). tray filled with an open, humus-rich soil mix at a
ARACEAE minimum temperature of 22°C. Rooting takes
2« = unknown place in about 2 weeks, and new growth begins
Synonyms Epipremnum zippelianum (Schott) from the nodes in about 4 weeks. Once growing
Engl. (1880), Epipremnopsis zippeliana (Schott) strongly, the stem section can be cut into pieces,
Alderw. (1920), Amydrium magnificum (Engl.) each bearing a rooted portion, and planted indi-
Nicolson (1968). vidually. In China, A. sinensis is sometimes prop-
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: gano- agated by stem cuttings too.
na, waliwaboya (Milne Bay). Genetic resources A. zippelianum has a fairly
Origin and geographic distribution A. zip- large area of distribution, and is locally rather
pelianum is distributed in the Philippines, Su- common. However, as it is more or less confined to
lawesi, the Talaud Islands, Halmahera and New lowland tropical rain forest, it may become endan-
Guinea. gered because this type of forest is under much
Uses There are records ofA. zippelianum being pressure in many regions.
used to treat coughs, cuts and swellings in Papua A. sinensis is found scattered in southern China
New Guinea (Milne Bay region). and northern Vietnam. It is confined to humid for-
est and collected for medicinal purposes, and microstachyum. A. montanum is here considered a
could easily become endangered. synonym of A. microstachyum. Calla montana
Prospects The absence of information on its Blume is apparently the basionym for Rhaphi-
phytochemistry and properties makes it impossi- dophora montana (Blume) Schott, not for Anaden-
ble to determine the potential of A. zippelianum drum montanum Schott, but further clarification
as a medicinal. is required.
Literature 103, 347, 677. Ecology A. microstachyum is a hemi-epiphyte
Other selected sources 672. climbing on trees, sometimes on rocks, usually in
Nguyen Van Dzu humid tropical rain forest, but also in secondary
forest and teak forest, in Java up to 1300 m alti-
tude. It is common in many places.
Anadendrum microstachyum (de Genetic resources A. microstachyum has a
Vriese &Miq.) Backer &Alderw. large area of distribution, is common in many re-
gions, and also occurs in secondary forest. It
Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, ser. 3, 1:371 (1920). seems safe to state that it is not liable to genetic
ARACEAE erosion.
2« =60 Prospects The absence of information on its
Synonyms Anadendrum montanum Schott phytochemistry and properties makes it impossi-
(1857). ble to determine the potential of A. microsta-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar meroyan chyum as a medicinal plant.
sembang, akar segunja, daun ketam (Peninsular). Literature 121, 611.
Thailand: krak (Phangnga), khieo hua duan Other selected sources 62.
(Chanthaburi), thao thakhaap (Trat). Vietnam: R.H.M.J. Lemmens
r[as]y th[uw][owj]ng th[uj] n[us]i.
Origin a n d geographic distribution A. mi-
crostachyum is found in Indo-China, southern Anaxagorea A. St.-Hil.
China, southern Burma (Myanmar), Thailand,
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Su- Bull. Sei. Soc.Philom. Paris 1825:91 (1825).
lawesi and the Philippines (Mindanao). ANNONACEAE
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, hot and oiled x =8;A. javanica: 2n = 16
leaves of A. microstachyum have been applied to Origin and geographic distribution Anaxa-
the abdomen to treat remittent fever and after gorea consists of about 25 species, most of which
childbirth, and a decoction of leaves and roots has are confined to tropical America. In South-East
been used internally during childbirth. The leaves Asia, 3 (perhaps 4) species have been found, all al-
are sometimes eaten in curries, and the roots as a so in Malesia.
vegetable. Uses A number of uses in traditional medicine
Botany A climbing herb up to 10 m long, creep- have been recorded for Anaxagorea in South-East
ing by means of adhesive roots. Leaves alternate, Asia: leaves are applied topically to treat rheuma-
distichous, obliquely ovate-oblong, (7.5-)9-25 cm x tism, and a decoction ofthe roots is given as a pro-
3.5-11.5 cm, entire, with reticulate fine venation; tective medicine after childbirth. In Thailand the
petiole (3.5-)5-25 cm long, with sheath nearly to heartwood is used as a blood tonic and to treat
apex, geniculate apically; stipules absent. Inflo- muscle pain. Seeds are used as camphor to pre-
rescence a spadix l-3.5(-5) cm x 0.5 cm, stipitate, serve clothes. The wood of larger plants is occa-
cylindrical, enclosed in an overtopping, greenish- sionally used, e.g. for rafters, and the bark as
white, caducous spathe. Flowers bisexual, with a cordage.
cup-like perianth; stamens 4; ovary superior, sub- In tropical America an infusion of bark and wood
quadrangular, 1-locular. Fruit a berry, subglo- is sometimes used against cough, the bark to treat
bose, distinctly truncate apically, orange-red, 1- headache and rheumatism, for cleaning the teeth,
seeded. Seed subglobose, with smooth glossy tes- as a deodorant and as cordage, and the wood occa-
ta; endosperm absent. sionally for construction work.
Anadendrum is classified in the subfamily Mons- Properties The occurrence of cyanogenic glyco-
teroideae as the only genus of the tribe Anaden- sides has been recorded in A. luzonensis leaves. 8-
dreae. It consists of approximately 7 species and is Isopentenylnaringenin was isolated from a me-
restricted to tropical Asia, to the same area as A. thanolic extract of A. luzonensis. This prenyl-
ANAXAGOREA 69
flavonoid compound is a non-steroidal oestrogen the way to design drugs that selectively block the
agonist with a more potent activity than genistein unwanted effects of oestrogen (particularly the de-
(from Leguminosae such as Pueraria montana velopment of breast and uterine cancer) and that
(Lour.) Merr.). In-vivo tests with ovariectomized mimic its beneficial effects.
rats showed that 8-isopentenylnaringenin acts as Literature 486, 582, 583,634.
an oestrogen agonist in the uterus as well as in
bone. Several xanthones and flavonoids were iso-
lated from the bark and heartwood. Several of Selection of species
these showed antioxidant activity.
From some tropical American Anaxagorea species, Anaxagorea javanica Blume
the aporphine alkaloids asimilobine and anaxa- Fl. Javae 66, t. 32, 36A (1830).
goreine have been isolated. Synonyms Anaxagorea scortechinii King
Botany Shrubs to small trees; twigs terete, (1892).
densely brownish-puberulous but often soon Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kekapur, seko-
glabrescent. Leaves alternate, distichous, simple bang kechil, pali monyet (Peninsular). Thailand:
and entire, petiolate; stipules absent. Inflores- champuun (Bangkok, peninsular).
cence terminal, leaf-opposed, in axils of leaves, on Distribution Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
short axillary shoots or cauliflorous, short-pedun- Singapore, Sumatra, western Java and Borneo;
culate or sessile. Flowers with apically thickened possibly also the southern Philippines.
pedicels, bisexual, regular, (2-)3-merous, white, U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
greenish-white or yellowish-white; sepals ovate to roots has been given after childbirth as a protec-
broadly ovate; petals in 1 or 2 whorls, fleshy; sta- tive medicine, whereas the seeds are used to pre-
mens numerous, innermost often staminodial; serve clothes, in the same way as camphor. The
carpels several to numerous, superior. Fruit con- wood is occasionally used for rafters, and the bark
sisting of several to many monocarps, these stipi- as cordage.
tate and more or less distinctly beaked, densely Observations A shrub or small tree up to
puberulous but often later glabrescent, greenish, 8(-15) m tall; leaves oblong to obovate, 10-22(-29)
dehiscing along the ventral suture, 2-seeded. cm x 3-12 cm; flowers with outer petals mostly
Seeds with outer side convex, inner side flat, more than 10 mm long, inner stamens staminodi-
smooth, shiny black. al, carpels 7 or more; monocarps with beak up to 1
The fragrant flowers are probably pollinated by mm long.A.javanica occurs in lowland forest, pri-
insects. The fleshy petals, which are often ap- mary as well as secondary, up to 500(-1100) m al-
pressed, may form a small pollination chamber. titude. It is a variable species subdivided into 3
The seeds can be ejected through the ventral slit varieties; probably collections from the Philip-
of the monocarps for several metres by an explod- pines described asA. radiata Robinson also belong
ing mechanism when the pressure caused by the to this species.
drying and shrinking wall is high enough. Selected sources 121,583.
Anaxagorea is one of the comparatively few gen-
era ofAnnonaceae with dehiscent, pod-like mono- Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray
carps, and is clearly distinct from all other genera. U.S. Expl. Exped., Phan. 1:27 (1854).
Ecology Anaxagorea occurs in lowland rain for- Synonyms Anaxagorea zeylanica Hook. &
est, often primary forest but sometimes also in Thomson (1855).
secondary forest, up to 600(-1100) m altitude. Vernacular names Philippines: dalairo (Taga-
Genetic resources A.javanica and A. luzonen- log), bagang-aso (Bikol), bobonoyang (Cebu Bi-
sis are both widespread and locally common, and saya). Thailand: kam-langwua thaloeng (Pra-
consequently not likely to be endangered. How- chuap Khiri Khan), chamaep (Trat), puun (Surat
ever, a third species, A. borneensis (Becc.) J. Sin- Thani). Vietnam: qu[ar] dfaafju ng[oox]ng.
clair, is only known from Borneo and may there- Distribution Sri Lanka, the Andaman Islands,
fore be more at risk ofgenetic erosion. Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Cambodia, Viet-
Prospects Plant-derived oestrogens may exert nam, Hainan, Thailand, central Java, eastern
beneficial effects in the treatment of cardiovascu- Borneo, eastern Sulawesi, the Moluccas and the
lar diseases, osteoporosis and menopause. Non- Philippines.
steroidal oestrogens such as 8-isopentenylnarin- U s e s In the Philippines fresh leaves are used
genin isolated from A. luzonensis wood may open topically to treat rheumatism in the joints. In
laysia: akar julong hitam, jenjulong akar, lidah

sapi (Peninsular). Thailand: kra-maa (Khmer,
Saraburi), khon maa (central), li-daa saa-pee
(Malay, peninsular). Vietnam: trung qu[aa]n.
Origin a n d geographic distribution Burma
(Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Hainan,
the Andaman Islands, Thailand, Peninsular Ma-
laysia, the Riau and Lingga Archipelago, Bangka,
Belitung, southern Sumatra and western Borneo.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, a
decoction of A. tectorius roots is used to treat
dysentery and malaria. In Peninsular Malaysia, a
decoction of the roots is drunk to improve blood
circulation. In Thailand, leaves are used to treat
kidney diseases, young leaves are eaten as
flavouring, whereas old ones are used for thatch-
ing. The stems are sometimes used, e.g. for roofing
boats and for arrows.
A. abbreviatus Airy Shaw, endemic in West Africa,
is widely used in folk medicine, e.g. against malar-
ia and elephantiasis, and as a laxative; some other
species are also used in traditional medicine in
Africa.
P r o p e r t i e s Several isoquinoline alkaloids have
been isolated from A. tectorius. Tests with bark
and leaf extracts confirmed its antimalarial activi-
ty. The naphthylisoquinoline alkaloid-containing
Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray - 1, fruiting twig; extracts showed potent growth-inhibiting activity
2, flower; 3, fruit. on Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei in
vitro.
Thailand chips of the heartwood are traded on lo- Several interesting alkaloids have been isolated
cal markets for use as a blood tonic and to treat from A. korupensis D.W. Thomas & Gereau, na-
muscle pain. tive to Cameroon and Nigeria. Michellamines
Observations A shrub up to 1.5(-4) m tall; showed more potent antioxidants in assays than
leaves elliptical, (3.5-)6-21 cm x 2-8 cm; flowers several compounds being considered clinically as
with outer petals mostly less than 10 mm long, chemoprevention agents. These compounds and
staminodes absent, carpels up to 5; monocarps korundamine A demonstrated in-vitro anticyto-
with beak over 1 mm long.A. luzonensis occurs in pathic activity against HIV-1. Korundamine A
lowland forest, primary as well as secondary, up and korupensamines exhibited in-vitro antimalar-
to 600 m altitude. ial activity against Plasmodium falciparum. Ex-
Selected sources 284, 486, 583,634, 760. tracts and pure naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids
R.H.M.J. Lemmens derived from the African species A. abbreviatus
and A. barteri Scott-Elliot also showed in-vitro an-
timalarial activity. Furthermore, the triterpene
A n c i s t r o c l a d u s t e c t o r i u s (Lour.) M e r r . betulinic acid was isolated from the Indian A.
heyneanus Wallich ex J. Graham; it was found to
Lingnan Sei.Journ. 6: 329 (1930). exhibit moderate to good in-vitro antimalarial ac-
ANCISTROCLADACEAE tivity against Plasmodium falciparum. In addi-
In =unknown tion, the naphthylisoquinoline alkaloid dionco-
Synonyms Ancistrocladus extensus Wallich ex phylline A isolated from A. abbreviatus showed
Planchon (1849), Ancistrocladus pinangianus molluscicidal and fungicidal activities.
Wallich ex Planchon (1849). Botany A liana or scandent shrub with tendril-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: akar bebulus, like shoots provided with curved, ultimately
belulus (Bangka), trung bulus (Belitung). Ma- woody hooks mostly arranged unilaterally. Leaves
ANNESLEA 71
alternate, usually crowded above some older are flowers with smaller perianth and reduced
hooks, simple and entire, mostly elliptical-obo- stamens and ovary. The leafy branches arise from
vate, 9-30 cm x 3-10 cm, glabrous, minutely pit- the axil ofhooks.
ted, venation reticulate, sessile; stipules absent. Ancistrocladus consists of approximately 22
Inflorescence usually between the crowded leaves, species, 13 of which occur in tropical Africa and 9
dichotomously branched with divaricate, up to 15 in tropical Asia. The affinity of the genus is un-
cm long branches. Flowers often crowded at the clear and it is classified in a separate family.
tips of the inflorescence branches, bisexual, regu- Dipterocarpaceae have most often been suggested
lar, 5-merous, small; pedicel articulate; calyx with as related, mainly because of the rather similar
short tube and 5 unequal lobes enlarged and fruits. The occurrence of similar naphthyliso-
wing-like in fruit, some or all lobes with promi- quinoline alkaloids in the African family Dionco-
nent glands; petals united at base, obliquely phyllaceae has been reason to suggest a phyloge-
ovate, 3-3.5 mm long; stamens 10, alternately un- netic link withAncistrocladaceae. This is also sup-
equal, filaments broadened at base; ovary inferior, ported by comparative studies ofthe wood.
1-celled, protruding into a nipple-shaped elonga- Ecology A. tectorius occurs in mixed forest and
tion bearing 3 articulated styles. Fruit a nut scrub vegetation in the lowland, often near the
crowned by the much enlarged unequal calyx sea, sometimes close to the beach, mostly on
lobes up to 5 cm x 2 cm. Seed obconical with flat siliceous soils.
apex, c. 5 mm long; endosperm ruminate. Seedling Genetic resources A. tectorius is rather wide-
with epigeal germination; cotyledons thin, leaf- spread and is not very demanding as far as habi-
like. tat is concerned. It does not seem to be easily li-
The hook-like structures are modified peduncles. able to genetic erosion.
The hooks sometimes have enlarged tips, which Prospects The naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids
present in Ancistrocladus proved to be pharmaco-
logically very interesting. Several of these have
potent antimalarial activity, indicating a confir-
mation of the use in traditional medicine against
malaria, and, in A. korupensis from Africa, also
anti-HIV activity. However, organic and aqueous
extracts ofA. tectorius have been shown to be in-
active in in-vitro anti-HIV assays.
Literature 108, 247, 260, 457.
Other selected sources 121, 282, 596, 643,
705, 731,800.
H.C. Ong
Anneslea fragrans Wallich

PI. asiat. rar. 1:5,t. 5 (1829).
THEACEAE
2n =unknown
Vernacular names Cambodia: sau phi. Thai-
land: saraphi, hak (northern), ban ma (north-east-
ern). Vietnam: lu[uw][ow]ng x[uw][ow]ng, ch[ef]
b[es]o.
Origin and geographic distribution Burma
(Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Hainan,
Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia.
U s e s In Cambodia, the bark, mixed with other
drugs, has been applied to treat dysentery and as
Ancistrocladus tectorius (Lour.) Merr. - 1, branch a vermifuge, and the leaves have been used in a
with inflorescence; 2, flower; 3, flower in longitudi- complex mixture which was considered a good
nal section; 4, fruit. remedy for fever. In China, the bark is used to
treat diarrhoea and dysentery, and in Vietnam dens was introduced as an ornamental in the
and China against liver inflammation. Philippines already at the beginning of the 19th
Botany A small to medium-sized tree up to 25 Century.
m tall, with columnar bole, not buttressed; outer Uses In the Philippines, the tuberous roots ofA.
bark reddish, smooth or shallowly grid-cracked, scandens are used topically to hasten the ripening
inner bark fibrous, brown. Leaves alternate, sim- of boils. They are applied traditionally in Mexico
ple and entire, lanceolate to oblanceolate or obo- for the treatment of broken bones and flesh
vate, 6-15 cm x 2.5-5.5 cm, cuneate at base, usu- wounds. Chopped leaves ofA. cordifolia in boiling
ally acute at apex, leathery; petiole 2-3 cm long; water are used in folk medicine in Colombia and
stipules absent. Inflorescence terminal, umbel- Taiwan to treat diabetes and as an analgesic. In
like. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, with 2 Laos, the entire plant is applied in cases of arthri-
bracteoles subtending the calyx; calyx with un- tis, diarrhoea and to wounds.
equal, up to 1.5 cm long lobes, persistent; petals Properties Triterpenoid saponins such as
shortly connate at base, up to 2 cm long, constrict- boussingoside A l are responsible for the hypogly-
ed below the middle; stamens numerous, anthers caemic activity of A. cordifolia extracts, as has
linear, with prolonged connective; ovary semi-in- been demonstrated in experiments with rats and
ferior to inferior, 2-3-celled, style filiform, persis- mice with induced diabetes. In addition to several
tent. Fruit berry-like, globular to ovoid, c. 2 cm in boussingosides, other triterpenes including lar-
diameter, crowned by the calyx lobes, with several reagenin A, oleanolic derivatives and ursolic acid
seeds. have been isolated.
Anneslea consists of 3-7 species, depending on the Significant wound healing and anti-inflammatory
species concept, and has the same area of distribu- properties have been found in Anredera species
tion as A. fragrans. In addition A. steenisii Kobus- used as a medicinal plant in tropical America; ex-
ki occurs in the mountains of northern Sumatra tracts had no effect on cell proliferation and did
and A. lanceolata (Hayata) Kanehira in Taiwan. not exhibit mutagenic activity. Ethanolic extracts
A. fragrans is a variable species within which sev- of A. cordifolia showed inhibitory effects on spas-
eral varieties have been distinguished. In Malesia mogen-induced contractions of isolated gastric
(Peninsular Malaysia) only var. crassipes (Hook.f. fundus preparations of rats. An aqueous extract of
ex Choisy) Pierre (synonym: A. crassipes Hook.f. dried A. cordifolia buds showed antihepatotoxic
ex Choisy) has been found. activity in rats at a dose of 30 mg/kg. A retrochal-
Ecology A. fragrans occurs scattered or in small cone was isolated from A. scandens roots.
groups in open deciduous or evergreen forest, par- Botany Branched perennial climbing herbs
ticularly at the summit or on ridges of hills and with annual or short-lived shoots arising from a
mountains, at 800-2000 m altitude. fleshy rhizome or tuberous roots; shoots up to 6 m
Genetic resources A. fragrans is fairly widely long. Leaves alternate, simple and entire, slightly
distributed, and often grows in inaccessible loca- fleshy, sessile or shortly petiolate; stipules absent.
tions in mountainous regions. It is therefore un- Inflorescence an axillary raceme or spike, simple
likely to be endangered by habitat destruction. or branched. Flowers bisexual, sometimes func-
Prospects Too little is known about the proper- tionally unisexual, regular, sweet-scented; pedicel
ties and phytochemistry ofA. fragrans tojudge its articulate, with 2 pairs of bracteoles at the apex,
potential as a medicinal plant. lower pair small, connate, forming a cuplet, or free
Literature 494, 732. and caducous, upper pair tepaloid, convex or boat-
Other selected sources 121,249, 990. shaped, often keeled or even winged on the back;
R.H.M.J. Lemmens perianth consisting of 5 segments connate at base,
patent and thin in anthesis, later thickening and
enclosing the fruit; stamens 5, inserted on the
Anredera Juss. tepals; ovary superior, 1-celled, style splitting to
various degrees into 3 arms, each with an oblong
Gen. pi.: 84 (1789). to club-shaped papillose stigma. Fruit a globose
BASELLACEAE utricle enclosed by the perianth, indéhiscent, 1-
x =unknown; A.cordifolia: 2n = 24 seeded. Seed lens-shaped, with semi-circular to
Origin a n d geographic distribution Anrede- horseshoe-shaped embryo.
ra consists of approximately 10 species, and orig- Anredera does not produce seeds in Malesia. It
inates from the warmer parts ofAmerica. A. scan- can be confused with Basella, the only other genus
ANREDERA 73
of Basellaceae occurring in Malesia, which differs Selection of species

in its very fleshy perianth enclosing the fruit. B.
alba L., which is primarily a popular vegetable, is Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) v. Steenis
also used in traditional medicine. Fl. Males., ser. 1, 5(3):303 (1957).
Ecology A. scandens apparently needs a dry Synonyms Boussingaultia cordifolia Ten.
season for its development and grows badly in (1853), Boussingaultia gracilis Miers (1864),
perhumid climates. Boussingaultia baselloides auct. non Humb., Bon-
Management Anredera can be propagated veg- pl. & Kunth.
etatively by small tubercles found in the axils of Vernacular n a m e s Madeira vine, mignonette
the leaves. Leaf spots caused by Alternaria alter- vine (Am).Vietnam: m[uf]ng t[ow]i c[ur].
nata have been observed on cultivated A. cordifo- Distribution Native to tropical South America,
lia. introduced in many tropical countries, e.g. in Viet-
Genetic resources Both Anredera species nam and Java.
treated here are widely cultivated throughout the Uses Chopped leaves in boiling water are used
world, but they are only locally present in Malesia in folk medicine in Colombia and Taiwan to treat
as a result of a few introductions. The genetic di- diabetes and as an analgesic.
versity is therefore likely to be limited, the more Observations A perennial climber with thick
so since they do not produce seeds in this region rhizome and short-lived shoots up to 6 m long;
and are only vegetatively propagated. leaves ovate to subcordate, 1-11 cm x 1-8 cm;
Prospects The hypoglycaemic and anti-inflam- flowers with lower bracteoles connate and forming
matory activities of Anredera extracts deserve a cuplet, upper bracteoles flattened, not keeled,
more attention. perianth white, patent in anthesis. A. cordifolia
Literature 233,247, 567. is planted as an ornamental in the lowlands of
Java.
Selected sources 233,247, 556, 561, 567.
Anredera scandens (L.) Moq.

D C , Prodr. 13(2): 230 (1849).
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: malabato, oli-
bato (Tagalog).
Distribution Native to tropical America, intro-
duced and naturalized in the Philippines.
Uses In the Philippines, the tuberous roots are
applied topically to hasten ripening of boils. They
are used traditionally in Mexico for the treatment
ofbroken bones and flesh wounds.
Observations A perennial climber with large
tuberous roots and short-lived shoots up to 5 m
long; leaves ovate to ovate-oblong, 1.5-8.5 cm x
1-6 cm; flowers with lower bracteoles free, ca-
ducous, upper bracteoles boat-shaped, broadly
winged on the back, perianth greenish-white, lit-
tle opening in anthesis. A. scandens is planted as
an ornamental and naturalized in the lowlands of
the Philippines.
Selected sources 126, 247, 760.
K.H.M.J. Lemmens
Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) v. Steenis - 1, flowering

twig; 2, flower bud; 3, flower; 4, opened perianth
and stamens.
Antidesma montanum Blume veins; petiole 3-7(-12) mm long; stipules subulate,

caducous. Male inflorescence branched, slender,
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 17: 1124 (1827). female inflorescence often simple. Flowers small,
EUPHORBIACEAE unisexual, solitary in the axil of bracts; calyx
2n =unknown 3-4(-5)-lobed, lobes short and broad, often irregu-
SynonymsAntidesma nitidum Tul. (1851). larly dentate; petals absent; male flowers with 3-4
Vernacular names Indonesia: ande-ande, ke- stamens inserted between the lobed disk, rudi-
nyan pasir, wunen (Javanese). Malaysia: gunchi- ment of pistil glabrous; female flowers with supe-
ak, gunchian, berunai (Peninsular). Thailand: ma- rior, glabrous, l(-2)-locular ovary, 3 styles and
mao khon (Chiang Mai), mamao hin (Chumphon), annular disk. Fruit a small drupe, globose, ellip-
mao polo (Trang, Surat Thani). Vietnam: ch[of]i soid or obovoid, 5-8 mm long, glabrous, dark red
m[of]i n[us]i, ch[of]i m[of]g[aa]n l[ox]m. at maturity, often white-pustulate when dry.
Origin and geographic distribution A. mon- Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons
tanum occurs from Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi- emergent, leafy; hypocotyl elongated.
na and Thailand to western Malesia (Peninsular Antidesma comprises about 200 species distrib-
Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda Is- uted in the Old World tropics, but mainly in tropi-
lands, the Philippines and Sulawesi). cal Asia. Some authors separate the genus from
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia grated roots of A. the Euphorbiaceae and place it in a separate fami-
montanum in water have been used internally to ly, the Stilaginaceae. It is often difficult to identify
treat measles, chickenpox and malaria, and the the individual species.
leaves externally against headache and thrush in Ecology A. montanum occurs in primary as
children. In Thailand roots and stems are used as well as secondary forest, riverine forest and
a diuretic. The fruits are reportedly edible. shrubby vegetation up to 1000 m altitude, and is
The leaves of other Antidesma species are also common. It is recorded from many different soils,
used medicinally in South-East Asia, e.g. those of including clay, sandstone, limestone and peat.
A.ghaesembilla Gaertner which serve in poultices Genetic resources It is unlikely that A. mon-
to treat headache, scurf and swellings, and in an tanum will become threatened because it is com-
infusion against fever, those of A. cuspidatum mon in its large area of distribution and is not dis-
Müll. Arg. to treat flatulence, and those of A. criminating in habitat.
bunius (L.) Sprengel which are acid and di- Prospects Research is needed to confirm the re-
aphoretic and used as stimulant and to treat puted beneficial effects of A. montanum in tradi-
syphilis. These species are primarily used for their tional medicine.
timber and, in the case ofA. bunius, also for their Literature 45,121.
edible fruits. In Java, leaves ofA. bunius are also Other selected sources 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 62,
commonly applied in traditional veterinary medi- 990.
cine for sheep and goats. A. neurocarpum Miq. R.H.M.J. Lemmens
and A. tetrandrum Blume play a role in magic rit-
uals in Siberut.
Properties No information is available on the Apostasia nuda R.Br.
phytochemistry or pharmacological properties of
A. montanum, except the presence of the peptide Wallich, PL asiat. rar. 1:76 (1830).
alkaloids aralionine B and myrianthine B. Triter- ORCHIDACEAE
penes have been found in several other Antidesma 2n = 48
species, e.g. A. bunius. The alkaloid scutianine Synonyms Apostasia brunonis Griff. (1851),
has been isolated from a Philippine Antidesma Apostasia lobbii Reichenb. f. (1872), Adactylus
species (probably A. microcarpum Elmer); in ani- nudus (R.Br.) Rolfe (1896).
mal models, this compound has exhibited anti-in- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: si sarsar bu-
flammatory activity. Seed extracts of A. bunius lung, si marsari-sari, duhut bane-bane (Sumatra).
show molluscicidal activity. Malaysia: pokok pelampas budak, kenching pe-
Botany A shrub or small tree up to 15 m tall, landok, menkuang tikus (Peninsular). Singapore:
with finely puberulous stems. Leaves alternate carmion. Vietnam: c[oor]Ian tr[aaf]n.
and distichous, simple and entire, elliptical-ob- Origin and geographic distribution A. nuda
long, 7-20 cm x 3-8 cm, acuminate, membranous, occurs in Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, southern
conspicuously pinnately veined, hairy only on the Vietnam, peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malay-
AQUILARIA 75
sia, Sumatra, Bangka, western Java and Borneo. J.J. Smith). A. nuda may already be suffering
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of A. from genetic erosion in parts of its fairly large
nuda roots has been used as a poultice to treat di- area of distribution.
arrhoea, and a decoction of the fruits to treat sore Prospects Research is needed to confirm the re-
eyes. A. wallichii R.Br, has reportedly been used puted beneficial effects of A. nuda in traditional
against diabetes in Peninsular Malaysia. medicine ofPeninsular Malaysia.
Botany An erect, completely glabrous terrestri- Literature 121,203.
al herb with scaly rhizome and aerial roots from Other selected sources 249,334, 440, 890.
the lower part; stem often branched, up to 60(-70) Diah Sulistiarini
cm tall. Leaves alternate, distinctly spaced, lin-
ear-lanceolate, (13-)17-27(-45) cm x 0.5-1.5 cm,
tapering into an apical filiform tubular prolonga- Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne.) Ridley
tion, veins numerous. Inflorescence a terminal
branched and pendulous raceme, with a tuft of Journ. Straits Br. Roy. As. Soc. 35:80 (1901).
sterile bracts at base. Flowers slightly zygomor- THYMELAEACEAE
phic, 3-merous; pedicel short, irregularly ribbed; 2n = unknown
sepals and petals recurved, keeled and cuspidate, Synonyms Gyrinopsis cumingiana Decne.
white or yellow; stamens 2, on a column formed by (1843).
the base ofthe filaments and ofthe style; ovary in- Vernacular names Indonesia: giba kolano
ferior, cylindrical and triangular in cross-section, (Halmahera). Philippines: palisan (Tagalog), bago
3-locular, style free in upper part, stigma distinct. (Manobo), binukat (Aklan Bisaya).
Fruit a thin-walled capsule with numerous seeds. Origin and geographic distribution A. cu-
Seeds regularly alveolate to nearly smooth, with mingiana occurs in the Philippines, southern Bor-
apical appendage. neo (Sampit region) and the Moluccas (Morotai
A. nuda can be found flowering and fruiting and Halmahera).
throughout the year. Uses In the Philippines the bark and roots ofA.
Apostasia consists of 7 species and is distributed cumingiana are applied to wounds to stop bleed-
from Nepal and Sri Lanka to Japan and Queens- ing, whereas bark, wood and fruits are used as a
land (Australia); 6 species occur in Malesia. Apos- substitute for quinine.
tasia is often considered as belonging to Orchi- A. malaccensis Lamk (synonym: A. agallocha
daceae. However, it differs by the 2 anthers borne Roxb.) is more commonly used medicinally. How-
on separate filaments and the free style and stig- ever, its most important product is the famous
ma, and is placed by some authors in a separate agar wood: resin-containing heartwood produced
family Apostasiaceae together with Neuwiedia. from old and diseased trees, which is highly es-
There is still considerable disagreement in litera- teemed as incense for ceremonial purposes. The
ture whether Apostasia and Neuwiedia should be incense is also used against cancer, especially of
considered to represent a separate, primitive the thyroid gland, and in China as a sedative
group (tribe or subfamily) in Orchidaceae, or a against abdominal complaints, asthma, colics and
separate family. The possession of predominantly diarrhoea, and as an aphrodisiac, carminative and
simple perforation plates in root vessels seems to insect repellent. Grated wood enters into various
point to a position as a sister group to the orchids preparations used especially during and after
and not to an ancestral position. Apostasia resem- childbirth, and to treat rheumatism, smallpox and
bles Curculigo (Hypoxidaceae), but it does not abdominal pains. It is used as a blood and heart
seem closely related. tonic in Thailand. Wood ofA. crassna Pierre ex H.
Ecology A. nuda occurs in the undergrowth of Lecomte is considered to be stomachic and tran-
primary forest, mostly on hills and mountain quillizing in traditional medicine in Vietnam, and
slopes at 100-1300 m altitude. is prescribed as a powder, aqueous preparation or
Genetic resources Apostasia species are re- tincture against gastralgia, nausea, vomiting and
stricted to a type of habitat that is under increas- anxiety.
ing pressure: the undergrowth of lowland primary Properties No information is available on phy-
rain forest. Therefore, they may easily become en- tochemistry or pharmacological properties of A.
dangered, especially the species with limited dis- cumingiana.
tribution (e.g. A. latifolia Rolfe and A. parvula A benzene extract ofA. malaccensis wood showed
Schltr.) and those which are rare (e.g. A. elliptica neuroleptic properties in tests with mice; jinkoh-
eremol and agarospirol were identified as the ac- paid for high quality agar wood and for the essen-
tive principles. Tests with rats suggest that an tial oil and the indiscriminate felling of diseased
aqueous extract inhibits the immediate hypersen- and healthy trees threaten natural stands of sev-
sitivity reaction by inhibition of histamine release eral Aquilaria species including A. malaccensis
from mast cells. A hot water extract of the wood with extinction. A. malaccensis is listed in Appen-
exhibited smooth muscle relaxant activity on dix II of the Convention on International Trade in
acetylcholine and histamine induced motility ac- Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora
tivities. (CITES). A. cumingiana with its shrubby habit
Cytotoxic compounds have also been demonstrat- does not seem to be exploited for this purpose, but
ed in the bark and wood ofA. malaccensis. A wood its preference for lowland primary forest and the
extract exhibited significant activity in the Eagles' high pressure on this type of habitat in its area of
carcinoma ofthe nasopharynx test system. A bark distribution warrant attention for protection mea-
extract showed distinct activity in the P-388 lym- sures.
phocytic leukaemia system in vitro, but was inac- Prospects Research is needed to confirm the re-
tive against the same system in vivo; the cytotoxic puted medicinal properties ofA. cumingiana. This
compounds from the bark were identified as 1,3- seems worthwhile in the light of the pharmacolog-
dibehenyl-2-ferulyl glyceride and 12-O-n-deca- ical activity demonstrated in other Aquilaria
2,4,6-trienoylphorbol-13-acetate. An alcoholic ex- species.
tract ofthe wood has been reported to exhibit mild Literature 247, 760.
cardiotonic activity. Decoctions of the wood of A. Other selected sources 300, 482, 671, 699,
malaccensis are said to have antimicrobial proper- 711,1058.
ties, e.g. against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Cheksum S. Tawan
Shigella flexneri.
Botany A shrub or small tree up to 5 m tall;
bark grey, mottled, smooth, bast consisting of Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. & de
silky fibres; young branches initially densely pu- Vriese) Miq.
bescent but glabrescent. Leaves alternate, simple
and entire, oblong-lanceolate to elliptical-oblong Fl. Ned. Ind. 1(1):763 (1856).
or ovate-oblong, 14-18 cm x 5.5-8.5 cm, usually ARALIDIACEAE
cuneate at base, acute or acuminate at apex, char- 2« =c. 40
taceous to subcoriaceous, usually glabrous, pin- Vernacular n a m e s Brunei: daun tutchol antu
nately veined with 12-18 pairs of veins; petiole (Iban). Indonesia: kayu attarodan (Sumatra, Ba-
4-6 mm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence usual- tak), segentut (Gayo), medung (general). Malay-
ly axillary, often simple and umbelliform; pedun- sia: balai, sebalai, hempedu buaya (Peninsular).
cle c. 5 mm long. Flowers bisexual, regular, usual- Thailand: khot nok kuut (Phangnga), phrom-
ly 5-merous, 13-16 mm long, whitish; pedicel c. 3 makhot (Nakhon Si Thammarat, Trang), phapuu
mm long, articulated at base; calyx tube cylindri- nga (Yala).
cal, puberulous, lobes 2-3 mm long; petaloid ap- Origin and geographic distribution A. pin-
pendages usually 10,united into a ring and insert- natifidum is distributed in peninsular Thailand,
ed near apex of the calyx tube; stamens usually Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and
10, inserted near petaloid appendages, sessile; Borneo.
ovary superior, short-stiped, 2-loculate, style U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves of A.
short, stigma capitate. Fruit a globose to ellipsoid pinnatifidum are reputedly used as a poultice to
loculicidal capsule, protruding laterally from the treat boils and are used as a diaphoretic against
split floral tube, c. 2 cm long, orange-red, 1-2- fever. A decoction of the leaves is said to be useful
seeded. Seeds broadly ovoid, plano-convex, c. 1 cm in a foment for treating rheumatism. A decoction
long, with a short appendage. of the roots is drunk or a piece of the stem is
Aquilaria consists of approximately 15 species placed in the mouth to induce bowel movement.
and occurs in tropical and part of subtropical Asia. Smoke from burning leaves is used to repel insects
It is most closely related to Gyrinops, which dif- from rice fields. A. pinnatifidum is listed among
fers in its 5 stamens. plants used as dart poison. The dull red and hard
Ecology A. cumingiana occurs in primary forest wood is sometimes used for construction, but it is
at low and medium altitudes. only available in smaller dimensions. It may be
Genetic resources The extremely high prices useful for flooring and furniture.
ARDISIA 77
Properties The iridoid glucosides griselinoside petals imbricate; male flowers with persistent
and aralidioside have been isolated from A. pin- petals, 5 stamens and rudimentary ovary; female
natifidum. Flavonoid constituents are absent in flowers with caducous petals, 5 staminodes and
the leaves. A general phytochemical screening inferior, 1-celled ovary, styles 3-4. Fruit drupe-
showed the presence of alkaloids and terpenes in like, usually obliquely ellipsoid, up to 4.5 cm long,
the leaves. purplish or black and juicy when ripe, 1-seeded.
The wood is dull red, hard and with fine grain. It Seed broadly ellipsoid, up to 2.5 cm long, with
often splits badly during drying. deep ruminations at the surface.
Botany A small dioecious tree up to 10 m tall, A. pinnatifidum can be found flowering and fruit-
rarely up to 20 m tall, with bole up to 25 cm in di- ing throughout the year. It is the single species of
ameter; buds enclosed in long-shedding leaf-bases. a genus which was often included in Araliaceae or
Leaves arranged spirally, pinnately incised, fre- Cornaceae. However, it has several unique fea-
quently as deep as the midrib, with lobes oblong- tures. For that reason, it was suggested that it be
acuminate and decurrent on the midrib, occasion- placed separately in Griseliniaceae because it
ally blade entire and broadly ovate, c. 30 cm long, seemed to be related to Griselinia. After a multi-
glabrous; petiole 5-12 cm long, clasping the stem; disciplinary study however it was concluded that
stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal or occa- the establishment of a separate family Aralidi-
sionally axillary panicle, up to 50 cm long, pendu- aceae was most appropriate. A. pinnatifidum can
lous, many-flowered. Flowers small, unisexual, 5- be mistaken for Artocarpus species, which have
merous, creamy or red-tinged, fragrant; pedicel similar leaves.
articulated; calyx and petals densely puberulent, Ecology A. pinnatifidum occurs frequently in
primary rain forest, but is also commonly found in
open bamboo forest and secondary regrowth, up to
1250 m altitude, in Borneo up to 1800 m.
Management A. pinnatifidum can be cultivat-
ed easily; it has no special requirements and
grows well under partial shade or under open but
cool conditions, such as forest edges.
Genetic resources Concerns about A. pinnati-
fidum being endangered seem to be unnecessary
because it is common in many regions, even in sec-
ondary regrowth, and is not often gathered.
Prospects Little is known about the con-
stituents of A. pinnatifidum, and nothing about
its pharmacological properties. Compounds such
as flavonoids, which often have interesting phar-
macological activities, are very poorly represent-
ed. It is still uncertain whether the traditional us-
es bear any relation to active constituents.
Literature 121,247.
744.
H.C. Ong
Ardisia Sw.
Prodr.: 3, 48(1788).
MYRSINACEAE
x = 23;A. crenata, A. solanacea: In = 46
Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. & de Vriese) Origin and geographic distribution Ardisia
Miq. - 1, flowering branch; 2, bud of male flower; comprises almost 400 species and shows a pan-
3, male flower; 4, bud of female flower; 5, female tropical distribution. It occurs throughout South-
flower; 6,fruit; 7, seed. East Asia with western Malesia as the main cen-
tre of diversity. For southern Vietnam 48 species species is rich in bergenin, and shows anti-acetyl-
have been recorded, Thailand has some 72 choline activity.
species, Peninsular Malaysia 75, Borneo 92 and The methanol extract of aerial parts ofA. japonica
New Guinea 31. showed moderate anti-human immunodeficiency
Uses Common uses of Ardisia in traditional virus (HIV) activity in vitro. Several triterpenoid
medicine in South-East Asia include the external saponins have been isolated, but only bergenin
treatment of skin diseases, wounds and rheuma- and norbergenin showed weak anti-HIV activity.
tism and internal application against stomach- Two alkenyl-l,4-benzoquinones, ardisianones A
ache and fever. For these purposes, usually a de- and B, and maesanin isolated from its roots are 5-
coction ofthe roots or leaves is used. lipoxygenase inhibitors. Two benzenoids with an-
The wood is occasionally used for posts in local tituberculosis activity, ardisinols I and II, were
house building, e.g. that ofA. copelandii Mez and isolated from A. japonica.
A. lanceolata Roxb. The fruits of some species are Several 1,4-benzoquinone derivatives named ar-
edible, e.g. those of A. crenata and A. lurida disiaquinones have been isolated from the Japan-
Blume. Young shoots and leaves of A. elliptica ese A. sieboldii Miq.; these showed inhibitory ef-
Thunberg and A. laevigata Blume are sometimes fect on 5-lipoxygenase, with ardisiaquinone A as
eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable, whereas in the the most potent enzyme inhibitor. Two saponins
Philippines flowers and fruits of A. squamulosa isolated from A. pusilla A.DC. from China and
Presl are cooked as a flavouring with fish. The Japan showed marked immunomodulatory and
bark ofA. serrata (Cav.) Pers. is occasionally used antitumour activities.
for tanning, and the fruits ofA. solanacea for dye- Botany Shrubs or small trees, rarely subshrubs
ing a yellowish colour. Some Ardisia species are or medium-sized trees up to 12(-35) m tall;
planted as an ornamental. A. japonica (Hörnst.) branches often flattened-triangular at base.
Blume from China and Japan is used in tradition- Leaves alternate, occasionally subopposite or sub-
al medicine to treat coughs and uterine bleeding. verticellate, simple, entire to toothed, dotted with
Properties Root extracts of A. oxyphylla glands, sometimes scaly; stipules absent. Inflores-
showed significant activity against Entamoeba cence an axillary or terminal raceme, panicle,
histolytica and Trichomonas vaginalis in vitro. cyme, corymb or umbel. Flowers bisexual, (4-)5-
The active compound was identified as the benzo- merous; calyx deeply split, often dotted with
quinone rapanone. glands; corolla usually with very short tube, lobes
A methanol extract of leaves and twigs of the overlapping to the right; stamens inserted to the
Philippine A. iwahigensis Elmer, as well as the corolla tube by very short filaments; ovary superi-
alkenylphenol ardisenone isolated from it, demon- or, 1Jocular, style slender, stigma minute. Fruit a
strated moderate cytotoxicity against several hu- globose drupe, usually red-purple to black when
man cancer cell lines in culture. Ardisiphenols mature, 1-seeded. Seed globose. Seedling with
A-C, isolated from A. sanguinolenta fruits, show- epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, rudi-
ed scavenging activity and cytotoxicity against mentary or leafy; hypocotyl elongated; leaves
murine breast cancer cell lines. A benzoquinonoid arranged spirally, involute.
compound with antimetastatic and antitumour ef- In recent years many new species have been de-
fects was isolated from A. crenata in Korea. scribed inArdisia. It is subdivided into 17 subgen-
Bergenin derivatives and other triterpenoid sa- era. The genera Tetrardisia and Afrardisia from
ponins have been isolated from A. crenata roots. Africa were recently included inArdisia. Self-com-
The triterpenoid saponins ardisicrenoside C and D patibility is widespread in Ardisia.
showed inhibitory activity on cAMP phosphodi- Ecology Most Ardisia species are shrubs or
esterase, whereas an aqueous acetic acid extract treelets growing in the understorey of lowland
of the roots showed utero-contracting activity in evergreen forest, but some can be found up to
rats, with ardisiacrispin A and B as the active 2500 m altitude.
compounds. A cyclic depsipeptide isolated from A. Management Propagation of some Ardisia
crenata inhibits platelet aggregation, decreases species (e.g.A. crenata) by stem and root cuttings
blood pressure and has hypotensive and cytotoxic has been practised successfully.
activities. Genetic resources As can be expected in such
Ethanolic extracts of A. solanacea leaves, stems a large genus, some species are widely distributed
and seeds showed distinct activity against many and common, whereas others are endemic to small
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. This areas and uncommon (e.g. A. crassa). Those
ARDISIA 79
species which are in demand for medicinal purpos-

es are usually the more common ones (e.g. A. cre-
nata,A. sanguinolenta).
Prospects Ardisia has been shown to possess
very interesting pharmacological properties,
mainly due to the presence of benzoquinone deriv-
atives and triterpenoid saponins. Several of these
properties seem tojustify more research.
Literature 121, 249, 262, 365, 542, 747, 883,
967,1052.
Ardisia crassa C.B. Clarke

Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 3:518 (1882).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pokok pelandok
paya, sepuri tanah (Peninsular).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Singa-
pore.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia boiled roots are
applied as a plaster to treat rheumatism.
Observations A shrub or small tree; leaves el-
liptical, 10-22.5 cm x 4-6 cm, glabrous, secondary
veins 20-25 pairs; inflorescence a condensed, al-
most capitate cyme; corolla pinkish; fruit c. 6 mm
in diameter. A. crassa is uncommon in lowland
forest. Ardisia crenata Sims - 1, root system; 2, flowering
Selected sources 121,789, 895, 990. branchlet; 3,fruiting branch.
Ardisia crenata Sims elliptical-lanceolate or oblanceolate, 6-15 cm x 2-4

Curtis' Bot. Mag. 45:pi. 1950 (1818). cm, glabrous, with many glandular dots and dis-
Synonyms Ardisia crispa A.DC. (1834). tinct marginal glands, secondary veins 12-18
Vernacular n a m e s Village ardisia, coralberry, pairs, indistinct; inflorescence subumbellate or
spiceberry (En). Indonesia: mata ayam (Bangka), corymbose, terminal on branchlets; corolla 4-6
popinoh (Lampung). Malaysia: mata ayam, mata mm long, white or pinkish; fruit 6-8 mm in diame-
pelandok. Philippines: atarolon, tagpo (Tagalog). ter, bright red. A. crenata is common in lowland
Cambodia: ping chap. Thailand: chamkhruea forest, often in humid locations, up to 1200 m alti-
(northern), tinchamkhok (north-eastern), tappla tude.
(south-eastern). Vietnam: tr[oj]ng d[ux]a, c[ow]m Selected sources 62, 121, 249, 334, 412, 429,
ngu[ooj]i r[aw]ng. 430, 448, 633,967, 990.
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, southern Ko- Ardisia fuliginosa Blume
rea, southern Japan, Peninsular Malaysia, Suma- Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 692 (1826).
tra, Java and the Philippines. Distribution Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the
U s e s The juice is used externally against skin Lesser Sunda Islands.
diseases and earache and internally against fever, Uses Dried sap from the stem is heated together
cough and diarrhoea. A. crenata is also used to with coconut milk and Curcuma rhizomes and
treat infections of the respiratory tract and men- used in western Java to treat scabies.
strual disorders. The small fruits are edible and Observations A shrub or small tree up to 5 m
said to be sweet. Leaves are eaten as a vegetable tall; leaves elliptical to lanceolate or obovate-
in salads. It is commonly planted as an ornamen- lanceolate, 8-24 cm x 2.5-10 cm, glabrescent but
tal; it is popular because ofits bright red fruits. often pubescent on veins below, secondary veins
Observations A shrub up to 2(-3) m tall; leaves 9-12 pairs; inflorescence a short axillary raceme;
corolla 2.5-5 mm long, whitish or pinkish; fruit c. ern and peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malay-
5 mm in diameter. A. fuliginosa occurs in forest up sia and Borneo.
to 1750 m altitude. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are
Selected sources 62, 334, 378, 896. used as a poultice to treat swellings and ulcers. In
Thailand the bark is used to treat dysentery, and
Ardisia humilis Vahl bark and wood to treat menstrual disorders.
Symb. bot. 3:40 (1794). Observations A shrub up to 3 m tall, some-
Vernacular names Indonesia: lampeni (Sun- times a small tree up to 6 m tall, completely
danese), lempeni (Javanese), jambulan pante glabrous; leaves elliptical to oblong-oblanceolate,
(Malay, Manado). 8-23 cm x 3.5-7 cm, with numerous black glandu-
Distribution Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and the lar dots, secondary veins numerous and fine; inflo-
Moluccas. rescence a short usually axillary raceme; corolla
Uses In western Java the leaves are used to 6-7 mm long, reddish-purple; fruit c. 7 mm in di-
treat scabies. The fruits are administered as a ameter, with numerous black dots. A. oxyphylla
vermifuge and cardiotonic. occurs in evergreen forest up to 1400 m altitude.
Observations A shrub or small tree up to Selected sources 121,249, 840, 990.
5(-10) m tall; leaves obovate to narrowly oblong,
6.5-16.5 cm x 2.5-7.5 cm, with numerous glandu- Ardisia ridleyi King & Gamble
lar dots, secondary veins numerous; inflorescence Journ. As. Soc.Beng. 74(2): 148 (1906).
an axillary raceme, often umbelliform; corolla c. Vernacular names Malaysia: lutut ayam, pe-
10 mm long, reddish-violet; fruit 6-8 mm in diam- luruh, pingarut (Peninsular).
eter. Several other Ardisia species have been con- Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
fused with A. humilis. This makes it difficult to in- Malaysia, Singapore and Sumatra.
terpret the literature and to deduce the exact area Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
of distribution. A. humilis is locally fairly com- plant is used internally to treat fever and after
mon, especially near the sea, in periodically dry childbirth.
localities such as teak forest, village groves and Observations A shrub or small tree up to 5 m
brushwood, up to 500 m altitude. tall; leaves oblong-lanceolate, 8-20 cm x 3.5-4.5
Selected sources 62, 334. cm, with scattered minute rusty scales and sparse-
ly scattered glandular dots, secondary veins 10-14
Ardisia odontophylla Wallich ex A.DC. pairs; inflorescence an umbellate raceme, terminal
Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 125,t. 6 (1834). on branchlets; corolla c. 4 mm long, pinkish; fruit
Vernacular names Malaysia: pasal, sumpuh 7-8 mm in diameter, sparsely striate and gland-
lumpok (Peninsular). dotted. A. ridleyi occurs in lowland evergreen for-
Distribution North-eastern India, Peninsular est up to 1200 m altitude; it is uncommon.
Malaysia, Java and Borneo. Selected sources 121,249, 990.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
roots is used externally to treat rheumatism, and Ardisia sanguinolenta Blume
a decoction of the leaves internally to treat stom- Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 13:685 (1826).
ach-ache. Synonyms Ardisia colorata Roxb. (1824) non
Observations A subshrub up to 50 cm tall; Link.
leaves elliptical to obovate, 8-16 cm x 4-7 cm, Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: lampeni gede
glabrous but brown hairy on the veins below; in- (Sundanese). Malaysia: mata pelandok, kayu ma-
florescence axillary, umbelliform, few-flowered; ta buah, sumpoh lumpok (Peninsular). Thailand:
corolla c. 5 mm long, violet or pink; fruit c. 6 mm ma cham kong (northern), kraduk kai (south-east-
in diameter. A. odontophylla is rare in Java. ern), ai ram yai (peninsular). Vietnam: c[ow]m
Selected sources 62, 121,334, 990. ngu[ooj]i m[af]u.
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
Ardisia oxyphylla Wallich e x A.DC. China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore
Trans. Linn. Soc. 17:119 (1834). and Java.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: mata itek, te- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
muras, bujong samalam bukit (Peninsular). Thai- root is used to treat diarrhoea and cough, and af-
land: ta kai (peninsular). ter childbirth. The plant is possibly also used for
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), south-west- poulticing in cases of rheumatism or lumbago. A
ARENGA 81
decoction of the leaves is administered to treat in water that has been boiled with the leaves is
colic. In Thailand several plant parts play a role in said to be a cure for dropsy.
traditional medicine: roots to treat gonorrhoea, Observations A small shrub up to 1.5 m tall;
stems as an antileprotic, leaves to treat liver dis- leaves elliptical to elliptical-lanceolate or obovate-
eases, and fruits to treat diarrhoea and fever. In oblong, 4-20 cm x 1.5-7 cm, densely villous below
India similar uses have been recorded. (rarely glabrous), with numerous black glandular
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 8 m dots, secondary veins 10-15 pairs; inflorescence
tall; leaves narrowly elliptical to oblong-lanceo- usually terminal on branches, umbellate; corolla
late, 13-28 cm x 3-8 cm, glabrous or sparsely and 5-7 mm long, pink to violet, rarely white; fruit
minutely rusty-lepidote below, with many glandu- 5-10 mm in diameter. A. villosa occurs in ever-
lar dots, secondary veins 15-30 pairs; inflores- green forest and dry dipterocarp forest up to 1850
cence a terminal, pyramidal panicle; corolla 2.5-4 m altitude; it is common.
mm long, pale pink; fruit 4-6.5 mm in diameter. Selected sources 62, 121,249, 378, 990.
A. sanguinolenta occurs in lowland evergreen for- R.H.M.J. Lemmens
est up to 1000 m altitude, frequently along
streams and in damp grassy sites; it is common.
Selected sources 121,249, 334, 378,900, 990. Arenga Labill.
Ardisia solanacea Roxb. D C , Bull. Sei. Soc.Philom. Paris 2: 162 (1800).
Fl. ind., ed. 1832, 1:580 (1832). PALMAE
Vernacular names Malaysia: mata itek (Pe- x = 16;A.porphyrocarpa: n =16
ninsular). Vietnam: c[ow]m ngu[ooj]i c[af]. Origin and geographic distribution Arenga
Distribution Nepal, India, Burma (Myanmar), comprises about 20 species and occurs from India
Indo-China, western China and Peninsular Ma- to southern China, Taiwan and the Ryukyu Is-
laysia; cultivated in these areas, and also in Pak- lands, and throughout the Malesian region to
istan and Sri Lanka. northern Australia.
Uses In India the roots are used against fever, Uses Root decoctions and the palm heart (the
dropsy, diarrhoea and rheumatism, the bark to white, tender tissues of the youngest, unopened
treat concussion or bruises. The fruits are used for leaves at the stem apex) ofA. hastata and A. por-
a yellow dye.A. solanacea is also planted as an or- phyrocarpa are used in traditional medicine in In-
namental. donesia and Malaysia, to treat fever, loss of ap-
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 5 m petite and as a diuretic.
tall; leaves oblanceolate to obovate, 10-18 cm x The best-known Arenga species is A. pinnata
4.5-7.5 cm, glabrous, secondary veins 12-20 pairs; (Wurmb) Merr. (sugar palm), all parts of which
inflorescence corymbose-racemose or umbellate, are used, and for a multitude ofproducts. It is also
terminal on axillary branchlets; corolla c. 10 mm used for medicinal purposes: roots are considered
long, pink; fruit 7-10 mm in diameter, black when stomachic and pectoral, petioles haemostatic, cica-
ripe.A. solanacea occurs in lowland evergreen for- trizant and diuretic, and fresh, unfermented sap
est up to 1000 m altitude; it is uncommon in is purgative. Pulped fruits are used as a fish poi-
Peninsular Malaysia. son. The main product, however, is the palm sugar
Selected sources 121,182, 469, 542, 803,990. obtained from the juice tapped from inflorescence
stalks and widely used in all kinds of dishes,
Ardisia villosa Roxb. sweets, drinks and preserves. It can be fermented
Fl. ind. 2: 274 (1824). to make vinegar or palm wine. Other food prod-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: mata pelandok ucts are starch, extracted from the pith of the
gajah, seluntas orang tinggi, kayu unggu bisa trunk, palm heart and endosperm of immature
(Peninsular). Thailand: kamlang chang phueak seeds boiled with sugar. Fibres, obtained from the
(northern), phang krasa hin, phirang kasa (south- trunk, roots and leaf stalks and sheaths, are used
eastern). Vietnam: c[ow]m ngu[ooj]i l[oo]ng. for matting, sieves, roofs, brushes and brooms,
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, and for tinder. The leaves serve to construct tem-
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, porary shelters, and the wood of the trunk is used
Java, Borneo and the Philippines. for flooring, furniture, tool handles and as fuel-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the roots are re- wood. Several other taller Arenga species are used
putedly used against fever and cough, and a bath for similar purposes asA. pinnata.
Properties The flesh of Arenga fruits is filled fever, internally for adults and in a bath for chil-
with abundant, irritant needlelike oxalate crys- dren. The roasted palm heart is eaten as a cure for
tals. loss of appetite.
Botany Shrubby or tree palms, small to large, Observations An erect dwarf palm up to 2 m
solitary or clustered, usually unarmed; stem often tall, growing in clumps, not dying after flowering;
with persistent fibrous leaf bases and sheaths. leaves with about 10 leaf-segments up to 20 cm x
Leaves arranged spirally, imparipinnate, with 7.5 cm; inflorescence a simple spike c. 17.5 cm
usually well developed petiole; sheath eventually long, on a peduncle about as long, bisexual, devel-
disintegrating into a mass ofblackish fibres. Inflo- oping from the base ofthe plant towards the apex;
rescence axillary, often bursting through the leaf male flowers with oblong petal lobes c. 2.5 mm
sheath, bisexual or unisexual, usually branched to long and about 15 stamens. A. hastata occurs in
1-2 orders; peduncle with distinct bracts. Flowers lowland forest, and is rather uncommon.
unisexual, 3-merous; sepals rounded, imbricate, Selected sources 121,220, 789.
leathery; petals connate at base, valvate, leathery;
male flowers usually with numerous stamens hav- Arenga porphyrocarpa (Blume ex
ing short filaments and elongate anthers; female Mart.) H.E. M o o r e
flowers with a globose, 3-celled ovary bearing 2-3 Principes 4: 114(1960).
stigmas and few or lacking staminodes. Fruit a Synonyms Didymosperma porphyrocarpum
globose to ellipsoid berry, often somewhat angled, (Blume ex Mart.) H. Wendl. & Drude ex Hook.f.
1-3-seeded. Seeds planoconvex, smooth, black, (1883).
with endosperm and lateral embryo. Vernacular names Indonesia: ki hura (Sun-
Arenga is classified in the tribe Caryoteae, togeth- danese).
er with Caryota and Wallichia, all from tropical Distribution Sumatra, western and central Ja-
Asia. It shows an astonishing range of forms and va.
flowering behaviour. Uses A root decoction and the palm heart are
Ecology Most Arenga species are found in pri- taken to treat urinary troubles.
mary forest up to 1700 m altitude. A. hastata and Observations An erect dwarf palm up to 3 m
A. porphyrocarpa are both forest undergrowth tall, growing in clumps, dying after flowering;
palmlets oflowland forest. leaves 5-8 on each stem, erecto-patent, up to 240
Genetic resources A. hastata and A. porphyro- cm long including petiole, with 9-13(-17) leaf-seg-
carpa both seem to have limited areas of distribu- ments 15-45 cm x 5-13 cm; inflorescence consist-
tion. Especially A. hastata may easily become en- ing of 5-7 spikes 13-30 cm long, peduncle 8-25 cm
dangered as it is uncommon in lowland forest of long, bisexual or unisexual, developing from the
Peninsular Malaysia. A. porphyrocarpa is locally apex of the plant towards the base; male flowers
common in disturbed forest and seems less liable with oblong petal lobes c. 6 mm long and 16-20
to genetic erosion. Germplasm collection of Arenga stamens; fruit narrowly obovoid, 1.5-2 cm long,
is urgently needed as many species have become red-purple turning orange, smooth and shining. A.
very rare. porphyrocarpa occurs in mixed, disturbed forest
Prospects There is no information on the phar- and shrubby grassland up to 400 m altitude, local-
macological properties of Arenga, and research is ly numerous.
needed to evaluate its applications in traditional Selected sources 62, 220, 334.
medicine. Arenga species, including the 2 treated Sri Endreswari
here, have potential ornamental value.
Literature 121,245, 334,941.
Argostemma Wallich
Selection of species Roxb., Fl. ind. 2: 324 (1824).

RUBIACEAE
Arenga hastata (Becc.) Whitmore x = 11
Principes 14: 124 (1970). Origin a n d geographic distribution Argo-
Synonyms Didymosperma hastatum Becc. stemma is a large, complex palaeotropical genus
(1889). with about 220 described species, but the actual
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia. number of species is probably approximately 100.
Uses A root decoction is administered to treat Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo are rich in
ARGYREIA 83
species (about 30 each), whereas Java has only 5 Selection of species

species. Only two species occur outside tropical
Asia, both in West Africa. Argostemma klossii Ridley
Uses There are some records on the use of Ar- Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 61: 13
gostemma roots and leaves to treat fever, both ex- (1912).
ternally and internally. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: sumpu kering
Botany Creeping to erect herbs, often succu- (Peninsular).
lent; stem usually unbranched or slightly Distribution Peninsular Malaysia.
branched, with short internodes. Leaves opposite Uses Boiled leaves and roots have been used in
or sometimes verticillate, those of a pair or verti- Peninsular Malaysia as a poultice to treat malar-
cel often unequal, sometimes rosulate; petiole ia.
short or absent; stipules interpetiolar. Inflores- Observations A small erect herb up to 12.5 cm
cence usually terminal, cymose, corymbiform to tall, stem hairy; leaves of each pair very unequal,
umbelliform. Flowers bisexual, 4-5(-6)-merous, elliptical-lanceolate, c. 5 cm long, whitish beneath;
regular (rarely zygomorphous); calyx with a very corolla c. 6 mm in diameter, anther tube about as
short tube, lobes succulent in fruit; corolla ga- long as corolla; fruit hairy. A. klossii occurs locally
mopetalous, rotate or subcampanulate, white, of- in rain forest in the mountains.
ten with greenish spots at base, lobes usually Selected sources 121,789.
much longer than tube; stamens inserted near the
base ofthe corolla tube, filaments free, anthers co- Argostemma montanum Blume ex DC.
herent into an anther tube, longitudinally dehis- Prodr. 4: 418 (1830).
cent, or sometimes free (then opening by apical Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: reundeu badak,
pores); ovary inferior, 2-celled, style filiform. Fruit reundeu bulu, cocok bubu (Sundanese).
a succulent capsule crowned with limb of calyx, Distribution Java.
opening by an apical operculum, many-seeded. Uses The leaves have reportedly been used in-
Seeds minute, angular or ovoid, usually with ternally to treat fever.
reticulate testa. Observations An erect herb, creeping at the
The flowers are very characteristic: bright white base, up to 50 cm tall, often branched; leaves of
and often Solanum-lïke because ofthe large, fused each pair equal or unequal, ovate-elliptical-ob-
anthers and corolla often with short tube and re- long, 1.5-8 cm x 1-4 cm, very pale beneath; corolla
flexed lobes. This flower type is widespread in 8-15 mm long, anther tube narrow, with ridge-
both dicotyledons and monocotyledons, and adapt- like connective. A. montanum occurs in shady lo-
ed to insect pollination. The powdery pollen is re- calities in the forest, usually in humus-rich soils,
leased in small portions by vibrating movements at 400-2250 m altitude. It is locally common in
of visiting insects, which dust their bodies. Ar- western Java.
gostemma belongs to the tribe Argostemmateae, Selected sources 62, 334.
together with the small genus Neurocalyx which is R.H.M.J. Lemmens
endemic to Sri Lanka and southern India.
Ecology Argostemma is mostly found in damp,
shady locations in lowland to lower montane for- Argyreia Lour.
est.
Genetic resources Many Argostemma species Fl. cochinch.: 95, 134 (1790).
are endemic to restricted areas and consequently CONVOLVULACEAE
they seem easily liable to genetic erosion or even x =14, 15;A. nervosa: In =30
extinction. Origin and geographic distribution Argy-
Prospects Research on phytochemistry and reia comprises about 100 species, and occurs in
pharmacological properties of Argostemma is tropical Asia and Madagascar (4 species). In the
needed to judge whether the use in traditional Malesian region, about 45 species have been
medicine has some scientific basis. A taxonomie found. Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and the
revision of the genus is lacking. Recent surveys of Philippines are richest in species, with 13, 12 and
the species in Borneo and Thailand (incomplete) 10, respectively. Most species are narrow en-
are available, but for other regions in South-East demics, but A. capitiformis (Poir.) v. Ooststroom
Asia one has to rely on old publications. (synonym:A. capitata (Vahl) Choisy) and A. mollis
Literature 111, 757, 886. are widely distributed. A. nervosa is native to In-
dia, but widely planted in South-East Asia. to many-flowered; bracts minute to large. Flowers
Uses Argyreia is used occasionally in traditional bisexual, regular, 5-merous; sepals free, imbri-
medicine in South-East Asia; most commonly a cate, often hairy outside, persistent; corolla cam-
decoction ofthe roots or leaves is applied external- panulate, funnel-shaped or tubular, limb nearly
ly to treat rheumatism, wounds, abscesses, boils entire to deeply lobed, usually with 5 hairy bands
and skin diseases. In India, A. nervosa is a well- outside, purple, red, pink or white; stamens in-
known medicinal plant used for similar purposes, serted on the corolla, included or exserted, with
and also as tonic, diuretic and aphrodisiac. How- filiform filaments often dilated at base; ovary su-
ever, it is planted as an ornamental in South-East perior, 2- or 4-celled, style filiform, stigma biglob-
Asia and elsewhere in the tropics. ular. Fruit an ellipsoid to globose berry, fleshy,
The leaves of A. capitiformis are used externally leathery or mealy, purple, red, orange or yellow,
to treat trauma in China. few-seeded. Seeds glabrous, with endosperm.
A decoction of the leaves ofA. acuta Lour, is used Argyreia belongs to the tribe Ipomoeeae, and dif-
in Vietnam as a diuretic, emmenagogue and anti- fers from the largest genus in this tribe, Ipomoea,
tussive, and is also applied to abscesses. A. acuta in the woody stems, the usually hairy corolla and
roots and stems are used against fever, cough, leu- the indéhiscent fruit.
corrhoea and carbuncles. Dried aerial parts of A. Ecology Argyreia occurs most commonly in for-
populifolia Choisy are considered astringent and est margins, secondary forest and brushwood at
antiseptic in Sri Lanka. low to medium altitudes, up to 1500(-1700) m.
Properties The chemical compounds isolated Management As an ornamental, A. nervosa is
from A. nervosa belong to the ergot (ergoline type) propagated by seed or softwood/greenwood cut-
alkaloids, lipids, flavonoids, steroids and triter- tings. Special attention is given to training be-
penoids. Activities of several parts of A. nervosa cause rapid growth will lead to an impenetrable
plants in India include anti-ulcer, antitumour, an- tangle ifit becomes enmeshed in other plants.
tidiabetic, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, spasmol- Genetic resources Most Argyreia species have
ytic, antifilarial, antimicrobial and central ner- small areas of distribution, and consequently may
vous system depressant activities. Ergoline alka- easily become endangered. Only few species are
loids have hallucinogenic activity. Hexadecanyl p- widely distributed, e.g. A. mollis, or widely plant-
hydroxycinnamate and scopoletin have been iso- ed, e.g.A. nervosa.
lated from the roots; these compounds showed an- Prospects Argyreia is comparatively little used
tifungal activity, and were highly active against in traditional medicine in South-East Asia.A. ner-
Alternaria alternata. The main component of the vosa is a well-known medicinal plant in India, and
oil from seeds of A. nervosa is oleic acid (about research on its pharmacological properties has
27.5%). This oil showed moderate activity against shown interesting results. Although it is only
several gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria planted as an ornamental in the Malesian region,
and phytopathogenic fungi. The seeds also contain A. nervosa may have good prospects as a medici-
ergot alkaloid constituents, with ergine and iso- nal plant, similar to those of indigenous Argyreia
ergine in the highest concentration (up to 0.2%). species, which will probably have similar biologi-
The hypotensive activity ofthe seeds is due to this cal activities.
mixture of alkaloids, which also includes e.g. er- Literature 36, 247, 671,887.
gometrine. Biosynthetically, the ergot alkaloids
are derived from the amino acid tryptophan, con-
taining an indole residue. Aqueous and alcoholic Selection of species
extracts of A. nervosa leaves showed in-vitro an-
tifilarial activity against Setaria cervi, a parasitic Argyreia maingayi (C.B. Clarke)
worm of cattle. Hoogland
Several flavonoids have been isolated from the Blumea 7: 185 (1952).
roots ofA. mollis, as well as the tropane alkaloids Synonyms Lettsomia maingayi C.B. Clarke
calystegin B l and B2, loline alkaloids and simple (1883).
pyrrolidine alkaloids. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar terong-te-
Botany Lianas or shrubs with twining branch- rong, akar bunga butang, akar ulan gajah (Penin-
es. Leaves arranged spirally, simple and entire, sular).
glabrous or hairy, petiolate; stipules absent. Inflo- Distribution Peninsular Malaysia.
rescence an axillary cyme, loose or compact, few- Uses A decoction of the roots is used externally
ARGYREIA 85
to treat pain in the bones. The fruits are edible,

but only slightly sweet.
Observations A liana with fulvous-hirsute
twining stems, later becoming glabrescent; leaves
ovate, 9-20 cm x 3.5-11 cm, rounded or shortly at-
tenuate at base, beneath hirsute on veins only;
bracts large, up to 4 cm long, persistent; sepals
long-acuminate, corolla with limb subentire, 4.5-6
cm long, white with pink, red or purple stripe on
the middle of each lobe; fruit ovoid, c. 12 mm long,
pinkish. A. maingayi occurs in forest up to 1000 m
altitude, also in swampy and riverine forest.
Argyreia mollis (Burm.f.) Choisy

Mém. Soc. Phys. Genève 6:421 (1833).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy tata-
payan (Sundanese), kendal sapi (Javanese), bute-
tulupan (Bali). Thailand: khruea phuu ngoen
(Prachin Buri), yaan taan (Songkhla). Vietnam:
b[aj]c thau l[oo]ng m[eef]m.
Distribution The Andaman Islands, southern
Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Hainan, southern
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java
and Bali.
U s e s In Java a decoction of the roots, together
with Alyxia, Anethum and Callicarpa leaves, is
used as a stomachic. The juice is applied to treat
mild forms of eye inflammation. Leaves mixed Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer - 1, flowering
with several other plants are applied to boils. The branch; 2, infructescence.
stems are sometimes used for binding.
Observations A liana up to 10 m long with Distribution Native to India; cultivated in
densely appressed-pilose twining stems, later many tropical countries, also throughout South-
glabrescent; leaves elliptical to narrowly oblong, East Asia, and sometimes escaped.
4-15 cm x 1.5-7 cm, acute to rounded at base, Uses In Thailand the roots are used as tonic, di-
densely silvery tomentose beneath; bracts small, uretic and aphrodisiac, and to treat allergic der-
caducous; corolla shallowly lobed, 5-6.5 cm long, matitis, arthritis and obesity, the leaves are ap-
pale violet or pink with white base, rarely entirely plied to wounds, abscesses and skin diseases, and
white; fruit subglobose, c. 10 mm in diameter, red leaf juice to treat inflamed ears. In India the root
or orange-red. A. mollis is locally common in sec- is considered alterative and tonic, and is used to
ondary forest, teak forest and brushwood, some- treat rheumatism and diseases ofthe nervous sys-
times in hedges, up to 1500 m altitude. tem. The leaves are applied as a local stimulant,
Selected sources 121,247, 334, 598. rubefacient and antiphlogistic, although they act
as vesicant, and are used to treat wounds and skin
A r g y r e i a n e r v o s a (Burm.f.) B o j e r diseases.A. nervosa is often cultivated as an orna-
Hortus maurit.: 224 (1837). mental.
Synonyms Argyreia speciosa (L.f.) Sweet Observations A liana up to 10(-15) m long,
(1826). with densely tomentose twining stems; leaves
Vernacular n a m e s Elephant climber, elephant ovate to orbicular, 10-30 cm x 8-25 cm, sometimes
creeper (En). Indonesia: areuy bohol keboh (Sun- even larger, deeply cordate at base, densely to-
danese). Philippines: sedang-dahon (Tagalog), ho- mentose beneath; bracts large, 3.5-5 cm long, ca-
jas de seda (Sp). Thailand: bai rabaat, phak ducous; corolla with limb shallowly lobed, c. 6 cm
rabaat (central), mueang mon (Bangkok). Viet- long, pink-purple; fruit globose, c. 20 mm in diam-
nam: th[ar]o b[aj]c g[aa]n. eter, yellowish-brown.
Selected sources 76, 173, 247, 760, 849, 887, levels of minerals and vitamins, but they show a
933. high protein content; they are poor in tannins and
oxalates. Both A. gangetica and A. nemorum
Argyreia rubicunda Wallich ex Choisy showed a good complement of amino acids and
Mém. Soc. Phys. Genève 6: 426 (1833). satisfactory amounts of minerals, sugars, lipids
Synonyms Lettsomia rubicunda (Wallich ex and fibre, whereas antinutritional factors, such as
Choisy) C.B. Clarke (1883). trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors and cyanide,
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar pera ben- were not detected.
tak, akar saga molek (Peninsular). Vietnam: b[aj]c Botany Erect or straggling herbs; stems thick-
than do d[or]. ened above the nodes. Leaves decussately oppo-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Viet- site, simple and entire, with minute cystoliths,
nam. shortly to distinctly petiolate; stipules absent, but
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia bruised leaves are leaves connected by transverse ridges. Inflores-
applied to the forehead to treat headache, and at cence an axillary and/or terminal, lax, spiciform
the same time a littlejuice is taken internally. raceme, often with secund flowers; bracts and
Observations A liana with densely tomentose bracteoles small. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; ca-
twining stems; leaves elliptical, 8-16 cm x 4-10 lyx deeply partite, with narrow, subequal seg-
cm, rounded at base, tomentose beneath; bracts ments; corolla with cylindrical tube widened in
small, caducous; corolla deeply lobed, pink; fruit upper part, limb spreading with imbricate, sube-
ovoid, c. 15 mm long, pinkish-white to purplish- qual, broadly ovate lobes, white or yellowish to
red. A. rubicunda is an uncommon climber in the pale blue or violet; stamens 4, inserted in the
forest. widened part of the corolla tube, didynamous,
Selected sources 121,247. basally connate in pairs; ovary superior, 2-celled,
Trimurti H. Wardini style slender, with shortly 2-lobed stigma. Fruit a
clavate to ellipsoid, stalked capsule, 4-seeded
(sometimes less). Seeds ovate-orbicular, com-
Asystasia Blume pressed, with sinuately incised margins, rugose or
tuberculate, supported by hooked retinaculas.
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 796 (1826). The flowers are pollinated by insects, especially
ACANTHACEAE bees. It takes about one month from floral initia-
x =13;A. gangetica subsp.gangetica: 2n =52,A. tion to seed dispersal. The seeds are thrown as far
gangetica subsp. micrantha: In = 26 as 6 m by an explosive mechanism on hot after-
Origin and geographic distribution Asysta- noons.
sia comprises about 70 species, and is distributed Two subspecies can be distinguished in A. gangeti-
in the tropics of the Old World. Few species occur ca: subsp. gangetica with pale cream, rosy cream,
in South-East Asia.A. gangetica is the most wide- yellowish to pale or dark purple corolla with tube
ly distributed species; it is planted as an ornamen- 2.5-3.5 cm long and spreading lobes, lower not
tal and has become a pantropical weed. pleated, and subsp. micrantha (Nees) Ensermu
Uses A. gangetica is used in traditional medi- (synonym: A. intrusa (Forssk.) Nees) with pure
cine to treat swellings, sores, wounds, piles and white corolla with a large violet spur on lower part,
rheumatism, and as a vermifuge. Also analgesic tube 1.5-2 cm long and reflexed lobes, lower
properties have been attributed to it. The leafy strongly pleated. Both subspecies can act as weeds,
shoots are used in different parts ofthe world as a but subsp. micrantha is more serious as it is more
vegetable. A. nemorum has been applied to treat vigorous and tends to become decumbent, produc-
dry cough and eye infections. ing a dense carpet of rooting stems and foliage,
A. dalzelliana Santapau is used in traditional which smothers the rest ofthe ground vegetation.
medicine in India, especially for treating boils and Ecology A. gangetica and A. nemorum occur in
swellings. Asystasia is grazed and easily digested anthropogenic habitats such as roadsides, hedges,
by sheep, goats and cattle. Some species, particu- thickets, river banks and plantations, usually in
larly A. gangetica, are cultivated as an ornamen- more or less shaded localities in the lowland. A.
tal. gangetica can be a noxious weed (particularly sub-
Properties The presence of flavonoids has been sp. micrantha), especially in pineapple and oil
demonstrated in some species, including A. gan- palm, but also in cocoa, rubber and sugar cane
getica. The leaves ofA.gangetica do not have high plantations.
ASYSTASIA 87
Management Asystasia can be propagated by used to treat fever-aches, epilepsy and urethral
seed, cuttings or by division of rooted stems. In- discharge. The leaves are used for infant dietary
vitro propagation was successful forA. dalzelliana preparations in India. They are occasionally eaten
in India. It was regenerated on a Murashige and in Africa. A. gangetica is planted as an ornamen-
Skoog medium using callus cultures; rooting of re- tal. It provides excellent feed for cattle, goats and
generated shoots was achieved on the medium sheep.
supplemented with 8 mg/1 of indole-acetic acid, Observations An erect, ascending or climbing
and the young plants were successfully trans- herb up to 125 cm tall; leaves ovate, 3-7.5 cm x
ferred to soil. Control ofweedy forms ofA. gangeti- 1.5-5 cm, not or hardly decurrent at base, petiole
ca can be achieved by controlled cattle grazing. 1-3 cm long; flowers well-spaced in the inflores-
Genetic resources Both Asystasia species cence, calyx 5-9 mm long, corolla 2-3.5 cm long,
treated here are not likely to be at risk of genetic 10-25 mm across at the mouth, ovary covered with
erosion. More attention to the different forms ofA. long hairs nearly all over; fruit 2.5-4 cm long, cov-
gangetica may be desirable, focusing on medicinal ered with ordinary hairs and short glandular
properties, weedy characteristics and ornamental hairs. A. gangetica occurs in roadsides, hedges,
value. thickets, riverbanks and plantations usually in
Prospects Asystasia species are interesting light to moderate shade, up to 300 m altitude.
medicinal plants, which are used in traditional Selected sources 62, 120, 121, 236, 473, 760,
medicine in different parts of the world. A. gange- 782, 908, 1034.
tica may have good prospects as a healthy veg-
etable, and perhaps also as an auxiliary plant in Asystasia nemorum Nees
agriculture and as a forage species. However, the Wallich, PI. asiat. rar. 3:90 (1832).
spreading of some forms as a serious weed needs Synonyms Asystasia blumei Nees (1847), Asys-
attention. tasia intrusa auct. non (Forssk.) Nees.
Literature 236, 473, 760, 899, 908.
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson

Thwaites, Enum. pi. zeyl.: 235 (1860).
Synonyms Asystasia coromandeliana Nees
(1832).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: rumput bunga
putih, rumput hantu, rumput nyonya (Peninsu-
lar). Philippines: asistasia (Tagalog). Thailand:
baayaa, yaayaa (Bangkok), phakkuut nao (Chiang
Mai). Vietnam: bi[ees] hoa, th[aaj]p v[aj]n th[as]c.
Distribution Native to Africa, India and Sri
Lanka. In Malesia, cultivated as an ornamental,
e.g. in Peninsular Malaysia, Java and the Philip-
pines, and locally copiously naturalized; also plant-
ed and naturalized in Thailand and Vietnam.
Uses In the Philippines the leaves and flowers
are used as an intestinal astringent and also eat-
en as a pot herb. In India, the sap is applied to
swellings; it is also used as a vermifuge and to
treat rheumatism. In Africa, an infusion of the
plant is used to ease pain during childbirth, and
the sap is applied to sores, wounds and piles, and
in embrocations to treat stiff neck and enlarged
spleen. Powdered roots are considered analgesic,
and used in treating stomach-ache and as an Asystasia nemorum Nees — part of flowering and
emetic for treating snakebites. A leaf decoction is fruiting plant.
MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS
Vernacular names Indonesia: daun moreto, They are used in Thailand and India to treat drop-
ciliutan, luja koi (Moluccas). sy, anasarca, jaundice, skin and abdominal com-
Distribution Native to central Malesia (Java to plaints, wounds, inflammations, anaemia and leu-
the Moluccas); introduced, probably as a medici- coderma. The seeds are known to be extremely
nal plant, into Peninsular Malaysia and Singa- purgative, but in overdose they are a highly nar-
pore over a century ago, but now probably van- cotic poison. They are used externally as a stimu-
ished. lant and rubefacient, and to treat snakebites. The
Uses According to an old record, the whole seed oil is a powerful hydragogue cathartic, and is
plant, rubbed with alum and the juice of Citrus applied externally to treat rheumatism.
hystrix D C , is used to treat cough with tightness Properties Anti-tumour activity has been ob-
ofthe chest in the Moluccas, whereas the leaf juice served for extracts of the roots. As active con-
is applied to infected eyes. stituents, 5 phorbol ester derivatives exhibiting
Observations An erect, widely branched herb anticancer activity have been isolated, e.g. mon-
up to 150 cm tall; leaves ovate-oblong-lanceolate, tanin and baliospermin. Nitrite-treated hot water
3.5-10 cm x 2-5.5 cm, decurrent into the petiole extracts of B. montanum showed moderate muta-
1-3.5 cm long; flowers crowded towards the apex genicity for Salmonella typhimurium strains us-
of the inflorescence, calyx 4.5-7 mm long, corolla ing the Ames assay.
2-3 cm long, 4-8 mm across at the mouth, ovary The seeds yield about 33% oil, which contains
apically pubescent, otherwise glabrous or minute- 2.8% axillarenic acid.
ly glandular; fruit 2-3 cm long. A. nemorum oc- Botany A monoecious or sometimes dioecious
curs in shaded localities, e.g. in village-groves. bushy shrub up to 2 m tall, often of somewhat
Selected sources 62,121, 334, 473,1034. herbaceous texture; young branchlets angled and
Sri Endreswari striate, scattered appressed yellow-pubescent,
B a l i o s p e r m u m m o n t a n u m (Willd.)
Müll. Arg.
D C , Prodr. 15(2): 1125 (1866).

EUPHORBIACEAE
n =22, 2« = 28
Synonyms Baliospermum axillare Blume
(1825), Baliospermum solanifolium (Geiseler)
Suresh (1988).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kasingsat (Sun-
danese), srintil, adal-adal (Javanese). Malaysia:
akar kara nasi, terap kompong, maharaja lela
(Peninsular). Burma (Myanmar): natcho. Thai-
land: tong taek (central), thon di (central, Trang),
nong pom (Loei). Vietnam: c[aar]m t[uwr] n[us]i,
c[oj] t[uw]a.
Origin and geographic distribution B. mon-
tanum occurs in Pakistan, India, Bhutan,
Bangladesh, the Andaman Islands, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, Pe-
ninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Sumbawa.
Uses B. montanum has been used in traditional
medicine throughout its area of distribution since
ancient times. The leaves are purgative; in Penin-
sular Malaysia and Thailand, they are drunk in
decoction. They are also used as a poultice on
wounds. In Thailand and India, an infusion of the Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Müll. Arg. - 1,
leaves is applied to treat asthma. The roots are twig with fruits; 2, male flower; 3, female flower; 4,
purgative, but also anthelmintic and diuretic. fruit; 5, seed.
BAUHINIA 89
soon glabrescent, often reddish. Leaves alternate, Literature 133, 173,336,693.

simple, elliptical to oblong, broadly ovate, obovate Other selected sources 19, 22, 23, 62, 121,
or ovate-lanceolate, 5-25(-38) cm x 2.5-13(-18) 383, 990.
cm, sometimes 3-5-lobed, slightly cordate to Wongsatit Chuakul,
cuneate at base, acuminate at apex, coarsely den- Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon
tate at margins, pinnately veined, sometimes & Orawan Ruangsomboon
prominently 3-veined from base; petiole 1-11(-17)
cm long, with 2 glands at apex; stipules gland-
like. Inflorescence an axillary cyme up to 4 cm B a u h i n i a L.
long, arranged on leafy branches, unisexual or bi-
sexual; bracts up to 1.5 mm long. Flowers unisex- Sp. pi. 1:374 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 177 (1754).
ual, pedicelled, with 5 imbricate, pale green to LEGUMINOSAE
reddish perianth lobes (petals absent) and lobed- x =13, 14;B. malabarica, B. purpurea, B. tomen-
crenate disk; male flowers c. 2.5 mm in diameter, tosa, B. vahlii: In = 28,B. variegata: 2n = 28, 32
with 14-25 free stamens; female flowers with su- Origin and geographic distribution Bauhi-
perior, subglobose, 3-lobed and 3-celled ovary, nia is a pantropical genus of approximately 300
styles 3, connate at base, having prominent bifid species. In all 69 species are recorded for South-
stigmas. Fruit a subglobose, 3-lobed capsule up to East Asia.
13 mm in diameter, 3-seeded. Seeds ovoid, up to 9 Uses Throughout South-East Asia various parts
mm long, grey, marbled, shiny, carunculate, with of numerous Bauhinia species are used in poultic-
fleshy endosperm. ing to reduce swelling and bruises, and to ripen
B. montanum can be found flowering throughout ulcerations and boils. Decoctions of various plant
the year. parts are taken internally as a febrifugal, an-
Baliospermum comprises 2 species. B. calycinum tidiarrhoeal and antidysenteric remedy. In the
Müll. Arg. is an extremely variable species, in Philippines B. binata Blanco is used against blood
which until recently several separate species were spitting, bleeding in general and dysentery. In
distinguished; it occurs from the eastern Hi- Sarawak a decoction of the root of B. kockiana
malayas to Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam, southern Korth. is drunk to treat gonorrhoea and body
China and Thailand. Baliospermum is related to pains resulting from sickness. In Ternate (Indone-
Blachia, which lacks the foliar glands, and has sia) mention is made of a decoction of the root of
umbelliform inflorescences and sepals as well as B. lingua DC. as a bath with febrifugal properties.
petals. B. malabarica Roxb., known for its low-grade tim-
Ecology In Java, B. montanum occurs in open ber applications, is used in folk medicine as well.
forest such as teak forest, brushwood and grass- Pounded bark is applied in Timor for poulticing
land, up to 250 m altitude. In Peninsular Ma- wounds. In the Philippines an infusion of fresh
laysia, it is found in lowland forest; it is uncom- flowers or a decoction of the bark is known to be
mon there. It has been found only once in north- antidysenteric. The leaves are topically applied to
ern Sumatra. It is more common in India, Burma the head in fevers accompanied by headaches. In
(Myanmar) and Thailand, where it occurs in moist India a decoction of the root bark is a common
or dry evergreen forest, bamboo forest and scrub remedy for liver troubles. In Riau Province
vegetation up to 700 m altitude (in India and Bur- (Sumatra) leaves of an unidentified Bauhinia
ma (Myanmar) up to 1300 m). were rolled into cigarettes and the smoke inhaled
Genetic resources In the Malesian region, B. to treat polyps in the nasal tract.
montanum is generally not common. It is much B. pullei Craib, known from Thailand and Cambo-
more widely found in Thailand, Burma (Myan- dia, is used in traditional Thai medicine. A decoc-
mar) and India. There seems no reason to consider tion or powder ofthe stem is applied as a detoxify-
it at risk ofgenetic erosion. ing agent. The seeds are used as an anthelmintic,
diaphoretic and antipyretic.The root juice of B.
Prospects In mainland South-East Asia, B.
vahlii Wight & Arnott is applied to cuts and
montanum is regarded as a fairly important medi-
wounds in traditional Nepalese medicine. The root
cinal plant. The widely divergent uses of different
of B. viridescens Desv. is used in Vietnamese folk
plant parts in that region and the promising re-
medicine to treat colitis.
sults of the few pharmacological studies carried
out so far indicate that additional research would The bright flowers ofBauhinia make them attrac-
be worthwhile, also for the Malesian region. tive ornamentals or roadside trees. B. purpurea
apart from being an ornamental is well known as tagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. In anoth-
the source ofBauhinia purpurea agglutin (BPA), a er experiment crude organic and aqueous extracts
lectin with an affinity to galactose and lactose, of dried flowers and leaves showed antibacterial
widely applied in biochemical, immunochemical activity.
and histochemical studies. The bark of Bauhinia Botany Trees or shrubs, unarmed or with in-
is used to make rope and stems of smaller lianes- trastipular spines or lianas usually with simple
cent species are used for binding. Some Bauhinia tendrils; branches terete or angular. Leaves alter-
species reputed for their fibre application are used nate, simple, entire, 2-lobate or 2-foliolate; stipules
medicinally as well. In Johor (Peninsular Malay- various, deciduous or persistent, intrastipular tri-
sia) leaf juice of B. integrifolia Roxb. (synonyms: chomes variously developed. Inflorescence race-
B. cummingiana (Benth.) Fern.-Vill., B. flam- mose, corymbose or paniculate, or flowers solitary.
mifera Ridley) is used for stomach disorders; in Flowers usually bisexual; hypanthium short-cupu-
the Philippines a decoction ofthe roots is adminis- late to long-tubular; calyx spathaceous or irregu-
tered as a post-partum medicine and to treat larly deeply divided into 2-5 lobes or shallowly 5-
coughs. In Java sap from the stem or dried and lobed or 5-dentate; petals (l-)5(-6), subequal to
powdered leaves of B. scandens L. are taken as a greatly unequal, white, various shades of red to
cough medicine. The young leaves and flowers of purple or yellow; fertile stamens 0-10, staminodes
various Bauhinia species are eaten as a side dish often present; ovary superior, stiped, 1-celled.
with rice, or used to flavour meat and fish. Leaves Fruit a flat suborbicular to elliptical, obovate or
of some species are used as wrappers, for lining or linear pod, woody or thin-valved, dehiscent or in-
even as plates. Sometimes the seeds are edible. dehiscent. Seeds orbicular to elliptical; endosperm
Properties The bark of various Bauhinia present or absent. Seedling with epigeal germina-
species contains considerable amounts of tannin. tion; cotyledons emergent; hypocotyl elongated.
Medicinal uses ofbark can be largely attributed to Bauhinia can be found flowering and fruiting
the presence of these tannins. Flavonoids are a throughout the year, but some species have a dis-
common feature of Bauhinia. B. malabarica, B. tinct seasonality. Ectomycorrhizae are known to
valhii and B. variegata contain quercetol glyco- be present in some Bauhinia species.
sides in every organ, and kaempferol glycosides in B. malabarica differs from other South-East
the flowers. Asian Bauhinia particularly in being dioecious.
A methanol extract ofthe roots ofB. vahlii showed Ecology Bauhinia is found in most types ofveg-
cytotoxicity against the Vero cell line at 100 p.g/ml, etation ranging from evergreen lowland rain for-
and herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) was inactivat- est to mountain forest up to 2000(-3000) m alti-
ed at 25 |ig/ml. Root extracts of B. malabarica tude and savanna, scrub and dry deciduous forest
showed moderate in-vitro antimalarial activity to swamp forest, on various soils.
with EC 50 values of 0.9-18 |J.g/ml. Racemosol and Management Bauhinia can be propagated by
demethylracemosol (stilbenes) isolated from the seed, layering or grafting. Cuttings of semi-ripe
root extract exhibited cytotoxicity against KB wood with leaves removed will root in moist sand.
(EC50 at 15.0 |ig/ml and 5.6 |ig/ml, respectively) Bauhinia should preferably be grown in full sun
and BC (EC 50 at 6.1 |ig/ml and 3.6 (ig/ml, respec- in fertile, moisture-retentive but well-drained
tively) cell lines. soils.
Administration of B. purpurea bark extract to fe- Genetic resources The Bauhinia species treat-
male mice at 2.5 mg/kg body weight for 20 days ed here generally have either a rather large nat-
significantly stimulated thyroid function without ural distribution or are widely cultivated and do
hepatotoxic effects. An ethanol extract of the not seem to be seriously threatened by genetic ero-
leaves showed significant antidiarrhoeal effects in sion.
castor oil-induced diarrhoea and gastro-intestinal Prospects Bauhinia species show cytotoxic and
motility test models in rats. antimicrobial activity, that may partly support
Administration of a methanol extract of B. race- their traditional uses. The stimulatory effect on
mosa Lamk flower buds (at 2.0 g/kg body weight) thyroid function without hepatotoxic effects of B.
had a significant anti-ulcerogenic effect on as- purpurea bark is very interesting. However, fur-
pirin-induced gastric ulcers in rats. ther research is needed to evaluate possible future
In a general screening experiment an ethanol ex- applications.
tract of B. variegata stem bark showed activity Literature 28, 241, 247, 487, 670, 719, 883,
with respect to gross effect, hypothermia and an- 916.
BAUHINIA 91
Selection of species Observations Aliana, young parts glabrescent;

leaves broadly ovate to suborbicular up to 8 cm x 8
Bauhinia acuminata L. cm, bifid up to 1/3-1/2, base deeply cordate, apex
Sp. pi. 1:375 (1753). of lobes obtuse, 9-11-veined, stipules very early
Synonyms Bauhinia linnaei Ali (1966). caducous; inflorescence a terminal raceme, 10-12-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: panawar saribu flowered; flower buds fusiform, appressed rusty
(Sundanese), galela (Halmahera), kupu-kupu puberulous, 4-5 cm long, hypanthium campanu-
(Malay). Malaysia: bunga perak (Peninsular), late, calyx splitting into 5 free sepals, petals nar-
bunga kertas (Kedayan, Sabah), tangkop (Murut, rowly lanceolate, 2.5-3.5 cm long, clawed, green-
Sabah). Philippines: bambang (Tagalog), kulibam- ish, fertile stamens 3 and staminodes 2; fruit
bang (Iloko). Thailand: kaa-chae kuu-do (peninsu- strap-shaped, up to 20 cm x 6 cm, beaked, smooth,
lar), kaalong, som sieo (central). Vietnam: m[os]ng 4-7-seeded, dehiscent; seeds orbicular, flattened,
b[of] tr[aws]ng. up to 2 cm in diameter. B. audax is found in ever-
Distribution Indigenous to the dry monsoon green forest at low altitudes.
area of continental South-East Asia, and the drier Selected sources 121,206, 247.
parts of Java, Borneo, the Philippines and Timor.
Widely cultivated throughout South-East Asia Bauhinia fulva B l u m e ex Korth.
and a frequent escape from gardens. Verh. nat. gesch. Ned. Bezitt., Bot. 4:91 (1841).
Uses In West Java a cold extract of the root is Synonyms Phanera fulva (Blume ex Korth.)
drunk as a cough medicine. In Perak (Malaysia) Benth. (1852).
the pounded leaves are used for poulticing ulcera- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy kupu-
tions of the nose. In Thailand roots are used to kupu (Sundanese), kupu-kupu (Javanese).
treat cough, and flowers to treat headache and hy- Distribution Sumatra and Java.
pertension. B. acuminata is widely planted as an Uses In Java a decoction of the pounded root is
ornamental. used as a febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal and cough
Observations A shrub up to 3 m tall, young medicine.
branches glabrescent; leaves ovate to suborbicu- Observations A liana up to 15 m long, young
lar, up to 15(-20) cm x 15(-20) cm, bifid up to branches densely woolly hairy, glabrescent; leaves
l/3(-l/2), base subtruncate, apex of lobes acute, broadly ovate to orbicular, up to 20 cm x 20 cm,
9-11-veined, stipules linear, 1 cm long, tardily ca- bifid up to 1/3-1/2, base deeply cordate, apex of
ducous; inflorescence a lateral or terminal raceme, lobes rounded to acute, 11-13-veined, stipules
3-10-flowered; flower buds fusiform, thinly hairy broadly lanceolate, caducous; inflorescence a ter-
to glabrous, c. 4 cm long, hypanthium turbinate, minal or lateral simple or compound, dense co-
calyx spathaceous, petals oblong, 4-6 cm long, rymb; flower buds ovoid, greyish-brown pubes-
claws short, white, stamens 10, all fertile; fruit cent, 0.5-1 cm long, hypanthium turbinate, calyx
linear, septate, 11 cm x 1.5 cm, glabrous, 5-11- splitting into 2-3(-5) free sepals, petals obovate,
seeded, dehiscent; seeds orbicular, up to 7 mm in unequal, 1-2.2 cm long, claws 0.3-0.5 cm long,
diameter. B. acuminata is found in dry diptero- white, fertile stamens 3, staminodes 2; fruit ob-
carp forest, teak forest and brushwood, also on long, up to 20 cm x 5 cm, velvety brown, 4-7-seed-
limestone at lower elevations. ed, dehiscent; seeds orbicular, flat, up to 2 cm in
Selected sources 121, 178, 206, 247, 249, 250, diameter. B. fulva is found in open forest and sec-
334. ondary regrowth, also on limestone, from sea-level
up to 1000 m altitude, most commonly at 600-
Bauhinia audax (de Wit) Cusset 1000 m.
Adansonia n.s. 6:278 (1966). Selected sources 206, 247, 334.
Synonyms Bauhinia calycina Ridley (1912) non
Pierre ex Gagnep. B a u h i n i a p u r p u r e a L.
Vernacular names Malaysia: keretup hitam, Sp.pl. 1:375(1753).
kelapong, tapak kuda (Peninsular). Synonyms Bauhinia triandra Roxb. (1832),
Distribution The southern part of Peninsular Bauhinia castrata Blanco (1837), Phanera pur-
Malaysia (Selangor, Negri Sembilan, Malacca, Jo- purea (L.)Benth. (1852).
hor). Vernacular n a m e s Orchid tree, purple bau-
Uses The boiled roots are used as a poultice to hinia (En). Indonesia: aroy kupu-kupu (Sunda-
treat dropsy. nese), suwoto (Javanese). Malaysia: tapak kuda
rowly lanceolate, 3-5 cm long, claws 0.5-1 cm

long, pink to dark purple; fertile stamens 3, sta-
minodes 5-6; fruit strap-shaped, not septate,
20-25 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, c. 10-seeded, glabrous,
dehiscent; seeds orbicular, up to 15 mm in diame-
ter.
731, 965.
Bauhinia semibifida Roxb.

Fl. ind., ed. 2 (Carey ed.), 2: 330 (1832).
Synonyms Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.
(1852), Phanera sumatrana Miq. (1858), Bauhinia
borneensis Merr. (1916).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kupu (Kaliman-
tan), ganggang katup (Lingga), khaka kaia (Ser-
am).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi and the Moluc-
cas.
Uses In the Lingga Islands (Indonesia) roots
pounded in water are used to treat venereal dis-
eases. In Central Seram (Indonesia), a decoction
of the stem is applied to treat diarrhoea, and
leaves are rubbed on the skin to reduce swellings
and bruises.
Observations A scandent shrub or liana with a
Bauhinia purpurea L. - 1, twig with flower buds; few tendrils, young branches brownish pubescent;
2, flower bud; 3, flower. leaves obovate-orbicular, 4-11 cm x 4-11 cm, bifid
up to 1/4-2/5, base cordate, apex of lobes obtuse to
(Peninsular), lupit (Sabah). Philippines: alibang- acute, stipules auriculate or orbicular up to 5 mm
bang (Tagalog). Thailand: sieo dok daeng, sieo x 2 mm; inflorescence a terminal or lateral race-
waan (northern). Vietnam: m[os]ng b[of] t[is]m. me; flower buds club-shaped, 1-2.5 cm long, pu-
Distribution Native to tropical Asia, cultivated bescent, hypanthium tubular, dilated at base, ca-
throughout the tropics, including South-East lyx early splitting into 5 reflexed, strap-shaped
Asia; it occurs occasionally as an escape from cul- sepals, petals elliptical to oblong, unequal,
tivation. 2-3(-3.5) cm long, claws 0.2-0.5 cm long, white
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand the turning yellow, fertile stamens 3, staminodes 2-3;
leaves are used for poulticing sores and boils. In fruit strap-shaped, 10-20 cm x 3-4 cm, beak 0.5-1
India, the bark is extensively applied in glandular cm, glabrous, c. 6-seeded; seeds flat, varying in
diseases and as a poison antidote. It is well known size. B. semibifida is highly variable and several
for its astringent, anthelmintic, carminative and varieties are distinguished; var. semibifida is the
diuretic effects and is used in diarrhoea. The most widespread. It is found in forest margins at
leaves are administered as a cough medicine. The 200-2000 m altitude.
flowers are said to be laxative and used in curries Selected sources 79, 206, 247.
and pickles.
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 10 m B a u h i n i a t o m e n t o s a L.
tall, young branches glabrescent; leaves suborbic- Sp. pi. 1:375 (1753).
ular, up to 12 cm x 12 cm, bifid up to 1/3-1/2, base Synonyms Bauhinia pubescens DC. (1827).
rounded to cordate, apex of lobes rounded to Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kupu-kupu (Ja-
acute, 9-13-veined, stipules minute, 1-2 mm long; vanese), tali kancu (Sundanese). Philippines: ba-
inflorescence a 6-10-flowered raceme; flower buds ho-baho (Tagalog). Thailand: chongkho dok luean
club-shaped, velvety, 3-4 cm long, hypanthium (Bangkok). Vietnam: m[os]ng b[of] v[af]ng.
turbinate, calyx splitting spathaceous, petals nar- Distribution Originating from Africa and con-
BEILSCHMIEDIA 93
tinental Asia, B. tomentosa is only found in culti- cinal properties. In South-East Asia B. variegata
vation throughout South-East Asia. is primarily known as an ornamental.
Uses In Madura a poultice of the leaves is used Observations A tree up to 15 m tall, young
to treat ulcers. In India, the bruised bark is exter- branches greyish pubescent; leaves broadly ovate
nally applied to tumours and wounds. A decoction to circular, 6-16 cm x 6-16 cm, bifid up to 1/4-1/3,
of the root bark is administered against inflam- base cordate, apex lobes broadly rounded, 11-13-
mation of the liver. A decoction of the root bark is veined, glabrous above, glabrescent and glaucous
also used as a vermifuge. An infusion is used as below, stipules minute, 1-2 mm long, early ca-
an astringent gargle. Dried flower buds are pre- ducous; inflorescence a raceme on older twigs,
scribed in dysenteric affections. The fruit is di- very short, few-flowered; flower buds fusiform,
uretic and the seeds are credited with tonic and 3-4 cm long, finely hairy, hypanthium infundibu-
aphrodisiac action. The plant is also used in vet- liform, calyx splitting spathaceous, petals obovate,
erinary medicine. In Java the leaves are eaten as subequal, 4-5.5 cm long, short-clawed, white or vi-
a vegetable. olet, fertile stamens 5, unequal, staminodes 5;
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 8 m fruit strap-shaped, 20-30 cm x 2-2.5 cm, obliquely
tall, young branches brownish pubescent; leaves striate, 10-25-seeded, dehiscent; seeds orbicular,
suborbicular, 4-8 cm x 4-8 cm, bifid for up to flat, 1-1.5 cm in diameter. In a wild state B. varie-
1/3-1/2, base truncate to shallowly cordate, apex gata is found in deciduous forest at 500-1500 m
of lobes rounded, 7-9-veined, glabrous above, pu- altitude.
bescent below, stipules linear, up to 1 cm long; in- Selected sources 88, 121, 178, 181, 206, 247,
florescence a lateral raceme, short, few-flowered; 731, 965.
flower buds fusiform, 2 cm long, puberulous, hy- J.W.A. Ridder-Numan
panthium turbinate, calyx splitting spathaceous,
petals broadly ovate, subequal, 4-5 cm long, short-
clawed, yellow, or yellow with dark purple blotch Beilschmiedia Nees
on the median petal, stamens 10, all fertile, un-
equal; fruit linear, flat, 7-15 cm x 1-1.5 cm, veluti- Wallich, PL asiat. rar. 2: 61,69 (1831).
nous, c. 5-seeded, dehiscent; seeds suborbicular, LAURACEAE
up to 1cm in diameter. x = 12
Selected sources 121, 178, 206, 247, 334, 731, Origin and geographic distribution Beil-
760, 965. schmiedia consists of about 200 species and occurs
throughout the tropics, and also in the Himalayas,
Bauhinia variegata L. subtropical China and Taiwan. Tropical Africa is
Sp.pl. 1:375(1753). richest in species; tropical America has some 15
Synonyms Bauhinia Candida Aiton (1789), species. The genus is represented in the Malesian
Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. (1852). area by about 50 species, most of which have a
Vernacular names Mountain ebony tree, St. small area of distribution.
Thomas' tree (En). Indonesia: tali kancu beureum Uses Beilschmiedia is little used in traditional
(Sundanese). Malaysia: tapak kerbau (Peninsu- medicine in South-East Asia, where 4 species are
lar). Laos: doc ban. Thailand: piang phako, sieo recorded to have a medicinal use. A decoction of
dok khaao (northern), pho-phe (south-western). the bark is taken to treat digestive disorders, and
Vietnam: hoa ban. leaves and roots are externally applied in poul-
Distribution Originating from southern China, tices. The wood is sometimes used to treat malar-
Burma (Myanmar), northern Thailand, Laos and ia. In Vietnam bark of the endemic B. sphaero-
northern Vietnam, B. variegata is now cultivated carpa Lecomte is applied to abscesses.
throughout the tropics including South-East Asia. Beilschmiedia is better known for its timber,
Uses On Leyte (the Philippines) the leaves are which is used for light construction, flooring,
applied as a poultice to treat headache. In Burma mouldings, interior finish, furniture, interior fit-
(Myanmar) the root is employed as a remedy for ting, veneer, plywood and carving.
dyspepsia and the bark as a tonic. In India the Properties The bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid
bark is credited with astringent, alterative and dehatrine was obtained from B. madang wood as
tonic properties and considered useful in the an important antimalarial principle. It was isolat-
treatment of scrofula, skin diseases and ulcers. ed as a racemic mixture of two optical isomers. It
The flowers are consumed and credited with medi- significantly inhibited the growth of a cultured
Plasmodium falciparum Kl-strain resistant to Selection of species

chloroquine, with an activity similar to quinine.
Botany Evergreen shrubs or small to medium- Beilschmiedia madang Blume
sized or fairly large trees up to 35(-40) m tall. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1(21): 332 (1851).
Leaves arranged spirally or alternate to opposite, Synonyms Beilschmiedia malaccensis (Meissn.)
simple and entire, leathery, with glandular dots Hook.f. (1886), Beilschmiedia curtisii Gamble
and aromatic when crushed, pinnately veined, of- (1910),Beilschmiedia scortechinii Gamble (1910).
ten prominently reticulate below; stipules absent. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: huru (Sun-
Inflorescence an axillary, lateral or subterminal danese), mauseu tahang (Simeuluë, Sumatra),
raceme or panicle, usually short and few-flowered. medang kohat (Bengkulu, Sumatra), medang
Flowers bisexual, regular, 3-merous, small; peri- mekolopon (Bangka).
anth segments 6, united in a short tube; stamens Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
6 or 9, in 3 rows inserted on the perianth tube, Sumatra, Bangka and western Java; possibly also
usually short-stalked staminodes in an innermost Kalimantan.
row; ovary superior, 1-celled, style short, conical, Uses In Bengkulu (Sumatra), the wood is used
obtuse, with an inconspicuous stigma. Fruit a 1- as an antimalarial. The wood is also used for
seeded berry, oblong to ovoid. Seed without albu- house building.
men, with a thin testa; cotyledons large, flat, con- Observations A medium-sized tree up to 24 m
vex. Seedling with hypogeal germination. tall, bole up to 50 cm in diameter; leaves alter-
Although evergreen, most of the species flower nate, elliptical to oblong, 6.5-30 cm x 2-13 cm,
and develop new reddish leaves periodically. Polli- base cuneate, apex acute to obtuse, glabrous to
nation is by insects; seed dispersal takes place by reddish-brown pubescent below, midrib raised
animals which eat the fleshy fruits. above, tertiary venation faint above and distinct
Beilschmiedia is one of the Lauraceae genera in below, petiole 1-3 cm long; flowers hairy; fruit ob-
South-East Asia whose species are still compara- long, c. 2.5 cm x 1-1.5 cm. B. madang occurs scat-
tively unknown and ill-defined. It requires a thor- tered in lowland and lower montane forest up to
ough taxonomie revision. The genus is probably 1250 m altitude.
most closely related to Cryptocarya and Dehaasia Selected sources 121,485, 541, 990.
and is characterized by the absence of a persistent
involucre, a deciduous perianth, 2-celled anthers, Beilschmiedia pahangensis Gamble
often reticulately veined leaves and the naked
KewBull.: 150(1910).
fruiting pedicel which may be slightly thickened.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: medang salah,
Ecology Beilschmiedia usually occurs in prima- medang tandok, medang punggok (Peninsular).
ry lowland rain forest, sometimes ascending into Distribution Peninsular Malaysia.
the montane zone up to 1400(-1750) m altitude. It Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
is usually an element of the subcanopy or canopy bark is drunk to treat stomach-ache, as a post-
layer. partum tonic, and to treat digestive disorders and
Management Beilschmiedia can be propagated dysentery. Sometimes other plants are added to
by seed. About 45% of the seed of B. madang ger- the decoction. The leaves and roots are sometimes
minates in 1-3.5 months. pounded and externally applied to the stomach to
Genetic resources In the Malesian region a treat digestive disorders.
large number of Beilschmiedia species are found Observations A small tree up to 15 m tall, bole
and most have a small area of distribution in pri- up to 30 cm in diameter; leaves alternate to oppo-
mary lowland rain forest. Therefore, the genetic site, elliptical to lanceolate, 7-15 cm x 2-5.5 cm,
diversity may be reduced through conversion of base cuneate, often asymmetric, apex obtuse,
natural forest into other vegetation types. glabrous, midrib raised to flattened above, ter-
Prospects The in-vitro antimalarial activity of tiary venation distinct on both sides, petiole 0.5-1
B. madang deserves further research in view of cm long; flowers sparsely hairy, perianth distinct-
the ongoing battle against drug-resistant malaria ly swollen at base; fruit ellipsoid to oblong, c. 3.5
parasites. cm x 1.3 cm. B. pahangensis is locally common on
Literature 121,485,541. river banks in lowland forests.
Selected sources 121,731,990.
BLECHUM 95
Beilschmiedia tonkinensis (Lecomte) thers about equal in length; ovary inferior, 4-

Ridley celled, apically densely covered with peltate
Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br.82: 190(1920). glands and deeply depressed, style up to 7(-11)
Vernacular names Malaysia: perapoh, me- mm long. Fruit a loculicidal capsule included in
dang salah (Peninsular). Vietnam: ch[aws]p the hypantium, urceolate or cup-shaped, up to 3
b[aws]c b[ooj]. mm long, pale brown, many-seeded. Seeds cu-
Distribution Indo-China and Peninsular Ma- neate, 0.3-0.4 mm long, with a short beak atcha-
laysia. laza, pale brown, testa bullate.
U s e s In Penang (Malaysia) a leaf poultice isap- B. borneensis can be found flowering throughout
plied tobroken bones. the year. It is a variable species in which 4 vari-
Observations A small tree up to 15m tall, bole eties have been distinguished: one in Indo-China,
up to 40cmin diameter; leaves alternate to oppo- one in Thailand, one (var.pulverulentus (Ridley)
site, elliptical to oblong, 7-18 cm x 3-6 cm, base C. Hansen) in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra,
cuneate, apex obtuse, glabrous, midrib raised and one (var. borneensis) throughout the area of
above, tertiary venation distinct on both sides, distribution ofthe species.
petiole 1-2.5 cm long; flowers hairy; fruit oblong, Blastus comprises 12 species and is confined to
c. 2.5 cm x 1.5 cm. B. tonkinensis is a coastal tropical and subtropical Asia. Southern China is
species occasionally found inland. richest in species (9),followed by Indo-China (4).
Selected sources 121,731, 990. In Malesia, only a single species is found. Blastus
Nguyen Kim Dao is classified in the tribe Oxysporeae, andis related
to e.g.Allomorphia and Oxyspora. It is easily rec-
ognized by having only 4 stamens and peltate
Blastus borneensis Cogn. glands.
Ecology B. borneensis occurs in primary and
A.DC. &C D C ,Monogr. phan. 7:477(1891). secondary rain forest, often dipterocarp forest,
MELASTOMATACEAE from sea-level upto2100 m altitude.
In =unknown Genetic resources B. borneensis is widely dis-
Synonyms Blastus cogniauxii Stapf (1894). tributed in the undergrowth ofprimary as well as
Vernacular names Malaysia: sendudok rimba, secondary forest and does not seem tobe easily li-
kedudok hutan, kedudok cherang (Peninsular). able to genetic erosion. However, several other
Origin and geographic distribution B. bor- Blastus species seem to be narrow endemics, par-
neensis is distributed in Indo-China (Cambodia, ticularly in southern China and northern Viet-
Laos and Vietnam), China (Hainan), peninsular nam, whereas some varieties ofB. borneensis also
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo have a restricted geographical distribution; these
and Sulawesi. may easily become endangered.
Uses It hasbeen reported that a decoction of the Prospects The information available on B.
roots is drunk in Peninsular Malaysia during the borneensis is restricted to botanical information
first three days after childbirth asa restorative. and a single record on a medicinal use.This isin-
Botany A branched shrub up to 4.5(-7) m tall; sufficient to allow the prediction of the prospects
branchlets densely covered with peltate glands. as a medicinal plant.
Leaves decussately opposite, those of a pair often Literature 313.
unequal in size, simple and entire, ovate to ellipti- Other selected sources 121.
cal, 3-19C-28) cm x l-6(-10) cm, attenuate to R.H.M.J. Lemmens
rounded at base, long-acuminate at apex, with
3(-5) longitudinal veins, with peltate glands be-
low; petiole 0.5-3 cm long; stipules absent. Inflo- B l e c h u m p y r a m i d a t u m (Lamk)Urb.
rescence an axillary or terminal thyrse rarely
more than 5cmlong. Flowers regular, bisexual,4- Feddes Repert. 15:323(1918).
merous; hypantium campanulate to urceolate, ACANTHACEAE
with yellowish peltate glands; sepals very shortly 2n = 34
connate into a lowrim,upto0.5(-l) mmlong, per- Synonyms Blechum brownei Juss. (1807).
sistent; petals free, up to 2.5 mm long, white to Vernacular names Philippines: sapin-sapin,
yellowish or rarely pinkish; stamens inserted on dayang (Tagalog), bamburia (Iloko).
the sepals, up to 6 mm long, filaments and an- Origin and geographic distribution B. pyra-
midatum originates from tropical America, but 6 cm long, with large foliaceous bracts c. 1.5 cm
has been introduced and is naturalized in south- long, the margins conspicuously ciliate. Flowers
ern Taiwan, the Philippines, and islands of the solitary or in pairs in the axils of bracts, small, bi-
Pacific such as the Mariana Islands, the Caroline sexual, each flower with 2 linear bracteoles; calyx
Islands and Western Samoa. 5-partite with linear segments; corolla gamo-
Uses A decoction of the entire plant is used to petalous, scarcely longer than bract, with slender
treat blennorrhoea in the Philippines; the pound- tube and 5 subequal lobes contorted in bud, pu-
ed leaves are used to heal wounds. In Costa Rica, berulent, white; stamens 4, didynamous, inserted
a decoction of the plant is a popular remedy for above the middle of the corolla tube; ovary superi-
dysentery, and in Cuba it is valued as a powerful or, 2-celled, style subulate. Fruit an ovoid capsule
diuretic. In Jamaica, a decoction is used in a stim- c. 5 mm long, puberulent, loculicidally 2-valved,
ulant bath, and to treat colds, whereas in Mexico after dehiscence the placentae rising elastically
it is considered a remedy for snakebites, chills and from the base of the fruit, many-seeded. Seeds or-
fever. In Panama, a decoction ofthe entire plant is bicular, c. 1.5 mm in diameter.
used to treat vomiting. Blechum consists of about 6 species and is native
Botany An annual or short-lived, erect or as- to tropical America. It should not be confused with
cending herb up to 50(-70) cm tall; stems often Blechnum, which is a fern genus.
prostrate and rooting at lower nodes. Leaves de- Ecology B. pyramidatum is common in and
cussately opposite, simple and entire, ovate, 3-10 around many towns at low altitude in the Philip-
cm x 2-5 cm, thin, obtuse or rounded at base, pines: in waste places, open thickets and on old
acute at apex, sparingly strigose above and nearly walls. In tropical America, it is a weed of fields,
glabrous below; petiole up to 2.5 cm long; stipules shady waste places and moist thickets, up to 1400
absent. Inflorescence a dense terminal spike up to m altitude. It is sometimes a troublesome weed,
e.g. in taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) in
Western Samoa.
Management Seeds of B. pyramidatum germi-
nate at a temperature of 10-40°C, but the opti-
mum is 20-35°C. There is no marked dormancy,
and the seeds lose their germination capacity com-
paratively rapidly.
Genetic resources B. pyramidatum occurs
commonly in anthropogenic habitats and is conse-
quently not easily liable to genetic erosion.
Prospects It is not possible to give an indica-
tion ofthe medicinal prospects ofB. pyramidatum
because no information is available on pharmaco-
logical properties and phytochemistry. However,
research seems worthwhile because of the medici-
nal uses in different parts ofthe world.
Literature 544, 760.
Other selected sources 117, 646.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
B u c h n e r a L.
Sp. pi. 2: 630 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:278 (1754).

SCROPHULARIACEAE
x =unknown
Origin a n d geographic distribution Buch-
nera comprises approximately 100 species and oc-
Blechum pyramidatum (Lamk) Urb. - 1, plant curs in all tropical and subtropical regions. South-
habit; 2, calyx; 3, corolla opened to show stamens; ern and eastern Africa are richest in species (over
4,pistil; 5, dehisced fruit; 6, seeds. 50). South-East Asia is comparatively poor, with 3
BUCHNERA 97
species in Indo-China and Thailand, and about 5 Selection of species

in the Malesian region (1 in Java, 1 in the Philip-
pines, 4 in New Guinea). Buchnera ciliata Pennell
Uses Some uses have been recorded for Buch- Journ. Arn. Arb. 24:263 (1943).
nera species in traditional medicine in South-East Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: bogle
Asia. In Papua New Guinea, whole plants ofB. ci- (Mount Hagen, Western Highlands).
liata are used as a sedative during childbirth, Distribution New Guinea.
whereas in Thailand, Vietnam and southern Chi- Uses On Mount Hagen, the whole plant is used
na whole plants ofB. cruciata are applied to cure for alleviating birth pains and to accelerate the
cough, asthma, epilepsy and ulcers, and to pre- expulsion ofthe placenta.
vent anaemia. Observations A herb up to 50 cm tall, stem
In Tanzania, B. hispida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don is simple or distally slightly branched; lowest leaves
powdered and mixed with castor-oil, and applied ovate, short, middle leaves oblong, larger, c. 4 cm
externally to scabies and eczema. x 1 cm, upper leaves linear-lanceolate, 5-6 cm
Properties As in many other Scrophulariaceae, long, scabrous-pubescent; inflorescence slender
mannitol is present in Buchnera. and dense, bracts 3-4 mm long, strongly ciliate;
Botany Annual or perennial hemiparasitic calyx c. 5 mm long, corolla with 6-7 mm long tube
herbs; stems usually erect and simple or laxly and 3-4 mm long lobes, pinkish; fruit triangular-
branched, terete. Leaves opposite, occasionally al- conical, c. 5 mm long. B. ciliata occurs in moun-
ternate, lower ones often rosulate, simple, linear tainous regions at about 1600 m altitude, in grass-
to ovate, entire to coarsely dentate, sessile or land and on deforested slopes.
shortly petiolate; stipules absent. Inflorescence Selected sources 347, 728, 897.
terminal, spicate, 4-angled, densely flowered;
bracts large, subtending and largely covering the Buchnera cruciata Buch.-Ham. ex D.
flowers. Flowers bisexual, sessile, with 2 small Don
bracteoles, 5-merous; calyx tubular, equally lobed; Prodr. fl. nepal.: 91 (1825).
corolla with slender cylindrical tube, with sube- Synonyms Buchnera ramosa Bonati (1911).
qual, spreading lobes; stamens 4, adnate at the Vernacular n a m e s Laos: hnha:z do:k le (Xieng
middle of the corolla tube, short, slightly didyna- Khouang), khauz kamx no:yz (Louang Prabang).
mous; ovary superior, 2-celled, style filiform, stig- Thailand: ya khao kam khao (north-eastern),
ma clavate. Fruit an ovoid to oblong capsule, lo- ya khao kam (south-eastern). Vietnam: m[aa]y
culicidally 2-valved, many-seeded. Seeds cylindri- m[aa]y (Phu Khanh), b[uj]c.
cal or fusiform, longitudinally striate. Distribution Nepal, eastern India, Burma
Ecology Buchnera is found in open forest and (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China and
grassland, up to 1600 m altitude. Thailand.
Some species, e.g. the African B. hispida, are fac- Uses In Thailand, the whole plant is used to
ultative root parasites of grasses and cereals, and treat asthma and ulcers. Mixed with the whole
occasionally may be pests in crops (especially plant ofPierranthus capitatus (Bonati) Bonati it is
maize and sorghum). However, they are not ofeco- used to treat anaemia. In Vietnam, an infusion of
nomic importance. the plant is used to treat cough. In China, the
Genetic resources The South-East Asian whole plant is used to treat epilepsy.
Buchnera species do not seem to be liable to genet- Observations A herb up to 80 cm tall, stem
ic erosion. They are not restricted to vulnerable simple; lowest leaves obovate, elliptical or oblong,
habitats, and are usually widely distributed. How- 1-5 cm long, middle and upper leaves linear-
ever, some species, such as B. ciliata, are more or lanceolate, 1-4 cm long, scabrous-pubescent; inflo-
less narrow endemics, and overcollecting may eas- rescence densely flowered, bracts 2-3 mm long,
ily result in too high pressure on populations. pubescent; calyx c. 4 mm long, corolla with c. 8
Prospects The lack of data on chemistry and mm long tube and c. 2 mm long lobes, purplish;
pharmacological activity makes it impossible to fruit oblong-ovoid or oblong, 4-5 mm long. B. cru-
predict whether the uses of Buchnera in local ciata occurs in open deciduous forest and in grass-
medicine will have wider application. land, up to 1600 m altitude.
Literature 120,331. Selected sources 169,249, 250.
Wongsatit Chuakul, Noppamas
Soonthornchareonnon &Orawan Ruangsomboon
Buddleja asiatica Lour. The extract had an oc-receptor antagonist activity.

The essential oil isolated from B. asiatica leaves
Fl. cochinch.: 72 (1790). inhibited the growth of the pathogenic fungi As-
BUDDLEJACEAE pergillus flavus, A. fumigatus (causing bronchial
2« = 38 and pulmonary infections), Trichoderma viride
Vernacular names White butterfly bush (En). (causing dermatitis), Trichophyton rubrum (caus-
Indonesia: jugul (Sundanese), daun putihan (Ja- ing infection of keratinized tissues and skin) and
vanese), kayu saludang (Sumatra). Philippines: Curvularia prasadii (causing leaf spot). The oil is
malasambung (Tagalog), lagundisalasa (Bisaya), rich in ß-caryophyllene epoxide (22%), citronellol
tugnang (Iloko). Laos: dok fon2, dok khap. Thai- (17%) and ß-caryophyllene (16%).A crude petrole-
land: khrai bok (northern), kiang phaa lai (Chiang um-ether-acetone extract of B. asiatica showed
Mai), mae maai (Kanchanaburi). Vietnam: b[oj] distinct larvicidal activity on the filarial mosquito
ch[os], t[us]y ng[uw] th[ar]o, b[us]p l[eej]. Culex quinquefasciatus.
Origin and geographic distribution B. asia- Four phenylethanoid glucosides have been isolat-
tica occurs from Pakistan, eastern India, Burma ed from B. officinalis flowers; one of these, verbas-
(Myanmar), Laos, Vietnam and southern China, coside (= acetoside), showed antibacterial and an-
through Thailand and the whole ofMalesia, to the ticancer activities, and is also known to exhibit
Mariana Islands. It is sometimes cultivated and antihypertensive and analgesic activities. Several
naturalized in other tropical and subtropical re- flavonoid compounds (e.g. apigenin, luteolin and
gions. B. asiatica is the only native species of the luteolin-7-O-glucoside) have been isolated from B.
genus in the Malesian region, but a few other officinalis. A 70% methanolic extract of B. offici-
species are cultivated and sometimes naturalized. nalis flowers showed an inhibitory effect on unpu-
Uses In the Philippines, B. asiatica plants are rified rat lens aldose reductase, an enzyme in-
used as an abortifacient, to treat skin diseases volved in the complications of diabetes. Luteolin,
and as a cure to stop weight loss. In Vietnam, the luteolin-7-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside, apigenin and
leaves are applied in an inhalation to treat acacetin-7-0-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(6-l)-ß-D-glu-
headache, to treat skin diseases, and, in combina- copyranoside have been isolated as active com-
tion with other drugs, after childbirth. Dried roots pounds.
are used to treat malaria in China, and as a tonic Aqueous extracts of several Buddleja species
in Burma (Myanmar). The leaves are often used (amongst which B. officinalis) showed an inhibito-
for stupefying fish, e.g. by the Dayak Kenyan peo- ry effect against induced cytotoxicity of cultured
ple in East Kalimantan (Indonesia). B. asiatica is hepatocytes. Testing ofthe isolated compounds in-
used as forage in Nepal. dicated that the activity is most likely due to
A decoction offlower buds ofB. officinalis Maxim., flavonoid constituents and phenylpropide glyco-
found wild in northern Vietnam and southern sides.
China, is used to treat eye diseases such as eye Botany A shrub or small tree up to 7 m tall;
inflammation, nyctalopia, asthenopia and catar- branches terete, densely appressed or woolly stel-
act, often in combination with other medicinal late-hairy when young. Leaves opposite, simple,
plants. narrowly lanceolate to oblong- or ovate-lanceolate,
B. americana L. is used in traditional medicine in 3-30 cm x 0.5-7 cm, cuneate at base, long-acumi-
Central America, e.g. to treat respiratory dis- nate at apex, margin remotely serrate-dentate to
eases, gastro-intestinal disorders, headache and entire, densely hairy beneath, pinnately veined;
diarrhoea. B. madagascariensis Lamk is also used petiole 2-15 mm long; stipules absent, but 2 oppo-
to treat respiratory diseases in Madagascar, and site petioles connected by a stipular line. Inflores-
is sometimes planted and rarely naturalized in cence a terminal and/or axillary spike-like thyrse
South-East Asia (Peninsular Malaysia). up to 25 cm long, composed of 1-3-flowered cymes
Several Buddleja species are widely planted as or- in the axils of linear bracts, densely tomentose.
namentals, e.g. B. davidii Franch., which is also Flowers bisexual, 4-merous, occasionally a few 5-
commonly cultivated in the Malesian region and is merous, sessile or subsessile; calyx campanulate,
locally naturalized (Cameroon Highlands, Penin- 1.5-4.5 mm long, with triangular-oblong lobes;
sular Malaysia). corolla 3-6 mm long, lobes distinctly shorter than
Properties The alcoholic extract from B. asiati- tube, outside stellate-hairy, white, sometimes pale
ca leaves produced a persistent hypotensive effect violet or greenish; stamens inserted on the corolla
on pentobarbitone-anaesthetized dogs and cats. tube, filaments extremely short; ovary superior, 2-
BUTEA 99
spectively. B. asiatica can also be propagated us-

ing semi-hardwood cuttings.
Genetic resources B. asiatica is widespread,
locally common and prefers disturbed habitats.
This means that there is no risk ofgenetic erosion.
Prospects Like other Buddleja species, B. asi-
atica shows interesting pharmacological activities
(e.g. antifungal activity), which deserve more at-
tention in research. Especially the treatment of
skin and eye diseases should be further investi-
gated. In India, B. asiatica has been suggested as
a promising shrub for regreening degraded habi-
tats.
Literature 247,270, 671, 760, 866, 958.
603.
Siti Susiarti
B u t e a R o x b . e x Willd.
Sp. pi. 3(2):917 (1802).

LEGUMINOSAE
x = 9; B. monosperma: 2n = 18, 22, 32, B.
superba: 2n =18
Origin and geographic distribution Butea
comprises 2 species and its natural distribution is
Buddleja asiatica Lour. - 1, flowering branch; 2, confined to the drier parts of India and mainland
flower; 3, opened corolla showing stamens; 4, fruit; South-East Asia, with the exception of the pres-
5, seed. ence ofB. monosperma in Java. The latter species
is planted throughout South-East Asia and cer-
celled, style short, stigma club-shaped. Fruit an tain parts of Africa.
ovoid or oblong, flattened capsule 3-5 mm long, 2- Uses B. monosperma is widely used in Indian
valved, glabrous, brown, many-seeded. Seeds el- and continental South-East Asian folk medicine.
lipsoid, small, with a short wing at both sides, en- The astringent bark exudate is used internally to
dosperm fleshy. treat diarrhoea, and is applied externally to boils,
B. asiatica may flower throughout the year. The sores, ulcers and adenitis. The root bark and seeds
flowers are pollinated by insects, whereas the tiny are credited with anthelmintic activity, and the
seeds are wind-dispersed. seeds, leaves and flowers with antimicrobial ac-
Buddleja comprises approximately 100 species, tivity. Several of the traditional uses are support-
and is distributed in all tropics and subtropics. It ed by modern research. B. monosperma is well
is sometimes included in the family Loganiaceae. known as a dye and tannin-producing plant. The
Ecology B. asiatica prefers open, often dis- bark of B. superba is used as a remedy for
turbed or secondary vegetation, and behaves more snakebites and insect stings, and a decoction of
or less as a pioneer. It is found in logged-over for- stem and leaves is applied to haemorrhoids and is
est, regularly burned grassland, in gravel-beds, considered sedative. B. superba has recently at-
and on former lava-streams and landslides, and tracted attention as a possible herbal substitute
occurs there often gregariously. It may be found for Viagra, which is at present the best known
up to 3000 m altitude. oral agent for the treatment of erectile dysfunc-
Management Seeds of B. asiatica start germi- tion. In Thailand over-the-counter preparations
nating 1-2 weeks after sowing. In glasshouse tests have been illegally developed from B. superba
in India, the average germination rate was 21%. both as gel as well as pills.
After 4 months, the average height and stem di- Properties Aqueous extracts ofB. monosperma
ameter of seedlings were 27 cm and 0.4 cm, re- roots and leaves showed ocular anti-inflammatory
activity in rabbits. The petroleum ether extract of or slightly longer than standard, falcate, keel
flowers of B. monosperma exhibited anticonvul- slightly longer than standard and wings, falcate;
sant activity in mice and rats, and additionally stamens enclosed within the keel, 9 connate and 1
antagonized the behavioural effects of ampheta- free; ovary superior, stipitate, woolly, 1-celled,
mine and potentiated the pentobarbital-induced with curved style. Fruit an oblong or broadly lin-
sleep. It was also found to be anxiogenic and a de- ear pod, distinctly stipitate, pendulous, in the low-
pressant of the central nervous system. A er part flat, with a single seed near the apex. Seed
methanol extract of the seeds showed significant ellipsoid, flattened, c. 3 cm long.
in-vitro anthelmintic activity. At the beginning of the rainy season B. monosper-
An ethanol concentrate of B. monosperma petals ma is leafless and flowers abundantly. Birds are
exhibited anti-oestrogenic activity in rats, and a the chief pollinators. At the end of the flowering
flower decoction showed anti-implantation activi- period, new leaves develop; these are initially pale
ty. The anti-implantation activity is, at least part- bronze-tinged green.
ly, due to the presence of the flavanone butin. The Butea is usually classified in the tribe Phaseoleae
petroleum and ethyl acetate extracts of B. mono- and seems to be related to Meizotropis and
sperma stem bark displayed antifungal activity Spatholobus.
against Cladosporium cladosporioides. The active Confusion exists with respect to the Thai drug
constituent was identified as (-)-medicarpin (an 'kwaao khruea', reputed for its rejuvenating prop-
isoflavonoid/pterocarpan). Seed extracts of B. erties. Contradictory reports on chemical con-
monosperma showed anthelmintic and antisper- stituents (especially phytoestrogens) of plant ma-
matogenic activities. terial collected under this name can be attributed
A flavonol glycoside isolated from the stems of B. to a mix-up between B. superba and Pueraria mi-
superba showed antimicrobial activity against nu- rifica Airy Shaw & Suvat. The resemblance of the
merous plant pathogenic fungi and gram-positive leaves of these species is striking, but they are
as well as gram-negative bacteria. An orally ad- very different with respect to constituents and ac-
ministered seed extract of B. superba showed tivity. Whereas pharmacological interest in P.
moderate to strong antispermatogenic effect in mirifica focuses on its isoflavones and miroestrol
mice and rats. content, B. superba receives special attention for
Drugs developed for erectile dysfunction are able its high levels of flavonoids and flavonoid glyco-
to substitute, partially or completely, the malfunc- sides. Information with respect to the efficacy of a
tioning endogenous mechanisms that control pe- special selection of B. superba refers to its tuber-
nile erection. Sildenafil citrate (Viagra) acts as an ous root as source of the active principle. Howev-
inhibitor of phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5). er, botanical literature claims that B. superba
This enzyme interferes with the production of does not have a tuberous root, whereas Pueraria
cyclic guanosine monophosphate (c-GMP) that is mirifica does.
aimed at relaxing the smooth muscles in the cor- Ecology Butea grows gregariously in open
pus cavernosum, thereby increasing the blood flow grasslands and scattered in mixed forest, in rela-
to the penis. The activity ofB. superba is claimed tively dry areas up to 1500 m altitude.
to work according to the same mechanism. Management B. monosperma is propagated by
Botany Lianas, scandent shrubs or trees, with seed. Before the beginning of the rainy season,
tomentose young branches. Leaves alternate, 3-fo- complete pods are sown in rows 3-6 m apart. The
liolate; stipules small, linear or subulate, pubes- pod opens at the tip and allows the young shoot
cent, caducous; lateral leaflets obliquely ovate, and root to emerge. The cotyledons remain at-
with obtuse to rounded apex, terminal leaflet sym- tached to the seedling for a considerable time.
metric, rhomboid-obovate, with obtuse to emar- Seedlings thrive best on a rich loamy soil with a
ginate apex; stipels present. Inflorescence an axil- neutral pH. Root suckers are freely produced and
lary or terminal densely fasciculate pseudo-ra- enable vegetative propagation and easy tree re-
ceme or panicle, bracteolate. Flowers bisexual, covery after damage.
pedicellate; calyx broadly campanulate, with 4 Genetic resources B. monosperma is widely
short lobes, velvety, olive-green, persistent; petals planted and does not seem to be at risk of genetic
papilionaceous, densely pubescent outside, bright- erosion. Populations of B. superba are locally
ly coloured, orange-red, more rarely yellow or threatened by over-collecting, especially in Thai-
white, standard ovate, auricled at base, acute at land. Plantations of the latter have been estab-
apex, strongly reflexed at anthesis, wings equal to lished, with a high-yielding selection, that is mar-
BUTEA 101
keted as a cultivar (Wichai 101), serving as a

guarantee of quality.
Prospects Butea shows several interesting
pharmacological properties, including antimicro-
bial, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvul-
sant and antifertility activities. These deserve
more research, possibly leading to a more ade-
quate usage as a medicinal plant. The basis for
the claimed activities of B. superba for the treat-
ment of erectile dysfunction is still unclear. This
warrants scientific publications in which the
botanical identity of the plant material tested
should be indisputably clarified.
Literature 181,490, 523,731,815.
Butea monosperma (Lamk) Taub.

Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3(3): 366
(1894).
Synonyms Butea frondosa Roxb. ex Willd.
(1802).
Vernacular n a m e s Flame of the forest (En).
Indonesia: palasa (general), plasa (Javanese, Sun-
danese). Burma (Myanmar): pouk-pen. Cambodia:
char. Laos: (kô'k) chan. Thailand: kwaao (north-
ern), thong kwaao, thong thammachaat (central). Butea monosperma (Lamk) Taub. - 1, flowering
Vietnam: l[aa]m v[oos],gi[ef]ng gi[ef]ng. twig; 2, fruits.
Distribution Nepal, throughout India, Sri Lan-
ka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand and material obtained from the inner bark is used for
Java; cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa, and in rough cordage, for caulking boats and for making
some subtropical regions. paper. The wood is sometimes used for utensils
Uses A red exudate (gum) from the bark is and construction, more commonly for fuel. B.
known as 'Butea gum' or 'Bengal kino'. It can be monosperma is a valuable species for reclaiming
used as a powerful astringent and is applied in saline soils.
cases of diarrhoea. In Indo-China it is an ingredi- Observations A small to medium-sized, decidu-
ent of dressings applied to boils, sores, ulcers and ous tree 5-12(-20) m tall; leaves with petiole up to
adenitis. The bark is credited with anti-ulcer and 20 cm long and leaflets up to 27 cm x 26 cm; inflo-
antitumour properties, and the root bark is used rescence with early caducous bracts; flowers 4-8
as an aphrodisiac, analgesic, oestrogenic and an- cm long, bright orange-red, more rarely yellow,
thelmintic. The leaves show some antimicrobial pedicel c. 2 times longer than calyx; fruit up to 24
activity. The seeds are reputed to work as an an- cm x 6 cm, covered with short brown hairs, pale
thelmintic, and also have bactericidal and fungici- yellowish-brown or grey when ripe. B. monosper-
dal effects. The flowers are used in the treatment ma usually grows in open grassland, but also in
of liver disorders and credited with astringent, di- mixed forest, in Java in relatively dry regions in
uretic and anti-inflammatory activities. In India the east, up to 1500 m altitude.
B. monosperma is an important host for the lac in- Selected sources 9, 70, 90, 121, 181, 250, 455,
sect (Laccifer lacca), which produces shellac. The 542, 617, 731,753,815, 965.
tree is much planted as an ornamental because it
flowers with a profusion of bright orange, rarely Butea superba Willd.
sulphurous flowers. A bright yellow to deep or- Sp. pi. 3(2):917 (1802).
ange-red dye can be prepared from the flowers, es- Vernacular names Cambodia: char. Laos:
pecially used for dyeing silk. The coarse, fibrous (khua) chan. Thailand: kwaao khruea (northern),
thong kruea (central). Vietnam: chan ki[eej]u, Botany A glabrous shrub with compressed-
gi[ef]ng gi[ef|ng d[ej]p. tetragonal branches. Leaves opposite, simple and
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- entire, elliptical to oblong, 5-17 cm x 1.5-8 cm,
mar), Indo-China and Thailand. acute at base, shortly acuminate at apex, thinly
Uses In Burma (Myanmar) the bark is used as a leathery, with numerous distinct secondary veins
remedy for snakebites and insect stings, and in connecting into an intramarginal vein; petiole 2-7
Thailand to treat toothache. In Cambodia a decoc- mm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axil-
tion of stem and leaves is externally applied to lary raceme with c. 5 pairs of bracts. Flowers uni-
haemorrhoids; it is also considered sedative and sexual; male flowers pedicelled, with 4 perianth
used to treat convulsions. segments and 4 stamens; female flowers terminal
Observations A large liana with stem up to 40 in inflorescence, without perianth but with c. 6
cm in diameter; leaves with petiole up to 10 cm spirally arranged bracteoles, ovary superior, 3-
long and leaflets up to 30(-45) cm x 25(-40) cm; in- celled, styles 3, short, persistent. Fruit an ovoid
florescence with bracts persistent until anthesis; capsule 1-1.5 cm long, 3-celled with 2 seeds per
flowers 8-10 cm long, bright orange-red, pedicel c. cell. Seeds trigonous-ellipsoid, c. 7 mm long, shiny
3 times longer than calyx; fruit up to 24 cm x 6 cm, black.
covered with short brown hairs, pale yellow- Buxus consists of approximately 100 species. It
ish-brown or grey when ripe. B. superba occurs in has a centre of diversity (section Tricera) in the
open forest. Caribbean-Latin America region with about 50
Selected sources 92, 121, 181, 250, 731, 815, species, more than 30 ofwhich are confined to Cu-
825, 1024. ba. A second centre of diversity is in eastern Asia,
Raharni where about 40 species occur from China, Korea
and Japan to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philip-
pines; most ofthese species have been classified in
Buxus rolfei S. Vidal section Buxus, but 6 in section Eugeniobuxus (in-
cluding B. rolfei). In Africa, about 7 species have
Revis, pi. vase, filip.: 233 (1886). been found (section Probuxus), whereas the 4
BUXACEAE species ofthe closely related genus Notobuxus also
In =unknown occur here. Two species occur in Europe.
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: malagaap, Ecology B. rolfei occurs in primary forest at low
piukbanau (Tagalog), sarapuyau (Negrito). and medium altitudes.
Origin and geographic distribution B. rolfei Genetic resources B. rolfei appears to be en-
is endemic to the Philippines (Luzon, Sibuyan, demic to the Philippines where it is restricted to
Palawan, Mindanao), but may possibly have been primary forest, which is under high pressure.
recorded from Sulawesi (Indonesia). Consequently, it seems liable to genetic erosion
Uses The fruits are dried and finely cut, and and may become easily endangered.
then scattered on water as a fish poison. Prospects The steroidal alkaloids present in
Leaves ofB. harlandii Hance are used in Vietnam Buxus are pharmacologically interesting com-
to treat dog bites. pounds, which are probably also present in B.
Properties Steroidal alkaloids of the 9ß,19 cy- rolfei. This might offer possibilities for research.
clopregnane and 9(10—>19) abeo pregnane type Literature 117, 323,495.
have been found in all Buxus species investigated. Other selected sources 55,57, 121,521,535.
Several of these isolated from the leaves of B. R.H.M.J. Lemmens
longifolia Boiss. and B. sempervirens L. showed
significant antibacterial activity, also against
human pathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, the Calophyllum L.
steroidal alkaloid cyclobuxine isolated from B. mi-
crophylla Sieb. &Zucc. in Korea is reported to pro- Sp. pi. 1:513 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 229 (1754).
tect the isolated rat heart from the myocardial in- GUTTIFERAE
juries produced by ischaemia and subsequent x =unknown; C. inophyllum: In - 32
reperfusion by significantly suppressing ultra- Origin and geographic distribution Calo-
structural damage. Buxaminol E isolated from the phyllum is a very large genus comprising about
European B. sempervirens showed a hypotensive 190 species. The Indo-Malesian region, Microne-
effect in tests with cats. sia, Melanesia and northern Australia are rich in
CALOPHYLLUM 103
species, tropical America, Madagascar and sur- HIV type 2. The most promising compounds seem
rounding islands less rich. Peninsular Malaysia, to be the dipyranocoumarin (+)-calanolide A iso-
Sumatra, Borneo and New Guinea show an abun- lated from C. lanigerum var. austrocoriaceum and
dance of species, about 40, 35, 65 and 35, respec- the closely related compound (-)-calanolide B from
tively. C. teysmannii var. inophylloide. These compounds
Uses Many Calophyllum species supply a good are under development as an AIDS chemothera-
multipurpose timber, known as bintangor. Timber peutic. A study demonstrated the safety and
is definitely the primary use for these species. favourable pharmacokinetic profile of single doses
However, the recent discovery of compounds that of (+)-calanolide A in healthy, HIV-negative indi-
are very promising as drugs for the treatment of viduals. Inophyllum B and P are the most active
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) compounds isolated from C. inophyllum. Soulat-
throws new light on Calophyllum as a medicinal trolide, another coumarin isolated from the latex
plant. of C. teysmannii, was also found to be a potent in-
A decoction ofthe bark and the latex of some Calo- hibitor of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. The seeds
phyllum species is used in traditional medicine, ofC. cerasiferum Vesque from the Fiji Islands con-
internally against diarrhoea and after childbirth, tain (-)-calanolide B as its major coumarin con-
externally against skin and eye diseases and stituent. Cordatolide A and B, which also inhibit
rheumatism; leaves, flowers and seeds are also HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, have been isolated
used. Abalsam made from the fruits ofC. inophyl- from C. cordato-oblongum Thwaites, an endemic
lum is used as a healing and analgesic agent in of Sri Lanka.
the treatment of burns. The poisonous latex from An analysis ofthe essential oil from C. inophyllum
the bark of several species is used to stupify fish flowers showed the presence of 25 compounds,
and, mixed with rice, to kill rats. Several other with a naphthalene derivative as the most abun-
species not treated here are used in traditional dant component. Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory
medicine or as poisonous plant, e.g. C. calaba L. and phagocytosis stimulant activities have been
(latex used as fish poison and shampoo), C. canum reported for this species. Seed extracts of C. ino-
Hook.f. (latex used as fish poison in Sarawak), C. phyllum showed significant molluscicidal activity;
dioscurii P.F. Stevens (decoction of roots used af- the hydroxy acid calophyllic acid was isolated as
ter childbirth in Peninsular Malaysia), C. pisifer- the active compound. The ether extract of the
um Planchon & Triana (decoction of bark used to leaves showed piscicidal activity.
treat diarrhoea in Cambodia), and C. rubiginosum Xanthones and coumarins with cytotoxic activity
M.R. Henderson & Wyatt-Smith (latex used to against cancer cells have been isolated from vari-
poison rats and as fish poison in Indonesia). ous Calophyllum species. For example, some of
The fruits of some species are edible but often the 4-phenylcoumarins isolated from C. inophyl-
sour; caution is necessary as they contain toxic lum might be valuable as potential cancer chemo-
substances. The oil from the seeds is sometimes preventive agents.
used as an illuminant and in soap making. The Botany Evergreen trees up to 40(-60) m tall,
seed-oil and the latex from the bark have occa- rarely shrubs, with sticky latex; twigs more or less
sionally been used for dyeing batik cloth in Java. flattened and angled. Leaves decussately oppo-
A decoction of the bark is sometimes used to site, simple and entire, leathery, glabrous, with
toughen and dye fishing-nets. C. inophyllum is closely parallel secondary venation, petiolate;
commonly planted as an ornamental. stipules absent. Inflorescence terminal or axillary,
Properties In the past decades, many natural racemose. Flowers usually bisexual, but some-
products have been screened to identify com- times functionally unisexual, regular, sweetly
pounds from which drugs against cancer and scented; perianth with 4-16 tepals in several
AIDS might be developed. Several coumarins whorls, usually whitish; stamens numerous, with
have been isolated from Calophyllum that are filaments usually only slightly connate at base;
able to inhibit HIV reverse transcriptase. Inophyl- ovary superior, unilocular, style often with a
lums have been isolated from the leaves and seeds peltate stigma. Fruit a drupe, outer layer of peri-
of C. inophyllum and calanolides from fruits and carp often with large air spaces, 1-seeded. Seed
twigs of C. lanigerum and C. teysmannii, and with large cotyledons and radicle pointing to the
these compounds proved to be non-nucleoside in- base of the fruit; endosperm absent. Seedling with
hibitors of HIV type 1. The compounds are essen- cryptocotylar germination and short epicotyl.
tially inactive against strains of the less common Growth ofthe young trees appears to be discontin-
uous and branching is rhythmic. Growth may be Moreover, Calophyllum is a source of potential
rather slow, and trees may take about 70 years to cancer chemopreventive agents.
attain a diameter of 50 cm. However, there is rea- Literature 183,452, 607, 616, 722, 878,891.
son to believe that growth may be considerably
faster under favourable conditions.
The flowers are insect-pollinated, e.g. by bees. Hy- Selection of species
bridization may occur, often with C. inophyllum
as one of the parents. Trees often bear fruits Calophyllum blancoi Planchon &
throughout the year. The fruits are eaten and dis- Triana
persed by mammals (bats, squirrels, monkeys) Ann. Sei. Nat. Bot. 4, 15:262 (1862).
and birds. However, the fruits of some species are Synonyms Calophyllum racemosum Merr.
dispersed by water, e.g. those of C. inophyllum (1910), Calophyllum glabrum Merr. (1912), Calo-
which are dispersed by sea currents, but also by phyllum mindanaense Elmer (1915).
fruit bats. Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: bitangol, bi-
Calophyllum is classified in the subfamily Calo- taog (general), palo maria del monte (Sp).
phylloideae together with its immediate relatives Distribution The Philippines and Borneo
Mammea and Mesua, and some small genera of (Sabah, East Kalimantan); also in Taiwan (Lanyu
Madagascar and India. It is easily distinguishable Islands).
by its single basal ovule and particularly by its Uses In the Philippines, the latex from the bark
nearly always strictly parallel and close venation is used externally to treat wounds, boils, swell-
ofthe leaves. ings, and to alleviate asthma. The wood is used for
Ecology Calophyllum belongs to the lowland many purposes.
tropical rain forest, but a few species occur in Observations A medium-sized to large tree up
montane rain forest. Calophyllum trees often to 40 m tall; leaves elliptical to suboblong,
reach to the top of the main canopy at maturity, (3-)5-25(-30) cm long, with 5-18(-22) veins per 5
but are not emergent. Only a few species grow in mm; inflorescence branched once or twice; flowers
drier or more open habitats; C. inophyllum occurs with 8-16 tepals; fruit ovoid to subspherical,
mainly on sandy beaches. 12-22 mm long. C. blancoi is a variable species,
Management Natural regeneration usually oc- and usually occurs in well-drained primary forest
curs near the mother tree. Seedlings grown in up to 1900 m altitude.
nurseries require shade. In plantation trials in In- Selected sources 760, 878,891.
donesia the spacing of seedlings is usually 2 m x 3
m. C a l o p h y l l u m i n o p h y l l u m L.
Genetic resources Although Calophyllum is Sp.pl. 1:513(1753).
abundant in several areas (e.g. in Peninsular Vernacular n a m e s Alexandrian laurel, Borneo
Malaysia, Borneo and New Guinea), in many oth- mahogany (En). Indonesia: nyamplung (Java),
er areas it is much less common and occurs scat- dingkaran (Sulawesi). Malaysia: bintangor laut,
tered in the forest. The rarer species may become penaga laut (Peninsular), penaga (Sabah). Papua
easily liable to genetic erosion when indiscrimi- New Guinea: beach calophyllum. Philippines: palo
nate logging and large-scale destruction of low- maria (Sp), bitaog, butalau (general). Burma
land rain forest is practised. An example is C. (Myanmar): ponnyet, ph'ông. Cambodia: khtung,
blancoi, the stands of which are depleted in the kchyong. Thailand: kra thing (general), saraphee
Philippines due to logging and shifting cultiva- naen (northern), naowakan (Nan). Vietnam:
tion. c[aa]y m[uf]u, m[uf]u.
Prospects The studies on the activity of several Distribution Eastern Africa, Madagascar, is-
coumarins isolated from Calophyllum indicate lands of the Indian Ocean, India, Sri Lanka, Bur-
that these compounds have a novel mechanism of ma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, Taiwan,
interaction with human immunodeficiency virus the Ryukyu Islands, throughout Malesia, north-
type 1 reverse transcriptase. These non-nucleo- ern Australia and the islands ofthe Pacific Ocean;
side inhibitors differ mechanistically from the often planted within its range, in western Africa
chain terminators AZT and DDI, which are at pre- and in tropical America.
sent the chemotherapeutic agents used to treat Uses The latex and pounded bark are used in
HIV infections, and as such could conceivably play traditional medicine in many regions; they are ap-
a role in combination therapy against AIDS. plied externally on wounds, ulcers and to treat
CALOPHYLLUM 105
phthisis, orchitis and lung affections, and inter- (5.5-)8-20(-23) cm long, with 4-10 veins per 5
nally as a purgative, after childbirth and to treat mm; inflorescence usually unbranched but occa-
gonorrhoea. In Indonesia, a cold infusion of the sionally with 3-flowered branches; flowers with
leaves in water is used to treat sore eyes, in the 8(-13) tepals; fruit spherical to obovoid, 25-50 mm
Philippines to treat haemorrhoids, and in Papua long. C. inophyllum is often common on the
New Guinea against dysentery. Heated leaves are seashore (sandy beaches), but is sometimes found
applied to cuts, sores, ulcers, boils and skin rash inland on sandy soils up to 200 m altitude.
in Papua New Guinea, and the leaves are used in Selected sources 121, 173, 334, 347, 401,671,
Cambodia in inhalations to treat migraine and 722, 760, 772, 813,878, 885, 891, 915.
vertigo. In Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Indo-
China and India, the seed-oil is applied externally Calophyllum lanigerum Miq.
against rheumatism, swellings, ulcers, scabies, Fl. Ind. Bat., Suppl. 1(3):498 (1861).
ringworm, boils and itch. The flowers are used as Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: betur belulang,
heart tonic in Thailand. C. inophyllum is used bintangor belulang (Bangka, Belitung).
medicinally in Fiji to treat skin inflammations, in Distribution Southern Peninsular Malaysia,
New Caledonia to treat ulcers, wounds and sores, Singapore, the Riau Archipelago, Bangka, Beli-
and in Samoa to treat skin infections and scabies. tung and Borneo.
It is also used to poison fish. The wood is used for Uses C. lanigerum is a source of HIV reverse
many purposes. The oil from the seeds is used for transcriptase inhibitors. The wood is used espe-
illumination and soap making. The tree is planted cially for house and ship building.
as an ornamental and shade tree, and for refor- Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
estation and afforestation. to 25 m tall; leaves ovate to oblong, 4-20 cm long,
Observations A medium-sized tree up to with 6-13(-15) veins per 5 mm; inflorescence gen-
25(-35) m tall, usually with twisted or leaning erally unbranched; flowers with (6-)8 tepals; fruit
bole; leaves elliptical, ovate, obovate or oblong, usually spherical, 12-29 mm long. Two varieties
are distinguished: var. lanigerum from Bangka,
Belitung and south-eastern Borneo, and var. aus-
trocoriaceum (Whitm.) P.F. Stevens from Peninsu-
lar Malaysia to the Riau Archipelago and north-
western Borneo. C. lanigerum grows in mixed
dipterocarp rain forest, in hill forest, heath forest,
and in peat swamps up to 950 m altitude. It is lo-
cally abundant.
Selected sources 187, 452, 607, 616, 878,891.
Calophyllum soulattri Burm.f.

Fl. Indica: 121 (1768).
Synonyms Calophyllum lancifolium Elmer
(1915), Calophyllum solomonense A.C. Smith
(1941), Calophyllum spectabile auct. non Willd.
Vernacular names Indonesia: sulatri (Sun-
danese), malang-malang (Bangka). Malaysia: bin-
tangor labu, bintangor lanchar, mintak (Peninsu-
lar). Philippines: bitangol-sibat (general), pam-
intaogon (Samar-Leyte Bisaya), gigabi (Panay
Bisaya). Thailand: tanghon baiyai (Surat Thani).
Vietnam: c[oof]ng tr[aws]ng.
Distribution Vietnam, Cambodia, the An-
daman Islands, Thailand, throughout Malesia to-
wards the Solomon Islands and northern Aus-
tralia.
Uses In Indonesia, an infusion of the root is ap-
Calophyllum inophyllum L. - 1, typical habit of plied externally to alleviate rheumatic pains. The
tree along beach; 2, flowering twig; 3, fruits. seed oil is applied externally to treat rheumatism,
wounds and skin problems, and for illumination sular). Cambodia: ksouohs, ta suos, qgnu. Laos:
and soap making. The latex may be used to poison dok ka deng, ngouang 'soum. Thailand: kruut
dogs. The wood is used for many purposes, e.g. for (Surat Thani), khaao tok taek (central), nuai sut
house construction. The fruits are edible but sour (peninsular). Vietnam: d[aa]y ch[uw]ng cheo,
and they should not be consumed in large quanti- d[aa]y d[aaf]u m[aaf]u, c[aa]y b[uf] nh[ow]n.
ties. The tree is sometimes planted as a shade tree Origin and geographic distribution C. flori-
or ornamental. bunda is distributed from India and Burma
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up (Myanmar), through Indo-China and Thailand, to
to 30 m tall; leaves ovate to elliptical or suboblong, Peninsular Malaysia (Langkawi Island, Pinang,
(3.5-)6.5-29(-36) cm long, with (6-)12-18(-21) Pahang).
veins per 5 mm; inflorescence generally flabellate Uses A poultice of the leaves has been used in
and branched; flowers with 4 tepals; fruit spheri- Peninsular Malaysia to treat headache. In Cam-
cal, 9-16(-22) mm long. C. soulattri is a wide- bodia, the leaves are considered tonic and depura-
spread but in many locations rather uncommon tive; a decoction is administered to women after
tree, growing in lowland or lower montane rain childbirth. In India, the leaves are used as an an-
forest or sometimes in swamp forest, up to 1700 m thelmintic and to treat colic and dyspepsia. Juice
altitude. from young twigs is used against diarrhoea and
Selected sources 334, 878,891. dysentery, and the fruits to treat jaundice. The
bark is crushed with water and the solution is giv-
C a l o p h y l l u m t e y s m a n n i i Miq. en to cattle suffering from worms.
Fl. Ind. B a t , Suppl. 1(3):499 (1861). The leaves have also been used as cigarette-paper.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: bintangor batu In India, the stem is cut to get drinking water in
(Peninsular). Thailand: yakang (Nara). the forest.
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Properties The biflavonoids calycopterone, iso-
Malaysia, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago and calycopterone and 4-demethylcalycopterone and
Borneo. the flavone 4',5-dihydroxy-3,3',6,7-tetramethoxy-
U s e s C. teysmannii is a source of HIV reverse flavone were isolated from the flowers; the first
transcriptase inhibitors. The wood has a number three of these compounds showed a wide range of
ofuses including construction. activity against a panel of solid human tumour
Observations A medium-sized to large tree up cell lines. Quercetin and calycopterin have also
to 40 m tall; leaves usually obovate, (2-)3-14 cm been identified in the flowers. Calycopterin is the
long, with (4-)6-12(-21) veins per 5 mm; inflores- major flavonol in the leaves. Other flavonoids
cence usually unbranched; flowers with 4-8 found in the leaves include neocalycopterone, neo-
tepals; fruit spherical to ellipsoid, 17-37 mm long. calycopterone-4-methyl ether, calyflorenone A, ca-
Two varieties occur throughout the range of the lyflorenone B and quercetin.
species: var. teysmannii growing in peat swamps, Botany A large scandent shrub or liana, up to
mixed dipterocarp forest, kerangas forest and on 10 m long; young branchlets densely fulvous-to-
ridges in lower montane forest up to 1200 m alti- mentellous. Leaves opposite, ovate to narrowly el-
tude, and var. inophylloide (King) P.F. Stevens liptical, 6-17 cm x 2-7 cm, entire, densely fulvous-
usually growing in well-drained lowland to lower tomentellous particularly below; petiole 0.5-1 cm
montane mixed dipterocarp forest up to 1400 m long; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary
altitude. and terminal panicle. Flowers bisexual, yellowish-
Selected sources 616, 727, 878,891. green, about 1 cm long; receptacle divided into a
R.H.M.J. Lemmens lower and upper part; calyx with 5 accrescent
lobes; petals absent; stamens 10, in 2 whorls, in-
serted within the upper receptacle; disk cupular;
C a l y c o p t e r i s f l o r i b u n d a (Roxb.) L a m k ovary inferior, 1-locular, style subulate. Fruit an
ellipsoid, 5-gonous and 5-furrowed pseudocarp, c.
Encycl., Suppl. 2:41 (1811). 8 mm long, densely villous, crowned by enlarged,
COMBRETACEAE up to 1.5 cm long calyx-lobes, 1-seeded. Seed 5-6
2w= 48 mm long.
Synonyms Getonia floribunda Roxb. (1798), The plants often have galls, caused by thrips.
Calycopteris nutans (Roxb.) Kurz (1877). C. floribunda is the only species in the genus Ca-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pelawas (Penin- lycopteris.
CANSCORA 107
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex

Roemer & Schultes
Syst. veg. 3:301 (1818).
GENTIANACEAE
In =36, 38,60, 72, 84
Vernacular names Philippines: chang-bato,
kobamba, malingal (Tagalog).
Origin and geographic distribution C. dif-
fusa has a very large area of distribution: it is
widespread in tropical Africa, tropical Asia, tropi-
cal Australia and New Caledonia. In tropical Asia,
it has been reported for Nepal, India, Sri Lanka,
Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Java (western part,
scarce) and the Philippines (widespread), but
probably it also occurs elsewhere.
Uses In the Philippines, a decoction ofthe whole
plant is used as a tonic and antigastralgic; it is
used as a substitute for tea.
C. decussata (Roxb.) Roemer & Schultes from
tropical Africa, Madagascar and mainland tropi-
cal Asia (not in Malesia) is used in India as a laxa-
tive, alterative and nerve tonic; C. diffusa is some-
times used there as a substitute. C. lucidissima
(H. Lev. &Vaniot) Hand.-Mazz. is used as a medi-
cinal plant in China and Vietnam.
Properties There is only one report on the phy-
Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Lamk - 1, inter- tochemistry and pharmacological activity of C.
twining branches; 2, flowering branch; 3, flower in diffusa. The adaptogenic glucosyloxyflavan dif-
longitudinal section; 4,fruiting branch; 5, fruit. futin was isolated from whole plants. However,
there is more information available on C. decussa-
Ecology In Peninsular Malaysia, C. floribunda ta. Tests showed that an aqueous extract ofC.de-
occurs in mixed forest, often along river banks. In cussata promotes the adhesion of peripheral neu-
Cambodia, it is locally common in forest edges and trophils to human umbilical vein endothelial cells.
in regrowth after deforestation. It may have a C. decussata contains xanthone C-glycosides. One
shrubby habit, for instance inside the forest, but it of these, mangiferin, showed central nervous sys-
may become a liana when more light is available, tem depressant and anti-inflammatory activities.
climbing into the trees. This compound also has antifungal activity, and
Genetic resources Although C. floribunda oc- proved useful for the control of Fusarium wilt in
curs only very locally in the Malesian region safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). It showed
(Peninsular Malaysia), it is widespread and local- some activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
ly common elsewhere in mainland South-East but in general its antitubercular activity was low.
Asia. It does not seem to be liable to genetic ero- Crude powder of C. decussata showed spermicidal
sion, the more so because it often occurs in sec- activity in rats without any toxic side effects. A
ondary habitats. polyherbal preparation containing C. decussata
Prospects C. floribunda deserves more atten- enhanced performance in fattening pigs.
tion in research, being a source ofcompounds with Furthermore, xanthones isolated from C. lucidis-
antitumour activity. sima showed activity against arrhythmia induced
Literature 247, 250, 610, 976. by myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion in tests with
Other selected sources 121,302. rats.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens Botany An annual, erect, glabrous herb up to
80 cm tall, much branched, with quadrangular
branches. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, low-
er ones elliptical to elliptical-oblong, c. 4 cm x 1
cm, attenuate towards the base, 3(-5)-veined, up- Genetic resources C. diffusa is very widely
per ones shorter and cordate. Inflorescence a ter- distributed and does not seem to be easily endan-
minal cyme, usually combined into thyrses, lax, gered by genetic erosion. However, nothing is
many-flowered; bracts ovate. Flowers bisexual, 4- known about its genetic variability.
merous, up to 1.5 cm long; pedicels up to 1.5 cm Prospects It might be promising to investigate
long; calyx tubular, 4-ribbed, with dentate lobes; whether the xanthones found in other Canscora
corolla with cylindrical tube, lobes shorter than species are also present in C. diffusa because of
tube, unequal, pinkish; stamens inserted in the similar applications.
tube near the throat at different levels; ovary su- Literature 249, 278, 329, 585, 760, 842.
perior, 1-celled, style filiform with bifid stigma. Other selected sources 62, 117, 274, 275, 276,
Fruit an oblong capsule 4-7 mm long, many-seed- 939.
ed. Seeds small, c. 0.2 mm in diameter, testa R.H.M.J. Lemmens
minutely faveolate.
C. diffusa can be found flowering throughout the
year. Canthium Lamk
Canscora comprises approximately 15 species and
occurs in tropical Africa, Asia and Australia. Encycl. Meth., Bot. 1:602 (1785).
South-East Asia is richest in species, with 7 RUBIACEAE
species in Thailand. x =unknown
Ecology C. diffusa occurs on damp rocks, rocky Origin and geographic distribution Canthi-
crevices in stream beds in the forest, steep earth um in the broad sense is a large genus of over 200
walls and old brick walls, up to 800 m altitude, species, which occurs in the African and Asian
but in the Philippines up to 1500 m. tropics. In Asia, Canthium sensu stricto is restrict-
ed to India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
China, southern China, Thailand and western
Malesia (east to Java, Borneo and the Philippines).
Several dozen species are found in Malesia.
Uses There are several records on the uses of C.
horridum in traditional medicine in South-East
Asia. Decoctions of several parts of the plant are
used to treat wounds and fever, and after child-
birth; the leaves are used to treat eye diseases; a
decoction of the leaves and bark is used as an em-
menagogue, and a decoction of bark and young
twigs to treat dysentery. The fruit is edible and
sometimes used to make confections. In Java the
leaves are pounded in water to prepare a sweet
jelly. C. horridum is sometimes planted in hedges.
Two doubtful records on medicinal uses of C. aci-
culatum have been noted for Peninsular Malaysia.
In tropical Africa many species of Canthium and
related genera are used in traditional medicine to
treat a wide array ofailments, the most important
being cough, diabetes and hypertension.
The wood of some Canthium species that grow to
timber size is used locally in house and boat build-
ing, and for flooring and implements.
Properties Biological screening of an ethanol-
water (1:1) extract of C. coromandelicum in India
showed analgesic, spasmolytic and hypotensive
activities.
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roemer & Botany Spiny or unarmed climbers or shrubs to
Schuttes - 1, habit of flowering plant; 2, flower; 3, small or medium-sized trees up to 25 m tall.
corolla opened, showing stamens; 4, pistil. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, short-stalked;
CANTHIUM 109
stipules triangular. Inflorescence axillary, cymose Selection of species

or umbellate, stalked, or flowers solitary. Flowers
usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual, 4-5(-6)- Canthium aciculatum Ridley
merous; calyx with triangular lobes; corolla with a Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br. 57:57 (1910).
short tube and valvate lobes; stamens inserted in Vernacular names Malaysia: melor hutan,
the throat ofthe corolla tube; ovary inferior, 2(-3)- akar serumat, bulang pelandok.
celled, style with globose to cylindrical stigma. Distribution Peninsular Malaysia (Lenggong,
Fruit a drupe, ovoid, obovoid to globose, often Perak).
strongly 2-lobed and laterally compressed; pyre- Uses A decoction of the leaves is said to be used
nes 2(-3), plano-convex. Seedling with epigeal ger- to allay hiccough in children, and a decoction of the
mination; cotyledons leafy, green. roots to treat stomach-ache. However, it is doubt-
Canthium belongs to the tribe Vanguerieae which ful whether these records refer to C. aciculatum.
is renowned for its very closely related genera Observations A slender, branched, spiny
with poorly defined limits. Many genera have shrub; leaves ovate to lanceolate, usually longer
been split off from Canthium in the broad sense, than 3 cm, with a narrowly tapering tip, 5-6 pairs
such as the South-East Asian genera Meyna, Pe- ofsecondary veins and rather conspicuous tertiary
rakanthus and Psydrax (the latter is also present venation; flowers in 2-3-flowered cymes; fruit c.
in Africa, the Pacific and Australia). Many Psy- 0.5 cm long. C. aciculatum is rare and has been
drax specimens collected in Malesia have been found on limestone rocks.
named Canthium didymum Gaertner or Canthi- Selected sources 121, 789, 990.
um diococcum (Gaertner) Merr. However, the true
Psydrax diococca Gaertner (synonym: Canthium Canthium horridum Blume
didymum Gaertner) occurs only in Sri Lanka and Catalogus: 45 (1823).
southern India. Research is needed to delimit Synonyms Plectronia horrida (Blume) Benth.
sound genera for South-East Asia, a task that has & Hook.f. ex Kurz (1877), Canthium parviflorum
already been accomplished for Africa. Only then auct. non Lamk.
will it be possible to decide whether the species
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kaliyage (Sun-
treated here belong to Canthium sensu stricto or
danese), bestru (Javanese), selungkit (Jakarta).
to one ofthe other genera.
Malaysia: bulangan, bulang, kait-kait (Peninsu-
C. horridum seems closely related to C. coroman- lar). Philippines: kuliak-daga (Tagalog), mimisan
delicum (Burm.f.) Alston (synonym: C. parviflo- (Iloko), dayap-dayap (Bikol). Thailand: khlet nuu
rum Lamk) from India and Sri Lanka. However, (Yala, Pattani), naam leprok (peninsular). Viet-
the taxonomie relationships of the spiny small- nam: g[aw]ng vLafJng gai, g[aw]ng gai, g[aw]ng
leaved Canthium plants need further study. c[ow]m.
Ecology In general, Canthium occurs scattered Distribution Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular
in lowland forest or lower montane forest. C. hor- Malaysia, Singapore, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
ridum is mainly found in forest edges and brush- pines.
wood, C.aciculatum on limestone rocks. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, decoctions of sev-
Genetic resources As long as botanical knowl- eral parts of the plant are used to treat wounds
edge of Canthium in South-East Asia is poor, it and fever, and after childbirth. The leaves are
will remain difficult to establish the extent of ge- pounded in water and applied to treat eye dis-
netic erosion for the different species. Although eases in Indonesia. In the Philippines, a decoction
the exact areas of distribution are unclear, C. hor- of the leaves and bark is used as an emmena-
ridum seems widely spread and common, whereas gogue. In Indo-China, a decoction of bark and
C.aciculatum is a rare narrow endemic. young twigs is administered to treat dysentery.
Prospects Knowledge of Canthium and related The fruits are edible and sometimes used to make
genera is scarce. A taxonomie revision of the gen- confections. In Java the leaves are pounded in wa-
era and species for South-East Asia, therefore, is ter to prepare a sweet jelly. C. horridum is some-
required to interpret the literature and to serve as times planted in hedges.
a basis for further research. The reported medici- Observations A scrambling or erect, spiny
nal uses of C. horridum in different parts of shrub or shrub-like tree up to 6 m tall; leaves
South-East Asia warrant studies on the phyto- ovate to elliptical, usually less than 3 cm long,
chemistry and pharmacological properties. without a prolonged tip, with 3-4 pairs of sec-
Literature 2, 114, 115, 121,671,760. ondary veins and obscure tertiary venation; flow-
ers clustered, 2-4(-8) together; fruit 1-1.5 cm Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka and throughout
long, yellow when ripe. C. horridum is common in South-East Asia to the Solomon Islands and
lowland forest, particularly in forest edges, and northern Australia.
brushwood, in Java up to 1200 m altitude. Ecology C. suffruticosa occurs in lowland for-
Selected sources 62, 121, 334, 671, 760, 789, est.
990. Genetic resources C. suffruticosa has a limit-
Fitmawati ed area of distribution and is rare in Peninsular
Malaysia. It may well be liable to genetic erosion,
or even extinction.
Carallia suffruticosa Ridley Prospects The uses of C. suffruticosa are limit-
ed and it is an uncommon species. Therefore, it
Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br. 61:6 (1912). seems very unlikely that its utilization will in-
RHIZOPHORACEAE crease.
2n =unknown Literature 121,247.
Synonyms Carallia fascicularis Guill. (1914). Other selected sources 250, 331,883,990.
Vernacular names Malaysia: sisek puyu, mer- Marfu'ah Wardani
ansi, redip pepuyoh (Peninsular). Vietnam: s[aw]ng
m[ar], r[aw]ng c[uw]a.
Origin and geographic distribution C. suf- C a t u n a r e g a m Wolf
fruticosa occurs in southern Vietnam and Penin-
sular Malaysia (Perak, Terengganu, Selangor). Gen. pi.: 75 (1776).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, an infusion of C. RUBIACEAE
suffruticosa leaves is used internally against x =11;C.spinosa: 2n =22, 44
worms and cough, and after childbirth, whereas a Origin and geographic distribution Catu-
decoction of the leaves is employed in a bath to naregam comprises approximately 8 species and
treat fever. Pulped leaves are applied externally occurs in tropical Africa and Asia. About 4 species
to boils. In Vietnam, the wood is used as fuel. are found in South-East Asia, which have a very
C. brachiata (Lour.) Merr. is also used in local limited distribution in Malesia (Peninsular Ma-
medicine, e.g. the bark to treat itch, but it is main- laysia, Java).
ly valued for its timber and fuelwood. Uses In India and Indo-China, Catunaregam
Properties There is no information on phyto- fruits are used externally to treat ulcers and
chemistry and properties ofC. suffruticosa, but al- sores, and the bark is used internally against di-
kaloids, mainly (+)-hygrolin, have been identified arrhoea and dysentery and to regulate menses.
in C. brachiata leaves. The plants are also used in traditional medicine to
Botany A shrub up to 3 m tall. Leaves decus- treat bronchitis, asthma, leucoderma and diseases
sately opposite, simple, elliptical-oblong, 10-18 cm of the brain. In Indo-China, the leaves of C. to-
x 3-6.5 cm, cuneate or sometimes rounded at base, mentosa are considered to be cooling and diuretic
acuminate at apex, distinctly fimbriate-dentate at and are prescribed against oliguria and dysuria.
margins, with 8-13 pairs of secondary veins, In Africa, C. spinosa is much used as a medicinal
black-dotted beneath; petiole 1-1.5 cm long; stip- plant to treat melanomas, fever, nausea, coughs,
ules lanceolate, up to 1 cm long. Inflorescence an toothache, dizziness, menorrhagia, depressed fon-
axillary cyme up to 1.5 cm long, with peduncle up tanelle, snake bites, gonorrhoea and as a sedative.
to 0.5 cm long. Flowers bisexual, regular, whitish The fruits are used as a substitute for soap. Bark
or reddish, with persistent bracteoles at base; ca- and fruits are used as a fish poison. The plants are
lyx 5-7-lobed, with lanceolate lobes 3-4 mm long; often planted in fences. The wood is used as fuel-
petals 5-8, free, sagittate, unguiculate, c. 4 mm wood, and sometimes also to make small imple-
long; stamens twice the number of petals, free, ments, e.g. combs.
3-4 mm long, the ones opposite the petals longer; Properties The fruits of C. spinosa are emetic.
ovary inferior, 1-celled, style filiform, c. 4.5 mm Fruit and root extracts have insecticidal and in-
long, stigma discoid. Fruit an ellipsoid berry c. 1.5 sect-repelling properties. Several triterpenes (e.g.
cm long, dark red, crowned by the remains of the a-amyrin, ß-amyrin, oleanolic acid and l-keto-3a-
floral parts, 1-seeded. Seed oblong, slightly hydroxy-oleanane from the root bark), sterols (e.g.
curved, c. 1cm long, brown. ß-sitosterol from the root bark) and triterpene
Carallia comprises about 15 species, and occurs in saponins (from the fruits and leaves) have been
CATUNAREGAM 111
reported for C. spinosa. Other isolated compounds Genetic resources In Malesia, Catunaregam is
include coumarins (e.g. scopoletin, scopolin and uncommon or even rare, but this seems the result
xeroboside from African plants), iridoids (e.g. the of its preference for drier climatic conditions. In
glucoside 10-methylixoside from the leaves and mainland South-East Asia, species are common
bark) and an aliphatic diol, randiol, from the bark. and widely distributed, and are not in need of pro-
Extracts of C. spinosa fruit pulp prevented preg- tection.
nancy in 67% of treated rats and significantly re- Prospects Interesting pharmacological proper-
duced implantation sites when compared with a ties have been demonstrated in Catunaregam,
control group. The triterpene diglucoside saponin such as haemolytic and immunostimulating activ-
randianin isolated from the methanolic extract of ities. The insecticidal, molluscicidal and piscicidal
C. spinosa fruits haemolyzed human red blood properties also deserve more attention, in the
cells. Several other saponins have been isolated search for effective plant-based pesticides which
from methanolic extracts of the fruits, and several are easily biodegradable. Catunaregam species
ofthese significantly enhanced the proliferation of may be promising for planting as multi-purpose
human lymphocytes in vitro, whereas the crude plants in regions in South-East Asia with dry cli-
saponin fraction showed haemolytic and im- matic conditions.
munostimulating activities. Sun-dried and pow- Literature 224, 671,852.
dered unripe fruits of C. spinosa killed fish in
45-180 minutes at a concentration of 15 ppm;
residual toxicity in treated water persisted for Selection of species
about 72 hours. Triterpenoidal glycosides isolated
from the leaves and fruits showed molluscicidal Catunaregam spinosa (Thunberg)
activity against Biomphalaria glabrata, which is a Tirveng.
schistosomiasis vector. Bull. Mus. Nation. Hist. Nat., 3e sér., no. 521,
An extract of the African C. nilotica (Stapf) Tir- Bot. 35: 13 (1978).
veng. showed strong larvicidal activity against Synonyms Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Poir.
mosquitoes. Molluscicidal saponins are also pre- (1811), Randia spinosa (Thunberg) Blume (1826),
sent in this species and these also have haemolyt- Xeromphis spinosa (Thunberg) Keay (1958).
ic activity. Vernacular names Laos: may ngieng pa. Thai-
Botany Spiny shrubs or small trees up to 10 m land: khet khaang (Chanthaburi), khlet (Ratch-
tall; spines opposite or alternate. Leaves mostly aburi), ma khwet (northern). Vietnam: g[aw]ng tu
clustered on short axillary branchlets, opposite, h[us], g[aw]ng tr[aa]u.
simple and entire; stipules interpetiolar, ovate or Distribution Eastern and southern Africa,
triangular. Inflorescence a terminal simple or Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Thailand
branched cyme, sometimes flowers solitary or fas- and Java (rare).
cicled. Flowers bisexual, 5-10-merous, pedicellate; U s e s In Indo-China, powdered and roasted
calyx with distinct tube and short lobes; corolla fruits (without seeds) are used externally to treat
gamopetalous, subrotate, tube shorter than lobes, ulcers, and the bark is used internally against di-
densely pubescent outside and with a band of arrhoea and dysentery and to regulate menses. In
hairs inside; stamens inserted in throat of corolla India, the bark is used to treat diarrhoea and
tube, anthers sessile, usually exserted; ovary in- dysentery; the plant is also used there in tradi-
ferior, 2(-3)-locular, style as long as corolla tube or tional medicine to treat bronchitis, asthma, leuco-
exserted, stigma ellipsoid or cylindrical. Fruit derma and diseases of the brain, and the fruit
berry-like, ellipsoid to globose, many-seeded. pulp for poulticing sores. In Africa, C. spinosa is a
Seeds discoid or compressed-ellipsoid, embedded much used medicinal plant. A decoction of the
in pulp, with reticulation on testa. powdered root is applied directly on melanomas,
In older literature, species now included in Ca- and the infusion is administered orally as an
tunaregam were considered to belong in the large emetic and to relieve fever, nausea, general
genus Randia. However, Randia has been split up coughs, toothache, pains during pregnancy, dizzi-
into numerous smaller genera. ness, menorrhagia, depressed fontanelle, snake-
Ecology Catunaregam occurs in dry, open low- bites and gonorrhoea. The fruits are used as a
land locations, also in recently burned savanna -substitute for soap. Bark and fruits are used in In-
and in dry, open forest, sometimes also on the dia, Nepal and Africa as a fish poison. In Indo-
beach. China, it is often planted in fences, whereas the
Thailand, northern Peninsular Malaysia and Java

(rare).
Uses In Indo-China, the leaves are considered
cooling and diuretic and are prescribed against
oliguria and dysuria. The fruits are used in Cam-
bodia for washing the hair and clothes, undoubt-
edly because of the presence of saponins. The
wood is used to make combs, and the plant is often
planted in fences.
Observations A spiny large shrub or small tree
up to 10 m tall; leaves densely ferruginous-tomen-
tose beneath; flowers 8-10-merous, white; fruit
globose, 2.5-4 cm in diameter, velvety brown. C.
tomentosa occurs on dry, bare soils, also in burned
savannas.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
C e c r o p i a p e l t a t a L.
Syst. nat. ed. 10, 2: 1286 (1759).

CECROPIACEAE
2n = 28
Synonyms Cecropia surinamensis Miq. (1853).
Vernacular n a m e s Trumpet tree (En). Indone-
sia: pohon daun payung (general).
Origin a n d geographic distribution C. pelta-
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunberg) Tirveng. - 1, ta is native to Central and South America, where
flowering branch; 2, flower; 3, opened corolla with it occurs from southern Mexico to Colombia,
stamens, style and stigma; 4,fruiting branch. Guyana, Suriname, northern Brazil and Vene-
zuela. It has been introduced in West and Central
wood is commonly used in India as fuelwood. Africa, where it has naturalized and spread in
Observations A spiny, much-branched large some areas, e.g. in Cameroon and Côte d'Ivoire. It
shrub or small tree up to 7.5 m tall; leaves was also introduced into the botanical gardens of
glabrous or pubescent on veins only; flowers 5(-8)- Singapore (1902) and Bogor (Indonesia), and has
merous, white becoming yellowish; fruit ellipsoid since become naturalized and is expanding in
to globose, 2-3.5 cm long, yellowish. C. spinosa oc- western Java and Peninsular Malaysia.
curs on dry, bare soils, also on the beach. Uses The sap and leaves of C. peltata are used
Selected sources 62, 121, 224, 650, 665, 671, extensively in traditional medicine in tropical
810, 822, 823, 852, 884. America. Sometimes bark, roots and fruits are al-
so applied. The acrid, bitter and astringent sap is
Catunaregam tomentosa (Blume ex applied externally to treat snakebites, scorpion
DC.) T i r v e n g . stings, ulcers, warts and other skin affections.
Taxon 27(5/6):515 (1979). Fresh or dried leaves are traded on the market,
Synonyms Randia tomentosa (Blume ex DC.) and used in decoctions, infusions or as a tincture
Hook.f. (1880) non Wight & Arnott, Randia dasy- to treat asthma, bronchitis, coughs, diabetes, diar-
carpa (Kurz) Bakh.f. (1965),Xeromphis tomentosa rhoea, dysentery, fever, influenza, gonorrhoea,
(Blume ex DC.)Yamazaki (1970). oedema, liver complaints, hypertension, Parkin-
Vernacular names Cambodia: lovieng. Thai- son's disease, nervous disorders, toothache, sore
land: ka thaeng (general), khet (Chiang Mai), throat, as a cardiac tonic and diuretic, and to ex-
khlet (central, Kanchanaburi). Vietnam: g[aw]ng, pel the placenta after childbirth. The use of leaves
g[aw]ng b[oj]t, g[aw]ng tr[aws]ng. in an infusion to treat asthma and rheumatism
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, has been much advocated.
CECROPIA 113
The wood is sometimes used, e.g. for the manufac- period. Trees reach maximum height after about
ture of local musical instruments, insulation 10 years, and may survive for another 20 years.
board, boxes, crates, matchsticks and paper pulp. Trees in plantations reached an average height of
The infructescence is edible. Young buds are eaten 14 m and 25 cm in diameter after 21 years. They
as a cooked vegetable. The ripe fruit is edible. may produce flowers and fruits 3-6 years after
Other Cecropia species are also used in traditional germination, but this strongly depends on light
medicine in tropical America for similar purposes, conditions. They can be found flowering through-
e.g. C. obtusifolia Bertol., the leaves of which out the year, but peak flowering often occurs dur-
serve to treat diabetes and as an anti-inflammato- ing the dry season. The flowers are probably wind-
ry agent. pollinated. Fruits take about 4 months to ripen af-
Properties Proanthocyanidins and leucocyani- ter emergence of the inflorescence. The seeds are
dins have been found in C. peltata, but flavonols, dispersed by animals, usually bats and birds, but
flavones, ellagic acid, saponins and sapogenins they are also water-dispersed. In tropical Ameri-
seem to be absent. Extracts of C. peltata showed ca, many Cecropia species, including C. peltata,
cytotoxic, antibacterial and antifungal activities. are associated with ants of the genus Azteca.
Tests with rats showed that an aqueous leaf ex- These aggressive ants inhabit the hollow stems,
tract of C. obtusifolia from Central America has a and glycogen-containing food bodies are present in
slight diuretic effect and distinct antihypertensive the pads ofhairs at the bases of petioles.
activity, and that this species has an evident hy- Cecropia comprises about 65 species and occurs
poglycaemic action. A95%ethanol extract exhibit- from Mexico through Central America, the West
ed spasmogenic activity on guinea-pig ileum at a Indies and South America to Paraguay and Ar-
concentration of 0.33 ml/1. A leaf extract of C. ob- gentina. The major concentration of species is in
tusifolia showed substantial central nervous sys- the northern Andes. Few species have been intro-
tem depressant, analgesic and muscle relaxant ac- duced in other regions, of which C. peltata is the
tivities in different experimental models. most important one. Cecropia has been classified
The wood is very light (specific gravity 0.29-0.35), in Moraceae or Urticaceae, but is now usually
and is not durable; it is susceptible to termite at- placed in the separate family Cecropiaceae, to-
tack, and is very perishable when in contact with gether with 2 other Neotropical genera, the
the soil. A satisfactory quality of unbleached pulp African Musanga and Myrianthus and the Asian-
can be obtained from the wood. Australian Poikilospermum.
Botany A small to medium-sized dioecious tree Ecology Many Cecropia species are characteris-
up to 15(-20) m tall, often with prop or stilt roots; tic of early secondary regrowth in the forest, and
stem internodes hollow; watery sap turning black- are valuable in the regeneration offorest following
ish after exposure to the air present in terminal disturbance. They are typically pioneer species
branchlets. Leaves arranged spirally, clustered at growing in forest gaps, roadsides, landslides and
apices of branches, peltate, umbrella-shaped, plantations. C. peltata grows naturally under
30-50(-90) cm in diameter, radially incised to at these conditions up to 1300 m altitude. In western
least halfway along the blade, with 7-10(-ll) Java, it grows at altitudes up to 1600 m, e.g. in
ovate, acuminate lobes; petiole long, with 1-2 graveyards and gullies. It prefers clayey or loamy
patches of dense hairs at the base; stipules large, soils. In Cameroon and Côte d'Ivoire (Africa) C.
amplexicaul, connate. Inflorescence a pedunculate peltata has spread extensively as a pioneer
spike clustered digitately, initially enveloped by a species, replacing the indigenous Musanga cecro-
closed spathe. Flowers with tubular perianth; pioides R.Br, ex Tedlie.
male flowers with 2 stamens; female flowers with Management There are about 2500 air-dried
a superior, 1-celled ovary. Fruit achene-like, seeds per gram. Seeds require full sunlight for
small, 1-seeded. Seed c. 2 mm long, brownish, successful germination. In the nursery, seeds are
with endosperm, cotyledons flat. Seedling with usually germinated under light shade on a
epigeal germination, first leaves lanceolate, un- seedbed prepared from equal amounts of clay,
lobed and finely toothed. sand and filter presscake. Under full light condi-
Seedlings show rapid growth; they may grow to tions the germination rate of seeds may be 90%.
over 2 m in height in one year, occasionally up to 4 Seeds remain viable for 2-3 months on the forest
m on fertile soils in western Java. Growth in floor, but for over 6 months when stored under op-
height remains rapid for 4-5 years (up to 2 timal laboratory conditions.
m/year), but diameter growth is little during this Under natural conditions, seedling mortality may
be extremely high (99% within the first year). In ma. Fruit indéhiscent, many-seeded. Seeds small.
nursery experiments, seedlings showed 45% mor- Ceriscoides is a small genus of 6 species: 4 in
tality during the first 9 months; seedlings planted mainland South-East Asia, 1 in Java and 1 in the
out in the field when 25-60 cm tall showed a sur- Philippines. It seems most closely related to Gar-
vival rate ofup to 80%. denia, which also has a 1-celled ovary but differs
Genetic resources In its natural area of distri- particularly in its unarmed habit and larger, bi-
bution, C. peltata shows some variation in mor- sexual flowers. Catunaregam is similarly thorned
phology and in the presence or absence of a symbi- but differs in its 2-celled ovary.
otic relation with ants. As a pioneer species with a Ecology C. curranii is an uncommon compo-
fairly large area of distribution, it is not under nent ofthickets and forest at low altitude.
pressure. It seems even capable of expanding Genetic resources C.curranii has a very limit-
rapidly after introduction, particularly in Africa. ed distribution in the Philippines and is apparent-
Prospects C.peltata is interesting for its medi- ly uncommon there. It would therefore seem liable
cinal properties, and also for other uses (e.g. for to genetic erosion or even extinction.
pulp production). However, the prospects for Prospects Extremely little is known about C.
South-East Asia are unclear because it has only curranii, not only its chemistry and properties,
recently obtained a foothold there. It is certainly but also its botany, exact distribution and affinity.
capable of growing in this region, but the experi- Literature 121,621.
ences in tropical Africa where it seems to super- Other selected sources 930,931.
sede indigenous species, at least locally, should be R.H.M.J. Lemmens
a warning against introducing it unconditionally.
Literature 122,431,646.
Other selected sources 121,459, 730. C e s t r u m n o c t u r n u m L.
J.W. Hildebrand
Sp. pi. 1: 191 (1753).
SOLANACEAE
C e r i s c o i d e s c u r r a n i i (Merr.) T i r v e n g . 2n = 16
Vernacular n a m e s Night blooming cestrum,
NordicJourn. Bot. 3(4):456 (1983). night bloomingjessamine (En). Philippines: dama
RUBIACEAE de noche (Sp, Tagalog). Thailand: raatree. Viet-
2« = unknown nam: d[aj] l[ys] h[uw][ow]ng.
Synonyms Randia aculeata Blanco (1837) non Origin and geographic distribution C. noc-
L., Gardenia curranii Merr. (1918). turnum probably originates from Central Ameri-
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: malarayap, ca, and is widely cultivated and locally natural-
malasampaga, sinasampaga (Tagalog). ized throughout the tropics. It is cultivated
Origin and geographic distribution C. cur- throughout South-East Asia.
ranii is endemic to Luzon in the Philippines. Uses C. nocturnum has been introduced in
Uses The fruit may serve as an effective fish South-East Asia as an ornamental for its sweet-
poison in the Philippines. scented flowers, which bloom at night. In Central
Properties The ichthyotoxic activity of the America and the Caribbean a leaf decoction is
fruits is probably due to the presence of saponins, used as a lotion on skin eruptions. In former times
comparable to the more or less related Catu- a fruit extract was taken orally as a sedative in
naregam spinosa (Thunberg) Tirveng. cases of epilepsy, chorea and hysteria, the treat-
Botany A small dioecious tree of c. 4 m tall, ment being gradually reduced and terminated
with straight stem, young branches with numer- within a short time. In Thailand the leaves are
ous paired thorns. Leaves opposite or fasciculate considered toxic to humans, but they may be used
at tips of short shoots, simple and entire, lanceo- in small doses to treat epilepsy. The leaves are
late, glabrous, obtuse at apex, sessile; stipules tri- used in Chinese folk medicine as an external ap-
angular, deciduous. Flowers terminal on short plication for burns and swellings.
shoots, unisexual, 5(-6)-merous, fragrant, female Properties All parts of C. nocturnum are rich
ones solitary or in pairs; calyx toothed; corolla in saponins, yielding some 4-5%. The leaves yield
gamopetalous, tube inflated in the middle, lobes flavonol glycosides and numerous steroidal sa-
large, twisted; stamens inserted on the corolla ponins (e.g. nocturnoside A, tigogenin, smilagenin
tube; ovary inferior, 1-celled, style with bifid stig- and yuccagenin). Some of these saponins show
CHIONACHNE 115
considerable cytotoxic activity against human mm long; stamens included, filaments adnate to
squamous cell carcinoma (HSC-2) cells with LD50 the corolla tube, upper part free, with 2 teeth at
values ranging from 2.0 ug/ml to 13 ug/ml, some- base of free part; ovary superior, 2-celled, style
times being 5-10 times more active than against exserted. Fruit a globose berry 0.5-1 cm in diame-
normal human gingival fibroblasts. The saponin ter, whitish, 1-3-seeded. Seeds ovoid, 2.5-6 mm
fraction showed cardiovascular effects and may long, black.
act as a respiratory stimulant. Older reports men- C. nocturnum can be found flowering and fruiting
tion cardiotonic and cardiotoxic properties for a throughout the year, intermittently profusely
saponin isolated from C. nocturnum. flowering.
Fresh powdered leaves of C. nocturnum show Cestrum consists of some 150 species, and is in-
promising control against the beetles Sitophilus digenous from the southern United States to
oryzae (rice weevil) and Trogoderma granarium, Chile. Numerous species are cultivated through-
two common pests in stored grain. Phenylacetyl- out the world for their ornamental value, in
aldehyde, one of three principal volatile com- South-East Asia e.g. C. laevigatum, C. nocturnum
pounds emitted from the flowers, strongly attracts and C. parqui.
the females of the cabbage looper moth (Tri- Ecology In South-East Asia C. nocturnum is
choplusia ni). cultivated and locally naturalized from sea-level
Toxicity reports of C. nocturnum in livestock in up to 1600 m altitude.
southern Africa mention dullness, tachycardia, Management C. nocturnum can be easily prop-
rising temperature, suppression of urine and de- agated by semi-hardwood cuttings.
crease in respiratory rate as symptoms. Death oc- Genetic resources C. nocturnum is cultivated
curs with coma and slight convulsions. Toxicity of throughout the tropics and does not appear to be
Cestrum for livestock involves several systems. threatened by genetic erosion.
One system mimics vitamin D attributes and in- Prospects Recently, steroidal saponins as
fluences calcium uptake, leading to a condition found in C. nocturnum have received scientific at-
called calcinosis. An example of this system is tention because of their structural diversity and
found in C. diurnum L., originating from the significant biological activity. The application of
Caribbean and occasionally cultivated in South- powdered leaves to control insect pests in stored
East Asia. Another system involves liver poison- grain deserves more attention.
ing and explains the frequent records of hepato- Literature 80, 138, 306, 626, 646, 844.
toxic compounds in C. laevigatum Schlechtendal Other selected sources 15,62, 330, 760.
and C.parqui L'Hérit. Slamet Sutanti Budi Rahayu
A methanol-water (1:1) extract ofC. parqui aerial
parts showed inhibition of carrageenin-induced
oedema in rats. The aggregation of human blood Chionachne macrophylla (Benth.)
platelets induced by adenosine diphosphate and W.D. Clayton
platelet activating factor was also inhibited with
an IC50 of 3 mg/ml and 2 mg/ml, respectively. The Kew Bull. 35(4): 814 (1981).
extract did not however inhibit arachidonic GRAMINEAE
acid-mediated platelet aggregation. 2re =40
Botany An evergreen shrub up to 4 m tall; Synonyms Polytoca macrophylla Benth. (1881).
branches erect or drooping, angular, olive or Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kumkum (Ter-
bluish-green, lenticellate, glabrescent. Leaves al- nate). Papua New Guinea: chaska (New Britain).
ternate, simple and entire, narrowly ovate to Origin and geographic distribution C. ma-
ovate, (4-)8-13 cm x (1.5)2-4.5(-6) cm, base ob- crophylla occurs in the Moluccas, New Guinea, the
tuse or narrowly cuneate, apex acute, membra- Bismarck Archipelago and the Louisiade Archipel-
nous to coriaceous; petiole 1-2 cm long; stipules ago. It has been experimentally planted as a for-
absent. Inflorescence an axillary or terminal cyme age elsewhere, e.g. in Java.
3-8 cm long, often combined in a large leafy pani- U s e s In New Britain (Papua New Guinea) the
cle. Flowers bisexual, regular, fragrant, yellow or juice from C. macrophylla is drunk to treat cough.
greenish-white, pedicellate; bracteoles 2, one It is a useful forage with fair nutritional value.
leafy, the other linear; calyx cupular, 2-4.5 mm Botany A large perennial herb up to 250 cm
long, 5-6-toothed; corolla tube 20-30 mm long, tall; culms erect or slanting, compressed, often
gradually expanding upward, 5-lobed, lobes 2-5 branched. Leaves alternate, lanceolate to linear-
lanceolate, 20-80 cm x 2.5-6 cm, narrowed at base Origin and geographic distribution C. longi-
and acuminate at apex, scabrous at margins, folia is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, but may
glabrous, with broad, pale midrib; sheath with also occur in Burma (Myanmar).
long, sharp, white, easily caducous hairs along the Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
margin and in central part, ligule short, truncate. roots is drunk to induce abortion during the first
Inflorescence an axillary many-jointed spike-like three months of pregnancy.
raceme up to 20 cm long, usually gathered into a Properties Oral administration of an aqueous
compound panicle. Spikelets in alternate pairs, in root extract (500-550 mg/kg body weight) for 10
each pair 1 pedicelled and 1 sessile, sessile days postcoitum to female rats significantly re-
spikelets male or female, pedicelled spikelets duced the litter size. This antifertility effect seems
male, sterile or rudimentary, all spikelets 1-1.5 consistent with the alleged use as an abortifa-
cm long; male spikelets 2-flowered, female spike- cient.
lets 1-flowered, in lower part of raceme; glumes Botany A shrub up to 2.5 m tall; branches
many-veined, lemma slightly shorter, 3-veined, terete and glabrous. Leaves opposite, simple and
awnless, palea about equally long as lemma, 2- entire, lanceolate, 16-23 cm x 3.5-5 cm, attenuate
veined; male flowers with 2 lodicules and 3 sta- at base, acuminate at apex, glabrous; petiole 0.5-2
mens with linear anthers; female flowers with cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal
long styles shortly connate at base, stigmas long. panicle, up to 25 cm long, bracteate, with secund
Fruit an ovoid, dorsally compressed caryopsis c. flowers, one bract at each node sterile, the other
3.5 mm long, with a broad rounded-emarginate subtending 1 flower. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous;
base. calyx up to 1.7 cm long, with unequal lobes con-
Female spikelets have a white elaiosome at the nate at base, the posterior one largest, glandular-
base. Dispersal of the spikelet is by ants, which pubescent; corolla c. 2 cm long, tube inflated, 2-
are attracted by the elaiosome. lipped, upper lip shortly emarginate, lower lip
Chionachne comprises about 7 species and occurs deeply trifid, glandular-pubescent outside, dark
from India, throughout South-East Asia to Aus- purple; stamens 4, didynamous, inserted at the
tralia and Polynesia. It belongs to the tribe Andro- base of the inflated part of the corolla, anthers
pogoneae, subtribe Chionachninae. It is tradition- basally spurred; ovary superior, 2-celled, glab-
ally included in the tribe Maydeae, together with rous, style pubescent below. Fruit unknown.
e.g. Zea mays L. (maize), but this is a heteroge- Although C. longifolia has been recorded as com-
nous group. mon and numerous collections exist in herbaria,
Ecology C. macrophylla occurs at forest mar- fruits have never been encountered.
gins and on stream sides. Chroesthes comprises 3 species, and occurs in Bur-
Genetic resources There is no reason to con- ma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China,
sider C. macrophylla threatened. Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. It belongs to
Prospects It is unlikely that the medicinal uses the tribe Lepidagathideae, and is related to Lepi-
of C. macrophylla, which are of little importance dagathis, which differs in muticous anthers (bical-
to date, will increase. Perhaps it has prospects as carate in Chroesthes), smaller capsules and
a forage. longer-pubescent seeds. The inclusion of C. longi-
Literature 334, 347. folia in Chroesthes is somewhat doubtful, as the
Other selected sources 62. fruits are unknown.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens Ecology C. longifolia has been recorded as com-
mon in forest in Peninsular Malaysia.
Genetic resources There is no reason to con-
Chroesthes longifolia (Wight) B. sider C. longifolia as threatened: it is common in
Hansen Peninsular Malaysia. However, the limited area of
distribution may be reason for some caution, and
Nord. Journ. Bot. 3(2):210 (1983). the apparent absence of fruits could be a research
ACANTHACEAE topic.
2n = unknown Prospects It has been claimed that the tradi-
Synonyms Lepidagathis longifolia Wight tional use of C. longifolia as an abortifacient may
(1850). be derived from the fact that this plant is never
Vernacular names Malaysia: penluroh, serga found with fruits and that it is probably in fact
(Peninsular). quite ineffective. However, the test on the fertility
CLEIDION 117
of rats showed the efficacy of this traditional med- puberulous, crowned by the persistent calyx.
icine. More research is desirable. Seedling with hypogeal germination; cotyledons
Literature 121,912. absent (seed containing a swollen hypocotyl); stem
Other selected sources 310, 789. with scales at the first few nodes.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens C. excelsus can be found flowering and fruiting
throughout the year. Flowers open at night and
drop early in the morning. Chydenanthus com-
Chydenanthus excelsus (Blume) Miers prises only a single species.
Ecology C. excelsus occurs in primary and sec-
Trans.Linn.Soc.London2(1):112(1875). ondary forest as well as teak plantations on vari-
LECYTHIDACEAE ous soils including limestone and peat swamp,
2n=unknown from sea-level up to 600 m altitude. In dry areas it
Synonyms Stravadium excelsus (Blume) DC. grows on moist soils in valleys or along rivers.
(1828), Barringtonia vriesei Teijsm. & Binnend. Genetic resources C. excelsus is widespread,
(1851),Doxoma vriesei (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Miers occurring in both primary and secondary forest on
(1875). a wide range of soils and is not threatened by ge-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: besole (Ja- netic erosion.
vanese, Sundanese), emprak (Javanese), puyung- Prospects Pharmacological research is needed
puyung (Balinese). to evaluate the potential of the traditional medici-
Origin a n d geographic distribution C. excel- nal uses ofC. excelsus.
sus occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Literature 334, 450, 953.
Burma (Myanmar), Sumatra, Java, southern Bor- Other selected sources 62,331.
neo, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, the J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
Moluccas and western New Guinea.
U s e s In Java the seeds ofC. excelsus are used as
a fish poison, and occasionally as an antidiar- C l e i d i o n s p i c i f l o r u m (Burm.f.) Merr.
rhoeal and emetic in cases of difficult breathing.
The wood is strong but not very durable and of lit- Interpr. Herb, amboin.: 322 (1917).
tle economic value. EUPHORBIACEAE
Properties C. excelsus seeds contain a saponin- 2n = unknown
like substance called chydenantine, and the wood Synonyms Cleidion javanicum Blume (1826).
contains ellagic acid and derivatives. The pounded Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: saligao (Taga-
bark is very poisonous and ingestion may result in log, Iloko), hantatampsi (Cebu Bisaya), malatuba
stupor and death. (Bikol). Thailand: madeemee (northern), kamlai
Botany An evergreen, medium-sized tree up to (Surat Thani), kaadaao krachaai (Prachuap Khiri
30 m tall; bole fluted, up to 50 cm in diameter, Khan). Vietnam: m[or] chim, c[ow]m g[af]o.
bark surface smooth, greyish-brown. Leaves alter- Origin and geographic distribution C. spici-
nate, simple, elliptical to elliptical-oblong, rarely florum is very widely distributed, from India, Sri
obovate, (4-)7-26(-30) cm x (1.2-)3-8(-12) cm, Lanka and the Andaman Islands, through Burma
base cuneate, apex acuminate, entire or faintly (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Thai-
serrulate, glabrous, with numerous lateral veins; land and the whole Malesian region (but not yet
petiole 1-2 cm long; stipules minute, subulate or reported for the Moluccas), to the Solomon Is-
reduced to dots, caducous. Inflorescence a termi- lands, the Bismarck Archipelago and northern
nal or axillary, stout panicle up to 18(-30) cm Australia (Queensland).
long, velutinous, many-flowered. Flowers bisexu- Uses In the Philippines, a decoction of C. spici-
al, 4-merous, greenish-white; pedicel articulate, florum bark is taken internally as a stomachic,
thick, 0.5-1 cm long, with 2 bracteoles; calyx cup- and a decoction of the leaves has been used to in-
shaped, obtusely lobed, up to 2 cm long; petals free duce abortion. The seeds are effective in treating
but connate to the staminal tube, obovate, c. 3 cm constipation. In traditional medicine in the Solo-
x 1.5 cm; stamens numerous, connate at base, up mon Islands, a decoction of the bark is used to
to 4.5 cm long, yellow; disk intrastaminal, circu- bathe babies suffering from scabies, and the seeds
lar; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style slender. Fruit a are chewed with betel nut (Areca catechu L.) to re-
1-seeded berry, ellipsoid or obovoid, bluntly quad- lieve colds. However, some caution is needed as
rangular, c. 12 cm x 6 cm, lenticellate or warty, the plant is said to be poisonous. The tree has
several mystical uses in the Solomon Islands. It is Other selected sources 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,
sometimes cultivated as a shade tree in New 62,121,731,782,990.
Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The wood is J a n a h a r Murad
occasionally used, e.g. for stakes to cultivate yams
(Dioscorea) in the Solomon Islands, or as firewood.
Properties There is no information on the C l e m a t i s L.
C. spiciflorum. The wood is greyish-white and Sp. pi. 1:543 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:242 (1754).
soft. RANUNCULACEAE
Botany A dioecious, small to medium-sized tree x = 8; C.phanerophlebia: 2n =16
up to 28 m tall, bole up to 40 cm in diameter, lack- Origin and geographic distribution Clema-
ing buttresses; branches glabrous. Leaves ar- tis comprises about 320 species, and has a world-
ranged spirally, simple, elliptical to lanceolate-el- wide distribution except for the polar regions; in
liptical, (5.5-)10-21 cm x (2.5-)4-8.5 cm, acute or Malesia 19 species occur.
obtuse at base, acuminate or obtuse at apex, cre- U s e s The medicinal uses of South-East Asian
nate to serrate-dentate or sometimes subentire at Clematis are diverse although not on a large scale:
margins, glabrous but with scattered glands be- pounded leaves are used to treat colds, coughs,
low, pinnately veined; petiole 0.5-6 cm long, slen- wounds and as an anodyne and febrifuge, roots to
der, kneed at both ends; stipules fugacious. Inflo- treat lumbago and as an anodyne, and sap as a
rescence axillary, unisexual, male one spiciform- tonic. In New Guinea crushed leaves of a Clematis
racemose, up to 20 cm long, female flowers usually species of uncertain identity (incorrectly referred
solitary. Flowers unisexual, with 3-5 perianth to as C.glycinoides) are inhaled for colds;the juice
lobes (petals absent), disk absent; male flowers of the green leaves is used to induce abortion, and
with numerous free or connate stamens on a coni- the plant is reputedly poisonous to livestock. In
cal receptacle; female flowers with very long pedi- the Admiralty Islands and the Northern Province,
cel and a superior, 2(-3)-celled ovary, styles 2(-3), Papua New Guinea, crushed leaves of plants iden-
very long, connate at base, deeply bifid. Fruit a tified as the very rare C.clemensiae H. Eichler are
2(-3)-celled, double-globose, woody capsule 1.5- sniffed to clear the nose. There is a single record of
2.5 cm in diameter, with persistent, lateral or sub- the use of C. leschenaultiana DC. as a remedy for
terminal styles, usually splitting into 2 one-seed- abdominal pain in Java.
ed parts. Seeds subglobose, c. 1.2 mm in diameter, Clematis species of more temperate regions in
dark brown, mottled, smooth. Asia, e.g. in northern Vietnam and China, are
Cleidion is a pantropical genus of about 25 more widely used and better known. They are
species. used as an antimalarial, antirheumatic, analgesic,
Ecology C. spiciflorum occurs in rain forest, or antidote, diuretic, laxative, and to relieve head-
on stream- or riversides in drier regions, also at aches. C. chinensis Osbeck is well known in tradi-
the foot of limestone hills, in ridge forest and tional Chinese medicine. In Vietnam roasted
swamp forest, up to 800 m altitude. It is common roots, mixed with other drugs, are used as a di-
in many regions, e.g. in Thailand and New uretic, remedy for indigestion and emmenagogue.
Guinea, but rare in some other regions, e.g. Penin- They are also reputedly used as a galactagogue. In
sular Malaysia and Borneo. Taiwan a root decoction is used to treat headache,
Genetic resources C. spiciflorum is wide- fever and chills. In China it is applied as an anal-
spread, locally common, and does not seem to be gesic, diuretic, antitumour, anti-inflammatory
liable to genetic erosion. However, in several re- and insecticidal agent. In Vietnam a post-partum
gions it is rare, and nothing is known about the drink is prepared from the leaves ofC. meyeniana
genetic variability. Walpers. In Indo-China a root decoction of C.
Prospects It is striking that C. spiciflorum is gouriana Roxb. ex DC. is used as a diaphoretic
used in traditional medicine in regions as far and diuretic. The fresh, crushed leaves are used
apart as the Philippines and the Solomon Islands. as a rubefacient or vesicant, the compound re-
It may be a tree of future importance, for medici- sponsible for the activity being volatile. In Taiwan
nal uses as well as a shade tree. However, re- the pounded leaves are applied to wounds and
search on its phytochemical and pharmacological snakebites, and the leaves are employed as a
properties is desirable. febrifuge. In Chinese medicine, the root is used as
Literature 332, 760. a remedy for goitre, and the fruit as a tonic and
CLEMATIS 119
stomachic. The aboveground parts are considered and in relatively open primary and secondary for-
a drastic purgative, easily resulting in a toxic est, covering small trees, shrubs, rocks and walls.
overdose. The stem is used as an anthelmintic in Management In general Clematis can be easily
Nepal. In Africa coughing and migraine are cured propagated by seed, layering or cuttings.
by inhaling C. villosa DC. Crushed and dried Genetic resources Clematis species are com-
leaves softened in warm water are used to treat monly found in areas of regeneration, and are
rheumatism. usually common and cannot be considered threat-
The stems of numerous species belonging to sec- ened. However, some species are restricted in
tion Clematis (e.g. C. vitalba L. of temperate re- their distribution; the Philippines, Sulawesi and
gions) are used as ropes. In Lombok stems of C. New Guinea, for example, all have several en-
multistriata H. Eichler are used for binding. demics which may be threatened by continued
Clematis is planted worldwide as an ornamental. habitat degradation.
Properties Some Clematis species are rich in Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco-
saponins (e.g. C. chinensis), whereas others are logical properties of Malesian Clematis. Further
void of these (e.g. C. smilacifolia). Protoanemonin research is needed to support its traditional uses,
was isolated from several Clematis species. In a for instance the widespread use as a sniff to clear
general screening using the disk diffusion method, the nose.
methanol extracts ofdried leaves and stem bark of Literature 164, 344, 361,438,464,731.
C.papuasica showed a broad antimicrobial activi-
ty against gram-negative and gram-positive bac-
teria. An aqueous extract ofC. chinensis, tested in Selection of species
various rat models showed hypotensive activity. It
produced a hypotensive response mediated Clematis javana DC.
through histaminergic activity. Isolated precon- Syst. Nat. 1: 152 (1817).
stricted helical tail artery strips were relaxed, and Synonyms Clematis vitalba L. subsp. javana
the extract produced both negative chronotropic (DC.) O. Kuntze (1885), Clematis gouriana auct.
and inotropic effects on isolated atria. A crude ex- non Roxb. ex DC.
tract of C. chinensis showed moderate hepatopro- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: slerem, meran-
tective activity in CCl 4 -induced hepatotoxicity in gan (Javanese). Philippines: salingbuabong (Ig-
rats. orot), kalupat (Bisaya), kamugna (Bagobo). Papua
Botany Lianas or climbers, or (outside Malesia) New Guinea: zanzanfulolo (Sasaningko, Morobe
upright shrubs or herbs. Leaves opposite, occa- Province).
sionally alternate, mostly pinnately compound or Distribution Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands,
ternate, sometimes simple; petiole, rachis and the Philippines, the Moluccas and New Guinea.
petiolules often twining; stipules absent. Inflores- Uses In the Philippines pounded leaves or leaf
cence a 1-many-flowered cyme at the top of young juice are applied to wounds. In the Huon Peninsu-
stems or axillary, sometimes on older stems, la, Papua New Guinea, the sap from the stems is
arranged in raceme- or panicle-like synflores- taken as a general tonic.
cences. Flowers bisexual or unisexual, regular; Observations A liana up to 6 m long, stems
tepals 4-6, valvate; stamens many; carpels sharply 6-ribbed; leaves usually biternate, leaflets
(3-)5-many, style persistent, usually hairy. Fruit ovate to narrowly ovate, (4-)5-8.5(-ll) cm x 2-7
consisting of sessile, often laterally compressed cm, base cordate or rounded, apex long-cuspidate,
nutlets. usually coarsely dentate; inflorescence a terminal
Confusion with respect to the proper identity of or axillary dichasial panicle or raceme; tepals nar-
Malesian Clematis is considerable. The name C. rowly elliptical to oblong-obovate, 7-12 mm long,
glycinoides is often used for plants in New greenish-white or white, stamens 40-70, carpels
Guinea, but in most cases it refers to C. pick- 10-25; nutlets narrowly ovoid-ellipsoid to ovoid-
eringii, but often probably also to several other fusiform, c. 4 mm long, densely pubescent, plu-
species of section Aspidanthera subsection Papua- mose tail 3-4 cm long. C.javana occurs in primary
sicae. True C.glycinoides DC. is confined to north- and secondary forest, thickets, as well as grass-
ern Australia. land and hedges, from sea-level up to 1600 m alti-
Ecology In Malesia Clematis is found from sea- tude.
level up to 3000 m altitude, most commonly en- Selected sources 62, 226, 356,438.
countered as lianas along rivers, at forest edges,
Clematis p a p u a s i c a Merr. & P e r r y and 20-30(-45) stamens, female flowers with

Journ. Arn. Arb. 24: 34 (1943). tepals oblong or oblong-elliptical, 11-13 mm x
Synonyms Clematis pickeringii auct. non A. 2.5-4 mm, spreading, 6-8 staminodes and 20-30
Gray. carpels; nutlets oblique-ovate, c. 6 mm long,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: larate, naowi densely pubescent, plumose tail (4-)6-8 cm long.
(Talaud Islands). Papua New Guinea: rugu-robu C. papuasica occurs in secondary forest, forest
(Bougainville), feriyanuya (Bredabu, Central fringes and thickets, from sea-level up to 2000 m
Province), mungla (Kombo, Western Highlands). altitude.
Distribution The Talaud Islands, the Moluc- Selected sources 226, 347, 353, 355,361,438.
cas, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
Uses Throughout Papua New Guinea crushed Clematis p h a n e r o p h l e b i a Merr. &
leaves are sniffed, to unblock nasal passages and Perry
to treat a cold or cough. In the Western Highlands Journ. Arn. Arb. 24:35 (1943).
sap from the stem is blown into a red swollen eye. Synonyms Clematis perspicuinervia Merr. &
In the Solomon Islands pounded leaves are ap- Perry (1948).
plied to the forehead as a febrifuge. Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: iti-
Observations A liana up to 10 m long, stems tuwa (Kaneba, Gulf Province).
cylindrical, with 12 distinct and 12 indistinct ribs; Distribution New Guinea.
leaves ternate or rarely simple, leaflets elliptical, Uses Pounded stems are used as a fish poison in
ovate-lanceolate, oblong or rounded, (5-)10- small streams. A drink prepared by crushing
17(-19) cm x (2.5-)5-9(-15) cm, base cuneate to stalks in water and mixing this with traditional
somewhat cordate, apex long-cuspidate to round- salt is taken to treat chest pains.
ed, entire to somewhat wavy; inflorescence an Observations A liana, stems cylindrical with
axillary panicle-like raceme; male flowers with many somewhat differently rounded ribs; leaves
tepals oblong, (3-)7-9(-10) mm x (l-)1.5-2.5(-3) simple or ternate, leaflets ovate to elliptical-lance-
mm, white or tinged yellow, somewhat fragrant, olate or oblong-ovate, 5-14 cm x 2-6 cm, base
rounded, apex cuspidate, entire or dentate; inflo-
rescence an axillary, dichasially ramified, raceme-
like panicle; male flowers with tepals narrowly ob-
long to obovate, 6-7 mm x 2 mm, and 18-20 sta-
mens, female flowers with tepals linear-lanceo-
late, 14-15 mm x 1.5-2.5 mm, 4-6 staminodes and
16-20 carpels; nutlets elliptical or ovate, c. 3 mm
long, densely pubescent, plumose tail 3-4 cm long.
C.phanerophlebia occurs in forest and thickets at
600-2500 m altitude.
C l e m a t i s p i c k e r i n g i i A. G r a y
U.S. Expl. Exped., Bot. 1: 1(1854).
Synonyms Clematis aristata auct. non R.Br, ex
Edw., Clematis glycinoides auct. non DC.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: hubuk, leluka-
winga (Sumba).
Distribution Eastern Java, the Lesser Sunda
Islands, Sulawesi, the Moluccas (Buru, Seram),
south-eastern New Guinea, northern Australia,
New Caledonia and the Fiji Islands.
Uses In Sumba leaves and roots are chewed by
small children as an anodyne when teething.
Observations A liana up to 5 m long, stems
uniformly many-ribbed; leaves usually ternate,
Clematis papuasica Merr. & Perry - 1, flowering leaflets ovate or ovate-elliptical, 5-8.5(-15) cm x
twig; 2, flower; 3, nutlet. (3-)3.5-6.5(-8.5) cm, base rounded or somewhat
CLUSIA 121
cordate, apex usually cuspidate, usually entire, C l u s i a L.

typically somewhat fleshy coriaceous; inflores-
cence a terminal or axillary panicle with opposite Sp. pi. 1:509 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:226 (1754).
branches and flowers; male flowers with tepals ob- GUTTIFERAE
long-lanceolate, (6.5-)7.5-9(-ll) mm x 1.5-2.5 x =unknown
mm, and 35-55 stamens of very different length, Origin and geographic distribution Clusia
female flowers with tepals oblong to lanceolate, comprises approximately 250 species and is con-
erect or spreading, 7-14 mm x 1.5-3 mm, 8-16 fined to the tropics of the New World. Some
staminodes and 18-35 carpels; nutlets oblong to species are planted in gardens elsewhere in the
ovoid-fusiform, 5.5-7 mm long, densely hairy, tropics, including Malaysia and Thailand, and
with 2 longitudinal furrows on each side, plumose have sometimes become naturalized, e.g. C. rosea
tail 4-6 cm long. C.pickeringii occurs in secondary in Sri Lanka.
forest and forest fringes, as well as savanna and U s e s Clusia is used in traditional medicine in
mountain forest, from sea-level up to 1300 m alti- tropical America. The bitter gum is well known
tude. because of its drastic, sometimes dangerous,
Selected sources 62,226, 438. purgative properties. It is used in ointments to
treat sores and wounds, and also to allay
Clematis smilacifolia Wallich toothache and calluses on the feet. The dried and
Asiat. Res. 13:402 (1820). powdered gum is widely traded and used as a res-
Synonyms Clematis subpeltata Wallich (1832), olutive plaster to treat fractures, dislocations and
Clematis loureiriana auct. non DC. burns. Decoctions of bark and fruit rind are ap-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: sanghur (Ja- plied to soothe rheumatic pains. A leaf or flower
vanese), kajang helang (Sundanese), werewere decoction is used internally as a pectoral to relieve
(Seram). Philippines: amnok, anatel (Igorot). chest complaints.
Laos: khoua kau san. Thailand: phuang kaeo ku- The gum is burned in houses as a disinfectant and
dan (Bangkok). Vietnam: d[a]y [oojng l[ax]o, is also used for caulking boats. The reddish wood
v[awf]ng kirn cong. is used in house construction, e.g. for poles, but
Distribution Nepal, eastern India, Sri Lanka, timber is not usually available in merchantable
Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, sizes. There are no records on medicinal use of
Thailand and throughout the Malesian region. Clusia in South-East Asia; it is occasionally plant-
Uses In Vietnam a root decoction is used to ed as an ornamental in gardens. Elsewhere, Clu-
treat lumbago, and a decoction ofthe aboveground sia is also planted for ornamental purposes.
parts to treat itch. Properties The polyisoprenylated benzophe-
Observations A liana up to 10 m long, stems none derivatives guttiferone E and xanthochymol
many-ribbed; leaves simple, leaflets broadly have been isolated from C. rosea leaves. These
ovate, 7-18(-37) cm x (2.5-)5-12(-16) cm, base compounds inhibit the cytopathic effects of in-vit-
cordate or rounded, apex cuspidate to obtuse, en- ro human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
tire or sometimes minutely dentate; inflorescence in human cells. They also exhibited cytotoxic ac-
a terminal or axillary, dichasial raceme, 3-7-flow- tivity against CA-human colon CO-115 cell lines.
ered, fragrant; tepals 4(-6), oblong to linear, Other polyisoprenylated benzophenones have
(12-)18-25(-30) mm x (3-)4-5(-7) mm, brown, sta- been found in the resin of the flowers and in fruits
mens 50-60, carpels c. 40; nutlets elliptical to of Clusia species.
oblique-rhombic, (4.5-)6.5-8 mm x (2.5-)3-4 mm, Three biphenyl derivatives, clusiparalicolines A, B
appressed hairy, plumose tail 5-7 cm long. C. smi- and C, have been isolated from C. paralicola G.
lacifolia occurs in thickets, evergreen forest, bam- Mariz roots. The first 2 of these compounds were
boo forest and on river banks, from sea-level up to found to be active in the DNA strand-scission as-
1600(-2400) m altitude. say, whereas all 3 compounds exhibited modest
Selected sources 62,438, 671,732. cytotoxicity against KB human cancer cell lines.
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg In tests with rats, an aqueous extract ofthe leaves
of C. coclensis Standi, injected intravenously in-
duced a rapid and transitory decrease in blood
pressure and heart frequency.
Propolis is a resinous hive product collected by
honey bees that has been used in folk medicine in
tropical America since around 300 BC. Various bi- little care is required where conditions are guar-
ological activities have been attributed to it, such anteed hot and humid.
as anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, an- Management C. rosea can be propagated suc-
tibiotic and antifungal effects. It is also extensive- cessfully by softwood cuttings. The best results
ly used in food and beverages to improve health have been obtained from shoot-tip cuttings 15 cm
and prevent diseases such as inflammation, heart long with 2 leaves, treated with indole-3-butyric
complaints, diabetes and even cancer. The resins acid, and rooted in washed, coarse sand under
exuded by Clusia flowers are a major source of mist. Alternative propagation is by seed or air-lay-
propolis. Several compounds isolated from propo- ering. Planting should preferably be done in a
lis showed cytotoxic activity on human fibrosarco- medium-fertile loam-based mix with additional
ma and murine colon carcinoma cell lines. sand. The plants respond well to pruning.
Botany Trees or shrubs, mostly dioecious, often Genetic resources C. rosea and C. minor are
epiphytic, with whitish or yellowish sap. Leaves widespread in their natural areas of distribution
opposite, simple and entire, usually stiffly leath- in tropical America, and have also spread else-
ery, veins often anastomosing at the margins to where for cultivation as an ornamental (particu-
form marginal veins; petiole distinct or indistinct; larly C. rosea). They are therefore unlikely to be at
stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary or termi- risk from genetic erosion. The apomictic reproduc-
nal cymose panicle, or flowers solitary. Flowers tion and the ease ofvegetative propagation by cut-
unisexual, regular, in bud mostly globose; sepals tings are interesting for breeding activities.
(2-)4-5(-8), mostly free, decussate or imbricate, Prospects Although not indigenous in South-
rotund; petals 4-9(-12), free, ovate or rotund; East Asia, Clusia may have good prospects for this
male flowers with numerous stamens basally con- region, not only as an ornamental plant, but also
nate and rudimentary ovary; female flowers with as medicinal plant, for which it is valued in tropi-
superior ovary consisting of 4-10 basally or en- cal America. More research on anti-cancer and an-
tirely connate carpels with sessile stigmas and ti-HIV activities seems desirable.
rudimentary stamens. Fruit a fleshy or leathery Literature 71,286, 646, 836.
tardily dehiscent capsule, with a stigmatic area
on top, many-seeded. Seeds enveloped in an aril-
lode. Selection of species
Both C. rosea and C. minor are usually shrubs or
poorly formed trees, but occasionally they occur as Clusia minor L.
an epiphyte, sometimes strangling the host in the Sp.pl. 1:510(1753).
manner of figs (Ficus species). Free-living trees Synonyms Clusia odorata Seem. (1853).
grow from terrestrial seedlings or from epiphytic Distribution Widespread in tropical America;
seedlings eventually strangling and shading their occasionally planted elsewhere in the tropics.
host trees. Although the large flowers are often Uses In tropical America, the gum is used in
produced continuously, they last for only short ointments to treat sores. It acts as a drastic purga-
periods and are usually not in great number. They tive. A decoction of dried flowers is used as a pec-
are commonly visited by bees, which collect the toral to treat chest complaints. The latex is also
viscous, hydrophobic resin, and use this as a nest- used for caulking boats. C. minor is occasionally
building material with antimicrobial properties. planted as an ornamental, e.g. in Malaysia.
It has been suggested that C. rosea is wholly Observations A shrub to small tree up to 7 m
apomictic and that C. minor is commonly apomic- tall, sometimes epiphytic, branchlets with exfoli-
tic in reproduction. In the latter some forms may ating bark; leaves ovate, membranous or thinly
be facultatively apomictic or may reproduce by coriaceous, apically obtuse to acute, with numer-
normal sexual means. Apomictic specimens pro- ous lateral veins, petiole rather slender; flowers
duce functional seed, probably by adventitious solitary or few together, petals c. 1.5 cm long,
embryony. C. rosea shows crassulacean acid me- white or pink; fruit ovoid, 2.5-3.5 cm long. In its
tabolism (CAM),with nocturnal C0 2 fixation. natural area of distribution, C. minor occurs most
Ecology In the natural area of distribution, C. commonly in forests in areas with a seasonally dry
rosea often occurs on coastal limestone and in sa- climate.
vanna, and C. minor most commonly in forest in Selected sources 71,121,188, 586, 646.
areas with a seasonally dry climate. For cultivat-
ed plants, drainage must be good, but otherwise
CNESMONE 123
Clusia rosea Jacq. to 20 m tall, sometimes epiphytic; leaves broadly

E n u m . s y s t . p l : 34 (1760). obovate, stiffly coriaceous, apically rounded to
Synonyms Clusia major auct. non L. emarginate, with numerous lateral veins, petiole
Vernacular names Balsam apple (En). Pitch stout; flowers often solitary, petals 3-4 cm long,
apple (Am).Copey (Sp). white or pink; fruit turbinate, 4-8 cm long,
Distribution The Antilles, Panama, Colombia whitish-green, often with brown outside, whitish
and Venezuela; planted elsewhere in the tropics inside; seeds ovoid, white with a scarlet arillode.
and occasionally naturalized, e.g. in Sri Lanka. In its natural area of distribution C. rosea occurs
Uses In tropical America, the bitter gum is well in evergreen and semideciduous lowland forest up
known because of its drastic, sometimes danger- to 500 m altitude, but also on coastal limestone
ous, purgative properties. It is used to allay and in savanna.
toothache and calluses on the feet. The dried and Selected sources 67, 71, 121, 143, 188, 305,
powdered gum is widely traded and used as a res- 586, 646, 782.
olutive plaster to treat fractures, dislocations and R.E. Nasution
burns. Decoctions of bark and fruit rind are ap-
plied to soothe rheumatic pains. A leaf or flower
decoction is used internally as a pectoral to relieve Cnesmone javanica Blume
chest complaints. The gum is burned in houses as
a disinfectant and is also used for caulking boats. Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 630 (1826; 'Cnesmosa javani-
The reddish wood is applied in house construction, ca').
e.g. for poles. C. rosea is planted for ornamental EUPHORBIACEAE
purposes in the southern United States (Florida), In =unknown
where it is a handsome, fast-growing tree with a Vernacular names Indonesia: pulus areng, pu-
broad spreading crown, and also in South-East lus jalantong (Sundanese). Malaysia: jelatang
Asia. It is commonly cultivated as an indoor pot badak, jelatang gajah, jelatang rusa (Peninsular).
plant for its decorative foliage. Thailand: karangtang kwaang (peninsular), ta-
Observations A shrub to medium-sized tree up myae khruea (Saraburi), raachaa se-khue (Karen,
Kanehanaburi). Vietnam: h[oof] ly, d[aa]y b[oj]
n[ej]t.
Origin and geographic distribution C. ja-
vanica is distributed in eastern India (Assam),
Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, Penin-
sular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo.
Uses There is one report from Peninsular
Malaysia, stating that the juice of C.javanica is
mixed with the latex of Antiaris toxicaria Lesch.
to produce a dart poison. In Thailand, it is an in-
gredient of a compound drug used as an anti-in-
flammatory.
Botany A monoecious slender, herbaceous or
slightly woody climber, with stinging hairs.
Leaves alternate, distichous, simple, oblong or
ovate-cordate, 6-22 cm x 3-13 cm, cordate at base,
margin with acuminate teeth, on both sides with
patent hairs and scattered bristles, 3-veined from
the base; petiole 1.5-11 cm long; stipules oblong,
up to 1 cm long, persistent. Inflorescence an axil-
lary or leaf-opposed, bracteate raceme up to 11 cm
long, on a peduncle up to 13 cm long, at base with
1 or 2 female flowers, upwards with many male
flowers. Flowers unisexual, with 3-lobed perianth
Clusia rosea Jacq. - 1, branch with male fower (petals absent) up to 1 cm long; male flowers with
with copious resin production; 2, female flower; 3, 3 stamens alternating with the perianth lobes, fil-
dehisced fruit. aments thick, widened towards the apex, connec-
tive broad, with incurved appendage; female flow- Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo,
ers with superior, depressed, 3-celled ovary, styles the northern part of the Philippines, and Sulawe-
3, shortly connate, fleshy, strongly papillose, per- si.
sistent. Fruit a (2-)3-lobed capsule c. 1.5 cm in di- Uses In Malaysia, a decoction of the roots is
ameter, seated on the calyx, velutinous and drunk to treat stomach-ache, chronic colonic ob-
hispid, each cell 1-seeded. Seeds globose, with a struction, urinary troubles and, together with
fleshy outer layer. Phyllanthus pulcher Wallich ex Muell. Arg., ma-
C. javanica can be found flowering and fruiting laria. It is also applied as a tonic after childbirth,
throughout the year. and as an anticoagluant as a remedy for stroke
Cnesmone comprises about 10 species, and occurs and blood clotting. External uses include treating
from eastern India and southern China to western sprains with a foment, and gonorrhoea with a
Malesia. It belongs to the tribe Plukenetieae and is poultice. In Laos, an infusion of the roots is used
related to Megistostigma. Blume published the internally to treat dysentery, and a decoction of
genus as Cnesmosa in 1826, but 2 years later he the leaves externally to treat scabies and wounds.
corrected the name into Cnesmone. The seeds have been used in southern Vietnam to
Ecology C.javanica occurs in evergreen forest, poison dogs.
often in open locations, bamboo forest, brushwood Several Cnestis species are used in traditional
and young forest, in Java up to 300 m altitude, in medicine in Africa, e.g. C. corniculata Lamk, the
Thailand up to 500 m. It is common in the north- leaves of which are applied against blennorrhoea,
ern part ofPeninsular Malaysia. C. urens Gilg, the seeds of which are used to treat
Genetic resources C. javanica is widely dis- stomach-ache and toothache, and especially C. fer-
tributed, locally common, and often occurs in dis- ruginea Vahl ex D C , which is administered for a
turbed habitats. It is therefore unlikely to be at vast array of complaints; the fruit pulp is com-
risk of genetic erosion, although it appears to be monly used to clean the teeth. The fruits of C.
more rare in some regions, e.g. Sumatra and Bor- polyphylla Lamk have been applied in Madagas-
neo. car to poison dogs and rats. The stems of African
Prospects There is hardly any information on Cnestis are sometimes used as a rope to climb
the uses and no information at all on the proper- palm trees, and to make baskets.
ties of C.javanica. It seems unlikely that it will Properties Seeds and bark of several Cnestis
become more important in the future. species have been reported to be poisonous. In
Literature 62, 121. tests, the extracts were fatal to rabbits and mice
Other selected sources 19,20, 22, 23,990. after convulsive attacks. The seeds of C. palala
Raharni showed acute toxicity in tests with dogs. An un-
usual amino acid, L-methionine sulfoximine, has
been isolated from the fresh seeds of C.palala. A
C n e s t i s p a l a l a (Lour.) Merr. neurotoxin also identified as methionine sulfox-
imine has been isolated from C. polyphylla root
Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br. 85:201 (1922). bark at 0.4% yield. This compound seems common
CONNARACEAE in Connaraceae. The seeds ofC. polyphylla yielded
In = unknown a compound with a cytotoxic effect on a hepatoma
Synonyms Cnestis diffusa Blanco (1837), tissue culture. The toxic compound inhibits pro-
Cnestis platantha Griffith (1854). tein synthesis in a hepatoma tissue culture as
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: andor balimb- well as in the rabbit reticulocyte lysate assay.
ing, baih patuh senggulin,jukut abang (Sumatra). Extracts ofC. ferruginea showed antimicrobial ac-
Malaysia: garing-garing, sembelit merah, sem- tivity; they were markedly active against As-
belit kecil (Peninsular). Philippines: kalakala- pergillus niger, dermatophytes and several bacte-
myasan (Tagalog), salsaladoi (Iloko), palo santo ria. General phytochemical screening ofthe leaves
(Sp). Laos: 'hon kai 1 , 'sa mât, bén bit. Thailand: of this species showed the presence of glycosidic
kra phaak laak (Trat), ngonkai (central), maa anthraquinones, sterols, tannins and flavonoids,
daeng (peninsular). Vietnam: tr[uw][owf]ng but not of alkaloids or saponins.
kh[ees], d[aa]y v[aws]p c[aaf]y. Botany A small to large liana up to 25 m long,
Origin and geographic distribution C. pa- or a shrub, often with climbing branches, rarely a
lala occurs in the Andaman Islands, southern small tree up to 10 m tall; branchlets densely
Burma (Myanmar), southern Laos, Vietnam, brown-pubescent, later more or less glabrescent.
COCCULUS 125
Leaves imparipinnate, 6-21-jugate; petiole 1-7 cm Islands) except the Asiatic C.palala. C.palala is a
long; stipules absent; lateral leaflets narrowly variable species, in leaf characteristics as well as
ovate or narrowly oblong to ovate or oblong, in the shape and size of inflorescences, petals and
(l-)1.5-8 cm x 0.7-2.5 cm, terminal leaflet nar- follicles. Several distinct species have been distin-
rowly elliptical or narrowly obovate to elliptical or guished for South-East Asia, but these are con-
obovate, 3-8 cm x 1-3 cm, leaflets densely pilose nected by intermediates. C. palala shares its ex-
below; petiolules 0.5-1.5 mm long. Inflorescence treme variability with many other Connaraceae
an axillary raceme or panicle, on older branches, species both in Asia and Africa.
densely yellowish-brown pubescent, up to 35-flow- Ecology C. palala occurs in primary and sec-
ered. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, ob- ondary rain forest up to 500 m altitude, also in
scurely heterodistylous; pedicel articulated; sepals riverine and marsh forest, sometimes in dry forest
narrowly ovate to narrowly oblong, 2-5 mm long; and thickets.
petals ovate or elliptical to narrowly oblong, Genetic resources C. palala is widespread in
(0.5-)2-4(-5) mm long, white to creamy; stamens different habitats, and does not seem to be easily
10, slightly differing in length in the 2 whorls; liable to genetic erosion. Its apparently wide ge-
carpels 5, free, superior. Fruit consisting of 1-3 el- netic variability, which is connected with distribu-
lipsoid to pyriform follicles 2.5-6 cm long, densely tion (e.g. comparatively long petals in mainland
reddish-hairy outside and with long yellowish South-East Asia and the Philippines, short ones in
hairs inside, each follicle 1-seeded. Seed ovoid, Sumatra and Borneo) warrants more research, al-
1.5-3 cm long, black, with an arilloid at base; so in connection with phytochemistry.
cotyledons thin, veined; endosperm abundant. Prospects C.palala is fairly widely used in tra-
Cnestis consists of 13 species, all restricted to ditional medicine, as are other Cnestis species in
Africa (including Madagascar and the Mascarene Africa. It seems to have interesting properties,
which however have been little studied. Its uses in
treating malaria, blood clotting, urinary troubles
and chronic colonic obstructions justify more re-
search.
Literature 247, 657, 707.
250, 423, 700, 731.
H.C. Ong
Cocculus DC.
Syst. nat. 1:515 (1817).
MENISPERMACEAE
x =13;C. laurifolius: 2n =26, C. orbiculatus: 2n
= 50,52
Origin and geographic distribution Coccu-
lus comprises 8 species, and occurs in Central and
North America, Africa, south-eastern and eastern
Asia, and Polynesia. In Malesia, 2 species occur,
whereas a third one (C. hirsutus (L.) Theob.)
found in tropical Africa, Arabia, India, Sri Lanka,
Burma (Myanmar) and southern China, has been
collected once in Thailand.
Uses There are no records of medicinal uses of
Cocculus in the Malesian region, but it is import-
ed as a medicine by Chinese people in Malaysia.
In Chinese traditional medicine, Cocculus roots
Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr. - 1, branch with are often used to treat rheumatism and arthritis,
leaves; 2, branch with inflorescences; 3, different sometimes in mixtures with Stephania and Aris-
types of flowers; 4, different types offruits; 5, seed. tolochia, and to treat oedema.
C. hirsutus has many medicinal uses in Pakistan: Ecology C. laurifolius usually occurs in sec-
the leaves are used to treat prurigo, eczema, im- ondary habitats, such as open woodland, thickets,
petigo and acute gonorrhoea, and the roots to grassland, plantations and river banks. In Male-
treat fever, rheumatism and syphilitic cachexia, sia, C. orbiculatus is usually found climbing over
and as a tonic, alterative and diuretic. Roots and coastal vegetations, but sometimes also inland on
leaves ofC. pendulus (J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster) limestone.
Diels are commonly used in traditional medicine Management On the coast of the Black Sea, C.
in Africa to treat various complaints, but most laurifolius is cultivated, where it proved resistant
commonly as a febrifuge. to frost, although plants were killed back to the
Properties Morphinane alkaloids with antitu- roots at temperatures below ~9°C. Normal N nu-
mour activity have been isolated from methanolic trition in spring and well-timed high K applica-
extracts of stems and roots of C. orbiculatus, e.g. tion improved frost resistance. The plants there
sinococuline and isosinococuline. These com- are propagated by semi-hardwood cuttings under
pounds showed significant activity against Sarco- glass.
ma 180 ascites in mice. In India, in-vitro propagation has been successful-
Methanolic extracts of dried stem bark of C. orbi- ly practised for C.pendulus. Multiple shoot forma-
culatus significantly inhibited seed germination of tion was obtained from nodal expiants and callus
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv., Brassica ru- on Murashige and Skoog medium with low con-
gosa Prain and cucumber; aristolochic and aris- centration of benzyladenine. High alkaloid-pro-
tolic acids were isolated and identified as the ac- ducing cell lines of C. pendulus have been estab-
tive principles. lished which produce antineoplastic agents.
Many alkaloids have been isolated from the leaves Genetic resources Cocculus is widely distrib-
of C. laurifolius, e.g. cocculine, isoboldine, noriso- uted and usually occurs in secondary vegetation
boldine, coclafine, erythlaurine, erythramide, lau- types, which makes it not easily liable to genetic
rifinine and cocculitine. Cocculine showed an ac- erosion due to habitat destruction.
tion similar to that of curare. The quaternary al- Prospects Like many other Menispermaceae,
kaloid isocorydine-methochloride has also been Cocculus species are promising medicinal plants.
isolated from this species; it showed neuromuscu- Several uses in traditional medicine and biological
lar blocking action. activities deserve more attention in research, e.g.
An aqueous extract of aerial parts of C. hirsutus the reputed febrifugal, diuretic and anticancer
showed significant diuretic and laxative effects in properties. The fact that they can be easily culti-
rats. C.pendulus extracts showed distinct nemati- vated makes them even more promising.
cidal activity against Meloidogyne javanica and Literature 247, 266, 272, 385, 731, 765.
insecticidal activity against larvae of Spodoptera
litura. Ethanolic stem extracts of C. pendulus
showed hypotensive and anticancer activity. Nu- Selection of species
merous alkaloids possessing anticancer activity
have been isolated from this species, e.g. cocsulin- Cocculus laurifolius DC.
in. Syst. nat. 1:530 (1817).
Botany Slender dioecious climbers, erect Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ki pacar, tejan
shrubs or small trees. Leaves arranged spirally, (Sundanese). Thailand: yang nan ton (north-east-
simple and entire, rarely lobed, shortly petiolate; ern, central), sakae dong (north-eastern), sura-
stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary cyme or marit (eastern). Vietnam: v[eej] ch[aa]u, [oo]
thyrse. Flowers small, unisexual, regular; sepals d[uw][owj]c, d[aa]y k[oof] c[aafju.
6-9 in 3 whorls, outer ones smallest; petals 6, bifid Distribution Nepal, India, Burma (Myanmar),
or emarginate at apex; male flowers with inflexed Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan, Japan,
auricles at base of petals clasping the 6 free sta- Thailand, Sumatra, Java and the Philippines.
mens; female flowers with 6 staminodes and 3 or 6 Uses In traditional medicine in China, the roots
free, superior carpels, styles subulate and re- and stems are used to treat hypertension, head-
flexed. Fruit consisting of 1-6 drupes, curved with ache, abdominal pain and rheumatic pain. C. lau-
style-scar near base; endocarp dorsally verrucu- rifolius is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental,
lose or ridged, each drupe 1-seeded. Seeds curved e.g. in milder parts ofNorth America and Europe.
almost into a ring, dorsiventrally flattened; en- Observations An erect shrub or small tree up
dosperm very thin; cotyledons liguliform. to 6 m tall, with main stem up to 12 cm in dia-
CODONOPSIS 127
meter; leaves elliptical or oblanceolate-elliptical, U s e s In Vietnam, the stem is used as a diuretic

7-ll(-15) cm x 3-5.5 cm, strongly 3-veined with to treat oedema. The roots are considered febri-
veins running parallel to margins and continuing fuge and used to treat epilepsy. In traditional
beyond the middle of the leaf; flowers yellowish, medicine in China, the stems and leaves are ap-
female ones with 3 carpels; drupe rotund in out- plied against flatulence, stomach-ache and oede-
line, c. 4 mm in diameter. C. laurifolius occurs in ma. In Thailand, the leaves are used to produce a
open woodland, thickets, grassland, teak and ba- jelly.
nana plantations, and on river banks, up to 1500 Observations A slender herbaceous or slightly
m altitude. woody climber, with stem up to 1.5 mmin diame-
Selected sources 247, 249, 649,691. ter; leaves broadly elliptical to narrowly elliptical
or ovate, 3-10 cm x 1-5.5 cm, base 3(-5)-veined
Cocculus orbiculatus (L.) DC. with veins usually notrunning parallel to margins
Syst. nat.1:523(1817). and becoming indistinct at or below the middle of
Synonyms Cocculus trilobus (Thunberg) DC. the leaf; flowers whitish, female ones with 6
(1817), Cocculus sarmentosus (Lour.) Diels (1910). carpels; drupe rotund in outline, 4-5mm in diam-
Vernacular names Vietnam: d[aa]y xanh, eter, dark blue. In South-East Asia, C. orbiculatus
d[aa]y m[ooj]t, m[ooj]c ph[of]ng ky. often occurs near the sea-shore, but sometimes al-
Distribution Nepal, India, China, Taiwan, Ja- so inland onlimestone terraces.
pan, Hawaii, Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Selected sources 247, 249,402, 403,671, 981.
Malaysia, Singapore, north-eastern Sumatra, Francisca Murti Setyowati
western and central Java, and the Philippines; al-
so in Réunion and Mauritius, but there possibly
introduced. C o d o n o p s i s j a v a n i c a ( B l u m e ) Hook.f.
111.Himal. p i : 116,t. 16B(1855).

CAMPANULACEAE
2n = 16
Synonyms Campanumoea javanica Blume
(1826), Campanumoea cordata Miq. (1862), Cam-
panumoea maximowiczii Honda (1936).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ki cepot (Sun-
danese), guci, indil-indil (Javanese). Vietnam:
d[ar]ng s[aa]m, m[awf]n c[as]y, r[aaf]y c[as]y.
Origin a n d geographic distribution C. ja-
vanica occurs in eastern India, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan, Ja-
pan, Thailand, Sumatra and Java. It is locally
-planted asa medicinal plant in Vietnam.
Uses C.javanica isnotimportant asa medicinal
plant in the Malesian region, with only one record
on an obscure use ofthe root in Java. However, it
is much more important in Indo-China. In Viet-
nam, the root is considered stomachic, expecto-
rant anddiuretic. Infusions, decoctions, pills, pow-
ders or elixirs from the roots are recommended as
a general tonic, as a cough remedy and for the
treatment ofjaundice, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, oede-
ma, haemorrhoids, and a wide range of urogenital
and lymphatic afflictions. In China and Korea
Codonopsis species are employed as a general ton-
ic. In China theroots are also used topromote lac-
Cocculus orbiculatus (L.) DC. - 1, branch of male tation. Several species (e.g. C.pilosula (Franch.)
flowering plant; 2, male flower; 3,female flower; 4, Nannf, C. tangshen Oliv.), indigenous or intro-
infructescence; 5, endocarp. duced in northern Vietnam, are imported and
mentioned in the Vietnamese Pharmacopoeia as

Radix Codonopsis.
Properties The triterpene taraxerol was isolat-
ed from the roots of C. javanica, together with
steroids, ß-sitosterol and a-spinasterol. There is no
information on pharmacological activities of C.ja-
vanica, but the related C.pilosula has been better
investigated. In order to support its use in tradi-
tional medicine for the treatment of nephritis, C.
pilosula was subjected to both in-vitro and in-vivo
testing. Intraperitoneal injection in rats and in-vit-
ro tests with endothelial cells and kidney ho-
mogenates revealed stimulatory effects on nitric
oxide release. This may well contribute to the hy-
potensive effect and antinephretic action, possibly
byincreasing renal bloodflow. An extract ofC.pilo-
sula weakly stimulated lymphocyte proliferation
in vitro. It enhanced cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activi-
ty, but failed to enhance natural killer-cell activity.
The extract stimulated immunoglobin production
by B-cells and interleukin-1 production by mono-
cytes. Another experiment revealed that pollen of
C.pilosula as a feed additive could efficiently coun-
teract the liver toxicity in mice induced by CC14.
An experiment using 5 animal models ofgastric ul-
cer showed that an extract ofC. pilosula had a sig-
nificant effect on gastric ulcers induced by stress,
acetic acid and sodium hydroxide, but little effect Codonopsis javanica (Blume) Hook.f. - 1, plant
on ulcers induced by pyloroligature and inhabit; 2, flower; 3, fruit.
domethacin. The extract was also capable of reduc-
ing gastric acid pepsin secretion. It is possible that the withered corolla. Seeds ovoid, c. 1 mm long,
inhibition of gastro-intestinal movement and
pale brown.
propulsion is one of the mechanisms involved in
C. javanica can be found flowering and fruiting
the anti-ulcer action ofC.pilosula extract.
throughout the year. Generic delimitation of Co-
Botany A vigorous, perennial climber up to 3 m donopsis is problematic, with the genera Cam-
long, with tuberous roots; stems slender, twining, panumoea and Leptocodon variously included or
green, usually glabrous. Leaves opposite, but excluded. Codonopsis consists of some 40 species,
higher up often arranged spirally, simple, ovate to and has a distinctive Asian distribution with
oblong-ovate, 2.5-8 cm x 2-5 cm, base cordate, species concentrated particularly in the temperate
apex obtuse, acute or acuminate, serrate, glabrous regions of the Himalaya and the mountains of
or slightly hairy; petiole 1.5-6.5 cm long; stipules western China. C. javanica belongs to the sub-
absent. Flowers solitary, axillary, rarely terminal, genus Codonopsis, characterized by carrot-like or
bisexual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel 1-5.5 cm long; branched tubers, and tubular or bell-shaped corol-
calyx implanted below the ovary, lobes lanceolate la emitting a foetid smell. The taxonomical status
to oblong, 11-23 mm x 3-4 mm, entire or serrate, of the Vietnamese and Chinese Codonopsis
slighty to widely spreading, pale green; corolla species used in traditional medicine deserves
broadly campanulate, 12-35 mm long, up to more more attention.
than halfway lobed, greenish-white or yellowish- Ecology In Malesia C.javanica is found in open
white outside, with purplish streaks inside; sta- forest, forest edges, secondary growth and thick-
mens (4-)6, free, inserted on the ovary; ovary infe- ets or even meadows in mountainous areas at
rior, (3-)4-5(-6)-celled, style cylindrical, 3-6- 1000-2500 m altitude. In northern Vietnam C.ja-
lobed. Fruit a subglobular berry 0.5-1.5 cm x vanica and C. pilosula are planted in regions at
1-2.5 cm, red to dark purple, at the base sustained higher elevations with a minimum rainfall of 2000
by the persistent red calyx lobes, and crowned by mm.
COLDENIA 129
Management C. javanica and C. pilosuia are

propagated by seed. Ayield of600-700 kg roots/ha
is obtained after 3 years.
Genetic resources Since C.javanica is wide-
spread and variable, its genetic basis does not ap-
pear to be threatened. However, wild populations
may seriously be affected by overcollecting in In-
do-China and southern China.
Prospects The immunostimulating activity as
observed in the related C.pilosula, supporting its
use as a general tonic in local medicine, may like-
wise be present in C.javanica. Research is needed
to determine its prospects as a medicinal plant of
wider use in the Malesian region.
Literature 216, 247, 293,477, 841,1008.
671,980,1017.
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
C o l d e n i a p r o c u m b e n s L.
Sp.pl. 1:125(1753).
BORAGINACEAE
In = unknown
Vernacular names Philippines: tapiasin, ore-
ganong-lalaki (Tagalog), tabatabokol (Iloko). Thai-
land: yaa teentukkae (Suphan Buri, Phitsanulok), Coldenia procumbens L. - 1, plant habit; 2, leaf
yaa teentukto, yaa tupto (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: upper surface; 3, leaf lower surface; 4, corolla
c[as]p di[eef]n. opened showing stamens; 5, pistil; 6, fruit; 7, nut-
Origin and geographic distribution C. pro- let dorsal surface; 8, nutlet ventral surface.
cumbens is widespread in tropical and subtropical
Africa, Asia and Australia. In Asia, it has been dorsiventrally compressed, ascendingly branched
recorded from India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- stems up to 50 cm long, greyish hairy. Leaves al-
mar), Indo-China, Taiwan, Hainan, Thailand, ternate, simple, asymmetric, oblong or obovate,
Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Borneo, the Philip- 0.5-3 cm x 0.5-1.5 cm, crenate-dentate to lobulate,
pines, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas and with 4-6 pairs of veins impressed above, promi-
New Guinea. nent beneath; petiole up to 0.5 cm long; stipules
U s e s In the Philippines C. procumbens leaves absent. Flowers arranged between the leaves, bi-
are used as a poultice to mature abscesses. In In- sexual, 4-merous, tiny, subsessile; calyx c. 1.5 mm
dia, they are applied to rheumatic swellings. long, slightly accrescent in fruit; corolla up to 2
Properties In a general pharmacological mm long, with cylindrical tube and diminute
screening with mice and rats, an ethanolic extract lobes, white; stamens inserted about the middle of
of whole C. procumbens plants produced depres- the corolla tube, included; ovary superior, glandu-
sion of the central nervous system and significant lar villous, style bifid nearly to the base. Fruit di-
prolongation of the pentobarbital-induced sleep- viding initially into 2 halves, later each half into 2
ing time. It exhibited significant analgesic effects, one-seeded nutlets; nutlets sharply angulate ven-
but had no anticonvulsant effects, did not alter trally, with a distinct beak.
body temperature, and did not abolish conditioned The mesocarp (middle layer of the nutlet wall) is
avoidance responses. The acetone, ethanol and thick and corky at the dorsal side. This enables
water extracts of dried aerial parts of C. procum- dispersal ofthe nutlets by water.
bens showed weak angiotensin-converting enzyme Coldenia is a monotypic genus. Several American
inhibition. species have been included, but these have now
Botany A small, annual, prostrate herb with been referred to the genus Tiquilia, which com-
prises perennial herbs and subshrubs with sym- and leaves are applied to wounds including
metric leaves and 5-merous flowers. snakebites. Leaves are applied to burns, and are
Ecology C. procumbens is often found in sea- eaten to treat sore throat, dysentery and stomach-
sonally flooded locations, e.g. on dry rice fields, ache. The juice from the petioles is considered
where it is a common weed, but it can also with- styptic and used to arrest arterial haemorrhage,
stand severe drought. and also to treat earache, inflamed glands, boils
Genetic resources C.procumbens is sufficient- and as an external stimulant and rubefacient. The
ly widely distributed and adapted to anthro- leaves are used for wrapping up a bolus of mus-
pogenic habitats to ensure its survival in the long tard-seed and garlic to be used as a prophylactic
run. It is sometimes even considered a potentially after childbirth.
serious weed, e.g. in vegetable crops in the An- The primary use of taro is as a food plant. When
daman and Nicobar Islands. cooked, taro corms, cormels, stolons, leaf blades
Prospects The scanty information available on and petioles can be eaten. Most taro in South-East
the pharmacological properties of C. procumbens Asia is consumed by humans, but it also has uses
seems to warrant more research because it indi- in religious festivals and is fed to livestock, pri-
cates that the plant possesses analgesic proper- marily pigs. Because it is easily digested and prac-
ties. tically non-allergenic, taro can be used by persons
Literature 247, 760, 768. with digestive problems. Taro corm puree makes
Other selected sources 117,881. an excellent baby food. A marked improvement in
N.O. Aguilar dental condition and a reduced incidence of pneu-
monia, diarrhoea, enteritis and beri-beri has been
observed for babies fed with taro instead of bread
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott and rice. The fine taro starch can be used as a
soup thickener, for the production of alcohol and
Schott &Endl., Melet. bot.: 18 (1832). biodegradable plastics. The leaves are used as a
ARACEAE wrapper for steamed food. Several cultivars are
2ra= 28 decorative ornamentals.
Synonyms Colocasia antiquorum Schott (1832). Properties Taro contains enzyme inhibitors,
Vernacular n a m e s Taro, old cocoyam, particularly with inhibitory activities against
dasheen, eddoe (En). Taro (Fr). Indonesia: bentul, trypsin and chymotrypsin, but these are largely
talas, keladi. Malaysia: keladi, keladi china, birah destroyed during cooking. Growth retardation was
keladi. Papua New Guinea: anega, ba, biloun. found in mice fed with lectin from taro corms. An
Philippines: gabi (Tagalog), abalong (Bisaya), na- oc-D-galactosidase capable of converting group B
tong (Bikol). Cambodia: tra:w. Laos: bo:n, phüak. red blood cells into group O, without apparent
Thailand: phuak (general), bon-nam (southern), changes in the shape of the red blood cells, was
tun (northern). Vietnam: khoai n[uw][ows]c, isolated from the stem oftaro. Taro leaves showed
m[oo]n n[uw][ows]c, khoai s[oj]. an aggravating effect on serum and tissue lipids
Origin and geographic distribution Taro in cholesterol-fed rats; there was a significant in-
originated in South-East or southern Central crease in total lipids, total cholesterol and triglyc-
Asia, where it was probably cultivated before rice. eride levels.
In Asia, it is planted in India, southern China, If eaten raw or undercooked, all parts ofthe plant
throughout Malaysia, locally in Java and Bali, are acrid and will irritate the mouth and throat,
throughout the Philippines, and in New Guinea. probably caused by bundles of needle-shaped crys-
Taro is also grown in many islands of the Pacific, tals of calcium oxalate and one or more chemicals
throughout the West Indies and in western and associated with them. Taro has very small starch
northern Africa. particles, diameter 1-6.5 |im. Per 100 g edible por-
Uses Several uses of taro in traditional medi- tion corms contain approximately: water 70 g, pro-
cine are known for India, China and New Guinea. tein 1.1 g, carbohydrates 26 g, fibre 1.5 g, vitamin
The corms are used to treat stomach-ache, diar- C 15 mg. The energy value averages 475 k j per
rhoea, and as a poultice on sores and skin dis- 100 g. Leaves contain about 4.2% protein.
eases. Chopped, tied in a cloth and heated the Botany A perennial (but mostly grown as an
corms are used to treat rheumatism. The corm annual), erect herb up to 2 m tall; root system ad-
juice is used in cases of baldness, piles, as a laxa- ventitious, fibrous and shallow; storage stem
tive, and as an antidote to insect stings. Stems (corm) massive (up to 4 kg), cylindrical or spheri-
COLOCASIA 131
(Schott) Hubb. & Rehder. In South-East Asia,

there are many taro cultivars.
Ecology Taro tolerates a wide range of environ-
ments and management systems. It grows well in
wetlands. Temperatures of 25-30°C and high hu-
midity favour growth. When grown as a rainfed
crop, best yields are obtained when rainfall is at
least 2000 mm/year and evenly distributed. Taro
is grown from sea-level up to 1200 m altitude in
Malaysia, 1800 m in the Philippines and even
2700 m in Papua New Guinea. It is shade tolerant
and often grown as an intercrop with tree crops.
Management Farmers propagate taro vegeta-
tively. Corm pieces, whole small corms, cormels
and stolons can be planted, but suckers and head-
sets (corm apex plus 15-30 cm attached petiole
bases) are usually preferred. Planting is done in
hand-dug holes or machine-made furrows or
ridges. Taro can be grown at densities of
4000-49 000 plants/ha. Weeding is most impor-
tant during the first 3-5 months after planting.
On soils that have been cropped several times,
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott - 1,plant habit; 2, taro responds well to fertilizer, either inorganic or
corm. animal manures. Crop duration usually varies
from 4-10 months for rainfed taro and 9-12
cal, up to 30 cm x 15 cm, usually brown, with lat- months for wetland taro. Harvesting is done by
eral buds located above leaf scars giving rise to hand. Yields for rainfed taro probably average
new cormels, suckers or stolons. Leaves arranged about 5t/ha, but 12.5-25 t/ha is common on fertile
spirally, rosulate, simple, peltate, consisting of soils. Yields in wetlands are higher and up to 75
long petiole (sometimes over 1 m) with distinct t/ha have been reported.
sheath, and large, heart-shaped blade up to 85 cm Genetic resources Germplasm collections of
x 60 cm, with rounded posterior lobes. Inflores- taro are maintained at the National University of
cence a spadix tipped by a sterile appendage, sur- Malaysia, the Philippine Root Crop Research &
rounded by a spathe and supported by a peduncle Training Center and the Bubia Research Station
that is much shorter than the petiole. Flowers in Papua New Guinea. Worldwide there are only a
unisexual, small, without perianth; male flowers few taro breeding programmes focusing on agro-
in upper part ofspadix, with stamens entirely con- nomic improvements.
nate; female flowers at base of spadix, with supe- Prospects Although taro is fairly commonly
rior, 1-celled ovary having an almost sessile stig- used in traditional medicine, little or no research
ma; male and female flowers separated by a band has been done on phytochemistry and pharmaco-
of sterile flowers. Fruit a many-seeded berry, logical properties. The good digestibility and non-
densely packed and forming a fruiting head. Seeds allergenic properties of taro make it an excellent
ovoid to ellipsoid, less than 2 mm long, with copi- substitute for bread and rice for persons sensitive
ous endosperm. for allergens from these products. However, some
Corms reach maximum weight after 10-11.5 reports on adverse effects oftaro warrant more re-
months when rainfed and 12-15 months when ir- search.
rigated, but are usually harvested before this Literature 162, 245, 597, 754, 837.
time. Other selected sources 121,347, 760.
Colocasia comprises 8 species from tropical Asia. Rosna Mat Taha
It is classified in the tribe Colocasieae, together
with e.g. Alocasia. There are 2 types of taro: the
dasheen type and eddoe type, the latter with bet-
ter developed cormels surrounding a smaller corm
and frequently classified as var. antiquorum
C o n n a r u s L. tion on the central nervous system of mice, rats

and guinea-pigs, and additionally analgesic and
Sp. pi. 2: 675 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 305 (1754). anticonvulsive activities.
CONNARACEAE Botany Lianas or shrubs to small trees. Leaves
x = unknown alternate, imparipinnate or trifoliolate, rarely uni-
Origin and geographic distribution Con- foliolate; stipules absent; leaflets opposite or not,
narus comprises approximately 80 species and oc- usually acuminate at apex, often glandular punc-
curs in all tropical areas: 7 species in Africa, about tate; stipels absent. Inflorescence an axillary pani-
20 in tropical Asia, 1 in Australia, 2 in Melanesia, cle, often appearing terminal and compound by a
and about 50 in tropical America. In the Malesian reduced development of the leaves. Flowers bisex-
region, 19 species have been recorded. ual, 5-merous, heterostylous; pedicel with a dis-
Uses Many different parts of Connarus plants tinct joint; sepals connate at base, often thick and
are used in South-East Asia. In traditional medi- fleshy, usually glandular punctate; petals free or
cine, roots are used internally to treat fever, slightly coherent, more or less pilose outside and
amenorrhoea and bubonic plague, and externally often glandular hairy inside, whitish to pinkish;
to treat itch. Bark is used to treat asthma, chest stamens 10, epipetalous ones shorter and often
complaints and stomach-ache, and leaves to treat rudimentary, filaments connate at base, longer
chest complaints, fever and as anthelmintic. In ones often with stipitate glands, anthers often
Peninsular Malaysia, the fruits of C. ferrugineus with glandular hairs at apex; ovary 1, superior, 1-
Jack have been used for killing dogs. The lianes- celled, style often pilose and with stipitate glands.
cent stems are used for binding. Young shoots of Fruit a follicle, opening lengthwise along the ven-
C. semidecandrus are occasionally eaten as a veg- tral suture, sometimes also along the dorsal su-
etable. The seed-oil of C. monocarpus is used in ture, usually stipitate and with a short mucro api-
soap production in India. cally, red when mature, 1-seeded. Seed attached
In Africa, C. africanus Lamk (which is related to to the ventral side of the follicle, ovoid or slightly
C. monocarpus) is used in traditional medicine. A kidney-shaped, testa shiny black with yellow and
hot decoction of the bark is used to wash ulcers, fleshy sarcotesta below the lateral hilum; cotyle-
powdered bark is applied to wounds, and root dons thick, planoconvex; endosperm absent.
bark serves as a taenicide. The sap from the Seedling with hypogeal germination; cotyledons
leaves is administered in the form ofnose drops in sessile, at most slightly spreading, testa persis-
cases of syncope; aphrodisiac properties have also tent; first leaves opposite and unifoliolate or scale-
been attributed to it. Dried and ground seeds are like.
taken as a purge and vermifuge. In tropical Amer- Connarus belongs to the tribe Connareae charac-
ica, Connarus is also considered useful in tradi- terized by a single carpel per flower, together with
tional medicine, e.g. the leaves of C. suberosus Ellipanthus, which always has 1-foliolate leaves.
Planchon are applied to treat malaria. Ecology Most Connarus species are lianas of
Properties The presence of myricetin, quer- the forest at low and medium altitudes (up to
cetin, kaempferol, delphinidin and cyanidin has 1100(-1400) m), but some can also be found in
been demonstrated in leaf extracts of C. semi- more open locations, even as a shrub in grass-
decandrus. In India, 1% rapanon, 1.5% bergenin land.
(an isocoumarin) and 1.3% leucopelargonidin (a Genetic resources The Connarus species
flavone diol) have been isolated from C. monocar- treated here have a wide distribution and ecologi-
pus roots. The hepatoprotective effects of bergenin cal amplitude, and are not at risk of genetic ero-
(isolated from Mallotus japonicus (Thunberg) sion. Several other species have a very limited dis-
Müll. Arg.) were evaluated against carbontetra- tribution in South-East Asia and may easily be-
chloride-induced liver damage in rats. The results come endangered, e.g. C. agamae Merr. and C. lu-
clearly indicated that bergenin has a potent pro- cens Schellenb. in northern Borneo, C. ferrugineus
tective activity. Jack in Peninsular Malaysia, C. lamii Leenh. in
In tests on mice in Indonesia, an ethanolic extract Irian Jaya, and C. schumannianus Gilg in Papua
ofC. grandis leaves showed depressant activity on New Guinea.
the central nervous system, and also dose-depen- Prospects Very little research has been con-
dent sympholitic, parasympathomimetic and mus- ducted on the chemistry and pharmacological
cle-relaxant activities. Extracts of C. suberosus properties of Connarus. However, the fact that
from South America also showed depressive ac- Connarus is used in traditional medicine in all
CONNARUS 133
tropical areas for similar complaints warrants

more research.
Literature 120,731.
Connarus grandis Jack

Mai. Misc. 2, 7:40 (1822).
Synonyms Connarus ellipticus King (1897).
Vernacular names Indonesia: akar mambu
(Sumatra), areuy ki caang, bangkongan (Sun-
danese). Malaysia: akar nyamok jantan, akar tu-
lang daeng padang, akar chinchin (Peninsular).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
western Java, Borneo and the Philippines.
Uses A decoction of the bark (probably of this
species) is used in southern Sumatra to treat asth-
ma and other chest complaints.
Observations A large liana up to 30 m long,
with stem up to 7.5 cm in diameter, rarely a shrub
or small tree up to 7 m tall, with bole up to 18 cm
in diameter; leaves with 3-5 leaflets, leaflets ob-
long-ovate to lanceolate-oblong, 5.5-27 cm x
3.5-12.5 cm, glabrous, more or less tripliveined;
petals 6-7 mm long, often glabrous; fruit obovoid,
5-7 cm long, with thick and woody pericarp, mu-
cro lateral. C. grandis occurs in primary, sec- Connarus monocarpus L. - 1, flowering twig; 2,
ondary and mossy forest, often in more open loca- flower; 3,fruiting twig; 4,fruit; 5, seed.
tions, up to 1400 m altitude.
Selected sources 51,121,247, 334. with stem up to 15 cm in diameter, rarely a shrub
or small tree; leaves with (3-)5-9 leaflets, leaflets
Connarus monocarpus L. ovate-elliptical to lanceolate, 4-14 cm x 2.5-7 cm,
Sp. pi. 2:675 (1753). glabrous; petals 6-10 mm long, on both sides
Synonyms Connarus oligophyllus Wallich ex densely but minutely tomentose; fruit obliquely
Planchon (1850). spindle-shaped to obliquely ellipsoid, 3-5 cm long,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ki carang areuy with thin and coriaceous pericarp, mucro apical.
(Sundanese), feu feuw (Sumatra), akar kunjal Two subspecies are distinguished: subsp. mono-
(Bangka). Malaysia: akar tulang daeng, lelemak, carpus from Sri Lanka and eastern India, and
merensa (Peninsular). Philippines: bago-bago subsp. malayanus Leenh. from the Malesian re-
(Panay Bisaya), ongali (Samar-Leyte Bisaya). gion. C. monocarpus occurs in primary and sec-
Thailand: thopthaep (Pattani). ondary forest, also in more open locations and on
Distribution Sri Lanka, eastern India, south- limestone rock, up to 600 m altitude.
ern Thailand and throughout Malesia except the Selected sources 121,247, 249,331.
Moluccas and New Guinea.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the Connarus semidecandrus Jack
bark is drunk to treat stomach-ache, and the Mai. Misc. 2, 7: 39 (1822).
pounded root is applied as a poultice to treat itch. Synonyms Connarus mutabilis Blume (1850),
In India, a decoction of the root is taken to cure Connarus neurocalyx Planchon (1850), Connarus
syphilis, and the fruits to treat eye diseases. In In- gibbosus Wallich ex Hook.f. (1876).
dia, a fatty oil is obtained from the seeds of C. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: akar kalat (Su-
monocarpus and used in soap production. The matra), simbo krah (Kalimantan), kunit wawakas
stems are used for binding purposes. imbolay (Sulawesi). Malaysia: akar nyamok, akar
Observations A large liana up to 40 m long, tulang daeng, akar membur (Peninsular). Philip-
pines: sandalino (Tagalog), kamot (Pampangan). Origin and geographic distribution C. su-
Cambodia: am pous, loum puos, loum pouh. Laos: matrensis originates from South America, but has
houn hai 1 , 'sop 'sêp (Vientiane). Thailand: at present a pantropical distribution. It has even
thopthaep khruea (central), khaang daeng (north- spread as a weed to more temperate areas, e.g. in
ern), maak song (peninsular). Vietnam: d[aa]y Europe.
l[oos]p b[oos]p. Uses In Java pounded C. sumatrensis root en-
Distribution The Andaman Islands, Burma ters into a compound prescription to treat lumba-
(Myanmar), Indo-China (Cambodia, Laos and go. A paste of ground leaves is applied as a poul-
southern Vietnam), Thailand, throughout Malesia tice on the forehead to soothe headache. In Penin-
(except eastern Java and several of the Lesser sular Malaysia leaves are used to treat rheuma-
Sunda Islands), Palau and the Solomon Islands. tism or lumbago. Aroot decoction may be taken as
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand, a a post-partum protective medicine. In Africa leaf
decoction of the leaves is used to treat chest-com- juice is applied in a poultice as febrifuge for small
plaints, and the roots to treat fever. Leaves and children, or simply rubbed on the body in adults.
stems possess laxative, anthelmintic and an- Leaf sap is used as a remedy for ophthalmia in the
tipyretic properties, and they are used in the form of nose or eye drops. Nasal drops are also
treatment of parasitic diseases in children. In the given in cases of vertigo and epilepsy. The leaves
Philippines, a decoction of the root is taken inter- are made into cigarettes to treat tuberculosis and
nally to treat amenorrhoea and as a uterine tonic. asthma. They may be used as a vegetable.
In Cambodia, the roots are used in the treatment Properties In a general screening experiment,
of bubonic plague. Young shoots are eaten as a the essential oil from C. sumatrensis leaves was
vegetable in Indo-China and the Moluccas. The markedly effective against Aspergillus niger even
stems are used for binding purposes. at low concentrations (1 (il/ml growth medium).
Observations A large liana, scandent or creep- Lachnophyllum lactone and osthol isolated from
ing shrub, or small tree, with stem up to 10 cm in C.sumatrensis exhibited repellent activity against
diameter; leaves with 3-7(-ll) leaflets, leaflets el- sea snails.
liptical to lanceolate, 4-25 cm x 2-9 cm, glabrous Botany A short-lived perennial, erect herb up to
or minutely pubescent below; petals 2.5-7 mm 350 cm tall, strongly branched in upper part.
long, outside glabrous except margins and apex, Leaves alternate, simple, oblanceolate to linear-
inside glandular pubescent; fruit obliquely pyri- oblanceolate, 3-12 cm x 0.3-3 cm, gradually taper-
form to semi-ellipsoid, 1.5-4 cm long, with thin ing at base, larger ones sparsely coarsely dentate-
and coriaceous pericarp, mucro apical or nearly serrate in the upper part, smaller ones often en-
apical. C. semidecandrus occurs in primary and tire, grey-hairy on both sides, sessile; stipules ab-
secondary forest, often in more open locations, but sent. Inflorescence a small cylindrical head 5-6
also in thickets in grassland, on dry as well as mm long, many together arranged in a long leafy
swampy soils, on granite as well as limestone, up panicle, many-flowered, shortly peduncled; involu-
to 1100 m altitude. cral bracts 3-seriate, linear, 2-5 mm long, erect,
Selected sources 121, 173, 247, 249, 250, 331, later patent, in fruit reflexed. Flowers all tubular,
760. c. 4 mm long; marginal flowers female, corolla
Wardah with 2-lobed apex, pale yellow to purplish, shortly
exserted from the involucre; disk flowers bisexual
or male, with narrowly funnel-shaped corolla
C o n y z a s u m a t r e n s i s (Retz.) E.H. widening into 5 lobes, pale yellow; stamens 5,
Walker forming a tube, exserted; ovary inferior, 1-celled,
style with 2 short, thick arms. Fruit a small, com-
Journ. Jap. Bot. 46: 72 (1971). pressed, ellipsoid achene 1.5-2 mm long, with nar-
COMPOSITAE rowed base and thickened margins, sparsely
2/i = unknown hairy; pappus hairs numerous, 1-2-seriate, 3-4
Synonyms Erigeron sumatrensis Retz. (1789), mm long, thin, toothed. Seedling with epigeal ger-
Erigeron linifolius auct. non Willd. mination; hypocotyl c. 1 mm long; cotyledons sub-
Vernacular n a m e s Fleabane (En). Indonesia: sessile, elliptical to ovate; epicotyl absent.
jalantir, monyenyen (Sundanese), sembung (Ja- C. sumatrensis can be found flowering and fruit-
vanese). Malaysia: chapa, sawi bulan, tembak- ing throughout the year. It has no seed dormancy,
tembak hutan. Vietnam: c[us]c voi. and the fruits are wind dispersed.
COPTOSAPELTA 135
Literature 120,121, 208, 334, 879.

Other selected sources 62,112, 667.
Coptosapelta tomentosa (Blume)

Valeton ex K. Heyne
Nutt. pi. Ned. Ind. ed. 2, 2: 1384 (1927).

RUBIACEAE
2ra= unknown
Synonyms Coptosapelta flavescens Korth.
(1851).
Vernacular names Indonesia: kertupai (Lam-
pung), akar metedong (Bangka). Malaysia: peruw-
al, prual (Peninsular). Laos: dok khat khao. Thai-
land: yaan khlong (peninsular). Vietnam: d[aa]y
v[af]ng hoan.
Origin and geographic distribution C. to-
mentosa is found from Burma (Myanmar) to Indo-
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
Bangka, Java and Borneo.
Uses For medicinal purposes, the roots of C. to-
mentosa are most important. In Peninsular Ma-
laysia, a decoction of the roots is taken to treat in-
testinal worms; a lotion or poultice is applied to
young children. A decoction of the roots is also
Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.H. Walker - 1, plant taken to treat colic, fever and ulceration of the
habit; 2, flower head; 3, marginal flower; 4, disk nose. An infusion, drunk cold, is used as a protec-
flower; 5, fruit. tive medicine after childbirth. The boiled, dried
and powdered roots are rubbed on the whole body
Conyza comprises about 60 species, and occurs against fever and rheumatism. In Sumatra, a cold
primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Sev- infusion of the roots is taken to treat intestinal
eral species are widespread weeds, e.g. C. bona- worms, and a poultice is applied against flatu-
riensis (L.) Cronq. and C.canadensis (L.) Cronq. lence or fever. In Vietnam, an ointment of the
Ecology C. sumatrensis occurs gregariously in roots is used to treat dropsy. It also has diuretic
sunny or slightly shaded, dry or moist localities on and detoxicating effects, and is used to treat fever,
a wide range ofsoils in regions with a weak or pro- beriberi and rheumatism. It also regulates men-
nounced dry season. It can be found in grassland, struation. The leaves are applied on wounds. In
roadsides, wasteland, fields, secondary forest, and Peninsular Malaysia, the bark seems to be used as
rubber and tea plantations, from sea-level up to dart poison for small game, but there is also men-
over 3000 m altitude. tion that it is possibly sometimes mistaken for a
Management In South-East Asia C. sumatren- Strychnos species.
sis is considered a not too harmful weed. It is rela- A decoction of roots and leaves of C. griffithii
tively easy to remove during the early stages of its Hook.f. from Peninsular Malaysia is taken to treat
development, but more difficult when the stem stomach-ache, colic and fever.
base has become woody. Properties Nothing is known about the chem-
Genetic resources C. sumatrensis is a pan- istry of C. tomentosa. An extract of the bark, in-
tropical weed, well adapted to disturbance and is jected into frogs, caused local paralysis of the
not threatened by genetic erosion. muscles, and large doses stopped the heart. In
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco- rabbits, however, no effects were observed. C.dif-
logical properties of C. sumatrensis. Further re- fusa (Champ, ex Benth.) v. Steenis contains the
search is needed to evaluate the potential of its triterpene thysanolactone.
traditional medicinal uses. Coptosapelta is an active aluminium accumulator,
a feature that occurs mainly in the primitive taxa plications of C. tomentosa in different parts of
of the Rubiaceae occurring in tropical forests with South-East Asia may be a startingpoint for re-
relatively high rainfall. search.
Botany Aliana up to 8 m long; branches at apex Literature 18,121, 216, 307.
densely yellowish-brown pubescent. Leaves oppo- Other selected sources 62, 334, 414, 731,789,
site, simple, ovate-oblong or oblong, 5-16 cm x 951.
2-7.5 cm, base rounded, apex acuminate, glabrous S. Brotonegoro
above, pubescent on veins beneath when young,
glossy; petiole 0.7-1.5 cm long, pubescent; stipules
interpetiolar, triangular, concave, 3-6 mm long, Coriaria intermedia Matsum.
with appressed long white hairs along margins.
Inflorescence a cyme, terminal and in upper leaf Bot. Mag. Tokyo, Bot. Soc. 12:62 (1898).
axils, united into a terminal, drooping, pubescent CORIARIACEAE
panicle 8-35 cm long. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, 2w=40
white, gradually turning orange-yellow, fragrant; Synonyms Coriaria japonica A. Gray subsp. in-
calyx tube campanulate, pubescent, lobes obtuse, termedia (Matsum.) T.C. Huang (1992).
1.5-2 mm long, ciliate; corolla tube narrow, 5-8 Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: baket, buakat,
mm long, appressed hairy outside, lobes contorted bikit (Igorot).
in bud, 8-11 mm x 2 mm; stamens 5, inserted in Origin and geographic distribution Taiwan
the throat of the corolla, filaments 1.5 mm long, and the Philippines (northern Luzon).
anthers linear, c. 10 mm long, slender, sagittate, Uses C. intermedia is used in Taiwan to treat
pilose, exserted; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style fili- gastro-intestinal disorders, rheumatism and can-
form, shorter than corolla lobes, upper part thick- cer of the uterus. In the Philippines, a decoction of
ened, hairy, green, entire. Fruit a 2-celled capsule, the leaves and fruits is considered deadly poiso-
compressed globose, 1-1.5 cm long, glabrous, yel- nous. Other Coriaria species are also used medici-
low, loculicidally 2-valved, many-seeded. Seeds nally, e.g. C. papuana Warb, as an emetic in
small, radiatingly ribbed, winged all around, wing Papua New Guinea, and C. myrtifolia L., which is
divided into narrow lobes. sometimes used in southern Europe as an intesti-
C. tomentosa flowers in Java from December- nal astringent and for the preparation of astrin-
March, and in Indo-China flowering is in Septem- gent compresses. However, caution is required
ber, and fruiting in March. The flowers are pro- when using Coriaria as a medicinal plant, because
trandrous; already in bud, the pollen is found on ofthe presence oftoxic principles.
the style and in opened flowers the anthers are Coriaria species have been used in various regions
empty. of the world for tanning and dyeing blackish. Sev-
The small Indo-Asiatic genus Coptosapelta com- eral of them possess root nodules with atmospher-
prises 4-6 species. The monotypic genus Thysano- ic nitrogen-fixing properties and may be useful in
spermum Champ, ex Benth. from southern China, planting programmes for erosion control.
Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands is reduced to Cop- Properties C. intermedia and many other Cori-
tosapelta. The species C. diffusa (synonym: Thy- aria species contain bitter, toxic lactones and pro-
sanospermum diffusum Champ, ex Benth.) does duce large amounts of ellagitannins. The toxic
not occur in Malesia. principles are picrotaxan-type sesquiterpenes
Ecology C. tomentosa occurs in secondary for- such as coriamyrtin, corianin, coriatin and tutin.
est, brushwood and along forest margins, climbing These have convulsive, insecticidal and ichthy-
to tops of trees, in Java from sea-level up to 550 m otoxic activities. Coriamyrtin, which is present in
altitude. It is rare but can be locally abundant. C. intermedia fruits (up to almost 0.2%), is a bul-
Management In Vietnam, the roots and stems bar and medullar stimulant. Symptoms of intoxi-
of C. tomentosa are harvested throughout the cation include epileptiform convulsions, myosis
year. They are mainly used fresh. and dyspnoea; a coma might follow, as well as
Genetic resources and breeding There is death by respiratory or cardiac arrest. In China, a
possibly some danger of genetic erosion, because mixture of the crystalline sesquiterpenes, includ-
C. tomentosa is harvested from natural popula- ing coriamyrtin and tutin, has been used by mus-
tions only, and, moreover, it is uncommon. There cle injection for the treatment of catatonia; it is
are no known breeding programmes. applied as a shock therapy for schizophrenia. Gly-
Prospects The rather numerous medicinal ap- cosides of the flavonols kaempferol and quercetin
CORYMBORKIS 137
were present in all Coriaria species investigated. enclosed by the fleshy-accrescent petals, up to 5
The seeds contain much fatty oil, coriolic acid be- mm in diameter. Seeds one per achene, com-
ing the main fatty acid. Honey produced from Co- pressed.
riaria may be toxic, as reported from New When plants start flowering, the first inflores-
Zealand. cences consist of male flowers, followed by
Leaves of C.japonica are known to show antitu- racemes of female flowers, which again overlap
mour and antiviral properties. slightly with a second phase of male ones. The
Botany A shrub up to 3 m tall; roots forming flowers with exerted stamens and styles are
nodules. Leaves decussately opposite, simple and adapted to wind pollination. The fleshy pseudo-
entire, oblong to slightly ovate, (3-)5-7 cm x fruits are probably dispersed by birds.
1.5-2.5 cm, cuneate at base, acute at apex, Coriaria comprises about 20 species with a much
glabrous, 3-veined; petiole c. 2 mm long; stipules interrupted distribution: the West-Mediterranean
absent, but near the leaf axils numerous minute region of Europe and northern Africa, the Hi-
emergentia often present. Inflorescence consisting malayas, eastern Asia, New Zealand, and western
of subaxillary fascicles of 1-3 racemes 4-10 cm South America and Central America. In Malesia,
long, with ovate bracts up to 5 mm long. Flowers 2 species are found: C. intermedia in the Philip-
bisexual or unisexual, regular, 5-merous, yellow- pines, and C. papuana in Papua New Guinea. C.
ish-green; pedicel 2-7 mm long; sepals free, broad- intermedia is closely allied to C.japonica A. Gray
ly ovate, c. 3 mm long, persistent; petals free, and is even considered by some authors to be con-
shorter than sepals, accrescent and becoming specific.
fleshy; stamens 10; carpels 5, free, 1-celled, each Ecology C. intermedia occurs in thickets, open
with a papillose style. Fruit (pseudo-fruit) consist- forest, on sunny and stony slopes, and often in dry
ing of laterally compressed achenes, more or less riverbeds and watercourses, in the Philippines in
the mountains at 1400-2400 m altitude. In gener-
al, Coriaria species are often pioneer plants, grow-
ing gregariously in exposed locations.
Management Experiments with C. nepalensis
Wallich in India showed that propagation by cut-
tings is possible, but with a maximum rooting suc-
cess ofonly 40%when using growth promotors.
Genetic resources Although C. intermedia has
a limited distribution, its pioneer character would
seem to protect it sufficiently against threats.
Prospects The possibilities for using C. inter-
media as a medicinal plant seem to be limited due
to its toxicity. However, some interesting proper-
ties found in Coriaria species warrant more re-
search, such as the antitumour and antiviral
properties ofthe leaves.
Literature 142, 247, 760, 929.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.)

Blume
Coll. Orchid.: 125, pi. 42 fig. E, pi. 43 fig. 1

(1859).
ORCHIDACEAE
2n =40, 58
Coriaria intermedia Matsum. - 1,fruiting branch; Synonyms Corymborkis longiflora (Hook.f.) O.
2, male flower; 3, female flower; 4, fruit; 5, fruit in Kuntze(1891).
cross section. Vernacular names Malaysia: lelumbah paya,
kayu hok (Peninsular). Thailand: klon duu (Surat cles; rostellum erect, bifid at apex; clinandrium
Thani), waan haang hanumaan (Yala), lek naang ovate, marginate; anther ovate, with 2 pollinia on
yong (Pattani). Vietnam: d[ij]a Ian l[as] d[uwf]a, long slender caudicle, attached to a peltate viscidi-
t[ar]n Ian. um; ovary inferior, cylindrical, stigma with 2 re-
Origin and geographic distribution C. vera- curved deltoid sidelobes. Fruit a capsule up to 4
trifolia is widely distributed in tropical Asia, from cm long, strongly 6-ribbed, crowned by the rem-
India, Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands, nants of perianth and column, containing numer-
through Indo-China, Thailand and the whole of ous seeds.
Malesia (except the eastern Lesser Sunda Is- C. veratrifolia can be found flowering throughout
lands), to some islands of southern Japan, some of the year, but in regions with a distinct rainy sea-
the Caroline Islands, the Solomon Islands, the son flowering can be limited to this period. The
Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Samoa and to flowers are pollinated by hawk moths, as has been
Australia (Cape York Peninsula). observed in Java.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the juice of fresh Corymborkis is a small genus of 6 species, and is
leaves is used to cause vomiting as a means of pantropical in distribution: 3 species in tropical
breaking fever, especially in children; the plant is America, 2 in tropical Africa, and 1 in tropical
even commonly cultivated for this purpose. Asia. It is placed in the subtribe Tropidiinae, and
In Africa, C. corymbis Thouars is used in tradi- is related to Tropidia, which differs in the often
tional medicine: an infusion of the leaves and a branched stems, terminal inflorescences, spurred
decoction ofthe roots are taken as a purge. or saccate labellum and shorter column. C. vera-
C. veratrifolia is occasionally cultivated, e.g. in Ja- trifolia is a variable species, especially in the size
va, and it has been recorded there as being often of the floral parts. Var. lauterbachii (Schlechter)
found on old graves, perhaps indicating ritual us- F.N. Rasm. is distinguished from var. veratrifolia
es. by narrower leaves and is endemic to New
Properties The freshly gathered roots have a Guinea.
strong odour of stale urine. C. veratrifolia has Ecology C. veratrifolia prefers shaded and
been found alkaloid positive, but in small concen- moist localities on the floor of evergreen forest,
tration. It is one of the very few plants that sur- from sea-level up to 2000 m altitude. It has also
vive in large numbers on the forest floor on been recorded from secondary forest. It is locally
Christmas Island, where plants are subject to common, sometimes even abundant (e.g. on
heavy prédation by red land crabs. This may be Christmas Island), but usually occurs scattered in
due to the presence of alkaloids. small clumps.
Botany A small to large terrestrial herb 40-310 Genetic resources C. veratrifolia has a very
cm tall, with short, sympodially branching rhi- large area of distribution and does not seem to be
zome, creeping subterraneously; roots fasciculate endangered. Breeding activities are not known to
and wiry; stems often several from one rhizome, exist.
erect, unbranched, leafy. Leaves distichous, but Prospects As far as is known, C. veratrifolia
often apparently arranged spirally, the lowermost has never been subject to detailed phytochemical
without blades, narrowly elliptical or narrowly investigations or to testing for pharmacological
ovate, 15-50(-110) cm x 3-14(-18) cm, plicate with properties. Research seems worthwhile judging
6-11 main veins, tapering at base into sheathing from the uses in traditional medicine in South-
base, acute or acuminate at apex; petiole absent or East Asia and from medicinal applications of a re-
very short. Inflorescence an erect to drooping axil- lated species in Africa. C. veratrifolia has been
lary panicle up to 15 cm long, with 2-9 branches, recommended for cultivation as an ornamental,
up to 70-flowered, with distichously arranged suitable for shaded spots in tropical gardens.
flowers. Flowers bisexual, 3-merous, white to Literature 121,222,771.
greenish-white, fragrant; pedicel short, twisted; Other selected sources 62,120, 731.
sepals linear-spatulate to narrowly oblong-spatu- R.E. Nasution
late, 1.5-5.5 cm long, about equal in length; petals
obliquely linear-spatulate to obliquely obovate,
about as long as sepals, labellum spatulate, 1.5-5
cm long, with 2 longitudinal keels embranching
the column, and a reflexed apical lamina; column
slender and straight, with 2 terminal lateral auri-
COSCINIUM 139
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertner) birth. A 50% ethanol extract of stem material

Colebr. showed a dose-related hypotensive action in
anaesthetized dogs, rats and guinea-pigs.
Trans. Linn. Soc. 13:65 (1821). Many alkaloids, mainly of the protoberberine
MENISPERMACEAE type, have been isolated from stems and roots of
2n =unknown C. fenestratum, e.g. magnoflorine, berberrubine,
Synonyms Coscinium wallichianum Miers thalifendine, berberine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine
(1871), Coscinium usitatum Pierre (1885), Cos- and oxyberberine. The major alkaloids are berber-
cinium blumeanum auct. non Miers ex Hook.f. & ine and jatrorrhizine. The pharmacological effects
Thomson. of berberine have been fairly well investigated. It
Vernacular names Indonesia: akar kuning has been found active against a number of gram-
(Java), akar kunyit (Bangka), upak-upak (East positive as well as gram-negative bacteria, and al-
Kalimantan). Malaysia: kunyit-kunyit babi (Pe- so against a number of fungi. It was also effective
ninsular), abang asuh (Sabah), perawan (Sara- against experimentally induced intestinal amoebi-
wak). Thailand: khruea hen (north-eastern), asis in rats, and showed growth inhibition of
khamin khruea (south-eastern). Vietnam: v[af]ng Ehrlich and lymphoma ascites tumour cells. The
d[aws]ng, ho[af]ng d[awf]ng, d[awf]ng giang. antidiarrhoeal properties of berberine may be me-
Origin a n d geographic distribution C. fenes- diated, at least in part, by its ability to delay small
tratum has been found in southern India, Sri Lan- intestinal transit time. Berberine is also present
ka, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand (rare), Peninsu- in high concentrations in other Menispermaceae
lar Malaysia, Sumatra, Bangka, western Java and species, e.g. inArcangelisia flava (L.) Merr., which
Borneo. is used for similar complaints as C. fenestratum.
U s e s The roots of C. fenestratum have alleged Botany A dioecious liana up to c. 10 m long,
antiseptic properties and are commonly used to with yellow wood and sap. Leaves arranged spi-
dress wounds, burns and ulcers, e.g. in Peninsular rally, simple, broadly ovate or ovate, rarely sub-
Malaysia. In India and Indo-China, an infusion of panduriform, 11-33 cm x 8-23 cm, base rounded,
the root and wood of the stem is used against
fever, as a stomachic, and to treat dysentery,
jaundice and eye inflammations. It has also been
applied in a complex decoction after childbirth in
Peninsular Malaysia. In India, C. fenestratum is
traditionally used as a prophylactic against te-
tanus. The roots have been sold as a substitute for
'Radix Calumba' (the roots of Jateorhiza palmata
(Lamk) Miers, a liana of the same family originat-
ing from Africa and containing similar alkaloids).
In Vietnam, tablets made from crude alcoholic C.
fenestratum extracts are prescribed to cure dysen-
tery.
The roots and bark are also used as piscicide and
as an ingredient of dart poison. The tubers are re-
putedly eaten. The wood produces a yellow dye,
which has been much used in Cambodia and, to a
lesser extent, elsewhere.
Properties Pharmacological screening of an
aqueous methanol (1:1) extract showed convulsant
activity, but no antitumour activity. An aqueous
extract of C. fenestratum revealed selective in-
hibitory action on Clostridium tetani, with the al-
kaloid berberine as the active constituent. In clini-
cal tests in Vietnam, the extract also showed dis-
tinct activity on Staphylococcus aureus and Strep- Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertner) Colebr. - 1, part
tococcus hemolyticus, which may cause inflamma- of male flowering stem; 2, male flower; 3, stamens;
tion and infection especially in women after child- 4, infructescence.
truncate to shallowly cordate, apex acuminate, C.fenestratum is considered an important medici-

palmately 5-7-veined; petiole 3-16 cm long, often nal plant. The alkaloids of the berberine class
conspicuously swollen at both ends, geniculate at have several pharmacologically interesting activi-
base, inserted up to 0.8(-2.7) cm from basal mar- ties and are generally considered safe at doses
gin ofleaf blade (and leaf thus often peltate); stip- used in clinical situations. Large-scale production
ules absent. Inflorescence a globose head 6-7 mm of alkaloids from C. fenestratum seems possible
in diameter on a peduncle 10-30 mm long, ar- through tissue culture, and this might also lower
ranged in a raceme 5-11 cm long, supra-axillary the pressure on wild populations ofthe species.
or on older, leafless stems, brown tomentose. Literature 247, 660, 862,871.
Flowers unisexual, small, yellowish or whitish; Other selected sources 62, 121,249, 334, 592,
sepals 9, in 3 whorls, imbricate, densely sericeous- 671,717,731,906.
pilose; petals absent; male flowers with 6 sta- Andria Agusta
mens, outer 3 free, inner 3 connate; female flowers
with 6 staminodes and 3 superior, densely pilose
carpels. Fruit consisting of 1-3 subglobose drupes Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.)
c. 3 cm in diameter, brown to orange or yellowish, S. Moore
drupe 1-seeded. Seed subglobose, whitish, with di-
varicate, much folded and divided cotyledons; en- Journ. Bot. 50:211(1912).
dosperm present. COMPOSITAE
It has been observed that the fruits are dispersed 2n =40
by orang-utans, gibbons and macaques, which eat Synonyms Gynura crepidioides Benth. (1849).
the fruits. Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: thick
Coscinium comprises 2 species: the widely distrib- head (Pidgin), marago beja (Kaluli, Southern
uted C. fenestratum and C. blumeanum Miers ex Highlands), yogobikabika (Bwaidoga, Goodenough
Hook,f. & Thomson, which has a very restricted Island, Milne Bay). Thailand: phakphet chaang
distribution (peninsular Thailand, and Penang (Mae Hong Son), yaa kho on (Chiang Mai),
and Pangkor Island of Peninsular Malaysia). The phakhaan (Loei).Vietnam: rau t[aaf]u bay.
name C. blumeanum has often been wrongly ap- Origin and geographic distribution C. cre-
plied to C. fenestratum, and the uses reported in pidioides originates from Africa and Madagascar,
the literature for C. blumeanum probably refer to but is now naturalized throughout tropical and
C. fenestratum. subtropical Asia, Australia, the New Hebrides, Fi-
Ecology C. fenestratum occurs in primary low- ji, Tonga and Samoa. It was found near Medan
land forest, sometimes also in brushwood, up to (northern Sumatra) in 1926,was introduced in Ja-
200 m altitude. va, and subsequently spread throughout Indone-
Management Callus and cell suspension cul- sia. It is now found throughout South-East Asia.
tures have been established from sterile petiole Uses In Papua New Guinea C. crepidioides
segments on Murashige and Skoog medium, sup- leaves are used externally to treat sores and irri-
plemented with 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid tation of the penis. The leaves are considered
and benzyl amino purine. The cultured cells pro- mildly stomachic in Africa, and are applied to
duced berberine as the major compound. The pres- treat indigestion, colic and flatulence. In Africa
ence of light inhibited the growth and enhanced the leaves are also used as an analgesic to treat
the berberine synthesis. headache and epilepsy, whereas powdered leaves
Genetic resources C. fenestratum is fairly are administered as a snuff to stop nosebleeds and
widely distributed, and is locally common (e.g. in smoked to treat sleeping sickness.
Peninsular Malaysia and southern Vietnam), but Young plants are used as a vegetable in Vietnam
elsewhere rare (e.g. in Thailand and Java). Wild and Japan, and in Africa the mucilaginous leaves
populations of C. fenestratum have been impor- are eaten in soups and sauces, and with ground-
tant in Vietnam for berberine extraction to pro- nuts. The plants are readily eaten by livestock,
duce drugs since the beginning of the 1980s. They and they are considered a useful green fodder for
have been under heavy pressure since then, and poultry. C. crepidioides has been used successfully
should be protected from excessive exploitation. In as a trap plant to collect adult corm weevils in ba-
India and Sri Lanka, C. fenestratum has already nana plantations.
been listed as an endangered species. Some other Crassocephalum species are used in
Prospects Like other Menispermaceae species, traditional medicine in Africa, e.g. C. rubens
CRASSOCEPHALUM 141
(Juss. ex Jacq.) S. Moore internally as a stomachic drical, 13-16 mm x 5-6 mm, nodding during an-
and to treat liver complaints and colds, and exter- thesis, afterwards erect, many-flowered; inner in-
nally to treat burns, sore eyes, earache and breast volucral bracts 1-2-seriate, initially coherent,
cancer, and C. vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore to lanceolate, 8-12 mm long, pellucid-marginate,
treat infected eyes, gonorrhoea and suppurations, outer involucral bracts linear, unequal, 1-4 mm
and as a galactagogue. long; hypanthium flat, epaleate. Flowers bisexual,
Properties C. crepidioides extracts showed equal; corolla tubular, 9-11 mm long, yellow with
moderate antimutagenic activity in Salmonella ty- reddish-brown top, tube long and slender, limb
phimurium TA98 and TA100. The roots have been short, 5-fid; anthers 5, united, purplish; ovary in-
reported to contain tannin. The pyrrolizidine alka- ferior, 1-celled, style bifid, arms long, having api-
loids jacobine and jacoline were isolated from the cal appendages. Fruit a cylindrical-linear, ribbed
aerial parts of Japanese C. crepidioides; jacobine achene c. 2 mm long, crowned by numerous white,
proved to be hepatotoxic. minutely toothed, caducous pappus hairs 9-12
Botany An erect, sparingly branched annual mm long. Seedling with epigeal germination;
herb up to 100 cm tall; stem rather stout, soft, hypocotyl long, up to 2 cm long; cotyledons broad-
ribbed, branches pubescent. Leaves arranged spi- ovate, glabrous, shortly petiolate.
rally, elliptical, oblong or obovate-elliptical in The fruits with the long pappus are dispersed by
outline, 8-18 cm x 2-5.5 cm, pinnately lobed or wind over long distances. In Indonesia C. crepi-
pinnatifid, irregularly serrate, base tapered and dioides is often confused with Erechtites valeriani-
often long-decurrent into the petiole, upper leaves folia (Wolf) DC.
sessile; stipules absent. Inflorescence a head ar- Ecology C. crepidioides occurs as a weed on
ranged in terminal, rather small corymbs, cylin- arable land, riversides, roadsides, tea, coffee, cin-
chona, sweet potato, taro and citrus plantations,
and in upland rice fields, particularly in wetter lo-
calities, at 200-2500 m altitude. It may also be a
dominant pioneer species in shifting cultivation
sites that have been recently burned.
Management C. crepidioides is usually a weed
of minor importance that can be easily eradicated.
However, in young tea plantations it may become
a serious weed. Paraquat is often used to control
C. crepidioides as a weed, but resistance to this
herbicide has developed in several South-East
Asian countries.
Under experimental conditions, seeds stored un-
der dry conditions still germinated after 20
months, but after 22 months of dry storage they
began to lose their viability.
Genetic resources C. crepidioides is certainly
not endangered. On the contrary, it has recently
become a widespread weed of the Old World trop-
ics, and it is still extending its area of distribution.
Prospects The fact that Crassocephalum spec-
ies are used in traditional medicine in different
parts of the world, often for comparable com-
plaints such as stomach troubles, justifies more
research. Research on the safe use as a vegetable
is desirable since pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which
are hepatotoxic or even carcinogenic, are present.
Literature 52, 347.
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore - Other selected sources 120, 879, 1033.
1, upper part of flowering and fruiting plant; 2, R.H.M.J. Lemmens
flower; 3, fruit with pappus; 4, fruit without pap-
pus.
Crocosmia xcrocosmiiflora (Lemoine slightly zigzag branched; peduncle 25-50(-125) cm

e x E. Morren) N.E.Br. long, 2-3-ribbed; bracts up to 1 cm long, reddish.
Flowers bisexual, slightly zygomorphic, 3-merous;
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Africa 20: 264 ('crocosmiae- perianth funnel shaped, tube 1-1.5 cm long, slight-
flora', 1932). ly curved, with 6 widely spreading lanceolate to
IRIDACEAE oblong segments 1.5-2.5 cm long in 2 whorls,
2n = 22 orange or reddish-orange, often red-blotched; sta-
S y n o n y m s Montbretia xcrocosmiiflora Lemoine mens 3, inserted near the mouth of the perianth
ex E. Morren (1881), Tritonia crocosmiiflora G. tube opposite the outer tepals, widely exserted;
Nicholson (1887). ovary inferior, 3-celled, style 3-3.5 cm long, 3-
V e r n a c u l a r n a m e s Garden montbretia, au- branched at apex, branches often shortly forked.
tumn gold (En). Papua New Guinea: etaetava Fruit an ellipsoid-obovoid, deeply 3-lobed capsule
(Central Province). Vietnam: ngh[eej] h[uw]- up to 7 mm x 9 mm, usually without viable seeds.
[ow]ng. C. xcrocosmiiflora rarely sets seed and spreads
O r i g i n a n d g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n C. xcro- mainly by its stolons and corms.
cosmiiflora developed as a hybrid between C. au- Crocosmia comprises 9 species and is restricted to
rea (Pappe ex Hook.) Planchon and C. pottsii southern Africa and Madagascar. It is closely re-
(M'Nab ex Baker) N.E.Br, in 1880 in France and lated to Tritonia and Chasmanthe. C. xcrocosmi-
became a popular garden plant. In South-East iflora has characters intermediate between its two
Asia it is also frequently cultivated as an orna- parent species (C. aurea and C.pottsii). However,
mental, usually in mountainous regions, e.g. in sometimes cultivated plants closely resemble one
Java. Escapes from gardens occur worldwide, also of the parents, although they may also differ con-
in South-East Asia, e.g. in Peninsular Malaysia, siderably from both. It would be better to consider
Sumatra, Flores and New Guinea. C. xcrocosmiiflora as a cultivar group.
Uses In Papua New Guinea crushed leaves are Ecology C. xcrocosmiiflora prefers damp habi-
inhaled to free the nasal passage when blocked tats. In Malesia it can be found as a garden escape
due to a head cold. In East Africa leaf-sap and a in open forest, moist grassland, roadsides and on
decoction of the corms are drunk to treat malaria waste ground, at 250-3500 m altitude, and it can
and arthritic rheumatism. C. xcrocosmiiflora is an be locally abundant. Under favourable conditions
important garden ornamental, and cultivated it may form large clumps. It is hardy to frost, and
globally for this purpose. The flowers yield a yel- can stand temperatures as low as -15°C. C. xcro-
low dye, which is sometimes used as a substitute cosmiiflora is grown in well-drained but moisture-
for saffron (Crocus sativus L.). retentive soils enriched with organic matter.
P r o p e r t i e s The naphthazarin derivatives tri- M a n a g e m e n t C. xcrocosmiiflora can be propa-
crozarin A and B have been isolated from C. xcro- gated by division of established clumps, but spo-
cosmiiflora corms. Tricrozarin A showed antimi- radically also by seed sown fresh into a loam-
crobial activity against gram-positive bacteria, based propagating mix with additional sharp grit.
fungi and yeasts, and tricrozarin B displayed G e n e t i c r e s o u r c e s C. xcrocosmiiflora is com-
marked antitumour activity against HeLa S3 cells monly cultivated in many regions of the world.
in vitro. The genetic diversity of these cultivated plants is
A series of acylated saponins, masonosides A-C, unknown, but it is a variable hybrid forming the
have been isolated from corms of C. masonorum basis for a wide range of selections. In southern
(L. Bolus) N.E.Br., together with two desacylma- Africa 3 species, amongst which the parents of C.
sonosides and desacylcrocosmioside A. xcrocosmiiflora, have a wide distribution range,
B o t a n y A herb up to 50(-125) cm tall, with de- but the others are local endemics.
pressed-globose to ovoid corms 1.5-2.5 cm in diam- P r o s p e c t s C. xcrocosmiiflora will remain im-
eter, having brown membranous tunics, often in portant as an ornamental. Its possible applica-
groups of 2-3 or connected by slender stolons. tions as a medicinal plant merit further research
Leaves basal and cauline, distichously alternate, because it has shown interesting pharmacological
simple, basal leaves linear-lanceolate to ensiform, properties, e.g. antimicrobial and antitumour ac-
30-75 cm x 1-2.5 cm, acute, veins numerous and tivities, and it is easy to cultivate.
parallel, middle vein prominent, cauline leaves L i t e r a t u r e 347, 601, 602, 962.
few, smaller than basal ones, sheathing at base. O t h e r s e l e c t e d s o u r c e s 120, 204.
Inflorescence a large, laxly branched panicle, R.P. Escobin
CRYPTOCORYNE 143
C r o s s o s t e p h i u m c h i n e n s e (L.) M a k i n o species formerly included in this genus are now

usually considered to belong to Artemisia. Cros-
Bot. Mag. Tokyo 20:33 (1906). sostephium differs from Artemisia in its larger
COMPOSITAE heads, stamens with larger appendages and scaly
2/1 = 18 pappus.
Synonyms Artemisia chinensis L. (1753), Cros- Ecology C. chinense occurs in coastal areas, of-
sostephium artemisioides Less. (1831). ten in pitted surfaces on limestone or raised coral
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: ajenjo (Sp, Ta- formations, also in coastal forest.
galog).Vietnam: nguy[eej]t b[aj]ch, c[us]c m[oos]c. Management Propagation by softwood or semi-
Origin and geographic distribution C. chi- ripe cuttings is possible as practised for the com-
nense occurs in southern China, the Ryukyu Is- monly cultivated shrubbyArtemisia species.
lands, Taiwan and the Philippines (Batan Is- Genetic resources C. chinense is often culti-
lands). It is cultivated in Vietnam, China and the vated and may thus be protected against genetic
Philippines (often in flower pots), and also for or- erosion. However, the genetic diversity of neither
namental or medicinal purposes in Java, where it cultivated nor wild plants is known.
was already present around 1740. Prospects Very little is known about C. chi-
Uses In the Philippines, an infusion of the nense, but the medicinal properties and uses indi-
leaves and branch tips is considered carminative cated seem tojustify more research.
and useful as an emmenagogue. In Vietnam and Literature 62, 671, 760, 818.
China, an infusion of the leaves (usually sweet- Other selected sources 117, 544, 974.
ened) is used in traditional medicine to treat con- R.H.M.J. Lemmens
gestions, cough and irregularity of the menstrual
cycle. The leaves are also used as a carminative
and emmenagogue in Thailand. C r y p t o c o r y n e c o r d a t a Griffith
Properties The triterpenes taraxerol, taraxeryl
acetate and taraxerone have been isolated from C. Not. pi. asiat. 3: 138 (1851).
chinense. Anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammato- ARACEAE
ry activities have been reported in tests with mice 2n =34, 68, 102
for the triterpene alcohol taraxerol, isolated from Synonyms Cryptocoryne siamensis Gagnep.
Compositae and some other plant species. (1941), Cryptocoryne blassii de Wit (1960).
Botany A small aromatic shrub up to 30 cm tall, Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: hati-hati paya,
much branched often with spreading branches keladi paya (Peninsular). Thailand: waa nam
leafless below, densely leafy near apex. Leaves al- (Surat Thani), u-bee kaling-ai (Malay, Narathi-
ternate, narrowly spatulate or oblanceolate, 2-5 wat).
cm x 0.2-1.2(-2) cm, fleshy, entire or 3-lobate, Origin and geographic distribution C. cor-
long-tapering at base into petiole, hairy on both data occurs in southern Thailand and Peninsular
surfaces; stipules absent. Inflorescence a shortly Malaysia.
peduncled head c. 7 mm broad, racemosely ar- U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are ap-
ranged in the axils of reduced leaves towards the plied to the head to treat vertigo. C. cordata is a
apex of branches, involucre hemispherical, 3-seri- well-known aquarium plant.
ate, outer bracts densely tomentose. Flowers all Rhizomes of C. spiralis (Retz.) Fisch, ex Wydler
with tubular corolla c. 1.5 mm long, yellowish, are used, in combination with other medicinal
glandular; ray flowers pistillate, 1-3-seriate, with plants, in traditional medicine in Sri Lanka, as a
2-4-dentate corolla; disk flowers numerous, bisex- remedy for vomiting and cough, and to treat fever
ual, with 5-lobed corolla; stamens 5, anthers con- and abdominal complaints.
nate, with large appendages at apex; ovary inferi- Properties There is no information on the phy-
or, 1-celled, style shortly bifid. Fruit an ovoid-ob- tochemistry of C. cordata, but the flavones lute-
long achene, c. 1.5 mm long, 5-angular, glandular, olin and chrysoeriol have been recorded for C.
truncate at apex with short irregular paleaceous wendtii de Wit, and lipids such as sitosterin, hen-
pappus c. 0.5 mm long. triacontan and oxoacids for C.spiralis rhizomes.
When cultivated in Java, fruits do not develop, Botany A small, aquatic, perennial herb up to
but the plants may flower throughout the year. 40 cm tall, with creeping rhizome. Leaves in a
Crossostephium belongs to the tribe Anthemideae rosette, simple and entire, ovate to narrowly
and consists of a single species. Some American ovate, 5-30 cm x 2.5-10 cm, rounded to cordate at
Cryptocoryne comprises about 50 species and oc-

curs throughout tropical Asia, including the whole
Malesian region. It belongs to the tribe Cryptoco-
ryneae, together with Lagenandra, which also
comprises aquatic herbs, differing in its spirally
arranged female flowers and its free fruits. A few
species closely related to C. cordata (or perhaps
conspecific) occur in Borneo.
Ecology C.cordata occurs in streams in forest.
Management Plants can be propagated by rhi-
zome division. In-vitro propagation techniques are
being practised for mass production of aquarium
plants. C. cordata can easily be cultivated in an
aquarium; it prefers moderate light and a temper-
ature of 20-28°C.
Genetic resources Many Cryptocoryne species,
including C. cordata, have limited distribution ar-
eas, and are therefore liable to genetic erosion.
They are vulnerable to exploitation and demoli-
tion offorest, resulting in strong erosion and rush-
ing, muddy water in streams, which may cause a
total washout of aquatic plants and prohibit the
establishment ofnew populations. Moreover, more
sunlight facilitates dramatic changes in the vege-
tation, further enforced by an abundant supply of
washed-in nutrients. Collecting for commercial
Cryptocoryne cordata Griffith - 1, plant habit; 2, aquarium use may locally endanger Cryptocoryne
spatha; 3, opened basal part of spatha showing species.
spadix. Prospects It is unlikely that the use of C. cor-
data in medicine will increase. It will remain im-
base, acute at apex, often more or less bullate, portant as an aquarium plant.
dark green above, often purplish below; petiole Literature 121,207.
15-40 cm long, with sheath at base. Inflorescence Other selected sources 181,331,611,789.
a spadix with few female flowers in a single whorl R.H.M.J. Lemmens
and few olfactory bodies at base, and with numer-
ous male flowers and a club-shaped appendix at
apex, female and male flowers separated by a Cuscuta australis R.Br.
long, naked axis; spadix completely enclosed by a
spathe up to 35 cm long, consisting of a swollen Prodr.: 491 (1810).
basal part ('kettle'), a long-tubular middle part CONVOLVTJLACEAE
and a spreading, yellowish to purplish blade up to 2re= unknown
6 cm long, entrance of kettle with a lateral flap Synonyms Cuscuta hygrophilae Pearson (1901).
covering the male zone ofthe spadix. Flowers uni- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: majamuju, ja-
sexual, without perianth; male flowers with a sin- muju, cacingan (Java). Vietnam: t[ow] h[oof]ng
gle stamen; female flowers with connate, 1-celled nam.
ovaries, styles curved, stigmas large. Fruit a berry Origin a n d geographic distribution C. aus-
connate into an ovoid, fleshy syncarp, dehiscing tralis occurs in large parts oftropical and subtrop-
apically, many-seeded. ical Asia and Australia, and also in Africa and
The olfactory bodies situated near the female southern Europe. In Malesia, it has been recorded
flowers spread a carrion smell attracting flies, for Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Ja-
which enter the kettle ofthe spathe and act as pol- va and New Guinea. Its seeds and those ofC.chi-
linators. The female flowers are full-grown a few nensis Lamk are often imported from China for
hours to one day before the male ones, promoting medicinal purposes, and it is likely that the
cross-fertilization. species have spread through wasted seeds, e.g. in-
CUSCUTA 145
to Malesia. In fact, they have been one of the most tube inside with bifid and fimbriate scales, lobes
commonly used drugs of Chinese traditional medi- about as long as tube, persistent, white or creamy
cine since ancient times. white; stamens inserted on corolla above the
Uses In Indonesia, C. australis is used in tradi- scales; ovary superior, depressed globose, 2-celled,
tional medicine as an emollient, sedative, sudorif- styles 2. Fruit a depressed globose capsule 3-4
ic and tonic, and to treat urinary complaints. In mm in diameter, enclosed by corolla, irregularly
Chinese traditional medicine, the seeds are ap- opening, (3-)4-seeded. Seeds ovoid, c. 1.5 mm long,
plied as a sedative, against diabetes, urinary com- brownish.
plaints, impotency and opacity of the cornea; they Cuscuta is sometimes considered to represent a
are often used in combination with other plant separate family Cuscutaceae, differing from Con-
products. The seed is also used in Vietnam for volvulaceae in its completely parasitic habit, lack-
similar purposes. Seed extracts ofC. chinensis are ing green leaves. It is sometimes confused with
applied to treat acne and dandruff. Cassytha (Lauraceae), which is similar in habit
Properties An ether-insoluble resin glycoside but has 3-merous flowers and berries. Cuscuta
fraction from C. australis seeds is considered to be comprises approximately 170 species and is cos-
a complex mixture of glycosidic ester-type oligo- mopolitan. Its main centre of speciation is North
mers with a core consisting of a number of cuseu- and South America. In the Malesian region, 4
tic acids each acylated with one or two carboxylic species have been found, of which only C. aus-
acid moieties. An alcoholic extract increased the tralis is more widely distributed. C. australis is of-
percentage and index of phagocytosis of macro- ten confused with C. chinensis, which differs in its
phages as well as hemolysin and proliferation of circumscissile fruit and keeled corolla lobes. In a
lymphocytes up to normal level in mice with burn major part of the areas of distribution of the
injury. C. australis may serve as a kind of im- species both occur, and they are probably used in-
munopotentiator for mammals. Tests on mice discriminately in traditional medicine. C. chinen-
have also shown that a C3-binding glycoprotein sis has not yet been recorded in the Malesian re-
obtained from the European C. europaea L. has gion.
strong immunostimulatory properties both in vivo Ecology C. australis occurs as a parasite on nu-
and in vitro. merous dicotyledonous herbaceous or shrubby
The alkaloid cuscutamine, 5 lignans (e.g. cuscuto- plants, in Malesia up to 500 m altitude, but in
sides A and B), some flavonoids and cinnamic acid China up to 2000 m. It has a preference for wetter
derivatives have been isolated from C. chinensis places, e.g. along watercourses.
seeds. C. chinensis is reputed to have antitumour Management C. australis is liable to become a
activity in the Unani system of medicine in India. pest of crops in the Malesian region, like C. chi-
In tests with mice, a hot water extract markedly nensis, which is sometimes a problematic parasite
delayed the appearance and retarded the growth of soya bean in China.
of skin papillomas and the incidence of carcinoma Genetic resources C. australis is extremely
induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene; its widely distributed and not in danger of genetic
prophylactic effect was found to be statistically erosion.
significant. An aqueous extract of whole C. chi- Prospects Cuscuta has several interesting
nensis plants exhibits anticonvulsant, analgesic medicinal properties, including immunostimulato-
and hypotensive activities when administered by ry, antitumour and antiviral properties, which de-
gastric intubation. serve more attention. A taxonomical study of Cus-
An antiviral protein, showing a highly significant cuta in South-East Asia is desirable because some
virus-inhibiting property, has been isolated from species (e.g. C. australis and C. chinensis) are
an aqueous extract ofC. reflexa Roxb. plants. This commonly confused and the literature is conse-
species has also been found in Java. quently often difficult to interpret.
Botany A parasitic herb; stem slender, filiform, Literature 210, 221,247, 1016.
twining, up to 1m long, greenish-yellow, golden or Other selected sources 60, 121,334, 671,682,
orange, with haustoria. Leaves reduced to minute 889,1013,1026.
scales. Inflorescence a lateral, compact cymose Djadja Siti Hazar Hoesen
glomerule, subsessile, few to many-flowered.
Flowers bisexual, regular, usually 5-merous; pedi-
cel 1-2.5 mm long; calyx cupular, about as long as
corolla tube; corolla cupular, c. 2 mm long, the
C y a t h o s t e m m a m i c r a n t h u m (A.DC.) J . rieae, and is closely related to, possibly even con-

Sinclair generic with, Uvaria. C. micranthum is distin-
guished from other Cyathostemma by its compara-
Gard. Bull. Sing. 14(2): 225 (1955). tively small leaves, small monocarps and terminal
ANNONACEAE or extra-axillary inflorescence.
2n =unknown Ecology C. micranthum occurs in forest and
Synonyms Uvaria micrantha (A.DC.) Hook.f. & thickets at low altitudes.
Thomson (1855). Genetic resources C. micranthum does not
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: daun ekur bukit seem to be in danger of genetic erosion because of
kampong, daun larak (Peninsular). Thailand: nom its wide distribution and seemingly wide ecologi-
maeo (Prachuap Khiri Khan), namtao noi cal adaptability.
(Prachin Buri). Vietnam: k[yf] k[uw][ow]ng, b[uf] Prospects The utilization of C. micranthum as
qu[ar] hoa nh[or]. a medicinal plant is unlikely to increase unless fu-
Origin and geographic distribution C. mi- ture research reveals interesting pharmacological
cranthum is the most widely distributed Cy- properties.
athostemma species. It occurs in the Andaman Is- Literature 121,173, 947.
lands, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, Other selected sources 587.
throughout the Malesian region and northern R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Australia.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
leaves or roots is given as a protective medicine af- Cymbidium Sw.
ter childbirth. In Thailand the roots are ground
with a small amount of water and applied topical- Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sei. Upsal. 6: 70 (1799).
ly to treat insect stings. ORCHIDACEAE
Properties There is currently no information x =20; C. aloifolium: 2n =40, C. ensifolium: 2n =
available on the phytochemistry and pharmaco- 40
logical activity of C. micranthum. The shikimic Origin and geographic distribution Cym-
acid derivative cyathostemmine has been isolated bidium comprises approximately 50 species, and
from C. viridiflorum Griff, bark in Malaysia. occurs throughout tropical Asia, from India to
Botany A liana up to 10(-15) m long; twigs ini- China, Japan and the whole of Malesia, as well as
tially pubescent, later glabrous, brownish-black in Australia.
and finely striate, lenticellate. Leaves alternate, Uses There are no reliable records of medicinal
simple and entire, oblong-elliptical, 2.5-8(-14) cm applications of Cymbidium in the Malesian re-
long, shortly cuneate to rounded at base, acumi- gion, but whole plants are used in traditional
nate to acute at apex, thinly leathery, sparsely pu- medicine in Vietnam, Thailand, as well as India,
bescent, pinnately veined with 8-15 pairs of indis- China and Australia. Crushed leaves and some-
tinct veins; petiole 1.5-3 mm long; stipules absent. times roots are used externally to treat arthritis,
Inflorescence a subterminal monochasial cyme, sores, burns and otitis media. Decoctions of roots
later appearing extra-axillary or opposite due to and rhizomes are used in China to treat gonor-
continued sympodial growth, consisting of 2 flow- rhoea, syphilis, stomach-ache and problems of the
ers; peduncle woody, up to 3 mm long; bracts c. 5 respiratory tract. In Ayurvedic medicine in India,
mm long. Flowers bisexual, regular, 3-merous; Cymbidium plants are used in mixtures to treat
pedicel up to 7(-10) mm long; sepals free, broadly tumours, diarrhoea, vertigo and paralysis. The
ovate-rounded, c. 2.5 mm long; petals 6, free, pseudobulbs are chewed in Australia against diar-
ovate, 4-5 mm long, pubescent, greenish-yellow to rhoea and dysentery.
red or brown; stamens numerous, with connective Cymbidium species are of great interest to horti-
apex arching over and concealing anthers; carpels culturists and orchid breeders. Large-flowered
numerous, pubescent, style absent, stigma U- plants have been bred for decades, and have been
shaped. Fruit consisting of several stiped mono- cherished in China and Japan for centuries. Cym-
carps 12-20 mm x c. 10 mm, glabrous, yellow to bidium hybrids are among the most important
red or black, l-2(-4)-seeded. commercially grown orchids. They are also com-
Cyathostemma comprises 10 species, and is dis- monly grown for cut flowers. The breeding of
tributed from eastern India and southern China to small-flowered species started on a large scale by
northern Australia. It belongs to the tribe Uva- the beginning ofthe 1980s.
CYMBIDIUM 147
Properties Mannose-specific lectins isolated Shoot meristems and axillary buds of C. ensifoli-
from a Cymbidium hybrid were highly inhibitory um and several other species can be cultured on
to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) modified Murashige and Skoog medium. The ex-
and type 2 (HIV-2), and showed additionally plants form protocorm-like bodies within 4-6
marked anti-human cytomegalovirus, respiratory months. When the medium is supplemented with
syncytial virus and influenza A virus activity in growth hormones buds are formed, and plantlets
vitro. They presumably interact at the level of fu- can be transferred into pots when 3-4 leaves are
sion with the target cell. Contact allergy from formed. In general, Cymbidium is fairly easy to
handling Cymbidium cultivars has been reported, cultivate. Black streak virus is a major disease in
probably due to the presence of the quinone deriv- cultivation. For medicinal purposes, plant parts
ative 2,6-dimethoxy-l,4-benzoquinone. Several are often dried after collecting for later use.
benzenoids including aloifol, coelonin, 6-methyl- Genetic resources Some institutes have living
coelonin and gigantol were isolated from the roots orchid collections in which many Cymbidium
ofC. aloifolium. species are represented, e.g. in the Royal Botanic
Botany Terrestrial or epiphytic (sometimes Gardens Kew, United Kingdom. Many smaller-
lithophytic) perennial, usually tufted herbs, usu- scale Cymbidium collections are maintained by
ally with a short stem, with pseudobulbs at base orchid growers. An enormous number of cultivars
usually hidden by leaf sheaths, each pseudobulb have been developed ranging from dwarf to robust
with a tuft of leaves. Leaves alternate, simple, ar- plants of almost 2 m tall, and to plants with flow-
ticulate, duplicative, leathery; stipules absent. In- ers of 10 cm in diameter. Some species may have
florescence a raceme borne at the base of a become rare and endangered because of collecting
pseudobulb, erect to pendulous, few- to many- from the wild for ornamental purposes, which is
flowered. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, often locally common practice.
very showy, resupinate, lacking a spur, mostly Prospects Cymbidium is highly appreciated for
fragrant; tepals free, subequal, lip (labellum) its flowers and sometimes also foliage (the leaves
borne on a short column foot, 3-lobed, usually con- may be variegated), and it will maintain its impor-
spicuously bicarinate at base, median segment re- tance. In addition to to the large-flowered hybrids
curved; stamen 1, anther proclined, with 2 more which have already been grown for decades,
or less deeply cleft or furrowed pollinia placed on a smaller-flowered species have also become popu-
common stipe; ovary inferior, 1-celled. Fruit a lar recently. Too little is known about the phyto-
usually fusiform capsule opening by longitudinal chemistry and pharmacological activities to judge
fissures, many-seeded. Seeds minute. the medicinal prospects, but the few tests that
Three subgenera are distinguished within Cym- have been carried out showed some interesting
bidium. Subgenus Cymbidium contains many antiviral activities.
comparatively small-flowered epiphytic or litho- Literature 69,831.
phytic species with usually pendulous inflores-
cences (e.g. C. aloifolium in section Cymbidium).
Subgenus Jensoa contains terrestrial species with Selection of species
upright inflorescences and comparatively small
flowers (e.g. C. ensifolium). Subgenus Cyperorchis C y m b i d i u m a l o i f o l i u m (L.) S w .
comprises the species used in the breeding of Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sei. Upsal. 6: 73 (1799).
large-flowered modern hybrids. Grammatophyl- Synonyms Cymbidium pendulum (Roxb.) Sw.
lum is apparently closely allied to Cymbidium. (1799), Cymbidium simulons Rolfe (1917).
Ecology Cymbidium can be epiphytic (e.g. C. Vernacular names Thailand: kare karon
aloifolium) or terrestrial (e.g. C. ensifolium). Epi- (Nakhon Ratchasima), kluai haang lai (Chum-
phytic species are sometimes also found on rocks, phon), ueang paakpet (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: Ian
whereas terrestrial ones often occur in damp for- l[oo]h[ooj]i, do[ar]n ki[ees]m.
est in a deep leaf litter. Cymbidium plants prefer Distribution Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Burma
some shade, and in cultivation they are best (Myanmar), the Andaman Islands, Indo-China,
grown in light shade (about 40% sunlight) and southern China, Taiwan, Thailand, Peninsular
high relative humidity. Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
Management Although Cymbidium can be pines.
propagated by divisions, mass in-vitro propaga- Uses In Thailand juice expressed from heated
tion is often practised for ornamental Cymbidium. leaves is dropped into the ear to treat otitis media.
tra, Java, Borneo and New Guinea.

Uses In Vietnam the leaves are used as a di-
uretic, the roots as a pectoral and the flowers to
treat eye problems. In Taiwan entire plants are
used in traditional medicine to treat cough, and
lung and gastro-intestinal complaints, and as a
sedative and diuretic.
Observations A terrestrial herb up to 100 cm
tall; leaves up to 100 cm x 1.5 cm, with acute tip;
inflorescence upright, up to 70 cm long; flowers
3-5 cm in diameter, tepals greenish or yellowish,
often each with 1-5 reddish stripes, lip often dot-
ted with red spots or blotches. C. ensifolium is a
variable species for which several varieties have
been distinguished. It occurs in forest in New
Guinea and northern Borneo up to 2000 m alti-
tude.
971,979,1007.
Dzuong Due Huyen
Cynoglossum L.
Sp. pi. 1: 134 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 168 (1754).
BORAGINACEAE
x =12; C. amabile: In =24, C. lanceolatum: In =
Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. - 1,plant habit; 2, 24
part of inflorescence; 3, lip in side view; 4, expand- Origin and geographic distribution Cyno-
ed lip. glossum comprises about 70 species, and has a
worldwide distribution, from tropical to temperate
In Vietnam the plant is used to treat colds and ir- regions. In the Malesian region, 13 species have
regular menses, and as a tonic, whereas crushed been found, but several are only known from a sin-
leaves are applied externally to treat arthritis, gle collection.
sores and burns. Uses The roots and aerial parts of Cynoglossum
Observations An epiphytic herb; leaves up to are used in traditional medicine in various parts
50 cm x 3 cm, with unequally 2-lobed tip; inflores- of the world, e.g. to treat cough, scrofula, tubercu-
cence pendulous, up to 40 cm long; flowers up to losis, wounds, ulcers and eye infections. Informa-
4.5 cm in diameter, tepals pale greenish to cream tion on medicinal applications in South-East Asia
with a central purple stripe, lip with all lobes is very limited, but Cynoglossum is more common-
striped purple and midlobe yellow but having ly used in China and eastern Africa.
white margins. C. aloifolium occurs in mixed for- The roots ofC. officinale L. have been used in Eu-
est and teak forest up to 1000 m altitude. rope as a sedative, phlegm-discharging and mildly
Selected sources 62, 173, 223, 441, 732, 831, constipating remedy, to treat pulmonary tubercu-
832, 839,971. losis and cough, and to stop bleeding. These uses
are now largely abandoned because of the pres-
C y m b i d i u m e n s i f o l i u m (L.) S w . ence of toxic alkaloids. The foliage may repel
Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sei. Upsal. 6: 77 (1799). moles in gardens and protect stored fruit and veg-
Synonyms Cymbidium sundaicum Schlechter etables from rodents. The rootjuice ofC. wallichii
(1919). G. Don is applied in India to check vomiting in
Vernacular n a m e s Vietnam: Ian ki[ees]m, children.
thanh ng[oj]c. Some species are occasionally planted as an orna-
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, mental in gardens, e.g. C. amabile.
China, Taiwan, southern Japan, Thailand, Suma- Properties Cynoglossum is highly toxic for
CYNOGLOSSUM 149
horses and cattle, mainly during the early growth treated here are the more common ones in South-
stage (rosette stage), due to the presence of pyr- East Asia (at least locally), except C. amabile,
rolizidin alkaloids with a strong hepatotoxic activ- which is only planted in Java. About half of the
ity. The contamination of green fodder with Cyno- Malesian species are only known from few collec-
glossum can be a serious problem, as well as the tions, and field studies are needed to determine
presence of toxicants in milk. Five pyrrolizidine the threats for these species. Large ex situ germ-
alkaloids have been recorded from C. amabile: plasm collections of Cynoglossum donot exist.
supinine, amabiline, rinderine, echinatine and 3'- Prospects Very little is known about Cynoglos-
O-acetylechinatine. Altogether, 14 pyrrolizidine sum in South-East Asia. However, studies in
alkaloids have been isolated and separated from species from elsewhere showed interesting proper-
C. officinale, and 13 from C. creticum Miller. The ties, e.g. wound healing and antibacterial activi-
roots of C. officinale also contain bitter substan- ties. Research on these aspects in South-East Asia
ces, choline and tannins, the leaves mucilage, is desirable, and might enhance the medicinal im-
traces of essential oils and bactericidal com- portance in the region.
pounds, and the seeds a number oflipids and fatty Literature 247, 331,720.
acids.
A gallic acid salt of the cynoglossophin-helio-
supine alkaloid (cyngal) has been isolated from C. Selection of species
officinale. This compound showed a high stimula-
tory activity on the gastro-intestinal motor func- Cynoglossum amabile Stapf & J.R.
tion in tests with dogs and rats. Drumm.
Furthermore, the isohexenylnaphthazarins, more Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew: 202 (1906).
commonly known as alkannins, are lipophilic red Distribution Native to southern China but
pigments found in the outer layer of the roots of widely cultivated as an ornamental, occasionally
many Boraginaceae, including Cynoglossum. They also in Java.
have pronounced antibacterial, wound-healing Uses C. amabile is used in traditional Chinese
and antitumour activities. medicine to treat cough, scrofula, and to stop
Botany Annual, biennial or perennial herbs. bleeding of wounds.
Leaves alternate, simple and entire, basal leaves Observations A perennial herb up to 60 cm
usually already withered at flowering time, basal tall, often with single, densely spreading, pubes-
and lower stem leaves usually long petiolate, up- cent stem; leaves oblong-lanceolate to lanceolate,
per stem leaves often sessile; stipules absent. In- basal ones 5-20 cm x 2-4 cm, densely pubescent
florescence a terminal and axillary cyme, brac- and grey-green to greyish-white; inflorescence
teate or ebracteate. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5- paniculate, branches crowded at apex, ebracteate;
merous, pedicellate; calyx deeply divided, en- corolla 5-6 mm long, blue, rarely white; nutlets
larged in fruit; corolla cylindrical, campanulate to ovoid, 3-4 mm long, covered all over by glochids.
funnel-shaped or rotate, with 5 distinct scales in In China, C. amabile occurs in hillside meadows,
the throat, white, blue or purple; stamens inserted open forest, roadsides and river banks in the
on corolla below the scales, included, filaments mountains, at 2600-3700 m altitude.
very short; ovary superior, 4-parted, style long or Selected sources 228, 247, 1013.
short, with or without a distinct stigma. Fruit con-
sisting of4 nutlets attached to the conical recepta- Cynoglossum hellwigii Brand
cle, covered by glochids. Fedde, Repert. 13:546 (1915).
The flowers are pollinated by various groups of in- Synonyms Cynoglossum javanicum auct. non
sects, also depending on the species. The nutlets Thunberg ex Lehm.
have barbid bristles which adhere to the fur of Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: se-
mammals and are thus dispersed. mongokina (Anji, Enga), dekemp (Mount Hagen,
Ecology Cynoglossum usually occurs in mead- Western Highlands).
ows on hillsides, roadsides, river banks and in Distribution Endemic to New Guinea, and
open forest. widespread there.
Management Formerly, the roots of C. offici- Uses In Papua New Guinea, fresh leaves are
nale were collected in Europe in autumn, and tied onto ulcers until they heal. The plant is also
dried rapidly. used to adorn wigs.
Genetic resources The Cynoglossum species Observations An annual or biennial herb up to
100 cm tall, much branched, hirsute with retrorse Uses C. lanceolatum is considered diaphoretic
hairs in the lower part of stems and antrorse hairs and expectorant in southern Africa, and the
in the upper part; leaves elliptical to oblong or crushed plant is used there to treat wounds and
lanceolate, basal ones 12-15 cm x 3.5-5 cm, colic, and the root to treat eye infections and as a
strigose with antrorse hairs; inflorescence much vermifuge. In Vietnam, it is considered diuretic.
branched, cymes divaricate, ebracteate; corolla Observations A biennial or perennial herb up
2.5-3 mm long, white or pale blue; nutlets ovoid, to 100(-150) cm tall, much branched, stems with
2-3 mm long, covered all over by glochids. C. hel- longer, patent hairs and shorter, antrorse hairs;
wigii occurs in open locations, e.g. in swampy leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, basal ones
grassland along rivers, at 1200-1300 m altitude. 8-14 cm x 3-3.5 cm, strigose with hispid and pu-
Selected sources 247, 347. bescent hairs; inflorescence furcate, cymes divari-
cate, ebracteate; corolla 2-3(-4) mm long, white or
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. pale blue; nutlets ovoid, 1.5-2.5 mm long, covered
Fl. aegypt.-arab.: 41 (1775). all over by glochids. C. lanceolatum occurs in hill-
Synonyms Cynoglossum micranthum Desf. side meadows, open forest and roadsides, in China
(1804). up to 2800 m altitude.
Vernacular names Vietnam: tro bu[oof]n, Selected sources 120, 247, 732,1013.
khuy[eer]n thi[eej]t. Ch.B. Lugt &R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Distribution Distributed in an extremely large
area in Africa and Asia; in South-East Asia, occur-
ring in Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, northern C y r t a n d r a J . R . F o r s t e r & J.G. F o r s t e r
Thailand, and in western Malesia in Sumatra, Ja-
va, Borneo, Sulawesi and the Philippines. Char. gen. pi.: 5 (1775).
GESNERIACEAE
x = 17
Origin and geographic distribution Cyrtan-
\ 't 4 dra is an extremely large genus of about 600
If 3 species and is distributed in South-East Asia from
the Nicobar Islands, southern Burma (Myanmar)
and Thailand, throughout Malesia, to the islands
ofthe Pacific and Queensland (Australia). Centres
of diversity are eastern Malesia (particularly the
Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and New Guinea)
with in total about 300 species, and the islands in
the Pacific Ocean with about 200 species of which
approximately 100 are endemic to Hawaii.
Uses There are a few records of medicinal uses
of Cyrtandra in Malaysia: after childbirth, as an
abortivum and emmenagogue, and against fever.
An infusion of crushed young leaves of a Cyrtan-
dra species is used by the Kenyah Dayak people in
Borneo as a wash to reduce fever in the case of pox
and measles. External uses have been recorded in
the Philippines for treating itch, and in the
Solomon Islands for treating swellings.
The sourish leaves are sometimes used for
flavouring and as a vegetable, e.g. those ofC.pen-
dula Blume in Java and C. decurrens de Vriese in
the Moluccas. A few species are cultivated as an
ornamental, e.g. C. pendula.
Botany Herbs or shrubs, sometimes small trees
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. - 1, lower part or vines. Leaves usually opposite, those of a pair
ofplant; 2, upper part ofplant; 3, flower; 4, opened equal to very unequal, sometimes alternate or
corolla showing stamens; 5,fruit; 6, nutlet. whorled, simple; stipules absent. Inflorescence a
CYRTANDROMOEA 151
fascicle or umbelliform, in the axil of present, fall- C y r t a n d r a o b l o n g i f o l i a ( B l u m e ) C.B.

en or rudimentary leaves; bracts caducous or per- Clarke
sistent. Flowers bisexual or unisexual, usually zy- A.DC, Monogr. phan. 5:206, t. 24 (1883).
gomorphic, 5-merous; calyx tubular, often with Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kudakalang (Sa-
triangular lobes, caducous or persistent; corolla rawak).
with terete-infundibuliform tube and 2-lipped Distribution Sumatra, Java and Borneo.
limb, sometimes almost regular; stamens usually Uses In Sarawak, boiled roots are taken orally
2, inserted in or above the middle of the corolla as an abortivum up to 5 months pregnancy, and
tube, usually included and having coherent an- also to treat menstrual irregularity.
thers, staminodes usually 3; disk annular or uni- Observations A shrub up to 200 cm tall; leaves
lateral; ovary superior, ovoid to linear, 1-celled, of a pair very unequal, obovate to elliptical-lanceo-
stigma more or less distinctly 2-lobed. Fruit a late or narrowly lanceolate, smaller ones 2-9 cm x
fleshy or leathery indéhiscent berry, many-seed- 1-3 cm, larger ones 16-23 cm x 3.5-6 cm, nar-
ed. Seeds small, ellipsoid, smooth. rowed and unequal at base, entire; bracts 2,
The dispersal seems to be accomplished by frugiv- acuminate, 2-3 cm long; corolla with funnel-
orous birds adapted to the conspicuous, fleshy shaped tube, whitish or pale pink; fruit linear-
fruits with very small seeds. Didymocarpus is lanceolate, curved, 4-6 cm long. C. oblongifolia oc-
closely related to Cyrtandra. curs in forest up to 1200 m altitude, and is usually
Ecology Cyrtandra is adapted to almost contin- epiphytic.
ually humid, well-shaded habitats in forested Selected sources 62,241.
ravines and gullies.
Genetic resources Cyrtandra species seem Cyrtandra wallichii (C.B.Clarke) B.L.
easily liable to genetic erosion because they show Burtt
a high degree of endemism and are adapted to a Notes Roy. Bot. Garden Edinb. 36(1): 179 (1978).
specific habitat. Synonyms Cyrtandra grandiflora Ridley (1909)
Prospects There is no information on the phy- non Gaud., Cyrtandrapilosa auct. non Blume.
tochemistry and properties of Cyrtandra. The uses Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: gegunjah puteh,
in traditional medicine seem very limited and it is lemak batu (Peninsular).
unlikely that the genus will gain importance in Distribution Peninsular Malaysia.
the future. Uses A decoction has been recorded as being
Literature 121,534,731. used after childbirth.
Observations A small shrub up to 100 cm tall;
leaves obovate to oblanceolate, 20-45 cm x 7.5-10
Selection of species cm, serrate, narrowed at base into a winged peti-
ole; bracts free or cup-shaped connate; corolla
Cyrtandra cupulata Ridley with short funnel-shaped tube, silky hairy,
Journ. Linn. Soc. 32: 527 (1896). whitish but yellowish in the mouth; fruit ovoid-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: meroyan kabut, conical to cylindrical-conical, 1.5-2.5 cm long. C.
bebangun (Peninsular). Thailand: ta-po leh-mai wallichii is locally abundant along streams in rain
(Malay, Pattani). forest up to 1300 m altitude.
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and penin- Selected sources 121,789.
sular Thailand. Zumaidar
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction used
to be drunk after childbirth and to treat fever.
Observations A small shrub up to 100 cm tall; Cyrtandromoea Zoll.
leaves obovate to oblanceolate, 22.5-30 cm x 7-10
cm, serrate, narrowed at base; bracts connate in a Syst. Verz. 3:58 (1855).
large white cup; corolla with funnel-shaped tube, GESNERIACEAE
silky hairy, whitish with yellow and brown marks x =unknown; C.grandis: 2« = 22-24
in the mouth; fruit fusiform, c. 1.5 cm long. C. Origin a n d geographic distribution Cyrtan-
cupulata occurs in humid ravines in dense rain dromoea comprises approximately 10 species and
forest up to 1300 m altitude. occurs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bur-
Selected sources 121,789. ma (Myanmar), southern China, Thailand and
western Malesia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
Java and Borneo). Sumatra seems to be richest in Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a poultice of the
species. leaves is applied to treat fever.
Uses Two Cyrtandromoea species are known to Observations A large perennial herb up to 3 m
be used in traditional medicine in Peninsular tall; leaves oblong to broadly oblong, 20-30 cm x
Malaysia for treating fever. 5-12 cm, glabrous; inflorescences clustered at
Botany Perennial herbs with erect, often un- woody part of stem, many-flowered; flowers with
branched stems, woody at base. Leaves opposite, 3-5 cm long, white corolla; fruit globose, c. 1 cm in
simple, serrate, petiolate; stipules absent. Inflo- diameter. C.grandis occurs in evergreen forest up
rescence an axillary cyme, few- to many-flowered, to 1000 m altitude.
or flowers solitary, sometimes cauliflorous; bracts Selected sources 121,249.
small. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; calyx tubular,
truncate at apex with 5 short teeth; corolla in- Cyrtandromoea subsessilis (Miq.) B.L.
fundibuliform, limb slightly 2-lipped, upper lip 2- Burtt
lobed, lower lip 3-lobed; stamens 4, inserted at Bull. Bot. Survey India 7: 86 (1965).
base of the corolla tube, didynamous, pairs of an- Synonyms Cyrtandromoea acuminata C.B.
thers confluent at apex; ovary superior, conical or Clarke (1883).
cylindrical, 2-celled, style filiform, stigma 2-lamel- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pokok sampu
late. Fruit a globose or ellipsoid capsule included menahun, sepugit bukit (Peninsular).
in the enlarged calyx, loculicidally dehiscent, Distribution Burma (Myanmar), south-west-
many-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, with reticulate tes- ern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
ta. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
Cyrtandromoea has been placed in the families leaves is used in a bath to treat fever; powdered
Gesneriaceae and Scrophulariaceae, depending on leaves are also rubbed over the body.
the author. Chemotaxonomical and cytological Observations Aperennial herb up to 1.5 m tall;
characteristics seem to point to a place in Scro- leaves oblong to broadly oblong, 8-16 cm x 3.5-7
phulariaceae, but a recent study on cladistic rela- cm, sparsely pubescent; inflorescences in leaf-ax-
tionships indicates that it belongs to Gesneriaceae, ils, 1-2-flowered; flowers with c. 3 cm long, white
in the tribe Klugieae. or pinkish corolla; fruit ellipsoid or globose, 1-1.5
Ecology Cyrtandromoea occurs in lowland ever- cm long. C. subsessilis occurs in evergreen forest,
green forest, often in edges and other more open often in edges, up to 1500 m altitude.
locations. Selected sources 121, 249.
Genetic resources The distribution of Cyrtan- Zumaidar
dromoea is insufficiently documented. Several
species seem to have rather limited areas of distri-
bution in lowland evergreen forest, and may be D a l b e r g i a L.f.
easily liable to genetic erosion.
Prospects It is interesting to note that both Suppl. p i : 52 (1782).
Cyrtandromoea species used in traditional medi- LEGUMINOSAE
cine in South-East Asia are used to treat fever. a: = 10
Research is needed to confirm their febrifugal ac- Origin and geographic distribution Dalber-
tivity. gia comprises almost 200 species and is found in
Literature 121,874. tropical and subtropical regions of all continents.
Most species are found in Asia (about 100). Africa
and tropical America comprise each about 40
Selection of species species. About 70 species have been recorded for
the Malesian region, and about 30 each for Indo-
Cyrtandromoea grandis Ridley China and Thailand.
Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 43: 87 Uses Dalbergia is apparently not much used in
(1905). traditional medicine in South-East Asia. A poul-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: bayam beraleh, tice of leaves is most commonly used to treat skin
setawar (Peninsular). Thailand: cha sam kaeo, diseases, sores and varicose veins, whereas a de-
phak nom hin (peninsular). coction of the wood is used internally against
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular stomach-ache and as an emmenagogue. In Thai-
Malaysia and Sumatra. land, the wood of D. candenatensis (Dennst.)
DALBERGIA 153
Prain is applied as a blood tonic and expectorant, lated from the root of the African D. saxatilis
and the roots of D. velutina Benth. as a fish poi- Hook.f; this compound stimulated uterine muscle
son. contraction in tests with rats. Extracts of D.
Elsewhere, Dalbergia is commonly used medici- melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. bark showed antimi-
nally. In Africa, the roots and leaves of several crobial activity. An aqueous extract of D. mone-
species are used to treat a wide variety of com- taria L. from Brazil showed anti-ulcerogenic activ-
plaints including leprosy, wounds, ulcers, fever, ity in tests with rats, mice and guinea-pigs.
colds and bronchitis, and they are also used as a Dalbergiones, dalbergichinols and related neofla-
vermifuge. In tropical America, a root decoction is vanoids have been isolated from many Dalbergia
prescribed internally against dysentery. The species. Dalbergiones in the wood have toxic activ-
heartwood of D. odorifera T. Chen is a Chinese ity on termites and may cause dermatitis.
drug applied for stagnation of disordered blood. It Botany Lianas, shrubs or small to large trees.
is used to stop bleeding, to treat wounds, bruises, Leaves alternate, imparipinnate; stipules usually
swellings, abscesses, sores and haemoptysis, and small, caducous; leaflets alternate, reticulately
as a sedative. In India, the roots of D. stipulacea veined, without stipels. Inflorescence a terminal
Roxb. are effective as a fish poison, and the bark or axillary cyme or panicle; bracts and bracteoles
as an insecticide. usually small and subpersistent. Flowers bisexu-
The tree-like species, particularly D. latifolia al, small, papilionoid; calyx 5-merous, the teeth
Roxb. and D. sissoo Roxb. ex D C , are popular for prominent with the lower one usually longest;
their decorative wood, which is in high demand for corolla with distinctly clawed standard, narrow
carving, turnery and furniture. wings and sickle-shaped keel, white to red or vio-
Properties Almost nothing is known about the let; stamens 9 or 10, filaments usually all connate,
phytochemistry or properties of the Dalbergia anthers small; ovary superior, 1-celled, stipitate,
species of Malesia. The wood of D. ferruginea style short, incurved, stigma small. Fruit an indé-
yields the sterols sitosterol and friedelin, and the hiscent pod, stipitate, thin-walled, usually 1-seed-
wood ofD. cumingiana an essential oil (c. 0.5%). ed. Seed reniform, compressed, lacking albumen.
The chalcone butein (2',3,4,4'-tetrahydroxy chal- Seedling with hypogeal germination.
cone) has been isolated from the Chinese D. odori- Ecology The Dalbergia species treated here are
fera. It showed antioxidant properties: it inhibited all lianas or straggling shrubs, and they are found
iron-induced lipid peroxidation in rat brain ho- in open locations and borders of lowland forest, or
mogenate, and inhibited copper-catalyzed oxida- in thickets in grassland.
tion of human low-density lipoprotein. Butein also Genetic resources There are no germplasm
produced endothelium-dependent relaxation of rat collections ofthe species treated here, but these do
aorta preparations. Many other flavonoids have exist for some important timber-producing Dal-
been isolated from D. odorifera, several of which bergia species. The Malesian species used for med-
showed significant anti-allergic and anti-inflam- icinal purposes seem not to be immediately en-
matory activities. Several phenolic compounds iso- dangered because they are usually fairly wide-
lated from this species significantly inhibited spread and often occur in secondary habitats.
prostaglandin biosynthesis as well as platelet ag- Moreover, they are not extensively used. However,
gregation induced by arachidonic acid. Phenolic stands of Dalbergia trees all over the world have
constituents with potent inhibitory activity to- been depleted considerably for the decorative
wards 5a-dihydrotestosterone, which binds with wood.
an androgen receptor to form a complex that caus- Prospects Little attention has been given to the
es androgen-dependent disease, have been isolat- medicinal applications ofDalbergia in South-East
ed from D. cochinchinensis Pierre from Indo-Chi- Asia. The fact that Dalbergia is extensively used
na and Thailand. An extract of Indian plant mate- in traditional medicine elsewhere, often for simi-
rial ofD. volubilis Roxb. showed anti-inflammato- lar purposes (e.g. as a styptic and anti-inflamma-
ry and anti-arthritic activities. A leaf extract of D. tory), warrants more research.
sissoo possessed significant anti-inflammatory ac- Literature 5, 136,158, 179, 331,721,878, 940.
tivity when tested in rats. Acetone and alcohol ex-
tracts of the bark and roots of D. stipulacea
showed insecticidal properties against Clostera
cupreata, a defoliator of poplar (Populus) in India.
The triterpenoid glycoside dalsaxin has been iso-
Dalbergia cumingiana Benth.

Miq., Pl.jungh.: 255 (1852).
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: ganak (Iba-
nag), hamurauon (Samar-Leyte Bisaya), tahid-
labuyo (Tagalog).
Distribution The Philippines.
U s e s D. cumingiana is used to treat stomach-
ache in young children.
Observations A liana; leaves with 5-9 leaflets;
flowers clustered towards the apex of a compound
inflorescence, whitish; fruit elliptical or oblong,
2-3 cm long. D. cumingiana is locally common in
secondary forest and thickets at low and medium
altitudes.
Selected sources 760.
Dalbergia ferruginea Roxb.

Fl. ind. (ed. 1832) 3:228 (1832).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: akar langsa
(Kalimantan). Philippines: balibagan (Panay Bi-
saya), balintodok (Bagobo), balitadhan (Manobo).
Distribution The Philippines, Borneo, Sulawe-
si, New Guinea, Australia (Queensland) and the
Caroline Islands.
U s e s In the Philippines, a decoction of the wood Dalbergia pinnata (Lour.) Prain - 1, branch with
is used as an emmenagogue; a large dose may act inflorescences; 2, leaflets from below and above; 3,
as an abortive. flower; 4, standard; 5, fruit.
Observations A straggling shrub up to 6 m tall
or liana, young stems often rusty pubescent; U s e s In Java, a poultice of the leaves has been
leaves with (13-)15-21(-25) leaflets; inflorescence used to treat scabies and fever, and in Peninsular
axillary, up to 6 cm long, bracts persistent and Malaysia against varicose veins and nervous dis-
wedge-shaped; flowers c. 5 mm long, white to orders. In Indo-China, the branches are applied
pink; fruit obliquely elliptical or oblong, 2.5-7 cm for binding purposes.
long.D. ferruginea occurs in lowland forest includ- Observations A shrub with climbing branches
ing secondary forest, but sometimes also in thick- or small tree up to 12 m tall; leaves with
ets in grassland. (13-)21-35(-61) leaflets; inflorescence axillary,
Selected sources 760, 901,902, 965. sometimes terminal, up to 6 cm long; flowers c. 6
mm long, whitish, calyx teeth short, subequal, sta-
D a l b e r g i a p i n n a t a (Lour.) P r a i n mens 9(-10); fruit linear-oblong, 5-6 cm long. D.
Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Cale. 10(1): 48 (1904). pinnata occurs in mixed deciduous forest and in
Synonyms Dalbergia tamarindifolia Roxb. open localities in evergreen forest, up to 1400 m
(1832). altitude.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy ki loma Selected sources 62, 121, 250, 334, 789, 901,
(Sundanese), oyod sambang (Java),jampak luyak 902.
(Lampung). Malaysia: semelit jangkar, lorotan
haji (Peninsular). Philippines: tikos-maiadon (Ma- Dalbergia stercoracea Maingay ex
nobo). Vietnam: ch[af]m b[if]a [aw]n tr[aa]u (Vinh Prain
Phu), tr[aws]c l[as] me. Journ. As. Soc. Beng., pt. 2, Nat. Hist., 70: 58
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Laos, (1901).
Vietnam, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Vernacular n a m e s Peninsular Malaysia: akar
Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines urat-urat, akar saga paya, bunga pitam (Peninsu-
and Sulawesi. lar).
DALEA 155
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore

and Sumatra.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves are
used as a poultice to treat sores on the legs.
Observations A shrub with climbing branches
up to 10 m tall; leaves with 7-9 leaflets; inflores-
cence axillary and terminal, up to 10 cm long;
flowers c. 2.5 mm long, whitish, calyx with lower
tooth longest, stamens 9; fruit ellipsoid, c. 6 cm
long. D. stercoracea is locally common, especially
along the coast and near streams.
Ning Wikan Utami
D a l e a cliffortiana Willd.
Sp. pi. 3(2): 1336 (1802).

LEGUMINOSAE
2n = 14
Synonyms Parosela glandulosa (Blanco) Merr.
(1910).
Vernacular names Philippines: kamangi, ago-
go, sampalok-sampalokan (Tagalog).
Origin and geographic distribution D.clif-
fortiana originates from Central America but has
been introduced and become naturalized in the
Philippines. Dalea cliffortiana Willd. 1, flowering branch; 2,
Uses In the Philippines a decoction ofD. cliffor- flower.
tiana roots is taken to treat haemoptysis. The
juice ofthe fresh leaves is used as a vulnerary and rose, wings 2-2.5 mm long, keel 2-3.5 mm long,
as a poultice on wounds. The ash of leaves and wings and keel blue to pink or white; stamens
stems is applied as a cicatrizant. 9-10, all connate; ovary superior, pubescent, 1-
Some Dalea species are used in traditional medi- celled. Fruit an obovoid pod 2-2.5 mm long, indé-
cine in Central America, e.g. to treat rheumatism hiscent, 1-seeded. Seed oblong, c. 1.5 mm long.
and as a sudorific. Dalea comprises some 150 species and is largely
Properties In a general screening for mollusci- confined to the New World.
cidal activity, a leaf extract of D. cliffortiana Ecology In the Philippines D. cliffortiana is
showed activity against golden snail (Pomacea found on dry fields, roadsides and other open dis-
sp.) at concentrations of 4000-8000 ppm. Flavo- turbed habitats from sea-level up to 1300 m alti-
noid and coumarin derivatives have been found in tude.
several other Dalea species. Genetic resources D. cliffortiana is widely dis-
Botany An erect, much-branched herb up to 70 tributed in Central America and common in dis-
cm tall; stems reddish, glandular-dotted. Leaves turbed habitats, therefore the risk of genetic ero-
alternate, imparipinnate, (l-)1.5-3(-5) cm long; sion seems limited.
rachis narrowly winged; stipules narrow; leaflets Prospects Research on the phytochemistry and
5-15(~19), linear to narrowly elliptical, (2-)4- pharmacological properties is needed to evaluate
8(-15) mm long, entire, gland-dotted below; stipels the efficacy ofD. cliffortiana as a medicinal plant,
represented by paired glands. Inflorescence a nar- and to determine its prospects.
row, compact, terminal spike 0.8-3.5 cm long; Literature 646, 760,781.
bracts abruptly acuminate, pubescent, gland-dot- Other selected sources 35,331,989.
ted. Flowers bisexual; calyx 3-5 mm long, 5- L.J.G. van der Maesen
toothed, densely pilose; corolla papilionaceous,
standard 3-5 mm long, clawed, white often tinged
Dasymaschalon (Hook.f. & Thomson) Ecology Dasymaschalon occurs particularly in

Dalla Torre & Harms lowland forest, usually in shady localities.
Genetic resources The Dasymaschalon species
Gen. siphon.: 174 (1901). treated here are common, at least locally. Howev-
ANNONACEAE er, their exact distribution and ecological require-
x = unknown; D. blumei: 2« = 16 ments are not known because no recent taxonomie
Origin and geographic distribution Dasy- monograph ofthe genus is available.
maschalon comprises approximately 10 species, Prospects Little is known about Malesian
and occurs in India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi- Dasymaschalon. The chemical and pharmacologi-
na, Hainan, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Su- cal research on other species of the genus shows
matra, Java, Borneo and the Philippines. some interesting results, and this indicates the
Uses Although information on medicinal uses is desirability ofmore studies.
scarce, Dasymaschalon is probably used in tradi- Literature 368, 868, 869.
tional medicine in the same way as Desmos, e.g. to
treat dysentery, vertigo, fever, and after child-
birth. In the Philippines, the leaves ofD. clusiflo- Selection of species
rum are used externally to treat wounds, whereas
a decoction of the roots or leaves is reputedly a Dasymaschalon blumei Finet &
good diuretic. Gagnep.
Properties Several isoquinoline-type alkaloids, Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. Mém. 4: 143 (1906).
predominantly of the oxoaporphine type, have Synonyms Desmos dasymaschalus (Blume)
been isolated from leaves and stem bark of D. Safford (1912).
blumei. Among the alkaloids isolated from the Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kenanga hutan,
leaves are dicentrinone and dasymachaline.
From methanolic extracts ofthe leaves ofD. soote-
pense Craib from Thailand, 8 alkaloids have been
isolated, and also 2 flavonol glycosides. Isoquino-
line alkaloids with in-vitro antibacterial and anti-
fungal activity have been isolated from stem bark
of D. longiflorum (Roxb.) Finet & Gagnep. from
Bangladesh. The flavone dasytrichone has been
found in D. macrocalyx Finet & Gagnep. from In-
do-China.
Botany Shrubs up to 8 m tall, often scandent,
sometimes a small tree. Leaves alternate, distic-
hous, simple and entire, pinnately veined, subses-
sile or shortly petiolate; stipules absent. Flowers
solitary, axillary or extra-axillary, opposite the
leaves, pendulous, bisexual, often fragrant; sepals
3, free, valvate; petals (2-)3(-4), valvate, clawed,
cohering at margins, hood-shaped and falling off
together; stamens numerous, cuneate, with broad
connective concealing the anther cells; ovaries nu-
merous, superior, stigmas bent with a U-shaped
opening and a groove. Fruit consisting of numer-
ous, stalked, moniliform carpels with up to 8 seg-
ments; segments each with one seed, separating
at maturity.
Dasymaschalon is closely related to Desmos, and
is often considered congeneric (but then usually
distinguished as a section within Desmos). It dif-
fers in the usually 3 petals (inner series absent),
which are cohering at the edges; Desmos has 6 Dasymaschalon blumei Finet & Gagnep.
petals in 2 series, with limbs free. flower; 2, fruiting twig; 3, fruit.
DENDROPHTHOE 157
kenanga paya, larak api (Peninsular). Thailand: Malesia 21 species occur, with no obvious centre of
buu ngong (Bangkok). diversity.
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Pe- Uses Dendrophthoe species are only occasional-
ninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, western ly used in South-East Asian folk medicine. In gen-
Java and northern Borneo (Sarawak). eral they are applied in poulticing, and in Thai-
Uses Although medicinal uses have not been land an infusion ofD. pentandra is used to relieve
recorded for D. blumei, the vernacular names for hypertension. In Java, dried stems of aerial stem-
Malaysia, which are also applied to Desmos, sug- parasitic Loranthaceae (including Dendrophthoe
gest that it is used for similar complaints as the and Scurrula) enter into traditional prescriptions
Desmos species, e.g. to treat dysentery, vertigo, for the treatment of smallpox, and for a vermifuge
fever, and after childbirth. for children. More recently, they have been men-
Observations A bushy shrub up to 8 m tall, tioned as a traditional medicine for cancer.
sometimes developing scandent branches; leaves In India D. falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. and D. longiflo-
elliptical-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 8-22 cm x ra (Desr.) Ettingsh., by some considered as one
4-8.5 cm; flowers cream-coloured, sepals triangu- species, are used in the Ayurvedic system of medi-
lar, 3-5 mm long, petals ovate, 4-13 cm long; ripe cine. The bark ofD. falcata is astringent and used
carpels with (l-)2-6(-7) distinct segments, bright to treat wounds, menstrual disorders and asthma.
red with waxy bloom. D. blumei occurs in lowland The plant is also used as an abortifacient.
forest, and is locally common (e.g. in Peninsular Properties Research in Indonesia on the use of
Malaysia) but elsewhere rare (e.g. in Java). D. pentandra in complementary and alternative
Selected sources 62, 121, 135,309, 860. medicine (CAM) therapy in cancer focuses on its
effect on enzymes that are associated with liver
D a s y m a s c h a l o n c l u s i f l o r u m (Merr.) diseases and cell proliferation (e.g. alkaline phos-
Merr. phatase and glutamate pyruvate transaminase).
Philipp. Journ. Sei., Bot. 10:237 (1915). Aqueous extracts of D. pentandra leaves can re-
Synonyms Dasymaschalon oblongatum Merr. duce blood pressure in rats at high, nearly toxic
(1915). doses; a methanol extract is less effective. The
Vernacular names Philippines: malaatis (Ta- mechanism of action is through muscle relaxant
galog), malasagiat (Iloko), panagit (Cebu Bi- activity.
saya). An orally administered aqueous extract of D. fal-
Distribution The Philippines (from Luzon to cata showed significant diuretic effects in the rat.
the Babuyan Islands, Palawan and Mindanao). Prophylactic or curative treatment with orally ad-
Uses The leaves are used externally to treat ministered aqueous or alcoholic extracts ofD. fal-
wounds, whereas a decoction ofthe roots or leaves cata showed a considerable reduction in artificial-
is reputedly a good diuretic. ly induced urinary bladder stones in rats.D. falca-
Observations A large shrub; leaves oblong-el- ta extracts also exhibit hypotensive activity.
liptical, 11-15 cm x 3.5-5 cm; flowers yellowish- Botany Stem-parasitic shrubs, often robust,
green, sepals kidney-shaped, c. 2 mm x 4 mm, usually with runners on the bark ofthe host, bear-
petals ovate-lanceolate, 5-6 cm x 2 cm; ripe ing secondary haustoria. Leaves usually alter-
carpels with 1-2 indistinct segments. D. clusiflo- nate, sometimes opposite, simple and entire, peti-
rum is common in forest at low and medium alti- olate; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary or
tudes, up to 1300 m; also on limestone. terminal raceme or spike, sometimes few-flowered
Selected sources 731,760. and umbellate, bracteate. Flowers bisexual, (4-)5-
R.E. Nasution merous; calyx reduced to a limb; corolla gamo-
petalous, usually weakly zygomorphic; stamens
inserted on the corolla opposite the lobes; ovary
D e n d r o p h t h o e Mart. inferior, style simple, usually with a knob-like
stigma. Fruit berry like, ovoid, 1-seeded. Seed cov-
Flora 1: 109 (1830). ered by a sticky layer.
LORANTHACEAE After germination of the seed, it takes 1.5-3 years
x = 8, 9;D.pentandra: 2n =16 before plants start flowering and fruiting. Pollina-
Origin and geographic distribution Den- tion is by birds or insects and effective seed dis-
drophthoe consists of some 38 species, distributed persal is by fruit-eating birds. Fruits may be ei-
in tropical Africa, southern Asia and Australia. In ther swallowed whole and excreted or the seed is
rubbed off their beaks after feeding on the sur- (40-)50-110 mm long, acute at apex, mostly pink
rounding fruit pulp. or red below and green above, tube in open flower
Dendrophthoe seems related to African as well as 40-85 mm long; fruit ovoid, up to 12 mm x 7 mm.
Asian genera, e.g. Scurrula. D. incarnata is common on a wide range of host
Ecology Dendrophthoe occurs in habitats rang- plants at 0-200(-1050) m altitude.
ing from humid to open forests as well as in dis- Selected sources 121,247,731.
turbed sites. Although more common in lowlands,
it can be found up to over 2500 m altitude. Host Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.
specificity of most Dendrophthoe species is gener- Fl. Ind. Bat. 1,1:818(1856).
ally low and in Malesia many species are aggres- Synonyms Loranthus pentandrus L. (1767).
sive and also found on cultivated trees. Locally Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: benalu (Java-
they can be considered a serious pest in planta- nese). Malaysia: dedalu apijantam, sulur api jan-
tions. tan, dedalu api puteh (Pensinsular). Philippines:
Management Seeds of D. pentandra have no agoago, bogto (Tagbanua). Thailand: kaafaak ma
dormant period and can germinate within the muang (central). Vietnam: m[ooj]c k[ys] n[ow]m
fruit, although this affects vigour. Germination nh[ij], tang k[ys] sinh.
takes 2-8 days at 18-32°C, with over 90% success Distribution From eastern India to Indo-China
rate. Germination can occur on any natural sub- and western Malesia (Peninsular Malaysia, Su-
strate, and artificial propagation is possible. How- matra, Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo
ever, best results are obtained with seeds from and the Philippines).
fresh fruits sown on small branches of hosts. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are
Genetic resources Dendrophthoe species treat- pounded and made into a poultice for treating
ed here are widely distributed and occur on a wide small sores, ulcers and other skin affections. A de-
range of host plants. Therefore they do not appear coction of the leaves is administered in Perak
to be threatened by genetic erosion. (Malaysia) as a protective medicine after child-
Prospects Little is known on the pharmacology birth. In Thailand an infusion of the dried whole
of Dendrophthoe. More research is needed to eva- plant is drunk to relieve hypertension. In Vietnam
lute its potential in complementary and alterna- the leaves are mixed with those of regular tea to
tive medicine and as an antihypertensive agent. obtain an infusion to soothe cough.
Literature 32, 74, 181, 247, 731, 758, 1002, Observations A hemiparasitic shrub up to 1.5
1018. m tall, glabrous but the young parts with a some-
what silky off-white to grey or less often brown to-
mentum; leaves variable, mostly narrowly to
Selection of species broadly elliptical, 6-13 cm x (1.5-)3-8 cm, base at-
tenuate to cuneate, apex rounded to rarely acumi-
Dendrophthoe incarnata (Jack) Miq. nate, petiole 0.5-2 cm long; inflorescence a 6-12-
Fl. Ind. Bat. 1, 1:821 (1856). flowered raceme, axis l-2(-3.5) cm long; corolla
Synonyms Loranthus grandifrons King (1887), clavate, inflated in the lower part, 12-20(-28) mm
Dendrophthoe villosa Danser (1931). long, obtuse or rounded at apex, mostly green or
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: dedalu api gajah, yellow to orange, rarely red, tube in open flower
mendalu (Peninsular). (2-)6-12 mm long; fruit ovoid, up to 10 mm x 6
Distribution Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia mm. D. pentandra occurs in humid and open for-
and Sumatra. est, and is common in lowlands up to 500 m alti-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are tude, but occurs occasionally up to 1650 m alti-
mixed with turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and rice tude.
to make a poultice for treating ringworm. Selected sources 121, 173, 247, 456, 731, 732,
Observations A hemiparasitic shrub up to 2.5 760, 816.
m tall, glabrous but the young parts with a short, J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
dense, white or ochrous stellate tomentum; leaves
narrowly to broadly ovate, 10-30 cm x (2-)4-16
cm, base attenuate to truncate or slightly cordate,
apex acuminate, petiole 0.7-l(-3) cm long; inflo-
rescence a 12-40-flowered raceme, axis 5-8.5 cm
long; corolla weakly clavate, relatively slender,
DENTELLA 159
D e n d r o t r o p h e umbellata (Blume) Miq. near the sea, but also in mountains up to 1600 m
altitude.
Fl. Ned. Ind. 1, 1: 779 (1856). Genetic resources D. umbellata does not seem
SANTALACEAE to be threatened as its occurrence is rather wide-
2n =unknown spread.
Synonyms Henslowia umbellata (Blume) Blu- Prospects Although little is known about D.
me (1851), Henslowia monticola Gamble (1912), umbellata, its prospects as a medicinal plant seem
Dendrotrophe monticola (Gamble) Danser (1940). to be very limited; the uses are restricted, and a
Vernacular names Malaysia: dalu-dalu, akar first screening on antimicrobial activity showed
ara batu, akar api-api (Peninsular). Cambodia: se- negative results.
lam-phao. Thailand: ti mia muea yang (Songkhla). Literature 33, 121.
Vietnam: d[aa]y c[oor]tay, hen t[as]n. Other selected sources 62, 264, 789, 990.
Origin and geographic distribution D. um- Wongsatit Chuakul,
bellata occurs in Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsu- Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon
lar Malaysia, Sumatra and western Java; possibly & Orawan Ruangsomboon
also Flores.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
roots and leaves is used to treat fever, and a poul- Dentella repens (L.) J.R. Forster &
tice ofthe leaves is applied against headache. J.G. Forster
D. buxifolia (Blume) Miq. (synonym: Henslowia
buxifolia Blume) is also used in Peninsular Ma- Char. gen. pi.: 26,tab. 13 (1776).
laysia as a poultice to treat headache. D. fru- RUBIACEAE
tescens (Benth.) Danser (synonym: Henslowia fru- 2n = 36
tescens Benth.) is applied to wounds in Vietnam. Synonyms Oldenlandia repens L. (1767).
Properties In a general screening assay Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kremah, krokot
against a variety of fungi and bacteria in Malay- putih, mata yuyu (Java). Malaysia: bunga karang
sia, a methanolic extract of D. umbellata showed (Peninsular). Philippines: dilang-butiki (Tagalog).
negative results against all organisms tested. Origin and geographic distribution D. re-
Botany An epiphytic scandent shrub, with pens occurs in tropical Asia, tropical Australia,
branches up to 7 m long. Leaves arranged spirally, Micronesia and Polynesia. It is common through-
simple and entire, obovate, 2.5-7 cm x 2-4 cm, out South-East Asia.
cuneate at base, rounded at apex, leathery, with Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the plant is used
3-5 main veins; petiole up to 0.5 cm long; stipules for poulticing sores.
absent. Inflorescence umbel-like, with scaly pe- Botany A small creeping annual or perennial
duncle, usually 2-5-flowered. Flowers apparently herb up to 30 cm tall, prostrate stems abundantly
bisexual or functionally unisexual, very small, 5- rooting, strongly branched, forming large flat
merous, greenish; male flowers with stamens in- cushions. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, el-
serted at base of the perianth lobes, pistil rudi- liptical-oblong to oblong-obovate, 4-10 mm x 2-5
mentary; female flowers with inferior, 1-celled mm, sessile or shortly petiolate; stipules interpeti-
ovary and very short style having 5 obscure stig- olar, connate, with few hairs. Flowers solitary in
mas on top, stamens more or less developed. Fruit leaf axils, bisexual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel
a globose-ellipsoid or ovoid drupe 4-10 mm long; very short; calyx tubular, deeply 5-fid, persistent;
pyrene with longitudinal rows oftubercles, 1-seed- corolla gamopetalous, funnel-shaped, 5-15 mm
ed. Seed with many rounded lobes, endosperm long, much longer than calyx, tube yellowish,
abundant. hairy inside, lobes acute, white, usually with a
Dendrotrophe comprises about 30 species and oc- purple spot and hairy at base; stamens inserted
curs from the Himalayas, throughout South-East near the base of the corolla tube, included, with
Asia, to northern Australia (1 species in Queens- very short filaments; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style
land). deeply bifid. Fruit an indéhiscent, subglobose cap-
Ecology D. umbellata is epiphytic, perhaps par- sule 3-4 mm long, crowned by the calyx, usually
asitic, rooting in the bark of trees. In Java and In- densely hairy, many-seeded. Seeds small, angu-
do-China it occurs in mixed forest in the moun- lar, reticulate, dark brown. Seedling with epigeal
tains, in Java at 1400-2200 m altitude. In Penin- germination; cotyledons elliptical to ovate; hypo-
sular Malaysia, it is often found in sandy locations cotyl 2-6 mm long, epicotyl absent.
Literature 121,879.
Other selected sources 760.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Desmos Lour.
Fl. cochinch.: 329 ('Desmis'), 352 (1790).
ANNONACEAE
x = unknown; D. chinensis: In =20,D. cochinchi-
nensis: In = 16
Origin and geographic distribution Desmos
comprises approximately 20 species, and occurs in
Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
China, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
pines; possibly also elsewhere in Malesia and in
tropical Australia.
U s e s Decoctions of the roots of both Desmos
species treated here are commonly used in tradi-
tional medicine in Indo-China, China, Thailand
and Peninsular Malaysia to treat fever, and have
also been given to treat dysentery and vertigo,
and after childbirth. Dried flowers ofD. cochinchi-
nensis are used in Vietnam to treat repletion and
cough, and the roots are used in a complex mix-
ture against rheumatism.
Dentella repens (L.) J.R. Forster & J.G. Forster - A fragrant essential oil can be obtained from the
1,plant habit; 2, flower; 3, corolla opened, showing flowers of D. chinensis. Sometimes the stems of
stamens; 4,fruit; 5, seeds. lianescent Desmos plants are cut to obtain drink-
ing water in the forest.
The seeds are often dispersed by water. Properties The chloroform-soluble fraction of
Dentella belongs to the tribe Hedyotideae, togeth- an ethanolic extract ofD. chinensis showed signif-
er with e.g. Hedyotis and Oldenlandia. It is char- icant antibacterial activity against a wide range of
acterized by the 5-merous flowers and indéhiscent gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, with
capsule. D. repens is the only species of the genus. the flavonoids 5-methoxy-7-hydroxyflavanone and
A form with glabrous fruits is sometimes consid- 6'-hydroxydehydrouvaretin as the active com-
ered to represent a distinct species: D. serpyllifo- pounds. The same fraction also showed consider-
lia Wallich ex Craib. able in-vitro antileishmanial activity, with 6'-hy-
Ecology D. repens is a minor weed and occurs droxydehydrouvaretin as the main active com-
in fallow land, waste places, rice fields, sugar cane pound. Several other flavonoids have been identi-
plantations and dry riverbeds, especially on heavy fied in D. chinensis. One of these, desmal (8-
soils. It is locally abundant. formyl-2,5,7-trihydroxy-6-methylflavanone), is a
Management As a weed, D. repens is usually strong tyrosine kinase inhibitor, which may help
easily controlled manually. to suppress the development of neoplasms includ-
Genetic resources Being a common and wide- ing tumours and breast carcinomas. Several
spread weed, there is no danger ofgenetic erosion flavonoids have been isolated and identified from
for/), repens. D. cochinchinensis. A petroleum-ether extract of
Prospects The use of D. repens for treating its roots showed antimalarial activity. Cytotoxic
sores externally is similar to Hedyotis and Olden- compounds found in D. cochinchinensis include
landia species. Its affinity to these genera sug- desmosic acid and heynic acid.
gests the presence of similar compounds with pos- The sterol stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione isolated from
sible antiphlogistic activity such as iridoids. Re- D. dumosus (Roxb.) Safford from China exhibited
search might confirm this hypothesis. cytotoxicity.
DESMOS 161
Botany Shrubs, often with scandent branches,

or lianas up to 30 m long. Leaves alternate, distic-
hous, simple and entire, pinnately veined, subses-
sile or shortly petiolate; stipules absent. Flowers
solitary, axillary or extra-axillary, opposite the
leaves, pendulous, bisexual, often fragrant; sepals
3, free, valvate; petals 6 in 2 series, valvate,
clawed, limbs free; stamens numerous, cuneate,
with broad connective concealing the anther cells;
ovaries numerous, superior, stigmas bent with a
U-shaped opening and a groove. Fruit consisting
of numerous, stalked, moniliform carpels with up
to 8 segments; segments each with one seed, sepa-
rating at maturity.
Desmos is closely related to Dasymaschalon,
which is often considered congeneric (but then
usually distinguished as a section within Desmos).
Dasymaschalon differs having usually 3 petals
(inner series absent), which are cohering at the
edges.
What has been reported as D. cochinchinensis in
Peninsular Malaysia possibly refers to D. pedun-
culosus (A.DC.) Ban.
Ecology Both Desmos species treated occur in
open locations and borders of lowland forest, but
also in living fences, thickets and brushwood, up
to 600 m altitude.
Genetic resources D. chinensis and D. cochin- Desmos chinensis Lour, 1, twig with flower; 2,
chinensis are both widespread and occur common- twig with fruit.
ly in secondary habitats. They consequently do not
seem endangered or liable to genetic erosion. A (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Thai-
complete taxonomie revision of the genus is still land, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bor-
missing, and is needed tojudge the needs for con- neo and the Philippines.
servation of species. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
Prospects Desmos includes interesting medici- root has been given to treat dysentery and vertigo,
nal plants containing flavonoids with antibacteri- and after childbirth. The roots are used in tradi-
al, antileishmanial, anticancer and antimalarial tional medicine in China to treat malaria. A fra-
activities. More research seems worthwhile, also grant essential oil can be obtained from the flow-
in view of the wide use of Desmos in traditional ers. D. chinensis is sometimes planted in gardens
medicine, e.g. as a febrifuge. for its fragrant flowers.
Literature 444, 759, 860. Observations A scandent shrub with strag-
gling branches, up to 5 m tall; leaves oblong to
lanceolate, 5.5-25 cm x 2.5-7.5 cm, membranous;
Selection of species flowers greenish-yellow, sepals ovate-lanceolate,
0.5-1 cm long, petals oblong-lanceolate, 4-13 cm
Desmos chinensis Lour. long; ripe carpels with 1-7 segments, shining
Fl. cochinch.: 352 (1790). black. D. chinensis occurs in open locations and
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar pisang- borders of lowland forest, but also in living fences
pisang, kenanga hutan, akar darah (Peninsular). and brushwood, up to 600 m altitude.
Philippines: ilang-ilang gubat (Tagalog). Thai- Selected sources 62, 121,444, 759, 760, 860.
land: kluai khruea (Saraburi), khruea khao klaep
(Loei), saao yut (central, peninsular). Vietnam:
hoo gi[er] th[ow]m, n[oos]i c[oo]i.
Distribution Nepal, eastern India, Burma
Desmos cochinchinensis Lour. poisonous compounds in the plants there, but this
Fl. cochinch.: 352 (1790). may also be caused by the fact that in South-East
Vernacular names Malaysia: larak salai, Asia Dichapetalum usually occurs scattered in
larak api, kenanga hutan (Peninsular). Thailand: closed forest and not in pastures. Numerous cases
naang dam (Nakhon Ratehasima), yom (Malay, of poisoning of livestock have been documented,
Pattani), saa lao (Prachuap Khiri Khan). Viet- particularly by D. cymosum (Hook.) Engl, in east-
nam: hoa d[er] l[oo]ng den. ern and southern Africa and D. barteri Engl, and
Distribution Indo-China, southern China, D. toxicarium in western Africa. Fluoroacetate
Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia. has been recorded as the lethal toxin in D. cymo-
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the sum, D. barteri and D. toxicarium; this compound
roots has been given against fever. Dried flowers is converted by enzymes into fluoroeiträte, which
are used in Vietnam to treat repletion and cough, upsets the Krebs cycle in heart cells. Fluoro-fatty
and the roots in a complex mixture against acids are present in the seeds of D. toxicarium,
rheumatism. The roots are used in traditional which may cause death in doses as low as 10
medicine in China to treat malaria. mg/kg. Triterpenoids called dichapetalins have
Observations A scandent shrub or liana; leaves been isolated from African Dichapetalum. Dicha-
oblong to oblong-elliptical, 10-22 cm x 5-10 cm, petalin A isolated from D. madagascariense ex-
thin-leathery; flowers greenish-yellow then yel- hibits strong and selective cytotoxicity against
low, sepals ovate-lanceolate, c. 7 mm long, petals brine shrimps and some selected cell lines. There
broadly ovate, c. 4 cm long; ripe carpels with 2-5 are some reports of high levels of metallic sub-
segments. D. cochinchinensis occurs in open loca- stances in Dichapetalum leaves, e.g. for lead in D.
tions in lowland forest and in thickets. madagascariense, and for nickel in the Malesian
Selected sources 121,547, 860. D. gelonioides (Roxb.) Engl.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens Antimicrobial activity has been demonstrated for
a D. madagascariense extract, both against bacte-
ria and pathogenic fungi.
D i c h a p e t a l u m g r i f f i t h i i (Hook.f.) E n g l . Botany A climbing or creeping shrub, some-
times erect and up to 4 m tall; twigs rusty and
Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3(4): 348 shaggy pilose. Leaves alternate, pseudo-distic-
(1896). hous, subsessile, simple and entire, lanceolate to
DICHAPETALACEAE elliptical, 12-22 cm x 4-11 cm, cordate at base,
2« = unknown acuminate at apex, usually shaggy pilose on veins
Synonyms Chailettia griffithii Hook.f. (1875), below, often with orbicular, flat glands below;
Chailettia setosa King (1896). stipules narrowly triangular to subulate. Inflores-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: meroyan kabut, cence an axillary glomerule up to 1 cm long,
akar peleh angin, kedondong bulan (Peninsular). many-flowered, shaggy pilose. Flowers bisexual,
Origin and geographic distribution D. grif- 5-merous; sepals ovate; petals free, spatulate, c.
fithii is restricted to Peninsular Malaysia. 3.5 mm long, c. 1 mm incised, whitish or creamy;
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the stamens free; disk consisting of 5 lobes alternat-
roots ofD. griffithii is drunk as a stimulant during ing with the stamens; ovary superior, 3-celled,
the first 3 days after childbirth. The fruits are edi- woolly pubescent, style 3-partite at apex. Fruit
ble. drupaceous, obovoid, (2-)3-lobed, 3.5-4 cm long, c.
In Africa, several Dichapetalum species are used 1 cm long stalked, rusty and shaggy pilose, yellow
in traditional medicine, e.g. for the treatment of or orange when ripe, l-2(-3)-seeded. Seeds lack-
infectious diseases, rheumatism and sores. An ex- ing albumen, cotyledons planoconvex, fleshy.
ample is D. madagascariense Poir., which is ap- D. griffithii flowers mainly during May-July,
plied to treat jaundice, sores and urethritis. The whereas ripe fruits are most common in Septem-
fruits of some African species (particularly D. toxi- ber-January.
carium (G. Don) Bâillon) are used as a rodenti- Dichapetalum is a large genus of approximately
cide. 120 species and with a pantropical distribution.
Properties Several Dichapetalum species in The main centre of speciation is Africa, where
Africa are notorious poisonous plants. However, about 90 species are found. Approximately 15
there are no reports of poisoning by Dichapetalum species occur in Malesia.
in South-East Asia. It may be that there are no Ecology D. griffithii occurs in mixed primary
DlEFFENBACHIA 163
and secondary lowland forest, also in bamboo for- va and Borneo. Ridleyandra is larger with 23
est, up to 200 m altitude. species. Flowering D. frutescens closely resembles
Genetic resources D. griffithii has a very lim- Henckelia species, but it can be distinguished by
ited area of distribution, but within those areas it its 4 stamens (2in Henckelia).
is not uncommon in different forest types includ- Ecology D. frutescens is locally common on
ing secondary forest. At present, there seems to be stream banks and in damp ravines in primary hill
no reason to consider it endangered. forest.
Prospects Too little is known about D. griffithii Genetic resources D. frutescens has a very
to assess the scientific basis of its (very limited) limited area of distribution and might easily be-
applications in traditional medicine. come endangered.
Literature 121,247. Prospects Apoorly known species, it is unlikely
Other selected sources 331,789. that D.frutescens will gain importance as a medic-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens inal plant.
Literature 121,985.
Other selected sources 789.
Didissandra frutescens (Jack) C.B. R. Kiew
Clarke
A.DC. & C D C , Monogr. phan. 5(1): 67, t. 7 Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott
(1883).
GESNERIACEAE Wiener Z. Kunst 1829(3): 803 (1829).
2ra=20 ARACEAE
Vernacular names Malaysia: tarom hutan 2n = 34, 68
(Peninsular). Synonyms Dieffenbachia maculata (Lodd.) D.
Origin and geographic distribution D. fru- Don (1839), Dieffenbachia picta (Lodd.) Schott
tescens occurs in north-western Peninsular (1852).
Malaysia (Penang and Perak). Vernacular n a m e s Dumb cane (En). Vietnam:
Uses The roots of D. frutescens were once ad- m[oo]n tr[uw][owf]ng sanh.
ministered to women during and after childbirth. Origin and geographic distribution D.
Botany A shrubby herb up to 150 cm tall, with seguine originates from tropical America, and is
erect or decumbent stem. Leaves opposite, in dis- commonly cultivated as an ornamental in gardens
tant pairs, simple, elliptical to lanceolate, 15-30 elsewhere in the tropics, including South-East
cm x 5-12 cm, base cuneate, apex acute to shortly Asia. It is a common indoor potplant in colder re-
acuminate, minutely crenulate-dentate, hairy at gions.
both surfaces; petiole 3-10 cm long; stipules ab- U s e s D. seguine is a popular ornamental, espe-
sent. Inflorescence an axillary cyme with short pecially those forms with variegated leaves. The sap
duncle, (l-)3(-4)-flowered. Flowers bisexual, 5- is used in tropical America as an antidote
merous; pedicel c. 1.5 cm long; sepals free, narrow- (counter-irritant) against snakebites, and to treat
ly lanceolate, lilac to dark purple; corolla c. 4.5 cm rheumatism and gout externally. It is also used to
long, 2-lipped, with funnel-shaped, curved tube treat tumours and warts. The seed oil is applied
and rounded lobes, pubescent, white with yellow- on wounds, burns and inflammations. In Brazil a
ish mouth; stamens 4, didynamous, anthers coher- leaf decoction is gargled to relieve angina. Howev-
ing in pairs; disk forming a cylindrical cup around er, the plant is better known for its toxic proper-
the ovary; ovary superior, 1-celled, style pilose, ties. It is used to poison rats and cockroaches, and
stigma slightly 2-lobed. Fruit a slender cylindrical for making arrow poison.
capsule 8-10 cm long, glabrous, with longitudinal Properties D. seguine is notorious for its toxic
ribs, many-seeded. effects. It may cause dermatitis, corneal injury
The flowers are probably pollinated by insects and has a toxic effect on mucous membranes,
such as bees. probably by ejection of calcium oxalate crystals
Many species originally described in Didissandra (raphides) leading to injury of mast cells and a
have been referred to various other genera, of subsequent massive histamine release. When
which the most important is Ridleyandra. Didis- parts of the plant are ingested, this can lead to
sandra in the emended sense comprises 8 species significant toxicity, especially in children. Howev-
and occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Ja- er, in most cases the symptoms are of short dura-
tion and the outcome can be classified as minor. Origin and geographic distribution D. hex-
The toxic manifestations have been partly attrib- andra has an extremely wide area of distribution:
uted to proteolytic activity, but the exact principle West and Central Africa, tropical America,
is not yet known. Contraceptive activity in rats throughout tropical Asia, and tropical Australia.
has been recorded. U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia the root of a papil-
Botany A herb with ascending to erect stem, ionaceous liana, probably D. hexandra, is boiled
having distinct, smooth and green internodes. and the decoction drunk for pain in the region of
Leaves alternate, simple and entire, oblong-ovate the heart. In West and Central Africa the pow-
to elliptical, 15-50 cm x 7.5-20 cm, fleshy, often dered seed is used as an external application for
variegated; petiole usually long, with petiolar itch and rheumatism; it is also included in pre-
sheath almost reaching blade. Inflorescence a scriptions to be taken orally to treat cough and
spadix, several together, short-peduncled; spathe asthma. The seed, alone or together with Aframo-
tubular at base, upper part expanded into a short mum seeds, is taken as a tonic and stimulant, and
blade, green; spadix cylindrical, shortly stalked, in Nigeria it is used against splenitis and applied
female zone at base, adnate to spathe, laxly flow- externally to kill head lice. Locally, the seeds, ei-
ered, male zone at apex, densely flowered. Flowers ther roasted or boiled, are used as a thickener for
unisexual, without perianth; male flowers with soup. In Africa the seeds are widely used in games
4-5 connate stamens, anthers sessile; female flow- (e.g. as marbles), as ornaments (e.g. in necklaces)
ers with subglobose ovary, 1-3-celled, stigma ses- and as a good-luck charm.
sile, broad, staminodes 4-5. Fruit a subglobose Properties Research on Dioclea has focused on
berry, orange to red at maturity, 1-3-seeded. neotropical species, in particular on their lectins,
Seeds ovoid-globose, without endosperm. which, for example, induce histamine release (in-
Dieffenbachia comprises about 30 species native teracting with sugars in the antibodies bound to
to the American tropics. the mast cells), and their flavonoids, such as dio-
Ecology In tropical America, D. seguine occurs clein, which showed analgesic and vasorelaxant
in mixed evergreen lowland forest and lower mon- effects.
tane forest, up to 1300 m altitude. A root extract ofD. hexandra (at 100 ppm) result-
Management Propagation of ornamental Dief- ed in 70% mortality in the freshwater snail Buli-
fenbachia can be practised by tip cuttings, stem nus globulus. Roots contain considerable amounts
cuttings 5-8 cm long, air layering and division of of rotenone. The seeds contain toxic substances
basal shoots, using a 1:1 peat/sand mix. such as phytic acid (320 mg/100 g), tannin (150
Genetic resources There is no information mg/100 g) and hydrogen cyanide (2 mg/100 g).
about the genetic variability of cultivated D. Heating apparently reduces the toxic effects for
seguine, although it is commonly cultivated as an human consumption.
ornamental, also in South-East Asia. Botany A large liana up to 30 m long; young
P r o s p e c t s Although D. seguine can be danger- stems covered with spreading, brown, short and
ous for children, it will maintain its importance as long hairs, later glabrescent, ridged and lenticel-
an attractive and hardy foliage ornamental in late. Leaves alternate, 3-foliolate; petiole up to 15
South-East Asia. The prospects as a medicinal cm long; stipules 8-12 mm long; leaflets oblong to
plant seem limited due to its toxic properties. oblong-elliptical, 6.5-15 cm x 4-12 cm, base
Literature 62, 163,268, 647, 892. rounded to slighly subcordate, apex acuminate,
Other selected sources 121,611,646. variably hairy on both surfaces. Inflorescence an
R.H.M.J. Lemmens axillary pseudoraceme, rachis 10-30 cm long, pe-
duncle 15-55 cm long; bracts 4-16(-20) cm long,
patent, early caducous. Flowers bisexual, pedicel-
Dioclea hexandra (Ralph) Mabb. late; calyx campanulate, 1-1.5 cm long, 5-toothed
with 2 upper teeth connate, pubescent; corolla pa-
Taxon 29: 605 (1980). pilionaceous, 1.5-2.5 cm long, purple-blue, stan-
LEGUMINOSAE dard rounded or ovate, with basal auricles, wings
In = 22 about as long as keel, keel incurved, obtuse or
Synonyms Dioclea reflexa Hook.f (1849), Dio- beaked; fertile stamens 6, sterile ones 4, 9 connate
cleajavanica Benth. (1852). and 1 free; ovary superior, subsessile, 1-celled,
Vernacular n a m e s Marbles vine (En). Malay- style incurved. Fruit a linear-oblong to semi-orbic-
sia: kacang laut, pinang kesa, kacang pinggang. ular pod, compressed or turgid, 6.5-12(-16) cm x
DiosPYROS 165
2-6.5 cm, indéhiscent,1-5-seeded. Seeds rounded, bark as a bechic in the Philippines. Fruits are
compressed, 2.7-3.5 cm x 2.4 cm, with very large used as a source of fish poison, e.g. fruits of D.
hilum encircling c. 3/4 ofthe seed. montana and D. wallichii, as are those ofD. ehre-
D. hexandra can be found flowering and fruiting tioides Wallich ex G. Don, D. lanceifolia Roxb., D.
throughout the year. Dioclea is primarily a maritima Blume, D. rufa King & Gamble and D.
neotropical genus comprising some 50 species, toposia Buch.-Ham. Pounded bark is sometimes
with 3 species indigenous in South-East Asia. D. employed for the same purpose.
hexandra is a very variable species, formerly pro- In Indo-China the fruits of D. decandra Lour, are
posed to be divided, but no combination of charac- prescribed to treat restlessness, insomnia, and di-
ters can be found to justify a division at any level arrhoea. Fruit pulp is used as a vermifuge for chil-
in South-East Asia. dren, and ashes of the rind are applied to wounds
Ecology D. hexandra is often encountered in and inflammation of the skin. Finely cut, roasted
forest margins, often not far from water, but also leaves are used as cataplasms on ulcers and sores.
in open forest and brushwood, from sea-level up to In Thailand the bark and wood of D. rhodocalyx
450(-1100) m altitude. The seed has considerable Kurz is applied as a general tonic and in the treat-
buoyancy and can be dispersed by sea currents. ment of impotence and leucorrhoea. The fruit is
Genetic resources In view ofits wide distribu- used as an antinauseant, antidiarrhoeal, an-
tion and presence in secondary habitats, D. hexan- thelmintic and anti-inflammatory; externally it is
dra does not appear to be threatened by genetic applied to abscesses and infected wounds. The
erosion. The genetic diversity is probably consid- roasted fruit rind is taken as a diuretic and to treat
erable, considering its extremely wide distribution leucorrhoea. In Taiwan the stems of D. maritima
and variability. are used as a traditional remedy for rheumatism.
The fruits of many Diospyros species are edible;
Prospects Future research on the pharmaco-
the most important fruit trees are D. blancoi
logical activities of Dioclea in South-East Asia
A.DC, D. digyna Jacq. and D. kaki L.f. Some of
seems justified, given the wide application in tra-
these species are also well known medicinally. In
ditional medicine in Africa and the interesting
Malaysia the dried calyces and peduncles ofD. ka-
compounds and activities found in tropical Ameri-
ki are used for treating coughs and difficult
can species. The future use of the roots of D. hex-
breathing. The fruit is considered stomachic, as-
andra in South-East Asia for their rotenone con-
tringent and pectoral. The juice from unripe fruits
tent is not expected to be important.
reduces blood pressure, stops haemorrhages and
Literature 62, 120,121, 965. acts as a laxative. The peduncle is considered
Other selected sources 7, 25, 75,244, 935. stomachic, anti-emetic and bechic. The bark and
L.J.G. van der Maesen wood are applied as a styptic on wounds and ul-
cers. A leaf decoction is used as a bechic and an-
tifebrile, and in Japan as a traditional remedy for
D i o s p y r o s L. hypertensive diseases. Various preparations of
bark and leaves of D. digyna are used to treat
Sp. pi. 2: 1057 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:478 (1754). fever and skin diseases.
EBENACEAE
x = 15;D. montana: 2n = 30 The unripe fruits of a few species (D. malabarica
Origin and geographic distribution Dios- (Desr.) Kostel. and D. mollis Griffith) are used to
pyros consists of over 300 species and occurs dye cloth black and for tanning nets and some-
throughout the tropics. Some 170 species have times hides. They are also applied medicinally.
been recognized within the Malesian region; 70 The unripe fruits of D. malabarica are used to
species occur within Peninsular Malaysia and treat diarrhoea, dysentery and leucorrhoea. Fruit
about 100 in Indonesia. juice is applied to wounds and sores. The fresh
Uses In South-East Asia various parts of nu- fruit or a fruit extract of D. mollis is used as an
merous Diospyros species are used medicinally; anthelmintic, being effective against hookworm
especially unripe fruits are used in traditional and tapeworm but not ascarids.
medicine. The fruit juice is applied to wounds and The fancy wood of large-diameter Diospyros is in
ulcers and is drunk in cases of dysentery and great demand for high quality sculptures and
fever; it possesses antibacterial and anthelmintic carving. It is also valued for furniture, cabinet
activities. Bark extracts are also widely adminis- work, household utensils, and toys, sometimes al-
tered, e.g. a decoction of D. pilosanthera Blanco so for boxes and construction.
Properties Diospyros fruits used as a fish poi- Isodiospyrin isolated from D. maritima stems ex-
son are generally poor in tannin content. D. de- hibited strong in-vitro cytotoxicity against he-
candra fruits contain a glucosidic tannin yielding patoma, colon carcinoma and cervical carcinoma.
a pyrocatechic derivative, or phlobaphene, credit- Botany Evergreen, usually dioecious or some-
ed with anthelmintic properties. D. mollis fruits times monoecious or polygamous shrubs or small
contain diospyrol diglycoside as the active princi- to large trees up to 40(-50) m tall. Leaves alter-
ple responsible for the anthelmintic activity. De- nate, distichous, simple and entire, pinnately
composition of the active compound to diospyrol veined, without stipules. Inflorescence axillary or
causes systemic toxicity to visual nerves and the cauliflorous on older branches or rarely on the
retina. This may result in temporary or perma- trunk, cymose, 1-many-flowered, bracteate. Flow-
nent blindness depending on the dose. ers usually unisexual, regular, 3-5(-8)-merous;
Tannin from the leaves of D. kaki increases the pedicel articulate; sepals united at base, some-
lifespan and decreases haemorrhage and infarc- times free, the lobes valvate or imbricate, persis-
tion in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive tent in fruit; petals basally united into a tube,
rats. A methanol extract from the leaves showed with patent lobes; stamens (3-)12-20(-100), often
hypotensive activity in urethane anaesthetized inserted at the base ofthe corolla tube, sometimes
rats. Flavonoids isolated from the leaves inhibited on the receptacle, rarely higher up on the corolla
angiotensin-converting enzyme activity in a dose- tube, often in 2 whorls, staminodes usually pre-
dependent manner. In a screening programme for sent in female flowers; ovary superior, 2-16-
Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) in- celled, rudimentary in male flowers, styles ( l - ) 2 -
hibitors, using ACAT extracted from rat liver mi- 8. Fruit a berry, with fibrous to fleshy pericarp,
crosomes,D. kaki extract inhibited more than 90% 1-16-seeded. Seeds with a thin leathery testa, and
ofACAT activity. ACAT is a key enzyme responsi- thick, horny, smooth or ruminate endosperm;
ble for cholesteryl ester formation in atherogene- cotyledons leafy, flat. Seedling usually with
sis and in cholesterol absorption from the in- epigeal germination, sometimes hypogeal; first 2
testines. Under pathological conditions, formation leaves opposite or alternate, subsequent leaves al-
and accumulation of cholesteryl ester constitute a ternate.
characteristic feature of early lesions of athero-
All Diospyros species are characterized by the ar-
sclerotic plaques. ACAT inhibitors are expected to
chitectural growth model of Massart, i.e. an or-
be effective in the treatment of atherosclerosis
thotropic, monopodial trunk with rhythmic
and hypercholesterolaemia.
growth producing regular tiers of branches. The
Various extracts from the leaves of D. montana seeds are dispersed by birds, bats and monkeys.
show broad-range antibacterial activity. Alcohol Diospyros has been subdivided into 5 subgenera:
extracts from the bark exhibit central nervous Diospyros, Maba, Hierniodendron, Cargillia, and
system depressant activity in mice and rats, spas- Mabacea. The first two are subdivided further into
molytic activity in rabbits and guinea-pigs, and many sections. The distinction between the sub-
hypotensive activity in anaesthetized dogs. An genera and sections is not always clear. Several
ethanol extract from the bark further showed po- cultivars of species producing edible fruits are
tent anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities known, including cultivars with seedless fruits.
in rats and analgesic activity in mice. The growth Ecology Diospyros usually occurs in primary
of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in mice was also in- lowland evergreen rain forest up to 900 m alti-
hibited, diospyrin being the active principle. tude. Some species occur in secondary forest, low-
Diospyrin exhibits in-vitro anti-protozoal activity er montane or montane forest up to 1700 m alti-
against Leishmania donovani. Diospyrin and tude, in peat-swamp forest, kerangas forest or on
some of its derivatives also show in-vitro antiplas- limestone hills and ultrabasic soils.
modial effects. Management Propagation of Diospyros is by
Alcohol extracts ofD. malabarica have anti-amoe- seed or stumps. Species producing edible fruits
bic, antiviral and hypoglycaemic activities, and an may also be propagated by air layering, budding,
ether extract from the fruit displays antibacterial grafting or separation of root suckers. Diospyros
activity. An ethanol extract of aboveground parts can be coppiced well.
showed activity on human epidermoid carcinoma Genetic resources The Diospyros species
of the nasopharynx in tissue culture, and diuretic treated here are not sought for their timber, are
activity. The extract significantly prevented rats relatively widespread and occur in both primary
from stress, gastric ulcers and hepatotoxicity. and secondary forest; therefore the risk of genetic
DiosPYROs 167
erosion seems to be limited. However, in general

Diospyros prefers primary lowland rain forest as
its habitat, which is under increasing pressure,
and protection is needed for many species.
Prospects Several Diospyros species tested
showed interesting pharmacological properties,
e.g. anthelmintic, hypotensive, antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic and anti-tu-
mour activities, supporting many uses in tradi-
tional medicine. In most cases fruits and leaves
constitute the medicinal plant parts, and this fa-
cilitates sustainable exploitation of the resources.
Therefore, promotion of Diospyros as a medicinal
plant seems desirable, but more pharmacological
investigations are still needed.
Literature 479, 517, 541,542, 594, 946, 967.
Diospyros montana Roxb.

PL Coromandel 1:37 (1795).
Synonyms Diospyros cordifolia Roxb. (1795),
Diospyros diversilimba Merr. & Chun (1935),
Diospyros calcarea Fletcher (1937).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: bidara gunung
(Java), morotoalah (Sumba), morotombo (Sula-
wesi). Malaysia: mentua pungsu (Peninsular). Diospyros montana Roxb. - 1, twig with male flow-
Philippines: antinagam (Ilocos Norte), kamagong- ers; 2, male flower; 3, female flower; 4, twig with
bundok, kamagong-liitan (Filipino). Burma fruits.
(Myanmar): gyok tawbut. Thailand: tan-dam,
thanfaiphi. Vietnam: th[ij] n[us]i, nh[oo]n. eter, glabrous. D. montana is found in monsoon
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- forest, primary as well as secondary, up to 600 m
mar), Indo-China, Hainan, Thailand, Peninsular altitude.
Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda Is- Selected sources 121,249, 541,731,732, 990.
lands, the Philippines, Sulawesi, and northern
Australia. Diospyros multiflora Blanco
Uses In Thailand and India fruits are used to Fl. Filip ed. 1:303 (1837).
treat hiccups, ulcers, diseases of the urinary pas- Synonyms Diospyros canomoi A.DC. (1844),
sages, biliousness, dysentery and bile tract stones. Diospyros lotus Blanco (1845) non L.
In India the bark is used to treat delirium in high Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kayu bolomong-
fevers, vomiting and jaundice. The root has aborti- koeni (Sulawesi). Philippines: kanumai (Tagalog,
facient activity. Iloko), maratampui (Iloko).
Observations A small tree up to 15 m tall, bole Distribution The Philippines (Luzon, Leyte,
up to 60 cm in diameter, twigs and trunk with oc- Mindanao) and Sulawesi.
casional spines; leaves ovate to obovate, 1.5-15 cm Uses Bark and leaves are caustic, and are used
x 1-7.5 cm, base rounded to cordate, apex obtuse as a cure for e.g. furfuraceous herpes, erysipelas
to obtusely acuminate, initially sparsely pubes- and ringworm. The bark is also applied as a fish
cent above and pubescent below but later glabres- poison, and is included in a recipe for arrow poi-
cent on both surfaces, tertiary venation reticulate, son. The fruit juice is used as an antipyretic, but is
impressed above, inconspicuous below; male flow- irritating when in contact with the skin.
ers in 3-10-flowered cymes, 4(-5)-merous, sta- Observations A medium-sized tree up to 25 m
mens 16-20, female flowers solitary, 4-merous, tall, bole up to 60 cm in diameter, twigs glabres-
ovary with 4 styles; fruit globose, 1-4 cm in diam- cent; leaves ovate-oblong to broadly lanceolate,
7-20 cm x 3-9 cm, base rounded, apex bluntly in Peninsular Malaysia after childbirth. It is also
acuminate, glabrescent on both sides; male flow- used to treat fever and ague, and for fomenting
ers in dense many-flowered cymes, 4(-5)-merous, sprains.
stamens 16, female flowers in (l-)5-15-flowered The boiled leaves of D. barbata (C.B. Clarke)
cymes, ovary with 1 style; fruit globose, 2-3 cm in Franken & Roos from Burma (Myanmar), Laos,
diameter. D. multiflora occurs in thickets, sec- Vietnam, Hainan and Thailand, are used in Viet-
ondary forest and primary forest at low and medi- nam to treat scabies; the acidulous leaves are edi-
um altitudes. ble and are used particularly in fish dishes.
Selected sources 65,621,731,760. Diplectria is occasionally cultivated as an orna-
mental.
Diospyros wallichii King &Gamble ex Properties Tannins are common in Melastom-
Williams ataceae, particularly of the ellagitannin type. The
Bull. Herb. Boiss. sér. 2, 5: 429 (1905). presence of ellagic acid has been demonstrated in
Vernacular names Malaysia: tuba buah, po- the wood, bark and twigs of almost all species in-
kok ikan mati, taring pelandok (Peninsular). vestigated of the tribe Dissochaeteae (to which
Thailand: ku-mung, dam khao, nian paa (peninsu- Diplectria belongs).
lar). Botany Straggling shrubs or lianas; nodes with
Distribution India, Thailand, Peninsular Ma- interpetiolar ridges; indumentum consisting of
laysia, Sumatra and Borneo. stellate hairs, often mixed with normal hairs or
Uses In Malaysia the leaves are applied as a bristles. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, 3-5-
poultice on yaws. The fruits are used as a fish poi- veined; stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal
son. or axillary thyrse. Flowers bisexual, regular, 4-
Observations A small tree up to 15 m tall, bole merous; calyx collar-shaped, truncate, irregularly
up to 12 cm in diameter, twigs and trunk un- undulate or minutely lobed; petals free; stamens
armed; leaves oblong to lanceolate, 10-45 cm x unequal, 4 fertile and 4 staminodial, each stamen
3-24 cm, base obtuse or acute, apex acuminate, usually having an apical and 2 lateral appendages
glabrous above, initially pubescent below but later and opening by a pore; ovary inferior, 4-celled.
glabrescent, tertiary venation vaguely transverse Fruit a rather dry pome, many-seeded. Seeds
to vaguely reticulate; male flowers in many-flow- straight to slightly curved, lacking endosperm.
ered cymes, 4(-5)-merous, stamens 14-18, female Diplectria belongs to a close-knit group of genera
flowers solitary or in an up to 5-flowered cyme, in the tribe Dissochaeteae, which also includes e.g.
4(-5)-merous, ovary with 4 styles; fruit depressed- Dalenia, Dissochaeta and Medinilla. Diplectria is
globose, 2-3 cm x 1.5-3 cm, velutinous or tomen- distinguished by the presence of 4 epipetalous fer-
tose but glabrescent, the sides of the calyx lobes tile stamens and 4 alternipetalous staminodes.
proliferating into callus-like woody tissue. D. wal- Ecology The Diplectria species treated here all
lichii occurs in both primary and secondary low- occur in primary as well as secondary lowland for-
land rain forest up to 700 m altitude. est, but occasionally up to 1500 m altitude.
Selected sources 121,249, 731,990. Genetic resources D. diuaricata, D. stipularis
Wardah and D. viminalis all have a wide distribution and
also occur in secondary forest, and would conse-
quently seem not to be endangered. However,
Diplectria (Blume) Reichenb. several other Diplectria species are narrow en-
demics and may be liable to genetic erosion, e.g.
Deut. Bot. Herb.-Buch: 174 (1841). D. conica Bakh.f. in Sumatra, D. latifolia (Triana)
MELASTOMATACEAE O. Kuntze and D. micrantha Veldk. in Borneo, D.
x =unknown furfurascens (Elmer) Nayar in the Philippines,
Origin a n d geographic distribution Diplec- and D.papuana (Mansf.) Bakh.f. in Irian Jaya.
tria comprises 11 species and is distributed from Prospects Nothing is known about the phyto-
eastern India and Burma (Myanmar), through In- chemistry or pharmacological properties of Diplec-
do-China, Hainan (China) and Thailand, to Male- tria. Research is needed to confirm the attributed
sia (but absent in central and eastern Java, the medicinal activities.
Lesser Sunda Islands, the northern Philippines, Literature 121,331,964.
and rare in New Guinea).
Uses A decoction, usually ofthe roots, is applied
DlPTERACANTHUS 169
Selection of species nodes strongly pulvinate; leaves oblong to lanceo-

late, 7.5-16.5(-18) cm x (3-)3.5-6 cm, petiole 4-13
Diplectria divaricata (Willd.) O. mm long; flower buds up to 7 mm long, corolla
Kuntze white tinged with pink, red or mauve, stamens
Revis, gen. pi. 1:246 (1891). with not-beaked anthers, lateral appendages on
Synonyms Anplectrum divaricatum (Willd.) staminodes usually present; fruit subglobose, up
Triana (1871),Anplectrum glaucum (Jack) Triana to 7 mm in diameter. D. stipularis occurs in pri-
(1871). mary and secondary rain forest up to 750 m alti-
Vernacular n a m e s Brunei: uduk-uduk hutan. tude.
Indonesia: luhu-luhu akar, sidodo akar, ihadud Selected sources 121,964.
(Sumatra). Malaysia: sendudok rimbah, sendudok
halus, akar keremunting (Peninsular). Thailand: D i p l e c t r i a v i m i n a l i s ( J a c k ) O. K u n t z e
phlong in (Trang). Revis, gen. pi. 1:246 (1891).
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), peninsular Synonyms Anplectrum viminale (Jack) Triana
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Suma- (1871),Backeria viminalis (Jack) Bakh.f. (1943).
tra, western Java, Borneo, the Philippines, the Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kadudu besar
Moluccas and New Guinea. (Sumatra), karamunting akar (Belitung), haren-
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the dong (Java). Malaysia: sendudok akar, akar sindo-
roots is used to treat fever and ague, whereas a do (Peninsular).
poultice of the leaves is applied to the head to Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
treat giddiness. Ahot decoction is used for foment- Malaysia, Sumatra, Belitung, western Java, Bor-
ing sprains and as an alterative during the first 3 neo and New Guinea.
days after childbirth. D. divaricata is occasionally Uses A decoction is used in Peninsular Malaysia
planted as ornamental. as an alterative during the first 3 days after child-
Observations A straggling, much-branched birth.
shrub or liana to 15 m long, stem up to 8 cm in di- Observations A shrub or liana up to 6 m long,
ameter, interpetiolar ridges on nodes inconspicu- sometimes an epiphyte, interpetiolar ridges on
ous to linear; leaves ovate-oblong to lanceolate, nodes linear; leaves ovate-oblong to lanceolate,
(3.5-)5-13(-17) cm x (1.5-)2.5-6.5(-8) cm, petiole (3.5-)4.5-10.5 cm x (l-)1.5-4.5 cm, petiole 3-9 mm
3-10 mm long; flower buds 6-12(-15) mm long, long; flower buds up to 7 mm long, corolla white,
corolla white, pink, purple, blue or violet, stamens sometimes with pinkish hue, stamens with not-
with long-beaked anthers, lateral appendages on beaked anthers, lateral appendages on stamin-
staminodes usually absent; fruit subglobose, 4-8 odes usually absent; fruit urceolate, up to 6 mm in
mm in diameter. D. divaricata occurs in primary diameter. D. viminalis occurs in primary as well
as well as secondary lowland forest, often along as secondary forest up to 1000 m altitude.
rivers and roads and on open locations, sometimes Selected sources 964.
up to 1500 m altitude. R.H.M.J. Lemmens
D i p l e c t r i a s t i p u l a r i s ( B l u m e ) O. Dipteracanthus repens (L.) Hassk.

Kuntze
Revis, gen. pi. 1:246 (1891). v.d. Hoeve & de Vriese, Tijdschr. Natuurl.
Synonyms Anplectrum annulatum Triana ex Gesch. 10: 129 (1843).
C.B. Clarke (1879), Backeria stipularis (Blume) ACANTHACEAE
Bakh.f. (1943). 2n = unknown
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kayu mata hari Synonyms Ruellia repens L. (1767).
(Peninsular). Vernacular names Indonesia: plinten, remah,
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, sekatan (Java). Malaysia: akar keremak, deras
Sumatra, western Java and Borneo. malam, rumput halyor (Peninsular). Thailand:
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction is chaa hom, faa maeng (Nakhon Ratchasima). Viet-
used as an alterative during the first 3 days after nam: qu[ar] n[oor]b[of], song d[uwj]c.
childbirth. Origin and geographic distribution D. re-
Observations A liana up to 15 m long, stem up pens is widely distributed in India, Burma (Myan-
to 7.5 cm in diameter, interpetiolar ridges on mar), Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan, Thai-
land and throughout the Malesian region except

New Guinea.
U s e s In Malaysia, pounded leaves are used ex-
ternally as a poultice to treat sore legs, ulcers and
cuts, as a cooling agent and as an anodyne e.g. to
relieve toothache. In China, bruised plants are
fried with eggs and taken internally to treat
cough.
D. patula (Jacq.) Nees is used as a medicinal plant
in India. Pounded roots and leaves of Ruellia
praetermissa Schweinf. ex Lindau (a species close
to and sometimes confused with D. patula, but
never described in Dipteracanthus) are applied to
swellings and boils in eastern Africa.
Properties There is no information on the
D. repens, but some data exist on presumably
closely related species. Preliminary cardiovascu-
lar screening of butanol and aqueous extracts of
D. patula suggested possible cardiotonic activity.
A series of extracts of the African R. praetermissa
showed inhibitory effects on angiotensin-convert-
ing enzyme (ACE). Lupeol may be one of the con-
stituents responsible for the effect in the n-hexane
extract, and the flavonoids luteolin and apigenin
may be responsible for the activity in methanol
and aqueous extracts. Saponigenins may also play
a role in the ACE inhibitory activity of the aque- Dipteracanthus repens (L.) Hassk. - 1,plant habit;
ous extract, which was most active, and for which 2, dehisced fruit; 3, seed.
a cardiovascular effect has also been suggested.
Methanol, ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts of many-seeded. Seeds orbicular, compressed, ringed
R. praetermissa also showed in-vitro purgative ef- with hygroscopic hairs.
fect. Together with luteolin and apigenin, two iri- The flowers are ephemerous, but plants may be
doid glycosides (taxiphilin and 8-epi-deoxyloganic found flowering throughout the year.
acid) were isolated as possible active constituents. Most Dipteracanthus species have been described
Botany An erect or ascending herb up to 70 cm in Ruellia, which was considered a large and vari-
tall, with subquadrangular, finely pubescent or able genus. Several attempts have been made to
glabrous stem thickened above the nodes. Leaves split it up into segregate genera which form more
opposite, simple and entire, ovate to ovate-lanceo- natural groups, one of these being Dipteracan-
late or linear-lanceolate, 1.5-10 cm x 0.5-3 cm, thus, which comprises about 10 species occurring
rounded to acute at base, obtuse to acuminate at in tropical Africa (where they are usually still
apex, sparingly hairy, with cystoliths; petioles maintained under Ruellia), Asia and Australia.
connected by transverse ridges; stipules absent. However, there is still disagreement among taxon-
Flowers solitary in the leaf-axils, bisexual, 5-mer- omists about the generic concept within the group
ous, subsessile; bracteoles ovate or ovate-oblong, of Acanthaceae to which Ruellia, Dipteracanthus
1-2 cm long; calyx c. 4 mm long, with lanceolate to and related genera like Hemigraphis and Pararu-
narrowly triangular, subequal segments; corolla c. ellia belong.
2 cm long, campanulate with narrow base, sube- Ecology D. repens occurs in moderately shaded,
qually lobed with ovate-suborbicular lobes sepa- often grassy localities, in roadsides, brushwood,
rated by convexities, violet to white, pubescent; sometimes in abandoned fields, up to 700 m alti-
stamens 4, inserted at base of corolla tube, didy- tude. It is common in many regions.
namous, not exserted; ovary superior, 2-celled, Genetic resources There are no indications
style subulate, hairy with 2 unequal stigmatic that D. repens is threatened by collection for medi-
lobes. Fruit a clavate capsule 1-1.5 cm long, cinal or other purposes, or by habit destruction,
DlSCHIDIA 171
and its wide distribution seems to counteract genol, ß-amyrin acetate, glutinone, taraxerol, kaem-
netic erosion. pferol, quercetin, isorhamnetin and sitosteryl-3-O-
Prospects The applications of D. repens in tra- ß-glucopyranoside, were isolated from whole D.
ditional medicine are comparable to those of sev- formosana plants from Taiwan.
eral other Acanthaceae with accepted medicinal Botany Epiphytic succulent herbs, with slen-
value, and this seems to justify more pharmaco- der, twining stems up to 4 mm in diameter, and
logical research. nodal roots, with or without adventitious roots;
Literature 62, 121,731. white latex present. Leaves opposite, rarely also
Other selected sources 13,807, 808. alternate leaves on same plant, simple, usually
Yun Astuti Nugroho ovate or elliptical in outline and flat or lens-
shaped in cross-section, but sometimes with shell-
like leaves convex in cross-section, or with pitcher
Dischidia R.Br. leaves in tight clusters together with flat, ovate
leaves on elongate stems, or with oblanceolate
Prodr.: 461 (1810);Asclepiadeae: 21 (1810). leaves flat to round in cross-section, entire, usual-
ASCLEPIADACEAE ly glabrous, usually with extrafloral nectary at
x =unknown; D. major: 2« = 22 base of lamina, petiolate or not; stipules absent.
Origin and geographic distribution Dis- Inflorescence an axillary or terminal, often umbel-
chidia comprises about 40 species and occurs in liform raceme, up to 10-flowered. Flowers bisexu-
eastern India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, al, regular, 5-merous; calyx small, often with a
southern China, Thailand, throughout the Male- gland in the angles of the lobes; corolla urceolate,
sian region, and north-eastern Australia. Penin- fleshy, sometimes corolline corona present as
sular Malaysia is richest in species (23), followed small lobes alternating with the corolla lobes or as
by Borneo (about 13), and Sumatra and the an annulus in the corolla throat, staminal corona
Philippines (each about 11). composed of hyaline appendages with 2 incurved
U s e s Dischidia is commonly used in traditional or reflexed lobes often present, with nectary at
medicine in South-East Asia; mostly the latex and base of each appendage; stamens inserted at base
leaves in external applications, e.g. to treat ringof corolla tube, shortly connate at base, with soli-
worm, eczema, herpes, burns, wounds and goitre. tary pollinium in each anther cell; ovaries 2, free,
Decoctions of leaves and whole plants are used in- superior, 1-celled, stigma conical, enclosed by sta-
ternally against gonorrhoea, framboesia (yaws), mens. Fruit consisting of 1-2 follicles, terete, reni-
liver dysfunction and peptic ulcers, and as an an- form or semi-terete in cross-section, usually
ti-inflammatory, and a decoction of the roots is acuminate at apex, usually pendent, many-seed-
used to cure cough. ed. Seeds ovate, flat, comose.
Whole plants of D. chinensis Champ, ex Benth. The flowers are probably pollinated by insects
are used in Vietnam to treat cough, pimples, with a long proboscis, such as moths. Ants often
wounds and snake bites. In Vietnam, a decoction inhabit leaf cavities, but probably do not play a
of whole D. acuminata Costantin plants is taken role in pollination. Fruits are rarely produced.
as a diuretic in cases ofurethritis. Whole plants of Germination is rapid, and there is no apparent
this species, mixed with Hoya kerrii Craib, are resting period.
used in Thailand to treat enlarged liver and cir- Ecology Dischidia comprises both lowland and
rhosis, whereas the leaves are applied against liv- mountain species. It usually climbs on the trunk
er dysfunction in a mixture with Coelogyne and branches of trees, often in sunny or slightly
trinervis Lindley stems and Hoya kerrii leaves. In shaded localities, and attaches by its roots. The
Taiwan D. formosana Maxim, is used in tradition- leaves are often closely appressed, providing a
al medicine as an anti-inflammatory and diuretic. dark and humid environment for the roots. In
Dischidia is occasionally cultivated as an orna- some species (e.g. D. major) the roots grow into
mental. the cavity of pitcher-like leaves, which are often
Properties A 50% hydro-ethanolic extract of inhabited by ants. Nitrogen is derived from debris
dried whole plants of D. bengalensis showed no deposited into the leaf cavities by the ants, where-
antitumour activity against Leuk-P388 cell lines as the inner surface of the cavities has numerous
in mice in vivo. stomata, through which the plant utilizes the car-
A steroid, disformone, and a triterpenoid, disehidi- bon dioxide respired by the ants.
ol, together with salicylic acid, friedelin, friedeli- Management Brick fragments or wood crumbs,
with the addition of nutrients from commercial (Chiang Mai), bia mai (northern), prue-proh
fertilizer in the recommended amount for epiphyt- (Khmer). Vietnam: song lyk[ees]t h[onj]p.
ic orchids, are optimum substrates for establish- Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan-
ingDischidia seedlings. When moistened, seeds of mar), Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
D. nummularia, showed 100% germination in this Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi and the Moluc-
medium. cas.
Genetic resources The Dischidia species Uses In the Moluccas heated leaves are applied
treated here (except D. purpurea) are widely dis- externally as a poultice to heal burns and wounds,
tributed and locally common, and consequently and a decoction of leaves is used to treat gonor-
not in danger of genetic erosion. However, several rhoea and framboesia (yaws). In Thailand pills
other species are endemic to comparatively small are produced from whole plants, which are used to
regions (e.g. 8 species are only found in Penin- treat nasal polyps, and the leaves are applied
sular Malaysia) and may easily become endan- against the fungal skin infection tinea versicolor.
gered. Some destruction of local populations is re- A hot water extract of dried whole plants and
ported from Australia due to popularity in horti- heated fresh stems macerated in alcohol are used
culture. as an anti-inflammatory.
Prospects For plants with such a widespread Observations An epiphytic, climbing herb with
application in traditional medicine, surprisingly glabrous stem; leaves convex-orbicular, c. 2 cm x
little research has been done on the phytochem- 2.5 cm, green above, deep red with a green margin
istry and pharmacological properties of Dischidia. below; inflorescence with 1-2.5 cm long peduncle,
They may be interesting medicinal plants for con- often multi-fid; corolla c. 5 mm long, pale yellow,
trolled use, particularly for external applications, lobes inside with reflexed white hairs. D. imbrica-
also because they seem easy to cultivate. ta occurs in lowland forest up to 400 m altitude.
Literature 157, 169, 170,671,793. Selected sources 169,171, 334,793.
Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.

Selection of species Interpr. Herb, amboin.: 437 (1917).
Synonyms Dischidia rafflesiana Wallich (1831).
Dischidia bengalensis Colebr. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar kul, akar
Trans. Linn. Soc. 12:357, t. 15 (1817). banok, akar bani (Peninsular). Thailand: chuk ro-
Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: thao wan duan hini (central), kluai mai (northern), thao phung
(Prachuap Khiri Khan), thao hua duan (Surat pla (eastern, Ranong). Vietnam: song ly to, d[aa]y
Thani), olop (Trang). m[or] qu[aj].
Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan- Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, mar), Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, New Guinea and the Bis- Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Timor,
marck Archipelago. Sulawesi, New Guinea and north-eastern Aus-
Uses In Thailand the latex is applied externally tralia.
to treat ringworm. The roots are used as a tonic. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the roots are
Observations An epiphytic, climbing herb with added to betel quid to cure cough. A decoction of
glabrous stem; leaves oblanceolate, 2-3 cm long, whole plants is used to treat peptic ulcers in Thai-
flat, with refuse apex when young, becoming or- land, whereas the leaves are used in a mixture
bicular with obtuse apex with age; inflorescence with Hoya kerrii Craib leaves and Vanilla aphylla
sessile, simple or bifid; corolla 5-6 mm long, pale Blume stems to treat liver dysfunction. The roots
yellow or white, lobes pilose inside at base. D. ben- are used to treat fever. In the Philippines the
galensis is locally common in sunny and slightly leaves of a Dischidia species, possibly D. major,
shaded localities in open forest up to 1700 m alti- are applied externally, crushed with salt, to treat
tude, also on limestone hills and rocky ridges. goitre.
Selected sources 54, 793. Observations An epiphytic, climbing herb with
glabrescent stem; leaves of 2 types: flat-orbicular,
Dischidia imbricata (Blume) Steudel 2-3 cm in diameter, and pitcher-form ones 6-12
Nomencl. bot., ed. 2, 1:519 (1840). cm long, appressed to the host surface; inflores-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: daun boba, lola cence with 0.5-5 cm long peduncle, simple or bifid;
paka, gogotifo (Moluccas). Thailand: kipma lorn corolla 8-10 mm long, yellow-green, lobes inside
DlSSOCHAETA 173
anodyne towounds caused by fish spines, whereas

a decoction of the leaves is taken internally to
treat gonorrhoea. In Java the latex is applied to
treat sprue in children. A decoction of the whole
plant isused inThailand against cirrhosis.
Observations Anepiphytic, climbing herb with
glabrous stem; leaves flattened-orbicular or ovate,
0.5-1.5 cm long, mucronate at apex; inflorescence
with c. 3 mm long peduncle, simple; corolla 3-5
mm long, white, lobes inside at base with a ringof
hairs. D. nummularia is often very common in dif-
ferent types ofmore orless open forest, butalsoon
roadside trees, in plantations and on limestone
hills, upto1700 m altitude.
Dischidia purpurea Merr.

Publ. Bur.Sei. Gov. Lab.17:39(1904).
Vernacular names Philippines: kalipkip (Ta-
galog), talokop (Samar-Leyte Bisaya).
Distribution ThePhilippines.
Uses Crushed leaves are applied externally as a
poultice or, cooked in coconut oil,as a pomade to
treat eczema and herpes.
Observations Anepiphytic, climbing herb with
glabrous stem; leaves flattened-orbicular, 3.5-5
cm long, deep purple; inflorescence with slender
peduncle, simple; corolla c. 4 mm long, pink to
Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr. - 1, habit of flower- white.D.purpurea occurs in forest in lower moun-
ing plant; 2, flower; 3, flower with opened corolla. tains, upto 1200 m altitude.
Dischidia nummularia R. Br. - 4, habit of flower- Selected sources 760.
ing and fruiting plant; 5, flower; 6, flower with Wongsatit Chuakul, Noppamas
opened corolla. Soonthornchareonnon &Orawan Ruangsomboon
with short white hairs.D. major islocally common

in sunny and slightly shaded localities in open for- Dissochaeta Blume
est up to 1000m altitude, also in secondary forest
and mangrove forest, and on roadside trees, often Flora 14:492 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch.
hanging down inlong garlands. 6:234(1831).
Selected sources 121, 169,173, 760,793, 934. MELASTOMATACEAE
x = unknown;D.celebica: 2n =40
D i s c h i d i a n u m m u l a r i a R.Br. Origin and geographic distribution Disso-
Prodr.: 461(1810). chaeta comprises approximately 30 species, andis
Synonyms Dischidia gaudichaudii Decne. confined to tropical Asia from Burma (Myanmar)
(1844),Dischidia minor (Vahl) Merr. (1939). and Thailand tothewhole of Malesia.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: daun pitis kecil Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, several Disso-
(Moluccas). Malaysia: pitis-pitis kecil (Peninsu- chaeta species are used in traditional medicine
lar). Thailand: klet khai (general), bia (central), during the first 3 days after childbirth to protect
top tan ruesi (north-eastern). Vietnam: song ly, the mother against infections, and also for treat-
m[ooj]c ti[eef]n nh[or]. ing sexually-transmitted diseases. Usually a de-
Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan- coction of stems or roots is used. However, the
mar), Indo-China, Thailand, throughout the Male- leaves ofD. gracilis have been applied as an anti-
sian region andnorth-eastern Australia. dote against dart andarrow poison.
Uses In the Moluccas the latex is applied as an Properties A general phytochemical screening
of the leaves and stem of D. celebica and of the Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra;
stem of D. gracilis indicated the presence of ter- said to have been collected in Java and Borneo.
penes, but alkaloids and saponins have not been Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, it is used medici-
detected. Alkylated ellagic acids have been isolat- nally after childbirth.
ed from D. bracteata wood. Observations A slender, twining shrub, young
Botany Scandent shrubs or lianas. Leaves op- parts deciduously rusty tomentose; leaves ovate-
posite, simple and entire, 5(-7)-veined; stipules oblong or ovate-lanceolate, 7.5-11 cm x 3-5.5 cm,
absent. Inflorescence a terminal panicle. Flowers petiole 0.5-1 cm long; inflorescence with large,
bisexual, rather small, 4-merous, pink or white; ovate bracts; flowers c. 15 mm long, stamens 8,
hypanthium campanulate or cylindrical, hairy or unequal; fruit ellipsoid, 10-15 mm long, brown-
glabrous; sepals short; petals ovate or ovate-ob- scaly.D. bracteata occurs in hill forest.
long, glabrous; stamens 4 or 8, mostly equal, fila- Selected sources 62, 66,121, 789.
ments glabrous, anthers linear, rostrate, connec-
tive dorsally provided with a single triangular ap- Dissochaeta celebica Blume
pendage, ventrally with 2 linear appendages; Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1(3):36 (1849).
ovary inferior, 4-celled, scaly or pubescent at apex, Synonyms Neodissochaeta celebica (Blume)
with 4 extra-ovarial cavities, style stout. Fruit a Bakh.f. (1943).
subglobular, ovoid or ellipsoid, sometimes urceo- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar meroyan
late berry, many-seeded. Seeds cuneate, rostrate. jantan, akar meroyan paya (Peninsular). Philip-
Dissochaeta belongs to the most difficult and con- pines: tolasola (Bagobo). Thailand: en aa thao
fusing genera of Melastomataceae. Already in (Surat Thani).
1943, Neodissochaeta was separated from Dis- Distribution Southern Thailand, Peninsular
sochaeta, comprising the small-flowered species Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, the Riau Archipel-
with extra-ovarial cavities reaching at most the ago, Bangka, Borneo, the Philippines (Mindanao)
middle of the ovary (far below the middle in Dis- and Sulawesi.
sochaeta s.S.). This has, however, not been com- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, it is used medici-
monly followed up to the present, and future taxo- nally after childbirth. A decoction of the climbing
nomical studies, which are badly needed, should stems is still applied locally after childbirth and
prove whether this subdivision is correct. also for treating sexually-transmitted diseases.
Ecology Dissochaeta is locally common in for- Observations A slender liana or scandent
est, particularly in edges, in the lowland, hills and shrub, branchlets, lower surface of leaves and in-
lower mountains. It is also commonly found in sec- florescences densely reddish tomentose; leaves
ondary forest. lanceolate to ovate-oblong, 6-12.5 cm x 2.5-6.5
Genetic resources The Dissochaeta species cm, petiole 0.5-1 cm long; inflorescence without
treated here do not seem to be very liable to genet- conspicuous bracts; flowers c. 8 mm long, stamens
ic erosion. However, information on the genetic di- 4; fruit subglobular, c. 4 mm in diameter, pur-
versity is lacking, and a thorough botanical study plish. D. celebica occurs in forest up to 1000 m al-
ofthe genus is desirable. titude; it is locally common in edges of forest.
Prospects Too little is known about the chem- Selected sources 66,121, 621,705, 789.
istry and pharmacological properties of Dis-
sochaeta to judge its prospects as a medicinal Dissochaeta gracilis (Jack) Blume
plant. The uses ofD. celebica for treating sexually- Flora 14: 498 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch.
transmitted diseases and ofD. gracilis as antidote 6:239(1831).
for poison deserve more attention. Synonyms Neodissochaeta gracilis (Jack)
Literature 121, 282, 731. Bakh.f. (1943).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar senduduk
(Peninsular).
Selection of species Distribution Southern Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, western Java and
Dissochaeta bracteata (Jack) Blume Borneo; perhaps also in the Philippines.
Flora 14: 495 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves have
6:238(1831). been used as an antidote for dart and arrow poi-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar meroyan son from Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. (ipoh).
sejuk (Peninsular). Observations A slender liana up to 5 m long,
DRACAENA 175
young parts scaly, not tomentose; leaves lanceo- Gagnep.) are used in traditional medicine. A de-
late, 7-15 cm x 3-7 cm, petiole c. 0.5 cm long; in- coction of the woody stem is administered to treat
florescence without conspicuous bracts; flowers c. rheumatism, to improve blood circulation, to regu-
6 mm long, stamens 8, 4 large and 4 small and relate menstruation and as an antipyretic and an-
duced; fruit subglobular, 5-10 mm in diameter, tidiaphoretic.
dark purple. D. gracilis occurs in forest, forest Dragon's blood is the red resin from the woody
edges and brushwood up to 1500 m altitude. stem of some Dracaena species, mainly D. draco
Selected sources 62, 66, 121,789. (L.) L. from the Canary Islands and D. cinnabari
Balf. from Sokotra, but also D. cochinchinensis. It
Dissochaeta punctulata Hook.f. ex has much been used as a dry powdered herbal
Triana remedy in traditional medicine, mainly to stop
Trans. Linn. Soc. 28(1): 83 (1871). haemorrhages, but it is no longer important in
Vernacular names Malaysia: akar meroyan contemporary medical care.
busuk, akar sial menahun, akar senduduk (Penin- Leaves of D. angustifolia are also used in South-
sular). East Asia as a green dye, and young ones are
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore sometimes cooked to serve as a vegetable. Some
and the Riau Archipelago. Dracaena species are commonly cultivated as fo-
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the liage ornamentals, often cultivars with variegated
roots is given during the first 3 days after child- patterns on the leaves, and they are also planted
birth, and is also used as a wash after confine- in hedges. In Africa Dracaena has a strong repu-
ment. tation as a fetish plant, probably because of its
Observations A slender liana, branchlets, low- longevity and vitality.
er surface ofleaves and inflorescences persistently Properties A number of chalcones, homoiso-
rusty tomentose; leaves oblong-ovate to elliptical, flavones and aromatic compounds have been iso-
6-11 cm x 2-6.5 cm, petiole 0.5-1 cm long; inflo- lated from D. cochinchinensis resin and wood.
rescence without conspicuous bracts; flowers c. 18 Some of the aromatic compounds showed antifun-
mm long, stamens 8; fruit urceolate or ovoid, c. 8 gal activities, a chalcone and a homoisoflavone ex-
mm long, rusty pubescent. D. punctulata occurs ibited oestrogenic activity comparable to that of
particularly in forest edges. isoflavonoids such as genistein and daidzein,
Selected sources 66,121, 789. whereas an aqueous extract of D. cochinchinensis
H.C. Ong wood showed antipyretic activity in animal tests.
It also decreased the clotting time ofblood in mice,
and the recalcification and euglobinlysis time of
D r a c a e n a L. plasma in rabbits, but had no effect on the pro-
thrombin time. It also possesses antibacterial ac-
Syst. nat., ed. 12,2:246;Mant. pi. 1:63 (1767). tivity.
DRACAENACEAE Several saponins have been isolated from D. cam-
x = 19,20, 21;D. angustifolia: n = 20 bodiana, D. draco and the African species D. ar-
Origin and geographic distribution Dracae- borea (Willd.) Link and D. mannii Baker. Some of
na comprises about 60 species and has a pantropi- these exhibited antileishmanial, antimalarial,
cal natural distribution with the exception of molluscicidal and cytostatic activities.
South America, where however a few species are Botany Trees, shrubs or subshrubs, usually en-
locally naturalized. A few species can survive in tirely glabrous; roots generally orange, sometimes
subtropical climates. The majority of the species tuberous; stem mostly with conspicuous leaf scars,
occurs in Africa, with a somewhat less important sometimes with red resin; bark smooth. Leaves
centre ofdistribution in South-East Asia. usually arranged spirally, sometimes distichously
Uses Records of medicinal applications of Dra- alternate or in pseudowhorls on tops of branches,
caena in the Malesian region are limited. A root simple and entire, more or less sheathing at base,
decoction is sometimes used to treat gonorrhoea sometimes narrowed into a pseudopetiole, mu-
and rheumatism, and the leaves are applied exter- cronate at apex, more or less leathery, closely
nally against beri-beri. parallel-veined; stipules absent. Inflorescence a
In Indo-China, Thailand and southern China D. terminal, simple to branched raceme or panicle,
cambodiana Pierre ex Gagnep. and D. cochinchi- congested or not, with or without bracts, with
nensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen (synonym: D. loureiri flowers singly, in pairs or few- to many-flowered
glomerules. Flowers bisexual, regular, fragrant, Philippines: malasambal, taligbuhuk (Tagalog),

nocturnal and flowering for several hours only; pasiu (Ibanag). Thailand: khon maa khaao (cen-
pedicel jointed; perianth tubular at base, with 6 tral), phak kon maa (Lampang), phraao phan lam
lobes recurved at anthesis; stamens 6, inserted (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: ph[aas]t d[ur] h[ej]p,
near the throat of the perianth tube; ovary superi- b[oof]ng b[oof]ng.
or, 3-celled, style filiform, stigma capitate, usually Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
3-lobed. Fruit a globose to ellipsoid berry, some- China, southern China, Thailand, Java, the
times 2-3-lobed, usually bright orange when ripe, Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, New Guinea
up to 3-seeded. Seeds lacking a testa but enclosed and northern Australia.
in an obsolescent layer of sclerotic endocarp cells. U s e s In the Moluccas a decoction of the roots is
The flowers are pollinated by nocturnal animals used to treat gonorrhoea, the leaves are applied
such as hawkmoths (Sphingidae), but successful externally to treat beri-beri and the leaf-sap to
self-pollination has also been recorded. promote hair growth. The leaves are also used to
Dracaena has been confused in the literature with colour vegetable oils and food green, and the leaf-
quite unrelated genera such as Agave, Cordyline sap as a dye for painting. Cooked tips ofD. angus-
and Yucca (especially with Cordyline), which tifolia plants are eaten as a vegetable. D. angusti-
means that information on aspects such as phyto- folia is commonly planted as an ornamental and
chemistry of Dracaena should be considered with hedge plant.
care. The distinction between Dracaena and San- Observations An erect shrub or small tree up
sevieria is purely traditional and not tenable, and to 6(-8) m tall, often much-branched; leaves lin-
the latter is synonymous with the former. ear-lanceolate, narrowed above the sheathing
Ecology In South-East Asia Dracaena occurs base, very acute; inflorescence paniculate, branch-
most commonly in shaded localities in lowland ed, up to 75 cm long; flowers yellowish-white, with
rain forest up to 1000 m altitude. perianth c. 2.5 cm long; fruit globose to 3-lobed,
Management Many cultivated Dracaena spec- 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, bright orange, 1-3-seeded.
ies are propagated by stem cuttings, which usual- D. angustifolia is a variable species that occurs in
ly root easily. Propagation by tissue culture is of- open forest, forest borders and on rocky coasts, up
ten practised for Dracaena cultivated as an orna-
mental plant.
Genetic resources The two Dracaena species
treated here are locally common and there seems
no reason to consider them as threatened, al-
though D. umbratica has a small area of distribu-
tion and occurs in a type of habitat under pres-
sure, i.e. lowland rain forest.
Prospects There is no information on the phy-
tochemistry and pharmacological properties of D.
angustifolia and D. umbratica. However, research
might be useful considering the interesting phar-
macological activities of the related D. cochinchi-
nensis. The botany of Dracaena in South-East
Asia is very poorly understood, and a taxonomie
revision is badly needed.
Literature 100, 392, 671,817.
Dracaena angustifolia Roxb.

Fl. ind. (Carey ed.) 2: 155 (1832).
Synonyms Pleomele angustifolia (Roxb.) N.E.
Br. (1914).
Vernacular names Indonesia: suji (Sunda- Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. - flowering and fruit-
nese), semar (Javanese), pendusta utan (Ambon). ing branch.
DREGEA 177
to 1000 m altitude; it is also cultivated in gardens treat pyoderma and fever in children, and the
and hedges. roots as an emetic.
Selected sources 62, 121,334, 689. D. sinensis Hemsl. is used in traditional medicine
in China. The roots are credited with anticonvul-
Dracaena umbratica Ridley sant and anti-hepatitis activities, and the stems
Fl. Mal. Penins. 4: 334 (1924). and leaves are used against jaundice, gonorrhoea,
Vernacular names Malaysia: senjuang (Penin- oedema and pyoderma.
sular). Thailand: koh-naa-si (Malay, Narathiwat). Properties The diglycoside degreoside A, iso-
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular lated fromö. volubilis, showed in-vivo antitumour
Malaysia and Singapore. activities against Ehrlich carcinoma and melano-
Uses A decoction of the roots is used to treat ma B-16 in tests with mice. In a test with rats in
rheumatism. Sri Lanka, no significant galactagogue activity of
Observations A small little-branched shrub up D. volubilis could be detected. In another experi-
to 90 cm tall; leaves elliptical to elliptical-lanceo- ment with rats, degenerative changes in hepato-
late, cuspidate, petiole up to 5 cm long; inflores- cytes were seen following administration of ex-
cence racemose, not or hardly branched, up to 22.5 tracts of D. volubilis seeds. Flavonoid compounds
cm long, the lower half flowerless; flowers white, such as kaempferol and trifolin have been record-
with perianth c. 2.5 cm long; fruit globose to 3- ed from the bark.
lobed, c. 6 mm in diameter, orange-red, 1-3-seed- Several pregnane glycosides and their aglycones
ed.D. umbratica is common in lowland forest. have been isolated from dried roots of the Indian
Selected sources 121,789. D. lanceolata Sant. & Wagh. The steroidal com-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens pound dresigenin A, some aglycones and some
pregnane glycosides were isolated from D. sinen-
sis roots.
D r e g e a v o l u b i l i s (L.f.) B e n t h . e x Botany A large, twining shrub up to 10 m tall;
Hook.f. young stems densely pubescent, later glabrescent.
Leaves opposite, simple and entire, broadly ovate,
Fl. Brit. India 4(10): 46 (1883). 7-18.5 cm x 5-13 cm, obtuse to truncate or subcor-
ASCLEPIADACEAE date at base, acuminate at apex, thinly leathery,
2n =22 pinnately veined; petiole 2.5-4.5 cm long, fur-
Synonyms Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf rowed, glabrous or pubescent; stipules absent. In-
(1923),Dregea formosana T.Yamazaki (1969). florescence an umbelliform cyme, situated be-
Vernacular n a m e s Laos: pak huan mu, bu oc tween the petioles of a leaf-pair, many-flowered;
sa. Thailand: kra thung maabaa (central), huan peduncle 2.5-7.5 cm long. Flowers bisexual, regu-
muu (northern). Vietnam: b[uf] [oos]c leo. lar, 5-merous; pedicel thin, up to 2.5 cm long; ca-
Origin and geographic distribution D. volu- lyx on the inside with 5 basal glands, segments c.
bilis is recorded from Nepal, India, Bangladesh, 3 mm long, spreading; corolla campanulate-rotate,
Sri Lanka, Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan, 12-16 mm in diameter, bright green, glabrous,
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Java and the with obtuse segments; stamens inserted at the
Philippines. base of the corolla, filaments connate, anthers
U s e s D. volubilis is mainly used as a febrifuge with short apical membrane overarching the stig-
and emetic in South-East Asia, although numer- ma, with solitary pollinium in each anther cell,
ous other medicinal uses have been reported. In corona scales c. 4 mm in diameter inserted on sta-
Vietnam all parts of the plant are taken orally minal tube; ovaries 2, superior, free, 1-celled, stig-
against snake bites and to treat eye diseases. In ma discoid. Fruit consisting of (l-)2 ovoid-lanceo-
India the leaves are applied to boils and abscess- late follicles 10-15 cm long, blunt to slightly acute,
es. The roots are considered emetic, expectorant finely longitudinally ribbed, many-seeded. Seeds
and diuretic. D. volubilis is one of the ingredients with c.4 cm long coma.
of a mixture used in Ayurvedic medicine for its Dregea comprises about 12 species, most of which
stimulant, tonic and strengthening properties. In occur in tropical Africa. Five species are found in
Sri Lanka D. volubilis is traditionally used as a tropical Asia, of which D. volubilis is the most
galactagogue, whereas the leaves are adminis- widespread. Wattakaka is sometimes separated
tered to treat fever in children and also eaten in from Dregea because ofits twisted corolla lobes and
curries. In China the young leaves are used to unwinged follicles, but the differences seem trivial.
D r o s e r a L.
Sp. pi. 1:281 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 136 (1754).

DROSERACEAE
x = unknown; D. burmannii: 2n =20, D. indica:
2n = 28,D.peltata: n =16,In =40
Origin a n d geographic distribution Drosera
comprises about 100 species and has an almost
worldwide distribution, with the highest diversity
in Australia and New Zealand (about 50 species).
In the Malesian region, 5 species have been found,
whereas in Indo-China and Thailand only the 3
species treated here are indigenous.
U s e s Drosera extracts and infusions serve exter-
nally as treatment for corns, warts and burns,
whereas they are also used in various parts of the
world against coughs, respiratory disorders, tu-
berculosis, arteriosclerosis, inflammations, in-
testinal complaints and syphilis.Drosera (particu-
larly D. rotundifolia L.) has been used as a drug in
Europe, but has become rare, being a plant found
in peat bogs, and is now usually protected. A tinc-
ture or extract ofthe whole plants is an ingredient
of proprietary drugs (especially syrups) to treat
spasmodic coughs.
Properties Experiments in animals showed
that Drosera tincture acts as an antispasmodic,
Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. exHook.f. - 1, flower- preventing acetylcholine-induced bronchospasm
ing branch; 2, flower; 3, fruit. and decreasing peristalsis in isolated guinea-pig
ileum preparations.
Ecology In the Malesian region D. volubilis oc- Naphthoquinones such as plumbagin and related
curs in brushwood and village-groves in the low- compounds have been isolated from several
land. However, in mainland Asia it can be found Drosera species. Plumbagin is present in a concen-
in a variety ofhabitats, including montane forest. tration of 0.7-1% ofthe dried D. rotundifolia drug,
Genetic resources D. volubilis does not seem and it has antibacterial properties. Even at low
to be at risk of genetic erosion as it is widespread concentrations it is active against gram-positive
and occurs in many habitats, including anthro- as well as gram-negative bacteria, and it is also
pogenic ones. However, in the Malesian region it active against some pathogenic fungi and para-
seems to be uncommon. sitic protozoa (e.g. leishmania). At higher doses,
Prospects Although D. volubilis has been in plumbagin is cytotoxic. It showed antitumour ac-
use for centuries in India, Indo-China and China tivity in mice. In rats, plumbagin showed anti-im-
as a medicinal plant, very little is known about its plantation and abortifacient activity, and it has
biological activity and active compounds, as well insecticidal properties.
as the possibilities for its cultivation. More re- Plumbagin has been demonstrated in the aerial
search is needed to explore its potential for a parts of D. peltata, and both plumbagin and
wider use in medicine in South-East Asia. droserone in the subterranean parts (tuber). The
Literature 62, 760, 919, 920, 971, 1040. chloroform extract ofD. peltata showed significant
Other selected sources 782,1013. antimicrobial properties against all oral bacteria
Tran Dinh Ly &Tran The Bach tested, with plumbagin as the active principle.
Several flavonoids were isolated from D. rotundi-
folia, e.g. gossypin, gossypitrin and myricetin.
Botany Small perennial herbs, often with a
subterranean tuber, with developed stems or
stemless. Leaves in a basal rosette or arranged
DROSERA 179
spirally, usually simple and entire, circinnate tal caries andperiodontitis, in addition tothe bet-
when young, provided with large, viscid, stalked ter-known uses such asthetreatment of spasmod-
glands; stipules present (and then often split) or iccough andskin complaints such as corns.
absent. Inflorescence cymose, bracteate, often Literature 64, 118,184.
circinnate, fewto many-flowered. Flowers bisexu-
al, regular, (4-)5-merous; sepals connate at base,
imbricate; petals free, thin, white, pink or purple; Selection of species
stamens 5,free, alternating with the petals; ovary
superior, 1-celled, styles 3 or 5, simple or divided Drosera burmannii Vahl
towards the tip. Fruit a loculicidal, 3-5-valved Symb. Bot.3:50(1794).
capsule, many-seeded. Seeds small, albuminous, Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: punggu api (Be-
with straight embryo andshort cotyledons. litung), serenta bumi (Karimata, western Kali-
Small insects are attracted and trapped by the mantan). Laos: mok bo? cay. Thailand: chok bo
glistening drops of fluid produced by the glands wai (north-eastern). Vietnam: c[owx] tr[os]i g[af],
(tentacles) of the leaf blades. These glands bend b[ef]o d[aas]t, c[aar]m diala.
over to entrap the insect and secrete a digestive Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China,
ferment which acts upon theproteins. Inthis way, southern China, southern Japan, Thailand,
the plant has a supply oforganic substances con- throughout Malesia except Sumatra and Java,
taining nitrogen compounds while growing under and north-eastern Australia.
circumstances where these compounds are in Uses In Vietnam, D. burmannii is considered
short supply. antispasmodic and used to treat whooping-cough.
Ecology Drosera distinctly prefers acid, olig- In China, itisused against malaria.
otrophia often sandy or peaty soils. In Malesia, Observations A small stemless herb; leaves in
some species are apparently bound to a seasonal a dense rosette, close tothesoil, obovate to orbicu-
climate (e.g.D. indica, D.peltata), whereas others lar, 0.5-1 cmlong, often reddish, stipules present,
are restricted to a per-humid climate (e.g.D.bur- 3-6-partite; inflorescences 1-3, up to 30 cm long;
mannii). flowers with white petals 4-5 mm long and 5
Management Propagation is usually easy by styles; fruit 1-2 mm long, 5-valved. D. burmannii
seed or leaf cuttings; occasionally, root cuttings occurs on sandy or peaty soils up to 1400m alti-
and secondary tubers have been used. However, tude.
sterilization ofthe vegetative expiants often poses Selected sources 247, 249, 250, 671, 782.
a problem. For some species, the most successful
means ofreproduction is by using small spherical Drosera indica L.
or flat structures atthebase ofthe leaves. In-vitro Sp. pi. 1: 282(1753).
multiplication is comparatively easy and effective; Vernacular names Philippines: bintipalo
roots, stem internodes, axillary rosettes, flower (Tagalog). Thailand: ya nam khang (north-east-
buds and flower stalks have all been successfully ern). Vietnam: c[or] tr[or]i g[af], m[oof] c[oo]i,
used as expiant sources. A modified Murashige g[oj]ngv[os].
and Skoog medium is usually used. Thelow con- Distribution Tropical Africa, southern India,
centration of plumbagin in the culture would ap- Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, south-
pear to preclude in-vitro production ofDrosera as ern China, southern Japan, Thailand, throughout
a commercial source of naphthoquinone. Malesia except the Moluccas, and tropical Aus-
Genetic resources Although all Drosera spec- tralia.
ies treated here have a large area of distribution, Uses In Vietnam, a maceration in alcohol ofD.
they occur only locally in South-East Asia. Howev- indica is applied to calluses and corns. It is com-
er, they do not seem to be immediately endan- monly used in Indian medicine as a powerful
gered. rubefacient.
Prospects Drosera includes important medici- Observations A small herb with glandular
nal plants in several parts of the world, andde- stem up to 30 cm long; leaves arranged spirally,
serves more attention in South-East Asia, where linear, upto 12cmlong, with circinnate apex, pale
medicinal applications seem tobelimited. Results green, distinct petiole absent, stipules absent; in-
obtained from tests suggest that extracts from florescence lateral from the upper part of the
Drosera species likeD.peltata could beused inthe stem, up to 20 cm long; flowers with pink to pur-
treatment of oral infectious diseases such as den- ple petals 7-10mmlong and3bifid styles; fruit c.
Observations A small herb with a subter-

ranean tuber and glabrous stem up to 35 cm long;
leaves arranged spirally, triangular, 3-6 mm in
diameter, with distinct petiole up to 15 mm long
peltately attached to the blade, stipules absent;
inflorescence lateral from the upper part of the
stem, up to 7 cm long; flowers with white petals
5-6 mm long and 3 styles having several branches
towards the apex; fruit c. 3 mm long, 3-valved. D.
peltata occurs in grassland, open forest and road-
sides, often on wet sandy-peaty soils.
Selected sources 211,247,249, 250, 760, 782.
Titi Juhaeti
D r y m a r i a c o r d a t a (L.) W i l l d . e x
Schultes
Roemer &Schultes, Syst. veg. 5:406 (1819).

CARYOPHYLLACEAE
2n =24, 36
Vernacular names Chickweed (En). Indonesia:
jukut ibun (Sundanese), angleng (Javanese), si
rempas bide (Batak). Papua New Guinea: luku-
muaia (Fore, Eastern Highlands), iyalo (Fane,
Central Province). Philippines: bakalanga (Bukid-
non). Thailand: yaa klet hoi (Chiang Mai). Viet-
Drosera burmannii Vahl - 1, plant habit; 2, leaf nam: d[ow]n x[uw][ow]ng, t[uf] t[if].
with stipules. Drosera indica L. - 3,plant habit; 4, Origin and geographic distribution D. cor-
part of leaf.Drosera peltata J.E. Smith ex Willd. - data is pantropical and occurs throughout tropical
5,plant habit; 6,leaf. Asia, but was originally introduced from tropical
America.
3 mm long, 3-valved. D. indica occurs in periodi- Uses There are some records on medicinal uses
cally wet grassland, fallow rice fields, and muddy in South-East Asia. In Papua New Guinea,
soils, up to 1200 m altitude. chopped leaves baked in bamboo are prescribed to
Selected sources 247, 249, 250, 671,782. treat swollen limbs, possibly caused by malaria.
In Indonesia, the sap is used as a laxative and to
D r o s e r a p e l t a t a J.E. S m i t h e x Willd. treat fever, whereas a poultice of leaves rubbed
Sp. pi. 1: 1546 (1798). with lime is applied to boils.
Vernacular names Philippines: bain, sanabu- D. cordata is used in many countries in Africa for
gan (Igorot), gumgumayeng (Bontok). Vietnam: respiratory chest-ailments: to treat colds and
g[oj]ng v[os] l[as]b[as]n nguy[eej]t. bronchitis, often as an inhalation. It is also used
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, to treat eye-troubles. The sap has an aromatic
China, Japan, Thailand, eastern Java, the Lesser pungency and is laxative and antifebrile. Vesicant
Sunda Islands, the Philippines, southern Sulawe- properties have also been found, and the plant is
si, New Guinea, Australia and Tasmania. applied externally to oedemas of the feet, leprosy,
Uses In the Philippines, dried and powdered injuries, yaws, sores and tumours. However, pro-
leaves are applied to aching teeth. In India, D. longed treatment may cause burning. In India,
peltata is used to treat phthisis, and the leaves, the entire plant is used as febrifuge, antivenin
bruised and sometimes mixed with salt, as a blis- and to treat inflammation.
ter. In traditional medicine in China, it is applied In India, D. cordata has been found effective as a
to treat stomach-ache, dysentery and bruises, ground cover to prevent erosion on steep slopes. It
whereas the roots are used against arthritis. In is also a useful fodder, although it has been associ-
India, the plant is used to dye silk brown. ated with poisoning of cattle.
DRYMARIA 181
Properties In a test with guinea-pigs, a me-

t h a n o l s extract ofD. cordata caused a decrease of
contractions induced by acetylcholine in isolated
rings trachea. In a cough model induced by sul-
phur dioxide gas in mice, the methanol extract ex-
hibited significant antitussive activity in a dose-
dependent manner, comparable to codeine phos-
phate, a prototype antitussive drug. A methanol
extract showed significant anti-inflammatory ac-
tivity against carrageenin, histamine, serotonin
and dextran-induced rat hind paw oedemas.
Methanol extracts also showed significant an-
tibacterial activities against Bacillus pumilis,
Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus.
Poisoning ofcattle fed with Drymaria has been ob-
served, particularly with D. arenarioides Schultes
in Mexico. The toxic activity has been attributed
to saponins. In Sumatra, D. cordata has also been
mentioned in connection with poisoning of cattle.
However, saponins have not been demonstrated,
or have only been found in very low concentration
in D. cordata. In fact, very little chemical research
has been done for this species; only the isolation of
the alkaloid 4-methoxy-canthin-6-one has been
mentioned in the literature.
Botany An annual herb; stems prostrate or as-
cending, up to 100(-150) cm long, striate, intern- Drymaria cordata Willd. ex Schultes - 1, flowering
odes longer than the leaves, rooting at nodes, stem; 2, leaf and stipules; 3, flower with sepals re-
glabrous to glandular. Leaves opposite, deltoid- moved; 4, sepal; 5,petal; 6, dehisced fruit enclosed
ovate to suborbicular or cordate, 0.5-2.5 cm x by sepals; 7, seed.
0.3-2 cm, subtruncate to obtuse at base, often
apiculate at apex, 3-7-veined; petiole 2-8 mm which occurs in tropical Asia, Australia and Africa
long; stipules lacerate with filiform segments. In- but not in America. It differs from subsp. cordata
florescence a terminal cyme, 3-many-flowered, pe- by the flowers being broadest above the middle (at
duncle up to 12 cm long; bracts lanceolate, 2-5 or below the middle in subsp. cordata), inflexed
mm long. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, sepals and slightly broader seeds, and is some-
greenish or yellowish-green; pedicel up to 8 mm times considered as a distinct species (D. diandra
long; sepals free, 2-4.5 mm long, inflexed, strongly Blume). However, intermediates between the 2
carinate, 3-veined; petals free, 1.5-3 mm long, bi- subspecies do occur, especially in Africa. Other
fid up to the middle or more, base clawed; stamens Drymaria species to be found in South-East Asia
2-3(-5), filaments connate at base; ovary superior, includes D. villosa Cham. & Schlechtendal, which
1-celled, style short, 2-3-fid. Fruit an oblong cap- is often associated with D. cordata.
sule 1.5-2.5 mm long, 2-3-valved, 1-2-seeded. Ecology D. cordata is a common weed of gar-
Seeds orbicular or reniform, 1.5-2 mm in diame- dens, plantations (e.g. tea, coffee, sugar cane, cin-
ter, densely tuberculate. chona, upland rice), ditches, roadsides and river-
D. cordata can be found flowering and fruiting sides, usually in shady locations, in Java up to
throughout the year. The fruits with the persis- 1700 m altitude, in New Guinea up to 2700 m. It
tent calyx adhere easily to the fur of animals, and occurs locally abundantly, but is uncommon in
are thus dispersed. some regions, e.g. in Peninsular Malaysia and
Drymaria comprises about 50 species, all except 2 Singapore.
exclusively American. Two subspecies have been Management D. cordata can be a noxious
distinguished within D. cordata. In South-East weed, particularly in upland rice, because it may
Asia, subsp. diandra (Blume) J.A. Duke is found, form a dense cover. Herbicides such as paraquat
and 2,4-D amine are often used as a foliar spray to mm x 14-18 mm, base clawed and with 2 auricles,
control D. cordata as a weed. apex emarginate, dorsally maroon, ventrally yel-
Genetic resources D. cordata is still expand- lowish, wings obovate, 12-13 mm x 5 mm, clawed,
ing its area of distribution, and efforts are direct- keel with large, coiled beak, c. 10 mm in diameter,
ed more towards its eradication as a weed than to- clawed; stamens 10, 9 connate and 1 free; ovary
wards protection. superior, sessile, 1-celled, style filiform, curved.
Prospects Several pharmacological properties Fruit a linear to slightly falcate pod (4-)5.5-6.5 cm
deserve more attention, particularly the anti-in- x 0.7-0.8 cm, dark brown with short grey hairs
flammatory, antitussive and antibacterial proper- and orange glands, 7-8(-10)-seeded. Seeds reni-
ties. These make D. cordata a promising medici- form, c.4 mm x 5 mm x 3 mm.
nal plant, which is easy to cultivate if necessary. Flowers and fruits of D. incana can be found
Literature 250, 334, 347, 652, 653,651. throughout the year. Dunbaria comprises 20
Other selected sources 120, 121, 225, 380, species and is found from India to southern China,
453, 782. Korea and southern Japan, throughout South-East
Juliana Jonathan Asia and in northern Australia. It belongs to the
subtribe Cajaninae of the tribe Phaseoleae, and is
related to Cajanus, of which the cultivated pigeon-
D u n b a r i a i n c a n a (Zoll. & M o r i t z i ) pea (Cajanus cajan (L.)Millsp.) is best known.
Maesen Ecology D. incana is found in forest borders,
thickets, riverine forest, bamboo forest, on waste
Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 98(1):61 (1998). ground, in tidal areas and on limestone hills, from
LEGUMINOSAE sea-level up to 400(-1000) m altitude.
2n =unknown Genetic resources D. incana is widely distrib-
Synonyms Dunbaria nivea Miq. (1855), Dun- uted and common in disturbed habitats, and is not
baria scortechinii Prain (1897), Dunbaria har- at risk ofgenetic erosion.
mandii Gagnep. (1915). Prospects The prospects for D. incana as a
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: tampong urat, medicinal plant are unclear because information
patong urat. Thailand: yaan thua raet (peninsu- on the phytochemistry and pharmacological prop-
lar). Vietnam: d[aa]y bu, d[aa]y d[aaj]u hoang, erties is lacking.
d[aa]y m[os]c. Literature 121,949.
Origin and geographic distribution D. in- Other selected sources 62,250,731.
cana is found in Indo-China, southern China L.J.G. van der Maesen
(Hainan), Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Suma-
tra and Java.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia (Perak), the leaves Ehretia philippinensis A.DC.
are used for poulticing wounds, ulcers and itch,
and also to treat fever. In southern China the Prodr. 9:504(1845).
whole plant of D. punctata (Wight & Arnott) BORAGINACEAE
Benth. is applied to snakebites. D. bella Prain is 2n = unknown
mentioned as being used medicinally in Laos. Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: alibungog (Ce-
Botany A perennial climber up to 8 m long; bu Bisaya), bayukon (Tagalog), talibobong (Bikol).
stems up to 5 mm in diameter, ridged and velvety Origin and geographic distribution E. phi-
when young. Leaves alternate, pinnately 3-folio- lippinensis is restricted to the Philippines (Luzon,
late; petiole 2-8.5 cm long, grooved above; stipules Mindanao and Palawan).
caducous; leaflets rhomboid-ovate, terminal leaf- Uses The stem bark of E. philippinensis,
let 4-12 cm x 3-9 cm, base broad to narrowly scraped into a pulp, and the fresh leaves are com-
cuneate, apex cuspidate-acuminate; petiolules 1-3 monly used as a medicine. Usually they are ap-
mm long; stipels minute, hair-like. Inflorescence plied as a poultice to painful swellings or infected
an axillary raceme, 14-25(-30) cm long, bracts wounds, acting as an emollient or as an anti-in-
ovate to narrowly elliptical, 3-9 mm x 1-3 mm, flammatory. A decoction of the stem bark or the
10-20-flowered. Flowers 1-2 per node, bisexual; roots is widely taken against diarrhoea or dysen-
calyx tube 5 mm long, 5-toothed, yellowish-green tery accompanied by tenesmus. It is also used as a
to reddish, short pubescent, glandular; corolla pa- mouthwash to treat toothache.
pilionaceous, standard rotundate, twisted, 12-17 E. resinosa Hance (synonym: E. navesii S. Vidal)
ELATOSTEMA 183
from Taiwan and the Philippines is used in the Ehretia comprises about 50 species and occurs in
Philippines as a febrifuge. A preparation contain- the tropics and subtropics of Africa, Asia, Aus-
ing an extract ofE. resinosa has been patented for tralia and America (3 species). In Malesia, 12
skin care; it is credited with anti-inflammatory, species are found. Ehretia is sometimes placed in
wound healing and skin improvement effects. the small family Ehretiaceae.
The leaves of E. acuminata R.Br, (synonym E. Ecology E. philippinensis occurs in forests
ovalifolia Hassk.), occurring from China to Aus- along rivers and in secondary growth, at low and
tralia, are pounded and applied to swellings. The medium altitudes.
fruit is edible. Genetic resources andbreeding Although E.
The wood ofEhretia is only used on a local scale, philippinensis only occurs in the Philippines it is
as it isnotvery strong, and the leaves are used for rather common there, and there are no records of
fodder. overexploitation.
Properties In tests with mice, a crude stem Prospects E. philippinensis has compounds
bark extract ofE. philippinensis was found to be with interesting biological activities, which merit
moderately toxic when administered intraperi- further research. The wound-healing and anti-in-
toneally and slightly toxic when administered flammatory properties are of special interest and
orally. A decrease in motor activity and slight comparable to those of Carmona retusa (Vahl)
analgesia were observed, but no further signifi- Masam., which is an important medicinal plant in
cant physiological changes. The butanol and eth- the Philippines. Perhaps E. philippinensis can be
ylacetate fractions ofthe methanol extract of stem developed as a supplement tothis species.
bark showed antihistamine release activity Literature 247,760, 858.
against compound 48/80, a potent histamine liber- Other selected sources 227,1037, 1042.
ator. Rosmarinic acid was isolated and identified G.H. Schmelzer
as the active constituent. Five cyanoglucosides
were also isolated: ehretiosides Al, A2,A3 andB,
and simmondsin. A stem bark extract was also E l a t o s t e m a J . R . F o r s t e r &J . G . F o r s t e r
tested for anti-inflammatory activity using differ-
ent animal models. The extract was found to be Charact. gen.pi. ed.2:105(1776).
equally potent as an aspirin reference. URTICACEAE
From the stem bark of E. acuminata two x =unknown; E. repens: In = 26,E. sessile: n=
2-methoxyhydroquinone glucosides, a sesquilig- 13,2re =32,52
nan and a neolignan were isolated, as well as four Origin and geographic distribution Elato-
lignans. stema comprises at least 200 species, and is dis-
Botany A small tree up to 5 m tall; branches tributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, Aus-
crooked, young branches brown to greenish- tralia and Africa. Asia is by far richest in species;
brown, glabrous. Leaves alternate, simple, broad- only about 5 species occur in Africa, and 2 in Aus-
ly lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 4-15 cm x tralia.
1.5-7.5 cm, base attenuate, obliquely truncate, Uses Elatostema is most commonly used as a
apex acute or acuminate, margins entire, glabrous poultice to treat abdominal disorders, swellings,
to subglabrous; petiole 1-3 cm long; stipules ab- boils and dislocated bones, as has been recorded in
sent. Inflorescence axillary or on short lateral Peninsular Malaysia for E. repens and E. sessile.
branches, corymbose, many-flowered. Flowers bi- There are other reports on medicinal applications
sexual, regular, 5-merous, fragrant; pedicel short; of Elatostema in South-East Asia, but without re-
calyx broadly cup-shaped, 1.3-1.5 mm x 1.3-2 liable identification to the species. In Peninsular
mm, usually glabrous, lobes triangular; corolla Malaysia, leaves are reputedly used to make a
3.5-4(-5) mm long and c. 5 mm in diameter, poultice for application to the head of women in
white, tube cylindrical-campanulate, lobes more labour. In the Moluccas, the leaves are applied to
or less reflexed, broadly rounded, up to 2.5 mm the forehead to treat headache, pounded leaves
long; stamens inserted on corolla, long exserted; are used as an embrocation in children suffering
ovary superior, 2-celled with 2 ovules in each cell, from severe cough, and the plants are applied in a
style 4.5-6 mm long, forked for 0.8 mm, stigmas cooling wash for the head, sometimes also to pro-
capitate. Fruit a subglobose drupe 3-4 mm in di- mote hair growth. In Papua New Guinea, leaves
ameter, orange orreddish, with 2 separate 2-seed- are used internally to arrest diarrhoea. Some
ed pyrenes. species with more fleshy leaves are sometimes
cooked and eaten as a vegetable, e.g. in the Philip- Selection of species

pines.
Botany Monoecious or dioecious herbs or under- Elatostema repens (Lour.) Hallier f.
shrubs. Leaves alternate, distichous, sometimes Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 13:316 (1896).
with a small leaf subopposite a normal one, sim- Synonyms Polychroa repens Lour. (1790), Pel-
ple, usually oblique, often 3-veined from the base, lionia daveauana N.Br. (1880), Pellionia repens
sometimes pinnately veined, sessile or subsessile; (Lour.) Merr. (1928).
stipules intrapetiolar. Inflorescence an axillary Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: sisek naga bukit,
cyme or discoid head, usually involucrate, sessile sisek tenggiling, sisek keli (Peninsular). Vietnam:
or peduncled. Flowers unisexual, crowded on re- tai d[as], sam d[as].
ceptacle, minute, with 3-5 tepals; male flowers Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
with tepals often horned below apex, 3-5 stamens Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. E. repens is
and rudimentary pistil; female flowers often with cultivated in Java.
minute tepals, a superior, 1-celled ovary and rudi- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the plant is ap-
mentary stamens. Fruit a minute achene enclosed plied as a poultice to swellings, boils, dislocated
by the tepals, usually warted or with longitudinal bones and abdominal disorders. A decoction is
ribs. drunk to treat rheumatism. E. repens is cultivated
The delimitation of Elatostema is not yet very as an ornamental, also as a pot plant; often forms
clear. Pellionia is often included in Elatostema with violet-tinged or silver-white marked leaves
(usually as one of 4 subgenera), but sometimes al- are grown.
so kept separate because of its cymose inflores- Observations A herb with creeping and as-
cences. If the latter conception, which has been cending branches up to 60 cm long; leaves round-
gaining importance in recent years, is followed, E. ed in lower part of stem, obliquely lanceolate in
repens belongs to Pellionia. upper part of stem, 3-9 cm x 2-4 cm, dentate;
Ecology In general, Elatostema is characteris- flowers arranged in cymes, male cymes with 5-10
tic for wetter locations in forest in the lowland to cm long peduncle, female ones sessile. E. repens is
lower mountainous regions. It often occurs along locally common on river banks in the forest; it also
streams, on rocks or on the forest floor. Locally, it occurs on limestone rocks.
can be very abundant, or even dominate the un- Selected sources 62, 121, 789.
derstorey ofthe forest.
Management E. repens and probably also other E l a t o s t e m a s e s s i l e J.R. F o r s t e r & J.G.
Elatostema species, can be easily propagated by Forster
cuttings. For E. repens, this is commonly practised Charact. gen. pi. ed. 2: 106 (1776).
to obtain pot plants. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: sisek tenggiling,
Genetic resources It is not possible tojudge at cheng man (Peninsular).
present the threat of genetic erosion for Elato- Distribution Nepal, Bhutan, India, Burma
stema. More information is needed on the delimi- (Myanmar), southern China, Peninsular Malay-
tation and distribution of the South-East Asian sia.
species. The habitat preference (along streams in Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, pounded leaves
lowland forest) should be taken into account, as are used as a poultice to treat severe abdominal
this type ofhabitat is under pressure. disorders.
Prospects Elatostema is poorly known in all re- Observations A small herb of c. 30 cm tall,
spects, including botany, chemistry and proper- with simple stem; leaves obliquely oblanceolate,
ties. A sound taxonomie study, also covering relat- 10-20 cm x 3.5 cm, long-acuminate, coarsely ser-
ed genera, is needed to interpret the literature rate; flowers arranged in sessile or shortly pedun-
properly and as a start for research on phytochem- cled heads. E. sessile occurs on rocks in streams in
istry and pharmacological properties. For some hill forest, and is locally abundant.
time to come, the importance of Elatostema as a Selected sources 121,789.
medicinal plant will remain unclear. Nanda Utami
Literature 79, 117, 121,334, 347, 407,731.
EMILIA 185
Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz part with orange or red sarcotesta; endosperm

thin, cotyledons thick.
Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 41,2: 305 (1872). The sweet-scented flowers are probably pollinated
CONNARACEAE by insects. The seeds, conspicuous by their con-
In = unknown trasting black and orange-red colours, are proba-
Synonyms Ellipanthus griffithii Hook.f. (1876), bly dispersed by birds.
Ellipanthus luzoniensis S. Vidal (1886), Ellipan- Ellipanthus comprises 6 species, apparently all
thus gibbosus King (1897). closely related, and is distributed in eastern
Vernacular names Indonesia: woyo (Sula- Africa, Madagascar and tropical Asia. It is classi-
wesi). Malaysia: kerantai merah (Peninsular), fied in the tribe Connareae together with Con-
kelin (Sarawak). Philippines: alomangoi, ataru- narus and some other 1-carpellate genera. In
kan (Tagalog), saling-uak (Panay Bisaya). Cam- Malesia the genus is confined to the western part
bodia: sramar sbat. Laos: ham fan. Thailand: (not in the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas
kham rok (Chon Buri), karong daeng (eastern), and New Guinea), where 2 species occur. E. becca-
chang nao (Ratchaburi, Nakhon Ratchasima). rii Pierre is restricted to Borneo; it differs from E.
Vietnam: m[oof]ng g[af], d[aaf]u g[af], l[oos]p tomentosus in the usually 4-merous and unisexual
b[oos]p. flowers. E. tomentosus is a variable species in
Origin and geographic distribution E. to- which 2 subspecies are distinguished, one of these
mentosus occurs in eastern India, Burma (Myan- with 2 varieties. Subsp. tomentosus comprises the
mar), Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, whole area ofdistribution ofthe species except Ja-
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines and Su- va, subsp. kingii (Boerl. &Koord.) Leenh. is a rare
lawesi; it is probably extinct in Singapore. endemic of Java.
Uses In Thailand, the branches and stems of E. Ecology E. tomentosus is locally frequent (e.g.
tomentosus are used as an appetizer, to combat in Peninsular Malaysia) in primary lowland
flatulence and to treat abdominal spasm and, in mixed dipterocarp forest and peat swamp forest,
combination with other plants, asthma. A decoc- up to 700 m altitude, in Java up to 1500 m.
tion of the bark and wood is administered to treat Genetic resources Although E. tomentosus has
malfunction ofthe kidneys. a large area of distribution, it might become liable
The wood is hard and durable and may be used for to genetic erosion because of its preference for pri-
local construction work such as bridges and house mary lowland rain forest, a type of habitat under
posts. much pressure. It still appears to be locally com-
Botany A shrub or small to medium-sized tree mon (e.g. in Peninsular Malaysia), but in other ar-
up to 25(-30) m tall, with bole up to 60 cm in eas is uncommon (e.g. in Borneo) or even rare (e.g.
diameter; young branchlets fulvous-tomentose. in Java).
Leaves alternate, unifoliolate (seemingly simple, Prospects Research is needed to confirm the
but petiole with articulation below apex), elliptical claimed pharmacological properties ofE. tomento-
to lanceolate, sometimes obovate, 7-22(-33) cm x sus. The prospects as a medicinal plant seem very
3-9 cm, acute, rounded or subcordate at base, limited because of its habit and habitat prefer-
sometimes slightly peltate, acuminate at apex, en- ence.
tire, glabrous to tomentose beneath, pinnately Literature 173,247.
veined with looped secondary veins; petiole 0.5- Other selected sources 62, 113, 121,249, 250,
3.5 cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence axillary 540, 877, 990.
or ramiflorous, paniculate or glomerulate, up to R.H.M.J. Lemmens
2.5 cm long, densely pilose. Flowers bisexual
(sometimes unisexual?), (4-)5(-6)-merous, sweet-
scented; pedicel articulated below the calyx; sepa- Emilia prenanthoidea DC.
ls valvate in bud, 1.5-2 mm long; petals free, 2-4.5
mm long, pilose, whitish; stamens usually 5 fertile Prodr. 6: 303 (1837).
and 5 rudimentary, connate at base; ovary superi- COMPOSITAE
or, oblique, pilose, style slender, stigma usually 2- 2n = unknown
lobed. Fruit a reddish-brown follicle 2-4 cm long, Synonyms Emilia angustifolia DC. (1837),
more or less stipitate, densely tomentose, opening Emilia papuana Mattfeld (1940).
along the ventral suture, 1-seeded. Seed ovoid or Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: tili-
ellipsoid, 1-2 cm long, testa shining black, basal gibe (Lalibu, Southern Highlands), kalanevuda
(Kami, Eastern Highlands). Vietnam: chua l[ef] lanceolate, obtuse or subacute. Flowers bisexual,
n[us]i, rau m[uw][ow]ng. regular, 5-merous; corolla tubular, 9-14 mm long,
Origin and geographic distribution E. pre- with spreading lobes, red, pink, purple, light
nanthoidea occurs from India eastwards to south- mauve or white; stamens with cohering anthers
ern China, throughout continental South-East forming a tube; ovary inferior, 1-celled, style with
Asia and Malesia. 2 spreading branches. Fruit an achene, linear-ob-
Uses In Papua New Guinea the leaves of E. long to barrel-shaped, 3-4 mm long, ribbed,
prenanthoidea are mixed with wild ginger rhi- glabrous, with numerous white pappus hairs c. 7
zomes and squeezed periodically onto a tooth cavi- mm long at apex.
ty to relieve toothache. The juice from squeezed E. prenanthoidea can be found flowering through-
leaves is used to cover sores, or heated leaves are out the year. Dispersal of the fruits is by wind,
placed over the sores. Mixed with the leaves of carrying them over great distances.
Grevillea papuana Diels, the leaves are likewise Emilia consists of about 30 species indigenous in
applied to ulcers. the Old World tropics and naturalized in the
E. sonchifolia (L.) D C , well known as a vegetable Americas. It is closely related to Senecio, the main
throughout South-East Asia, has many medicinal difference being that in Senecio the involucre usu-
applications. It is administered internally against ally has a few bracts that are much shorter than
fever, cough and diarrhoea, and externally as a the other ones (in Emilia all bracts are of equal
poultice for sores and swellings, and to treat dim length).Vegetatively it resembles species of
eyes and sore ears. E. coccinea (Sims) G. Don, oc- Sonchus, but it can easily be distinguished by its
casionally cultivated as an ornamental in South- solid stems which do not contain milky sap.
East Asia, is widely used in African folk medicine, Ecology E. prenanthoidea occurs in both dry
in much the same way as E. sonchifolia in South- and wet habitats, as a weed along roadsides, on
East Asia. river banks, in grasslands, in fields (e.g. tea and
Properties There is no information on the phy- rubber plantations) and relatively open dry forest.
tochemistry or pharmacological properties of E. It prefers sunny or slightly shaded localities at
prenanthoidea. However, the aerial parts of E. 200-2700 m altitude. It is locally abundant, but in
sonchifolia contain pyrrolyzidine alkaloids and general occurs scattered.
flavonoids. An aqueous extract of the aerial parts Genetic resources E. prenanthoidea is a wide-
has shown antimicrobial activity. A methanolic spread weedy species, which is not threatened by
extract ofE. sonchifolia showed in-vitro cytotoxici- genetic erosion.
ty to Daltons lymphoma, Ehrlich ascites carcino- Prospects Since research showed interesting
ma and mouse lung fibroblast (L-929) cells, but pharmacological properties of E. sonchifolia, fur-
not to normal human lymphocytes. Oral adminis- ther research of E. prenanthoidea is desirable.
tration ofthe extract at 100 mg/kg to mice reduced However, attention should be paid to the presence
the development ofboth solid and ascites tumours of pyrrolyzidine alkaloids because of their toxic
and increased the lifespan of tumour-bearing nature.
mice. The extract inhibited DNA synthesis as Literature 347, 358, 502, 851,853.
judged from a reduction in tritiated thymidine in- Other selected sources 62, 679, 850.
corporation into Dalton's lymphoma cells in vitro. Yuyu Suryasari Poerba
Studies indicated potent antioxidant and anti-in-
flammatory activities of the fresh leaf juice and
methanolic extract. E n i c o s t e m a a x i l l a r e ( L a m k ) A. R a y n a l
Botany An annual herb, erect or at base pros-
trate, up to 150 cm tall; stem slender, ribbed, Adansonia, ser. 2, 9: 75 (1969).
branched, glabrous. Leaves alternate, spatulate to GENTIANACEAE
lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, upper leaves sagit- 2n = 38
tate-lanceolate, 1.5-17 cm x 0.2-3 cm, base with Synonyms Enicostema littorale Blume (1826),
more or less rounded auricles, apex acuminate, Enicostema hyssopifolium (Willd.) I. Verd. (1961),
acute or obtuse, entire or sometimes slightly Enicostema verticillatum auct. non (L.) Gilg.
repand-dentate, sessile. Inflorescence a terminal, Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: rebha bisah (Ma-
subcylindrical head 8-17 mm x 4-5 mm, 2-3 to- durese).
gether or rarely solitary, 20-45-flowered; peduncle Origin and geographic distribution E. axil-
filiform, 3-33 cm long; involucral bracts 6-8, lare occurs in a large part of the Old World trop-
ENICOSTEMA 187
ics: southern and eastern Africa, India, Sri Lanka,

Indo-China and the drier parts of Malesia. The
Malesian populations have been distinguished as
subsp. littorale (Blume) A. Raynal, and occur in
Java, Madura, the Kangean Islands and the Less-
er Sunda Islands (Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba and
Timor).
U s e s In the Kangean Islands (Indonesia), a de-
coction of the whole plant is commonly used to
treat fever. In India, E. axillare (subsp. axillare)
is a well-known medicinal plant, especially re-
nowned for its diuretic and anti-diabetic proper-
ties, but also used as a tonic and anthelmintic,
and to treat malaria. The plant juice is used as an
antivenin.
Properties As is the case with many Gen-
tianaceae, E. axillare plants taste bitter due to the
presence of secoiridoids. Whole plants from India
(subsp. axillare) gathered at different growth
stages yielded the flavonoids apigenin, genkwa-
nin, isovitexin, swertisin, 5-O-glucosylswertisin,
5-O-glucosylisoswertisin and saponarin. The fla-
vonoid composition and quantities differed with
plant age. The secoiridoid (or gentiana) alkaloids
gentianin (not to be confused with the coumaric
acid ester of delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, which is
known under the same name) and enicoflavin
have also been isolated, as well as the pure sec- Enicostema axillare (Lamk) A. Raynal - 1, flower-
oiridoid swertiamarin. ing stem; 2, flower; 3, stamens, front and side view.
An alcoholic extract of Indian E. axillare showed
in-vitro and in-vivo antimalarial activity against the West Indies and Central America, one endem-
Plasmodium berghei. The water extract of whole ic in north-western Madagascar, and the wide-
plants showed hypoglycaemic activity when ad- spread and variable E. axillare with 3 subspecies.
ministered intragastrically to rabbits at a dose of The Malesian subsp. littorale can be distinguished
600 mg/kg. from subsp. axillare (Africa, India, Sri Lanka, In-
Botany An erect herb up to 80 cm tall, often do-China) and subsp. latilobium (N.E.Br.) A. Ray-
woody at base, glabrous; stem below each leaf with nal (eastern Africa) by its triangular to lanceolate,
2 decurrent ridges. Leaves opposite, pairwise con- acute calyx lobes with narrow scarious margins,
nected by a narrow ridge, simple and entire, the its long-acuminate leaves and comparatively large
lower ones oblong-lanceolate, the higher ones nar- fruit.
rowly lanceolate to linear, 4-16 cm x 0.5-4.5 cm, Ecology In Indonesia, E. axillare occurs in the
acutely acuminate, 3-5-veined; stipules absent. In- lowland, in grassland, fallow land and open teak
florescence an axillary, head-like cyme, subsessile, forest, often near the coast, on periodically dry,
5-15-flowered. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-mer- heavy soils, and exceptionally on dry lava rocks in
ous; calyx 4-6 mm long, with lobes about as long as the mountains up to 900 m altitude.
tube; corolla tube 6-7 mm long, greenish, lobes 2-3 Management In India, it has been shown that
mm long, contorted in bud, whitish turning yellow- vegetative growth of E. axillare (subsp. axillare)
ish; stamens inserted below the middle of the was enhanced in the shade compared with plants
corolla tube, filaments with a small basal scale; grown in full sun, but reproductive growth (flower
ovary superior, 2-celled, style short with capitate number) was reduced by shade. The plants are
stigma. Fruit an ellipsoid capsule 5-7 mm long, able to reproduce both sexually and asexually by
septicidally 2-valved, many-seeded. root suckers. Adventitious shoot bud regeneration
In Java E. axillare flowers throughout the year. was achieved from leaf expiants of Indian plants
Enicostema comprises 3 species: one indigenous in cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium. Shoots
were multiplied on medium containing 6-benzy- of citric acid, which has been demonstrated in
ladenine. In-vitro organogenesis has also been many other Cactaceae.
studied, and complete plantlets have been devel- Botany An erect shrub up to 3 m tall, widely
oped from callus. and irregularly branched, spineless; stem terete
Genetic resources E. axillare has an extreme- or compressed-ensiform at base, strongly flattened
ly wide distribution and occurs in anthropogenic and leaf-like towards apex; branches drooping and
habitats, even locally becoming a weed. Although conspicuously articulate, internodes coarsely un-
the area of distribution of subsp. littorale is limit- dulate-crenate, bearing a small aréole in incisions.
ed, its adaptation to open, dry habitats guaran- Leaves absent. Flowers solitary on upper aréoles,
tees its survival in the long run. bisexual, on stout, 0.5-2 cm long pedicels, 30-35
Prospects E. axillare is a promising medicinal cm long; perianth gamophyllous, falling off shortly
plant. Interesting compounds have been isolated, after anthesis, with long, red-scaly tube and much
e.g. flavonoids for which anti-inflammatory activi- shorter, regular limb, outer tepals reddish, inner
ty and antispasmodic effects have been reported. tepals white; stamens numerous, free, inserted on
Scientific research on the antimalarial activity or near apex of perianth tube; ovary inferior, ob-
should receive more attention because E. axillare tusely ribbed, style white, with 18-20 branches.
is used to treat malaria in regions as far apart as Fruit a globose to ellipsoid berry, unilaterally de-
India and the Kangean Islands of Indonesia. hiscent, many-seeded. Seeds shining black.
Moreover, it can be cultivated and propagated The plants bear a few flowers at long intervals. In
comparatively easily. Java, the flowers open in the late evening and
Literature 62, 277, 334, 630, 773. close definitely in the late night or early morning.
Other selected sources 331,843,898, 959. They are pollinated by hawkmoths and birds, at
R.H.M.J. Lemmens least in its natural area of distribution. Fruits do
not develop in Java.
E p i p h y l l u m o x y p e t a l u m (DC.) H a w .
Phil. Mag. 6: 109 (1829).

CACTACEAE
2n = unknown
Synonyms Phyllocactus acuminatus (K. Schu-
mann) K. Schumann (1897).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: hong te.
Origin and geographic distribution E. oxy-
petalum is native to tropical America (Mexico,
Guatemala, Venezuela and Brazil), but is widely
cultivated in tropical countries, e.g. in gardens in
Java.
Uses In Indonesia, a decoction of the fresh or
dried flowers (often flower buds) and sometimes
fresh stems is used externally to treat inflamma-
tions, wounds and boils, and internally to treat
cough, phlegm, tuberculosis, pharyngitis, uterine
bleeding and gastritis.
In Central America, a decoction of Epiphyllum
flowers is also used to treat cough, and as an ex-
pectorant and tonic.
E. oxypetalum is planted as an ornamental for its
flowers, and sometimes also as hedge plant.
Properties The sweet-tasting flowers reputedly
have anti-inflammatory and haemostatic activi-
ties, whereas anti-inflammatory activity has also
been reported for the slightly acid stems. The Epiphyllum oxypetalum (DC.) Haw. - branch with
acidity of the stem is possibly due to the presence flower.
EPIPREMNUM 189
Epiphyllum consists of about 15 species and oc- natum is very widely distributed, from Bangla-
curs mainly in Central America, with a few desh, the Andaman Islands, Burma (Myanmar),
species extending to the West Indies and South Vietnam and probably also Laos, southern China,
America. It belongs to the tribe Hylocereeae of the southern Japan, through Thailand and the whole
subfamily Cactoideae, together with 5 other gen- of Malesia, to Queensland (Australia) and many
era from tropical America. E. hookeri Haw. is also islands in the Pacific.
cultivated as an ornamental in Java, but it is not U s e s E. pinnatum is used medicinally in differ-
known whether it has the same uses. ent parts of its large area of distribution. The
Ecology In its native area of distribution, E. leaves are regularly sold in markets in Singapore
oxyphyllum is an epiphyte, growing on trees to- for use in herbal tea, which is reputedly effective
gether with e.g. Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae against rheumatism and cancer, and acts as a
species. Acid soils with a pH ofless than 6 are pre- general tonic. In the Philippines, the sap is ap-
ferred for cultivation. Within the genus, E. oxy- plied to snake bites, and the inflorescence is used
phyllum is the easiest species to cultivate. It as an emmenagogue. In Indonesia, the inner part
grows and flowers extremely well in moist condi- of the stem is applied as embrocation to treat
tions. sprains. In New Britain, the leaves are used exter-
Management E. oxypetalum can be propagated nally to treat abscesses and swellings. In Viet-
by stem cuttings. nam, whole plants are used in traditional medi-
Genetic resources E. oxypetalum does not cine, to treat fractures, bruises, cough, paralysis,
seem to be easily liable to genetic erosion as it is rheumatism, conjunctivitis, mastitis, ecchymosis
widely cultivated in the tropics. However, the ge- and furuncles, and as an antidote.
netic variability in Malesia is probably very limit- Baskets have been made in the Philippines from
ed as the plants are propagated vegetatively. Epi- the inner parts of the aerial roots. In Tonga, the
phyllum species have been crossed with species aerial roots ofE. pinnatum are collected, baked on
from related genera such as Disocactus and Se- stones in an oven, and immersed in salt water for
lenicereus. Such hybrids are widely cultivated as a long period to preserve them and to make it eas-
ornamentals. ier to remove the bark. The weavers split these
Prospects Although no research has been done prepared roots horizontally, and make traditional
on the phytochemistry and pharmacological prop- baskets from them, together with the leaf midribs
erties, E. oxyphyllum seems to be an interesting of coconut.
medicinal plant as it is used for similar com- E. pinnatum is often cultivated as an ornamental,
plaints in different parts of the world. Research is with or without variegated leaves. In Bali, the
therefore needed to confirm the attributed medici- leaves and young shoots are fed to cattle; in hors-
nal activities. es, they act as vermifuge.
Literature 62,991. E. giganteum (Roxb.) Schott is reputedly poiso-
Other selected sources 334, 366, 646. nous, and the poison has been used criminally and
R.H.M.J. Lemmens as dart poison in mixtures.
Properties Leaf extracts of E. pinnatum
showed cytotoxic activity against cancer cells in
E p i p r e m n u m p i n n a t u m (L.) E n g l . vitro, and the hot-water-soluble fraction of the ex-
tract produced immunostimulation in laboratory
Pflanzenr. 37(IV.23B): 60 (1908). animals. Polyhydroxy-alkaloids are present in the
ARACEAE leaves.
2n =60 Botany A large climber up to 15 m long; stem
Synonyms Scindapsus pinnatus (L.) Schott up to 4 cm in diameter, lustrous green with irreg-
(1832),Rhaphidophora pinnata (L.) Schott (1860), ular longitudinal whitish crests, becoming pale
Rhaphidophora merrillii Engl. (1905). brown, with numerous clasping roots and few
Vernacular names Indonesia: lolo munding feeding roots. Leaves alternate, ovate to oblong-el-
(Sundanese),jalu mampang (Javanese), samblung liptical in outline, usually regularly pinnatifid,
(Balinese). Philippines: tabatib (Tagalog), takotin 10-93 cm x 5-60 cm, rounded to slightly cordate at
(Bisaya), amlong (Bikol, Bisaya). Thailand: ngot, base, acute to acuminate at apex, sometimes
ngot khao (Surin), naang rong (Trat). Vietnam: minutely perforate; petiole 20-60 cm long, canalic-
r[as]y leo l[as] x[er], r[as]y ng[os]t. ulate, with petiolar sheath later falling off to leave
Origin and geographic distribution E. pin- a brownish scar, basically and apically distinctly
geniculate; stipules absent. Inflorescence a cylin- num species have a restricted natural range. E.
drical, whitish, yellowish or greenish spadix up to pinnatum cv. Aureum (synonym: Epipremnum
25 cm long enveloped by a boat-shaped greenish aureum (Linden & André) G.S. Bunting) is often
spathe withering after anthesis and caducous; pe- cultivated, usually with variegated leaves. Proba-
duncle stout, up to 21.5 cm long. Flowers bisexual, bly, this cultivar originates from the Solomon Is-
without perianth; stamens 4; ovary superior, with lands.
trapezoid stylar region and linear stigma. Fruit a Ecology E. pinnatum occurs in primary and
greenish berry, densely packed in a cylindrical in- secondary rain forests and monsoon forest, up to
fructescence oblique at base, with few seeds em- 1600 m altitude. It is sometimes a weed in rubber
bedded in sticky orange-red pulp. Seeds curved, c. plantations, and grows occasionally on rocks and
4.5 mm x 3.5 mm, testa bony and ornamented, in coastal forest.
brownish. Management E. pinnatum cultivated for orna-
Epipremnum comprises approximately 15 species mental purposes is propagated by stem cuttings.
of slender to very large root-climbing lianas, and In-vitro propagation is successfully practised us-
is distributed from India, Bangladesh, Burma ing shoot tips and axillary buds cultured on
(Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China and Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with
southern Japan, through Thailand and the whole kinetin and adenine sulphate. Root rot caused by
of Malesia, to northern Australia (Queensland) Pythium splendens is common in cultivated
and the islands of the Pacific (to the Cook Is- plants.
lands). It is classified in the tribe Monstereae; oth- Genetic resources E. pinnatum is very widely
er Asiatic genera of this tribe are Amydrium, distributed and occurs in very divergent habitats.
Rhaphidophora and Scindapsus. E. pinnatum is It is consequently not liable to genetic erosion.
the only widespread species; the other Epiprem- There are no known germplasm collections of E.
pinnatum.
Prospects It is surprising that a plant species
like E. pinnatum that is so widely used in tradi-
tional medicine throughout its extremely large
area of distribution has been so poorly investigat-
ed with regard to its phytochemistry and pharma-
cological properties. The reputed beneficial activi-
ties seem tojustify more research.
Literature 104, 153,333.
740, 760,971.
Nguyen Van Dzu
Epirixanthes elongata Blume
Catalogus: 82 (1823).
POLYGALACEAE
2n = 44
Synonyms Salomonia aphylla Griffith (1844),
Salomonia elongata (Blume) Kurz ex Koord.
(1912), Epirixanthes aphylla (Griffith) Merr.
(1918).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: chenduan, chim-
buai (Peninsular). Vietnam: th[uw][owj]ng c[aw]n
hoa.
Origin and geographic distribution E. elon-
gata occurs in eastern India, southern Burma
Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl. - 1,plant habit; (Myanmar), Vietnam, southern China, Taiwan,
2, leaf of juvenile shoot; 3, inflorescence; 4, stem Thailand (recently found in Lampang Province),
part with infructescences; 5, seed. Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, western Java,
ERANTHEMUM 191
Borneo and the Moluccas (Ambon, Seram). Literature 121.

Uses In Peninsular Malaysia E. elongata is used Other selected sources 247.
as a contraceptive and abortifacient by women, R.Kiew
and during childbirth. An infusion of the dried
plant is drunk. Plants are sometimes burned and
the ash mixed with oil is smeared on the forehead Eranthemum viscidum Blume
or breast for its magic power. It is much valued as
a love potion. Dayaks in Sarawak believe that it Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 793 (1826).
causes sterility in men and chickens. ACANTHACEAE
Botany A small, erect herb, violet, reddish or 2n =unknown
dark cream and lacking chlorophyll, up to 25 cm Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: jarong bubu-
tall, with densely branched root system; stem kuan (Sundanese).
slender, up to 2 mm in diameter, simple or Origin and geographic distribution E. vis-
branched in upper half, minutely hairy or papil- cidum seems to be restricted to Java, where it oc-
lose. Leaves arranged spirally, small, bract-like, curs throughout the island, but there are also
2-3.5 mm long, ciliate-pilose, 1-veined, sessile. In- some reports from the Lesser Sunda Islands, per-
florescence a terminal spike up to 6 cm long, with haps referring to cultivated plants.
ovate, cuspidate, caducous bracts. Flowers bisexu- Uses In Java, the juice from young leaves and
al, 2-2.5 mm long, yellowish-white; sepals 5, free, stem tops is used externally to treat eye infec-
subequal, ciliolate-papillose, persistent; petals 3, tions.
unequal, asymmetrical, halfway adnate to the sta- The tuberous root ofE. roseum (Vahl) R.Br, boiled
minal tube, the 2 upper ones halfway connate to in milk is a popular remedy for leucorrhoea in In-
the lower one, free part of lower petal boat- dia. E. whartonianum Hemsl., the roots of which
shaped; stamens (4-)5, anthers sessile or stipitate; are used to treat indigestion in Bougainville
ovary superior, orbicular, 2-celled, style longer (Papua New Guinea), probably belongs to the
than ovary, erect, apically with slightly 2-lobed genus Pseuderanthemum.
stigma. Fruit broadly ellipsoid or reniform, up to 1 E. pulchellum Andrews (synonym: E. nervosum
mm long, indéhiscent, with fleshy pericarp, en- (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roemer & Schultes) is a commonly
closed by the sepals, 2-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, cultivated ornamental shrub.
glabrous, embryo translucent, endosperm nearly Properties There is no information on the prop-
absent in ripe seeds. erties ofE. viscidum, but the iridoid glucoside er-
Epirixanthes comprises 5 species and is distrib- anthemoside and 0.3% of the quaternary amino
uted from eastern India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo- acid betain have been isolated from flowering E.
China and southern China, throughout the Male- pulchellum, as well as polyphenols and their relat-
sian region to the Solomon Islands. It is related to ed monomers such as sinapic acid.
Salomonia, which differs in its green leaves Botany An erect herb up to 100 cm tall, often
(chlorophyll present), S-curved style and dehis- branched from the very base; nodes thickened.
cent fruit. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, ovate-lanceo-
Ecology E. elongata is saprophytic and grows late to lanceolate, 2.5-20 cm x 1-6 cm, base decur-
among leaf litter in primary lowland rain forest. It rent, acuminate at apex, with linear cystoliths,
is nowhere common and only rarely locally abun- short-hairy on the larger veins beneath, otherwise
dant. It prefers intense shade and does not toler- glabrous; petiole 0.5-5 cm long, petioles of the op-
ate drying ofthe forest floor. posite leaves connected by a transverse ridge;
Genetic resources Although widespread, E. stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal and axil-
elongata is restricted to humid rain forest, which lary, erect, dense spike-like raceme 3-15 cm long,
is under growing pressure. It appears to be in with large (up to 3 cm) usually green, short-hairy
need ofconservation measures. and glandular bracts. Flowers bisexual, with 2
Prospects The use of E. elongata is more for bracteoles; calyx surpassing the bracteoles, 5-fid,
psychological, i.e. magic, effects (as a love potion, with narrow, acute and equal segments; corolla
and after childbirth to protect against evil spirits) gamopetalous, with thin tube up to 3 cm long and
than of genuine pharmacological value. Its rather 5 lobes contorted in bud, c. 2.5 cm across, violet
rare appearance together with the poor possibili- blue; stamens 2, inserted near the top of the corol-
ties for cultivation mean that it has no prospects la tube, 2 minute staminodes present; ovary supe-
as a medicinal plant. rior, 2-celled, style with 2 unequal stigmas. Fruit
a clavate capsule c. 1.5 cm long, acute, up to 4- skin complaints, and occasionally it is used in a
seeded. Seeds compressed and partly surrounded bath to treat malarial fever.
by the hardened funicle, covered all over with mu- Several Eria species are cultivated by orchid ama-
cigenous hairs. teurs, e.g.E.javanica (Sw.) Blume.
E. viscidum flowers in Java from June to Decem- Properties There is no information on the phy-
ber. tochemistry of E. pannea, but some other Eria
Eranthemum consists of approximately 30 species species have been investigated. The glycoside pec-
and originates from tropical Asia. In Malesia, 2 tolinarigenin 7-glucoside was isolated from E. ja-
species are indigenous, E. sumatranum Bremek. vanica. Nudol (2,7-dihydroxy-3,4-dimethoxyphe-
being endemic to Sumatra. Some species are at- nanthrene), erianthridin, sitosterol and erianol (a
tractive ornamentals grown for their foliage, steroidal compound) have been isolated from E.
bluish flowers and overlapping bracts, which are spicata (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz. Nudol has also been
often conspicuously feathered with green. Several found in some other Eria species. Flavanthridin,
species of the related genus Pseuderanthemum al- flavanthrinin and the dimeric 9,10-dihydrophe-
so have ornamental value. nanthrene derivative flavanthrin were isolated
Ecology E. viscidum occurs in shaded, not too from E. flava Griffith, and the phenanthrene de-
dry localities up to 800 m altitude, often in brush- rivatives confusarin and confusaridin from E.
wood and hedges. arnica Reichenb.f. Protoalkaloids have been isolat-
Management Eranthemum species cultivated ed from E.jarensis Ames.
as ornamentals are propagated by softwood cut- Botany A small perennial epiphytic herb with
tings. long, creeping rhizome and raising stems of sever-
Genetic resources Although E. viscidum al internodes with few leaves or with 1-leaved
seems to be endemic to Java, there are no indica- pseudobulb. Leaves alternate, simple, terete,
tions that it is threatened. 7.5-17.5 cm long, fleshy; petiole and stipules ab-
Prospects Too little is known about E. vis- sent, but tubular sheath present at base of leaf.
cidum to indicate its medicinal value, but in the Inflorescence lateral, up to 5 cm long, woolly, usu-
light of the medicinal properties of many Acan- ally 1-3-flowered; bracts ovate. Flowers bisexual,
thaceae species research seems worthwhile. zygomorphic, pale yellow; sepals 3, triangular,
Literature 110,334. 1-1.5 cm long, woolly outside; petals 3, oblong-
Other selected sources 62, 181, 331, 426, lanceolate, shorter than sepals, hairy, lip (label-
731. lum) oblong, entire, dull red to purplish with
R.H.M.J. Lemmens thickened, yellowish basal and apical central part;
column slender, greenish; anther with 8 pollinia.
Fruit a fusiform capsule with numerous seeds.
Eria pannea Lindley Seeds minute.
Eria comprises approximately 500 species and is
Bot. Reg. 28:64,misc. 79 (1842). distributed from India to the Polynesian Islands.
ORCHIDACEAE It is one of the most polymorphic of all orchid gen-
2n = 38 era, especially with respect to vegetative charac-
Synonyms-Eria teretifolia Griffith (1848). ters. It is close to another large genus, Dendrobi-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kura kubong, um, from which it differs by having 8 pollinia and
gading gajah (Peninsular). Vietnam: n[ir] Ian a woolly indumentum. Many sections have been
r[as]ch, n[ir] Ian t[ar] t[ow]i. distinguished; E. pannea belongs to section
Origin and geographic distribution E. pan- Strongylaria.
nea is distributed from eastern India, Bhutan and Ecology E. pannea is an epiphyte on trees, but
Burma (Myanmar), through Indo-China, southern can also be found on rocks, from the lowland up to
China and Thailand, to Peninsular Malaysia, Sin- 2000 m altitude. It is locally common, e.g. in
gapore, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, Bangka northern Thailand.
and Borneo. Management Like other Eria species, E. pan-
U s e s There is only one record of medicinal uses nea can undoubtedly be propagated by division.
from Peninsular Malaysia, stating that boiled Genetic resources E. pannea is widely distrib-
plants of E. pannea are used to prepare a medici- uted and at least locally common. Therefore, it
nal bath to treat ague. In Vietnam E. pannea is does not seem to be endangered.
applied externally to treat fractures, bruises and Prospects Research on phytochemistry and
ERYCIBE 193
pharmacological activity should be done before a wood ofthis species is of good quality and used for
possible recommendation ofE. pannea as a useful handles ofaxes and knives.
medicinal plant can take place. Ecology E. obliquus occurs in the undergrowth
Literature 121,830,971. of rain forest, often along rivers and on limestone
Other selected sources 588, 589, 590, 591, soils, up to 600 m altitude.
832, 993. Genetic resources Although E. obliquus can
Dzuong Due Huyen be locally common, it is in general relatively rare
and restricted to lowland rain forest. It might
therefore be liable to genetic erosion.
E r i s m a n t h u s o b l i q u u s Wallich e x Müll. Prospects The uses ofE. obliquus are seeming-
Arg. ly marginal and a development of the medicinal
applications is not expected.
D C , Prodr. 15, 2: 1138 (1866). Literature 121,955.
EuPHORBIACEAE Other selected sources 990.
2n = unknown P.C. van Weizen
Vernacular names Malaysia: kasip keledut,
rukam ayer, bekoi (Peninsular). Thailand: aet
(Yala). Erycibe Roxb.
Origin and geographic distribution E. obli-
quus occurs in peninsular Thailand, Peninsular PL Coromandel 2:31 (1802).
Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. CONVOLVULACEAE
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a paste made x =unknown
from E. obliquus leaves is applied externally as an Origin and geographic distribution Erycibe
anodyne. comprises approximately 70 species and occurs
Botany A monoecious, small to medium-sized from India and Sri Lanka, through Burma (Myan-
tree up to 17 m tall, with fluted bole up to 20 cm in mar), Indo-China, southern China, southern Ja-
diameter. Leaves distichously opposite, simple, el- pan, Thailand and Malesia, to Australia (northern
liptical, (7-)10-23 cm x 2.5-8 cm, obliquely cor- Queensland). It is probably introduced in New
date at base, acuminate to caudate at apex, slight- Caledonia. It occurs throughout Malesia, where
ly serrate at margin with a gland on each tooth, about 50 species can be found. For Indo-China
punctate, pinnately veined, glabrous; petiole 1-4 (Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam), 9 species have
mm long; stipules interpetiolar, up to 13 mm long. been reported.
Inflorescence a unisexual, axillary raceme, many- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
flowered male and 1-flowered female in same axil roots is used during or after childbirth, and a
of one leaf of a pair, alternating per node. Flowers poultice of the leaves to treat sores, itch or
unisexual, regular, 5-merous, long-pedicelled, headache. In Taiwan, a stem extract of E. henryi
with imbricate sepals basally united; male flowers Prain (synonym: E. obtusifolia auct. non Benth.) is
c. 2 mm in diameter, green to pale yellow-brown, used to relieve rheumatoid arthritis. A stem ex-
with petals slightly shorter than sepals, 15 sta- tract ofE. obtusifolia Benth. is applied medicinal-
mens on a short torus and a pistillode up to 5 mm ly in China; a compound has been isolated that is
long; female flowers c. 20 mm in diameter, green used to treat glaucoma.
to orange-pink, petals lacking, with superior, The branches or stems sometimes serve as bind-
ovoid, 3-celled ovary, a single style and 3 stigmas ing material.
each split into 2 lobes. Fruit a subglobose, 3-lobed Properties Tests with mice showed that a high
capsule 1-1.5 cm in diameter, sericeous, pale yel- dose of a stem extract of the Taiwanese E. henryi
low, opening septicidally and loculicidally into 6 may be responsible for a little antioxidant activity
valves, 1-3-seeded. Seeds globose, 4-6 mm in di- in both liver and kidney. Mice died immediately
ameter, glossy brown with pale brown short following intraperitoneal injection of extract at a
stripes. dose of 10 mg/kg, but survived after oral adminis-
Erismanthus belongs to the tribe Erismantheae tration even at 30 mg/kg.
together with Moultonianthus and Syndyophyl- The tropane alkaloid baogongteng A has been iso-
lum. It comprises only 2 species, with E. sinensis lated from the Chinese E. obtusifolia and E.
Oliv, restricted to Indo-China, southern China hainanensis Merr.; this compound has cholinergic
(Hainan) and northern and central Thailand. The and myotic activities, and is used for treating
glaucoma in China. E. obtusifolia possesses anti- Selection of species

inflammatory activity, which is due to the pres-
ence of scopoletin. Erycibe aenea Prain
Botany Lianas, woody creepers or scandent Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 58,2: 85 (1894).
shrubs; older branches with orbicular or broadly Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: langsat hutan
elliptical lenticels, or with longitudinal cork- (Peninsular).
ridges. Leaves arranged spirally, simple and en- Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma-
tire, usually acuminate at apex; petiole short, tra.
channelled above; stipules absent. Inflorescence a Uses A decoction of the roots is used as a
terminal or axillary panicle, bracts usually min- restorative during the first 3 days after childbirth
ute, caducous. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-mer- in Peninsular Malaysia.
ous, fragrant; sepals free, unequal; corolla deeply Observations A liana up to 50 m long, with
lobed, each lobe bifid; stamens inserted slightly stem up to 10 cm in diameter, older branches with
above base of corolla; ovary superior, 1-celled, few to many orbicular lenticels; leaves elliptical-
style absent, stigma usually conical and ridged. oblong or oblong, 6-15 cm x 2.5-7 cm, with dis-
Fruit a berry, usually ellipsoid, 1-seeded. Seed tinctly sunken venation beneath; inflorescence ax-
with plain or strongly folded cotyledons. illary, 1-4 cm long, (l-)2-5(-10)-flowered; flowers
In Borneo, it has been demonstrated that Erycibe with corolla 7-8.5 mm long, yellow; fruit ellipsoid
(E. maingayi C.B. Clarke) seeds are distributed by or obpyriform, c. 2.5 cm long, scurfy. E. aenea oc-
sun bears that eat the fruits. Probably other ani- curs in lowland forest up to 750 m altitude.
mals (e.g. birds and monkeys) also serve as seed Selected sources 121,247.
dispersers.
Erycibe is placed in the tribe Erycibeae, together Erycibe malaccensis C.B. Clarke
with the American genera Dicranostyles, Ly- Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 4: 182 (1883).
siostyles and Maripa, and sometimes also Hum- Synonyms Erycibe dubia Elmer (1909).
bertia from Madagascar. This tribe is considered Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kakuwasa, ca-
as primitive within the Convolvulaceae. pungongo (Sulawesi). Malaysia: akar perut kijang
Ecology Erycibe occurs in lowland forest, pri- jantan, akar sekijang, akar serawan jantan (Pe-
mary as well as secondary, or scrub vegetation, up ninsular). Philippines: balisaog, malutai (Taga-
to 1300 m altitude. log), saladai (Bisaya).
Genetic resources Erycibe is restricted to a Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, the Philip-
habitat under pressure. Many species have been pines and Sulawesi.
found only locally, or are known from very few col- Uses A poultice of the leaves is applied to sores
lections, and are therefore likely to be threatened and to the head to treat headache in Peninsular
with extinction. Malaysia.
Prospects Nothing is known about the phyto- Observations Aliana or woody creeper up to 30
chemistry and pharmacological properties of Ma- m long, or a scandent shrub up to 3 m tall, older
lesian Erycibe. However, interesting compounds branches with distinct longitudinal cork-ridges;
such as tropane alkaloids have been demonstrated leaves ovate to elliptical or oblong, 5-16 cm x
in Chinese Erycibe. It might be worth investigat- 2.5-6.5 cm, with prominent venation beneath;
ing the Malesian species for related compounds. It inflorescence axillary or pseudoterminal, 1.5-
is unknown whether a scientific basis exists for 10(-16) cm long, 3-15(-20)-flowered; flowers with
the few medicinal applications in Malesia. It has corolla 7-11 mm long, white; fruit ellipsoid, c. 1.5
even been suggested that the uses related with cm long, smooth, red. E. malaccensis occurs in
childbirth are connected with the similarity of the lowland forest up to 500 m altitude.
bifid corolla lobes to the uterus of animals. Selected sources 121,247.
Literature 212, 375,376, 1015.
Erycibe rheedii Blume
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 16: 1047 (1826).
Synonyms Erycibe angulata Prain (1894).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: olor bahai (Si-
meuluë), panawar ganggang (Palembang, Suma-
tra). Malaysia: tampang ari, tampang ular ari,
rumput ular ari (Peninsular).
EUCHRESTA 195
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Cytisus laburnum L.) seeds are mostly limited to
western Java and northern Borneo. hypersalivation, burns in the mouth and throat,
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the roots, after and vomiting, which prevents a massive absorp-
boiling in oil, are applied to the abdomen of tion of the alkaloids. In cases of severe intoxica-
women in labour to expedite delivery. tion, the following symptoms of stimulation of the
Observations A liana or woody creeper up to central nervous system by cytisine are observed:
20 m long, sometimes a scandent shrub, older excitation, convulsion, and respiratory arrest. Ma-
branches with few orbicular lenticels; leaves el- trine is known to exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-
liptical-oblong to oblong or obovate-oblong, ulcer and analgesic properties, and it showed sig-
(7.5-)12-24(-30) cm x (3.5-)5.5-10(-14) cm, with nificant inhibition of ocular inflammation induced
slightly prominent venation beneath; inflores- by lens proteins. An ethanolic extract of E. for-
cence axillary or terminal, 1-23 cm long, 5-200- mosana roots exhibited hypothermic activity in
flowered; flowers with corolla 7-9 mm long, white rats.
or cream-coloured; fruit ellipsoid, c. 2 cm long, Botany Erect shrubs up to 2 m tall. Leaves
glabrous or with some stellate hairs near apex, arranged spirally, imparipinnate, long-petioled;
dirty yellowish-brown or bluish. E. rheedii occurs stipules small; leaflets opposite, entire, without
in scrub vegetation, forest edges and swampy for- stipels. Inflorescence a terminal or leaf-opposed
est up to 250 m altitude. raceme, erect, with small bracts. Flowers bisexu-
Selected sources 121,247. al, pedicellate; calyx campanulate, oblique, short-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens ly 5-lobed; corolla papilionaceous, much longer
than calyx, standard narrow, emarginate, clawed,
wings oblong, auriculate, keel obtuse, its petals
Euchresta Benn. scarcely adhering and auriculate; stamens 10, 9
connate but easily separable, 1 free; ovary superi-
Pl.jav. rar.: 148,t. 31 (1838). or, long-stalked, 1-celled, style filiform, curved,
LEGUMINOSAE stigma capitate. Fruit an oblong to ovoid or ellip-
x =9;E. formosana, E. horsfieldii: In =18 soid, drupe-like pod, stalked, thick and leathery,
Origin and geographic distribution Eu- 1-seeded, indéhiscent. Seed large, without carun-
chresta comprises 5 species and is found from the cle and albumen.
Himalayas eastward to Japan and southward to Euchresta can be found flowering and fruiting
western Malesia. Two species occur in South-East throughout the year. It is usually classified in a
Asia. separate tribe Euchresteae. However, its phyto-
U s e s In South-East Asian traditional medicine chemistry is remarkably similar to that of Sopho-
Euchresta seeds are considered a useful antidote ra.
and they are used as a tonic. They are also credit- Ecology Euchresta occurs in closed to open, sec-
ed with an aphrodisiac action and applied exter- ondary forest, brushwood and savanna, in the
nally as well as internally. However, they are so Malesian region in mountains above 1400 m alti-
poisonous that great caution is required when tude.
they are taken internally. The roots are also used Genetic resources The natural distribution of
to treat snakebites. A decoction of the leaves is Euchresta within South-East Asia is rather limit-
used during childbirth to ease labour. ed and fragmented. An increased exploitation may
Properties Numerous prenylated flavonoids therefore potentially threaten its genetic diversi-
have been isolated from the roots and stems of Eu- ty, although it is also present in disturbed habi-
chresta, together with isoflavones, pterocarpans, tats.
coumaronochromones and flavanones. Flavonoid Prospects Traditional uses of Euchresta seeds
glycosides are abundantly present in the leaves, can be largely ascribed to the activities of cytisine.
most commonly with apigenin as the aglycone. Future prospects seem rather limited because of
The seeds contain alkaloids such as cytisine (at a the toxic effects of cytisine. However, the pharma-
concentration of 1.5%), matrine and matrine-N- cological properties of other alkaloids such as ma-
oxide. The toxic complications ofcytisine are relat- trine might be of interest (e.g. as lead compounds)
ed to an initial vasoconstriction, that is however in the development of new pharmaceuticals. The
accompanied by an increase of blood pressure. potential of other constituents needs to be deter-
Symptoms of cytisine poisoning of the better mined by further research.
known Laburnum anagyroides Medic, (synonym Literature 118, 334, 605, 606, 760.
Selection of species E u o d i a h o r t e n s i s J . R . F o r s t e r & J.G.

Forster
Euchresta formosana (Hayata) Ohwi
Journ. Jap. Bot. 12:659 (1936). Charact. gen. pi.: 7 (1775).
Synonyms Euchresta horsfieldii auct. non RUTACEAE
(Lesch.) Benn. 2ra= unknown
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: laguan (Taga- Synonyms Euodia longifolia A. Rich. (1834),
log), katanda, makhilab (Bukidnon). Euodia schullei Warb. var. simplicifolia Guill.
Distribution The Philippines, Taiwan and (1931).
southern Japan (the Ryukyu Islands). Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: sup
Uses In the Philippines the roots are chewed to (Kanganaman, Sepik).
treat snakebites. Origin and geographic distribution The
Observations An erect shrub up to 2 m tall, area of distribution of E. hortensis ranges from
with glabrous branchlets; leaflets (3-)5-9, ellipti- New Guinea eastward to Samoa, Tonga and Niue,
cal to lanceolate, 8-15 cm x 2.5-4.5 cm; flowers but it is probably not native east of the New He-
with white to purplish corolla, c. 1.5 cm long; fruit brides. It has been introduced as an ornamental in
ellipsoid, c. 2 cm long, bluish-black. E. formosana gardens and parks in Java.
occurs in evergreen forest in the mountains, up to Uses In the Sepik region, Papua New Guinea,
2000 m altitude. leaf scrapings of E. hortensis are added to water
Selected sources 380, 760. and the solution is drunk to give some relief to a
cold. In the Solomon Islands crushed leaves are
Euchresta horsfieldii (Lesch.) Benn. used as a poultice to treat boils. Roots and leaves
Pl.jav. rar.: 148,t. 31 (1838). are chewed together with Areca catechu L. nut
Vernacular names Indonesia: palakiya, prana- and lime as a remedy for malaria. In islands of the
jiwa (Javanese). Vietnam: s[ow]n d[aaj]u c[aw]n. Pacific the bark or an infusion of the leaves is
Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan- used to reduce a fever, and leaves are chewed to
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, treat toothache, and used to prepare a remedial
northern Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java bath. A leaf decoction is reputed to cure stomach-
and Bali. ache, fever and menstrual pains. A decoction of
Uses In Java the seeds are a renowned tradi- the bark, apparently being more potent, is taken
tional medicine, administered for diseases of the to treat stomach ulcers, as an emmenagogue, and
chest. Because of their emetic action they are con- to relieve pain during childbirth. The fragrant
sidered a useful antidote in all cases in which poi- leaves and inflorescenses are worn as personal
son has been swallowed, and they are taken as a decoration, especially on social occasions. The
tonic. Credited with an aphrodisiac action, they small wood, although of small dimension, is used
are applied externally and internally. The pound- for house construction or bow-making. E. horten-
ed seeds mixed with lemonjuice are applied exter- sis is commonly planted as an ornamental.
nally to snakebites. In Thailand and Vietnam a Properties Prenylated acetophenones and fura-
decoction ofthe leaves is used during childbirth to no monoterpenes (evodene) have been isolated
ease labour. from E. hortensis leaves, and an essential oil con-
Observations An erect shrub up to 2 m tall, taining caryophyllene, a-copaene and ar-curcum-
with brown-hairy branchlets, roots tuberous; ene has been isolated from the flowers.
leaflets(3-)5-7(-9), elliptical-ovate to oblong, 6-20 Botany A shrub or tree up to 15 m tall; young
cm x 3-8.5 cm; flowers with white to yellowish branchlets strigillose to glabrous, terminal bud
corolla, 1.5-2 cm long; fruit oblong to ovoid or el- densely appressed pubescent. Leaves opposite, 1-
lipsoid, 1-2 cm long, shining bluish-black. E. hors- or 3-foliolate, pellucid-dotted; petiole 0.5-6.5 cm
fieldii occurs in mainland South-East Asia in sec- long; stipules absent; leaflets elliptical to obovate
ondary forest, brushwood and savanna up to 1800 or linear, 4-36 cm x 0.3-8 cm, base obtuse to at-
m altitude, in Java in closed forest at 1400-2000 tenuate, apex obtuse to acuminate, entire to lobed
m altitude. or undulate, glabrous; petiolule 0-1 cm long. Inflo-
Selected sources 35, 62, 121, 250, 292, 334, rescence axillary, thyrsiform or racemose, 2-30
731. cm long, glabrous to puberulent. Flowers bisexual,
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg 4-merous; sepals connate at base, ovate or ovate-
triangular, 1-2 mm long; petals ovate to elliptical,
FAGERLINDIA 197
sulting in much variation in leaf shape. The puta-

tive cultigens of E. hortensis are vegetatively re-
markably similar to those of Melicope denhamii
(Seem.) T.G. Hartley and as a result the two
species have been confused.
Ecology E. hortensis is found in both primary
and secondary forest, coastal and inland, in thick-
ets, open localities and disturbed areas, from sea-
level up to 600 m altitude.
Genetic resources E. hortensis is a relatively
widespread species, well adapted to disturbance,
and it is frequently cultivated in gardens, villages
and cemeteries. It does not seem to be in danger of
genetic erosion.
Prospects There is no information on pharma-
cological properties of E. hortensis. Research is
needed to support its traditional medicinal uses.
Literature 121,320, 347.
Other selected sources 116,731.
Juliasri Djamal
Fagerlindia fasciculata (Roxb.)

Tirveng.
Nordic Journ. Bot. 3(4):458 (1983).

RUBIACEAE
Euodia hortensis J.R. Forster & J.G. Forster - 1, « = 11
flowering twig with 3-foliolate leaves; 2, flowering Synonyms Gardenia fasciculata Roxb. ex
twig with 1-foliolate leaves; 3, leaf variability of Sprengel (1827), Randia fasciculata (Roxb.) DC.
putative cultigens; 4, flower, floral parts partially (1830), Oxyceros fasciculata (Roxb.) Yamazaki
removed; 5, fruit. (1970).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar duri, akar
1.5-2 mm long, persistent in fruit, white or cream; kuku lang (Peninsular).
stamens with glabrous filaments; disk cupular; Origin and geographic distribution F. fasci-
ovary superior, 4-carpellate, carpels connate at culata is distributed from the Himalayas of Nepal,
base. Fruit consisting of 1-4 1-seeded follicles 4-5 Bhutan and northern India, through eastern In-
mm long, glabrous. Seeds (2.5-)3-4.5 mm long, dia, Indo-China and Thailand, to Peninsular Ma-
minutely granulöse, brown or reddish-brown, dull laysia.
to lustrous. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, leaves are pound-
Euodia consists of 7 species and ranges from New ed with Prismatomeris leaves to obtain a poultice
Guinea and north-eastern Australia east to to treat sores. In India, the fruits are used in cases
Samoa, Tonga and Niue. Except for the New Cale- of sunstroke.
donian endemic E. tietaensis (Guill.) T.G. Hartley, Botany A shrub or small tree up to 6 m tall.
the species are very closely related. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, elliptical to
Euodia and Melicope are very closely related gen- ovate, 3-12 cm x 1.5-5 cm, hairy on the veins be-
era and much confusion exists with respect to the low, with 4-9 pairs of secondary veins; petiole
proper identity of the hundreds of names in use. 3-10 mm long; stipules interpetiolar, narrowly tri-
The most important differences between the two angular, cuspidate; leaf axils with 2 buds each,
genera are the dull and roughened seeds that are the upper ones developing into spines c. 1cm long.
discharged upon dehiscence of Euodia fruits ver- Inflorescence terminal, fasciculate, or flowers soli-
sus the shiny and smooth seeds remaining at- tary. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous; calyx
tached in the dehisced Melicope fruits. with short tube and narrow lobes, persistent;
E. hortensis has a long history of cultivation re- corolla salver-shaped with tube (1.5-)2.5-4.5 cm
long and lobes (0.6-)1.5-3 cm long, contorted in Fagerlindia most resembles Catunaregam and
bud, tube inside hairy; stamens inserted near the Oxyceros, which are also spiny shrubs. It is best
apex of the corolla tube, filaments very short, an- characterized by the 2 buds in the leaf axils and
thers large, exserted from the corolla throat; ovary the salver-shaped corolla.
inferior, 2-celled, style long, with 2 large stigmas. Fagerlindia comprises about 9 species, and occurs
Fruit a globose berry, 1-1.5 cm in diameter, hairy, from the Himalayas to southern China and Male-
crowned by the calyx cup, many-seeded. Seeds sia, where 3 species have been found: F. fascicula-
shaped like the segments of an orange, 5-7 mm ta in Peninsular Malaysia, and 2 other species in
long. the Philippines.
The main vertical orthotropic axis is monopodial Ecology In Peninsular Malaysia, F. fasciculata
and bears horizontal plagiotropic shoots. The occurs in lowland and hill forest.
growth of a plagiotropic axis is terminated by the Genetic resources F. fasciculata does not
production of a terminal inflorescence, and fur- seem likely to be endangered. It occurs through-
ther growth is sympodial. Branches produced dur- out Peninsular Malaysia, in different forest types.
ing sympodial branching may bear spines repre- Prospects Very little is known ofF. fasciculata
senting reduced shoots. There is a second serial in all respects. Research is needed to confirm the
bud situated below the spines. This may develop beneficial effect on sores; perhaps there are active
into a short shoot bearing an inflorescence or it compounds comparable to those found in related
may develop into a vegetative shoot. genera such as Catunaregam.
The anthers surround the stigma in bud, and Literature 121,790, 990.
pollen is released already in flower buds. When Other selected sources 931.
the flowers open the pollen is presented on the R.H.M.J. Lemmens
stigma, which then opens to expose the receptive
inner surface.
Fimbristylis Vahl
Enum. pi. 2:285 (1805).

CYPERACEAE
x =5;F. falcata: 2n = 22, 44,F. miliacea: 2n = 10,
20
Origin and geographic distribution Fim-
bristylis comprises about 200 species and has a
pantropical distribution, with some species ex-
tending to the warmer parts of the temperate re-
gions. About 80 species have been found in the
Malesian region.
Uses Fimbristylis is occasionally used in tradi-
tional medicine, in South-East Asia mainly for
poulticing to treat fever. In Peninsular Malaysia
F. dura (Zoll. & Moritzi) Merr. is used as a tonic
after childbirth. In Brunei F. pauciflora R.Br, is
rubbed on the body to induce labour. F. dichotoma
(L.)Vahl is used as a diuretic in China.
Some Fimbristylis species, especially F. umbel-
laris (Lamk) Vahl (synonym: F. globulosa (Retz.)
Kunth), are used for matting, others as green ma-
nure in rice fields, e.g. F. dichotoma, F. pauciflora
and F. schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl, or as forage, e.g.
F. dichotoma a n d F . miliacea.
Properties Rhizome sections of F. falcata sig-
nificantly reduced radial growth of Fusarium
Fagerlindia fasciculata (Roxb.) Tirveng. - 1, flow- oxysporum; the antifungal activity was found to be
ering branch; 2, corolla opened, showing stamens, due to the presence of a volatile compound.
style and stigmas; 3,fruiting branch. Quinones such as cyperaquinone have been isolât-
FlMBRISTYLIS 199
ed from F. dichotoma rhizomes; these compounds although several are widely distributed, which is
are also found in Cyperus species. Flavonoids such the case for both species treated here. However, F.
as aureusidin, delphinidin, luteolin and tricin falcata is rare in the Malesian region, whereas F.
have been isolated from leaves and inflorescences miliacea is a very common weed.
ofF. dichotoma. Prospects Nothing is known about the pharma-
Botany Annual or perennial herbs, usually with cological properties ofFimbristylis. Possibly these
short rhizome and tufted stems; stems usually are comparable to those of Cyperus, which is used
erect, subterete to more or less angular, solid. in traditional medicine for similar purposes, e.g.
Leaves in a rosette, often also a few in lower part for poulticing in cases of fever, and for which
of stems and then often reduced to bladeless or febrifuge properties have been demonstrated. Re-
short-bladed sheaths, simple, linear, sessile, with search has mainly focused on the control of weedy
closed sheaths at base. Inflorescence terminal, species such as F. miliacea.
simple or more or less compound, consisting of Literature 247, 331,362, 760.
spikelets, sometimes capitate or consisting of a
single spikelet; bracts foliaceous, but often much
reduced; spikelets few to many-flowered, axis usu- Selection of species
ally persistent after falling of glumes and fruits.
Flowers simple and naked, each subtended by a Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth
bract (glume), bisexual, with 1-3 free stamens and Enum. pi. 2: 239 (1837).
a superior, 1-celled ovary having a style articulat- Synonyms Fimbristylis junciformis (Nees)
ed at base and ending into 2-3 stigmas. Fruit a Kunth (1837).
trigonous or lenticular nut, orbicular to oblong- Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: malasibuias
linear, smooth to tuberculate, reticulate or ribbed. (Tagalog). Thailand: yaa dok khaao (Loei). Viet-
Seed with thin testa, embryo small, surrounded nam: c[os]i qu[aw]n l[uw][owx]i li[eef]m.
by abundant endosperm. Distribution Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Indo-
Fimbristylis is often classified in the tribe Fim- China, Thailand, the Philippines, New Guinea
bristylideae, together with Eleocharis, which re- and New Britain.
sembles Fimbristylis species with a single spikelet Uses In India the rhizomes are used to treat
but differs in the presence of flower bristles, and dysentery and ringworm.
Bulbostylis, which differs in its persistent style Observations A perennial herb with woody,
base. It has also been included in the tribe Cype- shortly creeping rhizome and solitary or some-
reae, comprising, among others, Bulbostylis, Cype- what tufted, angular stems up to 55 cm tall;
rus, Eleocharis and Scirpus. Cyperus also differs leaves flat; inflorescence loose, consisting of
in its persistent style base. spikelets in clusters of (l-)2-5, spikelets ovoid,
The names F. littoralis, F. miliacea and F. quin- 3-4 mm x 1.5 mm; flowers with 3 stamens; fruit
quangularis are used for 2 closely related, wide- obovoid, c. 1 mm long. F. falcata occurs in grass-
spread species, and this makes it difficult to inter- land, up to 1800 m altitude.
pret the literature. Here F. littoralis is considered Selected sources 247, 760, 782,865.
synonymous withF. miliacea, and F. quinquangu-
laris (Vahl) Kunth representing another species F i m b r i s t y l i s m i l i a c e a (L.) V a h l
differing in 5-angled stems and leaves not lateral- Enum. pi. 2: 287 (1805).
ly flattened. Probably both species are used indis- Synonyms Fimbristylis littoralis Gaudich.
criminately. (1826).
Ecology Most Fimbristylis species prefer wet Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: babawangan
localities such as swamps, rice fields, margins of (Sundanese), adas-adasan (Javanese), porih pae
lakes and river banks, usually in the lowland, (Sumbawa). Malaysia: rumput tahi kerbau, rum-
rarely above 1500 m altitude. Some occur in for- put kurau, rumput keladi (Peninsular). Philip-
est, savannas or along the seashore. A few species pines: agor (Tagalog), sirau-sirau (Iloko), sirisi-
(e.g. F. miliacea) are troublesome weeds in rice buyas (Bikol). Burma (Myanmar): mônhnyin.
fields, germinating very quickly and recovering Cambodia: kak phnèk kdam, smao. Thailand: yaa
rapidly after ploughing. rat khiat (Chia Nat), yaa nuat plaa duk (Surat
Genetic resources In comparison with other Thani, Bangkok, Trang). Vietnam: c[or] t[of] te,
Cyperaceae genera such as Cyperus, many Fim- c[os]i qu[awln t[of] te.
bristylis species have limited areas of distribution, Distribution F. miliacea is pantropical, extend-
F i s s i s t i g m a Griffith
Not. pi. asiat. 4: 706 (1854).

ANNONACEAE
x = unknown; F. manubriatum: 2n =16
Origin and geographic distribution Fis-
sistigma comprises approximately 60 species, and
occurs from eastern India and southern China,
throughout tropical Asia including the whole of
Malesia, to north-eastern Australia.
Uses Decoctions of roots, leaves and sometimes
flowers ofFissistigma are used in traditional med-
icine in Peninsular Malaysia. They are applied af-
ter childbirth and to treat stomach-ache and fever.
A poultice of the leaves is occasionally used exter-
nally against sores.
Several Fissistigma species are used in traditional
medicine in southern China and Taiwan, e.g. to
treat sciatica, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation
and neoplasm. Examples are F. balansae (Aug.
DC.) Merr., F. glaucescens (Hance) Merr., F. old-
hamii (Hemsl.) Merr., F. polyanthum (Hook.f. &
Thomson) Merr. and F. shangtzeense Tsiang &
P.T. Li.
Properties The chalcones pedicin, fissistin and
isofissistin have been isolated from an ethylac-
etate extract ofF. lanuginosum. The first of these
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl - 1,plant habit; 2, compounds inhibits tubulin assembly into micro-
spikelet; 3, fruit. tubules and thus shows antimitotic activity; the
latter 2 compounds showed cytotoxicity against
ing into some temperate regions, e.g. China and KB cell lines. A bioactive fraction (brine shrimp
Japan; it occurs throughout the Malesian region, bioassay) has been purified from the stem of F.
possibly except Borneo. latifolium in Malaysia; the flavonoids tectochrysin
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are and 6,7-0,0-dimethylbacalein and the aristolac-
sometimes applied as a poultice to treat fever. F. tam alkaloid goniopedaline have been isolated
miliacea is browsed by cattle. It serves as a green from the fraction.
manure in rice fields, but is considered one of the Crude extracts of the Chinese F. balansae and F.
most noxious weeds in rice in Asia. oldhamii showed significant activity in an an-
Observations An annual or short-perennial tiplatelet aggregation assay. A number of aristo-
herb with fibrous roots and densely tufted, acutely lactams and 2 dioxoaporphines were isolated as
4-angled stems up to 40(-90) cm tall; leaves later- active compounds. The mechanism of the an-
ally compressed; inflorescence loose, consisting of tiplatelet aggregation effect of these compounds
numerous solitary, ovoid spikelets 1.5-5 mm x appears to be different from that of aspirin, and
1-1.5 mm; flowers usually with 1 stamen; fruit the effect may be due to the inhibition of throm-
broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, up to 0.5 mm long. boxane A2 formation.
F. miliacea occurs scattered in open or slightly A number of alkaloids have been found in the Chi-
shaded wet localities such as swampy grassland, nese F. balansae, F. glaucescens and F. oldhamii.
rice fields and teak forest, up to 1000 m altitude. Of these, atherosperminine (as Perchlorate) and
It may be a troublesome weed in rice fields. atherosperminium I, isolated from F. glaucescens,
Selected sources 121, 247, 334, 362, 760, 782, showed strong inhibition of platelet aggregation,
879. whereas the first of these compounds also showed
R.H.M.J. Lemmens a vasodilating action on thoracic aorta prepara-
tions of rats. Atherosperminine also exerts a non-
specific relaxant effect on the trachealis muscle.
FlSSISTIGMA 201
Liriodenine, isolated from F. glaucescens, was credited medicinal plants. More research of the
shown to be a selective muscarinic receptor antag- South-East Asiatic species seems worthwhile.
onist in isolated trachea, ileum and cardiac tis- A taxonomie revision of the complete genus is still
sues of guinea-pigs and rats; therefore, it was con- lacking. It is badly needed for correct identifica-
cluded that it has therapeutic potential for the tion and to understand the distribution of the
treatment ofcardiac arrhythmias. The selective cc- various species.
lD-adrenoceptor antagonist in vascular smooth Literature 121, 140, 150, 159, 493, 557, 756,
muscle (-)-discretamine has also been isolated 860, 1010,1011.
from F. glaucescens. The total alkaloid fraction of
F. oldhamii increased the coronary blood flow in
tests on isolated hearts. The hydro-oxadiazine- Selection of species
type alkaloid fissoldhimine and a morphinan-
dienone alkaloid were isolated from F. oldhamii. Fissistigma fulgens (Hook.f.&
Antitumour and antiviral activities have been at- Thomson) Merr.
tributed to the Chinese F. polyanthum. Philipp. Journ. Sei. 15: 130 (1919).
From the pleasantly smelling flowers of the Chi- Synonyms Melodorum fulgens Hook.f. & Thom-
nese F. shangtzeense an essential oil has been iso- son (1855).
lated with linalool and oc-terpineol as the major Vernacular names Malaysia: akar larak, akar
components; this might be a valuable source of salah hutan, akar sengolok (Peninsular).
raw material for perfumery. Distribution Southern Peninsular Malaysia,
Botany Lianas, with simple hairs. Leaves alter- Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippi-
nate, distichous, simple and entire; stipules ab-
sent. Inflorescence a terminal leaf-opposed few-
flowered fascicle. Flowers bisexual, regular; sepals
3, valvate, more or less connate at base; petals 6,
in 2 whorls, inner ones slightly shorter than outer
ones, valvate, free, triquetrous, concave at base;
stamens numerous, spirally arranged, connective
with a tongue-shaped apex; carpels numerous,
free, usually pubescent. Fruit consisting of numer-
ous free stipitate, indéhiscent monocarps, many-
seeded. Seeds in 2 rows, smooth and shining.
Some species which are included in Fissistigma in
older literature have been transferred to other
genera: F. mabiforme (Griffith) Merr. is now Mi-
trella kentii (Blume) Miq., and F. cylindricum
(Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Merr. is now
Pyramidanthe prismatica (Hook.f. & Thomson) J.
Sinclair.
Ecology In Malesia, Fissistigma occurs particu-
larly in lowland forest, also in secondary forest
and forest edges, but its ecological requirements
are very poorly known.
Genetic resources Several Fissistigma species
are, at least locally, common (e.g.F.fulgens and F.
latifolium), but for other ones very few collections
are available. Moreover, the exact areas of distrib- MmM
ution are still unclear. v
Prospects Fissistigma does not seem to be
much used in traditional medicine in Malesia,
Thailand or Indo-China. The few reports available Fissistigma fulgens (Hook.f. & Thomson) Merr. -
on phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- 1,flowering branch; 2, flower; 3, flower with petals
ties, however, show interesting results. Moreover, detached; 4, stamens, front and back view; 5, pis-
the better investigated Chinese species are ac- til.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the Fissistigma latifolium (Dunal) Merr.

leaves is used after childbirth, and a leaf poultice Philipp. Journ. Sei. 15: 132 (1919).
to treat sore legs. Synonyms Melodorum latifolium (Dunal)
Observations A large liana; leaves oblong- Hook.f. &Thomson (1855).
lanceolate, 7.5-15 cm x 3-5 cm, shortly appressed Vernacular names Malaysia: akar pisang-
golden pubescent and with indistinct tertiary ve- pisang beledu (Peninsular), akar raral (Sarawak).
nation below; outer petals 1-1.5 cm long, orange; Philippines: alakai (Tagalog), auaan (Bagobo).
monocarp globose to oblong, 3-4 cm long, with c. 2 Thailand: nom wua (Nakhon Si Thammarat).
cm long stalk, tawny tomentose. F. fulgens is lo- Distribution Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular
cally common, e.g. in southern Peninsular Ma- Malaysia, Singapore, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
laysia; it often occurs in forest edges. pines; possibly also Sumatra.
Selected sources 121,860. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the juice is used
medicinally, but it is not indicated for which pur-
Fissistigma kingii (Boerl.) Burkill pose. A tonic drink is made from the boiled roots
Kew Bull.: 317 (1935). by the Iban people in Borneo.
Synonyms Melodorum kingii Boerl. (1899). Observations A large liana up to 20 m long;
Vernacular names Malaysia: pokok achar, leaves oblong, obovate or oblong-lanceolate, 8-35
akar larak merah (Peninsular). cm x 3.5-15 cm, rusty brown tomentose with dis-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Bangka and tinct tertiary venation below; outer petals 1-3 cm
Borneo. long, orange; monocarp oblong or subglobose, 2-5
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the cm long, with stalk up to 4 cm long. F. latifolium
flowers is used to treat stomach-ache. is locally very common, e.g. in lowland forest in
Observations A large liana; leaves elliptical, Peninsular Malaysia; in Java it occurs in forest up
7-12 cm x 3.5-5.5 cm, dark chocolate-brown to- to 1200 m altitude.
mentose with distinct tertiary venation below; Selected sources 62, 121,681,860.
outer petals 1.5-2 cm long; monocarp globose,
2.5-3 cm in diameter, with 3-3.5 cm long stalk, Fissistigma manubriatum (Hook.f.&
rough or slightly verrucose. F. kingii occurs in Thomson) Merr.
lowland forest, but is apparently uncommon. Philipp. Journ. Sei. 15: 134 (1919).
Selected sources 121,860. Synonyms Melodorum manubriatum Hook.f. &
Thomson (1855).
F i s s i s t i g m a l a n u g i n o s u m (Hook.f. & Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar kenchong,
Thomson) Merr. akarjangkang, akar sembelit (Peninsular).
Philipp. Journ. Sei. 15: 132 (1919). Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
Synonyms Melodorum lanuginosum Hook.f. & Bangka and Borneo.
Thomson (1855). Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: larak api, selu- root is used to treat stomach-ache and fever.
soh semang (Peninsular). Observations A large liana up to 30 m long;
Distribution Indo-China, Peninsular Malaysia leaves oblong-lanceolate, 5-13.5 cm x 2-4.5 cm,
and Singapore. thickly and shiningly appressed tomentose with
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the indistinct tertiary venation below; outer petals
root is used after childbirth and to treat stomach- 2-2.3 cm long, reddish when young, greyish when
ache. older; monocarp ovoid-globose, 2.5-3 cm long, with
Observations A large liana; leaves oblong or stalk 1.5-7.5 cm long. F. manubriatum occurs in
obovate-oblong, 9-21 cm x 4-8 cm, rufous-lanate lowland forest, and is locally common, e.g. in
tomentose with distinct tertiary venation below; Peninsular Malaysia.
outer petals 3-3.5 cm long, pinkish; monocarp Selected sources 121,860.
subglobose, c. 2 cm in diameter, with stalk up to R.H.M.J. Lemmens
0.5 cm long. F. lanuginosum occurs in open forest
and in forest edges, and is locally common in
Peninsular Malaysia.
Selected sources 34, 121,860.
FRIESODIELSIA 203
Floscopa scandens Lour.

Fl. cochinch. 1: 193 (1790).
COMMELINACEAE
2n =12, 22, 24, 54
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: hawar-hawar,
rumput tapak itek, rumput johong beraleh (Penin-
sular). Philippines: pugad-labuyo, aligbangon (Ta-
galog), sambilau (Samar-Leyte Bisaya). Thailand:
phak bieo (Chiang Rai), phak plaap (central), yaa
plong khon (Nakhon Ratchasima). Vietnam: c[or]
d[aaf]u r[if]u hoa ch[uf]y, d[aaf]u r[if]u leo.
Origin and geographic distribution F. scan-
dens is widely distributed from Nepal, India and
Sri Lanka, through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi-
na, southern China, Thailand and throughout the
Malesian region, to northern Australia.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the juice of F.
scandens is squeezed into the eyes to treat sore
eyes and ophthalmia. A decoction of whole plants
is used internally after childbirth, and the plant is
also used externally on broken bones. In India, the
juice is also applied to sore eyes.
Botany A perennial herb up to 100 cm tall,
erect from a creeping base. Leaves arranged spi-
rally, simple and entire, lanceolate, 3-10 cm x
1-3.5 cm, acute, pubescent, with parallel veins,
with distinct, pubescent leaf-sheaths at base. In- Floscopa scandens Lour. - 1,plant habit; 2, top of
florescence a terminal, sometimes axillary cyme flowering stem; 3, flower; 4,fruit; 5, seeds in differ-
2-10 cm long, dense and many-flowered, with ent views.
racemiform branches, densely patently glandular-
hairy. Flowers bisexual, slightly zygomorphic, 3- and pharmacological activity are lacking, the val-
merous, small; pedicel 1.5-3 mm long; sepals ue of F. scandens as a medicinal plant cannot be
ovate to oblong, 2.5-3.5 mm long, free, greenish to determined. The usage for eye diseases deserves
violet, long glandular-hairy outside; petals slight- particular attention in research.
ly longer than sepals, posterior ones oblong, ante- Literature 62, 121.
rior one narrower and lanceolate, free, glabrous, Other selected sources 760.
violet; stamens 6, all fertile, slightly unequal; Umi Kalsom Yusuf
ovary superior, 2-celled, stipitate, style 1, some-
times 2. Fruit an ellipsoid capsule c. 3 mm long,
enclosed by the calyx, loculicidally opening with 2 Friesodielsia v. Steenis
valves, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong-ellipsoid, c. 2 mm
long, ribbed. Bull. Bot. Gard. Buitenzorg III, 17:458 (1948).
Floscopa comprises about 20 species and is ANNONACEAE
pantropical. Africa is richest in species. Only the x=8
polymorphic F. scandens occurs in the Asiatic re- Origin and geographic distribution Frieso-
gion. dielsia comprises approximately 50 species and
Ecology F. scandens occurs along watersides, in occurs in tropical Africa and Asia. The number of
swampy, sunny or shaded localities, up to 1500 m species and the exact distribution in South-East
altitude. Asia are not known, but about 12 species have
Genetic resources F. scandens is widespread been recorded for Peninsular Malaysia, 2 for Java
and common in many regions, and consequently and about 13 for the Philippines. Sumatra and
not in danger ofgenetic erosion. Borneo are also rich in species.
Prospects As long as data on phytochemistry Uses Friesodielsia is occasionally used in tradi-
tional medicine: a decoction of roots and/or stems cled fruits, flowers comparatively longer, outer
after childbirth, as a sedative, uterine tonic and petals much longer than inner ones.
emmenagogue. The fruits of F. biglandulosa Ecology MostFriesodielsia species occur in low-
(Blume) v. Steenis are edible. land forest, also at the edges of the forest. Howev-
Properties There is very little information on er, very little is known about the ecological re-
the properties of Asiatic Friesodielsia species, but quirements.
there is some more information on West African Genetic resources Very little is known about
species. The hexahydroxanthenic derivatives oxy- the distribution patterns of the species. However,
mitrone and 9a-0-methyloxymitrone have been several species apparently have limited areas of
isolated from the stem bark of F. kingii (J. Sin- distribution and might become easily endangered
clair) v. Steenis from Peninsular Malaysia, togeth- because ofhabitat destruction.
er with the flavanone demethoxymatteucinol. Also Prospects Friesodielsia is badly in need of a
isoquinoline alkaloids, mainly of the aporphine taxonomie revision. Once its species are better
and protoberberine type, have been isolated. From known botanically, research on phytochemistry
a petroleum extract of the stem bark of the West and pharmacological activity can be linked with
African F. enghiana (Diels) Verde. 2 bisabolene specific species, and this might give interesting re-
sesquiterpenes and 9 flavonoids were isolated, sults, as has been the case in other Annonaceae
and from a petroleum extract of twigs ofF. veluti- genera.
na (Sprague & Hutch.) v. Steenis (also from West Literature 3, 246, 784.
Africa) 12 alkaloids, some flavonoids and phenyl-
propanoids. Amongst the alkaloids from the latter
species were lysicamine, which was active against Selection of species
Bacillus subtilis, Botrytis cinerea and Saprolegnia
asterophora, and atherosperminine, which was al- Friesodielsia bakeri (Merr.) v. Steenis
so active against these organisms and Rhizoctonia Blumea 12(2): 358 (1964).
solani. Furthermore, atherosperminine, which is Synonyms Oxymitra bakeri Merr. (1915).
also known to occur in other Annonaceae such as Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: lagdangang-
Fissistigma, has several additional pharmacologi- bibit (Tagalog), uisiuis (Negrito).
cally interesting properties, e.g. inhibition of Distribution The Philippines (Luzon).
platelet aggregation and vasorelaxing activity. Uses A decoction of the roots and stems is used
Botany Lianas or scandent shrubs with simple as a uterine tonic and emmenagogue.
hairs. Leaves alternate, distichous, simple and en- Observations A scandent shrub; leaves nar-
tire; stipules absent. Flowers solitary, leaf-op- rowly lanceolate, 15-28 cm x 1.5-5 cm, petiole 2-3
posed or supra-axillary, bisexual, regular; sepals mm long; flowers with outer petals 12-13.5 cm
3, valvate, more or less connate at base; petals 6, long and inner petals 2-2.5 cm long; monocarp el-
in 2 whorls, inner ones much shorter than outer lipsoid, c. 8 mm long, smooth. F. bakeri occurs in
ones, valvate, cohering; stamens numerous, spi- damp lowland forest.
rally arranged, connective with a truncate dilated Selected sources 619, 760.
apex; carpels numerous, oblong to cylindrical, pu-
bescent. Fruit consisting of numerous free stipi- F r i e s o d i e l s i a l a t i f o l i a (Hook.f. &
tate, indéhiscent monocarps, l(-2)-seeded. T h o m s o n ) v. S t e e n i s
In older literature, the species are treated under Blumea 12(2):360 (1964).
the name Oxymitra. However, an older genus Synonyms Oxymitra latifolia Hook.f. & Thom-
name Oxymitra exists for a group of Hepaticae son (1855).
(liverworts). Friesodielsia has been subdivided in- Vernacular names Malaysia: lengkian, larak
to 3 subgenera: subgenus Friesodielsia (Africa and kuching (Peninsular).
Asia), subgenus Amblymitra (Africa) and sub- Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Singa-
genus Oxymitropsis (Africa). Probably, these sub- pore.
genera merit genus status, and perhaps even the U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
African and Asiatic species from the subgenus root is used after childbirth and as a sedative.
Friesodielsia can be distinguished on genus level: Observations A liana up to 20 m long; leaves
African species with 1-5-articled fruits, flowers oblong-ovate to obovate, 17-28 cm x 6-12 cm, peti-
comparatively wider, outer petals slightly longer ole 12-15 mm long; flowers with outer petals 2.5-4
than inner ones; Asiatic species with l(-2)-arti- cm long and inner petals 2-2.5 cm long; monocarp
GALBULIMIMA 205
oblong-ovoid, c. 15 mm long, slightly pubescent additionally a non-specific papaverine-like spas-

and granular. F. latifolia occurs in lowland forest molytic action against histamine and barium chlo-
and is locally not uncommon, but it seldom flow- ride. Other studies revealed its cardioselective an-
ers. timuscarinic activity, and (+)-himbacine is there-
Selected sources 121,860. fore widely used as a pharmacological tool involv-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens ing heterogeneity of muscarinic receptors (as a se-
lective M2 subtype antagonist). It showed antihy-
pertensive activity. Animal-model tests revealed
Galbulimima belgraveana (+)-himbacine to be effective in preventing the de-
(F. v. M u e l l e r ) S p r a g u e velopment of myopia in chicken eyes.
Botany An evergreen, aromatic, small to fairly
Journ. Bot., London 60: 138 (1922). large tree up to 40 m tall; bole up to 100 cm in di-
HlMANTANDRACEAE ameter, sometimes with buttresses up to 3 m high
2ra=24 and 1m wide; bark surface fissured and ridged, or
Synonyms Himantandra belgraveana (F. v. pustular, with a resinous smell. Leaves alternate,
Mueller) F. v. Mueller ex Diels (1912). simple, elliptical to ovate, (5-)6-16 cm x (2-)3-8
Vernacular n a m e s White magnolia (En). Pa- cm, entire, scaly below; petiole 1-2.5 cm long; stip-
pua New Guinea: agara (Fore, Eastern High- ules absent. Flowers on short axillary shoots, usu-
lands), waga (Aseki, Morobe), alusa (Oksapmin, ally solitary, shoots with 2(-3) bracts, bisexual; ca-
West Sepik). lyx calyptrate with the upper part deciduous;
Origin and geographic distribution G. bel- corolla calyptrate; sporophylls (stamens) numer-
graveana occurs from the Moluccas and New ous, arranged spirally along the elongated recep-
Guinea to the Solomon Islands and northern Aus- tacle, narrowly lanceolate, those towards the apex
tralia (Queensland).
Uses In Papua New Guinea the bark of G. bel-
graveana is used as an analgesic. It is chewed and
the resulting sap mixed with salt is swallowed as
a cure for abdominal and other body pains. The
bark mixed with wild ginger {Zingiber sp.) is used
to treat fever. A mixture of G. belgraveana bark,
tobacco leaves and Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhi-
zome is applied to get rid of head lice. G. bel-
graveana is better known for its psychoactive ef-
fects. The bark, sometimes together with leaves of
a Homalomena species, is chewed, or a decoction
drunk, to induce visions and a dream-like state,
which are associated with tremor and miosis, last-
ing for about one hour followed by a sense of calm-
ness, euphoria and then drowsiness. Bark and
leaves of G. belgraveana, masticated and rubbed
on the legs, are supposed to make men fierce.
The timber is suitable for light construction,
moulding and interior work.
Properties G. belgraveana bark has a resinous
smell and a bitter taste. It contains lignans, ses-
quiterpenes and alkaloids. Research has focused
on the alkaloids; significant variation in alkaloid
content and composition of the bark has been ob-
served and numerous alkaloids have been isolated.
(+)-Himbacine, a piperidine alkaloid with a tetra-
cyclic lactone structure, present in G. belgravea-
na, showed strong spasmolytic activity on isolated Galbulimima belgraveana (F. v. Mueller) Sprague
guinea-pig ileum. It induced a specific atropi- - 1, twig with flowerbuds; 2, flowering twig; 3,
ne-like blockade of acetylcholine receptors and fruit.
and base sterile; carpels many, initially free, later Properties The presence of alkaloids has been
connate, style plumose. Fruit a fleshy syncarp, recorded for G. filiformis bark. The bark ofG. fili-
subglobose, 1.5-3 cm in diameter, pink or red, formis showed antimicrobial activity against
with cartilaginous endocarp. Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Sac-
Galbulimima is the only genus of Himantan- charomyces cerevisiae.
draceae, a primitive family closely related to An- Botany Dioecious shrubs or small to medium-
nonaceae and Eupomatiaceae. The only Malesian sized trees. Leaves alternate, distichous, on short
species is G. belgraveana. G. baccata F.M. Bailey, shoots, with buds only in the axils of leafy shoots,
closely related to, and sometimes considered con- simple, slightly oblique at base, entire or crenu-
specific with G. belgraveana, occurs in Queens- late towards the apex, shortly petiolate; stipules
land (Australia). arising at different levels, mostly elongate and
Ecology G. belgraveana is widespread and lo- narrow, caducous. Inflorescence a terminal or
cally common in primary rain forest on hill slopes sometimes cauliflorous spike with flowers in cy-
and ridges up to 2700 m altitude, but mostly mose fascicles or solitary. Flowers small, unisexu-
found at 1000-2000 m in montane forest in associ- al, regular, 5-merous; calyx often cup-shaped,
ation with Nothofagus or other Fagaceae. toothed; petals larger than calyx, valvate, often
Genetic resources There is little risk of genet- hooded; male flowers with 10(-15) stamens, usual-
ic erosion of G. belgraveana at present, since it is ly in 2 whorls and unequal but sometimes in 1
widespread and locally common. whorl and equal, and a usually hairy pistillode; fe-
Prospects (+)-Himbacine is considered a useful male flowers with superior, 2-5-celled ovary and
pharmacological tool for the further understand- sessile, variously lobed stigmas. Fruit a trans-
ing of the muscarinic receptor, and therefore of in- versely elongate or subglobose drupe, with few, of-
terest in the design of new drugs. It may have ten sculptured stones. Seeds transversely oblong
clinical potential in sinus bradycardia, where at- or broadly cuneate, compressed.
ropine (exhibiting side-effects due to its non-selec- Galearia is often included in the family Euphor-
tive nature) is being currently used. (+)-Him- biaceae, but it is nowadays fairly generally accept-
bacine is also a lead compound in the search for ed that it constitutes, together with Centroplacus,
drugs to treat Alzheimer's disease and to reduce Microdesmis and Panda, a separate family Pan-
intraocular pressure. The hallucinogenic activity daceae.
ofG.belgraveana bark deserves more attention. Ecology Usually Galearia occurs in lowland
Literature 180, 280, 348, 883,928, 1004. rain forest, often in primary forest, but G. fili-
Other selected sources 279, 347, 595, 909, formis and G.fulva can also be found in secondary
954. forest and sometimes even brushwood.
B. Thomas Genetic resources Galearia is not much col-
lected for medicinal or other purposes and does
not seem at risk of genetic erosion, but the habitat
G a l e a r i a Zoll. & M o r i t z i preference of several species, i.e. lowland primary
forest, may bring them into danger as a result of
Moritzi, Syst. Verz.: 19 (1846). the ongoing forest logging.
PANDACEAE Prospects The applications of Galearia in local
x =unknown medicine seem to be very limited, and there is no
Origin a n d geographic distribution Galea- reason to expect an increase.
ria comprises 6 species and occurs in tropical Asia Literature 121,252, 296.
from Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China and Thai-
land to the whole Malesian region (except the
Lesser Sunda Islands and the Moluccas) and the Selection of species
Solomon Islands.
Uses A few medicinal applications of Galearia G a l e a r i a filiformis ( B l u m e ) B o e r l .
have been recorded for South-East Asia: the treat- Handl. fl. Ned. Ind. 3:282 (1900).
ment of stomach-ache with leaves and bark in Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ki tako (Sun-
combination with other plants, and of gonorrhoea danese), balung kayu (Javanese), kayu tulang
with the roots. The wood is sometimes used for im- (Sumatra), sipupaipai (Siberut).
plements, and Galearia is occasionally planted in Distribution Sumatra and Java.
hedges. Uses In Sumatra (Siberut) the bark and leaves
GARDENIA 207
are used in a mixture with other medicinal plants in traditional medicine: the roots to treat head-
to treat stomach-ache. In Java G. filiformis is ache, dyspepsia, nervous disorders and fever, bark
planted in hedges, and the wood is used to prepare to treat dysentery, leaves in febrifugous poultices
implements such as rice-pounders. and to treat sore eyes, flowers as emollient, and
Observations A tall shrub or small tree up to fruits to treat jaundice, dysentery, and diseases of
12 m tall, with bole up to 20 cm in diameter; kidneys and lungs. However, its main uses are as
leaves oblong-lanceolate to subovate, 6.5-24 cm x a dye, the fruits being used to colour food and oc-
2-11 cm, without distinct scalariform tertiary casionally textiles yellow, and as an ornamental.
veins; male flowers with deeply concave petals In Thailand seeds of G. sootepensis Hutch, are
and crowded stamens having short, thick fila- boiled with water and the solution is used as a
ments. G. filiformis occurs in mixed forest and shampoo to kill lice.
brushwood up to 700 m altitude. Several Gardenia species are used in traditional
Selected sources 58,62,252, 296, 334. medicine in Africa, e.g. to treat fever, smallpox,
leprosy, sleeping sickness, ophthalmia, after
Galearia fulva (Tul.) Miq. childbirth and as an aphrodisiac.
Fl. Ned. Ind. 1(2):430 (1859). Several species are beautiful ornamentals, which
Synonyms Galearia affinis (R.Br.) Miq. (1859), flower profusely. Gardenia wood is sometimes
Galearia philippinensis Merr. (1915), Galearia rid- used for turnery, carving and implements. The
leyi Gage (1922). fruits ofsome species are edible.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: ekur tupai, akar Properties There is no information on phyto-
penurun lotong, akar penurun tupai (Peninsular). chemistry or pharmacological properties of G.
Thailand: mieo (Trang), lin khwaai (Songkhla), pseudopsidium. However, much research has been
taek naa (Surat Thani). Vietnam: c[as]nh b[ooj]ng. done on the pharmacology of G.jasminoides. The
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, iridoid glycoside geniposide is one of the con-
Vietnam, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singa- stituents of its fruits; in mice it showed an an-
pore, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines. tithrombotic effect in vivo due to the suppression
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the of platelet aggregation, and has the ability to in-
roots is used to treat gonorrhoea. hibit P4503A monooxygenase and increase glu-
Observations A shrub or small tree, often tathione content in rat liver, supporting its use in
straggling, up to 8 m tall; leaves elliptical to ellip- traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of
tical-obovate, 9-23 cm x 3-11 cm, with distinct hepatic and inflammatory diseases. It also showed
scalariform tertiary veins; male flowers with anti-inflammatory effects when used for treating
slightly concave petals and separated stamens soft tissue injuries in animals. Geniposide orally
having narrowly elongate filaments. G. fulva is administered to rats is transformed in the intes-
variable and occurs in primary and secondary low- tine to genipin, which acts as a genuine choleretic.
land forest, up to 750(-1200) m altitude. However, at a high oral dose of 2000 mg/kg geni-
Selected sources 121,252, 990. poside showed hepatotoxic activity in rats. Anoth-
Fitmawati er iridoid glycoside, deacetylasperulosidic acid
methyl ester, also isolated from G. jasminoides
fruits, lowered the blood glucose level in normal
Gardenia pseudopsidium (Blanco) mice.
Fern.-Vill. Crocetin is a major component of G. jasminoides
fruits. This carotenoid pigment is the basis for
Nov. app.: 109 (1880). the dye prepared from the fruits. In tests with
RUBIACEAE mice, it suppressed 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-
In = unknown acetate-promoted skin carcinogenesis, possibly via
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: malabayabas, its antioxidant activity. Crocetin also showed in-
sulipa (Tagalog), kalanigi (Panay Bisaya). hibitory effect on benzo(a)pyrene-induced genotox-
Origin and geographic distribution G. pseu- icity and neoplastic transformation in C3H10T1/2
dopsidium occurs in many parts of the Philip- cells, and it protected against oxidative damage in
pines. rat primary hepatocytes.
Uses The fruits ofG. pseudopsidium are used to Gardenie acid and gardenodic acid isolated from
treat smallpox. G.jasminoides fruits may be used as early preg-
G.jasminoides Ellis is much more commonly used nancy-terminating agents. The lipoxygenase in-
hibitor 3-caffeoyl-4-sinapoylquinic acid was isolat- drifaria occurs in Java, where it can be found in
ed from the fruit. the mountains throughout the island. It has also
Botany A small tree. Leaves opposite, simple been reported from Sri Lanka, India and Vietnam,
and entire, crowded at the ends of branchlets, obo- but it is possible that it has been confused with re-
vate-oblong, 11-22 cm x 4-10 cm, cuneate at base, lated species (or subspecies).
acuminate at apex, shortly petioled; stipules entire Uses In Indonesia, G. quadrifaria is used to
and connate. Flowers solitary in leaf axils, bisexu- treat dysentery.
al, usually 5-merous, fragrant; calyx with 5-ridged Gentiana species are used as medicinal plants in
tube and 10 linear segments alternating longer various parts of the world. The root of G. lutea L.
and shorter; corolla with long tube 5-6 cm long and was already used in the treatment of gastro-in-
large lobes, white but turning yellow; stamens intestinal tract diseases in Europe thousands of
serted just below the corolla throat, alternating years ago, but it is nowadays better known for its
with corolla lobes, anthers sessile; ovary inferior, 1- root extracts used in the production of liquors. G.
celled, style clavate. Fruit an ovoid to subglobose scabra Bunge is an important medicinal plant in
berry 5-7 cm long, with obscure longitudinal ridg- China and Korea, used e.g. for the treatment of
es, crowned by the calyx segments, many-seeded. peripheral circulatory disorders, diabetic compli-
Gardenia comprises about 120 species and occurs cations and in mixtures with other medicinal
in Africa, tropical and subtropical Asia, northern plants to treat various viral diseases. Roots of G.
Australia and islands of the Pacific. About 10 scabra are imported in Vietnam, and prescribed
species occur within the Malesian region. There is there against e.g. chills, fever, jaundice, sore
no taxonomie study of the genus for South-East throat, ophthalmia and haematuria. G. loureiroi
Asia, and the status of G. pseudopsidium is un- (G. Don) Griseb. is used in traditional medicine in
clear. It is considered to be closely allied to G. ca- Vietnam to treat pimples, dysentery and inflam-
rinata Wallich ex Roxb. from Thailand and Penin- mation ofthe liver.
sular Malaysia, and should be compared with this Properties G. quadrifaria tastes very bitter.
and other species. Bitter-tasting secoiridoids are commonly present
Ecology G. pseudopsidium occurs in lowland in Gentiana, e.g. gentiopicroside, amarogentin
primary forest. and esters of sweroside and swertiamarin. These
Genetic resources G. pseudopsidium is re- are usually considered the active principles, and
stricted to a type of habitat, i.e. lowland primary are probably also present in G. quadrifaria. Xan-
forest, which is under much pressure in the thones (e.g. gentisin, isogentisin and gentiin) are
Philippines. It may be liable to genetic erosion. also commonly present throughout the genus. A
Prospects It is still unclear whether Gardenia methanol extract of G.scabra showed a potent an-
species such as G.pseudopsidium have similar ac- tagonistic activity against anti-platelet activating
tivities as G.jasminoides, but more research may factor in tests with mice; 2-hydroxy-3-methoxy-
be worthwhile. G.jasminoides exhibits very inter- benzoic acid glucose ester was isolated as the ac-
esting pharmacological properties, and it certainly tive compound. G. scabra also showed inhibitory
has promising prospects as a medicinal plant of effect of aldose reductase from rat lens. Butanol
wider use in South-East Asia. and chloroform root extracts showed antihepato-
Literature 117, 621, 760. toxic activity against carbon tetrachloride at a
Other selected sources 27, 120, 173, 200, 377, dose of 670 mg/kg. A water extract of the root of
447, 542, 632, 725,883,905, 1027. the Chinese G. macrophylla Pallas showed activi-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens ty on the central nervous system. Gentiopicroside,
a main bitter secoiridoid constituent isolated from
its roots, suppressed chemically and immunologi-
Gentiana quadrifaria Blume cally induced hepatic injuries in mice. In China,
systemic lupus erythematosus was successfully
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 847 (1826). treated with G. macrophylla complex tablets and
GENTIANACEAE a minimal dose of prednisone, and showed very
2ra= unknown significant statistical difference with a control
Synonyms Gentiana laxicaulis Zoll. (1845). group treated with prednisone alone. Flavones
Vernacular names Indonesia: jukut cengcang with antiplatelet and vasorelaxing properties
(Sundanese), angkeb, sirawan bumi (Javanese). have been isolated from G. arisanensis Hayata
Origin and geographic distribution G. qua- from Taiwan. Compounds with antifungal and an-
GEOPHILA 209
tioxidant activities have also been isolated from throughout the year. The flowers expand only in
Chinese Gentiana species. very bright weather, last 3 days, and are reported-
Botany A small annual herb up to 20 cm tall, ly protandrous and self-pollinated.
usually branching from the base, with a long tap- Gentiana comprises approximately 360 species
root. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, ovate to and occurs in Europe, northern Africa (Morocco),
elliptical or obovate, 2-10 mm x 1-6 mm, with a America, Asia and eastern Australia. China is
recurved mucro at apex, very shortly ciliate at richest, with about 250 species. South-East Asia is
base, often reddish tinged; petiole short and poor in species: about 10 in Indo-China, Thailand
broad, pairwise connate; stipules absent. Flowers and Malesia each, 2 of which in Java and about 4
terminal, solitary, sessile or shortly pedicelled, in the Philippines.
(4-)5-merous; calyx 6-8 mm long, divided to about Ecology G. quadrifaria occurs on grassland,
halfway, segments very acute, keeled; corolla roadsides and open locations in the forest, often in
tubular-campanulate, 8-10 mm long, lobes cau- very sterile and exposed places, at altitudes of
dately acuminate, alternating with induplicate, 1600-3300 m. It is locally common, and has re-
entire membranes, dark blue, rarely violet; sta- portedly increased in number because ofthe defor-
mens inserted below the middle of the corolla estation in the mountains ofJava. Many Gentiana
tube, included; ovary 1-celled, style short, with 2 species are confined to higher altitudes, and are
stigmas. Fruit a capsule borne on a rather long, characteristic for mountain vegetations above the
thick stalk, 2-valvate at top, straw-coloured, treeline, where they are often very conspicuous
many-seeded, usually enclosed by withered corol- because oftheir brightly coloured flowers.
la. Seeds c. 1mm long. Management Plant regeneration and multipli-
The plants remain small and compact in sunny location by tissue culture have been practised suc-
calities, but in shaded localities they grow to a cessfully for G. scabra in Korea and G. lutea in
much greater height and are far less compact. G. Europe. Regenerated plants synthesized biologi-
quadrifaria can be found flowering in Java cally active secoiridoids and hence may be of phar-
maceutical and economic significance.
Genetic resources The exact distribution of G.
quadrifaria is still unknown and should be inves-
tigated; the reputed populations in India, Sri Lan-
ka and Vietnam should be compared with those of
Java. In Java, it does not seem to be endangered.
Prospects G. quadrifaria might be a promising
medicinal plant in Indonesia. Probably it contains
secoiridoids such as gentiopicroside, which have
beneficial effects e.g. on the gastro-intestinal
tract. If research shows promising results, propa-
gation and cultivation methods should be devel-
oped, or methods for sustainable harvesting from
the wild, which might be easy for a species with
such a short life cycle.
Other selected sources 64, 382, 500, 558,671,
1045, 1047.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst.

Sargentia 8: 281 (1949).
RUBIACEAE
2« =44
Gentiana quadrifaria Blume - 1, habit of plant Synonyms Geophila reniformis D. Don (1825),
from exposed locality; 2, habit ofplant from shad- Geophila herbacea (Jacq.) O. Kuntze (1891), Ca-
ed locality. rinta repens (L.) L.B. Sm. &Downs (1956).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pegaga ular, pe-

gaga tikus, pantat berok (Peninsular). Thailand:
mali din (Trat), uttaphit nam (peninsular).
Origin and geographic distribution G.
repens occurs throughout the tropics of Africa,
Madagascar, South and Central America, Asia
and Micronesia. It is found in the whole of South-
East Asia.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the plant is used
externally for poulticing sore legs, and internally
to treat diarrhoea. In Thailand, a decoction of the
whole plant is considered diuretic and febrifugal.
In Africa, leaves are eaten as a vegetable by bar-
ren women suffering from abdominal troubles and
anaemia, and by convalescents to restore vigour
and fecundity; it is also used in a bath to cure in-
fants with fever, and to treat inflamed eyes. In
Paraguay G. repens is used in traditional medicine
for the treatment of skin diseases.
Other Geophila species are also used medicinally
in Africa, externally to treat wounds, arthritis,
headache, toothache and sore eyes, and internally
to treat stomach-ache, earache, tachycardia, fe-
male sterility and diarrhoea.
Properties A dichloromethane extract of G.
repens from Paraguay showed in-vitro antifungal
activity in an agar disk diffusion assay. There is
no information on the phytochemistry of G. Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. - 1, habit of flow-
repens. Alkaloids, however, are present in the ering plant; 2, flower; 3, habit of fruiting plant; 4,
African G. obvallata (Schumach.) Didr. dried fruit.
Botany A small creeping perennial herb, with
papillose stems up to 50 cm long, profusely root- Africa and Asia and the other in America, mainly
ing. Leaves opposite, cordate-orbicular or cordate- based on the shape of the pyrenes (straight in
reniform, 2-4.5 cm x 1.5-4.5 cm, usually glabrous, Africa and Asia, and twisted in America). Recent
palmately 7-9-veined, markedly pale below; peti- evidence from morphological and palynological
ole 1-9 cm long, densely papillose; stipules inter- studies points to a specific status for the American
petiolar, transversely elliptical. Inflorescence a populations.
terminal few-flowered umbel (flowers often soli- Ecology G. repens occurs in lowland forest, in
tary); peduncle up to 4 cm long, papillose-pubes- not too dry localities, usually below 1000 m, but
cent. Flowers bisexual, (4-)5(-7)-merous; calyx sometimes up to 1600 m altitude (e.g. in Java).
deeply divided, lobes 3-4 mm long; corolla tubu- Genetic resources G. repens has an extremely
lar-infundibuliform, with tube 8-11 mm long and large area of distribution and is not in danger of
lobes 5-8 mm long, white, soon caducous; stamens genetic erosion.
inserted in corolla tube, filaments minute; ovary Prospects The fact that G. repens is used in
inferior, 2-celled, crowned by a thick disk, style 2- traditional medicine in remote regions of the
branched. Fruit a globose or broadly ellipsoid world, often for similar complaints, warrants re-
drupe c. 8 mm in diameter, red, sometimes orange search on phytochemistry and pharmacological
when ripe; pyrenes 2, plano-convex. properties, which has not been done up to now. A
Geophila comprises about 20 species, 10 of which taxonomie study of Geophila worldwide is also de-
are neotropical and 7 African. In tropical Asia 3-4 sirable, in particular ofthe G.repens complex.
species occur. The genus belongs to the large tribe Literature 121,173, 748.
Psychotrieae, together with e.g. Psychotria. Other selected sources 62, 120, 544, 750.
G. repens is a variable species and it has been pro- R.H.M.J. Lemmens
posed that it be divided into 2 subspecies, one in
GEUNSIA 211
Geunsia pentandra (Roxb.) Merr. ^ » x
Philipp. Journ. Sei., Bot. 11:309 (1916).

VERBENACEAE
In =unknown
Synonyms Callicarpa pentandra Roxb. (1820),
Geunsia farinosa Blume (1826).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: tampang besi,
ambong (Peninsular), tambong (Sabah). Philip-
pines: layaupan (Bagobo).
Origin a n d geographic distribution G. pen-
tandra is widely distributed in India, Peninsular
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the
Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, New Guinea
and the Solomon Islands.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, G. pentandra is
used to treat vertigo. In Sumatra ground root bark
has been applied against swellings. In Borneo
(Kalimantan) G. pentandra is used to treat
toothache. The white and lightweight wood is
sometimes used, e.g. for rafters.
pharmacological properties of G. pentandra.
Methyl salicylate, carosolic acid, ursolic acid,
diterpenes, pentandralactone and pentandranoic
acids A-C have been isolated from G pentandra.
Botany An erect shrub to small or medium-
sized tree up to 25 m tall, with bole up to 50 cm in Geunsia pentandra (Roxb.) Merr. - 1, flowering
diameter, buttressed; twigs with stellate-mealy branch; 2, flower; 3, fruit.
indumentum. Leaves partly opposite, partly soli-
tary, simple, ovate to oblong-ovate or oblong-el- and sometimes even included in this latter genus,
liptical, 9-30 cm x 3-12 cm, cuneate to rounded at which differs in its usually 4-merous flowers. Ge-
base, acuminate to caudate at apex, margin en- unsia is still poorly known botanically, and it is
tire, leathery, stellate-hairy and gland-dotted be- unclear whether G. pentandra and G. farinosa
low, prominently pinnately veined; petiole 1-5 cm represent different species or should be considered
long; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary synonymous as accepted here. When they differ
cyme on a 2-10 cm long peduncle, whitish to specifically, it is not always clear to which species
brownish stellate-tomentose, many-flowered. the information on medicinal uses refers.
Flowers bisexual, regular, usually 5-merous, very Ecology G. pentandra occurs in mixed forest,
shortly pedicelled; calyx shortly campanulate, c. 2 primary as well as secondary forest, often in edges
mm long; corolla with c. 5 mm long tube and c. 2 and along roads, also in brushwood up to 2000 m
mm long lobes, white to greenish, pink or purple; altitude. It is locally common.
stamens inserted on the base of the corolla tube, Genetic resources G. pentandra is widely dis-
exserted; ovary superior, usually imperfectly 5- tributed, often occurs in secondary forest, and is
celled, style exserted, stigma broad. Fruit a de- not in danger ofgenetic erosion.
pressed-globose drupe 4-6 mm in diameter, red to Prospects Applications of G. pentandra in tra-
black when mature, usually breaking up into 10 1- ditional medicine are known for several regions in
celled pyrenes. Malesia: Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Bor-
G. pentandra is a fast-growing tree that may be neo. It would therefore seem worthwhile studying
common in logged-over forest, e.g. in Borneo, the phytochemistry and pharmacological proper-
where it has a life cycle of about 15 years with a ties, also in the light of the close affinity to Calli-
maximum bole diameter of50 cm. carpa species, which are well known as medicinal
Geunsia comprises about 20 species and is re- plants in South-East Asia and have several inter-
stricted to tropical Asia. It is related to Callicarpa esting pharmacological properties.
Literature 121, 642. bellum at base, anther often with lateral ap-
Other selected sources 62, 331,460, 789, 990, pendages, staminodes 2, petaloid; ovary inferior,
1014. 1-celled, style long-exserted, arched, placed in a
R.H.M.J. Lemmens furrow of the filament, stigma appearing on top of
the anther. Fruit a usually globose capsule, dehis-
cent by 3 valves, many-seeded. Seeds with lacer-
G l o b b a L. ate aril. Seedling with hypogeal germination.
Globba belongs to the tribe Globbeae, together
Mant. pi. 2: 170 (1771). with 3 small Asiatic genera, all characterized by
ZlNGIBERACEAE the long-exserted, arched stamen and style and 1-
x = 8; G. atrosanguinea: In = 48, G.patens: 2n = celled ovary with parietal placentation.
32, 48, G.pendula: 2n =32, 48, G. variabilis: In = Ecology Globba is most commonly found in
32,48 shaded, humid localities in lowland rain forest, of-
Origin a n d geographic distribution Globba ten along streams. Some species are less discrimi-
comprises about 100 species. The region from the nating, e.g. G. pendula which can be found in sec-
eastern Himalayas through Burma (Myanmar) to ondary forest or sometimes even grassland, and G.
Indo-China and Thailand is richest in species. marantina which favours open, dry habitats.
Many species are local endemics, but some are Management Globba can be propagated by di-
widespread, e.g. G. pendula. G. marantina L. is vision, or by removing bulbils produced in the low-
widely cultivated as a spice. er bract axils of the inflorescence. G. winitii C.H.
Uses The rhizome and sometimes the leaves of Wright, cultivated as an ornamental on a large
several Globba species are used in traditional scale in Thailand, is propagated by in-vitro tissue
medicine in South-East Asia, often as a protective culture. Cut flowers are sometimes collected from
medicine after childbirth and externally to treat Globba populations in the wild, e.g. in Thailand.
sores and rheumatism. Genetic resources The many Globba species
In the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, G. pauciflo- that are local endemics are liable to genetic ero-
ra Baker is used to treat asthma. sion, also because they often prefer lowland rain
The somewhat spicy bulbils of G. marantina are forest, a type of habitat under much pressure in
eaten; they stimulate the appetite. Several Globba mainland South-East Asia, which is the centre of
species have ornamental value, having inflores- diversity.
cences with dark red bracts contrasting with yel- Prospects There is no information on the phy-
low-orange flowers. tochemistry or pharmacological properties of
Properties There is only very little information Globba. Research is desirable to judge its pros-
on the phytochemistry and pharmacological activ- pects as a medicinal plant of more wider use, be-
ities of Globba. Flavonoids such as cyanidin, cause many other Zingiberaceae are important in
quercetin and rutin have been isolated from G. traditional medicine. It is expected that its value
patens leaves. An ethanol-water (1:1) extract of as an ornamental will further increase.
dried rhizomes was screened for antihistamine, Literature 121, 334, 550.
antipyretic, antispasmodic and hypotensive activi-
ties, but all tests gave a negative result.
Botany Small to medium-sized herbs with Selection of species
short, creeping rhizome and tuberous roots.
Leaves distichously alternate, simple and entire, Globba atrosanguinea Teijsm. &
usually lanceolate to elliptical, cuneate at base, Binnend.
acuminate at apex, subsessile, with ligule at base. Natuur. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 27:22 (1864).
Inflorescence a terminal panicle consisting of Vernacular names Indonesia: susu perada
cincinni subtended by bracts; peduncle with ster- (Palembang, Sumatra), tubo bala (Kenyah Dayak,
ile bracts, these often with axillary bulbils. Flow- Kalimantan).
ers bisexual, zygomorphic, 3-merous, each flower Distribution Sumatra and Borneo.
subtended by a bracteole; calyx turbinate to cam- Uses In Sumatra a leaf decoction is applied ex-
panulate, lobed to dentate; corolla with long, slen- ternally to treat fever; it is considered cooling and
der tube, lobes unequal, one larger than the other stimulating. In Borneo the rhizome is wrapped in
2 and hooded (labellum); functional stamen 1, leaves, baked in coals, and applied as a poultice to
long-exserted, arched, filament connate to the la- sores caused by insects. G. atrosanguinea is culti-
GLOBBA 213
vated as an ornamental, being quite spectacular

with its brilliant red bracts and yellow-orange
flowers.
Observations A herb up to 65 cm tall; leaves
acute to acuminate at apex, usually reddish be-
low; inflorescence almost erect, rather compact,
with many short cincinni, bracts broad and bril-
liant red; flowers yellow to orange, sessile, stamin-
odes shorter than lateral corolla lobes, anther
with 4 appendages. G. atrosanguinea is locally
common in lowland forest up to 1000 m altitude,
often on wet localities.
Selected sources 334, 534, 551,875.
Globba p a t e n s Miq.
Fl. Ned. Ind. Suppl: 613 (1861).
Synonyms Globba aurantiaca auct. non Miq.
Vernacular names Malaysia: puar gembur, te-
pus hutan bukit, meroyan berok (Peninsular).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia a draught or lotion
of a decoction of the rhizome or whole plant is
used as a protective medicine after childbirth.
Observations A herb up to 50 cm tall; leafy
shoot with up to 5 leaves; leaves with abruptly
acuminate apex, usually hairy below; inflores-
cence almost erect, compact, with numerous, very
short cincinni; flowers orange, pedicel 4-7 mm Globba pendula Roxb. - 1, habit of flowering
long, staminodes shorter than to as long as lateral plant; 2, flower.
corolla lobes, anther with 4 appendages. G. patens
is locally common in lowland and lower montane and to treat rheumatism, and a decoction of the
forest up to 1200 m altitude. rhizome to treat gonorrhoea.
Selected sources 121,550, 551,789, 994. Observations A herb up to 100 cm tall; leafy
shoot with up to 13 leaves; leaves with acuminate-
Globba pendula Roxb. caudate apex, with stiff, curved hairs on lateral
Asiat. Res. 11: 359 (1810); PI. Coromandel 3: t. veins above; inflorescence much elongated, nod-
228(1815). ding, with rather long cincinni; flowers orange,
Synonyms Globba panicoides Miq. (1861), subsessile, staminodes longer than lateral corolla
Globba uliginosa Miq. (1861), Globba wallichii lobes, anther with 2 appendages. G.pendula is lo-
Baker (1890). cally common in primary as well as secondary,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: pedas kancil lowland and lower montane forest up to 1200 m
(Palembang, Sumatra), jae kera (Bangka). Ma- altitude.
laysia: meroyan tinggal, halia hutan, puar birah Selected sources 62, 121, 334, 550, 551, 789,
(Peninsular). Vietnam: ng[ar]i m[oj]i. 875.
Distribution Bangladesh, southern Burma
(Myanmar), Vietnam, peninsular Thailand, Pe- Globba variabilis Ridley
ninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Bangka, western Ja- Trans. Linn. Soc. 3:378 (1893).
va and Borneo. Synonyms Globba malaccensis Ridley (1899),
Uses In Sumatra the rhizome rubbed in water is Globba perakensis Ridley (1899).
administered to women during labour and to treat Vernacular names Malaysia: puar hudang,
abdominal complaints. In Bangka the rhizome is puar halia, menderong gajah (Peninsular). Thai-
used as an anthelmintic. In Peninsular Malaysia land: ta-pu ti-ku, put khon, put nuu (Pattani).
a poultice of the boiled rhizome or whole plant is Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
applied as a protective medicine after childbirth Malaysia and Singapore.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a lotion of a decoc- eases; a leaf decoction is taken orally against
tion ofthe whole plant is used as a protective med- fever. In India, several Glochidion species are also
icine after childbirth, and bruised leaves are ap- used in traditional medicine, e.g. G. multiloculare
plied to sores. (Roxb. ex Willd.) Müll. Arg., which is applied in
Observations A herb up to 70 cm tall; leafy the treatment of dysentery, stomach disorders
shoot with 3-6 leaves; leaves shortly acuminate at and piles.
apex, usually glabrous; inflorescence erect, com- The wood of several Glochidion species is used to
pact, with several short cincinni, bracts reddish; build native and temporary houses. It is mainly
flowers yellow to orange, sessile, staminodes used for poles and rafters, and for tool handles,
about as long as lateral corolla lobes, anther with sometimes also for light framing, flooring, mould-
2-4 appendages. G. variabilis occurs scattered in ing, interior trim and utility furniture. It is also
lowland forest, often on moist locations along considered a good fuelwood, and the boles have
streams and near waterfalls. been used in mushroom cultivation. The bark has
Selected sources 121, 550, 551,789. been used to tan fishing nets, and also for fishing
R.H.M.J. Lemmens net floats. Young shoots are sometimes eaten as a
vegetable.
Properties A number of triterpenoids have
G l o c h i d i o n J.R. F o r s t e r &J.G. F o r s t e r been isolated from Glochidion. Apparently, triter-
penoids of the lupeol type, including glochidone,
Charact. gen. p i : pi. 113,t. 57 (1775). glochidonol and glochidiol, are characteristic for
EUPHORBIACEAE the genus. Some of these, such as the triterpene
* = 13 glycoside glochidioside, have been associated with
Origin and geographic distribution Glo- anticancer activity. Three hydrolyzable tannins,
chidion comprises about 280 species, most of glochiins M-l, M-2 and C-l, have been isolated
which occur in the Old World tropics from India, from dried leaves ofG. rubrum.
Sri Lanka and Burma (Myanmar), through Indo- In tests in China, extracts of G. eriocarpum
China, southern China, Thailand and throughout showed considerable in-vitro activity against
the Malesian region, to northern Australia and gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. How-
Polynesia. A few species are found in tropical ever, the bark of G. glomerulatum gave negative
America and Madagascar. Malesia harbours over results in a test on antimicrobial activity.
100 species. Botany Monoecious shrubs or small trees, occa-
Uses In the Malesian region, some Glochidion sionally medium-sized and up to 30 m tall; bole up
species are used in traditional medicine. The most to 50(-70) cm in diameter, usually without but-
common uses are of the bark and leaf decoctions tresses. Leaves alternate, distichous, simple and
in the treatment of alimentary disorders such as entire, often asymmetrical at base, shortly petio-
stomach-ache, dysentery and diarrhoea, and of late; stipules usually persistent. Inflorescence an
bites and stings ofanimals, and skin problems. axillary small cluster below the leaves. Flowers
Several non-Malesian Glochidion species are used unisexual, with 4-6-lobed perianth (petals ab-
in traditional medicine in tropical Asia. In Viet- sent), disk absent; male flowers with 3-8 stamens,
nam, the leaves of G. velutinum Wight are used to filaments united into a column; female flowers
treat oedema, kidney troubles and snakebites, and with a superior, 3-9-celled ovary, styles connate,
the roots to treat dysentery, fever and cough. The rarely free, entire. Fruit a woody capsule, lobed or
roots and leaves of G. eriocarpum Champ, are ribbed, splitting from the base upward, with per-
used against dysentery, rheumatism, itch and sistent sepals and style, several-seeded. Seeds
eczema. A decoction of the leaves of the latter has with red or orange sarcotesta. Seedling with
been used as a diuretic with good results in epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, leafy;
nephrotic syndrome and congestive heart failure. hypocotyl elongated; leaves alternate or arranged
In Thailand, the pounded bark of G. lanceolarium spirally, conduplicate.
(Roxb.) Voight mixed in a small amount of water Pollination of the flowers is by insects; seed dis-
is applied topically as antipruritic. Pounded bark persal presumably by birds.
and seeds of G. calocarpum Kurz are used inter- Glochidion is closely related to and sometimes
nally in the Nicobar Islands for treating any kind confused with Phyllanthus. Unlike the latter it
of alimentary disorder, e.g. diarrhoea, dysentery has no disk glands, but it does have fused styles
and amoebiasis, and externally to treat skin dis- and colourful seeds.
GLOCHIDION 215
Ecology Glochidion is a very common and char- depressed, c. 5 mm in diameter, minutely pubes-
acteristic element of secondary forest and colo- cent, sessile. G. glomerulatum occurs in primary
nizes cleared land, but also occurs scattered in pri- as well as secondary forest up to 1500 m altitude,
mary rain forest. It can be found in well-drained also in swamp forest and forest fringes. It is local-
as well as swampy locations, from lowland up to ly common, e.g. in Peninsular Malaysia.
2750 m altitude; most species show a compara- Selected sources 19, 20, 22, 62, 121, 295, 296,
tively wide altitudinal range. 990.
Management Glochidion can be propagated by
seeds and cuttings. Seeds of G. obscurum still in Glochidion littorale Blume
their sarcotesta show about 60% germination in Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 585 (1826).
12-49 days. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ketumbel (Ja-
Seed viability of the Indian G. multiloculare, how- karta), dempul (Javanese), ketumbang (Bangka).
ever, is low, and it is propagated as a medicinal Malaysia: hujan panas, daun sau sik (Peninsular).
plant in vitro from shoot tips and leaf and stem Philippines: kayong (Bisaya), nigad (Sulu), taban-
expiants. Young plants were successfully trans- go (Tagbanua). Vietnam: tr[aa]m b[ooj]t, b[oj]t
planted to soil under glasshouse conditions. [ees]ch bi[eer]n.
Genetic resources There are no records of Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan-
Glochidion in germplasm banks. As most species mar), Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
occur commonly, they are unlikely to be endan- Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Flores and the Philip-
gered. pines.
Prospects The wide use of Glochidion in tradi- U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
tional medicine in many regions in South-East leaves mixed with Guioa roots is used to treat
Asia justifies more research on pharmacological stomach-ache. In Java, the leaves have been ap-
properties and chemical composition. Particularly plied against dysentery, tonsillitis and after child-
the common applications such as the treatment of birth. In Borneo, a preparation ofthe plant is used
dysentery, coughs and skin complaints deserve for bathing after childbirth. The fruit is edible.
more attention. The wood is used for fuel.
Literature 134, 173,331,671,731,883, 1029. Observations A shrub up to 6 m tall; leaves
ovate to suborbicular, 3.5-8.5 cm x 2.5-6.5 cm,
rounded at apex, leathery, glabrous, petiole 3-5
Selection of species mm long; inflorescence sessile; male flowers with
6 stamens, female flowers with 10-14-celled
Glochidion glomerulatum (Miq.) Boerl. ovary; fruit subglobose, marked with numerous
Handl. fl. Ned. Ind. 3:276 (1900). fine ribs, c. 15 mm in diameter, usually glabrous,
Synonyms Glochidion wallichianum Müll. Arg. reddish, shortly stalked. G. littorale occurs in
(1863). brushwood and open forest near the coast, up
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: samak pulut to 100 m altitude. However, it has also been found
(Sumatra). Malaysia: ubah puteh, hujan panas in mountains up to 1800 m altitude, e.g. in Bor-
puteh, pokok manchong (Peninsular). Thailand: neo.
rot nam (Surat Thani), manpuu (Trang). Vietnam: Selected sources 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 62, 121,
s[os]c ch[uj]m, b[oj]t [ees]ch l[uf]n. 334, 990.
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Bang- Glochidion molle Blume
ka, Java and Borneo. Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 586 (1826).
Uses In Sumatra, scrapings of the bark are Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ki huut (Sun-
mixed with water and the solution is drunk to danese), dempul lelet (Javanese), impoh (Makas-
treat dysentery. sar). Philippines: bugna, ubal (Sulu), piaas (Tag-
Observations A shrub or small to medium- banua).
sized tree up to 20(-27) m tall, bole up to 45 cm in Distribution Java, Borneo (once collected), the
diameter, with or without buttresses; leaves Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas and the Tan-
obliquely ovate, 6-15 cm x 3.5-8 cm, glabrous, imbar Islands.
petiole 3-5 mm long; inflorescence sessile; male Uses In Java, the leaves are used externally to
flowers with 3 stamens, female flowers with usu- treat dysentery, and the juice to treat bites of
ally 3-celled ovary; fruit usually strongly 6-lobed, snakes and other animals, and scorpion stings.
The bark is used to make rough rope. The sap is Glochidion rubrum Blume
used for dyeing clothes in Borneo. Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 586 (1826).
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 10 m Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: dempul (Java-
tall, bole often gnarled, up to 30 cm in diameter; nese), ki timbul (Sundanese), ketemung (Madu-
leaves oblong to lanceolate-oblong, 2-7.5(-9) cm x rese). Malaysia: gambiran, senkam, tetimah (Pe-
1-4 cm, subcordate at base, with patent, long, soft ninsular). Philippines: bagnang-pula (Filipino).
hairs, petiole 1-2 mm long; inflorescence sessile; Thailand: chum set, khat na (peninsular). Viet-
male flowers with 3 stamens, female flowers with nam: b[oj]t [eesjch ven su[oos]i, s[os]c d[or].
3-celled ovary; fruit depressed, 6-lobed, c. 9 mm in Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
diameter, patently hairy, pale green with a red southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
flush. G. molle occurs in forest and brushwood, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Lesser
sometimes also on river banks, up to 800 m alti- Sunda Islands, the Philippines, Sulawesi and the
tude. Moluccas (Tanimbar Island).
Selected sources 20, 23,24, 62, 121,334. Uses In Java, the leaves have been used as an
expectorant to relieve cough. The bark is some-
G l o c h i d i o n o b s c u r u m ( R o x b . e x Willd.) times used for tanning fishing nets. Young leaves
Blume are eaten as a vegetable.
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 585 (1826). Observations A shrub or small to medium-
Synonyms Glochidion glaucum Blume (1825). sized tree up to 18 m tall, bole up to 45 cm in
Vernacular names Indonesia: ki pare lalaki diameter; leaves slightly obliquely oblong-ovate-
(Sundanese), uris-urisan, cabuk (Javanese). Ma- lanceolate, 4-12.5 cm x 2-4.5 cm, leathery, usually
laysia: cheremai antan, dulang-dulang, ubah paya glabrous, petiole 2-4 mm long; inflorescence ses-
(Peninsular). Thailand: khram, ma rua, ruat (pe- sile; male flowers with 3 stamens, female flowers
ninsular). Vietnam: b[oj]t [eesjch g[aa]n m[owf],
s[os]c che.
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
southern China, southern Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sumbawa; pos-
sibly also in Sulawesi.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
leaves is used to treat diarrhoea, and a decoction
of the roots against stomach-ache. In Java, the
leaves are used to treat dysentery; they are also
one ofthe ingredients of a complex medicine given
after childbirth. The fruits are edible but sour.
The wood is used to build native and temporary
houses, mainly for poles and rafters, and for tool
handles.
Observations A shrub or small to medium-
sized tree up to 15(-25) m tall, bole up to 40 cm in
diameter; leaves obliquely oblong-lanceolate,
2.5-7 cm x 1-3 cm, glabrous or hairy, dull glau-
cous below, petiole 2-4 mm long; inflorescence ses-
sile; male flowers with 4-5 stamens, female flow-
ers with 5-8-celled ovary; fruit depressed globose,
somewhat angular, not lobed, c. 15 mm in diame-
ter, thinly velvety, distinctly stalked. G. obscurum
is a variable species. It occurs in forest, especially
secondary forest, frequently on river banks, up to
1500 m altitude.
Selected sources 19, 21, 22, 23, 62, 121, 334,
883, 990. Glochidion rubrum Blume - 1, flowering twig; 2,
male flower; 3, female flower; 4, part of twig with
fruits.
GOMPHANDRA 217
with 3-5-celled ovary; fruit depressed globose, Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
3-6-lobed, 8-15 mm in diameter, minutely pubes- root or leaves is used as a protective medicine af-
cent, shortly stalked. G. rubrum is a variable ter childbirth. A decoction of the root is also ap-
species. It occurs in forest, mixed lowland diptero- plied to treat rheumatism. Formerly wood-tar
carp forest as well as peat forest, also on river from the stems was used to blacken teeth.
banks, in brushwood and thickets, sometimes also In Vietnam the tuberous root of G. mollis Merr.
on the seashore, up to 2400 m altitude. It has a (synonym: G. tonkinensis Gagnep.) is used as a
slight preference for sandy soils, and is common in tonic, stomachic, appetizer, galactagogue, diuretic
many regions. and laxative. It is taken as a decoction, elixir or
Selected sources 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 62, 121, powder.
152, 334, 883,990. Botany A dioecious shrub or small to medium-
sized tree up to 20 m tall. Leaves arranged spiral-
G l o c h i d i o n s u b m o l l e ( L a u t e r b . & K. ly, simple, elliptical, lanceolate to oblong, (5-)10-
Schumann) Airy S h a w 15(-25) cm x (0.5-)4-6(-ll) cm, base broadly at-
Kew Bull. 32: 377 (1978). tenuate, apex acuminate, with (3-)6-8(-10) pairs
Synonyms Glochidion magnificum K. Schu- of secondary veins; petiole up to 1.5 cm long; stip-
mann (1905). ules absent. Inflorescence an axillary cluster of re-
Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: hin peatedly branched cymes, few to many-flowered.
(Kombo, Western Highlands Province). Flowers functionally unisexual, 4(-5)-merous,
Distribution New Guinea. pedicellate; calyx cup-shaped, toothed; petals con-
Uses In Papua New Guinea, the inner bark is nate to a tube, (3-)4(-5) mm long, white or cream,
cut into small pieces and placed over a sore tooth glabrous; male flowers with free, hairy stamens
for relief. and rudimentary ovary; female flowers with supe-
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up rior, 1-celled ovary, a thick, discoid stigma and
to 30 m tall; leaves oblong to ovate-oblong or rudimentary stamens. Fruit an ellipsoid drupe c.
lanceolate-oblong, 14-25 cm x 4.5-9 cm, rounded 1 cm x 0.7 cm, base broadly narrowed, apex gradu-
at base, puberulous below, petiole 5-7 mm long; ally attenuate.
inflorescence sessile; male flowers with 4 stamens, Gomphandra comprises about 33 species and oc-
female flowers with 8-celled ovary; fruit subglobu- curs from southern India, Sri Lanka and Burma
lar, slightly lobed, c. 10 mm in diameter. G. sub- (Myanmar) eastwards to southern China,
molle is common in secondary forest up to 1600 m throughout Malesia, eastwards to the Solomon Is-
altitude. lands, Australia (Queensland) and Santa Cruz Is-
Selected sources 21,883. land. G. quadrifida is divided into 5 varieties
Yun Astuti Nugroho based on venation and leaf dimensions; some vari-
eties are linked with ecological conditions and geo-
graphically confined.
Gomphandra quadrifida (Blume) Ecology G. quadrifida occurs in habitats rang-
Sleumer ing from lowland to montane forest and swamp
forest to dry Dryobalanops forest, occasionally on
Notitzbl. Berl.-Dahl. 15:238 (1940). limestone, from sea-level up to 1500 m altitude.
ICACINACEAE Genetic resources G. quadrifida is wide-
2« = unknown spread, occurring in a wide range of habitats, and
Synonyms Gomphandra affinis (Miers) Mas- does not appear to be threatened by genetic ero-
ters (1875), Gomphandra lanceolata (Masters) sion.
King (1895), Gomphandra salicifolia Ridley Prospects Pharmacological research is needed
(1922). to evaluate the potential of the traditional medici-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kayu barik- nal uses ofG. quadrifida.
barik, kayu minak-minak, kayu topu lisak (Suma- Literature 121,247, 1008.
tra). Malaysia: chemperai, kayu gerang jantan, Other selected sources 218, 921,990.
daun ekor bukit derimba (Peninsular). Vietnam: Titi Kalima
b[oor] b[es]o ch[er] t[uw].
Origin and geographic distribution G.
quadrifida occurs in Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi-
na, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.
G o m p h o s t e m m a Wallich ex Benth. tions of Gomphostemma leaves and leaf juice war-

rant research on the phytochemistry and pharma-
Edwards, Bot. Reg. 15:t. 1292 (1830). cological properties, since data are not yet avail-
LABIATAE able.
a; = 17 Literature 247.
Origin a n d geographic distribution Gom-
phostemma comprises about 30 species and occurs
in eastern India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Selection of species
southern China, Thailand and western Malesia to
the Philippines, Sulawesi and Bali. In the Male- G o m p h o s t e m m a crinitum Wallich ex
sian region 8 species have been found; Peninsular Benth.
Malaysia and Sumatra are richest, each with 5 Wallich, PL asiat. rar. 2: 12 (1830).
species. Vernacular names Malaysia: menjulong bukit,
Uses Some uses in traditional medicine in chempaku hutan, derita dapur (Peninsular). Viet-
South-East Asia have been recorded for Gom- nam: dinh h[uf]ng l[oo]ng d[af]i.
phostemma: the leaves and leaf juice are applied Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), In-
externally to wounds, swellings and warts, and indo-China, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia.
ternally to treat intestinal troubles, whereas a de- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
coction of the roots is administered after child- roots is administered after childbirth; pounded
birth. leaves mixed with camphor, are applied to swell-
Botany Perennial herbs or shrubs; roots some- ings ofthe groin.
times tuberous; stem quadrangular, pubescent. Observations Alarge, perennial herb up to 150
Leaves decussately opposite, simple, large, entire cm tall, with stout, erect stem; leaves elliptical-
or crenate-serrate, lower surface usually with stel- ovate to oblanceolate, 25-30 cm x 8-15 cm, entire
late hairs often intermixed with simple hairs, usu- or remotely serrate; calyx 1.5-2 cm long, hispid-to-
ally long-petioled; stipules absent. Inflorescence mentose, with linear-subulate teeth, corolla 2.5-
an axillary fascicled cyme forming densely con- 3.5 cm long, tube almost straight with narrow
gested verticillasters, rarely seemingly racemose, throat; nutlets usually 1-2. G. crinitum usually
bracteate. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic; calyx occurs on limestone cliffs and hills, up to 500 m al-
campanulate, 10-veined, with 5 subequal teeth; titude; it is locally common.
corolla with slender, erect or incurved tube and 2- Selected sources 121,247.
lipped limb, upper lip galeate, entire or emar-
ginate, lower lip spreading, broadly 3-lobed, Gomphostemma javanicum (Blume)
creamy to orange-yellow; stamens 4, inserted on Benth.
the corolla tube, didynamous, filaments pubes- Labiat. gen. spec: 650 (1835).
cent; disk prominent; ovary superior, deeply 4- Synonyms Gomphostemma oblongum Wallich
parted, style gynobasic, with 2 short, slightly un- ex Benth. (1830), Gomphostemma phlomoides
equal branches at apex. Fruit splitting into 1-4 (Reinw. ex Blume) Benth. (1835), Gomphostemma
drupaceous nutlets enclosed in the persistent ca- philippinarum Benth. (1848).
lyx. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: galipung bulu
Gomphostemma can be found flowering through- (Sundanese), peper (Javanese), kopetan (Madu-
out the year. rese). Philippines: ata-ata (Tagalog), kagong (Ba-
Gomphostemma is placed in the rather heteroge- gobo), kasunisuni (Bukidnon). Thailand: klon duu
neous (possibly polyphyletic) tribe Prasieae, which (Trang), khon non (Surat Thani), hom hok (Chi-
is characterized by the fleshy mericarps. ang Mai).Vietnam: dinh h[uf]ng Java.
Ecology Gomphostemma is most commonly Distribution The Andaman Islands, southern
found in humid lowland rain forest below 1000 m Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, Penin-
altitude, but G.javanicum is also found in drier sular Malaysia, Sumatra, Bangka, Java, Bali,
forest types and at higher altitudes. Borneo, south-western Sulawesi and the Philip-
Genetic resources Most Gomphostemma spe- pines.
cies have sufficiently wide distributions to ensure Uses In Java the leaves are applied to wounds
their survival, but few are narrow endemics which and the leaf juice is used internally to treat in-
may easily become endangered. testinal troubles. In the Philippines the leaf juice
Prospects Particularly the external applica- is applied to warts.
GORDONIA 219
Observations A large, perennial herb up to 200 absent. Inflorescence an axillary, generally elon-
cm tall, with erect, woody stem; leaves elliptical- gated spike (3-)5-15(-30) cm long, solitary or 2-3
oblong, ovate to obovate, 15-30 cm x 5-10 cm, cre- together, often on defoliated twigs, laxly many-
nate or crenate-serrate; calyx l-1.5(-2) cm long, flowered. Flowers unisexual, regular, 5-merous,
tube conspicuously ribbed, with lanceolate teeth, sessile or short-stalked; calyx small, deeply lobed;
corolla 4-4.5(-5) cm long, tube broad, distinctly in- petals united, 5.5-6 mm long, lobes inflexed; male
curved with inflated throat; nutlets usually 4. G. flowers with stamens connate to the petals for
javanicum occurs in shaded localities in rain for- most of their length and rudimentary ovary; fe-
est or seasonal forest, up to 2400 m altitude. male flowers with superior, 2-celled ovary, conical,
Selected sources 247, 321,334. short style and rudimentary stamens. Fruit an el-
Trimurti H. Wardini lipsoid-oblong drupe, (3-)3.5-4(-4.5) cm x 1.5-
2(-2.8) cm, obtusely trigonous with 2-3 longitudi-
nal ribs on each side, 1-seeded. Seed with a thin
G o n o c a r y u m gracile Miq. testa. Seedling with hypogeal germination; cotyle-
dons not emergent, hypocotyl not developed, epi-
Fl. Ind. Bat., Suppl. 1:343 (1861). cotyl with a few scales; leaves appearing in flush-
ICACINACEAE es of 3-5.
2n = unknown Gonocaryum comprises about 11 species occurring
Synonyms Gonocaryum longiracemosum rung in Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, south-eastern
(1895). China, Taiwan, Thailand and throughout the
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: tobung-tobung Malesian region (except for Java and most of the
(Sumatra). Malaysia: toyoh, rambai hutan, ruai Lesser Sunda Islands).
gajah (Peninsular). Ecology G.gracile is found scattered in lowland
Origin and geographic distribution G. gra- forest, preferably in valleys along streams, from
cile occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, sea-level up to 1000 m altitude.
Sumatra and Bangka. Management A germination rate of about 25%
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a poultice of G. has been recorded for G. gracile fruits, but germi-
gracile fruits is applied to the head to treat nation did not start until after two years.
headache. In Sumatra (Riau Province), pounded Genetic resources Although confined to low-
fresh leaves are used as a remedy for bruises and land forest areas and of limited geographical dis-
pains by applying a cataplasm on the affected tribution, G.gracile does not appear to be serious-
parts. In the Philippines, G. calleryanum (Bâillon) ly threatened by genetic erosion as it is rarely har-
Becc. is said to be applied as a medicine against vested.
stomach troubles, and its wood is used to produce Prospects Further research is needed to evalu-
charcoal. In Thailand G. lobbianum (Miers) Kurz ate the potential of the traditional medicinal uses
is used in prescriptions for jaundice, its wood be- ofG. gracile.
ing mixed with the root of Neonauclea sessilifolia Literature 121,137,169,174, 247, 883.
(Roxb.) Merr., or its stem or root mixed with the Other selected sources 446, 459, 760, 921,
stem of Dendrolobium lanceolatum (Dunn) 968.
Schindler, the wood ofDiospyros ehretioides Wal- Wongsatit Chuakul,
lich ex G. Don and the stem of Erythrina stricta Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon
Roxb. & Orawan Ruangsomboon
Properties There is no information on the phy-
tochemistry of G. gracile, but numerous secoiri-
doid glycosides, flavonoid glycosides and flav- Gordonia penangensis Ridley
onoids have been isolated from the leaves, branch-
es, stem and root bark ofG. calleryanum. Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br. 73: 142 (1916).
Botany A dioecious shrub or small, low-branch- THEACEAE
ing tree up to 12 m tall; bole up to 5 cm in diame- 2n =unknown
ter, bark surface smooth, greyish. Leaves ar- Synonyms Gordonia excelsa auct. non Blume.
ranged spirally, simple and entire, elliptical-ob- Origin and geographic distribution Penin-
long, (6-)8-18(-20) cm x 3.5-6.5(-9.5) cm, base sular Malaysia and Singapore.
broadly cuneate, apex shortly acuminate; petiole Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a leaf decoction of
characteristically wrinkled and yellow; stipules G. penangensis is said to be used as a beverage to
cure diarrhoea and dysentery. In Java the flowers Gordonia comprises about 70 species and occurs
of G. excelsa (Blume) Blume, a species primarily in tropical Asia and tropical America with a single
used for its timber, are used medicinally instead species in the south-eastern part of the United
of those ofSchima wallichii (DC.) Korth., together States. Tropical Asia comprises some 40 species
with many other ingredients, in a draught applied and Gordonia is found in India, Sri Lanka, Burma
after childbirth. The bark ofG. amboinensis (Miq.) (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan,
Merr., another timber species, has been used as a Thailand, throughout the Malesian region, east to
fish poison. In Taiwan the leaves of G. axillaris the Bismarck Archipelago. Within Malesia 21
(Roxb. ex Ker Gawl.) Endl., a species from Indo- species are recognized. Peninsular Malaysia is
China, China, Taiwan and northern Thailand, are richest with 9 species, followed by Borneo (6),
applied as an astringent in folk medicine. The Sumatra (4), Java, the Philippines, Sulawesi and
bark of various Gordonia species yields tannin the Lesser Sunda Islands (each 2), and the Moluc-
and has been used in Peninsular Malaysia to dye cas and New Guinea (each 1).
and tan fishing nets and rough clothing. Ecology G. penangensis is found in open low-
Properties An active antifungal phenolic deriv- land forest up to 500 m altitude.
ative has been isolated from the hexane extract of Genetic resources G. penangensis does not
stem bark of G.dassanayakei B.M. Wadhwa & A. seem to be at immediate risk of genetic erosion.
Weerasooriya, a Sri Lankan endemic. This com- However, habitat destruction of lowland forest ar-
pound is active against several plant pathogenic eas likewise affects G. penangensis.
fungi. Prospects Nothing is known about the pharma-
A leaf extract of G. axillaris exhibits a significant cological properties of G. penangensis. The selec-
inhibitory effect on Epstein-Barr virus-specified tive cytotoxic compounds as present in other Gor-
DNA polymerase. An acylated y-pyrone glucoside donia species warrant further research, and other
was isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of representavives ofthe genus should be involved as
dried leaves as the active compound. Camelliin B, well.
a macrocyclic hydrolysable tannin, showed cyto- Literature 56,121, 458, 883,978.
toxic effects in human carcinoma cells; in an in- Other selected sources 459, 990.
vitro assay, camelliin B dose-dependently induced Titi Kalima
apoptosis in HeLa cells.
Botany An evergreen, small, slender tree up to
13(-20) m tall; bark smooth. Leaves arranged spi- Gouania Jacq.
rally, simple, narrowly elliptical-lanceolate, 6-10
cm x 2.5-4 cm, base attenuate or caudate, apex Select, stirp. amer, hist.: 263 (1763).
acuminate to obliquely caudate, remotely serru- RHAMNACEAE
late to almost entire, pinnately veined with 5-8 x = unknown
pairs of lateral veins; petiole slender, 0.5-1 cm Origin and geographic distribution Goua-
long; stipules absent. Flowers solitary, terminal or nia consists of some 50-70 species, and occurs
subterminal on small branches, 2.5-3 cm across, throughout the tropics; in South-East Asia about
5-merous; bracteoles 2; sepals ovate or suborbicu- 10 species occur.
lar, 5-7 mm long, thick-coriaceous and with thin- U s e s Gouania is only little used in South-East
ner and ciliate edge, persistent in fruit; petals Asian folk medicine, primarily as a poultice to
suborbicular to spatulate, connate at base, charta- treat sores, ulcers, burns and skin complaints.
ceous, yellowish to golden yellow; stamens many, Properties Leaves and stems ofG. leptostachya
indistinctly grouped in 5 fascicles, shortly connate showed distinct antimicrobial activity against
at base and briefly adnate to the corolla; ovary su- Staphylococcus aureus. The alkaloids present in
perior, usually 5-celled, woolly, style 6-7 mm long. bark and leaves of G.leptostachya have a tetaniz-
Fruit a woody, cylindrical capsule 3.5-5 cm x ing effect on toads. Saponins are present in nu-
1.5-2 cm, dehiscing with 5 valves from the apex to merous Gouania species, which may well explain
the base along a persistent column. Seeds with a the use to stupefy fish and as a soap substitute.
unilateral wing, 2.5-3 cm long. Seedling with Botany Unarmed climbing shrubs or lianas;
epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy; hypocotyl branches often with circinnate tendrils. Leaves al-
elongated; all leaves arranged spirally. ternate, simple, ovate to cordate, entire or cre-
G.penangenis flowers in February-May and fruits nate, membranous to coriaceous, petiolate; stip-
in May-June. ules present. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary
GOUANIA 221
spike or raceme, sometimes arranged in panicles. disk in bisexual flowers linear, somewhat shorter
Flowers bisexual or unisexual (polygamous), 5- than the calyx segments; fruit c. 3 mm long, wings
merous; calyx funnel-shaped; petals free, small, thin, 7-10 mm long, 2-3 times wider than cocci,
shortly clawed; stamens before the petals; disk pedicel thick, c. 0.3 mm long. G.javanica is found
filling the calyx tube; ovary inferior, immersed in in open forest and brushwood, in Java from sea-
the disk, 3-celled; style 3-parted. Fruit a capsule, level up to 1000 m altitude.
trigonous, 3-winged, crowned by the persistent ca- Selected sources 62, 121, 621.
lyx, splitting into 3 indéhiscent, 1-seeded cocci.
Seeds obovate, plano-convex; testa shining, horny; Gouania leptostachya DC.
albumen thin. Prodr. 2:40 (1825).
In Java G.javanica flowers and fruits from May to Vernacular names Indonesia: areuy sahagi
October, whereas G. leptostachya can be found (Sundanese), garangan, sererep (Javanese). Phi-
flowering and fruiting throughout the year. lippines: litiran (Tagalog), pahampak (Pampan-
Gouania in South-East Asia is in great need of re- ga), rungo-rungo (Iloko). Thailand: thao teen toe
vision. The status of G. tiliaefolia Lamk deserves (Surat Thani), nam dap fai (peninsular), phuang
more attention; it is not clear whether it should be charitaa (Yala). Vietnam: d[aa]y d[of]n g[as]nh,
united with G. leptostachya or not. d[aa]y g[aa]n b[oo]ng h[ej]p.
Ecology Gouania species of medicinal impor- Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
tance are found in relatively open forest and forest China, southern China, Thailand and throughout
fringes, often along rivers, at low to medium alti- the Malesian region.
tudes. Uses In Java the pounded root, stems and
Genetic resources The Gouania species treat- leaves are used to poultice skin complaints. The
ed here are relatively widespread and apparently bark pounded with water is used as a foamy hair
adapted to disturbance. The risk ofgenetic erosion wash to get rid of lice and other parasites. In
seems to be limited. Sumatra leaves and stems are ground with water,
Prospects Very little is known on the phyto- and the solution is drunk to treat stomach-ache
chemistry and pharmacological properties of and diarrhoea. In Vietnam the plant is used to
Gouania. Further research is needed to corrobo- massage swellings, to treat burns and to regulate
rate its traditional use in poulticing. menses. In India and Burma (Myanmar) the
Literature 62, 121,927. leaves are applied as a poultice to treat sores and
as a skin wash to treat ulcers. The pounded bark,
alone or in a mixture, is used to stupefy fish and
Selection of species also as a shampoo. In the Philippines the roots are
used as a soap substitute.
Gouania javanica Miq. Observations A liana up to 20 m long, young
Fl. Ned. Ind. 1(1):649 (1856). shoots glabrous; leaves ovate or ovate-oblong, 4-7
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: b a n d putih, cm x 2-4 cm, base truncate or cordate, apex
kepet (Javanese), musing (Madurese). Malaysia: acuminate, shallowly serrate-dentate, glabrous or
akar sebueh, ketip-ketip. Thailand: chalit chitcho, thinly pale-hairy on the veins below, petiole 6-13
nam dap fai (Trang, Pattani). Vietnam: d[aa]y cm long; inflorescence terminal or axillary, often
d[of]n g[as]nh. united in a panicle 10-25 cm long; flowers with
Distribution Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular glabrous or thinly hairy calyx tube, petals c. 0.5
Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, the Philippines and Su- mm long, processes of disk in bisexual flowers
lawesi. broadly oblong, a third or half of the length of the
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a poultice of the calyx segments; fruit c. 8 mm long, wings thick,
roots is applied to sores. 12-14 mm long, as wide as the cocci, pedicel 2-3
Observations A liana up to 20 m long, young mm long. G. leptostachya is found in Java below
shoots densely brown-hairy; leaves ovate, 4-10 cm 300 m altitude, whereas in the Philippines it is al-
x 3-8 cm, base rounded, truncate or obtuse, apex sorecorded at medium altitudes.
very shortly acuminate, coarsely serrate-dentate, Selected sources 181,217, 295, 296, 334, 621,
brown-hairy at least on the veins below, petiole 731, 760.
7-12 cm long; inflorescence a terminal or axillary A.M. Aguinaldo
panicle 6-20 cm long; flowers with densely short-
hairy calyx tube, petals c. 1 mm long, processes of
Grammatophyllum Blume Ecology Grammatophyllum is a tree epiphyte

of the lowland, preferring light and humid condi-
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 6:t. 2, f. 20; 8:377 (1825). tions on isolated trees or in open forest.
ORCHIDACEAE Management To be cultivated successfully
x = 20; G. scriptum: 2n = 38,40, G. speciosum: 2« Grammatophyllum must be given a sunny posi-
= 40 tion with high humidity and excellent drainage. It
Origin and geographic distribution Gram- does best when planted in the fork of a tree, or in a
matophyllum comprises about a dozen species, and large pot or basket filled with tree fern fibre or
is distributed from Burma (Myanmar) and Laos, broken bricks and charcoal. Regular fertilization
through Thailand and the whole Malesian region, is required, especially during active growth.
to the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Some species, e.g. Genetic resources Both Grammatophyllum
G.speciosum and G.scriptum, are cultivated. species treated here are widespread and appar-
Uses In the Moluccas a paste made of G. scrip- ently locally common, and do not seem to be im-
turn pseudobulbs together with a little Curcuma mediately endangered. Their cultivation also con-
and salt water has been applied to sores, to the tributes to protection.
abdomen to expel worms, and to treat dropsy and Prospects The recorded applications of Gram-
aphthae, whereas the seeds were mixed with food matophyllum in traditional medicine are various,
to treat dysentery. In Thailand the filtrate of but not supported by scientific research. Infor-
crushed G.speciosum stems in rice liquor is drunk mation on the phytochemistry of Grammatophyl-
and the residue applied topically to treat snake lum is completely lacking. If reliable means of
bites and stings of scorpions and centipedes. influencing flowering can be developed, Gram-
Some Grammatophyllum species are cultivated by matophyllum could be of considerable ornamental
orchid amateurs, but they need much space be- value.
cause of their size, and they flower irregularly. Literature 173,334, 1006.
However, flowering plants are very spectacular.
Botany Large to very large epiphytic, perenni-
al, usually tufted herbs, at base often with many Selection of species
erect, whitish, branched catch-roots, either with
crowded, long, firm, many-leaved stems, or with G r a m m a t o p h y l l u m s c r i p t u m (L.)
crowded few-leaved pseudobulbs. Leaves distic- Blume
hously alternate, simple, linear or lanceolate, Rumphia4:48(1849).
large, articulate, duplicative, leathery; stipules Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: anggrek boki,
absent. Inflorescence a raceme borne at the base bunga putri, saya ngawa (Moluccas). Philippines:
of a stem or pseudobulb, erect-drooping or de- tawa-tawa (Tagalog).
flexed, few- to many-flowered. Flowers bisexual, Distribution The Philippines, Sulawesi, the
zygomorphic, large, resupinate, more or less Moluccas, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
fleshy; tepals free, slightly differing in length be- Cultivated in Java.
tween the 2 whorls, lip (labellum) subelastically Uses In the Moluccas a paste made of the pseu-
inserted on a thickening ofthe base ofthe column, dobulbs together with a little Curcuma and salt
concave, 3-lobed, with longitudinal thickenings on water has been applied to sores, to the abdomen to
inner side; stamen 1, anther proclined, with 2 expel worms, and to treat dropsy and aphthae. The
deeply cleft pollinia each placed on a lobule of the seeds were mixed with food against dysentery. The
small deeply 2-lobed stipe borne on a fat viscidi- plant is cultivated as an ornamental.
um; ovary inferior, 1-celled. Fruit a usually Observations A large herb with pseudobulbs of
fusiform capsule opening by longitudinal fissures, c. 25 cm x 7 cm, 3-5-foliate; leaves 40-70 cm x
many-seeded. Seeds minute. 6-10 cm; inflorescence erecto-patent to drooping,
Grammatophyllum species are amongst the larg- up to 190 cm long including the peduncle up to 90
est orchids, and G. speciosum is possibly the cm long, up to 50-flowered; flowers 7-8 cm in di-
largest of all. It may flower uninterruptedly for up ameter, tepals pale green or yellowish with dark
to 5 months and produce about 50 inflorescences brown blotches, lip dark brown-violet streaked. In
with a total of up to 3600 flowers during this peri- New Guinea G. scriptum often grows on trees
od. Grammatophyllum often shows dimorphy of along beaches and lagoons, and in coastal forest
flowers, having larger sterile flowers at the base of and coconut plantations.
the inflorescence. Selected sources 62, 334, 760, 1006.
GRANGEA 223
Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume Selected sources 62,121,173, 831,832.

Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 8: 378 (1825). Diah Sulistiarini
Vernacular n a m e s Tiger orchid (En). Indone-
sia: anggrek tebu (Java). Malaysia: bunga bi-
dadari, ekur gajah (Peninsular). Thailand: waan G r a n g e a m a d e r a s p a t a n a (L.) P o i r .
phetchahueng (central), ueang phraao (northern),
waan nguu lueam (peninsular). Vietnam: thanh Lamk, Encycl., Suppl. 2, 2: 825 (1812).
tuy[eef]n. COMPOSITAE
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Laos, Viet- 2n = 18
nam, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, SynonymsArtemisia maderaspatana L. (1753).
Bangka, Java, Borneo and the Philippines. Vernacular names Indonesia: kembang paku
Uses In Thailand, the filtrate of crushed stems konde, serawan hutan. Philippines: pakopatoli-
in rice liquor is drunk and the residue applied top- alog (Ilokano). Thailand: pha-yaa mutti (central),
ically to treat snakebites and stings of scorpions yaa chaam luang (northern). Vietnam: c[ar]i
and centipedes. G. speciosum is cultivated as an d[oof]ng, c[us]c d[aj]i, rau c[os]c.
ornamental. Origin and geographic distribution G. ma-
Observations A very large herb up to 7 m tall, deraspatana is found from Africa and Madagascar
without pseudobulbs but with thick, many-leaved, to tropical Asia; it occurs throughout South-East
erect-drooping, ascending stems; leaves linear, Asia.
50-100 cm x c. 3 cm; inflorescence erecto-patent to Uses In the Philippines an infusion of G. ma-
drooping, up to 3 m long including the short pe- deraspatana leaves is employed as a stomachic
duncle, many-flowered; flowers 10-12 cm in diam- and antispasmodic. In Indo-China the leaves are
eter, tepals pale yellowish-green with reddish- used as a stomachic and in antiseptic fomenta-
brown blotches, lip reddish-brown streaked. G. tions. A leaf decoction is given as a post-partum
speciosum is an epiphyte on trees in open forest or tonic, to soothe coughing and to treat irregular
on isolated trees, up to 550 m altitude. menses. In India the plant is considered a valu-
able stomachic, with deobstruant and antispas-
modic properties. An infusion is used as a remedy
for irregular menses and hysteria. The leaves are
sometimes employed as an antiseptic or anodyne
fomentation. In West Africa G. maderaspatana is
taken as a stomachic.
Properties The aboveground parts of G. ma-
deraspatana contain numerous labdane and clero-
dane type diterpenoids. In addition, steroidal com-
pounds, hardwickiic acid and derivatives, acetyl-
enic compounds, auranamide, grangolide and eu-
desmanolides have been isolated. A crude chloro-
form extract of G. maderaspatana exhibits strong
cytotoxic activity. Amixture of flavonoids, extract-
ed from dried aerial parts of G. maderaspatana
possessed oestrogenic and anti-implantation ac-
tivities in various mouse models.
The methanol extract of whole G. maderaspatana
plants showed a dose-dependent analgesic activi-
ty. At doses of 1g/kg and 3g/kg, the extract signif-
icantly inhibited acetic acid-induced writhing in
mice by 50%and 80%, respectively.
Botany A prostrate-ascending to erect annual
herb up to 55 cm tall, branched from the base,
with a taproot. Leaves alternate, oblong-obovate
in outline, 2-10 cm x 1-6 cm, pinnatilobed, with
Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume - 1, leafy 3-4 pairs of coarsely dentate, opposite lobes, thin-
stems and inflorescence; 2, flower. ly patently hairy on both sides, sessile. Inflores-
soils but also common in sandy locations. It is of-

ten gregarious, up to 800 m altitude.
Genetic resources G. maderaspatana is wide-
spread and commonly encountered in disturbed
habitats, and is not threatened by genetic erosion.
Prospects The traditional use of G. maderas-
patana as an analgesic is supported by the ob-
served antinociceptive effect in animal tests. How-
ever, in view of the present day limited use and
the numerous alternatives available, G. maderas-
patana is not likely to rise above the level of limit-
ed local importance.
Literature 17,409, 508, 732, 794, 879.
Other selected sources 62, 112, 120,181.
G r e e n e a c o r y m b o s a ( J a c k ) K.
Schumann
Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 4, 4: 37

(1891).
RUBiACEAE
2n =unknown
Synonyms Greenea jackii Wight & Arnott
(1839).
Vernacular names Malaysia: sekam bulan, ja-
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. - 1, plant rum-jarum rimba (Peninsular). Vietnam: cho,
habit; 2, flower head; 3, marginal flower; 4, disk tr[uw][owf]ng s[ow]n.
flower; 5, fruit. Origin and geographic distribution G. co-
rymbosa occurs in southern Burma (Myanmar),
cence a terminal, truncate-globose head 6-10 mm Vietnam, southern Thailand and Peninsular Ma-
in diameter, solitary or 2-3 together, yellow, laysia.
many-flowered; peduncle 1-4 cm long; involucral Uses In Vietnam, an infusion ofthe leaves is ap-
bracts 2-3-seriate, outer ones oblong, acute, inner plied internally and used as a vapour-bath to treat
ones elliptical. Flowers all tubular, c. 1.5 mm long; fever. In Peninsular Malaysia, the wood is used
marginal flowers female, with narrowly tubular for fences and as fuel.
corolla, shortly lobed; disk flowers bisexual, with Properties G. corymbosa has a very bad smell,
cylindrical corolla, 4-5 lobed; stamens 5, loosely and an infusion ofthe leaves is emetic.
cohering; ovary inferior, 1-celled, style with 2 Botany A shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall;
short acute arms. Fruit a turbinate, compressed, bark smooth, dark brown or greyish-brown; twigs
truncate achene c. 2 mm long, glabrous, sparingly more or less densely brown hairy. Leaves oppo-
glandular; pappus consisting of a ciliate cup. site, oblanceolate, 20-35 cm x 4-10 cm, acuminate
Seedling with epigeal germination; hypocotyl at apex, hairy on veins beneath, with 18-25 pairs
2-2.5 mm long; cotyledons subsessile, elliptical to of secondary veins and ladder-like tertiary veins;
widely elliptical; epicotyl absent. petiole 1-3 cm long; stipules interpetiolar, up to
G. maderaspatana can be found flowering and 1.5 cm long, fused at the edges. Inflorescence a
fruiting throughout the year. The fruits are dis- terminal panicle, with up to 3 cm long peduncle
persed by water and ants. and flowers alternately in 2 rows on the upper
Grangea comprises 10 species, and is confined to side of the inflorescence branches (scorpioid).
the Old World tropics. Flowers sessile, bisexual, 4-5-merous; calyx very
Ecology G. maderaspatana occurs on river deeply lobed; corolla with tube 5-7 mm long, lobes
banks, in desiccated pools, rainfed rice fields, 1-1.5 mm long, contorted in bud, white turning
waste places and teak forests, preferring heavy pink; stamens inserted at the corolla throat, fila-
GREWIA 225
ments absent; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style fili- to bruises; for internal afflictions an infusion of
form, bifid. Fruit a globose capsule 2-3.5 mm in grated bark was drunk.
diameter, crowned by the persistent calyx lobes, G. asiatica L., well known as fruit and timber
densely short-hairy, dehiscent with 2 valves from tree, is also used medicinally. Its fruits are consid-
the top, many-seeded. Seeds c. 0.5 mm long, ered a remedy for throat problems and the bark is
brownish-yellow, areolate. applied as a demulcent, especially for urogenital
The leaves wither red. In Vietnam two forms of G. afflictions. The fibrous bark of Grewia is used to
corymbosa exist: one with white flowers and an- make ropes. The fruits of most species are edible.
other with violet flowers. Only the latter is reput- Grewia wood is generally used for small articles
edly used medicinally. where toughness is required.
Greenea comprises approximately 7 species and Properties An alcohol extract of whole G. hir-
occurs from Burma (Myanmar) and Indo-China to suta plants showed diuretic activity in rats. It also
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and possibly other showed central nervous system-depressant activi-
parts of Malesia. ty, antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease,
Ecology In Peninsular Malaysia, G. corymbosa and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus
occurs in forest up to 700 m altitude, frequently in aureus at an LD50 value exceeding 1000 mg/kg. Al-
secondary forest, near streams, on rocky coasts kaloids, phenolic and steroidal compounds have
and hill ridges. been detected in the leaves.
Genetic resources The populations of G. co- Botany Evergreen or deciduous shrubs or small
rymbosa do not seem to be under pressure because trees up to 15 m tall, rarely climbers, with indu-
the species is locally common and often occurs in mentum of stellate and simple hairs. Leaves alter-
secondary forest. nate, distichous, simple, entire, serrate or double
Prospects G. corymbosa hardly figures in tradi- serrate, 3-or 5-veined from the base, often whitish
tional medicine in South-East Asia. Therefore, it below; stipules entire or divided. Inflorescence an
is unlikely that it will gain importance, unless axillary or sometimes terminal cyme arranged in
future research demonstrates interesting active a panicle. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous;
compounds. A taxonomie revision of Greenea is sepals free; petals shorter than sepals or some-
still lacking. This is needed to confirm the as- times absent, whitish or yellowish; stamens many,
sumption that the information on medicinal appli- on a raised torus; ovary superior, (l-)2(-5)-celled,
cations from Vietnam refers to the same species as style with a thickened or lobed stigma. Fruit a
the Malesian G. corymbosa. fleshy or pulpy drupe, usually 2-4-lobed, with 1-4
Literature 732, 990. pyrenes containing 1-2 seeds. Seedling with epi-
Other selected sources 121,264. geal germination; cotyledons leafy; hypocotyl elon-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens gated.
Maturation of the fruits takes about 1-2 months.
The fruits are eaten by birds which may thus dis-
G r e w i a L. perse the seeds.
There is disagreement whether the genera Grewia
Sp. pi. 2: 964 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:412 (1754). and Microcos should be united or kept separate.
TlLIACEAE Microcos differs in its unlobed stigma, terminal
x = 9; G. abutilifolia, G. hirsuta: n =9 paniculate inflorescence, presence of involucral
Origin and geographic distribution Grewia bracts and unlobed fruit.
comprises about 200 species and is confined to the Ecology Grewia is a fairly common element of
Old World tropics. It extends north to the Hi- the understorey ofprimary and secondary, decidu-
malayas, China and Taiwan, east to Tonga and ous or evergreen, lowland to montane forest, up to
Samoa and south to northern Australia. It occurs 1700 m altitude. It is also found in open, dry de-
throughout the Malesian region where about 30 ciduous forest, scrub vegetation, forest edges and
species are found. hedges, where it may be encountered as a pioneer.
Uses In Thailand stem decoctions of Grewia are It occurs on many soil types.
used to treat acne and food poisoning, and root de- Management Grewia may be raised from seed,
coctions as a febrifuge and diuretic. Leaves, roots whereas G. asiatica can also be propagated vege-
and fruits are used to treat various complaints in tatively by cuttings, layering and budding.
India. In Timor (Indonesia) a paste of grated bark Genetic resources Grewia is generally not
from a Grewia species has been externally applied threatened in South-East Asia, because it is only
rarely used and often occurs in secondary vegeta- remedy for food poisoning and a root decoction as
tion, often even exhibiting a weedy nature. It is oc- a diuretic. In India a distinction is made between
casionally grown in botanical gardens. plants with bitter and those with tasteless leaves.
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco- The bitter leaves are employed for nose and eye
logical properties of South-East Asian Grewia. afflictions and as an anthelmintic, and the roots of
Some of its traditional uses, e.g. as a diuretic, are these plants are used as an astringent and recom-
corroborated in animal tests, but the vast majority mended to treat cholera, hydrophobia, kidney
ofits many uses in Ayurvedic medicine are not yet troubles, piles and as an anthelmintic. The taste-
supported by modern research. less leaves and fruits are used as a purgative, ex-
Literature 121,249, 334, 449,483,662,883. pectorant, carminative, abortifacient, emmena-
gogue, vulnerary, galactagogue and to treat an en-
larged spleen, eye troubles, painful breasts, piles
Selection of species and rheumatism.
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 5 m
Grewia abutilifolia Vent, ex Juss. tall; leaves oblong to lanceolate, 5-20 cm x 1.5-6
Ann. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., Paris 4:92 (1804). cm, base acute to obtuse, slightly unequal-sided,
Synonyms Grewia sclerophylla Roxb. ex G. Don apex acute, acuminate to cuspidate, double ser-
(1831), Grewia aspera Roxb. (1832). rate or serrate, 3-veined from the base, hairy be-
Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: ya pit (northern), neath, petiole 0.2-1 cm long; inflorescence axil-
po yap (south-western), khao chi (north-eastern). lary, erect, 1-3 cm long, peduncle 0-5 mm long;
Vietnam: c[of] ke l[as] r[ooj]ng. flower buds ovoid to oblong, 4-8 mm x 2-4 mm,
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- sepals lanceolate, petals oblong, c. 2 mm x 1 mm,
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand and hairy on both sides, stamens glabrous, ovary glo-
drier parts ofPeninsular Malaysia and Java. bose, c. 2 mm long, hairy; fruit rounded, 2-4-lobed,
Uses In Thailand the stems are used as a reme- shining. G. hirsuta occurs in mixed deciduous and
dy for acne, and a root decoction as a remedy for dry evergreen forest, often on limestone, at 100-
fever. The bark produces good fibre for making 1500 m altitude. Sometimes G. tomentosa is con-
ropes. sidered a separate species, and then G. hirsuta is
Observations A shrub up to 3 m tall; leaves confined to continental South-East Asia.
ovate to rotundate, 7-12 cm x 5-12 cm, base Selected sources 147, 249, 410, 742,863.
rounded to cordate, apex acute or fringelike, dou- Wongsatit Chuakul,
ble serrate or serrate, 3-veined from the base, Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon
hairy on both sides, petiole 1-2 cm long; inflores- & Orawan Ruangsomboon
cence axillary, erect, 1-2 cm long, peduncle 1-5
mm long; flower buds ovoid to ellipsoid, 4-6 mm x
3 mm, sepals oblong, petals oblong, 2-3 mm x 1 Gunnera macrophyila Blume
mm, ciliate in lower half, stamens glabrous, ovary
ovoid, c. 1.5 mm long, hairy; fruit ovoid, 2-4-lobed, Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 513 (1826).
glabrescent. G. abutilifolia occurs in open, dry, HALORAGACEAE
mixed deciduous forest at 100-1000 m altitude. 2ra= unknown
Selected sources 249, 742. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: hariyang gede,
tarate gunung (Sundanese), sukmadiluwih (Ja-
Grewia hirsuta Vahl vanese). Philippines: balai, baloi, debit (Igorot,
Symb. bot. 1:34 (1790). Bontok).
Synonyms Grewia tomentosa Juss. (1804), Gre- Origin a n d geographic distribution G. ma-
wia polygama Roxb. (1832). crophyila occurs in mountainous areas of Suma-
Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: khao ki wok, tra, Java, Borneo (Sabah), the Philippines, Su-
ham ma, po pae (northern). Vietnam: c[of] ke lawesi, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.
l[oo]ng nh[as]m. Uses In Java the infructescences of G. macro-
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- phyila are employed as a stimulant and tonic.
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand and G.perpensa L. is an ingredient of traditional her-
Java; possibly also drier parts of Peninsular Ma- bal remedies used for their uterotonic activity dur-
laysia. ing pregnancy and childbirth in South Africa. A
U s e s In Thailand a stem decoction is used as a decoction of the root is taken to facilitate the ex-
GUNNERA 227
pulsion ofthe afterbirth and proper clearing of the rosette, reniform to cordate, angular, rarely irregu-
womb, and as a remedy for colic, especially during larly (2-)3-lobed, 2.5-70 cm x 2.5-70 cm, irregular-
pregnancy. ly dentate, bullate; petiole up to 70 cm long, pro-
Properties There is no information on the vided with 3 warts at base; stipules absent. Inflo-
phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of rescence a subterminal panicle with numerous lat-
G. macrophylla. However, two other Gunnera spe- eral spikes, shortly peduncled or sessile, up to 60
cies, one from South America and one from Africa, cm long in fruit; lower spikes with female flowers,
have been investigated. In a general screening ex- upper ones with male flowers, sometimes inter-
periment for antithrombin activity, a methylene mixed with bisexual flowers. Flowers unisexual,
chloride extract of the leaves of G.tinctoria (Moli- sometimes bisexual, small, with 2(-3) sepals; male
na) Mirb., originally from South America but flowers with 2 spatulate petals and 2 stamens; fe-
much cultivated elsewhere, showed about 80% in- male flowers without petals, with inferior, 1-celled
hibition ofthrombin. In a general screening exper- ovary and sessile stigma. Fruit a globose drupe c. 2
iment for anti-hypertensive activity a crude ex- mm in diameter, glabrous, juicy, 1-seeded; pyrene
tract of G.tinctoria inhibited the angiotensin con- flattened-globular, c. 1mm in diameter.
verting enzyme (ACE) by more than 50%. Gunnera, including G. macrophylla, represents a
A crude decoction of G. perpensa leaves exhibited remarkable case of true symbiosis with cyanobac-
direct smooth muscle activity on an isolated rat teria, capable of atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
uterus preparation but not on an ileum prepara- The Nostoc colonies reside in the warts at the base
tion. This direct uterotonic activity could justify ofthe petiole.
its use in traditional remedies in Africa. Gunnera consists of some 30-50 species, and oc-
Botany A perennial, pilose herb, often with nu- curs in all tropics except continental Asia and
merous stolons; stem very short. Leaves in a Australia, and in temperate regions of the south-
ern Hemisphere. In Malesia only 1 species is
found.
Ecology G. macrophylla is found in wet or
damp locations in the mountains, often gregari-
ous, mostly on open or lightly shaded sites in dis-
turbed habitats, pioneering on bare land, along
paths and in openings in secondary forest, at
(750-)1250-3000 m altitude.
Management In the Philippines intercropping
Brassica rapa L. 'Chinese Cabbage' and Brassica
oleracea L. 'White Headed Cabbage' with G. ma-
crophylla resulted in a significant increase in
yield of cabbage by as much as 50%. Nostoc sym-
biosis with G. macrophylla may fix up to 21 kg
N/ha annually.
Genetic resources G. macrophylla is wide-
spread, well adapted to disturbed habitats, and
does not appear to be threatened by genetic ero-
sion.
Si a *Vj •* • i «Si Prospects Little is known on the pharmacology
of Gunnera, and nothing on that of G. macrophyl-
la. Preliminary results of pharmacological re-
search for some species outside South-East Asia
are promising. Further research is needed to eval-
uate the potential of medicinal uses of G. macro-
phylla. The use of G.macrophylla as an auxiliary
plant for soil improvement deserves more atten-
tion.
Literature 199, 247, 315,334, 443,491.
Gunnera macrophylla Blume - habit of flowering Other selected sources 77,621.
and fruiting plant. R.P. Escobin
G y m n e m a R.Br. tile tension and decreased the oxygen consump-

tion induced by high K+ solution in guinea-pig
Prodr.:461 (1810). ileal longitudinal muscle, and lowered blood glu-
ASCLEPIADACEAE cose levels. Leaf extracts of G. inodorum do not
x =11;G.sylvestre: 2n = 22 suppress sweetness and are not bitter, in contrast
Origin and geographic distribution Gymne- to those of G. sylvestre. However, crude saponin
ma comprises approximately 20 species and oc- mixtures extracted from G. inodorum leaves in-
curs in Africa, tropical and subtropical Asia and hibited glucose absorption in the isolated intesti-
Australia. It is represented in Malesia by about 10 nal tract and suppressed the increased blood glu-
species. cose in rats.
Uses Gymnema (particularly G. sylvestre) has a Botany Scandent shrubs or lianas up to 10 m
considerable reputation as a medicinal plant in long, with latex. Leaves opposite, simple and en-
the treatment of diabetes mellitus in different tire, with numerous trichomes; stipules absent.
parts of the world, particularly in India and Chi- Inflorescence a raceme-like cyme, often 2 at a
na. Moreover, the roots and leaves are used to node, sessile or shortly pedunculate. Flowers
treat rheumatoid arthritis, gout, inflammation of small, bisexual, 5-merous; calyx inside with small
the blood vessels, oedema, fever, cough, haemor- basal glands; corolla campanulate, lobes about as
rhoids, boils, sores and snakebites, and as a stom- long as tube, overlapping to the right, tube inside
achic and diuretic. The leaves are often considered with 5 longitudinal ridges, sometimes produced
a wholesome vegetable. into fleshy appendages and/or with lines of hairs
Properties Gymnema contains triterpenoid along each side; stamens inserted at the base of
compounds with taste-modifying activity, collec- the corolla, filaments connate into a tube, anthers
tively known as the gymnemic acids, and also gur- with membranous apical appendages applied
marin, which is a sweet taste-suppressing poly- against the stigma; ovaries 2, free, superior, stig-
peptide found in G. sylvestre. When the leaf is ma head exceeding anthers. Fruit consisting of
chewed, the ability to taste sweetness is lost tem- 1-2 follicles, beaked or not, dehiscing by a ventral
porarily. Furthermore, 10 alternosides have been suture, many-seeded. Seeds strongly compressed,
isolated from dried roots of G.sylvestre, several of with a prominent tuft of silky hairs.
which showed antisweet activity. In 1995 it was proposed that Gymnema be includ-
In India, the hypoglycaemic action of G. sylvestre ed in Marsdenia, which would then be a large
has been confirmed in animal models and in in- pantropical genus. This proposal has not been
sulin dependent as well as independent diabetic adopted here because some new combinations
patients. Animal studies have suggested that re- have not been made for South-East Asian species.
generation ofpancreatic tissue may be stimulated. A taxonomie revision of Gymnema and related
Using in-vitro models, insulin secretagogue activi- genera for South-East Asia is needed to confirm
ty and inhibition of glucose absorption in the inthis conception.
testine have been attributed to conduritol A, gym- Ecology Gymnema occurs in lowland forest,
nemosides and gymnemic acids. The content of and has often been recorded for secondary forest,
gymnemic acids in leaves of Chinese plants was edges offorest and scrub vegetation.
determined at 0.7-1.1%. Gymnemic acids may be Management In India, a rapid system for re-
useful in preventing dental caries when added to generating shoots from mature nodal expiants of
food or as a tea prepared from G. sylvestre leaves. G. sylvestre has been developed. Single node stem
In tests with rats in the United States, ingestion expiants can be inoculated on Murashige and
of G. sylvestre significantly lowered cholesterol Skoog medium containing 6-benzylaminopurine (5
concentration, but it did not lower and even tend- mg/1) and naphthalene acetic acid (0.2 mg/1), and
ed to increase the systolic blood pressure. The regenerated shoots are rooted on a half-strength
ethanol extract ofG.sylvestre leaves exhibited an- medium without supplementing growth regula-
tihepatotoxic activity when administered intra- tors.
gastrically to rats at a dose of 300 mg/kg. It was Genetic resources The areas of distribution of
suggested from tests with rats that a leaf extract Gymnema species are still unclear because of the
of G. sylvestre improved serum cholesterol and lack of information on the taxonomy for South-
triglyceride levels through influence over a wide East Asia. However, there seems no reason to con-
range oflipid metabolism. sider them endangered, at least not for most
Leaf extracts of G. inodorum suppressed contrac- species treated here, because they are widespread
GYMNEMA 229
and often have been reported from secondary veg-

etation types.
Prospects The prospects for Gymnema as a
medicinal plant seem considerable, particularly
for the treatment ofdiabetes. It has been patented
as an antidiabetic. Tissue culture techniques are
being developed to obtain a high content of active
constituents. However, the results of experiments
are somewhat conflicting, and more research is
needed. A sound taxonomie overview is badly
needed for a correct interpretation of the litera-
ture.
Gymnema acuminatum (Roxb.)

Wallich
Tent. fl. napal. 2:50 (1826).
Vernacular names Malaysia: serapat kuning,
sebueh api (Peninsular). Thailand: thong thaa
khruea (Prachin Buri).
Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar),
southern Thailand and western Peninsular Ma-
laysia.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a poultice of the
leaves has been used to treat small sores. Gymnema inodorum (Lour.) Decne. - 1, flowering
Observations A large scandent shrub or liana; branch; 2, flower in apical view; 3, flower in side
leaves ovate to elliptical, 7-15 cm x 4.5-5.5 cm, view; 4,fruit; 5, seed.
petiole c. 1.5 cm long; corolla glabrous, whitish,
appendages exserted; follicle 5-7.5 cm long, Uses In the Moluccas, the roots are used to treat
glabrous. G. acuminatum occurs in forest, often at tightness of the chest and as an antidote against
edges and in open locations, and seems rather un- poisoning, and a poultice of the leaves is used as
common. galactagogue. In China, all parts of the plant are
Selected sources 121, 789. used to treat infantile paralysis and pulmonary
tuberculosis. The leaves are considered effective
G y m n e m a i n o d o r u m (Lour.) D e c n e . for the treatment ofdiabetes mellitus, rheumatoid
A.DC, Prodr. 8: 551 (1844). arthritis and gout. They yield a blue or greenish-
S y n o n y m s Gymnema tingens (Roxb.) Sprengel blue dye. In the Moluccas, young leaves and
(1824), Bidaria inodora (Lour.) Decne. (1844), shoots are eaten raw or cooked, and young aerial
Bidaria tingens (Roxb.) Decne. (1844), Gymnema parts are commonly used as a vegetable in north-
syringifolium (Decne.) Boerl. (1899), Gymnema ern Thailand.
reticulatum (Moon) Alston (1929), Marsdenia tin- Observations A climbing shrub or liana up to
gens (Roxb.) P.I. Forster (1995). 25 m long; leaves ovate-oblong to ovate or broadly
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: sayor pepe, uta ovate, 4-14 cm x 2-9 cm, petiole 2-6 cm long;
mata (the Moluccas). Philippines: kalalaki-ti-du- corolla minutely puberulent outside, yellow, coro-
gep (Iloko). Cambodia: voë toahs. Thailand: phak na lobes included; follicle 8-16 cm x 2.5-3 cm,
chiang daa (Chiang Mai).Vietnam: lo[ax] ti. glabrous, weakly beaked. G. inodorum is locally
Distribution Nepal, India, Burma (Myanmar), common in thickets and secondary forest.
Laos, Cambodia, northern Vietnam, southern Chi- Selected sources 62, 334, 542, 847, 848, 853,
na, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Java, Borneo, 1013.
Timor, Sulawesi, the Moluccas and the Philip-
pines.
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schultes cence an axillary umbelliform to glomeruliform

Roemer &Schultes, Syst. veg. 6: 57 (1820). cyme; bracts concealing the peduncle and becom-
Synonyms Gymnema affine Decne. (1844), ing corky. Flowers bisexual or unisexual, small,
Gymnema alterniflorum (Lour.) Merr. (1935), 4-5-merous; calyx with short tube and annular,
Marsdenia sylvestris (Retz.) P.I. Forster (1995). toothed limb; corolla rather thick, with short tube
Distribution Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Viet- and valvate lobes longer than tube, pilose in
nam, southern China, Japan (Ryukyu Islands); throat; stamens inserted in throat of corolla,
there are unconfirmed reports for Malesia: Ma- exserted; ovary inferior, 4-celled, style bifid or
laysia, Indonesia. simple. Fruit a globose, fleshy drupe with 2-4
Uses In China, all parts of the plant (but partic- pyrenes; pyrenes dorsally compressed. Seeds com-
ularly the roots) are used to treat rheumatoid pressed.
arthritis, gout, inflammation of the blood vessels, Although the genus was originally published as
oedema, fever, haemorrhoids and snakebites. The Gynochtodes, the orthographic variant Gynoch-
leaves are applied in India to treat diabetes and thodes is often used in literature. It is related to
cough, as a stomachic and diuretic, and the plant Caelospermum, Morinda and Pogonolobus, and
is also used to induce abortion. In eastern Africa, can be distinguished from these genera by the ax-
pounded and cooked roots are administered inter- illary, usually compound cymes, drupes with 2-4
nally to treat epilepsy and snakebites and exter- pyrenes, the morphology of stipules and bracts,
nally to treat boils. and pollen morphology.
Observations A liana up to 8 m long; leaves Ecology Gynochtodes occurs as lianas in forest
obovate to ovate or oblong-elliptical, 3-9 cm x at low altitudes, sometimes up to 700 m. Some
1.5-5.5 cm, petiole 0.3-1.2 cm long; corolla glab- species can also be found in open country, e.g. as a
rous, greenish-white or cream-coloured, appen- climber in shrub vegetation and hedges. G. sub-
dages exserted; follicle 4.5-9 cm x 2 cm, glabrous, lanceolata has been recorded as a common species
with acuminate beak. G. sylvestre occurs in open in species-poor anthropogenic heath forest on ex-
forest and scrub vegetation. tremely acidic soils (pH 3.3-3.9) in Singapore and
Selected sources 89, 120, 121, 656, 755, 777, southern Peninsular Malaysia.
846, 1013, 1038,1039. Genetic resources The Gynochtodes species
R.H.M.J. Lemmens treated here do not seem to be immediately en-
dangered as they are fairly widely distributed.
However, most of them seem confined to lowland
Gynochtodes Blume forest and as this habitat is under increasing pres-
sure the species with narrow areas of distribution
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 993 (1827). may become liable to extinction, e.g. species en-
RUBIACEAE demic to the Philippines.
x =unknown Prospects Very little is known about the bo-
Origin and geographic distribution Gy- tany, phytochemistry or properties of Gynochto-
nochtodes is a small genus comprising approxi- des. Research is needed on the taxonomy as well
mately 10 species. It occurs in Vietnam, Thailand, as chemical contents and pharmacology before the
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the significance as a medicinal plant can be deter-
Philippines, eastwards to Micronesia and Fiji, and mined for the various species.
southwards to northern Australia. Peninsular Literature 121.
Malaysia and the Philippines are richest in
species, with about 3 and 4 species, respectively.
Uses Only little information exists on the uses Selection of species
of Gynochtodes: in Peninsular Malaysia, a decoc-
tion of leaves and roots has been used internally Gynochtodes coriacea Blume
to treat stomach-ache, whereas leaves have been Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 993 (1827).
applied as a poultice to treat headache. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar lempedu,
Botany Slender lianas, sometimes shrubs, glab- akar mali, lempedu tanah (Peninsular).
rous, with stem up to 0.5 cm in diameter. Leaves Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
opposite, simple and entire, more or less leathery, Sumatra and Java.
usually with domatia below, shortly petiolate; Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the plant is used
stipules interpetiolar, becoming corky. Inflores- as a poultice to treat headache.
GYNURA 231
Observations Aliana with stem up to 0.5 cm in used in China to treat tonsilitis, bruises, sprains
diameter; leaves elliptical-lanceolate to ovate- and internal bleeding. Similar traditional uses are
lanceolate, 6-13 cm x 3-7 cm, obtuse to shortly mentioned for G. bicolor (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC.
acuminate at apex, leathery; corolla greenish; Another Chinese species, G. divaricata (L.) DC.
fruit c. 1 cm in diameter, white when ripe. G. cori- (synonym: G. ovalis Ker Gawl.), is imported in
acea occurs in lowland forest, in Java up to 300 m South-East Asia, and used as a vulnerary and
altitude. styptic. Young Gynura shoots are sometimes eat-
Selected sources 62,121, 459, 789. en as a vegetable. Gynura is cultivated as an orna-
mental.
G y n o c h t o d e s s u b l a n c e o l a t a Miq. Properties Phytochemical information on Gy-
Fl. Ned. Ind., SuppL: 548 (1861). nura is rather scanty, and most information refers
Vernacular names Malaysia: akar sulong, to G.japonica. Iridoids, terpenyl coumarins, spiro-
lempedu hitam (Peninsular). Thailand: thao nuai, stanol steroids, pyrrolizidines, purines, pyrim-
yo baan (Chumphon). idines and chromanones have been isolated from
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Gynura species.
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Bangka and Bor- Oral administration of an ethanolic extract of G.
neo. procumbens leaves significantly suppressed ele-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of vated serum glucose levels in streptozotocin-in-
leaves and roots is used to treat stomach-ache. duced diabetic rats; 150 mg/kg was found to be the
Observations A slender liana; leaves elliptical- optimum hypoglycaemic dose. When the optimum
lanceolate, 6-8.5 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, acuminate at dose was given to diabetic rats for 7 days, the ex-
apex, thin-leathery; corolla white; fruit c. 0.5 cm tract significantly reduced serum cholesterol and
in diameter, bluish when ripe. G.sublanceolata of- triglyceride levels.
ten occurs in open locations in the forest, also as a An aqueous extract ofG. procumbens showed con-
climber in scrubby vegetation and hedges, often siderable hypotensive activity in a rat model. The
near the sea. compounds 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid and 4,5-di-
Selected sources 121,334, 459, 789,855. O-caffeoylquinic acid isolated from the ethanolic
R.H.M.J. Lemmens extract of G. procumbens posses antiviral activity
against herpes simplex virus type I and type II.
The methanolic extract of the roots of G. elliptica
Gynura Cass. Yabe & Hayata, a Taiwanese endemic, showed
antiplatelet aggregation activity. Of the isolated
Diet. Sei. Nat. 34: 391 (1825). compounds the chromanone 6-acetyl-2,2-dime-
COMPOSITAE thylchroman-4-one and vanillin showed strong
x = 10;G. aurantiaca: 2n =20 and highly selective activity.
Origin and geographic distribution Gynura Botany Erect, climbing, creeping or prostrate,
comprises some 40 species, and occurs in the Old perennial herbs; stems angular, striate. Leaves al-
World tropics and more temperate eastern Asia; 7 ternate or in a rosette, entire, serrate or lyrate-
species occur in Africa, 9 in eastern Asia and the pinnatisect, petiolate or sessile; stipules absent.
Himalayas, and 19 in South-East Asia, 17 of Inflorescence consisting of rather large heads,
which are indigenous. combined in axillary or terminal, often panicled
Uses Gynura is in general used as a haemostat- corymbs; peduncle with 1 or more small, linear
ic, vulnerary and styptic. Various preparations bracts; involucral bracts 1-2-seriate, linear, coher-
are externally applied to treat numerous skin ing into a cylindrical tube, with a ring of outer
problems. Gynura is well known as a remedy for smaller, linear, free bracts. Flowers all tubular,
breast tumours. bisexual; corolla abruptly widened at the base,
In Java a poultice of pounded leaves of G. auran- with a narrowly campanulate, 5-lobed limb much
tiaca (Blume) DC. or the closely resembling G. shorter than the tube; stamens 5; ovary inferior,
ajakensis Hochr. is applied to ringworm. G. japo- 1-celled, style with 2 long, exserted arms. Fruit a
nica (Thunberg) Juel. (synonyms: G. pinnatifida linear to linear-fusiform achene, ribbed; pappus
(Lour.) D C , G. segetum Lour, ex Merr.) is used in hairs numerous, long, thin, white.
Vietnamese folk medicine as a haemostatic, and The use of Gynura as a remedy for breast tumours
as a vulnerary and styptic in traditional Chinese most likely refers to G.pseudochina. However, in
medicine. A water extract of the whole plant is Indonesia it may also refer to G. procumbens as
both species share their vernacular name 'daun

dewa'.
Ecology The Gynura species of medicinal im-
portance are found in relatively open and often
disturbed habitats such as grassland, hedges, for-
est margins and plantations.
Management Gynura can be propagated by
seed or cuttings, and species possessing tubers
simply by division.
Genetic resources The Gynura species of med-
icinal importance are relatively widespread and
commonly cultivated. The risk of genetic erosion
appears to be limited. Several selections of Gynu-
ra densely covered by purple hairs and often with
purple to variegated foliage have become popular
ornamentals for outdoor use in tropical regions or
indoor use in temperate regions.
Prospects Despite their many medicinal appli-
cations, information on the chemical and pharma-
cological properties of Gynura is very scanty. The
plants are relatively easy to cultivate and the ob-
served antiviral activity and the claims concern-
ing diabetics and bleeding time merit further re-
search.
Literature 193,334, 415, 524, 568, 1053.
Selection of species Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr. - 1, flowering

branch; 2, flower head; 3, flower without ovary
Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr. and pappus.
Enum. Philipp, fl. pi. 3:618 (1923).
Synonyms Gynura sarmentosa (Blume) DC. shoots are eaten raw as a vegetable. In Africa
(1838). boiled leaves are applied to relieve general body
Vernacular names Indonesia: sambung mjawa, pains, whereas fresh leaves are applied to relieve
daun dewa, kalingsir (Sundanese). Malaysia: akar rheumatic pains.
sebiak, kelemai merah, kacham akar. Cambodia: Observations A scrambling or weakly climb-
chi angkam. Thailand: pra-kham dee khwaai, ma ing, perennial herb, stems up to 6 m long, leafy,
kham dee khwaai (Pattani), mu maeng sang glabrous or sparsely pubescent; leaves ovate to
(Chumphon). Vietnam: b[aaf]u d[aas]t, rau l[us]i, narrowly ovate in outline, extremely variable in
d[aa]y chua l[ef]. shape, 3-10 cm x 0.5-3 cm, lower surface more or
Distribution Western and central Africa, and less purple, at the base ofthe stem petiolate, high-
from southern China throughout continental er up petiolate or sessile, sometimes auriculate;
South-East Asia and Malesia eastward to Papua inflorescence a series of axillary and terminal
New Guinea; also widely cultivated. corymbs of up to 20 heads, these cylindrical to
U s e s In Java G. procumbens is employed to turbinate, longer than broad, peduncle up to 6 cm
treat kidney afflictions in Chinese traditional long, inner involucral bracts 8-13, with a length of
medicine. The leaves are used in herbal baths to 8-17 mm, glabrous; corolla 10-16 mm long, yel-
treat rheumatism and paralysis. Dried and low, turning red; fruit 5-6 mm long. G. procum-
pounded leaves mixed with oil are externally ap- bens is very variable and has been split into sever-
plied on various skin complaints. In Malaysia, a al species at various times in the past, but they all
decoction is used as a remedy for dysentery. In intergrade. G.procumbens occurs in a wide range
Cambodia the plant is an ingredient of a complex of habitats, but prefers moist forest, up to 2800 m
prescription applied as a febrifuge. The leaves are altitude.
also used as a flavouring for food. In Java young Selected sources 78, 120, 121,671, 732.
HARMSIOPANAX 233
Gynura pseudochina (L.) DC. H a r m s i o p a n a x h a r m s i i K. S c h u m a n n

Prodr. 6: 299 (1838). e x K. S c h u m a n n & L a u t e r b .
Synonyms Senecio pseudochina L. (1753), Gy-
nura biflora (Burm.f.) Merr. (1921). Fl. Schutzgeb. Südsee, Nachtr.: 329 (1905).
Vernacular names Indonesia: daun dewa, be- ARALIACEAE
luntas cina (general), sam sit (Chinese). Thailand: In =unknown
kham khok (Khon Kaen, Loei), phakkaat nok Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: obolo,
khao (Surat Thani), naat haeng (Nakhon Ratcha- mak (Southern Highlands Province), mafiong
sima). Vietnam: b[aaf]u d[aas]t d[aj]i, ng[ar]i (Kotte).
r[is]t, th[oor] tam th[aas]t. Origin and geographic distribution H.
Distribution From India and Sri Lanka (possi- harmsii is endemic to New Guinea. It occurs most
bly only in cultivation) eastward to Burma (Myan- frequently in the Morobe Province of Papua New
mar), Indo-China, southern China and Thailand; Guinea, but can also be found throughout other
cultivated in Peninsular Malaysia and Java. parts ofnorth-eastern and eastern New Guinea.
Uses In Java the roots are externally and inter- Uses In Papua New Guinea, a poison antidote is
nally used as a remedy for bruises. Likewise a leaf prepared by squeezing a leaf and mixing the juice
poultice is externally applied, and it is also used with traditional ash salt, wild ginger and two
against pimples. The leaves and roots are further unidentified plant species. The bark and roots are
credited with haemostatic activity, also to regu- also used as a poison antidote. The leaves are
late menses, and especially for the treatment of sometimes used as wraps for food and the wood is
breast tumours. A decoction of leafy stems is a good firewood.
drunk for these purposes. In Thailand the root is Botany A small tree or shrub up to 8 m tall,
considered antipyretic and vulnerary. Fresh roots with a slender, usually single trunk; young stems
and leaves, ground with some water, are external- covered with spines, bristles and hairs, old stems
ly applied to herpes simplex and herpes zoster in- with smooth bark, small rounded lenticels and
fections. The water extract reduces both inflam- spines. Leaves arranged spirally in terminal clus-
mation and recurrence of the herpes infection. In ters, simple but deeply palmately lobed with 5-9
Vietnamese folk medicine roots are reputed to be lobes, lamina rounded in outline, c. 30 cm x 40 cm,
a tonic, leaves are considered emollient and resol- cordate at base, densely woolly and with numer-
vent, and leaf sap is employed as a gargle to treat ous bristles; petiole c. 50 cm long, with clasping
sore throat. A leaf poultice is externally applied to base; stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal
breast tumours and erysipelas. Cooked leaves are panicle with numerous leaf-like bracts soon
sometimes eaten as a vegetable. In Java G. falling; ultimate branches with small bracts sub-
pseudochina is often cultivated as a potplant. tending pedunculate umbellules. Flowers bisexu-
Observations An erect, somewhat fleshy, pe- al, small, 5-merous, creamy green; calyx a minute,
rennial herb (7-)20-50 cm tall, typically with a leaf fringed rim; petals free, ovate, c. 1 mm long, im-
rosette and single stem, sparsely pubescent, roots bricate; stamens with very short filaments; ovary
producing rounded, sometimes lobed tubers (1-) inferior, 2-locular, with conical disk and 2 subu-
2-6 cm in diameter; lower rosette leaves simple to late styles. Fruit consisting of 2 dry mericarps,
shallowly lobed, obovate, spatulate, elliptical or each 3-ribbed and crowned with the divergent
ovate, (l-)7-40 cm x (1-)1.5-12 cm, base tapering, styles.
entire or obscurely denticulate, petiole 0.3-3(-8) The large inflorescences often develop after the
cm long, upper rosette leaves always more dissect- leaves have fallen. The plants often die after flow-
ed, slightly smaller, pubescent on both surfaces; ering and fruiting (monocarpic).
inflorescence simple or 1-2-branched, heads loose- Harmsiopanax comprises 3 species: one (H. acu-
ly grouped, 1-5 per branch, heads campanulate, leatus (Blume) Boerl.) in Java, the Lesser Sunda
not or little longer than broad, peduncle 0.5-4 cm Islands and Sulawesi, and the other two (H.
long, pubescent, inner involucral bracts about 13, harmsii and H. ingens Philipson) endemic to New
7-12 mm long; corolla 10-13 mm long, yellow to Guinea. The genus has an isolated position within
red; fruit 3-4 mm long. G. pseudochina occurs in the Araliaceae, and some characters seem to indi-
Vietnam and Thailand up to 1200 m altitude. cate a relationship to Umbelliferae; the fruit split-
Selected sources 121, 192, 334, 671, 732, 817, ting into 2 dry, 3-ribbed mericarps closely ap-
992. proaches Umbelliferae fruits, and the monocarpic
Lean Teik Ng &Su Foong Yap habit is not uncommon in this family as contrast-
H e m i g r a p h i s a l t e r n a t a ( B u r m . f . ) T.
Anderson
Journ. Linn. Soc. 7: 114 (1864).

ACANTHACEAE
2« = 28
Synonyms Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) Hal-
lier f. (1897).
Vernacular names Metal-leaf, red-flame (En).
Brunei: sembangun. Indonesia: keji beling (Ja-
vanese), remek daging (Sundanese), lire (Ter-
nate). Malaysia: kemoyan batu. Philippines: da-
hon-pula (Tagalog). Thailand: daat ta kua, hom
khrang (northern), ruesee phasom laeo (central).
Vietnam: b[as]n t[uwj] c[ar]nh.
Origin and geographic distribution H. alter-
nata is possibly indigenous in the eastern half of
Malesia, and often found cultivated, e.g. in Indo-
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Hawaii and South
America. It has become locally naturalized.
Uses H. alternata leaves are said to be diuretic
because of their high potassium content. In Java,
they are considered styptic, and used to stop
bleeding wounds, haemorrhage after parturition,
venereal discharges, dysentery and haemorrhoids.
The leaves in decoction are taken internally for
Harmsiopanax harm.su K. Schumann ex K. Schu- excessive menstruation, and are applied external-
mann & Lauterb. - 1,part of trunk; 2, top of stem ly for skin complaints. The leaves are eaten as a
with leaves; 3, inflorescence branch; 4, umbellule cure for gallstones. In Vietnam, the leaves are also
of flowers. used to treat haemorrhoids. The use as a styptic
may be connected with the reddish colour of the
ed with Araliaceae. It is not impossible that the leaves.
information on uses given here refers to H. ingens H. alternata is often cultivated as an ornamental
instead of//, harmsii. in borders, particularly for its attractive foliage,
Ecology H. harmsii occurs on forested hills, but also as a ground cover.
grassy slopes, regrowth and on roadsides; it is of- Properties Only very little is known about the
ten common in former gardens and near villages. phytochemistry and pharmacology of//, alternata.
It rarely exceeds 1800 m altitude, whereas H. in- Besides a high potassium content, the leaves con-
gens is more common at higher altitudes. tain flavonoids. Furthermore, an ethyl-acetate ex-
Genetic resources Although the area of distri- tract of the leaves shows anti-bacterial activity. A
bution of H. harmsii is rather limited, there is no leaf infusion also showed some diuretic activity in
reason to consider it endangered. It is locally com- anaesthetized rabbits, as measured by an increase
mon and also occurs in disturbed habitats. ofthe amount ofurine droplets.
Prospects Research on phytochemistry and Botany A prostrate, perennial herb, stems
pharmacological properties of//, harmsii is need- 30-75 cm long, rooting at the nodes. Leaves oppo-
ed to be able to judge its value as a medicinal site, ovate to oblong, 4-10 cm x 3-6 cm, base
plant. rounded or cordate, apex subobtuse, margins
Literature 176, 347. toothed; upper surface purplish grey, lower sur-
Other selected sources 743. face dark purple-green to wine red, rather densely
R.A. Banka pubescent to subglabrous on veins beneath; peti-
ole 2-5.5 cm long; stipules early caducous. Inflo-
rescence an inconspicuous, short-lived terminal
spike, up to 10 cm long, peduncle 1-4.5 cm long,
HENCKELIA 235
bracts imbricate, 7-15 mm long, greenish-purple, is only 1species in the Philippines (Palawan).
bracteoles minute or absent. Flowers usually in Uses A few uses in traditional medicine are
pairs in the axils of lower bracts, solitary in axils known for roots and leaves ofHenckelia in South-
of higher bracts, bisexual; calyx 5-parted, 7-10 East Asia: as a protective medicine after child-
mm long, green; corolla tubular, cylindrical below, birth, as a poultice on wounds, to treat itch and
swollen above, 10-15 mm long, inside posterior rash, and to treat cough, dysentery and colic.
side hairy, with 5 subequal lobes, white, some- Properties H. falcata (Kiew) A. Weber gave a
times with thin purple veins; stamens 4, inserted strong positive reaction in a test for the presence
at the base of the widening of the corolla tube, of saponins in Malaysia. No more information is
slightly didynamous, 2-celled, filaments hairy be- available for Henckelia, but some research has
low, glandular above; ovary superior, 2-celled, been done on chemistry and properties of a few
stigma lobes subulate, posterior one longer. Fruit more or less related Didymocarpus species in In-
a narrowly ellipsoid capsule, 6-12-seeded. Seeds dia. Several compounds with insecticidal and
flat, hairy. fungicidal activities have been isolated, particu-
H. alternata can be found flowering throughout larly from Didymocarpus pedicellatus R.Br, and
the year. Hemigraphis is a genus of about 90 Didymocarpus oblongus D. Don.
species of southern China, Malesia, tropical Aus- Botany Perennial herbs or small shrubs; stem
tralia and the Pacific islands. herbaceous or woody, creeping, ascending or erect.
Ecology H. alternata occurs on sunny waste Leaves usually opposite with the leaves of a pair
places and is common in lawns, having spread often unequal, but sometimes alternate or ar-
from borders. ranged spirally, often crowded towards apex of
Management Fruits do not develop in Java, so stem, simple, usually dentate or serrate, usually
H. alternata is propagated through stem cuttings pubescent; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axil-
5-8 cm long. The leaves are harvested from culti- lary cyme, often reduced to solitary flowers, often
vated plants whenever the need arises. several together in a leaf-axil. Flowers bisexual, 5-
Genetic resources H. alternata does not seem merous; sepals usually free to base; corolla tubu-
to be at risk of genetic erosion as it is widely lar-infundibuliform to campanulate, sometimes
planted as an ornamental. No breeding pro- very short-tubed with flat spreading limb, limb 2-
grammes for medicinal purposes are known to ex- lipped; stamens 2, with filiform filaments inserted
ist. at about the middle of the corolla tube, stamin-
Prospects Due to the limited amount of data odes 2, short, hooked; disk cup-shaped, sometimes
available for H. alternata, it is rather difficult to developed as a ventral gland; ovary superior, cy-
evaluate its prospects. More research on the phy- lindrical, passing into a long style with capitate
tochemistry and pharmacological properties is stigma. Fruit a cylindrical, sometimes ellipsoid
therefore needed. capsule, acuminate, making an angle with the
Literature 334, 812, 904. stalk, opening dorsally, many-seeded. Seeds min-
Other selected sources 62, 731,760, 820. ute, ellipsoid.
G.H. Schmelzer The flowers ofHenckelia are pollinated by insects.
They often produce nectar (in flowers with well-
developed corolla tube) or they offer only pollen (in
Henckelia Sprengel flowers with shorter corolla tube). Seed dispersal
is by water drops, either by washing out seeds or
Anleit., ed. 2, 2(1):402 (1817). by ballistic force.
GESNERIACEAE Until recently, all Henckelia species were consid-
x=9 ered to belong to Didymocarpus. However, recent
Origin and geographic distribution Hencke- studies showed that Henckelia should be reinstat-
lia comprises approximately 180 species and oc- ed. Didymocarpus is now an essentially Sino-Hi-
curs in southern India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, malayan genus of about 80 species, extending
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, the Phi- southwards through Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam
lippines, Sulawesi and New Guinea. Peninsular and Thailand to Peninsular Malaysia where there
Malaysia is extremely rich in species (about 90), are about 8 species. It is characterized by the
followed by Borneo (about 50) and Sumatra (12). fruits (erect on the pedicel, dehiscing loculicidally
Henckelia has been recorded rarely east of Borneo: along both sutures, often distinctly stipitate) and
2 species in Sulawesi and 1in New Guinea. There habit (perennials with annual or monocarpic flow-
ering stems). Henckelia can be distinguished by dentate, velvety pubescent; flowers solitary, corol-
the fruits which make an angle with the pedicel la c. 5 cm long, deep red with yellow throat. H.
and are held more or less horizontally, dehiscent atrosanguinea occurs in lowland forest.
only along the dorsal suture and not narrowed at Selected sources 121,789, 984.
base, and by the often woody stems or rosettes
with continuous growth. Henckelia includes Loxo- Henckelia crinita (Jack) Sprengel
carpus, Codonoboea and Platyadenia. Syst. veg., ed. 16,4(2): 13 (1827).
Ecology Henckelia grows on the forest floor, Synonyms Didymocarpus crinitus Jack (1820).
usually in more dense and humid primary forest. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: meroyan kerbau,
It can be locally common, and carpet the forest pokok ekor kuching, sempoh tarang (Peninsular).
with flowers for a few days at intervals. Some Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra
species are confined to the lowlands, whereas oth- and Borneo.
ers are restricted to higher altitudes in the moun- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of H.
tains. crinita roots was once used as a protective medi-
Management Attempts to cultivate larger-flow- cine after childbirth; in peninsular Thailand it is
ered Henckelia species for ornamental purposes also applied as a poultice to wounds.
have failed, maybe because they have an obligate Observations A shrublet with unbranched
mycorrhizal association, which is lacking in culti- woody stem up to 40 cm tall; leaves crowded at top
vation. ofstem, sessile, narrowly lanceolate, c. 15 cm x 2.5
Genetic resources In general, Henckelia spe- cm, serrate, densely velvety pubescent; flowers
cies have markedly small areas of distribution: solitary, corolla c. 4 cm long, pale blue to whitish;
many species are restricted to islands or limited fruit up to 7.5 cm long, slender. H. crinita occurs
regions on the mainland, e.g. single mountains. in hill forest.
This indicates liability to genetic erosion. The Selected sources 121,789, 984.
comparatively widespread H. platypus shows con-
siderable variation in flower colour and robust- Henckelia platypus (C.B.Clarke) A.
ness, indicative ofgenetic polymorphism. Weber
Prospects Research on phytochemistry and Beitr. Biol. Pflanzen 70: 352 (1997).
pharmacological properties is needed to establish S y n o n y m s Didymocarpus platypus C.B. Clarke
the value ofHenckelia as a medicinal plant, which (1883).
appears to be marginal as yet. Some species have Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: julang rimba,
ornamental value if the difficulties in cultivation semboyan (Peninsular). Thailand: saan tao (Surat
are solved. The recording of variability and distri- Thani).
bution ofthe species is still incomplete. Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
Literature 121. Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra; perhaps also Bor-
neo.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
Selection of species roots is used to treat cough.
Observations A shrublet with unbranched
Henckelia atrosanguinea (Ridley) A. woody stem; leaves crowded at top ofstem, sessile,
Weber oblanceolate, up to 30 cm x 7.5 cm, serrate, with
Beitr. Biol.Pflanzen 70:340 (1997). scattered hairs; flowers solitary, corolla c. 3 cm
Synonyms Didymocarpus atrosanguineus Rid- long, whitish or pale purple with yellow throat;
ley (1893). fruit c. 3.5 cm long, slender. H. platypus occurs in
Distribution Endemic to the central-eastern lowland forest.
part ofPeninsular Malaysia. Selected sources 121,789, 984.
Uses H. atrosanguinea is one of the many ingre-
dients ofinfusions that were once administered as Henckelia reptans (Jack) Sprengel
a protective medicine after childbirth in Peninsu- Syst. veg., ed. 16,4(2): 14 (1827).
lar Malaysia. However, this was based on a doubt- Synonyms Didymocarpus reptans Jack (1820).
ful identification. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: bunga jarum,
Observations A shrublet with woody, stout akar sumpu darah, rugum bukit (Peninsular).
stem up to 15 cm tall; leaves crowded at top of Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma-
stem, lanceolate, c. 25 cm x 10 cm, crenulate to tra.
HETEROSTEMMA 237
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the Heterostemma cuspidatum Decne.

leaves and roots is used to treat dysentery and col-
icwith constipation. D C , Prodr. 8: 630 (1844).
Observations A creeping herb up to 30 cm ASCLEPIADACEAE
long; leaves in distant pairs, petiolate, elliptical to In = unknown
ovate, up to 7.5 cm x 2 cm, crenulate, villous-pu- Vernacular names Philippines: buyok-buyok,
bescent; flowers solitary, corolla up to 1.5 cm long, biniguasan, San Bartolome (Tagalog).
white with purple and yellow streaks in throat; Origin and geographic distribution H. cus-
fruit c. 2.5 cm long, scabrid. H. reptans occurs in pidatum is endemic to the Philippines; it occurs in
lowland and hill forest. Luzon and Busuanga.
Selected sources 121,789, 984. U s e s An ointment of H. cuspidatum leaves is
Erlin Rachman &R. Kiew applied to ulcers; it is credited with antiseptic ac-
tivity.
In China the roots of H. brownii Hayata are used
Hetaeria obliqua Blume to treat malaria and the aerial parts to treat tu-
mours; a decoction of H. oblongifolium Costantin
Coll. Orchid.: 104,t. 34, fig. 1(1859). is used as a galactagogue.
ORCHIDACEAE Properties There is no information for H. cus-
2n =unknown pidatum, but two purines, heteromines D and E,
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pokok tambak and three pyrimidines, heteromines F, G and H,
hutan (Peninsular). were isolated from aerial parts ofH. brownii from
Origin and geographic distribution H. obli- Taiwan. Heteromines D and E showed in-vitro cy-
qua occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and totoxicity against 5 cancer cell lines.
Borneo. Botany A slender liana, with white latex; stem
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are ap- with corky wings or ridges. Leaves opposite, simple
plied to sores. and entire, ovate, 6.5-17 cm x 3.5-10 cm, rounded
Botany A terrestrial herb with a creeping, as- to subcordate at base, acuminate at apex, herba-
cending stem, up to 30 cm tall. Leaves alternate, ceous, glabrescent, 3-5-veined from base, with
simple and entire, obliquely lanceolate, 5-7.5 cm x glands at lamina base, long-petiolate; small stipu-
2-2.5 cm, dark green, often with a median silver lar structures present at base of petiole. Inflores-
bar; petiole 1-2.5 cm long. Inflorescence a dense cence a cyme appearing at the nodes between a leaf
spike 7.5-25 cm long, bracteate, many-flowered. pair. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel
Flowers bisexual, small, c. 6 mm long, 3-merous, 1.5-2 cm long; sepals with glands at base of lobes;
reddish-white; upper sepal connate with petals, corolla rotate, c. 8 mm in diameter, with broadly
lip small, directed upwards, initially rolled into a ovate, fleshy segments spreading horizontally,
narrow tube, enclosed by the sepals; column dis- hairy, purplish; stamens inserted at base of corolla
tinct, yellow, anther with 2 pollinia, rostellum tube, connate into a column, with 2 pollinia in each
with 2 long branches. Fruit an ellipsoid capsule c. anther theca, staminal corona of 5 lobes adnate to
9 mm long. Seeds very small. the staminal column; ovaries 2, superior, free ex-
Hetaeria comprises about 30 species, most of them cept for tips, 1-celled. Fruit consisting of 2 linear-
in South-East Asia, but a few in Australia and Pa- fusiform, smooth follicles 10-14 cm long, many-
cific islands. seeded. Seeds ovate to oblong, flat, concave-convex,
Ecology H. obliqua occurs in lowland forest. c. 13mm long, comose at one end with white hairs.
Genetic resources H. obliqua is locally com- Heterostemma comprises approximately 30 spe-
mon, e.g. in southern Peninsular Malaysia, and cies and occurs from Nepal, India, Sri Lanka and
there is no reason to consider it liable to genetic China, through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
erosion. Thailand and the Malesian region, to northern
Prospects It is unlikely that the use ofH. obli- Australia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and New Caledonia.
qua will increase, unless future research reveals Ecology H. cuspidatum occurs in secondary for-
interesting pharmacological properties. est and thickets at low altitudes.
Literature 121. Genetic resources H. cuspidatum is endemic
Other selected sources 789. to the northern half of the Philippines, and may
R.H.M.J. Lemmens become endangered, although it has been recorded
from disturbed forest.
Prospects Information on most aspects of H. stamens 8 or 10, united at base, alternately long
cuspidatum is very poor; more research is needed and short, anthers inserted between 2 teeth; disk
to be able to judge its future value as a medicinal fleshy; ovary superior, 2(-3)-celled, glabrous. Fruit
plant. a globose capsule 1-2 cm in diameter, glabrous,
Literature 570, 760. pink, dehiscing by 2 valves, 1-seeded. Seed ovoid,
Other selected sources 621. almost completely enclosed by a white aril, testa
A.M. Aguinaldo dark brown, dangling from a long funicle. Seedling
with hypogeal germination; cotyledons thick.
After a period of dry weather trees may become
H e y n e a trijuga Sims partially deciduous and flowering is initiated.
Heynea comprises 2 species. H. velutina How &
Curtis, Bot. Mag. 41 :t. 1738 (1815). Chen from Indo-China and southern China differs
MELIACEAE from H. trijuga by its hairy, 2-seeded fruits.
2n = 28 Ecology H. trijuga occurs in rain forest, espe-
Synonyms Heynea sumatrana Miq. (1861), cially in margins and in regenerating clearings
Walsura trijuga (Sims) Kurz (1875), Trichilia con- and along roadsides, from sea-level up to 1250
naroides (Wight &Arnott) Bentv. (1962). (-2000) m altitude.
Vernacular names Indonesia: mamak (Suma- Genetic resources H. trijuga is widespread,
tra). Malaysia: mamak, tangisong burong, duak well-adapted to disturbed habitats, and is not
(Peninsular). Thailand: ka-do-nong aa-pee, song threatened by genetic erosion.
kae (peninsular), mafueang paa (northern). Viet- Prospects Little is known on the pharmacology
nam: tr[uw][owf]ng n[as]t. ofH. trijuga. Further research is needed to evalu-
Origin and geographic distribution H. triju- ate the potential of its traditional medicinal uses.
ga occurs from Nepal, India and Burma (Myan- H. trijuga deserves more attention as an orna-
mar), through Indo-China, southern China and mental tree for roadsides and gardens.
Thailand, to Malesia (Peninsular Malaysia, Su- Literature 121,178, 181,247, 396, 1019.
matra, Borneo and the Philippines). Since long it Other selected sources 62, 669,731.
is cultivated as an ornamental in Java. S. Brotonegoro &W. Wiharti
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia and northern Viet-
nam a leaf decoction ofH. trijuga is drunk to treat
cholera. In India the bark and leaves are credited H i p t a g e b e n g h a l e n s i s (L.) K u r z
with bitter and tonic properties and various plant
parts are known to be toxic. Fresh roots are used Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 43,2: 136 (1874).
to treat menstruation disorders in Nepal. The MALPIGHIACEAE
wood is used for beams and agricultural imple- 2« =42, 56, 58, 60
ments. Synonyms Hiptage madablota Gaertner (1791),
Properties The pericarp of H. trijuga fruits Hiptage javanica Blume (1825).
contains tirucallane-type triterpenoids as well as Vernacular names Hiptage (En). Liane de cerf
limonoids. A crude bark extract showed a reduc- (Fr). Indonesia: jaranan, kakas (Javanese), areuy
tion in growth of larvae of the moths Peridroma beurit (Sundanese). Thailand: noraa (central),
saucia and Spodoptera litura. The active compo- haen pik (north-eastern), kamlang chang phuek
nent was identified as hirtin. (northern). Vietnam: t[ow] m[af]nh.
Botany A small tree up to 15 m tall; bole up to Origin and geographic distribution H. ben-
20 cm in diameter. Leaves alternate, imparipin- ghalensis occurs in India, Sri Lanka, Burma
nate, (l-)3-5(-6)-jugate, up to 50 cm long; rachis (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan,
transversely compressed at leaflet attachment Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java,
points; petiole 5-15 cm long; stipules absent; the Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo, the Philippines
leaflets opposite, ovate-oblong, 4.5-20 cm x 2-7.5 (Palawan) and Sulawesi. It has been introduced in
cm, base asymmetric, rounded to acute, apex islands ofthe Pacific, where it is considered an ag-
acuminate. Inflorescence an axillary, corymbose gressive invasive species.
cyme up to 50 cm in diameter, long pedunculate. Uses In the Lesser Sunda Islands the bark of H.
Flowers bisexual, regular, 4-5-merous, scented, benghalensis is pounded and applied to fresh
pedicellate; calyx c. 1 mm high, pale pink; petals wounds. In Thailand the wood is used as an appe-
oblong, c. 2.5 mm x 1 mm, white to pink or cream; tizer and credited with antiflatulent, carminative
HOMALANTHUS 239
and aphrodisiac properties; it is said to relieve fa- Management H. benghalensis is easily propa-
tigue and to promote longevity. In Vietnamese gated by seed or by layering.
folk medicine the wood is used to relieve fatigue Genetic resources H. benghalensis is wide-
and to treat nocturnal emission of sperm. In India spread, and apparently well adapted to disturbed
the leaves are used in cutaneous diseases. The habitats. It may naturalize easily after introduc-
leaf juice is used to treat scabies, apparently for tion and become an undesirable invasive species.
its insecticidal properties. The plant is further It is not threatened by genetic erosion.
used to treat rheumatism and asthma. The bark is Prospects Research on the pharmacological
used as an aromatic bitter. H. benghalensis is properties ofH. benghalensis is needed to support
widely cultivated throughout South-East Asia for its traditional medicinal use.
its attractive, fragrant flowers. Literature 121,173, 247, 287,334,731.
Properties The root bark of H. benghalensis Other selected sources 62, 249, 331, 621.
contains relatively high concentrations of the D.S. Alonzo
aliphatic nitrogen-containing glycoside hiptagin,
and additionally mangiferin. The triterpenes
friedelin and epifriedelin were isolated from the Homalanthus A.Juss.
stem bark.
Botany A scandent shrub or liana up to 30 m Euphorb. gen.: 50, t. 16, f. 53 (1824; 'Omalan-
long; young shoots densely fulvous-hairy, glabres- thus')
cent, often lenticellate. Leaves opposite, simple, EUPHORBIACEAE
elliptical to oblong, (8-)10-15(-20) cm x (3-)4- x =unknown; H. populneus: n = 76, 2ra= 36
6(-10) cm, base acute to rounded, mostly with 2 Origin and geographic distribution Homa-
glands, apex usually acuminate, margin entire, of- lanthus comprises about 22 species and occurs
ten with glandular dots below; petiole 7-10 mm from Taiwan and southern Thailand, throughout
long; stipules minute and gland-like. Inflorescence the Malesian region, to the Pacific Islands, New
a terminal or axillary raceme or panicle, (4-)10- Caledonia and Australia. In Malesia most of the
20(-35) cm long, short-hairy, bracteolate. Flowers 13indigenous species are endemic.
bisexual, zygomorphic, 5-merous, 1-2.5 cm in di- Uses Several parts of Homalanthus plants are
ameter, very fragrant; calyx deeply incised, hairy used in traditional medicine. The wood is used as
outside, persistent, with a convex, elliptical to lin- an anodyne, leaves to treat fever and after child-
ear gland decurrent on the pedicel; petals free, or- birth, and as a vermifuge in cattle, leaf sap as a
bicular to elliptical, (3-)6-12 mm x (2-)5-10 mm, mild laxative, terminal buds as abortifacient, a
variably clawed, inside glabrous, outside hairy, decoction of the bark during and after childbirth,
pink to whitish, partly yellow; stamens 10, un- and fruits for treating wounds.
equal, 1 much longer than others; ovary superior, The sap is a fish poison. A decoction of bark and
3-lobed, style long, coiled. Fruit a samara with a leaves is used as a black dye; the leaves are
large middle wing (3-)5-6(-7) cm x l(-2) cm, and 2 suitable for wrapping food. The wood is some-
smaller lateral wings 2-3 cm x 0.5-l(-1.5) cm, times used for house construction, and as firewood.
sometimes with dorsal crest. Homalanthus may be suitable for afforestation.
H. bengalensis can be found flowering throughout The pulverized wood of H. nutans (J.G. Forster)
the year, but flowering is often influenced by sea- Guillemin steeped in hot water produces a brew
sonality ofthe climate. that is drunk in Samoa by patients with yellow
Hiptage comprises 20-30 species, and occurs from fever.
India and Sri Lanka to China and Taiwan and Properties The whitish sap from Homalanthus
throughout South-East Asia eastward to Sulawesi plants is irritant to the eyes. It is poisonous and
and Timor. Additionally, 1 species is found in Fiji. should be administered in low doses.
H. benghalensis is very variable, and numerous Ethanol extracts of leaves, stem and roots of H.
taxa have been distinguished. However, all these nervosus showed a broad-spectrum antibacterial
forms are connected by intermediates. activity, but no antifungal effect.
Ecology H. benghalensis occurs under both hu- A wood extract of H. nutans from Samoa exhibit-
mid and periodically dry conditions, in open for- ed strong in-vitro activity against human im-
est, secondary forest, clearings and forest mar- munodeficiency virus (HIV-1), with the phorbol
gins, on a wide range of soils, from sea-level up to derivative prostratin as the active compound. This
1000(-2000) m altitude. compound does not appear to be a tumour promo-
tor as is the case with several related compounds. Selection of species

Botany Monoecious, small to medium-sized
trees, with latex in all parts; bark nearly smooth; Homalanthus fastuosus (Linden)
branches pseudoverticillate. Leaves alternate, Fern.-Vill.
simple and entire, often whitish below, mostly Blanco, Fl. Filip., ed. 3,Nov. App.: 196 (1880).
glabrous, glands present, pinnately veined, petio- Synonyms Homalanthus alpinus Elmer (1908),
late and not too distinctly peltate; stipules large, Homalanthus bicolor Merr. (1909).
with distinct parallel venation, caducous. Inflores- Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: botinag, buta,
cence a thyrse with female flowers at base and cy- topi (general).
mules of male flowers higher up, bracteate. Flow- Distribution Taiwan (Orchid Island) and the
ers unisexual, zygomorphic, distinctly pedicellate, Philippines.
with calyx consisting of (l-)2(-3) free, kidney- Uses In the Philippines the leaves are used as a
shaped lobes, petals absent; male flowers yellow- fish poison. The wood is used as fuel, but the
ish, with articulate pedicel and 4-30 free stamens; smoke may irritate the eyes.
female flowers with non-articulate pedicel and su- Observations A small tree up to 8(-18) m tall,
perior, 2-3-celled ovary, style very short to dis- with bole up to 30 cm in diameter, crookedly
tinct, stigma usually recurved, undivided or divid- branched; leaves orbicular to ovate, 4-23 cm x
ed. Fruit a thinly woody capsule, opening primari- 3.5-24 cm, peltate or not, petiole 3-30 cm long,
ly loculicidally, (l-)2-3-seeded. Seeds usually ir- apically with a pair of glands; bracts of male flow-
regularly foveolate and often flattened, smooth, ers with a pair of glands longer than bracts, sta-
covered apically or over the whole length by a pale mens 6-8; fruit obovoid, 6-9 mm long, often with
to whitish, membranous arillode. lateral hooks. H. fastuosus occurs on slopes and
The foliar glands attract ants, which may protect ridges, in hill forest and montane forest, but also
the plant from grazing and insect damage. The in old garden sites, at (50-)750-2600 m altitude,
flowers seem to be pollinated by various insects, and is locally common.
whereas the often reddish seeds with a pale aril- Selected sources 117, 234.
lode are probably dispersed by animals such as
birds. Homalanthus longistylus Lauterb. &
Homalanthus has an isolated position within the K. S c h u m a n n
tribe Hippomaneae. The genus was originally de- Fl. Schutzgeb. Südsee: 407 (1900; 'longistilus').
scribed as Omalanthus, but recently the later or- Synonyms Homalanthus papuanus Pax & K.
thographic variant Homalanthus has been con- Hoffm. (1912).
served in the International Code of Botanical Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: me-
Nomenclature. rom, paba (East New Britain).
Ecology Homalanthus is characteristically Distribution North-eastern mainland Papua
found in secondary forest, where it occasionally New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago.
dominates the vegetation. It is usually most com- Uses In New Britain, the wood is used external-
mon in montane forest and may fill there the eco- ly against aching limbs, and the sap from the in-
logical niche as a pioneer, in the same way as ner bark mixed with water is applied internally to
Macaranga in the lowland. pregnant women to induce labour and ease child
Genetic resources Homalanthus often occurs delivery. The terminal buds are eaten as abortifa-
in secondary habitats, is locally common and does cient. The wood is used in house building, and the
not seem to be liable to genetic erosion. Most leaves for wrapping taro for cooking.
species are relatively homogeneous, but the more Observations A small tree up to 12 m tall, with
widespread ones, such as H. novoguineensis and bole up to 20 cm in diameter; leaves orbicular to
particularly//, populneus, are variable. ovate, 5-17 cm x 4-16 cm, not distinctly peltate,
Prospects More research on the phytochem- petiole 8-12 cm long, apically with a pair of
istry and pharmacological properties of Homalan- glands; bracts of male flowers with a pair of
thus seems justified because it is used throughout glands shorter than bracts, stamens 6-8(-10);
its area of distribution as a medicinal plant, albeit fruit subglobose, 6-15 mm in diameter, hardly to
to a limited extent. Homalanthus may also be use- distinctly carinate. H. longistylus occurs in sec-
ful for afforestation and for pulp and paper pro- ondary forest, agricultural plantations and Notho-
duction. /agKS-dominated moss forest, at 50-1800 m alti-
Literature 234, 304. tude, and is locally common.
HOMALANTHUS 241
Selected sources 234, 347. H o m a l a n t h u s p o p u l n e u s (Geiseler)

Pax
H o m a l a n t h u s n e r v o s u s J.J. Smith Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3, 5: 96
Lorentz, Nova Guinea 8: 792,t. 141 (1912). (1890).
Synonyms Homalanthus vernicosus Gage Synonyms Homalanthus populifolius auct. non
(1917),Homalanthus deltoideus Airy Shaw (1980). Graham.
Distribution New Guinea. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: tutup (general),
Uses The sap is used as fish poison. tutup abang (Javanese), totop (Madura). Malay-
Observations A small tree up to 10(-16) m tall, sia: ludahi, kayu mata buta darat (Peninsular).
with bole up to 15 cm in diameter, heavily Philippines: malabinunga (Tagalog), balanti (Bi-
branched with spreading branches; leaves ovate, saya, Bikol). Thailand: mae mae (Narathiwat).
4-17 cm x 3-14 cm, not peltate, petiole 1.5-13 cm Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
long, glandless; bracts of male flowers with a pair Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, the Lesser
of glands shorter than bracts, stamens (6-)8; fruit Sunda Islands, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi
subglobose, 3.5-6 mm in diameter, not carinate. and the Moluccas.
H. nervosus occurs in montane forest, but also in Uses In Sabah fruits are used for treating
regrowth and open, low scrub vegetation, at wounds. In Peninsular Malaysia heated leaves are
1400-2600 m altitude, and is locally very common. applied to the abdomen to treat fever and after
Selected sources 234,465. childbirth. The leaves are given to cattle as a ver-
mifuge, and pounded leaves are used as a fish poi-
H o m a l a n t h u s n o v o g u i n e e n s i s (Warb.) son. A decoction of bark and leaves is used to dye
K. S c h u m a n n rattan, matting, pandan handicrafts and cotton
Lauterb. & K. Schumann, Fl. Schutzgeb. Süd- cloth black. The wood is used as firewood. H. po-
see: 407 (1900). pulneus may be suitable for afforestation on better
Synonyms Homalanthus tetrandrus J.J. Smith
(1912), Homalanthus crinitus Gage (1917), Homa-
lanthus beguinii J.J. Smith (1924).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: bussi (Timor),
palate (Halmahera), gedilule (Ternate).
Distribution The eastern Lesser Sunda Is-
lands, the Moluccas, New Guinea, the Solomon Is-
lands and northern Australia.
Uses In the Moluccas the sap of young leaves is
administered to young children as a mild laxative.
A decoction of the bark is an ingredient of a mix-
ture taken as a tonic after childbirth. The bark
and leaves are used to dye wickerwork blackish,
the leaves for wrapping food, and the wood as fire-
wood and in house building.
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
to 25 m tall, with bole up to 50 cm in diameter,
much-branched; leaves orbicular to ovate or ellip-
tical, 4.5-22 cm x 3.5-20 cm, peltate or not, petiole
2-13 cm long, glandless; bracts of male flowers
with a cluster of glands shorter than bracts, sta-
mens 6-8; fruit subglobose, 5-13 mm in diameter,
not to slightly carinate. H. novoguineensis occurs
in mossy forest, secondary forest and regrowth,
old garden sites, Eucalyptus savanna and along
streams, up to 2300 m altitude, and is locally com-
mon or even dominant.
Selected sources 234, 334. Homalanthus populneus (Geiseler) Pax - 1, flower-
ing branch; 2, detail of male part of inflorescence;
3, male flower.
soils, and the wood is suitable for pulp and paper in rituals in New Guinea; they are said to produce
production. hallucinations when ingested in small amounts.
Observations A small tree up to 10 m tall, with The leaves are used in adornment, or as perfume.
bole up to 18 cm in diameter, much-branched; In Indonesia, pieces of the stem are placed in fish-
leaves orbicular to ovate, rhombic-ovate or lanceo- traps as bait to catch lobsters and shrimps, and
late, 3-22 cm x 1.5-20 cm, not peltate, petiole leaves are used as packing material for tobacco.
1-15 cm long, glandless; bracts of male flowers Decoctions of the stem of H. aromatica (Roxb. ex
with a pair of glands slightly shorter than bracts, Sims) Schott and H. occulta (Lour.) Schott (which
stamens (6-)8-10; fruit subglobose, 4-9 mm in di- are perhaps conspecific) are used in traditional
ameter, not carinate. H. populneus occurs at edges medicine in Vietnam, southern China and Thai-
of primary forest, in secondary forest, on road- land to treat rheumatoid arthritis. In Vietnam, in-
sides, along streams and in waste land, up to 3000 fusions and ethanolic extracts of H. aromatica
m altitude. It is often one of the characteristic stems are also applied against stomach disorders
plants in recently cleared areas, and may occur and as a tonic.
gregariously. Homalomena, mostly called H. lindenii (Rodigas)
Selected sources 121,234, 542. Ridley, is also cultivated as an ornamental in
P.C. van Weizen tropical gardens, and as a pot plant.
Properties The major component of the essen-
tial oil from H. aromatica stems is linalool (up to
Homalomena Schott 80%). The oil has a delicate aroma and antibacter-
ial activity, and has been recommended in Viet-
Schott &E n d l , Melet. bot.: 20 (1832). nam as an ingredient of toothpaste. Furthermore,
AKACEAE several sesquiterpenoids have been isolated from
x = 20;H. griffithii: 2n =40, H. sagittifolia: 2n = a rhizome extract ofH. aromatica, whereas its rhi-
40,80 zome showed weak antiphlogistic activity. A crude
Origin and geographic distribution Homa- ethanol extract of H. aromatica showed larvicidal
lomena comprises about 150 species, and occurs activity on the cattle tick Boophilus microplus in
from India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China and tests in Thailand. Significant anti-inflammatory
southern China, through Thailand and Malesia, to and analgesic activities have been found for H. oc-
the Solomon Islands. Approximately 8 species occulta extracts in tests in China.
cur in tropical America. Western Malesia is by far Botany Small to large, creeping or decumbent to
richest in species, with about 40 species in each of erect herbs, lower part of stem rhizomatous, vege-
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, and tative parts usually strongly aromatic when
18 in Java. Towards the east the number of crushed, with pungent smell of citrus, celery, pars-
species is lower, with about 4 in each ofthe Philip- ley, liquorice, anise or ginger. Leaves arranged spi-
pines and Sulawesi, 2 in the Moluccas, but again rally, simple, deeply cordate to oblanceolate, often
18in New Guinea. very variable in shape, entire, glabrous, striate-
U s e s In Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, veined; petiole longer or shorter as blade, chan-
the Moluccas) the stems (often the underground nelled to terete, with sheath at base; stipules ab-
part) and leaves of Homalomena are used as a sent. Inflorescence a spadix, erect at anthesis, lat-
poultice to treat cuts, wounds, sores and rheuma- er decumbent, enclosed by a boat-shaped, green,
tism, and a decoction of the stem and roots is used reddish, yellowish or white, persistent spathe.
to treat syphilis and after miscarriage. The juice Flowers unisexual, densely packed; male flowers
from old petioles is used to improve visual acuity. in upper part of spadix, with 2-4 stamens, fila-
Similar applications are recorded from Peninsular ments very short to absent, anthers usually with
Malaysia. Leaves are used as a poultice during cap-like connective; female flowers in lower part of
childbirth, and to treat sores and lumbago. A de- spadix, with superior incompletely 2-4-locular
coction of the stem and roots is drunk to treat ovary, style very short or absent, stigma button-
fever, colic and hoarseness. In New Guinea, some like or disk-like; male and female zone of spadix
Homalomena species are applied in traditional usually not separated by sterile flowers. Fruit a
medicine: leaves heated in a fire are used for rub- small translucent greenish berry, closely packed
bing to treat muscular complaints. In New Ire- within the persistent and usually somewhat en-
land, H. peekelii is used to treat malaria and larging spathe, several-seeded. Seeds very small, c.
headache. The leaves, stems and roots are applied 1 mm long, longitudinally ribbed, albuminous.
HOMALOMENA 243
Homalomena is taxonomically difficult. The spe- cases oflumbago. The leaves may be added to cur-
cies are often very similar, and many show consid- ries for a sour flavour.
erable infraspecific variation. The published infor- Observations A small herb up to 20 cm tall,
mation on uses is often not reliably reducible to stem erect, stout; leaves ovate to ovate-lanceolate,
species, and species names used in the literature 10-18 cm x 4-6.5 cm, base cuneate to rounded, of-
are often incorrect. ten asymmetrical; spathe 2.5-3 cm long, green,
Ecology Homalomena occurs mainly in the un- spadix about as long as the spathe. H. griffithii is
derstorey of lowland rain forest, but it can also be a variable species in which several varieties can
found up to the mid-montane zone. It is generally be distinguished. It occurs in lowland forest,
shade-loving and grows on the forest floor, often where it often grows in small clumps and is locally
on steep soil banks (e.g. stream banks). It is also common.
often found in swamp forest, and is sometimes Selected sources 121,789.
rheophytic, and occasionally occurs in regrowth
forest. It is absent in regions with a strongly sea- Homalomena peekelii Engl.
sonal climate. Pflanzenr. 55(IV.23Da): 52 (1912).
Management H. aromatica is propagated in Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: evar-
Vietnam by stem cuttings. Shoot cultures of orna- bei (New Ireland).
mental Homalomena cultivars have been cultured Distribution Eastern New Guinea, the Bismar-
successfully on modified Murashige and Skoog ck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands and Biak Is-
medium, as well as callus cultures oîH. occulta in land.
China. Uses In New Ireland H. peekelii is used to treat
Genetic resources The Homalomena species malaria and headache. In the Solomon Islands it
treated here are all at least locally common. How- is said to repel beetles on taro (Colocasia esculenta
ever, most species occur in primary lowland rain (L.) Schott).
forest, and the ongoing destruction of this habitat Observations A small herb up to 30 cm tall,
may easily endanger them, particularly those stem decumbent to erect, vegetative parts strong-
with limited areas of distribution. In some rely smelling of pineapple, liquorice or anise; leaves
gions, they are popular medicinal plants much col- more or less triangular, 14-18 cm x 10-15 cm,
lected from the wild, e.g. H. aromatica in Viet- base more or less truncate; spathe c. 4.5 cm long,
nam. This may also lead to severe genetic erosion green, spadix as long as the spathe. H. peekelii oc-
or even extinction ofwild populations. curs on the forest floor in lowland and lower mon-
Prospects Homalomena is popular as a medici- tane rain forest.
nal plant in many regions of tropical Asia, and of- Selected sources 326.
ten used for similar complaints. Research on its
phytochemistry and pharmacological properties Homalomena philippinensis Engl.
has been very limited up to now, but shows Pflanzenr. 55(IV.23Da): 55 (1912).
promising results. The antirheumatic activity in Vernacular names Philippines: payau, alupayi
particular deserves more attention. (Tagalog), salet-nga-nalabaga (Iloko).
Literature 121,334, 503,671,903,932. Distribution The Philippines.
Uses The roots are used as an embrocation to
treat rheumatism, and the leaves as vulnerary.
Selection of species The leaves are also used for wrapping food.
Observations A large herb up to 150 cm tall,
Homalomena griffithii (Schott) Hook.f. stem erect, 3-4 cm in diameter; leaves cordate, c.
Fl. Brit. India 6: 534 (1893). 25 cm x 20 cm, with rounded lobes at base, petiole
Synonyms Homalomena obliquata (Schott) up to 60 cm long; spathe up to 5 cm long, greenish
Hook.f. (1893). tinged with purple, spadix c. 3.5 cm long. H.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kelemoyang, ke- philippinensis seems closely related to H. cordata
moyang, asam tikus (Peninsular). Schott from Java. It occurs along small streams in
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, primary forest at low altitudes.
Sumatra and northern Borneo. Selected sources 760.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of
leaves and roots is given to women to expedite
childbirth, and a poultice is applied externally in
H o y a R.Br.
Prodr.: 459 (1810);Asclepiadeae: 15 (1810).

ASCLEPIADACEAE
x = 11; H. australis, H. coriacea, H. coronaria,
H. diversifolia, H. lacunosa, H. multiflora, H.
rumphii: In = 22
Origin and geographic distribution Hoya
comprises over 200 species and is widely distrib-
uted in India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
southern China, Thailand, throughout the Male-
sian region, northern Australia and some Pacific
island groups. Major centres of diversity are
southern China (with over 30 species), the Philip-
pines and New Guinea.
Uses Several Hoya species are used in tradition-
al medicine in South-East Asia. The latex and a
poultice of the leaves are applied externally to
wounds, boils, ulcers, swellings, burns, stings of
insects and poisonous fish and rheumatism. The
latex is taken internally to stimulate digestion
and as a diuretic, and a decoction of the leaves is
used internally against cough, asthma and gonor-
rhoea.
A number ofnon-Malesian species are used medic-
Homalomena sagittifolia Jungk, ex Schott - 1, inally in China. Usually the leaves are used main-
plant habit; 2, part of flowering plant; 3, inflores- ly externally to treat fractures, swellings, cuts and
cence with spathe; 4, spadix. rheumatoid arthritis, and internally to treat en-
cephalitis, pneumonia and orchitis. The species
Homalomena sagittifolia Jungh. ex used include H. carnosa (L.f.) R.Br., H. fungii
Schott Merr., H. griffithii Hook.f., H. kerrii Craib, H. lyi
Prodr. Syst. Aroid.: 311 (1860). H. Léveillé, H. pandurata Tsiang, H. pottsii Traill
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kelemoyang, ke- and H. villosa Costantin.
moyang, semunyong (Peninsular). Thailand: bon Hoya is commonly cultivated as an ornamental, in
som (Pattani). the tropics and subtropics as a climber in the gar-
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular den, in temperate regions as a pot plant.
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and northern Bor- Properties An extract ofH. diversifolia showed
neo. strong antinematodal activity against the pine
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.
leaves and roots is used to treat fever, and pound- The main flavonoids present in Hoya include api-
ed shoots are applied as a poultice against stom- genin-O-glycoside, apigenin-di-C-glycoside, vitex-
ach-ache. in and isovitexin. Several triterpenes, including
Observations A fairly large herb up to 60 cm australinals and lupeol, have been isolated from
tall, stem erect, stout, up to 5 cm in diameter, veg- H. australis, and 3 oligosaccharides and several
etative parts strongly aromatic; leaves ovate- steroids from H. carnosa stems.
sagittate with spreading lobes, up to 30 cm long; Contact with Hoya plants may lead to dermatitis
spathe up to 10 cm long, constricted in upper part, or even anaphylactic shock caused by hypersensi-
greenish-white or white, often tinged pink at tivity.
apex, spadix slightly shorter than spathe. H. Botany Epiphytic, lithophytic or terrestrial
sagittifolia is a variable species in which several climbers, subshrubs or shrubs, with slender, twin-
varieties can be distinguished. It occurs in lowing stems, often with adventitious roots; white or
land forest and is locally common. occasionally clear latex present. Leaves opposite,
Selected sources 121,789. simple and entire, usually leathery or fleshy,
Harini M. Sangat sometimes papery or membranous, glabrous or
HOYA 245
hairy, usually with pinnate venation but some- Selection of species

times palmate, with or without glands at the base
of lamina, often shortly petiolate; stipules absent. H o y a a u s t r a l i s R.Br. e x Traill
Inflorescence an extra-axillary, often umbelliform Trans. Hort. Soc. 7: 28 (1830).
cyme, becoming racemiform with age and usually Synonyms Hoya lactea S. Moore (1911).
producing a succession of globose or flat-topped Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: kala-
clusters of flowers for several seasons. Flowers bi- vagala (Milne Bay).
sexual, regular, 5-merous; calyx small, usually Distribution New Guinea, the Solomon Is-
with glands at base of the lobes; corolla rotate or lands, Australia and Melanesia.
campanulate, fleshy, lobes valvate in bud, mar- Uses In Papua New Guinea the latex is applied
gins often recurved, often densely hairy or scurfy externally to burns.
inside; stamens inserted at base of corolla tube, Observations Aclimber or subshrub with twin-
shortly connate at base, anthers with short, in- ing branches; leaves variable in shape, up to 15
curved terminal appendage, with solitary pollini- cm x 12 cm, fleshy to leathery, petiole up to 2 cm
um in each anther cell, with staminal corona con- long; flowers campanulate, 10-25 mm in diame-
sisting of 5 large, fleshy lobes attached to the sta- ter, corolla white to creamy, with red under
minal column; ovaries 2, free, superior, 1-celled, creamy staminal corona, corolla lobes 5-10 mm
stigma head discoid, rounded or subapiculate, long; follicle fusiform, 9-13.5 cm long.H. australis
generally enclosed by stamens. Fruit consisting of occurs as an epiphyte or lithophyte in forest, from
l(-2) follicles, fusiform or terete-ovoid, smooth or the borders of mangrove forest to open eucalypt
rough, many-seeded. Seeds ovate, flat, comose. forest and rain forest; it is common.
Seedling with leaves alternate. Selected sources 258, 347.
Ecology Hoya is usually an epiphyte, but some-
times a lithophyte or terrestrial plant, and may be
found in different types of forest, sometimes also
on free-standing trees, usually in the lowland.
Many epiphytic species grow on ant nests.
Management Ornamental Hoya is propagated
by semi-ripe cuttings or by layering. It is cultivat-
ed in a coarse, fertile medium that is freely drain-
ing but moisture retentive, and rich in organic
matter with additional coarse sand and charcoal.
Genetic resources Most of the Hoya species
treated here are fairly widespread and common,
but several others are known only from a few col-
lections and may be endangered. Several species
are widely cultivated and several plant growers
have large collections ofornamental Hoya.
Prospects Hoya may be developed as a medici-
nal plant with wider usage, particularly for exter-
nal applications. While experience of propagation
and cultivation already exists, more research is
needed on phytochemistry and pharmacological
properties. A taxonomie revision of the genus cov-
ering the whole area of distribution is also badly
needed.
Literature 62, 121,257, 334, 1013.
Hoya australis R.Br, ex Traill - 1, habit of flower-

ing plant; 2, flower in apical view; 3, flower in side
view.
Hoya coriacea Blume land: lin khwaai (Songkhla). Vietnam: hoa sao
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 16: 1063 (1827). kh[as]c l[as].
Synonyms Hoya fraterna Blume (1849). Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), In-
Vernacular names Thailand: nom mia (Pat- do-China, peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Ma-
tani). laysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Java.
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Uses In Peninsular Malaysia and Vietnam, the
Malaysia, Singapore, Java and Borneo. water in which leaves have been boiled is used as
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the a bath to treat rheumatism.
leaves is drunk to treat cough and asthma. Observations A climber with branches up to 4
Observations Aclimber or subshrub with twin- m long; leaves broadly ovate to obovate-oblong, up
ing branches; leaves ovate-elliptical-oblong, up to to 14 cm x 5 cm, fleshy, petiole up to 1.5 cm long;
15 cm x 6.5 cm, leathery, petiole up to 2 cm long; flowers 9-14 mm in diameter, corolla pale outside,
flowers c. 25 mm in diameter, corolla sordidly vio- tinged with violet and densely appressed white-
let outside, yellowish and shortly pubescent in- hairy inside, shallowly lobed, lobes with recurved
side, corolla lobes at first horizontal, later with de- top; follicle lanceolate, c. 13 cm long. H. diversifo-
curved upper halves; follicle fusiform, 11-12 cm lia occurs as an epiphyte or terrestrial in open for-
long.H. coriacea occurs in mixed forest up to 1000 est, but also on wayside trees, up to 400 m alti-
m altitude. tude, and is common.
Selected sources 62, 121,789. Selected sources 31,62,121, 789.
Hoya coronaria Blume Hoya imbricata Decne.

Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 16: 1063 (1827). D C , Prodr. 8:637 (1844).
Synonyms Hoya sussuela (Roxb.) Merr. (1917), Vernacular names Philippines: paui-pauikan
Hoya lauterbachii auct. non K. Schumann. (Bisaya).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy ki kandel Distribution The Philippines, Sulawesi and
lalaki (Sundanese), bunga palita (Moluccas). Ma- the Moluccas.
laysia: akar setebal (Peninsular). Thailand: ta- Uses In the Philippines the leaves are applied
khaa (Malay, Narathiwat), ta-baa (Malay, Pat- externally as a poultice to ripen boils. The ash of
tani). leaves, mixed with coconut oil, is applied to old
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, throughout wounds or ulcers for rapid cicatrization.
the Malesian region (doubtful in the Philippines), Observations A rather long climber; leaves
the Solomon Islands and northern Australia. broadly ovate to orbicular, up to 12 cm broad,
Uses In Java the latex is mixed with Capsicum thinly leathery, convex and glabrous at upper sur-
leaves and taken internally to stimulate digestion. face, concave and hairy at lower surface; flowers
In the Moluccas, the latex is applied to stings from 8-10 mm in diameter, corolla creamy-white, hairy
poisonous fish. inside, lobes slender, reflexed. H. imbricata occurs
Observations A terrestrial climber or subshrub as an epiphyte in forest and in abandoned planta-
with twining branches; leaves oblong, up to 14 cmx tions at low and medium altitudes.
7.5 cm, leathery, petiole up to 2.5 cm long; flowers Selected sources 488, 760.
35-55 mm in diameter, corolla campanulate to ro-
tate, reddish, brownish, pinkish or yellowish, corol- Hoya lacunosa Blume
la lobes more or less reflexed; follicle lanceolate, Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 16: 1063 (1827).
14-22 cm long. H. coronaria occurs in forest up to Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: nom mia (Chiang
1000 m altitude, often in humid localities, e.g. in Mai).
mangrove swamps and on river banks, sometimes Distribution Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
also in thickets. It is locally very common. Singapore, Sumatra, Java and Borneo; introduced
Selected sources 62, 121, 257, 259, 334, 488, to China.
789. Uses In China a decoction ofwhole plants is ap-
plied to insect stings and swellings.
Hoya diversifolia Blume Observations A subshrub with twining branch-
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 16: 1064 (1827). es; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, up to 5 cm x 3
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: akar susudu bu- cm, thick-fleshy, petiole up to 1.2 cm long; flowers
kit (Sumatra). Malaysia: akar sesudu bukit, akar 6-7 mm in diameter, corolla white with violet
serapat, akar chaping kera (Peninsular). Thai- dots, tube conspicuously white villous inside, lobes
HUNTERIA 247
with decurved tops; follicle lanceolate, 5-7 cm (Lampung). Malaysia: getah aguh, kayu gading,
long. H. lacunosa is an epiphyte on trees, and of- kemuning hutan (Peninsular). Thailand: muuk
ten occurs in secondary forest, but also on wayside khao (Nakhon Ratchasima, Krabi), yaang khaao
trees, up to 1200 m altitude. (Chanthaburi). Vietnam: b[ee]n bai.
Selected sources 62, 789, 1013. Origin and geographic distribution H. zey-
lanica occurs in eastern Africa, India, Sri Lanka,
Hoya multiflora Blume Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam,
Catalogus: 49 (1823). southern China (Hainan), Thailand, Peninsular
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kapalan (Java). Malaysia, the Anambas Islands and Sumatra.
Thailand: kluaimai phannguu (central). Vietnam: Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the latex of H.
h[oof] hoa gi[ar]. zeylanica is used externally to treat yaws. In Thai-
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Laos, Viet- land, the plant has the same application in tradi-
nam, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Ma- tional medicine, but it is also used to reduce boils
laysia, Sumatra, Java and the Philippines. and skin irritations.
Uses In Java, the latex is used as a diuretic, and Some Hunteria species are used in traditional
a poultice ofthe leaves to treat rheumatism. medicine in Africa. A root-bark extract of H. um-
Observations A subshrub with branches up to bellata (K. Schumann) Hallier f. is applied to sores
2.5 m long; leaves oblong-lanceolate, up to 18 cm x caused by leprosy, whereas the bark and roots are
6 cm,thick-papery, petiole up to 2 cm long; flowers made into a bitter tonic, a root decoction is used to
15-20 mm in diameter, corolla yellowish-white prevent miscarriage and to treat menorrhagia,
with orange lobe apices, strongly reflexed from al- and a bark decoction is taken as a stomachic and
most base of corolla tube, throat white villous; fol- used as a wash against fever. Seeds of H. ballayi
licle linear-lanceolate, 12-18 cm long. H. multiflo- Hua are swallowed by women as a fertility drug,
ra occurs as an epiphyte in open forest, sometimes and the bark ofH. ghanensis Hall & Leeuwenberg
on isolated trees, up to 1200 m altitude. is used as a stomachic.
Selected sources 62,121, 789,1013. The hard, whitish to yellowish wood ofH. zeylani-
ca (and other Hunteria species in Africa) is used to
Hoya rumphii Blume make kris and axe handles, combs, boxes and
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 16: 1065 (1827). bows for hunting.
Vernacular names Indonesia: daun pitis (Mo- Properties Over 20 indole alkaloids have been
luccas). isolated from H. zeylanica. The alkaloid corymine
Distribution Western Java and the Moluccas. was extracted from the leaves. This compound po-
Uses In the Moluccas, a decoction of the leaves tentiated convulsions induced by either picrotoxin
is used to treat gonorrhoea, and the latex to treat or strychnine. In tests with mice, a crude me-
stings ofpoisonous fish. thanol extract of the leaves produced biphasic ef-
Observations Aclimber or subshrub with twin- fects on the central nervous system, depression
ing branches; leaves lanceolate to rhomboid, up to and stimulation, whereas corymine had a unique
11 cm x 4 cm, thin-leathery, petiole up to 6.5 cm central stimulatory effect. A stem bark extract
long; flowers c. 15 mm in diameter, corolla brown- showed anti-inflammatory activity in mice, and
ish, with lobes very shortly pubescent inside; folli- an inhibitory effect on 5-lipoxygenase activity in
cle linear, c. 16 cm long. H. rumphii is an uncom- vitro, but neither (-)-eburnamine nor pleiomuti-
mon species in forest up to 1400 m altitude. nine, major constituents of the alkaloid extract,
Selected sources 62, 334. were responsible for this action. This extract also
Muhammad Mansur exhibited antinociceptive and antipyretic effects
in mice and rats; the former effect may be mediat-
ed by the anti-inflammatory action. The results of
H u n t e r i a z e y l a n i c a (Retz.) G a r d n e r e x tests with mice suggest that a stem bark extract
Thwaites possesses peripheral analgesic and mild anti-
pyretic effects, with strictosidinic acid as the ma-
Enum. pi. zeyl. 3: 191 (1860). jor active constituent.
APOCYNACEAE Botany A shrub or small tree up to 15 m tall,
2n = 22 with bole up to 30 cm in diameter, often fluted;
Synonyms Hunteria corymbosa Roxb. (1824). colourless or milky latex in all parts. Leaves oppo-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: gitan obat, tahoi site, simple and entire, elliptical to oblong or obo-
It belongs to the tribe Carisseae and subtribe

Pleiocarpinae, together with the genera Picrali-
ma and Pleiocarpa, which are both exclusively
African.
Ecology H. zeylanica usually occurs in the un-
dergrowth of lowland rain forest, up to 550 m alti-
tude, rarely on limestone. It is locally common,
e.g. in parts ofPeninsular Malaysia.
Genetic resources H. zeylanica is widely dis-
tributed and is locally common, and does not seem
to be endangered by genetic erosion at present.
Prospects The results of pharmacological re-
search, mainly from Thailand, show several inter-
esting activities of H. zeylanica extracts: anti-in-
flammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities.
These warrant more investigations towards the
possible development of H. zeylanica as a medici-
nal plant of importance.
Literature 538, 539, 774, 775, 776.
Sriana Azis
Hydnophytum formicarum Jack

Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 14: 124 (1823).
RUBIACEAE
Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner ex Thwaites - 2re = 44
1, flowering branch; 2, opened corolla; 3, pistil; 4, Synonyms Hydnophytum montanum Blume
fruiting branch. (1827).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: urek-urek polo
vate, 2-21 cm x 1-7 cm, cuneate to rounded at (Javanese). Malaysia: dedalu api laut, kepala
base, rounded to acuminate at apex, glabrous, sec- berok, hempedal itek (Peninsular). Philippines:
ondary veins in 12-30 pairs, joined into a margin- banghai (Bisaya). Thailand: hua roi ruu (central),
al vein; petiole 1-1.5 cm long; stipules absent. In- krachao pheemot (Surat Thani), pum pao (Trat).
florescence a terminal, compound, dichasial cyme, Vietnam: ki[ees]n k[yf] nam, [oor] ki[ees]n.
many-flowered. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-mer- Origin and geographic distribution H. for-
ous, fragrant; pedicel 4-10 mm long; sepals free, micarum is widely distributed, from the Andaman
1-2.5 mm long, with colleters inside; corolla with Islands, peninsular Burma (Myanmar), southern
almost cylindrical tube 6-10 mm long, pubescent Thailand and southern Cambodia and Vietnam,
inside below the stamens, and spreading lobes 4-9 through the whole of Malesia, to the Solomon Is-
mm long, white to pale yellow; stamens inserted lands and northern Australia (Cape York).
in upper part of corolla tube, filaments short; Uses In Indonesia the pounded tuber has been
ovary superior, composed of 2 separate carpels applied as a poultice to treat swellings and head-
united at the extreme base by a disk-like thicken- ache. In the Philippines, a decoction of the woody
ing, style up to 7 mm long, pistil head composed of bases of the stems is used to treat liver and in-
a stigmatic subglobose basal part and a stigmoid testinal complaints. In Thailand powdered stems
apex. Fruit composed of2 separate, obovoid to glo- are taken as an anthelmintic and heart tonic, and
bose mericarps up to 3 cm long, stiped at base, yel- to treat bone diseases, skin diseases, lung dis-
low to orange, usually 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or eases, and pain in knees or ankles; they are also
ellipsoid, up to 1.5 cm long, smooth, orange; co- an ingredient in antidiabetic preparations.
tyledons thin, leafy. Botany An epiphytic subshrub up to 60 cm tall,
Hunteria comprises 12 species, which all occur in with a few quadrangular stems (usually 2-4) aris-
Africa. Only H. zeylanica extends to tropical Asia. ing from a tuber-like swollen base up to 25 cm
HYDROLEA 249
long, inside with a labyrinth covered with scales. provide the plant with a source of macronutrients
Leaves decussately opposite, simple and entire, el- through their debris. The flowers are probably
liptical to broadly lanceolate, often broadest above usually self-fertilizing, although they produce nec-
the middle, 4-15 cm x 2-7 cm, base acute, apex ob- tar abundantly and ants visit them regularly.
tuse to rounded, leathery, glabrous, pinnately Hydnophytum comprises about 50 species and oc-
veined; petiole 0.5-4 cm long; stipules interpetio- curs from the Andaman Islands, peninsular Bur-
lar, soon falling. Flowers a few together in shal- ma (Myanmar), southern Thailand and southern
low, cup-shaped cavities in strongly thickened Cambodia and Vietnam, through the whole of
nodes of the stem, bisexual, 4-merous, sessile; ca- Malesia, to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji
lyx campanulate-urceolate, glabrous or sparsely and northern Australia (Cape York). The greatest
papillose, limb truncate, persistent; corolla tubu- number of species occurs in the montane areas of
lar, tube c. 3 mm long, lobes elliptical, thickened New Guinea. Hydnophytum is classified in the
at apex, white; stamens inserted in the throat of tribe Psychotrieae, and in the subtribe Hydno-
the corolla, alternating with bundles ofhairs; disk phytinae, together with 4 other ant-inhabited
ring-shaped, thick; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style tuberous Rubiaceae of which Myrmecodia is the
filiform, exserted, stigma 2-branched, thick, papil- most important. These genera are closely related.
lose. Fruit a narrowly obovoid drupe 6-7 mm long, H. formicarum is a variable species in which sev-
constricted at apex, orange when ripe, with 1-2 eral botanical varieties can be distinguished.
pyrenes c. 5 mm long. Ecology H. formicarum is an epiphyte of trees
The tuber is formed by the hypocotyl of the (mostly colonizing branches rather than trunks)
seedling which swells, even in the absence of ants. in primary and secondary forests, most abundant
Phellogens (meristematic layers which arise in in seasonal, open forest, up to 1000 m altitude. It
the parenchyma) cut out volumes of tissue which occurs also in 'kerangas' vegetation and compara-
die, leaving cavities. Ants (often of the genus tively often in mangrove vegetation and Casuari-
Iridomyrmex) usually occupy these cavities and na trees.
Genetic resources H. formicarum is widely
distributed and common in widely divergent habi-
tats, so it is not endangered. The wide variation
deserves more study.
Prospects It is interesting that H. formicarum
is used in traditional medicine in Thailand and In-
do-China, as well as in Indonesia and the Philip-
pines. This warrants research on its pharmacolog-
ical properties and phytochemistry.
Literature 62,173, 387, 389, 760.
Other selected sources 121,334, 388.
Max Joseph Herman
H y d r o l e a z e y l a n i c a (L.) V a h l
Symb. bot. 2: 46 (1791).

HYDROPHYLLACEAE
ra = 9,12
Vernacular names Indonesia: gagabusan, sem-
bung ku-uk (Sundanese), gunda (Javanese). Thai-
land: po phee (Buri Ram).Vietnam: th[ur]y l[eej].
Origin and geographic distribution H. zey-
lanica is widely distributed in eastern Africa, Pak-
istan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan-
mar), Vietnam, southern China, Taiwan, Thai-
land, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bor-
Hydnophytum formicarum Jack - 1, plant habit; neo, the Philippines, Sulawesi and northern Aus-
2, flower in longitudinal section. tralia.
Uses In India pulped leaves of H. zeylanica are long; stamens free, inserted in the corolla throat,
credited with antiseptic properties and applied as alternating with the corolla lobes; ovary superior,
a poultice to ulcers. A decoction of the whole plant 2-celled, styles 2, widely divergent, with capitate-
is taken to treat cough. In Indonesia young, leafy clavate stigmas. Fruit an ellipsoid capsule 4-5
tops of shoots are eaten as a vegetable, either mm long, bursting irregularly, many-seeded.
steamed or fresh. They taste slightly bitter. Seeds very small, oblong, longitudinally ribbed,
Properties An oil is present in H. zeylanica with transverse ridges.
seeds; oleic acid and linoleic acid are the chief un- H. zeylanica can be found flowering and fruiting
saturated acids and palmitic acid the main satu- throughout the year. The seeds are often spread
rated acid. by water, but rooting branches are also a means of
Botany A perennial herb, often much branched; multiplication.
stem up to 150 cm long, in the lower part creeping Hydrolea comprises 11 species, 7 of which are na-
and freely rooting, with many erect branches. tive to the Americas and 3 to Africa. H. zeylanica
Leaves alternate, simple and entire, narrowly is the most widespread species. H. spinosa L. has
lanceolate, sometimes oblong or elliptical, 1.5-12 been introduced in Sri Lanka, Java and Timor
cm x 1-2.5 cm, cuneate at base, acute at apex, and is locally naturalized.
glabrous or slightly puberulous, pinnately veined; Ecology H. zeylanica occurs in permanently or
petiole 2-5 mm long; stipules absent. Inflores- periodically swampy or inundated localities, often
cence an axillary raceme or panicle, or flowers in rice fields, also in shallow pools and on river
solitary. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous; banks, up to 1000 m altitude. It often occurs gre-
pedicel 2-10 mm long; calyx partite to near the gariously, but is a weed of minor importance in
base, 5-7 mm long, usually glandular hairy, per- the Malesian region.
sistent; corolla deeply partite, with whitish tube Genetic resources H. zeylanica is widespread
and lilac-blue segments white at base, 5-8 mm and often abundant, and not liable to genetic ero-
Prospects Nothing is known about pharmaco-

logical properties of H. zeylanica. Research is
needed to confirm the assigned antiseptic proper-
ties, and a determination of the food value is de-
sirable to evaluate its use as a vegetable.
Other selected sources 14, 191,760, 782, 879.
D.S. Alonzo
Hygrophila ringens (L.) R.Br, ex

Steudel
Nomencl. bot., ed. 2, 1:783 (1840).
ACANTHACEAE
2n = 32, 44
Synonyms Hygrophila angustifolia R.Br.
(1810), Hygrophila quadrivalvis (Buch.-Ham.)
Nees (1832), Hygrophila salicifolia (Vahl) Nees
(1832),Hygrophila erecta (Burm.f.) Hochr. (1934).
Vernacular names Malaysia: keremak, chu-
kal, maman babi (Peninsular). Philippines: bina-
kag (Iloko), kangon-kangon, mamitik (Tagalog).
Thailand: toiting (Bangkok), nam dap fai (Pra-
chuap Khiri Khan), sam sam (Loei). Vietnam:
c[aa]y h[aj]t ph[or]ng.
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl - 1, flowering Origin and geographic distribution H. rin-
branches; 2, flower; 3, fruit with calyx removed; 4, gens has a wide area of distribution: from India
seed. and Sri Lanka, through Indo-China, southern
HYGROPHILA 251
China and Japan, to Thailand and the Malesian

region, where there are records from Peninsular
Malaysia, Singapore, Java, Borneo and the Philip-
pines, but it probably also occurs elsewhere.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves are ap-
plied as a poultice to treat wounds, swellings,
boils and headache, and also to treat toothache.
The seeds are used by the cosmetic and pharma-
ceutical industry, particularly in central Europe,
as a skin-regenerating product. The leaves may be
eaten as a vegetable.
H. schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M.R. Almeida & S.M. Al-
meida (synonyms: H. auriculata (Schum.) Heine,
H. spinosa T. Anderson) is used in traditional
medicine in India and Burma (Myanmar), e.g. to
treat liver ailments and spermatorrhoea. In
Africa, particularly the roots are applied in the
treatment of blennorrhoea, dropsy, anuria, hepat-
ic obstruction and rheumatism. H. schulli, which
is accredited in India and Africa with diuretic
properties, has once been recorded for Malesia
(Singapore).
Some Hygrophila species are cultivated as orna-
mental aquatic plants in aquaria. Several species
are weeds, often in rice fields.
Properties Lipophilic extracts of H. ringens
seeds possess neurotrophic activities. They show-
ed a striking effect on the morphological differen- Hygrophila ringens (L.) R.Br, ex Steudel - 1, plant
tiation of cerebral neurons ofrat embryos in vitro, habit; 2, flower; 3,fruit enclosed in calyx.
and proved to attenuate the degeneration of
cholinergic neurons after injury. They also had in- sately opposite, simple, linear-oblong to elliptical-
teresting properties on mice resident peritoneal oblong or elliptical-obovate, 1-16 cm x 0.5-5 cm,
macrophages by provoking significant morphologi- tapering into petiole at base, acute or obtuse at
cal changes and by increasing their phagocytosis apex, margin entire to crenulate or undulate, ir-
capacity. A long-chain aliphatic alcohol, n-hexa- regularly marked with cystoliths; stipules absent.
cosanol, proved to be responsible for these activi- Inflorescence a dense axillary cluster, conspicu-
ties. ously bracteate. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; calyx
A significant hepatoprotective activity of a me- 6-12 mm long, with unequal linear-lanceolate
thanolic extract of H. schulli seeds was reported lobes; corolla with ventricose, puberulent tube
from tests with rats in India. Studies with rats 7-10 mm long, 2-lipped, upper lip c. 5 mm long, 2-
suggest that an aqueous extract of the same fid, lower lip c. 5 mm long, pale violet-blue or
species may exert hypoglycaemic action by mecha- whitish; stamens 4, didynamous, inserted below
nisms similar to those of the sulphonylureas. In the middle of the corolla tube; ovary superior, 2-
tests with mice, a petroleum ether extract of the celled, style slender, often with 2 teeth at apex.
root ofif. schulli potentiated the sedative-hypnot- Fruit a linear-oblong to linear-ovoid loculicidal
ic action ofchlorpromazine, diazepam, pentobarbi- capsule 1-2 cm long, many-seeded. Seeds globose-
tone and chlordiazepoxide, and protected against ovoid, subcompressed, c. 1.5 mm long, long-hairy.
strychnine-induced convulsions. This extract also H. ringens is an extremely variable species, and is
exhibited haematinic effect in rats and antitu- often split up into several species, particularly on
mour activity in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and the shape of the leaves. A taxonomie account of
sarcoma-180 bearing mice. Hygrophila is needed to confirm the broad concept
Botany An erect or ascending annual or short- ofH. ringens as adopted here.
living herb up to 90(-120) cm tall; stem rooting at Hygrophila comprises approximately 80 species,
the lower nodes, subquadrangular. Leaves decus- and occurs in Africa and Asia, mainly in the trop-
ics. Africa is richest in species (about 45). There commonly in a decoction taken internally to treat
are a handful ofspecies in Malesia. asthma, and as a poultice on boils. Sometimes the
Ecology H. ringens occurs in swampy or period- flowers are also used in a decoction against cough.
ically humid localities, e.g. at watersides, from Several Hymenocallis species, including H. lit-
sea-level up to 1000 m altitude. toralis, are commonly cultivated as a garden orna-
Management In tests, the production of n- mental in the warmer parts of the world. A culti-
hexacosanol in tissue cultures of H. ringens was var ofH. littoralis ('Variegata') with leaves striped
not successful, but verbascoside was a major ex- bright green and edged cream is popular among
tractable metabolite in callus and cell suspension gardeners.
cultures. This latter compound has antimicrobial Properties Several compounds with antitu-
properties. mour and antiviral activities have been isolated
Genetic resources H. ringens is widely distrib- from H. littoralis bulbs. Lycorine alkaloids (also
uted and is not easily liable to genetic erosion. Its known as amaryllidaceae alkaloids) are responsi-
extreme morphological variability should be in- ble for these activities, e.g. littoraline, which
vestigated. shows inhibitory activity ofHIV reverse transcrip-
Prospects The uses ofH. ringens in traditional tase, and lycorine, haemanthamine, which show
medicine in South-East Asia as a poultice seem to potent in-vitro cytotoxicity, also against drug-re-
agree to some degree with the interest of the Eu- sistant cell lines. The antiproliferative effects of
ropean cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry in lycorine and haemanthamine result from their
this species as a skin-regenerating product. More complex formation with RNA. Biosynthetically,
research on pharmacological activity may show these compounds are derived from the amino
that it is a promising medicinal plant for primary acids tyrosin and Phenylalanin. Pancratistatin,
health care in South-East Asia. Research on H. narciclasine and 7-deoxynarciclasine are isocar-
schulli, which is a well-known medicinal plant in bostyril-type compounds which have antineoplas-
India, might also be worthwhile. Neither propaga- tic activity against a panel of human tumour cell
tion nor cultivation will be a major impediment. lines and which are present in several Hymenocal-
Literature 64,121, 644. lis species including H. littoralis. Pancratistatin
Other selected sources 62, 120, 243, 283,613, has been under development as an anticancer
614, 782,861. agent. The related compound 7-deoxy-trans-dihy-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens dronarciclasine, isolated from H. littoralis and
some other Hymenocallis species, inhibited the cy-
topathicity and/or replication ofvarious viruses.
Lycorine inhibited feeding of desert locusts when
Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb.
sprayed on cabbage leaves in a concentration of
Trans. Hort. Soc. London 1:338 (1812). 0.05% under laboratory conditions. Antifungal
AMARYLLIDACEAE
properties have also been recorded for bulb ex-
2n =44, 46,48, 68 tracts of H. littoralis. Some Hymenocallis species
Vernacular names Spider lily (En). Philip- showed marked activity against avian malaria.
pines: bakong, lirio (Tagalog), ajos-ajos nga ma- Botany A perennial herb up to 80 cm tall, with
puti (Bisaya). Thailand: phlapphlueng teenpet spherical bulb 7.5-10 cm in diameter. Leaves radi-
(Bangkok). Vietnam: b[aj]ch trinh bi[eer]n. cal, 2-seriate, simple, lorate to linear, 40-120 cm x
Origin and geographic distribution H. lit- 1.5-5(-7) cm, acute at apex, sessile. Inflorescence
toralis originates from South and Central Ameri- a pseudo-umbel with somewhat compressed pe-
ca, but it is cultivated and naturalized in tropical duncle up to 60 cm long, with 2 spathes, 6-11-
Africa, Asia and the Pacific islands. In the Male- flowered. Flowers bisexual, large, regular, 3-mer-
sian region, it is recorded as naturalized in Java, ous, white, fragrant, sessile; tepals 6, equal, unit-
the Philippines and the Bismarck Archipelago. ed into a long tube 9-17 cm long, segments linear,
Uses In the Philippines the bulbs ofH. littoralis 7.5-12 cm long, channelled, with an apical cusp;
are used as a vulnerary. However, in Thailand stamens 6, inserted in the perianth throat and
they are considered too toxic to be eaten. In Chi- connate at base into a false corona 2.5-3 cm long,
nese traditional medicine Hymenocallis leaves are free part of filaments c. 6 cm long, anthers with
applied externally to swellings and bruises. orange pollen; ovary inferior, 3-celled, style fili-
The bulbs of Hymenocallis are commonly used in form, slightly exceeding the stamens, stigma
traditional medicine in Central America, most small and capitate. Fruit a fleshy capsule, finally
HYPOBATHRUM 253
rupturing laterally, few-seeded. Seeds large, with from India and Burma (Myanmar), through Indo-
thick, spongy, green testa. China and Thailand, to the Malesian region.
Hymenocallis comprises about 50 species and its Uses There are some records of the use of a root
natural area of distribution is Central and South decoction ofHypobathrum in traditional medicine
America. Several species other than H. littoralis in South-East Asia. This is used externally to
are cultivated as an ornamental in the Malesian treat rheumatism, smallpox and yaws, as well as
region, e.g. H. caribea (L.) Herbert, H. narcissiflo- internally to treat stomach-ache. The sour fruits
ra (Jacq.) MacBr. and H. speciosa (Salisb.) Salisb., are sometimes used in chutneys. In Java, the as-
but onlyH. littoralis has become naturalized. tringent young leaves and shoot tips of a Hypo-
Ecology H. littoralis occurs along the seashore bathrum species (possibly H. racemosum) are eat-
and inland in moist, sandy locations at low alti- en raw as vegetable.
tude. It is cultivated in gardens up to 1500 m alti- Botany Shrubs or small trees, often with
tude. straight trunk and pairs of horizontal branches.
Management H. littoralis is best grown in a Leaves opposite, simple and entire, leathery, pin-
light, well-drained potting mix of equal parts of nately veined, with intramarginal vein, shortly
loam, leaf mould and sand. Propagation is by seed, petiolate; stipules interpetiolar, triangular, each
but more usual by offsets. Methods for large-scale pair fused at base forming a prominent median
propagation by tissue culture have been developed keel and encircling the twig, more or less persis-
for H. littoralis. In-vitro production of pancratis- tent. Inflorescence an axillary spike, raceme, sim-
tatin was also successful in callus cultures, but ple dichasium or panicle with paired short branch-
the concentration was only about 10% of that in es. Flowers bisexual, 4-merous, stalked; calyx cup-
bulbs of field-grown plants. Experiments in the shaped or bell-shaped, with tiny lobes; corolla
United States showed that atmospheric C0 2 en- with short, trumpet-shaped tube and narrowly tri-
richment may increase the concentration of active angular to ovate lobes, contorted in bud; stamens
constituents in the bulbs by 75%. inserted in the corolla throat; disk annular; ovary
Genetic resources H. littoralis is widely culti- inferior, 2-celled, style hairy, with 2-lobed stigma.
vated and consequently does not seem to be Fruit berry-like, fleshy, indéhiscent, 1-many-seed-
threatened. However, nothing is known about the ed. Seeds flat, arranged imbricately, pendulous,
genetic diversity of cultivated and naturalized with endosperm.
plants in South-East Asia, and this may be very Malformations of the floral parts of the plant are
low. In Central America several Hymenocallis often found. Hypobathrum is classified in the tribe
species are classified as endangered. In Puebla Hypobathreae, together with about 20 other gen-
(Mexico) a germplasm collection of ornamental era from Africa, Madagascar and tropical Asia.
geophytes is maintained, including Hymenocallis. The taxonomy of Hypobathrum is poorly known.
Prospects H. littoralis is an interesting medici- Several species have probably been confused in
nal plant, which deserves more attention in the literature, and it is, for example, possible that
South-East Asia. It is a source of compounds with the information given here under H. racemosum
anticancer and antiviral (including anti-HIV) ac- partly applies to other Hypobathrum species.
tivities, but the reputed beneficial effects of bulb Ecology Hypobathrum usually occurs in low-
extracts internally on asthma and cough as well land forest, also in secondary forest and swamp
as externally on wounds, swellings, bruises and forest, but some species may grow in the moun-
boils also merit more attention and research. tains, up to over 2000 m altitude.
Literature 63,247, 393,563, 737, 760. Genetic resources The Hypobathrum species
Other selected sources 62,120, 346, 646. treated here are locally common and do not seem
Noorma Wati Haron to be liable to genetic erosion.
Prospects Information on Hypobathrum is ex-
tremely scarce, including botany and medicinal
Hypobathrum Blume properties. This precludes a judgement on the
prospects as medicinal plants.
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 1007 (1827). Literature 121,689.
RUBIACEAE
x = unknown
Origin and geographic distribution Hypo-
bathrum comprises about 20 species and occurs
Selection of species Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: trembuku, lan-

dep iju, lucung asu (Javanese).
H y p o b a t h r u m r a c e m o s u m (Roxb.) Origin and geographic distribution H. poly-
Kurz thyrsa occurs throughout Java, but seems endem-
Forest fl. Burma 2:51 (1877). icto this island.
Synonyms Petunga roxburghii DC. (1830). Uses In central Java, a decoction of young
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kihapit (Sun- branches ofH. polythyrsa mixed with flower heads
danese), apit, babalan (Javanese). Malaysia: kayu ofArtemisia cina Berg ex Poljakov (a well-known
ekur gajah, tulang betina (Peninsular). Thailand: anthelmintic plant which is imported) has been
khan laen (peninsular). Vietnam: s[uws]a, s[uws]a recommended as a poultice to expel maggots and
ca. intestinal worms.
Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), Some other Hypoestes species are used in tradi-
southern Indo-China, southern Thailand, Penin- tional medicine in Africa, particularly H. fors-
sular Malaysia, Java and Borneo. kaolii (Vahl) Sol. ex Roemer & Schultes and H.
Uses The roots are used in a complex decoction aristata (Vahl) Sol. ex Roemer & Schultes (these
to treat yaws in Cambodia. species are often confused under the name H. ver-
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 12 m ticillaris), the roots ofwhich are used internally to
tall; leaves lanceolate, 6-15(-20) cm x 2.5-4 cm; treat cough and meningitis. The leaves are used
corolla 5-6 mm long, white or greenish-white; externally to treat swellings and sores. H. triflora
fruit ellipsoid or globose, c. 6 mm long, usually (Forssk.) Roemer & Schultes is frequently used in
with about 8 seeds. H. racemosum occurs in low- Rwanda to treat hepatic diseases.
land forest, often in swampy locations and sec- Some Hypoestes species are valued as ornamen-
ondary forest, in Java up to 600 m altitude. tals, particularly H. phyllostachya Baker, often
Selected sources 62, 121,732, 789, 990. with rose to pale lavender spotted leaves.
Properties There is no information on the phy-
H y p o b a t h r u m v e n u l o s u m (Hook.f.) tochemistry or pharmacological properties of H.
K.M. W o n g polythyrsa.
Tree Fl. Mal. 4:355 (1989). The phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids hypoestes-
Synonyms Petunga venulosa Hook.f. (1880). tatins 1and 2 have been isolated from H. forskaolii
Vernacular names Malaysia: kayu gading, tu- from East Africa; these are anti-neoplastic agents,
lang betina, umpaong puteh (Peninsular). which markedly inhibited the growth of murine P-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia; possibly al- 388 lymphocytic leukaemia cell lines. Several fu-
so Borneo. sicoccane diterpene ketones have also been report-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the ed in the aerial parts of this species. A hepatopro-
roots is used to treat rheumatism (externally) and tective principle has been demonstrated in a water
stomach-ache (internally), and pounded roots are extract from the leaves ofH. triflora from Rwanda;
applied as a poultice against smallpox. The sour the compound responsible for the protective activi-
fruits are sometimes used in chutneys. ty in tests with mice was benzoic acid.
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 6 m Several diterpenoids have been isolated from ex-
tall; leaves elliptical-oblong, 7.5-15 cm x 4-7.5 cm; tracts of the African H. rosea P. Beauv.: rosea-
corolla c. 8 mm long, white; fruit club-shaped, c. nalone, roseadione, roseatoxide, hypoestoxide and
12 mm long. H. venulosum occurs in lowland and dihypoestoxide. Hypoestoxide showed anti-inflam-
hill forests, also in swampy locations. matory activity in tests with mice and could be
Selected sources 121,334, 789, 990. useful in treating various inflammatory diseases.
Sudibyo Supardi &Hurip Pratomo The diterpene serpendione has been isolated from
H. serpens (Vahl) R.Br, from Madagascar; it ex-
hibited relaxant activity on isolated rat aorta.
H y p o e s t e s p o l y t h y r s a Miq. Botany An erect herb up to 120 cm tall; stem
thickened above the nodes, apically more or less
Fl. Ned. Ind. 2:852 (1858). densely short-hairy. Leaves opposite, simple and
ACANTHACEAE entire, elliptical-ovate to oblong-lanceolate, 3-14
2« = unknown cm x 1-6 cm, pubescent below or on both surfaces,
Synonyms Hypoestes psilostachyus C.B. Clarke often with a pale blotch above; petiole 0.5-4 cm
ex S.Moore (1925). long; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary
HYPOXIS 255
cyme with distant, spiciform ultimate branches. va, Flores, the Philippines, Sulawesi and New
Flowers in pairs within an involucre, one flower of Guinea).
each pair rudimentary, involucre consisting of 2 Uses The rhizome ofH. aurea is used in Chinese
narrow connate bracts up to 1.5 cm long, bisexual; traditional medicine; it is considered reconstruc-
calyx 5-fid; corolla 2-3 cm long, resupinate by tor- tive, rejuvenating, aphrodisiac and tonic. It is im-
sion of the tube, 2-lipped, upper lip entire or 2- ported in Malaysia, and sold in Chinese shops. In
lobed, lower lip 3-lobed, reddish-violet, sometimes India the aerial parts of H. aurea are considered
white; stamens 2, inserted at the apex ofthe corol- aphrodisiac.
la tube, exserted; ovary superior, 2-celled, style The rhizomes of several Hypoxis species are used
shortly branched. Fruit a clavate capsule, c. 1 cm in traditional medicine in southern Africa, as a
long, 1-4-seeded. Seeds flat, densely verruculose. convalescent and tonic. They are also used in cas-
Hypoestes comprises approximately 120 species, es of tuberculosis and cancer, to treat benign pro-
and occurs in Africa, Madagascar, Asia from the static hypertrophy, urinary tract infections and
Himalayas to Indo-China, China, Thailand, Male- testicular tumours, and as a laxative and ver-
sia, and Australia. Perhaps a dozen species occur mifuge. Preparations based on lipophilic extracts
in the Malesian region. Hypoestes belongs to the ofAfrican Hypoxis rhizomes have been introduced
tribe Justicieae, and has close affinities with Peri- into the market for the treatment of prostatic hy-
strophe and Dicliptera. It can be separated from pertrophy. Capsules based on standardized Hy-
other Acanthaceae on the combination of re- poxis extracts are also prescribed for cancer thera-
supinate corollas with monothecous anthers and py, e.g. to treat lung cancer. In the West Indies
inelastic placental bases. some Hypoxis species are used for curing tumours
Ecology H. polythyrsa occurs in more or less ofthe testicles.
shaded localities in open forest and shrub vegeta- Properties Glycosides of norlignan consti-
tion, up to 1500 m altitude, and is locally common, tuents, uncommon aglycones, have been isolated
e.g. in central Java. from African Hypoxis species. The active com-
Management H. polythyrsa can be easily prop- pound in the treatment of cancer is considered to
agated by seed and cuttings. be hypoxoside, the major diglucoside isolated from
Genetic resources No taxonomie study of Hy- the rhizomes, which showed good results in pa-
poestes has yet been made, which would confirm tients in South Africa with slow-growing necrotis-
the endemic status of H. polythyrsa in Java. It ing lung tumours that are inoperable, and which
might be endangered by the ever-increasing pres- showed no toxicity. This compound can be convert-
sure on the forest in Java. ed by endogenous ß-glucosidase activity into its cy-
Prospects The use ofH. polythyrsa seems limit- totoxic aglycone rooperol. Tests with mice indicat-
ed and unimportant, and it is unlikely that this ed that hypoxoside exerts analgesic effects proba-
situation will change, unless future chemical re- bly through an anti-inflammatory mechanism.
search demonstrates interesting compounds, as Phytosterols, with ß-sitosterol as the main compo-
has been the case for some African species. nent, have also been isolated from African Hypox-
Literature 62, 334,491. is species. These were found to be an effective op-
Other selected sources 39, 120, 121,696, 736, tion in the treatment ofbenign prostatic hyperpla-
950. sia in a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical
R.H.M.J. Lemmens trial. The action may be due to the decrease of
testosterone levels through inhibition of 5-a-re-
ductase, or to the decrease of the binding of dihy-
Hypoxis aurea Lour. drotestosterone to its receptor in the prostate tis-
sue. In addition, ß-sitosterol and its glucoside iso-
Fl. cochinch. 1:200 (1790). lated from Hypoxis stimulate human peripheral
HYPOXIDACEAE blood lymphocyte proliferation.
2n =54 Botany A small perennial herb up to 30 cm tall,
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: kitkitli (Ig- with globose to elongate rhizome. Leaves in a rad-
orot). Vietnam: h[aj] tr[aa]m. ical rosette, linear, 4-30 cm x 1-5 mm, hairy. In-
Origin and geographic distribution H. au- florescence with a filiform peduncle 4-12 cm long,
rea occurs in Pakistan, India, Indo-China, south- leafless or with a single sheathing leaf, hairy, 1-2-
ern China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand and the Ma- flowered; bracts setaceous. Flowers bisexual, 3-
lesian region (Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Ja- merous, shortly pedicellate; tepals 6, free, nearly
buds and rhizome expiants cultured on a modified

Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with
growth hormones. In tests, in-vitro production of
hypoxoside was only possible in tissues showing
some degree of root differentiation, the amount
produced was considerably less than is found in
rhizomes of grown plants. Plants take about 3
years to produce rhizomes ofextractable size.
Genetic resources Although H. aurea is not
very common in the Malesian region (only occur-
ring locally in Peninsular Malaysia and Java, per-
haps more common in the Philippines), it has a
wide distribution on mainland Asia and does not
seem to be easily liable to genetic erosion. Experi-
ence in southern Africa with Hypoxis has shown
that when a plant becomes of interest for medici-
nal applications it may rapidly become endan-
gered in the wild.
Prospects Pharmacological research in South
Africa has demonstrated promising medicinal
properties of Hypoxis rhizomes and their com-
pounds for the treatment of important diseases
such as lung cancer and prostatic hypertrophy.
This may encourage research on the phytochem-
istry and pharmacological properties ofthe poorly-
known South-East Asian Hypoxis.
Literature 64,121, 247, 489, 760,873,956.
Hypoxis aurea Lour. - 1, habit of flowering plant; Other selected sources 62,675,676, 716.
2, flower. R.H.M.J. Lemmens
equal, oblong to elliptical-lanceolate, 5-7 mm

long, spreading, villous outside, bright yellow; sta- Hyptis Jacq.
mens 6, inserted at the base of the perianth seg-
ments, with sagittate anthers; ovary inferior, 3- Collectanea 1: 101,103 (1787).
celled, villous, style short but robust, with 3 de- LABIATAE
current stigmas. Fruit an ellipsoid to clavate cap- x =14, 15, 16;H. capitata: 2n =30, 32, H. pecti-
sule c. 7 mm long, many-seeded. Seeds globose, nata: 2n = 32,H. spicigera: 2n = 32,H. suaveolens:
with crustaceous, tuberculate, black testa. 2n =24, 28,30, 32
Hypoxis comprises about 50 species, although the Origin and geographic distribution Hyptis
number is obscure because of the occurrence of comprises about 250 species and is indigenous in
polyploid apomicts. It is widespread in Africa, the American tropics and subtropics. Some weedy
Asia, Australia and America, but southern Africa species are also found in the tropics ofAfrica, Asia
is richest in species. Hypoxidaceae, including Hy- and Australia. In the Malesian region 5 species
poxis, are sometimes considered as belonging to have been introduced and are naturalized.
Amaryllidaceae, then usually as a separate sub- Uses All Hyptis species occurring in South-East
family. Asia are used medicinally, although sometimes
Ecology H. aurea is found in dry sunny locali- outside this region. The leafy parts are most com-
ties, often in grassland, at 900-2300 m altitude, monly used, the roots less commonly. The major
scattered, but locally common. applications are externally to treat wounds, skin
Management In southern Africa H. hemerocal- diseases and rheumatism, and internally against
lidea Fisch. & C.A. Mey. (synonym: H. rooperi S. bronchial and gastro-intestinal problems, head-
Moore) and some other Hypoxis species are culti- ache and fever. The leafy parts are commonly
vated as a medicinal plant. In-vitro propagation used as insect repellent, and sometimes as food
was successful using callus from young flower flavouring.
HYPTIS 257
Properties The leaves of many Hyptis species sideritoflavone inhibited prostaglandin synthase
contain an essential oil (usually 0.05-0.5%) with a to a significant extent and also had antisecretory
high amount of sesquiterpenes. Crude extracts of effects. In addition, several lignans with cytotoxic
several Hyptis species (e.g. H. pectinata and H. activity against a number of human cancer cell
suaveolens) showed significant antimicrobial ac- lines have been isolated from H. verticillata. Sev-
tivity against Candida albicans and selected eral H. verticillata extracts showed anti-inflam-
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, which matory activity.
supports their use as an antiseptic on wounds. Cy- Botany Herbs or shrubs, often aromatic. Leaves
totoxic activity has been demonstrated for a num- decussately opposite, simple, serrate, gland-dot-
ber ofHyptis species. ted, shortly to long-petiolate; stipules absent. In-
The triterpenoids oleanolic acid and pomolic acid florescence a usually axillary dense spurious
have been isolated from whole H. capitata plants. head, spike, raceme or a few-flowered cluster, of-
These compounds showed anti-human immunode- ten secund; bracts subulate or setaceous. Flowers
ficiency virus (HlV)-activity. Derivatives of ursolic bisexual, 5-merous, zygomorphic; calyx tubular or
acid isolated from H. capitata exhibited cytotoxici- campanulate, straight or oblique, tube 10-veined,
ty. teeth subequal; corolla 2-lipped, upper lip 2-lobed,
Three 5,6-dihydro-a-pyrones, pectinolides A, B lower lip 3-lobed with midlobe abruptly deflexed;
and C, have been isolated from H. pectinata. They stamens 4, free, declinate; disk entire; ovary supe-
showed antimicrobial activity and, moreover, ex- rior, 4-celled, style subentire or shortly 2-fid. Fruit
hibited significant in-vitro cytotoxic activity consisting of 4 oblong or ovoid, 1-seeded nutlets
against a variety of tumour cell lines. An aqueous enclosed in the persistent calyx.
extract of dried H. pectinata leaves exhibited anal- All Hyptis species treated here can be found flow-
gesic and anti-inflammatory activities in experi- ering and fruiting throughout the year.
mental animals. Inflorescences showed consider- Hyptis is classified in the tribe Ocimeae, subtribe
able molluscicidal activity. The lactonoid bitter Hyptidinae, characterized by the stamens held in
principle ovatolide has been isolated from H. pecti- the lower lip of the corolla, which is usually
nata leaves. strongly compressed to form an explosive pollina-
The unsaponifiable fraction of dried H. suaveolens tion mechanism, powdering visiting insects from
leaves and flowers exhibited chronotropic effect in below with pollen. Cladistic studies showed that
frogs, hypotensive effect in dogs, inotropic and Hyptis, as usually delimited, is a paraphyletic
spasmogenic effects in rabbits, and spasmolytic group. For this reason, about 45 species have been
and vasodilator effects in rats. An extract of H. transferred recently to other genera: Hypenia,
suaveolens showed moderate inhibition of mycelial Hyptidendron and Eriope.
growth of the keratinophilic fungi Chrysosporium The name H. rhomboidea is often used for the
tropicum, Microsporum gypseum and Trichophy- species here treated as H. capitata. It is not clear
ton terrestre. A test in Africa (Guinea Bissau) to which species (H- capitata Jacq. or H. rhom-
showed that fresh and smouldering H. suaveolens boidea M. Martens & Galeotti) the South-East
has significant mosquito repellent activity. Asian material with long-stalked spurious heads
A water extract of the whole plant of the South belongs, or whether these species are even conspe-
and Central American H. lantanifolia Poit. was a cific.
potent inhibitor of human immunodeficiency Ecology The Hyptis species of South-East Asia
virus-reverse transcriptase (HIV-RT) with an IC50 occur in waste places, as a weed in fields, grass-
of 6-8 ng/ml. Ethanol extracts of H. lantanifolia land and sometimes in open forest, usually in the
and H. obtusiflora C. Presl ex Benth. (also from lowland, sometimes up to 1300 m altitude. They
tropical America) showed considerable xanthine are usually weeds of minor importance, e.g. in rice
oxidase inhibitory activity. Extracts of another fields.
tropical American species, H. verticillata Jacq., Genetic resources The Hyptis species treated
showed antibacterial, antisecretory and cytotoxic here are very widespread, often weedy herbs that
(KB and Ht 29 cell lines) activities. The essential do not merit attention concerning genetic erosion
oil (with main components cc-pinene, ß-pinene and and conservation.
thymol), (R)-5-hydroxypyrrolidin-2-one, rosmarin- Prospects Hyptis definitely deserves more at-
ic acid and dehydropodophyllotoxine contributed tention for medicinal and insecticidal applications
to the antibacterial effects; rosmarinic acid show- in South-East Asia. Comparatively much research
ed significant capillary stabilizing effects and has been done on bioactivity of Hyptis extracts
and compounds, and these studies showed promis- Uses In Indonesia the leaves are applied to
ing results for the development of plant-based wounds. A decoction ofleaves and stems is applied
drugs for possible treatment ofimportant diseases after childbirth in Malaysia, and a poultice of the
such as AIDS and different forms of cancer, as an leaves to the abdomen of children to expel worms.
antiseptic agent for external application, and as In Central America a decoction of the plant is
an insect repellent. The worldwide use in tradi- used to treat headache and diarrhoea. The leaves
tional medicine is another indication of the effi- are sometimes eaten as a vegetable.
ciency ofHyptis drugs. Observations An erect herb up to 150 cm tall,
Literature 319, 516, 604, 796. not aromatic; leaves narrowly lanceolate to ovate-
oblong, 4-8 cm x 1-2.5 cm, long-cuneate at base;
inflorescence a dense, subglobose spurious head c.
Selection of species 1 cm in diameter with peduncle up to 1 cm long;
flowers with subtubular calyx up to 4 mm long
Hyptis brevipes Poit. and corolla up to 4 mm long, white but lower lip
Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 7:465 (1806). yellowish. H. brevipes occurs in waste places,
Vernacular names Indonesia: boborongan, mainly under per-humid climatic conditions up to
genggeyan (Sundanese), godong puser (Javanese). 1200 m altitude; it is often abundant in fallow rice
Malaysia: sawi enggang, sawi hutan, ati-ati puteh fields.
(Peninsular). Thailand: chat pra in (southern). Selected sources 121,247, 334, 646.
Vietnam: [es]cu[oos]ng ng[aws]n.
Distribution Native to Central America, but Hyptis capitata Jacq.
naturalized pantropically, and throughout Indo- Collectanea 1: 102 (1787).
China, Thailand and Malesia. Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: botonesan (Ta-
galog), palapasagi (Panay Bisaya), tultulisan
(Iloko).Vietnam: [es]h[if]nh thoi, [es]hoa d[aaf]u.
Distribution Native to tropical America, but
naturalized in the Old World tropics and through-
out Malesia.
Uses In the Philippines a decoction of the leaves
is used externally to treat wounds, and a decoction
of the roots internally against amenorrhoea. In
Central America a decoction of the plant is ap-
plied against toothache, gastro-intestinal trou-
bles, oedema, intermittent fever, bronchial com-
plaints and sore eyes.
Observations A large, erect herb up to 250 cm
tall, not aromatic; leaves lanceolate to rhomboid-
elliptical, 6-10(-14) cm x 1.5-4(-6) cm, cuneate
and decurrent at base; inflorescence a dense, sub-
globose spurious head c. 1cm in diameter with pe-
duncle up to 5(-8) cm long; flowers with tubular
calyx up to 8 mm long and corolla up to 6 mm
long, white, violet-dotted. H. capitata occurs in
waste places, along water courses, on fallow rice
fields and in open teak forest, up to 1300 m alti-
tude, sometimes gregariously.
Selected sources 247, 451,646, 760.
Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit.

Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 7:474, t. 30 (1806).
Hyptis brevipes Poit. - 1, top of flowering and Distribution Native to tropical America, but
fruiting stem; 2, flower in lateral view; 3, flower in naturalized in many other tropical regions; in
front view; 4, fruiting calyx; 5, fruit after removal Malesia found in West Java and New Guinea (Mo-
of calyx. robe District).
ILLIGERA 259
Uses The leaves are commonly used in tradi- vanese), jukut bau (Sundanese), mang-kamang
tional medicine in Africa, e.g. as a purgative, anal- (Madurese). Malaysia: malbar hutan, selaseh hu-
gesic and febrifuge, and to treat dysentery, chest tan, pokok kemangi (Peninsular). Papua New
complaints, cough, rheumatism, boils, internal Guinea: iliplua (New Britain), pedidi (Milne Bay).
piles, early rectal cancer and scabies. Similar uses Philippines: suob-kabayo (Tagalog), loko-loko
are known for Central America. The leaves are al- (Bisaya), amotan (Bikol). Thailand: kaaraa (Surat
soused for flavouring soup. Thani), maeng lak khaa (Chumphon). Vietnam:
Observations A large, shrubby herb up to 250 [es]th[ow]m, ti[as] t[oo] d[aj]i.
cm tall, aromatic; leaves ovate or elliptical, 2-3 cm Distribution Native to tropical America, but
x 1-1.5 cm, rounded or truncate at base; inflores- naturalized in the Old World tropics and through-
cence a spurious raceme up to 8(-15) cm long, con- out Indo-China, Thailand and Malesia.
sisting of many secund cymes and generally form- Uses In the Philippines the stem tips and leaves
ing a large, terminal panicle; flowers with tubular are used externally to treat wounds and skin dis-
calyx up to 4 mm long and corolla up to 3.5 mm eases, in a bath to treat rheumatism and as su-
long, violet or pale mauve fading to cream. H. dorific, and internally as antispasmodic. The root
pectinata occurs in waste places and along water has emmenagogue and stomachic properties, and
courses, up to 700 m altitude, locally gregariously. is also used to treat rheumatism. The leaves are
Selected sources 95, 120, 247, 646, 729. also used as insect repellent, e.g. against bedbugs.
In Papua New Guinea leaves are applied external-
Hyptis spicigera Lamk ly to cuts and wounds, and internally to treat
Encycl. 3: 185 (1789). fever and catarrh. In Indonesia the plant is used
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: mossolan (Less- as galactagogue. In China stems and leaves are
er Sunda Islands), babalu bugis (Sulawesi). Phi- used in traditional medicine to treat colds,
lippines: kalu-ui (Cebu Bisaya), ikugkuting (Su- rheumatism, eczema and bruises. In Africa and
hl). Central America H. suaveolens has similar medic-
Distribution Native to tropical America, but inal applications. In Thailand pounded branches
naturalized in many other tropical regions; in and leaves are used as lice repellent for chickens.
Malesia found in south-eastern Borneo, the Lesser The shoot tips sometimes serve as a food flavour-
Sunda Islands, the Philippines, Sulawesi and the ing and the roots as an appetizer. The whole plant
Moluccas. is occasionally used as forage for cattle.
Uses The whole plant and leaves are commonly Observations A large, much-branched herb up
used in traditional medicine in Africa, e.g as to 200 cm tall, strongly aromatic, almost fetid;
febrifuge, bechic and expectorant and to treat leaves ovate to broadly obovate, 3-5 cm x 2-4 cm,
bronchial troubles, headache, dysentery, wounds, rounded or truncate, often slightly oblique, at base;
skin diseases and ophthalmia. The plant is com- inflorescence a lax, 2-5-flowered secund cyme
monly used to repel insects, e.g. mosquitoes and arranged racemosely towards the ends of branch-
termites. The seeds are used as a flavouring in es; flowers with campanulate calyx up to 10 mm
stews and sauces. long and corolla up to 8 mm long, blue to violet. H.
Observations An erect herb up to 150 cm tall, suaveolens occurs in waste places, roadsides, along
aromatic; leaves lanceolate to elliptical-lanceolate, water courses and the sea-shore, in fallow fields
2.5-6 cm x 1-3 cm, cuneate and decurrent at base; and plantations, garden regrowths and savanna,
inflorescence a terminal and axillary spurious up to 1300 m altitude, often gregariously.
spike or head up to 1.5 cm long (up to 4.5 cm in Selected sources 120, 121, 173, 196, 247, 334,
fruit); flowers with tubular calyx up to 7 mm long 347, 646, 718, 760, 761,811, 1030.
and corolla purplish, pale blue or violet. H. spici- Rini Sasanti Handayani
gera occurs in waste places, rice fields, dry grass-
land and on coastal coral limestone, up to 900 m
altitude, locally gregariously. Illigera luzonensis (Presl) Merr.
Selected sources 120, 247.
Philipp. Gov. Lab. Publ. Bur. Bull. 17: 18 (1904).
H y p t i s s u a v e o l e n s (L.) P o i t . HERNANDIACEAE
Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 7: 472, t. 29, f. 2 2n =unknown
(1806). Synonyms Illigera ternata (Blanco) Dunn
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: lampesan (Ja- (1908), Illigera cardiophylla Merr. (1914), Illigera
ovatifolia Quis. &Merr. (1928) p.p.

Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: lagitik (Taga-
log), alibalibin (Pampanga), kuripatong (Iloko).
Origin and geographic distribution I. luzo-
nensis is found from the southern Ryukyu Islands
southwards to Taiwan and the Philippines (Lu-
zon, Palawan, Mindoro, Samar).
Uses The traditional use of 7. luzonensis in the
Philippines is very limited. Sap from the stem was
drunk as a remedy for headache in central Luzon.
In Peninsular Malaysia traditional uses are
recorded for two other Illigera species of slightly
unclear identity. The leaves of what is possibly I.
parviflora Dunn (synonym: I. appendiculata auct.
non Blume) are used for poulticing boils. Appar-
ently an extract of the bark of I. pulchra Blume
(synonym: I. lucida Teijsm. &Binnend.) is used to
cure rheumatism.
Properties Pharmacological studies have re-
vealed that extracts of/, luzonensis exhibit signifi-
cant biological activities, e.g. antispasmodic, anal-
gesic, antifebrile and local anaesthetic effects.
Aporphines and oxoaporphines were isolated from
I. luzonensis stems. Several of these compounds
(actinodaphnine, N-methylactinodaphnine, launo-
bine, dicentrine, O-methylbulbocapnine, hernovi-
ne and liriodenine) showed significant antiplatelet Illigera luzonensis (Presl) Merr. - fruiting branch.
aggregation activity, whereas actinodaphnine and
dicentrinone exhibited significant vasorelaxant long. Seed without endosperm; embryo straight;
activities in tests with rats. cotyledons large.
Results from experiments using various animal In the Philippines I. luzonensis flowers in Septem-
models indicate that N-methylactinodaphnine is a ber-October. Short-range dispersal of the seeds is
selective a-adrenoceptor antagonist. a-Adrenocep- probably by wind.
tors mediate many important physiological func- Illigera comprises some 20 species, and occurs in
tions, and the development of a-adrenoceptor an- Africa and Madagascar (3 species) and tropical
tagonists is important in clinical medicine, partic- and subtropical Asia; in Malesia 9 species are in-
ularly for the treatment of cardiovascular dis- digenous.
eases. Ecology I. luzonensis is common on lower
Botany A liana up to 5 m long, climbing with mountain slopes, also in secondary regrowth and
the aid of twisted petioles. Leaves alternate, 3-fo- forest plantations, from sea-level up to 1300 m al-
liolate; petiole 4-12 cm long; stipules absent; titude.
leaflets (sub)orbicular or ovate, 4-13 cm x 3-10.5 Genetic resources I. luzonensis is locally com-
cm, base truncate, cordate or cuneate, apex acute mon and occurs also in secondary habitats, and
or acuminate, 3-5-veined, glabrous or hairy, peti- therefore does not appear to be threatened by ge-
olulate. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary thyrse netic erosion.
up to 20 cm long. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, Prospects Some ofthe alkaloids isolated from I.
bracteolate; tepals 10, in two rows, subequal, luzonensis may serve as model compounds for the
lanceolate, c. 10 mm x 3 mm, green or pale pink; treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Further re-
stamens 5, inserted opposite the outer tepals and search is needed to evaluate their potential.
alternating with sessile glands, staminal ap- Literature 151,247, 299.
pendages inflated, spathe-like; ovary inferior, 1- Other selected sources 121, 380, 618, 621,
celled. Fruit a samara, nut 1.5-3.5 cm long, wings 731.
hemi-orbicular or sublingulate, 2 longer ones J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
1.5-2.5 cm long, (l-)2 shorter ones 0.5(-l) cm
INDIGOFERA 261
I n d i g o f e r a L. tetrachloride-induced liver damage in rabbits,

rats and mice, as confirmed by histopathological
Sp. pi. 2: 751 (1753) ;Gen. pi. ed. 5: 333 (1754). studies.
LEGUMINOSAE Pharmacological research on I. arrecta supports
x = 8;I. linnaei, I. tinctoria: 2n =16 its traditional use in Ghana, where an aqueous ex-
Origin and geographic distribution Indigo- tract of leaves from immature shoots is adminis-
fera consists of about 700 species, and is widely tered orally to patients with diabetes mellitus.
distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Africa, This extract prevented the development of hyper-
the Americas, Asia and Australia. Africa is richest glycaemia in genetically obese diabetic mice. In
in species, but the southern Himalaya region is al- tests with rats, an intraperitoneal administration
so comparatively rich. Approximately 35 species of a hot water extract of dried leaves decreased
occur naturally in South-East Asia, 16 of which the plasma glucose levels of fasting normogly-
are found in the Malesian region. Additionally, caemic rats, but did not prevent the rise in plasma
several species have been introduced in South- glucose after an oral glucose load. It was suggest-
East Asia. ed that the extract is insulinotropic and may re-
Uses Indigofera is used in traditional medicine quire functional ß-cells to be active. The extract
in South-East Asia for various complaints, exter- was devoid of acute and subchronic toxic effects in
nally, e.g. to treat sores, ulcers and aphthae, as tests with mice. Clinical test data suggest that the
well as internally, e.g. to treat epilepsy and as a plant may not have overt toxic reactions in hu-
diuretic. Some Indigofera species are well-known mans but could affect the immune status of users.
dye plants throughout the world, especially I. ar- A medicine based on I. arrecta for the manage-
recta Höchst, ex A. Rich, and I. tinctoria L., the ment ofpeptic ulcer has been patented.
leaves of which are also used in traditional medi- Many Indigofera species contain toxic compounds.
cine to treat epilepsy and nervous disorders, and The toxic effects of I. linnaei may well be attrib-
to heal sores and ulcers. Several Indigofera uted to the presence of nitropropanoyl esters that
species are used as a cover crop, green manure or upon hydrolysis yield 3-nitropropanoic acid. This
fodder, e.g. I. hirsuta L. and I. suffruticosa Miller, compound inhibits succiniate dehydrogenase and
both of which have medicinal applications: the other essential respiratory enzymes. Several
leaves of the first are used to treat stomach com- flavonoids have been isolated from Indigofera, in-
plaints in the Philippines and Thailand, the roots cluding/, linifolia.
ofthe second to treat stomach-ache and diarrhoea, Botany Annual or perennial herbs or shrubs,
the leaves against fever and thejuice against diar- with a taproot; branches spreading or ascending;
rhoea in Malaysia. Seeds are used occasionally as indumentum consisting of 2-branched hairs.
a famine food, including those of7. linifolia and I. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, sometimes trifo-
linnaei. liolate or unifoliolate; stipules usually persistent.
In Taiwan the roots of I. zollingeriana Miq. are Inflorescence an axillary raceme, bracteate. Flow-
used to treat stomach-ache and snakebites. In ers bisexual, pedicellate; calyx campanulate, 5-
Burma (Myanmar) the roots of I. cassioides Rott- toothed; corolla papilionaceous, standard without
ier ex DC. (synonym: I. pulchella Roxb.) are ap- appendages, usually pubescent outside, wings
plied to treat cough. usually with an auricle at base, keel with auricles
Properties An ethanol extract from the leaves at base and with lateral pockets; stamens 10, 9
of I. oblongifolia showed in-vitro antibacterial ac- connate and 1 free, all fertile, alternatingly short-
tivity against Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia er and longer; ovary superior, sessile, 1-celled,
coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus style curved upwards. Fruit a linear to globose
aureus. Small proteins or peptides in the leaves of pod, 1-20-seeded, dehiscent or not. Seeds globose
I. oblongifolia show considerable in-vitro antibac- to ellipsoid, cylindrical or quadrangular. Seedling
terial and antifungal activity. These compounds with epigeal germination; cotyledons thick, short-
probably play a role in the defence mechanism of lasting.
the plant. In Java flowering and fruiting of/, linifolia is lim-
An extract ofthe above ground parts ofI. tinctoria ited to March-June, whereas I. linnaei and 7. ob-
shows hypoglycaemic and central nervous system- longifolia can be found flowering and fruiting
depressant effects in rats, and potentiates pento- throughout the year. I. linifolia and 7.linnaei both
barbital sodium-induced sleep in mice. An ethanol have nodulating ability.
extract possesses protective effects against carbon The large number of species makes a worldwide
taxonomical study of Indigofera a daunting task.

In many regions the genus has been incompletely
studied, and in regions where a taxonomie revi-
sion has been accomplished, comparisons with
other regions have usually not been done.
Ecology Most Indigofera species occur in open
locations, such as grassland, roadsides and open
#"i^
deciduous forest, in the lowland. In South-East
Asia several species are bound to monsoon areas.
I. linifolia prefers an extremely dry monsoon cli-
mate.
Management Propagation of the Indigofera
species treated here is by seed. Soaking for 5 min-
utes in concentrated H 2 S0 4 increased the germi-
nation rate of I. oblongifolia seeds from 10% to
90%, whereas gibberellic acid was ineffective. I n / .
linifolia pretreatment with KN0 3 , 1-naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA) and 3-indole acetic acid (IAA)
proved to be effective in breaking seed dormancy,
whereas for I. linnaei this did not work. Thiourea
proved to be effective in both species.
Genetic resources In view of their wide distri-
bution and presence in dry open habitats, the In-
digofera species treated here do not appear to be
threatened by genetic erosion.
Prospects Several fractions of Indigofera
showed various interesting pharmacological ef-
fects, both in vitro and in vivo. Further research is Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. - 1, flowering and
needed to fully evaluate these preliminary results fruiting twig; 2, old inflorescence; 3, flower bud; 4,
for future applications. corolla.
Literature 198,239, 542, 688, 731, 870.
Observations An annual or perennial, pros-
trate or erect herb or shrublet up tolOO cm tall;
Selection of species leaves unifoliate, elliptical to linear, 0.5-4 cm x
0.2-0.4 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate; inflo-
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. rescence up to 15 mm long; calyx 3-4 mm long,
Obs. 4:29(1786). standard elliptical, up to 5 mm long, pale with a
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: rumba mutong red base, wings and keel slightly shorter, bright
(Sumba), rhema mon-hoi (Flores). Vietnam: red; fruit globose, beaked, 2-3 mm x 1.5 mm,
ch[af]m l[as] lanh. densely appressed grey-hairy, 1-seeded, endocarp
Distribution From Sudan and Ethiopia east- not blotched; seed rounded, laterally flattened, 1.2
ward to Indo-China, China, the Ryukyu Islands, mm x 1mm. I. linifolia is found on very arid local-
Taiwan and Thailand, and throughout the drier ities on grassland, cropped land, roadsides, beach-
parts of South-East Asia (in Malesia in eastern es and grassy deciduous forest from sea-level up to
Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Philippines 750 m altitude.
(Luzon) and New Guinea), southward to northern Selected sources 35, 62, 121, 181, 198, 250,
Australia. 334, 965.
Uses In India the whole plant is given as a
febrifuge. In combination with Euphorbia thymi- Indigofera linnaei Ali
folia L. it is used to treat amenorrhoea. It is fur- Bot. Notis. 3:549 (1958).
ther credited with vermifuge properties. The Synonyms Hedysarum prostratum Burm.f.
leaves are used to treat cuts and wounds. I. linifo- (1768), Indigofera enneaphylla L. (1771), Indigo-
lia is recommended as a fodder for goats in very fera prostrata (L.) Domin (1926).
dry areas. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: dedekan, trus-
INDOROUCHERA 263
pala (Javanese), met garnet (Madurese). Vietnam: leaflets 1-5, alternate, sometimes almost opposite,
ch[af]m linne. obovate to narrowly obovate, the terminal one
Distribution From Pakistan and India east- 1.6-4 cm x 0.5-1 cm, the lateral ones 1.2 cm x
ward to Indo-China, Thailand, throughout the dri- 0.4-0.8 cm; inflorescence 1.5-8 cm long; calyx up
er parts of Malesia (eastern Java, the Lesser Sun- to 2 mm long, standard orbicular, 4 mm long,
da Islands, Sulawesi and New Guinea) to Aus- greenish-yellow with red streaks, wings and keel
tralia. shorter and elliptical; fruit slightly curved, con-
Uses In Java the plant is used against aphthae stricted between the seeds, rounded in cross-sec-
and as a diuretic. In India the plant juice is used tion, 10-20 mm x 2 mm, hairy, (3-)7-9-seeded, en-
as an antiscorbutic, diuretic and alterative. Boiled docarp blotched; seeds broadly elliptical, 2 mm x 1
with oil, the aboveground parts are applied to mm. I. oblongifolia occurs in grassland and along
burns. A decoction is given to treat epilepsy and roadsides, especially along the coast below 100 m
insanity. I. linnaei is recommended as a green ma- altitude.
nure. In pastures it is a fodder for cattle, but it is Selected sources 59, 62, 121,181,198, 944.
poisonous to horses. Sudibyo Supardi &Hurip Pratomo
Observations An annual or perennial herb or
shrublet up to 90 cm tall; leaflets 3-11, alternate,
ovate to narrowly ovate, the terminal one 0.5-1.5 Indorouchera griffithiana (Planchon)
cm x 0.3-0.5 cm, the lateral ones 0.3-1.3 cm x H a l l i e r f.
0.2-0.4 cm, base cuneate, apex obtuse to truncate;
inflorescence 0.5-2.5 cm long; calyx up to 4 mm Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 39: 50 (1923).
long, standard broadly ovate to orbicular, 3-5 mm LlNACEAE
long, bright red with a pale base, wings and keel 2n =unknown
slightly shorter, orange-red; fruit spreading, glo- Synonyms Roucheria griffithiana Planchon
bose, slightly beaked, 3-8 mm x 1.5-2 mm, hairy, (1847).
(l-)2-3-seeded, endocarp not blotched; seeds Vernacular names Brunei: akar katjap. In-
rounded, 1 mm x 1 mm. I. linnaei is found in donesia: akar tanduk, takkolan (Malay), wa bakar
grassland, along roadsides and on dykes from sea- (Iban). Malaysia: akar garam-garam, akar ser-
level up to 400 m altitude. awan (Peninsular), dingkai (Sabah).
Selected sources 35, 62, 121, 181, 198, 250, Origin and geographic distribution I. grif-
334, 965. fithiana occurs in the Nicobar Islands, southern
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, western
Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. Java (rare) and Borneo.
Fl. Aegypt.-Arab.: 137 (1775). Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves and
Synonyms Indigofera paucifolia Delile (1813). flowers are applied to the head to treat headache,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: torn (Javanese). and a decoction of the roots is used against bowel
Distribution From tropical Africa to northern complaints. A decoction of the roots and stem is
India and Sri Lanka, and Java (probably intro- applied to treat fever, e.g. in case of malaria.
duced). The bark and sap are used as a blow-pipe dart
Uses The plant is reported as an antisyphilitic. poison. The fruits are edible, and have a tomato-
In the traditional Ayurvedic system the root is like flavour. When a liana is cut in the forest,
considered cooling, improving the appetite and a fresh water can be obtained from it. The wood is
remedy for rheumatism. All parts of the plant are sometimes used for small objects such as knife
considered useful in enlargements of the liver and handles.
spleen. The leaf is a vulnerary, and it is used to Properties According to old records, lupeol and
treat dysentery. In Yemen the leaves are tradi- saponin are present in the bark. More recent in-
tionally used for urinary infections, urolithiasis vestigations gave contradictory results: one sam-
and skin infections. In East Africa the root is ple showed the presence of terpenes in the leaves,
boiled with milk and used as purgative; a de- but negative results for alkaloids and saponins in
coction of the stem is applied as a gargle. In In- leaves and stems, whereas another sample show-
dia I. oblongifolia is planted as a green manure in ed very high contents of alkaloids and saponin in
wet lands, and recommended as a fodder for the stem and a low content of these compounds in
sheep. the leaves.
Observations A small shrub up to 180 cm tall; Botany A large liana up to 30 m long, with stem
up to 10 cm in diameter, rarely a shrub up to 4 m Other selected sources 249, 282, 334, 705,
tall; hooks present at the end ofclimbing shoots or 731.
arranged distichously in the leaf axils or inflores- H.C. Ong
cences; buds, stipules and pedicels often covered
with resin. Leaves alternate, distichous, simple,
elliptical to obovate, (4-)7.5-11.5(-19) cm x Kigelia africana (Lamk) Benth.
(l-)2.5-4(-7) cm, cuneate at base, usually acumi-
nate at apex, margin glandular to crenate, with Hook., Niger FL: 463 (1849).
(5-)7-10 pairs of secondary veins; petiole (0.5-)l-2 BIGNONIACEAE
cm long; stipules triangular to ovate, up to 1mm x W=20,21,2TI = 40
2 mm, crenate. Inflorescence an axillary fascicle Synonyms Kigelia aethiopica (Fenzl) Decne.
without bracts, (l-)3-7(-10)-flowered. Flowers bi- (1845),Kigeliapinnata (Jacq.) DC. (1845).
sexual, regular, 5-merous, heterodistylous; pedicel Vernacular names Sausage tree (En). Saucis-
articulate, densely beset with bracteoles; sepals sonnier, faux baobab (Fr). Thailand: sai krok
free, unequal, elliptical to ovate or orbicular, up to africaa (Bangkok). Vietnam: d[oof]i, b[is] d[awj]c.
3 mm long; petals free, elliptical to obovate, up to Origin and geographic distribution K.
8.5 mm long, thin, white to bright yellow, pale or- africana originates from tropical Africa, where it
ange or reddish-brown; stamens 10, alternately is widespread. It is widely cultivated in other trop-
shorter and longer, filaments basally connate into ical regions as an ornamental tree in parks and
a tube; ovary superior, 3(-4)-celled, styles 3-4(-5). along roads. It is locally planted in South-East
Fruit an ovoid to ellipsoid drupe up to 7 mm long, Asia, e.g. in Vietnam, Thailand, Peninsular Ma-
yellow to red, with raised ribs on the mesocarp laysia, Java and the Philippines.
(especially conspicuous in dried fruits), l(-2)-seed- Uses In Africa, K africana is a true multipur-
ed. Seed semi-ovoid, up to 4.5 mm long, with short pose tree. It is highly esteemed for ritual purposes
aril; endosperm copious, oily. as well as for medicinal applications, as a shade
I. griffithiana can be found flowering and fruiting and ornamental tree, and for its wood. In tradi-
throughout the year. tional medicine, the fruits are most commonly
Indorouchera belongs to the subfamily Hugo- used and sold on markets, and their uses are often
nioideae, together with Hugonia and Philbornea. interwoven with ritual uses as they are considered
This subfamily is sometimes distinguished as a a strong fetish. A decoction ofthe fruit is adminis-
separate family Hugoniaceae. Within Hugonioi- tered as a galactagogue, internally as well as ex-
deae, Indorouchera is characterized by the glab- ternally, and is also used to treat oedema of the
rous plants with distichously arranged leaves, legs and cancer. The fruit is purgative and toxic,
usually 1-seeded fruit, and buds and stipules often and is applied in poultices to treat syphilis and
covered by resin. It comprises 2 species, both oc- rheumatism, and as a sexual stimulant. A decoc-
curring in the Malesian region. I. contestiana tion with peppers is used to treat constipation and
(Pierre) Hallier f. is much rarer than I. griffithi- piles, and powdered fruits are applied to ulcers
ana; it has only been found in coastal regions of and to treat rheumatism. The fruit is commonly
southern Cambodia, southern Vietnam and north- used in the preparation of beer, to make it
western Borneo. stronger. The leaves and bark are sometimes ap-
Ecology I. griffithiana occurs in rain forest, pri- plied to treat dysentery, and stomach and kidney
mary as well as secondary, also in swamp forest, complaints. The slightly bitter bark is used in
up to 1500 m altitude, and is common in most re- mixtures with other plants to treat epilepsy, and
gions within its area of distribution. also to treat snakebites, rheumatism, asthma,
Genetic resources I. griffithiana is not liable syphilis, gonorrhoea, and externally to treat
to genetic erosion; it is common in many locations wounds, sores and ringworm. The likewise bitter
and widely distributed, unlike I. contestiana. The root is administered as a remedy for boils, sore
variation in chemical contents recorded in the lit- throat, constipation and tapeworm.
erature deserves attention. The wood is whitish to yellowish with a pale
Prospects Chemical and pharmacological in- brown heart, and medium-weight. It is used in
vestigations are needed to determine the pros- Africa for dugout canoes, tool-handles, small im-
pects of I. griffithiana as a medicinal plant with plements and boxes, and occasionally for fence
wider utilization. posts.
Literature 121,247. In South-East Asia, it is apparently only planted
KlGELIA 265
as a roadside tree and in parks, and no medicinal tally. Inflorescence a terminal, pendent panicle up
uses have yet been recorded. It is a conspicuous to 200 cm long. Flowers bisexual, large; pedicel
ornamental tree, with extremely large flowers and 8-18 cm long, apically upcurved; calyx 3.5-5 cm
fruits. long, irregularly lobed, greenish; corolla above the
Properties Chemical investigations showed narrow base funnel-shaped, 10-14 cm long, with
that the aqueous extracts ofthe stem bark contain tube as long as calyx or longer, 2-lipped, upper lip
iridoids as major components. These extracts 2-lobed, lower lip 3-fid, outside veined, yellowish,
showed significant antimicrobial activity. The inside dark wine-red; stamens 4, inserted at the
naphthoquinones kigelinone, isopinnatal, dehy- top of the narrow part of the corolla tube, 1 large
dro-cc-lapachone and lapachol and the phenyl- staminode present; ovary superior, 2-celled. Fruit
propanoids p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid have a large sausage-like, pendulous berry, 25-50 cm x
been isolated as the compounds responsible for 7.5-15 cm, shortly beaked, often on still flowering
the observed antibacterial and antifungal activity panicles, many-seeded. Seeds obovoid, wingless.
of the roots, as well as kigelinone and caffeic acid K. africana trees are in general fast-growing. In
from the fruits. Flavonoids such as luteolin and bud, the calyx contains much watery slime. The
quercetin have been isolated from the leaves and flowers open in the evening, have a disagreeable
fruits. acid smell, and are much visited by bats, although
Aqueous leaf extracts protected rats and mice hawkmoths apparently also provide pollination.
from castor oil-induced diarrhoea; they reduced The corolla falls off the next morning. In Java, the
faecal output and decreased the propulsive move- trees can be found flowering throughout the year.
ment of the gastro-intestinal contents. Oral ad- The genus Kigelia is now usually considered to
ministration ofan ethanolic extract ofthe fruits to comprise only one single extremely variable
mice resulted in a significant inhibition in the tu- species.
mour incidence and burden in the benzo[a]pyrene- Ecology In Africa, K. africana occurs naturally
induced forestomach tumourigenesis model. The in rain forest and in remnants of forest in the sa-
extract also evinced anti-inflammatory effects in vanna, usually in damp sites, often along rivers.
rats against albumen-induced paw inflammation. In South-East Asia, it is planted in the lowlands,
A dichloromethane extract of the stem bark up to 700 m altitude. However, it has been ob-
showed significant and dose-dependent inhibitory served to flower poorly in the per-humid climate of
activity on the growth of melanoma and renal car- Singapore.
cinoma cell lines in vitro, with norviburtinal as Management K. africana is easily cultivated.
the most active compound. Lapachol showed simi- Fresh seeds germinate well, and seedlings grow
lar activity, and therefore might be one of the ac- reasonably fast and straight upwards, beginning
tive compounds too. Dichloromethane extracts of to branch only after some years.
the root bark and stem bark exhibited antitry- Genetic resources There are no large ex situ
panosomal activity against Trypanosoma brucei in germplasm collections of K. africana. In Africa, it
vitro. Some naphthoquinones have been deter- is widespread and subject to some protection be-
mined as active compounds. Naphthoquinones cause it is often considered valuable by the local
were also identified as the active compounds in a population. The extremely great variation in mor-
hexane extract of K. africana exhibiting anti- phology and chemical composition is remarkable
malarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum. and warrants further research. The genetic basis
A bark extract showed acute toxicity to fish, and it of the planted K. africana trees in South-East
also has molluscicidal activity. It caused total sup- Asia is not known, but is likely to be quite narrow.
pression of larval hatching of Meloidogyne incog-
Prospects Although up to the present time K.
nita. The observed cytotoxicity of the root bark in
africana has only been used as an ornamental tree
the brine shrimp assay was attributed to the pres-
in South-East Asia, it has fairly good prospects as
ence of y-sitosterol, which showed activity similar
a medicinal plant. The results of tests on pharma-
to lapachol.
cological activities in animal models add credence
Botany A small to medium-sized tree up to 20 to the folklore use of K. africana fruits for the
m tall, widely branched; branchlets with large leaf treatment ofcancer and oedema in traditional sys-
scars. Leaves decussately opposite or whorled, tems of medicine in Africa. The antimicrobial ac-
usually in whorls of 3, pinnately compound, up to tivity deserves more attention. It may be tried for
50 cm long; stipules absent; leaflets 7-13, ovate to planting on a larger scale in South-East Asia as a
elliptical, up to 20 cm x 7 cm, entire or serrate dis- multipurpose tree.
Literature 26, 29, 61, 93, 120, 247, 372, 406, merous; sepals united at base, c. 0.5 mm long,
986. finely pubescent outside; petals united at base, c.
Other selected sources 62,121, 468, 639, 760. 2 mm long, violet to dirty white, lobes valvate,
R.E. Nasution &R.H.M.J. Lemmens ovate; stamens opposite the petals, anthers ses-
sile; ovary superior, 1-celled, style filiform. Fruit a
globose, 1-seeded berry, red at maturity.
Labisia p u m i l a (Blume) Fern.-Vill. In Java L. pumila can be found flowering and
fruiting throughout the year. Labisia consists of
Nov. app.: 123 (1880). some 6-9 species, most of them confined to west-
MYRSINACEAE ern Malesia. L. pumila is the only widespread
In =46-50 species. It is variable and sometimes several vari-
Synonyms Ardisia pumila Blume (1823), La- eties are recognized.
bisia pothoina Lindley (1845). Ecology L. pumila is a locally common under-
Vernacular names Indonesia: kelimparan tuli storey plant of primary forest and old secondary
(Belitung), udu mudung bio' (Kenyah, East Kali- forest. In Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo it is
mantan). Malaysia : kacip fatima, mata pelandok found from sea-level up to 750 m altitude, but in
rimba, bunga belangkas hutan (Peninsular). West Java it occurs at 900-1200 m altitude.
Origin and geographic distribution L. pu- Management L. pumila can be propagated by
mila occurs in Indo-China, peninsular Thailand seed and is harvested after 7-8 months. Small-
and throughout the Malesian region. scale planting experiments have been done in
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia a root decoction is Malaysia.
taken in the months before giving birth to induce Genetic resources Since L. pumila is wide-
and ease delivery. A decoction of leaves and roots, spread, occurring in both primary and secondary
often mixed with other plants, is drunk as a pro- forest, the risk of genetic erosion appears to be
tective post-partum tonic. L. pumila is further limited. However, overcollecting may locally seri-
used to treat flatulence and dysentery, and a de- ously deplete wild populations, e.g. in Peninsular
coction of leaves and stems is drunk to treat dys- Malaysia.
menorrhoea and a root decoction to treat gonor- Prospects Recent research on pharmacological
rhoea. Capsules based onL. pumila roots are com- properties of L. pumila shows weak oestrogenic
mercially available in Malaysia. In Indonesia a activity, which may be related to its traditional
root decoction is taken to treat syphilis, and a de- use as a pre- and post-partum medicine. More re-
coction ofleaves and stems to treat menorrhagia. search is desirable. The apparently easy propaga-
Properties In a general screening experiment, tion and rapid production add to the prospects as
a crude ethanol extract ofL. pumila showed bioci- a medicinal plant ofwider use.
dal activity against brine shrimp (Artemia salina) Literature 121,411,534, 637, 638, 894.
nauplii. In an in-vitro bioassay based on the oe- Other selected sources 62, 264, 334.
strogen-specific enhancement of alkaline phos- Sriana Azis
phatase (AlkP) in human endometrial adenocarci-
noma cells, an ethanolic root extract revealed
weak oestrogenicity. In a modified disc-diffusion Legazpia polygonoides (Benth.)
assay, a methanol leaf extract showed moderate Yamazaki
antibacterial activity against gram-positive Pseu-
domonas spp. and gram-negative Staphylococcus Journ. Jap. Bot. 30: 359 (1955).
spp. and weak antifungal activity against Candi- SCROPHULARIACEAE
da lipolytica and the dermatophytic fungus Tri- 2« = unknown
choplyton rubrum. Synonyms Torenia polygonoides Benth. (1835),
Botany An erect or ascending undershrub up to Legazpia mucronulata (Benth.) Yamazaki (1955).
30(-50) cm tall; stem unbranched. Leaves alter- Vernacular names Malaysia: kerak nasi, te-
nate, simple, oblong-lanceolate, (8-)15-25 cm x rutap batu, rumput sisek naga (Peninsular). Phi-
(2.5-)5-7 cm, decurrent at base, shallowly crenu- lippines: lalagang (Subanun), monko (Manobo).
late or subentire, variably lepidote below; long- Thailand: mak dip namkhang (south-eastern).
petiolate to subsessile; stipules absent. Inflores- Vietnam: l[ee] ga d[af]y, c[or] b[uw][ows]m
cence an axillary raceme 2-8 cm long, ferrugi- tr[aws]ng.
neously puberulous. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5- Origin and geographic distribution L. poly-
LEONOTIS 267
gonoides occurs in eastern India, Burma (Myan- Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br.
mar), Indo-China, southern China, south-eastern
and peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, W.T. Aiton, Hortus kew. ed. 2, 3: 409 (1811;
Borneo, the Philippines, New Guinea and Mi- 'nepetaefolia').
cronesia. In Java, it is locally naturalized along LABiATAE
ditches in the botanical garden in Bogor. re = 13,2« =24, 28
U s e s In traditional medicine in Peninsular Vernacular names Indonesia: nampong (Sun-
Malaysia, pounded whole plants are applied exter- danese). Thailand: chat phra in (central). Viet-
nally as a poultice to treat sores on the legs, ulcers nam: s[uw]nh[ix].
and dropsy. A decoction of whole plants is used Origin and geographic distribution L. ne-
against problems ofthe urinary tract. petifolia is native to tropical Africa, but is intro-
Botany A perennial herb, with creeping stems duced and naturalized in many tropical regions.
up to 60 cm long, rooting at nodes, quadrangular. In the Malesian region there are records for
Leaves opposite, simple, ovate or orbicular-ovate, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Bang-
0.5-3 cm x 0.5-2 cm, rounded or cuneate at base, ka and Java.
acute at apex, serrate, usually glabrous; petiole Uses There is a record from Peninsular Ma-
0.5-1.5 cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence laysia ofL. nepetifolia leaves being used external-
umbellate at the apex of axillary flowering shoots, ly to treat wounds. In India and Thailand, the ash
1-4-flowered; bracts linear, c. 1 mm long. Flowers of flower buds is applied externally to burns,
bisexual; pedicel slender, as long as or slightly scalds, itch and ringworm. In Africa L. nepetifolia
longer than calyx; calyx suborbicular, 4-5 mm x is more commonly used in traditional medicine.
3-4 mm in flower, 7-9 mm x 6-8 mm in fruit, with The leaves are applied externally to wounds,
3 broad wings, shortly auriculate at base, teethed sores, ulcers, piles, swellings and skin infections.
at apex; corolla 7-12 mm long, with cylindrical A decoction of whole plants is used to steam the
tube, 2-lipped with orbicular upper lip and 3- head to relieve catarrh, fever and headache. The
lobed, spreading lower lip, yellow; stamens 4, di- same decoction is used in a bath to treat rheuma-
dynamous, pairs inserted at different level on up- tism, sciatica, neuritis and rickets, and it is taken
per corolla tube, anterior filaments each with a internally as tonic, purge and taenifuge and to
clavate spur at base, anthers of each pair touch- treat fever, gastro-intestinal troubles and dys-
ing; ovary superior, obliquely oblong, 2-celled, menorrhoea. The plants are also used to expel ver-
style filiform, stigma 2-lamellate. Fruit an oblong- min from stored grain. In tropical America medici-
lanceolate capsule c. 5 mm long, included within nal applications are also numerous; decoctions of
the calyx, septicidally dehiscent with 2 valves, leaves, roots and inflorescences are used as a
many-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid-globose, c. 0.3 mm febrifuge, diuretic, stomachic, vermifuge and ton-
long, thinly reticulate, scrobiculate. ic, and against asthma and skin diseases. L.
Legazpia comprises a single species. nepetifolia is sometimes planted as an ornamen-
Ecology L. polygonoides occurs in open sites in tal.
evergreen forest, on riversides and in rice fields, In southern Africa L. ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwars-
usually in wet locations, up to 500 m altitude. son is used to treat cancer, ulcers and wounds,
Genetic resources L. polygonoides has a wide and L. leonurus (L.) R.Br, as an emmenagogue,
distribution, is common in many regions, and of- febrifuge and narcotic.
ten found in secondary habitats. Consequently, it Properties L. nepetifolia contains labdane
is not likely to be vulnerable to genetic erosion. diterpenes such as nepetaefolin. The antioxida-
Prospects The wide availability of wild L. poly- tive phenylethanoid glycosides acteoside, mar-
gonoides and its easy cultivation offer possibilities tynoside and lavandulifolioside have been isolated
for wide usage as a medicinal plant. Since data on from L. nepetifolia, together with some iridoid gly-
phytochemistry and pharmacological properties cosides. The coumarins 6-methoxysiderin and
are not available, research is needed before any 4,6,7-trimethoxy-5-methylchromen-2-one have al-
claimed activity can be confirmed. so been isolated. The essential oil hydrodistilled
Literature 121,249. from the leaves has as major components ß-
Other selected sources 62, 250. caryophyllene (20.5%), cc-humulene (12%), germa-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens crene D (8.5%), caryophyllene oxide (7.5%), octene
(7%), (Z)-ß-ocimene (5%) and ß-copaene (3.5%).
The seed oil contains the fatty acid laballenic acid.
Hydroalcoholic and aqueous extracts of L. nepeti- temperature. Seeds do not germinate at 15-20°C,
folia relaxed rat uterine preparations in vitro. but 100% germination can be reached at 28-32°C
They also caused contractions in guinea-pig ileum and 40-60% soil moisture for 6-month-old seeds.
and inhibited twitch responses. A methanolic ex- Seeds withstand high fluoride concentrations,
tract of the leaves exhibited antibacterial activity making L. nepetifolia very suitable for reclama-
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in tests in India, tion ofpolluted areas.
whereas an ethanolic seed extract showed distinct Genetic resources L. nepetifolia is only locally
antifungal activity against Alternaria alternata common in South-East Asia, e.g. in western Java,
and Aspergillus niger. Seeds have a mild anti- but its pantropical distribution and weedy aspect
malarial activity. assure sufficient protection against genetic ero-
Ethanolic extracts of the southern African species sion.
L. leonurus and L. ocymifolia showed high Prospects L. nepetifolia has been used very lit-
prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitory activity. Sever- tle medicinally in South-East Asia. However, its
al diterpenes, e.g. leonitin, have been isolated common applications in Africa and tropical Ameri-
from the latter species. ca, several of which have been confirmed by phar-
Botany A large annual herb up to 250 cm tall; macological research, warrant more attention.
stem and branches deeply furrowed, finely pubes- Literature 120, 121,247, 646, 910.
cent. Leaves decussately opposite, oblong-ovate to Other selected sources 125,288, 408, 710.
ovate, 4.5-6(-12) cm x 3-5(-9.5) cm, rounded to Sri Hayati Widodo
truncate at base, acute to acuminate at apex,
coarsely crenate-serrate, finely pubescent on both
surfaces; petiole 2-7.5 cm long; stipules absent. L e p i d a g a t h i s Willd.
Inflorescence an axillary, globose, dense verticil-
laster 2.5-7 cm in diameter, composed of several, Sp.pl. 3(1):400(1800).
deflexed, 2-seriate, many-flowered cincinni; bracts ACANTHACEAE
linear-subulate, up to 1.5 cm long, deflexed. Flow- x = 11;L. incurva: n =22, 42
ers bisexual, zygomorphic; calyx funnel-shaped, Origin and geographic distribution Lepida-
1.2-1.5 cm long, enlarging in fruit up to 2 cm, gathis comprises approximately 100 species, and
8-10-toothed with unequal teeth, 8-10-veined, occurs in tropical and subtropical Africa and Asia,
with long white hairs above; corolla 2-2.5 cm long, with about 50 species in each of these continents.
tube with 3 rings of hairs inside, 2-lipped, upper It is still unclear how many species occur in
lip arched, concave, outside densely hairy, lower South-East Asia.
lip 3-lobed, orange; stamens 4, inserted on the Uses A few uses in traditional medicine in
corolla tube, didynamous, ascending under upper South-East Asia have been recorded for the
corolla lip; ovary superior, 4-celled, style subulate, leaves: internally to treat cough, and externally to
gynobasic, upper stigmatic segment reduced to a treat wounds and headache. A few species are
tiny tooth. Fruit consisting of 4 nutlets 2.5-3 mm used medicinally in Africa, e.g. L. heudelotiana
long, oblong or obovoid, glabrous, dull black, en- Nées as a purgative and depurative. Some Lepida-
closed in the persistent calyx. gathis species have ornamental value.
L. nepetifolia can be found flowering throughout Properties A triterpenoid saponin with antimi-
the year. The lower lip of the corolla withers im- crobial activity against various plant-pathogenic
mediately after the flower opens. The flowers are bacteria and fungi has been isolated from a L. in-
pollinated by honey birds, and in Africa several curva leaf extract. An essential oil has been isolat-
species of sunbirds commonly feed from flowers; ed from L. incurva seeds; it showed antimicrobial
bees have also been recorded as pollinators. How- activity in in-vitro tests with bacteria and fungi.
ever, research has shown that autogamy prevails. In addition, a very high oleic acid content (72%)
Leonotis comprises about 10 species, which occur was found in the fatty seed oil from L. trinervis
in Africa. However, L. nepetifolia is naturalized in Nees from India; the oil content of the seed was
tropical Asia, Australia and America. 8.6%.
Ecology L. nepetifolia occurs in waste places, The immunosuppressive tryptophan-derived al-
roadsides, fallow fields and along ponds and lakes, kaloid cristatin A and the flavonoid-glycoside
up to 1350 m altitude. 6-hydroxyluteolin 7-O-apioside have been isolated
Management Research showed that seed ger- from leaves ofthe Indian L. cristata Willd.
mination ofL. nepetifolia is strongly influenced by Botany Erect or ascending herbs or under-
LEPIDAGATHIS 269
shrubs; nodes thickened. Leaves opposite, simple

and entire to crenate-serrate, with short cys-
toliths, subsessile to distinctly petiolate; stipules
absent. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary spike
or head, distinctly bracteate. Flowers bisexual,
sessile; calyx with 5unequal segments, 2 anterior
ones basally connate; corolla with tube narrowed
upwards, widened at apex, 2-lipped, upper lipen-
tire to emarginate, lower lipdeeply 3-lobed, white
to pinkish or purplish, often with darker spots on
lower lip; stamens 4,didynamous, deeply inserted
in the corolla tube, very short, anthers muticous;
ovary superior, 2-celled, style short. Fruit a small
box-shaped capsule, 2-4-seeded. Seeds compress-
ed, long-pubescent.
Lepidagathis is placed in the tribe Lepidagathi-
deae, together with e.g. the related small genus
Chroesthes, which differs in bicalcarate anthers,
larger capsules andshortly pubescent seeds.
Ecology TheLepidagathis species treated here
often occur in more orless disturbed habitats such
as waste places; they are also found on river
banks, open forest, scrub vegetation, and as a
weed in gardens.
Genetic resources L. incurva and L. rumphii
are notliable togenetic erosion because they occur
in anthropogenic habitats.
Prospects More research on phytochemistry Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 1,
and pharmacological properties is needed before plant habit; 2, flower; 3, fruit.
the prospects of Lepidagathis as medicinal plants
can be determined. As is the case in many Acan- recommended asanornamental inflower beds.
thaceae genera, a revision ofLepidagathis is still Observations A perennial, suberect or ascend-
lacking. This is needed to unravel the status of ing herb upto60cmtall; leaves lanceolate-oblong
many species described, e.g. of L. rumphii, the to broadly lanceolate-ovate, 7-12.5 cmx 2-3.5 cm,
identity ofwhich is still uncertain. entire, minutely pubescent, petiole 1-2.5 cm long;
Literature 648, 767. flowers inupto3.5cmlong spikes, corolla c.6 mm
long, whitish, brownish spotted; fruit 5-6 mm
long. L. incurva is a variable species in which sev-
Selection of species eral varieties have been distinguished. It occurs
abundantly in waste ground in northern Peninsu-
Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex lar Malaysia, andin forests andthickets at low to
D.Don medium altitudes inthe Philippines.
Prodr.fl. nepal.: 119 (1825). Selected sources 121,621,789, 1022, 1023.
Synonyms Lepidagathis hyalina Nees (1832).
Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: yaa khon kai Lepidagathis rumphii Merr.
(Loei).Vietnam: l[aa]n ch[uf]y, v[ar]y cong. Interpr. Herb, amboin.: 473 (1917).
Distribution From the subtropical Himalayas, Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: bungo-bungo la-
through India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), In- ki-laki (Moluccas).
do-China, southern China andThailand, to Penin- Distribution The Moluccas.
sular Malaysia andthe Philippines. U s e s Theleaves have been applied asa poultice
Uses The leaves are chewed to cure coughs in to treat wounds and on the head to treat head-
Peninsular Malaysia. L. incurva is also used in ache.
traditional medicine in India. A form with brown- Observations An erect or suberect herb about
striped dark green leaves from India has been 50 cmtall; leaves oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 4-7
cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, entire, glabrous, petiole 1-2.5 cm Ecology L. sylvestris usually occurs in the un-
long; flowers in up to 2.5 cm long spikes, corolla c. dergrowth of evergreen rain forest, sometimes in
5 mm long; fruit c. 5 mm long. L. rumphii occurs village groves and hedges, from sea-level up to
along river banks, in thickets and as a weed in 1250(-2000) m altitude.
gardens, up to 50 m altitude. Genetic resources L. sylvestris is widespread
Selected sources 334, 620. and locally common, and does not appear to be
R.H.M.J. Lemmens threatened by genetic erosion. However, with the
disappearence of vast stretches of primary low-
land rain forest its preferred habitat is becoming
Lepionurus sylvestris Blume reduced.
Prospects Research is needed to evaluate the
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 17: 1148 (1827). potential of the traditional medicinal uses of L.
OPILIACEAE sylvestris since information on its pharmacological
2re = 20 properties is lacking.
Synonyms Lepionurus oblongifolius (Griffith) Literature 121, 173,247.
Masters (1875). Other selected sources 62, 178, 331, 731.
Vernacular names Malaysia: chemperai, chi- J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
pras, pelir kambing (Peninsular). Thailand: maak
mok (peninsular). Vietnam: l[aa]n v[ix].
Origin and geographic distribution L. syl- Leptonychia caudata (Wallich ex G.
vestris is widely distributed in Nepal, north-east- Don) Burrett
ern India, Bangladesh, Burma (Myanmar), Viet-
nam, southern China, Thailand and Malesia Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin-Dahlem 9: 729 (1926).
(Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, western Java and STERCULIACEAE
Borneo). 2n = unknown
Uses In Thailand a decoction of L. sylvestris Synonyms Leptonychia glabra Turcz. (1858),
roots is applied to relieve muscular pain; roots are Leptonychia heteroclita Kurz (1870).
also used as a febrifuge. In Pahang (Peninsular Vernacular names Indonesia: kayu balut-ba-
Malaysia) a poultice made from aerial parts of the lut, sibassa (Sumatra), pakan manok (Central
plant or pounded root is applied to treat headache Kalimantan). Malaysia: cheremai hantu, jarum
in children. (Peninsular), karai (Sabah). Thailand: phak waan
Properties The presence of alkaloids has been (peninsular).
recorded for L. sylvestris leaves and flowers. Origin and geographic distribution L. cau-
Botany An erect or straggling evergreen shrub data occurs in southern India, scattered in Burma
up to 2(-6) m tall. Leaves alternate, simple and (Myanmar), Vietnam and Thailand, and is fairly
entire, obovate, oblong, lanceolate or ovate, common in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and
(5.5-)10-16(-25) cm x (1.5-)3-7(-9) cm, base atten- Borneo.
uate, apex acuminate; petiole l-5(-8) mm long; Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a root decoction of
stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary raceme, L. caudata is drunk during childbirth, and as a
up to 8(-17) together per axil, 2-5 cm long, with febrifuge. The leaves are used as a poultice to
large, ovate, pale green bracts. Flowers 3 per bract, treat ulcerated noses and their juice as a cooling
bisexual, regular, (3-)4(-5)-merous; hypanthium lotion in fever. Pounded leaves are also applied to
cupular; tepals united, deeply lobed, tube 0.5 mm the stomach against stomach-ache.
long, lobes patent, ovate, c. 2 mm long, yellowish; Botany A shrub or small tree up to 12(-20) m
stamens as long as the tube; disk cupular; ovary tall; bole up to 30 cm in diameter, young parts
superior, 1-celled, stigma sessile. Fruit an ellipsoid white to yellowish velutinous, glabrescent, with
drupe 9-16 mm x 6-10 mm, on the thickened disk, black lenticels. Leaves alternate, simple, ovate or
orange-red, 1-seeded. Seed without testa, with 3-4 obovate to ovate- or obovate-lanceolate, 4.5-22 cm
linear cotyledons and copious endosperm. x 1.5-6.5(-9) cm, base cuneate to obtuse, apex
L. sylvestris can be found flowering and fruiting acute to caudate, margin obscurely undulate, 3-
throughout the year. Lepionurus is a monotypic veined at base, nearly glabrous to velutinous with
genus closely related to Urobotrya and Gjelle- stellate hairs, domatia present; petiole 0.5-1 mm
rupia, and characterized by its bisexual flowers long, pulvinate in the upper half; stipules lanceo-
with united tepals. late. Inflorescence an axillary, solitary cyme, 1-7-
LIMACIA 271
flowered, bracteate. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5- and used for implements such as rice-pounders.
merous; sepals ovate-oblong, shortly connate at The bark yields a strong fibre that is used to pro-
base; petals rectangular, shortly clawed, greenish- duce ropes.
white to yellowish or cream-coloured; outer sta- Properties The leaves of L. capitellata have a
minodes filiform, stamens 10, lower part united high magnesium content(625 mg/100 g). The wood
into a ring, inner staminodes 5, connate, triangu- is rich in silica. The bis-styryl ether leucosykol has
lar, short; ovary superior, globose, 2-5-celled, been isolated from the stem of L. quadrinervia
style 1, stigma 2-5-lobed. Fruit a subglobose cap- C.B. Robinson from Taiwan, as have the triter-
sule 1.5-4 cm x 1-2.5 cm, warty, opening by 2-5 penoids friedelin, epifriedelinol, taraxerone and
valves, 1-3-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid to obovoid, taraxerol, and ß-sitosterol.
11-13 mm x 6-9 mm, testa shiny black, smooth, Botany A dioecious shrub or small tree up to 8
covered with a bright orange aril. m tall. Leaves arranged spirally, upper ones often
Leptonychia comprises about 45 species. Most of distichous, simple, elliptical-oblong, 8-17.5 cm x
these occur in tropical Africa, 3 species in South- 3-6.5 cm, acute to obtuse at base, acuminate at
East Asia. apex, finely serrate, white tomentose below, 3-
Ecology L. caudata occurs in both primary and veined from the base and with 1-4 pairs of sec-
secondary forest, including kerangas forest, often ondary veins; petiole 1-3 cm long; stipules con-
along forest edges and logging roads, from sea-lev- nate into an axillary scale up to 2.5 cm long, ca-
el up to occasionally 1300 m altitude (in Sumatra). ducous. Inflorescence a pseudo-axillary, pedun-
Genetic resources L. caudata is relatively cled, globose head 0.5-1 cm in diameter, often 2
widespread and not threatened by genetic ero- heads close together. Flowers unisexual, regular,
sion. small; male flowers with 5-parted perianth, 5 sta-
Prospects As nothing is known with respect to mens and rudimentary pistil; female flowers with
the phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- cup-shaped, 4-5-dentate perianth and obliquely
ties of L. caudata, research is needed to support ovoid, superior, 1-celled ovary, stigma sessile, cap-
its traditional use or indicate its potential in itate. Fruit an achene with fleshy pericarp and
herbal medicine. thinly crustaceous, white endocarp.
Literature 121,460,963. Leucosyke comprises about 35 species and occurs
Other selected sources 990. in South-East Asia and Polynesia.
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg Ecology L. capitellata occurs in forest, often
secondary forest, but also in thickets, up to 2400
m altitude, and is common in many regions.
L e u c o s y k e c a p i t e l l a t a (Poir.) Wedd. Genetic resources L. capitellata is widespread
and common, and not liable to genetic erosion.
A.DC, Prodr. 16(1):235 (1869). Prospects The investigation of the multipur-
URTICACEAE pose L. capitellata in experimental plantings mer-
In =unknown its consideration. As long as no information on its
Vernacular names Indonesia: ki beunteur pharmacological properties is available its value
(Sundanese), jurang gunung (Javanese), kayu te as a medicinal plant cannot be determined.
pa'ei (Kalimantan). Malaysia: teh kampung (Sa- Literature 10, 334, 345, 534, 760.
rawak), kuliat-mato (Sabah). Philippines: alagasi, Other selected sources 62, 117, 936.
lagasi (Bisaya, Tagalog), hanlagasi (Tagalog). R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Origin and geographic distribution L. ca-
pitellata occurs in Java, Borneo, the Philippines,
Sulawesi, the Moluccas and New Guinea. Limacia Lour.
Uses In the Philippines a decoction ofL. capitel-
lata roots is used to treat phthisis, cough, head- Fl. cochinch. 2:620(1790).
ache and gastralgia. In Kalimantan a decoction of MENISPERMACEAE
the bark and leaves is drunk as a stimulant, and x =unknown
to treat stomach-ache and diarrhoea. A tea pre- Origin a n d geographic distribution Limacia
pared from the leaves is drunk in Sabah to treat comprises 3 species and occurs in southern Burma
diabetes, high blood pressure and gastric ail- (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular
ments. In Sarawak the leaves are eaten as a veg- Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, northern Borneo, Buton
etable. The yellowish wood is considered durable Island (south-east of Sulawesi), the Lesser Sunda
Islands (Sumba and Timor), and Mindanao (the fused with Hypserpa, which differs in its imbri-
Philippines). cate sepals, which are irregular in number and
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the not arranged in whorls. Hypserpa nitida Miers is
root of L. oblonga is used to treat sore eyes and often treated in the literature under its synony-
ophthalmia. In Indonesia, an unidentified part of mous name Limacia cuspidata Hook.f. & Thom-
L. oblonga is reputedly applied internally, finely son.
cut and mixed in water, to treat snakebites. In Ecology Limacia is found in lowland forest, of-
traditional medicine in Malaysia, L. scandens is ten also in secondary forest and in thickets and re-
used in the treatment of depression and affective growth.
disorders. The fruits of L. oblonga are sweet and Genetic resources There are no indications
edible. that L. oblonga and L. scandens are subject to ge-
Properties Several alkaloids have been isolat- netic erosion. However, L. blumei (Boerl.) Diels, is
ed from stem bark of L. oblonga from Peninsular known from only few collections in southern Thai-
Malaysia: the hasubanan type alkaloids (+)-lima- land, Java, Borneo, Sumba and Sulawesi, and is
longine and (+)-clolimalongine, the oxoaporphine consequently apparently rare.
alkaloids lysicamine, homomoschatoline, imenine Prospects Unlike many other Menispermaceae,
and splendidine, and the pro-aporphine alkaloid little research has been done onLimacia. As many
(+)-stepharine. The alkaloids cuspidaline, li- alkaloids found in this family have proved benefi-
macine and limacusine have been reported for cial in medicine, more research on pharmacologi-
Bornean L. oblonga plants. cal properties of Limacia and its compounds
Pharmacological studies showed that extracts of seems worthwhile.
L. scandens have a sympathomimetic activity sim- Literature 83, 121,247, 478.
ilar to noradrenaline (norepinephrine). A crude
extract injected intravenously induced a dose-de-
pendent increase in arterial blood pressure in Selection of species
anaesthetized rats and cats. It induced an in-
crease in contractions in superfused rabbit aorta Limacia oblonga Hook.f. & Thomson
preparations, and physiological and behavioural Fl. ind. 1: 189 (1855).
changes in mice, with serious malfunctioning of Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar china, akar
the autonomic nervous system and motor activity. kuning, akar kunyit-kunyit (Peninsular).
Furthermore, it induced excitatory responses in Distribution Southern Thailand, western Pe-
the snail Achantina fulica which were similar to ninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra (east
those ofserotonin stimulation. coast) and Borneo (Sarawak).
Botany Dioecious lianas, sometimes with ten- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
drilliform young shoots. Leaves arranged spirally, root is used to treat sore eyes and ophthalmia. In
simple and entire, 3(-5)-veined from the base, Indonesia, the plant is reputedly applied internal-
petiolate; stipules absent. Inflorescence axillary or ly, finely cut and mixed in water, to treat
supra-axillary, cymose or pseudo-paniculate. snakebites. The fruits are sweet and edible.
Flowers unisexual, small, regular, whitish to Observations A liana up to 10 m long; branch-
greenish-yellow; sepals 6 (rarely 9), tomentose; lets, petioles and inflorescences covered with a
petals 6, free, concave; male flowers with 6 free velvety yellow-brown indumentum; leaves ellipti-
stamens and with or without 3 rudimentary cal to oblong-elliptical or elliptical-obovate, 9-25
carpels; female flowers with 3 tomentose superior cm x 3-10 cm, petiole 1.5-4 cm long; inflorescence
carpels having reflexed styles and with or without a lax pseudo-panicle, male one up to 16 cm long;
6 staminodes. Fruit consisting of 1-3 drupes; dru- drupes obliquely obovoid, 14-20 mm long, yellow.
pes obovoid, slightly compressed, abruptly nar- L. oblonga occurs in primary and secondary low-
rowed into a short stipe at base and with style- land forest, up to 350 m altitude.
scar near base, 1-seeded; endocarp with 2 large Selected sources 83, 121,247, 249, 331,334.
lateral cavities, dorsally with a raised longitudi-
nal band. Seed horseshoe-shaped, with copious en- Limacia scandens Lour.
dosperm. Fl. cochinch. 2:620 (1790).
The fruits are mainly dispersed by animals; fruits Synonyms Limacia velutina Hook.f. & Thom-
ofL. oblonga are transported by civet-cats. son (1855).
Limacia seems related to, and is sometimes con- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar minyak,
LiPARis 273
Liparis treubii J.J. Smith

Merr., Interpr. Herb, amboin.: 172 (1917).
ORCHIDACEAE
In =unknown
S y n o n y m s Liparis confusa J.J. Smith var. am-
boinensis J.J. Smith (1905), Liparis amboinensis
J.J. Smith (1914) non J.J. Smith (1905).
Origin and geographic distribution Until
present, L. treubii has only been recorded from the
Moluccas (Ambon) and eastern Sulawesi. Howev-
er, the exact area of distribution has still to be
clarified.
Uses According to a very old record, L. treubii is
used in eastern Sulawesi to treat intestinal com-
plaints and constipation. The marrow of sliced
pseuso-bulbs is chewed, and the juice swallowed,
whereas the abdomen is rubbed with leaves which
have been withered over a fire.
L. nervosa (Thunberg) Lindley is used in tradi-
tional medicine in China to stop bleeding, inter-
nally as well as externally, and as antidote
against snakebites. It also occurs in Thailand, and
possibly in Malesia as well.
Properties Several pyrrolizidine-based alka-
loids have been isolated from other Liparis
species, but there is no information on chemistry
Limacia scandens Lour. - 1, flowering branch of or properties ofL. treubii.
male plant; 2, leaf; 3, male flower; 4, fruit; 5, endo- Botany An epiphytic herb up to 40 cm tall;
carp in lateral view; 6,endocarp in median view. pseudo-bulbs narrowly cylindrical from a thick-
ened base, c. 12 cm x 2.5 cm, each with 2 leaves.
akar kuning, akar kunyit-kunyit (Peninsular). Leaves narrowly lanceolate, c. 21 cm x 3 cm, du-
Vietnam: m[eef] gtaf], m[oof]ng g[af]. plicate at base, acute at apex, articulate (conse-
Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), quently deciduous). Inflorescence a terminal,
southern Indo-China, southern Thailand, western many-flowered, slightly nodding raceme up to 30
Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, west- cm tall, with c. 2 cm long sheath at base; bracts c.
ern Borneo and the Philippines; perhaps also Ja- 0.5 cm long. Flowers very small, 3-merous, pale
va. green; sepals and petals recurved, oblong and lin-
Uses In traditional medicine in Malaysia, L. ear respectively, convex, lip oblong, pale brown-
scandens is used in the treatment of depression ish-yellow, with 2 dentiform basal thickenings, 2-
and affective disorders. lobed at apex, lobes faintly crenate and ciliate; col-
Observations A liana; branchlets, petioles and umn broadened at base; anther subglobular, with
inflorescences yellowish to golden-brown tomen- 4 pollinia; ovary inferior, c. 1 mm long, 1-celled,
tose; leaves elliptical to ovate-elliptical or obovate- stigma small. Fruit a many-seeded capsule, 6-
elliptical, 7-17 cm x 3-8 cm, petiole 1-3 cm long; edged, at maturity bursting along the sides while
inflorescence a peduncled congested cyme, less the top remains whole. Seeds minute.
than 3 cm long; drupes obliquely obovoid, 20-25 L. treubii flowers in the rainy season. Liparis com-
mm long.L. scandens occurs in secondary lowland prises approximately 300 species and occurs in a
forest and regrowth, sometimes also in primary large part of the world. The total number of
swamp forest. species is not known for South-East Asia, but
Selected sources 121,247, 249,478. about 30 species have been recorded for Thailand,
Rini Sasanti Handayani 20 for Peninsular Malaysia, 40 for Sumatra, and
30 for Java.
L. treubii closely resembles L. condylobulbon Rei-
chenb.f. from Sumatra and Java. It differs in its used successfully as ground cover along highways
thicker pseudo-bulbs, broader leaves and longer, in the United States.
slightly nodding inflorescence. A complete revi- Properties The tubers of L. graminifolia are
sion of Liparis for the Malesian region is needed yellowish-grey, translucent and flexible, with a
to unravel species limits and distributions. central longitudinal, ligneous cord. Several ste-
Ecology L. treubii grows as an epiphyte on roidal glycosides and steroidal saponins have been
trees; in Ambon, for instance, onInocarpus trees. isolated from L. graminifolia tubers, e.g. spicato-
Management In some Liparis species, nodal sides, some of which showed anti-inflammatory
cultures have been successful; plantlets were in- activity in the mouse ear oedema test. An aqueous
duced from nodes on modified Knop medium. extract of the tubers had effect on the immune
Leaf-tip culture was successful on Heller's medi- function in mice; it increased the spleen weight,
um containing 1mg/1of benzyladenine. enhanced the clearance rate of charcoal particles
Genetic resources As long as a sound taxo- and considerably antagonized the leucopenia
nomie study of Malesian Liparis is lacking, it is caused by cyclophosphamide. In tests with anaes-
not possible tojudge the potential threat of genet- thetized cats, it also increased ventricular con-
icerosion for L. treubii. tractile force and it was concluded that it might
Prospects It is not likely that the importance of increase the cardiac pump function. The saponin
L. treubii as a medicinal plant will increase. fraction showed anti-ischaemic effect when ad-
Literature 46, 334. ministered intraperitoneally to rats. It inhibited
Other selected sources 121, 731. the release ofcreatine kinase.
Max Joseph Herman Flower extracts of L. graminifolia showed strong
molluscicidal activity against Oncomelania hu-
pensis, the intermediate host of schistosomiasis
L i r i o p e g r a m i n i f o l i a (L.) B a k e r caused by Schistosoma japonicum. The steroid
saponins might very well be responsible for this
Journ. Linn. Soc, Bot. 17:499 (1879). activity.
CONVALLARIACEAE Ruscogenin glycoside isolated from L. muscari im-
2n =36, 72, 108 proved immunological liver injury induced in
Synonyms Liriope spicata Lour. (1790). mice.
Vernacular names Vietnam: t[os]c ti[ee]n Botany A stemless herb with horizontal, slen-
r[uwf]ng, thfoor] m[aj]ch m[oo]n. der, moderately woody rhizome; roots with dis-
Origin and geographic distribution L. gra- tant, oblong tubers 4-5 cm x c. 0.5 cm. Leaves
minifolia occurs in Indo-China, southern China, basal, numerous, tufted, simple, linear to narrow-
Taiwan, Korea, southern Japan and the Philip- ly linear-oblanceolate, 25-90 cm x 2-9 mm,
pines (Batan Islands, Luzon and Mindoro). minutely denticulate on the margins, many-
Uses The tubers of L. graminifolia are used in veined, with membranous wings towards the base.
traditional medicine in Indo-China and China. A Inflorescence a pseudoraceme with erect peduncle
decoction or infusion is prescribed to treat chronic (12-)30-50 cm long; bracts deltoid, up to 4 mm
cough, haemoptysis, fever, dysentery, and as a long. Flowers bisexual, slightly zygomorphic; pedi-
galactagogue. Candied tubers are considered tonic cel 2-12 mm long, articulated near apex; tepals 6,
and aphrodisiac. Whole plants are used to treat free, 3.5-4 mm long, fleshy, violet; stamens 6, at-
diabetes in China. tached at base of tepals, c. 3 mm long; ovary supe-
The tubers of Ophiopogon japonicus (L.f.) Ker rior, 3-celled, style short and thick, stigma capi-
Gawl., a species also occurring wild in the Philip- tate. Fruit a 1-seeded berry, rupturing in early de-
pines and often cultivated as an ornamental else- velopment, exposing the seed, with persistent
where in Malesia, are used for similar purposes in tepals. Seed subglobose to ellipsoid, c. 5 mm long,
Chinese medicine. They are often traded under testa fleshy, black.
the same Chinese vernacular name ('Mai Dong'). Liriope comprises about 5 species and is naturally
In fact, Ophiopogon japonicus tubers are official in distributed in Indo-China, China, Japan and the
the Chinese pharmacopoeia, but L. graminifolia Philippines. It is classified in the tribe Ophio-
tubers often substituted for them. pogoneae, together with Ophiopogon and Peliosan-
Liriope, mainly L. muscari (Decne.) L.H. Bailey, is thes. It is not completely certain that L. spicata
much cultivated as an ornamental. Many culti- Lour, is synonymous with L. graminifolia. The
vars exist, often with variegated leaves. Liriope is name L. graminifolia has often been used for or-
LOPHATHERUM 275
namental plants, but probably mostly incorrect. nutritional value. In China, the fruits are an im-
Ecology In the Philippines L. graminifolia oc- portant feed for silver pheasants.
curs on open slopes up to 1400 m altitude, and Properties The hot water extract of aerial
seems to be uncommon. parts of L. gracile is active against Streptococcus
Management As an ornamental Liriope is mutans strains that are the cause of dental caries.
propagated by seed, sown fresh in a sandy propa- Some triterpenoids, arundoin, cylandrin, friedelin,
gation mix, or by division. It is easy to grow. taraxerol and steroids have been isolated.
Genetic resources L. graminifolia is rare in Botany A perennial, tufted herb up to 120 cm
the Malesian region, and therefore easily liable to tall, with short, branched rhizome, fibrous roots
genetic erosion in the area. However, it seems to locally thickened to spindle-shaped tubers up to 4
be, at least locally, common in mainland Asia. cm long, and erect, compressed, hollow culms.
Prospects L. graminifolia is an interesting Leaves distichously alternate, simple, ovate-lan-
medicinal plant, which is very poorly known in the ceolate, 10-30 cm x 1-5.5 cm, contracted into 6-18
Malesian region, probably mainly due to its rarity. mm long pseudo-petiole at base, acuminate at
Its pharmacological properties, especially its anti- apex, margins scabrid, glabrous to pubescent, dis-
inflammatory activity, deserve more attention. tinctly cross-veined; sheath glabrous, but margins
The fact that it is easy to grow is advantageous for ciliate, ligule very short, truncate. Inflorescence a
its possible development as a medicinal crop. A spike-like panicle up to 45 cm long, consisting of
taxonomie study ofwild Liriope is desirable. irregularly and distantly placed spiciform racemes
Literature 247, 267, 481,671,882, 1043. up to 15 cm long, with spikelets in 2 rows.
Other selected sources 186, 215, 760, 1009, Spikelets ovate-lanceolate, 9-13 mm long, very
1044. shortly stalked, with 1 bisexual floret having low-
D.S. Alonzo er glume 3.5-4.5 mm long and 5-veined, upper
glume 5-6.5 mm long and 5-7-veined, lemma 6-7
Lophatherum gracile Brongn.

Duperrey, Voy. monde, phan.: 50, t. 8 (1831).
GRAMINEAE
2n =48
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: rumput bambu,
tangkur gunung (Sundanese). Malaysia: rumput
kelurut, rumput jarang, rumput bulu (Peninsu-
lar). Thailand: phai pen lek (Trang), yaa khui mai
phai (Prachin Buri). Vietnam: d[aj]m tr[us]c
di[eej]p, c[or]m[aa]y, c[or]l[as] tre.
Origin and geographic distribution L. gra-
cile is widely distributed in tropical and subtropi-
cal Asia, from southern India, Sri Lanka, Burma
(Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China and
Thailand to Korea, Japan, the whole Malesian re-
gion and northern Australia.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the tubers of L.
gracile are eaten as a tonic and to treat chancre.
In Vietnam, a decoction of the whole plant is con-
sidered diuretic and febrifuge and administered to
treat dysuria, colds, sore throat and sunstroke. In
China, the aerial parts of the plant are applied to
sores in the mouth and against urinary problems,
the roots and tubers as a cooling medicine to treat
urinary problems, and during childbirth to hasten
delivery. The use ofL. gracile as a medicinal plant Lophatherum gracile Brongn. - 1, lower part of
in China probably dates from the Ming Dynasty. plant; 2, basal part of leaf; 3, inflorescence; 4, part
L. gracile is a useful forage with apparently high of inflorescence with 2 spikelets.
mm long and 7-9-veined, and palea 5-6 mm long wounds and boils. In Papua New Guinea (Manus
and strongly 2-veined; spikelet on top with 5-13 Island) the stem is chewed and the juice swal-
sterile lemmas, gradually becoming smaller, all lowed to treat diarrhoea and stomach-ache.
lemmas with short, retrorsely scaberulous awns The rather hard stem splits easily and is used for
up to 2 mm long; lodicules broadly cuneate; sta- tying thatch in New Britain (Papua New Guinea).
mens 2, anthers linear; ovary with 2 long styles Botany A climbing shrub or liana up to 8(-30)
connate at base, stigmas long. Fruit an oblong- m long; stem up to 7 cm in diameter, bark whitish,
fusiform caryopsis c. 3.5 mm long. axillary branchlets transformed into strong woody
The awns of the sterile lemmas function as a dis- tendrils. Leaves arranged spirally, simple, ovate
persal device. Whole spikelets adhere to the fur of to oblong, 8-18(-24) cm x 4-8(-10) cm, base
animals by the awns, developing into a fan of re- cuneate to obtuse, rarely subcordate, apex acumi-
curved hooks at maturity. nate, serrulate to crenate, puberulous with ca-
Lophatherum comprises 2 species and is restricted ducous hairs persisting as domatia in the vein ax-
to tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia. It ils; petiole c. 1 cm long; stipules small, knoblike.
belongs to the tribe Centotheceae, which comprises Inflorescence an axillary or terminal spikelike,
10 genera of mostly forest grasses characterized pendent raceme up to 25 cm long, a few together,
by broad leaves with cross-veins. bracts at the base often transformed into tendrils.
Ecology L. gracile usually occurs in mixed for- Flowers unisexual, regular, 5(-6)-merous; sepals
est, in shaded, not too dry localities up to 1500 m ovate, c. 1.5 mm long, greenish-white or yellowish,
altitude. It is locally common. hairy on both sides; petals ovate, c. 1 mm long;
Management In China the plants are harvest- disk yellowish; male flowers with free stamens op-
ed before they start flowering, tied into bundles posite the sepals and rudimentary ovary; female
and dried in the sun. flowers with superior, ovoid ovary, puberulent,
Genetic resources L. gracile is not in danger of
genetic erosion because it is widely distributed.
Prospects Research on the phytochemistry and
pharmacological properties of L. gracile is desir-
able as it has been regarded for centuries as a
medicinal plant of considerable value in China
and Indo-China.
Literature 121,663, 671,731.
Other selected sources 62, 334, 782.
Tahan Uji
L o p h o p y x i s m a i n g a y i Hook.f.
Icon.pl. 18: t. 1714(1887).

LOPHOPYXIDACEAE
2n = unknown
Synonyms Lophopyxis pierrei Boerl. (1890), Lo-
phopyxis pentaptera (K. Schumann) Engl. (1893).
Vernacular n a m e s Brunei: akar belimbing
hutan (Kinabatangan). Indonesia: simpuru (Su-
lawesi), tali sesawi (Ambon). Papua New Guinea:
n'dralang (Manus Island).
Origin a n d geographic distribution L.
maingayi occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, northern
Borneo, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, New Guinea, the
Solomon Islands and Palau Island (Micronesia).
Uses In the Moluccas the roots of L. maingayi
are consumed as a poison antidote and externally Lophopyxis maingayi Hook.f. - 1, flowering
applied to treat stings of poisonous fish. The finely branch; 2, male flower; 3, female flower; 4, in-
ground leaves are externally applied on small fructescence.
LUVUNGA 277
(4-)5-celled. Fruit an obovoid or ellipsoid 5-winged piration. It contains monoterpenes such as eu-
samara 2.2-3(-3.5) cm x 1.3-1.8 cm, green turning genol, farnesol, limonene and linalool.
dark brown, 1-seeded, indéhiscent. Seed subcylin- Botany Lianas with hooklike or (in juvenile
drical, 12-15 mm x 5-6 mm, longitudinally plants) straight axillary spines. Leaves alternate,
grooved. 3-foliolate; petiole long, wingless; stipules absent;
The position ofthe monotypic genus Lophopyxis is leaflets ovate to lanceolate, apex acute or acumi-
still disputed. It has been placed in Icacinaceae, nate, entire; petiolule pulvinate. Inflorescence a
Celastraceae and Euphorbiaceae, but is now con- dense axillary panicle or raceme. Flowers bisexu-
sidered to be a family of its own, as it does not fit al, regular, (3-)4-5-merous, strongly scented; ca-
easily in these families. lyx cup-shaped; petals free, oblong-linear, thick;
Ecology L. maingayi is found in primary and stamens (6-)8-10; ovary superior, shortly stalked,
secondary forest, in swampy as well as well- elongate-ovoid, 2-4-celled, style thick, gradually
drained sites, sometimes even in mangrove, from merging into the ovary, stigma capitate. Fruit an
sea-level up to 300 m altitude. ellipsoid or globose berry, thick-walled, 1-3-seed-
Genetic resources L. maingayi occurs widely, ed. Seeds embedded in a mucilagenous substance.
although scattered, in both primary and sec- L. scandens fruits ripen about 6 months after
ondary forest, and therefore does not appear to be flowering.
threatened at present by genetic erosion. Luvunga is badly in need of a critical revision;
Prospects Pharmacological and phytochemical herbarium specimens are difficult to identify and
research is needed to evaluate the potential of the species differ only very little. It resembles Pa-
traditional medicinal uses ofL. maingayi. ramignya, which is also a Rutaceae genus of
Literature 247, 334, 347. lianas clinging to tree branches with their re-
Other selected sources 144, 724, 857. flexed spines. Luvunga differs in its 3-foliolate
D.S. Alonzo leaves on long, stiff petioles.
Ecology Luvunga occurs in lowland and lower
montane mixed forest.
Luvunga Buch.-Ham. ex Wight & Genetic resources Both Luvunga species
Arnott treated here are widespread and do not seem to be
in danger of genetic erosion, but locally popula-
Prodr. fl. Ind. orient. 1:90 (1834). tions may be threatened by habitat destruction,
RUTACEAE e.g. in India.
x =unknown Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco-
Origin and geographic distribution Luvun- logical properties of Luvunga, and research is
ga consists of some 12 species, and is found from needed to support its traditional medicinal uses.
India, Sri Lanka and Burma (Myanmar), through- The antifungal activity of the essential oil de-
out South-East Asia to New Guinea. Borneo is serves more attention.
particularly rich with 7-8 species. Literature 877, 893,907.
U s e s Luvunga is only little used as a medicinal
plant in South-East Asia, most often externally as
an anodyne. In Thailand the roots are used as a Selection of species
diuretic. L. scandens is more esteemed as an orna-
mental. Luvunga sarmentosa (Blume) Kurz
Properties The essential oil of L. scandens Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 39(2):69 (1870).
fruits shows moderate to strong in-vitro antifun- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: ki racun (Sun-
gal activity against a range of plant-pathogenic danese), tembesi (Javanese), akar keping. Viet-
{Alternaria and Fusarium species) and ker- nam: th[aaf]n x[aj] tr[uw][owf]n.
atinophilic human-pathogenic (e.g. Microsporum Distribution From Burma (Myanmar) to Pe-
and Trichophyton species) fungi, as well as As- ninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo.
pergillus and Pénicillium species. The oil also has Uses In Java the sap flowing out of heated
a strong repellent effect on the pulse beetle (Cal- stems is applied to the gums to treat toothache.
losobruchus chinensis). The bark and leaves are applied externally to
In tests with rats the oil showed central nervous painful limbs and rheumatism.
system depressant effects, and lowered the blood Observations A liana up to 25 m long; leaves
pressure without alteration of rate or depth of res- with petiole 1.5-10 cm long, leaflets elliptical to
obovate, 7-25 cm x 2-10 cm, base acute or obtuse, number ofendemics in Borneo and New Guinea.
apex acuminate; inflorescence consisting of many- Uses Roots, bark and leaves of Macaranga are
flowered fascicled racemes; calyx obscurely lobed, fairly commonly used internally in traditional
petals 6-7 mm long, stamens free, finely pubes- medicine in South-East Asia, usually as a decoc-
cent; fruit ellipsoid, 2.5-3.5 cm x 1.5-2 cm, rough tion, to treat stomach-ache, dysentery, haemopty-
and pitted. In Java L. sarmentosa occurs in mixed sis, cough and fever. The leaves, and sometimes
forest from sea-level up to 1700 m altitude. resin, are applied externally to wounds, ulcers,
Selected sources 62, 121,334, 731,789. sores and boils.
In Brunei leaves of M. beccariana Merr. are used
L u v u n g a s c a n d e n s (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. in a post-natal bath and as a repellent for ants.
e x Wight & Arnott Some species are used in traditional medicine in
Prodr. fl. Ind. orient. 1:90 (1834). Fiji, e.g. to treat convulsions, diarrhoea and as an
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: susoh ayam abortifacient; an example is M. vitiensis Pax &
hutan, akar buah keping (Peninsular). Thailand: Hoffm. Several Macaranga species are used medi-
naam khue kai (northern), chaang ngaa dieo cinally in Africa. Bark and leaves of M. barteri
(Chanthaburi), naam khaa bai (Prachuap Khiri Müll. Arg. are used as a vermifuge, febrifuge, ape-
Khan). Vietnam: th[aaf]n x[aj] h[uw][ow]ng. rient and anti-anaemic tonic, and to treat cough,
Distribution From India and Burma (Myan- bronchitis and gonorrhoea. A decoction of the
mar), throughout continental South-East Asia to roots of M. heterophylla (Müll. Arg.) Müll. Arg. is
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. applied against amenorrhoea, and as an emmena-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a root decoction is gogue and abortifacient, a decoction ofthe bark to
taken as a post-partum protective medicine. In In- treat cough, and a decoction of the leaves to treat
dia the dried mature fruits are used to prepare a gonorrhoea. The bark ofM. hurifolia Beille is used
perfumed medicinal oil that is an ingredient of as a purgative and against cough, and a decoction
various prescriptions. ofthe roots to treat oedema. The bark and roots of
Observations A liana up to 25 m long; leaves M. spinosa Müll. Arg. are administered to treat
with petiole 5-13 cm long, leaflets elliptical-oblong asthma, cough, headache, rheumatism and for liv-
or oblanceolate, 6-18 cm x 3-6 cm, base cuneate, er and stomach complaints, whereas a decoction of
apex acute or acuminate; inflorescence consisting the bark is applied to toothache and thrush.
of many-flowered panicled cymes; calyx with trun- The wood is frequently used, especially for parts of
cate lobes, petals 12-18 mm long, stamens united, houses not in contact with the ground, but also for
glabrous; fruit oblong, c. 2.5 cm x 2 cm, rather e.g. light framing, interior trim, moulding, shin-
smooth. In Peninsular Malaysia L. scandens is gles, packing cases and match splints. It yields a
usually found in mixed forest on river banks and high-quality pulp and produces excellent particle
in the hills. board, cement-bonded board and wood-wool
board, and is suitable for the production of ply-
Selected sources 121,213,271,629, 731,789.
wood. It provides good fuelwood.
D. Mutiatikum
The bark and pith or the fruit of several Ma-
caranga species produce a resin or gum that can
be used as glue. The bark ofsome species has been
Macaranga Thouars
used to tan fishing nets. Bark, leaves and fruits of
some species are applied in the Philippines in the
Gen. Nov. Madag.: 26 (1806).
preparation of a fermented drink called 'basi'
EUPHORBIACEAE
made from sugar cane. Large leaves, as found in
x =11; M. denticulata, M. tanarius: n = 11
several species, are used to wrap food.
Origin and geographic distribution Maca-
ranga comprises some 250 species. About 30 of Properties Several tannins including corilagin,
these occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar, the furosin, geraniin and macaranganin have been
rest in tropical Asia, from India, Sri Lanka and isolated from Macaranga, and many medicinal
Burma (Myanmar), through Indo-China, southern properties are probably due to these tannins. No
China, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, Thailand and less than 28 tannins have been demonstrated in
throughout the Malesian region, to northern Aus- M. tanarius leaves, and 10 in the bark. The re-
tralia and the Pacific, east to Fiji. The main centre sults of tests with M. tanarius roots from Taiwan
of diversity is found within Malesia where about indicate that they may have immunopotentiating
160 species occur, with an exceptionally high effect of humoral immune response in mice. An
MACARANGA 279
aqueous ethanol extract exhibited antiviral activi- Trees may flower when very young, and flowering
ty against ranikhet and vaccinia virus. and fruiting are fairly regular, several times a
The bark and leaves ofM. gigantea and M. triloba year. A few species are either facultative or oblig-
showed moderate antimicrobial activity against ate myrmecophytes. The latter group of species
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Saccha- provides specific nesting space, mainly hollow
romyces cerevisiae and Fusarium oxysporum. It is twigs, for ants of the genus Crematogaster. The
assumed that gallotannin is the substance in M. ants protect the plants from herbivores.
grandifolia fruits (which are added to 'basi') that The dimorphism of sapling leaves and those of
inhibits the growth oflactic acid bacteria. mature trees renders identification difficult. Ma-
Four prenylated flavanones with antibacterial ac- caranga is closely related to Mallotus, but differs
tivity have been isolated from the dichloro- in its 3-4-celled anthers and more conspicuously
methane extract ofleaves ofM. pleiostemon Pax & in its lateral inflorescences and the absence of
Hoffm., a species from New Guinea. An aqueous stellate hairs.
leaf extract of M. peltata (Roxb.) Müll. Arg. from Ecology Most Macaranga species are pioneers
India inhibited conidial germination of the fungus and form a characteristic of secondary forest espe-
Drechslera oryzae. cially along roadsides in western Malesia and
A chloroform extract ofM. carolinensis Volk, from New Guinea, but are less common in Sulawesi,
the Caroline Islands showed in-vitro cytotoxic ac- the Moluccas and Java. They are often found gre-
tivity against P-388 and 9KB cell lines. Geranyl gariously and may locally form pure stands. A few
stilbenes with cytotoxic activity have been isolat- species are found in primary forest. Most species
ed from the African M. schweinfurthii Pax. thrive in a per-humid climate, some also under
Botany Evergreen, dioecious, small to medium- slightly seasonal conditions. The altitudinal range
sized trees up to 30(-40) m tall; bole straight, up is large, with a few species occurring up to almost
to 50(-70) cm in diameter, occasionally with stilt 3000 m altitude in New Guinea.
roots, rarely with buttresses; bark surface smooth Management Macaranga can be propagated by
or rough with lenticels, hoop-marked, stripping off seed. For M. tanarius there are about 54 500 dry
easily, greyish to pinkish, inner bark pink to seeds/kg. Seeds of M. tanarius show about 50%
reddish-brown; crown open, often bluish-green. germination in 24-72(-265) days, whereas those
Leaves arranged spirally, simple, often promi- of M. triloba have about 80% germination in
nently lobed, palmately or pinnately veined, the 19-37 days. It is, however, difficult to get seed-
main veins joined by parallel, concentric veinlets lings to grow.
giving the effect of spider-webbing, often peltate; Genetic resources Some Macaranga species
petiole often long and kneed; stipules often large are narrow endemics, but the genetic resources of
and persistent. Inflorescence an axillary panicle, most species are not endangered as trees are com-
raceme or spike, consisting of small clusters. mon and characteristic elements of secondary veg-
Flowers small, subtended by often glandular etation.
bracteoles, with 2-5-lobed perianth (petals ab- Prospects Macaranga is commonly used in tra-
sent); male flowers with 1-20 stamens having 3-4- ditional medicine throughout the large area of dis-
celled anthers; female flowers with superior, tribution of the genus, and often for similar pur-
(l-)2-3(-6)-celled ovary, styles usually free and poses, e.g. internally to treat stomach-ache, dy-
unlobed. Fruit a leathery or woody, often shoul- sentery, cough and fever, and externally to treat
dered capsule, smooth to variously spiny, splitting wounds and ulcers. However, surprisingly little is
into 2-valved parts leaving the central column, known about active compounds and pharmacologi-
few-seeded. Seeds black, often with a thin orange cal properties, and more research is worthwhile.
to red aril. Seedling with epigeal germination; The fairly general occurrence of Macaranga and
cotyledons emergent, leafy; hypocotyl elongated; the long wood fibres make the exploitation for
all leaves arranged spirally, conduplicate to invo- pulp and paper and the production of wood-based
lute. panels promising in the near future.
Macaranga species are short-lived pioneers be- Literature 120,121, 542,883.
coming 15-20 years old. Most species develop ac-
cording to Rauh's architectural model, character-
ized by a monopodial trunk with rhythmic growth
and so developing tiers of branches that are them-
selves morphogenetically identical with the trunk.
Selection of species Macaranga bicolor Müll. Arg.

Linnaea 34: 199 (1865).
M a c a r a n g a a l e u r i t o i d e s F . v. M u e l l e r Vernacular names Philippines: hamindang
Descr. notes Papuan pi. 2:21 (1876). (Filipino).
Synonyms Macaranga riparia Engl. (1886). Distribution The Philippines.
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: kat Uses The sap from the bark and leaves is ap-
(Taskul, New Ireland Province). plied to fresh wounds; sap from the leaves also
Distribution The Moluccas, New Guinea and serves as an eye medicine. The root is used to
the Solomon Islands. treat headache. The wood is used for fuel.
Uses The fruits or seeds are chewed in Papua Observations A small tree up to 10 m tall, with
New Guinea to relieve abdominal pains. bole up to 30 cm in diameter; leaves ovate, c. 20
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up cm long, not lobed, usually glandular below,
to 20 m tall; leaves 3-lobed, c. 20 cm long, puberu- peltate; male flowers in branched panicles, female
lous below, stipules single, up to 10 cm long; male flowers with c. 6-celled ovary; fruit c. 1.3 cm in di-
flowers in panicles c. 20 cm long, with 7-9 sta- ameter, rugulose. M. bicolor occurs in secondary
mens. M. aleuritoides can be very common in sec- lowland, riverine or hill forest throughout the
ondary forest and gaps in primary forest, up to Philippines.
900 m altitude. Selected sources 24, 197, 731,883.
Macaranga conifera (Zoll.) Müll. Arg.
M a c a r a n g a b a n c a n a (Miq.) M ü l l . A r g . D C , Prodr. 15(2): 1005 (1866).
D C , Prodr. 15(2): 990 (1866). Synonyms Macaranga populifolia (Miq.) Müll.
Synonyms Macaranga triloba auct. non (Thun- Arg. (1866).
berg) Müll. Arg. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: memaya, ludai
Vernacular names Brunei: marakubong, seda- api, mesepat (Peninsular).
man. Malaysia: landas bukit, mahang merah, ma- Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
hang tekukur (Peninsular), sedaman (Sarawak). Sumatra and Borneo.
Singapore: pahang merah. Thailand: low khao, lo Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the roots and
ngaam (peninsular). leaves are applied to treat malaria and dropsy.
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular The wood is used for building local houses, and for
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Bangka, Lingga implements.
and Borneo. Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves are to 30 m tall, with bole up to 50 cm in diameter;
used externally to treat boils, and in Sarawak leaves ovate to elliptical, 7.5-10 cm x 3-7.5 cm,
powdered young leaves are applied as a paste to not lobed, glabrous, not peltate, stipules broad,
the skin to relieve itch. The wood is used as fire- persistent; male flowers in short panicles up to 7.5
wood. cm long, with 1-2 stamens; fruit double-globose,
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up smooth. M. conifera occurs in primary or sec-
to 23 m tall, stems hollow; leaves 3-lobed, 16-32 ondary lowland forest, up to 750 m altitude.
cm x 12-25 cm, lobes broadly ovate, glandular- Selected sources 20, 22, 121,731,883,990.
dentate, densely hairy but later glabrescent
above, deeply peltate, stipules up to 8 mm long, Macaranga densiflora Warb.
broad, strongly convex-recurved, persistent; male Bot. Jahrb. 13:350 (1891).
flowers in slender, lax, branched panicles up to 20 Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: wage-
cm long, with 1 stamen, female flowers with 4(-5)- va (Tukwaukwa, Milne Bay Province).
celled ovary, styles connate into an ovoid, hollow Distribution New Guinea and the Solomon Is-
body; fruit up to 7 mm long, with 4(-5) glandular lands.
patches on apex. M. bancana occurs in lowland Uses In Papua New Guinea, crushed leaves are
forest, usually secondary or in edges, up to 700 m applied to wounds to arrest bleeding.
altitude; it is locally very common, e.g. in Peninsu- Observations A small tree up to 12 m tall;
lar Malaysia. It has been much confused with M. leaves ovate-lanceolate, 10-14 cm x 5-7 cm, not
triloba. lobed, not peltate, stipules up to 2 mm long, ca-
Selected sources 121,194, 990. ducous; male flowers in short panicles up to 8 cm
long, with 3-4 stamens. M. densiflora occurs in
MACARANGA 281
secondary lowland forest and along streams, antidote to poisoning of a general nature. The
rarely up to 1000 m altitude. wood is used for building houses, and for imple-
Selected sources 21. ments. The bark has been used for tanning and
dyeing. The resinous gum is applied as glue, and
Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Müll. the leaves for wrapping up food.
Arg. Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
D C , Prodr. 15(2): 1000 (1866). to 30 m tall, with bole up to 40 cm in diameter;
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: balik angin, leaves orbicular-ovate, 20-60 cm across, shallowly
mesepat (Peninsular). Burma (Myanmar): nwong- 3-lobed, finely velvety, peltate, stipules up to 6 cm
kye, pet-waing. Laos: tong khôp, tong khôp 'hou long; male flowers in large, branched panicles,
sang 2 , tong 'khao 2 'san. Thailand: po khee haet, with 2-3 stamens, female flowers with 2-celled
tong taep (northern), salo kliang (peninsular). ovary and short, reflexed stigmas; fruit double-
Vietnam: ba soi. globose, smooth. M. gigantea occurs in primary or
Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan- secondary lowland, riverine or hill forest, particu-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, larly in gaps, up to 1000 m altitude.
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Java. Selected sources 19, 20, 22, 23, 121, 194, 195,
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the 295, 296, 334, 731, 883,990.
plant has been applied to wounds and adminis-
tered after childbirth. In China, a decoction of the Macaranga glaberrima (Hassk.) Airy
wood is used to dispel tumours and to treat paral- Shaw
ysis; it is also considered depurative and believed KewBull. 19:322(1965).
to prevent puerperal disorders. Synonyms Macaranga subfalcata (Reichenb.f.
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up & Zoll, ex Zoll.) Müll.Arg. (1866).
to 20 m tall; leaves triangular-ovate, up to 13 cm x Vernacular names Indonesia: bataruwa, ki
10 cm, peltate, not lobed, with matted, felt-like in- harepang prongpeng (Sundanese), tanglar (Ja-
dumentum below, hoary; male flowers in slender vanese).
spikes or panicles, with 9-14 stamens, female Distribution Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands
flowers with 2-celled ovary and short, divergent- (Flores) and New Guinea (Irian Jaya).
recurved stigmas; fruit small, double-globose, Uses Young leaves are applied to cuts. The wood
smooth. M. denticulata usually occurs in sec- is used to build houses.
ondary forest, sometimes also in primary forest, Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
up to 1100 m altitude. to 20 m tall, with bole up to 30 cm in diameter;
Selected sources 19,22, 62,121, 731, 883,990. leaves elliptical, 4.5-18(-27) cm x 2-7(-9) cm,
slightly 2-lobed at base, glabrous, not peltate,
M a c a r a n g a g i g a n t e a (Reichenb.f. & stipules linear to subulate, caducous; male flowers
Zoll.) M ü l l . A r g . in sinuous spikes, often as a dense 'witches'
D C , Prodr. 15(2): 995 (1866). broom', up to 6.5 cm long, with c. 12 stamens, fe-
Synonyms Macaranga megalophylla (Müll. male flowers with 2-celled ovary; fruit double-glo-
Arg.) Müll. Arg. (1866), Macaranga incisa Gage bose, c. 1.2 cm long, very shortly spiny. M. glaber-
(1922). rima seems restricted to primary forest, up to
Vernacular n a m e s Brunei: merakubong. In- 1400 m altitude.
donesia: biruwak, kulit melabai (Sumatra), dahan Selected sources 21,62, 334, 731,883.
kagurangen (Sulawesi). Malaysia: kubin, mahang
gajah, telinga gajah (Peninsular). Singapore: ma- Macaranga grandifolia (Blanco) Merr.
hang gajah. Thailand: huu chang (south-eastern), Philipp. Journ. Sei. 7,Bot.: 394 (1912).
ma hang (peninsular), tao luang (northern). Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: takip-asin (Fi-
Distribution Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, lipino), binungang-malapad (Tagalog), ginabang
Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo and Sulawesi. (Iloko).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the Distribution The Philippines (Luzon and Min-
root bark is applied internally to treat dysentery. doro).
In Sumatra, a decoction of the bark and leaves is Uses In the Philippines, the resin is used as an
used to treat stomach-ache. Also in Indonesia, astringent gargle to treat ulcers in the mouth.
fresh sap is applied as an antidote to centipede Bark, leaves and fruits are included in the Phi-
bites. In Brunei a leaf decoction is also used as an lippines in the preparation of a fermented drink
called 'basi' made from sugar cane. mainly in lowland primary forest, often in riverine
Observations A small tree up to 10 m tall; forest, but also in lower montane forest, up to
leaves orbicular-ovate to ovate, 60-100 cm across, 1350 m altitude.
not lobed, not peltate, stipules 6-10 cm long; male Selected sources 20, 22, 121,194, 731,990.
flowers in large, branched panicles, female flowers
with 2-celled ovary; fruit double-globose, c. 1 cm Macaranga hypoleuca (Reichenb.f. &
long, smooth, but each valve armed with 2 spine- Zoll.) Müll. Arg.
like processes at apex. M. grandifolia occurs in D C , Prodr. 15(2):992 (1866).
secondary lowland forest, and is locally abundant. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: mahang kapur
Selected sources 24,117,197, 655, 731,760. (general). Malaysia: mahang puteh (Peninsular),
sedaman, sedaman puteh (Sabah). Thailand: law.
M a c a r a n g a griffithiana Müll. Arg. Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
D C , Prodr. 15(2): 993 (1866). Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: mahang bulan, Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction is
mahang tutup (Peninsular). Thailand: dok mai hu used as a febrifuge, expectorant and anti-spas-
chang (south-eastern), ma hang (peninsular). modic. The wood is sometimes used for imple-
Distribution Laos, southern Vietnam, Thai- ments.
land, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Suma- Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
tra. to 30 m tall, bole up to 40 cm in diameter, young
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the branches white; leaves deeply 3-lobed, lobes c. 15
roots is drunk to treat fever. cm x 7.5 cm, usually brilliantly white-waxy below,
Observations A small tree up to 15(-20) m tall; peltate; male flowers in elongate, lax panicles up
leaves ovate, often slightly rhombic in outline, to 30 cm long, with 1 stamen, female flowers usu-
10-25(-28) cm x (8-)10-23 cm, shortly and broadly ally with 3-celled ovary, styles very short, re-
3-lobed, glabrous but veins with scattered, spread- flexed; fruit smooth, usually 3-lobed, with 2 raised
ing, white whiskers, deeply peltate, stipules up to glandular patches at the apex of each cell. M. hy-
6 mm long, usually caducous; male flowers in poleuca is locally common in evergreen, usually
sparsely branched panicles up to 25 cm long, with secondary forest up to 1000 m altitude, rarely as
2-3 stamens, female flowers with 4(~5)-celled high as 2400 m.
ovary; fruit smooth, with a conspicuous glandular Selected sources 19,20, 22, 121,194, 731,883,
patch on each cell. M. griffithiana is locally very 990.
common, often in open, often seasonally swampy
locations, and in secondary forest, rarely in prima- M a c a r a n g a i n v o l u c r a t a (Roxb.) B â i l l o n
ry forest. Etud. Gén. Euph.: 432 (1858).
Selected sources 121,194. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: haleki daun ke-
cil(Ambon), liwini (Halmahera), lowui (Ternate).
M a c a r a n g a h u l l e t t i i K i n g e x Hook.f. Distribution The Sula Islands, the Moluccas,
Fl. Brit. Ind. 5:452 (1887). New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Aus-
Vernacular names Malaysia: mahang bulan, tralia (Queensland).
mahang serindit (Peninsular). Uses In the Moluccas, a decoction of the bark
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular mixed with Citrus hystrix DC. fruits is applied in-
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo. ternally to treat leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea and
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction is ap- gravel; it is also used in a gargle against swollen
plied internally to treat stomach-ache. The wood tonsils and palate, and the sap of young leaves is
is used as firewood. used to treat dysentery and thrush. The wood is
Observations A small tree up to 18 m tall, used in house building.
twigs hollow, ant-inhabited; leaves narrowly ovate Observations A small tree up to 10 m tall;
to ovate, 14-32 cm x 6-16(-22) cm, usually not leaves ovate-deltoid, 8-20 cm x 4-8 cm, 3-lobed or
lobed, sometimes with tiny lateral lobes, glabrous, not lobed, glabrous or softly velvety, not peltate,
peltate, stipules persistent, up to 1cm long, broad stipules linear to subulate, up to 1 cm long, ca-
and recurved; male flowers in sparsely branched ducous; male flowers in lax, few-branched pani-
panicles up to 30 cm long, with 1 stamen, female cles up to 25 cm long, with 1 stamen, female flow-
flowers with 5 styles fused at base; fruits crowded, ers with 2 plumose and caducous styles up to 1cm
strongly shouldered or horned. M. hullettii occurs long; fruit usually 2-celled, smooth and warty or
MACARANGA 283
with short processes. M. involucrata is locally hang puteh, tampu (Peninsular). Papua New
common in secondary forest at low altitudes, up to Guinea: tabi, tabu (New Britain). Philippines: bin-
600(-1200) m. unga (Filipino), himindang (Bikol), biluan (Taga-
Selected sources 21,23, 334, 731,883. log). Thailand: hu chang lek (south-eastern), lo
khao, mek (peninsular). Vietnam: m[ax] r[aj]ng.
Macaranga pleioneura Airy S h a w Distribution From the Andaman and Nicobar
Kew Bull. 23:110(1969). Islands, Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan and
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: dinal- the Ryukyu Islands, through Thailand and the
pa (Duman, Simbu Province). whole of the Malesian region, to northern Aus-
Distribution New Guinea. tralia and Melanesia.
Uses In Papua New Guinea, young leaves are Uses In the Philippines, the powdered root is
applied to sores and cuts. used as an emetic to treat fever, and a decoction of
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 9 m the root against haemoptysis. In the Moluccas (In-
tall; leaves broadly elliptical to broadly lanceolate, donesia) and New Britain (Papua New Guinea),
(5-)8-15(-20) cm x (2.5-)4-6(-10) cm, not lobed, the leaves have been used internally to treat
not peltate, stipules c. 3 mm long, caducous; male dysentery and as an abortifacient. In Peninsular
flowers in simple or branched inflorescences up to Malaysia, pounded leaves are applied to wounds,
8 cm long, with 30-40 stamens, female flowers and an infusion of the root internally to treat
with l(-2)-celled ovary; fruit with l-2(-8) process- fever. In Brunei smoke from burning leaves is con-
es. M. pleioneura occurs in secondary montane sidered a general ailment of the body. The bark is
rain forest, at 1400-2400 m altitude. used for toughening fishing nets. In Indonesia, the
Selected sources 21. leaves dye matting black. Bark and leaves are
widely utilized in the Philippines in the prepara-
Macaranga similis Pax & Hoffm. tion of a fermented drink called 'basi' made from
Engl., Pflanzenr. IV.147.XIV: 29 (1919).
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: adui
(New Britain).
Distribution M. similis is endemic to New
Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and rare on the
Solomon Islands.
U s e s In New Britain, the leaves are applied ex-
ternally to sores. In the Solomon Islands, the wood
is used in house building and as firewood, and the
leaves to seal traditional stone ovens and for
cleansing the body.
Observations A small tree up to 10 m tall;
leaves triangular-ovate, 12-13.5 cm x 8-11.5 cm,
not lobed, softly velvety below, not peltate, stip-
ules up to 15 mm long; male flowers in up to 6 cm
long, branched panicles, with c. 9 stamens, female
flowers with threadlike, lateral styles; fruits clus-
tered within persistent leafy bracts, at first with
soft hairy apical spines, maturing glabrous. M.
similis occurs in lowland secondary forest up to
500 m altitude; it is locally very common, particu-
larly in the Milne Bay District of Papua New
Guinea.
Selected sources 21,332, 347.
M a c a r a n g a t a n a r i u s (L.) M ü l l . A r g .
DC., Prodr. 15(2): 997 (1866).
Vernacular names Brunei: sedaman buta bu- Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll. Arg. ~ 1, branch
ta. Indonesia: tutup ancur (Javanese), mara (Sun- with male inflorescences; 2, part of male inflores-
danese), mapu (Batak). Malaysia: kundoh, ma- cence;3,fruiting branch.
sugar cane. In Sumatra, fruits are added to palm Macrosolen Blume

juice as it is boiled down, to improve the quality of
the sugar produced. In Indonesia and the Philip- Syst. Veg. 7, 2: 1731 (1830).
pines, the bark exudate is used as a glue. The LORANTHACEAE
wood is applied in house building and for imple- x =12;M. cochinchinensis: 2n =24
ments. Origin and geographic distribution Macro-
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up solen consists of some 30 species, and is distrib-
to 20(-27) m tall; leaves orbicular-ovate, 8-32 cm uted in southern Asia, from India to New Guinea.
x 5-28 cm, usually not lobed, hairy when young, In Malesia 24 species occur, with a centre of diver-
deeply peltate, stipules large, caducous; male sity in the north-western part, especially in Bor-
flowers in branched panicles up to 34 cm long, neo.
with (3-)5-6(-10) stamens, female flowers with 2- Uses Various parts of Macrosolen are employed
celled ovary and 2 large styles; fruit about 1cm in internally and externally for a range of applica-
diameter, with long, soft prickles on apex, yellow- tions. In Java dried stems of stem-parasitic Lo-
ish-glandular outside. M. tanarius is often very ranthaceae (including Macrosolen, but also Den-
common in secondary forest, especially in logged drophthoe and Scurrula) enter into traditional
areas, but occurs also in thickets, brushwood, vil- prescriptions for the treatment of smallpox, and
lage groves and beach vegetation, up to 2100 m al- as a vermifuge for children. Specific applications
titude. are often linked with the host plant. More recently
Selected sources 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 62, 87, Macrosolen has been mentioned as a traditional
117, 121, 195, 197, 334, 347, 542, 577, 731, 760, medicine for cancer and liver afflictions. In Viet-
883, 990. nam M. tricolor (Lecomte) Danser is used for the
preparation ofa purgative tea.
M a c a r a n g a triloba (Thunberg) Müll. Properties Leaves and stems of M. cochinchi-
Arg. nensis contain considerable amounts of L-as-
D C , Prodr. 15(2):989 (1866). paraginase. In complementary and alternative
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: mahang abu medicine (CAM) therapy, L-asparaginase is indi-
(Sumatra), mara bodas (Sundanese), tutup ancur cated for lymphoblastic leukaemia when resis-
(Javanese). Philippines: bula-bula (Tagbanua). tance against conventional cytostatics has devel-
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular oped. Tumours of acute leukaemia require exoge-
Malaysia, Sumatra, Bangka, Java and the Philip- nous L-asparagine as an essential nutrient for
pines. their growth. L-asparaginase catalyses the hy-
Uses In Java and Sumatra, a decoction of bark, drolysis of L-asparagine to aspartic acid and am-
leaves and fruits is used internally to treat stom- monia, thus interfering with the metabolism of
ach-ache. The wood is used as firewood. malignant cells. In phytochemical studies gallic
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up acid and several flavonoids including orientin,
to 20 m tall, stems solid; leaves 3(-5)-lobed, 15-35 quercetin, rutin and vicemin have been isolated
cm x 12-24(-30) cm, lobes broadly ovate, glandu- from M. cochinchinensis.
lar-dentate, densely hairy but later glabrescent Botany Stem-parasitic shrubs, often robust,
above, deeply peltate, stipules up to 15 mm long, usually with runners on the bark ofthe host, bear-
spreading, persistent; male flowers in slender, lax, ing secondary haustoria. Leaves usually opposite,
branched panicles up to 22 cm long, with 1 sta- simple and entire, petiolate; stipules absent. Inflo-
men, female flowers with 4-5-celled ovary, styles rescence a raceme or spike of decussate pairs of
connate into an ovoid, hollow body; fruit up to 8 flowers, sometimes few-flowered and umbellate,
mm long, with 4-5 hornlike processes. M. triloba axillary or inserted on the runners; bracts 3 under
occurs in a wide range of habitats, including dry- each flower, free or variously connate. Flowers bi-
land dipterocarp forest and edges of swampy for- sexual, 6-merous; calyx reduced to a limb; corolla
est, up to 1400 m altitude; it is locally very com- gamopetalous, usually weakly zygomorphic, in
mon, e.g. in Java. mature buds with 6 keels or wings at the point of
Selected sources 62, 194, 295, 296, 334, 731, reflexion of the lobes; stamens inserted on the
883. corolla opposite the lobes; ovary inferior, style
S. Aggarwal simple, usually with a knoblike stigma. Fruit
berrylike, ellipsoid to nearly globose, 1-seeded.
Seed covered by a sticky layer.
MACROSOLEN 285
After germination of the seeds, it takes 1.5-3 jantan (Peninsular). Thailand: pa, prathat nuan
years before plants start flowering and fruiting. (peninsular). Vietnam: d[aj]i c[as]n nam.
Pollination in Macrosolen is by birds or insects Distribution From the Himalayas to Indo-Chi-
and effective seed dispersal is by fruit-eating na, southern China, Thailand and throughout the
birds. Fruits may be either swallowed whole and Malesian region east to Irian Jaya (Bird's Head
the seeds excreted, or the seeds are rubbed to Peninsula).
branches after feeding on the surrounding fruit Uses In Peninsular Malaysia pounded leaves
pulp. are used as a poultice to treat headache. The stem
Macrosolen is very closely related to Elythranthe, juice is drunk to expel the afterbirth. In Indo-Chi-
the differences being the extent of development of na fruits are employed as a cough medicine, and
the involucral bracts at the base of the inflores- the leaves as a substitute for tea.
cence and subtending the flowers, and the struc- Observations A hemiparasitic shrub, glabrous
ture ofthe inflorescence axis. or rarely the inflorescence shortly pale-tomentose;
Ecology Macrosolen occurs in habitats ranging leaves opposite or alternate, narrowly to broadly
from humid to open forests, as well as in disturbed elliptical or ovate, 4-16 cm x 2-7 cm, base cuneate
sites. Although more common in the lowlands, it to truncate, apex acuminate, petiole (0.1-)0.3-l
can be found from sea-level up to over 3000 m alti- cm long; inflorescence a spicate, sometimes sub-
tude. In Malesia, many Macrosolen species are ag- umbellate raceme of 2-7 pairs of flowers, axis
gressive, also attacking cultivated trees. 0.5-2(-4) cm long; corolla in mature bud 8-18(-23)
Management Seeds ofM. cochinchinensis have mm long, mostly yellow or green or rarely pink or
no dormant period, and can germinate within the red below, tube in open flower 5-10(-14) mm long.
fruit, although this affects vigour. Germination M. cochinchinensis occurs in humid and open
takes 2-8 days at 18-32°C with over 90% success forests, as well as in disturbed sites; it is common
rate. Germination can occur on any natural sub- in the lowlands, but can be found up to 2300 m al-
strate, and artificial propagation is possible. How- titude.
ever, best results are obtained with seeds from Selected sources 121,247, 731,732.
fresh fruits sown on the small branches ofa host.
Genetic resources Macrosolen comprises a Macrosolen robinsonii (Gamble)
mixture of widespread species and narrow en- Danser
demics, and with respect to their hosts, both gen- Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, sér. 3, 10: 345
eralists and apparent specialists are represented. (1929).
The degree of potential risks of genetic erosion is Synonyms Elytranthe robinsonii Gamble
linked to these attributes. M. cochinchinensis is (1913).
widely distributed and occurs on a wide range of Vernacular n a m e s Vietnam: d[aj]i c[as]n ro-
host plants, and therefore it does not appear to be binson.
threatened by genetic erosion. Distribution Vietnam and Peninsular Ma-
Prospects Little is known on the pharmacology laysia.
of Macrosolen. More research is needed to evalu- Uses In Vietnam, the leaves ofM. robinsonii are
ate its potential in complementary and alternative employed to prepare a diuretic tea, specifically to
medicine. remedy an enlarged abdomen.
Literature 74, 247, 384, 731,732, 1018. Observations A hemiparasitic shrub, glabrous;
leaves opposite, narrowly ovate to ovate, 5-8(-12)
cm x (l-)2-3.5 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate,
Selection of species petiole 0.1-0.5(-l) cm long; inflorescence an um-
bellate raceme of 1-2 opposite pairs offlowers, ax-
Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) v. is 0.1-0.5 cm long; corolla in mature bud 15-
Tiegh. 25(-30) mm long, pink or red, tube in open flower
Bull. Soc. Bot. France 41: 122 (1894). 10-16 mm long. M. robinsonii is found at 500-
Synonyms Loranthus globosus Roxb. (1824), 1500 m altitude.
Elytranthe cochinchinensis (Lour.) G. Don (1834), Selected sources 247, 731,732.
Elytranthe globosus (Roxb.) G. Don (1834). Slamet Sutanti Budi Rahayu
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: benalu (gener-
al), kamaduhan (Javanese), mangendeuh (Sun-
danese). Malaysia: dedalu api jantan, api-api
Maesa Forssk. against Herpes simplex types 1 and 2, and vesicu-

lar stomatitis viruses.
Fl. aegypt.-arab.: 66 (1775). Botany Dioecious and possibly polygamous
MAESACEAE shrubs and small trees, or lianas. Leaves alter-
a: = 10 nate, simple, entire or variously serrulate-crenate,
Origin and geographic distribution Maesa petiolate; stipules absent. Inflorescence axillary,
comprises some 150 species and is widely distrib- sometimes appearing terminal, paniculate or
uted in the Old World tropics. racemose. Flowers unisexual, 4-5-merous; pedicel
Uses In South-East Asia Maesa leaves are main- with 2 bracteoles; calyx lobes mostly broadly
ly used externally to treat itch and skin diseases. ovate, persistent; corolla campanulate or urceo-
Numerous Maesa species are used as a fish poison. late; stamens inserted on the corolla tube; ovary
Sometimes only the fruits are used, but in general semi-inferior. Fruit berrylike with a somewhat
all aboveground parts of the plantare used, appar- woody endocarp, indéhiscent, many-seeded.
ently for their saponin content. In the Philippines Based on morphology and molecular sequence da-
the widespread M. denticulata Mez and M. laxa ta, Maesa has been removed from the family Myr-
Mez are used for this purpose. M. tetrandra (Roxb.) sinaceae and upgraded to a family ofits own: Mae-
A.DC, a widespread species from Java, the Moluc- saceae.
cas and New Guinea, is mentioned in old literature Ecology Maesa is found in the understorey or
as a remedy for fever and measles in Ternate (the edges of primary and secondary forest, from sea-
Moluccas). M. haplobotrys F. v. Mueller (synonym: level up to 2800 m altitude.
M. edulis C.T. White), from Timor, the Moluccas, Management M. ramentacea is easily propa-
New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, is an ingre- gated by cuttings.
dient of mixtures with Ficus as a poison-antidote, Genetic resources Maesa species are common-
and for birth control. In Nepal a decoction of the ly found in areas of forest regeneration, and are
bark ofM. macrophylla (Wallich) A.DC. is taken as usually common and cannot be considered threat-
a gargle to treat tonsilitis, ulcers and fever, and as ened. However, some species are restricted in
an ecbolic. M. lanceolata Forssk. is widely used in their distribution. The Philippines and New
traditional medicine in Africa and Madagascar, Guinea, for example, both have several endemic
e.g. as an ecbolic, purgative and fish poison, and species, which may be threatened with continued
for fertility control. habitat degradation.
Properties Based on dried leaves of M. ramen- Prospects A commercial pesticide based on M.
tacea a commercial natural piscicide called 'Swim- ramentacea leaves was patented in 1995. Other
top' has been developed in Thailand. It can be species may have potential as natural pesticides
used in both freshwater and brackish water as well. The antifungal and antiviral activities de-
ponds, and breaks down quickly, leaving no toxic serve more attention.
residues in the fish or the water. The saponins in Literature 37, 43,161, 917, 948, 975.
the leaves stupefy or kill fish dose-dependently
but are nontoxic to mammals or shellfish (shrimps
and prawns), and do not render fish inedible. Selection of species
A crude aqueous extract of M. ramentacea leaves
showed antifungal activity against numerous M a e s a i n d i c a (Roxb.) A.DC.
plant pathogenic fungi. A crude extract ofM. indi- Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 134 (1834).
ca seeds showed strong inhibition of 2-aminoan- Synonyms Baeobotrys indica Roxb. (1824).
thracene-induced mutants of Salmonella typhi- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: bunga kasi hu-
murium (T-98), indicating a possible antimuta- tan (Peninsular). Laos: dok ton, kok tap. Thai-
genic activity. land: khaao saan noi, ma phap (northern). Viet-
A methanol extract ofM. macrophylla bark show- nam: d[ow]n r[aw]ng c[uw]a, d[ow]n [aas]n d[ooj].
ed strong antiviral activity against human po- Distribution From India to Indo-China, Thai-
liovirus-1, Sindbis virus and Herpes simplex land and Peninsular Malaysia.
virus-1 at a concentration of 100 ug/ml. A meth- U s e s In Indo-China crushed leaves are used ex-
anol extract from leaves of the African M. lanceo- ternally to treat urticaria and itch caused by aller-
lata showed strong molluscicidal, haemolytic and gy. The leaves are used as a fish poison in India.
antiviral activities, with saponins as active com- Sometimes they are eaten in curries or as a veg-
pounds. The antiviral activity included activities etable.
MALLOTUS 287
Observations A shrub up to 5 m tall; leaves el- intestinal problems. Externally they are used to
liptical to ovate-elliptical, (6-)8-17 cm x 4-8(-15) treat boils, wounds, skin diseases and fever. The
cm, base cuneate to rounded, apex acuminate; in- fruit granules of M. philippensis were previously
florescence a condensed panicle or raceme 2-8 cm important as an anthelmintic and purgative, but
long, glabrous or slightly glandular; pedicel up to these uses have declined. The powder from the
2 mm long. M. indica occurs in evergreen forest, fruits is still used for the treatment of tapeworm
up to 2300 m altitude. infestation in livestock, particularly in poultry.
Selected sources 121,249, 622, 789, 990. M. japonicus (Thunberg) Müll. Arg. is applied in
Chinese traditional medicine, particularly to regu-
Maesa ramentacea (Roxb.) A.DC. late the functions of the digestive system, e.g. to
Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 133(1834). treat gastric and duodenal ulcers.
S y n o n y m s Baeobotrys ramentacea Roxb. (1824). The red granules on the fruits of M. philippensis
Vernacular names Malaysia: gambir hutan, were formerly much used as a dye. The wood of
gambir-gambir (Peninsular). Thailand: khaao several Mallotus species is used for small objects
saan luang (northern), khrai yoi (Chiang Mai), lu- and as fuelwood.
ai (Trang). Vietnam: d[ow]n h[oof]ng. Properties The leaves of M. mollissimus
Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan- showed activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand and The bark of M. philippensis is active against
throughout the Malesian region. gram-positive as well as gram-negative bacteria.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia pounded leaves Kamala powder is a dull reddish-brown substance
are applied externally to treat itch and other skin from M. philippensis fruits used for medicinal
diseases. Mention is made ofthe leaves eaten with purposes, and formerly also for dyeing. Under the
rice as a remedy for heart pain. Dried leaves are microscope it is seen to consist ofvery characteris-
used as a fish poison. tic globular glands containing red resin and radi-
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 15 m ating groups of unicellular curved trichomes. In-
tall; leaves ovate or elliptical, 6-18 cm x 2-11 cm, vitro and in-vivo research showed that a fruit ex-
base cuneate, rounded or subcordate, apex acumi- tract of M. philippensis displays activity against
nate; inflorescence axillary, panicle-like, 4-18 cm tapeworm. The resin caused a significant purga-
long, with widely patent branches, glabrous; tive effect after an oral dose (120 mg/kg) in rats,
pedicels up to 3 mm long. M. ramentacea is com- and killed 36% and 78%oftapeworms in the small
monly found in secondary forest, from sea-level up intestine at doses of 60 mg/kg and 120 mg/kg, re-
to 1200 m altitude. spectively. The anthelmintic activity is mainly at-
Selected sources 121, 249, 622, 746, 789, 888, tributed to the phloroglucinol derivatives rottlerin
938, 990. and isorottlerin. Rottlerin exhibited antifertility
T.M.A. Utteridge &J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg activity in rats and guinea-pigs, whereas isorott-
lerin was inactive. Rottlerin is a protein kinase in-
hibitor. Rottlerin and isorottlerin together consti-
tute about 11%of the weight of the powder from
Mallotus Lour.
ripe M. philippensis fruits. Leaf extracts showed
Fl. cochinch.: 635 (1790). antifilarial activity on Setaria cervi in vitro. The
EUPHORBIACEAE
alcoholic extract of M. philippensis fruits exhibit-
x = 11;M. philippensis, M. répandus: re = 11 ed in-vitro anticancer activity against human epi-
Origin a n d geographic distribution Mallo- dermoid carcinoma of the nasopharynx and sarco-
tus comprises about 140 species. Only 2 of these ma of mice.
occur in Africa and Madagascar, the others being Stem and root extracts of M. répandus showed
found from India and Sri Lanka to Indo-China, radical scavenger activity. An aqueous extract of
China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Thailand, through- M. répandus stems exhibited anti-inflammatory
out the Malesian region, northern and eastern activity against carrageenan-induced paw oede-
Australia and the Pacific (east to Fiji). Some 75 ma. M. répandus showed significant antihepato-
species occur within Malesia. toxic activity in cultured hepatocytes. A methanol
Uses Bark, leaves, fruits and seeds of Mallotus extract had anti-ulcer activity in stress-induced
are commonly used in traditional medicine in gastric ulcers and radio protective effect against
South-East Asia. The most common internal ap- bone marrow and skin injury.
plications are for treating stomach complaints and Bergenin (an isocoumarin), the major constituent
of M. japonicus, showed antihepatotoxic activity Mallotus is closely related to Macaranga, the lat-
on carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated hepatocytes of ter differing by its 3-4-celled anthers and more
rats. Bergenin has also been isolated from wood, conspicuously by its lateral inflorescences and ab-
bark and leaves ofM. philippensis and from aerial sence of stellate hairs.
parts of M. répandus. Several phloroglucinol de- Ecology Most Mallotus species occur in primary
rivatives isolated from M. japonicus (e.g. mallo- evergreen rain forest, but a few are abundant in
phenone, mallotojaponin (a major constituent of secondary forest and in more open locations in-
the fruit), isomallotolerin, isomallotochromene, cluding savanna woodland, up to 2000 m altitude.
mallotochroman and isomallotochroman) distinct- They occur in dipterocarp, riverine and swamp
ly inhibited the replication ofherpes simplex virus forest. A few species (e.g. M. philippensis) are pio-
type 1. They also demonstrated cytotoxicity neers characteristic of secondary vegetation and
against human larynx and lung carcinoma cells as may be gregarious elements in regenerated forest.
well as mouse melanoma and leukaemia cells, and They are among the first species to appear after
caused a marked prolongation of the life-span of fields are abandoned.
mice bearing L5178Y leukaemia. A methanol ex- Management Mallotus can be propagated by
tract of M.japonicus stems showed significant in- seed, but the germination rate may be poor, e.g. in
hibitory activity on human immunodeficiency M. philippensis. Trees may also reproduce from
virus type 1(HIV-1) reverse transcriptase. root suckers. Most species are light-demanding,
The presence of cardenolides has been demon- but some need shade during establishment. In In-
strated in the seeds of several Mallotus species. dia, M. philippensis is resistant to drought, it cop-
The seed-oil ofM. philippensis is unstable; it poly- pices well and is capable of producing root suck-
merizes rapidly. Seeds contain up to 20% oil. The ers; it is not resistant to fire.
principle fatty acid is kamlolenic acid. The bark The red granules ofM. philippensis fruits are usu-
contains up to 10% tannin. Several hydrolyzable ally separated by beating and shaking, or by stir-
tannins have been isolated including colilagin, eu- ring the fruits vigorously in water. The yield of the
genin, furosin, geraniin, mallotinic acid, mallo- powder is only 1.5-4% ofthe fruit weight.
tinin and ropondusinic acids Aand B. Genetic resources The light-demanding Mal-
Botany Dioecious, sometimes monoecious lotus species exhibiting pioneer characteristics are
shrubs or small to medium sized trees up to at little risk of genetic erosion by deforestation.
25(-35) m tall, sometimes lianas; indumentum of- However, more research on taxonomy, geographic
ten consisting of stellate hairs. Leaves arranged distribution and ecological requirements is needed
spirally or opposite, simple and entire, sometimes to determine the risks for all the species of this
sinuate or dentate, rarely lobed, sometimes large genus. Ex-situ germplasm collections are not
peltate, often whitish and with glandular gran- known to exist.
ules below, venation pinnate or palmate; stipules Prospects Many pharmacological properties
small. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary raceme demonstrated in Mallotus material outside South-
or spike, sometimes paniculate, generally unisex- East Asia deserve more attention in material from
ual. Flowers unisexual, calyx 2-4(-5)-lobed, petals the region, especially the antitumour, antihepato-
absent; male flowers with numerous stamens, toxic, antibacterial and antiviral activities. The
disk present or absent; female flowers with supe- dye from M. philippensis is much too expensive to
rior, 2-4-lobed ovary, styles simple to plumose, compete with synthetic dyes, but might have
disk absent. Fruit a more or less distinctly lobed prospects in the food industry as an antioxidant.
capsule, smooth to echinate, splitting into 2- Literature 49, 50, 476, 542, 627,883.
valved, 1-seeded parts leaving a persistent central
column. Seeds globose to ovoid, smooth, shiny
black. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyle- Selection of species
dons emergent, leafy; hypocotyl elongated; first
few leaves arranged spirally, decussate higher up Mallotus barbatus Müll. Arg.
in species with opposite leaves. Linnaea 34: 184 (1865).
Mallotus can grow quickly; a mean annual diame- Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: balek angin,
ter increment of 1.4 cm has been recorded for M. tampin (Peninsular). Thailand: kheethao (north-
philippensis, 1.7-3.6 cm for M. mollissimus. The ern), salapaang bai yai (Chanthaburi), kalo yaai
seeds of many Mallotus species are dispersed by thaai (peninsular). Vietnam: b[uf]ng b[uj]c.
birds. Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
MALLOTUS 289
China, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Ma- Mallotus floribundus (Blume) Müll.
laysia, Java and the Moluccas (Halmahera). Arg.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, it has been re- Linnaea 34: 187(1865).
corded that a poultice is made from the plant by Vernacular names Blue blade (En). Indonesia:
pounding it with pepper, ginger and rice; it is used nakau (Palembang), tapen (Java). Malaysia: mal-
to treat colic. In Vietnam, M. barbatus is used to lotus marambokan (Sabah), maya-maya, pasu-pa-
treat boils and headache. In Indo-China, a tallow su (Peninsular). Philippines: tula-tula (Filipino).
is made from the seeds for illumination. Burma (Myanmar): taung-kado. Thailand: lo
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 6 m khon, pik (peninsular), prik (peninsular, south-
tall, branches, petioles and inflorescences densely western). Vietnam: b[aj]ch dan, ba b[es]t hoa
floccose-tomentose; leaves arranged spirally, sub- nhi[eef]u.
orbicular in outline, often tricuspidate or shortly Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
and acutely 3-lobed, peltate; fruit subglobose, Thailand, throughout Malesia and the Solomon
densely covered with soft stellate-tomentose Islands.
processes forming a continuous uniform layer. M. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
barbatus occurs in evergreen forest, often in clear- root is used to treat fever, stomach-ache and
ings and near streams, up to 1200 m altitude. cholera, and is given after childbirth; a decoction
Selected sources 19,23,62, 121,990. of the plant is also applied as a lotion to treat
yaws. The wood is used for small objects.
Mallotus blumeanus Müll.Arg. Observations A shrub or small tree up to
Linnaea 34: 195 (1865). 18(-25) m tall, mostly with straight bole up to 30
Vernacular names Indonesia: bungbulang cm in diameter; leaves arranged spirally (upper
peucang, calik angin (Sundanese), katimuru (Ja- ones sometimes opposite), broadly ovate to orbicu-
vanese). lar, often glaucous below with conspicuous tufts of
Distribution Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda fulvous hairs in the basal vein-axils, peltate, peti-
Islands (Flores) and Sulawesi. ole long and slender; fruit sparsely and softly echi-
U s e s In Indonesia the leaves are used during nate. M. floribundus is locally common in primary
childbirth. and secondary forest, mainly in open locations, or
Observations A medium-sized tree up to 30 m scrub vegetation, especially along streams, up to
tall, almost completely glabrous; leaves decussate- 500(-1000) m altitude.
ly opposite, ovate-oblong, not peltate; fruit ellip- Selected sources 19, 21, 22, 23, 62, 121, 334,
soid, verrucose. M. blumeanus occurs in primary 760, 872, 883,990.
forest up to 1000 m altitude.
Selected sources 22, 23, 62, 334, 883. M a l l o t u s m a c r o s t a c h y u s (Miq.) M ü l l .
Arg.
Mallotus eriocarpus (Thwaites) Müll. D C , Prodr. 15(2):963 (1866).
Arg. Vernacular names Common pom-pom tree
Linnaea 34: 194(1865). (En). Malaysia: balek angin, berumbing (Peninsu-
Synonyms Coelodiscus montanus Müll. Arg. lar), dau (Sabah). Thailand: famee, lo, plao yai
(1866). (peninsular). Vietnam: b[uj]c ch[uf]m to, ba b[es]t
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: ramin bukit, ch[uf]m to.
kayu berkuching (Peninsular). Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
Distribution Sri Lanka and Peninsular Ma- Malaysia, Singapore, Bangka and Borneo.
laysia. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the hairs rubbed
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, M. eriocarpus is from the young leaves are applied to wounds as a
applied as a poultice to treat eczema. styptic, the leaves as a poultice to treat boils and
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 8 m fever, and a decoction of the leaves for cleansing
tall, softly tomentose all over; leaves opposite, wounds. The wood is occasionally used, e.g. for
ovate-cordate to oblong lanceolate, rounded or cor- rafters.
date at base, dentate, not peltate; fruit smooth, Observations A shrub or small to medium-
completely devoid of processes. M. eriocarpus oc- sized tree up to 18 m tall, with robust, shortly ru-
curs in lowland forest. fous-tomentellous branches; leaves arranged spi-
Selected sources 121, 990. rally, triangular-ovate, narrowly peltate, very
long-petiolate; inflorescence frequently leaf-op-
posed; fruit globose, with a dense covering of to- grassland on loamy or clayey soils, up to 1300 m
mentose processes forming a thick uniform layer. altitude.
M. macrostachyus occurs in and at the margins of Selected sources 19, 21, 22, 23, 62, 256, 296,
evergreen forest, primary as well as secondary, up 347, 883,990.
to 1200 m altitude.
Selected sources 19,121, 883,990. M a l l o t u s p a n i c u l a t u s ( L a m k ) Müll. A r g .
Linnaea 34: 189 (1865).
Mallotus miquelianus (Scheffer) Boerl. Synonyms Croton paniculatus Lamk (1786),
Handl. fl. Ned. Ind. 3:290 (1900). Mallotus cochinchinensis Lour. (1790).
Synonyms Mallotus anisophyllus Hook.f. Vernacular names Turn-in-the-wind (En). In-
(1887). donesia: calik angin (Sundanese), tutup awu, tut-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kayu kering up kancil (Javanese). Malaysia: balek angin (Pe-
(Peninsular). Philippines: pikal (Filipino). ninsular), mallotus balabakan (Sabah). Philip-
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular pines: anaplan (Bukidnon). Laos: 'khi 2 thao 1 , lat
Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines. koua, luat ma 2 . Thailand: saet (peninsular), sate-
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaf juice is ton (north-eastern), soi daao (south-eastern). Viet-
used to treat earache. The stems are used for nam: b[uj]c b[aj]c, ba b[es]t nam b[ooj],bai b[as]i.
making walking sticks. Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
Observations A shrub up to 3(-10) m tall; China, southern China, Taiwan, Thailand,
leaves opposite, one leaf of each pair being re- throughout Malesia except the Lesser Sunda Is-
duced, cordate and up to 5 cm in diameter, not lands, and north-eastern Australia.
peltate, petiole of normal leaves very short, up to Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
7 mm long; fruit with short blackish processes, pu- plant is used for cleansing wounds, a poultice in
berulous. M. miquelianus occurs in primary or combination with other plants to treat headache,
secondary forest, usually in more open locations, and a lotion externally to treat fever in children. A
up to 700C-1400)m altitude. decoction of the root is administered after child-
Selected sources 19, 22, 23,121, 872, 990. birth. The wood is used for matches and boxes,
and as fuelwood. The bark is occasionally used for
Mallotus mollissimus (Geiseler) Airy binding purposes.
Shaw Observations A shrub or small to medium-
Kew Bull. 26:297(1972). sized tree up to 20 m tall; leaves arranged spiral-
Synonyms Croton mollissimus Geiseler (1807), ly, rhombic or ovate, often tricuspidate or 3-lobed,
Mallotus ricinoides (Pers.) Müll. Arg. (1865). whitish-felted below, usually not peltate; fruit
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: di subglobose, whitish-felted, with scattered process-
(Lossu, New Ireland Province). Philippines: hin- es. M. paniculatus is common in evergreen forest
laumo (Filipino). Vietnam: b[uj]c n[aa]u, b[uj]c and in scrub vegetation, up to 1500 m altitude.
qu[ar] th[aaf]u d[aaf]u, ba b[es]t n[aa]u. Selected sources 19, 21, 22, 23, 62, 121, 256,
Distribution Indo-China, throughout the Male- 334, 883,990.
sian region except Peninsular Malaysia, north-
eastern Australia and Melanesia; possibly also in Mallotus philippensis (Lamk) Müll.Arg.
southern Burma (Myanmar), southern China and Linnaea 34: 196 (1865; 'philippinensis').
Thailand. Synonyms Croton philippense Lamk (1786).
U s e s In Sumatra, the leaves are used to treat Vernacular n a m e s Kamala tree, monkey face
stomach-ache. In Papua New Guinea, the sap is tree, red berry (En). Croton tinctorial, rottlière des
used externally to treat sore eyes, and internally teinturiers (Fr). Indonesia: galuga furu (Ternate),
against dysentery. Leaves are chewed and sap kapasan (Javanese), ki meyong (Sundanese). Ma-
swallowed as a contraceptive. laysia: rambai kuching (general), kasirau, minyak
Observations A shrub or small to medium- madja (Peninsular). Papua New Guinea: tore
sized tree up to 15 m tall; leaves arranged spiral- (Vanapa Bridge, Central Province). Philippines:
ly, ovate-suborbicular to deltoid-rhomboid, usual- banato (Tagalog), pangaplasin (Ilokano), tagusala
ly sinuate or dentate towards the apex, peltate; (Bisaya). Burma (Myanmar): hpawng-awn. Cam-
fruit subglobose, with densely crowded, pubescent bodia: 'ân-nadaa. Laos: kh'aay paax, khiiz moon,
processes forming a continuous woolly layer. M. tangx thôôm. Thailand: kai khat hin, khee nuea
mollissimus is common in secondary forest and in (north-eastern), kham saet (central). Vietnam:
MAPANIA 291
r[uf]m nao, c[as]nh ki[ees]n, m[oj]t. lanceolate-ovate or obovate, with red glandular
Distribution From India and Sri Lanka to Bur- granules below, not peltate; fruit subglobose, with
ma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Taiwan, the Ryukyu a dense layer of red granules. M. philippensis oc-
Islands, Thailand, throughout the Malesian re- curs in many different habitats, in primary and
gion, northern Australia and Melanesia. secondary forest, edges of mangroves and scrub
Uses The granules on the fruit have been widely vegetation in grassland, up to 1600 m altitude.
used as an anthelmintic and to treat skin com- Selected sources 19, 21, 22, 23, 62, 121, 173,
plaints, e.g. herpes. They have been applied as a 256, 303, 334, 347, 542, 671,760, 883,990.
drastic purgative. The leaves and bark are also
used to treat skin diseases, and pounded seeds are M a l l o t u s r é p a n d u s (Willd.) M ü l l . A r g .
applied to wounds. The seeds are administered in Linnaea 34: 197 (1865).
traditional medicine in Thailand to treat vertigo Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar charek pu-
and loss of appetite; a decoction of the wood is teh (Peninsular). Thailand: ma pop khruea (north-
used to treat muscular inflammation and kidney ern), kurapia (Pattani), yieo maeo (peninsular).
diseases. The leaves are used as diuretic and anti- Vietnam: b[uj]c b[uj]c leo, nkung di[eej]n b[af]i.
amoebic. In Papua New Guinea, a decoction of the Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Tai-
leaves is applied against diarrhoea, but also to wan, Thailand, throughout Malesia except Borneo,
treat constipation; the sap is applied to wounds. north-eastern Australia and New Caledonia.
The granules which cover the ripe fruit are used Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
in India as a dye ('kamala') for dyeing silk and roots is used to cure colds. In Taiwan, the stems
wool bright orange, and as a preservative for veg- and roots are applied as anti-inflammatory and
etable oils and dairy products. The seed oil is liver-protective drugs. The roots are also used to
sometimes used in the production of rapid-drying treat itch, snakebites, fever and hepatitis.
paints and varnishes, as a substitute for tung oil Observations A climbing or scrambling shrub
from Aleurites. The wood is useful as a fuelwood or liana up to 20 m long; leaves arranged spirally,
and is sometimes used for implements and rafters. triangular to elliptical or rhombic-ovate, not pel-
The leaves are used as a fodder. tate; fruit 2(-3)-celled, without echinate processes,
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up densely yellow-tomentose. M. répandus occurs
to 25 m tall; leaves arranged spirally, elliptical to scattered in primary or secondary rain forest, up
to 900 m altitude.
Selected sources 19, 21, 22, 23, 62, 121, 256,
554, 562, 990.
Ch.B. Lugt
Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien

Journ. Arn. Arb. 20: 213 (1939).
CYPERACEAE
2ra= unknown
Synonyms Mapania humilis Fern.-Vill. (1882),
Mapaniapetiolata C.B. Clarke (1908).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: sohlenat (Sun-
danese), selingsingan (Sumatra), kihadio (Seram).
Malaysia: siak-siak rimba, sempit (Peninsular),
penawar Fatimah (Sarawak). Philippines: malalu-
bigan (Tagalog), lubigan (Panay Bisaya), maribari
(Samar-Leyte Bisaya).
Origin and geographic distribution M. cus-
pidata is widespread in the Nicobar Islands, Thai-
land, throughout the Malesian region, the Solo-
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk) Müll. Arg. - 1, mon Islands and the New Hebrides.
branch with female inflorescences; 2, female Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves of M.
flower; 3, male flower; 4,fruiting branch. cuspidata are used to treat fever, whereas a decoc-
tion of whole plants is administered as a tonic Matthaea Blume

after childbirth. In Sarawak a root decoction is
drunk as a poison antidote. M. cuspidata has po- Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 2: 89 (1856).
tential ornamental value. Some Mapania species, MONIMIACEAE
e.g. M. palustris (Hassk. ex Steudel) Fern.-Vill. x =unknown
and M. sumatrana (Miq.) Benth., are used for Origin and geographic distribution Mat-
making mats and baskets. M. kurzii C.B. Clarke thaea consists of 6 species, 4 ofwhich are endemic
is browsed by cattle. to the Philippines. The widespread M. sancta oc-
Botany Arobust, glabrous, perennial herb up to curs throughout western Malesia.
90 cm tall, with rhizome up to 11 mm in diameter. Uses Matthaea stems and leaves are used to re-
Leaves 3-ranked, in a rosette, simple, linear, lin- lieve headache. The wood is sometimes used in
ear-oblong to oblong, (16-)20-98 cm x 2-6.5 cm, house construction.
narrowed into a pseudopetiole up to 39 cm long at Botany Monoecious shrubs or small, evergreen
base, cuspidate at apex, margins entire to scabrid trees. Leaves opposite, simple, entire or dentate
near apex, leathery, 3-veined, young leaves pink- distally, pubescent or glabrous at maturity, pin-
ish to reddish on lower side; sheath present at nately veined, with fine pellucid dots; stipules ab-
base ofpseudopetiole. Inflorescence a terminal, el- sent. Inflorescence axillary or terminal, cymose,
lipsoid to hemi-spherical spike up to 3 cm long, on shorter than the leaves. Flowers unisexual, 4-mer-
a lateral scape up to 29 cm long; spike with sever- ous; male flowers with subglobose receptacle, sur-
al involucral bracts. Flowers unisexual, sessile, rounded by small rounded tepals, stamens 4, free,
arranged in axils ofbracts along an axis ('spicoid'), opening by 2 longitudinal slits; female flowers
lower 3 flowers of spicoid male, with 1 stamen, with more flattened receptacle, upper half of
terminal flower female, with elongate style ending tepals abscising as a calyptra at anthesis to reveal
in 3 stigma branches; each spicoid with 6 bracts numerous carpels. Fruit consisting of numerous
(so 2 without flowers). Fruit nutlike, ellipsoid to long-stipitate, verruculose drupes situated on the
obovoid-ellipsoid, dull pale green to medium- receptacle.
brown, with succulent exocarp and stony endo- Matthaea is closely related to Steganthera, which
carp. differs in the anthers opening by a single horizon-
Mapania comprises about 75 species and is tal slit. However, the two genera are geographical-
pantropical. In the Malesian region about 30 ly separate, Steganthera being centred in New
species occur, Borneo being richest (25 species), Guinea, with outliers to Sulawesi.
followed by Peninsular Malaysia (16).M. cuspida- Ecology Matthaea is primarily found in rain
ta is a variable species. Three varieties are distin- forest, from sea-level up to 1700 m altitude.
guished, differing in leaf shape and size. Genetic resources M. sancta is relatively
Ecology M. cuspidata occurs in the under- widespread, and occurs in both primary and sec-
growth of rain forest up to 900 m altitude, usually ondary forest. Therefore the risk ofgenetic erosion
in damp, peaty localities, also in riverine forest appears to be limited. However, the other species
and freshwater swamp forest. have a very limited distribution and a narrow alti-
Genetic resources Although M. cuspidata is tudinal range, often with a preference for dense
widespread and in many regions not uncommon, forest and are prone to habitat destruction.
Mapania is in general liable to genetic erosion be- Prospects Nothing is known about the pharma-
cause it is largely confined to lowland rain forest, cological properties of Matthaea. Research is
a habitat under increasing pressure. needed to evaluate its value as a remedy for
Prospects Nothing is known about the pharma- headache. However, the utilization as a medicinal
cological activities of Mapania. The use in tradi- plant is unlikely to increase.
tional medicine is similar to that of other, more Literature 121,247.
common Cyperaceae, e.g. Cyperus and Fimbri-
stylis, and it is not expected to increase. The orna-
mental value of some species, e.g. M. cuspidata, Selection of species
deserves more attention, especially for use as an
indoor foliage plant. Matthaea chartacea Merr.
Literature 11,12, 121,859. Publ. Govt. Lab. Philipp. 35: 14 (1905).
Other selected sources 247, 760. Synonyms Matthaea williamsii Perkins (1911),
R.H.M.J. Lemmens Matthaea pinchotiana Perkins (1911).
MAZUS 293
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: laba (Talaud Is- Philippines: banauan (Bagobo). Cambodia: pra-
lands). Philippines: alukba (Mangyan), molikot- mat det. Vietnam: rau d[aws]ng.
lang (Mindoro), matagusa (Mindanao). Origin and geographic distribution M. pu-
Distribution The Philippines and the northern milus is extremely widely distributed in tropical,
Moluccas (Talaud Islands). subtropical and temperate regions ofeastern Asia,
Uses Scraped stems are used to treat head- from India to China, Korea and Japan, and in
ache. Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, and the
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 10 m Malesian region (recorded for Singapore, Java and
tall; leaves oblong-ovate, (13-)15-20(-25) cm x the Philippines, but probably also elsewhere); it is
6-9.5(-12) cm; inflorescence axillary, solitary or also found in Australia. It has been introduced
few together, rachis of male inflorescence strigose, and is more or less naturalized in several other re-
up to 2 cm long; receptacle of female flowers gions, e.g. locally in southern Europe, Argentina
turbinate, at anthesis c. 1 cm in diameter, ovary and the United States.
densely strigose; dried drupes c. 20 mm x 15 mm, Uses Whole plants are applied to snakebites in
glabrous, black, wrinkled. M. chartacea occurs in Java. In Cambodia, an infusion of whole M.
both primary and secondary forest from sea-level pumilus plants is used as a tonic, aperient and
up to 700 m altitude. febrifuge. In China, the plant is considered to
Selected sources 121,247,621. have emmenagogic activity.
Matthaea sancta Blume chemistry or pharmacological properties of M.
Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 2: 90,t. 10 (1856). pumilus. Five saponins (mazusaponins I-IV, and
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: cherum, poko ilexoside VIII) have been isolated from the Japan-
churow, poko lumsoo (Peninsular). Philippines: ese M. miquelii Makino.
babang-di-putukan (Ifugao), colog-colog (Negros), Botany An annual herb often branched from
bago-bago (Cebu Bisaya). the base, with erect or ascending stems up to 40
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, cm tall. Leaves opposite, mostly clustered towards
Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines and Sulawesi. the base (rosulate), simple, obovate-spatulate,
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia leaves are mixed 1.5-7 cm x 1-2 cm, coarsely crenate-dentate,
with tobacco and smoked to relieve headache. The glabrous, blade attenuate into an obscure petiole;
heavy wood is used locally for construction pur- stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal raceme
poses. up to 35 cm tall, often flexuous, 5-25-flowered;
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 15 m bracts linear, up to 4 mm long. Flowers bisexual,
tall; leaves lanceolate-oblong to oblong, 15.5-31 5-merous, pedicellate; calyx broadly campanulate,
cm x 3.5-9.5 cm; inflorescence axillary, solitary or lobed nearly to the middle, 3-5 mm long in flower,
fascicled, rachis of male inflorescence pubescent, 5-8 mm long in fruit; corolla tubular, 7-8 mm
2-3 cm long; receptacle of female flowers tur- long, distinctly 2-lipped with upper lip 2-lobed and
binate, at anthesis c. 1.2 cm in diameter, ovary lower lip longer, 3-lobed and provided with 2 tu-
densely pilose; dried drupes c. 18 mm x 11 mm, bercles at base, pale purple with yellow spots on
glabrous, blue-black. M. sancta occurs in both pri- lower lip; stamens 4, inserted on lower part of
mary and secondary forest from sea-level up to corolla tube, didynamous; ovary superior, ovoid, 2-
1200 m altitude. celled, style filiform, stigma 2-lamellate. Fruit a
Selected sources 121,247,621. subglobose capsule 2-3 mm long, included in the
D.S. Alonzo persistent calyx, loculicidally 2-valved, many-
seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, c. 0.5 mm long, with thin
reticulate testa.
M a z u s p u m i l u s (Burm.f.) v a n S t e e n i s In Java, M. pumilus can be found flowering
throughout the year. In Japan, it is predominant-
Nova Guinea, n.s. 9: 31 (1958). ly self-pollinated, and plants die after flowering
SCROPHULARIACEAE and fruiting, behaving as a real annual.
2n =usually 40,but also: n = 8, 26, 2re=24, 38 Mazus comprises about 20 species, and occurs in
Synonyms Mazus rugosus Lour. (1790), Mazus tropical to temperate regions ofeastern Asia, Aus-
japonicus (Thunberg) O. Kuntze (1891). tralia, New Zealand and Micronesia. M. pumilus
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: jukut mata is a variable species both morphologically and cy-
keuyeup (Sundanese), anruda borong (Makassar). tologically. The morphological variation has re-
Other selected sources 62, 121,250.

S. Brotonegoro
Medinilla radicans (Blume) Blume
Flora 14:509 (1831).

MELASTOMATACEAE
In =unknown
Vernacular names Indonesia: areuy manjel
(Sundanese).
Origin and geographic distribution M. radi-
cans appears to be restricted to western and east-
ern Java, Bali and Sumbawa.
U s e s In western Java the leaves of M. radicans
are eaten to treat dysentery. Pounded bark is used
to dye bamboo baskets purplish. There is an old
record from the Moluccas of the adventitious roots
of M. crispata (L.) Blume being applied as a poul-
tice to wounds and young leaves to skin disorders.
Some Medinilla species have considerable orna-
mental value, especially M. magnifica Lindley
(from the Philippines) and M. speciosa (Reinw. ex
Blume) Blume (found throughout Malesia except
the Philippines and New Guinea).
Properties The use of Melastomataceae in tra-
ditional medicine as an astringent, antidiarrhoeal
Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) van Steenis - 1, plant and haemostatic is often ascribed to the presence
habit; 2, flower; 3, corolla opened, showing sta- of tannins. The leaves ofM. magnifica are rich in
mens; 4, seed. tannins. The ellagitannin oligomers medinillin A
and B have been isolated. Gallic acid is by far the
suited in the description of several botanical vari- most abundant phenolic component.
eties, particularly for China. Botany A scandent, often epiphytic shrub up to
Ecology M. pumilus occurs along roadsides, in 2 m tall. Leaves in whorls of 3-7, simple and en-
the grounds of buildings and fields, and along tire, obovate, 7-12 cm x 2-6 cm, shortly acumi-
streams, in open, not too dry, sunny or slightly nate, 1-3-veined from the base; petiole 1.5-3.5 cm
shaded localities, in Java up to 1400 m altitude, in long; stipules absent. Inflorescence umbelliform,
the Philippines up to 2200 m. It is common and up to 3 cm long, 4-8-flowered. Flowers bisexual, 4-
considered a weed in many places, e.g. in rice merous, pedicelled; hypanthium (calyx tube) nar-
fields. rowly campanulate, 7-11 mm long; petals free,
Management The seeds need much light to ger- 5-12 mm long, fleshy, whitish to pink; stamens 8,
minate; they hardly germinate at all in the shade alternately longer and shorter; ovary semi-inferi-
of other plants. As a weed, M. pumilus prefers or, 4-celled, style c. 12 mm long, glabrous. Fruit a
abandoned fields. berry 7-9 mm long, apically prolonged into a
Genetic resources With its wide distribution cylindrical neck, many-seeded. Seeds semi-ovoid.
and preference for secondary habitats, M. pumilus Medinilla comprises about 400 species and occurs
is not liable to genetic erosion. Its morphological in the tropics of the Old World. The Malesian re-
and cytological variability deserves more atten- gion is the centre of diversity, Borneo, the Philip-
tion. pines and New Guinea being richest in species.
Prospects M. pumilus is used in traditional Madagascar is also rich. The genus belongs to the
medicine in several regions of its distribution tribe Dissochaeteae, together with e.g. Dissochae-
area. Research on phytochemistry and pharmaco- ta.
logical properties is needed to confirm its uses. M. radicans has been confused with M. quadrifo-
Literature 249, 334, 732, 1025. lia (Blume) Blume, which is more widely distrib-
MELICOPE 295
uted (Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, western Ja- wash for wounds, ulcers, boils and scabies. In the
va and Borneo), and differs in its broadly campan- Solomon Islands the bark of M. burttiana B.C.
ulate to ovoid hypanthium (calyx tube) and 4-5- Stone is macerated in water and applied to sore
merous flowers. legs.
Ecology M. radicans occurs in forest up to 1000 Melicope wood is used for both indoor and outdoor
m altitude, usually epiphytic on trees. applications of varying quality and durability. It
Genetic resources Like many other Medinilla also produces good-quality veneer. The fruits of
species, M. radicans appears to have a limited some species have been used as a spice or condi-
area of distribution, and may be liable to genetic ment, whereas others, e.g. M. denhamii, are culti-
erosion. vated as an ornamental.
Prospects It seems unlikely that the medicinal Properties Several Melicope species contain
use of M. radicans or other Medinilla species will quinoline alkaloids, terpenes and coumarins. Nu-
increase. Methods developed for in-vitro propaga- merous chromenes, including 2,2-dimethylchrom-
tion have opened the gate for mass production of enes and dichromenes, have been isolated from
ornamental Medinilla. the aerial parts ofM. pteleifolia.
Literature 62, 334. In a general screening experiment, an extract of
Other selected sources 779, 780, 1035. M. lunu-ankenda showed in-vitro anti-human im-
R.H.M.J. Lemmens munodeficiency virus (HIV) activity. In an XTT-
tetrazolium assay two quinoline alkaloids isolated
from the extract exhibited modest anti-HIV-1 ac-
M e l i c o p e J . R . F o r s t e r & J.G. F o r s t e r tivity in cultured human lymphoblastoid CEM-SS
cells.
Charact. gen. pi.: 55 (1775). The methanol extract of M. semecarpifolia root
RUTACEAE bark showed strong antiplatelet activity in vitro
x = 18;M. bonwickii, M. lunu-ankenda: In =36 using the turbidimetric method. Especially the
Origin and geographic distribution Meli- furoquinoline alkaloids showed significant activi-
cope comprises about 230 species, and occurs in ty. Furoquinoline-type alkaloids isolated from the
Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- leaves of M. confusa also showed significant an-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, tiplatelet aggregation activity.
throughout Malesia, east to the Hawaiian and In a screening experiment using the disk diffusion
Marquesas Islands, south to Australia and New method, extracts of leaves, stem and bark of M.
Zealand. Some 30 species are found within Male- elleryana (F. v. Mueller) T.G. Hartley, collected in
sia. Papua New Guinea, showed antimicrobial activi-
Uses Melicope is sometimes used in South-East ty. Light petroleum, dichloromethane and ethyl
Asian folk medicine. Some species are used as a acetate fractions of the various methanol extracts
febrifuge, the leaves of others, in decoction or showed a broad spectrum antibacterial activity
crushed, are applied to sores, boils, scabies and but no antifungal activity.
other skin affections. Botany Evergreen or deciduous shrubs or small
In the Philippines the bark of M. confusa (Merr.) to medium-sized, rarely large trees. Leaves oppo-
P.S. Liu or M. semecarpifolia (Merr.) T.G. Hartley site or whorled, 3-foliolate or 1-foliolate, aromatic;
is used for treating an enlarged spleen. In Taiwan stipules absent; leaflets with pellucid dots. Inflo-
the roots ofM. semecarpifolia are used as a carmi- rescence axillary or on branches, paniculate.
native in folk medicine, and a decoction of the Flowers bisexual or unisexual (and then trees
roots or leafy shoots mixed with liquour is ingest- dioecious), 4-merous; sepals fused at base; petals
ed to treat urticaria. Leaves of M. latifolia (DC.) free, white; stamens 4 or 8; disk present; ovary su-
T.G. Hartley (synonym: Euodia peekelii Lauterb.) perior, 4-carpellate, carpels fused completely or
have been externally applied for treating fever only at base, styles united. Fruit with 1-4 follicles
and cramps. In Vietnamese folk medicine the or a 4-celled capsule, with shiny, black seeds re-
roots of M. pteleifolia (Champ, ex Benth.) T.G. maining attached in the fruit. Seedling with
Hartley (synonym: Euodia lepta (Sprengel) epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent; hypo-
Merr.), a species found from Burma (Myanmar) cotyl elongated; all leaves opposite, early leaves
eastward through Thailand and Indo-China to toothed, later ones entire.
Taiwan, are used as a tonic, stomachic and emme- Most Melicope species seem to flower almost
nagogue. An infusion of the leaves is used as a throughout the year. The shiny seeds are likely to
be eaten and dispersed by birds. Dispersal by bats lent. In the Tanimbar Islands the plant is said to
is also stated. be used to treat dysentery.
Melicope and Euodia are very closely related gen- Observations A tree up to 40 m tall, young
era and much confusion exists with respect to the branchlets glabrous to rarely sparsely hairy, ter-
proper identity of the hundreds of names in use. minal bud appressed hairy; leaves opposite, 3-foli-
The most important differences between the two olate, 14-40 cm long, leaflets elliptical to obovate,
genera are the dull and roughened seeds that are 10-30 cm x 5-15 cm, glabrous or sparsely hairy on
discharged upon dehiscence ofEuodia fruit versus veins below; inflorescence on branchlets below the
the shiny and smooth seeds remaining attached in leaves, rarely axillary, glabrous to sparsely hairy,
the dehisced fruit of Melicope. In addition flowers 3.5-10 cm long; flowers bisexual, stamens 4, fila-
in Melicope can be bisexual or unisexual with 4 or ments glabrous; fruit sparsely hairy to almost
8 stamens, whereas in Euodia, they are bisexual glabrous, follicles nearly round to obovoid, 4-6
with 4 stamens. mm long, exocarp dry; seeds nearly round to ellip-
Ecology Melicope usually occurs scattered in soid or hemispherical, 3-4.5 mm long. M. bon-
primary or secondary rain forest, occasionally also wickii occurs in primary and secondary forest on
in semi-deciduous or deciduous forest, up to well-drained and alluvial soils from sea-level up to
1600(-2400) m altitude. Some species are also 900 m altitude.
found along forest edges or in more open locations. Selected sources 320, 334, 731, 877,883.
Several species, notably M. lunu-ankenda, are
recorded from swamp forest. M e l i c o p e d e n h a m i i ( S e e m . ) T.G.
Management Melicope can be propagated by Hartley
seed. For M. lunu-ankenda, there are about Sandakania 4: 57 (1994).
267000 dry seeds/kg. Melicope coppices well and Synonyms Euodia schullei Warb. (1891), Euo-
grows rapidly and may therefore be recommended dia radlkoferiana Lauterb. (1905), Euodia ridleyi
for plantations. It is not resistant to fire. Hochr. (1905).
Genetic resources The Melicope species treat- Distribution Borneo, the southern Philippines,
ed here are all relatively widespread and appar- Sulawesi, the Moluccas, New Guinea, the Solomon
ently well adapted to disturbance. The risk of ge- Islands and islands of the Pacific to Fiji; cultivat-
netic erosion appears to be limited. ed since ancient times in Borneo and various parts
Prospects The alkaloids found in several Meli- ofeastern Malesia.
cope species show interesting antimicrobial, anti- Uses In the Solomon Islands heated M. den-
fungal and even modest anti-HIV activity. The hamii leaves are used to poultice boils, and a de-
traditional medicinal uses as skin wash or poul- coction ofthe leaves and bark is used as a lotion to
tice and tonic deserve further attention in view of treat skin diseases. M. denhamii is planted as an
these findings. ornamental.
Literature 148, 149, 320, 462, 543,615,731. Observations A shrub or tree up to 25 m tall,
young branchlets glabrous to velvety, terminal
bud nearly glabrous to velvety; leaves opposite,
Selection of species mostly 3-foliolate, 3-38 cm long, leaflets broadly
ovate or broadly elliptical to linear, 2-27 cm x
M e l i c o p e b o n w i c k i i (F. v. M u e l l e r ) T.G. 0.2-15 cm, glabrous to pubescent; inflorescence
Hartley axillary and/or on branchlets below the leaves,
Sandakania 4: 56 (1994). glabrous to velutinous, up to 17 cm long; flowers
Synonyms Euodia bonwickii F. v. Mueller usually bisexual, stamens 4, filaments glabrous;
(1865), Euodia speciosa Reichenb.f. & Zoll, ex Tei- fruit glabrous to sparsely hairy, follicles subglo-
jsm. & Binnend. (1867), Euodia villamilii Merr. bose, 2-3 mm long, exocarp dry or subfleshy; seeds
(1914). subglobose or hemispherical, 1.5-2.5 mm long. M.
Vernacular names Indonesia: abal (Madure- denhamii occurs in primary and secondary forest,
se), awal (Javanese). Philippines: kamal (Taga- on both well-drained and swampy soils, in grass-
log). land and along roadsides, from sea-level up to
Distribution Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, 1000 m in Borneo, up to 2400 m in New Guinea.
Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Selected sources 320,731.
New Guinea and north-eastern Australia.
Uses In Java the bark is used as a leech repel-
MELICOPE 297
fever. In Taiwan a decoction of the roots mixed

with liquour is used against colds and rheuma-
tism. The young leaves are consumed as a condi-
ment with rice or used to flavour food.
Observations A shrub or tree up to 30 m tall,
young branchlets glabrous to velvety, terminal
bud sparsely hairy to velvety; leaves opposite,
mostly 3-foliolate, 6-37 cm long, leaflets elliptical
to obovate, 3.5-23 cm x 2-9 cm, glabrous or nearly
so; inflorescence axillary, glabrous to velvety, up
to 32 cm long, with main branches ascending;
flowers unisexual, rarely bisexual, stamens 4, fila-
ments hairy at base or glabrous; fruit glabrous,
follicles ellipsoid to obovoid, 4-10(-12) mm long,
exocarp subfleshy; seeds round to ovoid or el-
lipsoid, sometimes compressed, 3-6 mm long. M.
lunu-ankenda occurs in primary and secondary
forest, on both well-drained and swampy soils,
and in montane shrubbery up to 2200 m altitu-
de.
Selected sources 121,334, 731,877,883.
Melicope triphylla (Lamk) Merr.

Philipp. Journ. Sei., Bot. 7: 375 (1913).
Synonyms Euodia anisodora K. Schumann &
Lauterb. (1900).
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: wajo
Melicope denhamii (Seem.) T.G. Hartley - 1, flow- (Nyamikum, Sepik).
ering twig; 2, leaf variability ofputative cultigens; Distribution Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands,
3, bisexual flower, petals and stamens partially re- southward to Borneo, and eastward to Papua New
moved; 4, functionally female flower, petals and Guinea.
stamens partially removed; 5, detail of infructes- Uses In the Sepik region, Papua New Guinea,
cence. the leaves are an ingredient of a complex prescrip-
tion, taken in decoction to treat stomach-ache,
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertner) constipation and diarrhoea, and to remove intesti-
T.G. Hartley nal worms.
Sandakania4:61(1994). Observations A shrub or tree up to 15 m tall,
Synonyms Euodia aromatica Blume (1825), young branchlets glabrous to hairy, sometimes
Euodia roxburghiana (Cham.) Benth. (1861), Euo- glaucous, terminal bud glabrous to velvety hairy;
dia lunu-ankenda (Gaertner) Merr. (1912). leaves opposite, mostly 3-foliolate, 4.5-42(-51) cm
Vernacular names Indonesia: sempayang (Ja- long, leaflets elliptical to oblanceolate, 3-28(-33)
vanese), sipungul janten (Sumatra). Malaysia: cm x 1-10.5(-14) cm, glabrous; inflorescence axil-
pauh-pauh paya, tapak itek, tenggek burong lary and/or on branchlets below the leaves,
(Peninsular). Thailand: saam ngaam (central, glabrous to hairy, up to 13 cm long; flowers uni-
south-eastern), uam (peninsular). sexual or sometimes bisexual, stamens 8 or some-
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, times 4, filaments sparsely hairy or glabrous; fruit
southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, glabrous, follicles ellipsoid or nearly round, 2.5-5
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the south-western Philip- mm long, exocarp subfleshy; seeds nearly round or
pines and Sulawesi. ellipsoid, 2.4-4.5 mm long. M. triphylla occurs in
Uses In Sumatra sap from the bark mixed with primary and secondary forest from sea-level up to
salt is drunk to treat the cold stage of malarial 2500 m altitude.
fever. In Peninsular Malaysia an infusion of the Selected sources 320, 347, 877.
leaves and flowers is used as a tonic and emmena-
gogue. The plant is further used to treat remittent
M e l i c o p e x a n t h o x y l o i d e s (F. v. M u e l l e r ) The southern European to central Asian M. offici-

T.G. H a r t l e y nalis L. (lemon balm) is much better known for its
Allertonia 8(1): 119 (2001). medicinal applications. The dried leaves are used
Synonyms Euodia alata F. v.Mueller (1871). traditionally to treat neurotonic disorders, espe-
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: ga- cially cases of minor sleeplessness. They are also
dembo (Kurerada, Northern Province). used against functional dyspepsia. In Iran, an in-
Distribution The Aru Islands, New Guinea, fusion of branchlets is used as a tonic, antispas-
the Bismarck Archipelago, and north-eastern Aus- modic, anti-emetic, diaphoretic and to treat mi-
tralia. graine. M. officinalis is occasionally planted in
Uses In Papua New Guinea the inner bark is gardens in the mountains of Java, and on several
soaked in water, and the resulting drink taken to farms in Cavité Province, the Philippines, mainly
sooth a bad cough. A concoction of the leaves in as culinary herb for flavouring salads, soups, vine-
water is drunk to treat stomach-ache. gars and liqueurs. It has also been introduced and
Observations A tree up to 21 m tall, young is locally naturalized in the United States and
branchlets puberulent to pubescent, terminal bud Central American countries, where it is also used
pubescent; leaves opposite, mostly 3-foliolate, in local medicine, mainly to promote digestion, as
22-60 cm long, leaflets elliptical to obovate, 11-37 antispasmodic and sedative, and to treat wounds,
cm x 4.5-18 cm, nearly glabrous to pubescent; in- bruises and ulcers.
florescence axillary, pubescent, up to 24 cm long; Properties The essential oil present in M. offi-
flowers unisexual, rarely bisexual, stamens 4, fila- cinalis leaves (about 0.05%) is characterized by
ments glabrous; fruit glabrous to puberulent or the presence of monoterpenoid aldehydes: citrals,
tomentulose, follicles subglobose to ellipsoid, 3 - citronellal, methylheptenone, geranyl acetate, ß-
4(-4.5) mm long, exocarp dry; seeds subglobose to caryophyllene and ß-caryophyllene oxide. Howev-
ellipsoid, 2.5-3.5(-4) mm long. M. xanthoxyloides er, the compounds may strongly differ per culti-
occurs in primary and secondary forest, in low- var. The essential oil has antibacterial, antifungal
lands also in secondary coastal forest, swamp for- and spasmolytic properties.
est, and monsoonal gallery forest, from sea-level Other compounds isolated from M. officinalis in-
up to 1900 m altitude. clude triterpenes, phenolic acids (mainly ros-
Selected sources 320, 347. marinic acid), flavonoids (quercitrin, rhamnocitrin
Juliasri Djamal &J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg and the 7-glucosides of apigenin and luteolin) and
glycosides of monoterpenes and of aromatic alco-
hols. Ahydroalcoholic extract ofthe leaves showed
Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh.f. central nervous system sedative properties in
tests with mice, and aqueous extracts exhibited
Back. &Bakh.f., Fl. Java 2: 629 (1965). antiviral, antithyroid and antigonadotropic activi-
LABIATAE ties. Clinical tests showed promising results for
7i = 8,17 the local treatment of herpes and vaccinia in hu-
Synonyms Melissa parviflora Benth. (1830) mans. Potent anti-human immunodeficiency virus
non Salisb. type 1 (HIV-1) activity was also reported. The an-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: jawer kotok tiviral activity is possibly due to the presence of
(Sundanese), sangketan (Javanese). Vietnam: hoa phenolic acids (rosmarinic acid) or their deriva-
m[aaj]t, ti[as] t[oo] d[aasjt. tives. Caffeic acid, isolated from M. officinalis
Origin and geographic distribution M. axil- leaves, inhibits protein biosynthesis.
laris is widely distributed from Nepal, Bhutan Botany An erect, perennial herb up to 100 cm
and India, through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi- tall; stem with more or less woody base, branched,
na, southern China and Thailand, to the Malesian branches pubescent when young. Leaves decus-
region, where it is recorded from northern and sately opposite, simple, very variable in shape and
central Sumatra, and western and central Java. size, ovate to elliptical or lanceolate-ovate, 1.5-7
U s e s There is only a single record of medicinal cm x 1-3 cm, base rounded or cuneate, apex acute
uses ofM. axillaris in Malesia: the leaves are used or shortly acuminate, margin serrate-crenate,
externally in central Java to treat headache. This sparsely pubescent to subglabrous; petiole 0.5-3
plant is also used in traditional medicine in Chi- cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary
na, to treat dysentery and snake bites, and it is al- verticillaster, widely spaced, usually 4-8-flowered.
so an ingredient ofhair oil. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic; pedicel 1-2 mm
MEROPE 299
curs only very locally in the Malesian region, its

preference for anthropogenic habitats and its wide
distribution elsewhere in southern Asia seem to
ensure sufficient protection against genetic ero-
sion.
Prospects As demonstrated in various tests, M.
officinalis is certainly an interesting medicinal
plant with e.g. antiviral properties. It may be ben-
eficial to do research on the phytochemistry and
pharmacological activities of M. axillaris as a re-
lated indigenous Malesian species for possible de-
velopment as a local medicinal plant.
Literature 118, 196, 247, 507, 1028.
Other selected sources 334, 646, 1013.
Erlin Rachman
M e r o p e a n g u l a t a (Willd.) S w i n g l e
Journ. Wash. Acad. Sei. 5: 420 (1915).

RUTACEAE
In =unknown
Synonyms Paramignya angulata (Willd.) Kurz
(1875),Paramignya longispina Hook.f. (1875).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: limau lelang (Pe-
ninsular), limau buaya, limau laut (Malay, Sabah
and Sarawak).
Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh.f. - 1, base of Origin and geographic distribution M. an-
plant; 2, apical part ofplant; 3, flower; 4, fruiting gulata occurs in eastern India, Burma (Myan-
calyx. mar), Indo-China, Thailand and throughout the
Malesian region.
long, sericeous; calyx tubular, 5-6 mm long in U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the fruits are
flower, up to 8 mm long in fruit, 13-veined, 2- used to treat stomach disorders and colic.
lipped with 3-toothed upper lip and 2-toothed low- Properties The leaves gave a faint positive re-
er lip having longer teeth, pilose on the veins; action when tested on alkaloids, a faint to moder-
corolla 9-10 mm long, tube slightly exserted from ately strong positive reaction to triterpenes, and a
calyx, 2-lipped with emarginate upper lip and 3- faint positive reaction in the blood gelatin test
lobed, spreading lower lip, white or slightly red- (haemolysis). An aqueous ethanol extract showed
dish; stamens 4, inserted in corolla tube, didyna- cytotoxic activity against leukaemia P388 cells,
mous, included or slightly exserted; ovary superi- but not against Ca-9KB cells.
or, 4-celled, style with 2 subequal lobes. Fruit con- Botany An erect shrub or small tree up to 3 m
sisting of 4 obovoid, smooth nutlets c. 8 mm long, tall, often with multiple stems up to 10 cm in di-
with a conspicuous scar at base, enclosed by the ameter and sparse branches, with paired, rarely
persistent calyx. solitary, stout spines up to 5 cm long. Leaves
Melissa comprises about 4 species and occurs in alternate, unifoliolate, oblong-ovate to obovate,
southern Europe and Asia. 2.5-16 cm x 1.5-6 cm, rounded at base, acute or
Ecology In the Malesian region M. axillaris oc- shortly acuminate at apex, subentire to faintly
curs in forest edges, open locations along streams notched, leathery, glabrous; petiole 5-7 mm long,
and trails, and abandoned fields in the mountains, articulated at apex; stipules absent. Flowers axil-
at 1500-2600 m altitude. lary, solitary, rarely in fascicles of 2, small, bisex-
Management M. officinalis is easy to propagate ual, regular, 5-merous, fragrant; calyx cup-like,
(by seeds and cuttings) and grow, and this is prob- acutely lobed; petals free, lanceolate-oblong, 7-9
ably also the case for M. axillaris. mm long, white; stamens 10, free, filaments
Genetic resources Although M. axillaris oc- glabrous; ovary superior, 3-4-celled, style short
and thick, with flat stigma. Fruit an ovoid to ellip- quently covered by the crushed leaf. The vapour
soid, angular berry 3-4.5 cm long, with a thick emitted from heated leaves is blown over spear
peel, glandular and strongly aromatic, acuminate wounds and sore eyes. In Africa emetic, purgative
at apex, green to yellowish when ripe, few-seeded. and diuretic properties are ascribed to the plant,
Seeds 2-3 cm long, somewhat reniform, flat, with when taken orally. Apparently the effects are
rough testa. dose-dependent because leaves are considered tox-
The buoyant fruits are dispersed by the tides in ic and sap is said to be irritant to mucous mem-
the tidal forests and mangroves where M. angula- branes. A leaf infusion may be drunk as a ver-
ta grows. mifuge, and the plant is used to relieve oedemas,
Merope comprises only a single species. It seems various stomach complaints and urethral obstruc-
to be related to Paramignya (with about 12 tions. Various parts and preparations are used as
species), which comprises lianas with recurved a bath, taken orally, or externally applied as a
spines and not angled fruits, and to Atalantia febrifuge. A bath is credited with sedative action,
(about 11 species) and Severinia (about 6 species), and used to remedy insanity, epilepsy, and fits in
which both comprise shrubs and small trees. children. A leaf poultice may be applied to inflam-
Ecology M. angulata is characteristically found mations, or rubbed on the chest to relieve pul-
in saline soils of tidal forests and mangrove monary troubles. The powdered root is locally
swamps, and often occurs on the banks of streams. used as a snuff to relieve colds or as a local ano-
It occurs often in rather small but dense popula- dyne. Eye drops are made from leaf sap or sap
tions, often in association with nipa palm (Nypa from young roots to treat various eye troubles, e.g.
fruticans Wurmb). Locally, it can be common, e.g. ophthalmia.
in the southern part ofPeninsular Malaysia. Properties Phytochemical analysis ofleafy ma-
Genetic resources M. angulata is potentially terial ofM. pyrifolia from Ivory Coast revealed the
threatened by the ongoing decimation of the man- presence of traces of alkaloids, steroids and a
grove forests. strong haemolitic substance. Extracts of roots,
Prospects Research on the phytochemistry and stems, leaves and flowers have shown a weak in-
pharmacological properties of M. angulata is secticidal activity. Essential oil from the leaves of
needed to determine its prospects as a medicinal Cameroonian origin primarily consisted of (E)-ß-
plant. farnesene (c. 75%) and ß-caryophyllene (c. 13%).
Literature 102,439. Acetylated aurone glucosides and acetylenic glu-
Other selected sources 121,178, 877, 990. cosides have been isolated from the leaves of
R.H.M.J. Lemmens plants collected in Papua New Guinea. One of
these acetylenic glucosides (2-ß-D-glucopyranosylo-
xy-l-hydroxy-trideca-3,5,7,9,ll-pentayne) show-
Microglossa pyrifolia (Lamk) O. Kuntze ed moderate antimicrobial activity, especially
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylo-
Revis, gen. pi. 1 :353 (1891). coccus aureus. The following compounds were iso-
COMPOSITAE lated from the petroleum ether/diethyl ether (1:1)
2n = 18 extract: y-cadinene, caryophyllene, dihydroxyca-
Synonyms Conyza pyrifolia Lamk (1786), Mi- ryophyllenepoxide, ß-eudesmol, ß-sitosterol, stig-
croglossa volubilis DC. (1836). masterol, ß-amyrin and ß-lupeol.
Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: pun- Botany A scandent shrub up to 6 m tall;
dari (Awala, Northern Province), goho (Buang, branches often climbing, terete, finely ribbed.
Morobe Province). Philippines: hugas (Bukidnon), Leaves alternate, simple, ovate-elliptical, 2-10 cm
maniak (Lanao), saroka (Bagobo). Thailand: khaa x 1.5-7 cm, base obtusely cuneate, apex acumi-
bia (north-eastern), tonghung, tonghong (north- nate, entire or with a few coarse teeth; petiole up
ern). Vietnam: ti[eer]u thi[eej]t. to 2 cm long, widened at the base; stipules absent.
Origin and geographic distribution M. pyri- Inflorescence a small, campanulate to funnel-
folia is found in Africa and tropical Asia; it occurs shaped head 3-5 mm in diameter, many-flowered,
throughout South-East Asia. numerous together arranged in a lax terminal
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia a root decoction of corymb; peduncle 2-10 mm long; involucral bracts
M. pyrifolia is given to treat stomach-ache, and a 3-4-seriate, lanceolate, 0.5-5 mm long, with an
leaf decoction to treat colds. In Papua New Guinea acute or obtuse, fringed top, broadly pellucid-mar-
leaf sap is sprinkled on ulcers, which are subse- gined. Flowers ligulate at margin of head, tubular
MlCROSTACHYS 301
at centre, c. 5 mm long; marginal flowers female, taproot yellowish-brown. Leaves alternate, sim-
slender, whitish, glandular; disk flowers bisexual, ple, elliptical to lanceolate or linear, 1.5-6 cm x
yellow, glandular; stamens 5, forming a tube; 0.3-0.8(-1.2) cm, acute to obtuse at base, rounded
ovary inferior, 1-celled, style with 2 short arms. to mucronate at apex, with minute appressed
Fruit a small obovoid somewhat compressed ach- teeth and glands at margin, pilose and glabres-
ene c. 1 mm long, 4-5-ribbed, pubescent and cent below, pinnately veined but secondary veins
minutely glandular; pappus 1-seriate, consisting often hardly visible; petiole 1-2.5 mm long; stip-
ofmany dentate hairs 4-5 mm long. ules triangular, up to 2 mm long, densely pilose to
Microglossa consists of 10 species, and occurs in ciliate. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary spike-
Africa, Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands and like thyrse up to 1.5 cm long, often opposite to a
tropical Asia. It seems to be related to Conyza and leaf, often with l(-2) female flowers at base and
Erigeron. many male flowers higher up. Flowers unisexual,
Ecology In South-East Asia M. pyrifolia is small, regular, nearly sessile, with 3 free sepals,
found in open forest and forest margins at petals absent; male flowers c. 0.5 mm in diameter,
500-1700 m altitude. with large bract glands at base and 3 stamens; fe-
Genetic resources M. pyrifolia is widespread male flowers c. 2 mm in diameter, with superior,
and also commonly encountered in disturbed habi- 3-celled ovary having 2 longitudinal rows of spine-
tats, and is not threatened by genetic erosion. like excrescences on each carpel, stigmas 3, fili-
Prospects The antimicrobial activity of some of form. Fruit an oblong capsule 3.5-4.5 mm long,
its compounds, in connection with its widespread with 6 rows of spine-like excrescences, green,
medicinal use as an antiseptic, warrants further turning olive-brown to orange, dehiscing regularly
research on the pharmacological properties of M. along the septa, 3-seeded. Seeds elliptical-oblong,
pyrifolia. c.2.5 mm long, brownish, with a large caruncle.
M. chamaelea can be found flowering and fruiting
Literature 120, 121,350, 360, 794,801.
throughout the year, but particularly in the rainy
Other selected sources 62,112, 347, 511,802.
season.
Microstachys comprises 15 species, 11 ofwhich oc-
cur in tropical America and 4 in tropical Africa.
Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll.Arg. Only M. chamaelea extends to tropical Asia. Mi-
crostachys belongs to the tribe Hippomaneae. It
Linnaea 32: 95 (1863). was formerly part of Sebastiana, but a recent re-
EUPHORBIACEAE classification of the genera Sebastiana and Sapi-
« = 14, 2n =34, 68 um resulted in the reinstatement of Microstachys.
Synonyms Sebastiana chamaelea (L.) Müll. M. chamaelea is easily confused with Sauropus
Arg. (1866). bacciformis (L.) Airy Shaw, which has a similar
Vernacular names Malaysia: ambin-ambin habit but entire leaves and smooth fruits.
(Peninsular), daun merayat (Lundu Malay, Bor- Ecology M. chamaelea occurs on beaches, other
neo). Vietnam: k[yf] nh[oo]ng, thu[oos]c l[aaj]u. sandy locations, roadsides, grasslands and waste
Origin and geographic distribution M. cha- places, also in open woodland, often gregariously,
maelea has a very large area of distribution, from up to 300 m altitude.
tropical Africa to tropical Asia, the Solomon Is- Genetic resources M. chamaelea is very wide-
lands and northern Australia. In tropical Asia, it ly distributed in anthropogenic habitats, and is
occurs in India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, southern not endangered by genetic erosion. Information
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, about genetic diversity is completely lacking, but
Sumatra, Java and northern Borneo. the dried plant collections are relatively homoge-
Uses In Sarawak whole young plants of M. neous.
chamaelea are cooked together with meat and veg- Prospects The uses of M. chamaelea are seem-
etables, and eaten after childbirth for quick recov- ingly limited, and an increase in its medicinal use
ery. In India a decoction of M. chamaelea is con- is not expected.
sidered tonic and is applied to the head against Literature 121,235.
vertigo; the plant is also used to treat diarrhoea Other selected sources 120.
and syphilis. P.C. van Weizen
Botany A monoecious, perennial herb or sub-
shrub up to 90 cm tall, often many-stemmed;
Mitrella kentii (Blume) Miq. cancer activity of M. kentii bark in vivo. Tests on
the febrifugal activity of the roots might reveal
Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 2: 39 (1865). positive results, as was the case in several other
ANNONACEAE Annonaceae.
In = 16 Literature 82, 121,860.
Synonyms Fissistigma mabiforme (Griffith) Other selected sources 62.
Merr. (1919). R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Vernacular names Malaysia: akar larak, akar
tawan-tawan, pokok keldai (Peninsular).
Origin and geographic distribution M. ken- M o r i n d a L.
tii occurs in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
Sumatra, western Java and Borneo. Sp. pi. 1: 176 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 81 (1754).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of M. RUBIACEAE
kentii roots is used to treat fever. x = 11;M. citrifolia: 2n = 22, 44, M. umbellata:
Properties An ethanolic extract from M. kentii In = 22
bark showed significant cytotoxic activity against Origin and geographic distribution Morin-
KB cells in vitro. The terpenylated dihydrochal- da comprises about 50 species and is distributed
cone derivatives (-)-neolinderatin, (-)-linderatin, in all tropical regions: Central and northern South
2',6'-dihydroxy-4'-methoxydihydrochalcone as well America, tropical Africa, Madagascar and the
as (+)-catechin have been isolated from this ex- Mascarene Islands, tropical Asia (from India and
tract. Sri Lanka eastwards), northern and north-eastern
Botany A much-branched, more or less climb- Australia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Areas with
ing shrub up to 5 m tall; young stems finely ap- the largest species diversity include South-East
pressed brownish pubescent. Leaves distichously Asia and New Caledonia. The number of species
alternate, simple and entire, ovate-oblong-lanceo- in the Malesian region is estimated at 20.
late, 3.5-11 cm x 2-5 cm, rounded to obtuse or Uses Morinda is commonly applied in tradition-
cuneate at base, acuminate at apex, leathery, fine- al medicine in South-East Asia. Various plant
ly appressed brownish pubescent below, pinnately parts are used to treat a wide range of complaints
veined; petiole slender, 1-1.5 cm long; stipules ab- including diabetes and beri-beri, asthma, cough
sent. Inflorescence an axillary fascicle, very short- and other respiratory problems, ulcers, wounds,
ly peduncled, 1-3-flowered. Flowers bisexual, 3- boils, haemorrhoids and rheumatoid arthritis. It
merous, slightly fragrant; pedicel 1-2.5 cm long; is also used as an emmenagogue.
sepals connate at base; petals 6, in 2 whorls, Outside South-East Asia, several Morinda species
leathery, yellow, finely pubescent, outer ones are important medicinal plants. M. citrifolia is
2-2.5 cm long, for a long time pressed against used medicinally throughout the tropics. M. royoc
each other with the inside of the recurved lower L. is applied to treat many complaints in Central
portions, later erecto-patent, inner ones c. 1 cm America. In China and Vietnam, the roots of M.
long, erect, cohering by their margins and forming officinalis How are administered as a tonic and an
an obtuse cap; stamens numerous, connective con- emmenagogue, as well as to treat rheumatoid
cealing the cells; carpels 9-15, glabrous, style arthritis, impotence, spermatorrhoea and hyper-
long, stigma not enlarged. Fruit consisting of sev- tension. Some species play a role in traditional
eral globose monocarps 0.5-1 cm long, shortly medicine in western and central Africa: stem,
stalked, 1-2-seeded. bark, roots and leaves of M. lucida Benth. M. ge-
Mitrella comprises about 5 species and is restrict- minata D C , M. longiflora G. Don and M. morin-
ed to the Malesian region, from Peninsular Ma- doides (Baker) Milne-Redh. e.g. to treat fever,
laysia to New Guinea. It seems to have affinities malaria, yellow fever, jaundice and dysentery, and
with Fissistigma, but it differs in the much small- as an anthelmintic.
er inner petals forming a caplike structure. The root bark of several Morinda species is used
Ecology M. kentii occurs in forest at 600-1000 for dyeing, giving a reddish or yellowish dye. The
m altitude. wood is sometimes used e.g. for poles and as fuel,
Genetic resources There are no indications and the fruits are sometimes eaten.
that M. kentii is in immediate danger of genetic Properties The results of tests with mice sug-
erosion. gest sedative properties for aqueous extracts of M.
Prospects It seems worthwhile testing the anti- citrifolia roots. The extracts did not exhibit any
MORINDA 303
toxic effect, but did show a significant, dose-relat- morindoides showed in-vitro and in-vivo anti-
ed, central analgesic activity in the writhing and malarial activity. A methanol leaf extract ofM. lu-
hotplate tests, decreased all behavioural parame- cida showed a strong glucose lowering property
ters in the two compartment test, the light/dark when administered to streptozotocin-treated rats,
choice situation test and the staircase test, and in- and that of M. morindoides showed potent dose-
duced sleeping time. Aqueous and alcohol extracts dependent anticomplementary activity. Leaf ex-
of the roots of M. citrifolia significantly lowered tracts of M. lucida also showed antileishmanial
blood pressure in rabbits and cats. and trypanocidal activities.
The fruit juice of M. citrifolia contains a polysac- The basis of the morindone dyeing matter, called
charide-rich substance which displays antitumour Turkish red, in the root-bark ofM. citrifolia is the
activity in the Lewis lung peritoneal carcinomato- hydrolyzed form of the anthraquinone-glycoside
sis model in mice. It also stimulated interferon in- morindin. The fruit contains rancid smelling
duction, which is important in immunomodulating capric acid and unpleasant-tasting caprylic acid.
processes. An aqueous ethanol extract of dried It is thought that antibiotically active compounds
fruits exhibited histaminergic effect on smooth are present. The nutritional value of the fruit and
muscles in guinea pigs. Tests with rats and mice leaves is considerable. The leaves are a rich source
suggested that prevention of carcinogen-DNA ofvitamin A.
adduct formation and the antioxidant activity of Botany Shrubs, small trees or lianas; branches
M. citrifolia juice may contribute to the cancer pre- terete, smooth or with protruding lenticels.
ventive effect. An iridoid glycoside, named citrifoli- Leaves decussately opposite, simple and entire,
noside, isolated from the leaves showed significant pinnately veined, domatia usually present in axils
inhibition ofactivator protein-1in cell cultures. of lateral veins, petiolate; stipules interpetiolar,
The curative properties of M. citrifolia and other usually partly connate and forming a sheath en-
Morinda species are ascribed to the presence of closing basal parts of internode. Inflorescence a
medicinally active anthraquinone derivatives. terminal and/or axillary head, usually peduncu-
Damnacanthal is an anthraquinone compound late, solitary or arranged in umbel-like cymes.
isolated from the root; it showed potent inhibitory Flowers bisexual or unisexual, 3-7-merous, fra-
activity towards tyrosine kinases. This compound grant; calyx campanulate to cupuliform, tubes
induced normal phenotypes in ras-transformed connate, usually truncate, persistent; corolla hy-
cells. Alcoholic extracts of tender M. citrifolia pocrateriform or infundibuliform, carnose, white,
leaves showed good in-vitro anthelmintic activity yellow, green, pink or red; stamens usually insert-
against human Ascaris lumbricoides. ed in the throat of the corolla, usually partly to
Anthraquinones (e.g. alizarin) exhibiting potent wholly exserted; disk annular, persistent in fruit;
cytotoxic activity against KB cells and significant ovaries inferior, 2-celled, later often becoming in-
activity in the P388 lymphocytic leukaemia assay completely 4-celled, connate, style filiform with 2-
have been isolated from a M. umbellata extract. lobed stigma. Fruit a 1-seeded drupe, connate into
Antileukaemic anthraquinones have also been a globose, transversely elliptical or elongate syn-
found in M. parvifolia Barth, which occurs in In- carp. Seed flattened, ovate or elliptical; en-
do-China, southern China, Taiwan and the Philip- dosperm carnose, oily.
pines.
The seeds ofM. citrifolia remain viable for at least
In China several compounds with antidepressant 6 months. Germination takes place 3-9 weeks af-
activities have been isolated from M. officinalis ter sowing. Plant growth is up to 1.5 m in 6
roots. Tests with mice indicated that water ex- months. Flowering and fruiting start usually in
tracts have anti-fatigue properties, improving the third year and continue throughout the year.
immunological action and reducing the excitabili- Maximum age is at least 25 years. The seeds of M.
ty of the para-symphatic nervous system, without citrifolia float in water and this explains its wide
showing acute toxicity. A root extract of M. offici- distribution and occurrence on many sea-shores.
nalis enhanced the activity of exogenous andro- Inland distribution agents are fruit-eating bats
gens and increased the secretion of these hor- and birds.
mones in male rats. It also showed a marked anti- Morinda is classified in the tribe Morindeae of the
inflammatory effect in a rat paw oedema test, and subfamily Rubioideae, together with e.g. Gy-
a dose dependent hypoglycaemic activity in strep- nochtodes and Lasianthus. The connate ovaries
tozotocin-induced diabetic rats. have often been regarded as a critical character
Leaf extracts of the African M. lucida and M. defining the genus Morinda. However, connate
ovaries occur in a number of genera in Morindeae Selection of species

as well as other tribes.
A complete revision of Morinda is lacking, and Morinda citrifolia L.
badly needed to solve species complexes such as Sp. pi. 1: 176(1753).
M. umbellata, where possibly confusion with other Synonyms Morinda bracteata Roxb. (1824).
species is common in South-East Asia. Vernacular n a m e s Indian mulberry (En). Mo-
Ecology Most Morinda species are restricted to rinde (Fr). Indonesia: pace (Javanese), cangkudu
tropical lowland and submontane forest, and many (Sundanese), mengkudu (Malay). Malaysia: meng-
species are favoured by a moderate disturbance of kudu besar, mengkudu jantan. Philippines: ban-
the environment. Some of them are abundant in koro, tumbong-aso (Tagalog), apatot (Ilokano).
secondary forest, along roads and forest edges. M. Burma (Myanmar): al. Cambodia: nhoër srôk,
citrifolia occurs in various habitats, often along nhoër thôm'. Laos: nhoo baanz. Thailand: yo baan
seashores and in secondary vegetation near the (central), mataa-suea (northern), yae-yai (Karen,
coast, usually introduced and naturalized. Mae Hong Son). Vietnam: nh[af]u l[os] chanh,
Management M. citrifolia is propagated by ngao, nh[af]u n[us]i.
seed sown in nursery beds. After germination, Distribution M. citrifolia is possibly indige-
seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of about nous in tropical Asia and tropical Australia. It
1.2 m x 1.2 m in well-tilled soil. Weeding is carried may have been distributed by man and sea cur-
out at least twice and starts about 1 month after rents. It is naturalized in many tropical regions,
transplanting. No maintenance is needed after and is now in fact almost pantropical.
the first year. Intercropping with cereals and Uses In Indonesia, the fruits are eaten to treat
perennials is possible (e.g. as shade in coffee). In diabetes and beri-beri, asthma, cough and other
Vietnam and southern China M. officinalis is cul- respiratory problems, and as an emmenagogue;
tivated for medicinal purposes and is propagated the fruit extract is manufactured and sold in phar-
by seed and cuttings. macies. In the Philippines, the fruits are also used
Cell suspension cultures ofM. citrifolia have been as an emmenagogue, the leaves to treat ulcers,
maintained successfully for anthraquinone accu- and the leafjuice to treat arthritis. M. citrifolia is
mulation, e.g. damnacanthal. In Hawaii, capsules also important in traditional medicine in New
containing freeze-dried powder of M. citrifolia Guinea: the roots are used to treat fever and cen-
fruits as well as fruit juice are marketed. tipede bites, and the leaves to treat sores, head-
Genetic resources M. citrifolia is not likely to ache, pneumonia, fever and stomach-ache. In
be endangered by serious genetic erosion given its Thailand, an infusion or decoction ofunripe fruits,
pioneering character, its natural variation and its sliced into thin pieces after drying, is applied as
wide, though small-scale cultivation. The other anti-emetic. In Vietnam, the fruits are used as an
Morinda species treated here are also widely dis- emollient, stomachic, aperient, and to treat dysen-
tributed and common in secondary habitats. How- tery and cough, the root-bark to treat hyperten-
ever, their popularity as a medicinal plant may sion, ostalgia and lumbago, and the leaves to treat
exhaust natural populations, as is now already dysentery, diarrhoea and furuncles. M. citrifolia is
the case with M. officinalis in Vietnam. used for similar complaints in tropical America
Prospects Morinda provides important medici- and Africa, and on many islands in the Pacific
nal plants throughout the tropics. In many re- Ocean. The red dye from the root bark formerly
gions they rank amongst the most popular sources played an important role in batik dyeing in In-
oftraditional medicine. In recent years, M. citrifo- donesia. Despite the smell of putrid cheese when
lia fruits have been recommended especially for ripe, the fruits are eaten raw or prepared, as are
treatment of diabetes, high blood pressure and the leaves. The fruit pulp can be applied to
cancer. The results of provisional studies seem to cleanse hair, iron and steel. The wood is some-
confirm at least some of the claimed activities. times used for poles and fuel, and in Malaysia and
More elaborate research is recommended, not only Thailand, the tree is considered useful as a sup-
for M. citrifolia but also for other Morinda species. port for pepper plants.
A next step might be the identification of proper Observations A shrub or small tree up to
techniques for the cultivation ofMorinda for med- 8(-12) m tall; leaves elliptical to elliptical-lanceo-
icinal purposes. late or ovate, (10-)15-30(-50) cm x 4-17 cm; inflo-
Literature 120, 216, 436, 542, 646, 671, 760, rescence solitary in axils of stipules often opposite
817. normally developed leaves, peduncled; corolla
MUCUNA 305
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up

to 16 m tall; leaves narrowly to broadly elliptical,
up to 18 cm x 9 cm; inflorescence a terminal clus-
ter of 2-3 peduncled heads up to 1cm in diameter;
corolla tube subequal to lobes, white; compound
fruit globose to ovoid, up to 2 cm long, ripening
black. M. elliptica occurs in secondary forest and
open habitats, and is common.
Morinda umbellata L.
Sp. pi. 1: 176 (1753).
Vernacular names Malaysia: mengkudu akar,
mengkudu hutan, akar perut ayam (Peninsular).
Philippines: nino, halon (Tagalog). Laos: khua mak
mah pa. Thailand: yo yaan (peninsular). Vietnam:
nh[afju t[as]n, nh[af]u d[or], d[ow]n m[awj]t qui.
Distribution Southern Asia from India, Sri
Lanka, China and Japan, through Indo-China,
Thailand and Malesia, to northern Australia and
Fiji.
Uses In India, a decoction of the roots is used to
treat dropsy, and a decoction of the leaves as an
anthelmintic. In Vietnam, the roots and leaves are
applied in treating dysentery. In China, roots and
bark are used to treat swollen joints, kidney com-
plaints and lumbar pains. In India, the fruits are
Morinda citrifolia L. - 1, flowering branch; 2, in- eaten, whereas the stems function for binding
florescence -infructescence. purposes. The roots provide a yellow dye.
Observations A climbing shrub or liana up to
tube slightly longer than lobes, white; compound 20 m long; leaves elliptical to elliptical-lanceolate,
fruit ovoid, up to 10 cm x 6 cm, whitish-yellow or rarely ovate, (4-)6-10 cm x 2-3.5 cm; inflorescence
whitish-green. M. citrifolia occurs in various habi- a terminal umbel ofheads; corolla with tube much
tats, along seashores and in secondary vegetation shorter than lobes, white; compound fruit subglo-
near the coast, usually introduced and natural- bose, c. 1 cm in diameter, orange when ripe. M.
ized, but also up to 1500 m altitude. umbellata occurs in forest and thickets, usually in
Selected sources 121, 210, 217, 337, 339, 347, the lowland. It is here regarded in the wide sense,
436, 542, 671,760, 814, 817, 971, 977,1041. but future taxonomie research might reveal that
several distinct species are included in the com-
Morinda elliptica (Hook.f.) Ridley plex.
Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br. 79:86 (1918). Selected sources 121,141, 542, 671,760.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: mengkudu daun Nguyen Tap &Nguyen Kim Bich
kecil (Peninsular). Thailand: muu-duu (Malay,
Narathiwat), yo thuean (Chumphon), yo paa
(Trang, Satun). Mucuna Adanson
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Thailand and
Peninsular Malaysia. Fam. pi. 2: 325 (1763).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves are LEGUMINOSAE
used to treat fever, cholera, diarrhoea, convul- x = 11; M. pruriens: In = 20, 22, 24
sions, loss of appetite and headache; they are also Origin and geographic distribution Mucuna
applied externally, pounded or as a lotion, to treat comprises about 100 species in the tropics and
wounds, haemorrhoids, and are also administered subtropics of both hemispheres. A few species are
after childbirth. The root bark is used to treat widespread, partly as a result ofhuman activities,
fishing nets and sails. but far more species have a very limited distribu-
tion. In the region covered by Thailand, Indo-Chi- tion decreased blood cholesterol and lipid levels. It
na and Peninsular Malaysia 13 species occur, in has been recorded that M. pruriens increases
Java 5 and in the Philippines 13, whereas 11 sperm count and motility.
species are found in the islands of the Pacific Botany Large lianas, sometimes annual or
Ocean. short-lived perennial climbers, rarely erect
Uses Traditional medicinal uses of Mucuna shrubs. Leaves alternate, pinnately trifoliolate;
have been recorded throughout the tropics, but stipules caducous; lateral leaflets variably asym-
are in general limited. Seeds are used as an metrical; stipels often caducous. Inflorescence ax-
aphrodisiac and purgative, and to treat Parkin- illary on leafy shoots or on old branches, subum-
son's disease, roots as a tonic, leaves to treat fever bellate, condensed-paniculate or falsely racemose;
and headache, bark against rheumatic com- bracts and bracteoles caducous. Flowers bisexual,
plaints, and sap to heal wounds and cuts, and to showy; calyx 4-5-lobed, 2-lipped with upper pair
treat fever. The irritant hairs on the outside of the of lobes connate; corolla papilionaceous, standard
fruits ofvarious Mucuna species (e.g.M. gigantea) rounded with a median claw and a pair of inflexed
are mentioned as being used in criminal poison- lateral auricles at base, wings and keel usually
ing, whereas apparently minor doses are credited much longer, clawed and with small auricle; sta-
as a vermifuge of very doubtful quality. M. mens 10, 9 fused and 1 free; ovary superior, 1-
pruriens is widely grown as a cover crop and green celled, style long, filiform, bent. Fruit an ovoid, ob-
manure. long or linear pod, valves thick, often ribbed or or-
In Java the seeds of M. macrophylla Miq. (syn- namented with raised lamellae and frequently
onym: M. junghuhniana (O. Kuntze) Prain) are with irritant bristles, septate or apparently so be-
made into bead chains regarded as charms, to tween the seeds, usually dehiscent. Seeds discoid
ward off diseases in children. The seeds are also to globose or oblong, compressed, hilum usually
included in a prescription for flatulence. extending around three quarters of the circumfer-
Properties The use ofM. pruriens seeds for the ence, but sometimes short and surrounded by a
symptomatic treatment of Parkinson's disease as rim-aril. Seedling with hypogeal germination;
supported by modern research is closely linked to first leaves scale-like or simple.
the high concentration of the amino acid L-dopa Seedlings ofM. gigantea and M. macrophylla may
(levodopa; L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine), which attain a height of more than 1 m in 3 weeks time.
stimulates the formation of the neuro-transmitter Nodulating ability is reported for numerous Mu-
dopamine in the brain. Dopamine lessens tremors cuna species. Seeds of M. gigantea can be dis-
experienced in Parkinson's disease. However, persed by sea currents.
opinions differ on the side effects and efficacy in Mucuna is divided into 2 subgenera. Most species
the long run of L-dopa. The L-dopa content in M. belong to subgenus Mucuna, having a woody habit
pruriens seeds collected in Java is not related to and large, discoid seeds with hilum extending
their cultivation status and ranges from 1.6-2.8%. around three quarters of the circumference,
Neither is it correlated to the presence of violently whereas a few (e.g. M. pruriens) belong to sub-
itching hairs predominating in wild forms. M. genus Stizolobium, being an annual or short-lived,
macrophylla, M. gigantea and M. diabolica hardly woody perennial with oblong-ovoid seeds
Backer ex Keuch, yielded L-dopa at concentra- having a very short hilum surrounded by a rim-ar-
tions of 1.6-1.9%, 1.7-2.0% and 2.2-2.3%, respec- il. An overall revision of Mucuna for South-East
tively. Asia is still lacking and an up-to-date account for
A seed extract of M. pruriens showed in-vivo pro- Indonesia and Papua New Guinea is badly needed
phylactic protection against snake (Echis carina- in view of the great number of endemics recorded
tus) venom in mice. In-vitro tests on human plas- in the literature for these countries.
ma and bovine prothrombin revealed that the ex- Ecology Mucuna can be found on a wide range
tract activated prothrombin. Main cause of death of soils in habitats as diverse as coral beaches,
after the bite of Echis carinatus is haemorrhage coastal swamps, riverine forest, moist evergreen
and this could be partially counteracted by the in- rain forest, dry thickets, limestone cliffs and open
crease in procoagulant activity as observed in vit- country, from sea-level up to well over 2000 m al-
ro. titude.
An ethanol extract of M. pruriens exhibited an- M a n a g e m e n t Propagation of M. pruriens (vel-
tipyretic and analgesic activity in rats when given vet bean) is mostly by seed. Seed requires no scar-
intragastrically at a dose of 1 g/kg. A leaf decoc- ification, but dry seed requires soaking in water
MUCUNA 307
for 24hours. Thegermination rate offresh seed is

up to 100%,and seed stored in a cool, dry place
may remain viable for 2 years. After sowing, vel-
vet bean requires 1-2 weedings. Itislittle affected
by diseases and pests. Seed yields canbe as high
as 1500kg/ha on good soils. Cell suspension cul-
tures ofM.pruriens were able toendogenouslyac-
cumulate L-dopa upto6% onadryweight basis.
Genetic resources In view oftheir wide distri-
bution and presence in forest margins and sec-
ondary regrowth, theMucuna species treated here
do notappear tobethreatened bygenetic erosion.
Germplasm collections ofMucuna are maintained,
for instance at Bogor (Indonesia) where there are
55 accessions ofM. pruriens, and at Laguna (the
Philippines) where there are 29 accessions ofMu-
cuna spp.
Prospects Research onthe phytochemistry and
pharmacological properties of Mucuna has ledto
important discoveries, such as the presence and
activities ofL-dopa, which is still important inthe
therapy for Parkinson's disease. More research
may reveal other interesting medicinal properties,
which was recently the case concerning activity
against theeffects ofsnakebites.
Literature 35, 239, 297, 731, 751, 819,997,
1000.
Mucuna biplicata Teijsm. &Binnend. exKurz - 1,
part of stem with leaf;2,part of stem with inflores-
Selection of species cences; 3,fruit; 4,seed.
Mucuna biplicata Teijsm. & Binnend. cm x 1-2 cm,not swollen around the seeds, with
ex Kurz abundant irritant bristles, 3-5-seeded. Citations
Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 43(2): 186 (1874). for Indo-China refer to M. revoluta Wilmot-Dear.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: merading (Bi- M. biplicata is found in relatively open or dis-
dayuh, Sarawak), akar beruru (Iban, Sarawak), turbed forest from sea-level upto70m altitude.
kachang paleh (Peninsular Malaysia). Selected sources 121,132, 250,1000.
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra
and Borneo. Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia heated leaves are Prodr. 2:405 (1825).
applied externally on the abdomen to reduce Vernacular names Malaysia: kacang rimau
fever. In Sarawak the black sap from the bark is (Peninsular). Vietnam: d[aaj]u m[ef]o l[ows]n.
used to promote healing of cuts and wounds. Sap Distribution Widespread throughout tropical
obtained from the fresh leaves is topically applied Asia including South-East Asia, Australia andthe
for curing mouth-pain in babies. The stems are Pacific.
used asa mosquito repellent. U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia mention is made
Observations A liana up to 20 m long, of the highly irritant hairs onthe pods being used
glabrous; leaves 20-25(-40) cm long, terminal in criminal poisoning. In Vietnam they are mixed
leaflet broadly elliptical, 10-12(-18) cmx 5-7(-ll) with food togetridofrats. In India thebark is ap-
cm; inflorescence 5-9 cm long, with several plied externally to treat rheumatic complaints.
branches at or near the base, bearing 4-40 side- Powdered seeds are said tobeused as a purgative
branches; calyx 5-6 mmx 8-10 mm,corolla violet in Hawaii.
to purple, standard c.2.5cmlong, wings and keel Observations A robust liana, up to 80 m long,
4-5 cmlong; fruit broadly oblong, 7-10cmx 2.5-5 glabrous or finely appressed-hairy; leaves 13-27
cm long, terminal leaflet elliptical-ovate to ovate, Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.

7-13 cm x 4-8.5 cm; inflorescence 8-25 cm long, Prodr. 2:405 (1825).
bearing up to 6 few-flowered side-branches, Synonyms Stizolobium pruriens (L.) Medik.
crowded; calyx 8-12 mm x 11-15 mm, corolla (1787).
white tinged yellow, green or pinkish, standard Vernacular n a m e s Velvet bean (En). Cowitch
2.5-4 cm long, wings and keel 3-4.5 cm long; fruit (Am). Pois mascate, pois velus (Fr). Indonesia:
asymmetrically elliptical-oblong to linear-oblong, kara benguk (Javanese), kowas (Sundanese), ke-
7-14 cm x 4-5.5 cm x 0.5 cm, much or little kara juleh (Moluccas). Malaysia: kacang babi, ke-
swollen around the seeds, ornamented with a pat- karas gatal. Philippines: nipai (Tagalog, Bisaya),
tern of strongly raised vein-lines, giving a pitted hipoi (Bikol), sabawel. Cambodia: khnhaè. Laos:
appearance, with scattered bristles, (l-)3(-6)- tam nhè. Thailand: mamui (central). Vietnam:
seeded. Within M. gigantea several subspecies are d[aaj]u m[ef]o r[uwf]ng, m[os]c m[ef]o.
distinguished. M. gigantea is most commonly en- Distribution Throughout all tropical regions
countered in coastal regions, e.g. along seashores, including tropical Asia; widely cultivated, also in
and along rivers, but it occurs also in mixed tropi- some subtropical and temperate regions, e.g. in
cal rain forest and thickets up to 1200 m altitude. the United States.
Selected sources 62, 121, 181, 250, 732, 995, Uses Boiled M. pruriens seeds have a reputation
996, 997, 1000. as an aphrodisiac. In the Philippines the leaves,
pounded and mixed with salt, are externally ap-
Mucuna hainanensis Hayata plied to the forehead and temples to relieve
Icon. pi. formos. 3:72 (1913). headache. In India the seeds are used in the
Synonyms Mucuna nigricans auct. non (Lour.) Ayurveda medication to treat Parkinson's disease.
Steudel. Sap from the stem is used to stop the bleeding of
Vernacular names Philippines: nipai (Taga- small wounds. Velvet bean is mainly grown as a
log), alilipai (Sulu), bukkau (Iloko). Vietnam: cover crop and green manure. It is also used as a
d[aa]y lu[oof]n hang, d[aaj]u b[aaf]n. forage. Boiled seeds are occasionally eaten as a
Distribution Northern and eastern India, Bur- pulse, and boiled immature pods and young leaves
ma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China and as vegetables.
the Philippines (Luzon southward to Mindanao). Observations A slender annual or short-lived
Uses In the Philippines sap from a freshly cut perennial climber, glabrous or sparsely fine-hairy;
stem is drunk as a remedy for fever. leaves up to 46 cm long, terminal leaflet elliptical
Observations A slender liana, glabrous or fine- to rhombic-ovate, 3-16 cm x 3.5-10 cm; inflores-
ly appressed-hairy; leaves up to 32 cm long, termi- cence up to 40 cm long, unbranched, bearing up to
nal leaflet elliptical or elliptical-ovate, 8-17 cm x 20 knoblike side-branches, bracts and bracteoles
4-10 cm; inflorescence 12-40 cm long, often usually very early caducous; calyx c. 5 mm x 10
branched once or twice in the lower part, bearing mm, lobes up to 10 mm long, corolla purple, rarely
up to 10 knoblike side-branches, bracts and brac- whitish, standard c. 2 cm long, wing and keel c. 4
teoles fairly persistent; calyx 10 mm x 10-16 mm, cm long; pod narrowly linear-oblong, 5-9 cm x
lobes long, corolla dark purple, standard 3-3.5 cm 0.8-2 cm x 0.5(-l) cm, often swollen around the
long, wings and keel 5-6 cm long; fruit linear-ob- seeds, with abundant red-golden or red-brown
long, 13-14 cm x 3.5-5 cm x 1.5 cm, not or hardly bristles usually lacking in cultivated plants, 3-6-
swollen around the seeds, with abundant red bris- seeded. Cultivated forms ofM. pruriens without ir-
tles, (2-)3-4-seeded. M. hainanensis is a very vari- ritating bristles on the fruit are distinguished as
able species with respect to both vegetative and cultivar-group Utilis (synonym: var. utilis (Wallich
floral parts, and it has been divided into 2 sub- ex Wight) Baker ex Burck). In wild forms with irri-
species, of which only subsp. multilamellata Wil- tating fruit bristles 2 varieties are distinguished:
mot-Dear occurs in the Philippines. It is found in var. pruriens and var. sericophylla (Perk.) Wilmot-
secondary forest, thickets or open country, often Dear, the latter endemic to the Philippines and
near water, from sea-level to medium altitude. with broader and more persistent bracts. M. pru-
Selected sources 117, 250, 995, 997, 998, 999, riens is found in secondary forest, thickets and on
1000. riversides, at low and medium altitudes.
334, 579, 751,760,995, 997, 1000.
K.R. Dahal &J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
MuKiA 309
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. scrambler or climber up to 4 m long; stem finely

Roemer grooved, covered with erecto-patent hairs, climb-
ing by simple, shaggy tendrils. Leaves alternate,
Fam. nat. syn. monogr. 2:47 (1846). simple, usually 3-5-lobed, broadly ovate, triangu-
CUCURBITACEAE lar to sagittate in outline, 1-10 cm x 1-11 cm, base
2n = 22 variably cordate, apex acuminate, sinuate to den-
Synonyms Mukia scabrella (L.) Arnott (1841), tate, variably hairy above and beneath; petiole
Melothria maderaspatana (L.) Cogn. (1881). 2-9 cm long, covered with erecto-patent hairs;
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: melon-gubat stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary fascicle;
(Tagalog). Thailand: taneng nuu. Vietnam: c[aaf]u male flowers 2-20 together, female flowers 2-4 to-
qua [aas]n. gether or solitary. Flowers unisexual, regular, 5-
Origin and geographic distribution M. ma- merous, bright yellow; calyx campanulate or sub-
deraspatana occurs throughout tropical Africa, cylindrical; corolla gamopetalous, with ovate-ob-
the Indian Ocean Islands, tropical and subtropical long lobes, 1.5-4 mm x 1-2 mm; male flowers with
Asia and tropical Australia. short pedicel, 3 stamens and a pistillode; female
Uses In Thailand the ground root of M. ma- flowers subsessile, with inferior, ovoid ovary,
deraspatana is applied to the gums to relieve densely clothed with very long, thin, soft hairs.
toothache, and a decoction is used as an antiflatu- Fruit a globose berry 5-13 mm in diameter,
lent. The young shoots are taken for the treatment clothed with long fugacious hairs, at first green
of hepatitis, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, bile with pale longitudinal bands, turning red, 4-8-
duct inflammation, bronchitis and asthma. A de- seeded. Seeds ovate-oblong, 3.5-5 mm x 2-3 mm x
coction ofthe seed is used as a sudorific. The fixed 1-2 mm, conspicuously verrucose, margined.
oil from the seed is topically applied to relieve M. maderaspatana can be found flowering and
muscular pain. In Taiwan a decoction of the flow- fruiting throughout the year.
ers and root is used as a poison antidote, anodyne
and to treat stomach-ache. M. maderaspatana is
traditionally used for the treatment and control of
diabetes mellitus among different tribal groups
and rural populations in India. In southern India
the leaves are fried and eaten as a vegetable to
improve resistance and health. Leaves ground in-
to a paste are given orally as a potent antifertility
agent. In East Africa the plant is given to women
in labour in order to hasten the childbirth, and
cooked leaves may also be eaten as an abortifa-
cient.
Leaf juice ofMukia javanica (Miq.) C. Jeffrey was
recorded long ago as a traditional remedy in the
Moluccas to treat thrush in children. It was also
used as part of a treatment to clear opacity of the
cornea.
Properties Treatment with an aqueous extract
of the aerial parts ofM. maderaspatana, before or
after CC14 administration in rats, markedly de-
creased CCl 4 -mediated alterations in liver histo-
pathology as well as serum enzyme levels. These
results provide supportive evidence for the tradi-
tional use as a hepatotonic.
Investigation of the effects of aqueous extracts of
whole plants of M. maderaspatana on the human
immune system revealed strong anticomplement
activity on both the classical and alternative path- Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. Roemer - 1, part
ways ofthe human complement system in vitro. of stem with flowers and fruit; 2, male flower; 3, fe-
Botany A monoecious, perennial, herbaceous male flower.
Mukia is placed in the subtribe Melothiirnae of of the former species are applied as a poultice to
the tribe Melothriae and is closely related to e.g. wounds.
Cucumis. Mukia can be distinguished by its small Properties An extract of freeze-dried M. lori-
monoecious flowers, usually fascicled in the leaf formis plants exhibited weak cytotoxicity against
axils, its small subsessile baccate fruits often pro- human breast cancer cells; the active compound
duced in clusters, and its tumid seeds. M. ma- was identified as sphingosine-1-ß-O-D-glucopyra-
deraspatana shows considerable differentiation nosyl-2-(2'-hydroxy-6'-ene-cosamide). An alcohol
over its range into local variants, differing, for ex- extract showed cytotoxicity against hepatoma cell
ample, in number of seeds, seed size and shape, lines of mice and antimutagenic activity against
habit and size of plant, number of flowers and various known mutagens in rats. The steroidal
petal length. The most frequent variant, however, glucoside 3-ß-0-D-glucopyranosyl-24C-ethylchol-
can be found throughout most parts of the range est-5-ene has been isolated from whole M. lori-
of the species and seems in fact to have a rather formis plants from Thailand.
weedy nature. Sometimes these variants are Botany Small to medium-sized perennial or an-
raised to species rank. nual herbs, with stems erect or creeping at base;
Ecology M. maderaspatana is found on a wide roots fibrous or tuberous. Leaves arranged spiral-
range of soils in relatively open, often disturbed ly, simple and entire, ovate-oblong to linear-lance-
habitats from sea-level up to 1500 m altitude. olate, sessile and with leaf-sheaths at base. Inflo-
Genetic resources M. maderaspatana is wide- rescence a terminal or axillary thyrse, sometimes
spread and often occurs in disturbed habitats. It is reduced to 1-flowered cyme. Flowers bisexual,
not threatened by genetic erosion. sometimes bisexual and male, regular or slightly
Prospects Little is known on the pharmacologi- zygomorphic, 3-merous, pedicellate; sepals free,
cal activities of M. maderaspatana. However, the subequal; petals free, subequal, usually slightly
information available supports the traditional us- longer than sepals; stamens 6, 2-3 fertile and 3-4
es to treat liver diseases and as a tonic. Although staminodial, generally all free; ovary superior,
it is not known to be used medicinally in the Male- sessile, 3-celled, style slender. Fruit a 3-celled cap-
sian region, it might be interesting, and therefore sule, opening with 3 valves, each cell 1-many-
more research is desirable. seeded. Seeds with punctiform to linear hilum.
Literature 173,250, 419, 425, 766, 923. The nomenclature of many Murdannia species is
Other selected sources 62, 334, 380, 418, 499, confusing. They have often been described origi-
731, 760. nally in other genera, usually in Aneilema, which
Mariana Raini is another genus of the tribe Commelineae, differ-
ing in its bilocular or unequally trilocular, bi-
valved fruits.
Murdannia Royle Ecology Murdannia is diverse ecologically, but
it occurs mainly in open localities, often in moist
Illus. bot. Himal. Mts.: 403,t. 95 (1839). habitats. Some species are weeds in crops, e.g. the
COMMELINACEAE widespread M. nudiflora in rice. However, some
x = 6, 8, 9, 10, 11; M. edulis: 2n = 18, 40, M. species prefer the forest undergrowth, e.g. M.
japonica: n =32, 2n = 40,M. loriformis: 2n =40 japonica.
Origin and geographic distribution Mur- Management In India the roots ofM. edulis are
dannia comprises about 50 species and is pantrop- dried in the shade after collecting.
ical, also occurring locally in warmer temperate Genetic resources The Murdannia species
regions. It is richest in diversity in tropical Asia, treated here are widely distributed and do not
where there are approximately 30 species. seem to be under threat ofgenetic erosion. Howev-
Uses There are few records of medicinal uses of er, knowledge of the distribution of many species
Murdannia in South-East Asia. M. loriformis is is still very incomplete.
used in Thailand to treat leukaemia and cancer. Prospects The applications of Murdannia in
M. japonica is used in Peninsular Malaysia as an traditional medicine in Thailand and India are in-
abortifacient. However, the roots ofM. edulis have teresting enough to warrant further investiga-
numerous medicinal applications in India. tions on pharmacological activities. A study of the
The green plant parts ofM. nudiflora (L.) Brenan taxonomy ofthe genus is badly needed.
and M. spirata (L.) A. Briickn. are used as a raw Literature 121,853.
or steamed vegetable, and as a fodder. The leaves
MUSSAENDA 311
Selection of species or white petals and 3 fertile stamens. M. japonica

occurs in shaded locations in forest up to 1400 m
Murdannia edulis (Stokes) Faden altitude.
Taxon 29(1): 77 (1980). Selected sources 62,121, 789.
Synonyms Aneilema scapiflorum (Roxb.) Kos-
tel. (1831), Murdannia scapiflora (Roxb.) Royle M u r d a n n i a loriformis (Hassk.) R.S.
(1840),Aneilema platyphyHum Merr. (1915), Mur- Rao & Kammathy
dannia loureirii (Hance) R.S. Rao & Kammathy Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3:393 (1961).
(1964), Murdannia formosana (N.E.Br.) K.S. Hsu Synonyms Aneilema loriforme Hassk. (1852),
(1978). Aneilema nudiflorum (L.) Sweet var. terminale
Vernacular names Thailand: haeo kratai, wan (Wight) C.B. Clarke (1874).
khao nieo (Nakhon Ratchasima), ka thuean chang Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: ya pakking, ya
(Nakhon Sawan). Vietnam: l[ox]a trai ng[oj]t. thewada.
Distribution Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Burma Distribution From India and Sri Lanka to
(Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Taiwan, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Java.
Thailand, Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Uses In Thailand whole plants are mixed with
Philippines and New Guinea. water and the filtrate is drunk twice a day to treat
U s e s The roots have numerous applications in leukaemia and cancer of the throat, liver, uterus,
traditional medicine in India. They are credited ileum and skin.
with astringent and tonic properties, and used to Observations A perennial herb with a basal
treat headache, giddiness, deafness, fever, jaun- rosette of leaves, roots thin and fibrous; leaves of
dice, and as a cure against snakebites. The root rosette linear to linear-oblong, 10-28 cm x 1-2 cm,
bark is used to treat asthma, colic, piles, infantile cauline leaves lanceolate, 2-10 cm x 0.5-1.5 cm; in-
convulsions, incontinence and spermatorrhoea. florescence terminal or axillary on ascending to de-
Observations A perennial herb up to 50 cm cumbent flowering shoots up to 75 cm long arising
tall, with numerous tuberous roots; leaves all in a laterally from the rosette, up to 3 cm long on a pe-
radical rosette, lanceolate to linear, up to 30(-60) duncle up to 10 cm long; flowers with lilac to pale
cm x 3(-4.5) cm; inflorescence terminal on a flow- lilac petals and 2 fertile stamens. M. loriformis oc-
ering shoot up to 50 cm long arising laterally from curs on rocky slopes, sandy localities along
the rosette; flowers with lilac to pink or greenish- streams, sometimes in plantations, in shaded as
white petals and 3 fertile stamens. M. edulis oc- well as sunny locations, up to 500 m altitude.
curs in forest, thickets and moist, open localities, Selected sources 397, 432, 433, 782, 789, 817,
in Java up to 250 m altitude. 969.
Selected sources 62, 121,238,483. Wongsatit Chuakul, Noppamas
Soonthornchareonnon &Orawan Ruangsomboon
Murdannia japonica (Thunberg) Faden
Taxon 26(1): 142 (1977).
Synonyms Aneilema herbaceum (Roxb.) Wal- M u s s a e n d a L.
lich (1832), Aneilema japonicum (Thunberg)
Kunth (1843), Aneilema lineolatum (Blume) Sp. pi. 1: 177 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:82 (1754).
Kunth (1843), Murdannia elata (Vahl) A. Briickn. RUBIACEAE
(1930). x =ll;M. glabra, M. philippica: n =11
Vernacular names Malaysia: pokok mati Origin and geographic distribution Mus-
hidup (Peninsular). Vietnam: trai nh[aaj]t, c[or] saenda comprises about 200 species and occurs in
r[uw][ow]i th[ar]o. the Old World tropics. At least some dozens of
Distribution From India to Peninsular Ma- species occur in the Malesian region.
laysia and Java. Uses Different parts of Mussaenda plants are
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, bruised stems of used in traditional medicine in South-East Asia:
young plants have been applied as a suppository leaves to treat asthma, cough, fever, headache,
to produce abortion. jaundice, eye infections and as an emollient; roots
Observations An erect or ascending herb up to to treat cough, jaundice and after childbirth; sap
90 cm tall; leaves lanceolate, 6-20 cm x 2.5-5 cm; to treat headache and eye infections; and flowers
inflorescence paniculiform with widely patent to treat headache and jaundice. In addition to the
branches, up to 30 cm long; flowers with pale lilac species treated here, boiled leaves of M. elmeri
Merr. are taken orally in Sarawak to treat tooth- ing with corolla lobes, anthers linear, subsessile;
ache, headache and diabetes. ovary inferior, 2-celled, style short or long, stigma
M. pubescens W.T. Aiton is used in traditional 2-lobed. Fruit a many-seeded berry. Seeds reticu-
medicine in Vietnam and China, e.g. a flower de- late-ribbed.
coction to treat cough, asthma and intermittent Mussaenda belongs to the tribe Isertieae. Some
fever, and a decoction of leaves and roots as an species with capsular fruits are separated from
analgesic to treat rheumatism. M. frondosa L. is Mussaenda and placed in the genera Pseudomus-
used in traditional medicine in India and Sri Lan- saenda (5 African species, one of which (P. flava
ka: roots to treat leprosy, flowers to treat asthma, Verde.) is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental
fever and dropsy, and leaves to treat externally ul- in South-East Asia) and Schizomussaenda (1
cers and inflammations. species, S. dehiscens (Craib) Li, from northern
Several Mussaenda species are used in folk medi- Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, China and north-
cine in Africa, e.g. leaf and bark sap to treat eye ern Thailand). Many ofthe plants cultivated as an
infections, and leaves and roots as a poultice on ornamental under the name M. philippica are
wounds and sores, and to treat elephantiasis. probably ofhybrid origin.
Mussaenda is highly valued as an ornamental, M. Ecology Mussaenda is most commonly a scan-
frondosa and the African M. erythrophylla Schu- dent shrub in forest margins and secondary forest
mach. & Thonn. (with spectacular blood-red en- in the lowland, but may ascend up to 2000 m alti-
larged calyx lobes) being the most commonly tude, whereas some species prefer shaded habi-
planted species, together with numerous hybrids. tats in the undergrowth ofclosed forest.
Properties Aleaf and stem extract ofM. glabra Management Mussaenda is propagated for or-
(of Sumatran origin) showed slight in-vitro anti- namental purposes in India by semi-hardwood
microbial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. cuttings about 15 cm long and 1-1.5 cm in diame-
The Mussaenda species that has been best investi- ter. M. erythrophylla has also been propagated
gated phytochemically and pharmacologically is successfully by in-vitro callus culture.
M. pubescens from Indo-China and China. Several Genetic resources Many Mussaenda species
triterpenoid saponins (mussaendosides) and mo- appear to be narrow endemics. In the Philippines,
noterpenes (mussaenins) have been isolated from for example, 18 of the 20 indigenous species are
whole plants. One of these compounds, mussaen- considered endemic, many of them restricted to a
doside O, which is the most abundant saponin, single island. This makes them very liable to ge-
significantly inhibited the secretions ofthe lachry- netic erosion.
mal and salivary glands induced by galan- Numerous ornamental cultivars exist, mainly se-
thamine, and also inhibited the contraction of iso- lected for striking colours of flowers and enlarged
lated guinea-pig ileum evoked by carbachol (a calyx lobes.
muscarin receptor agonist). It also showed im- Prospects Mussaenda is an interesting medici-
munopromotive and haemolytic activities. nal plant, which deserves more attention for re-
Some triterpenoid glycosides were isolated from search in South-East Asia. It is considered of med-
root bark ofM. macrophylla Wallich (occurring in icinal value in different parts ofthe world, and the
Nepal, India, Burma (Myanmar), southern China few pharmacological studies available show
and the Philippines). These showed inhibitory ac- promising results. Taxonomical studies covering
tivity against the periodontopathic bacterium Por- whole South-East Asia are needed because the
phyromonas gingivalis, but were inactive against status of many names commonly used in litera-
the cariogenic organism Streptococcus mutans. ture is unclear.
Botany Scandent, sometimes erect shrubs or Literature 120,241,480, 671,1021, 1056,1057.
lianas. Leaves opposite, rarely ternate, simple and
entire, pinnately veined; stipules interpetiolar,
entire to 2-fid. Inflorescence a terminal cyme, of- Selection of species
ten corymbose. Flowers unisexual or bisexual, 5-
merous, heterostylous; calyx with campanulate to Mussaenda anisophylla S. Vidal
turbinate tube, 1 lobe enlarged into a petaloid, of- Phan. Cuming, philipp.: 178 (1885).
ten white, leaf-like appendage in some flowers of Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: talig-harap,
inflorescence; corolla salver-shaped, cylindrical or tinga-tinga (Tagalog), buyon (Bisaya).
funnel-shaped, with valvate lobes; stamens insert- Distribution The Philippines (Luzon, Min-
ed at the upper part of the corolla tube, alternat- danao).
MUSSAENDA 313
Uses A decoction of fresh leaves is administered

to treat asthma.
Observations A scandent shrub up to 8 m tall;
leaves oblong-ovate to elliptical, variable in size,
8.5-30 cm x 3-16 cm, softly hairy on both sides;
flowers with ovate, up to 10 cm long, white en-
larged calyx lobe, corolla up to 3.5 cm long, dense-
ly hairy, orange to yellow; fruit ellipsoid, 1.5-2 cm
long, pale green. M. anisophylla occurs in lowland
forest up to 800 m altitude.
Selected sources 422, 760.
Mussaenda ferruginea K. Schumann

K. Schumann &Hollr., Fl. Kais. Wilh. Land: 129
(1889).
Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: agana-
pa (Awala, Northern Province).
Distribution New Guinea.
Uses In Papua New Guinea a leaf decoction is
applied in a bath to treat fever, and the leaves are
used externally to treat headache.
Observations A large shrub up to 8 m tall,
young twigs rusty hairy; leaves oblong, 4-10 cm x
2-5 cm, appressed hairy mainly on the veins; flow- Mussaenda glabra Vahl -flowering twig.
ers with ovate enlarged calyx lobe up to 10 cm
long, corolla c. 4.5 cm long, pubescent. with broadly ovate to elliptical, white enlarged ca-
Selected sources 347. lyx lobe up to 12 cm long, corolla up to 3 cm long,
yellow or orange; fruit ovoid-ellipsoid, up to 12
Mussaenda glabra Vahl mm long. M. glabra occurs in more open localities
Symb. bot. 3:38 (1794). in primary and secondary forest, up to 1700 m al-
Synonyms Mussaenda frondosa auct. non L. titude.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kingkilaban, Selected sources 62, 121, 295, 296, 334, 420,
areuy siwurungan (Sundanese), kalik adep (Ja- 421, 689.
vanese). Malaysia: balek adap, adap-adap, daun
puteri (Peninsular). Thailand: bai taang dok Mussaenda philippica A. Rich.
(Narathiwat). Mém. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris 5: 245 (1834).
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), south- Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: kahoi-dalaga
ern China, the Ryukyu Islands, Thailand, Penin- (Tagalog, Sambali), buyon (Tagbanua, Cebu Bi-
sular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Java. saya, Samar-Leyte Bisaya, Sulu), katudai-bantai
U s e s In Java the sap is used to wash infected (Iloko).
eyes. In Sumatra an infusion of flowers or leaves, Distribution Throughout the Philippines, the
in a mixture with the leaves of other medicinal Caroline Islands, the Solomon Islands and Fiji.
plants, is drunk to treat jaundice and headache. Uses In the Philippines a decoction of roots and
In Peninsular Malaysia a tea made from the leaves is used to treat chest and lung affections,
leaves and a root decoction are used to treat roots and enlarged calyx lobes are used to treat
cough, the leaves are applied as a poultice to treat jaundice, a leaf decoction as an emollient, and
headache, and a root decoction is administered af- bark juice as a cure for headache. Unspecified
ter childbirth. In Indonesia tops of branches and plant parts are used against snakebites and
flowers are sometimes eaten as a vegetable, raw dysentery. In Fiji M. philippica is considered a
or steamed. cure for stomach-ache.
Observations A scandent shrub up to 5 m tall, Observations A shrub up to 8 m tall, with more
with almost glabrous branches; leaves elliptical, or less pubescent branches; leaves ovate, oblong-
oblong or elliptical-lanceolate, 5-14 cm x 1.5-5.5 ovate to oblong-lanceolate, 3.5-23.5 cm x 1.5-12
cm, usually glabrous except the veins; flowers cm, almost glabrous but pubescent on the veins
below; flowers with ovate or orbicular-ovate, white tuber-like swollen base up to 40 cm long, inside
enlarged calyx lobe up to 13 cm long, corolla up to usually with a labyrinth of honeycombed pores,
4 cm long, with pale green tube and orange lobes, outside with entrance holes often in arcs, with or
pubescent; fruit globular, 1-1.5 cm long. M. without spines on tubers and stems. Leaves oppo-
philippica is common in old secondary forest and site, simple and entire, elliptical to oblanceolate or
thickets, up to 700 m altitude. spatulate, 10-47 cm x 3-14 cm, base abruptly to
Selected sources 422, 760. gradually tapered, apex acute to acuminate, usu-
ally leathery, glabrous, pinnately veined; petiole
Mussaenda vidalii Elmer 2-13 cm long; stipules interpetiolar, triangular,
Leafl. Philipp. Bot. 3:993 (1911). more or less persistent. Flowers a few together at
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: ananayop (Sa- the bottom of cup-shaped cavities in the stem,
mar-Leyte Bisaya), botai (Bagobo), bukang-bu- with hairy bracts, bisexual, 4-merous, sessile, het-
kang (Bukidnon). erostylous; calyx tube cylindrical, limb usually
Distribution The Philippines (Mindanao, Ley- truncate; corolla tubular, c. 11 mm long, tube with
te, Samar). a ring of hairs inside, lobes uncinate, white; sta-
Uses The leaves are soaked in water for a few mens inserted in corolla tube, usually included,
minutes and the solution is used as an eye wash to filaments absent or short; disk ring-shaped, prom-
treat sore eyes. Macerated leaves are applied ex- inent; ovary inferior, 4-6-celled, style filiform, in-
ternally to treat headache. cluded or exserted, stigma 4-6-lobed. Fruit a
Observations A scandent shrub up to 4 m tall, fleshy drupe c. 7 mm long, developing within cavi-
with rusty pubescent branches; leaves ovate, ob- ties in the stem, extruded when mature, yellow,
long-ovate or elliptical, 9-25.5 cm x 4.5-15 cm, orange-red to pink when ripe, with 4-6 pyrenes.
rusty hairy on both surfaces; flowers with whitish The tuber is formed by the hypocotyl of the
enlarged calyx lobe up to 10 cm long, corolla up to seedling which swells, even in the absence of ants.
3.5 cm long, with yellowish-green tube and pink to
orange-red or yellow lobes, densely hairy; fruit el-
lipsoid, 1.5-2 cm long, rusty pubescent. M. vidalii
occurs in forest margins and secondary regrowth,
up to 600(-1150) m altitude.
Selected sources 422.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack

Trans. Linn. Soc. London 14: 123 (1823).
RUBIACEAE
2n =44, 88
Synonyms Myrmecodia armata DC. (1830),
Myrmecodia echinata Gaudich. (1830), Myrmeco-
dia rumphii Becc. (1884).
Vernacular names Indonesia: rumah semut
(Sumatra), urek-urek polo (Javanese). Malaysia:
periok hantu, perutak, sembuku (Peninsular).
Vietnam: k[yf] nam gai, k[yf] nam ki[ees]n.
Origin and geographic distribution M. tu-
berosa occurs throughout Malesia, and also in
Vietnam, the Solomon Islands and northern Aus-
tralia (Cape York Peninsula).
U s e s In Indonesia, the pounded tuber has been
applied as a poultice to treat swellings and
headache. Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack - 1,plant habit; 2, tu-
Botany An epiphytic subshrub, with solitary or ber in longitudinal section; 3, flower in longitudi-
few thick stems arising from a variously shaped nal section.
MYXOPYRUM 315
Phellogens (meristematic layers which arise in Myxopyrum nervosum Blume

the parenchyma) cut out volumes of tissue which
die, leaving cavities. Ants (often of the genus Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 13:683 (1826).
Iridomyrmex) usually occupy these cavities and OLEACEAE
provide the plant with a source of macronutrients 2n =unknown
through their debris. The flowers are self-fertiliz- Vernacular names Indonesia: areuy ki kupu
ing; the corolla lobes usually do not spread and (Sundanese). Malaysia: akar dedewai, akar pitah-
the corolla remains closed. pitah, chiput-chiput (Peninsular). Thailand: thong
Myrmecodia comprises about 25 species and oc- pling (peninsular).
curs in Vietnam, throughout Malesia, the Solo- Origin and geographic distribution M. ner-
mon Islands and northern Australia (Cape York vosum occurs in peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
Peninsula). The greatest number of species occur Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines
in the montane areas ofNew Guinea. Myrmecodia (Palawan), Sulawesi, the Moluccas and western
is classified in the tribe Psychotrieae, and in the New Guinea.
subtribe Hydnophytinae, together with 4 other Uses In Peninsular Malaysia leaves, stem and
ant-inhabited tuberous Rubiaceae of which Hyd- roots are boiled and the decoction is drunk as a
nophytum is the most important. The tubers of tonic during the first three days after confinement.
Hydnophytum are used in the same way. These In Java thejuice is considered a remedy for intesti-
genera are closely related. nal troubles and an anthelmintic. A root decoction
M. tuberosa is an extremely variable species. Sev- in combination with Alyxia reinwardtii Blume and
eral morphologically differing variants can be dis- Foeniculum vulgare Miller is used to relieve fever,
tinguished. These are more or less geographically and an infusion of the leaves, in combination with
and ecologically separated, but form a variable the same plants, to treat painful joints.
continuum considering the very large area of dis- Properties Three flavonoids (apigenin 7-glyco-
tribution ofthe species. sides) have been isolated from M. nervosum
Ecology M. tuberosa is distributed in widely di- leaves.
vergent habitats. It can be found in mangrove Botany A liana up to 25 m long; young stem
trees along the coast, but also at high altitudes, up square in cross-section, later becoming terete, up
to 2500 m. It occurs in lowland rain forest (sec- to 1.7 cm in diameter. Leaves opposite, simple, el-
ondary as well as primary), swamp or riverine liptical, sometimes narrowly lanceolate, 10-20 cm
rain forest, disturbed forest, montane and mossy x 4-11.5 cm, shallowly toothed towards the apex,
forest, Acacia-Melaleuca woodland, Casuarina- 3-veined; stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal
Melaleuca and Eucalyptus-Melaleuca savanna, or axillary, lax panicle 3-14 cm long. Flowers bi-
and sometimes in plantations. It is epiphytic on a sexual, regular, yellowish-green; calyx c. 1 mm
wide range of trees. long, 4-lobed; corolla urceolate, tube 1-3 mm long,
Genetic resources M. tuberosa is extremely 4-lobed, fleshy; stamens 2, inserted near the mid-
widely spread and, at least locally, common. More- dle of the corolla tube, filaments nearly absent;
over, it occurs in many different habitats. There is ovary superior, ovoid, 2-celled, stigma sessile, 2-
no reason to consider it to be liable to genetic ero- lobed. Fruit an ellipsoid berry up to 2 cm x 2 cm,
sion. The enormous variability in morphology, pericarp leathery, ripening dark red or black, 2-4-
partly related with habitat preference and geogra- seeded. Seeds with a papery testa and copious,
phy, is remarkable. horny endosperm.
Prospects As long as nothing is known about Outside Peninsular Malaysia and Java, where it
the phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- can be found flowering and fruiting throughout
ties of M. tuberosa, it is not possible to judge its the year, M. nervosum appears to be rare. The
possibly limited value for traditional medicine. plants with very leathery leaves confined to peat-
Literature 334, 390. swamp and heath forests in Borneo are considered
Other selected sources 62, 121,387, 388, 389. a distinct taxon: subsp. coriaceum (Blume) Kiew.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens However, the information on medicinal uses refers
to subsp. nervosum.
Myxopyrum comprises 4 species, 3 of which occur
in the Malesian region. It is found scattered from
north-eastern India to southern China and New
Guinea.
Ecology M. nervosum is found in primary low- isolated from the aqueous fraction ofcrude leaf ex-
land forest, but also in hedges, and often in tracts.
swampy localities, usually below 100 m altitude, Botany Small terrestrial herbs; shoot consist-
but in Java ascending to 750 m. ing of a subspherical subterranean rhizomatous
Genetic resources Although M. nervosum is tuber of 2-7 internodes. Leaf solitary, often ap-
widespread, it occurs scattered and is in many re- pressed against the ground, elliptical to reniform,
gions rare. As it prefers lowland forest, a habitat cordate or almost circular, plicate, with reticulate
under much pressure, its genetic basis is subject venation, lower surface often purplish, petiolate;
to erosion. stipules absent. Inflorescence racemose, erect, 1-
Prospects Research on pharmacological proper- many-flowered, with some sheathing cataphylls.
ties is needed to evaluate the potential of the tra- Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, usually resupi-
ditional medicinal uses of M. nervosum. However, nate; tepals subequal, greenish or brownish-
it is unlikely that its use will increase. green, lip (labellum) adnate to the base ofthe sim-
Literature 121,334, 471. ple, elongate column, spurless or shortly spurred,
Other selected sources 62, 317,731. 3-lobed to almost entire, with upturned lower
R.Kiew edges; stamen solitary, with 2 bipartite, sectile
pollinia; ovary inferior, stigma elliptical to almost
square. Fruit a many-seeded capsule opening by 6
Nervilia Comm. ex Gaudich. slits. Seeds minute.
Nervilia has an unusual growth habit among the
Freyc, Voy. Uranie, Bot.: t. 35 (1827), 421 orchids. It is characterized by a subterranean tu-
(1829). ber continuing in a very short ascending subter-
ORCHIDACEAE ranean stem, from which some horizontal runners
x =unknown; N. aragoana: 2n =72, N. plicata: are produced, eventually ending in new tubers.
2n = 20,62,72,108 This constitutes an effective way of vegetative
Origin a n d geographic distribution Nervilia propagation, and plants are often found in more or
comprises about 60 species and is distributed in less dense colonies probably representing clones.
tropical and, to a lesser extent, subtropical parts The tuber constitutes a water storage organ, per-
ofAfrica, Madagascar, Asia and Australia. mitting the plant to bridge a dry period. The sin-
Uses In Indo-China and southern China decoc- gle leaf develops from the tuber after flowering;
tions of Nervilia are mainly used internally to consequently flowers and leaves are usually not
treat problems of the respiratory tract. They are found at the same time.
also used as a sedative and tonic, and externally Ecology Most Nervilia species are found in de-
to treat bruises, swellings and boils. The use as a ciduous and semi-deciduous forest, up to 1500 m
protective medicine after childbirth is known from altitude. They usually prefer shade, and grow in
Malaysia. shallow soils, with the tubers often in the litter
In Vietnam an infusion of dried leaves ofN. fordii layer.
(Hance) Schlechter is applied orally as a depura- Management In China N. aragoana was suc-
tive, especially in cases ofmushroom poisoning; in cessfully propagated in vitro from tuber expiants
China this infusion is considered tonic and seda- cultivated on modified Murashige and Skoog
tive, and used to alleviate cough. N. purpurea medium supplemented with growth hormones, ac-
(Hayata) Schlechter is traditionally used in Tai- tive charcoal, sucrose and agar. Flowering plants
wan to treat inflammation and hypertension. were obtained after transferring the tubers to pots
Properties The phytochemistry ofAT. aragoana, oftree fern dust or moss.
N. plicata and N. purpurea has been investigated. Experiments with the domestication ofN. fordii in
Phytol, a glycerin ester, cycloeucalenol, stigmas- China showed positive results. High yields can be
terol, linoleic acid, linolenic acid and L-norleucine obtained, but the plants should be allowed to form
have been identified. Several methyl sterols and new tubers.
triterpenes have also been isolated. Leaves or whole plants are collected. They are
The crude extract ofN. purpurea from Taiwan de- dried in the sun or over a fire for later use. For in-
creased blood pressure and relaxed the isolated ternal use a decoction of dried plants is usually
thoracic aorta in rabbits. It was suggested from prepared, for external poultices pounded fresh
the tests that nucleotides in N. purpurea induced leaves are applied.
vasodilation. Guanosine and adenosine have been Genetic resources Locally, overcollecting for
NERVILIA 317
medicinal purposes may endanger Nervilia popu- (Bangkok). Vietnam: ch[aa]n tr[aa]u xanh, thanh
lations, as has happened with N. fordii in Guangxi thi[ee]n q[uf]y, Ian c[owf].
(China). In Vietnam Nervilia has become uncom- Distribution Nepal, Bhutan, eastern India,
mon because of overexploitation, so protective Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China,
measures are needed. Taiwan, southern Japan, Thailand, throughout
Prospects Research showed interesting phar- the Malesian region, islands in the Pacific Ocean
macological properties for Nervilia. Larger-scale and northern Australia.
cultivation seems possible and is needed to avoid Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
overexploitation ofwild populations. leaves is drunk after childbirth as a protective
Literature 373,379, 671,735. medicine. In Vietnam whole plants are used to
treat bruises, swellings, coughs, tuberculosis and
scrofula. There are reports from Guam that the
Selection of species tubers are edible; they are sometimes also chewed
to quench the thirst.
Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. Observations A small herb; leaf reniform,
Freyc, Voy. Uranie, Bot.: t. 35 (1827), 422 deeply cordate at base, glabrous, often dark violet
(1829). blotched when young; inflorescence up to 20-flow-
Synonyms Pogonia flabelliformis Lindley ered; flowers with tepals c. 1.5 cm long, lip slightly
(1840), Aplostellis flabelliformis (Lindley) Ridley shorter, usually with distinct side lobes, more or
(1924). less hairy, especially along the 2 lateral veins, yel-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: daun sa-helai sa- lowish-white. N. aragoana is a variable species. It
tahun, daun satu tahun (Peninsular). Thailand: occurs in different types of forest, also in bamboo
phaen din yen (Chiang Rai), waan phra chim forest, in Java up to 1200 m altitude.
971.
Nervilia plicata (Andr.) Schlechter

Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45:403 (1911).
Synonyms Nervilia discolor (Blume) Schlechter
(1911), Aplostellis velutina (Par. & Reichenb.f.)
Ridley (1924).
Vernacular names Vietnam: tr[aa]n ch[aa]u
x[ees]p, thanh thi[ee]n q[uf]y l[as] x[ees]p.
Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan-
mar), Laos, Vietnam, southern China, Thailand,
Peninsular Malaysia, Java, the Philippines, New
Guinea and northern Australia.
Uses In Vietnam whole plants are used to treat
hepatitis, pneumonia and tracheitis.
Observations A small herb; leaf cordate-reni-
form, with coarse hairs on both sides, dark brown
on upper surface; inflorescence 2(-3)-flowered;
flowers with tepals c. 3.5 cm long, lip c. 2.5 cm
long, without distinct side lobes, glabrous above,
white but yellow at base inside. N. plicata occurs
in different types of forest, often in teak forest, up
to 500 m altitude.
Selected sources 62,475, 828, 832,971.
Dzuong Due Huyen
Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. - 1, habit of plant

with leaf;2, habit of flowering plant; 3, flower.
Nothocnide repanda (Blume) Blume on the phytochemistry and pharmacological prop-

erties are needed.
Mus. bot. 2: 137, t. 14 (1856). Literature 62,334, 347.
URTICACEAE Other selected sources 331, 621.
2n =unknown R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Synonyms Pipturus répandus (Blume) Wedd.
(1856).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: leuksa, nangsi Oberonia Lindley
areuy (Sundanese), dlundung (Javanese). Papua
New Guinea: ese-kureka (Northern Province), Gen. sp. orchid, pi.: 15 (1830).
yakuandumo (Sepik). Philippines: duai, sabsabui ORCHIDACEAE
(Igorot). x =15;O.denticulata: 2n = 30
Origin and geographic distribution N. re- Origin and geographic distribution Obero-
panda is widely distributed in the Malesian re- nia comprises approximately 100 species and oc-
gion, in Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, curs from eastern and southern Africa (1 species),
Sulawesi, the Moluccas and New Guinea. through tropical and subtropical Asia, to the is-
Uses In Papua New Guinea a bath in a decoc- lands ofthe Pacific Ocean and northern Australia.
tion ofN. repanda leaves is considered a tonic and India and Thailand seem richest in species, with
is used to assist recovery from illness; the leaves about 40 and 35, respectively.
are applied to mouth ulcers. Pieces of the stem Uses Oberonia is apparently not much used
are sold in markets in Indonesia; pounded and medicinally. The leaves have been applied to boils
mixed with water, they are used to wash the hair. in Malaysia. In Vietnam Oberonia is used in tradi-
The bark is used to treat inflammation of the tional medicine as a detoxicant and diuretic, to
ureter. treat rheumatism and to promote blood circula-
Properties An aqueous extract of N. repanda tion. In China it is used to treat inflammations of
stems contains abundant amounts of acid mu- the bladder and ureter, and it is applied to bruises
cilage; saponins are apparently not present. and fractures. In Vietnam O. longibracteata Lind-
Botany A dioecious liana up to 35 m long, with ley is applied to scorpion stings.
stem up to 8 cm in diameter. Leaves arranged spi- Botany Small, erect or pendulous epiphytic
rally, simple and entire, elliptical-oblong, 6-15 cm herbs, usually with a short rhizome, with or with-
x 3-5 cm, obtuse to rounded or subcordate at base, out a prominent stem. Leaves distichously alter-
acuminate at apex, more or less hairy on the veins nate, simple, fleshy, usually laterally compressed,
below, 3-veined from the base, with 1-2 pairs of with or without an articulation at base, without
secondary veins; petiole 1-4 cm long; stipules con- distinct petiole; stipules absent. Inflorescence a
nate into an axillary scale 0.5-1 cm long. Inflores- terminal spike or raceme, sessile or stalked, brac-
cence a cluster combined into an axillary spike up teate, many-flowered. Flowers bisexual, minute,
to 8 cm long, mostly 3 together. Flowers unisexu- zygomorphic, pedicelled or sessile; tepals subequal
al, regular, 4-merous, c. 5 mm in diameter; male or unequal, sometimes gland-dotted, lip (label-
flowers with deeply divided perianth, large sta- lum) spurless, 2-3-lobed or entire, with or without
mens and rudimentary pistil; female flowers with a disk at the proximal end, lobes variously dissect-
tubular and dentate, fleshy-juicy perianth and su- ed; column minute; anther with 4 pollinia pair-
perior, 1-celled ovary, style up to 4.5 mm long, wise cohering. Fruit a longitudinally ridged cap-
stigma filiform. Fruit a small, subglobular to sule, many-seeded. Seeds minute.
ovoid achene. Oberonia is usually easily recognizable by the
Nothocnide comprises about 4 species, and is strongly compressed sheathing leaves and the ter-
spread over South-East Asia and Melanesia. It be- minal inflorescence with numerous minute flow-
longs to the tribe Boehmerieae. ers.
Ecology N. repanda occurs in forest up to 1600 Ecology Oberonia grows as an epiphyte on
m altitude, often along streams. trees, but can sometimes be found, like many oth-
Genetic resources N. repanda is widely dis- er epiphytes, on rocks. It can be found in different
tributed and at least locally common, and is conse- types of forest, from mangrove forest to mixed for-
quently not easily liable to genetic erosion. est and teak forest, most commonly in the low-
Prospects Too little is known about N. repanda land, but sometimes up to 2100 m altitude.
to judge its value as a medicinal plant. Research Genetic resources The two Oberonia species
OCTAMYRTUS 319
treated here are widespread and locally common Observations A small epiphytic herb, acaules-
and do not seem in immediate danger of genetic cent; leaves ensiform, up to 20 cm x 2 cm, with ar-
erosion, but other species of the rather large genus ticulation at base; flowers in a more or less dense-
are undoubtedly rare and in need of protection. ly flowered raceme, pedicelled, c. 2 mm in diame-
Prospects Research on phytochemistry and ter, pale brownish-greenish, inner tepals slightly
pharmacological properties is needed to determine narrower than outer ones, lip quadrate or ovate in
the value of Oberonia as a medicinal plant. The outline, shallowly 2-lobed, fringed to laciniate at
ornamental value is limited because of the tiny margins. O. denticulata occurs in mixed forest and
flowers, although Oberonia species are sometimes teak forest in the lowland, sometimes up to 1500
cultivated by orchid amateurs. m altitude.
Literature 40, 62, 121,971. Selected sources 40, 62, 827, 829, 832,971.
Dzuong Due Huyen
Octamyrtus behrmannii Diels
Oberonia anceps Lindley
Sert, orchid.: sub t. 8 (1838). Engl., Bot. Jahrb. 57:376 (1922).
Vernacular names Malaysia: sakat lidah MYRTACEAE
buaya (Peninsular). Thailand: lidaa, sakat (penin- In =unknown
sular), bua yaa (Malay). Vietnam: m[os]ng r[uf]a Vernacular names Papua New Guinea: koko-
hai d[aaf]u. rabegisi (Kurereda, Northern Province).
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Origin and geographic distribution O. behr-
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, eastern mannii occurs throughout New Guinea.
Java, the Philippines, Sulawesi and the Moluccas. Uses Young shoots are mixed with water and
Uses There is a record from Peninsular Ma- the solution is drunk to treat tuberculosis.
laysia stating that the leaves are applied as a Botany A shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall;
poultice to boils. bark flaky, greyish-brown. Leaves opposite, simple
Observations A small epiphytic herb, with and entire, obovate to broadly elliptical, 13.5-23
stem up 22 cm long; leaves imbricate, 1-2.5 cm x cm x 5.5-11 cm, obtuse to attenuate at base, acute
0.5-1 cm, without articulation; flowers very den- or acuminate at apex, leathery, tomentose on veins
sely arranged, completely covering the prominent below, pinnately veined; petiole 0.5-2 cm long;
rachis of the inflorescence, c. 1.5 mm in diameter, stipules absent. Flowers cauliflorous, in clusters or
brownish-yellow, inner tepals half as broad as out- solitary, bisexual, with persistent bracteoles; pedi-
er ones, lip nearly square. O. anceps occurs in cel 0.5-1.5 cm long; calyx with 4 unequal lobes 4-8
open forest in the lowland, in Java up to 150 m al- mm long, persistent; petals 6 or 8, free, unequal,
titude. ovate to elliptical, up to 3.5 cm long, silky outside,
Selected sources 62, 121,827, 829, 832. red; stamens numerous, free, up to 5.5 cm long;
ovary inferior, 4(-7)-celled, style columnar, up to 6
Oberonia denticulata Wight cm long, stigma capitate. Fruit a globose, dry berry
Icon. pi. Ind. orient. 5:t. 1625 (1851). 10-12 mm in diameter, bluish-green, brownish to-
Synonyms Oberonia iridifolia Lindley (1830) mentose, many-seeded. Seeds compressed-reni-
p.p., Oberoniagammiei King &Pantling (1897). form, 2-2.5 mm in diameter.
Vernacular n a m e s Vietnam: Ian qu[aj]t l[as] Octamyrtus comprises 3 species and is confined to
du[oo]i di[eef]u, m[os]ng r[uf]a. the Moluccas and New Guinea. It is closely related
Distribution Nepal, India, Burma (Myanmar), to Rhodomyrtus, which differs in the 4-5 less
Laos, Vietnam, southern China, Thailand, Penin- showy petals.
sular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Phi- Ecology O. behrmannii occurs in rain forest up
lippines, Sulawesi, islands of the Pacific Ocean to 1900 m altitude.
and northern Australia. Genetic resources The status of O. behrman-
Uses In Vietnam the plant is applied as detoxi- nii concerning genetic erosion is unclear, but
cant and diuretic, to treat rheumatism and to pro- there are no indications that it is threatened.
mote blood circulation. In China it is used to treat Prospects It is unlikely that the use of O.
inflammations of the bladder and ureter, and it is behrmannii in traditional medicine will increase
applied to bruises and fractures. in the near future.
Literature347. the base ofmountains, andislocally common.

Other selected sources 826. Genetic resources Although locally common,
R.H.M.J. Lemmens O.fimbriatum is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia
and occurs there in a habitat that is under pres-
sure, i.e. lowland, humid rain forest. All Orchi-
Orchidantha fimbriatum Holttum dantha species have a very restricted distribution
and should beconsidered liable togenetic erosion.
Gard. Bull. Sing. 25:243(1970). Prospects Application of O.fimbriatum in tra-
LOWIACEAE ditional medicine isvery limited and it is unlikely
2n =unknown to increase.
Synonyms Orchidantha longiflora auct. non Literature 121, 364.
(Scort.) Ridley. Other selected sources806.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: lobak hutan, R.H.M.J. Lemmens
lebok hutan (Peninsular).
Origin and geographic distribution O. fim-
briatum isendemic toPeninsular Malaysia. Osbeckia chinensis L.
U s e s Scorched leaves of O. fimbriatum are rec-
ommended to relieve pains in the chest and back. Sp.pi. 1:345(1753).
The leaves are sometimes used for wrapping food MELASTOMATACEAE
in cooking. w = 10
Botany A perennial herb with a thick root, Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: payong-pay-
creeping rhizome and short, erect or suberect ong, saang-parang (Tagalog), korontillo (Panay
stems, often with lateral branches and then tuft- Bisaya). Thailand: yaa phlong khon (Chumphon),
ed. Leaves distichously alternate, simple and en- aa noi (Chiang Mai), en aa noi (Ubon Rat-
tire, elliptical, up to 100cm x 15cm, undulate at chathani). Vietnam: muat[es]p.
margins, with longitudinal veins joined with nu- Origin and geographic distribution O. chi-
merous fine cross-veinlets; petiole long with nensis is widely distributed, from Indo-China,
sheath up to 30 cm long at base. Inflorescence a southern China, Taiwan and southern Japan,
terminal series of sympodially connected paracla- through Thailand and the whole of Malesia, to
dia, each producing a single flower, bracteate. northern Australia.
Flowers bisexual, large, 3-merous, short-lived; Uses In Papua New Guinea the whole plant of
sepals narrowly oblong, 11-14cm x 2 cm; lateral O.chinensis is used externally to treat toothache.
petals short, up to 3 cm long, creamy with dark In Vietnam whole plants are used to treat dysen-
purple base and apex, median one (labellum) tery, tuberculosis ofthe lungs and haemorrhages.
large, 10-12cm x 5 cm, creamy white with dark A decoction of dried leaves ofO.crinita Benth. ex
purple-brown base; stamens 5,free, c.2.5cmlong; Triana is applied in northern Vietnam as a gargle
ovary inferior, 3-celled, prolonged into a solid to treat toothache. In Sri Lanka O. aspera (L.)
structure, style c. 2 cm long, with deeply 3-lobed, Blume and O. octandra (L.)DC.are both used in
fimbriate stigma c. 2.5cmlong. Fruit an elongate traditional medicine totreat liver diseases.
loculicidal capsule c. 8.5 cm long, many-seeded. Properties Antioxidant activity has been
Seeds c.1cmlong, hairy, with a lacerated aril. recorded for O. chinensis, possibly duetothe pres-
The flowers are located near the soil and have an ence of kaempferol, quercetin, their 3-glucosides,
unpleasant odour. They last 1-2 days. It has been quercetin-3-glucoglucoside, tannins and osbeckia
observed that tree shrews feed on the nutritious acid. Other chemical constituents isolated from O.
tissue in the central part ofthe labellum. Pollina- chinensis are 2-furoic acid, succinic acid, ursolic
tion byscarabaeid dung beetles hasbeen observed acid and daucosterol.
in the Bornean O. inouei Nagamasu & Sakai, In a screening assay based on protection of hu-
which possesses flowers with a dung-like odour. man-liver derived HepG2 cells against toxic dam-
Orchidantha comprises about 10species andisre- age by bromobenzene and 2,6-diMeNAPQI, a
stricted to tropical Asia: Indo-China, southern crude extract ofO.aspera from Sri Lanka signifi-
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Bor- cantly improved viability of the cells. A leaf ex-
neo. It isthe single genus ofthe family Lowiaceae. tract of O. aspera also showed some antioxidant
Ecology O. fimbriatum occurs in the under- activity. It can markedly decrease carbon tetra-
growth oflowland forest, often in wet locations at chloride-mediated reduction in aniline hydroxy-
PANDANUS 321
läse and p-aminopyrine N-demethylase activity

and inhibit peroxidative damage to the cell mem-
brane. Antioxidant compounds in O. aspera may
be an important mechanism responsible for the in-
vivo hepatoprotective activity of this plant. An
aqueous leaf extract of O. aspera also showed in-
hibitory effect on lymphocyte proliferation stimu-
lated by phytohaemagglutinin and tuberculin pu-
rified protein derivative. The combined hepatopro-
tective and immunosuppressive effects of the ex-
tract are more likely to be beneficial in acute he-
patitis rather than chronic hepatitis viral infec-
tion.
A leaf extract of O.octandra, also from Sri Lanka,
markedly decreased carbon tetrachloride-mediat-
ed alterations in the liver histopathology as well
as the serum enzyme levels in rats. Post-treat-
ment with the extract also resulted in a fast recov-
ery ofthe liver. An aqueous extract of O. octandra
significantly lowered the fasting blood glucose lev-
el and markedly improved glucose tolerance in
Sprague Dawley rats. Maximum hypoglycaemic
activity was observed after 3 hours and was com-
parable to that of tolbutamide.
Botany An erect herb or subshrub, up to 70 cm
tall, with 4-angled branches. Leaves opposite,
simple and entire, oblong-lanceolate, 1-6 cm x
0.5-2 cm, rounded at base, acute at apex, 3-5- Osbeckia chinensis L. — 1, flowering stem; 2, flower
veined from the base, very shortly petioled; stip- in longitudinal section; 3, fruits; 4, fruit with hy-
ules absent. Inflorescence a terminal cyme, ( l - ) 5 - panthium partly removed.
10-flowered, with involucre of leaves at base.
Flowers bisexual, 4-merous, sessile; hypanthium traditional medicine for the treatment ofliver dys-
(calyx tube) campanulate, c. 5 mm long, with function. No pharmacological research has yet
pectinate scales and tufts of hairs, calyx lobes 6-8 been done on O. chinensis, but its use in tradition-
mm long; petals free, 1-1.5 cm long, red-purple; al medicine in regions as far apart as Vietnam and
stamens 8, subequal; ovary inferior, adnate to hy- Papua New Guinea, and the positive results of
panthium, setose at apex, 4-5-celled, style fili- tests of the Sri Lankan Osbeckia species are en-
form, curved. Fruit a subglobular capsule 3-7 mm couraging.
in diameter, included in the hypanthium, apically Literature 62, 248, 331,347, 817, 1050.
4-5-valved, many-seeded. Seeds shell-shaped. Other selected sources 242, 417, 418, 671,
O. chinensis can be found flowering and fruiting 674, 924,925.
throughout the year. R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Osbeckia comprises about 50 species and occurs in
Africa, tropical and subtropical Asia and northern
Australia. Pandanus Parkinson
Ecology O. chinensis can be found in grassland
and roadsides, occasionally in thickets and open J. voy. South Seas: 46 (1773).
forest, up to 2000 m altitude. PANDANACEAE
Genetic resources O. chinensis is widespread x = 30;P. klossii: In = 60
and occurs in open anthropogenic habitats. There Origin and geographic distribution Pan-
is no reason to consider it liable to genetic erosion. danus comprises about 700 species and occurs in
Prospects Tests of leaf extracts of O. aspera Africa, Madagascar, islands of the Indian Ocean,
and O. octandra from Sri Lanka showed hepato- Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
protective abilities, thus justifying their use in China, southern China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand,
throughout the Malesian region, Australia and is- vars ofP. tectorius, and is also used in fences and
lands ofthe Pacific Ocean. windbreaks.
U s e s Leaf decoctions ofP. affinis and P. klossii, Properties The application of P. amaryllifolius
and probably other Pandanus species, are admin- as antidiabetic drug seems linked to 4-hydroxy-
istered after childbirth in Peninsular Malaysia. benzoic acid, which has been isolated from the
Several other Pandanus species are used in tradi- roots. It shows hypoglycaemic effects in normal
tional medicine in South-East Asia but have an- rats (oral administration of 5 mg/kg), and increas-
other primary use. After soaking P. amaryllifolius es serum insulin levels and liver glycogen content.
Roxb. leaves in coconut oil, the oil is employed as This compound caused a dose-dependent decrease
an embrocation for rheumatic troubles. Infusions in plasma glucose levels in steptozotocin-diabetic
ofP. amaryllifolius leaves are used internally and rats, but did not affect serum insulin level and liv-
externally as a sedative against restlessness, and er glycogen content in the diabetic model. It in-
in Thailand they are used as a traditional medi- creased glucose consumption in normal and dia-
cine as a diuretic. Young leaf tops of P. furcatus betic rat diaphragms, suggesting a hypoglycaemic
Roxb. are used as an antidote and, after roasting effect mediated by an increase in the peripheral
over a fire, to treat cough, whereas the leaf sap is glucose consumption.
used against diarrhoea and dysentery. In Papua The oil from P. odoratissimus inflorescences is
New Guinea (New Ireland) P. tectorius Parkinson considered to have stimulant and antispasmodic
bark is scraped into a wild ginger leaf, water is properties, whereas root extracts have shown
added and the solution is squeezed into a cup and great antioxidative activity. The leaf juice was
drunk to sedate mental patients. The leaves of P. found to inhibit the formation of skin, liver and
odoratissimus L.f. are used in the Philippines as a colon tumours in tests with mice.
cardiotonic and purgative, and those of P. odo- In New Guinea Pandanus fruits have been report-
ratissimus and P. tectorius are said to be useful ed to contain toxic substances capable of produc-
against leprosy, smallpox, rabies and heart and ing mental change. Among other alkaloids, di-
brain diseases. The roots ofP. tectorius are consid- methyltryptamine has been isolated from the
ered diuretic and used in Vietnamese folk medi- fruits. Fresh fruits may also cause sore lips and
cine to treat oliguria and urinary troubles. The blistered tongue.
roots ofP. odoratissimus are considered antipyret- Botany Dioecious, evergreen, often palm-like
ic, expectorant and diuretic in Thailand, and the trees or shrubs with an erect to decumbent stem,
male inflorescence cardiotonic. Decoctions of fresh usually with rigid prop roots descending from leaf
or dried prop roots ofP. luzonensis Merr. are cred- axils; stem often branched in a trichotomous or di-
ited with diuretic properties in the Philippines. chotomous pattern, often knobbly or prickly, with
Fresh fruits of P. polycephalus Lamk are used in manifest leaf scars. Leaves arranged in 3 spiral
Sulawesi as an abortifacient. P. antaresensis St. rows, simple, linear, usually M-shaped in cross-
John is used in New Guinea in healing rituals to section, usually with prickles along the margins
treat fever, headache, diarrhoea and difficult and the underside of the midrib, with numerous
breathing. longitudinal veins, usually amplexicaul. Inflores-
Pandanus is very important for the production of cence unisexual, male one a bracteate spike, usu-
fibre, especially P. atrocarpus Griffith, P. furcatus, ally arranged in a raceme, female one a globose to
P. odoratissimus and P. tectorius. Leaf material, cylindrical head, sometimes arranged in a spike.
usually reduced to strips, is used for weaving a Flowers unisexual, without perianth; male flowers
range of articles, from small handbags and con- with a cluster of stamens; female flowers with
tainers to large floor mats or light interior wall massed 1-many-celled carpels, style indistinct.
panels. Some Pandanus species provide food prod- Fruit a drupe or a syncarp of drupes, resembling a
ucts; fruits of P. conoideus Lamk and P. leram pineapple, ripening to yellow, orange or red, occa-
Jones ex Fontana, and seeds of P. brosimos Merr. sionally purplish-red. Seed fusiform or obovoid,
& Perry are eaten in South-East Asia, and leaves with thin seedcoat, containing endosperm.
ofP. amaryllifolius are used fresh in cooking as a Seed germination is often very slow, and within
spice to impart flavour and colour (chlorophyll) to the bony endocarp of the fruit. Apomixis is com-
rice, sweets, jellies and many other food products. mon and parthenocarpy is the rule. Fruit disper-
Finely cut leaves ofthe latter species are an ingre- sal is usually by birds, mammals or water cur-
dient of a hair oil used in Java. Pandanus is com- rents.
monly grown as an ornamental, especially culti- The very large genus Pandanus is divided into 8
PAPUECHITES 323
subgenera and over 70 sections. P. affinis belongs Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a leaf decoction is
to subgenus and section Acrostigma, P. klossii to applied as a tonic after childbirth.
subgenus and section Rykia. The identifications of Observations Alarge shrub up to 5 m tall, with
species in such a large and difficult genus are of- prop roots up to 60 cm long at stem base; leaves
ten doubtful and this makes literature difficult to up to 200 cm x 4(-5) cm, prickly at margins and
interpret. It is also somewhat doubtful whether midrib; male spike up to 11 cm x 2 cm, with nu-
the uses cited for P. affinis and P. klossii in Penin- merous stamens having short filaments, female
sular Malaysia really refer to these species. How- heads usually 5 together, ovoid-ellipsoid, up to 7
ever, several Pandanus species are probably used cm x 5.5 cm, having numerous distinct carpels;
interchangeably for the same purpose. fruit obovoid, c. 2 cm x 0.5 cm, beaked, free in the
Ecology Pandanus mainly occurs on tropical upper third. P. affinis occurs in freshwater
sea coasts, often on sandy beaches, littoral thick- swamps and along watercourses in the lowland.
ets, on the edges of brackish marshes and man- Selected sources 121, 250.
groves and more inland along water courses, less
common at higher altitudes (e.g. P. klossii). Rain- Pandanus klossii Ridley
fall should be high, but soil requirements are low, Journ. Fed. Mai. States Mus. 6: 190 (1915).
although heavy, poorly drained loams are not suit- Vernacular names Malaysia: hakek jehun,
able. mengkuang kayu (Peninsular).
Management Pandanus is usually propagated Distribution Peninsular Malaysia.
vegetatively, from sucker shoots or stem frag- Uses A leaf decoction is applied as a tonic after
ments. Cleanly removed from the leaf axils, suck- childbirth.
ers can be planted straight away or rooted first in Observations A large shrub or small tree up to
a sandy medium. Pandanus may also be propagat- 8 m tall, with stout, erect trunk and prop roots at
ed by seed, but seeds should be soaked for 24 stem base; leaves up to 150 cm x 7.5 cm, prickly at
hours before planting. margins and midrib; female heads solitary, glo-
Genetic resources Pandanus is known for its bose to oblong, c. 25 cm long; fruit c. 6 cm long,
high degree of endemism and thus many species (3-)5-7(-10) connate, shortly free at tip. P. klossii
are liable to genetic erosion and sometimes even occurs locally, but sometimes abundantly, in
threatened by extinction. Collection from the wild mountains at 1500-1800 m altitude.
and habitat destruction endanger many species. Selected sources 121,789.
Germplasm collection is badly needed. Lean Teik Ng &Su Foong Yap
Prospects Although Pandanus may be of con-
siderable local importance in South-East Asia, it
has so far only been of marginal interest to agri- Papuechites aambe (Warb.) Markgr.
cultural institutions. These multipurpose plants
deserve more attention, not only for enhancing Nova Guinea 14:288 (1927).
their value as fibre plants, food plants and orna- APOCYNACEAE
mentals, but also to evaluate their pharmacologi- 2n =unknown
cal value. The comparatively few pharmacological Synonyms Anodendron aambe (Warb.) Warb.
tests carried out showed promising results. (1891),Strophanthus aambe Warb. (1891).
Literature 196, 357, 391, 671, 738, 739, 760, Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: kap
817,838,967. (Manus Island).
Origin and geographic distribution P. aam-
be occurs in the Moluccas (Ambon, the Aru Is-
Selection of species lands), New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipel-
ago.
P a n d a n u s affinis Kurz Uses In Papua New Guinea (Manus Island) la-
Journ. Bot. 5: 101(1867). tex from the stem is applied to sores.
Synonyms Pandanus aurantiacus Ridley (1903). Botany A liana with terete branches and glab-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: mengkuang bun- rous, sparsely puberulent or tomentose branch-
ga, pandan ikan (Peninsular). Vietnam: d[uws]a lets, producing white latex. Leaves opposite, sim-
cam. ple and entire, elliptical, 3.5-13.5 cm x 1-6.5 cm,
Distribution Vietnam (rare), Peninsular Ma- cuneate to obtuse at base, acuminate at apex,
laysia, Borneo and the Philippines (Palawan). thinly leathery, glabrous to puberulent below, pin-
nately veined with 6-12 pairs of secondary veins; roots is considered a good tonic, e.g. to improve the
petiole 0.5-1.5 cm long; stipules absent. Inflores- ability to withstand low temperatures.
cence a terminal or axillary thyrse up to 25 cm Properties The few tests that have been car-
long, sparsely to densely tomentose. Flowers bi- ried out on the chemistry of P. scandens showed
sexual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel 3-9 mm long; different results. One test demonstrated a moder-
sepals free, ovate, up to 2 mm long, with colleters ate amount of saponins in the leaves, but these
in the corners; corolla with tube up to 5 mm long, were absent in the stem, whereas alkaloids and
slightly widening in upper part, and spreading terpenes were not found. In another test, a small
lobes up to 5 mm long, overlapping to the right in amount of terpenes was demonstrated in the
bud, pink or red; stamens inserted where the leaves and stem, but no alkaloids or saponins. Fla-
corolla tube widens, included, filaments short, at- vanone, triterpene and chromene derivatives have
tached in a ring to the pistil head; disk of 5 free been isolated from the stems. An aqueous ethanol
lobes; ovary superior, consisting of 2 separate extract showed antibacterial activity against
carpels with a short common style and pistil head. Bacillus subtilis.
Fruit consisting of 2 divergent follicles 5-7.5 cm Coumarins such as poncitrin, nordentatin and the
long, broad at base, tapering to the apex, with 2 sterol ß-sitosterol have been isolated from P.
longitudinal ridges, glabrous, many-seeded. Seeds monophylla Wight in Sri Lanka. Flindissone, de-
elliptical, flat, c. 1cm long, with a long apical beak oxyflindissone and 4 tirucallane derivatives have
bearing coma hairs. been isolated from the fruits.
Papuechites comprises a single species. Botany A liana, with short, recurved spines;
Ecology P. aambe occurs as a forest climber up twigs zigzag, glabrous or scurfy. Leaves alternate,
to 1300 m altitude. unifoliolate, elliptical or oblong, 7.5-12.5 cm x
Genetic resources P. aambe is widely distrib- 3.5-6 cm, rounded at base, shortly and bluntly
uted in New Guinea and seems to be fairly com- acuminate at apex, entire, leathery; petiole short,
mon there, but there are few records from the with a swollen knee at each end; stipules absent.
Moluccas. Inflorescence an axillary fascicle, but flowers often
Prospects The medicinal applications of P. solitary. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, fra-
aambe are limited, and it is unlikely that its uti- grant; calyx cup-like, acutely lobed; petals free,
lization will increase. lanceolate-oblong, c. 8 mm long, white; stamens
Literature 347. 10, free, inserted round a columnar disk, fila-
Other selected sources 624. ments linear, hairy; ovary superior, 5-celled, style
R.H.M.J. Lemmens elongate. Fruit a globose-ovoid berry, with a thick
peel, resinous glandular, few-seeded. Seeds com-
paratively large, flattened.
P a r a m i g n y a s c a n d e n s (Griffith) C r a i b P. scandens produces abundantly viable seeds
when it fruits. Paramignya comprises about 12
Fl. siam. 1:235 (1926). species, and occurs in India, Sri Lanka, Burma
RUTACEAE (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Thai-
2n =unknown land, Malesia and northern Australia. It seems to
Synonyms Paramignya griffithii Hook.f. (1875). be related to the monotypic genus Merope, which
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: mecanduk, su- is an erect shrub or small tree with stout spines
suh ayam, panak rimba (Peninsular). Thailand: and angled fruits, and to Atalantia (about 11
chaang ngaa dieo (Chanthaburi), naam khaa bai species) and Severinia (about 6 species), which
(Prachuap Khiri Khan), duei kai (Satun). Viet- both comprise shrubs and small trees. A revision
nam: x[as]o leo. of the genus and related genera is needed to clari-
Origin a n d geographic distribution P. scan- fy species and genus limits, as well as exact
dens has been recorded for eastern India (Assam), species distributions.
southern Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam, southern Ecology P. scandens occurs in lowland forest. It
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. is in general not common, but it may be locally
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the abundant.
roots of P. scandens is drunk to treat abdominal Genetic resources In Peninsular Malaysia, P.
complaints and after childbirth. A lotion or decoc- scandens is locally considered an important and
tion of the whole plant is used to treat syphilis. valuable medicine as a tonic, which might be a
Locally in Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the reason for overharvesting. Considerable genetic
PENTAPHRAGMA 325
variation may exist as phytochemical tests on dif- seeded. Seeds orbicular, compressed, ringed with
ferent samples showed different results. hygroscopic hairs.
Prospects Plants used as a tonic have a strong P. napifera has originally been described in Ruel-
standing in traditional medicine. P. scandens lia, which was considered a large and variable
might be marketed as a good tonic, if it is accom- genus. Several attempts to split it up into segre-
panied with good publicity and ensured ofan ade- gate genera which form more natural groups have
quate supply through cultivation. However, much been made, oneof these being Pararuellia, which
research on the chemical and pharmacological comprises about 5 species and occurs in Indo-Chi-
properties isstill needed. na and the Malesian region east to the Moluccas.
Literature 209, 282, 705. However, there is still disagreement among taxon-
Other selected sources 121, 515, 706,731, omists about the generic concept within the group
789, 982, 990. of Acanthaceae to which Pararuellia and related
H.C.Ong genera such as Dipteracanthus and Ruellia be-
long.
Ecology P. napifera occurs on shaded rocks,e.g.
P a r a r u e l l i a n a p i f e r a (Zoll.) B r e m e k . in fissures oflimestone cliffs, upto 150m altitude.
Management The leaves of P. napifera can be
Verh. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch. Afd. Natuurk., dried and stored for some time without losing
Sect. 2,45(1):30(1948). their activity.
ACANTHACEAE Genetic resources P. napifera apparently has
In =unknown a restricted area ofdistribution andis uncommon.
Synonyms Ruellia napifera Zoll. (1845). It might easily become endangered by overcollec-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: gempur batu, tion or habitat destruction, but there are no indi-
keci beling (a name also used for several other cations that this is already the case.
Acanthaceae). Prospects The use ofP. napifera to treat kid-
Origin and geographic distribution P. na- ney complaints isin agreement with several other
pifera occurs in eastern Java and the Lesser Sun- Acanthaceae for which pharmacological activities
da Islands. such as diuretic properties have been demonstrat-
Uses Adecoction ofP. napifera leaves is used to ed. Future phytochemical research onP. napifera
treat kidney stones. may reveal similar compounds as found in e.g.
Properties An orally administered infusion of Hemigraphis alternata (Burm.f.) T. Anderson.
whole P. napifera plants (5g/kg body weight) had However, its prospects as a medicinal plant seem
a significant anticalculus effect in tests with rats. limited.
This wasalso thecase foran ethanolic extract at a Literature 8,62,491, 687.
dose of600 mg/kg body weight. Other selected sources334.
Botany A small herb up to 15cm tall; roots of- Yun Astuti Nugroho
ten long, sometimes with slightly nodose thicken-
ings. Leaves in a radical rosette, simple, spatulate
or obovate, 3-16cmx2-4cm,cuneate to obtuse at P e n t a p h r a g m a begoniifolium (Roxb.
base, obtuse to rounded at apex, crenulate at mar- e x J a c k ) W a l l i c h e x G. D o n
gins, sparingly hairy, with linear cystoliths; peti-
ole 1-4 cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence an Gen. hist. 3:731 (1834).
erect, lax,long-peduncled spike 3-15cmlong, soli- PENTAPHRAGMATACEAE
tary or fascicled in the axils of opposite bracts. 2n =unknown
Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; bracteoles narrowly Synonyms Phyteuma begoniifolium Roxb. ex
triangular, up to 7 mm long, pubescent; calyx 5-8 Jack (1820).
mm long, with narrow, equal segments; corolla c. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pokok salang-
2.5 cm long, campanulate with narrow base, suang (Peninsular). Thailand: phak paa,huu mee
equally lobed with lobes contorted in bud, later (peninsular).
patent, bright violet; stamens 4, inserted at base Origin a n d geographic distribution P. bego-
of corolla tube, didynamous, basally pairwise con- niifolium is restricted to southern Burma (Myan-
nected by a membrane; ovary superior, 2-celled, mar), peninsular Thailand and the northern part
style subulate, pubescent, with 2unequal stigmat- ofPeninsular Malaysia.
ic lobes. Fruit a terete capsule c.2cmlong, many- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia P. begoniifolium
roots are applied asa poultice to swellings. straight, bracteolate. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous,
The roots ofP. ellipticum Poulsen var. flocculosum subtended by orbicular-obovate bracts 5-9 mm
(King &Gamble) Kiew are eaten raw in Peninsu- long; calyx tube 4-5 mm x 3 mm, sparsely pilose,
lar Malaysia to treat piles and malaria, whereas lobes unequal, ovate to orbicular, 2-2.5mm long;
in the Lingga Archipelago (Indonesia) an infusion corolla 3 mm long, with short tube, lobes spatu-
of leaves and especially roots of P. ellipticum is late-obovate, slightly fleshy; stamens alternating
used for treating venereal diseases. Theleaves are with corolla lobes; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style
laid onthe stomach ofsmall children to treat con- short, stigma massive. Fruit an ellipsoid, indéhis-
stipation. cent berry 8-9 mmx3-4mm,many-seeded. Seeds
Properties There is no information on thephy- ovoid, minute.
tochemistry of P. begoniifolium, but leaves and Pentaphragma belongs to the monotypic family
stems ofP. ellipticum var. flocculosum show high Pentaphragmataceae, separated from the Cam-
levels ofsaponins and the presence ofother triter- panulaceae. It consists ofabout 30species, distrib-
penes/steroids. uted in southern Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China,
Botany Aperennial, succulent herb up to25cm southern China, Thailand and throughout Male-
tall. Leaves alternate, simple, conspicuously sia (except Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands).
asymmetrical, obliquely ovate to obliquely lanceo- Borneo isthemajor centre of diversity.
late or obliquely reniform, 10-30cm x 6-13.5 cm, Ecology P. begoniifolium occurs in lowland rain
base rounded to cordate on one side, strongly ex- forest, often on rocks along streams, from sea-lev-
cised-concave on other side, apex shortly acumi- el upto600m altitude.
nate, finely but sharply serrate, fleshy; petiole 2-4 Genetic resources P. begoniifolium is appar-
cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence terminal or ently confined to lowland rain forest in a relative-
axillary, usually solitary, 4-5 cm long, at first ly small area that in general is subject to logging
dense and scorpioid, ultimately lax and almost and clear felling of forest. This makes it prone to
genetic erosion.
Prospects Pharmacological research is needed
to support theuse ofP. begoniifolium in tradition-
al medicine.
R.Kiew
Peristrophe acuminata Nees

Wallich, PL asiat. rar.3:113(1832).
ACANTHACEAE
2« = unknown
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: rumput lidahjin,
setawar ular, pokok tangkai jerami (Peninsular).
Thailand: yaachon (Nakhon Si Thammarat).
Origin and geographic distribution P. acu-
minata is known from southern Burma (Myan-
mar), southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia
and Singapore.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, P. acuminata has
been used externally on wounds, particularly
snakebites, and internally in a decoction to treat
smallpox.
Some other Peristrophe species are better known
in South-East Asia. The pounded leaves ofP. bi-
valvis (L.) Merr. are used in Malaysia as a poul-
Pentaphragma begoniifolium (Roxb. exJack) Wal- tice torelieve skin complaints andwhole plants to
lich exG.Don- 1,plant habit; 2, flower. treat cough in Vietnam, but the primary use is to
PHILYDRUM 327
colour cotton and mattings purplish or orange- Peristrophe species in traditional medicine in dif-
reddish. P. paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt (syn- ferent parts of Asia and Africa seem to indicate a
onym: P. bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees) is applied in certain activity, particularly for external usage on
traditional medicine in India and Africa, especial- wounds caused by e.g. snakebites. This warrants
ly as a remedy for snakebites, but is more com- further research. As is the case for many Acan-
monly used as a green manure and fodder for e.g. thaceae genera, a taxonomie monograph of Peri-
horses. strophe is urgently needed.
Properties An unidentified alkaloid has been Literature 121,459, 789.
found in leaves and stems ofP. paniculata, and an Other selected sources 120, 145, 239, 542,
isolated essential oil showed tuberculostatic activ- 761.
ity in vitro, inhibiting the growth of various My- R.H.M.J. Lemmens
cobacterium tuberculosis strains. A chloroform ex-
tract of sun-dried P. paniculata leaves showed ne-
maticidal activity on Meloidogyne incognita. An P h i l y d r u m l a n u g i n o s u m B a n k s & Sol.
extract from this herb inhibited the growth of 3 ex Gaertner
keratinophilic fungi.
Botany A herb up to 100 cm tall. Leaves oppo- Fruct. sem. pi. 1:62,t. 16 (1788).
site, simple and entire, lanceolate, 6-7.5 cm x PHILYDRACEAE
1-1.5 cm, narrowed at both ends, glabrous; petiole 2« = 16
1-1.5 cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence a ter- Vernacular names Malaysia: rumput kipas
minal and axillary short cyme, shortly peduncled, (Peninsular). Vietnam: c[or] du[oo]i l[uw][ow]n,
distinctly bracteate. Flowers bisexual; calyx b[oof|n b[oof]n, difeefjn th[oo]ng.
deeply 5-partite; corolla resupinate by torsion of Origin a n d geographic distribution P. la-
the tube, c. 1.5 cm long, tube long and slender, nuginosum occurs in the Andaman Islands, Bur-
widened at apex, white, limb 2-lipped, purple with ma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Tai-
a creamy blotch and many purple spots in the wan, the Ryukyu Islands, peninsular Thailand,
mouth, upper lip entire or minutely emarginate, Peninsular Malaysia, New Guinea, Guam and
lower lip shortly 3-lobed; stamens 2, inserted near northern Australia. It is sometimes cultivated
the apex of the corolla tube at unequal level, long- elsewhere.
exserted; ovary superior, 2-celled, style 2-lobed. Uses In Vietnam a decoction ofwhole plants, ex-
Fruit a clavate to ellipsoid capsule, c. 1 cm long, cluding the roots, is given to women before and af-
pubescent, loculicidally dehiscent, (2-)4-seeded. ter childbirth. P. lanuginosum is occasionally cul-
Seeds compressed orbicular, tuberculate. tivated as a pond-ornamental, e.g. in Java.
Peristrophe comprises approximately 25 species, Properties Syringetin and derivatives, mi-
and occurs in tropical and subtropical Africa and quelianin, common flavonols and proanthocyani-
Asia. In Africa, 9 species are found. This genus is dins have been recorded for P. lanuginosum.
closely related to Dicliptera, which differs only in Botany A perennial, caespitose herb up to 130
the nature of the placental bases in the fruit; cm tall, with short rhizome. Leaves in a rosette,
these are inelastic in Peristrophe and elastic in Di- but distichously arranged, simple and entire, ensi-
cliptera. form, 40-80 cm long, thick, parallel-veined, glab-
A prospective revision of the Asiatic Peristrophe rous, with sheath 14-30 cm long. Inflorescence a
species may reveal that P. acuminata is conspecif- terminal spike, simple or paniculate, with scape
ic with P. hyssopifolia (Burm.f.) Bremek. from Ja- up to 130 cm long, with few cauline leaves gradu-
va. If this is the case, the latter name is the cor- ally passing into bracts, villous in upper part.
rect name for the species. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, sessile, yellow; pe-
Ecology P. acuminata occurs in waste places rianth consisting of 2 outer tepals up to 15 mm
and on roadsides, and it is common in many re- long and 2 inner tepals up to 8 mm long; stamen 1,
gions within its area of distribution. 8-9 mm long, filament flattened, anther subspher-
Genetic resources This species is not liable to ical; ovary superior, 6-7 mm long, 1-celled or im-
genetic erosion as it is common and often occurs in perfectly 3-celled, style 3-4 mm long, stigma
anthropogenic habitats. Future research may broad-triangular. Fruit a triangular-oblong cap-
prove that it has a much larger distribution than sule 9-10 mm x 4-5 mm, opening with 3 valves,
assumed. many-seeded. Seeds bulb-shaped, up to 1 mm
Prospects The obvious similar applications of long, dark reddish.
The flowers last only one day. P. lanuginosum is acid and its derivatives has been demonstrated for
autogamous. The tiny seeds may be dispersed by the stem of several Phyllagathis species.
water; they float for long periods. Philydrum com- Botany Perennial herbs, sometimes shrubs up
prises a single species. to 3.5 m tall; stem short, thick and gnarled, or
Ecology P. lanuginosum occurs in ponds, elongate, often prostrate, sometimes rooting,
marshes and rice fields, sometimes also in moist plants sometimes acaulescent, usually minutely
savanna, at low altitudes. brown glandular, sometimes with additional indu-
Genetic resources Although P. lanuginosum mentum of various trichomes. Leaves opposite,
seems to be rare in the Malesian region, it has a simple and entire, sometimes subdenticulate,
very large area of distribution and is not restrict- 3-5(-7)-veined from the base, petiolate; stipules
ed to vulnerable habitats; consequently it is not absent. Inflorescence a terminal umbel, some-
endangered by genetic erosion. times head-like, a spike-like scorpioid thyrse or
Prospects Pharmacological research is needed simple dichasium, sometimes appearing laterally,
to evaluate the use ofP. lanuginosum in tradition- usually with long peduncle, bracteate or not, flow-
al medicine. Its use is very limited within its large ers sometimes solitary. Flowers bisexual, 4-mer-
area of distribution, and it is unlikely that it will ous, rarely 3- or 5-merous, with usually campanu-
gain importance. late and more or less quadrangular hypanthium;
Literature 247, 510, 671. sepals triangular or ligulate, often keeled, persis-
Other selected sources 62, 97, 121,249, 250. tent in fruit; petals distinctly longer than sepals,
R.P. Escobin free, red, pink, purple or white; stamens 8 in 2
whorls, equal or unequal, sometimes 4, filaments
often flat, usually glabrous, anthers usually
Phyllagathis Blume curved, dorsally usually with a small spur, open-
ing with one pore; ovary inferior, 4-celled, with
Flora 14: 507 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch. distinctly stalked placentas, apically carrying a
6:248(1831). crown of partly or fully connate lobes, style with
MELASTOMATACEAE
small stigma. Fruit a campanulate, cup-shaped or
x =unknown; P.griffithii: 2n = 34-36 urceolate capsule, often quadrangular and 8-
Origin and geographic distribution Phylla- ribbed, with enlarged ovary crown apically and of-
gathis comprises about 60 species. It occurs in 3 ten swollen hypanthium in the basal part, split-
separate areas: northern Laos, Vietnam and ting loculicidally, the central column usually be-
southern China (about 35 species), peninsular coming 4-horned and thready, many-seeded.
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra Seeds usually obovoid, usually beaked, testa more
(about 12), and Borneo (about 13). Each species is or less tuberculate, brown.
endemic to one of these areas. Northern Vietnam Growth is sympodial and occurs from the buds in
and adjacent areas of southern China are particu- the axils of the uppermost leaf pair subtending
larly rich in species (about 20). Recently, the the inflorescence. However, growth is often mono-
genus Tylanthera (with 2 species from northern chasial due to suppression of one of the buds. The
and central Thailand) has been incorporated into leaves of P. rotundifolia are iridescent blue in the
Phyllagathis. understorey of the rain forest where the plants
Uses Some uses in traditional medicine have grow.
been recorded for Phyllagathis in Peninsular Phyllagathis can be distinguished from related
Malaysia, particularly as a remedy for fever and genera such as Sonerila by the almost invariably
malaria, but also for treating stomach-ache and 4-merous flowers and 4-horned and thready pla-
giving strength after childbirth. centas.
Properties Several galloylated cyanogenic glu- Ecology Phyllagathis grows on the forest floor,
cosides based on prunasin and an alkyl glycoside usually in the lowland, but some species are found
constituent have been isolated from methanolic in the mountains.
extracts ofP. rotundifolia. Phytochemical tests on Management Leaf cuttings have been obtained
whole plants of P. rotundifolia gave negative re- under natural conditions for P.griffithii and P. ro-
sults for the presence of alkaloids, terpenes and tundifolia; they develop at the base of leaf blades
saponins. However, in P. cordata Ridley (endemic which have been severed from the petiole. This of-
to Peninsular Malaysia) a high concentration of fers possibilities for vegetative propagation.
saponins has been found. The presence of ellagic Genetic resources Most Phyllagathis species
PlCRASMA 329
have a restricted occurrence, and many are very above, reddish below, petiole 5-10 cm long; inflo-
local endemics. Several species are classified as rescence head-like, compact and shortly stalked,
endangered plants in Peninsular Malaysia, e.g. P. surrounded by 4 large, cordate or reniform involu-
magnifica A. Weber and P. stonei A. Weber. This cral bracts. P. rotundifolia is common in lowland
makes them easily liable to genetic erosion or forest.
even extinction. Only a few species are more wide- Selected sources 121,571,731,789, 983.
ly distributed, e.g. P. rotundifolia in the Peninsu- H.C. Ong
lar Malaysia-Sumatra area.
Prospects Very little is known about Phylla-
gathis and its prospects as a medicinal plant are Picrasma javanica Blume
unclear. Research on phytochemistry and phar-
macological properties is needed, but when consid- Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 248 (1825).
ering future medicinal applications the vulnera- SlMAROUBACEAE
bility ofmany species should be borne in mind. In =unknown
Literature 128,282, 314, 331,707. Synonyms Picrasma nepalensis A.W. Bennett
(1844),Picrasma philippinensis Elmer (1913).
Vernacular names Indonesia: ki pahit (Sun-
Selection of species danese), tuba ulet (Palembang, Sumatra), pati
laler (Javanese). Malaysia: balimbing (Sabah),
P h y l l a g a t h i s g r i f f i t h i i (Hook.f. e x kayu pahit (Sarawak). Thailand: kom khom
Triana) King (northern), dam, yee nam bai lek (peninsular).
Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 69:45 (1900). Vietnam: kh[oor] di[eej]p.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kerakap rimau, Origin and geographic distribution P. ja-
tutup bumi rimba, kapu-kapu (Peninsular). vanica occurs from north-eastern India through-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia. out South-East Asia to the Solomon Islands.
Uses A decoction of roots and leaves has been Uses In Burma (Myanmar), Thailand and Java,
used in a bath to treat malaria. the bark oîP.javanica is used as a febrifuge, as a
Observations A perennial herb with woody substitute for quinine. The leaves are applied to
stem growing horizontally in or above the soil, treat festering sores. Another more temperate
leaf-bearing part ascending-suberect; leaves sub- Asiatic species, P. quassioides (D. Don) A.W. Ben-
orbicular to cordate, 12.5-20 cm x 12-20 cm, dull nett, is widely used in Chinese folk medicine. The
green above, reddish below, petiole 10-20 cm long; fruit is stomachic, and a decoction of stem or bark
inflorescence up to 40 cm long, 5-6 nodes in upper is taken as a treatment for colic, stomach-ache,
half with opposite densely condensed cymes of and as a febrifuge. The decoction is also applied as
small whitish flowers. P. griffithii is locally com- a vermifuge for cattle and as an insecticide. The
mon in lowland forest, particularly in the foothills wood of Picrasma excelsa Planchon (from Ja-
of mountains. maica) is used as a substitute for Quassia amara
Selected sources 121,789,983. L. wood.
Properties All plant parts ofP.javanica are ex-
Phyllagathis rotundifolia (Jack) ceedingly bitter. The bitterness can be ascribed to
Blume the presence of quassinoids, sometimes also
Flora 14: 507 (1831); Bijdr. Natuurk. Wetensch. known as simaroubolides. Dozens of individual
6:248(1831). compounds, often classified as picrasidines, picra-
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar serau javanins, javanicinocides or javanicins, have been
malam, bawal hutan, seri bulan (Peninsular). recorded. The principal basic skeleton of these de-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma- canotriterpenes (C20) is that of picrasan-16-one. In
tra. addition, the quassinoids differ in the positions of
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the double bonds, hydroxy-, epoxy-, oxo- and/or ester-
roots and leaves has been used to treat malaria, groups (often with acetic- or C5-acids, e.g. hydroxy-
fever in children, stomach-ache and after child- butyric, isovalerenic). Examples are quassin (=
birth to give strength. nigakilactone D), isoquassin (picrasmin), neo-
Observations A perennial herb with short quassin and quassinol. Other components isolated
creeping stem; leaves suborbicular to obovate-cor- belong to 2 categories of indole alkaloids: the ß-
date, 7.5-15 cm x 6-11 cm, shining dark green carbolides (e.g. l-vinyl-4,8-dimethoxy-ß-carbolin)
and the canthin-6-ones (e.g. 2-methoxycanthin-6- mm x 1-2 mm, in female flowers 3-7 mm x 3-5
one). Chloroform and ethanol extracts of P. java- mm, accrescent; stamens up to 5 mm long in male
nica bark showed in-vitro antimalarial activity. flowers; disk 4-lobed, hairy; ovaries superior, up to
In a screening experiment using the disk diffusion 4, free, in male flowers absent, styles up to 4, unit-
method, extracts of leaves, seeds, stems and roots ed. Fruit consisting of 1-4, hardly fleshy dru-
of P. javanica, collected in Papua New Guinea, pelets; drupelet ovoid to depressed-globose, 9-10
showed antimicrobial activity. Light petroleum, mm x 7-12 mm, green to red or blue, exocarp thin,
dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and butanol frac- fleshy, wrinkled when dry, endocarp hard.
tions of the various methanol extracts showed a Picrasma comprises about 8 species, 6 in Central
broad spectrum antibacterial activity but no anti- and South America, and 2 in Asia.
fungal activity. Ecology P.javanica occurs scattered in rain for-
Botany A monoecious or dioecious tree up to 25 est from sea-level up to 1500 m altitude.
m tall; bole fluted, up to 35 cm in diameter. Genetic resources Although widespread
Leaves arranged spirally, imparipinnate; petiole throughout South-East Asia, P.javanica is always
2-6 cm long; stipules early caducous, foliaceous; rather scarce.
leaflets opposite or subopposite, 4-20 cm x 1-10 Prospects Little is known with respect to the
cm, base cuneate, apex blunt-acuminate, entire. pharmacology of P. javanica, as compared with
Inflorescence axillary, compound-cymose, unisex- other South-East Asian Simaroubaceae (e.g. Ai-
ual, up to 20 cm long, bracteolate, long-peduncled. lanthus, Brucea, Eurycoma, Quassia). In general
Flowers functionally unisexual, 4-merous, white quassinoids and canthin-6-ones, as found in nu-
to yellow or green, female ones usually twice as merous Simaroubaceae, display various interest-
large as male; sepals triangular to ovate, c. 1 mm; ing pharmacological effects, which make them of
petals ovate-oblong or oblong, in male flowers 2-5 potential use in the development of templates for
new drugs, e.g. to treat malaria. Because of the
growing resistance of malaria parasites to the
well-known, and even newer, antimalarials cur-
rently in use, there is a continuous need to devel-
op new compounds to control this important in-
fectious disease. The quassinoids and the can-
thin-6-one alkaloids might also have good poten-
tial for the development of a cytostatic drug to
treat various cancers. Therefore, P.javanica mer-
its scientific attention to explore its pharmacologi-
cal potency.
Literature 44, 247,463,497, 731.
Other selected sources 121,334, 496, 877.
Syamsul Hidayat
P i l e a m i c r o p h y l l a (L.) L i e b m .
Kongel. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 5, ser. 2:

296,302(1851).
URTICACEAE
2n =36, 42,48, 50, 60
Synonyms Pilea muscosa Lindley (1821).
Vernacular n a m e s Artillery plant, gunpowder
plant (En). Indonesia: katumpangan (Jakarta),
akar nasi, jalu-jalu bobudo (Moluccas). Philip-
pines: alabong (Igorot). Vietnam: ph[as]o b[oo]ng,
l[aw]n t[aw]n.
Picrasma javanica Blume - 1, flowering twig; 2, Origin and geographic distribution P. mi-
male flower; 3, female flower, sepals and petals re- crophylla originates from South and Central
moved; 4, fruit. America, but has escaped from cultivation and is
PlLEA 331
widely spread in other tropical and subtropical re-

gions, e.g. in Africa, Madagascar and Asia. In
South-East Asia it is naturalized, e.g. long since in
Java, and also in towns in Peninsular Malaysia
and the Philippines, but also elsewhere. In tem-
perate regions it is a greenhouse weed, but locally,
e.g. in the United States, it occurs persistently
outdoors in flowerbeds and lawns.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia P. microphylla
plants, pounded with a little garlic and salt, have
been applied to the abdomen of babies to expel
worms. In the Philippines an infusion of entire
plants is used as a diuretic. Numerous applica-
tions of P. microphylla in traditional medicine
have been recorded for South and Central Ameri-
ca. In Guatemala crushed plants are applied to
sores and bruises, and a decoction of whole plants
is used internally in Cuba as a diuretic and to
treat liver and urinary inflammation, and in Ja-
maica as a tonic and to treat asthma. In the
Grenadines the decoction is applied to children
with diarrhoea.
P. microphylla is cultivated in gardens and as a
pot plant, and also as a ground cover. A cultivar
exists with leaves blotched white and pink.
Properties The presence of leucocyanidin,
kaempferol, quercetin, caffeic acid and ferulic acid
have been demonstrated in P. microphylla leaves. Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. - 1, plant habit; 2,
Two cytotoxic triterpenoids, epi-oleanolic acid and part offlowering stem; 3, fruit.
oxo-oleanolic acid, have been isolated from the
aerial parts of P. pumila (L.) A. Gray in Korea. scatter clouds of pollen. The small mature fruits
They exhibited cytotoxicity against cultured hu- are actively ejected by the reflexing staminodes.
man tumour cell lines. Pilea is a large genus of about 250 species and oc-
Botany A small monoecious annual or short- curs in warmer regions throughout the world, ex-
lived perennial herb up to 30 cm tall, but usually cept Australia and New Zealand. The Asiatic
smaller, often much-branched and forming mats; species are poorly known and in need ofa revision.
stems drooping or ascending when older, juicy, Pilea belongs to the tribe Lecantheae, together
usually glabrous; often short side-shoots present with e.g. Elatostema.
in leaf axils. Leaves opposite, but the leaves of a Ecology P. microphylla occurs on old walls,
pair ofvery unequal size, simple and generally en- dams, roads and pathways, in Java up to 1400 m
tire, obovate to elliptical or ovate, 1-15 mm x altitude.
0.5-4 mm, rounded to cuneate at base, rounded to Management Propagation of P. microphylla by
obtuse at apex, glabrous, with prominent cys- stem cuttings is easy; they root easily in a sandy
toliths above, indistinctly veined; petiole 0.5-6 propagation mixture in a closed case.
mm long; stipules minute, caducous. Inflorescence Genetic resources P. microphylla is extremely
an axillary small cymose cluster 1-4 mm long, ses- widely spread and is still expanding its area of
sile or pedunculate, usually with a few male and distribution. In many regions it is even considered
5-10 female flowers. Flowers unisexual, small, 3- a serious weed. The genetic variability is not yet
merous, subsessile; male flowers with subequal well understood, but seems to be large, especially
perianth segments and 3 stamens; female flowers in the original area of distribution in the New
with unequal perianth segments and superior, 1- World tropics.
celled ovary. Fruit an ovoid achene 0.5-1 mm Prospects Research on the pharmacological
long, smooth, brown. properties ofP. microphylla seems worthwhile be-
When shaken or moistened, plants explosively cause it is used in traditional medicine in areas
which are far apart. Moreover, it is easy to propa- denine. Extracts of P. longifolia showed antifun-
gate and grow, which could be advantageous for gal activity against various plant pathogenic fun-
developing it into a medicinal plant to be cultivat- gi, and were also found to be toxic to mosquito lar-
ed under good management practices. vae.
Literature 261,334, 646, 760. Clerodane-type diterpenes exhibiting broad cyto-
Other selected sources 62, 121,331,522. toxicity against a panel of human cancer cell lines
R.H.M.J. Lemmens were purified from an ethyl-acetate-soluble ex-
tract of stem bark of the Philippine P. barnesii
Merr.
Polyalthia Blume The compound pyridine-N-oxide-2-thiolate (as
zinc or copper complexes) has been isolated from
Fl. Javae Anonac: 68 (1830). roots of P. nemoralis Aug.DC., a species of Viet-
ANNONACEAE nam and southern China. This compound showed
x =9;P. longifolia, P. suberosa: 2n = 18 strong antimalarial, antimycotic and antiseptic
Origin and geographic distribution Poly- activities.
althia comprises approximately 100 species and In tests in India the alcoholic extract of P. cera-
occurs in the tropics of Africa (about 6 species), soides stem bark significantly prevented cold im-
Madagascar (18 species) Asia and Australia. mobilization stress-induced changes in lipid per-
South-East Asia is particularly rich in species. oxidation, ascorbic acid content in both brain and
Polyalthia is found throughout the Malesian re- liver and vitamin E levels in the serum, sug-
gion. gesting it possesses antistress activity. The ben-
Uses In the Malesian region roots of Polyalthia zopyran derivative polyalthidin has been isolated
are used in a decoction after childbirth and as an from the stem bark of P. cerasoides; this com-
abortifacient, leaves are applied externally to pound showed potent biological activity as an in-
treat skin diseases, and the bark is used as a hibitor of the mammalian mitochondrial respira-
febrifuge. Several other non-Malesian species are tory chain.
used in traditional medicine in Thailand: a decoc- A labdane type diterpene with activity against the
tion of P. cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. roots to treat promastigote Leishmania donovani has been iso-
fever and anaemia, and as a contraceptive for lated from the stem bark of P. macropoda King
women and tonic for men, the roots or stems of P. from Malaysia.
debilis (Pierre) Finet & Gagnep. against abdomi- In tests in Indonesia a chloroform extract ofP. la-
nal pain, and a root decoction ofP. evecta (Pierre) teriflora (Blume) King leaves showed distinct in-
Finet & Gagnep. to treat abdominal pain and as a secticidal activity on Spodoptera litura; terpene
galactagogue. compounds have been suggested as active com-
The generally tough and flexible wood of Polyal- pounds.
thia is used for house building, interior trim, fur- Botany Erect or sometimes scandent shrubs to
niture, implements, packing cases, boxes, veneer fairly large trees. Leaves distichously alternate,
and plywood. It is also suitable as firewood. The fi- simple and entire, glabrous or with simple hairs,
brous bark of several Polyalthia species is used to pinnately veined, shortly petiolate; stipules ab-
make rope. P. longifolia is planted as an ornamen- sent. Inflorescence an axillary, extra-axillary or
tal. leaf-opposed fascicle or umbelliform raceme, flow-
Properties The leaves and branches of P. ers often solitary, often cauliflorous or ramiflor-
suberosa contain suberosol, a C-31 lanostane-type ous. Flowers bisexual, 3-merous; sepals free or
triterpene, which inhibits the growth of human connate at base, valvate; petals 6(-8), free, often
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in vitro. An azaan- quite large and showy, equal or unequal, spread-
thracene alkaloid has also been isolated from the ing, sometimes erect or cohering, leathery to
stem ofP. suberosa. The alkaloids 7,7'-bisdehydro- fleshy; stamens usually numerous, cuneate, with
O-methylisopiline, 7-dehydronornuciferine, 7'-de- orbicular or rhomboid connective concealing the
hydro-O-metylisopiline and urabaine have been anther cells; carpels 3 to numerous, free, style ab-
isolated from P. bullata stem bark. sent, stigma oblong, capitate or irregularly
Clerodane-type diterpenes with cytotoxicity shaped. Fruit consisting offew to many, stalked or
against human tumour cell lines have been isolat- subsessile monocarps, fleshy, 1-5-seeded. Seeds
ed from P. longifolia stem bark. The stem bark al- with a longitudinal groove. Seedling with epigeal
so afforded the cytotoxic aporphine alkaloid lirio- or hypogeal germination; cotyledons emergent
POLYALTHIA 333
and leafy or not emergent; hypocotyl elongated or Selection of species

not.
Early growth is reputed to be slow, becoming more Polyalthia bullata King
rapid afterwards. Polyalthia develops according to Mat. fl. Malay Penins. 4: 313 (1893); Ann. Roy.
Roux's architectural tree model, characterized by Bot. Gard. Cale. 4: 79,pi. I l l (1893).
a monopodial orthotropic trunk with plagiotropic Vernacular names Malaysia: pokok peleh an-
branches inserted continuously and with distic- gin, tongkat ali (Peninsular). Thailand: lang kong
hous leaf arrangement, flowering not influencing (Trang).
the architecture. Flowering can occur twice a year Distribution Southern Thailand and Peninsu-
and flowers appear just before the new leaves. In lar Malaysia.
general, Annonaceae fruits are eaten and dis- Uses The vernacular names in Malaysia suggest
persed by birds, mainly pigeons; fruits ofP. longi- that P. bullata is used there to treat liver diseases
folia are eaten and dispersed by bats. and as a tonic.
Polyalthia is badly in need of revision. Some Observations A shrub up to 3 m tall, young
Polyalthia species from Africa have been placed in twigs covered with golden hairs; leaves lanceolate
the separate genus Greenwayodendron, but this is or oblong-lanceolate, 28-37 cm x 3-12 cm, deeply
still much disputed. cordate and auricled at base, papery or thinly
Ecology Polyalthia occurs scattered as an un- leathery, bullate, petiole 3-5 mm long, stout; flow-
derstorey tree or shrub, or as a main canopy tree ers solitary or 2-3 together opposite the leaves,
in primary or secondary lowland forest, some- petals linear, c. 2.5 cm long; monocarps subglo-
times in lower montane forest, up to 1200(-1800) bose, c. 1 cm in diameter, stalk c. 0.5 cm long, 2-
m altitude. It is found in evergreen and monsoon seeded. P. bullata occurs in lowland forest.
forest, both on well-drained hills and poorly Selected sources 121,177, 860.
drained level sites. Individual species may occur
as common elements of peat-swamp forest, occa- P o l y a l t h i a cauliflora Hook.f. &
sionally also in 'kerangas'. Thomson
Management Polyalthia can be propagated by Fl. ind. 1: 138 (1855).
seed, but germination is unpredictable. Seeds of Synonyms Polyalthia beccarii King (1893).
several species showed 10-35% germination in Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: buah larak mer-
1-10 months in experiments in Peninsular Ma- ah, pokok ruseh (Peninsular), balet (Sarawak).
laysia. P. cauliflora is highly vulnerable in the Thailand: champaa khom (Phangnga).
nursery, as the cotyledons and epicotyl are easily Distribution Southern Thailand, Peninsular
trapped in the testa and then rot. Sufficient wa- Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo.
tering and manual removal of the testa may re- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia pounded leaves are
solve the problem. In natural forest the regenera- applied as a poultice to treat skin diseases. In
tion ofPolyalthia is generally profuse. Sarawak, boiled roots are taken orally as an aid for
Genetic resources Some Polyalthia species birth control. The wood is used in house building.
have a rather narrow geographical distribution Observations A shrub or small tree, twigs soon
and face the risk of genetic erosion by deforesta- glabrous; leaves broadly elliptical to elliptical-
tion. lanceolate, 9-20 cm x 4-8 cm, acute or slightly
Prospects The numerous pharmacological tests rounded at base, thinly leathery, petiole 5-7 mm
showed many interesting properties of Polyalthia long; flowers mostly cauliflorous or ramiflorous,
extracts, e.g. anti-HIV, antitumour, antifungal, petals up to 5.5 cm long, cream-coloured to pink-
antimalarial, antistress, antileishmanial and in- ish-brown; monocarps ovoid to subglobose, c. 1 cm
secticidal activities. This certainly warrants more in diameter, stalk 2-2.5 cm long, 1-2-seeded. P.
research, which may result in the development of cauliflora occurs in lowland forest.
modern drugs derived from these interesting med- Selected sources 121,241,860.
icinal plants. A taxonomie study of Asiatic
Polyalthia is needed. Polyalthia hypoleuca Hook.f.&
Literature 173,581,714, 785,856, 883, 1048. Thomson
Fl. Brit. India 1:63 (1872).
Vernacular names Indonesia: tepis (Sumatra),
banet, usai (Bangka). Malaysia: akar larak hutan,
melilin (Peninsular), selaut (Iban, Sabah). Thai-
land: sang yuu khaao (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Uses In India the bark is used as a febrifuge.
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular The tough and flexible wood is used for making
Malaysia, Sumatra, Bangka and Borneo. barrels. P. longifolia is cultivated as an ornamen-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the tal, roadside and shade tree.
roots is given as a protective medicine after child- Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
birth. The wood is used for implements, bows, to 25 m tall, with a straight bole and dense crown,
oars, crates and toys. The fibrous bark is used for twigs soon glabrous; leaves ovate-oblong to nar-
binding, also under water. rowly lanceolate, 11-22 cm x 2-4.5(-6) cm, cu-
Observations A small to medium-sized tree up neate to rounded at base, wavy at margins, mem-
to 35 m tall with bole diameter up to 50 cm, twigs branous, petiole 4-8 mm long; flowers in axils of
soon glabrous; leaves elliptical to narrowly ellipti- leaves or fallen leaves, usually numerous, petals
cal, 6-12.5 cm x 2-3.5 cm, acute or rounded at narrowly lanceolate, up to 1.2 cm long, greenish-
base, leathery, petiole 3-7 mm long; flowers in ax- yellow; monocarps subglobose to ovoid, 2-2.5 cm
ils of leaves or fallen leaves, petals linear, up to long, stalk 8-12 mm long, 1-seeded.
1.2 cm long, pale yellow; monocarps ellipsoid, 1-2 Selected sources 62, 121, 623, 782, 860, 883,
cm long, stalk 2-5 mm long, 1-seeded. P. hypoleu- 1055.
ca occurs in lowland forest, also in peat-swamp
forest, up to 600 m altitude. Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thwaites
Selected sources 121,334, 795,860, 883,990. Enum. pi. zeyl. 5: 398 (1864).
Vernacular names Philippines: duhat-mats-
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites ing, baling-manok (Tagalog), munat (Iloko). Thai-
Enum. pi. zeyl. 5:398 (1864). land: klueng klom (Ratchaburi), ching klom
Distribution Native to southern India and Sri (peninsular), phak cham (northern). Vietnam:
Lanka; planted in South-East Asia, e.g. in Penin- qu[aaf]n d[aaf]u v[or] s[oos]p.
sular Malaysia and Java. Distribution Eastern and southern India, Sri
Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern
China (Hainan), Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia
and the Philippines.
Uses In the Philippines a decoction of fresh roots
is used as an abortifacient. The fruits are edible.
Observations A shrub up to 4 m tall, twigs
densely fulvous pubescent when young, becoming
glabrescent; leaves oblong to narrowly obovate or
oblong-lanceolate, 2-11 cm x 1-3.5 cm, rounded or
truncate and asymmetrical at base, membranous,
petiole 1-4 mm long; flowers solitary, usually ex-
tra-axillary, sometimes leaf-opposed, petals ellip-
tical to oblong, up to 0.6 cm long, yellowish-green,
mostly suffused with purple; monocarps subglo-
bose, c. 5 mm in diameter, blackish when ripe,
stalk up to 1 cm long, 1-2-seeded. P. suberosa oc-
curs in lowland forest and thickets.
Selected sources 173,545, 760, 782, 860, 937.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Pothos s c a n d e n s L.
Sp. pi. 2: 968 (1753).

ARACEAE
2re = 24
Synonyms Pothos zollingerianus Schott (1855),
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites - 1, flower- Pothos hermaphroditus (Blanco) Merr. (1918).
ing branch; 2, centre offlower; 3,fruiting branch. Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: klabangan (Ja-
POTHOS 335
vanese), tapanawa kecil (Ambon). Malaysia: se-

ginting,juloh-juloh (Peninsular). Philippines: apis
(Tagalog), hipan, oro-ola (Bikol). Burma (Myan-
mar): wai mai (Shan). Laos: cha-kep, ma nok hon.
Thailand: cha khep (central), waai tamoi (Uttara-
dit), kho kiu (Surat Thani, Yala). Vietnam: r[as]y
leo.
Origin and geographic distribution P. scan-
dens has an extremely large area of distribution:
Madagascar, the Comores, the Seychelles, Nepal,
India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma (Myanmar),
Indo-China, southern China (Yunnan), Thailand,
and the whole Malesian region except New
Guinea.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves of P.
scandens are applied externally to the abdomen of
children to expel worms, and an infusion is used
as a bath to treat convulsions. A powder of the
leaves is applied to smallpox, and the steam from
the heated stem, mixed with camphor, is inhaled
against asthma. P. scandens is used in traditional
medicine in Thailand as a blood coagulant, mainly
to treat wounds, and as an antipyretic; fruits and
leaves are applied as a compress. In Vietnam
stems and leaves are used to treat fractures,
bruises, swellings, ecchymosis and rheumatism.
The lignified, tough central cylinder of the stem is
often used for binding and basket-work. Pothos scandens L. - 1,part of sterile shoot; 2, part
Several other, non-Malesian species including P. offertile stem with leaf and inflorescences; 3, inflo-
chinensis (Raf.) Merr., P. kerrii Buchet ex P.C. rescence.
Boyce, P. pilulifer Buchet ex P.C. Boyce and P.
repens (Lour.) Druce are used for similar purposes with 6 tepals, 6 stamens, and a superior, 3-celled
in Indo-China, southern China and Thailand, and ovary, stigma sessile, punctiform. Fruit an ob-
additionally to treat epilepsy, infantile paralysis, clavate berry 1-1.5 cm long, 1-5 per infructes-
cough, indigestion and urinary problems. cence, ripening to deep scarlet, 1-3-seeded. Seeds
Properties Medicinal preparations from P. ellipsoid to compressed-globose, 3-6 mm in diame-
scandens are bitter and acrid. An ethanol-water ter, with smooth testa, lacking albumen.
(1:1) extract exhibited antispasmodic activity On germination, P. scandens produces a thread-
against histamine. like shoot with congested leaves. This shoot is
Botany A root-climbing liana up to 6 m long; shade-seeking and able to extend over a consider-
stem weakly angled or terete, up to 1cm in diame- able distance along the forest floor. When a suit-
ter. Leaves distichously alternate, simple and enable vertical surface is encountered, the shoot at-
tire, ovate to elliptical or lanceolate, 3-14 cm x taches itself to the substrate by means of short
2-10 cm, rounded to cuneate at base, attenuate- clasping roots, and starts climbing. By the time
mucronate at apex, entire, with 2 intramarginal the plant has reached 2-3 m height plagiotropic
veins per side and numerous parallel small veins; side branches develop to form extensive curtains
petiole 2-14 cm long, broadly winged, truncate, of foliage. Flowering shoots arise from the leaf ax-
rounded or auriculate at apex; stipules absent. In- ils ofthese side branches.
florescence a solitary spadix in leaf axil, with Pothos comprises approximately 70 species and is
spathe at base; spadix with stipe sharply bent at distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions
anthesis, globose to ovoid, 4-10 mm in diameter, from Madagascar to southern China, eastern Aus-
yellowish-green to dirty white; spathe ovate, 4-8 tralia and western Oceania. The greatest diversity
mm long, margins variously inrolled, greenish to is found in Malesia, particularly in Borneo. Pothos
maroon. Flowers bisexual, 1-2 mm in diameter, belongs in the tribe Potheae together with 2 mono-
specific genera, Pedicellarum and Pothoidium, bloody vomiting, whereas the roots macerated in
from the Malesian region. P. scandens is highly water are used in cases of snakebite. In Indo-Chi-
variable, but unmistakable with its small inflores- na a decoction of the roots has been used to treat
cences on bent stalks. bronchitis in a mixture with coconut and henna
Ecology P. scandens grows on trees and rocks (Lawsonia inermis L.). The wood is considered
in primary and secondary, wet to dry forests in tonic and depurative in a herbal tea drunk after
the lowland and mountains up to 2100 m altitude. childbirth. Root-shavings have been recorded as
Sometimes it is found in hedges, scrub vegetation one of the ingredients of a complex dart poison in
and plantations, or on sea cliffs. Malaysia.
Management The stems and leaves of P. scan- In Thailand powdered roots or stems of P. fra-
dens are harvested from the wild and dried in the grans Geddes, which occurs in Indo-China, Thai-
sun. land and the Andaman Islands, are used internal-
Genetic resources P. scandens is very widely as a tonic. The roots of P. sessiliflora Pitard,
spread in widely divergent habitats and not in which is restricted to Indo-China and Thailand,
danger ofgenetic erosion. are crushed in water and applied to snakebites.
Prospects Although P. scandens is widely used Properties The anthraquinones rubiadin and
in traditional medicine, there is no information on rubiadin-1-methyl ether have been isolated from
its phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- methanol extracts ofP. tetrandra and P. sessiliflo-
ties. Research seems worthwhile in view of its ra roots. These exhibited weak antimalarial activ-
similar applications in widely divergent regions, ity against Plasmodium falciparum.
and is needed to confirm the reputed activities. Botany A shrub or small tree up to 7 m tall;
Literature 106,121, 971. young branches with 2 prominent longitudinal
Other selected sources 88,334,611. ridges. Leaves decussately opposite on vertical
Nguyen Van Dzu branches, distichously opposite on horizontal
P r i s m a t o m e r i s t e t r a n d r a ( R o x b . ) K.
Schumann
Engl. &Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 4: 138 (1891).

RUBIACEAE
2n = unknown
Synonyms Prismatomeris malayana Ridley
(1920), Prismatomeris albidiflora auct. non
Thwaites.
Vernacular names Indonesia: mentulang
(Bangka). Malaysia: sepedeh, mundess, susun ke-
lapa hutan (Peninsular). Philippines: hagpo (Iba-
nag). Cambodia: romdenh men, romdenh meas.
Thailand: kraduk kai (peninsular), to kraduk
(Loei), son pa (Nakhon Ratchasima). Vietnam:
mu[oof]i, l[aw]ng trang.
Origin and geographic distribution P. te-
trandra occurs in north-eastern India, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh, Burma (Myanmar), southern Laos,
Vietnam, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia, Singapore, Anambas Islands (Indone-
sia) and the Philippines (Luzon).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia leaves ofP. tetran-
dra have been applied as a poultice to fresh
wounds. In Thailand the roots or stem, mixed
with Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. and Barleria
strigosa Willd. roots and whole plants of Elephan- Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) K. Schumann
topus scaber L., are used in a decoction to treat 1, flowering branch; 2, fruiting branch.
PSEUDERANTHEMUM 337
branches, simple and entire, elliptical or narrowly Prospects Although several medicinal applica-
elliptical to ovate or narrowly ovate, 3-23 cm x tions have been indicated for P. tetrandra, there is
1-8 cm, base truncate, apex acute to acuminate, little information available on its phytochemistry
papery to leathery, pinnately veined; petiole 2-25 and pharmacological properties. Until now, its
mm long; stipules interpetiolar, narrowly triangu- prospects as a medicinal plant of importance are
lar, up to 7.5 mm long, caducous or persistent. In- not promising.
florescence a terminal or axillary cyme, up to 20- Literature 121,434, 549.
flowered. Flowers bisexual, (4-)5(-6)-merous, het- Other selected sources 168, 174, 732.
erodistylous, strongly scented; pedicel up to 3.5 Wongsatit Chuakul,
cm long; calyx tubular, up to 2.5 mm long, usually Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon
denticulate; corolla hypocrateriform, tube up to 3 & Orawan Ruangsomboon
cm long, lobes up to 2.5 cm long, spreading, white;
stamens inserted above the middle of the corolla
tube; disk annular; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style P s e u d e r a n t h e m u m Radlk.
filiform, stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a subglobose drupe
7-11 mm in diameter, blackish-purple to blackish- Sitzungsber. Math.-Phys. Cl. Konigl. Bayer.
blue, 1-seeded. Seed almost spherical, up to 9 mm Akad. Wiss. München 13:282 (1883).
in diameter, with dark reddish-brown testa; en- ACANTHACEAE
dosperm corneous. x = 21
The seeds may be dispersed by birds such as fruit- Origin and geographic distribution Pseude-
pigeons, and perhaps also by small mammals like ranthemum comprises about 100 species and is
rodents and monkeys. pantropical. Probably a few dozens of species oc-
Prismatomeris comprises 15 species and is distrib- cur in South-East Asia. Several species are widely
uted in the same region as indicated for P. tetran- planted as an ornamental.
dra, plus Sumatra, western Java, Borneo and the Uses Some applications ofPseuderanthemum in
Philippines. It is classified in the tribe Morindeae, traditional medicine in South-East Asia have been
together with e.g. Morinda and Rennellia; it recorded; it is used externally to treat wounds, ul-
seems closely related to the latter genus. How- cers, abscesses, aphthae and as a diuretic, and in-
ever, some authors place it in a separate tribe ternally after childbirth.
Prismatomerideae. Unidentified Pseuderanthemum plants are used
P. tetrandra forms a very variable complex, partic- in the Solomon Islands to treat boils, diarrhoea
ularly varying in corolla and fruit size. Two sub- and fever. In Africa several Pseuderanthemum
species are distinguished: subsp. tetrandra and species are used in traditional medicine, e.g. to
subsp. malayana (Ridley) J.T. Johansson. The treat intestinal complaints and as a tonic. Some
first subspecies occurs from north-eastern India, Pseuderanthemum species are popular garden
Bangladesh and northern Burma (Myanmar) to plants, also in South-East Asia, especially ap-
northern Vietnam, southern China, Thailand and preciated for their ornamental foliage, but also for
Luzon (the Philippines), the second one from Sri their flowers, e.g. P. carruthersii (Seem.) Guill.
Lanka (extinct?) and southern Burma (Myanmar) (synonym: P. atropurpureum Radlk.) and P. reti-
to southern Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular culatum Radlk., which originate from Polynesia.
Malaysia, Singapore and Anambas Island. The leaves of some Pseuderanthemum species are
Ecology Subsp. tetrandra occurs mainly in eaten as a vegetable, e.g. P. racemosum (Roxb.)
highland regions up to 1800 m altitude, and has Radlk. in the Moluccas.
been collected in primary and secondary, damp Properties In tests in India an aqueous leaf ex-
and dry, evergreen and deciduous forests, and oc- tract of P. bicolor, when sprayed or rubbed onto
casionally in savanna woodland. Subsp. malayana leaves of several field crop plants, provoked the
occurs mainly in the lowland, up to 500 m alti- synthesis of a virus inhibitory agent associated
tude, but sometimes in montane forest up to 1700 with the induction of systemic resistance against
m altitude, in humid evergreen forest as well as virus infection. Similar activities have been
dry forest, scrub vegetation, on dunes, also on recorded for P. carruthersii.
shale and limestone. Botany Small to medium-sized shrubs or peren-
Genetic resources P. tetrandra is widely dis- nial herbs. Leaves opposite, simple, with cys-
tributed in a wide range of habitats and thus not toliths; petioles connected by transverse ridges;
endangered. stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal or axil-
lary panicle, raceme or cyme; bracts small. Flow- and ulcers. P. bicolor is also planted as an orna-
ers bisexual, 5-merous; calyx deeply partite; corol- mental.
la with narrow tube, shortly widened apically, Observations A small shrub up to 110 cm tall;
lobes usually slightly unequal, 2 posterior ones leaves ovate-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 5-18 cm
mostly connate higher up and smaller, imbricate x 1.5-7 cm, contracted into the petiole at base,
in bud, afterwards spreading; stamens 2, inserted rather long-acuminate at apex; flowers all or
near top of corolla tube, slightly exserted, stamin- mainly in axillary (l-)3-flowered cymes, corolla
odes 2, shortly filiform; ovary superior, 2-celled, with 3.5-4 cm long tube and 1.5-2 cm long lobes,
style filiform, stigma small, 2-lobed. Fruit a white, red-dotted; fruit 2.5-3 cm long. P. bicolor is
stalked, clavate capsule constricted between the often common in thickets at low altitudes, e.g. in
seeds, few-seeded. Seeds compressed. the Philippines.
Pseuderanthemum is classified in the Justicieae, a Selected sources 1, 62, 760.
large, wide-ranging and taxonomically difficult
tribe. Like many other genera in this tribe, the Pseuderanthemum diversifolium
taxonomy of Pseuderanthemum has not yet been (Blume) Radlk.
comprehensively studied. Sitzungsber. Math.-Phys. Cl. Königl. Bayer.
Ecology Most Pseuderanthemum species native Akad. Wiss. München 13:282 (1883).
to South-East Asia occur in lowland forest, some- Synonyms Pseuderanthemum zollingerianum
times in lower montane forest, but P. bicolor and (Nees) Bremek.
P. diversifolium are often found in disturbed local- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: posor (Java-
ities such as thickets and open secondary forest. nese).
Management Pseuderanthemum can be propa- Distribution Java.
gated by softwood cuttings. It can best be grown in Uses The leaves are used externally to treat dy-
a coarse, fertile, well-drained but moisture reten- suria and abscesses.
tive loam-based soil mix under partial shade.
Genetic resources The Pseuderanthemum
species treated here do not seem to be threatened
by genetic erosion because they are locally com-
mon, often also in anthropogenic habitats, and al-
so planted.
Prospects Research on the pharmacological
properties ofPseuderanthemum is desirable, espe-
cially considering the external applications to
treat wounds etc., which may relate to antimicro-
bial activities. The antiviral properties of Pseude-
ranthemum extracts are remarkable and may of-
fer possibilities for protection of important crops
against viral diseases.
Pseuderanthemum bicolor (Schrank)

Radlk.
Sitzungsber. Math.-Phys. Cl. Konigl. Bayer.
Akad. Wiss. München 13:286 (1883).
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: limang-sugat
(Tagalog), maladosdos (Bisaya), kublit (Bikol).
Distribution Native to eastern Malesia
(throughout the Philippines), cultivated elsewhere
in South-East Asia.
Uses In the Philippines a decoction of roots, Pseuderanthemum diversifolium (Blume) Radlk.
stems and leaves is used to treat aphthae, wounds flowering and fruiting branch.
PTERISANTHES 339
Observations A small shrub up to 150 cm tall; tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple or digitately
leaves ovate to lanceolate, 6-30 cm x 1-12 cm, con- 3(-5)-foliolate, often toothed, petiolate. Inflores-
tracted into the petiole at base, usually rather cence leaf-opposed, consisting of a irregularly
long-acuminate at apex; flowers in a panicle or lobed, flattened and broadened, fleshy rachis, at
raceme, terminal or in the higher leaf axils, corol- first green, later becoming reddish, with many
la with 3-3.5 cm long tube and 1-1.5 cm long sessile, immersed flowers on both sides and some-
lobes, pale lilac, rarely white, anterior lobe purple- times with long-pedicelled sterile flowers along
dotted. P. diversifolium occurs in brushwood, vil- the margins, with tendrils, pendulous and long-
lage-groves and open forest, in moderately shaded peduncled. Flowers small, usually bisexual, 4(-5)-
localities, up to 1000 m altitude. merous; calyx slightly lobed; petals free, usually
Selected sources 62, 334. broadly ovate; stamens opposite petals; ovary at
the base immersed, 2-celled, style short, conical,
P s e u d e r a n t h e m u m graciliflorum stigma small, capitate. Fruit a l-3(-4)-seeded
(Nees) Ridley berry, sessile on the rachis. Seeds with convex
Fl. Malay Penins. 2:591 (1923). back and keeled ventral side, furrowed on both
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kemoja hutan, flat sides.
pokok tampang puteri, gurah bukit (Peninsular). The broadly flattened and fleshy inflorescences
Thailand: yaai plang (Surat Thani), rong mai are very characteristic, and distinguish Pterisan-
(peninsular, Surat Thani). Vietnam: xu[aa]n hoa thes from all other Vitaceae.
m[ar]nh. Ecology Pterisanthes occurs in forests, often in
Distribution Southern Vietnam, southern forest edges, and thickets, up to 1300 m altitude.
Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Genetic resources There is no reason to con-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the sider the Pterisanthes species treated here endan-
roots is given after childbirth as a protective medi- gered or liable to genetic erosion.
cine and tonic. P. graciliflorum is also planted as Prospects It seems unlikely that Pterisanthes
an ornamental. will become more important in traditional medi-
Observations A small to medium-sized shrub cine in the future, unless pharmacological re-
up to 200 cm tall; leaves ovate-lanceolate to lance- search were to reveal important pharmacological
olate, 14-15 cm x 2.5-5 cm, contracted into the properties.
petiole at base, acuminate at apex; flowers in a Literature 121.
dense spike, terminal or in the higher leaf axils,
corolla with 3.5-4 cm long tube and c. 2.5 cm long
lobes, lilac-purple, rarely white, anterior lobe with Selection of species
a white spot often red-dotted; fruit c. 2.5 cm long.
P. graciliflorum is common in lowland forest, and Pterisanthes cissoides Blume
is also cultivated in gardens. Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 193 (1825).
Selected sources 121,789. Synonyms Vitis cissoides (Blume) Backer
R.H.M.J. Lemmens (1911).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar gamat (Pe-
ninsular).
Pterisanthes Blume Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore,
Sumatra, Java and Borneo.
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 192 (1825). Uses In Peninsular Malaysia roots are rubbed
VlTACEAE upon the legs to treat swellings.
x =unknown Observations A liana up to 25 m long; leaves
Origin and geographic distribution Pteri- 3(-5)-foliolate, leaflets oblong or oblong-obovate,
santhes comprises about 12 species and occurs in 8-17 cm x 3-8 cm, arachnoid-hairy below when
western Malesia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, young but glabrescent, petiole 1.5-6 cm long; in-
Java, Borneo and the southern Philippines). Bor- florescence 10-18 cm x 1.5-3 cm (excluding pedun-
neo is the centre of diversity with about 10 cle); fruit obovoid. P. cissoides occurs in forest
species. margins, secondary forest and thickets, up to 1200
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia Pterisanthes roots m altitude.
are applied externally to swellings. Selected sources 62, 121,530, 789.
Botany Climbing shrubs or slender lianas, with
P t e r i s a n t h e s r u f u l a (Miq.) P l a n c h o n
A.DC. &C D C , Monogr. phan. 5(2):419 (1887).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar sebengkak,
lakum hutan (Peninsular).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra
and Borneo.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia roots are rubbed
upon swellings.
Observations A liana, stems tomentose when
young; leaves 3-foliolate, leaflets oblong to lanceo-
late-obovate, 12.5-17.5 cm x 3-6.5 cm, densely red
hairy below, petiole c. 6 cm long; inflorescence c. 6
cm x 1.5 cm (excluding peduncle). P. rufula occurs
in forest edges.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Pterocaulon redolens (Willd.) Fern.-

Vill.
Nov. app.: 116 (1880).
COMPOSITAE
2ra= unknown
Synonyms Conyza redolens Willd. (1803), Mo-
nenteles spicatus Labill. (1825), Pterocaulon cylin-
drostachyum C.B. Clarke (1878).
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: sambong-gala
(Tagalog), subusob (Ilokano). Vietnam: b[oo]ng Pterocaulon redolens (Willd.) Fern.-Vill. - 1, upper
b[oos]ng n[us]oc,b[oj] x[is]t n[uw][ows]c. part of flowering plant; 2, flower head; 3, marginal
Origin and geographic distribution P. re- flower; 4, disk flower; 5, fruit.
dolens occurs in eastern India, Burma (Myanmar),
Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, the Philip- cm tall; stems conspicuously winged, variably
pines, New Guinea, Australia and New Caledonia. grey-hairy. Leaves alternate, simple, oblanceo-
Uses In the Philippines a decoction of the leaves late, (2-)3-5(-7) cm x 0.7-2 cm, base cuneate, apex
ofP. redolens is used for stimulant baths. acute or obtuse, denticulate to almost entire,
P. sphacelatum (Labill.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex F. v. densely woolly above, thinly so below; petiole with
Mueller from central Java, the Lesser Sunda Is- decurrent wings; stipules absent. Inflorescence
lands, New Guinea, Australia and New Caledonia composed of small heads c. 4 mm long, forming
is used in Australian Aboriginal folk medicine for terminal spike-like clusters 2-5 cm x 0.8-1 cm;
the treatment ofcolds. outer involucral bracts oblong, shortly apiculate,
Properties In a general screening experiment densely woolly, inner ones much longer, glabrous,
for antiviral activity, the ethanol extract of above- falling off together with the flowers. Flowers all
ground parts of P. sphacelatum showed a potent tubular; marginal flowers female, numerous, 2-3
inhibition ofpoliovirus type 1at a concentration of mm long, with slender corolla, entire or very shal-
52 ug/ml. Further studies revealed the flavonol lowly toothed; disk flower bisexual, solitary, corol-
chrysosplenol C to be the active compound. This la cylindrical, 5-lobed, lobes papilose outside; sta-
compound is a 4'-hydroxy-3-methoxyflavone, one mens 5, anthers fused; ovary inferior, 1-celled,
of a group of compounds known to be potent and style with 2 filiform arms, exserted in female flow-
specific inhibitors of picorniviral replication. The ers. Fruit an oblong achene c. 1 mm long, obscure-
poliovirus belongs to the picornivirusses, responsi- ly angular, glabrous to pubescent; pappus hairs
ble for respiratory and central nervous system in- thin, c. 2 mm long, dentate.
fections in humans. Pterocaulon comprises 18 species and has a dis-
Botany A perennial, aromatic herb up to 100 junct distribution, 12 species occurring in the
PYRAMIDANTHE 341
Americas and 6 in South-East Asia, Australia and lobed, lower lip 3-lobed, pubescent, white with a
New Caledonia. pale patch on lower lip; stamens 2, inserted in the
Ecology P. redolens occurs in open localities, middle of the funnel-shaped part of the corolla
e.g. wasteland, at low to medium altitudes. tube; ovary superior, 2-celled, style usually
Genetic resources P. redolens is relatively glabrous. Fruit a clavate capsule 11.5-16 mm
widespread and commonly encountered in dis- long, 4-seeded. Seeds lenticular, rugulose tubercu-
turbed habitats, and thus is not threatened by ge- late.
netic erosion. P. kunthiana can be found flowering throughout
Prospects There is no information on the phar- the year.
macological properties of P. redolens. The ob- Ptyssiglottis comprises 33 species and is distrib-
served antiviral activity ofP. sphacelatum against uted in tropical Asia from Sri Lanka, through In-
poliovirus 1 supports further research on this do-China and Thailand, to Malesia (not recorded
species and P. redolens, and these species may be for the Lesser Sunda Islands and Sulawesi). P.
a possible template in the development of future kunthiana has the largest area of distribution of
phytomedicines. all Ptyssiglottis species; most species are confined
Literature 124, 760,834, 835. to small areas, with 17 species endemic to Borneo.
Other selected sources 112, 264. Ptyssiglottis is classified into the subtribe Iso-
A.M. Aguinaldo glossinae within the tribe Justicieae, and is most
closely related to Isoglossa. It is characterized by
the strictly dichotomously branching inflores-
Ptyssiglottis kunthiana (Nées) B. cence.
Hansen Ecology P. kunthiana is found in evergreen for-
est, often on limestone, up to 200 m altitude,
Nord. Journ. Bot. 9: 214 (1989). rarely higher. It is very common in southern
ACANTHACEAE peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia,
In =unknown but is more scattered elsewhere.
Synonyms Polytrema vulgare C.B. Clarke Genetic resources The Ptyssiglottis species
(1908),Polytremajavanicum Bremek. (1948). are restricted to lowland forest, which is under
Vernacular names Malaysia: daun lipah, daun high pressure, and many of them have very re-
sekeras akar, peparu hitam (Peninsular). Thai- stricted areas of distribution. This makes them
land: phre (Malay, Narathiwat). Vietnam: thu[oos] easily liable to genetic impoverishment or even ex-
d[aas]u. tinction. P. kunthiana is the least vulnerable
Origin and geographic distribution P. kun- species because it is the most widespread and lo-
thiana occurs in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Penin- cally common.
sular Malaysia, Sumatra, western Java (rare) and Prospects The single report from Peninsular
the Philippines. Malaysia on uses as a poultice does not allow pre-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves have dictions on future importance as a medicinal
been used externally as a poultice to treat pain in plant. P. kunthiana will not attract much interest
the region of the heart, abdominal complaints and as long as tests on pharmacological properties are
ulcers. not done.
Botany A herb up to 40 cm tall; stem occasion- Literature 121, 311.
ally prostrate, puberulous especially on 2 opposite Other selected sources 62.
lines, but glabrescent. Leaves opposite, equal to R.H.M.J. Lemmens
unequal within each pair, simple and entire, ellip-
tical-lanceolate, (0.6-)1.5-10 cm x (0.2-)l-4 cm,
pubescent on veins below, with linear cystoliths; P y r a m i d a n t h e p r i s m a t i c a (Hook.f. &
petiole 2-13 mm long; stipules absent. Inflores- T h o m s o n ) J. Sinclair
cence an axillary, compound, strongly reduced
dichasium, 1-2 cm x 1-2 cm, with 2 contracted Gard. Bull. Sing. 14:362 (1955).
branches around the midflower and 2-4 pairs of ANNONACEAE
bracts. Flowers bisexual; calyx 5-lobed, 5-6.5 mm 2« = 16
long, enlarging to 10 mm; corolla 16-20 mm long, Synonyms Melodorum prismaticum Hook.f. &
with tube cylindrical in lower part and narrowly Thomson (1855), Fissistigma cylindricum (Main-
funnel-shaped in upper part, 2-lipped, upper lip 2- gay ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Merr. (1919), Fissi-
stigma prismaticum (Hook.f. & Thomson) Merr. sia comprises about 13 species and is restricted to
(1919). peninsular Thailand and western Malesia, east to
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar pisang-pi- Java, Borneo and the Philippines, possibly for-
sang bukit, tepak (Peninsular). Thailand: plao merly also Bali.
(Yala). U s e s Rafflesia flowers have always struck the
Origin and geographic distribution Thai- imagination of people because of their rarity,
land, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra colour and size. The flowers of R. arnoldii R.Br,
and Borneo. are the largest ones in the plant kingdom, mea-
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the suring up to 100 cm in diameter and weighing up
plant is used internally to treat diarrhoea and to 11 kg. The applications of the flowers in tradi-
snakebites. tional medicine are strongly interweaved with su-
Botany A large liana with simple hairs; twigs perstition. The flower buds are applied especially
lenticellate. Leaves alternate, distichous, simple during and after childbirth, to promote delivery
and entire, oblong to elliptical-oblong, 11-26 cm x and recovery. They are also in demand as an
4-8.5 cm, glabrous; petiole 1-2 cm long; stipules aphrodisiac. These uses may well be linked with
absent. Flowers axillary or terminal, solitary or in the shape and colour of the flower buds, being
pairs, bisexual, regular, odourless; calyx disk-like, rounded and flesh-coloured to red.
circular or obtusely 3-angled, 5-7 mm broad, pu- Properties The presence of ellagitannins has
bescent outside; petals 6, in 2 whorls, valvate, been demonstrated in Rafflesiaceae. These com-
free, outer ones (5-8 cm long) much longer than pounds may be responsible for the reputedly
inner ones (c. 1 cm long), leathery, yellowish; sta- strong astringent activity ofRafflesia flower buds.
mens numerous, with slightly produced, truncate Botany Parasitic plants growing like a thallus
connective; carpels 6, elongate. Fruit consisting of inside the woody stems and roots ofthe host, root-
oblong, tuberculate and pubescent monocarps 3-5 less and without chlorophyll. Flowers solitary,
cm long, with stalk of c. 2.5 cm long, many-seeded. unisexual, regular, large to very large; buds ses-
Seeds shining dark brown. sile, first protruding as a corky swelling with
Pyramidanthe comprises only a single species that hexagonal patches, the corky base remaining as a
is incorporated in the large genus Fissistigma in cup-shaped body below 3 whorls of 5 scales on the
older literature. It differs in the flowers that are flowering sessile shoot; perianth tube inside cov-
not leaf-opposed as in Fissistigma, the disk-like ered with variably shaped ramenta, perianth
calyx, the inner petals much shorter than the out- lobes 5, imbricate, reddish, often with whitish
er ones, and the tuberculate monocarps. warts, inserted around an annular central di-
Ecology P.prismatica is locally common in low- aphragm with a rounded opening in the centre;
land forest, e.g. in southern Peninsular Malaysia, central column present at base of perianth tube,
but may occur up to 1200 m altitude. widened into a disk at apex, often with processes
Genetic resources Although knowledge of the on apex; male flowers with sessile anthers situat-
distribution of P. prismatica is probably very in- ed around the overhanging rim of the column; fe-
complete, it seems not to be in immediate danger male flowers with inferior 1-locular ovary with
ofgenetic erosion. many placentas, stigma situated in a ring around
Prospects As long as nothing is known about the rim of the column disk. Fruit a many-seeded
the phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- berry. Seeds minute, c. 1 mm long, surrounded by
ties of P. prismatica, little can be said about its pulp, with hard, thick and often pitted testa.
prospects as a medicinal plant. It is estimated that the life cycle ofRafflesia from
Literature 121, 860. seed to seed is 3-4.5 years. A flower bud may take
Other selected sources 789. 10 months to develop into a mature flower. The
R.H.M.J. Lemmens flowers are open for 4-5 days and then start to rot.
They have a foetid smell that attracts carrion-
flies. These are believed to be the pollination vec-
Rafflesia R.Br. tors. Ripening of fruits may take 8 months. The
fruits may contain millions of tiny seeds. Ground
Trans. Linn. Soc. 13:201 (1821). squirrels and tree shrews have been observed to
RAFFLESIACEAE
feed on the whitish pulp surrounding the seeds in
the fruit, and they may contribute to the dispersal
x =unknown; R. patma: In =24
ofthe seeds.
Origin and geographic distribution Raffle-
RAFFLESIA 343
The closest relatives of Rafflesia are Sapria from seltii occurs in primary and secondary lowland
continental Asia, which differs in its 10 perianth forest up to 600 m altitude, and is rare.
lobes and ramenta on top of the diaphragm, and Selected sources 121,247.
Rhizanthes, which occurs in the same region as
Rafflesia and differs in its 16-18 perianth lobes Rafflesia patina Blume
and absence ofa diaphragm. Flora 8: 609 (1825).
Ecology Rafflesia is an obligate parasite of the SynonymsRafflesia zollingeriana Koord. (1918).
liana genus Tetrastigma (Vitaceae). It occurs in Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: padma (Java-
primary and adjacent secondary lowland forest up nese), kembhang pakma (Madurese).
to 1000(-1800) m altitude, often on slopes of hills. Distribution Southern Sumatra and Java.
All species can be considered rare, several ones Uses An infusion of the flower buds is applied
are even very rare or possibly extinct. after childbirth to purify the uterus and to stop
Management Although some Rafflesia species bleeding, and is highly valued as an aphrodisiac
have been transplanted from the wild together for women.
with the host, and seeds have been inoculated on Observations Flowers (30-)37-52(-60) cm in
Tetrastigma stems in the botanical gardens ofBo- diameter, perianth tube inside with very short tu-
gor (Indonesia), which both resulted in flowering berculate ramenta, perianth lobes flesh-coloured
plants, cultivation was never really successful. to brown-ochre or carmine red, with numerous
Genetic resources AllRafflesia species are en- whitish warts, diaphragm strongly pitted, glau-
dangered by habitat destruction because they oc- cous or with clear circular whitish blots, opening
cur in a type of habitat (lowland forest) that is un- 5-9 cm in diameter, central column with (24-)37-
der much pressure. Overcollection of flower buds 44(-54) processes. R. patma occurs in lowland for-
for medicinal purposes may also have contributed est up to 400 m altitude. Most localities are in
to the decline of some species, e.g. R. patma in Ja-
va and Sumatra.
Prospects Efforts should be directed towards
banning Rafflesia collection for application in tra-
ditional medicine or rituals. Protection of natural
sites is needed to save these spectacular plants for
future generations.
Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar

Acta Soc. Reg. Sc. Neerl. [4-5] (1879).
Vernacular names Indonesia: cendawan mata-
hari (Sumatra). Malaysia: pakma, pama (Peninsu-
lar).
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma-
tra.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the flower buds
are used in a preparation to expedite delivery dur-
ing childbirth.
Observations Flowers 38-50 cm in diameter,
perianth tube inside with slender ramenta having
swollen apices, perianth lobes reddish, with about
v f <?
5 large, whitish pustules across, diaphragm
whitish or yellowish with a dark brown zone near
the rim and a basal ring of dark brown warts,
opening about half as wide as apex of perianth Rafflesia patma Blume - 1, flower; 2, base of
tube, central column with 15-24 processes, these flower bud in longitudinal section; 3, flower bud in
pale yellowish, but dark brown at apex. R. has- side view; 4, flower bud in basal view.
remnants of forest along the south coast of Java, Ecology R. indica occurs in rain forest and
and it is close to extinction. monsoon forest, also in secondary forest and thick-
Selected sources 247, 334,335. ets, up to 650 m altitude.
Slamet Sutanti Budi Rahayu Genetic resources Although R. indica occurs
scattered, it seems sufficiently widespread and
adapted to divergent habitats to be protected
Reissantia indica (Willd.) N. Halle against genetic erosion.
Prospects The value ofR. indica for traditional
Mém. Inst. Fr. Afr. Noire 64: 85 (1962). medicine seems limited at present, and it is un-
CELASTRACEAE likely that it will increase in the future.
In = unknown Literature 247, 334.
Synonyms Hippocratea indica Willd. (1797), Other selected sources 265, 331,731.
Pristimera indica (Willd.)A.C. Smith (1941). Pudjiastuti
Vernacular names Indonesia: areuy mangen-
der, hoeh tutung (Sundanese), saripangil (Dusun,
Kalimantan). Philippines: lagitik (Tagalog). Viet- Rennellia Korth.
nam: d[aaly h[us]c.
Origin and geographic distribution R. indi- Nederl. Kruidk. Arch. 2:255 (1851).
ca is widespread, but occurs scattered in India, Sri RUBIACEAE
Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern x = unknown
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Origin and geographic distribution Rennel-
Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo, lia comprises 4 species and is restricted to the hu-
the Philippines and Sulawesi. mid parts of western Malesia (Peninsular Ma-
Uses In Java the stem juice of R. indica is laysia, Sumatra and Borneo) extending into pe-
drunk to treat fever; heated leaves are adminis- ninsular Thailand and peninsular Burma (Myan-
tered to women after childbirth, and a leaf poul- mar). R. elliptica Korth. is the most widespread
tice is applied against rheumatism. species, occupying almost the entire range of the
Properties Several triterpenoids have been iso- genus.
lated from R. indica bark, e.g. the unusual triter- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, scrapings of R.
pene anhydride celastranhydride, which has also morindiformis bark have been used to treat
been found in Cassine and Kokoona. The chinone wounds, whereas a decoction of the bark or roots
pristimerin has been isolated from the root bark; of R. speciosa is used to treat dropsy, pain in the
this compound showed antibacterial activity. Dul- bones and swollen abdomens in children. A decoc-
cite is another compound found in R. indica root tion of the leaves and roots is valued in a bath to
bark. treat rheumatism. The latter species is also used
Botany A small liana or shrub up to 3 m tall. as a protective medicine after childbirth.
Leaves decussately opposite, simple, ovate to el- Botany Shrubs or small trees up to 8 m tall.
liptical or elliptical-oblong, 3.5-13 cm x 2-6.5 cm, Leaves opposite, decussate on vertical branches,
cuneate at base, acuminate at apex, margins distichous on horizontal branches, simple and en-
crenulate, pinnately veined; petiole 5-8 mm long; tire, narrowly cuneate at base, petiolate; stipules
stipules small, triangular, 3-lobed, laciniate or interpetiolar, usually sheathing, with numerous
fimbriate, caducous. Inflorescence an axillary di- colleters on adaxial side, caducous. Inflorescence
chotomous cyme up to 6 cm long, usually with terminal, consisting of spike-like, panicle-like or
very short peduncle. Flowers bisexual, regular, umbel-like arranged capitula, puberulous; bracts
small, pale yellow or greenish-yellow, 5-merous; small. Flowers bisexual, 4-5-merous, fragrant,
calyx almost divided to the base; petals free, ob- heterodistylous; pedicel lacking or connate; calyx
long, 1-1.5 mm long; stamens 3; disk inconspicu- campanulate, denticulate or truncate; corolla hy-
ous; ovary superior, 3-celled, style short, stigma pocrateriform, with long tube and recurved lobes
obscure. Fruit consisting of 3 ellipsoid to obovoid ridged above, pale violet to bluish-white or pink-
follicles 3-5.5 cm x 1-1.5 cm. Seeds elliptical, with ish-white outside, white inside; stamens inserted
a basal wing, up to 3.5 cm x 1cm. in upper part of the corolla tube, filaments linear,
Reissantia comprises 7 species and occurs in anthers narrowly oblong; disk annular; ovary infe-
Africa and tropical Asia; in the Malesian region 4 rior, connate together, 2-celled, style filiform, with
species are found. 2-lobed stigma. Fruit a syncarp or rarely a single
RENNELLIA 345
drupe, globose or subglobose, bluish-black to pur-

plish-black, few-seeded. Seeds globose or subglo-
bose, with a hollow on funicular side, testa brown
with dark spots, endosperm corneous.
Rennellia can be found flowering throughout the
year. It belongs in the tribe Morindeae, and is
closely related to Gentingia, Motleyia and Pris-
matomeris. It is characterized particularly by the
corolla, which is violet to bluish-white outside,
usually connate ovaries and usually elongate in-
florescences.
Ecology All Rennellia species inhabit tropical
evergreen forest, mainly in the lowland.
Genetic resources The Rennellia species treat-
ed here are fairly widely distributed and do not
seem to be in immediate danger ofgenetic erosion.
However, the fourth species ofthe genus,R. amoe-
na (Bremek.) J.T. Johansson, is known only from
one single collection in south-western Sumatra.
Prospects The prospects for Rennellia as medi-
cinal plants remain obscure as long as no data on
phytochemistry or pharmacological properties are
available.
Literature 121,435.
Rennellia speciosa (Wallich ex Kurz) Hook. f. - 1,
R e n n e l l i a m o r i n d i f o r m i s (Korth.) flowering branch; 2, tip of branch with inflores-
Ridley cence;3, tip of branch with infructescence.
Kew Bull.: 609 (1939).
Synonyms Rennellia paniculata King & Gam- Vernacular names Malaysia: mengkudu rim-
ble (1904). ba, semburan angin, meroyan kemput.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar bumi, urap Distribution Peninsular Burma (Myanmar),
gundor (Peninsular). peninsular Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia.
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma- Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of the
tra. bark or roots is used to treat dropsy, pain in the
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, scrapings of the bones and swollen abdomens in children, and a
bark have been used to treat wounds. decoction of the leaves and roots in a bath to treat
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 8 m rheumatism. The plants are also used as a protec-
tall; leaves usually obovate or elliptical, 10-26 cm tive medicine after childbirth.
x 3.5-11 cm, petiole (0.5-)1.5-4 cm long; inflores- Observations A shrub or small tree up to 7 m
cence panicle-like, capitula 10-40 mm long pedun- tall; leaves usually obovate or elliptical, 8.5-22 cm
cled; calyx tube 0.5-1.5 mm long, corolla tube x 2.5-5.5 cm, petiole 0.5-3 cm long; inflorescence
1.5-2 cm long; fruit 1-1.5 cm in diameter. R. panicle-like or umbel-like, capitula 3-7 mm long
morindiformis occurs in rain forest up to 1500 m peduncled; calyx tube c. 0.5 mm long, corolla tube
altitude. 1.5-2.5 cm long; fruit 1-2 cm in diameter. R. spe-
Selected sources 121,435, 990. ciosa occurs in rain forest up to 800 m altitude.
Selected sources 121,435, 705, 731,990.
R e n n e l l i a s p e c i o s a (Wallich e x Kurz) H.C. Ong
Hook.f.
Fl. Brit. India 3: 158 (1880).
Synonyms Morinda speciosa Wallich ex Kurz
(1875).
Rhaphidophora Hassk. separated by prominent leaf scars, producing a

clear, odourless juice when cut; clasping roots
Flora 25(2), Beibl. 1: 11 (1842). sparsely to densely arising from the stem, feeding
ARACEAE roots rare to abundant. Leaves usually arranged
x = 27, 28,30;R. decursiva: 2n =26, 54, 56 distichously alternate, sometimes spirally, lanceo-
Origin and geographic distribution Rhaphi- late to oblong, more or less oblique, entire to regu-
dophora comprises about 100 species, and occurs larly pinnatifid or perforated, pinnately veined;
in tropical and subtropical Asia from the Hi- petiole canaliculate, with prominent sheath and
malayas of Nepal, India and China to southern variously prominent basal and apical genicula;
Japan and throughout Indo-China, Thailand and stipules absent. Inflorescence a subglobose to
Malesia, in northern Australia and the islands of clavate-cylindrical spadix enclosed by an ovate to
the western Pacific. However, 2 or 3 species occur boat-shaped, often early caducous spathe. Flowers
in Africa. bisexual, without perianth; stamens 4(-6); ovary
Uses Leaf extracts of some Rhaphidophora 1-celled to partially 2-celled, usually hexagonal,
species are used in traditional medicine in South- style well-developed. Fruit a many-seeded berry,
East Asia to treat cancer and skin diseases, and a red or yellow. Seeds oblong, with thin,smooth tes-
decoction of leaves and roots to expedite child- ta and copious endosperm.
birth. Rhaphidophora is classified in the tribe Mon-
R. decursiva (Roxb.) Schott from Nepal, India, Sri stereae together with e.g. Amydrium, Epiprem-
Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China and south- num and Scindapsus.
ern China, is commonly used as a medicinal plant It is best characterized by its fruits which contain
in Vietnam. Pounded stems are applied externally numerous straight seeds.
to wounds, contusions and burns, and a decoction Ecology Rhaphidophora usually climbs on the
of whole plants in combination with other plants bole of trees, but sometimes on rocks. It is most
is administered internally to treat chronic enteri- commonly found in well-drained primary and old
tis, diarrhoea and dysentery. A decoction of fresh secondary forest, humid to seasonally moderately
leaves and twigs is applied as a bath to treat sca- dry, at low to mid-montane elevations.
bies, and pounded stems and leaves are made into Management Stem cuttings ofR. decursiva are
a poultice to treat carbuncles, phlegmon and der- normally used for propagation. Shoot tips and
matomycosis. stem nodes have been cultured successfully on
Properties In tests in Singapore, extracts of R. modified Murashige and Skoog medium.
korthalsii showed in-vitro cytotoxic activity Genetic resources The Rhaphidophora species
against P388, Molt 4, KB and SW620 cell lines, treated here are widespread and do not seem to be
and also stimulated activity of mouse splenocytes. in danger of genetic erosion. However, other
The active constituent was identified as 5,6-dihy- species with limited areas of distribution may eas-
droxyindole. ily become endangered because of their preference
Pounded stems ofR. decursiva showed antibacter- for a vulnerable type of habitat, i.e. lowland rain
ial activity against e.g. Staphylococcus aureus, forest.
Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa Prospects The limited research on pharmaco-
and Bacillus subtilis in tests in Vietnam. The logical properties ofR. decursiva and R. korthalsii
drug stimulates the proliferation of new tissue, has already shown interesting results, so more
improves the healing process and prevents the for- testing seems worthwhile.
mation of keloid scars. The plant also exhibited Literature 560, 611, 671,1051.
marked anti-inflammatory activity in a car-
rageenin-induced rat paw oedema model, but not
in the cotton-pellet implantation test. Selection of species
Bioassay-directed fractionation led to the isolation
of 6 compounds with antimalarial activity from Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott
dried leaves and stems of R. decursiva. Poly- Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1: 129 (1863).
syphorin and rhaphidecurperoxin showed strong Distribution Southern Thailand, Peninsular
activities against Plasmodium falciparum, the Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the
other compounds were less active. Philippines, to New Guinea and islands of the
Botany Medium-sized to very large, root-climb- western Pacific.
ing lianas; stem with internodes of various length Uses Leaf extracts are used in Peninsular
RHODODENDRON 347
leaves and roots is used in cases of delayed con-

finement, apparently to expedite childbirth.
Observations A small to moderate liana up to 6
m long; leaves narrowly falcate-elliptical to fal-
cate-lanceolate, 2.5-16 cm x 1-3 cm, entire, petiole
3-6 cm long; spathe 3-9 cm x 1-1.5 cm, dull green
to dull yellow, spadix slender cylindrical, 2.5-7 cm
long, dull yellowish-white. R. minor occurs in low-
land forest up to 100 m altitude, often along
streams, sometimes in swampy locations.
Selected sources 105, 107,121.
Tran Cong Khanh
^ 4 1\ -* ^ >
R h o d o d e n d r o n L.
Sp. pi. 1:392 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 185 (1754).

ERICACEAE
x = 13
Origin and geographic distribution Rhodo-
W /
dendron comprises about 900 species, and occurs
in the temperate Northern hemisphere, with a
major centre of diversity in the Himalaya, and in
'4 *>- South-East Asia, with some 300 species in the
Malesian region, mostly confined to montane for-
est. New Guinea is a major centre of diversity
with 155 endemic species. In Australia (Queens-
Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott - 1,part of ster- land) 1species occurs naturally.
ile shoot; 2, flowering shoot with leaves removed; 3, U s e s Rhododendron is only little used in South-
spadix. East Asian folk medicine. In New Guinea it is
used for the treatment of skin diseases, whereas
Malaysia and Singapore against cancer and skin in Sabah root decoctions are drunk as a tonic. In
diseases. the Philippines R. vidalii is applied as a cure for
Observations A large, slender to rather robust itches.
liana up to 20 m long; leaves broadly oblong-ellip- Rhododendron is of great horticultural impor-
tical to oblong-lanceolate, 10-44 cm x 14-94 cm, tance. This also applies to several large-flowered
pinnatisect to pinnatifid, petiole 9-65 cm long; Malesian species and their hybrids.
spathe 10-30 cm x 3-5 cm, greenish to dull yellow, Properties In a general screening experiment
spadix cylindrical, 9-26 cm long, dull green to in Indonesia, R. culminicolum F. v. Mueller, R.
dirty white. R. korthalsii is a variable species that herzogii Warb., R. konori and R. macgregoriae
occurs in primary and secondary forest up to 1700 showed antibacterial activity against several
m altitude. gram-positive bacteria in vitro. Several flavonoids
Selected sources 105, 107, 1005. have been isolated from R.javanicum and R. mac-
gregoriae.
Rhaphidophora minor Hook.f. The sweetly flavoured honey produced by bees
Fl. Brit. India 6: 544 (1893). that collect nectar from Rhododendron flowers
Synonyms Rhaphidophora celebica K. Krause may be toxic, due to the presence of certain diter-
(1932). penes, so-called grayanotoxins (e.g. acetylan-
Vernacular names Malaysia: kelemoyang dromedol). Symptoms begin acutely, but last
akar (Peninsular). rarely for more than 24 hours. Most prominent
Distribution Southern Thailand, Peninsular symptoms are loss of consciousness, weakness, se-
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi vere salivation, sweating, vomiting, diarrhoea,
and the Philippines (Mindanao, Palawan). bradycardia and arterial hypotension. Fatal cases
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of are extremely rare. Apart from close surveillance
only symptomatic therapy is generally necessary. exist for Rhododendron species of section Vireya,
Botany Evergreen, terrestrial or epiphytic but natural hybrids are very rare. Hybrids are
shrubs or small trees; new shoots marked by dis- more common in disturbed habitats. Hybridiza-
tinct nodes. Leaves arranged spirally or opposite, tion may be prevented by spatial or altitudinal
or mostly in 3-8-merous pseudowhorls, simple and isolation and differences in pollinators and flower-
entire, variably coriaceous, clothed with scales, ing time.
petiolate; stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal Prospects There are relatively few phytochemi-
or axillary condensed umbelliform raceme, some- cal and pharmacological investigations of Rhodo-
times reduced to a single flower. Flowers bisexual, dendron. Further research is needed to evaluate
5-7-merous, protandrous, with 2 bracteoles at the the potential of the traditional medicinal uses of
base of pedicel; calyx cup- or disk-shaped, deeply South-East Asian Rhododendron.
partite to subentire, persistent; corolla tubular or Literature 48,247, 704,731.
campanulate to funnel-shaped, sometimes salver-
shaped, lobed; stamens 5-10(-14), inserted at the
base of the corolla; disk present; ovary superior, Selection of species
5(-7)-celled, style mostly as long as the stamens.
Fruit a capsule, dehiscent from the top, central col- Rhododendron fallacinum Sleumer
umn persistent, many-seeded. Seeds minute, bear- Reinwardtia 5:99 (1960).
ing thread-like tails on both ends. Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: petagar Hamzar
Virtually all Malesian Rhododendron species be- (Kedayan, Sabah).
long to subgenus Rhododendron and the lepidote Distribution Sabah.
('scaly') section Vireya, that comprises only 2 Indo- U s e s A decoction ofthe root is drunk as a gener-
Chinese and 1Australian species outside Malesia. al tonic.
Some of the more temperate Asiatic species be- Observations A shrub or treelet up to 6 m tall;
longing to other subgenera are cultivated as orna-
mentals in mountainous areas of Malesia.
In most species flowering is rather irregular, so
that flowers may be found during the whole year,
but other species have a more pronounced flower-
ing period. In New Guinea and probably else-
where in Malesia, insects are important for polli-
nation at lower altitudes and birds at higher ones.
The long-tailed, lightweight seeds produced in
large amounts are an apparent adaptation to the
epiphytic habit ofmany species.
Ecology Most South-East Asian Rhododendron
species occur in montane forest as a terrestrial
shrub or epiphyte; only occasionally are they
found in lowland forest or even mangrove. They
are dwarf shrubs in the alpine zone, growing in
grassland and on rocks, reaching an altitude of
4000 m in Borneo and New Guinea.
Rhododendron mostly thrives on acid soils. En-
dotrophic mycorrhizae, as found in Ericaceae as a
whole, appear to give them a great advantage in
obtaining nutrients under these acid conditions.
Management Rhododendron can be propagated
by seed, cuttings and layering. It should prefer-
ably be grown in constantly moist but freely
draining and acidic soils, ideally with pH 4.5-5.5.
Genetic resources Many Malesian Rhododen-
dron species are narrow endemics, which may eas-
ily become endangered by habitat destruction. No Rhododendron fallacinum Sleumer -1, flowering
direct genetic barriers to hybridization appear to twig; 2, flower; 3, fruit.
RHODODENDRON 349
scales star-shaped, oftwo obviously different sizes, Rhododendron konori Becc.

equally found on inflorescences and leaves; leaves Malesia 1:200 (1878).
3-5(-6) per pseudowhorl at the upper nodes, ovate- Synonyms Rhododendron devrieseanum Koord.
oblong or subovate-lanceolate, (7-)10-16 cm x (2-) (1909), Rhododendron astrapiae Förster ex
2.5-6(-7) cm, base rounded to auriculate, apex Schlechter (1918).
acute or acuminate, sessile or subsessile; inflores- Vernacular names Indonesia: soksaikokohug-
cence 10-35-flowered; flowers scentless, with stout we, tetjai, wagadei (Irian Jaya).
pedicel 2-3(-4) cm long, calyx disk-like, minute, Distribution New Guinea.
corolla funnel-shaped, up to 2.5 cm long, pale red, Uses R. konori is used to treat skin diseases.
deep orange-pink to pale scarlet, densely lepidote Observations A shrub or treelet up to 6 m tall;
outside, at least at the tube, tube 7-12 mm long, scales disk-shaped, entire or nearly so; leaves
lobes obovate to rounded, stamens 10; fruit cylin- scattered in the upper third of the upper nodes,
drical, 2.5-3 cm x 0.3 cm. R. fallacinum occurs in sometimes in pseudowhorls, elliptical or oblong-
mossy forest, but also in open exposed localities,lo- elliptical to ovate-oblong, (7-)10-18(-21) cm x (4-)
cally common at 1200-2600 m altitude. 5-8(-12) cm, base broadly cuneate to rounded,
Selected sources 11, 48, 247. apex obtuse to rounded, petiole up to 3.5 cm long;
inflorescence (3-)5-8(-12)-flowered; flowers fra-
Rhododendron javanicum (Blume) grant, with rather stout pedicel up to 1.5 cm long,
Benn. calyx shortly and irregularly lobed, corolla salver-
PLjav. rar.: 85 (1838). shaped, fleshy, 9-16 cm long, white to deep pink,
Synonyms Vireya javanica Blume (1826), Rho- glabrous or nearly so outside, tube (6-)7-8(-ll)
dodendron brookeanum Low ex Lindley (1848), cm long, lobes obovate-spatulate to suborbicular,
Rhododendron moultonii Ridley (1912). stamens 12 or 14, unequal; fruit fusiform, 6-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kembang geni 9(-12) cm x 1.2-1.5(-1.8) cm. R. konori occurs in
(Javanese), dener, congkok (Sundanese). Malay- montane forest as well as in open fern regrowth,
sia: petagar bunga (Kedayan, Sabah). Philippines: peat bogs, swamps and marshes, generally on
lasatan (Bontok), luhung di kamaduyung (Ifugao), poor clayey or humic soils at 750-2500 m altitu-
malagos (Bagobo). de.
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Selected sources 247.
Java, Bali, Borneo, the Philippines and Sulawesi.
Uses In Sabah, general malaise is treated by R h o d o d e n d r o n m a c g r e g o r i a e F . v.
drinking a root decoction and by bathing in the so- Mueller
lution obtained by boiling the whole plant. Journ. Bot. 29: 177 (1891).
Observations A shrub or treelet up to 5 m tall; Synonyms Rhododendron hansemannii Warb.
scales star-shaped to various degrees, already dis- (1892), Rhododendron lauterbachianum Förster
tant from each other on the young leaves; leaves (1914).
(4-)5-7(-8) per pseudowhorl at the upper nodes or Vernacular names Indonesia: nektamuk (Da-
scattered, broadly oblong to lanceolate, 4-15(-22) ni, Irian Jaya). Papua New Guinea: degene-esi
cm x (1.8-)2.5-6(-8) cm, base broadly to narrowly (Simbu Province), kanama (Aseki, Morobe Pro-
cuneate, apex broadly acute to acuminate, petiole vince).
up to 2 cm long; inflorescence 4-7(-12)-flowered; Distribution New Guinea.
flowers scentless, pedicel 2-4 cm long, calyx disk- Uses In Papua New Guinea the sap from young
like, corolla funnel-shaped, rather fleshy, (3-)4-6 leaves and flowers is squeezed onto ulcers and
cm long, yellow, orange, red or pink, glabrous or sores. For the Dani people in Irian Jaya, R. mac-
nearly so outside, tube (1.7-)2-2.5 cm long, lobes gregoriae is important for treating skin diseases.
obovate to subspatulate, stamens 10, alternately It may cause vomiting and diarrhoea when used
slightly unequal; fruit elongate-cylindric, up to internally.
5(-8) cm x 1.3 cm. Several subspecies and vari- Observations A shrub or treelet up to 5(-15) m
eties are recognized of this widespread species. R. tall; scales star-shaped to various degrees, already
javanicum occurs in primary and secondary for- distant from each other on the young leaves;
est, and even on barren land near volcanic craters, leaves mostly in 3-5(-7)-merous pseudowhorls,
as well as an epiphyte in mangrove forest, from rarely subopposite at the upper nodes, ovate-
sea-level up to 2500 m altitude. lanceolate to subovate-elliptical, (4-)5-8(-15) cm
Selected sources 11,48, 247, 704. x (1.7-)3.5(-6) cm, base cuneate, apex shortly
acuminate to obtuse, petiole 0.6-1.2 cm long; inflo- 100), followed by tropical America (about 50) and
rescence (4-)8-15-flowered; flowers mostly scent- tropical Asia (about 15).
less, with slender to rather stout pedicel 2.5- Uses Rinorea roots, and more rarely leaves, are
3.5(-7) cm long, calyx with ciliate margin, some- occasionally used in traditional medicine in
times rudimentary, corolla tubular below, gener- Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, as a post-par-
ally much expanded at the lobes, 2-3 cm long, pale tum medicine, and to treat diarrhoea, ulcerated
yellow to dark orange, laxly lepidote outside, tube noses and fever. In Java crushed leaves of R. ja-
c. 1 cm long, lobes broadly obovate-spatulate, sta- vanica (Blume) O. Kuntze have been administered
mens 10, unequal; fruit cylindrical, manifestly 5- internally as an antidote. Several Rinorea species
ribbed, 3.5-4.5 cm x 0.3-0.4 cm. R. macgregoriae are used in traditional medicine in Africa to treat
is fairly common, locally abundant, in primary various complaints, e.g. fever, snakebites and
and secondary vegetation, in both dry and moist syphilis.
localities, invading clearings on various soils, at Rinorea wood is sometimes used for e.g. imple-
(120-)500-3000(-3350) m altitude. ments.
Selected sources 247,352, 359,731. Properties The bark of R. anguifera showed
some in vitro antimicrobial activity against Sta-
Rhododendron vidalii Rolfe phylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Journ. Bot. 24: 348 (1886). Botany Shrubs or small trees; twigs usually an-
Synonyms Rhododendron lussoniense Rendle gular when young, later terete. Leaves alternate,
(1896), Rhododendron whiteheadii Rendle (1896), distichous, simple, more or less distinctly acumi-
Rhododendron curranii Merr. (1908). nate, margins often shallowly crenate or dentate,
Vernacular names Philippines: lopong, tingei pinnately veined, shortly petiolate or subsessile;
(Bontok), ayalea (Ifugao). stipules often longitudinally striate, often ca-
Distribution The Philippines (Luzon). ducous. Inflorescence an axillary fascicle, some-
U s e s R. vidalii is used as a cure for itch. times a raceme, corymb or panicle. Flowers bisex-
Observations A shrub up to 2(-3) m tall; scales ual, regular, 5-merous; pedicel articulated; sepals
star-shaped to various degrees, already distant free, imbricate, subequal, fimbriate; petals free,
from each other on the young leaves, branches di- generally contorted, subequal; stamens usually
varicate; leaves mostly in 3-5(-7)-merous pseu- connate into a tube, anthers with distinct trian-
dowhorls at the upper nodes, oblanceolate to obo- gular appendage; ovary superior, 1-celled, style
vate-oblong, (1.5-)2-4(-5.5) cm x (0.8-)l-1.5(-2) straight, stigma more or less 3-lobed. Fruit a sub-
cm, base cuneate, apex rounded or subemar- globose capsule, generally subtended by calyx,
ginate, petiole 0.2-0.3(-0.5) cm long; inflorescence corolla and stamen remains, opening by leathery
2-3(-4)-flowered; flowers fragrant, with rather valves, (l-)3-6(-9)-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, glab-
slender pedicel 1.5-2.5 cm long, calyx small, ob- rous, with leathery testa and often distinct hilum
scurely toothed, corolla funnel-shaped, 2.5-3 cm and raphe, rich in endosperm.
long, white, laxly lepidote outside, tube c. 1.5 cm Ecology Rinorea occurs predominantly in the
long, lobes broadly cuneate-spatulate, stamens 10, understorey of primary lowland rain forest, occa-
subequal; fruit subcylindrical, 1.5-2 cm x 0.4-0.5 sionally up to 1000 m altitude, on various soils in-
cm.R. vidalii occurs as an epiphyte in moss forest cluding limestone.
but also terrestrially on exposed sites including Genetic resources Rinorea may be liable to ge-
grassland, at 1000-2100 m altitude. netic erosion as it occurs mainly in lowland prima-
Selected sources 247, 731,760. ry rain forest, a habitat under much pressure in
Hartutiningsih M. Siregar many regions of South-East Asia.
Prospects Rinorea is at present unimportant as
a medicinal plant in South-East Asia, and it is un-
Rinorea Aubl. likely that its utilization will increase. However,
research on pharmacological properties and phy-
Hist. pi. Guiane 1:235 (1775). tochemistry might be interesting considering the
VIOLACEAE medicinal uses ofRinorea in both South-East Asia
x =unknown and Africa for more or less similar purposes.
Origin and geographic distribution Rinorea Literature 120, 121, 247.
comprises about 170 species and is pantropical,
Africa being richest in species (approximately
RlNOREA 351
Selection of species inflorescence usually a fascicle; flowers with

petals 5-7 mm long, white to sometimes yellow,
R i n o r e a a n g u i f e r a (Lour.) O. K u n t z e anthers with small appendage; fruit 1.5-3.5 cm in
Revis, gen. pi. 1:42 (1891). diameter, valves with many moss-like ap-
Synonyms Alsodeia echinocarpa Korth. (1848), pendages, greenish. R. anguifera occurs in humid
Alsodeia capillata King (1889), Alsodeia comosa localities in primary rain forest, sometimes in
King (1889). heath forest or secondary forest, up to 600 m alti-
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: rambutan pacat tude. It is locally common.
(Sumatra). Malaysia: janggut baung, medang Selected sources 121,247, 295,296, 990.
gambot, rengkok (Peninsular). Thailand: kriap
(Nakhon Si Thammarat), ngoh paa (Chiang Mai, R i n o r e a h o r n e r i ( K o r t h . ) O. K u n t z e
Narathiwat, Trat), leng (peninsular). Vietnam: Revis, gen. pi. 1:42 (1891).
k[ee] nao. Synonyms Alsodeia horneri Korth. (1848), Al-
Distribution Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular sodeia kunstleriana King (1889), Rinorea kunstle-
Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. riana (King) Taub. (1895).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia an infusion of the Vernacular names Malaysia: sigoh, gemotan
roots is given as a protective draught after child- pachat, meroyan minko (Peninsular). Thailand:
birth. The seeds are reportedly purgative. In toei-cha-khruu (Karen, Kanchanaburi).
Sumatra ground young leaves are rubbed on the Distribution Peninsular Thailand, throughout
stomach as a post-partum medication, and a root the Malesian region (except Java and the Lesser
decoction is drunk to treat diarrhoea. Sunda Islands) and the Solomon Islands.
Observations A shrub to small tree up to 10 m Uses In Peninsular Malaysia ulcerated noses
tall; leaves (8-)14-28(-37) cm x (3-)4-8(-10.5) cm; are treated with a poultice and a decoction of R.
horneri, and by inhaling the smoke from burning
roots.
Observations A shrub to small tree up to 5 m
tall; leaves 11-34 cm x 4-9.5(-ll) cm; inflores-
cence usually a fascicle; flowers with petals
(2-)3-6(-8) mm long, white to pale greenish-yel-
low, anthers with well-developed appendage; fruit
1-1.5 cm in diameter, glabrous, greenish. R.
horneri occurs in primary forest, rarely in sec-
ondary forest, up to 600(-1500) m altitude, often
on limestone.
R i n o r e a l a n c e o l a t a ( W a l l i c h ) O. K u n t z e
Revis, gen. pi. 1:42 (1891).
Synonyms Alsodeia lanceolata Oudem. (1867),
Alsodeia floribunda King (1889), Rinorea flori-
bunda (King) Merr. (1934).
Vernacular names Malaysia: melor angin,
babi kurus, inai kechil (Peninsular).
Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), pe-
ninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra
and south-western Java.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia boiled roots are
applied to the body to treat fever.
Observations A shrub to small tree up to
13(-23) m tall; leaves 10-29(-42) cm x (2.5-)3.5-
9(-20) cm; inflorescence on a peduncle; flowers
Rinorea anguifera (Lour.) O. Kuntze - 1, part of with petals 3.5-7(-9) mm long, white-yellow, an-
flowering twig; 2, flower; 3, upper part of stamen; thers with small appendage; fruit c. 1cm in diam-
4,fruiting twig. eter, more or less hairy, greenish. R. lanceolata oc-
curs in primary forest, also in forest edges, up to Ecology R. aquatica is restricted to forested
750 m altitude. lowland areas, where it grows in rocky, gravelly or
Selected sources 121,247, 990. sandy localities that are periodically inundated,
Rini Sasanti Handayani especially along streams.
Genetic resources R. aquatica is not threat-
ened by genetic erosion in view ofits large natural
Rotula aquatica Lour. distribution.
Prospects Research on the phytochemistry and
Fl. cochinch.: 121(1790). pharmacological activities of R. aquatica has not
BORAGINACEAE yet been carried out, but might give interesting re-
2« = unknown sults because of its close affinity to Ehretia, which
Vernacular names Philippines: takad, kulutai has shown promising pharmacological activities.
(Tagalog), bongtal (Iloko). Vietnam: r[uf] r[if] The claimed psychoactive activity deserves atten-
c[as]t. tion in research.
Origin and geographic distribution R. aqua- Literature 247, 668, 760.
tica occurs in eastern Brazil, western Africa, and Other selected sources 621,1013.
from India, throughout continental South-East A.M. Aguinaldo
Asia, to southern China and the Malesian region,
where it is found in Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo,
the Philippines, Sulawesi and New Guinea. Ruellia tuberosa L.
U s e s In the Philippines and Thailand a stem de-
coction is used as a sudorific and diuretic. In the Sp.pl. 2:635(1753).
Ayurvedic system of medicine the root is well ACANTHACEAE
known for the treatment of urinary troubles. In 2n =32, 34
Kerala (India) tender stems and leaves are used Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: toi ting (Bang-
as a psychoactive agent; they are dried and kok). Vietnam: q[ur]a n[oor],tanh t[as]ch.
smoked in combination with tobacco, or drunk Origin and geographic distribution R. tu-
mixed with coconut milk. It is said that R. aquati- berosa originates from tropical America, but is
ca provokes physical and mental stimulation and naturalized in South-East Asia (Thailand, Penin-
enhances thought processes. sular Malaysia, Java) and elsewhere in the tropics
Botany A shrub with many elongate, terete (India, Sri Lanka, Africa), as an escape from culti-
shoots, up to 3 m tall. Leaves alternate, crowded vation as an ornamental.
on numerous lateral short-shoots, simple and en- Uses Although R. tuberosa is apparently only
tire, oblanceolate to oblong, 0.6-2.5 cm x 0.2-0.9 rarely used medicinally in South-East Asia, it has
cm, base cuneate to rounded, apex obtuse and mu- numerous applications in traditional medicine in
cronate, subcoriaceous, strigose, rarely glabrous; tropical America, most commonly the roots, which
petiole 0.5-3 mm long; stipules absent. Inflores- are emetic and purgative. A decoction of dried and
cence a terminal, short, few-flowered cyme, powdered roots is used as a diuretic, often in cases
bracteate. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, pedicel- of gonorrhoea and syphilis, to treat kidney trou-
late; calyx with unequal lobes, 4-5 mm long; corol- bles and diabetes, as a febrifuge, and to treat
la 5-7 mm long, tube 1-2 mm long, lobes rounded, colds. A decoction ofwhole plants is applied exter-
pink to purplish; stamens alternate with corolla nally to sores and wounds and internally to treat
lobes, exserted; ovary superior, 4-celled, style un- pulmonary catarrh, asthma, influenza and colds.
divided. Fruit a subglobose drupe 3-4 mm in di- The leaves are used to treat toothache, and a leaf
ameter, yellowish to brownish-red, with a strongly decoction against fever, chronic bronchitis and
4-lobed endocarp breaking up into 4 single-seeded leucorrhoea. In Thailand, seeds and leaves are ap-
pyrenes at an early stage. Seeds oblong, without plied as a poultice to ulcers and abscesses.
endosperm. R. tuberosa is grown as an ornamental for its at-
Rotula comprises 2(-3) species. It is closely related tractive flowers.
to Ehretia, but differs especially in the undivided Properties An aqueous extract of R. tuberosa
style. The populations of R. aquatica in eastern stems of Cuban origin showed antineoplastic ac-
Brasil and western Africa are sometimes consid- tivity onNeurospora crassa (83.5% inhibition).
ered a separate species: R. lycioides (Mart.) I.M. In-vitro bactericidal effects against plant patho-
Johnst. genic bacteria have been demonstrated for R.
RuNGiA 353
tuberosa infusions. R. tuberosa root extracts con-

taining 2,6-dimethoxyquinone, acacetin and a C16-
quinone had protective and curative effects
against fusarial wilt of safflower (Carthamus tinc-
torius L.). Triterpenes (lupeol) and phytosterols
(sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol) have
been isolated from the roots. Flavone glucuronides
such as apigenin-7-ß-D-glucuronide were isolated
from the leaves and flowers.
Botany An erect perennial herb up to 90 cm
tall, with elongately tuberous roots and subqua-
drangular stem thickened above the nodes. Leaves
opposite, simple and entire, oblong to oblong-obo-
vate, 6-18 cm x 3-9 cm, decurrent at base, obtuse
to rounded at apex, sparingly hairy or glabrous,
with cystoliths; petiole up to 1.5 cm long, connect-
ed by transverse ridges; stipules absent. Inflores-
cence an axillary cyme, rather lax, 1-15-flowered;
bracts narrow, up to 9 mm long; peduncle up to
2.5 cm long. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; pedicel
up to 2.5 cm long; calyx 2-3 cm long, partite with
narrow, finally reflexed segments; corolla 5-6 cm
long, infundibular with narrow base, unequally to
subequally lobed with rounded lobes up to 2.5 cm
long, irregularly sinuate-dentate, bright violet to
pale blue, sometimes white; stamens 4, inserted at
base of corolla tube, didynamous; ovary superior,
2-celled, style subulate with 2 unequal stigmatic Ruellia tuberosa L. - 1,plant habit; 2, fruit.
lobes. Fruit a fusiform capsule 2-3 cm long, many-
seeded. Seeds orbicular, compressed, ringed with Genetic resources R. tuberosa is widely
hygroscopic hairs. spread through cultivation and naturalization,
The flowers are ephemerous, but plants may and does not seem liable to genetic erosion. Its
flower throughout the year. Cleistogamous flow- area ofdistribution still seems to be expanding.
ers only about 2.5 mm long are commonly present, Prospects Although, as an introduced species,
often producing fruits. R. tuberosa is little known in the Malesian region,
Numerous species have been described in Ruellia, it deserves attention as a medicinal plant given its
resulting in a large and variable genus. Several reputation in the American tropics.
attempts have been made to split it up into segre- Literature 62, 273,575, 646.
gate genera which form more natural groups, one Other selected sources 120, 121,972.
of these resulting in a small genus concept of Ru- Yun Astuti Nugroho
ellia consisting ofonly 2-5 species. However, there
is still disagreement among taxonomists about the
generic concept within the group of Acanthaceae R u n g i a l a x i f l o r a C.B. C l a r k e
to which Ruellia belongs. Some medicinal species
in South-East Asia formerly included in Ruellia Journ. As. Soc. Beng., Pt. 2, Nat. Hist. 74: 698
are described in this publication in the genera (1908).
Dipteracanthus, Hemigraphis and Pararuellia. ACANTHACEAE
Ecology R. tuberosa occurs along roadsides and 2n - unknown
in waste places, in Java up to 150 m altitude, and Synonyms Justicia über C.B. Clarke (1908),
is locally common. Justicia bracteata Ridley (1909), Justicia clar-
Management In cultivation R. tuberosa is prop- keana Ridley (1923).
agated by seed, suckers and cuttings. It is planted Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: puding hutan
in garden borders, and is especially suited for jantan, serupet, akar ratus (Peninsular).
slightly shaded, humid localities. Origin and geographic distribution R. laxi-
flora occurs in southern peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, up to 1300 m altitude. It is also found
Peninsular Malaysia. on limestone.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves have Genetic resources The area of distribution of
been used externally as a poultice to treat head- R. laxiflora seems limited; up till now it has only
ache and abdominal complaints, whereas the been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia and the
plant has been used internally as an ingredient in adjacent part of peninsular Thailand. However, in
a complex decoction to treat diarrhoea. these areas it is common, at least locally, and
R. klossii S. Moore is a popular vegetable in the seems not to be endangered.
highlands of New Guinea. The leaves are also Prospects The topical applications ofR. laxiflo-
used in a poison antidote, in mixtures with other ra are comparable to those of other Acanthaceae,
plants which induce vomiting. Roasted or boiled e.g. Hygrophila ringens (L.) R.Br, ex Steudel, Jus-
leaves are eaten to treat colds, influenza and sore ticia and Peristrophe species, and Ptyssiglottis
throat. kunthiana (Nées) B. Hansen. Research on active
The leaves of the African R. grandis T. Anderson compounds and pharmacological properties for
are used in Gabon as anthelmintic and the bark these species is desirable. A taxonomie treatment
as an antidysenteric. of the genus Rungia is urgently needed to gain an
Properties There is no information on phyto- insight into the delimitation and distribution of
chemistry and pharmacological properties of R. its species.
laxiflora. A fair quantity of alkaloids has been de- Literature 121,363.
tected in R. grandis material from Nigeria, e.g. Other selected sources 120,331,347, 789,853.
macrorin and isomacrorin. R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Botany A herb up to 90(-150) cm tall, some-
times straggling, glabrous or slightly hairy.
Leaves opposite, ovate-elliptical to elliptical-lance- Salomonia cantoniensis Lour.
olate, 5-25 cm x 2.5-10 cm, narrowed at both
ends, with cystoliths; petiole 0.5-3 cm long; stip- Fl. cochinch. 1:14(1790).
ules absent. Inflorescence an axillary or terminal POLYGALACEAE
spike with flowers arranged on one side, up to 15 2n =unknown
cm long, distinctly bracteate. Flowers bisexual; ca- Vernacular names Indonesia: rumput sekera
lyx deeply 5-fid; corolla 6-15 mm long, tube short, (Palembang, Sumatra). Malaysia: rumput buak
widened upwards, 2-lipped, upper lip slightly (Peninsular). Vietnam: sa m[oo]n qu[ar]ng d[oo]ng.
emarginate, lower lip shortly 3-lobed, creamy-yel- Origin and geographic distribution S. can-
low or whitish, often striped or spotted purplish toniensis is widely distributed from Nepal, east-
on lips; stamens 2, inserted at the base of the ern India, Bangladesh and Burma (Myanmar),
widening ofthe corolla tube, anthers 2-celled with through southern Vietnam, southern China and
lower cell basally spurred; ovary superior, 2- Thailand, to the Malesian region: Peninsular
celled, style entire or shortly 2-lobed. Fruit a Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda Is-
clavate capsule 8-15 mm long, with rising elastic lands, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi and the
placenta, 4-seeded. Seeds compressed orbicular, Moluccas.
pubescent, pustulate. Uses There is only one record of medicinal ap-
Rungia comprises approximately 50 species and plication of S. cantoniensis from Sumatra, where
occurs in tropical Africa and tropical Asia. It is re- pounded plants are pulped and rubbed in the
lated to Justicia, but can be distinguished by the mouth to treat thrush in children.
combination of the following characters: placentas Properties The presence of saponins has been
in the fruit rising, and inflorescence always spi- recorded for Salomonia.
cate with one bract sterile and the other fertile at Botany A small, erect short-lived herb up to
each node. R. laxiflora is a variable species, par- 30(-40) cm tall, with aromatic roots; stem angular
ticularly in the shape and size of the bracts and with 3 transparent wings, lateral stems often long
bracteoles, and many species have been distin- and patent. Leaves alternate, broadly ovate, 4-15
guished in the past. However, the variation seems mm x 3-10 mm, slightly cordate at base, mucro-
to be continuous and does not support specific dis- nate at apex, glabrous, 3-5-veined; petiole 0.5-2
tinction. mm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal
Ecology R. laxiflora is locally common in low- spike up to 6 cm long, with caducous bracts. Flow-
land and lower montane forest in Peninsular ers bisexual, 1.5-2.5 mm long, white to pale violet;
SALVIA 355
sepals 5, connate at very base, subequal, persis- Origin and geographic distribution S. ple-
tent; petals 3, unequal, asymmetric, halfway ad- beia is found from India to Indo-China, China,
nate to the staminal tube, the 2 upper ones Taiwan, Korea and Japan, to as far south as
halfway connate to the lower one, free part of low- Australia. In Malesia it is very rare and only
er petal cup-shaped and completely enclosing sta- found in northern Sumatra and Luzon (the Philip-
mens and stigma; stamens 4 or 6, anthers sessile; pines ).
ovary superior, 2-celled, style strongly curved, api- U s e s Salvia species are cultivated worldwide as
cally with 2-lobed stigma completely enclosed by ornamentals and commonly used in flavouring
the anthers. Fruit a transversally elliptical, later- and traditional medicine. In India the seeds of S.
ally compressed capsule c. 1 mm x 1.5-2 mm, far plebeia are valued on account of their mucilagi-
exceeding the sepals, at the margin of each cell nous properties and given in cases of menorrha-
with a double row of spines, dehiscent, 2-seeded. gia, diarrhoea and haemorrhoids. The leaves are
Seeds ellipsoid, laterally flattened, glabrous, used to treat toothache. The herb is employed as a
black, embryo translucent, endosperm nearly ab- diuretic, astringent and anthelmintic. In Indo-
sent in ripe seeds. China the whole plant is prescribed to treat colic,
Salomonia comprises 6 species, 2 of which are cholera and dysentery. In China an aqueous solu-
widespread in the Malesian region, and 4 endemic tion is used as a skin wash, and in the treatment
to Thailand (one also in neighbouring Cambodia). of abscesses and boils. The leaves are utilized as a
S. ciliata (L.) DC. is the most widespread species remedy for catarrh, dysentery and skin eruptions.
with the same area ofdistribution as S. cantonien- In Korea the plant is credited with diuretic, ver-
sis, but additionally Sri Lanka, Korea, Japan, mifugal and astringent properties. A decoction of
New Guinea, northern Australia and islands of aerial parts is used to treat tumours. In Taiwan S.
the Pacific Ocean. These species are frequently plebeia is used together with Ocimum species in a
confused and mixed collections are not uncom- herbal remedy credited with anti-inflammatory
mon. Salomonia is closely related to Epirixanthes, activities; the mixture is also used to treat hepati-
which differs by the absence of chlorophyll (plant tis and as a detoxicant.
not green), its straight style and its indéhiscent In Java the seeds of S. hispanica L. are used as a
fruit. subtitute for the mucilaginous Ocimum basilicum
Ecology S. cantoniensis occurs in sunny or L. seeds in medicinal drinks. S. officinalis L., lo-
slightly shaded localities in grassland or open for- cally cultivated in mountain areas in South-East
est, usually in wet places, up to 1500 m altitude. It Asia, is best known as a spice and is an old domes-
is widespread and may be abundant locally. tic remedy for numerous afflictions in Europe. In
Genetic resources Although S. cantoniensis is China and Indo-China the roots of S. miltiorrhiza
in general uncommon, it is so widespread, also in Bunge are a well-known drug, which is considered
disturbed habitats, that it is unlikely to be liable a general blood tonic, invigorating circulation, and
to genetic erosion. to have alterative, antispasmodic, anti-arthritic,
Prospects S. cantoniensis is so little used in its tonic, sedative, astringent and vulnerary proper-
large area of distribution that it seems unlikely ties. It is used to treat urogenital and gastro-in-
that it will gain importance as a medicinal plant testinal inflammations, and internal abscesses.
in the future. Properties Salvia is a rich source of polypheno-
Literature 247, 334. l s flavonoids and phenolic acids. Flavones, flav-
Other selected sources 121,506. onols and their glycosides constitute the majority
R.Kiew of flavonoids. The phenolic acids are exclusively
formed from caffeic acid building blocks. The caf-
feic acid derivatives are believed to be responsible
Salvia plebeia R.Br. for the many biological activities, including an-
tioxidant, antiplatelet, antitumour and antiviral
Prodr.: 501 (1810). activities. Many Salvia species contain a volatile
LABIATAE oil.
2ra= 16, 32 A S. plebeia extract showed protection of the liver
Synonyms Salvia brachiata Roxb. (1820), Sal- against carbon tetrachloride and galactosamine-
via minutiflora Bunge (1835). induced hepatotoxicity in rats. The active princi-
Vernacular n a m e s Vietnam: x[oo]n d[aj]i, kinh ples were identified as pectolinarigenin, eupafolin
gi[ows]i daj]i. and hispidulin. The extract also showed an in-
hibitory effect on murine macrophage-mediated support its traditional medicinal uses, and to
cytotoxicity. judge its prospects as a cultivated medicinal plant
Experimental studies have shown that drugs for South-East Asia.
based on S. miltiorrhiza roots dilated coronary ar- Literature 181, 247, 428, 553, 578, 664, 708,
teries, increased coronary blood flow, and scav- 731, 760, 942.
enged free radicals in ischaemic diseases; they re- Other selected sources 196, 334, 732.
duced the cellular damage from ischaemia and im- J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
proved heart functions. Clinical trials indicated
that S. miltiorrhiza is an effective medicine for
angina pectoris, myocardial infarction and stroke. Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume
Experimental studies in rats indicate beneficial
effects of a hot-water extract of S. miltiorrhiza Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 13:657 (1826).
roots on liver fibrosis. CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Botany An annual or biennial herb (15-)40- 2re = 36
60(-90) cm tall, much-branched; stems 4-angled, Synonyms Sambucus thunbergiana Blume ex
grooved, tomentose or glabrescent. Leaves oppo- Miq. (1866), Sambucus formosana Nakai (1917),
site, simple, narrowly elliptical to narrowly ovate, Sambucus henriana Samutina (1986).
2-4(-6) cm x 0.8-1.5(-2.5) cm, base rounded to Vernacular n a m e s Javanese elder (En). Indo-
cuneate, apex subacute or obtuse, crenate, hir- nesia: sengitan (Javanese), ki tespong (Sundane-
sute; petiole 2-4 cm long; stipules absent. Inflores- se). Philippines: galamat, kalamat (Igorot), sauko
cence a pseudoraceme, terminal or in the upper (Tagalog). Vietnam: c[ow]m ch[as]y, thu[oos]c
leaf axils, often forming a large panicle 10-25 cm m[oj]i, s[os]c d[ij]ch.
long, with the flowers grouped in 4-10-flowered Origin and geographic distribution S. java-
verticillasters; bracts small, lanceolate. Flowers nica occurs in India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi-
bisexual, zygomorphic; calyx campanulate, 2- na, southern China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand and
lipped, 2 mm long accrescent to 2.5 mm, densely throughout Malesia except Peninsular Malaysia
tomentose and glandular; corolla tubular, 3-3.5 and the Moluccas.
mm long, 2-lipped, upper lip oblong, obtuse, lower Uses In Mindanao (the Philippines) the plant is
lip 3-lobed, violet, purplish or blue; stamens 2, considered a remedy for fatigue. In Indonesia the
slightly exserted; ovary superior, deeply 4-partite. leaves are considered laxative, and an infusion of
Fruit composed of 4 nutlets; nutlets ovoid, 1mm x flowers and leaves is used as a sudorific and di-
0.7 mm, rugose, brown. uretic. An infusion of dried leaves is considered
Salvia comprises about 500 species, and is widely antirheumatic and analgesic in Malaysia. In Indo-
distributed in temperate and subtropical regions, China the flowers and fruits are used in folk medi-
but with few species in the tropics. About 20 cine as a depurative, diuretic and laxative. In
species occur in South-East Asia, 6 of which are Thailand crushed aerial parts are applied as a
native or naturalized; the others occur only in cul- poultice to inflammations. In China the whole
tivation (mainly as ornamentals). plant is used as an antirheumatic, an analgesic
Ecology In Sumatra S. plebeia occurs as a weed and to treat bone diseases in general. It is consid-
in fallow land at 1000-1350 m altitude, whereas ered diaphoretic, but also poisonous and emetic. A
in Luzon it is a weed in urban areas at low alti- decoction is used in a bath for treating skin dis-
tude. eases, painful swellings or inflammations result-
Management In Korea aboveground parts of S. ing from mechanical injuries. External use is said
plebeia are harvested at the end of the flowering to soothe rheumatic pains and accelerate the heal-
period. ing process after fractures. The young leaves are
Genetic resources S. plebeia is a widespread occasionally used as a tea substitute or as a
species often occurring in disturbed habitats, and cooked vegetable.
does not seem to be seriously threatened by genet- Properties S. javanica shows antihepatotoxic
ic erosion. However, its distribution in Malesia is properties, which can be attributed to the pres-
very limited; therefore its genetic basis might be ence ofursolic acid (a triterpene carboxylic acid).
narrow there. Fruit extracts of the European black elder (S. ni-
Prospects Although the pharmacology of S. gra L.) showed antiviral properties, especially
miltiorrhiza is very well studied, little is known against different strains of influenza virus, and
about S. plebeia. Further research is needed to might be beneficial to the immune system activa-
SAPINDUS 357
tion. Tests demonstrated insulin-releasing and in- logical activities of S. javanica. Results on phar-
sulin-like activity ofthese extracts, supporting the macological research on temperate Sambucus
traditional use for the treatment of diabetes, and species are very promising, and further research
also diuretic activity in rats. A rhizome extract of on S.javanica seems therefore worthwhile.
another European species, S. ebulus L., showed Literature 16, 99, 291, 671, 731, 760, 953, 970.
antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. An- Other selected sources 247, 559, 732, 952.
thocyanins are responsible for the demonstrated J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
antioxidant activity of S. nigra fruits. Ribosome-
inactivating proteins without in-vivo toxicity have
been isolated from several Sambucus species. S a p i n d u s L.
Botany A perennial herb with creeping rhi-
zome, shrub or small tree up to 7 m tall; stem Sp. pi. 1:367 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5 :171 (1754).
grooved or smooth. Leaves opposite, (5-)7-13-foli- SAPINDACEAE
olate (1-3-foliolate below inflorescence); stipules x = 11, 15, 18; S. saponaria: 2n =22, 28, 30, 36,
glandular or foliaceous; leaflets oblong, lanceolate S. trifoliatus: 2n = 36
or linear-lanceolate, 7-22(-30) cm x 1.5-6.5 cm, Origin a n d geographic distribution Sapin-
base cuneate to cordate, apex acuminate, shallow- dus comprises 10 species. Continental South-East
ly serrate with lower teeth glandular swollen, Asia is richest in species (6). Two species are con-
shortly stalked to sessile. Inflorescence a termi- fined to Central and southern North America, one
nal, flat-topped, 3-5(-7)-rayed corymb up to 30 cm is endemic to Hawaii and one occurs throughout
in diameter, with urceolate yellow, orange or scar- the tropics and subtropics, partly enhanced by
let nectaries in the outer axils. Flowers bisexual, man. In Malesia one species (S. rarak) is indige-
regular, 4-5 mm in diameter, 5-merous, lemon- nous, a second (S. saponaria) locally naturalized
scented; calyx lobes minute; corolla rotate, with but obviously introduced by man, and a third (S.
valvate lobes, white or creamy; stamens spread- trifoliatus L.) occasionally planted as an ornamen-
ing, anthers yellow; ovary inferior, 3-celled, stig- tal.
mas 3. Fruit a globose berry 3-4 mm in diameter, U s e s Fruits of Sapindus are commonly used in
black or rarely scarlet to orange, 3-seeded. Seeds traditional medicine, usually for external applica-
ovoid, often ventrally flattened, verrucose. tions, e.g. to treat pimples and scabies, and as an
Seedling with epigeal germination. insecticide and leech repellent. In India the fruits
S. javanica can be found flowering and fruiting of S. trifoliatus are used as a remedy for colic, di-
throughout the year. Beetles are the main pollina- arrhoea and cholera; an infusion of the fruits is
tors, and may provide self- as well as cross-polli- recommended for the treatment of snakebites. In-
nation. Dispersal ofthejuicy berries is most likely serted in the nostrils the fruits are said to be a
effected by frugivorous birds. Germination of remedy for fits, and a fumigation remedial for hys-
seeds takes less than a month in full light. teria and melancholy. Externally a plaster may be
Sambucus comprises 9 species and numerous sub- applied to snakebites and swellings. The root may
species, and occurs throughout the Northern be used as an expectorant and the fruit pulp as a
hemisphere, but is of scattered occurrence in the strong purgative.
Southern hemisphere. S. javanica populations in
It appears that the various Sapindus species are
the northern part of the area of distribution tend
more or less used indiscriminately in continental
to be perennial herbs or shrubs with orange or red
South-East Asia or that they are mutually ex-
fruits, whereas in the Malesian region shrubs or
changeable. In Thailand fruits or fruit pulp of S.
small trees with scarlet or black fruits predomi-
trifoliatus, pounded in water, are applied as a skin
nate.
wash or shampoo. The fruit pulp is commonly
Ecology S.javanica is found in relatively moist used as a substitute for soap to wash clothes, e.g.
primary and secondary forest along fringes and in the traditional soga batik of Central Java. The
clearings from sea-level up to 2500 m altitude; in fruits are also employed as a fish poison. The tim-
South-East Asia it is most common above 1000 m ber ofSapindus is not durable and mostly used for
altitude. firewood and charcoal only.
Genetic resources S. javanica is widespread Properties Saponins are found in all plant
and well adapted to disturbed habitats. It is not parts of Sapindus, with the highest concentration
threatened by genetic erosion. in the fruits. Saponins as present in the fruit peri-
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco- carp of several Sapindus species show strong mol-
luscicidal activity (LC100 after 24 h at 5-13 ppm). techniques have been practised successfully for S.
Extracts also showed potent insecticidal and anti- saponaria.
fungal activities as well as ichthyotoxic proper- Genetic resources Both S. rarak and S.
ties. saponaria are widespread and well adapted to dis-
An extract of S. saponaria totally inhibited the turbed habitats. Moreover, they are widely culti-
haemorrhagic effect induced by snake venom in a vated and locally naturalized, and thus do not
mouse bioassay. The saponins in the fruit pulp of seem to be liable to genetic erosion.
S. trifoliatus showed potent antispermatogenic ef- Prospects Various tests have corroborated the
fects in various test animals. Saponins from the traditional medicinal uses of South-East Asian
fruit pulp ofS. saponaria are one of the 3 ingredi- Sapindus, and most of the activities recorded re-
ents of a polyherbal cream and pessary that has sult from the presence of high concentrations of
been developed. These ingredients have synergis- saponin. Sapindus seems to have promising
tic spermicidal properties on human sperm, in vit- prospects for the development of modern phy-
ro and in vivo, and a high contraceptive activity in tomedicines, especially for external application,
various mammals. Another interesting property of having antimicrobial and insecticidal activities.
the saponins is their inhibitory action against a Locally the fruits are highly esteemed as a soap
wide range of microorganisms, e.g. Candida albi- substitute because they are considered to prevent
cans, Neisseria gonorrhoea, Herpes simplex-2 and fading oflocally produced traditional clothing.
HIV-1 viruses. Phase-I clinical trials have been Literature 121,127, 240, 762, 798,911.
successfully completed in several countries.
Saponins isolated from the fruit pulp of S. rarak
showed in-vitro antibacterial activity against Selection of species
Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyoge-
nes, and antifungal activity against Candida albi- Sapindus rarak DC.
cans and Candida tropicalis. Prodr. 1:608 (1824).
The fruit pulp of S. saponaria provides a promis- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: lamuran (Pa-
ing biodegradable surfactant for hexachloroben- lembang, Sumatra), rerek (Sundanese), lerak (Ja-
zene and naphthalene contaminated soils. A vanese). Malaysia: lerak (Peninsular). Thailand:
methanol extract ofS. rarak fruits, given as a food makham dee khwaai (central, peninsular), masak,
additive to sheep significantly increased weight sompoi thet (northern).
gain and digestive efficiency. Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan-
Botany Evergreen, monoecious, small to fairly mar), Indo-China, Taiwan, Thailand, Peninsular
large trees up to 40 m tall. Leaves arranged spi- Malaysia, Sumatra, Bangka, Java, Lombok and
rally, paripinnate, without stipules; leaflets alter- Sumbawa; widely cultivated elsewhere in Male-
nate or opposite, entire, herbaceous to leathery. sia.
Inflorescence terminal, thyrsoid, widely branched. Uses An infusion of the fruits is used as a wash
Flowers unisexual (at least functionally), regular for pimples, and the fruit pulp as a remedy for sca-
or zygomorphic; sepals 5, free, outer 2 smaller; bies. A decoction is recommended as an insecti-
petals 4-5, equal, as long as or slightly longer cide. The fruit pulp is employed as a soap substi-
than the sepals, short-clawed and with a scale in- tute to wash especially batik and coloured clothes,
side; disk annular or semi-annular; stamens 8, but alsojewellery, and as a shampoo, especially to
free; ovary superior, 3-lobed, 3-celled, strongly re- get rid of head lice. Pounded bark may be used in
duced in male flowers, style slender. Fruit a 3- a similar way. The fruits are a very potent fish
lobed schizocarp, but often 1 or 2 parts abortive, poison.
breaking up into globular or obovoid drupes, these Observations A fairly large tree up to 40 m
1-seeded. Seed globular or ellipsoid, smooth, tall, bole up to 100 cm in diameter; leaves
black. (7-)9-13-jugate, up to 50 cm long, glabrous, peti-
Ecology In South-East Asia Sapindus is pre- ole variably terete, up to 9 cm long, rachis not
dominantly found in forests and thickets in mon- winged, leaflets subopposite to alternate, lanceo-
soon areas at low to medium altitudes. late-ovate, mostly oblique and slightly falcate,
Management Sapindus is commonly propagat- 7-16 cm x 2-3.5 cm, base oblique, apex obtuse to
ed by seed. Pre-treatment with concentrated sul- acute-acuminate, mucronate; inflorescence up to
phuric acid or cow-dung slurry is strongly recom- 35 cm long, densely tomentellous; flowers zygo-
mended. Chip budding and in-vitro propagation morphic, white, sepals flat, hardly petaloid, out-
SAPROSMA 359
side densely appressed hairy, petals 4, lanceolate-

ovate to elliptical, 3 mm x 1-2 mm, scale of about
the same shape and size, disk semi-annular, pistil
3.5-4 mm long; drupe subglobular, 2 cm x 1.8 cm
in diameter, carinate, red. S. rarak is found in for-
est from sea-level up to 1600 m altitude, with a
preference for a pronounced seasonality.
Selected sources 62, 121,247, 251,334.
Sapindus saponaria L.
Sp. pi. 1:367 (1753).
Synonyms Sapindus mukorossi Gaertner
(1788), Sapindus vitiensis A. Gray (1854), Sapin-
(Vat /-/
dus microcarpus Jardin (1857). • V \ •'(£$*
Vernacular names Soap-berry tree, soap-nut
(En). Philippines: tikastikas (Tagalog), kasibeng
(Ibanag, Iloko), malapalitpit (Pampango). Viet-
nam: b[oof] h[of]n, v[oo]ho[aj]n t[uwr].
Distribution Originating from tropical and
subtropical America, widely cultivated and natu-
ralized in the tropics and subtropics, in Asia from
India to China and Japan; in Malesia confined to
the Philippines, the Lesser Sunda Islands and
Papua New Guinea (Central Province).
Uses Roots, bark, leaves, but especially fruits
are used as a substitute for soap. The fruits are
applied as a fish poison and as a leech repellent.
In the Philippines the bark is used for washing Sapindus saponaria L. - 1, flowering branch; 2,
the hair, and crushed leaves for removing stains male flower; 3,female flower; 4,petal; 5, fruit.
from the skin. In Vietnam a decoction of macerat-
ed bark is applied to kill head and body lice. The scale represented by a hairy ridge or 2 auricles,
fruits are employed as a skin wash to remove tan disk annular, pistil c. 2 mm long; drupe subglobu-
and freckles. The kernel is recommended for bad lar, 0.8-1.2 cm in diameter, not carinate. In Male-
breath, gum boils and tooth decay. A seed decoc- sia three geographically disjunct races can be dis-
tion taken internally acts as an expectorant. In cerned. S. saponaria is found in more or less open,
Taiwan the flowers are a recommended medica- mostly secondary forest up to 500 m altitude.
tion for conjunctivitis and various eye diseases. In Selected sources 117, 247, 646, 671, 732, 783,
South and Central America the fruits are com- 926.
monly used in traditional medicine, mainly in ex- Lucie Widowati
ternal applications to treat arthritis, rheumatism,
gout, tumours and leprous swellings. Fibre from
the inner bark may be used for ropes. Saprosma Blume
Observations A tree up to 25 m tall, bole up to
55 cm in diameter; leaves 1-5-jugate, up to 40 cm Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 956 (1827).
long, glabrous, petiole terete to 3-angular, 1.5-5.5 RUBIACEAE
cm long, rachis variably marginated or winged, x =unknown
leaflets (sub-)opposite, elliptical to lanceolate, Origin and geographic distribution Sapros-
mostly slightly oblique and falcate, 6-16 cm x 3-6 ma comprises about 30 species and is distributed
cm, base cuneate, apex emarginate or obtuse to from India and Sri Lanka, through Burma (Myan-
acute; inflorescence up to 25 cm long, densely to- mar), Indo-China, southern China and Thailand,
mentose; flowers regular, cream, sepals concave, to the Malesian region.
mostly with a broad petaloid margin, ciliolate and Uses In traditional medicine in Peninsular Ma-
with some appressed hairs near the base, petals 5, laysia the leaves of Saprosma are cooked with
oblong-ovate to ovate, 1.5-2.5 mm x 1-1.2 mm, food in case of complaints in the digestive organs.
They are used also internally to treat flatulence may be a substitute for the much better known
and externally as a poultice after childbirth. Prob- Paederia.
ably they serve as a substitute for Paederia. Unde- Literature 121, 731.
fined medicinal uses have been mentioned for S.
arboreum Blume in Java.
Properties Bruised leafy parts of Saprosma Selection of species
plants have an offensive faecal smell similar to
Paederia species, probably caused by similar com- Saprosma glomerulatum King &
pounds. A dozen of iridoid glucosides, 8 bis-iridoid Gamble
glucosides (saprosmosides A-H) and 7 an- Journ. As. Soc. Beng. pt. 2, Nat. Hist. 73: 98
thraquinones (derivatives of munjistin and lu- (1904).
cidin) have been isolated from leaves and stems of Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: sekentut, ken-
S. scortechinii. tut-kentut, chunpong (Peninsular).
Botany Shrubs or small trees up to 8 m tall. Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Singa-
Leaves opposite or in whorls of 3, simple and en- pore.
tire, pinnately veined, foetid when bruised, sessile Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves have
or shortly petiolate; stipules interpetiolar, shortly been cooked with food in cases ofcomplaints in the
connate into a tube, broadly triangular, with pale digestive organs.
stiff bristles along the base on the inner side. In- Observations A shrub up to 3 m tall; leaves el-
florescence a terminal or axillary cyme, some- liptical to ovate-elliptical, 10-17.5 cm x 4-7.5 cm,
times fasciculate, often on short branches having petiole 0.5-1 cm long; flowers in dense head-like
2 nodes of which the lower is leafless. Flowers bi- clusters. S. glomerulatum occurs in lowland and
sexual, 4(-5)-merous, usually sessile; calyx cam- lower montane forest, also in swamp forest.
panulate to hypocrateriform, truncate or with Selected sources 121, 789, 990.
minute lobes; corolla infundibular with short tube
having a hairy throat, lobes ovate, valvate in bud, Saprosma scortechinii King & Gamble
whitish or yellowish; stamens inserted at or near Journ. As. Soc. Beng. pt. 2, Nat. Hist. 73: 99
the corolla throat, filaments short, exserted; disk (1904).
annular; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style included, Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: berkerak (Penin-
with 2-lobed stigma. Fruit a globose to ellipsoid sular).
drupe, thin-walled, ripening crimson, blue or Distribution Northern Peninsular Malaysia.
black, usually with a white-waxy bloom, (l-)2- Uses S. scortechinii is used to treat fever.
seeded. Seeds ellipsoid or plano-convex. Observations A shrub up to 2 m tall; leaves el-
Saprosma is traditionally classified in the tribe liptical, 9-14 cm x 4-6.5 cm, petiole c. 0.5 cm long;
Psychotrieae, but is better placed in Paederieae, flowers in distinctly branched, usually 3-flowered
together with e.g. Paederia, based on the valvate- cymes up to 2.5 cm long, calyx lobes linear to
induplicate aestivation, pollen morphology, ovary lanceolate, up to 1 mm broad. S. scortechinii oc-
characteristics, and the foetid odour of crushed curs in lowland and lower montane forests up to
leaves. The taxonomy ofthe genus has been poorly 1000 m altitude.
studied for South-East Asia. It is, for example, Selected sources 121,572, 573, 789, 990.
doubtful whether the species named S. ternatum
in Malaysia is the same as what is called so else- Saprosma ternatum Hook.f.
where. Fl. Brit. India 3: 193(1881).
Ecology Most Saprosma species occur in low- Vernacular names Malaysia: sekentut, kesim-
land or lower montane forests. bukan, merbuloh paya (Peninsular). Vietnam:
Genetic resources Although the areas of dis- ho[aj]i h[uw][ow]ng.
tribution of Saprosma species are still not clearly Distribution Eastern India, Burma (Myan-
known, the species treated here seem to have a mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand and
limited distribution and might easily become en- northern Peninsular Malaysia.
dangered or liable to genetic erosion. U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are
Prospects Very little is known about Saprosma used internally to treat flatulence and externally
of South-East Asia, and this refers to all aspects as a poultice after childbirth.
including botany, ecology, phytochemistry and Observations A shrub up to 3 m tall; leaves el-
pharmacological properties. Perhaps Saprosma liptical to elliptical-lanceolate, 10-25 cm x 4-9 cm,
SARCOLOBUS 361
petiole 1-1.5 cm long; flowers in distinctly about one week. Fresh coconut water is considered
branched, several-flowered cymes up to 9 cm long, an antidote for humans. The crude toxic resinous
calyx lobes narrowly triangular, over 1 mm broad. constituent has been called sarcolobid.
S. ternatum occurs in lowland and hill forests. The results of tests on a crude glycoside extract
Selected sources 121,789, 990. suggest that the neuromuscular blocking effect of
Dodi Darmakusuma the extract is either dose-dependent or due to a
mixture oftoxins with presynaptic or postsynaptic
actions, and that the inhibitory effect on smooth
Sarcolobus globosus Wallich muscle contractions is mainly due to inhibition of
calcium influx.
Asiat. Res. 12:568(1818). Botany A small liana; stem up to 5 m long and
ASCLEPIADACEAE c. 5 mm in diameter, terete and hollow, with latex
2« = unknown and papery bark, lenticellate. Leaves opposite,
Synonyms Sarcolobus banksii Roemer & simple and entire, ovate to elliptical, (5-)6-10(-12)
Schultes (1820), Sarcolobus narcoticus Span, ex cm x (2.5-)3-5(-6.5) cm, cordate to obtuse or trun-
Miq. (1857),Sarcolobus spanoghei Miq. (1857). cate at base, obtuse to acute or acuminate at apex,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: walikambing leathery, glossy green above, pale green below,
(Sundanese), lakambing (Javanese), peler kamb- secondary veins arching, with extrafloral nec-
ing (Madurese). Malaysia: akar pelir kambing, taries at base; petiole 1-4 cm long, grooved, with
buah pitis, pitis-pitis (Peninsular). Thailand: hua small stipular structures at base. Inflorescence a
ling (Bangkok). Vietnam: d[aa]y c[as]m. racemiform to umbelliform cyme up to 3 cm long,
Origin and geographic distribution Eastern appearing at nodes between the leaves, bracteate.
India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand, Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous; sepals c. 2
and throughout Malesia except the Lesser Sunda
Islands.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves of S.
globosus are ground into a paste with nuts of
Aleurites, and this paste is used for rubbing on the
joints to treat rheumatism or dengue fever. The
bark and seeds contain a poisonous resin, which is
used to poison animals such as dogs, wild pigs and
tigers. It has been suggested that the extinction of
the Javanese tiger was due to the use of S. globo-
sus poison by the local population. The fruit is
candied for consumption, but seeds and resin
should be removed carefully. The leaves are occa-
sionally eaten with curry.
Properties Some alkaloids and glycosides have
been isolated from S.globosus; these showed cyto-
toxic activity against human cervical carcinoma
cell lines. The seeds, bark, resin and leaves are
toxic in various degrees. The seeds from one fruit
are enough to kill large animals such as ele-
phants, buffaloes and cattle. Toxic symptoms such
as debility, incoordination, progressive muscular
tremors commencing posteriorly, pupil dilation,
teeth grinding, blanching of visible membranes,
rapid pulse, dyspnoea and coma appeared in cat-
tle within 8 hours after consuming the leaves.
Death occurred 20 hours later. Inflammation of
the gastro-intestinal tract was the most signifi-
cant post-mortem lesion. Tests with dogs showed Sarcolobus globosus Wallich - 1, apical part of
that 5 g of bark powder caused serious intoxica- flowering stem; 2, fruit; 3,fruit in longitudinal sec-
tion, but the dogs recovered completely after tion; 4, seed.
mm long, ciliate, with glands at base; corolla sub- Prospects Little is known about S. globosus,
rotate to campanulate, 1-2 cm in diameter, deeply and its prospects as a medicinal plant are unclear.
lobed, lobes ciliate, glabrous to densely pubescent The toxicity of various parts of the plant compels
inside, whitish to yellowish-green with reddish- caution in human usage, but may allow its more
brown longitudinal stripes on the lobes, with or widespread use as a pesticide.
without 5 truncate ridges in the throat alternat- Literature 121,254, 292, 405, 658, 659, 792.
ing with the lobes; stamens inserted at base of Other selected sources 255,334, 731, 809.
corolla tube, connate, with or without staminal H.C. Ong
corona lobes adnate to the staminal column, an-
thers each with an incurved terminal appendage,
each anther theca with 2 horizontal pollinia; S a r c o t h e c a laxa (Ridley) K n u t h
ovaries 2, superior, free except for bases and tips,
with short styles, stigma deeply 5-angled, flat, the Engl, Pflanzern-., Heft 95:422 (1930).
centre with a papillose spherical knob and 5 nar- OXALIDACEAE
row ridges. Fruit consisting of 1-2 subglobose fol- 2« = unknown
licles up to 10 cm x 7 cm, unequal at base, brown Synonyms Connaropsis sericea Ridley (1920),
to purplish, smooth to roughly punctured, with Connaropsis simplicifolia Ridley (1922).
fleshy pericarp, many-seeded. Seeds oblong to obo- Vernacular names Malaysia: belimbing cher-
vate, 2-2.5 cm long, flat, lacking a coma. chek, belimbing hutan, gerinji (Peninsular).
S.globosus can be found flowering throughout the Origin and geographic distribution S. laxa
year. occurs in Peninsular Malaysia and northern
Sarcolobus consists of approximately 18 species, Sumatra.
and occurs in India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-Chi- Uses On the east coast of Pahang, Peninsular
na, Thailand, the Malesian region, northern and Malaysia, S. laxa roots are used for poulticing
eastern Australia and Melanesia to Fiji. In Male- wounds. The sour fruits of Sarcotheca are added
sia, 13 species occur (including Dorystephania), to stews, curries and cooked vegetables, and are
New Guinea being richest in species (11). said to be a good remedy against cough.
Within S. globosus, 2 subspecies are distinguish- Botany A shrub or small to medium-sized tree
ed: subsp. globosus from India to Java and Bor- up to 23 m tall; bole up to 45 cm in diameter;
neo, and subsp. peregrinus (Blanco) Rintz from young branches glabrous to densely ferruginous-
Vietnam, western Sumatra, Borneo, the Philip- tomentose. Leaves alternate, 1-foliolate, oblong to
pines, the Moluccas and New Guinea. They differ lanceolate, (5-)8-23 cm x (2-)3-8.5 cm, base
in the shape ofcorolla and corona. broadly cuneate to truncate, apex acuminate to
Ecology S. globosus occurs along the coast, in caudate, entire; petiole jointed, 0.5-2.5 cm long,
mangrove forest and tidal swamp forest, and on upper part swollen and wrinkled; stipules absent.
sand and coral beaches scrambling over the vege- Inflorescence an axillary panicle, 1-3 together, up
tation. to 30 cm long, erect, pendent in fruit. Flowers
Management Dried and powdered parts of the bisexual, heterodistylous, 5-merous; sepals un-
bark and seeds are mixed with bait to kill ani- equal, minute, connate at base; petals contorted,
mals. After removal of the poisonous seeds, the free at base but adhering above the claw and
fleshy pericarp ofthe fruit is steeped in salt water falling jointly, 4-7 mm x 1.3-2 mm, whitish to
for 3-4 days and subsequently for 2 days in fresh dark red; stamens 10, connate at base, longer and
water; this removes the water-soluble poisonous shorter ones alternating; ovary superior, 5-celled,
resin, and the fruit rind can be eaten with curry or styles free, long or short. Fruit a fleshy, 5-lobed
after being boiled in syrup. berry 6-13 mm x 4-9 mm, red or black, with per-
Genetic resources S. globosus has a large area sistent sepals. Seeds flat, reddish. Seedling with
of distribution and is common in many places. It epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy; hypocotyl
does not seem to be liable to genetic erosion, al- elongated; first 2 leaves opposite, subsequent ones
though it is confined to a habitat which is under alternate.
high pressure in many regions, i.e. mangrove com- Growth in S. laxa is in flushes. Young leaves are
munities. The variability of the species deserves deep violet. Flowering and fruiting occur almost
more attention, as it has resulted in 2 subspecies throughout the year. Pollination is by insects (e.g.
being distinguished that are not completely sepa- Xylocopa bees) and cross-pollination is regulated
rated geographically. by the heterodistylous flowers. The fruits are eat-
SAUROPUS 363
en by bats, birds and monkeys which thus dis- and fruits, are consumed raw as well as cooked.
perse the seeds. The fruits are sometimes comfited into a sweet-
Sarcotheca comprises 11 species occurring in meat. In India, the leaves are also used as a cattle
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Su- and poultry feed. S. androgynus is often planted
lawesi. In the field, it can be confused with Rourea in home gardens as a living fence. The leaves are
(Connaraceae), but the latter has free carpels, also used for dyeing foodstuffs, in particular to
seeds with an aril, and dry, 1-celled and 1-seeded transfer a green colour to pastry, rice and pre-
fruits. serves. S. brevipes is used to treat diarrhoea in a
Ecology S. laxa is found scattered in primary mixture with other plants.
and secondary forest, forest edges and swamps at Properties Experiments with laboratory ani-
low altitudes. mals in Indonesia showed that S. androgynus de-
Genetic resources Although S. laxa has a lim- creases blood pressure, has a negative chrono- and
ited distribution, it does not appear to be threat- ionotropic effect on the heart, decreases peristaltic
ened because it has a wide ecological amplitude. movement of the intestine, causes contraction of
Prospects As nothing is known with respect to the uterus, acts as an abortivum and antipyretic,
the phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- increases glycogenosis in the liver, and increases
ties of S. laxa further research is needed to sup- milk production. At least some of these activities
port its traditional use or indicate its potential in may be caused by the alkaloid papaverine, the
herbal medicine. presence of which has been demonstrated; it has
Literature 121,247, 960. spasmolytic activity, relaxing smooth muscle fi-
Other selected sources 883, 990. bres, especially those of cerebral, pulmonary and
R.P. Escobin systemic peripheral blood vessels.
S. androgynus is a very nutritious vegetable with
a higher protein content than most other leafy
Sauropus Blume vegetables. It has high vitamin A, B and C con-
tents. It has been a popular uncooked vegetable in
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 595 (1826). Taiwan for weight reduction since 1994, although
EUPHORBIACEAE the effect on weight control is unconfirmed. How-
x = unknown; S. androgynus: 2n = 50, 52 ever, consumption is connected with an outbreak
Origin and geographic distribution Sauro- of rapidly progressive obstructive lung disease in
pus comprises approximately 40 species and oc- Taiwan. Regular consumption can result in mod-
curs in southern Asia southwards from the Hi- erate to severe obstructive ventilatory defect with-
malayas, and in northern Australia. Indo-China in 7 months, and the disorder seems irreversible.
and Thailand are richest in species (each about The lung injury involves alveoli and/or small air-
20). In the Malesian region 13 species have been ways and is manifest as obstructive ventilatory
found: 7 in Peninsular Malaysia, 6 in Sumatra, 3 impairment with inhomogeneous aerosol distribu-
in Java, 5 in Borneo, 4 in the Philippines, 3 in cen- tion and increased lung epithelial permeability. T-
tral Malesia (the Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi cell mediated immunity, altered cytokine expres-
and the Moluccas) and 2 in New Guinea. sion and infiltration of eosinophils and neu-
trophils may be involved in the pathogenesis. It is
Uses Two Sauropus species have been used in
even indicated that lung transplantation is the on-
traditional medicine in South-East Asia, the most
ly effective form of treatment for patients with
important being S. androgynus, which is primari-
end-stage Sauropus androgynus -induced bronchi-
ly used as a vegetable. A decoction of the roots of
olitis obliterans syndrome. A hospital-based case-
the latter is used against fever and urinary prob-
control study showed that a larger total amount of
lems, and to relieve congestion. The leaves, pre-
S. androgynus consumption, preparation without
pared as a vegetable, are recommended for women
cooking and ingesting food prepared by a vendor
after childbirth to stimulate milk production and
were the significant risk factors associated with
recovery ofthe womb. Apoultice made ofthe roots
the syndrome. The alkaloid papaverine has been
and leaves is applied to ulcerations of the nose
identified in the vegetable, but is unlikely to be re-
and yaws. The leaf-juice is used to treat eye infec-
sponsible for the full range of toxicity. Tests with
tions and thrush ofthe tongue in children, and the
rats, however, did not show injuries to the
leaves are reputedly also effective against erythe-
broncheal tubes, alveoli or pulmonary vessels
ma, measles and dysuria. The young shoots and
caused by ingestion ofhigh-dose S. androgynus.
stripped leaves, often together with the flowers
A methanolic extract of S. androgynus exhibited adequate research attention. Although it is a valu-

very strong antinematodal activity against the able indigenous leafy vegetable in South-East
pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Asia, recent experiences with consuming large un-
Botany Monoecious shrubs, sometimes scram- cooked quantities resulting in lung injuries in Tai-
bling, shrublets or herbs with a woody base. wan show the need for a thorough toxicological
Leaves alternate, simple and entire, pinnately evaluation.
veined, very shortly petiolate; stipules mostly Literature 374, 565,853.
small, triangular-subulate. Inflorescence an axil-
lary fascicle, sometimes a densely bracteate pseu-
doraceme, occasionally cauliflorous. Flowers uni- Selection of species
sexual, with 6 tepals in 2 series of 3 (petals ab-
sent), free or variously connate, frequently the dis- Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.
tal half ofeach tepal sharply inflexed, disk absent; Philipp. Bur. For. Bull. 1:30 (1903).
male flowers with 3 stamens, the filaments con- Synonyms Sauropus albicans Blume (1826),
nate into a short column; female flowers with Sauropus sumatranus Miq. (1860).
tepals usually accrescent in fruit, ovary superior, Vernacular n a m e s Star gooseberry (En). In-
3-celled, styles either short, broad and entire or donesia: katuk (Sundanese), babing (Javanese),
bifid, or deeply bifid with linear coiled or recurved simani (Minangkabau). Malaysia: chekup manis,
segments. Fruit a depressed-globose or ovoid, in- cekur manis (Peninsular). Philippines: binahian
conspicuously lobed capsule, few-seeded. Seeds (Tagalog). Burma (Myanmar): yo-ma-hin-yo. Cam-
triquetrous, without aril. bodia: dom nghob. Laos: hvaan baanz. Thailand:
Sauropus has lateral branches which superficially phak waan baan (general), kaan tong (northern),
have the appearance of compound leaves, compa- ma yom paa (Prachuap Khiri Khan). Vietnam: rau
rable to Phyllanthus species. S. androgynus flow- ng[os]t, b[oof] ng[os]t, ch[uf]m ng[os]t.
ers year-round in Java and fruiting is usually Distribution Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Burma
abundant. (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Thai-
Ecology Sauropus occurs in evergreen and de- land and throughout the Malesian region, but pos-
ciduous forests, often also in scrub vegetation and sibly absent in New Guinea. It mainly occurs in
sometimes even in grassland, usually in the low- cultivation and the exact origin is unknown.
land, but some species up to 1500 m altitude. In Uses In traditional medicine, a decoction of the
Peninsular Malaysia, many Sauropus species roots is used against fever and urinary problems,
have been recorded from limestone. and to relieve congestion. The leaves, prepared as
Management S. androgynus can be propagated a vegetable, are recommended for women after
by seeds, which are usually readily available from childbirth to stimulate milk production and recov-
established plantings, but propagation from stem ery of the womb. A poultice made of the roots and
cuttings is easier and much more common. Tests leaves is applied to ulcerations of the nose and
in India with micropropagation using nodal ex- yaws. The leaf-juice is used in Peninsular Ma-
plants showed promising results. In commercial laysia to treat eye infections and in Vietnam to
plantings the distance is 30-40 cm x 30-40 cm, treat thrush of the tongue in children, and the
but in home gardens S. androgynus is usually leaves are reputedly also effective against erythe-
grown as a hedge and planted closely in the row ma, measles and dysuria. The young shoots and
(10 cm). In Vietnam the roots are dried before use; stripped leaves, often together with the flowers
the leaves are used fresh for medicinal purposes. and fruits, are consumed raw as well as cooked.
Genetic resources S. androgynus is widely The fruits are sometimes comfited into a sweet-
distributed, both in the wild and in cultivation, meat. In India, the leaves are also used as a cattle
and is not under pressure from genetic erosion. No and poultry feed. Star gooseberry is often planted
germplasm collection and breeding are in pro- in home gardens as a living fence. The leaves are
gress. S. brevipes is uncommon and less widely also used for dyeing foodstuffs, in particular to
distributed. Several Sauropus species have very transfer a green colour to pastry, rice and pre-
small areas of distribution or seem to be rare, and serves.
could be easily endangered. Observations An erect shrub up to 500 cm tall,
Prospects S. androgynus, and perhaps also with flaccid, terete or angled branches; leaves
other Sauropus species, shows interesting phar- ovate or lanceolate, 2-7.5 cm x 1-3 cm, obtuse or
macological activities, but it has not yet received acute; male flowers disk-shaped, entire or nearly
SAXIFRAGA 365
tion up to 300 m altitude; it is uncommon.

Sriana Azis
Saxifraga stolonifera W. Curtis

Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 64(1): 308, no.
2541 (1774).
SAXIFRAGACEAE
2« = 32
Synonyms Saxifraga stolonifera Meerb. (1777),
Saxifraga sarmentosa L.f. ex Schreber (1780),
Saxifraga ligulata Murray (1781).
Vernacular names Vietnam: h[oor] nhfix]
th[ar]o.
Origin and geographic distribution S. stolo-
nifera is indigenous in China, Japan, Korea, and
possibly northern Vietnam; it is widely cultivated
as an ornamental, also in various parts of South-
East Asia, especially in cooler mountainous areas.
U s e s In Javanese, Vietnamese and Chinese folk
medicine, juice from S. stolonifera leaves is
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. - 1, flowering dropped into the ear as a remedy for earache. In
and fruiting shoot; 2, female flower; 3, male flower. Japanese folk medicine fresh leaves have been
used for burns, frostbite and whooping cough. In
so; fruit subglobose, up to 1.5 cm in diameter, Vietnam fresh leaves are externally applied on
whitish. S. androgynus is common in evergreen pimples and wounds. In China heated or burned
forest, clearings, scrub vegetation, roadsides and leaves are externally applied in a steam bath to
on waste ground, up to 1000 m altitude. It is culti- treat haemorrhoids. Internally the leaves are used
vated up to 1300 m. against cholera, vomiting, and to relieve feverish
Selected sources 19, 20, 21,22, 23, 24, 62, 121, lung afflictions and cough. In Korea the entire
214, 374, 565, 584, 671,745,853,990. plant is used to treat meningitis, fever, diarrhoea,
neuralgia, frostbite and eczema.
Sauropus brevipes Müll. Arg. Properties Condensed tannins, flavonol glyco-
Linnaea 32: 73 (1863). sides such as quercetin and saxifragin (= quer-
Synonyms Sauropus parvifolius Ridley (1911). cetin-5-ß-glucoside), bergenin and norbergenin
Vernacular names Malaysia: merajah santah have been isolated from fresh S. stolonifera
(Peninsular). Thailand: kraduuk kai dam (Pra- leaves.
chuap Khiri Khan). Vietnam: b[oof] ng[os]t The antioxidative activity observed for the ethan-
ch[aa]n ng[aws]n. olic extract ofS. stolonifera leaves is considered to
Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, be due to cooperation of many (poly)phenolic com-
Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia. pounds (e.g. tannins, quercetin, chlorogenic acid
Uses S. brevipes has been used in Peninsular and bergenin).
Malaysia to treat diarrhoea in a decoction with Botany A perennial, stemless, stoloniferous
other plants. herb up to 50 cm tall (in flower). Leaves in a
Observations A slender shrub up to 100 cm rosette, simple, suborbicular, shallowly palma-
tall, with very slender, terete branches; leaves tilobed, 2-8 cm wide, base cordate, sparingly long-
ovate, obovate or elliptical, 1-2.5 cm long, broadly hairy, green and white-veined above, tinged red
cuneate at base, rounded or obtuse at apex, thinly beneath; petiole 3-12 cm long. Inflorescence an
membranous; male flowers star-shaped, perianth erect many-flowered panicle. Flowers bisexual, zy-
about equally 12-dentate; fruit subglobose, c. 6 gomorphic, long-hairy; calyx 3-4 mm long, re-
mm in diameter, whitish. S. brevipes occurs in curved; both downwards-oriented petals lanceo-
evergreen forest, bamboo forest and scrub vegeta- late or ovate-lanceolate, 9-15 mm long, acute,
white, the other 3 petals ovate, 3-5 mm long, pink, white and green markings on the leaves and
pinkish, darker punctate with a yellow basal spot; 'Cuscutiformis' with almost equal petals and ovate
stamens 10, filaments clavate; disk opposite the to subovate leaves.
shorter petals, orange-yellow; ovary superior. Prospects The traditional uses of S. stolonifera
Fruit a capsule, dehiscent, many-seeded; the are probably all related to the tannins present in
longer petals enlarging and stiffening during fruit the leaves. At present its importance as an orna-
maturation, pointing upwards. Seeds minute. mental by far outweighs its medicinal value.
Saxifraga is a predominantly temperate genus Literature 42, 62, 731,732, 918.
comprising about 400 species. Recent DNA stud- Other selected sources 121, 334, 645, 671,
ies indicate that it is actually composed of two 880.
evolutionarily distinct groups. S. stolonifera be- J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
longs to section Irreguläres, comprising about 10
species with relatively primitive characters dis-
tributed in southern China, Korea and Japan. Scindapsus h e d e r a c e u s Schott
Ecology In its natural area of distribution S.
stolonifera occurs on wet soils and rocks. In South- Bonplandia 5:45 (1857).
East Asia it is only cultivated in the mountains. AEACEAE
Management S. stolonifera can be easily propa- 2« =64
gated by the numerous plantlets produced on the Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar lebang
slender red stolons ofmature plants. aleh, akar ular (Peninsular). Thailand: khokiu
Genetic resources S. stolonifera is widespread (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Vietnam: d[aa]y b[as].
and common in cultivation in Asia and Europe. Origin and geographic distribution S. hede-
Numerous cultivars have been described, those raceus occurs in Indo-China, southern Thailand,
most commonly encountered being 'Tricolor' with Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java
and Borneo;perhaps also in the Philippines.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
stem of S. hederaceus is used as a liniment to
treat rheumatism.
S. officinalis Schott, widespread in India, Burma
(Myanmar), northern Thailand, Indo-China and
south-western China, is more commonly used in
traditional medicine. In India, the fruit is credited
with stimulant, diaphoretic, aphrodisiac, carmina-
tive and anthelmintic properties, and is used to
stop diarrhoea and as an expectorant to treat
asthma. It also has antiprotozoal activity and is
applied externally to treat rheumatism. Fruits
and shoots have hypoglycaemic activity.
S. pictus Hassk. is often cultivated as an orna-
mental, usually juvenile plants with silver spots
on the leaves.
Properties There is no information available
on the phytochemistry and pharmacological prop-
erties of S. hederaceus. The seed oil of S. offici-
nalis contains an hydroxy fatty acid, cyclo-
propenoid fatty acids and other fatty acids includ-
ing palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and
linoleic acid. It has potential as a replacement for
cocoa butter. The fruits contain some glucosidic
substances called scindapsins. Flavonoids such as
chrysoeriol and quercetin have been isolated from
the leaves ofS. pictus.
Saxifraga stolonifera W. Curtis 1,plant habit; 2, Botany A large climbing herb up to 20 m long;
flower. stem slender, up to 1 cm thick, with clasping
SCLERIA 367
roots. Leaves alternate, simple and entire, ellipti- ica. For the Malesian region about 35 species have
cal-lanceolate, more or less oblique, 10-16(-21) cm been recorded, ofwhich only 5 are endemic.
x 3-6(-8.5) cm, obtuse to rounded at base, acumi- Uses Several Scleria species are used in tradi-
nate at apex, pinnately veined, with marginal tional medicine in the Malesian region: the roots
vein; petiole up to 9 cm long, winged to near the to treat cough and gonorrhoea and after child-
apex, with broad sheath at base, geniculate at birth, and the aerial parts to treat fever and as an
apex; stipules absent. Inflorescence a solitary, analgesic. Scleria is commonly used in tropical
cylindrical spadix (2.5-)4-7 cm long, enclosed by a Africa for medicinal purposes, most often to treat
fusiform to boat-shaped yellowish-green spathe dysmenorrhoea and gonorrhoea, and as an anal-
4.5-8 cm long. Flowers bisexual, without perianth; gesic, sometimes also to treat cough.
stamens 4; ovary superior, 1-celled, 4-6-angular, Scleria can be useful to prevent soil erosion on
with well-developed stylar region. Fruit a red slopes. The leaves are sometimes used to make
berry, stylar region caducous when mature, 1- mats and for polishing wood. Young plants of S.
seeded. Seed subreniform, compressed, testa biflora Roxb. are eaten as a vegetable in Java.
thick, endosperm present. Properties The presence of proanthocyanidins
Scindapsus comprises about 35 species and occurs has been demonstrated for S.pergracilis. The aer-
in tropical Asia, north-eastern Australia (Queens- ial parts ofS. purpurascens showed slight antibac-
land) and the islands of the western Pacific. It be- terial activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
longs to the tribe Monstereae, together with e.g. Botany Monoecious, perennial, often stout
Amydrium, Epipremnum and Rhaphidophora. It herbs, with short or creeping, often nodose rhi-
is best characterized by the solitary ovule and en- zome, or annual herbs with fibrous, reddish roots;
tire leaves. There is no recent taxonomie account stems solitary or tufted, usually erect, trigonous
ofthe genus. to triquetrous, smooth or scabrid. Leaves alter-
Ecology S. hederaceus occurs in lowland and nate, 3-ranked, simple, linear, smooth to very
lower montane forests up to 1500 m altitude. It scabrous on the margins, with prominent midrib
climbs on tree trunks, sometimes also on rocks, and 2 lateral veins prominent above; sheath
and is also found in secondary forest and thickets, prominent, closed. Inflorescence a terminal pani-
and even on wayside trees. cle, usually together with some lateral panicles,
Genetic resources Although the exact area of sometimes a cluster or spike. Flowers in (1-)
distribution of S. hederaceus is still unclear, it few-many-flowered spikelets, each flower sub-
seems to be widespread and at least locally com- tended by a bract, unisexual, without perianth;
mon, also in secondary habitats. Consequently, it male flowers with 1-3 free stamens, anthers ob-
does not seem to be threatened by genetic erosion. long to linear; female flowers with superior, 1-
Prospects Little is known about the botanical celled ovary, style caducous but base often persis-
aspects and distribution of S. hederaceus, and tent, stigmas 3. Fruit a variously shaped and
nothing about its phytochemistry and pharmaco- sculptured nut seated on a disk. Seed with thin
logical activity. Research seems worthwhile be- testa, endosperm abundant.
cause of the extensive use of the related S. offici- Scleria is classified as the single representative of
nalis as a medicinal plant in India. A taxonomie the tribe Sclerieae.
revision ofScindapsus is badly needed. Ecology Most Scleria species seem to be indif-
Literature 62, 121,181. ferent to climate and soil. They are most often
Other selected sources 190, 264, 331,789. found in secondary regrowth, grassland, along
Dodi Darmakusuma roadsides and in open forest, but some species
(e.g. S. poaeformis) prefer swamps and lake
shores. Scleria is most common below 1000 m alti-
Scleria P.J. Bergius tude, but a few species may reach 1500(-2200) m.
Where it occurs, it is often common and locally
Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Handl. 26: 142 (1765). dominant. Some species may behave like weeds,
CYPERACEAE e.g. S. levis and S. purpurascens in rubber planta-
x =unknown; S.pergracilis: In = 10 tions.
Origin and geographic distribution Scleria Genetic resources All Scleria species treated
comprises about 200 species and occurs through- here are widely distributed and not liable to ge-
out the tropics and subtropics, locally reaching netic erosion, although it is remarkable that some
temperate regions, e.g. in Japan and North Amer- of them occur only very locally or are even rare in
the Malesian region. A few other Scleria species

are narrow endemics in Malesia.
Prospects Almost nothing is known about
pharmacological properties of Scleria. More re-
search seems justified because Scleria is used in
traditional medicine in Asia as well as Africa, and
often for similar purposes, e.g. to treat cough and
as an analgesic.
Literature 120, 121,247.
Scleria levis Retz.

Observ. bot. 4: 13 (1786).
Vernacular names Indonesia: jukut ilat (Sun-
danese), kerisan (Javanese), teteles (Sumatra).
Malaysia: sialit dudok (Peninsular). Philippines:
daat (Tagalog). Thailand: yaa khom baang (Trat),
yaa saam khom (Udon Thani). Vietnam: d[uw]ng
l[as]ng, c[uwl[ow]ng l[as]ng.
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Japan, Thai-
land, throughout Malesia, New Caledonia, the
Caroline Islands and Australia (Queensland).
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the fruits are used
to treat cough; they are added in the betel-quid.
Observations A perennial herb with slender Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. - 1, plant habit; 2,
stems up to 90 cm tall; leaves equally distributed different types of fruits.
along the stem, 3-8 mm wide, scabrous on the
margins in the upper part; inflorescence narrow, young plant tops are eaten to treat stomach com-
consisting of a terminal panicle up to 12 cm long plaints. The leaves are used to treat fever in
and 1-2 smaller lateral ones, spikelets in clusters Bougainville (Papua New Guinea). In East Africa
of 2-4; disk deeply 3-lobed, lobes lanceolate; fruit a decoction of the plant is applied internally to
subglobose, 2-2.5 mm in diameter, pubescent. S. treat dysmenorrhoea and threatening miscar-
levis occurs in open forest, brushwood, savanna riage.
and fallow land, up to 1500 m altitude. Observations A perennial herb with slender
Selected sources 121,247,731. stems up to 60(-90) cm tall; leaves often some-
what aggregated towards the middle of the stem,
S c l e r i a l i t h o s p e r m a (L.) S w . 1-4 mm wide, smooth; inflorescence narrow, con-
Prodr.:18(1788). sisting of a terminal panicle and 2-3 distant later-
Synonyms Hypoporum lithospermum (L.) Nees al ones, spikelets solitary or in clusters of 2-3;
(1842). disk reduced to a narrow ring; fruit ovoid to ob-
Vernacular names Indonesia: rumput luwung long-ovoid, 2-3 mm long, smooth and shining or
(Sumbawa), caka ma gaole (Ternate). Malaysia: rugulose, at the base with 3 rugulose depressions.
salip, senayan hutan, siamit hutan (Peninsular). S. lithosperma occurs in open localities, forest
Papua New Guinea: kabku (Bougainville). Philip- edges and rocky and sandy beaches, up to
pines: daat, katabad (Tagalog), talaid (Bagobo). 600(-1000) m altitude.
Thailand: yaa khom baang lek (Nakhon Ratchasi- Selected sources 120, 121,247, 347,731.
ma). Vietnam: d[uw]ng h[aj]t c[uws]ng.
Distribution Pantropical; throughout South- Scleria pergracilis (Nees) Kunth
East Asia including the Malesian region. Enum. pi. 2: 354 (1837).
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the Synonyms Hypoporum pergracile Nees (1834).
roots is applied after childbirth. In the Philippines Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: sajat-sajat jel-
SCLERIA 369
ma (Batak Karo, Sumatra). Papua New Guinea: Scleria purpurascens Steudel

kamiwa (Manki). Philippines: bangbanglo (Bon- Syn. pi. glumac. 2: 169 (1855).
tok). Thailand: khaa horn (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: Synonyms Scleria multifoliata Boeck. (1874).
c[os]i ba g[aa]n c[uws]ng, d[uw]ng m[ar]nh. Vernacular names Indonesia: sialit tajam, sia-
Distribution Tropical Africa, India, Sri Lanka, lit tumpul (Sumatra), tapalakisa (Seram). Malay-
Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, Sumatra, sia: sesayang (Peninsular). Thailand: yaa khom
the Philippines and New Guinea. baang (Trat).Vietnam: d[uw]ng d[or].
Uses In Sumatra a decoction ofthe plant is used Distribution The Andaman and Nicobar Is-
in a mixture to treat fever, and after childbirth. lands, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand,
The leaves have an aroma similar to that of Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the
lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf), Philippines and Sulawesi; perhaps also in the
and are used as a mosquito repellent. Moluccas.
Observations An annual herb with very slen- Uses In Sumatra the root sap is drunk to treat
der stems up to 50 cm tall; leaves 1.5-2 mm wide, cough. In the Moluccas the leaf tips of what is re-
scabrous towards the apex; inflorescence a linear, putedly S. purpurascens are mixed with coconut
unbranched spike, spikelets in clusters of 2-5; oil and pounded and applied externally as an
disk obsolete, stipe-like; fruit obtusely trigonous, analgesic.
slightly depressed, c. 1 mm long, glabrous, tuber- Observations A perennial herb with usually
culate especially towards the apex. S. pergracilis robust stems up to 200 cm tall; leaves clustered in
occurs on open slopes, edges of swamps and sa- the middle part of the stem, 3-14 mm wide,
vanna, up to 1500 m altitude; in Malesia it is rare. scabrous on the margins in the upper part; inflo-
Selected sources 121,247, 334,731. rescence consisting of a terminal panicle and up to
10 lateral ones, ultimately purplish, spikelets in
Scleria poaeformis Retz. clusters of 2-3; disk 3-lobed, lobes triangular; fruit
Observ. bot. 4: 13 (1786). ovoid, 2-2.5 mm long, glabrescent. S. purpuras-
Synonyms Scleria oryzoides Presl (1828). cens occurs in secondary forest, brushwood,
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: wlingi (Sun- swampy grassland and roadsides, up to 1000 m al-
danese), benjen (Sumatra), kara (Dusun, Kali- titude.
mantan). Malaysia: rumput siku dana (Peninsu- Selected sources 79, 121,247,295, 296.
lar). Philippines: agaas (Bikol). Thailand: prue
(general), prue naa (Songkhla), waeng (Nakhon Scleria sumatrensis Retz.
Ratchasima). Vietnam: d[uw]ng d[oof]ng th[as]p. Observ. bot. 5: 19,t. 2 (1789).
Distribution Eastern Africa, south-eastern In- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: sesayang (Su-
dia, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, southern China (Hai- matra), keris-keris, kerisan (Kalimantan). Malay-
nan), Thailand, Malesia and tropical Australia. sia: sendayan, sesayang gajah, rumput kumbar
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the (Peninsular). Philippines: pangpayung (Cebu Bi-
infructescence is used in a poultice to treat ab- saya), balbalili (Bontok), bulalo (Subanun). Viet-
dominal complaints. The leaves are used for pol- nam: c[os]i ba g[aa]n.
ishing wood, and in Java for making mats. Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China,
Observations A perennial herb with thick, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia,
creeping rhizome and robust stems up to 200 cm Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi
tall; leaves mainly basal, up to 25 mm wide, and northern Australia (Queensland).
smooth or scabrous on the margins; inflorescence Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
usually a compound panicle up to 20 cm x 10 cm, roots mixed with Pandanus and Areca catechu L.
spikelets solitary; disk small, triangular-cordate; roots and red chillies (Capsicum) is used to treat
fruit ovoid, ellipsoid or subglobose, 2.5-3 mm long, gonorrhoea.
smooth and glabrous. S. poaeformis occurs in Observations A perennial herb with robust
freshwater swamps, along ditches, in fallow rice stems up to 400 cm tall; leaves clustered in the
fields, grassland and swampy savanna-forest, up middle part of the stem, up to 13 mm wide,
to 1000 m altitude, often forming dense, pure scabrous on the margins in the upper part; inflo-
stands. In Malesia, it is widespread but occurs lo- rescence usually very dense, consisting of a termi-
cally. nal panicle up to 25 cm long and lateral ones 2-3
Selected sources 121,247. together, spikelets in clusters of 2-3; disk cup-
shaped, very large, 3-lobed; fruit depressed-glo-
bose, c. 2 mm in diameter, glabrescent. S. suma- myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase. A wa-

trensis occurs in dry open localities, forest and ter extract of stems and branches of S. parasitica
thickets, but also in swampy sites, up to 500 m al- exhibited activity against human immunodefi-
titude; it is often dominant. ciency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infected MT-4 cells
Selected sources 121,247,731. with an ED 50 value in the range of 4.2-175 |xg/ml.
Amor T. Karyawati The sample also suppressed the formation of
syncytia in co-cultures of MOLT-4 (a human leu-
kaemic T-cell line) and MOLT-4/HIV-1 cells. Re-
Scurrula L. cent pharmacological studies further demonstrat-
ed diuretic and cardiotonic properties. The ses-
Sp. pi. 1: 110 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:48 (1754). quiterpenes corianin and coriatin were isolated
LORANTHACEAE from S. parasitica leaves.
x = 9;S.parasitica: 2n =18 A chloroform extract of S. atropurpurea stems
Origin and geographic distribution Scurru- showed activity in the brine shrimp (Artemia sali-
la consists of some 20 species, and is distributed na) assay which indicates toxicity. The chloroform
from India to Indo-China, southern China, Tai- extract contained alkaloids and flavonoids.
wan, and Malesia east to Timor and the Moluccas. Botany Stem-parasitic shrubs, slender to mod-
In Malesia, 8 species occur with a centre of diver- erately robust, with runners on the bark of the
sity in Java (7 species). host, bearing secondary haustoria, more or less
Uses Scurrula is only little used in South-East clothed with a tomentum of stellate and dendritic
Asian folk medicine. It is more widely used in Chi- hairs. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, petio-
nese traditional medicine. In the Philippines men- late; stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary,
tion is made of powdered stem bark scrapings of 3-10-flowered raceme of decussate flowers, rarely
S. atropurpurea being boiled and gargled as a 2-flowered and umbellate, bracteate. Flowers bi-
mouthwash. In Java dried stems of stem-parasitic sexual, 4-merous; calyx reduced to a limb; corolla
Loranthaceae (including Scurrula and Dendroph- gamopetalous, zygomorphic, with the tube curved
thoe) enter into traditional prescriptions for the prior to anthesis, deeply split on the inner side of
treatment of smallpox, and for a vermifuge for the curve, lobes reflexed to the outer side at an-
children. Specific applications are often linked thesis; stamens inserted on the corolla opposite
with the host plant. More recently they are men- the lobes; ovary inferior, style simple, with a
tioned as a traditional medicine for cancer. knoblike stigma. Fruit berrylike, obovoid or club-
In Indo-China the leaves of S. gracilifolia shaped, distinctly stipitate, 1-seeded. Seed cov-
(Schultes) Danser growing on Morus are highly ered by a sticky layer.
esteemed in folk medicine. A decoction is pre- Pollination in Scurrula is by birds or insects and
scribed against boils and as a mouthwash to effective seed dispersal is by fruit-eating birds.
strengthen the teeth. It is also prescribed to treat Fruits may be either swallowed whole and the
muscular pains and lumbago. The plant is further seeds excreted, or the seeds are rubbed off on
credited to promote hair growth, and a decoction branches after feeding on the surrounding fruit
ofthe fruit is used for improving eyesight. pulp.
Properties Loranthaceae in general are rich in Scurrula is related to Dendrophthoe, differing in
tannins. This may well explain their use in poul- fruit structure and the small, more strongly zygo-
ticing. It is possible that chemical compounds iso- morphic, 4-merous flowers. It is also closely relat-
lated from a particular parasite are in fact derived ed to, and difficult to delineate from Taxillus.
from its host plant. However, common beliefs con- Hybridization and introgression appear to be com-
cerning specific host plants for a given application mon features in Malesian Scurrula species. This
are highly questionable. is probably a reflection of recent rapid speciation/
In a screening experiment for antihepatotoxic ac- diversification. The sympatric species in each is-
tivity in primary cultured hepatocytes, S. parasi- land usually differ in corolla length. The differ-
tica showed more than 50%inhibition against car- ences probably represent coadaptation with differ-
bontetrachloride- or D-galactosamine-induced cy- ent pollinators. The strongest indications of hy-
totoxicity. dridization are in the Javanese uplands, where
In a screening experiment for antiviral properties, species occur with broadly overlapping corolla
methanol and water extracts of S. parasitica length.
(whole plant) showed potent inhibition of avian Ecology Scurrula occurs in habitats ranging
SCURRULA 371
from humid to open forests, as well as in disturbed

sites, from sea-level up to 3000 m altitude. The
widespread Scurrula species are common in low-
land habitats, whereas local endemics occur in the
uplands. Host specificity of most Scurrula species
is generally low and also includes other Loran-
thaceae and Viscaceae. In Malesia, some species
(e.g. S. parasitica) are aggressive, and locally they
can be considered a serious pest in tree planta-
tions.
Genetic resources The Scurrula species treat-
ed here are widely distributed and occur in both
primary and disturbed habitats. Therefore they do
not appear to be threatened by genetic erosion.
Prospects Apart from the attention given to an-
tiviral properties ofS. parasitica and toxicity of S.
atropurpurea, there are relatively few phytochem-
ical investigations of Scurrula. Further research
is needed to evaluate the potential of the tradi-
tional medicinal uses of South-East Asian Scurru-
la.
Literature 73, 247, 519, 671, 709, 731, 732,
1032, 1049. Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser - 1, flow-
ering branch; 2, inflorescence; 3, fruit.
Selection of species the free part of the filaments; fruit 8-9 mm long
including a thick stipe of 2-3 mm, contracted at
Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser apex. S. atropurpurea occurs in a wide range of
Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, sér. 3, 10: 349 habitats, from sea-level up to 600(-2300) m alti-
(1929). tude.
Synonyms Loranthus atropurpureus Blume Selected sources 73,247,456, 731,816.
(1823),Scurrula philippinensis (Cham. & Schlech-
tendal) G. Don (1834), Taxillus atropurpureus Scurrula ferruginea (Roxb. ex Jack)
(Blume) Ban (1994), Taxillus philippinensis Danser
(Cham. &Schlechtendal) Ban (1994). Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, ser.3,10: 350 (1929).
Vernacular names Indonesia: benalu, benalu Synonyms Loranthus ferrugineus Roxb. ex
teh (Javanese). Vietnam: m[ooj]c v[eej] ti[as]. Jack (1820), Taxillus ferrugineus (Roxb. ex Jack)
Distribution Indo-China, Thailand, Java, the Ban (1994).
Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Sumbawa), the Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: dedalu api mer-
Philippines and the Moluccas. ah, dedalu api gajah, nenalu asap (Peninsular).
U s e s In Java the dried whole plant of S. atro- Philippines: dapong-kahoi (Tagalog). Vietnam:
purpurea is mentioned as a traditional anticancer m[ooj]c v[eej] s[es]t.
medicine, especially for treating breast and throat Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
cancer. In the Philippines powdered and boiled China, southern China, Thailand, Peninsular Ma-
stem bark scrapings are gargled as a mouthwash. laysia, Sumatra, western Java, Flores, Borneo,
Observations A hemiparasitic shrub, young the Philippines (Palawan) and Sulawesi.
parts with a dense cream or rarely greyish to dark Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
ochre indumentum of stellate hairs, soon becom- whole plant of S. ferruginea, alone or in combina-
ing sparse on adult stems and leaves; leaves ellip- tion with the leaves of Millettia sericea (Vent.)
tical to obovate, 5-10 cm x 2.3-5 cm, base cuneate Wight &Arnott, is used for bathing to cure malar-
to slightly cordate, apex usually rounded, petiole ia. The pounded leaves are used as a poultice to
0.6-1.2 cm long; corolla narrowly clavate, slender, treat wounds and snakebites. A decoction of the
in mature bud (ll-)13-20(-24) mm long, acute at leaves is sometimes employed as a protective med-
apex, anthers c. 1 mm long, about half as long as icine after childbirth.
Observations A hemiparasitic shrub, young Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

parts with a dense ochre to reddish indumentum
of stellate and longer dendritic hairs, becoming Prodr. fl. Nepal.: 178 (1825).
sparse on adult stems and upper leaf surfaces; COMPOSITAE
leaves elliptical to ovate or slightly obovate, 2« = 20
(3-)5-10 cm x (1.5-)2-5.5 cm, base cuneate to Synonyms Senecio chinensis (Sprengel) DC.
weakly cordate, apex obtuse or rounded, petiole (1838).
0.2-0.6(-l) cm long; corolla straight or slightly Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: lanot (Iloka-
curved, in mature bud (6-)8-14(-23) mm long, ob- no). Vietnam: c[uwr]u lylinh, c[us]c h[oof]ng leo.
tuse to truncate at apex, anthers 0.5-1 mm long, Origin and geographic distribution S. scan-
about half as long as the free part ofthe filaments; dens occurs in Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, northern
fruit 8-10 mm long including a stipe of 4-6 mm, Burma (Myanmar), Laos, northern Vietnam,
rounded at apex. S. ferruginea occurs in primary southern China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand and the
forest and disturbed sites from sea-level up to Philippines (Luzon).
1000C-1850) m altitude. Uses In Vietnamese folk medicine the stems are
Selected sources 73, 121,247, 731,760. externally applied to treat furuncles. In tradition-
al Chinese medicine the plant is considered slight-
Scurrula parasitica L. ly poisonous (emetic). In decoction with liquorice
Sp.pl. 1:110(1753). (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) it is used as an antipyretic
Synonyms Scurrula fusca (Blume) G. Don and remedy against jaundice and malaria, and al-
(1834), Loranthus parasiticus (L.) Merr. (1919), so to treat dog- and snakebites. A decoction of
Taxillus parasiticus (L.) Ban (1994). stem, leaves and flowers is used as a treatment for
Vernacular names Indonesia: benalu (Ja- piles, as well as eye diseases. This decoction or
vanese). Vietnam: m[ooj]c v[eej] k[ys] sinh. simply the fresh leaves are externally applied to
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo- treat numerous skin diseases. The sap obtained
China, southern China, Taiwan, Thailand, Penin- by pounding aboveground plant parts is consid-
sular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda ered resolvent, detergent and vulnerary.
Islands (Bali, Timor), Borneo, the Philippines, Su- Properties An aqueous extract of S. scandens
lawesi and the Moluccas. strongly inhibited rat erythrocyte haemolysis and
U s e s In China the dried plant is considered a lipid peroxidation in rat kidney and brain ho-
tonic and a galactagogue, and prescribed for preg- mogenates. The extract also strongly inhibited the
nant women, quieting the uterus, strengthening generation of superoxide radicals and hydroxyl
the bones and reducing lumbago. It reduces radicals. Both water and methanol extracts
swellings, pains in the back and knees, numbness showed inhibition of human immunodeficiency
and soreness of limbs and high blood pressure. virus type 1(HIV-1).
Some ofthe uses mentioned in Vietnam for S. gra- Senecio commonly contains pyrrolizidine alka-
cilifolia may well refer to S. parasitica. loids. The structural types and concentrations of
Observations A hemiparasitic shrub, young the alkaloids vary among species. Concentrations
parts with a sparse to dense grey to dark brown or also vary with environment and location. Many
rarely paler indumentum of short stellate hairs, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are toxic, causing blood cir-
soon becoming sparse on adult stems and leaves; culation problems and liver damage, and may be
leaves narrowly ovate to obovate, 3-7(-9) cm x responsible for poisoning in livestock and humans.
1.5-3.5(-4.5) cm, base cuneate to truncate, apex Botany A perennial herb up to 5 m tall, with
acute, obtuse or rounded, petiole 0.3-1 cm long; long rhizomes; stems woody at base, scandent,
corolla weakly clavate, slender, in mature bud somewhat flexuous, branched in the upper part,
8-16 mm long, acute at apex, anthers 0.7-1.5 mm branches spreading, densely pubescent when
long, about two thirds as long as the free part of young but glabrescent. Leaves alternate, simple,
the filaments; fruit 8-10 mm long including a elongate-deltoid, 7-10 cm x 3.5-4.5 cm, base trun-
stipe of4-8 mm, rounded at apex. S. parasitica oc- cate to hastate, apex acuminate, irregularly den-
curs in a wide range of habitats, from sea-level up tate to subentire, pubescent on both sides, lower
to 1800(-2250) m altitude. leaves often lobed; petiole 1-2 cm long; stipules
Selected sources 73,247,671,698, 731,1049. absent. Inflorescence consisting of numerous cam-
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg panulate heads c. 5 mm in diameter, arranged in
a terminal, paniculate corymb; peduncle 0.5-1 cm
SETARIA 373
long; involucral bracts 1-seriate, lanceolate to nar- Uses In Java young shoots are eaten after child-
rowly oblong, 5-6 mm long, acute. Flowers ligu- birth, apparently to promote lochia and lactation.
late at margin of head, tubular in centre; ligulate In Peninsular Malaysia a compound decoction of
flowers c. 8, female, corolla c. 9 mm long, yellow; the leaves is drunk in cases of irregular menses.
tubular flowers bisexual, corolla 5-6 mm long, 5- The boiled pith is used in New Guinea to treat
lobed, yellow; stamens 5, anthers fused; ovary in- stomach-ache, diarrhoea, fever and colds. In
ferior, 1-celled, style 2-armed. Fruit a cylindrical Papua New Guinea leaves are applied externally
achene c. 3 mm long, 5-ribbed, shortly pilose; pap- to relieve toothache.
pus consisting of capillary bristles 5-6 mm long, In several regions, e.g. New Guinea, Java and
white. Borneo, young shoots and the fleshy leaf sheaths,
Senecio comprises some 1250 species, most of which are sweet tasting, are popular as a veg-
them found in South America (about 500) and etable, often eaten with rice. In New Guinea the
Africa (about 350). S. scandens is variable shoots are eaten raw or prepared in earth-stone
throughout its natural range and several varieties ovens with other vegetables. The grain is locally
can be distinguished. used as a substitute for rice, e.g. in the Philip-
Ecology In the Philippines S. scandens is found pines. S. palmifolia is a good forage when not too
in thickets at 1300-2200 m altitude. old, with good nutritional value and fair produc-
Genetic resources S. scandens is widespread tion, especially suitable for horses and cattle. It is
and commonly encountered in disturbed habitats, also planted in agroforestry systems in India and
and not threatened by genetic erosion. Vietnam to prevent soil erosion on slopes. S.
Prospects Until now little research has been palmifolia has ornamental value.
done on the pharmacological properties ofS. scan- S. italica (L.) P. Beauv. (foxtail millet), which is
dens, but the few studies performed showed cultivated as a cereal all over the world, is credit-
promising results. ed with diuretic, astringent and emollient proper-
Literature 175,574, 608, 731,732, 760. ties, and is used in traditional medicine in China
Other selected sources 112, 544, 782. to treat vomiting, diabetes, diarrhoea and rheu-
L.B. Cardenas matism. In Madura (Indonesia) a decoction of
pounded grains has been applied internally
against fever.
Setaria palmifolia (J. König) Stapf S. viridis (L.) P. Beauv. is primarily important as
forage, but is also used medicinally in China:
Journ. Linn. Soc, Bot. 42: 186 (1914). culms and leaves are applied externally to carbun-
GRAMINEAE cles, boils, ringworm and psoriasis. A decoction of
2« =54 the inflorescence is used to treat diarrhoea and of
Synonyms Panicum palmifolium J. König the culms and grains to treat eye diseases. It is a
(1788). noxious weed worldwide, and has locally been in-
Vernacular n a m e s Palm grass, broadleaved troduced in South-East Asia.
bristlegrass (En). Indonesia: sauheun (Sundane- In Indonesia whole plants of a Setaria species,
se), luluwan kebo (Javanese), jang-mejang-an possibly S. parviflora (Poir.) Kerguélen (synonym:
(Madurese). Malaysia: lachang (Peninsular). Pa- S. pallide-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf & C E . Hubb.)
pua New Guinea: pitpit (Pidgin), leat (Enga), are used, fresh or dried, to treat toothache, rubella
kugla (Western Highlands). Philippines: agusais and allergy complaints. Insecticidal activity has
(Bikol), asahas (Cebu Bisaya), lalasa (Igorot). also been recorded for this species.
Thailand: yaa kaap phai (Loei), kong kaai, yaa Properties The nutritive value of S. palmifolia
kong kaai (Chiang Mai). Vietnam: c[or] l[as] as a forage has been determined in a metabolism
d[uwf]a, t[ow] v[ix] tre. trial in goats in India. It contained 48% total di-
Origin and geographic distribution S. pal- gestible nutrient and 8% digestible crude protein,
mifolia is widely distributed in Asia, from India but the intake was considered inadequate to meet
and Sri Lanka to Indo-China, China, Japan, Thai- the maintenance requirements of goats. In cattle,
land and throughout the Malesian region. Al- the results were better, with 58% total digestible
though primarily Asiatic, secondary centres of dis- nutrient and 9% digestible crude protein, and pos-
tribution are recorded around the Caribbean and itive balance for N, Ca and P; S. palmifolia is con-
in West Africa. Elsewhere, it is sometimes culti- sidered good for maintenance and production of
vated, e.g. in tropical and subtropical America. cattle.
Botany A perennial, strongly tufted herb up to Fruit a plano-convex caryopsis enclosed between
150(-300) cm tall, with short rhizome; culms the upper lemma and palea.
erect-ascending, solid or with narrow cavity. Setaria is a large genus of approximately 100
Leaves alternate, simple, lanceolate, 15-70 cm x species. It is distributed all over the tropics and
5-10 cm, narrowed at base, acute at apex, rather subtropics, but several species can also be found
rigid and hard, strongly plicate, rough, glabrous in temperate regions. Setaria is heterogeneous,
or with long, whitish hairs; sheath firm and leath- the most characteristic feature being the tips of
ery, long-ciliate at margins, often also with long, the panicle branches, which are modified into
stiff, caducous hairs, ligule 1-2 mm long, divided bristles subtending the spikelets. S. palmifolia be-
into hair-like slips. Inflorescence a loose panicle longs to a difficult complex of about 6 perennial
up to 60 cm tall, usually nodding, with very rough plicately-leaved species. Var. blepharoneuron (A.
branches; ultimate branches at base with up to 5 Braun) Veldkamp (synonym: S. plicata (Lamk) T.
bristles up to 7 mm long, each with a spikelet near Cooke) differs from typical S.palmifolia in its nar-
the base, above them 3-15 spikelets without bris- rower leaves and usually more contracted panicle;
tles, spikelets 2-seriate, crowded. Spikelets ellipti- it has been recorded from India and Sri Lanka to
cal-oblong, 3.5-4 mm long, 2-flowered, with lower China and Japan, and also from Malesia (Sulawe-
glume c. 2 mm long and 3-5-veined, upper glume si).
c. 3 mm long and 5-7-veined, lower lemma c. 3.5 Ecology S. palmifolia occurs on light soils with
mm long and 5-7-veined, lower palea c. 2 mm long good water-holding capacity, in moderately shad-
and indistinctly veined, upper lemma c. 3 mm ed localities, often in open secondary forest and
long, transversely rugose, and upper palea c. 3 old clearings, up to 2000 m altitude. It is common
mm long; flowers with 3 stamens, a glabrous in many regions.
ovary with 2 free styles and plumose stigmas. Management In the highlands of New Guinea
S. palmifolia is cultivated as a garden vegetable.
There, the plants do not produce flowers and
fruits, and are only propagated vegetatively, using
young shoots. S. palmifolia can be a serious weed
locally, e.g. in tea, wheat and ginger plantings.
Grown as a forage under irrigation, S. palmifolia
can be harvested after 3 months, with 3 further
cuts at intervals of 2 months. In India yields of
110 t/ha offresh fodder in 4 cuts have been record-
ed in naturally growing S. palmifolia.
Genetic resources S. palmifolia is a variable
species with an extremely wide and erratically
disjunct distribution, which seems to indicate a
large genetic variation. Even in the vegetatively
propagated S. palmifolia plants cultivated as a
vegetable in New Guinea, the genetic diversity is
recorded as large: landraces with very distinct
morphological characters can be found, and about
10 ofthese have been given names.
Prospects S. palmifolia is a multipurpose grass
that may serve as a valuable vegetable and forage,
as well as a useful medicinal plant and auxiliary
plant in agroforestry. It deserves more attention
in research, particularly concerning the pharma-
cological properties and its qualities as a veg-
etable.
Literature 301,334, 347, 749,961.
Other selected sources 62, 121,731,760,991.
Setaria palmifolia (J. König) Stapf - 1, part of Praptiwi
culm; 2, top of sheath with ligule; 3, inflorescence;
4,part of inflorescence with spikelets.
SONERILA 375
Smithia sensitiva Aiton is limited because S. sensitiva is widely distrib-

uted and common in disturbed habitats.
Hort. kew. 3:496 (1789). Prospects Research on the phytochemistry and
LEGUMINOSAE pharmacological activity of S. sensitiva has not
2n =32, 38 been done, but is needed to determine its
Synonyms Smithia javanica Benth. (1852). prospects as a medicinal plant for wider use.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: pokok tangki Literature 181,334, 731.
bukit (Peninsular). Thailand: sano lek (south- Other selected sources 35, 62,121, 250, 308.
eastern). Vietnam: r[us]t roi, d[aaj]u m[is]t. L.J.G. van der Maesen
Origin a n d geographic distribution S. sensi-
tiva is found throughout tropical Asia westward to
India and Sri Lanka, throughout South-East Asia, Sonerila Roxb.
to northern Australia.
U s e s In Java the whole plant of S. sensitiva is Fl. ind. 1: 180 (1820).
boiled and eaten cold to treat difficulty in urina- MELASTOMATACEAE
tion and bladder stones. In India the leaves are x =9
considered refrigerant and a galactagogue. The Origin and geographic distribution Soneri-
leaves are eaten as a pot herb. Cattle will eat the la comprises approximately 175 species and is
plant. In India S. conferta J.E. Smith is credited restricted to tropical and subtropical Asia. The
with laxative and tonic properties, and given to number of species occurring within the Male-
cure biliousness and rheumatism; it also used to sian region is unknown but undoubtedly consider-
cure sterility in women. able.
Botany An annual or perennial herb up to U s e s Sonerila is used in traditional medicine in
30-90(-150) cm tall, much-branched, with strong Malaysia, mainly for poulticing and after child-
taproot; branches decumbent-ascending to erect, birth, as a protective medicine for the mother, but
glabrous. Leaves paripinnate, 1-3 cm long, slight- possibly also for the child, e.g. to treat jaundice of
ly sensitive to the touch, covered with long white the newborn. Some species other than the ones
hairs; stipules ovate-acuminate, 8-10 mm long treated here may also be used for these purposes,
with a basal extension; leaflets 3-10(-12) pairs, notably S. moluccana Roxb. (synonym: S. begoni-
narrowly oblong, 4-15 mm x 2-3 mm, obliquely aefolia Blume) and S. obliqua Korth. (synonym: S.
truncate at base, rounded or obtuse at apex; heterostemon Naudin).
stipels absent. Inflorescence an axillary raceme, Properties The presence of ellagitannins has
1-10-flowered, with distinct bracts and bracteoles, been recorded for several Sonerila species, and of
peduncle 6-30 mm long. Flowers bisexual; pedicel alkaloids for S. obliqua roots.
3 mm long; calyx 2-lipped from the base, 6-9 mm Botany Small herbs or undershrubs, erect or
long, glabrous or with a few hairs at the tip; corol- ascending, often with a rhizome. Leaves opposite,
la papilionaceous, standard obovate, 8-9 mm long, those of a pair often unequal, simple, entire to
bright yellow, tinged red at the base or not, wings serrate, 3-7-veined from the base; stipules ab-
obovate, bright yellow, keel pale yellow; stamens sent. Inflorescence fasciculate, umbellate or a
in 2 bundles of 5; ovary superior, glabrous, 1- scorpioid cyme, or flowers solitary. Flowers bisex-
celled; style curved. Fruit a jointed pod 7 mm x 1 ual, usually 3-merous; hypanthium (calyx tube)
mm, with up to 7 orbicular segments 1-seeded campanulate, tubular or turbinate, sepals often
each, indéhiscent. Seeds reniform, 1 mm long, triangular, caducous; petals free, usually ovate or
brown, shiny. obovate, white to pink; stamens 3, occasionally 6,
S. sensitiva can be found flowering and fruiting equal, anthers dehiscent by apical pores; ovary in-
throughout the year. It has nodulating ability. ferior, adnate to hypanthium, 3-celled, style fili-
Smithia comprises some 30 species found in the form. Fruit a capsule, opening by 3(-6) apical
Old World tropics, most of them in Asia and valves.
Madagascar. Sonerila belongs to the tribe Sonerileae, together
Ecology S. sensitiva is found in not too dry open with e.g. Phyllagathis, and is characterized by its
grassy localities, ranging from abandoned fields habit (much smaller than Phyllagathis) and the
and embankments of waterways to swamps, from usually 3-merous flowers. However, it is not al-
sea-level up to 1200 m altitude. ways clearly delimited from allied genera.
Genetic resources The risk of genetic erosion Ecology Many Sonerila species occur in shady
forest, but some prefer more open habitats, e.g. occurs locally in forest in the mountains.
grassland or mossy rocks in the mountains. Sever- Selected sources 121,789.
al species are restricted to higher altitudes, up to Praptiwi
2500 m.
Genetic resources Many Sonerila species ap-
pear to be narrow endemics, although this may be Spatholobus Hassk.
partly due to the very incomplete knowledge of the
taxonomy of the genus. This is illustrated, for in- Flora 25, 2 (BeibL): 52 (1842).
stance, by the rather recent account ofthe Flora of LEGUMINOSAE
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where the 22 species treated x = unknown
are all endemic, many of them being rare or even Origin a n d geographic distribution Spatho-
possibly extinct. This makes the genus very liable lobus consists of 29 species and is restricted to
to genetic erosion. tropical Asia, from India to southern China and
Prospects As in many other Melastomataceae, western Malesia, east to the Philippines and Su-
the medicinal activities ascribed to Sonerila may lawesi. In the western Malesian region 22 species
be due to the presence of tannins, but research is occur, with Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia rich-
needed to confirm this. Taxonomical studies are est, having about 15and 10 species, respectively.
badly needed for this poorly-known genus. Uses In South-East Asia traditional medicinal
Literature 121,331,731,782. use of Spatholobus is often linked to the reddish
colour of the sap that flows from the stem; it is
used in the treatment of wounds and haemor-
Selection of species rhages, but also to treat colic. Various Spatho-
lobus species are employed for their astringent
Sonerila gimlettei Ridley properties and as a remedy in fever. In Peninsular
Journ. Roy.As. Soc. Straits Br. 61:5 (1912). Malaysia (Pahang) mention has been made of the
Vernacular names Malaysia: akar batu (Pe- leaves of an unidentified Spatholobus used for
ninsular). poulticing broken bones. S. parviflora (Roxb.) O.
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia (Kelantan). Kuntze (synonym: S. roxburghii Benth.), which is
U s e s Bruised leaves are applied as a poultice to confined to continental tropical Asia, is widely
boils. used in traditional medicine in India. A decoction
Observations A small herb up to 15 cm tall; of the bark is applied to treat dropsy and bowel
leaves unequal, smaller ones c. 10 cm x 5 cm, larg- complaints; roots and bark are credited with in-
er ones 15-20 cm x 7.5 cm, petiole winged; inflo- secticidal and piscicidal properties. The rhizome
rescence a many-flowered scorpioid cyme on pe- ofS. suberectus Dunn is used as a traditional anti-
duncle up to 5 cm long, in the axil of small leaf; fever remedy in China. An extract ofS. suberectus
fruit turbinate, smooth. S. gimlettei occurs very lo- has been patented in Japan for skin lightening
cally in forest. and as an anti-aging cosmetic. The slender stems
Selected sources 121,789. of various Spatholobus species are employed for
rough cordage.
Sonerila nidularia Stapf Properties A phytochemical survey ofthe dried
Ann. Bot. 6: 312 (1892). leaves of S. ferrugineus revealed the presence of
Vernacular names Malaysia: serengan ker- flavonoids, triterpenoids and steroidal saponins.
bau, kachit fatimah (Peninsular). The methanol extract ofthe rhizome ofS. suberec-
Distribution Peninsular Malaysia (Perak). tus elicited a significant in-vitro inhibition (> 90%)
Uses A decoction of whole plants is given to of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1)
women after childbirth as a protective medicine. protease at a concentration of200 |Xg/ml.
The plant ash is administered to children to treat Rotenone has been isolated from S. parviflora;
stomach-ache. this compound, better known from Derris, is very
Observations A small herb up to 15 cm tall; toxic to insects.
leaves very unequal, smaller ones orbicular-reni- Botany Lianas, stems usually with a reddish-
form, c. 0.5 cm in diameter, larger ones 7.5-11 cm brown exudate. Leaves alternate, pinnately 3-foli-
x 2.5-5 cm, petiole stout, not winged; inflorescence olate, petiolate; stipules usually early caducous,
a few- to many-flowered, sessile cyme, axillary or sometimes persistent; leaflets usually elliptical,
terminal; fruit turbinate, muricate. S. nidularia lateral ones asymmetric or symmetric; stipels
SPATHOLOBUS 377
usually early caducous. Inflorescence a terminal (Peninsular). Thailand: chaang haek (central).
or axillary panicle or pseudo-panicle, often many- Distribution From southern Thailand, through
and condensed-flowered. Flowers bisexual, small, Peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra, Java, Borneo
pedicellate; calyx campanulate, 4(-5)-lobed or - and Sulawesi.
dentate; corolla papilionaceous, usually glabrous; Uses In Java the astringent reddish-brown sap
standard emarginate, not reflexed during anthe- from the stem is drunk to treat colic, and after
sis; wings usually adherent to the keel by lateral childbirth. Juice or a decoction of the pounded
pockets; keel petals connate along the ventral stem andleaves is drunk in case ofirregular men-
margin; stamens 10, 9 connate and alternately struation, and a decoction of the sap from the
longer and shorter, shorter ones often with re- stem to treat uterine haemorrhages. An infusion
duced anthers, 1 free; ovary superior, pubescent of the stem is drunk as a remedy for cough and
or woolly, 1-celled, with 2(-4) ovules. Fruit a flat, fever. In East Kalimantan (Indonesia) sap from
samara-like pod, with 1 apical seed, indéhiscent. the young stems is rubbed on insect bites and
Seed rounded to oblong-reniform, laterally flat- stings to relieve itch. The strong young stems
tened. Seedling with hypogeal germination; make rough cordage forbinding.
hypocotyl not enlarging; cotyledons enclosed, suc- Observations A large liana up to 50 m long,
culent; first 2 leaves opposite, simple, next leaves stem up to 15 cm in diameter, branches rusty-
arranged spirally. brown velutinous; leaves with lateral leaflets
Spatholobus is usually placed in the tribe Phase- asymmetric, terminal leaflet elliptical, elliptical-
oleae and is most closely related to Butea and ovate, elliptical-obovate or nearly circular, 7-49
Meizotropis. cm x 5-30 cm, stipules recurved, caducous, 3-6
Ecology Spatholobus canbe found in most for- mm x 4-6 mm; inflorescence up to 45 cm long,
est types in South-East Asia, but it prefers ever- with flowers arranged in fascicles; flowers with
green forest andmixed dipterocarp forest. Usually red or purple petals, standard with decurrent
it is found near open locations, along rivers or base, wing and keel petals with a lateral pocket
roadsides, from the seashore to over 2000 m alti- and a dorsal auricle; fruit 4-6cmx 1.3-2 cm,pale
tude. It occurs on sandy, latérite and clay soils, brown, puberulous; seed 10mmx5-10mm. S. fer-
limestone, sandstone, ultrabasic soils, peaty soils rugineus isfound invarious habitats ranging from
or soils with siliceous scales. mixed dipterocarp forest to 'kerangas' forest, sec-
Genetic resources In view oftheir wide distri- ondary forest and scrub and roadside vegetation,
bution theSpatholobus species treated here donot from sea-level upto 1000 m altitude.
appear to be threatened by genetic erosion. How- Selected sources 62, 121,334,534, 731, 787,
ever, several other Spatholobus species are very 788, 1003.
restricted in their distribution andmayeasilybe-
come endangered. Spatholobus littoralis Hassk.
Prospects Very little research hasbeen doneon Flora 25,2(BeibL): 79(1842).
the phytochemistry and pharmacological proper- Synonyms Butea littoralis (Hassk.) Blatter
ties ofSpatholobus, andtheprospects as a medici- (1929).
nal plant canonly be determined after further re- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy bajur,
search. areuy mundingjalu, manyiritan (Sundanese).
Literature 35,525, 786, 787, 788, 1003. Distribution South-eastern Sumatra, Java,
south-eastern Borneo and the northern Philip-
pines.
Selection of species Uses In Java the juice is drunk and used to
wash the feet, as a remedy for languor and diffi-
Spatholobus ferrugineus (Zoll.& culty in movingthelegs.
Moritzi) Benth. Observations A large liana up to 25(-50) m
Miq., PI.jungh.: 238 (1852). long, branches yellow-green or dull brown pubes-
Synonyms Butea ferruginea (Zoll. & Moritzi) cent; leaves with lateral leaflets slightly asymmet-
Blatter (1929). ric, terminal leaflet elliptical to narrowly ellipti-
Vernacular names Indonesia: akar sarikan cal-ovate, 7-21 cm x 2-7.5 cm, stipules straight,
lanang (Palembang), areuy ki sambangan (Sun- caducous, 4-8mmx 1.5-4 mm; inflorescence upto
danese), aka kelesi (Kenyah, East Kalimantan). 15cmlong, with flowers arranged in short-stalked
Malaysia: akar sejangat, akar skuet, akar gueh fascicles; flowers with white petals, standard with
truncate to emarginate base, wing petals some- Selection of species

times with a lateral pocket and a small dorsal au-
ricle, keel petals with a lateral pocket; fruit Sphenodesme pentandra J a c k
7.5-10.5 cm x 2-3 cm, glabrous; seed c. 22 mm x Malayan Misc. 1(1): 19 (1820).
18 mm. S. littoralis is found in thickets, forest Vernacular names Malaysia: akar subang,
margins and mixed forest at 150-1200 m altitude. akar lintang ruas, akar tanak rimau (Peninsular).
Selected sources 35,62, 334, 731,787, 788. Thailand: khaa pia (Chiang Mai), yaan duuk (Pat-
J.W.A. Ridder-Numan tani), nuai sut (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Vietnam:
b[ooj]i tinh ng[ux] h[uf]ng.
Distribution India, Bangladesh, Burma (Myan-
Sphenodesme Jack mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand,
Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.
Malayan Misc. 1(1): 19 (1820). Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
VERBENACEAE roots is used to treat rheumatism.
x =unknown Observations A climbing shrub or liana up to
Origin and geographic distribution Spheno- 10 m long; leaves elliptical-oblong to lanceolate,
desme comprises about 15 species and occurs in 5-18 cm x 2.5-9 cm, glabrous to slightly pubes-
tropical and subtropical Asia. cent, petiole 0.5-1.5 cm long; inflorescence 5-7-
Uses A few Sphenodesme species are used in flowered, bracts up to 3 cm long; flowers with pale
traditional medicine in Malaysia, especially a root bluish to purplish corolla; fruit globose, c. 4 mm in
decoction to treat rheumatism. diameter. S. pentandra is locally common in edges
Botany Climbing shrubs or lianas; young stems oflowland forest.
lenticellate. Leaves opposite, simple and entire, Selected sources 121,789, 1013.
shortly petiolate; stipules absent. Inflorescence a
head-like cyme subtended by a whorl of (5-)6 S p h e n o d e s m e r a c e m o s a (C. P r e s l )
prominent involucral bracts, 3-7-flowered. Flow- Moldenke
ers bisexual, regular or slightly zygomorphic, Rev. Sudamer. Bot. 10:230 (1956).
5(-7)-merous; calyx funnelform, dentate, some- Synonyms Sphenodesme barbata Schauer
times enlarged in fruit; corolla with short cylindri- (1847).
cal tube and imbricate, narrowly lanceolate to Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar lumut, akar
ovate-oblong lobes; stamens inserted on corolla chabang lima, lilimbo (Peninsular).
tube, alternate with corolla lobes, free; ovary su- Distribution Peninsular Malaysia, Riau and
perior, imperfectly 2-celled, style simple, stigma 2- Lingga Archipelago, and Borneo.
cleft. Fruit drupe-like, obovoid to globose, small, Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
indéhiscent, with leathery endocarp, included in roots is used to treat rheumatism.
calyx, l(-2)-seeded. Observations A climbing shrub or liana up to 8
Sphenodesme has been placed in the subfamily m long; leaves ovate to elliptical-oblong, 4-14 cm x
Symphorematoideae, together with Symphorema 2-5.5 cm, brown villous especially on the veins,
and Congea, and it has been suggested recently petiole 0.5-1 cm long; inflorescence 5-7-flowered,
that this group be raised to family level, i.e. Sym- bracts c. 2 cm long; flowers with greenish-white or
phoremaceae, based on morphological as well as greenish-yellow corolla; fruit globose, small. S.
anatomical evidence. racemosa is locally common in lowland forest.
Ecology Sphenodesme occurs mainly in lowland Selected sources 121,789.
forest up to 1000 m altitude, but sometimes up to
1500 m, often in the edges of forest, sometimes in S p h e n o d e s m e triflora Wight
scrub vegetation. Icon. pi. Ind. orient. 1:t. 1478 (1849).
Genetic resources Too little is known about Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar bisa, akar
the distribution of Sphenodesme in South-East memali, akar katup-katup (Peninsular). Thailand:
Asia tojudge the risk of genetic erosion for the dif- hat khruea (Lampang).
ferent species. Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Pe-
Prospects It is unlikely that the use of Spheno- ninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.
desme as a medicinal plant will increase. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the plant (it is not
Literature 121,640,641. stated which part) is used to treat fever.
Observations A climbing shrub or liana; leaves
SPIGELIA 379
lanceolate, 7-13 cm x 2.5-5 cm, glabrous, petiole All parts of the plant contain the toxic alkaloid
0.5-1.5 cm long; inflorescence 3-flowered, bracts c. spigeline, but the concentration is highest in the
0.5 cm long; flowers with dark purple corolla; fruit roots. Reports of fatal poisoning in cattle are
ovoid. S. triflora is locally common in forest up to somewhat contradictory. Effects of an overdose in
1000 m altitude. humans include excitement, dizziness, delirium,
Selected sources 121,789. dilation ofthe pupils, vomiting and convulsions.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens Botany An annual herb up to 90 cm tall, un-
branched or with some pairs of strong branches at
the base; stems erect, terete, hollow, glabrous.
S p i g e l i a a n t h e l m i a L. Leaves opposite, with an apical pseudowhorl of 4
larger ones, simple, ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceo-
Sp.pl. 1:149(1753). late, 3-15 cm x 1-6 cm, base obtuse or cuneate,
LOGANIACEAE apex acuminate, scabrous above; petiole 0-1 cm
2ra=32 long; stipules interpetiolar, forming a ridge. Inflo-
Vernacular n a m e s Worm weed, worm grass rescence a terminal or axillary spike 3-15 cm long.
(En). Brinvillière, herbe à vers (Fr). Indonesia: Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, sessile; sepa-
jukut puntir (Sundanese), platikan (Javanese). ls somewhat unequal, ovate-linear-lanceolate, 2-4
Origin and geographic distribution S. an- mm long, outside glabrous or slightly hairy, green,
thelmia originates from tropical and subtropical persistent; corolla salver-shaped, glabrous, tube
America, but is naturalized in Africa and South- 6-15 mm long, lobes triangular, 2-2.5 mm long,
East Asia (Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda white to red or purplish; stamens inserted on the
Islands). corolla tube, alternating with lobes, included;
Uses In Java the root has some reputation as an
effective vermifuge. In tropical America and
Africa whole plants, roots and seeds, separately or
together, are widely employed to expel intestinal
worms, especially tapeworms. In smaller doses
the roots are used to relieve stomach-ache. When
used as a vermifuge it is often combined with a
purgative that is taken a little later. In South
America the plant is further employed as a fish
poison and for intentional poisoning. The leaves
are used to repel flies and cockroaches.
Properties Several fractions of an ethanol ex-
tract of aerial parts of S. anthelmia were tested in
general screening tests using various animal mod-
els. The intraperitoneal LD50 in mice was found to
be 222 mg/kg. Contractions of isolated guinea-pig
and rat ileums were observed, as well as hypoten-
sive and bradycardic effects in anaesthetized cats
and rats. An intravenous infusion in rats pro-
duced a dose-dependent, prompt, more or less
short-lasting hypertension or led to acute lethal
intoxication with signs of cardio-respiratory de-
pression. Using an ethanol extract in a guinea-pig
heart model revealed that the alkaloids spigan-
thine and ryanodine are the main cardioactive
principles. Their biological effect is characterized
by a delay in contraction development ofthe heart
muscle.
Spiganthine, ryanodine and structurally related
compounds demonstrated significant antifeedant
activity against some test beetles. In addition, Spigelia anthelmia L. - 1,plant habit; 2, flower; 3,
considerable insecticidal activities were observed. fruit; 4, seeds.
ovary superior, glabrous, 2-celled, style cylindri- Properties Whole plants of an unidentified
cal, stigma ovate-lanceolate. Fruit a 2-lobed cap- Staurogyne species from Sumatra showed slight
sule 4-5 mm x 5-6 mm, lobes globose, explosively in-vitro antimicrobial activity. Sweet-tasting olea-
dehiscent, with 4 valves, few-seeded. Seeds obli- nane-type triterpene glycosides named strogins,
quely ellipsoid or ovoid, 2-3 mm x 1.5-2 mm, dull have been isolated from a water extract of S. mer-
brown, tuberculate. guensis leaves.
S. anthelmia can be found flowering and fruiting Botany Small herbs or undershrubs. Leaves op-
throughout the year. Flowers open in the after- posite, simple and entire, without cystoliths; peti-
noon and are self-pollinating. The seeds are dis- ole distinct, not connected by a transverse ridge;
persed by animals. stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal or seem-
Spigelia comprises some 50 species. Its natural ingly axillary raceme, spike or head; upper bracts
distribution is confined to tropical America and it arranged spirally. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous;
has its centre of diversity in the highlands of east- bracteoles similar to the calyx segments or nar-
ern Brazil. rower; calyx deeply 5-fid, with narrow, equal or
Ecology In South-East Asia S. anthelmia is a unequal segments; corolla with tube gradually
weed of sandy seashores, riverbanks, arable land, widened above the narrow base, lobes subequal,
gardens, roadsides and waste places, from sea-lev- patent and flat; stamens 4, inserted below the
el up to 600 m altitude. It is locally sometimes middle of the corolla tube, didynamous, included;
abundant, but on the whole rare. ovary superior, 2-celled, style with 2 stigmatic
Genetic resources In view ofits large distribu- lobes. Fruit a narrowly ovoid or fusiform capsule,
tion and its preference for anthropogenic habitats, many-seeded. Seeds small, subglobose, reticulate-
S. anthelmia does not appear to be threatened by ribbed.
genetic erosion. Staurogyne has been placed in the subfamily Nel-
Prospects Some of the alkaloids present in S. sonioideae together with 4 other smaller genera.
anthelmia are promising leads for a potential new This group has been proposed for inclusion in the
generation of target-oriented insecticides. Howev- Scrophulariaceae, mainly based on fruit and seed
er, further research is needed to evaluate their po- characters, but this is not generally followed.
tential. Ecology Most Staurogyne species occur in low-
Literature 4, 247, 287, 334, 381,973. land and lower montane forest, up to 1800 m alti-
Other selected sources 120, 646, 879. tude, often under shady and humid conditions,
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg but some grow in more open and disturbed locali-
ties such as fallow rice fields, roadsides and open
forest.
Staurogyne Wallich Genetic resources In general, Staurogyne
seems liable to genetic erosion due to the prefer-
PI. asiat. rar. 2:80 (1831). ence of most species for humid lowland forest, a
ACANTHACEAE type ofhabitat under increasing pressure.
x =unknown Prospects Information on phytochemistry and
Origin and geographic distribution Stauro- pharmacological properties of Staurogyne is al-
gyne comprises about 80 species and occurs in all most completely lacking, which makes it impossi-
tropical regions. The greatest diversity is found in ble to judge its prospects as a medicinal plant.
South-East Asia with about 50 species; Peninsu- However, research seems useful because the
lar Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo are richest. recorded applications in local medicine (as a di-
Africa is least rich, with only 5 species. uretic and antimicrobial) concur with several bet-
Uses Some applications of Staurogyne in tradi- ter investigated Acanthaceae that have a reputa-
tional medicine in South-East Asia have been tion as important medicinal plants. The sweeten-
recorded: the roots and leaves are used as a di- ing activity of S. merguensis leaves is remarkable
uretic and to treat diarrhoea, and whole plants to and might offer possibilities as an alternative for
treat sore mouth and cough. In Sumatra (Riau sugar.
Province) a maceration of an unidentified Stau- Literature 295, 296.
rogyne species crushed in water is rubbed over the
body as a post-medication treatment for chronic
fever. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a veg-
etable or chewed with betel.
STENOTAPHRUM 381
Selection of species Observations An ascending herb up to 30 cm

tall; leaves oblong-ovate to elliptical-lanceolate,
Staurogyne elongata (Blume) O. Kuntze 2-14 cm x 1-4 cm, glabrous or slightly pubescent,
Revis, gen. pi. 2: 497 (1891). petiole 0.5-3.5 cm long; inflorescence 1.5-3.5 cm
Vernacular names Indonesia: reundeu (Sun- long, dense; flowers with c. 1.5 cm long corolla,
danese), godong keji (Javanese). white with a dull pink spot in the mouth; fruit c.
Distribution Sumatra and Java. 0.5 cm long. S. setigera occurs in lowland forest
Uses The roots and leaves are used as a diuret- and is locally common.
ic.Young leaves are eaten raw as a vegetable. Selected sources 109,121, 312.
Observations An erect or ascending herb up to Dodi Darmakusuma
60 cm tall; leaves oblong to oblong-obovate, 6-15
cm x 2-5 cm, more or less pubescent, petiole 2-6
cm long, pubescent; inflorescence 7-30 cm long, Stenotaphrum helferi Munro ex
slender, often with a few branches at base, rachis Hook.f.
dark red; flowers with c. 2 cm long corolla, white
with pink; fruit c. 1 cm long, acute. S. elongata oc- Fl. Brit. India 7: 91 (1896).
curs in humid forest at 200-1000 m altitude. GRAMINEAE
Selected sources 62, 109,334. In =unknown
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: rumput dada
Staurogyne merguensis (T. Anderson) lipan (Peninsular). Thailand: yaa lin krabue
O. Kuntze (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Vietnam: c[or] quai
Revis, gen. pi. 2:497 (1891). ch[ef]o, c[or] d[es], c[or] n[us]c.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: lemba batu (Pe- Origin and geographic distribution S. hel-
ninsular). Thailand: taan oi (Krabi). feri occurs in southern Burma (Myanmar), Viet-
Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), nam, southern China including Hainan, Thailand
southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. and Peninsular Malaysia.
U s e s In Peninsular Malaysia S. merguensis is Uses A decoction ofwhole S. helferi plants is ap-
used in Chinese medicine to treat cough. The plied in Peninsular Malaysia during childbirth to
dried leaves are chewed with betel, to which they arrest haemorrhage and as a protective medicine.
give a sweet flavour. It may serve as a forage, but is not deliberately
Observations An ascending herb up to 25 cm planted for this purpose.
tall; leaves usually oblong, 4-12 cm x 2.5-7 cm, S. secundatum (Walter) O. Kuntze (St. Augustine
pubescent below, petiole 0.5-4.5 cm long, pubes- grass) is widely planted as a lawn and pasture
cent; inflorescence 9-20 cm long, usually simple; grass, but rarely in South-East Asia.
flowers with 1.5-2 cm long corolla, white with pur- Properties There is no information on the phy-
plish limb; fruit c. 0.5 cm long. S. merguensis oc- tochemistry of S. helferi, but some flavones,
curs in lowland forest and is uncommon in Penin- quercetin and orientin glycosides have been isolat-
sular Malaysia. ed from S. secundatum.
Selected sources 109,343. Botany Aperennial herb up to 50 cm tall; culms
rooting at lower nodes and with 2 shoots arising
Staurogyne setigera (Nees) O. Kuntze from each node, suberect, flattened. Leaves alter-
Revis, gen. pi. 2:497 (1891). nate, simple, oblong-lanceolate to broadly linear,
Synonyms Staurogyne malaccensis C.B. Clarke 5-20 cm x 7-12 mm, slightly cordate at base,
(1908). abruptly acute at apex, margins scaberulous, pli-
Vernacular names Malaysia: pokok serawan cate when young, rough below; sheath flattened,
kubang, rumput kerak rimba, pokok cheret murai glabrous but scabrous on the keel, ligule membra-
(Peninsular). nous, less than 0.5 mm long, with a minutely
Distribution Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, hairy margin. Inflorescence a usually terminal
Singapore, Sumatra, Bangka, Borneo and the spike 8-15 cm long, with strongly flattened main
southern Philippines (Palawan). axis having a flexuous midrib between pockets
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia S. setigera plants bearing short racemes on one side; racemes 1-1.5
are chewed with betel to treat a sore mouth. A de- cm long, each with 3-8 spikelets on a membranous
coction of the roots and leaves is given against di- rachis. Spikelets c. 4.5 mm long, 2-flowered, lower
arrhoea. floret male or sterile, upper floret bisexual, awn-
less, lower glume 2-3 mm long and 5-7-veined, Properties The presence of alkaloids has been
upper glume c. 4 mm long and up to 9-veined, low- demonstrated in S. caudatum leaves.
er lemma 4-4.5 mm long and 5-7-veined, upper Botany A slender, erect herb up to 60 cm tall,
lemma and paleas c. 3 mm long, indurated; florets with short rhizome, sparingly branched; branches
with 3 stamens; ovary with 2 feathery stigmas. hairy. Leaves alternate, simple and entire, ellipti-
Fruit an ovoid caryopsis c. 2.5 mm long. cal, 7-12 cm x 2-5.5 cm, cuneate or rounded at
Stenotaphrum comprises 7 species, several of base, acuminate at apex, hairy below, lateral
which are widely distributed coastal pioneers, 3 veins curved; petiole 0.5-1 cm long, slightly
others being endemics ofMadagascar and vicinity. sheathing at base; stipules absent. Inflorescence
Stenotaphrum is classified in the tribe Paniceae. an axillary cincinnus, raceme-like, with densely
Its closest relative is Paspalidium, from which it set stiff pedicels, few to many-flowered but usual-
is derived by a reduction of the racemes and ex- ly only 1-2 flowers in anthesis; bracts c. 2 mm
pansion ofthe central axis. long, hyaline. Flowers apparently bisexual (but
Ecology S. helferi occurs in shady, damp habi- possibly functionally unisexual), 4-merous; pedicel
tats, e.g. on stream banks, in ravines, but also filiform, stiff, 3-10 mm long, hairy; tepals 5-6 mm
along forest paths, roadsides, in plantations and long, acute to long-acuminate, spreading, margins
gardens. In Peninsular Malaysia it has often been recurved, dirty white to reddish-purple; stamens
recorded at the foot of limestone hills, and it is lo- adnate to the base of the tepals, free; ovary semi-
cally common. inferior, 1-celled, style minute. Fruit a spindle-
Genetic resources S. helferi is not as widely shaped, 2-valved capsule 1-2 cm x 0.5 cm, slightly
distributed as several other Stenotaphrum spe- flattened and curved, 1-2-seeded. Seeds broadly
cies, but it does not seem easily liable to genetic ellipsoid, 5-7 mm long, ridged, with flimsy, hairy-
erosion because it is locally common even in an- lobed aril up to halfway and distinct funicle.
thropogenic habitats. Stichoneuron comprises 2 species. S. membra-
Prospects It is unlikely that the importance of naceum Hook.f., which is closely related to S. cau-
S. helferi as a medicinal plant will increase. It datum, is only known from few collections in east-
may be useful as an auxiliary plant, e.g. to pre- ern India. Stichoneuron is most closely related to,
vent erosion and as a forage, but experiments are and perhaps congeneric with Croomia, another
still needed. Its tolerance to shade make it inter- small genus of 3 species from eastern China,
esting for farm systems with integrated livestock southern Japan and the south-eastern United
and plantations, like S. secundatum, but S. helferi States.
has the advantage of being native to South-East Ecology S. caudatum grows on the forest floor,
Asia and consequently probably better adapted to in moist localities in swamp forest, along streams
the prevailing climatic conditions. and on river banks, up to 200 m altitude. Overall
Literature 121,281,824. it is rare, although locally abundant.
Other selected sources 908. Genetic resources Its comparatively small
R.H.M.J. Lemmens area of distribution, scarcity and habitat prefer-
ence mean that S. caudatum may easily become
endangered. Moreover, the scantiness offruits un-
Stichoneuron caudatum Ridley der natural conditions suggests poor fertility.
Prospects It is unlikely that S. caudatum will
Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 57: 107 gain importance as a medicinal plant because it is
(1911). uncommon and apparently little used.
STEMONACEAE Literature 121, 247.
2n = 18 Other selected sources 804.
Vernacular names Malaysia: kayu mati hidup R.H.M.J. Lemmens
(Peninsular).
Origin and geographic distribution S. cau-
datum occurs in southern Thailand and Peninsu- Streptocaulon Wight & Arnott
lar Malaysia.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves of S. Wight, Contr. bot. India: 64 (1834).
caudatum are eaten with betel as a tonic in conva- ASCLEPIADACEAE
lescence. The vernacular name indicates that it x =unknown
may be abortifacient. Origin and geographic distribution Strepto-
STREPTOCAULON 383
caulon comprises approximately 5 species, which logical properties. This should be given more at-
all occur in tropical Asia. Thailand seems richest, tention, and if suitable cultivation methods can be
with 3 species. developed, Streptocaulon may have prospects as a
Uses Streptocaulon roots are fairly widely used valuable medicinal plant for wider use in South-
in Indo-China, southern China and Thailand, East Asia, including the Malesian region.
mainly to treat fever and dysentery, as a rejuve- Literature 172, 760, 1008.
nating drug and as a tonic for kidneys and liver.
The leaves are applied to snake bites and abscess-
es, whereas the latex is used as a vulnerary in the Selection of species
Philippines. S. baumii is in demand as raw mater-
ial for baskets and other handicrafts in the Philip- Streptocaulon baumii Decne.
pines. D C , Prodr. 8: 496 (1844).
Properties General screening of S. juventas Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: hinggiu-kal-
roots showed the presence of starch and alkaloids. abau, sibot-sibotan (Tagalog), maraipus (Iloko).
Botany Lianas or shrubs with twining stems; Distribution Endemic to the Philippines (Lu-
white latex present. Leaves opposite, simple and zon, Mindoro).
entire, herbaceous to leathery, glabrous to densely Uses The latex is used as a vulnerary. S. baumii
hairy, with pinnate venation, with minute tri- is in demand as raw material for the manufacture
chomes, often shortly petiolate; stipules absent. ofbaskets and other handicrafts.
Inflorescence an extra-axillary or terminal, often Observations Aliana with slender stem; leaves
lax and irregularly forked, paniculiform cyme. elliptical to elliptical-ovate, 7-15 cm x 4-8 cm,
Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, small; calyx rounded to cordate at base, acuminate at apex,
small, with minute glands at base of the lobes; hairy; inflorescence 4-9 cm long; flowers with pur-
corolla rotate, with short tube and large lobes ple corolla, c. 5 mm in diameter, with ovate to ob-
overlapping to the right in bud; corona lobes inlong-ovate lobes; follicle cylindrical, 5-9 cm long,
serted on the corolla, adnate to the filaments, hairy. S. baumii is locally common in thickets and
slender, inflexed; stamens inserted at base of secondary forest at low altitude.
corolla, shortly connate at base, alternating with Selected sources 229, 285, 760.
minute teeth, anthers connivent and adnate to the
stigma head, with short, apical membrane, with S t r e p t o c a u l o n j u v e n t a s (Lour.) Merr.
pollen tetrads in solitary masses in each anther Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, n.s., 24(2):315 (1935).
cell; ovaries 2, free, superior, 1-celled, stigma head Synonyms Streptocaulon tomentosum Wight &
convex, angular. Fruit consisting of 2 divaricate Arnott (1834), Streptocaulon griffithii Hook.f.
follicles, cylindrical to ovoid, finely warty, many- (1883).
seeded. Seeds oblong, comose. Vernacular names Thailand: tamyan hak hom
Ecology Streptocaulon usually occurs in low- (Nakhon Sawan), chukka rohini (Chumphon),
land forest, often at edges and in open localities, thao prasong (Prachin Buri). Vietnam: h[af]th[ur]
and in thickets. [oo] tr[aws]ng, c[ur] v[us] b[of], h[af] th[ur]
Management Streptocaulon is rarely cultivat- [oo]nam.
ed. The tuberous roots of S. juventas are usually Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
collected from the wild. In Vietnam they are har- China, southern China, Thailand and Peninsular
vested year-round, but preferably in autumn. Af- Malaysia (rare).
ter collecting, they are well washed, sliced and U s e s In Thailand the roots are considered an-
dried in the sun or in ovens. tipyretic, a decoction of the stem or roots is used
Genetic resources In most regions where orally as an antiseptic in a mixture with other
Streptocaulon occurs it is collected from wild pop- plants, and the boiled stem is taken as a tonic and
ulations for medicinal applications and sometimes against diarrhoea. In Vietnam the roots have a
also for basketry. The plants are often killed dur- considerable reputation as a rejuvenating drug.
ing collection and therefore Streptocaulon may be- They are considered tonic for kidneys and liver,
come threatened in the near future. and effective against anaemia, dyspepsia, insom-
Prospects Streptocaulon is fairly widely used in nia, neurasthenia, hypogalactia, malaria, rheu-
traditional medicine in Vietnam, southern China, matism, ostalgia, menstrual disorders, leucor-
as well as Thailand, but almost no research has rhoea, bloody stool, prurigo and snakebites. The
been done on the phytochemistry and pharmaco- leaves are also prescribed against senility in a
mixture with 5 other medicinal plants in the form Properties The flavonoids acacetin, apigenin
of pills. In China the roots are used to treat dysen- and luteolin have been isolated from whole S. asi-
tery and stomach-ache, whereas the leaves are ap- atica plants. They showed dose-dependent anti-
plied externally to treat snakebites and abscesses. implantation activity on rats when administered
Observations A liana up to 8 m long; leaves orally during day 1-4 of pregnancy, at a mean ef-
obovate to broadly elliptical, 7-15 cm x 3-9.5 cm, fective dose of 25 mg/kg body weight. In another
rounded to cordate at base, acute to rounded and study, a single oral dose of these compounds (10
apiculate at apex, densely hairy; inflorescence mg/kg body weight) on day 1, 2 or 3 of pregnancy
4-20 cm long; flowers with corolla yellow-green resulted in 100% prevention of implantation. Sig-
outside, yellow-brown inside, c. 5 mm in diameter, nificant antifertility activity of petroleum ether
with ovate lobes; follicle oblong to oblong-lanceo- and chloroform extracts of whole plants has also
late in outline, 7-13 cm long. S.juventas occurs in been reported for mice.
thickets and forest up to 1000 m altitude. The ethanolic extract ofwhole plants ofS. gesneri-
Selected sources 172, 671,789, 1008, 1013. oides (Willd.) Vatke (synonym: S. orobanchioides
Wongsatit Chuakul, Noppamas (Endl.) Benth.) from India given for 7 days to im-
Soonthornchareonnon &Orawan Ruangsomboon mature male rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg body
weight caused a significant decrease in the weight
of the testes, epididymis, seminal vesicles and the
Striga asiatica (L.) O. Kuntze ventral prostate. It also produced a significant de-
crease in the number of spermatocytes and sper-
Revis, gen. pi. 2:466 (1891). matids. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts showed
SCROPHULARIACEAE antihistaminic and mast cell stabilizing activities
2n =24, 40 in rats. The flavones apigenin and luteolin have
Synonyms Striga lutea Lour. (1790). been isolated from S. gesnerioides.
Vernacular names Witchweed (En). Indonesia: Botany A small, annual, erect herb up to 40 cm
baruwang, jukut cancang (Sundanese), rajatawa tall; stem simple or sparsely branched, quadran-
(Javanese). Malaysia: rumput siku-siku (Peninsu- gular. Leaves opposite in lower part of the plant,
lar). Papua New Guinea: hometa kasu kavu (Ka- alternate in upper part, simple, linear, 5-15 mm x
mi, Eastern Highlands). Thailand: ya mae mot 1-1.5 mm, entire, hirsute on both surfaces, sessile;
(central).Vietnam: vo[of]ng ph[as] v[af]ng. stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary brac-
Origin and geographic distribution S. asia- teate spike, sparsely flowered. Flowers bisexual,
tica has an extremely large area of distribution: with 2 bracteoles at the base of the calyx; calyx
from tropical and southern Africa and Madagas- tubular, 5-6 mm long, with 5 stout ribs, subequal-
car, through western Asia and India, to Burma ly 5-lobed; corolla with 10-13 mm long tube
(Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Thai- abruptly incurved at apex, shortly glandular-pi-
land and the Malesian region (recorded in Penin- lose outside, limb spreading, 2-lipped, upper lip
sular Malaysia, Java, the Philippines and New obtriangular, emarginate, lower lip 3-lobed, yel-
Guinea, probably also occurring elsewhere). It has low, often scarlet inside; stamens 4, inserted near
been introduced in North America. the top of the corolla tube, didynamous, included,
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia S. asiatica is used with short filaments; ovary superior, ellipsoid, 2-
externally to treat sores and ulcers. In Papua New celled, style filiform, stigma capitate. Fruit an
Guinea it is eaten fresh with traditional salt as a ovoid or subglobose capsule, 3-5 mm long, many-
contraceptive. seeded. Seeds broadly fusiform, c. 0.3 mm long,
In India S. asiatica is considered to improve ap- striate. Seedling underground for 4-6 weeks and
petite, whereas in China it is used as a stomachic then white, rounded and bearing scale-like leaves,
and vermifuge, and to treat intestinal obstruc- after emergence above the ground green, 4-angu-
tions. In tropical Africa it is also applied in tradi- lar, densely hairy, with opposite to alternate
tional medicine, e.g. to treat headache; an oint- leaves.
ment is made from the plant-ash with cow- or Only 3-4 months are needed to complete the life
sheep-fat, to treat gout. Some other Striga species cycle of the plant. As a hemiparasite, S. asiatica
are used as well, e.g. S. hermonthica (Delile) attaches itself through haustoria to the roots of a
Benth., which is applied in African traditional host plant. The seedling grows below the soil sur-
medicine to treat dermatological complaints such face for 4-6 weeks, during which time it depends
as leprosy. upon the host plant for food and water, and is par-
STROBILANTHES 385
quantities of seeds. These maybe dormant in the

soil for many years, reportedly sometimes over 30
r~ >•
years. The seeds cangerminate only when close to
a suitable host.
S. asiatica is a major pest in field crops. Locally in
India, it may reduce yields in rice to such an ex-
tent that cultivation has been given up. There is
little crop loss inthe early stages ofan infestation,
but theloss increases considerably with the years.
The leaves of the attacked crop plants wilt. In
South-East Asia S. asiatica is usually not a very
serious pest except in a few localities like north-
ern Thailand, where it is noxious in maize, some-
times also in sorghum.
The control ofthis pest is very difficult, and is of-
ten done by spraying hormone weed-killers such
as 2,4-D onplants before theflowering stage.
Genetic resources There seems tobe much ge-
netic variation in S. asiatica. Its growing habit
varies from one crop to another, in different envi-
ronmental conditions, and between geographical
areas. It is obvious that such a widespread species
is notunder threat ofgenetic erosion.
Prospects The eradication of S. asiatica as a
t: problematic parasite of crops has received much
v more attention than research on pharmacological
properties. The antifertility activity in particular
Striga asiatica (L.) O. Kuntze - 1,plant habit; 2, deserves more attention, and it is striking that
leaf; 3, flower; 4, corolla opened, showing stamens; one ofthe recorded uses in South-East Asia isas a
5,fruit; 6, seeds. contraceptive. Other recorded activities, e.g. anti-
inflammatory and antispasmodic, are possibly al-
ticularly injurious tothe host plant. After this pe- so attributable to flavonoids such as luteolin and
riod the plant emerges above the soil and becomes apigenin, butresearch isneeded for confirmation.
green. About onemonth after emergence the flow- Literature 340, 341,342, 347,362, 879.
ers open, and seeds may be mature again one Other selected sources 62,120,121, 181, 249,
month later. The minute seeds are dispersed by 250,318,731.
wind and rain. Noorma Wati Haron
Striga comprises about 40 species and occurs in
Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia and Australia.
Africa is by far the richest in species (over 30), Strobilanthes Blume
whereas in tropical Asia about 7 species occur.
About half of the species are annuals, the others Bijdr. fl. Ned.Ind.:781,796(1826).
are perennials with rhizomes ortuberous roots. ACANTHACEAE
Ecology S. asiatica is a hemiparasite on the x =8;S. cusia: n = 8,2n =32
roots ofgrasses. It maybe a serious pest in crops, Origin and geographic distribution Strobi-
e.g. upland rice, maize andsorghum inAfrica, and lanthes is one of the largest genera in Acan-
upland rice, maize, millet andsugar cane in India. thaceae, with approximately 200 species, and is
Under more natural conditions it occurs in decidu- distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Some
ous forest, grasslands, along roadsides and in species are cultivated within this region or else-
abandoned fields, up to 2000 m altitude. S. asiati- where.
ca does not succeed well in high rainfall areas. It Uses The leaves and sometimes the roots of S.
prefers sandy and well-drained soils, but can also cusia are important in traditional medicine in In-
grow onclayey soils. do-China and China. They are used internally to
Management S. asiatica can produce immense treat irregular menstruation, bleeding after abor-
tion, fever, vomiting, tonsillitis and haemoptysis, are mainly gastro-intestinal. Indirubin is now pro-
and in cases of eruptive epidemic diseases such as duced synthetically.
influenza, meningitis and erysipelas, and exter- Other compounds isolated from S. cusia include
nally against eczema, impetigo, haemorrhagic gin- the triterpenes lupeol, betulin and lupenone.
givitis, and snake and insect bites. S. cusia extracts induce abortion in animals in the
In traditional medicine in Indonesia S. crispa early stages of gestation.
leaves are used totreat kidney stones and diabetes. Botany Erect or decumbent herbs or much-
The tubers ofS. acrocephala T. Anderson are used branching shrubs. Leaves opposite, often those of
in Vietnam as a blood tonic, sexual stimulant, a pair unequal, simple, entire to dentate or cre-
sedative, to treat cough and to promote lactation nate, with cystoliths; petioles connected by a
of women after childbirth. In India, pounded transverse ridge; stipules absent. Inflorescence a
leaves of S. auriculata Nees are rubbed on the spike or head, terminal or in the axil of a bract,
body to treat intermittent fever. aggregated in erect or nodding racemes or pani-
Properties Leaves of S. crispa contain high cles, or composed of solitary flowers. Flowers bi-
amounts of minerals including potassium (51%), sexual, rather large, 5-merous, subsessile; calyx
calcium (24%), sodium (13%), iron (1%) and phos- deeply cleft or parted, with linear, equal or un-
phorus (1%), and of water-soluble vitamins (Bl, equal segments; corolla with funnel-form tube,
B2 and C). They also contain catechins, alkaloids, curved or straight, narrow below, much broader
caffeine and tannin. They showed high antioxi- above, hairy in 2 rows inside, lobes unequal,
dant activity, and it has been suggested that a spreading; stamens 4, didynamous, exserted or in-
daily dose of a herbal tea prepared from the leaves cluded, sometimes 2 rudimentary, filaments more
could contribute to the additional nutrients and or less connected at base; ovary superior, 2-celled,
antioxidants needed in the body to enhance the style slender, recurved, with 2 unequal stigmatic
defence system, especially toward the incidence of lobes. Fruit an oblong or linear capsule, 2-4-seed-
degenerative diseases. An extract of S. crispa ed. Seeds papillate or short-hairy.
leaves showed potent inhibitory activity on avian Several Strobilanthes species are monocarpic, i.e.
myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase, and no they take some time, often about 12 years, to
cytotoxicity. A leaf infusion of S. crispa showed flower and then die after fruit setting. This may
dissolving capacity on calcium stones. Verbasco- result in mass flowering and dying off, comparable
side (an iridoid-glucoside), caffeic acid derivatives to bamboos.
and flavonoids have been isolated from S. crispa. Strobilanthes has an enormous range of variation
The quinazolinone alkaloids 4(3H)-quinazolinone and has been subdivided into numerous smaller
and 2,4(lH,3H)-quinazolinedione were isolated genera, which are, however, often ill-defined. It is
from S. cusia in China. The first compound one ofthe poorly understood Acanthaceae genera.
showed antitumour, antiviral and immunomodu- Ecology S. crispa occurs in anthropogenic habi-
lating activities, and the second compound hy- tats in the lowland ofJava, whereas S. cusia is on-
potensive action. The indoloquinazolinone alka- ly occasionally planted in the Malesian region.
loid tryptanthrin, also isolated from S. cusia, The latter is hydrophilic and often grows in the
showed potent activity against resistant strains of shade.
mycobacteria, whereas a 1% tryptanthrin solution Management S. cusia can be propagated by
in alcohol showed good activity against some skin root cuttings, and plants are pruned 2-3 times a
fungi, without being toxic. Indoles, which are the year when cultivated for dye production. Harvest-
main compounds in S. cusia, have noticeable ac- ing ofleaves can start 6 months after planting.
tion on the womb; they showed contractive effect Cell suspension cultures of S. dyeriana Masters
on isolated uterus of guinea-pigs. The indole de- (apparently only known from cultivation) initiated
rivatives indigo and indirubin (indigo-red, the red- from leaf tissue have been maintained on agar
coloured natural isomer of indigo) have been iso- and solid B5 Gamborg media. One of the callus
lated from whole S. cusia plants. The latter com- lines produced the anthocyanins cyanidin-3,5-
pound showed anticancer activity, and is an offi- diglucoside and peonidin-3,5-diglucoside in the
cial drug in China for the treatment of chronic presence of indole-3-acetic acid. These antho-
granulocytic leukaemia. Clinical tests showed cyanins are also present in intact plants. The cul-
that the therapeutic efficacy ofindirubin was com- tures produce the glucoside of p-methoxyphene-
parable to that ofbusulfan, yet without bone mar- thylamine when this latter compound is used as
row suppression, and with few side effects, which the substrate.
STROBILANTHES 387
Genetic resources S. cusia has been much col- Malaysia: tarom, tarom siam (Peninsular). Laos:
lected for medicinal purposes and as a dye plant, hoomz baanz. Thailand: khraam (general), san-
and has become rare in the wild. Conservation yao (Karen, Mae Hong Son), hom (northern). Viet-
measures are desirable for wild populations. S. nam: ch[af]m nhu[ooj]m, ch[af]m m[ef]o, thanh
crispa seems less vulnerable. It is striking that in d[aj]i.
regions where Strobilanthes is comparatively well Distribution Bhutan, eastern India, Burma
studied the occurrence of endemic species is high, (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China and
e.g. in Sri Lanka where over 80% of the species Thailand. S. cusia is, or was, cultivated and some-
are endemic. This indicates that Strobilanthes is times naturalized elsewhere, e.g. in Peninsular
in general liable to genetic erosion. Malaysia.
Prospects Some of the compounds isolated Uses In Peninsular Malaysia pounded leaves
from S. cusia, such as indirubin, and their phar- are applied as a poultice to treat ague. In Vietnam
macological activities have greatly stimulated in- the leaves, usually as an extract, are used inter-
terest in antitumour agents from natural re- nally to treat irregular menstruation, bleeding af-
sources, and show that plants are still a consider- ter abortion, fever, vomiting, tonsillitis and hae-
able source of compounds active against impor- moptysis, and externally against eczema, impeti-
tant diseases. Recent findings also show that S. go, haemorrhagic gingivitis, and snake and insect
crispa may have prospects as a modern medicinal bites. In China leaves and roots are additionally
plant with stimulatory activity on the defence sys- used in cases of eruptive epidemic diseases such
tem of the body against diseases. However, still as influenza, meningitis and erysipelas. In Japan-
more research is needed to develop the potential ese traditional medicine S. cusia is applied exter-
applications ofStrobilanthes in medicine. nally to tinea pedis. The twigs are used to prepare
Literature 338, 731,876. a dark blue dye for dyeing cloth. S. cusia is plant-
S t r o b i l a n t h e s c r i s p a (L.) B l u m e
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 798 (1826).
Synonyms Sericocalyx crispus (L.) Bremek.
(1944).
Vernacular names Indonesia: daun picah bel-
ing (Jakarta), enyoh kelo, keci beling (Javanese).
Distribution Java.
Uses In Indonesia the leaves of S. crispa are
used to treat kidney stones and diabetes.
Observations An erect herb up to 100 cm tall,
branches acutely quadrangular at top; leaves of a
pair subequal, oblong-lanceolate, 9-18 cm x 3-8
cm, decurrent at base, acuminate at apex, shal-
lowly crenate-crispate, very scabrid; inflorescence
a short and dense spike, with imbricate bracts;
flowers with yellow corolla 1.5-2 cm long; fruit
fusiform, c. 11 mm long. S. crispa occurs in brush-
wood, on river banks and in abandoned fields, up
to 1000 m altitude.
Selected sources 62, 334, 519, 612, 731.
Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) O. Kuntze

Revis, gen. pi. 2:499 (1891).
Synonyms Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees
(1847), Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Bremek. Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) O.Kuntze - 1, flowering
(1944). branch; 2, opened corolla; 3, pistil; 4, dehisced
Vernacular n a m e s Assam indigo, room (En). fruit; 5, seeds.
ed as a dye plant in the mountains of northern or unisexual (and then plants dioecious), 5-mer-
Vietnam. ous, with 2 bracteoles inserted immediately below
Observations An erect shrub or perennial herb the calyx; sepals free, imbricate, persistent, cili-
up to 100 cm tall, branches 4-angled; leaves of a ate; corolla with cylindrical tube and spreading or
pair subequal, elliptical-ovate, 8-20(-25) cm x 3-8 recurved lobes hairy inside; stamens inserted near
cm, acutely tapering into petiole at base, acumi- the top ofthe corolla tube, filaments short and fili-
nate at apex, dentate; inflorescence an elongate form; ovary superior, (2-)5(-10)-celled, style usu-
spike of more or less remote heads, with foliaceous ally short with obtuse stigma. Fruit a baccate
bracts; flowers with violet, rose or white corolla drupe, pulp around the central stone usually
3.5-4 cm long; fruit fusiform, c. 25 mm long. S. cu- rather dry, covered by the persistent sepals at
sia grows under natural conditions in Vietnam base, stone with 1seed per cell.
and southern China on stream banks and valleys Both species treated here can be found flowering
in forest, at altitudes of 500-1600 m. and fruiting throughout the year. The flowers are
Selected sources 121, 217, 542, 546, 631,671, pollinated by insects, like bees. The slightly fleshy
731, 974. fruits are probably dispersed by animals such as
Nguyen Kim Bich &Nguyen Tap birds. Mycorrhizas have been demonstrated to be
present in several Australian Styphelia species,
but it is not known whether these occur in South-
Styphelia Sm. East Asian species.
There is some disagreement among taxonomists
Spec. bot. New Holland 4:45 (1795). on the status of Leucopogon: some consider it a
EPACRIDACEAE subgenus of Styphelia (as is adopted here), others
x = unknown a separate genus.
Origin and geographic distribution Styphe- Ecology Styphelia often occurs gregariously in
lia comprises about 150 species and is distributed open sunny locations, on the seashore as well as in
in tropical Asia (from Indo-China, Burma (Myan- mountains upwards to alpine heights, but can also
mar) and Thailand to Malesia), Australia, Tasma- be found as undergrowth in forest. It shows a pref-
nia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and islands in erence for acid, sandy or peaty soils.
the Pacific Ocean. Australia is richest in species Genetic resources The large area of distribu-
(about 130), whereas in the Malesian region 8 tion of the Styphelia species treated here is re-
species have been found. markable. Such widespread species are not in
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of danger of genetic erosion, but several other Sty-
leaves and roots of S. malayana is drunk to treat phelia species occur only very locally and may eas-
stomach-ache and dysmenorrhoea. It is one of the ily become endangered by habitat destruction.
ingredients in 'rempah ratus', a traditional herbal Prospects The uses of Styphelia in traditional
concoction administered after childbirth. The medicine deserve more attention. Research on
roots of S. suaveolens have been used in the phytochemistry and properties of the South-East
Philippines to treat haemorrhage. The fruits of S. Asian species is still lacking.
malayana are edible, and in Bangka (Indonesia) Literature 121,247,331.
its fibrous inner bark has been used to make ca-
noes waterproof.
Properties The flavonoids in bark, leaves, flow- Selection of species
ers and fruits of several Australian Styphelia
species have been investigated. Cyanidin-3-glyco- Styphelia malayana (Jack) Sprengel
sides are the main pigments, whereas kaempferol, Syst. veg. 4(2), Cur. Post.: 67 (1827).
quercetin and myricetin have also been demon- Synonyms Leucopogon malayanus Jack (1820).
strated. Vernacular n a m e s Brunei: ambok gobang
Botany Shrubs or small trees. Leaves arranged (Dusun), ludang-ludang (Tutong), terindak ati
spirally, simple and entire, xeromorphic, stiff and (Malay, Kedayan). Malaysia: maki china (Penin-
leathery, finely longitudinally veined, often whit- sular, Sarawak), chuchur atap (Peninsular, Sara-
ish on the underside between the veins, subsessile wak), melamut (Iban, Sarawak). Vietnam: m[ax]
to shortly petiolate; stipules absent. Inflorescence kfyf].
a terminal and/or axillary spike or spike-like Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar),
raceme, bracteate. Flowers bisexual, polygamous southern Indo-China (southern Vietnam), south-
SUREGADA 389
na occurs on or behind the beach, on exposed cliffs

and rocks, open spots in heath forest, and in
mossy forest up to 2750 m altitude. It is found on
nutrient-poor, acid soils such as sandy and peaty
soils, often also on volcanic soils, sometimes as a
pioneer species, and occurs locally gregariously.
Styphelia suaveolens (Hook.f.) Warb.

P. &F. Sarasin, Reisen in Celebes 2: 329 (1905).
Synonyms Leucopogon suaveolens Hook.f.
(1852), Styphelia philippinensis Merr. (1922), Leu-
copogon philippinensis (Merr.) Hosok. (1940).
Vernacular names Philippines: gaing, sadum-
dum (Bagobo).
Distribution Northern Borneo (Mount Kina-
balu), the Philippines (Luzon, Negros and Min-
danao), Sulawesi, Timor, New Guinea, the So-
lomon Islands, Australia, Tasmania and New
Zealand.
Uses The roots have been used in the Philip-
pines (Negros) to treat haemorrhage.
Observations A small, erect or prostrate, dif-
fuse or bushy shrub up to 2(-3) m tall; leaves lin-
ear to linear-oblong or lanceolate-oblong, (0.5-)l-
1.5(-2) cm long, blunt-pointed at apex, with 3-5
inner veins more conspicuous than fan-like
Styphelia malayana (Jack) Sprengel - 1, flowering branched outer ones, shortly petiolate; flowers
branch; 2, flowering and fruiting twig; 3, inflores- unisexual (plants dioecious), corolla c. 4 mm long,
cence with flowers and fruits; 4, flower; 5, fruit. white, creamy or pinkish-red; fruit subglobose
(3-)4-5 mm in diameter, yellowish-white to red. S.
ern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore suaveolens occurs in the undergrowth of montane
(now extinct), Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, forest, and in exposed locations in alpine grass-
Bangka, Belitung, Anambas Island, Borneo, New land and on rocks, at (1800-)2000-4000(-4700) m
Guinea (Cycloop Mountains) and Australia altitude. It is locally common to even subdomi-
(north-eastern Queensland). nant.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia, a decoction of Selected sources 247, 877.
leaves and roots is drunk to treat stomach-ache Stephen P. Teo
and dysmenorrhoea. It is one of the ingredients in
'rempah ratus', a traditional herbal concoction ad-
ministered after childbirth. The fruits are edible. Suregada Roxb. e x Rottl.
In Bangka, the fibrous inner bark has been used
to make canoes waterproof. Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin Neue Schriften 4:
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 7 m 206(1803).
tall, sparingly branched; leaves lanceolate, EUPHORBIACEAE
(2.5-)3-5(-8) cm long, spine-pointed at apex, with x = unknown; S. multiflora: 2n = 22
numerous equally faint veins, sessile; flowers bi- Origin and geographic distribution Surega-
sexual, corolla c. 5 mm long, white, sometimes da comprises about 30 species: 8 in Africa, 13 in
pinkish; fruit globose, 4-5 mm in diameter, yel- Madagascar and the Comoros Islands, and the re-
lowish-white to red. The populations from New mainder in tropical Asia and northern Australia
Guinea and Australia have been described as a (1 species). About 5 species seem to occur in the
distinct variety (or subspecies): var. novoguineen- Malesian region, 2 widespread, the other 3 local.
sis Sleumer (or Leucopogon malayanus Jack sub- Uses A decoction of Suregada roots is used in
sp. novoguineensis (Sleumer) Pedley). S. malaya- Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand to treat fever,
and the bark in Cambodia for strengthening the material in the Malesian region into 2 entities,
gums and as purgative in liver complaints. The based on larger, fleshy fruits on the one hand and
wood is used to treat fever, venereal diseases and smaller, capsular fruits on the other hand, seems
beri-beri, and the stem bark as anthelmintic, laxa- inadequate. Moreover, 3 endemic species seem to
tive, and externally as fungicide. The wood is exist in the Philippines and Borneo. There is
sometimes used for construction, e.g. for rafters, much need of ecological-morphological field work
and as firewood. Suregada is occasionally planted on the genus.
as an ornamental in gardens. Ecology In South-East Asia Suregada occurs in
In eastern Africa, the roots of S. zanzibariensis a wide variation of habitats, from lowland forest,
Bâillon are used in decoction as a purgative, and primary as well as secondary, to scrub vegetation
they are also used to treat snakebites. and montane forest up to 1500 m altitude.
Properties The diterpenes glomomulides A-F Genetic resources Both Suregada species
and diol ent-kaurene-3ß,15ß-diol, and the flavones treated here are widespread and, at least locally,
kanugin, desmethoxy kanugin and pinnatin have common. The genetic variation is still unknown.
been isolated from the roots of S. multiflora. Prospects Some compounds from Suregada
Gelonin, a ribosome-inactivating and immunore- show interesting pharmacological activities, e.g.
active protein, has been isolated from the seeds. immunotoxic and anti-HIV, which merit further
An antiretroviral protein (GAP31) with activity research, and may have potential in the develop-
against herpes simplex virus infection in vitro has ment of future medicines. The antipyretic activity
also been identified. This protein also inhibits hu- observed for Asia as well as Africa is notable. A
man immunodeficiency virus type 1(HIV-1) infec- taxonomie study of the species in South-East Asia
tion and replication, and exhibits DNA topoiso- is needed to unravel the species delimitation.
merase inhibitor and RNA N-glycosidase activi- Literature 101,189, 703,817.
ties.
A leaf extract of S. zanzibariensis showed a dis-
tinct in-vitro antiplasmodial activity against Selection of species
chloroquine-sensitive and chloroquine-resistant
Plasmodium falciparum strains. Suregada glomerulata (Blume) Bâillon
Botany Dioecious shrubs or small to medium- Étude Euphorb.: 396 (1858).
sized trees, completely glabrous. Leaves alternate, Synonyms Gelonium glomerulatum (Blume)
simple, elliptical, entire or slightly toothed, pin- Hassk. (1844).
nately veined, pellucid-dotted, shortly petiolate; Vernacular names Malaysia: limau-limau, pe-
stipules small, connate, early caducous, often nawar puteh (Peninsular). Vietnam: k[ejjn son
leaving a conspicuous scar. Inflorescence leaf-op- ch[uj]m.
posed, fasciculate or very shortly cymose, often Distribution Vietnam, throughout the Male-
gummy when young. Flowers unisexual, tiny, sian region and in Australia (Northern Territory).
tepals (petals absent) 5, suborbicular, strongly im- Uses A decoction of the roots is used against
bricate; male flowers with numerous free, exsert- fever in Peninsular Malaysia. The wood is some-
ed stamens and numerous small glands between times used for construction, e.g. for rafters, and as
the filaments; female flowers with annular disk firewood.
and superior, 2-3-locular ovary, styles 2-3, very Observations A shrub or small to medium-
short, bifid. Fruit capsule- or drupe-like, globose sized tree up to 21 m tall; leaves eliptical-oblong to
or shallowly 2-3-lobed, mostly smooth, tardily de- obovate, 5-15 cm x 2-5.5 cm, usually broadly
hiscent, few-seeded. Seeds subglobose, with fleshy rounded to obtuse at apex; fruit depressed-glo-
testa. bose, c. 13 mm in diameter, capsular. S. glomeru-
Suregada is a distinctive genus in the tribe lata occurs in scrub vegetation, margins of man-
Gelonieae, but the species of the Malesian region grove, secondary forest, primary mixed diptero-
are still insufficiently circumscribed. S. glomeru- carp forest, on river banks and the seashore, up to
lata and S. multiflora seem to be separable only 150 m altitude, in Borneo up to 1500 m; it is local-
by the larger size of flowers and fruits in the lat- ly common.
ter, but it is almost impossible to establish a clear Selected sources 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 62, 121,
dividing line between them. The leaves in S. 990.
glomerulata are mostly smaller and often rounded
or obtuse at apex. The traditional division of the
SWINGLEA 391
S u r e g a d a multiflora (A.Juss.) B â i l l o n used in house building, often as a pillar. In Colom-

Étude Euphorb.: 396 (1858). bia S. glutinosa is cultivated for live fences.
Synonyms Gelonium multiflorum A.Juss. (1824). Properties Methanol and methylene chloride
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: limau-limau (Pe- extracts of S. glutinosa bark showed promising
ninsular). Thailand: khan thong phayabat (cen- antiprotozoal activity against both chloroquine-
tral), kraduk (peninsular), maduk lueam (north- sensitive and chloroquine-resistant strains of
ern). Vietnam: m[aaf]n m[aa]y. Plasmodium falciparum. The cytotoxicity against
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo- human promonocytic U-937 cells showed an LD50
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Suma- value of over 400 p.g/ml after 96 h, with a selectivi-
tra; possibly also in Java and the Lesser Sunda Is- ty index well over 10, indicating that the antipro-
lands. tozoal activity is not based on cytotoxicity. Several
Uses In Thailand a decoction of the stem, mixed acridone alkaloids isolated from the stem bark al-
with Casearia grewiaefolia Vent, and Siphonodon so showed promising antiplasmodial activity. The
celastrineus Griffith stems, is taken against beri- one with the highest antiplasmodial activity was,
beri. In India the seeds are used to treat liver dis- however, still 5 times less active than chloroquine
eases and as a tonic for the gums. The wood is against the chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum
used to treat fever and venereal diseases, and the strain, and it showed a high cytotoxicity against
stem bark as an anthelmintic, laxative, and exter- HeLa cells.
nally as a fungicide. In Thailand and Cambodia Botany A small to medium-sized, evergreen
the bark is used for strengthening the gums and tree; twigs angled and pubescent when young,
teeth, and as a purgative in liver complaints. The soon becoming terete and glabrous, with 1-2
wood is sometimes used for construction, e.g. for spines in the leaf axils. Leaves alternate, 3-folio-
rafters, and as firewood. late; petiole 0.5-5 cm long, very narrowly winged;
Observations A shrub or small tree up to 9 m stipules absent; leaflets cuneate at base, acumi-
tall; leaves elliptical-oblong to elliptical-lanceo- nate to rounded at apex, terminal leaflet oblanceo-
late, 10-19 cm x 3-8 cm, acuminate or acute at late, 8-12 cm x 3-5 cm, lateral leaflets ovate to
apex; fruit globose, c. 15 mm in diameter, some- obovate, 2.5-5 cm x 1.2-2.5 cm. Flowers solitary or
what fleshy-leathery. S. multiflora occurs in de- in clusters in leaf axils, sometimes on short twigs
ciduous, mixed or evergreen forest, also in mon- leafy at base, bisexual, regular, 5-merous, fra-
tane rain forest, up to 1500 m altitude. grant, pedicellate; calyx cup-shaped, 2.5-3.5 mm x
Selected sources 19,22, 23, 101,121, 170, 189, 1.5-2 mm, with obtuse lobes; petals free, linear,
537, 817, 990. 12-14 mm x 3-3.5 mm, white; stamens 10; ovary
Wongsatit Chuakul, Noppamas superior, short-stalked, obovate, 8-10-celled, pi-
Soonthornchareonnon &Orawan Ruangsomboon lose, style slender, twice as long as the ovary.
Fruit an oblong-ovoid berry 5-10 cm x 3-6 cm,
green or yellow, with several seeds in each cell.
S w i n g l e a glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. Seeds woolly, surrounded by glutinous pulp.
Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons
Journ. Arn. Arb. 8: 131(1927). emergent.
RUTACEAE Swinglea is monotypic and differs from other Ru-
2n =unknown taceae genera with hard-shelled fruits (subtribe
Synonyms Limonia glutinosa Blanco (1837), Balsamocitrinae) in having ellipsoid or ovoid
Aegle glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. (1904), Chaetosper- ribbed fruits, with a leathery outer shell showing
mum glutinosum (Blanco) Swingle (1913). very long, pointed, radially arranged oil glands in
Vernacular names Tabog, swinglea (En). Phi- the peel and thick, tissue-containing mucilage
lippines: tabog, malakabuyau, boyag (Tagalog). glands lining the radial walls ofthe segments sur-
Origin and geographic distribution S. gluti- rounding the seeds.
nosa originates from the Philippines (Luzon). It Ecology In the Philippines S. glutinosa is wide-
has been introduced in Central and South Ameri- ly distributed at low and medium altitudes, occur-
ca, and in the United States (Florida). ring in thickets and in secondary forest. In Cen-
Uses In the Philippines fruit juice of S. gluti- tral and South America it can be found from sea-
nosa is a folk remedy for various skin diseases. It level up to 1500 m altitude.
is also used as a hair tonic, and rubbed into dog Management S. glutinosa is usually propagat-
fur to cure itch or to get rid of ticks. The trunk is ed by seed.
Genetic resources S. glutinosa has been intro- in India the bark is considered a tonic and used to
duced in the tropics of Central and South America treat ophthalmia.
as a potential rootstock for Citrus. As such it is The inner bark and leaves of some species (mainly
represented in regional germplasm collections fo- S. cochinchinensis and S. fasciculata Zoll.) are
cusing on tropical fruits as well as germplasm col- used as a mordant and yellow to red dye in the
lections in the United States and Spain, specializ- batik industry. Young leaves are sometimes eaten
ing in Citrus. Its natural distribution being con- raw or steamed as a vegetable. The wood of Sym-
fined to just a single island makes it potentially plocos is used for light and temporary construc-
vulnerable to genetic erosion. However, its prefer- tion, posts, turnery, inlay work, furniture, match-
ence for disturbed forest and thickets reduces this es, carving and wrapping paper.
risk. Properties Leaves and stems of S. cochinchi-
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco- nensis (of Sumatran origin) showed in-vitro an-
logical activities of S. glutinosa. The provisional timicrobial activity, moderate against Staphylo-
results of research on its antimalarial activity de- coccus aureus, Escherichia coli and Fusarium
serve further attention. oxysporum, and strong against Saccharomyces
Literature 760, 987, 988. cerevisiae. In tests in New Guinea, methanol ex-
Other selected sources 117, 907. tracts ofS. cochinchinensis leaves, roots and stem
Gilmour Panggabean bark showed a broad spectrum of antibacterial ac-
tivity, that was enhanced on fractionation, but the
extracts showed no activity on the moulds tested.
Symplocos Jacq. Matairesinol and harman (and derivatives of the
latter compound) isolated from S. lucida (Thun-
Enum. syst. pi. 5: 24 (1760). berg) Sieb. & Zucc. (occurring from India to Japan
SYMPLOCACEAE and western Malesia) were found to inhibit hu-
x =11,12;S. cochinchinensis: In = 22, 24 man immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication in
Origin and geographic distribution Symplo- H9 lymphocyte cells. Ethanolic extracts of S. luci-
cos comprises about 250 species and is distributed da leaves produced hypoglycaemic activity in rats,
from tropical and subtropical Asia to eastern Aus- and anti-cancer activity against Friend virus
tralia and Fiji in western Polynesia, and in Cen- leukaemia in mice, and leaf and stem extracts
tral and South America, with a few species ex- showed activity against human epidermoid carci-
tending to temperate regions (to Japan and the noma of the nasopharynx in tissue culture. The
United States). Approximately 60 species occur in flavan-glycoside symposide, isolated from S. race-
the Malesian region. Borneo is richest with about mosa stem bark, showed anti-fibrinolytic activity.
25 species, followed by Peninsular Malaysia, Water extracts ofS. racemosa stem bark exhibited
Sumatra and the Philippines, each with about 20 analgesic and antidiarrhoeal activities when in-
species. Indo-China and southern China have no traperitoneally administered to mice.
less than about 30 species, Thailand has slightly Symplocos contains large amounts of aluminium,
less than 20. up to 50% of the ash, and this is responsible for
Uses Some Symplocos species are used in tradi- the action as a mordant. Gallic and ellagic acid
tional medicine in South-East Asia, mainly to are common. Leucoanthocyanins occur in various
treat stomach-ache and thrush. In Peninsular amounts, and quercetin and caffeic acid have also
Malaysia the bark of S. ophirensis C.B. Clarke been demonstrated. A mixture of triterpenoid
was used internally as a vermifuge. An infusion of saponins has been obtained from S. cochinchinen-
S. racemosa Roxb. leaves is used in Vietnam to sis.
treat stomach-ache and diarrhoea, and a decoction Botany Evergreen shrubs or small to medium-
ofS. glomerata King ex C.B. Clarke leaves to treat sized, rarely large trees up to 30(-45) m tall.
scabies. In China leaves of S. sumuntia Buch.- Leaves alternate or arranged spirally, simple, of-
Ham. ex D. Don (synonym: S. caudata Wallich ex ten with vesicular or toothlike glands at margins,
G. Don) are used in traditional medicine to treat pinnately veined, petiolate; stipules absent. Inflo-
pulmonary tuberculosis, dysentery, acute tonsilli- rescence usually an axillary spike, raceme or pani-
tis and otitis media, and eye infections. In Viet- cle. Flowers bisexual, regular, 3-5-merous; calyx
nam roots and leaves of S. paniculata (Thunberg) with very short tube; corolla sympetalous but of-
Miq. (synonym: S. chinensis (Lour.) Druce) are ten divided nearly to the base, whitish, bluish or
used to treat colds, fever, backache and burns, and purplish; stamens 4-many, connate into a tube or
SYMPLOCOS 393
only at the very base and then sometimes in 5 Vietnam: dung b[ooj]p (southern), ba th[uw]a.
bundles; ovary inferior, 2-5-celled, style 1. Fruit a Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-
drupe with hard stone, crowned by the persistent China, China, Japan, Thailand, throughout Male-
calyx lobes, 1-seeded. Seed with copious en- sia, the Solomon Islands, eastern Australia, Vanu-
dosperm. Seedling with epigeal germination, atu and Fiji.
cotyledons very short and linear, green; hypocotyl Uses In Sumatra young leaves soaked in water
elongated; first 2 leaves opposite or alternate. are chewed to treat madness. In India powdered
Growth is continuous or in flushes. Within a given bark is given with honey to cure biliousness,
tree all flowers open more or less at the same haemorrhages, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and eye dis-
time. Pollination is probably by insects such as eases. A paste of the leaves, boiled in oil, is ap-
bees and bumblebees, but self-pollination already plied to diseases of the scalp. The inner bark and
in the bud is also suggested. Although birds and leaves were often used as a mordant and yellow to
bats may sometimes eat the fruits, fruit dispersal red dye in the batik industry. The wood is used for
is unlikely to be abundant. house posts, furniture, frames of houses and
Ecology Symplocos occurs most abundantly in matches. Rosaries are made from dried fruits.
the tropical highlands up to 4000 m altitude, but Observations A shrub to medium-sized, rarely
many species have a fair altitudinal range and are large tree up to 22(-45) m tall; leaves 12-25 cm x
also found in the lowlands. In general, it is a com- 3-10 cm, petiole 5-17 mm long; inflorescence usu-
ponent in mixed, mostly evergreen rain forest. ally a spike; flowers with glabrous, whitish corol-
Management Symplocos can be propagated by la; fruit flask-shaped to globose, 5-7 mm long. S.
seed. For «S. cochinchinensis there are about cochinchinensis is very variable and 4 subspecies
27500 dry fruits/kg, and sown fruits show only and numerous varieties have been distinguished.
about 15%germination in 4-7 months. It occurs in many different habitats up to 3000 m
Genetic resources It seems that Symplocos is
not particularly threatened because it is little
used, either for medicinal purposes or for timber,
dye or mordant, and often occurs in more or less
inaccessible mountainous locations.
Prospects Although relatively little research
has been done on the phytochemistry and phar-
macological properties of Symplocos, the few stud-
ies available show interesting results, e.g. con-
cerning antimicrobial activity. More research
seems worthwhile, also in the light of the rather
common application in traditional medicine in In-
dia and China.
Literature 398, 542, 671,685, 883, 1030.
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.

Moore
Journ. Bot. 52: 148 (1914).
Synonyms Symplocos spicata Roxb. (1832),
Symplocos laurina Wallich ex G. Don (1837), Sym-
plocosjavanica Kurz (1871).
Vernacular names Indonesia: jirak (Sun-
danese), jirek (Javanese), kandueng (Minangk-
abau). Malaysia: medang hitam, pokok api-api
(Peninsular). Philippines: agosip puti (Tagalog),
balok-bok (Sambali), upunan (Igorot). Cambodia: Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore - 1,
louôt chom' (Kandal), seu meut (Stung Treng), part of flowering branch; 2, flower; 3, fruiting
trom prei. Thailand: lot, luut, pan (peninsular). branch.
altitude, most commonly in the understorey of pri- T a c c a J.R. F o r s t e r &J.G. F o r s t e r

mary and secondary rain forest.
Selected sources 121, 247, 249, 250, 295, 296, Char. gen. pi.: 35 (1775).
334, 466, 542,883. TACCACEAE
x = unknown; T. leontopetaloides: 2n = 30
S y m p l o c o s c r a s s i p e s C.B. C l a r k e Origin and geographic distribution Tacca
Hook.f., Fl. Brit. India 3(9): 580 (1882). comprises 11 species, 8 of which occur in South-
Synonyms Symplocos brandiana King & Gam- East Asia. Australia has 2 species, Africa, Mada-
ble (1906), Symplocos monticola King & Gamble gascar and South America 1 each. T. leon-
(1906), Symplocos penangiana King & Gamble topetaloides (L.) 0. Kuntze has the largest area of
(1906). distribution, ranging from Africa and Madagascar
Vernacular names Malaysia: ganchek kechil to tropical Asia, Australia and Polynesia.
(Peninsular). Uses Tacca comprises some important and com-
Distribution Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular monly used medicinal plants. Usually the rhizome
Malaysia and Borneo. is used, externally to treat wounds, swellings,
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leafjuice is ad- sores, snakebites, skin complaints and rheuma-
ministered to treat stomach-ache. tism, and internally to treat menstrual disorders,
Observations A shrub to medium-sized tree up fever and digestive upsets.
to 18 m tall; leaves 6-27 cm x 1-8.5 cm, petiole T. leontopetaloides is mainly used for its edible
1-10 mm long; inflorescence a short spike; flowers starch in the rhizome, but has also medicinal uses
with glabrous corolla; fruit cylindrical, 13-18 mm throughout its area of distribution. The rhizomes
long, often bright blue. S. crassipes is variable and and their starch are used against dysentery, diar-
7 varieties have been distinguished. It occurs in rhoea and oedemas.
different forest types up to 1500 m altitude. T. plantaginea (Hance) Drenth is used in Vietnam
Selected sources 121,247, 249. to treat diarrhoea, jaundice, high blood pressure,
irregular menses and as an anodyne, and in China
Symplocos odoratissima (Blume) as an analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory
C h o i s y e x Zoll. and to treat wounds. Rhizomes of some Tacca
Syst.Verz. 2: 136(1854). species are used in Vietnam for the extraction of
Synonyms Symplocos pulverulenta King & diosgenin and are considered to be of economic im-
Gamble (1906), Symplocos wenzelii Merr. (1915). portance. Diosgenin is used as starting material
Vernacular names Indonesia: ki sariawan for the production of oral contraceptives, sex hor-
(Sundanese), sarigintung (Sumatra), udu (Bali). mones and corticosteroids, and is often commer-
Philippines: duung (Filipino), himamaliu (Taga- cially isolated from Dioscorea species.
log), mangkunai (Panay Bisaya). Leaves and young inflorescences are sometimes
Distribution Throughout Malesia except for eaten as a vegetable after cooking, and Tacca is
New Guinea. sometimes cultivated in gardens as an ornamen-
Uses In Java pulped inner bark, known as 'kulit tal.
seriawan', is rubbed on the gums to cure thrush; a Properties The presence of steroidal sa-
leaf infusion is used for the same purpose. Pulped pogenins has been recorded for several Tacca
leaves are applied externally and internally (as a species. Rhizomes of T. integrifolia contain up to
decoction) after childbirth. They are also part of a 3.3% diosgenin, those of T. chantrieri about 1.2%.
mixture to treat sprue. Young leaves are eaten as Stigmasterol and daucosterin have also been iso-
a vegetable. The wood is occasionally used in lated from T. chantrieri rhizomes. A number of
house building. taccalonolides (bitter-tasting steroids) have been
Observations A shrub to medium-sized tree up isolated from T. plantaginea. T. leontopetaloides
to 30 m tall; leaves 7-20(-40) cm x (2.5-)5-10(-20) contains a number of potent molluscicidal ste-
cm, petiole stout, 1-5 cm long; inflorescence an up roidal sapogenins.
to 30 cm long panicle; flowers with hairy corolla; An aqueous extract of T. leontopetaloides showed
fruit usually ovoid, 8-25 mm long. S. odoratissima distinct toxic activity against Schistosoma man-
occurs in primary and secondary rain forest up to soni. In India an extract of T. plantaginea showed
2500 m altitude, often near streams. significant in-vitro antimalarial activity. The tac-
Selected sources 121,247,334, 542,883. calonolides isolated from T. plantaginea exhibited
Inggit Puji Astuti weak cytotoxicity against P388 leukaemia cells.
TACCA 395
Botany Perennial herbs, with tuberous, solid, Koord, from Sulawesi) are only known from a few
starchy rhizome. Leaves usually in a rosette, sim- collections in a limited region and may be en-
ple and entire or pinnatifid, palmatipartite to dangered. Locally, collecting rhizomes from wild
palmatisect, sometimes with pinnately divided populations may put much pressure on some
segments, long-petiolate with a sheathing base. species.
Inflorescence umbellate, with involucral bracts, Prospects Tacca is widely used in traditional
with long, erect scape (peduncle). Flowers bisexu- medicine and deserves more attention in pharma-
al, regular, 3-merous; perianth consisting of fused cological research, especially for external applica-
tepals in 2 whorls; stamens inserted on the tepals, tions. It is a possible alternative for Dioscorea
outer ones slightly larger than inner ones, fila- grown for diosgenin, but more research is needed
ments short and flattened; ovary inferior, 1-celled, on propagation and management of Tacca as a
style provided with 3 incised wings, stigma 3- crop.
lobed. Fruit berrylike, 6 ribbed, usually irregular- Literature 156, 230, 245, 510, 957.
ly disintegrating, occasionally dehiscent, many-
seeded. Seeds strongly ribbed, usually with dis-
tinct raphe. Selection of species
The flowers are possibly pollinated by carrion-flies
attracted by the dull colour of the flowers and Tacca chantrieri André
their sweetish musky odour. Two kinds of fruit de- Rev. Hort. 73:541 (1901).
velopment in relation to dispersal have been dis- Synonyms Tacca paxiana H. Limpr. (1928).
tinguished. The first type comprises fruits matur- Vernacular names Thailand: di ngu wa
ing with a dull colour, fleshy walls and sweet (northern), neraphusi thai (central), wan phang-
taste, possibly dispersed by small mammals such phon (peninsular). Vietnam: r[aa]u h[uf]m,
as rodents. The peduncle bends over and the de- c[aar]m dia la, pinh d[or"|.
veloping infructescence is situated on the ground. Distribution Eastern India, Bangladesh, Bur-
Examples include T. chantrieri and T. integrifolia. ma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China,
In the second type the fruits are brightly coloured Thailand and northern Peninsular Malaysia.
and thin-walled, and the peduncle remains in an Uses In Vietnam the rhizome is macerated in
upright position. Examples include T. leontopeta- alcohol and used externally to treat rheumatism.
loides and T. palmata. In Thailand the rhizomes are used as an an-
Tacca is the only genus of the family Taccaceae. tipyretic, whereas cooked young leaves and inflo-
Its affinity is still unclear, but Dioscoreaceae have rescences are eaten as a vegetable.
been most often suggested as related, also on phy- Observations A perennial herb with cylindrical
tochemical grounds. rhizome up to 10 cm x 1.5 cm; leaves elliptical to
Ecology Most Tacca species occur in humid ovate or lanceolate, 17-60 cm x 4.5-22 cm, entire,
lowland forest, primary as well as secondary for- petiole 11-43 cm long; inflorescence with scape up
est, rarely up to 2100 m altitude. Some species to 65 cm long, 4 large, decussate involucral bracts,
(e.g. T. palmata) are more indifferent to climate many filiform bracts and up to 25 flowers; flowers
and also occur under seasonal climatic conditions, up to 2 cm in diameter, green to blackish-violet;
e.g. in teak forest, whereas T. leontopetaloides fruit 1.5-4 cm x 1-2 cm, green to deep orange-red
even occurs in grassland and beach vegetation. or purple; seeds reniform. T. chantrieri occurs in
Management T. leontopetaloides is widely cul- primary and secondary forest, up to 1400(-2100)
tivated for its edible tubers. In Vietnam some m altitude.
other Tacca species, e.g. T. chantrieri, are cul- Selected sources 247, 249, 1008.
tivated under half-natural conditions for medici-
nal purposes. Rhizomes are dug up all the year Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl.
round, well washed and dried in the sun or in Bot. Mag. 35:t. 1488 (1912).
ovens. Synonyms Tacca cristata Jack (1821), Tacca
Genetic resources Most Tacca species, includ- laevis Roxb. (1832).
ing the ones treated here, are widespread and oc- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: puar lilipan
cur in primary as well as secondary forest. These (Sumatra), kumis ucing, curug lukur (Java). Ma-
do not seem to be in danger of genetic erosion. laysia: keladi murai, kelemoyang ayer (Peninsu-
However, some other Malesian species (e.g. T. lar). Thailand: man phlaen, wan phangphon, nila-
bibracteata Drenth from Borneo and T. celebica phusi (peninsular). Vietnam: ngfar]i r[owjJm.
Tacca palmata Blume

Enum. pi. Javae 1:83 (1827).
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: gadung tikus
(general), kumis ucing (Sundanese), kemendulan
(Javanese). Philippines: payung-payungan (Taga-
log), kanalong, tungang-basing (Bisaya). Thai-
land: buk ruesi (south-eastern), khot din (peninsu-
lar). Vietnam: nfuw]a ch[aa]n v[ij]t.
Distribution Indo-China, Thailand and through-
out the Malesian region except New Guinea.
U s e s In Indonesia the rhizome is applied ex-
ternally to swellings, cuts, sores, pimples and
snakebites. Scrapings ofthe rhizome are used as a
stomachic and to treat menstrual disorders in the
Philippines. In Thailand the rhizome is used as a
poultice to treat wounds.
Observations A perennial herb with globose to
ellipsoid rhizome up to 5(-8) cm x 3 cm; leaves
4-8-palmatipartite, 7-36 cm x 7.5-40 cm, petiole
(12-)15-60(-75) cm long; inflorescence with scape
up to 80 cm long, 4 large, decussate involucral
bracts, without filiform bracts and up to 30 flow-
ers; flowers up to 1cm in diameter, green to black-
ish-violet; fruit globose, up to 1 cm in diameter,
bright red; seeds pyramidal with a rounded base.
T. palmata often occurs in secondary forest and
forest margins, also in teak forest and bamboo
Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl. - 1, plant habit; 2, groves, up to 1000 m altitude.
rhizome; 3, flower in side view; 4, flower in upper Selected sources 117, 121, 247, 249, 334,
view. 760.
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
Distribution India, Bangladesh, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, Pe-
ninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, western Java and T a p e i n o c h i l o s a n a n a s s a e ( H a s s k . ) K.
Borneo. Schumann
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia pulped rhizomes
are applied to the skin to treat rash. In Thailand a Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 27:349 (1899).
decoction of the rhizome is used to treat hypoten- COSTACEAE
sion and as an aphrodisiac, and in Vietnam to 2n =unknown
treat irregular menses. T. integrifolia is some- Synonyms Tapeinochilos pungens (Teijsm. &
times planted in gardens as an ornamental. Binnend.) Miq. (1868).
Observations Aperennial herb with cylindrical Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: bunga kasturi,
rhizome up to 12 cm x 3 cm; leaves oblong to hamuki, mamori (Moluccas).
lanceolate, 7.5-65 cm x 3-24 cm, entire, petiole Origin and geographic distribution T. ana-
4.5-41 cm long; inflorescence with scape up to nassae originates from the Moluccas, New Guinea
65(-100) cm long, 4 large, non-decussate involu- and Australia (Queensland), but is grown as an
cral bracts, many filiform bracts and up to 30 ornamental in other tropical and subtropical re-
flowers; flowers up to 3.2 cm in diameter, green to gions (known as 'Indonesian wax ginger').
blackish-violet; fruit 2.5-5 cm x 1-2.5 cm, green to Uses In the Moluccas roots, leaves and the stem
black; seeds ovoid to oblong-ovoid. T. integrifolia pith have been used internally as well as external-
occurs in primary and secondary forest, up to ly to treat snakebites, and the leaves have been
1200(-1500) m altitude. used as a poultice on wounds. The leaves were al-
Selected sources 121,173, 247, 249. so eaten as a vegetable. It is unknown whether
the plant is still used for these purposes. T.
TAXUS 397
ananassae is cultivated as an ornamental, espe- Tapeinochilos comprises about 12 species and is

cially for cutflowers. restricted to the Moluccas, New Guinea and
Botany A very large herb up to 4 m tall, with north-eastern Australia. It is included in the fami-
fleshy rhizome; stems branched. Leaves arranged ly Costaceae, which is closely related to Zingiber -
spirally, simple and entire, oblong to oblong-obo- aceae, together with 2 small South American gen-
vate, 11-14 cm x 5-6 cm, cuneate at base, acumi- era and the large, pantropical genus Costus.
nate at apex, glabrous, subsessile, with truncate Ecology T. ananassae occurs in lowland and
ligule and tubular sheath at base. Inflorescence lower montane forest, often in clearings.
terminal on leafy shoot or on an erect leafless pe- Management Propagation of cultivated T.
duncle up to 2 m tall and arising from rhizome, ananassae is usually done by division, sometimes
cone-like, 7-20 cm long, with large, leathery, by stem cuttings or seed. Seeds start to germinate
bright red bracts having recurved tips. Flowers about 6 weeks after sowing, and a germination
barely exceeding bracts, bisexual, zygomorphic, 3- rate of60% has been recorded.
merous, c. 5 cm long, subsessile; calyx tubular, un- Genetic resources Little is known about wild
equally lobed, red; corolla with 3 subequal lobes, populations of Tapeinochilos and the threat of ge-
yellow; stamen 1, with broad filament and apical netic erosion for these. No germplasm collection
connective crest, staminode (labellum) opposite are known to exist, but commercial plant breeders
the stamen, adnate to corolla tube, with 2 lateral offer T. ananassae, and occasionally other species,
teeth; ovary inferior, 2(-3)-celled, style filiform, for sale, e.g. in the United States.
upper part enclosed by the thecae, stigma flat- Prospects Pharmacological research is needed
tened triangular. Fruit a capsule, longitudinally to assess the true value ofthe medicinal uses of T.
dehiscent, many-seeded. Seeds angular, with ananassae. Locally T. ananassae has become a
short lobed aril. popular ornamental for its large, brilliant red,
stiff inflorescences, which can be used as long-
lasting cutflowers. However, it has lost some pop-
ularity because after some years of growth the in-
florescence stalks decrease in length.
Amor T. Karyowati
T a x u s s u m a t r a n a (Miq.) d e L a u b .
Kalikasan 7: 151 (1978).

TAXACEAE
In =unknown
Synonyms Taxus wallichiana auct. non Zucc.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: tampinur batu,
kayu taji (Sumatra). Philippines: amugauen (Ig-
orot).
Origin and geographic distribution T. su-
matrana occurs scattered in the Malesian region.
It has been found in Sumatra, the Philippines and
Sulawesi. It is also recorded for the eastern Hi-
malayas, northern Burma (Myanmar), Vietnam,
southern China and Taiwan, but it depends on the
taxonomie interpretation whether this concerns
the same species or a closely related one.
Uses T. sumatrana is not used in traditional
medicine. Like other Taxus species, it is notorious
Tapeinochilos ananassae (Hassk.) K. Schumann - for the substantial toxicity of all its parts, except
1, habit of flowering plant; 2, inflorescence; 3, the seed aril, for humans and animals (especially
flower. horses). However, branchlets and leaves of Taxus
are used in Chinese traditional medicine to treat cial interest isolated from Taxus. Phase II/III clin-
kidney diseases and diabetes. In India bark and ical trials have established this compound as the
leaves of Taxus are considered a remedy for most active single agent in the treatment of ad-
cough, and in Nepal twigs and leaves are used as vanced metastatic breast cancer.
an emmenagogue. The constituents implicated in animal and human
The discovery in 1971 that Taxus is a source of poisonings are taxines, alkaloids active on cardiac
taxol (paclitaxel), a compound with anticancer ac- myocytes, resulting in heart failure and death in
tivity, increased the scientific interest dramatical- some instances.
ly and resulted at the beginning of the 1990s in The heartwood is reddish-brown and clearly dis-
the development ofimportant drugs. tinct from thepale yellowish sapwood.
Taxus wood is highly valued and is used for deco- Botany A dioecious, evergreen, large tree up to
rative woodwork, such as chests and coffins, floor- 45 m tall, with a bole diameter of over 100 cm;
ing, fence posts, mallots andbows. Taxus is anim- bark thin, smooth, purplish-red, peeling in large
portant ornamental, its dense growth and ability flakes. Leaves arranged spirally, but usually
to withstand regular clipping making it suitable twisted into a single plane, simple and entire, lin-
for hedges. ear-lanceolate to linear, 1.5-2.5 cm x 1.5-2 mm,
Properties The most interesting compounds distinctly constricted at base, acute at apex, de-
isolated from Taxus are diterpenes with a taxane current. Pollen cones axillary, solitary, small,
nucleus. Some of these are strictly diterpenoids, globular, with a basal cluster of sterile scales.
e.g. baccatins, whereas others have an amide Seed solitary in axil of leaf, with keeled scales at
function, e.g. taxol. Taxol was first isolated from base, flask-shaped, c. 6 mm x 5 mm x 4 mm, cov-
the bark of T. brevifolia Nutt. from the United ered bya fleshy, bright red aril when ripe.
States, but it is present only in traces, requiring Seeds germinate readily in moist and shady locali-
enormous amounts of material for commercial ex- ties. T. sumatrana grows slowly. Seedlings grown
ploitation. It appeared also possible to isolate tax-
ol from the leaves of Taxus cultivars, and to pre-
pare it from structural analogs present in sub-
stantial quantities (e.g. 10-desacetylbaccatin III).
Taxol and related taxoids (e.g. baccatin III) have
also been isolated from T. sumatrana leaves of
Sumatran origin. Recently, good methods for pro-
ducing taxol in in-vitro cell cultures have been de-
veloped, e.g.by adding methyl jasmonate, produc-
ing about 1 g of taxol in 10 1 solution after 2
weeks.
Taxol is a mitotic spindle poison with very specific
mode of action. It promotes the formation ofmi-
crotubules and inhibits their disassembly into
tubulin. Moreover, it inactivates the protein Bcl-2,
which prevents apoptosis (programmed cell
death). Taxol isgiven intravenously andis used to
treat different types of tumours, including ad-
vanced ovary and breast cancer and certain lung
cancers (non-small cell lung cancer) in patients
who cannot have surgery or radiation therapy. It
may also be used to treat AIDS-related Kaposi's
sarcoma. Taxol may prolong the life of patients
with advanced cancer (on average by 3 months in
patients with advanced breast cancer). Side ef-
fects include reduction in white and red blood cell
counts often resulting in infections, hair loss, nau-
sea and vomiting, joint and muscle pain, nerve
pain, numbness in the extremeties and diarrhoea. Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) de Laub. - twig with
Taxotere (docetaxel) is another compound of spe- fruit.
TECOMA 399
in nurseries in Taiwan reached a maximum aver- T e c o m a s t a n s (L.) J u s s . e x K u n t h

age height of 57 cm after 3 years. Pollination
takes place by wind, whereas seeds are dispersed Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth, Nov. gen. sp. 3: 144
by birds, which eat the aril. (1819).
Taxus comprises about 7 closely related species, BlGNONIACEAE
and occurs predominantly in temperate regions of 2« = 36
the Northern hemisphere; only 1 species reaches Synonyms Bignonia stans L. (1763), Stenolobi-
highland regions of Malesia. Taxonomie studies of um stans (L.) Seem. (1862).
Taxus resulted in different classifications, one of Vernacular n a m e s Yellow bells, trumpet bush
them being a single, very widespread species with (En). Indonesia: tetu lang (Timor), dufa dufa (Ter-
different subspecies. There are conflicting opin- nate). Malaysia: ai funan (Peninsular). Thailand:
ions concerning the taxa occurring in South-East dok lakhon (northern), thong urai, soi thong
Asia. Three species are recorded for this region: T. (Bangkok). Vietnam: hu[yf]nh li[ee]n.
sumatrana, T. wallichiana Zucc. and T. chinensis Origin and geographic distribution T. stans
(Pilger) Rehder, the latter 2 occurring in Vietnam. is indigenous in the southern United States and
They are all very closely related, possibly conspe- Central America, but is widely cultivated as an or-
cific, and more detailed studies are needed to clar- namental in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.
ify their taxonomy. It has naturalized in several parts of South-East
Ecology T. sumatrana occurs in montane forest Asia and the Pacific, and locally become a cumber-
and mossy forest at 1400-2300 m altitude, and is some weed, hampering regeneration of the indige-
locally the dominant canopy species. nous vegetation.
Genetic resources T. sumatrana has very Uses T. stans is a well-known medicinal plant in
scattered occurrence and in several regions is con- Central America and official in e.g. the Mexican
sidered endangered, e.g. in Taiwan. This is due to Pharmacopoeia. A decoction of the leaves is a pop-
its low reproduction rate and its highly valued ular diuretic, and taken to treat gastro-intestinal
wood. Its exploitation for taxol has been consid- disorders. It is also credited with antidiabetic
ered a serious danger to natural Taxus popula- properties. A decoction of various plant parts is
tions because of the enormous amounts of materi- further taken as a general tonic and to treat gas-
al needed and the slow growth rates, but this has tritis. A decoction of the root is considered a
been overcome by collecting prunings from culti- strong diuretic and taken as a treatment for
vated plants and the development of techniques syphilis. In South-East Asia T. stans is only plant-
for in-vitro production of active compounds. ed as an ornamental.
Many cultivars are planted as an ornamental in Properties Various parts of T. stans are rich in
e.g. the United States, Canada and Europe. There alkaloids. Flavonoids have been found in the flow-
is an excellent Taxus collection of various culti- ers, iridoids in the leaves. In a general screening
vars of most species at the Secrest Arboretum in for antimicrobial activity, a methanol extract of
Wooster, Ohio, United States. leaves was found to be effective against Candida
Prospects It is unrealistic to expect that Male- albicans. In an experiment to substantiate the
sian populations of T. sumatrana will play a role traditional use of T. stans in Mexican folk medi-
in the production oftaxol or related compounds in- cine to control diabetes mellitus, an extract
teresting for drug production. The species is too showed evident hypoglycaemic action in rabbits.
scarce in the region, cultivation is difficult be- Intravenous administration of a T. stans infusion
cause of altitudinal requirements, and other in dogs produced an early hyperglycaemic re-
means of taxol production are becoming available, sponse and arterial hypotension followed by a
e.g. through in-vitro cell culture. Although T. slow decrease of the glucose blood values. Heart
sumatrana is an excellent timber tree, its occur- frequency was gradually increased after the first
rence is too scattered and it grows too slowly to be hour of drug administration and persisted for sev-
offuture importance. eral hours. The effects observed on blood parame-
Literature 118, 247, 484. ters seem to be related to hepatic glycogen metab-
Other selected sources 250, 461, 564, 599, olism, involving activation of glycogenolysis.
1001, 1046. Botany A much-branched shrub up to 4 m tall.
F.C. Pitargue Leaves opposite, (l-)3-7(-9)-foliolate; petiole and
rachis slender; stipules absent; leaflets ovate-
lanceolate, 3-10 cm x 1-4 cm, base acute, apex
acuminate, irregularly serrate, slightly hirsute on tropical and subtropical Asia and northern Aus-
midrib and in vein axils beneath, subsessile. Inflo- tralia. The Malesian region is richest in species
rescence an axillary or terminal, few-flowered (about 60), followed by Indo-China (about 20) and
raceme. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, faintly scent- Thailand (about 15).
ed; pedicel short, irregularly curved or twisted; ca- Uses Some Tetrastigma species are used in tra-
lyx narrowly cylindrical-campanulate, 5-7 mm ditional medicine in Indonesia and Malaysia,
long, with subequal teeth, glabrous; corolla nar- mainly in the form of a leaf poultice to treat pussy
rowly campanulate, 3.5-5 cm long, tube dorsiven- inflammations, boils and fever. Tetrastigma is al-
trally compressed, lobes orbicular, subequal, so used in traditional medicine in the Philippines
bright yellow, with red stripes at the throat; sta- and Vietnam, but the identity of the species is un-
mens 4, in 2 unequal pairs, included, c. 6 mm long, certain. In the Philippines a plant decoction is
sterile fifth stamen much reduced; ovary superior, taken as a diuretic and applied externally to treat
narrowly cylindrical, 2-celled, lepidote, style fili- scabies. In Vietnam sap from crushed leaves is
form, glabrous, stigma flat. Fruit a linear, com- used internally as well as externally to treat
pressed capsule 10-25 cm x 0.5-0.8 cm, smooth, headache and fever. The fruits of some species are
brown when ripe, tardily dehiscent, many-seeded. edible, and the stems are occasionally used for
Seeds oblong, flat, c. 20 mm x 6 mm, with a mem- binding purposes.
branous transparent wing on each end. Seedling Properties A water extract of T. planicaule
with epigeal germination. (Hook.f.) Gagnep. from China inhibited tumour
T. stans flowers and fruits profusely throughout necrosis factor a-induced degradation of NF-K B,
the year in South-East Asia. The flowers are fre- which is related to immune and inflammatory re-
quently visited by humming birds and sunbirds. sponses.
Tecoma comprises 13 species and occurs naturally Daucosterol, 6'-0-benzoyldaucosterol and ß-sitos-
almost exclusively from the southern United terol have been isolated from the Chinese T. hems-
States to Argentina, but 1 species is indigenous in leyanum Diels &Gilg.
southern Africa, which is sometimes considered to Botany Large dioecious lianas with terete to
belong to a segregate genus Tecomaria. flattened stems, conspicuously lenticellate, climb-
Ecology In South-East Asia T. stans can be ing by usually simple, leaf-opposed tendrils.
found as a garden escape and naturalized from Leaves alternate, palmately or pedately com-
sea-level up to 1000 m altitude. pound, with up to 7 ( - l l ) leaflets, occasionally sim-
M a n a g e m e n t T. stans is easily propagated by ple; leaflets usually slightly toothed; stipules ca-
seed, suckers or cuttings. ducous. Inflorescence an axillary, umbellate,
Genetic resources In view of its large natural corymbose or dichotomous cyme, pedunculate.
distribution, its popularity as a garden ornamen- Flowers unisexual, regular, small, 4(-5)-merous;
tal and its preference for anthropogenic habitats, calyx cupuliform to disciform; petals free, re-
T. stans is not threatened bygenetic erosion. flexed, greenish; disk present; male flowers with
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco- free stamens opposite petals and rudimentary
logical activities of T. stans. Further research is ovary; female flowers with superior, 2-celled ovary
needed to evaluate the potential of the traditional having a short, thick style and large, 4-lobed stig-
medicinal uses, especially the use for the treat- ma, and filiform staminodes. Fruit a pear-shaped
ment of diabetes mellitus. to globose berry, 1-4-seeded. Seeds with dorsal
Literature 247, 576, 646, 760, 797. side convex and ridged or furrowed, ventral side
O t h e r s e l e c t e d sources 94, 386. convex or carinate, endosperm present.
Mindarti Harapini Tetrastigma differs from all other Vitaceae genera
by its unisexual (dioecious) flowers and its 4-lobed
stigma.
Tetrastigma (Miq.) Planchon Ecology The trailing stems of Tetrastigma may
be found draping trees and shrubs along roads,
A.DC. & C D C , Monogr. phan. 5(2): 320, 423 river banks and in forest edges, especially at high-
(1887). er altitudes, but also in the lowland. Tetrastigma
VlTACEAE is well known as the exclusive host ofthe parasitic
x =unknown; T. leucostaphylum; 2n = 44 Rafflesia with its spectacular flowers.
Origin a n d geographic distribution Tetra- Management Tetrastigma plants have been
stigma comprises about 100 species and occurs in successfully propagated by stem cuttings.
TlLIACOEA 401
Genetic resources Many Tetrastigma species inflammations, and the juice is taken to treat
are known from few collections in a limited area cough. In Peninsular Malaysia a leaf poultice is
(e.g. T. lawsonii), and these may be liable to ge- applied to boils and in cases of ague.
netic erosion. Some other species are widely dis- Observations A large liana with flattened
tributed (e.g. T. leucostaphylum) and not threat- stems up to 11 cm wide; leaves 3-7-foliolate, ter-
ened. In India types of T. leucostaphylum with minal leaflet lanceolate, 13.5-21 cm x 4-9.5 cm,
white patches on the leaves have been discovered, acute at base; female flowers with rounded and
which can be grown in pots as an ornamental. ciliolate stigma lobes; fruit globose, 1.5-2 cm in di-
Prospects Too little is known about the phar- ameter. T. leucostaphylum occurs at edges of low-
macological properties of Tetrastigma to predict land and hill dipterocarp forest, sometimes also in
its possibilities for future use in phytomedicine. brushwood. It is locally common.
However, its leaves have interesting external ap- Selected sources 121,334, 529,845.
plications, which merit further research, e.g. on R.H.M.J. Lemmens
anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities.
Literature 529, 671,760, 1031, 1054.
Tiliacora t r i a n d r a (Colebr.) D i e l s
Selection of species E n g l , Pflanzern-., Heft 46 (IV 94): 62 (1910).

MENISPERMACEAE
T e t r a s t i g m a l a w s o n i i (King) Burkill e x In = unknown
Suess. Synonyms Cocculus triandrus Colebr. (1822),
Engl., Nat. Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 20d: 325 (1953). Limacia triandra (Colebr.) Hook.f. & Thomson
Synonyms Vitis lawsonii King (1896). (1855).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar noh papan, Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: akar kunyit-
akar papan, akar noh kroh (Peninsular). kunyit, berkunyit, akar kusin (Peninsular). Thai-
Distribution Western Peninsular Malaysia. land: choi nang (northern), thao wan khieo (cen-
Uses A leaf poultice is applied to the body to tral), yat nang (peninsular). Vietnam: xanh tarn.
treat fever. The fruits are edible. Origin and geographic distribution T. trian-
Observations A liana with flattened stems up dra occurs in India (Assam), southern Burma
to 3 cm wide; leaves 3-foliolate, terminal leaflet el- (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thailand and Peninsular
liptical to lanceolate, 10.5-14 cm x 5-6 cm, decur- Malaysia.
rent at base; female flowers with pointed and U s e s In Thailand aerial parts of T. triandra are
glabrous stigma lobes; fruit globose, 1.5-2 cm in widely used as an antipyretic. In Cambodia the
diameter. T. lawsonii occurs at edges of lowland leafy shoots enter into a prescription for the treat-
dipterocarp forest. ment of dysentery. They are also used as a
Selected sources 121, 529. flavouring in cooking in Thailand. In Indo-China
the flexible stems are used for rough cordage,
Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) thatching and basketry.
Alston ex Mabb. T. acuminata (Lamk) Hook.f. &Thomson, an Indi-
Taxon26:539(1977). an-Burmese species, appreciated for its ornamen-
Synonyms Vitis lanceolaria (Roxb.) Wallich tal foliage and fragrant flowers and mentioned as
(1834), Tetrastigma lanceolarium (Roxb.) Plan- a remedy for snakebites, is cultivated in the
chon (1887), Tetrastigma kunstleri (King) Craib botanical garden in Bogor, Indonesia.
(1926). Properties More than 15 alkaloids have been
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: areuy ki barera identified from T. triandra including the bisben-
(Sundanese), bantengan, oyod gepeng (Javanese). zylisoquinolines tiliacorinine, nortiliacorinine and
Malaysia: akar chabang limah, kankong gajah, tiliacorine. These alkaloids act as cardiac and res-
akar papan (Peninsular). Thailand: khruea khao piratory poisons when injected into frogs. A crude
nam (Phrae). ethanol extract of T. triandra leaves showed
Distribution Bhutan, India, Burma (Myan- strong antifeedant activity against the green
mar), Indo-China, Thailand and western Malesia leafhopper Nephotettix virescens. A methanol ex-
(at least Peninsular Malaysia and Java, probably tract of roots exhibited antimalarial activity in
also elsewhere). vitro.
U s e s In Java a leaf poultice is applied to pussy An ethanol extract of T. acuminata showed strong
In Indo-China T. triandra can be found flowering

and fruiting throughout the year, but in Thailand
from December-July only. As in other Menisper-
maceae, the pollinators are probably small insects,
which are undoubtedly attracted by the scent of
the flowers.
Tiliacora consists of 19 species in Africa, 2 in trop-
ical Asia and 1in Australia.
Ecology T. triandra occurs in forest and scrub
vegetation up to 1300 m altitude. It is found on
rocky or clayey soils, and also on limestone hills.
Genetic resources Although relatively wide-
spread and locally common in old forest clearings
in Thailand, T. triandra is largely confined to low-
land forest. Therefore, it may be liable to genetic
erosion.
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco-
logical activities of Tiliacora in comparison with
other Menispermaceae. Since many bisbenzyliso-
quinoline alkaloids show interesting activities,
further research on T. triandra is desirable to
judge its full potential as a medicinal plant, also
for the Malesian region.
Literature 121,247, 514, 712, 713, 723,864.
Other selected sources 181,249,253.
Wongsatit Chuakul,
Noppamas Soonthornchareonnon
Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels - 1, flowering & Orawan Ruangsomboon
branch of male plant; 2, male flower with front in-
ner sepal removed; 3,fruit; 4, endocarp.
T o u r n e f o r t i a L.
antibacterial activity. Tiliacorinine isolated from
a crude extract showed promising antifungal ac- Sp. pi. 1: 140 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 68 (1754).
tivity against Alternaria tenuissima, a causal BORAGINACEAE
agent of leaf blight in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan x = unknown
(L.) Millsp.). Origin and geographic distribution Tourne-
Botany A dioecious liana with puberulous to fortia comprises about 150 species, the majority of
glabrous and striate stems. Leaves alternate, sim- which are native to the American tropics, but
ple and entire, elliptical, lanceolate or sometimes about 15 species occur in the Old World. In the
subovate, 6.5-ll(-17) cm x 2—4(-8.5) cm, base Malesian region 7 species are found.
cuneate to rounded, apex usually acuminate, with Uses Leaves, and occasionally roots, of T. sar-
3-5 basal veins and 2-6 pairs oflateral veins; peti- mentosa are used in traditional medicine in the
ole 0.5-2 cm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence Philippines and Papua New Guinea to treat vari-
an axillary or cauliflorous pseudo-raceme, up to ous complaints, externally as well as internally.
2-8(-17) cm long, composed of 1-few-flowered pe- Leaves of T. argentea are used in Vietnam and
duncled cymes. Flowers unisexual, yellowish; New Caledonia as a poison antidote; they are eat-
sepals 6-12, the outermost smallest, innermost up en as a vegetable, and smoked like tobacco.
to 2 mm long; male flowers with 3 or 6 petals c. 1 In Indo-China the leaves of T. montana Lour, are
mm long and 3 stamens; female flowers with 6 used as a febrifuge. The roots are employed in
petals c. 1 mm long and 8-9 carpels inserted on a complex preparations as a remedy for tuberculosis
gynophore. Fruit consisting of several drupes with haemoptysis, and to treat rheumatism.
borne on a branched carpophore; drupes obovoid, Properties The efficacy of T. argentea leaf ex-
7-10 mm x 6-7 mm, red, glabrous, endocarp tracts, used traditionally in New Caledonia to
transversely and irregularly ridged. treat ciguatera fish poisoning, has been demon-
TOURNEFORTIA 403
strated in an experiment. Ciguatoxins produced Selection of species

by a dinoflagellate and transferred by fish are re-
sponsible for this type of poisoning. Leaf extracts Tournefortia argentea L.f.
of T. argentea counteract the neurocellular effects Suppl. pi.: 133 (1782).
of the toxin, and have beneficial action on the Synonyms Messerschmidia argentea (L.f.) I.M.
characteristic gastro-intestinal and neurological Johnst. (1935), Argusia argentea (L.f.) Heine
disturbances. Several pyrrolizidine alkaloids have (1976).
been isolated from T. argentea twigs. Vernacular n a m e s Velvet leaf (En). Indonesia:
Several phenolic compounds, including salicylic babakoan (Sundanese), karpo (Ternate), moral
acid and tournefolin A-C, have been isolated from babulu (Ambon). Philippines: kapal-kapal (Taga-
T. sarmentosa stems. log), salakapo (Ilocano), bukabuk (Bisaya). Viet-
Antihyperglycaemic effects have been demon- nam: b[aj]c bi[eer]n, phong ba.
strated for T. hirsutissima L., which is used in tra- Distribution Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Sri
ditional medicine in Mexico to treat diabetes mel- Lanka, Vietnam, Hainan, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Is-
litus. lands, throughout Malesia (except Peninsular
Botany Herbs, shrubs, lianas or small trees. Malaysia), northern Australia, Polynesia and New
Leaves usually alternate, sometimes opposite, Caledonia.
simple and entire, petiolate; stipules absent. Inflo- Uses In Vietnam the leaves are used as an anti-
rescence terminal or lateral, usually dichotomous- dote against bites ofsea snakes. In New Caledonia
ly branched and composed of unilateral cymes a leaf extract is used in traditional medicine to
without bracts. Flowers bisexual, regular, (4-)5- treat fish poisoning. Leaves are eaten raw as a
merous; calyx shortly to deeply lobed; corolla with vegetable. They are also dried and smoked like to-
a short or elongate, cylindrical to campanulate bacco.
tube and spreading lobes; stamens alternating Observations A shrub or small tree up to 10 m
with corolla lobes, included, with very short fila- tall; branches densely greyish-white hairy; leaves
ments; ovary superior, style almost lacking. Fruit oblanceolate to obovate, 10-20 cm x 3-8 cm; flow-
a drupe with juicy or corky mesocarp, endocarp ers with corolla 3-4 mm long and 4-7 mm in diam-
breaking up into two 2-seeded or four 1-seeded eter, white to pinkish-white; fruit depressed-glo-
pyrenes. bose, 5-8 mm in diameter, with spongy wall. T. ar-
The corky tissue in the fruits of T. argentea is an gentea occurs along the coast, often on sandy
adaptation to dispersal by water. Tournefortia beaches.
species with corky endocarp are often placed in a Selected sources 62, 81, 121, 247, 692, 853,
separate genus Argusia. 877, 1013.
Ecology T. sarmentosa prefers dry areas and is
often found in thickets, whereas T. argentea oc- Tournefortia sarmentosa Lamk
curs in coastal habitats such as sandy beaches. Tabl. encycl. 2(1):416 (1792).
Several other Malesian species are often found Vernacular n a m e s Papua New Guinea: kapu
along rivers, some in mountains. (Hula, Central Province), kisikiri (Gaikorovi, East
Genetic resources Both Tournefortia species Sepik Province). Philippines: salakapo (Iloko),
treated here are widespread and not in danger of patayud (Bisaya), tanara-daganan (Bikol). Viet-
genetic erosion. However, some other Tournefortia nam: b[oj] c[aj]p tr[uw][owf]n.
species are only known from a few collections in Distribution Vietnam, Taiwan, throughout the
Malesia. Malesian region and northern Australia (Queens-
Prospects Although very little is known about land).
the phytochemistry and pharmacological activiti- U s e s In the Philippines a decoction of the roots
ties of Tournefortia, the few tests available from is given internally after childbirth, to hasten the
different parts of the world generate clues on the expulsion of the placenta. The leaves are applied
efficacy of extracts used in traditional medicine. as a poultice to the forehead to treat headache. In
This makes research in South-East Asia interest- veterinary medicine, the leaves are employed to
ing. kill maggots in ulcers of cattle. In Papua New
Literature 30, 81,247, 732, 760. Guinea the leaves are chewed by people suffering
from malaria. They are also chewed, or eaten
mixed with food, to give relief in stomach-ache.
Observations A creeper or liana; young
sus occurs in Indo-China, southern China, Thai-

land and Java.
Uses Leafy twigs of T. villosus are used to treat
sprue in Java. In Vietnam an extract of whole
plants is administered to treat rheumatism, oede-
ma, jaundice and as a diuretic. All parts of T.
wightianus Hook. &Arnott are used externally in
China to treat traumatic injury and boils.
Botany A liana up to 10 m long, rusty villous
especially on young parts; white latex present.
Leaves opposite, simple and entire, orbicular to el-
liptical-oblong, (2.5-H.5-12 cm x (1.5-)2-7 cm,
acute or apiculate at apex, usually thinly leathery,
densely rusty villous below, venation pinnate with
6-8 pairs of lateral veins; petiole 0.5-1.5 cm long;
stipules absent. Inflorescence an axillary umbel-
like cyme, irregularly dichotomous, rusty villous;
peduncle up to 10 cm long. Flowers bisexual, regu-
lar, 5-merous, fragrant; pedicel c. 2 mm long;
sepals oblong-lanceolate, c. 3 mm long; corolla
subrotate, with short tube and oblong-lanceolate
lobes c. 1 cm long and overlapping to the left in
bud, villous at base, yellowish; corona lobes insert-
ed at back of gynostegium, with subulate tips
overtopping anthers; stamens inserted at base of
corolla, connate at base, anthers small, retuse, ap-
pressed to the stigma head, without apical mem-
Tournefortia sarmentosa Lamk - 1, flowering brane, pollinia 4 on each pollinarium; ovaries 2,
branch; 2, flower; 3, fruit. free, superior, 1-celled, stigma head beaked,
longer than anthers. Fruit consisting of 1-2 divar-
branches densely brown hairy; leaves oblong- icate, subcylindrical follicles up to 18 cm long, vil-
lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 4-15 cm x 2-7 cm; lous, many-seeded. Seeds flat, c. 10 mm x 2 mm,
flowers with corolla 6-10 mm long and 4 mm in di- comose.
ameter; fruit depressed ovoid-subglobose, c. 5 mm Toxocarpus comprises about 40 species and occurs
in diameter, with fleshy wall. T. sarmentosa oc- in Africa, tropical Asia, northern Australia and on
curs in secondary forest and thickets at low eleva- islands in the Pacific Ocean. Tropical Asia is by
tions, especially in dry localities near the sea. far the richest in species. Toxocarpus is closely re-
Selected sources 62, 121, 247, 347, 349, 351, lated to Secamone and sometimes combined with
354, 569, 731,760, 1013. that genus.
N.O. Aguilar Ecology T. villosus occurs in open mixed forest,
brushwood, hedges and bamboo forest in the low-
land, in China also in montane forest up to 1500
Toxocarpus villosus (Blume) Decne. m altitude.
Genetic resources T. villosus does not seem to
D C , Prodr. 8: 506 (1844). be in danger of genetic erosion; it is fairly wide-
ASCLEPIADACEAE spread and also occurs in anthropogenic habitats.
In = unknown Prospects At present the value of T. villosus as
Synonyms Secamone villosa Blume (1826). a medicinal plant in the Malesian region is very
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: serut rambat limited. However, based on medicinal applications
(Javanese). Laos: mok khan ngue. Thailand: thao in Vietnam, it may have prospects, but research
wan daeng (Ratchaburi), khruea sut (Loei), on phytochemistry and pharmacological activities
khruea ma taek (northern). Vietnam: d[aa]y is a prerequisite. The taxonomy of Toxocarpus and
g[as]o v[af]ng, ti[eex]u qu[ar] l[oo]ng. related genera is still in need of review.
Origin and geographic distribution T. villo- Literature 62, 334,971.
TRAPA 405
Other selected sources 1013. idants. Several tannins have been isolated from T.
Tran Dinh Ly &Tran The Bach natans leaves.
Per 100 g dry weight, fruits contain up to 70 g
starch, about 10 g protein, 7 g sugar, 0.5 g fat and
T r a p a n a t a n s L. 0.7 g fibre. The starch is suitable for uses as tablet
disintegrant in pharmaceuticals. The fruits can be
Sp.pl. 1:120(1753). eaten raw, but this is not recommended as they
TRAPACEAE may contain parasites, particularly flukes, from
2ra=48, 96 contaminated water.
Synonyms Trapa bicornis Osbeck (1757), Tra- Botany An annual, aquatic, floating herb with
pa cochinchinensis Lour. (1790), Trapa bispinosa slender main axis up to 4 m long, branched or not;
Roxb. (1815). adventitious roots developing from leaf scars of
Vernacular n a m e s Water chestnut, water cal- submerged leaves, with many filiform segments.
trop, Singhara nut (En). Indonesia: lengkat, Leaves dimorphic; submerged ones opposite, lin-
lengkong, salaikat (Jakarta, Java). Cambodia: ear, entire, sessile, caducous; floating ones alter-
krachap. Thailand: kra chap (central), khao nate, in rosettes, rhombic to deltoid, (l-)3-7 cm x
khwaai (northern), ma ngaeng (Chiang Rai). Viet- (l-)4-9 cm, the upper margins dentate, glabrous
nam: c[ur] [aas]u, [aas]u n[uw][ows]c. to hairy beneath, petiole 6-21 cm long, spongy and
Origin and geographic distribution T. na- more or less inflated about the middle; stipules
tans occurs in southern Europe, Africa and tem- small, scarious, divided to the base. Flowers soli-
perate, subtropical and tropical Asia. It is rare in tary in axils of upper leaves, bisexual, regular, 4-
the Malesian region, known only from southern merous, pedicelled; sepals lanceolate to narrowly
Sumatra and western Java, where it was possibly triangular, 4-7 mm long; petals free, oblanceolate
introduced by Chinese people. It is cultivated in
India, Indo-China and southern China, mainly for
its edible fruits.
Uses In Vietnam and Cambodia a decoction or
infusion of the fruits is used in traditional medi-
cine to treat fever and headache, and as a tonic. In
China the fruits are additionally used as a thirst
quencher and to treat sunstroke. They are consid-
ered to be tonic and to heal stomach cancer in
Japan.
The fruits are faintly sweet and eaten as a delica-
cy after being cooked. They should not be confused
with the tubers of Chinese water chestnut
(Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f) Trinius ex Henschel),
which are commonly used in stir-fried Chinese
dishes. In Indo-China flour is prepared from the
seeds, which is sweetened with sugar and honey
and made into pastry. T. natans is also used as an
ornamental aquatic plant. It is reputed for its
ability to absorb large amounts of toxic metals
from polluted water.
Properties Extracts of T. natans fruits showed
distinct antimicrobial activity against gram-posi-
tive and gram-negative bacteria, and also signifi-
cant cytotoxic activity, e.g. against HeLa cells in
vitro. Gallic acid was isolated as a cytotoxic con-
stituent. In tests, an extract also inhibited glyco-
syl transferase, thus preventing the formation of
dental plaque, and it showed distinct activity Trapa natans L. - 1, habit of flowering plant; 2,
against several plant viruses. A screening showed flower; 3, different types of fruits; 4, fruit as found
that T. natans may be a potential source of antiox- on the market.
to obovate, 8-16 mm long, white; stamens inserted in the Malesian region. Efforts to cultivate this
at the base of the ovary; disk surrounding the plant resource should take into account the poten-
ovary, crenulate; ovary half-inferior, 2-celled, tial danger ofit becoming a serious weed.
style with capitate stigma. Fruit a top-shaped Literature 247, 334, 504, 671, 764.
drupe up to 3 cm wide and long, pericarp blackish, Other selected sources 121,250, 966.
soon disappearing, endocarp hard, very variably Rosna Mat Taha
2-4-horned, 1-seeded. Seed with woody testa;
cotyledons very unequal, 1almost vestigial.
A single seed may give rise to 10-15 rosettes of Trevesia burckii Boerl.
floating leaves, and each rosette may produce up
to 20 fruits. The fruits fall to the bottom ofthe wa- Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 6: 110 (1887).
ter, and the seeds may remain viable for up to 12 ARALIACEAE
years. This all contributes to the large growing- 2« = unknown
power of T. natans under suitable conditions. Synonyms Trevesia cheirantha (C.B. Clarke) O.
Trapa is the only genus of the Trapaceae, but has Kuntze (1891).
often been included in the Onagraceae. The num- Vernacular n a m e s Ghost's foot (En). Malaysia:
ber of species in the genus is still under debate; tapak harimau, daun tapak badak, tapak itek
some botanists maintain up to 30 species, but (Peninsular).
most recognize only a few or even only one poly- Origin and geographic distribution T. bur-
morphic species (then usually a number of vari- ckii occurs in peninsular Thailand, Peninsular
eties is distinguished). This latter view is followed Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo (West
here. The fruit is most variable, especially the Kalimantan, Sarawak).
number and shape of its horns. Many fossil Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the leaves are
species have been described. used for poulticing small sores, skin complaints in
Ecology T. natans occurs in ponds and swamps general, fractured bones, and, combined with rub-
with slowly flowing or stagnant, eutrophic water bing, to treat rheumatism, ague and fever. Men-
in lowland areas, where it roots in soft mud. It tion is further made ofa decoction ofroot bark and
cannot stand brackish or acid water. T. natans is leaves drunk as a tonic with aphrodisiac proper-
best grown in shallow ponds, which hold water ties.
throughout the year; it requires full sun. In Java the leaves of T. sundaica Miq. are an in-
Management T. natans is commercially culti- gredient of traditional 'jamus'. T. palmata (Roxb.
vated in China and India, where maximum yields ex Lindley) Vis., a species of the seasonally more
of 4-5 t of fruits per ha have been obtained. It is or less dry climatic core of continental South-East
propagated by seeds, but in China stem segments Asia, is used in Indian folk medicine as a general
and axillary buds have been cultured successfully tonic. In Thailand the young flowers of T. palmata
on a half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium are used as an appetizer. The young inflores-
supplemented with growth hormones. Blight cences oï Trevesia are eaten as a cooked vegetable.
caused by Sclerotium rolfsii is the major disease Properties There is no information on the phy-
in China, and the beetle Galerucella birmanica is tochemistry or pharmacological activities of T.
the most serious pest in Asia. burckii, but some information is available on T.
T. natans is considered a serious weed in some re- palmata. A crude saponin fraction of T. palmata
gions, e.g. in the eastern United States, where it leaves as well as several purified saponins and
clogs waterways locally and where special control prosapogenins showed antiproliferative activity in
programmes exist. 3 cultured cell lines (J774 murine monocyte-
Genetic r e s o u r c e s T. natans is found only very macrophage, HEK-293 human epithelial kidney,
locally in the Malesian region, mainly in Java, WEHI-164 murine fibrosarcoma). Similar bis-
and it is not clear whether it only descends from desmosidic saponins have been isolated from the
cultivation or also occurs naturally in this region. leaves and flowers of T. sundaica.
In view of its enormous variability worldwide, Botany A shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall;
there is ample scope for evaluating the genetic re- branches upright to somewhat reclining, with
sources and possible breeding activities. scattered stout spines. Leaves alternate, crowded
Prospects Both the nutritious fruits and their at the end ofbranches, palmately lobed, but seem-
medicinal properties seem to justify more re- ingly digitately compound, more or less circular in
search on more intensive utilization of T. natans outline, up to 60 cm across; lobes 7-9, lanceolate-
TRICHODESMA 407
oblong to obovate, up to 36 cm x 15 cm, base India and Africa the leaves are credited with
cuneate to rounded, apex acuminate, margin ser- emollient, demulcent and diuretic properties, and
rate in the upper part; petiole 20-50 cm long; stip- the roots are used as an antidote.
ules ligulate. Inflorescence a terminal or lateral T. africanum (L.) Lehm, is employed in traditional
panicle up to 60 cm long, consisting of 6-12 sec- medicine in Africa; the leaves are used as a diuret-
ondary branches ending in 30-50-flowered umbel- ic, to treat diarrhoea, and as an antifebrile and
lules, and with a terminal umbel of branches; anti-inflammatory, the roots to treat hepatitis.
bracts triangular, persistent. Flowers bisexual, Properties Pyrrolizidine alkaloids were isolat-
regular, 7-10-merous; pedicel slender; calyx an ir- ed from T. zeylanicum seeds, mainly supinine.
regular rim; corolla consisting of fused petals These compounds also occur in other Boragi-
falling as a calyptra; stamens with short fila- naceae, e.g. Borago officinalis, Cynoglossum and
ments; disk flattened-conical; ovary inferior, Symphytum species, and this may explain similar
broadly obconical, 7-10-celled, styles united, stig- properties and uses. Ricinoleic acid and cyclo-
mas slightly swollen. Fruit drupe-like, globose, propene acid were found in T. zeylanicum seed oil.
apically conical, up to 2 cm in diameter; pyrenes Chohexacosa-21,24-dienoic acid ethyl ester, n-
compressed. hexacosanoic acid ethyl ester and hexacosanoic
The fruits are probably eaten by birds and bats, acid ethyl ester were isolated from T. indicum
which may serve as seed dispersers. Trevesia con- leaves. The alkaloid trichodesmine and 2 saponins
sists of 7 species and is found from India to Indo- have been isolated from T. africanum.
China, southern China, Thailand and western Botany Annual or perennial herbs, sometimes
Malesia, east to Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands suffrutescent. Leaves alternate or opposite, simple
(Bali, Lombok) and Borneo (West Kalimantan, and entire, sessile or petiolate; stipules absent. In-
Sarawak). T. burckii has often been confused with florescence a terminal loose cyme, often many-
T. palmata, but the two species are geographically flowered, often with leafy bracts. Flowers bisexu-
well isolated. al, regular, 5-merous, pedicelled; calyx with lobes
Ecology T. burckii is an understorey tree of free to the base or partly united, strongly accres-
evergreen rain forest, from sea-level up to 900 m cent; corolla rotate to funnel-shaped, with a short
altitude. tube and long-acuminate lobes, without scales in
Genetic resources T. burckii is relatively the throat; stamens inserted in the corolla tube,
widespread and locally common in humid, shady anthers subsessile, with long sterile awns that are
localities. It does not appear to be threatened by twisted round each other; ovary superior, not di-
genetic erosion. vided in flower, style filiform, stigma small, glo-
Prospects Little is known about the pharma- bose. Fruit consisting of 4 pyrenes, ovoid, tri-
cology of Trevesia. Further research is needed to quetrous or nearly globose, smooth or rugose.
evaluate the potential of the traditional medicinal The flowers of T. indicum are protandrous and
uses oîT. burckii. functional for 3 days; pollination is effected by in-
Literature 121, 201, 202, 334, 424. sects.
Other selected sources 173, 178,247,731. Trichodesma belongs to the tribe Cynoglosseae, to-
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg gether with e.g. Cynoglossum.
Ecology Trichodesma prefers dry open habitats
at low elevations.
T r i c h o d e s m a R.Br. Genetic resources The Malesian Trichodesma
species occur in disturbed habitats and are widely
Prodr.: 496 (1810). distributed, and therefore not in danger of genetic
BORAGINACEAE erosion.
x = 7, 11, 12; T. indicum: 2n =22, 44, T. zeyla- Prospects Further research is needed to evalu-
nicum: 2n =24 ate the potential of the traditional medicinal uses
Origin a n d geographic distribution Tri- of Trichodesma. Since pyrrolizidine alkaloids are
chodesma consists of some 40 species and is found not without long-term toxic effects, an evaluation
in subtropical and tropical regions of Africa, Asia ofthese effects should also be included.
and Australia; in Malesia 2 species occur. Literature 120, 181,247, 731,760.
Uses In South-East Asia Trichodesma species
are used indiscriminately as a sudorific and pec-
toral, as a substitute for Borago officinalis L. In
Trichodesma indicum (L.) J.E. Smith

Rees, Cyclop. 36, 1:No 1(1817).
Synonyms Borago indica L. (1753).
Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: phak phaeo
(Lamphun), phak phaeo khaao (Kanchanaburi).
Distribution The Mascarene Islands, Afghan-
istan, Pakistan, India, Burma (Myanmar), Thai-
land and the Philippines (Luzon); introduced in
eastern Africa.
Uses In the Philippines the flowers are used as
a sudorific and pectoral, as a substitute for Borago
officinalis. In Thailand roots are used to treat
cough and indigestion. In India the leaves and
roots are esteemed as a remedy for snakebites,
leucorrhoea and cough, and are also considered di-
uretic. T. indicum, is prescribed in Ayurvedic med-
icine for the expulsion of a dead foetus. An infu-
sion of the leaves is considered depurative. The
leaves are used as an emollient poultice, and a
paste made from the root is applied to swellings.
The root is used to treat dysentery and fever.
Observations An annual herb up to 40 cm tall,
much-branched; leaves oblong-lanceolate, lower
leaves 5-8 cm x 0.8-2.2 cm, base narrow, upper
leaves 2-4.5 cm x 0.3-1.2 cm, base broadly round-
ed to semi-amplexicaul; flowers with calyx c. 1 cm Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. - 1, part
long, accrescent to 1.3 cm in fruit, cleft to the base of flowering plant; 2, flower; 3,fruit in calyx.
into narrowly triangular lobes, sagittate at base,
corolla funnel-shaped, lilac, tube c. 5 mm long, used to treat snakebites, and a root decoction is
limb 1.3-1.5 cm in diameter; pyrenes oblong- taken to treat tuberculosis.
ovoid, 5 mm x 2-3 mm, smooth, whitish. In the Observations An annual or short-lived peren-
Philippines T. indicum occurs as a weed in fields, nial herb up to 175 cm tall, much-branched; leaves
especially ofgroundnut at low elevations. oblong-lanceolate to narrowly linear-lanceolate,
Selected sources 181,247, 322, 731,760. lower leaves 6-12(-16) cm x (0.2-)l-3(-5.5) cm,
shortly petioled or tapering towards the base, up-
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) per leaves 3-6 cm x 0.2-1.5 cm, base narrow; flow-
R.Br. ers with calyx (1.2-)1.5-1.8 cm long, accrescent to
Prodr.: 496 (1810). 2 cm in fruit, cleft to the base into long acute
Synonyms Borago zeylanica Burm.f. (1768), lobes, truncate at base, corolla funnel-shaped,
Trichodesma sericeum Lindley (1848). bluish with 5 red dots, or violet, pink, or white,
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: dilang-usa, tube c. 8 mm long, limb 1.5-2(-2.5) cm in diame-
mabulo, sigang-dagat (Tagalog). Vietnam: mao ty ter; pyrenes ovoid, c. 5 mm x 2 mm, smooth, shin-
tfisjch Ian. ing, brown. T. zeylanicum is found as a weed in
Distribution Eastern and north-eastern Africa, fields, thickets, waste land, and roadsides at low
islands of the Indian Ocean, India, Sri Lanka, elevations. Two varieties are distinguished; var.
Vietnam, Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the sericeum (Lindl.) Benth., with narrow sericeous
Philippines (Luzon), New Guinea and Australia. leaves, is confined in Malesia to the Lesser Sunda
Uses In the Philippines the flowers are used as Islands.
a sudorific and pectoral, as a substitute for Borago Selected sources 62, 181, 247, 331, 367, 499,
officinalis. In India the leaves are credited with 731, 760.
emollient, demulcent and diuretic properties, and N.O. Aguilar
are used as a poultice. In eastern Africa, roots are
TRIGONOSTEMON 409
Trigonostemon Blume Ecology Most Trigonostemon species occur in

lowland evergreen forest, e.g. T. longifolius. T. rei-
Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind.: 600 (1826; Trigostemon'). dioides is found in open, dry deciduous forest.
EUPHORBIACEAE Genetic resources The two Trigonostemon
x =unknown species treated here are fairly widespread and
Origin and geographic distribution Trigo- common, and there is no reason to consider them
nostemon comprises about 40 species and occurs as threatened. Several other Trigonostemon
in eastern India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), species appear to be restricted to small regions
Indo-China, southern China, Thailand, through- and habitats under much pressure, such as low-
out the Malesian region, and New Caledonia. Bor- land primary rain forest, and are consequently li-
neo and the Philippines are richest in species able to genetic erosion.
(about 16 each), followed by Thailand and Penin- Prospects The common use of T. reidioides in
sular Malaysia (about 13 each), and Sumatra traditional medicine in Thailand deserves more
(about 10). Java (3) and central Malesia and New attention in research. The presence of phorbol es-
Guinea (2 each) are poor in species. One species ters in Trigonostemon may be of future impor-
occurs in New Caledonia. tance in medicinal research.
Uses There is a record from Peninsular Ma- Literature 85, 121,173.
laysia of the roots of T. longifolius being used to
treat stings. Extracts of the roots of T. reidioides
are used traditionally in Thailand as an expecto- Selection of species
rant and a laxative, and in the treatment of skin
diseases. The wood of some Trigonostemon species Trigonostemon longifolius Bâillon
is used in house and boat building, but the size of Étude Euphorb.: 341 (1858).
the bole is insufficient to be really useful. Vernacular names Malaysia: mentua pelandok
Properties An aromatic ketone, the phenan- besar, gadu gajah, cha antan besar (Peninsular).
threnone trigonostemone, was isolated from T. rei- Thailand: thao yaai mom paa, aai baao (Pattani).
dioides roots. Rediocide A, a highly modified daph- Distribution Burma (Myanmar), the Andaman
nane with potent insecticidal activity, was also Islands, peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malay-
isolated from the roots. The presence of phorbol sia, Singapore and Sumatra.
esters was detected in a crude organic extract of T. Uses In Peninsular Malaysia the root juice is
viridissimus (Kurz) Airy Shaw (synonym: T. rubbed on bee and jellyfish stings. In the An-
sumatranus Pax & Hoffm.) using a phorbol dibu- daman Islands the leaves have been rubbed on the
tyrate receptor binding assay. In general, phorbol body to treat fever.
esters are well known for their strong skin-irri- Observations A shrub or small tree up to 5 m
tant and tumour-promoting activities, although tall; leaves alternate, obovate to spatulate-
some compounds exhibit anti-tumour and in-vitro oblanceolate, 10-55 cm long, base long-attenuate
anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) effects. into a short stout petiole, obscurely or manifestly
Botany Monoecious shrubs or small trees. crenate or dentate, glabrous; petals blackish-crim-
Leaves alternate or subopposite, simple, entire or son; fruit 10-12 mm in diameter, golden scurfy. T.
denticulate, pinnately veined, often 3-veined from longifolius is locally common in evergreen forest
the base, shortly to distinctly petiolate; stipules up to 600 m altitude.
mostly minute and subulate or obsolete. Inflores- Selected sources 19, 22, 121,990.
cence axillary or terminal, occasionally cauliflor-
ous, variously cymose, thyrsiform or apparently T r i g o n o s t e m o n r e i d i o i d e s (Kurz)
racemose, often with conspicuous bracts. Flowers Craib
unisexual, 5-merous; sepals very shortly connate, Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew: 464 (1911).
imbricate; petals free, mostly exceeding the se- Vernacular names Thailand: naat kham
pals, often brightly coloured (often blackish-crim- (northern), lot thanong (Ratchaburi, Prachin Buri,
son); disk glands free or variously united; male Trat), khaao yen noen (Ratchaburi, Prachuap
flowers with 3 or 5 stamens, filaments connate or Khiri Khan). Vietnam: tin tranh.
free; female flowers with a superior, 3-celled Distribution Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China
ovary, styles simple or 1 2-bifid, spreading. Fruit and Thailand.
a tricoccous capsule, smooth or verruculose, few- Uses In Thailand the roots are used in tradi-
seeded. Seeds trigonous-ovoid. tional medicine for many complaints. They are
used internally as a laxative, as an emetic to treat

food poisoning and to treat dysentery, and exter-
nally to treat abscesses, sprains, swellings, bruis-
es and snakebites. They are also used for birth
control.
Observations A small shrub up to 1.5 m tall;
leaves alternate, narrowly to broadly oblong or
oblanceolate, 4-12 cm long, entire, densely to-
mentellous below, densely reticulately veined;
petals very variable in colour, from white to pink,
purple or almost black; fruit c. 12 mm in diameter,
tomentose. T. reidioides is common on sandy loca-
tions in open, dry deciduous forest, often teak for-
est, up to 450 m altitude.
Selected sources 19,173, 416,498.
Umi Kalsom Yusuf
Tropidia curculigoides Lindley
Gen. sp. orchid, pi.: 497 (1840).

ORCHIDACEAE
2n = 60
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: serugat, ran-
chang hantu (Peninsular). Vietnam: tr[usjc kinh.
Origin and geographic distribution T. cur-
culigoides occurs in India, Indo-China, southern
China, Taiwan, the Malesian region (Peninsular Tropidia curculigoides Lindley - 1,plant habit; 2,
Malaysia, Java, Borneo) and northern Australia. flower in side view; 3, flower in front view.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a root decoction is
drunk to treat diarrhoea, and a decoction of the Ecology T. curculigoides occurs in lowland and
whole plant, in combination with Ardisia, to treat lower montane, primary or old secondary forest up
malaria. to 1600 m altitude.
Botany An erect, glabrous herb up to 125 cm Genetic resources T. curculigoides is wide-
tall, with branched rhizome and tufted, branched spread and locally common. Its flowers are rather
stems. Leaves arranged spirally, simple and en- unattracive, and plants are rarely collected for or-
tire, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 6.5-23 cm x namental purposes. Therefore, it does not seem to
1-4 cm, longitudinally plaited. Inflorescence a ter- be liable to genetic erosion.
minal or lateral spike, short, up to 1.5 cm long, Prospects Phytochemical and pharmacological
erect or nodding, bracteate, rather few-flowered. research is needed to judge the value of T. cur-
Flowers bisexual, 0.5-1 cm long, 3-merous, green- culigoides as a medicinal plant.
ish-white or yellowish-white; sepals lanceolate, Literature 62,121.
lateral ones shortly connate and embracing the Other selected sources 544, 789.
base of the lip, petals narrower, lip ventricose, en- R.H.M.J. Lemmens
tire, top recurved, without spur, applied against
the column; column 5-8 mm long, anther with two
2-partite pollinia, rostellum 2-dentate. Fruit a Typhonium Schott
cylindrical capsule, many-seeded. Seeds very
small. Wiener Zeitschr. Kunst 1829(3): 732 (1829).
The flowers of T. curculigoides open in the ARACEAE
evening. Tropidia comprises about 15 species, and x =8,9, 10, 13
occurs from India to China and Japan, and Origin and geographic distribution Typho-
through South-East Asia to northern Australia nium comprises about 40 species, and occurs in
and Pacific islands. It is related to Corymborkis. tropical, subtropical and warm-temperate regions
TYPHONIUM 411
from Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, India and Sri globose or irregular tuber, sometimes rhizomatous
Lanka, through Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, or stoloniferous. Leaves alternate, few to several
southern and eastern China, southern Japan, together, usually sagittate to hastate, sometimes
Thailand and the whole of the Malesian region, to narrowly lanceolate to elliptical or cordate; petiole
the Caroline and Mariana Islands, and northern with rather short sheath at base; stipules absent.
and eastern Australia. It is naturalized in tropical Inflorescence a spadix, shorter to much longer
America, Africa and Madagascar. Mainland than the enclosing spathe, female zone at base
South-East Asia and Australia are richest in separated from the male zone higher up by a
species, whereas the genus is more poorly repre- rather long sterile zone, apex with conoid to fili-
sented in Malesia, with probably only 3 endemic form-subulate appendix usually long exserted
species (2 in Peninsular Malaysia, and 1in Suma- from the spathe; spathe constricted between tube
tra and Java). and blade, blade eventually bending backwards,
Uses In South-East Asia, usually the tuber of usually purple, tube persistent. Flowers unisexu-
Typhonium is used to treat wounds, abscesses, al, without perianth; male flowers with l(-3) sta-
eczema, snakebites, gastric ulcers, cough, asthma mens; female flowers with superior 1-celled ovary,
and nausea. T. flagelliforme is applied to treat dif- stigma sessile. Fruit an ovoid berry, usually or-
ferent types of malignancy in Peninsular Ma- ange-red, sometimes green or white, l(-2)-seeded,
laysia and Singapore. densely packed and usually enclosed by the per-
In the Philippines the tubers of Typhonium (possi- sistent spathe base. Seed globose to obnapiform,
bly T. blumei Nicolson & Sivadasan) have been testa usually minutely rugulose, strophiolate, al-
used as rubefacient. T. blumei, native in China buminous.
and Japan, but introduced in the Philippines, is Typhonium belongs to the tribe Areae, together
used in traditional medicine in China in a tincture with e.g. Arum and Biarum, both from temperate
to treat internal injuries (leaves), as a resolvent regions. The 3 species treated here are frequently
and styptic (flowers), as an expectorant and rube- confused, and it is often not clear to which species
facient (tuber), and as an antidote and energetic uses mentioned in the literature should be re-
(whole plant). The tubers of T. giganteum Engl. ferred. They are variable, especially in leaf char-
are used medicinally in China, e.g. to treat flatu- acters, and differ mainly in floral characters
lence, rheumatism and as an expectorant. which are often obscure in herbarium specimens.
Properties A crude extract of Typhonium pro- Ecology Typhonium usually occurs below 1000
duced a concentration-dependent decrease in pro- m altitude in more or less open localities varying
liferation ofhuman leukaemia cell lines in tests in from grassland to open forest, often in humid lo-
Malaysia. Crude extracts of T. flagelliforme calities, sometimes also as a weed along roadsides,
caused significant reduction of [3H]-thymidine in- in gardens and fields.
corporation by a murine lymphoid cell line. In an- Management A high frequency of shoot-bud re-
other test in Malaysia, a hexane extract showed generation was obtained from leaf and petiole ex-
weak cytotoxic activity against P388 murine plant-derived callus of Typhonium on modified
leukaemia cells. Methyl esters of hexadecanoic Murashige and Skoog medium.
acid, octadecanoic acid, 9-octadecanoic acid and In Vietnam the tubers are washed after harvest-
9,12-octadecadienoic acid, and several common ing from the wild, and then dried in the sun or in
aliphatics were isolated, none of these known to an oven. Before use, they are soaked in a solution
have cytotoxic activity. The fatty acid benzen- of alum and a maceration of ginger, sliced, and
etridecanoic acid and its methyl ester have also subsequently impregnated with a decoction of
been isolated from T. flagelliforme. liquorice and lightly roasted on a fire.
Tests in India indicated that powder from Typho- Genetic resources T. flagelliforme, T. rox-
nium tubers showed distinct nematicidal activity burghii, as well as T. trilobatum are widespread
against Meloidogyne incognita in tomatoes. and locally common, although they often occur
In the essential oil from T. giganteum tubers, N- scattered. They are not in danger of genetic ero-
phenyl benzenamine is the most abundant compo- sion.
nent, accounting for 47% of the total. Tests on ex- Prospects Typhonium is commonly used in lo-
pectorant properties showed negative results, but cal medicine throughout tropical and subtropical
a water extract of T. giganteum rhizomes exhibit- Asia, often for similar complaints. Some interest-
ed a tranquillizing effect. ing properties have been recorded including anti-
Botany Small to medium-sized herbs, with sub- cancer activity. More research on phytochemistry
and pharmacological activity is desirable to con- Uses T. flagelliforme is used in traditional medi-
firm the claimed efficacy of these plants, which cine in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore for
are also easy to cultivate. treating different types of malignancy. In Thai-
Literature 41,146, 680. land the whole plant is applied as a poultice to ab-
scesses. In Vietnam the tubers are probably used
to treat cough, asthma and nausea.
Selection of species Observations A small herb up to 40 cm tall,
with depressed-globose tuber up to 2 cm in diame-
Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) ter and subterranean stolons; leaves extremely
Blume variable, elliptical to ovate, with base acute to au-
R u m p h i a l : 134(1837). riculate, cordate or hastate, but usually narrowly
Synonyms Typhonium cuspidatum (Blume) hastate, up to 25 cm long, petiole up to 30 cm long;
Blume (1834), Typhonium divaricatum auct. non spathe very narrow and elongate, up to 28 cm
Blume. long, pale greenish; lower sterile flowers spatu-
Vernacular n a m e s Thailand: sa oy (Surin), ta late, black or purple-tipped. T. flagelliforme oc-
phit kap yao (Loei), wan dakdae (Yasothon). Viet- curs in a variety of habitats in the lowland, from
nam: b[as]n h[aj] roi, c[ur] ch[os]c mo d[af]i. swamp forest to savanna and eucalypt lowland.
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Selected sources 154,166, 324, 680.
Burma (Myanmar), the Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands, Indo-China (Cambodia, Vietnam), southern Typhonium roxburghii Schott
China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Aroid. 2:t. 17 (1855).
Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Philippines Synonyms Typhonium divaricatum Blume
(Luzon), southern New Guinea and Australia (1834; nom. illegit.), Typhonium trilobatum auct.
(northern Queensland). non (L.) Schott.
Vernacular names Indonesia: trenggiling
mentik (Javanese), ileus (Sundanese), bira ke-
cil (Moluccas). Malaysia: birah kechil, keladi
puyoh (Peninsular). Vietnam: c[ur] ch[os]c [aas]n
d[ooj].
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, Peninsular Malaysia, Singa-
pore, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Lesser Sunda Is-
lands and the Moluccas; introduced in the Philip-
pines (Luzon), Papua New Guinea (Lae), Vietnam,
Taiwan, eastern Africa (Zanzibar) and Brazil.
Uses In Java the tubers are applied to the skin
to treat eczema.
Observations A small herb up to 45 cm tall,
with subglobose tuber up to 3.5 cm in diameter;
leaves usually shallowly 3-lobed, up to 18 cm long,
usually broader than long, petiole up to 30 cm
long; spathe 3-4 times longer as broad, up to 30
cm long, dark red to purple; all sterile flowers sub-
ulate, spreading and strongly decurved. T. rox-
burghii occurs in grassland, roadsides, gardens
and open forest, often in humid localities, up to
1000 m altitude, usually scattered.
T y p h o n i u m t r i l o b a t u m (L.) S c h o t t
Wiener Zeitschr. Kunst 1829(3): 732 (1829).
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: keladi puyuh
Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume - 1, habit (Peninsular). Laos: bo:n bièw. Thailand: ma-ho-ra
of flowering plant; 2, spadix with part ofspathe. (Chong, Chanthaburi), utta phit (central), bon
UVARIA 413
baeo (Ubon Ratchatani). Vietnam: c[ur] ch[os]c, and, to a lesser extent, in the leaves ofU. rufa. Ex-
b[as]n h[aj] nam. tracts of U. cordata stem bark and leaves showed
Distribution Nepal, eastern India, Sri Lanka, distinct antibacterial activity but no antifungal
Bangladesh, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, Thai- properties.
land and northern Peninsular Malaysia; intro- Several cyclohexene oxides have been isolated
duced in Singapore, western Borneo, the Philip- from U.purpurea stems and leaves. One of these,
pines, and locally in western Africa and Central zeylenone, was found to be a highly active nucleo-
America. side transport inhibitor. Uvarigranols, which are
Uses In Thailand the tubers are applied to the polyoxygenated cyclohexenes, have also been iso-
abdomen in case of rigidity and to wounds. In lated from U.purpurea. The acetogenin uvarigrin
Vietnam a decoction of the tubers is used to treat isolated from its roots showed cytotoxicity against
cough, asthma and nausea, and also to stop vomit- human tumour cell lines. Other acetogenins with
ing and against headache, gastric ulcers, abscess- in-vitro activity against human leukaemia and
es and snakebites. The dried sliced tubers are eat- colon adenocarcinoma cell lines have been isolated
en locally in Indo-China. from the Vietnamese U. tonkinensis Finet & Gag-
Observations A small herb up to 45 cm tall, nep. Astem extract ofthe African U.lucida Benth.
with subglobose tuber up to 4 cm in diameter; showed strong mitogenic activity in isolated hu-
leaves usually deeply 3-lobed, anterior lobe up to man and mouse T cells, whereas benzylisoquino-
20 cm x 10 cm, lateral lobes slightly smaller, peti- line alkaloids isolated from leaves ofthe African U.
ole up to 40 cm long; spathe up to 20 cm long, com- chamae exhibited cytotoxic activity against L929
paratively broad, dark red to purplish outside; transformed cells. Extracts of U. chamae and U.
sterile flowers all filiform, curly, whitish. T. trilo- klaineana Engl. & Diels, another African species,
batum occurs in open sites and open forest in the showed significant antiplasmodial activity.
lowland, often on wet soils, also on limestone. In Hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of root bark of
Peninsular Malaysia it is a weed around towns. U. narum (Dunal) Wallich and U. hookeri King
Selected sources 121,173, 245,671,680. from India showed substantial antibacterial, anti-
Wongsatit Chuakul, Noppamas fungal and anthelmintic activities, mainly attrib-
Soonthornchareonnon &Orawan Ruangsomboon utable to acetogenins.
Botany Lianas, straggling or erect shrubs to
small trees; branches often converted into leafy
Uvaria L. tendrils, usually stellately pubescent. Leaves disti-
chously alternate, simple and entire, often stellate-
Sp. pi. 1:536 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:240 (1754). ly pubescent, pinnately veined, shortly petiolate;
ANNONACEAE stipules absent. Inflorescence a terminal, extra-ax-
x =unknown; U.cordata: In =22 illary or leaf-opposed, few-flowered cyme or flowers
Origin and geographic distribution Uvaria solitary. Flowers bisexual, 3-merous; pedicel with
comprises about 100 species and occurs in the 2 bracteoles; calyx lobed, irregularly splitting or
tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia, and in New entire; petals 6(-8),free or shortly connate at base,
Caledonia. A few dozens of species are found in spreading or recurved; stamens numerous, outer
tropical Asia. ones sometimes sterile, with connective concealing
Uses Uvaria is commonly used in medicine in the anther cells; carpels numerous, free, style ab-
many parts ofits distribution area, including trop- sent, stigma horseshoe-shaped. Fruit consisting of
ical Asia, where usually a decoction of the roots several to many stalked monocarps, fleshy, 1-
and leaves is applied, especially to treat stomach many-seeded. Seeds sometimes with a small aril.
and intestinal complaints, fever, wounds and skin Uvaria belongs to the tribe Uvarieae, as does e.g.
diseases, and after childbirth. Several Uvaria Cyathostemma, which differs in its small flowers
species are used in traditional medicine in Africa, having petals that do not expand. Uvaria is badly
the most important being U. chamae P. Beauv. in need of revision.
and U. afzelii Scott-Elliot, which are used to treat Ecology Uvaria most commonly occurs in low-
various complaints, often as a febrifuge and to land forest, usually below 1000 m altitude, often
treat wounds and swellings. in more open localities or edges, also in brushwood
The fruits of many species are edible, and the or even hedges.
stems are used as a substitute for rattan. Genetic resources The Uvaria species treated
Properties Alkaloids are present in the bark here are all widespread and do not seem to be in
immediate danger of genetic erosion, although Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and the
they may be rare or even absent in many regions Philippines.
or islands within their areas of distribution. Uses The roots, crushed with water, and a de-
Prospects Uvaria species are interesting medi- coction of the leaves are used to treat colic, stom-
cinal plants that deserve more attention in South- ach-ache, skin diseases and after childbirth. The
East Asia. Important pharmacological properties aromatic fruits are eaten raw or preserved. The
have been demonstrated, e.g. antimicrobial, anti- stems are said to be a good substitute for rattan.
cancer and febrifuge activities, which warrant Observations A straggling shrub or liana up to
more research. 10 m long; leaves elliptical-oblong-obovate, 11-30
Literature 120, 155,715. cm x 4.5-10 cm; flowers with calyx entirely closed
before anthesis, afterwards irregularly 2-4-fid,
and corolla 6-9 cm in diameter, vermilion-red to
Selection of species purplish; fruit consisting of numerous monocarps
2.5-8.5 cm long, on stalks 4-6 cm long, orange,
Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston fleshy, densely brown hairy, 5-21-seeded. U. pur-
Trimen, Handb. Fl. Ceylon 6:4 (1931). purea occurs in forest edges and brushwood, up to
Synonyms Uvaria macrophylla Roxb. ex Wal- 1000 m altitude.
lich (1830). Selected sources 62, 121,334, 548, 782, 967.
Vernacular names Malaysia: akar pisang-
pisang jantan, bunga jari hutan (Peninsular). Uvaria rufa B l u m e
Thailand: kluai muu sang (Trang), nom chaang Fl. Javae 21,t. 4, 13c (1830).
(northern), laa-koh (Malay, Narathiwat). Synonyms Uvaria ridleyi King (1893).
Distribution Eastern India, Sri Lanka, south- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: kalak (Java), tu-
ern Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern Chi- ralak (Sundanese), larap nyapa (Lampung). Ma-
na, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, New Guinea;
probably also elsewhere in Malesia.
Uses In Vietnam the roots and leaves are used
to treat indigestion, diarrhoea and wounds. The
fruits are edible.
Observations A straggling shrub or large
liana; leaves obovate to elliptical or broadly ob-
long, 10-30 cm x 6-15 cm; flowers with calyx al-
most entire or splitting less than halfway into seg-
ments and corolla c. 2.5 cm in diameter, dark red;
fruit consisting of several monocarps 2-3 cm long,
on stalks 0.2-1.5 cm long, orange, fleshy, smooth
and glabrous, several-seeded. U. cordata occurs in
lowland forest, often in more open localities.
Selected sources 121,467, 782, 967.
Uvaria purpurea Blume

Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 1: 11 (1825).
Synonyms Uvaria grandiflora Roxb. ex Wallich
(1830).
Vernacular names Indonesia: kalak (Java),
larap putih (Lampung), tali pisang (Moluccas).
Malaysia: akar larak, larak tahi kuching, akar pi-
sang-pisang tandok (Peninsular). Philippines: ba-
nauak, susong-kalabau (Tagalog, Bisaya), hinlala-
ki-saging (Tagalog). Thailand: kluai muu sang (pe-
ninsular), yaan nom khwaai (Trang), kluai phang-
phon (Trat).Vietnam: chu[oos]icon ch[oof|ng.
Distribution Southern Burma (Myanmar), Uvaria rufa Blume flowering and fruiting
southern China, Indo-China, southern Thailand, branch.
VENTILAGO 415
laysia: larak, pisang-pisang (Peninsular). Philip- numerous naphthalene derivatives, naphthoqui-

pines: hilagak (Tagalog), allagat (Iloko), batag-ka- nones and anthraquinones have been isolated.
balang (Bikol). Thailand: nom khwaai (general), The anthraquinone derivative emodin is a well-
nom maeo (central), bu ngaa yai (northern). Viet- known laxative. Emodin isolated from V. leiocarpa
nam: b[uf] d[er] hoa d[or]. stems exhibited hepatoprotective effects on CC14
Distribution The Andaman Islands, southern as well as D-galactosamine-induced liver damage
Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, in rats. Histopathological examination showed
Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java that emodin reduced lymphocyte cells, Kupffer
and the Philippines. cells, ballooning degeneration, cell necrosis and
Uses In the Philippines an alcoholic tincture of hyaline degeneration. Emodin also exhibited
the roots is employed as an ecbolic. In Thailand a anti-inflammatory effect on carrageenan-induced
decoction of the root and wood is used to treat in- oedema in rats. Two xanthone derivatives with cy-
termittent fever and after childbirth. The fruits, totoxic activity against K 562 cells have also been
ground with water, are applied externally against isolated from V. leiocarpa. Quinones isolated from
itch. The fruits are slightly sweet and are eaten. V. madraspatana roots showed significant an-
Observations A straggling shrub or liana up to tifeedant activity against adult beetles of Heno-
10 m long; leaves elliptical-oblong or ovate-oblong, sepilachna vigintioctopunctata and 4th instar lar-
4.5-16 cm x 2.5-6 cm; flowers with sepals connate vae ofthe moth Spodoptera litura.
at base only and corolla 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, at Botany Lianas or scandent shrubs. Leaves al-
first bright red, afterwards dark red; fruit consist- ternate, simple, petiolate; stipules minute. Inflo-
ing of 4-20 monocarps 2-3 cm long, on stalks 1-4 rescence an axillary or terminal panicle or umbel-
cm long, bright red, fleshy, rather densely brown late cyme. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; calyx tube
hairy, 10-20-seeded. U. rufa occurs in open forest, obconical or flat and saucer-like, lobes acute, pu-
brushwood and hedges, at low and medium alti- berulous outside; petals free, small, clawed at
tudes. base; stamens opposite the petals; disk filling the
Selected sources 62, 121,173, 334, 760. calyx tube; ovary hemi-inferior, sunk in the disk,
Max Joseph Herman 2-celled, style very short. Fruit a samaroid, l(-2)-
seeded globose nut, prolonged above by a linear or
linear-oblong, coriaceous wing, at the base en-
Ventilago Gaertner circled by the calyx tube or not. Seed globose to
subglobose, without albumen; cotyledons thick,
Fruct. sem. pi. 1(1):223,t. 49 (1788). fleshy.
RHAMNACEAE Ecology Ventilago can be found in lowland rain
x =unknown forest and thickets, but also in mountain regions
Origin and geographic distribution Ventila- with a more or less dry climate.
go consists of some 40 species, and occurs from Genetic resources Ventilago species such as V.
Africa and Madagascar throughout tropical Asia madraspatana are relatively widespread, usually
to tropical Australia. common, and cannot be considered threatened.
Uses Ventilago is only little used in traditional However, some species are restricted in their dis-
South-East Asian folk medicine. In Peninsular tribution, and may be threatened with continued
Malaysia leaves of a Ventilago species were used habitat degradation.
to make a poultice all over the body to treat Prospects Anthraquinone derivatives such as
cholera. Root bark of Ventilago mixed with oil is emodin, also present in many other plant re-
applied externally to treat certain skin affections. sources (e.g.Aloe, Rheum and Senna), have shown
In India root bark of V. madraspatana is credited interesting pharmacological activities. However,
with stomachic, tonic and stimulant activities, they may lead to serious problems in daily and
and it is used to dye clothes reddish. In Taiwan prolonged internal use, and Ventilago root bark is
stems of V. leiocarpa Bunge have been employed therefore recommended for external use only, e.g.
in the treatment of numerous affections, e.g. for its anti-inflammatory activity and in the treat-
cough, hepatitis, rheumatism and contusions. ment ofskin diseases such as psoriasis.
Properties The root bark of V. madraspatana Literature 139, 316, 509, 552, 769, 782.
contains as major pigment ventigalin, a reddish-
brown resinous product, and as principal drug
compound the anthraquinone emodin. In addition
Selection of species Distribution Southern India, Sri Lanka, the

Andaman Islands, southern Burma (Myanmar)
Ventilago dichotoma (Blanco) Merr. and Indonesia (Java, the Moluccas).
Philipp. Gov. Lab. Bur. Bull. 27: 32 (1905). Uses In India the root bark is credited with
Synonyms Ventilago monoica Blanco (1845). stomachic, tonic and stimulant properties. It is
Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: salapau, sali- prescribed in atonic dyspepsia, debility and fevers.
pau, pakpak-tutubi (Tagalog). Mixed with oil it is used as an external application
Distribution The Philippines (Luzon, Palawan). for the treatment of itch and other skin troubles.
Uses In the Philippines the bark, pulverized The root bark is used for dyeing mordanted cotton,
and mixed with oil, is used as a remedy for skin wool and silk. Reddish shades are obtained. The
diseases. bark fibre can be used for cordage.
Observations A scandent shrub; leaves oblong, Observations A liana; leaves elliptical-ovate or
c. 10 cm x 3-3.5 cm, base rounded, apex acumi- ovate-lanceolate, 1.5-8.5(-12.5) cm x 1.5-3(-6) cm,
nate, glabrous; inflorescence terminal; flowers yel- base rounded, sometimes slightly oblique, apex
lowish-green; fruit rounded at base, enclosed by acute or sub-acuminate, glabrous; inflorescence a
the cup-shaped calyx tube, 5-7 mm in diameter, terminal or axillary panicle; flowers yellowish-
apical wing 4-5 cm long. V. dichotoma is found in green; fruit surrounded near the base by the
forests and thickets at low and medium altitudes. saucer-shaped calyx tube, 5-7(-13) mm in diame-
Selected sources 731, 760. ter, apical wing 2-4(-7) cm long.L. madraspatana
occurs very locally in lowland forest in Java; in Sri
Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner Lanka it is found in hilly forest up to 700 m alti-
Fruct. sem. pi. 1(1):223,t. 49,f. 2 (1788). tude.
Vernacular names Indonesia: lian, talibubu Selected sources 62,181, 542, 782.
(Ambon). A.M. Aguinaldo
V i s c u m L.
Sp. pi. 2: 1023 (1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5: 448 (1754).

VlSCACEAE
x = 10-15; V. articulatum: 2« = 24, V. ovalifoli-
um:2n = 22, 44
Origin and geographic distribution Viscum
comprises some 100 species and is distributed in
Europe, Africa, Asia including the whole of Male-
sia, and Australia. The main centres of diversity
are Madagascar, Africa and southern Asia. In
Malesia 9 species have been found, 5 of which are
probably endemic, without a distinct centre of
species richness.
Uses Viscum is only little used in South-East
Asian folk medicine. In general it is applied as a
poultice for the treatment of neuralgia, cuts and
itch, and in a poultice or bath as a febrifuge.
V. orientale Willd., an Indian species not present
in South-East Asia, is used as an abortifacient. V.
album L., well known in temperate Europe and
Asia, features prominently in folk medicine, along
with many magical uses.
Properties The qualities of various V. album
extracts in complimentary and alternative medi-
cine are somewhat controversial. Present-day use
Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner - 1, flowering as an adjuvant therapy in cancer patients is based
and fruiting branch; 2, flower. on activation of the immune system, which could
ViscuM 417
potentially translate into valuable clinical effects. dormant period and can germinate within the
Lectins have been identified as the active princi- fruit, although this affects vigour. Germination
ple with cytotoxic and immunomodulatory poten- takes 2-8 days at 18-32°C with over 90% success
cies. In-vitro and in-vivo results are very promis- rate. Germination can occur on any natural sub-
ing. However, translating these findings into con- strate, and artificial propagation is possible. How-
trolled clinical trials following standard proce- ever, best results are obtained with seeds from
dures is very difficult because the population of fresh fruits sown on small branches of hosts.
patients involved is too heterogenous. Genetic resources The Viscum species treated
It is possible that chemical compounds isolated here are widely distributed and occur in both pri-
from a particular parasite are in fact derived from mary and disturbed habitats. Therefore they do
its host plant. Comparative analyses of host not appear to be threatened by genetic erosion.
plants and their parasites are essential for defini- Prospects Apart from the considerable atten-
tively establishing the site of synthesis, especially tion given to V. album, little is known about the
of easily transportable hydrophylic constituents. phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of
V. album may serve as an example: whilst pinitol, Viscum. Research is needed to evaluate the poten-
quebrachitol and chiro-inositol are characteristic tial of South-East Asian Viscum.
of V. album, sorbitol and scyllo-inositol are only Literature 72,118,119, 232, 247,1018,1049.
present when they occur in the host.
Botany Stem-parasitic shrubs, attached to the
host by a single primary haustorium, with much- Selection of species
branched stems. Leaves opposite, simple and en-
tire, normally developed or rudimentary; stipules V i s c u m a r t i c u l a t u m Burm.f.
absent. Inflorescence basically a 3-flowered cy- Fl. ind.: 211 (1768).
mule, terminal or axillary; bracts small, triangu- Vernacular n a m e s Philippines: logolai (Bago-
lar, forming a boat-shaped cupule subtending bo), taka (Igorot). Thailand: kaafaak ton pao
each cymule. Flowers unisexual, small (less than (northern), kafaak thao haa phao chok, naang hak
2 mm long), 4-merous, tepals triangular, valvate; (peninsular). Vietnam: ghi ph[aa]n d[oos]t,
male flowers flattened, stamens with sessile an- t[aaf]m g[uwr]i d[ej]t.
thers, fused to the tepals; female flowers cylindri- Distribution From eastern India to southern
cal, ovary inferior, stigma small, nipple-shaped. China and northern and eastern Australia; wide-
Fruit berrylike, narrowly ellipsoid to globose, 1- spread throughout South-East Asia.
seeded. Seed covered by a sticky layer, smooth or U s e s In Cambodia a decoction of V. articulatum
tuberculate. is prescribed for the treatment of bronchitis. It is
After germination of the seed, it takes 1.5-3 years credited with tonic and sedative properties. In In-
before plants start flowering and fruiting. Pollina- dia it is used as an aphrodisiac and febrifuge, and
tion in Viscum is consistently by insects and effec- to treat skin tumours. A poultice of crushed stems
tive seed dispersal is by fruit-eating birds. The is applied to cuts. In Taiwan the whole plant is
seed is removed from the fruit and swallowed used as a remedy for neuralgia. In China whole
whole, and is defecated within 10-20 minutes. plants are used to treat arthritis.
The viscous layer cements the seed in place, and it Observations A hemiparasitic shrub, with
germinates spontaneously. Instead of normal slender, pendulous stems up to 1 m long; leaves
roots, the embryo radicle produces a haustorium rudimentary, spreading, c. 0.5 mm long; inflores-
which penetrates to the cambial layer of the host cence consisting of a single flower, usually with
to take up water and nutrients from the xylem. many subsidiary cymules developing around the
Ecology Viscum occurs in a range of habitats first one, with the first-formed flower female and
from closed humid forest to open woodland and the lateral flowers female or male, sessile; fruit
disturbed habitats; in Malesia usually in the low- globose, smooth, white. V. articulatum is found in
lands to 1500 m, but in Java up to 2300 m alti- open and closed forests from sea-level up to 1500
tude. Host specificity of most Viscum species is m altitude.
low. V. ovalifolium is commonly recorded on Ficus. Selected sources 72, 181, 247, 731,732.
V. articulatum appears to have a preference for
Loranthaceae and other Viscaceae, being an exam-
ple ofsecondary parasitism.
Management Seeds of V. ovalifolium have no
Viscum ovalifolium DC. long; inflorescence consisting of 3 flowers, usually

Prodr. 4:278 (1830). with many subsidiary cymules developing around
Synonyms Viscum pedunculatum Barlow the first one, with the middle flower female and
(1962), Viscum orientale auct. non Willd. the lateral flowers male, peduncle 0-5 mm long;
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: api-api, dedalu fruit globose or slightly ellipsoid, distinctly tuber-
umping, seri sabulan (Peninsular). Philippines: culate before maturity, yellow, orange or red. V.
bogto (Tagalog). Thailand: kaafaak mai cheko hin, ovalifolium is found in habitats ranging from
kaafaak mai taatum (peninsular), kaafaak mai mangrove forest to open and closed primary and
mahuat (south-western). Vietnam: ghi l[as] secondary forest from sea-level up to 500(-1400)
h[if]nh xoan. m altitude.
Distribution From Burma (Myanmar) to Selected sources 72,121, 247, 731,732, 760.
southern China and northern Queensland (Aus- J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg
tralia); widespread throughout South-East Asia.
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a poultice of the
leaves of V. ovalifolium is applied to the temples Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunberg)
to treat neuralgia. The ashes of the burned plant A.DC.
are mixed with sulphur and coconut oil, and
rubbed on the body to treat pustular itches. In Monogr. Campan.: 143 (1830).
Cambodia the plant is employed in a herbal bath CAMPANULACEAE
to treat fever in children. 2n = 18,36, 54, 64, 72
Observations A hemiparasitic, erect, divari- Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: angkeb, patikan
cate, spreading shrub up to 1.5 m tall; leaves ellip- (Javanese), jukut riut (Sundanese). Philippines:
tical to obovate, 2.5-12 cm x 1-3.5 cm, base atten- ligam (Igorot).Vietnam: s[aa]m ru[ooj]ng.
uate, apex rounded or obtuse, petiole 2-5 mm Origin and geographic distribution W. mar-
ginata occurs in India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan-
mar), Indo-China, China, Taiwan, Japan, north-
ern Thailand, the Malesian region except Penin-
sular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, Australia
and New Zealand. It is locally naturalized else-
where, e.g. in the United States.
Uses In Java W. marginata is used to treat skin
diseases. In China and Indo-China, the roots are
esteemed for the treatment of pulmonary afflic-
tions such as cough and haemoptysis, and for the
treatment of gastralgia.
Properties A number of ionone-related and
phenylpropanoid-derived glycosides have been
isolated from an aqueous ethanol extract of the
whole plant. In in-vitro testing, no activity was
found against the human pathogenic fungi As-
pergillus flavus, Candida albicans or Trichoder-
ma viride.
Botany A perennial herb 3-60 cm tall, glabrous
or hairy, woody at base. Leaves arranged spirally,
simple, linear to elliptical, 1.5-5.5 cm x 0.1-0.5
cm, decreasing in size upwards, serrate to almost
entire, mostly sessile; stipules absent. Inflores-
cence a 1-few-flowered, terminal or axillary
raceme, with small bracts. Flowers bisexual, regu-
lar, 3-5-merous, distinctly protandrous; pedicel
1-15 cm long; calyx lobes 0.8-4 mm long; corolla
tube 1-5 mm long, lobes ovate or elliptical, 1-7
Viscum ovalifolium DC. - 1, flowering and fruit- mm long, acute or acuminate, violet-blue or white;
ing branch; 2, node with flowers and fruits. stamens alternating with corolla lobes, free; ovary
WOODFORDIA 419
inferior, obconical to bell-shaped, 1-5 mm long, vanese), dhubaja (Madurese), silu (Timor). Malay-
2-3-celled, style 1.5-5 mm long, stigma 2-3-lobed. sia: seduwayah (Peninsular). Vietnam: l[aa]m
Fruit an obconical to bell-shaped capsule 1.5-10 ph[as]t.
mm x 1-5 mm, 2-3-valved, many-seeded. Seeds el- Origin and geographic distribution W. fruti-
lipsoid to triangular, up to 1mm long, shining. cosa is widely distributed in eastern Africa (Mafia
W. marginata can be found flowering and fruiting Island), Comoros, Madagascar, Pakistan, India,
throughout the year. Wahlenbergia comprises Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, south-
over 150 species and has an almost cosmopolitan ern China, northern Thailand and Malesia (Java,
distribution, the majority of species being found in Madura, Sumbawa and Timor).
the Southern hemisphere. In the Malesian region U s e s W. fruticosa is a popular and important
some 5 species occur, primarily at higher eleva- medicinal plant employed throughout its range for
tions. W. marginata is extremely variable with re- many complaints by many different ethnic groups.
spect to its overall habit, and absolute and rela- In Malaysia the dried flowers or young fruits (im-
tive dimensions ofnearly all floral parts. ported from Java) are an ingredient of various
Ecology W. marginata appears to prefer a dis- prescriptions, used externally or as a drink by
tinct seasonality, and is found in Malesia mainly women shortly after childbirth. In Java they are
in the mountains at 1000-3500 m altitude. It oc- roasted and ground, and externally applied to
curs in open Casuarina and Eucalyptus forest, but wounds and to the cut umbilical cord of a newborn
also on grassland, roadsides, and exposed rocks baby to cause it to dry. A decoction of the seeds is
and old lava streams. recommended as a diuretic for patients with fever,
Management Hairy root cultures of W. mar- or to treat rheumatism. Flowers, fruiting twigs
ginata, infected with Agrobacterium rhizogenes, and seeds are ingredients ofcomplex prescriptions
grew well in various hormone-free media and pro- for dysentery and sprue, apparently because of
duced a high content ofpolyacetylenes, particular- their astringent properties. In Burma (Myanmar)
ly the monoglucoside constituent lobetyolin. the flowers are used to treat bowel complaints. In
Genetic resources W. marginata is wide- India a paste or dry powder of the flowers is ap-
spread and occurs in a wide range of often dis- plied to ulcers, dermal lesions and wounds. In Sri
turbed habitats, and is as such not threatened by Lanka the dried flowers are used as an astringent
genetic erosion. However, the genetic variability is tonic to treat disorders of the mucous membranes,
remarkable and deserves more attention. haemorrhoids and liver problems; they are further
Prospects Little is known about the pharmaco- considered a safe stimulant for pregnant women.
logical properties of W. marginata. Further re- In India and Nepal the leaves are applied as a
search is needed to support its traditional medici- sedative and antipyretic, and credited with antibi-
nal uses. More research on the biosystematics of otic properties. In Madagascar dried flowers are
W. marginata is needed, as it is extremely wide- used to treat gout, urethritis and cystitis, and as
spread and variable, morphologically but also con- an aphrodisiac.
cerning chromosome number. The latter has been Dried flowers are a source of a hair dye, whereas
found a valuable tool for classification in New leaves and twigs yield a yellow dye used in print-
Zealand, resulting in a much narrower species ing.
concept than adopted here. Properties Leaves, fruits and especially flow-
Literature 38, 181,247, 334, 913. ers of W. fruticosa are rich in tannin. The whole
Other selected sources 62, 621,733, 734, 782. plant contains considerable amounts of flavonoid
R.P. Escobin glycosides, anthraquinone glycosides and phenyl-
propanoids.
In small doses, plant extracts stimulate the cen-
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz tral nervous system in mice, but in large doses
they act as a depressant. They antagonize am-
Journ.As.Soc.Beng.40(2):56(1871). phetamines and enhance the analgesic action of
LYTHRACEAE barbiturates. In tests with rats, anti-inflammato-
2re=16 ry and immunomodulatory activities are recorded.
Synonyms Lythrum fruticosum L. (1759), The active principles are the oligomeric hydrolyz-
Grislea tomentosa Roxb. (1795), Woodfordia flori- able tannins with macrocyclic structures. The two
bunda Salisb. (1806). major constituents, woodfordin C (woodfruticosin)
Vernacular names Indonesia: sidawayah (Ja- and oenothin, exhibited significant host-mediated
antitumour and anti-HIV activities in mice. Wood- calyx tube, narrowly lanceolate, 1-5 mm long, red,
fordin C shows an inhibitory effect against DNA pale pink or white; stamens 12, inserted at one-
topoisomerase II. third of the calyx tube and far exserted; ovary su-
In screening experiments for antiviral properties, perior, incompletely 2-celled, style slender. Fruit a
methanol and water extracts of W. fruticosa flow- thin-walled, ellipsoid capsule 8-10 mm long, en-
ers and leaves showed potent inhibition of avian closed by the calyx tube, many-seeded. Seeds
myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase, and minute, narrowly obpyramidal, slightly com-
strong inhibitory activity of human immunodefi- pressed, smooth.
ciency virus type-1 (HIV-D-protease. W. fruticosa can be found flowering throughout
Botany An evergreen shrub up to 5 m tall, with the year, but a distinct peak in abundance can be
diffuse, irregular branching. Leaves opposite, dis- observed. The nectar-rich flowers are regularly
tichous, ovate-lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, visited by insects. Mature fruits are present with-
2-10(-14) cm x l-3(-4) cm, base rounded to sub- in one month of flowering, and may persist on old-
cordate, apex attenuate to acuminate, entire, er leafless stems after new flowering branches are
sparsely patently pubescent above, densely grey- produced.
ish tomentose and black punctate below; petiole Woodfordia consists of 2 closely related species
0-3 mm long; stipules absent. Inflorescence a that can be artificially hybridized.
1-17-flowered cluster on a much condensed, axil- Ecology W. fruticosa is a pioneer preferring
lary shoot. Flowers bisexual, slightly zygomor- rocky localities and exposed slopes, but it can be
phic, 6-merous, pedicellate, with 2 bracteoles, found in a wide range of habitats, including river
protandrous; calyx with 1-1.5 cm longtube, green- banks, rain forest, semi-deciduous forest, montane
ish at base, pale to dark red distally, lobes 2-3 mm grassland and open anthropogenic habitats, in Ja-
x 1.5-2 mm; petals inserted near the mouth of the va at 30-1000 m altitude.
Management W. fruticosa can be propagated
by seed and cuttings. Germination starts 7-12
days after sowing and is completed within one
month. Seeds stored in a closed plastic bottle at
room temperature gradually lose their viability in
the period up to 6 months of storage (when the
germination rate is about 78%),but rapidly lose it
after this period, with only about 1% of seeds ger-
minating after 12 months.
Genetic resources In view of its large natur-
al distribution and its preference for disturbed
habitats, W. fruticosa does not appear to be
threatened by genetic erosion. However, overcol-
lecting may locally reduce natural populations
substantially.
Prospects Apart from the attention given to
antiviral and antitumour properties of W. fruti-
cosa, phytochemical and pharmacological investi-
gations are few. Further research is needed to
evaluate its traditional medicinal uses, and to de-
termine its potential as a modern herbal medi-
cine.
Literature 290, 442, 491,518, 519,1036.
Other selected sources 62, 86, 121, 334, 520,
731, 732,953.
D. Mutiatikum
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz - 1, flowering and

fruiting branch; 2, flower; 3, fruit in calyx tube; 4,
fruit; 5, seed.
XYRIS 421
Xyris L. Genetic resources Both X. complanata and X.

indica are widespread and occur locally gregari-
Sp. pi. 1:42(1753); Gen. pi. ed. 5:25 (1754). ously, also in anthropogenic habitats, and they
XYRIDACEAE are not in danger ofgenetic erosion.
x = 9,17 Prospects The use of Xyris to treat skin dis-
Origin and geographic distribution Xyris eases in different parts ofthe world is remarkable,
comprises nearly 300 species, and occurs in tropi- and warrants more research, which has only been
cal to temperate regions of America, Africa, Asia done sporadically up to now.
and Australia. South America is richest in species. Literature 247,483,799, 945.
In Malesia 8 species occur, in Indo-China and
Thailand each 11.
Uses Xyris is used externally in traditional med- Selection of species
icine in India and Peninsular Malaysia to treat
skin diseases. In Thailand dried inflorescences are Xyris c o m p l a n a t a R.Br.
used to treat leprosy and ringworm. Similar appli- Prodr. 1:256 (1810).
cations are recorded for tropical America. It is Synonyms Xyris anceps auct. non Lamk.
sometimes cultivated as an ornamental for pools. Vernacular names Indonesia: jangot tutu (Be-
In Java the scapes of X. capensis Thunberg are litung), purum bili bili (Kalimantan). Malaysia:
sometimes used as an inferior substitute for Fim- chelagi, berudang (Peninsular). Philippines: gu-
bristylis in the construction of mats. mi-gumi (Tagalog). Thailand: tan (peninsular), ya
Properties Anthraquinones and 2 isocouma- krathiam, ya krathin (south-eastern). Vietnam:
rins (xyridins A and B)have been isolated from in- c[or] v[af]ng.
florescences ofX indica collected in Thailand.
Botany Small to medium-sized perennial,
grasslike herbs, with fibrous roots. Leaves distic-
hously alternate, often more or less radical, sim-
ple, ensiform to linear or filiform, rough or
smooth, sheathing. Inflorescence a dense spike on
an elongated scape; bracts imbricate, persistent,
usually with a greenish or brownish blot below
apex. Flowers bisexual, 3-merous, transient; sepa-
ls free, lateral sepals keeled, persistent, median
sepal hoodlike, membranous, covering the flower
in bud, falling off at anthesis; petals obovate to ob-
triangular, claws more or less adhering with sta-
minodial filaments, distally erosate to lacerate,
yellow; stamens inserted on petals, alternating
with filiform, 2-armed staminodes, each arm
brush-like by numerous hairs; ovary superior, 1-
celled with 3 parietal placentas (in Australia
sometimes 3-celled with axile placentation), style
trifid, stigma horseshoe-shaped. Fruit an obovoid
capsule, dehiscing loculicidally, many-seeded.
Seeds ovoid to ellipsoid, longitudinally and trans-
versely ridged.
The flowers are usually open for a few hours;
those of X. indica usually open during the late
morning and persist until mid-afternoon. How-
ever, those of X. complanata remain open for a
longer period, from mid-morning until late after-
noon.
Ecology Xyris species are mostly found in open, Xyris complanata R.Br. - 1, plant habit; 2, inflo-
moist localities on sandy, acid soils, sometimes al- rescence; 3, seed.Xyris indica L. - 4,plant habit; 5,
so on loamy or clayey soils. inflorescence; 6, seed.
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Zehneria indica (Lour.) Keraudren

southern China (Hainan), Thailand, the Malesian
region (throughout, but not yet collected in Java, Fl. Camb., Laos &Vietn. 15:52 (1975).
the Lesser Sunda Islands and the Moluccas) and CUCURBITACEAE
northern and western Australia. 2n = unknown
Uses In Peninsular Malaysia X. complanata is Synonyms Melothria indica Lour. (1790), Me-
used to treat skin complaints. In India the leaves, lothria leucocarpa (Blume) Cogn. (1881).
boiled in oil, are applied in cases of leprosy, other Vernacular names Indonesia: bobontengan
skin diseases and itch. lalaki (Sundanese), antimon tikus (Moluccas).
Observations A perennial herb; leaves flat, up Philippines: melon-daga (Tagalog), timun-ambau
to 60 cm x 0.4 cm, rough on the edges, without (Sulu). Vietnam: d[uwj]a chu[ooj]t d[aj]i, ch[uf]m
transverse veins, sheath up to 11 cm long; in- th[awr]ng, hoa b[as]t, d[aa]y p[oj]p.
florescence several per plant, ovoid to cylindrical, Origin and geographic distribution Z. indi-
up to 4 cm long, up to 50-flowered, on an up to 80 ca occurs in eastern India, Burma (Myanmar), In-
cm long, complanate to subterete scape usually do-China, southern China, Thailand and the
with 2 ridges, median bracts with upper margin Malesian region eastwards to the Moluccas.
lacerate. X. complanata occurs in open, wet locali- Uses In the Moluccas juice of the leaves of a
ties among grasses or mosses up to 1600 m alti- plant tentatively identified as Z. indica is a tradi-
tude. tional remedy for thrush in children. It is further
Selected sources 121,219, 247, 249,250,483. used as part of a treatment to clear opacity of the
cornea. In Vietnam Z. indica is used to suppress
X y r i s i n d i c a L. inflammation and swellings and as a diuretic, and
Sp.pl. 1:42(1753). the root is considered a vermifuge and depurative.
Vernacular n a m e s Indonesia: jajaruman, ju- It is especially applied for respiratory and urogen-
kut pentolan (Sundanese), acuk-acuk (Javanese). ital inflammations. The plant is applied external-
Malaysia: bunga dari kandang, rumput bagau, ly to treat a range of afflictions from burns to
jerangau padang (Peninsular). Cambodia: thnâk' eczema and furuncles. In China a decoction of the
tuk (Pursat). Laos: :khi:z ka:k (Vientiane). Thai- whole plant is taken as a cooling drink and to re-
land: krathin thung, ya krathiam (south-eastern), lieve inflammation. It is used to treat dysentery,
ya khi klak (central). Vietnam: ho[af]ng d[aaf]u. rheumatism, urinary gravel and skin diseases.
Distribution India, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myan- Botany A monoecious, perennial, herbaceous
mar), Indo-China, southern China (Hainan), Thai- climber up to 2 m long; stem finely angular,
land, the Malesian region (Peninsular Malaysia, glabrescent, climbing by simple tendrils. Leaves
Sumatra and Java) and northern Australia. alternate, simple, entire or 3-lobed, ovate or trian-
Uses In India X. indica is used to treat ring- gular in outline, 3-10 cm x 4-7 cm, base deeply in-
worm, leprosy and itch. cised to cordate, apex acuminate, subentire to
Observations A perennial herb; leaves flat, dentate, finely scabridly warted above, pubescent
slightly spongy, up to 50(-70) cm x 1.3 cm, smooth on the veins below; petiole 1-2 cm long; stipules
on the edges, with prominent transverse veins, absent. Inflorescence axillary; male flowers fasci-
sheath up to 30 cm long; inflorescence several per cled or in sessile short racemes, female flowers
plant, spherical to cylindrical, up to 1.5(-3.5) cm solitary or 2-4 together, sometimes at the base of
long, up to 20-flowered, on an up to 80(-110) cm a male inflorescence. Flowers unisexual, regular,
long, terete scape with 6-15 ridges, median bracts 5-merous, pedicellate; calyx campanulate; corolla
with upper margin entire. X. indica occurs in gamopetalous, lobes entire; male flower with
open, swampy localities, often along rice fields up corolla lobes c. 4 mm long, 3 stamens and a pistil-
to 250 m altitude, rarely up to 1200 m. lode; female flowers with inferior, fusiform ovary,
Selected sources 121, 219, 247, 249, 250, 483, finely papillose, glabrescent. Fruit a globose to el-
799. lipsoid berry 10-12(-16) mm x 7-10 mm, glabrous,
R.P. Escobin white or yellow to reddish, many-seeded. Seeds
obovate, 5 mm x 2.5 mm, very flat.
Zehneria comprises some 30 species and is found
in the Old World tropics and subtropics. Z. indica
is sometimes considered a synonym ofZ. japonica
(Thunberg) H.-Y. Liu, thereby extending the
ZiziPHUs 423
range ofthe taxon to more temperate East Asia. ritiana are cooked as a vegetable and also serve as
Ecology Z. indica is found in thickets, open for- fodder.
est and forest fringes from sea-level up to 1500 m Properties The bark of several Ziziphus species
altitude. is rich in cyclopeptide alkaloids. Ethanolic ex-
Management In Vietnam roots, stems and tracts of the aerial parts ofZ. oenoplia exhibit hy-
leaves of Z. indica are harvested at the end of potensive effect and also low diuretic activity. Be-
the growing season, and dried for later use as a tulinic acid appears to be responsible for some of
drug. the medicinal properties ofits root bark.
Genetic resources Z. indica is widespread, of- In order to support its use in traditional medicine
ten occurring in disturbed habitats, and does not for the treatment of nephritis, Z.jujuba was sub-
seem to be threatened by genetic erosion. jected to both in-vitro and in-vivo testing. In-
Prospects Pharmacological research is needed traperitoneal injection in rats and in-vitro tests
to support the traditional uses of Z. indica as an with endothelial cells and kidney homogenates re-
anti-inflammatory and antiseptic agent. vealed stimulatory effects on nitric oxide release.
Literature 250, 334, 532, 731,740, 760. This may well contribute to the hypotensive effect
Other selected sources 62, 121,380. and antinephretic action, possibly by increasing
Nguyen Huu Hien renal bloodflow. In a behavioural evaluation test
with mice, an orally administered ethanol extract
of Z. jujuba seeds revealed an anxiolytic effect at
Ziziphus Miller lower dose and a sedative effect at higher dose. A
decoction of dried Z.jujuba leaves showed antihy-
Gard, diet., abr. ed. 4 (1754). perglycaemic activity in rats.
RHAMNACEAE Botany Deciduous or evergreen lianas, shrubs
a: = 12 or small to medium-sized trees. Leaves alternate,
Origin and geographic distribution Zizi- simple, entire or serrate to crenate, generally 3-
phus comprises about 100 species and has a veined from the base; stipules caducous or trans-
pantropical distribution, the two main centres be- formed into spines. Inflorescence a small axillary
ing tropical America and South-East Asia. It ex- fascicle or umbel-like cyme, rarely an axillary or
tends into temperate and even arid regions. About terminal thyrse. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous; ca-
25 species occur within Malesia. lyx shortly funnel-shaped, often deeply cleft;
Uses Ziziphus is only little used in South-East petals free, small, rarely absent, hooded, shortly
Asian folk medicine, e.g. the root bark in prepara- clawed, yellowish to greenish; disk fleshy, 5-10-
tions for contraconception and to treat fever. In lobed; stamens before the petals; ovary semi-infe-
Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the leaves or rior, 2-3(-4)-celled, styles 2-4. Fruit a fleshy to al-
roots of possibly Z. kunstleri King was used as a most dry, 1-seeded drupe. Seed nearly plano-con-
post-partum medicine. The bark ofZ. oenoplia (L.) vex. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyle-
Miller, occasionally used for tanning in India, has dons fleshy; hypocotyl elongated; first leaves oppo-
several medicinal uses, common for plants con- site or whorled, subsequent ones alternate, condu-
taining tannin; it is used for healing wounds and plicate.
to treat stomach-ache. The roots serve as a reme- The nectar produced by the disk and the fragrance
dy against hyperacidity and Ascaris infection. The of the flowers attract insects. Flowers are protan-
roots, bark, leaves, seeds and fruits of Z. mauri- drous. The fruits are dispersed by mammals and
tiana Lamk are all applied medicinally, in partic- birds.
ular to aid digestion and to poultice wounds. Z. Ecology Ziziphus is generally found at low ele-
mauritiana is a well-known firewood in semi-arid vations, up to 1000 m altitude, in primary as well
regions. as secondary forest.
Some Ziziphus species are more widely used medi- Management Ziziphus can be propagated by
cinally in temperate East Asia. Z. jujuba Miller seed and by transplanting root suckers; propaga-
(synonym: Z. vulgaris Lamk) is well known in tion by cuttings failed. Grafting is used for culti-
Chinese medicine, all parts being used for a wide vars ofZ. mauritiana for fruit production.
range of afflictions; the fruits are also well known Genetic resources Ziziphus species such as Z.
as an adjuvant. Several species, notably Z. jujuba angustifolia are relatively widespread, and are
and Z. mauritiana, are widely cultivated for their usually common and cannot be considered threat-
edible fruits. In Indonesia young leaves ofZ. mau- ened. However, some species are restricted in
their distribution, and may be threatened with Lesser Sunda Islands) and the Solomon Islands.
continued habitat degradation. Uses In Papua New Guinea the scraped root
Prospects Little is known on the pharmacologi- barks of Z. angustifolia and a Licuala species are
cal properties of Ziziphus. Further research is chewed with betel nut (Areca catechu L.) and lime.
needed to corroborate its traditional uses, such as This is a powerful long-lasting means of contra-
in poulticing and to aid digestion. conception for women.
Literature 181,477, 671,726, 883,967. Observations A small to medium-sized tree up
to 30 m tall, bole up to 40 cm in diameter, branch-
es unarmed; leaves oblong-elliptical to oblong-
Selection of species ovate, 12-20(-30) cm x 3-7 cm, base obtuse to
acute, apex acute to acuminate, finely serrate,
Ziziphus angustifolia (Miq.) Hatus. ex chartaceous to subcoriaceous; inflorescence an ax-
v. Steenis illary branched cyme up to 3 cm long; flowers 4-6
Nova Guinea 3: 13 (1960). mm in diameter, greenish to yellowish; fruit a glo-
Synonyms Ziziphus inermis Merr. (1906), Zizi- bose to obovoid drupe 1-2 cm in diameter. Z. an-
phus forbesii Baker f. (1923), Ziziphus grewioides gustifolia occurs in primary and secondary forests
(Warb.) L.M. Perry ex v. Steenis (1954). up to 600 m altitude.
Vernacular n a m e s Malaysia: kayu labu (Ka- Selected sources 347,460, 877, 883.
dazan, Sabah), pasil-pasil (Bajau, Sabah). Papua
New Guinea: manenea (Noupan, Buka Island, Ziziphus elegans Wallich
North Solomons Province). Philippines: ligaa Roxb., Fl. ind. 2: 366 (1824).
(Bikol, Tagalog). Distribution Peninsular Malaysia and Suma-
Distribution India, Burma (Myanmar), Thai- tra.
land, throughout Malesia (except for Java and the Uses In Peninsular Malaysia a decoction of the
root bark was used as a remedy for fever.
Observations A slender shrub with climbing
branches, nearly unarmed; leaves ovate, 5-7.5 cm
x 2-3 cm, base rounded, apex bluntly acuminate,
minutely serrate, membranous; inflorescence a di-
chotomous, spreading cyme c. 1.5 cm long, pubes-
cent; flowers c. 2.5 mm in diameter, white; fruit a
subglobular compressed drupe c. 8 mm in diame-
ter. Z. elegans occurs in open forest and on river
banks at low elevations.
Selected sources 121,731,789.
Titi Juhaeti
Ziziphus angustifolia (Miq.) Hatus. ex v. Steenis

1, flowering twig; 2, flower; 3, fruit.
3 Medicinal and poisonous plants with other primary
use
List of species in other commodity groups (parenthesis), which are used also as
medicinal and poisonous plant. Synonyms in the indented lines.
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)Moench (vegetables)

Hibiscus esculentus L.
Abelmoschus manihot (L.)Medikus (vegetables)
Hibiscus manihot L.
Abelmoschus moschatus Medikus (essential-oil plants)
Hibiscus abelmoschus L.
Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. (fibre plants)
Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber trees)
Acacia chundra Willd.
Acacia farnesiana (L.)Willd. (essential-oil plants)
Acacia smallii Isely
Mimosa farnesiana L.
Vachellia farnesiana (L.)Wight & Arnott
Acacia glauca (L.)Moench (auxiliary plants)
Acacia villosa (Sw.) Willd.
Acaciella villosa (Sw.) Britton & Rose
Mimosa glauca L.
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber
trees)
Acacia melanochaetes Zoll.
Delaportea ferox Gagnep.
Delaportea microphylla Gagnep.
Mimosa leucophloea Roxb.
Acacia nilotica (L.)Willd. ex Del. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Acacia arabica (Lamk) Willd.
Acacia tomentosa Willd. (auxiliary plants)
Mimosa tomentosa (Willd.) Rottler
Acacia chrysocoma Miq.
Acetabularia major G. Martens (cryptogams: algae)
Acetabularia crenulata J.V. Lamour. var. major Sond.
Acetabularia denudata Zanardini
Acetabularia gigas Solms
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. (timber trees)
Acronychia arborea Blume
Acronychia laurifolia Blume
Acronychia resinosa J.R. Forster ex Crevost & Lemarié
Acrostichum aureum L. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Actinodaphne moluccana Blume (timber trees)

Actinodaphne sesquipedalis (Wallich ex O. Kuntze) Hook.f. & Thomson ex
Meissner (timber trees)
Laurus sesquipedalis Wallich ex O. Kuntze
Actinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetgh. &D.A. Simpson (fibre plants)
Adenanthera intermedia Merr. (timber trees)
Adenanthera pavonina L. (timber trees)
Adenanthera gersenii Scheffer
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (edible fruits and nuts)
Aeschynomene afraspera J. Léonard (auxiliary plants)
Aeschynomene aspera auct. non L.
Sesbania leptocarpa auct. non DC.
Ageratina riparia (Regel) R.M. King &H. Robinson (auxiliary plants)
Eupatorium harrisii Urban
Eupatorium riparium Regel
Aglaia odoratissima Blume (essential-oil plants)
Aglaia affinis Merr.
Aglaia diepenhorstii Miq.
Aglaia heterophylla Merr.
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. (auxiliary plants)
Pongelion excelsum (Roxb.) Pierre
Pongelion wightii van Tiegh.
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wangerin (timber trees)
Alangium hexapetalum Lamk
Alangium lamarckii Thwaites
Alangium sundanum Miq.
Albizia lebbekoides (DC.) Benth. (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber
trees)
Pithecolobium myriophyllum Gagnep.
Albiziaprocera (Roxb.) Benth. (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Acaciaprocera (Roxb.) Willd.
Mimosa elata Roxb.
Mimosa procera Roxb.
Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Blume ex Miq. (timber trees)
Albizia nediana Kosterm.
Albizia tomentella Miq. var. salajeriana (Miq.) Koord.
Aleurites moluccana (L.)Willd. (spices)
Aleurites triloba J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Jatropha moluccana L.
Juglans camirium Lour.
Allophyllus cobbe (L.) Raeuschel (timber trees)
Allophyllus dimorphus Radlk.
Allophyllus fulvenervis (Blume) Blume
Allophyllus grossedentatus (Turcz.) Fern.-Vill.
Alpinia globosa (Lour.) Horan. (spices)
Amomum globosum Lour.
Alstonia pneumatophora Backer ex den Berger (timber trees)
Altinga excelsa Norona (timber trees)
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.)DC. (forages)
MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS WITH OTHER PRIMARY USE 427
Alysicarpus nummularifolius (Willd.) DC.

Hedysarum vaginale L.
Amomum aromaticum Roxb. (spices)
Geocallis fasciculata Horan.
Amomum compactum Soland. ex Maton (spices)
Amomum cardamomum auct. non L.
Amomum kepulaga Sprague & Burkill
Amomum subulatum Roxb. (spices)
Cardamomum subulatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze
Ampelopteris proliféra (Retz.) Copel. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Anabaena azollae Strasb. exWittr. (cryptogams: algae)
Anabaena oscillarioides Bory ex Bornet & Flahault
Anabaena variabilis status azolla Fjerd.
Anacardium occidentale L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Andira inermis (W.Wright) DC. (auxiliary plants)
Andira jamaicensis (W.Wright) Urban
Andira excelsa Kunth
Anethum graveolens L. (spices)
Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming
Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Hiern
Peucedanum sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) Kurz
Angiopteris evecta (G. Forster) Hoffmann (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Anisophyllea disticha (Jack) Bâillon (timber trees)
Annona cherimola Miller (edible fruits and nuts)
Annona glabra L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Annona palustris L.
Annona purpurea Sessé &Moe. ex Dunal (edible fruits and nuts)
Annona reticulata L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Annona squamosa L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Anodendron oblongifolium Hemsl. (fibre plants)
Anodendron paniculatum A.DC. (fibre plants)
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wallich ex Guill. &Perr. (timber trees)
Conocarpus latifolia Roxb. ex DC.
Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk) A. Rich, ex Walpers (timber trees)
Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq.
Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich.
Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser
Anthocephalus macrophyllus (Roxb.) Havil. (timber trees)
Bancalus macrophyllus (Roxb.) O. Kuntze
Nauclea macrophylla Roxb.
Neolamarckia macrophylla (Roxb.) Bosser
Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) G.F. Hoffmann (spices)
Anthriscus longirostris Bertol.
Chaerefolium cerefolium (L.) Schinz & Thell.
Scandix cerefolium L.
Antidesma bunius (L.) Sprengel (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Antidesma dallachyanum Bâillon
Antidesma rumphii Tulasne
Stilago bunius L.
Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertner (edible fruits and nuts)

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wallich) R.N. Parker (timber trees)
Amoora aphanamixis Schultes & Schultes f.
Aphanamixis cumingiana (CDC.) Harms
Aphanamixis grandifolia Blume
Aphanamixis rohituka (Roxb.) Pierre
Apium graveolens L. (vegetables)
Apium dulce Miller
Apium lusitanicum Miller
Apium rapaceum Miller
Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex H. Lecomte (essential-oil plants)
Aquilaria agallocha auct. non Roxb.
Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk (essential-oil plants)
Agallochum malaccense (Lamk) O. Kuntze
Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.
Aquilariella malaccensis (Lamk) v. Tiegh.
Archidendron bubalinum (Jack) I.C. Nielsen (timber trees)
Cylindrokelupha bubalina (Jack) Kosterm.
Ortholobium bubalinum (Jack) Kosterm.
Pithecellobium bubalinum (Jack) Benth.
Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen (timber trees)
Abarema clypearia (Jack) Kosterm.
Pithecellobium angulatum Benth.
Pithecellobium clypearia (Jack) Benth.
Archidendron ellipticum (Blume) I.C. Nielsen (timber trees)
Abarema elliptica (Blume) Kosterm.
Pithecellobium ellipticum (Blume) Hassk.
Pithecellobium waitzii Kosterm.
Archidendron jiringa (Jack) Nielsen (timber trees, vegetables)
Pithecellobium jiringa (Jack) Prain
Pithecellobium lobatum Benth.
Zygia jiringa (Jack) Kosterm.
Archidendron microcarpum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen (timber trees)
Abarema microcarpa (Benth.) Kosterm.
Pithecellobium microcarpum Benth.
Ardisia elliptica Thunberg (vegetables)
Ardisia littoralis Andr.
Ardisia squamulosa Presl (spices)
Ardisia boissieri A.DC.
Ardisia drupacea (Blanco) Merr.
Ardisia humilis auct. non Vahl
Areca catechu L. (stimulants)
Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Arenga saccharifera Labill.
Argusia argentea (L.f.) Heine (vegetables)
Messerschmidia argentea (L.f.) Johnston
Tournefortia argentea L.f.
Armoracia rusticana P.G. Gaertner (spices)
Armoracia lapathifolia Gilibert
Cochlearia armoracia L.
Nasturtium armoracia (L.) Fries
Artemisia dracunculus L. (spices)
Artemisia inodora Willd.
Artemisia redowskyi Ledeb.
Oligosporus condimentarius Cass.
Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg (edible fruits and nuts)
Artocarpus camansi Blanco
Artocarpus communis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Artocarpus blancoi (Elmer) Merr. (timber trees)
Artocarpus communis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster var. blancoi Elmer
Artocarpus dadah Miq. (timber trees)
Artocarpus inconstantissimus (Miq.) Miq.
Artocarpus rufescens Miq.
Artocarpus tampang Miq.
Artocarpus elasticus Reinw. ex Blume (fibre plants)
Artocarpus fretessii Teijsm. &Binnend. (timber trees)
Artocarpus dasyphyllus Miq.
Artocarpus leytensis Elmer
Artocarpus paloensis Elmer
Artocarpus gomezianus Wallich ex Trécul (timber trees)
Artocarpus masticatus Gagnep.
Artocarpus petiolaris Miq.
Artocarpus pomiformis Teijsm. & Binnend.
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk (edible fruits and nuts)
Artocarpus brasiliensis Gomez
Artocarpus maxima Blanco
Artocarpus philippensis Lamk
Artocarpus horridus Jarrett (timber trees)
Artocarpus communis J.R. Forster & J.G. Forster var. pungens J.J. Smith
ex K. Heyne
Artocarpus lowii King (timber trees)
Artocarpus nitidus Trécul (edible fruits and nuts)
Artocarpus borneensis Merr.
Artocarpus eberhardtii Gagnep.
Artocarpus griffithii (King) Merr.
Artocarpus humilis Becc.
Artocarpus lingnanensis Merr.
Artocarpus parva Gagnep.
Artocarpus sampor Gagnep.
Artocarpus ovatus Blanco (timber trees)
Artocarpus acuminatissimus Merr.
Artocarpus cumingiana Trécul
Artocarpus rubrovenius Warb, (timber trees)
Arundo donax L. (fibre plants)
Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Trevis. (cryptogams: algae)
Asparagopsis delile Mont.
Falkenbergia hildebrandii (Bornet) Falkenb.
Fucus taxiformis Delile
Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. (plants yielding non-seed carbohy-

drates)
Asparagus lucidus Lindley
Melanthium cochinchinense Lour.
Asparagus racemosus Willd. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Asparagopsis javanica Kunth
Asparagopsis schoberioides Kunth
Asparagus dubius Decne.
Atuna racemosa Raf. (timber trees)
Atuna elata (King) Kosterm.
Atuna excelsa (Jack) Kosterm.
Cyclandrophora excelsa (Jack) Kosterm.
Parinari glaberrimum (Hassk.) Hassk.
Averrhoa bilimbi L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Averrhoa carambola L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Avicennia alba Blume (timber trees)
Avicennia marina (Forsk.)Vierh. var. alba (Blume) Bakh.
Avicennia officinalis L.var. alba (Blume) Hook, ex Jafri
Avicennia spicata Kunth
Avicennia officinalis L. (timber trees)
Avicennia obovata Griffith
Avicennia oepata Hamilton
Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) Jacobs (timber trees)
Azadirachta integrifolia Merr.
Melia excelsa Jack
Azadirachta indica A.H.L. Juss. (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Antelaea azadirachta (L.)Adelb.
Melia azadirachta L.
Melia indica (A.H.L.Juss.) Brandis
Baccaurea brevipes Hook.f. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Backhousia citriodora F. v. Mueller (essential-oil plants)
Balanophora elongata Blume (plants producing exudates)
Balanophora ungeriana Valeton
Balanophora fungosa J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster (plants producing exudates)
Balanophora gigantea Wallich ex Fawe
Balanophora globosa Jungh.
Balanophora indica (Arnott) Griffith
Bambusa bambos (L.)Voss (bamboos)
Arundo bambos L.
Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.
Bambusa spinosa Roxb.
Bambusa tuldoides Munro (bamboos)
Bambusa longiflora W.T. Lin
Bambusa pallescens (Doell) Hackel
Bambusa ventricosa McClure
Barringtonia calyptrata (Miers) R.Br, ex F.M. Bailey (timber trees)
Barringtonia flava Lauterb.
Barringtonia scortechinii King (timber trees, spices)
Basella alba L. (vegetables)
Basella cordifolia Lamk

Basella lucida L.
Basella rubra L.
Bauhinia bidentata Jack (fibre plants)
Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. (timber trees)
Piliostigma acidum (Reinw. ex Korth.) Benth.
Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth.
Bauhinia scandens L. (fibre plants)
Bauhinia vahlii Wight &Arnott (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Benincasa hispida (Thunberg ex Murray) Cogniaux (vegetables)
Benincasa cerifera Savi
Cucurbita hispida Thunberg ex Murray
Berry a cordifolia Roxb. (timber trees)
Berrya ammonilla Roxb.
Beta vulgaris L. (vegetables)
Betaphycus gelatinus (Esper) Doty ex P.C. Silva (cryptogams: algae)
Euchema gelatinum (Esper) J. Agardh
Fucus gelatinus Esper
Sphaerococcus gelatinus (Esper) C. Agardh
Bixa orellana L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. (fibre plants)
Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansfeld (spices)
Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schlechter
Curcuma rotunda L.
Gastrochilus pandurata (Roxb.) Ridley
Kaempferia pandurata Roxb.
Borago officinalis L. (spices)
Borassus flabellifer L. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Borassus flabelliformis L.
Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch (vegetables, spices)
Brassica sinapoides Roth
Sinapis nigra L.
Sisymbrium nigrum (L.) Prantl
Bridelia stipularis (L.)Blume (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Bridelia tomentosa Blume (timber trees)
Bridelia glabrifolia Merr.
Bridelia lancifolia Roxb.
Bridelia monoica Merr.
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. exVent, (fibre plants)
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber
trees)
Bruguiera rheedii Blume
Bruguiera conjugata Merr.
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poiret (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Bruguiera eriopetala Wight &Arnott ex Arnott
Rhizophora sexangula Lour.
Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume (timber trees)
Buchanania florida Schauer
Buchanania lucida Blume
Buchanania platyphylla Merr.

Buchanania latifolia Roxb. (edible fruits and nuts)
Buchanania lanzan Sprengel
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (pulses)
Cajanus indicus Sprengel
Cytisus cajan L.
Calamus castaneus Becc. (rattans)
Calamus javensis Blume (rattans)
Calamus filiformis Becc.
Calamus longispathus Ridley (rattans)
Calamus ornatus Blume (rattans)
Calathea allouia (Aublet) Lindley (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Curcuma americana Lamk
Maranta allouia Aublet
Callerya atropurpurea (Wallich) Schot (timber trees)
Adinobotrys atropurpurea (Wallich) Dunn
Millettia atropurpurea (Wallich) Benth.
Whitfordiodendron pubescens (Craib) Burkill
Callicarpa arborea Roxb. (timber trees)
Callicarpa magna Schauer
Callicarpa tomentosa auct. non (L.) Murr.
Caloglossa leprieurii (Mont.) G. Martens (cryptogams: algae)
Caloglossa leprieurii var. hookeri E. Post
Caloglossa mnioides Harv. exJ. Agardh
Delesseria leprieurii Mont.
Calophyllum calaba L. (timber trees)
Calophyllum canum Hook.f. (timber trees)
Calophyllum borneense Vesque
Calophyllum dioscurii P.F. Stevens (timber trees)
Calophyllum pisiferum Planchon &Triana (timber trees)
Calophyllum retusum auct. non Wallich ex Choisy
Calophyllum rubiginosum M.R. Henderson &Wyatt-Smith (timber trees)
Calophyllum muscigerum Boerl. &Koord, ex K. Heyne
Camellia sasanqua Thunberg ex Murray (vegetable oils and fats)
Sasanqua vulgaris Nees
Thea sasanqua (Thunberg ex Murray) Cels
Cananga odorata (Lamk) Hook.f. &Thomson (essential-oil plants)
Cananga scortechinii King
Canangium odoratum (Lamk) Bâillon
Uvaria odorata Lamk
Canarium hirsutum Willd. (timber trees, plants producing exudates)
Canarium hispidum Blume
Canarium multipinnatum Llanos
Canarium subcordatum Ridley
Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray (timber trees, plants producing exu-
dates)
Canarium carapifolium Perkins
Canarium oliganthum Merr.
Canarium polyanthum Perkins
Canarium oleosum (Lamk) Engl, (timber trees)

Canarium laxiflorum Decne.
Canarium microcarpum Willd.
Canarium pilosum Bennett (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Canarium grandiflorum Bennett
Canarium hirtellum Bennett
Canarium motleyanum Engl.
Canarium pimela Leenh. (edible fruits and nuts)
Pimela nigra Lour.
Canarium vulgare Leenh. (timber trees, plants producing exudates)
Canarium commune L.
Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. (forages)
Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC.var. ensiformis (L.) Benth.
Dolichos ensiformis L.
Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC. (vegetables)
Canavalia ensiformis auct. non (L.) DC.
Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC.var.gladiata (Jacq.) O. Kuntze
Dolichos gladiatus Jacq.
Canavalia maritima (Aublet) du Petit-Thouars (auxiliary plants)
Canavalia obtusifolia (Lamk) DC.
Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC.
Dolichos maritimus Aublet
Canna indica L. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Canna coccinea P. Miller
Canna edulis Ker Gawl.
Canna orientalis Roscoe
Capparis spinosa L. (spices)
Capparis cordifolia Lamk
Capparis mariana Jacq.
Capparis sandwichiana DC.
Careya arborea Roxb. (timber trees)
Carica papaya L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Carissa carandas L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Carissa congesta Wight
Carthamus tinctorius L. (vegetable oils and fats)
Carum carvi L. (spices)
Carum velenovskyi Rohlena
Casearia grewiaefolia Vent, (timber trees)
Casearia hexagona Decne.
Casearia laurina Blume
Casearia leucolepis Turcz.
Casimiroa edulis Llave &Lex. (edible fruits and nuts)
Cassia auriculata L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Cassia densistipulata Taubert
Cassia obtusifolia L. (vegetables)
Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. & C. Fraser ex Hook, (timber trees)
Castanospermum cunninghamii J. Wood
Casuarina equisetifolia L. (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Casuarina litorea L.
Casuarina muricata Roxb.
Caulerpa lentillifera J. Agardh (cryptogams: algae)
Caulerpa kilneri J. Agardh
Caulerpa longistipitata (Weber Bosse) Sved.
Caulerpa racemosa (Forssk.) J. Agardh (cryptogams: algae)
Caulerpa clavifera (Turner) C. Agardh
Caulerpa uvifera C. Agardh
Fucus racemosus Forssk.
Caulerpa sertularioides (S.G. Gmelin) M. Howe (cryptogams: algae)
Caulerpa plumaris Forssk
Fucus sertularioides S.G. Gmelin
Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C.Agardh (cryptogams: algae)
Fucus taxifolius Vahl
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertner (fibre plants)
Celtis latifolia (Blume) Planchon (timber trees)
Celtis kajewskii Merr. &L.M. Perry
Celtis zippelii (Blume) Planchon
Solenostigma latifolium Blume
Celtis philippensis Blanco (timber trees)
Celtis collinsae Craib
Celtis strychnoides Planchon
Celtis wightii Planchon
Celtis timorensis Spanoghe (timber trees)
Celtis cinnamomea Lindley ex Planchon
Celtis crenato-serrata Merr.
Celtis waitzii Blume
Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Cerbera floribunda K. Schumann (timber trees)
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Ceriops candolleana Arnott
Chaetomorpha crassa (C.Agardh) Kütz. (cryptogams: algae)
Conferva crassa C. Agardh
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) E. Greene (auxiliary plants)
Cassia angustissima Lamk
Cassia mimosoides L.
Cassia procumbens auct. non L.
Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr. (vegetables)
Champereia griffithii Planchon ex Kurz
Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.f.) Sw. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Chisocheton cumingianus (CDC) Harms (vegetable oils and fats, timber trees)
Chisocheton morobeanus Harms
Chisocheton paniculatus Hiern
Chisocheton thorelli Pierre
Chisocheton macrophyllus King (vegetable oils and fats, timber trees)
Chisocheton pentandrus (Blanco) Merr. (vegetable oils and fats, timber trees)
Chisocheton beccarianus (Bâillon) Harms
Chisocheton microcarpus Koord. & Valeton
Chisocheton spicatus Hiern
Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verde, (stimulants)

Chloranthus elatior Link
Chloranthus officinalis Blume
Cryphaea erecta Buch.-Ham.
Chloranthus spicatus (Thunberg) Makino (stimulants, essential-oil plants)
Chloranthus inconspicuus Sw.
Chloranthus indicus Wight
Chloranthus obtusifolius Miq.
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King &H. Robinson (auxiliary plants)
Eupatorium conyzoides Vahl
Eupatorium odoratum L.
Osmia odorata (L.) Schultz-Bip.
Chrysanthemum coronarium L. (vegetables)
Chrysanthemum spatiosum L.H. Bailey
Matricaria coronaria (L.) Desr.
Pinardia coronaria Lessing
Chrysobalanus icaco L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Chrysophyllum cainito L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Chukrasia tabularis A.H.L. Juss. (timber trees)
Chickrassia tabularis (A.H.L. Juss.) A.H.L. Juss.
Chukrasia velutina (Wallich) Roemer
Cibotium barometz (L.)J. Smith (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Cinnamomum camphora (L.)J.S. Presl (essential-oil plants)
Laurus camphora L.
Cinnamomum celebicum Miq. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum culitlawan (L.) Kosterm. (spices)
Cinnamomum culilaban (L.)J.S. Presl
Cinnamomum culilawan (Roxb.) J.S. Presl
Laurus culitlawan L.
Cinnamomum eugenoliferum Kosterm. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum gigaphyllum Kosterm.
Cinnamomum hentyi Kosterm.
Cinnamomum grandiflorum Kosterm. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum massoia Schewe
Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Blume (timber trees)
Cinnamomum eucalyptoides T. Nees
Cinnamomum nitidum Blume
Cinnamomum paraneuron Miq.
Cinnamomum javanicum Blume (timber trees)
Cinnamomum neglectum Blume
Cinnamomum sulphuratum C. Nees
Cinnamomum mercadoi S.Vidal (timber trees)
Cinnamomum mollissimum Hook.f. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum pendulum Cammerl. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum endlicheriaecarpum Kosterm.
Cinnamomumporrectum (Roxb.) Kosterm. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum glanduliferum C. Nees
Cinnamomum parthenoxylon (Jack) C. Nees
Cinnamomum sumatranum (Miq.) Meissner
Cinnamomum rhynchophyllum Miq. (spices)

Cinnamomum lampongum Miq.
Cinnamomum sintoc Blume (timber trees)
Cinnamomum calophyllum Reinw. ex C. Nees
Cinnamomum camphoratum Blume
Cinnamomum cinereum Gamble
Cinnamomum verum J.S. Presl (spices)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
Laurus cinnamomum L.
Cissusjavana DC. (vegetables)
Cissus discolor Blume
Vitis discolor (Blume) Dalz.
Cissus repens Lamk (vegetables)
Vitis quadricornuta Miq.
Vitis repens Wight & Arnott
xCitrofortunella microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands (edible fruits and nuts)
xCitrofortunella mitis (Blanco) J. Ingram &H.E. Moore
Citrus microcarpa Bunge
Citrus mitis Blanco
Citrullus lanatus (Thunberg) Matsum. &Nakai (vegetables)
Citrullus vulgaris Schrader ex Ecklon & Zeyher
Colocynthis citrullus (L.) 0 . Kuntze
Momordica lanata Thunberg
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. &Panzer) Swingle (edible fruits and nuts)
Citrus javanica Blume
Citrus notissima Blanco
Limonia aurantifolia Christm. & Panzer
Citrus aurantium L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Citrus hystrix DC. (edible fruits and nuts)
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (edible fruits and nuts)
Citrus aurantium L. var.grandis L.
Citrus decumana L.
Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck
Citrus medica L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Citrus aurantium L. var. medica Wight & Arnott
Citrus crassa Hassk.
Claoxylon indicum (Reinw. ex Blume) Hassk. (spices)
Claoxylon polot Merr.
Erytrochilus indicus Reinw. ex Blume
Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr. (essential-oil plants)
Clausena laxiflora Quis. & Merr.
Clausena sanki (Perr.) Molino
Cookia anisum-olens Blanco
Clibadium surinamense L. (auxiliary plants)
Baillieria aspera Aubl.
Clibadium asperum (Aubl.) DC.
Clibadium surinamense L. var. asperum (Aubl.) Baker
Clitoria ternatea L. (forages)
Clitoria mearnsii De Wild.

Clitoria tanganicensis Micheli
Clitoria zanzibarensis Vatke
Coccinia grandis (L.)Voigt (vegetables)
Bryonia grandis L.
Coccinia cordifolia auct. non (L.) Cogn.
Coccinia indica Wight & Arnott
Cocos nucifera L. (vegetable oils and fats)
Cocos nana Griffith
Coix lacryma-jobi L. (cereals)
Coix agrestis Lour.
Coix arundinacea Lamk
Coix lacryma L.
Corchorus aestuans L. (fibre plants)
Corchorus capsularis L. (fibre plants)
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz &Pavón) Oken (auxiliary plants)
Cerdana alliodora Ruiz & Pavón
Cordia cerdana (Ruiz &Pavón) Roemer & Schultes
Lithocardium alliodorum (Ruiz &Pavón) O. Kuntze
Coriandrum sativum L. (spices)
Coriandrum diversifolium Gilib.
Coriandrum globosum Salisb.
Coriandrum majus Gouan
Coriandrum testiculatum Lour, non L.
Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D. Hill &L.A.S.Johnson (essential-oil plants)
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.
Eucalyptus maculata Hook. var. citriodora (Hook.) Bailey
Eucalyptus melissiodora Lindley
Corypha utan Lamk (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Corypha data Roxb.
Corypha gembanga (Blume) Blume
Cosmos caudatus Kunth (vegetables)
Cosmos bipinnatus Ridley non Cav.
Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Smith (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Banksia speciosa Koenig
Costus nepalensis Roscoe
Costus sericeus Blume
Crocus sativus L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Crotalaria incana L. (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria pubescens Moench
Crotalaria laburnifolia L. (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria pallida Aiton (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria mucronata Desv.
Crotalaria siamica Williams
Crotalaria striata DC.
Crotalaria quinquefolia L. (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria heterophylla L.f.
Crotalaria retusa L. (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria spectabilis Roth (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria sericea Retz, non Burm.f.

Crotalaria verrucosa L. (auxiliary plants)
Crotalaria caerulaea Jacq.
Cryptocarya massoy (Oken) Kosterm. (timber trees)
Cinnamomum massoy Oken
Cryptocarya aromatica (Becc.) Kosterm.
Cryptocarya novoguineensis Teschner
Cucumis sativus L. (vegetables)
Cuminum cyminum L. (spices)
Cuminum odorum Salisb.
Ligusticum cuminum (L.) Crantz
Curculigo latifolia Dryand. (fibre plants)
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)Taubert (auxiliary plants)
Cyamopsis psoraloides (Lamk) DC.
Cyanotis axillaris (L.)Sweet (cereals)
Amischophacelus axillaris (L.) Rolla Rao & Kammathy
Commelina axillaris L.
Tradescantia axillaris L.
Cycas rumphii Miq. (edible fruits and nuts)
Cycas circinalis L.
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (essential-oil plants)
Andropogon ceriferus Hackel
Andropogon citratus DC.
Andropogon nardus (L.) Rendle var. ceriferus Hackel
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steudel) J.F. Watson (essential-oil plants)
Andropogon flexuosus Nees ex Steudel
Andropogon nardus L.var. flexuosus (Nees ex Steudel) Hackel
Cymbopogon travancorensis Bor
Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) J.F. Watson (essential-oil plants)
Andropogon martini Roxb.
Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.)J.F. Watson var. motia auct.
Cymbopogon motia Gupta
Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt (essential-oil plants)
Cymbopogon nardus (L.)Rendle var. mahapangiri auct.
Cyperus pedunculatus (R.Br.) Kern (auxiliary plants)
Mariscus pedunculatus (R.Br.) Koyama
Remirea maritima Aubl.
Remirea pedunculata R.Br.
Cyrtandra pendula Blume (spices)
Cyrtosperma merkusii (Hassk.) Schott (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merr.
Cyrtosperma edule Schott ex Seem.
Cyrtosperma lasioides Griffith
Dactyladenia barteri (Hook.f. ex Oliver) G.T. Prance & F. White (auxiliary
plants)
Acioa barteri (Hook.f. ex Oliver) Engl.
Griffonia barteri Hook.f. ex Oliver
Daemonorops didymophylla Becc. (rattans)
Dalbergia parviflora Roxb. (essential-oil plants)
Dalbergia cumingiana Benth.

Dalbergia zollingeriana Miq.
Decaspermum parviflorum (Lamk) A.J. Scott (timber trees)
Decaspermum fruticosum auct. non J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Decaspermum paniculatum (Lindley) Kurz
Derris microphylla (Miq.) B.D. Jackson (auxiliary plants)
Brachypterum microphyllum Miq.
Deguelia microphylla (Miq.) Valeton
Derris dalbergioides Baker
Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf (auxiliary plants)
Eragrostis cynosuroides (Retz.) P. Beauv.
Pogonarthria bipinnata (L.) Chiov.
Stapfiola bipinnata (L.) O. Kuntze
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)Wight &Arnott (timber trees)
Dicliptera laevigata (Vahl)Juss. (vegetables)
Diclipterajavanica Nees
Justicia laevigata Vahl
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Dictyopteris jamaicensis W.R. Taylor (cryptogams: algae)
Dictyosphaeria cavernosa (Forssk.) B0rgesen (cryptogams: algae)
Dictyosphaeria favulosa (C.Agardh) Decne. ex Endl.
Ulva cavernosa Forssk.
Valonia favulosa C. Agardh
Digenea simplex (Wulfen) C.Agardh (cryptogams: algae)
Conferva simplex Wulfen
Digenia wulfenii Kütz.
Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle) Stapf (forages)
Digitaria endlichii Mez
Digitaria mombasana C.E. Hubbard
Digitaria polevansii Stent subsp.peterana Henrard
Digitaria setivalva Stent
Digitaria swynnertonii Rendle
Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg(timber trees)
Wormia excelsa Jack
Wormia oblonga Wallich ex Hook.f. & Thomson
Wormia tomentella Martelli
Dillenia indica L. (timber trees)
Dillenia speciosa Thunberg
Dillenia obovata (Blume) Hoogl. (timber trees)
Dillenia aurea auct. non J.E. Smith
Dillenia ovata Wallich ex Hook.f. &Thomson (timber trees)
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. (timber trees)
Dillenia baillonii Pierre ex Lanessan
Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe (timber trees)
Dillenia catmon Elmer
Dimocarpus longan Lour, (edible fruits and nuts)
Euphoria cinerea Radlk.
Euphoria gracilis Radlk.
Euphoria longana Lamk
Euphoria malaiensis Radlk.

Euphoria morigera Gagnep.
Euphoria nephelioides Radlk.
Euphoria scandens Winit & Kerr.
Nephelium longana Cambess.
Nephelium malaiense Griffith
Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dioscorea aculeata L.
Dioscorea tiliifolia Kunth
OTICUS esculentus Lour.
Dioscorea hispida Dennst. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dioscorea daemona Roxb.
Dioscorea hirsuta Dennst.
Dioscorea triphylla L.
Dioscorea laurifolia Wallich ex Hook.f. (plants yielding non-seed carbohy-
drates)
Dioscorea piscatorum Prain &Burkill (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dioscorea borneensis R. Knuth
Dioscorea prainiana R. Knuth (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dioscorea defiexa Hook.f. non Grisebach
Dioscorea maliliensis R. Knuth
Dioscorea pyrifolia Kunth (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dioscorea diepenhorstii Miq.
Dioscorea oppositifolia auct.
Dioscorea zollingeriana Kunth
Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii (Stapf) Diels (spices)
Dioscoreophyllum lobatum Diels
Rhophalandria cumminsii Stapf
Rhophalandria lobatum C.H. Wright
Diospyros decandra Lour, (edible fruits and nuts)
Diospyros digyna Jacq. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Diospyros ebenaster Hiern non Retz.
Diospyros nigra (J.F. Gmelin) Perrottet
Diospyros ebenum Koenig (timber trees)
Diospyros glaberrima Rottb.
Diospyros kaki L.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Diospyros lanceifolia Roxb. (timber trees)
Diospyros clavigera C.B. Clarke var.pachyphylia (C.B.Clarke) Ridley
Diospyros lucida Wallich ex A.DC.
Diospyros pachyphylla C.B. Clarke
Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber
trees)
Diospyros embryopteris Pers. var. siamensis (Hochr.) Lecomte
Diospyros globularia (Miq) Koord. & Valeton
Diospyros glutinifera Roxb.
Diospyros peregrina Guerke
Diospyros siamensis Hochr.
Diospyros maritima Blume (timber trees)
Diospyros camarinensis Merr.
Diospyros laxa (R.Br.) Bailey

Diospyros liukiuensis Makino
Diospyros rufa King &Gamble (timber trees)
Diospyros toposia Buch.-Ham. (timber trees)
Diospyros collinsae Craib
Diospyros foveo-reticulata Merr.
Diospyros incisa Buch.-Ham. ex Wallich
Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam (vegetable oils and fats)
Aisandra butyracea (Roxb.) Baehni
Bassia butyracea Roxb.
Madhuca butyracea (Roxb.) J.F. Macbride
Dipteris conjugata Reinw. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Dipteryx odorata (Aublet) Willd. (spices)
Baryosma tonga Gaertner
Coumarouna odorata Aublet
Dipteryx tetraphylla Spruce ex Benth.
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f.) K. Schumann (timber trees)
Donax canniformis (G. Forster) K. Schumann (fibre plants)
Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe (edible fruits and nuts, timber
trees)
Dracontomelon edule (Blanco) Skeels
Dracontomelon mangiferum (Blume) Blume
Dracontomelon puberulum Miq.
Dracontomelon sylvestre Blume
Dryobalanops sumatrensis (J.F. Gmelin) Kosterm. (timber trees)
Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertner f.
Dryobalanops camphora Colebr.
Durio oxleyanus Griffith (timber trees)
Durio zibethinus Murray (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Durio acuminatissima Merr.
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
Elaeagnus triflora Roxb. (edible fruits and nuts)
Elaeagnus philippensis Perr.
Eleiodoxa conferta (Griffith) Burret (edible fruits and nuts)
Salacca conferta Griffith
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Trinius ex Henschel (plants yielding non-seed car-
bohydrates)
Eleocharis plantaginea Roemer & Schultes
Eleocharis tuberosa Roemer & Schultes
Heleocharis plantaginoidea W.F. Wight
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (spices)
Alpinia cardamomum (L.) Roxb.
Amomum cardamomum L.
Amomum repens Sonnerat
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner (cereals)
Cynosuruscoracan L.
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. (vegetables)
Cacalia sonchifolia L.
Senecio sonchifolius (L.) Moench

Endospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy Shaw (timber trees)
Endospermum beccarianum Pax & Hoffm.
Endospermum borneense Benth.
Endospermum malaccense Benth.
Endospermum moluccanum (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Kurz (timber trees)
Endospermum formicarum Becc.
Endospermum labios Schodde
Engelhardtia roxburghiana Lindley ex Wallich (timber trees)
Engelhardtia chrysolepis Hance
Engelhardtia polystachya Radlk.
Engelhardtia wallichiana Lindley ex C D C .
Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle (fibre plants)
Enydra fluctuans Lour, (vegetables)
Enydra longifolia (Blume) DC.
Enydra paludosa (Reinw.) DC.
Equisetum ramossissimum Desf. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunberg) Lindley (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Eruca sativa Miller (spices)
Brassica eruca L.
Eruca foetida Moench
Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. subsp. sativa (Miller) Thellung
Eryngium foetidum L. (spices)
Eryngium antihystericum Rottler
Erythrina poeppigiana (Walpers) O.F. Cook (auxiliary plants)
Erythrina micropteryx Poeppig ex Walpers
Micropteryx poeppigiana Walpers
Erythroxylum cuneatum (Miq.) Kurz (timber trees)
Erythroxylum burmanicum Griffith
Erythroxylum densinerve O.E. Schulz
Erythroxylum platyphyllum Merr.
Erythroxylum ecarinatum Burck (timber trees)
Erythroxylum salomonense C.T. White
Etlingera punicea (Roxb.) R.M. Smith (edible fruits and nuts)
Achasma coccineum (Blume) Valeton
Amomum coccineum (Blume) K. Schumann
Hornstedtia macrocheilus Ridley
Etlingera walang (Blume) R.M. Smith (spices)
Achasma walang (Blume) Valeton
Amomum walang (Blume) Valeton
Donacodes walang Blume
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Eucalyptus rostrata Schlechtendal
Eugenia dombeyi (Sprengel) Skeels (edible fruits and nuts)
Eugenia brasiliensis Lamk non Aublet
Myrtus dombeyi Sprengel
Eugenia uniflora L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Eugenia michelii Lamk
Eupatorium chinense L. (spices)
Buphthalmum oleraceum Lour.

Eupatoriumjaponicum Thunberg ex Murray
Eurya acuminata DC. (auxiliary plants)
Euryajaponica auct. non Thunberg
Eurya monticola Ridley
Eurya wrayi King
Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. &Binnend. (timber trees)
Bihania borneensis Meissner
Exocarpos latifolius R.Br, (essential-oil plants)
Exocarpos luzonensis (Presl) A.DC.
Exocarpos ovatus Blume
Xylophyllos latifolius (R.Br.) O. Kuntze
Fagraea berteriana A. Gray ex Benth. (timber trees)
Fagraea affinis S. Moore
Fagraea novae-guineae Cammerl.
Fagraea sair Gilg & Gilg-Ben.
Fagraea bodenii Wernham (timber trees)
Fagraea ampla S. Moore
Fagraea papuana Merr. & Perry
Fagraea suaveolens Cammerl.
Fagraea elliptica Roxb. (timber trees)
Fagraea javanensis (Blume) Bakh.f.
Fagraea speciosa (Blume) Blume
Fagraea sumatrana Miq.
Fagraea fragrans Roxb. (timber trees)
Fagraea cochinchinensis A. Chev.
Fagraea gigantea Ridley
Fagraea wallichiana Benth.
Fagraea racemosa Jack exWallich (timber trees)
Fagraea maingayi C.B. Clarke
Fagraea morindaefolia (Reinw.) Blume
Fagraea subreticulata Blume
Faidherbia albida (Del.)A.Chev. (auxiliary plants)
Acacia albida Del.
Ferula assa-foetida L. (spices)
Ferula pseudalliacea Rech.f.
Ferula rubicaulis Boissier
Narthex polakii Stapf & Wettst.
Fibraurea tinctoria Lour, (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers
Fibraurea trotteri Watt ex Diels
Ficus altissima Blume (fibre plants)
Ficus drupacea Thunberg (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Ficus chrysochlamys Lauterb. &K. Schumann
Ficus chrysocoma Blume
Ficus payapa Blanco
Ficus pilosa Reinw. ex Blume
Ficus edelfeltii rung (fibre plants)
Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. &de Vriese) Miq. (fibre plants)
Ficus montana Burm.f. (edible fruits and nuts)

Ficus quercifolia Roxb.
Ficus padana Burm.f. (plants producing exudates)
Ficus elegans Hassk.
Ficus toxicaria L.
Ficus pseudopalma Blanco (vegetables)
Ficus blancoi Elmer
Ficus racemosa L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Ficus glomerata Roxb.
Ficus semicostata F.M. Bailey
Ficus vesca F. v. Mueller ex Miq.
Ficus retusa L. (plants producing exudates)
Ficus truncata Miq.
Ficus virgata Reinw. ex Blume (spices)
Ficus decaisneana Miq.
Ficus philippinensis Miq.
Ficus trymatocarpa Miq.
Fimbristylis umbellaris (Lamk) Vahl (fibre plants)
Finschia chloroxantha Diels (edible fruits and nuts)
Grevillea densiflora White
Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. (edible fruits and nuts)
Flacourtia ramontchi L'Hérit.
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeuschel (edible fruits and nuts)
Flacourtia rukam Zoll. &Moritzi (edible fruits and nuts)
Flacourtia euphlebia Merr.
Flagellaria indica L. (fibre plants)
Foeniculum vulgare Miller (spices)
Anethum foeniculum L.
Foeniculum capillaceum Gilib.
Foeniculum officinale Allioni
Fragaria vesca L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Fraxinus griffithii C.B. Clarke (stimulants)
Fraxinus eedenii Boerl. & Koord.
Fraxinus formosana Hayata
Fraxinus philippensis Merr.
Funtumia elastica (P. Preuss) Stapf (plants producing exudates)
Kickxia elastica P. Preuss
Galactia striata (Jacq.) Urban (auxiliary plants)
Galactia tenuiflora (Klein exWilld.)Wight &Arnott
Glycine striata Jacq.
Glycine tenuiflora Klein ex Willd.
Ganonema farinosum (J.V. Lamour.) K.C. Fan & Yung C. Wang (cryptogams:
algae)
Liagora cheyneana Harv.
Liagora farinosa J.V. Lamour.
Ganophyllum falcatum Blume (timber trees)
Dictyoneura integerrima Radlk.
Garcinia hanburyi Hook.f. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Garcinia morella Desr. var.pedicellata Hanbury
Garcinia hombroniana Pierre (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)

Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy (vegetable oils and fats)
Brindonia indica Thouars
Garcinia microstigma Kurz
Garcinia mangostana L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Mangostana garcinia Gaertner
Garcinia morella (Gaertner) Desr. (plants producing exudates, vegetable oils
and fats)
Garcinia gaudichaudii Planchon & Triana
Garcinia gutta Wight
Garcinia lateriflora Blume
Mangostana morella Gaertner
Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Gardenia augusta (L.) Merr.
Gardenia florida L.
Gardenia grandiflora Lour.
Garuga floribunda Decne. (timber trees)
Garuga abilo Merr.
Garuga littoralis Merr.
Garuga pacifica Burkill
Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume (essential-oil plants)
Brossaea leucocarpa (Blume) O. Kuntze
Gaultheria crenulata Kurz
Gaultheria cumingiana Vidal
Gaultheria punctata Blume (essential-oil plants)
Brossaea fragrantissima O. Kuntze
Gaultheria fragrantissima auct. non Wallich
Gaultheria fragrantissima Wallich var.punctata (Blume) J.J. Smith
Genipa americana L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Geodorum nutans (Presl) Ames (plants producing exudates)
Arethusa glutinosa Blanco
Dendrobium nutans Presl
Geodorum semicristatum Lindley
Glinus oppositifolius (L.) DC. (vegetables)
Mollugo oppositifolia L.
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walpers (forages, auxiliary plants)
Gliricidia maculata (Kunth) Kunth ex Walpers
Gluta wallichii (Hook.f.) Ding Hou (timber trees)
Melanorrhoea maingayi Hook.f.
Melanorrhoea wallichii Hook.f.
Melanorrhoea woodsiana Scort. ex King
Glycine max (L.) Merr. (pulses)
Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim.
Phaseolus max L.
Soja max (L.) Piper
Gnetum campestre Gamble ex Ridley (fibre plants)
Gnetum tenuifolium Ridley (edible fruits and nuts)
Gomphia serrata (Gaertner) Kanis (timber trees)
Campylospermum serratum (Gaertner) Bittrich &M.C.E. Amaral
Gomphia sumatrana Jack

Ouratea angustifolia (Vahl) Bâillon & Lanessan
Goniothalamus giganteus Hook.f. &Thomson (fibre plants)
Gonocaryum calleryanum (Bâillon) Becc. (timber trees)
Gonocaryum diospyrosifolium Hayata
Gonocaryum tarlacense S. Vidal
Gonocaryum teysmannianum R. Scheffer
Gonystylus keithii Airy Shaw (timber trees)
Gonystylus maingayi Hook.f. (timber trees)
Gordonia amboinensis (Miq.) Merr. (timber trees)
Gordonia brassii Kobuski
Gordonia papuana Kobuski
Gordonia rumphii Merr.
Gordonia excelsa (Blume) Blume (timber trees)
Gordonia acuminata Choisy
Gracilaria blodgettii Harv. (cryptogams: algae)
Gracilaria cylindrica B0rgesen
Gracilaria edulis (S.G. Gmelin) P.C. Silva (cryptogams: algae)
Fucus edulis S.G. Gmelin
Hydropunctia fastigiata fC.F. Chang &B.M. Xia) M.J. Wynne
Polycavernosa fastigiata C.F. Chang &B.M. Xia
Gracilaria euchematoides Harv. (cryptogams: algae)
Gracilaria salicornia (C.Agardh) E.Y. Dawson (cryptogams: algae)
Corallopsis salicornia (C.Agardh) Grev.
Gracilaria minor (Sond.) Durair.
Sphaerococcus salicornia C. Agardh
Gracilaria tenuistipitata C.F. Chang &B.M. Xia (cryptogams: algae)
Gracilaria verrucosa (Huds.) Papenf. (cryptogams: algae)
Gracilaria gracilis (Stackh.) Steentoft
Gracilariopsis longissima (S.G. Gmelin) Steentoft
Gracilariopsis heteroclada C.F. Zhang &B.M. Xia (cryptogams: algae)
Gracilaria bailinae (C.F. Zhang &B.M. Xia) C.F. Zhang &B.M. Xia
Gracilaria heteroclada C.F. Zhang & B.M. Xia non (Mont.) Feldmann &
Feldm.-Maz.
Gracilariopsis bailinae C.F. Zhang &B.M. Xia
Grateloupia filicina (J.V. Lamour.) C.Agardh (cryptogams: algae)
Delesseria filicina J.V. Lamour.
Fucus filicina Wulfen
Grewia acuminata Juss. (fibre plants)
Grewia asiatica L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Grewia conferta Warb, ex Burret
Grewia hainesiana Hole
Grewia humilis Wallich ex Masters
Grewia subinaequalis DC.
Grewia vestita Masters
Guettarda speciosa L. (timber trees)
Guioa diplopetala (Hassk.) Radlk. (timber trees)
Guioa bullata Radlk.
Guioa fuscidula (Kurz) Radlk.
Guioa squamosa Radlk.

Guioa koelreuteria (Blanco) Merr. (timber trees)
Guioa mindorensis Merr.
Guioa perrottetii (Blume) Radlk.
Guioa salicifolia Radlk.
Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk. (timber trees)
Guioa aptera Radlk.
Guioa lasiothyrsa Radlk.
Guioa subapiculata Radlk.
Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass, (vegetable oils and fats)
Guizotia oleifera (DC.) DC.
Polimnia abyssinica L.f.
Ramtilla oleifera DC.
Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Wallich ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb, (timber
trees)
Gymnopetalum chinense (Lour.) Merr. (edible fruits and nuts)
Gymnopetalum cochinchinense (Lour.) Kurz
Gymnopetalum leucostictum Miq.
Gymnopetalum quinquelobum Miq.
Gynotroches axillaris Blume (timber trees)
Haematoxylum campechianum L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Halimeda cylindracea Dec. (cryptogams: algae)
Halimeda polydactylis J. Agardh
Halimeda gigas W.R. Taylor (cryptogams: algae)
Halimeda gracilis Harv. exJ. Agardh (cryptogams: algae)
Halimeda incrassata (J. Ellis) J.V. Lamour. (cryptogams: algae)
Corallina incrassata J. Ellis
Halimeda opuntia (L.)J.V. Lamour. (cryptogams: algae)
Corallina opuntia L.
Fucus prolifer M. Blanco
Halimeda cordata J. Agardh
Halimeda simulans N. Howe (cryptogams: algae)
Halimeda incrassata (J. Ellis) J.V. Lamour. var. simulans B0rgesen
Halimeda tuna (J. Ellis &Sol.)J.V. Lamour. (cryptogams: algae)
Corallina tuna J. Ellis &Sol.
Halimeda platydisca Dec.
Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. (timber trees)
Harpullia imbricata (Blume) Thwaites
Harpullia pedicellaris Radlk.
Harpullia tomentosa Ridley
Harpullia cupanioides Roxb. (timber trees)
Harpullia confusa Blume
Harpullia rupestris (Blume) Blume
Harpullia thanatophora Blume
Helicteres isora L. (fibre plants)
Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook, (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.f.) T. Moore (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Heritiera littoralis Aiton (timber trees)
Heritiera minor (Gaertner) Lamk
Hernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitzki (timber trees)

Hernandia peltata Meissn.
Hibiscus cannabinus L. (fibre plants)
Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. (edible fruits and nuts)
Hodgsonia capniocarpa Ridley
Homonoia riparia Lour, (auxiliary plants)
Adelia neriifolia Heyne ex Roth
Lumanaja fluviatilis Blanco
Ricinus salicinus Hassk.
Houttuynia cordata Thunberg (vegetables)
Hullettia dumosa King ex Hook.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Huperzia serrata (Thunberg ex Murray) Trevis. (cryptogams: ferns and fern al-
lies)
Hydroclathrus clathratus (C.Agardh) M. Howe (cryptogams: algae)
Encoelium clathratum C. Agardh
Hydroclathrus cancellatus Bory
Hydroclathrus tenuis C.K. Tseng &B. Ren Lu (cryptogams: algae)
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lamk (vegetables)
Hydrocotyle benguetensis Elmer
Hydrocotyle delicata Elmer
Hydrocotyle rotundifolia DC.
Hymenaea courbaril L. (plants producing exudates)
Hymenaea candolleana Kunth
Hymenaea retusa Willd. ex Hayne
Inga megacarpa M.E. Jones
Hypolepis punctata (Thunberg) Mett. ex Kuhn (cryptogams: ferns and fern al-
lies)
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br, (fibre plants)
Iguanura geonomiformis (Griffith) Mart, (stimulants)
Iguanura malaccensis Becc.
Iguanura wallichiana (Wallich ex Mart.) Hook.f. subsp. malaccensis
(Becc.) Kiew var. elatior Kiew
Iguanura wallichiana (Wallich ex Mart.) Hook.f. subsp. malaccensis
(Becc.) Kiew var. malaccensis
Ilex cymosa Blume (timber trees)
Ilex bogorensis Loes.
Ilexjavanica Koord. & Valeton
Ilex pleiobrachiata Loes.
Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. (stimulants)
Ilex domestica Reissek
Ilex mate A. St.-Hil.
Ilex paraguensis D. Don
Illicium verum Hook.f. (spices)
Badianifera officinarum O. Kuntze
Illicium anisatum Lour, non L.
Indigofera hirsuta L. (auxiliary plants)
Indigofera angustifolia Blanco
Indigofera ferruginea Schum. & Thonn.

Indigofera indica Miller
Indigofera suffruticosa Miller (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Indigofera anil L.
Indigofera guatemalensis Moe, Sessé &Cerv. ex Backer
Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosberg (auxiliary plants)
Inocarpus edulis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Kuntze (timber trees)
Afzelia bijuga (Colebr.) A. Gray
Intsia amboinensis DC.
Intsia retusa (Kurz) O. Kuntze
Intsia palembanica Miq. (timber trees)
Afzelia palembanica (Miq.) Baker
Intsia bakeri (Prain) Prain
Intsia plurijuga Harms
Ixonanthes icosandra Jack (timber trees)
Ixonanthes dodecandra Griffith
Ixonanthes lucida (Blume) Blume
Ixonanthes obovata Hook.f.
Jasminum grandiflorum L. (essential-oil plants)
Jasminum floribundum R.Br, ex Fresen
Jasminum officinale L. var.grandiflorum (L.) Stokes
Jasminum officinale L. f.grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski
Jessinia bataua (Mart.) Burret (vegetable oils and fats)
Jessinia polycarpa Karsten
Jessinia repanda Engel
Oenocarpus bataua Mart.
Juncus effusus L. (fibre plants)
Khaya grandifoliola CDC. (timber trees)
Khaya grandis Stapf
Khaya kerstingii Engl.
Khaya punchii Stapf
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (timber trees)
Swietenia senegalensis Desr.
Kleinhovia hospita L. (auxiliary plants)
Knema furfuracea (Hook.f. &Thomson) Warb, (timber trees)
Koompassia excelsa (Becc.)Taubert (timber trees)
Koompassia parvifolia Prain ex King
Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blanco) Merr. (timber trees)
Koordersiodendron celebicum Engl.
Koordersiodendron papuanum Kaneh. & Hatus.
Lannea speciosa (Blume) Engl, ex Perk.
Kummerowia striata Thunberg ex Murray (auxiliary plants)
Desmodium striatum (Thunberg ex Murray) DC.
Hedysarum striatum Thunberg ex Murray
Lespedeza striata (Thunberg ex Murray) Hook. & Arnott
Lactuca indica L. (vegetables)
Lactuca brevirostris Champ, ex Benth.
Lactuca sativa L. (vegetables)
Lactuca scariola L. var. hortensis Bisch.

Lactuca scariola L. var. sativa Boiss.
Lactuca serriola L. var. sativa Moris
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley (vegetables)
Cucurbita lagenaria L.
Lagenaria leucantha Rusby
Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. (timber trees)
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Retz.
Lansium domesticum Correa (edible fruits and nuts)
Aglaia aquea (Jack) Kosterm.
Aglaia domestica (Correa) Pellegrin
Aglaia dookoo Griffith
Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites (vegetables)
Lathyrus sativus L. (pulses)
Laurencia cartilaginea Yamada (cryptogams: algae)
Laurencia patentiramea (Mont.) Kütz. (cryptogams: algae)
Chondria obtusa (Huds.) C.Agardh var.paniculata C. Agardh
Chondria obtusa (Huds.) C.Agardh var.patentiramea Mont.
Laurencia paniculata (C.Agardh) J. Agardh
Laurencia snackeyi (Weber Bosse) Masuda (cryptogams: algae)
Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) J.V. Lamour. var. snackeyi (Weber Bosse) Yama-
da
Laurencia paniculata (C.Agardh) J. Agardh var. snackeyi Weber Bosse
Laurus nobilis L. (spices)
Laurus undulata Miller
Lavandula stoechas L. (essential-oil plants)
Lawsonia inermis L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Lawsonia alba Lamk
Lawsonia spinosa L.
Lens culinaris Medikus (pulses)
Lens esculenta Moench
Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh. (edible fruits and nuts)
Otophora cambodiana Pierre
Otophora fruticosa Blume
Otophora reseda Radlk.
Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh. (timber trees)
Erioglossum edule (Blume) Blume
Erioglossum rubiginosum (Roxb.) Blume
Lepisanthes hirta Ridley
Leuconotis eugenifolius A.DC. (plants producing exudates)
Leuconotis cuspidatus Blume
Limonia acidissima L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Feronia elephantum Correa
Feronia limonia (L.) Swingle
Lindera lucida (Blume) Boerl. (timber trees)
Lindera malaccensis Hook.f.
Lindera selangorensis Ridley
Litsea lucida Blume
Linum usitatissimum L. (fibre plants)

Lippia graveolens Kunth (spices)
Lippia berlandieri J. Schauer
Litchi chinensis Sonn, (edible fruits and nuts)
Dimocarpus litchi Lour.
Euphoria didyma Blanco
Litchi philippinensis Radlk.
Litchi sinense J. Gmelin
Nephelium litchi Cambess.
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. (essential-oil plants)
Laurus cubeba Lour.
Litsea citrata Blume
Tetranthera polyantha Wallich ex Nees var. citrata Meissner
Litsea elliptica Blume (timber trees)
Litsea clarissae (Teschner) Kosterm.
Litsea nigricans (Meissn.) Boerl.
Litsea odorifera Valeton
Litsea petiolata Hook.f.
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B. Robinson (timber trees)
Litsea chinensis Lamk
Litsea geminata Blume
Litsea glabraria A.L. Juss.
Litsea tetranthera (Willd.) Pers.
Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. (timber trees)
Litsea polyantha A.L. Juss.
Tetranthera alnoides Miq.
Tetranthera monopetala Roxb.
Litsea penangiana Hook.f. (timber trees)
Litsea pipericarpa (Miq.) Kosterm. (essential-oil plants)
Lindera pipericarpa (Miq.) Boerl.
Polyadenia pipericarpa Miq.
Litsea timoriana Span, (timber trees)
Litsea kauloensis Teschner
Litsea pallida (Blume) Boerl.
Litsea stickmanii Merr.
Litsea tuberculata (Blume) Boerl.
Litsea umbellata (Lour.) Merr. (timber trees)
Litsea amara Blume
Litsea hexantha A.L. Juss.
Litsea utilis (Meissn.) Boerl.
Lonchocarpus cyanescens (Schum. &Thonn.) Benth. (dye and tannin-producing
plants)
Lophopetalumjavanicum (Zoll.) Turcz. (timber trees)
Lophopetalum fuscescens Kurz
Lophopetalum oblongifolium King
Lophopetalum toxicum Loher
Lophopetalum pallidum M. Lawson (timber trees)
Lophopetalum curtisii King
Solenospermum pallidum (M. Lawson) Loes.
Lumnitzera Uttorea (Jack) Voigt (timber trees)

Lumnitzera coccinea Wight & Arnott
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. (timber trees)
Lycianthes laevis (Dunal) Bitter (vegetables)
Solanum blumii Nees ex Blume
Lycium chinense Miller (vegetables)
Lycium rhombifolium (Moench) Dippel
Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic. Serm. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Lycopodium clavatum L. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Lycopodium complanatum L. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Madura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Cudrania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Kudo & Masam.
Cudrania javanensis Trécul
Madura javanica Blume
Macrolenes muscosa (Blume) Bakh.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Marumia muscosa Blume
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lamk.) Verde, (pulses)
Dolichos biflorus auct. non L.
Dolichos uniflorus Lamk
Madhuca beds (Blanco) J.F. Macbr. (timber trees)
Madhuca philippinensis Merr.
Maesopsis eminii Engl, (auxiliary plants)
Maesopsis berchemioides (Pierre) A. Chev.
Magnolia macklottii (Korth.) Dandy (timber trees)
Magnolia aequinoctialis Dandy
Magnolia javanica Koord. & Valeton
Michelia beccariana Agostini
Malachra capitata (L.) L. (fibre plants)
Malachra fasciata Jacq. (fibre plants)
Malpighia glabra L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Malpighia punicifolia L.
Mammea americana L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Mammea siamensis (Miq.) T. Anderson (timber trees)
Calysaccion siamense Miq.
Ochrocarpos siamensis (Miq.) T. Anderson
Mangifera foetida Lour, (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Mangifera horsfieldii Miq.
Mangifera indica L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Mangifera minor Blume (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Mangifera odorata Griffith (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Mangifera foetida Lour. var. odorata (Griffith) Pierre
Mangifera oblongifolia Hook.f.
Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard (timber trees)
Mimusops kauki L.
Manilkara zapota (L.) P. van Royen (edible fruits and nuts)
Achraszapota L.
Nispero achras (Miller) Aubréville
Pouteria mammosa (L.) Cronquist
Mansonia gagei J.R. Drummond ex Prain (essential-oil plants)
Maranta arundinacea L. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)

Maranta sylvatica Roscoe exJ.E. Smith
Marsdenia tinctoria R.Br, (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Asclepias tinctoria Roxb.
Marsilea crenata C. Presl (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Matricaria recutita L. (stimulants)
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert
Matricaria chamomilla auct. non L.
Matricaria courrantiana DC.
Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden &Betche) Cheel (essential-oil plants)
Melaleuca liniariifolia Smith var. alternifolia Maiden & Betche
Melaleuca cajuputi Powell (essential-oil plants)
Melaleuca leucadendron (L.) L. var. minor (Smith) Duthie
Melaleuca minor Smith
Myrtus saligna Burm.f.
Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T. Blake (essential-oil plants)
Melaleuca viridiflora Sol. ex Gaertner var. angustifolia (L.f.) N.B. Byrnes
non Blume
Melaleuca viridiflora Sol. ex Gaertner var. rubriflora Brong. & Gris
Metrosideros quinquenervia Cav.
Melanamansia glomerata (C.Agardh) R.E. Norris (cryptogams: algae)
Amansia glomerata C. Agardh
Melia azedarach L. (auxiliary plants)
Melia composita Willd.
Melia dubia Cav.
Melia sempervirens (L.) Sw.
Melicope confusa (Merr.) Liu (timber trees)
Euodia confusa Merr.
Melicope latifolia (DC.) T.G. Hartley (timber trees)
Euodia latifolia DC.
Melilotus suavolens Ledeb. (auxiliary plants)
Meliosma sumatrana (Jack) Walpers (timber trees)
Meliosma cuspidata Blume
Meliosma nitida Blume
Meliosma philippinensis Merr. &L.M. Perry
Melissa officinalis L. (spices)
Melissa altissima J.E. Smith
Melissa inodora Bornm. non Hassk.
Memecylon dichotomum (C.B. Clarke) King (timber trees)
Memecylon curtisii Burkill & Hend.
Memecylon eugeniiflora Ridley
Memecylon gracilipes Ridley
Memecylon edule Roxb. (timber trees)
Memecylon globiferum Wallich
Memecylon ovatum Smith (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Merrillia caloxylon (Ridley) Swingle (timber trees)
Murraya caloxylon Ridley
Mesona palustris Blume (stimulants)
Geniosperum parviflorum Wallich ex Benth.
Mesona parviflorum (Wallich ex Benth.) Briq.

Mesona wallichiana Benth.
Mesua ferrea L. (timber trees)
Mesua lepidota T. Anderson (plants producing exudates)
Kayea lepidota (T.Anderson) Pierre
Kayea parviflora Ridley
Metadina trichotoma (Zoll. &Moritzi) Bakh.f. (timber trees)
Adina polycephala Benth.
Adina zschokkei Elmer
Nauclea trichotoma Zoll. & Moritzi
Michelia champaca L. (timber trees, essential-oil plants)
Michelia pilifera Bakh.f.
Michelia pubinervia Blume
Michelia velutina Blume
Michelia xalba DC. (timber trees, essential-oil plants)
Michelia longifolia Blume
Microcos paniculata L. (timber trees, stimulants)
Grewia glabra Jack
Grewia microcos L.
Grewia ulmifolia Roxb.
Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L. Robinson (forages, auxiliary plants)
Eupatorium cordatum Burm.f.
Mikania scandens Hook.f. non (L.) Willd.
Mikania volubilis (Vahl) Willd.
Mimusops elengi L. (timber trees)
Mimusops parvifolia R.Br.
Mischocarpus sundaicus Blume (auxiliary plants)
Cupania erythrorhachis Miq.
Mischocarpus lessertianus Ridley
Schleichera revoluta Turcz.
Monodora myristica (Gaertner) Dunal (spices)
Annona myristica Gaertner
Monodora grandiflora Benth.
Xylopia undulata P. Beauv.
Monostroma nitidum Wittr. (cryptogams: algae)
Monostroma latissimum Wittr.
Moringa oleifera Lamk (vegetables)
Guilandina moringa L.
Moringa polygona DC.
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertner
Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chev. (auxiliary plants)
Cytisus sericeus Willd.
Tephrosia suberosa DC.
Muntingia calabura L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Murraya exotica L. (timber trees)
Murraya paniculata (L.)Jack var. exotica (L.) Huang
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack (timber trees)
Chalcas paniculata L.
Murraya odorata Blanco
Murraya sumatrana Roxb.

Musa textilis Née (fibre plants)
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Myrica farquhariana Wallich
Myrica nagi auct. non Thunberg
Myrica sapida Wallich
Myristica fatua Houtt. (timber trees)
Myristica plumeriifolia Elmer
Myristica spadicea Blume
Myristica tomentosa Thunberg
Myristica fragrans Houtt. (spices)
Myristica aromatica Lamk
Myristica moschata Thunberg
Myristica officinalis L.f.
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms (plants producing exudates)
Myroxylon pereirae (Royle) Klotzsch
Myroxylon toluiferum Kunth
Toluifera balsamum L.
Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. (timber trees)
Nauclea coadunata Roxb. exJ.E. Smith
Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq.
Sarcocephalus undulatus Miq.
Neesia altissima (Blume) Blume (timber trees)
Neesia ambigua Becc.
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Nelumbium nelumbo (L.) Druce
Nelumbium speciosum Willd.
Nymphaea nelumbo L.
Neolitsea cassiaefolia (Blume) Merr. (timber trees)
Litsea acerina Blume
Litsea cassiaefolia Blume
Nepenthes ampullaria Jack (fibre plants)
Nepenthes boschiana Korth. (fibre plants)
Nepenthes reinwardtiana Miq. (fibre plants)
Nephelium lappaceum L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Nephelium chryseum Blume
Nephelium obovatum Ridley
Nephelium sufferrugineum Radlk.
Neptunia oleracea Lour, (vegetables)
Neptunia natans (L.f.) Druce
Neptunia prostrata (Lamk) Bâillon
Nicotiana rustica L. (stimulants)
Nicotiana asiatica Schultes
Nicotiana humilis Link
Nicotiana rugosa Miller
Nicotiana tabacum L. (stimulants)
Nicotiana mexicana Schlecht.
Nicotiana pilosa Moc. & Sessé ex Dun
Nicotiana virginica C. Agardh
Nigella sativa L. (spices)

Nigella cretica Miller
Nigella indica Roxb. ex Fleming
Nothofagus grandis v. Steenis (timber trees)
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Nyctanthes dentata Blume
Nypa fruticans Wurmb (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Cocos nypa Lour.
Nipa fruticans Thunberg
Nipa litoralis Blanco
Ochanostachys amentacea Masters (timber trees)
Ochanostachys bancana (Becc.) Valeton
Petalinia bancana Becc.
Ocimum americanum L. (vegetables)
Ocimum africanum Lour.
Ocimum brachiatum Blume
Ocimum canum Sims
Ocimum basilicum L. (spices)
Ocimum gratissimum L. (essential-oil plants)
Ocimum suave Willd.
Ocimum viride Willd.
Ocimum viridiflorum Roth
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (spices)
Ocimum brachiatum Hassk.
Ocimum flexuosum Blanco
Ocimum sanctum L.
Octomeles sumatrana Miq. (timber trees)
Octomeles moluccana Teijsm. &Binnend. ex Hassk.
Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. (vegetables)
Oenanthe stolonifera DC.
Siumjavanicum Blume
Oldenlandia umbellata L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Hedyotis umbellata (L.) Lamk
Oleandra neriiformis Cav. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Oncosperma horridum (Griffith) R. Scheffer (timber trees)
Onychium siliculosum (Desv.) C.Chr. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Ophioglossum pendulum L. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Ophioglossum reticulatum L. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Oreocnide integrifolia Miq. (fibre plants)
Villebrunea integrifolia Gaudich.
Oreocnide rubescens Miq. (fibre plants)
Oryza sativa L. (cereals)
Oryza aristata Blanco
Oryza glutinosa Lour.
Oryza montana Lour.
Oryza praecox Lour.
Osmoxylon palmatum (Lamk) Philipson (vegetables)
Boerlagiodendron palmatum (Zipp. ex Boerl.) Harms
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. (auxiliary plants)
Ottelia condorensis Gagnep.

Ottelia japonica Miq.
Ottelia javanica Miq.
Oxalis corymbosa DC. (spices)
Oxalis debilis Kunth var. corymbosa (DC.) Lourteig
Oxalis martiana Zucc.
Oxalis violacea auct. non L.
Pachira aquatica Aubl. (vegetable oils and fats)
Bombax aquaticum (Aubl.) K. Schumann
Carolinea princeps L.f.
Pachira macrocarpa (Schlechtendal &Cham.) Walpers
Pachyrhizus erosus (L.)Urban (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dolichos bulbosus L.
Dolichos erosus L.
Dolichos palmatilobus Moc. &Sessé ex DC.
Pachyrhizus angulatus Rich, ex DC.
Pachyrhizus bulbosus (L.) Kurz
Pachyrhizus palmatilobus (Moc. &Sessé ex DC.) Benth.
Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K. Schumann (timber trees)
Pajanelia multijuga (Wallich) DC.
Pajanelia rheedii Wight
Palaquium gutta (Hook.f.) Bâillon (timber trees, plants producing exudates)
Croixia gutta (Hook.f.) Baehni
Palaquium acuminatum Burck
Palaquium oblongifolium (Burck) Burck
Palaquium optimum Becc.
Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. (spices)
Pandanus hasskarlii Merr.
Pandanus latifolius Hassk.
Pandanus odorus Ridley
Pandanus furcatus Roxb. (fibre plants)
Pandanus tectorius Parkins, (fibre plants)
Panicum maximum Jacq. (forages)
Panicum polygamum Sw.
Parartocarpus venenosus (Zoll. & Moritzi) Becc. (edible fruits and nuts, timber
trees)
Gymnartocarpus venenosa (Zoll. &Moritzi) Boerl.
Parartocarpus triandra (J.J. Smith) J.J. Smith
Parartocarpus woodii (Merr.) Merr.
Parkia speciosa Hassk. (timber trees, vegetables)
Parkia harbesonii Elmer
Parkia macrocarpa Miq.
Paspalum conjugatum Bergius (forages)
Passiflora biflora Lamk (vegetables)
Passiflora lunata Willd.
Passiflora incarnata L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Pastinaca sativa L. (vegetables)
Paullinia cupana Kunth (stimulants)
Paullinia sorbilis Martius
Payena leerii (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Kurz (timber trees, plants producing

exudates)
Madhuca leerii (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Merr.
Payena croixiana Pierre
Payena lucida (Wallich ex G. Don) A.DC. (timber trees)
Madhuca lucida (Wallich ex G. Don) Baehni
Payena dasyphylla (Miq.) Pierre var.glabrata King & Gamble
Payena glutinosa Pierre
Pelargonium L'Hérit. cv. group Rosat
Pelargonium xasperum Ehrh. ex Willd.
Pelargonium graveolens auct.
Pelargonium roseum auct.
Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz (auxiliary plants)
Caesalpinia dasyrhachis Miq.
Peltophorum grande Prain
Peltophorum tonkinense (Pierre) Gagnep.
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne (dye and tannin-produc-
ing plants)
Peltophorum ferrugineum (Decne.) Benth.
Peltophorum inerme (Roxb.) Naves & Villar
Pentadesma butyracea Sabine (vegetable oils and fats)
Pentadesma leucantha A.Chev.
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton (spices)
Ocimum frutescens L.
Perilla nankinensis (Lour.) J. Decne.
Perilla ocymoides L.
Peristrophe bivalvis (L.) Merr. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Peristrophe tinctoria (Roxb.) Nees
Peristrophe roxburghiana (Schultes) Bremek.
Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt (auxiliary plants)
Justicia bicalyculata (Retz.) Vahl
Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees
Peronema canescens Jack
Peronema heterophyllum Miq.
Persea americana Miller (edible fruits and nuts)
Persea drymifolia Schlecht. & Cham.
Persea gratissima Gaertner f.
Persea nubigena L.O. Williams
Persea thunbergii (Sieb. &Zucc.) Kosterm. (vegetable oils and fats)
Machilus arisanensis (Hayata) Hayata
Machilus thunbergii Sieb. &Zucc.
Persea arisanensis (Hayata) Kosterm.
Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach (spices)
Polygonum flaccidum Meisner
Polygonum gracile R. Br.
Polygonum hydropiper L.
Persicaria odorata (Lour.) Sojâk (spices)
Polygonum odoratum Lour.
Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross (vegetables)
Polygonum perfoliatum L.
Persicaria pubescens (Blume) Hara (spices)
Polygonum leptostachyum de Bruyn
Polygonum pubescens Blume
Polygonum roettleri Merr. non Roth
Petersianthus quadrialatus (Merr.) Merr. (timber trees)
Combretodendron quadrialatum (Merr.) Knuth
Petroselinum crispum (Miller) Nyman exA.W. Hill (spices)
Petroselinum hortense Hoffm.
Petroselinum sativum Hoffm.
Petroselinum vulgare J. Hill
Phaleria capitata Jack (fibre plants)
Phaseolus lunatus L. (pulses)
Phaseolus bipunctatus Jacq.
Phaseolus limensis Macfad.
Phoebe grandis (Nées) Merr. (timber trees)
Phoebe cuneata (Blume) Blume
Phoebe kunstleri Gamble
Phoebe multiflora Blume
Phoebe opaca Blume
Phormium tenax J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster (fibre plants)
Phyllanthus gomphocarpus Hook.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Phyllanthus accrescens J.J. Smith
Physalis peruviana L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Pimelodendron amboinicum Hassk. (timber trees)
Daphniphyllum conglutinosum Hemsl.
Pimelodendron papuanum Warb.
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. (spices)
Myrtus dioica L.
Myrtus pimenta L.
Pimenta officinalis Lindley
Pimenta racemosa (Miller) J.W. Moore (essential-oil plants)
Caryophyllus racemosus Miller
Myrtus acris Sw.
Pimenta acris (Sw.) Kostel.
Pimpinella anisum L. (spices)
Anisum officinarum Moench
Anisum vulgare Gaertner
Apium anisum (L.) Crantz
Pimpinella pruatjan Molkenb. (spices)
Pimpinella alpina Koord.-Schum. non Host
Piper aduncum L. (spices)
Artanthe adunca (L.) Miq.
Piper angustifolium Ruiz & Pavón
Piper elongatum Vahl
Piper bantamense Blume (stimulants)
Piper attenuatum auct. non Miq.
Piper betle L. (stimulants)
Chavica betle (L.) Miq.
Piper pinguispicum CDC. & Koord.

Piper caninum Blume (spices)
Piper banksii Miq.
Piper lauterbachii CDC.
Piper macrocarpum C D C
Piper cubeba L.f. (spices)
Cubeba officinalis Raf.
Piper lolot C D C (spices)
Piper longum L. (spices)
Chavica roxburghii Miq.
Piper latifolium Hunter
Piper methysticum G. Forster (stimulants)
Macropiper latifolium Miq.
Macropiper methysticum (G. Forster) Hook. & Arnott
Piper nigrum L. (spices)
Piper aromaticum Lamk
Piper retrofractum Vahl (spices)
Chavica retrofracta (Vahl) Miq.
Piper chaba Hunter
Piper officinarum (Miq.) CDC.
Piper sarmentosum Roxb. ex Hunter (spices)
Chavica sarmentosa (Roxb. ex Hunter) Miq.
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. (edible fruits and nuts)
Inga dulcis (Roxb.) Willd.
Mimosa dulcis Roxb.
Pittosporum ferrugineum Aiton (timber trees)
Pittosporum nativitatis Baker
Pittosporum rufescens Turcz.
Pittosporum versteeghii Merr. &L.M. Perry
Pittosporum pentandrum (Blanco) Merr. (timber trees, essential-oil plants)
Aquilaria pentandra Blanco
Pittosporum brachysepalum Turcz.
Pittosporum fernandezii Fern.-Vill.
Pittosporum pseudostipitatum Merr.
Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. (vegetable oils and fats)
Pittosporum acuminatissimum Merr.
Pittosporum epiphyticum Merr.
Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Planchonia papuana Knuth (timber trees)
Platycerium bifurcatum (Cav.) C C h r . (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Platymitra arborea (Blanco) Kessler (timber trees)
Alphonsea arborea (Blanco) Merr.
Alphonsea philippinensis Merr.
Plectranthus rotundifolius (Poiret) Sprengel (plants yielding non-seed carbohy-
drates)
Coleus parviflorus Benth.
Coleus tuberosus (Blume) Benth.
Solenostemon rotundifolius (Poiret) J.K. Morton
Pleocnemia irregularis (C.Presl) Holttum (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Ploiarium alternifolium (Vahl)Melchior (timber trees)

Archytaea alternifolia (Vahl) Szyszyl.
Archytaea vahlii Choisy
Ploiarium elegans Korth.
Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don (timber trees)
Podocarpus decipiens N.E. Gray
Podocarpus discolor Blume
Podocarpus leptostachya Blume
Podocarpus neglecta Blume
Podocarpus polyantha (Wasscher) Gaussen
Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.f.) O. Kuntze (essential-oil plants)
Origanum benghalense Burm.f.
Pogostemon parviflorus Benth.
Pogostemon plectranthoides auct. non Desf.
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (essential-oil plants)
Pogostemon comosus Miq.
Pogostemon javanicus Backer ex Adelb.
Pogostemon patchouly Pellet.
Polyscias nodosa (Blume) Seem, (timber trees)
Eupteron nodosa (Blume) Miq.
Pometia pinnata J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster (timber trees)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (auxiliary plants)
Derris indica (Lamk) J.J. Bennett
Millettia novo-guineensis Kanehira & Hatusima
Pongamia glabra Ventenat
Portulaca oleracea L. (vegetables)
Potentilla indica (H.C.Andrews) Wolf (edible fruits and nuts)
Duchesnea indica (H.C.Andrews) Focke
Fragaria indica H.C. Andrews
Pouteria obovata (R.Br.)Baehni (timber trees)
Planchonella obovata (R.Br.) Pierre
Sideroxylon ferrugineum Hook. & Arnott
Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore &Stearn (edible fruits and nuts)
Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Merr.
Lucuma mammosa (L.) Gaertner f.
Pouzolzia sanguinea (Blume) Merr. (fibre plants)
Premna cordifolia Roxb. (timber trees)
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (auxiliary plants)
Mimosa juliflora Sw.
Prosopis vidaliana Naves
Prunus arborea (Blume) Kalkman (timber trees)
Pygeum arboreum (Blume) Blume
Pygeum parviflorum Teijsm. & Binnend.
Pygeum stipulaceum King
Prunus marsupialis Kalkman (timber trees)
Pygeum glandulosum Merr.
Pygeum pubescens Merr.
Pseudarthria viscida (L.)Wight &Arnott (auxiliary plants)
Desmodium timoriense DC.
Desmodium viscidum (L.) DC.

Hedysarum viscidum L.
Psidium cujavillus Burm.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Psidium pumilum Vahl
Psidium guajava L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Psidium aromaticum Blanco
Psidium guineense Sw. (edible fruits and nuts)
Psophocarpus scandens (Endl.)Verde, (auxiliary plants)
Mucuna comorensis Vatke
Psophocarpus longepedunculatus Hassk.
Psophocarpus palustris auct. non Desv.
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Pternandra coerulescens Jack (timber trees)
Ewyckia medinilliformis Naudin
Pternandra capitellata Jack
Pternandra latifolia (Blume) Triana
Pternandra echinata Jack (timber trees)
Kibessia acuminata Decne.
Kibessia angustifolia Blume
Kibessia echinata (Jack) Cogn.
Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Dolichos montanus Lour.
Pueraria hirsuta (Thunberg) Matsumura
Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr.
Pueraria thomsoni Benth.
Pueraria thunbergiana (Sieb. &Zucc.) Benth.
Pueraria tonkinensis Gagnepain
Pueraria triloba (Houtt.) Makino
Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. (forages, auxiliary plants)
Dolichos phaseoloides Roxb.
Pueraria javanica (Benth.) Benth.
Punica granatum L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Quararibea funebris (La Llave) Vischer (spices)
Lexarza funebris La Llave
Myrodia funebris (La Llave) Benth.
Raphia hookeri G. Mann &H. Wendl. (fibre plants)
Reissantia cassinoides (DC.) Ding Hou (auxiliary plants)
Hippocratea beccarii Tuyn.
Hippocratea glaga Korth.
Reutealis trisperma (Blanco) Airy Shaw (vegetable oils and fats)
Aleurites saponaria Blanco
Aleurites trisperma Blanco
Rheum xcultorum Thorsrud &Reisaeter (vegetables)
Rhizophora apiculata Blume (auxiliary plants)
Rhizophora candelaria DC.
Rhizophora conjugata Arnott non L.
Rhizophora mucronata Poiret (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Rhizophora latifolia Miq.
Rhizophora macrorrhiza Griffith
Rhizophora mucronata var. typica A. Schimper

Rhodamnia cinerea Jack (timber trees)
Rhodamnia trinervia auct. non (J.E. Smith) Blume
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk. (edible fruits and nuts)
Myrtus tomentosa Aiton
Ricinus communis L. (vegetable oils and fats)
Rollinia emarginata Schlechtendal (edible fruits and nuts)
Rollinia salacifolia Schlechtendal
Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Bâillon (edible fruits and nuts)
Rollinia deliciosa Safford
Rollinia orthopetala A.DC.
Rorippa heterophylla (Blume) Williams (vegetables)
Nasturtium heterophyllum Blume
Rorippa dubia (Pers.) Hara
Rosa L. cv. group Damascus (essential-oil plants)
Rosa damascena Miller
Rosa gallica L. var. damascena Voss
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (spices)
Rosmarinus angustifolius Miller
Rosmarinus latifolius Miller
Salvia rosmarinus Schleiden
Rubia cordifolia L. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Rubiajavana DC.
Rubia mitis Miq.
Rubia munjista Roxb.
Rubus ellipticus J.E. Smith (edible fruits and nuts)
Sagittaria trifolia L. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Sagittaria hirundinacea Blume
Sagittaria sagittifolia L. subsp. leucopetala (Miq.) Hartog
Sagittaria sinensis Sims
Salacia chinensis L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Salacia latifolia Wallich ex Lawson
Salacia prinoides DC.
Salacia grandiflora Kurz (edible fruits and nuts)
Salacia korthalsiana Miq. (edible fruits and nuts)
Salacia philippinensis Merr.
Salacia macrophylla Blume (edible fruits and nuts)
Salacia flavescens Kurz
Salix tetrasperma Roxb. (auxiliary plants)
Salix azaolana Blanco
Salix horsfieldiana Miq.
Salvia hispanica L. (vegetable oils and fats)
Kiosmina hispanica (L.) Rafin
Salvia chia Sessé &Moe.
Salvia schiedeana Stapf
Salvia officinalis L. (spices)
Salvia chromatica Hoffsgg.
Salvia papulosa Hoffsgg.
Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Melia koetjape Burm.f.

Sandoricum indicum Cav.
Sandoricum maingayi Hiern
Sandoricum nervosum Blume
Sandoricum vidalii Merr.
Sansevieria trifasciata Prain (fibre plants)
Santalum album L. (essential-oil plants)
Santalum myrtifolium (L.) Roxb.
Santalum ovatum R.Br.
Sirium myrtifolium L.
Santalum spicatum (R.Br.)A.DC. (essential-oil plants)
Eucarya spicata (R.Br.) Sprague & Summerh.
Santalum cygnorum Miq.
Santalum diversifolium (Miq.) A.DC.
Saraca indica L. (timber trees, vegetables)
Saraca bijuga Prain
Saraca harmandiana Pierre
Saraca kunstleri Prain
Saraca minor (Zoll. &Moritzi) Miq.
Sarcandra glabra (Thunberg) Nakai (stimulants)
Bladhia glabra Thunberg
Chloranthus brachystachys Blume
Sarcandra hainanensis (Pei) Swamy & Bailey
Satureja hortensis L. (spices)
Clinopodium hortense O. Kuntze
Satureja laxiflora K. Koch
Satureja pachyphylla K. Koch
Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex K. Heyne (timber trees)
Scaphium affinis (Masters) Pierre
Scaphium beccarianum Pierre
Scaphium lychnophorum (Hance) Pierre
Scaphium scaphigerum (Wallich ex G. Don) Guibourt & Planchon (timber
trees)
Scaphium wallichii Schott & Endl.
Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. (timber trees)
Schima bancana Miq.
Schima crenata Korth.
Schima noronhae Reinw. ex Blume
Schizaea dichotoma (L.) Smith (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Schleichern oleosa (Lour.) Oken (auxiliary plants)
Cussambium oleosum O. Kuntze
Pistacia oleosa Lour.
Schleichera trijuga Willd.
Schoenoplectus lacustris (L.) Palla (fibre plants)
Scorodocarpus borneensis (Bâillon) Becc. (timber trees)
Ximenia borneensis Bâillon
Scorzonera hispanica L. (vegetables)
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertner f. (timber trees)
Securinega flexuosa (Müll. Arg.) Müll. Arg. (timber trees)
Securinega acuminatissima (C.B.Rob.) C.B. Rob.

Securinega keyensis Warb.
Securinega samoana Croizat
Securinega virosa (Roxb. exWilld.) Bâillon (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Fluggea microcarpa Blume
Fluggea virosa (Roxb. exWilld.) Bâillon
Selliguea feei Bory (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Semecarpus anacardium L.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Semecarpus cassuvium Roxb. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Senna didymobotrya (Fresenius) Irwin &Barneby (auxiliary plants)
Cassia didymobotrya Fresenius
Cassia nairobiensis L.H. Bailey
Cassia verdickii de Wildeman
Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin &Barneby (auxiliary plants)
Cassia hirsuta L.
Cassia leptocarpa Benth.
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (stimulants)
Cassia foetida Pers.
Cassia occidentalis L.
Ditremexa occidentalis (L.) Britton &Rose ex Britton & Wilson
Senna siamea (Lamk) Irwin &Barneby (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Cassia florida Vahl
Cassia siamea Lamk
Senna sumatrana (Roxb. ex Hörnern.) Roxb.
Senna surattensis (Burm.f.) Irwin &Barneby (auxiliary plants)
Cassia glauca Lamk
Cassia suffruticosa Heyne ex Roth
Cassia surattensis Burm.f.
Senna timoriensis (DC.) Irwin &Barneby (timber trees)
Cassia timoriensis DC.
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poiret (forages)
Aeschynomene grandiflora (L.) L.
Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv.
Robinia grandiflora L.
Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (forages)
Aeschynomene sesban L.
Sesbania aegyptiaca Poiret
Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. cv.group Foxtail Millet (cereals)
Panicum italicum L.
Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. subsp. italica (L.) Briquet
Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneider (vegetable oils and fats)
Buxus chinensis Link
Simmondsia californica Nuttall
Sinapis alba L. (spices)
Brassica alba (L.) Rabenhorst
Brassica hirta Moench
Sindora coriacea Maingay ex Prain (timber trees)
Sindora leiocarpa Backer ex K. Heyne (timber trees)
Sindora sumatrana Miq. (timber trees, plants producing exudates)
Sindora supa Merr. (timber trees, plants producing exudates)

Sindora velutina J.G. Baker (timber trees, plants producing exudates)
Sindora parvifolia Symington
Sindora wallichii Graham ex Benth. (timber trees)
Sindora intermedia (J.G. Baker) Prain ex l ü n g
Solanum americanum Miller (vegetables)
Solanum nigrum auct. non L.
Solanum nodiflorum Jacq.
Solanum melongena L. (vegetables)
Solanum coagulans Forssk.
Solanum cumingii Dunal
Solanum pressum Dunal
Solanum torvum Sw. (vegetables)
Solanum ferrugineum Jacq.
Solanum largiflorum C. White
Sonchus oleraceus L. (vegetables)
Sonchus sundaicus Blume
Sonchus wightianus DC. (vegetables)
Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl, (timber trees, vegetables)
Rhizophora caseolaris L.
Sonneratia acida L.f.
Sonneratia obovata Blume
Sonneratia ovata Backer (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Sonneratia alba auct. non J. Smith
Spatholobus gyrocarpus Benth. (fibre plants)
Sphaerocoryne aberrans Ridley (edible fruits and nuts)
Polyalthia aberrans Maingay
Popowia aberrans Pierre
Unona mesnyi Pierre
Sphaerostephanos heterocarpus (Blume) Holttum (cryptogams: ferns and fern
allies)
Sphenomeris chinensis (L.) Maxon (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Spilanthes paniculata Wallich ex DC. (vegetables)
Spilanthes acmella auct. non (L.) Murr.
Spilanthes pseudo-acmella auct. non (L.) Murr.
Spondias cytherea Sonnerat (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Spondias dulcis Soland. ex J.G. Forster
Spondias malayana Kosterm. (spices)
Poupartia pinnata Blanco
Spondias pinnata auct. non (Koenig ex L.f.) Kurz
Spondias wirtgenii Hassk.
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (timber trees, spices)
Mangifera pinnata L.f.
Spondias amara Lamk
Spondias mangifera Willd.
Spondias purpurea L. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Spondias dulcis Blanco non Soland. exJ.G. Forster
Stachys sieboldii Miq. (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Stachys affinis Bunge
Stachys tuberifera Naudin

Stelechocarpus burahol (Blume) Hook.f. &Thomson (edible fruits and nuts)
Uvaria burahol Blume
Stenochlaenapalustris (Burm.f.) Bedd. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Sterculia cordata Blume (timber trees)
Sterculia foetida L. (timber trees)
Sterculia polyphylla R.Br.
Sterculia macrophylla Vent, (timber trees)
Sterculia crassiramea Merr.
Sterculia oncinocarpa F. v. Mueller & Forbes
Sterculia pachyclados K. Schumann
Sterculia parkinsonii F. v. Mueller
Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. (timber trees)
Stereospermum suaveolens (Roxb.) A.DC.
Stereospermum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex Dillw.)Mabb. (timber trees)
Stereospermum chelonoides auct. non (L.f.) DC.
Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) Chatterjee
Stereospermum tetragonum A.DC.
Stereospermum fimbriatum (Wallich ex G. Don) A.DC. (timber trees)
Stereospermum mekongense Dop.
Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Bertoni (spices)
Eupatorium rebaudianum Bertoni
Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Hemsley
Styrax benzoin Dryand. (plants producing exudates)
Benzoin officinale Hayne
Cyrta dealbata Miers
Plagiospermum benzoin Pierre
Styrax paralleloneurum Perkins (plants producing exudates)
Styrax sumatranus J.J. Smith
Styrax tonkinensis (Pierre) Craib ex Hartwich (plants producing exudates)
Anthostyrax tonkinense Pierre
Styrax hypoglaucus Perkins
Styrax macrothyrsus Perkins
Sympetalandra schmutzii v. Steenis (timber trees)
Syzygium aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston (edible fruits and nuts)
Eugenia aquea Burm.f.
Eugenia javanica Lamk p.p.
Eugenia mindanaensis C.B. Robinson
Syzygium aromaticum (L.)Merr. &Perry (spices)
Caryophyllus aromaticus L.
Eugenia aromatica (L.) Bâillon
Eugenia caryophyllus (Sprengel) Bullock & Harrison
Syzygium chloranthum (Duthie) Merr. &Perry (timber trees)
Eugenia chlorantha Duthie
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (edible fruits and nuts)
Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce
Eugenia jambolana Lamk
Myrtus cumini L.
Syzygium jambolanum (Lamk) DC.
Syzygium jambos (L.)Alston (edible fruits and nuts)

Eugenia jambos L.
Syzygium longiflorum K. Presl (timber trees)
Eugenia lineata (Blume) Duthie
Eugenia longiflora (K. Presl) Fern.-Vill.
Eugenia teysmannii (Miq.) Koord. & Valeton
Jambosa lineata (Blume) DC.
Myrtus lineata Blume non Sw.
Syzygium lineatum (Blume) Merr. & Perry
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. &Perry (edible fruits and nuts)
Eugenia domestica Bâillon
Eugenia malaccensis L.
Jambosa malaccensis (L.) DC.
Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walpers (timber trees, spices)
Eugenia balsamea Ridley
Eugenia nitida Duthie
Eugenia polyantha Wight
Syzygium pustulatum (Duthie) Merr. (timber trees)
Eugenia pustulata Duthie
Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. &Perry (edible fruits and nuts)
Eugenia javanica Lamk p.p.
Eugenia mananquil Blanco
Jambosa alba Blume
Myrtus samarangensis Blume
Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) O. Kuntze (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Tacca involucrata (Limpr.) Schum. & Thonn.
Tacca pinnatifida J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Tacca viridis Hemsley
Taenitis blechnoides (Willd) Sw. (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Talinum trianguläre (Jacq.) Willd. (vegetables)
Portulaca racemosa L.
Portulaca triangularis Jacq.
Talinum racemosum (L.) Rohrb.
Tamarindus indica L. (edible fruits and nuts)
Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertner
Tamarindus officinalis Hook.
Tectona grandis L.f. (timber trees)
Tectona theka Lour.
Teijsmanniodendron pteropodum (Miq.) Bakh. (timber trees)
Vitex peralata King
Vitex philippinensis Merr.
Vitex pteropoda Miq.
Tephrosia Candida (Roxb.) DC. (auxiliary plants)
Kiesera sericea Reinw.
Robinia Candida Roxb.
Xiphocarpus candidus (Roxb.) Endl. ex Hassk.
Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker (auxiliary plants)
Tephrosia hookeriana Wight &Arnott var. amoena Prain
Tephrosia subamoena Prain
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. (auxiliary plants)

Cracca purpurea L.
Tephrosia diffusa (Roxb.) Wight & Arnott
Tephrosia wallichii Graham ex Fawc. & Rendle
Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. (auxiliary plants)
Galega villosa L.
Tephrosia incana (Roxb.) Sweet
Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. (auxiliary plants)
Cracca vogelii (Hook.f.) 0 . Kuntze
Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth (timber trees)
Terminalia coriacea (Roxb.) Wight & Arnott
Terminalia macrocarpa Steudel
Terminalia tomentosa (Roxb.) Wight & Arnott
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight &Arnott (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Terminalia berryi Wight & Arnott
Terminalia glabra (Roxb.) Wight & Arnott
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb. (dye and tannin-producing plants, tim-
ber trees)
Terminalia laurinoides Teijsm. &Binn. ex Miq.
Terminalia punctata Roth
Terminalia calamansanai (Blanco) Rolfe (timber trees)
Terminalia blancoi Merr.
Terminalia latialata C.T. White
Terminalia pyrifolia (Presl) Kurz
Terminalia catappa L. (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber trees)
Terminalia latifolia Blanco non Sw.
Terminalia mauritiana Blanco
Terminalia moluccana Lamk
Terminalia procera Roxb.
Terminalia chebula Retz. (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber trees)
Terminalia parviflora Thwaites
Terminalia tomentella Kurz
Terminalia zeylanica van Heurck &Müll. Arg.
Terminalia citrina (Gaertner) Roxb. ex Fleming (timber trees)
Terminalia arborea Koord. & Valeton
Terminalia comintana Merr.
Terminalia curtisii Ridley
Terminalia microcarpa Decne. (timber trees)
Terminalia edulis Blanco
Terminalia foveolata C.T. White &Francis ex Lane-Poole
Terminalia hypargyrea K. Schumann & Lauterb.
Terminalia javanica Miq.
Terminalia triptera Stapf (timber trees)
Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre ex Gagnep.
Terminalia obliqua Craib
Terminalia tripteroides Craib
Ternstroemia cherryi (F.M. Bailey) Merr. (timber trees)
Garcinia cherryi F.M. Bailey
Ternstroemia rehderana Kobuski
Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br, (timber trees)

Tetrameles grahamiana Wight
Tetrameles horsfieldii Steudel
Tetrapanaxpapyriferus (Hook.) K. Koch (fibre plants)
Tetrastigma harmandii Planchon (edible fruits and nuts)
Tetrastigma papillosum (Blume) Planchon (fibre plants)
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell &A. Gibson (fibre plants)
Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Corrêa (timber trees, auxiliary plants)
Hibiscus bacciferus J.G. Forster
Hibiscus populneoides Roxb.
Hibiscus populneus L.
Malvaviscus populneus (L.) Gaertner
Thespesia macrophylla Blume
Thymus vulgaris L. (spices)
Thymus aestivus Reuter exWillk. & Lange
Thymus ilerdensis F. Gonzalez ex Costa
Thymus webbianus Rouy
Timonius timon (Sprengel) Merr. (timber trees)
Timonius rumphii DC.
Timonius sericeus (Desf.) K. Schumann
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray (auxiliary plants)
Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsley
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lamk (spices)
Paullinia asiatica L.
Toddalia aculeata (Smith) Pers.
Toona calantas Merr. &Rolfe (timber trees)
Cedrela calantas (Merr. &Rolfe) Burkill
Toona paucijuga Merr.
Toona ciliata M.J. Roemer (timber trees)
Cedrela toona Roxb. ex Rottler &Willd.
Toona australis Harms
Toona microcarpa (CDC.) Harms
Toona ternatensis (Miq.) Bahadur
Toona sinensis (Adr. Juss.) M.J. Roemer (timber trees)
Cedrela serrata Royle
Cedrela sinensis Adr. Juss.
Toona serrata (Royle) M.J. Roemer
Toona serrulata (Miq.) Harms
Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. (timber trees)
Cedrela febrifuga Blume
Cedrela sureni (Blume) Burkill
Toona febrifuga (Blume) M.J. Roemer
Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff (spices)
Carum roxburghianum (DC.) Benth.
Ptychotis roxburghiana DC.
Trachyspermum involucratum (Royle) H. Wolff
Trewia nudiflora L. (timber trees)
Mallotus cardiophyllus Merr.
Trewia macrophylla Roth
Trewia macrostachya Klotzsch

Triadica sebiferum (L.) Small (vegetable oils and fats)
Croton sebiferum L.
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb.
Stillingia sebifera (L.) Michx.
Trichomanes javanicum Blume (cryptogams: ferns and fern allies)
Tridax procumbens L. (auxiliary plants)
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (spices)
Triphasia trifolia (Burm.f.) P. Wilson (edible fruits and nuts)
Triphasia aurantiola Lour.
Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz &Pavón (plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates)
Tropaeolum mucronatum Meyen
Trophaeum tuberosum (Ruiz &Pavón) O. Kuntze
Trophis scandens (Lour.) Hook. &Arnott (fibre plants)
Turpinia ovalifolia Elmer (timber trees)
Turpinia lucida Nakai
Turpinia trifoliata Ridley
Turpinia pentandra (Schlechter) B.L. Linden (timber trees)
Turpinia brachypetala (Schlechter) B.L. Linden
Turpinia papuana Merr. &L.M. Perry
Turpinia versteeghii Merr. &L.M. Perry
Uncaria gambir (Hunter) Roxb. (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Uraria crinita (L.) Desv. ex DC. (auxiliary plants)
Hedysarum crinitum L.
Uraria lagopodioides (L.) Desv. ex DC.(auxiliary plants)
Hedysarum lagopodioides L.
Uraria alopecuroides (Roxb.) Sweet
Urophyllum arboreum (Reinw. ex Blume) Korth. (spices)
Urophyllum hirsutum (Wight) Hook.f. (timber trees)
Vallaris solanacea (Roth) 0 . Kuntze (vegetables)
Vallaris heynei Sprengel
Vanilla griffithii Reichb.f. (edible fruits and nuts)
Vanilla planifolia H.C. Andrews (spices)
Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames
Vanilla mexicana P. Miller
Vanilla viridiflora Blume
Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy Shaw (vegetable oils and fats)
Aleurites fordii Hemsl.
Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. (timber trees)
Vernonia celebica DC.
Vernonia javanica DC.
Vernonia wallichii Ridley
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.)Nash (essential-oil plants)
Andropogon muricatus Retz.
Andropogon zizanioides (L.) Urban
Phalaris zizanioides L.
Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal (pulses)
Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.
Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi (pulses)
Phaseolus angularis (Willd.)W.F. Wight

Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (pulses)
Phaseolus mungo L.
Vigna umbellata (Thunberg) Ohwi & Ohashi (pulses)
Azukia umbellata (Thunberg) Ohwi
Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb.
Vigna calcarata (Roxb.) Kurz
Vitex altissima L.f. (timber trees)
Vitex parviflora A.L. Juss. (timber trees)
Vitex littoralis Decne.
Vitex timoriensis Walpers
Vitex pinnata L. (timber trees)
Vitex pubescens Vahl
Vitis flexuosa Thunberg (edible fruits and nuts)
Walsura pinnata Hassk. (timber trees)
Napeodendron altissimum Ridley
Walsura aherniana Perkins
Walsura neurodes Hiern
Wikstroemia androsaemifolia Decne. (essential-oil plants)
Wikstroemia candolleana Meisner
Wikstroemia junghuhnii Miq.
Wikstroemia spanoghii Decne.
Wikstroemia indica (L.) C.A. Meyer (fibre plants)
Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr. (fibre plants)
Wikstroemia ovata C.A. Meyer (fibre plants)
Willughbeia angustifolia (Miq.) Markgr. (plants producing exudates)
Willughbeia apiculata Miq.
Willughbeia elmeri Merr.
Willughbeia rufescens Dyer ex Hook.f.
Willughbeia coriacea Wallich (plants producing exudates)
Willughbeia firma Blume
Willughbeia minutiflora (Pierre) K. Schumann
Willughbeia nodosa (Pierre) K. Schumann
Willughbeia edulis Roxb. (plants producing exudates)
Willughbeia cochinchinensis (Pierre) K. Schumann
Willughbeia curtisiana (Pierre) K. Schumann
Willughbeia dulcis Ridley
Willughbeia flavescens Dyer ex Hook.f. (plants producing exudates)
Urnularia flavescens (Hook.f.) Stapf
Willughbeia beccarii (Pierre) K. Schumann
Willughbeia stapfii Merr.
Willughbeia oblonga Dyer ex Hook.f. (plants producing exudates)
Ancylocladus oblongus (Hook.f.) O. Kuntze
Willughbeia tenuiflora Dyer ex Hook.f. (plants producing exudates)
Ancylocladus tenuiflorus (Hook.f.) 0 . Kuntze
Wissadula periplocifolia (L.) Presl ex Thwaites (fibre plants)
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabberley (timber trees)
Wrightia hamiltoniana Wallich
Wrightia tomentosa (Roxb.) Roemer & Schultes
Wrightia wallichii A.DC.

Wrightia pubescens R.Br, (timber trees)
Wrightia tinctoria R.Br, (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Xanthophyllum lanceatum (Miq.) J.J. Smith (timber trees, vegetable oils and
fats)
Skaphium lanceatum Miq.
Xanthophyllum glaucum Wallich ex Hassk.
Xanthophyllum microcarpum Chodat
Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk. (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Xerospermum acuminatum Radlk.
Xerospermum unijugum Radlk.
Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume (edible fruits and nuts, timber
trees)
Xerospermum intermedium Radlk.
Xerospermum muricatum Radlk.
Xerospermum wallichii King
Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taubert (timber trees)
Xylia dolabriformis Benth.
Xylocarpus granatum J. König (dye and tannin-producing plants, timber trees)
Carapa granatum (J. Koenig) Alston
Carapa obovata Blume
Xylocarpus obovata (Blume)A. Juss.
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lamk) M. Roemer (dye and tannin-producing plants,
timber trees)
Carapa moluccensis Lamk
Xylocarpus australasicus Ridley
Xylocarpus gangeticus (Prain) C E . Parkinson
Xylocarpus mekongensis Pierre
Xylopia ferruginea (Hook.f. &Thomson) Hook.f. &Thomson (timber trees)
Xylopia altissima Boerl.
Xylopia oxyantha Hook.f. & Thomson
Xylopia malayana Hook.f. &Thomson (timber trees)
Xylopia maingayi Hook.f. & Thomson
Xylopia mucronata Boerl.
Xylopia pustulata Hook.f. & Thomson
Zehneria marginata (Blume) Keraudren (edible fruits and nuts)
Melothria affinis King
Melothria marginata (Blume) Cogn.
Zingiber chrysostachys Ridley (spices)
Zingiber griffithii Baker (spices)
Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Dietrich (spices)
Amomum montanum Koenig
Zingiber cassumunar Roxb.
Zingiber purpureum Roscoe
Zingiber officinale Roscoe (spices)
Amomum zingiber L.
Zingiber ottensii Valeton (spices)
Zingiber spectabile Griffith (spices)
Zingiber zerumbet (L.)J.E. Smith (spices)
Amomum zerumbet L.
Zingiber amaricans Blume
Zingiber aromaticum Valeton
Zingiber littorale Valeton
Zizania latifolia (Griseb.) Turcz. ex Stapf (vegetables)
Hydropyrum latifolium Griseb.
Limnochloa caduciflora Turcz. ex Trinius
Zizania caduciflora (Trinius) Handel-Mazzetti
Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk (edible fruits and nuts, timber trees)
Rhamnus jujuba L.
Ziziphus jujuba (L.) Gaertner non Miller
Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Miller (dye and tannin-producing plants)
Ziziphus rufula Miq.
Literature
1. Abid Ali Khan, M.M. &Verma, H.N., 1990. Partial characterisation of an

induced virus inhibitory protein, associated with systemic resistance in
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub, plants. Annals of Applied Biology
117(3): 617-623.
2. Abraham, Z.et al., 1986. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity
part XII. Indian Journal ofExperimental Biology 24:48-68.
3. Achenbach, H. & Hemrich, H., 1991. Alkaloids, flavonoids and phenyl-
propanoids ofthe West African plant Oxymitra velutina. Phytochemistry
30(4): 1265-1267.
4. Achenbach, H., Hübner, H., Vierling, W., Brandt, W. & Reiter, M., 1995.
Spiganthine, the cardioactive principle of Spigelia anthelmia. Journal of
Natural Products 58(7): 1092-1096.
5. Achmad, M., Dayal, R. & Borai, P., 1996. Evaluation of insecticidal prop-
erties of Dalbergia stipulacea against poplar defoliator, Clostera cuprea-
ta (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae). Annals ofForestry 4(1): 47-51.
6. Adam, G., Porzel, A., Sung, T.V. & Schmidt, J., 1992. A monoterpenoid
peroxide from Adenosma caeruleum. Phytochemistry 31(8): 2885-2887.
7. Adema, F., 1998. Notes on Malesian Fabaceae (Leguminosae-Papilionoi-
deae) 3. The genera Dioclea, Luzonia and Macropsychanthus. Blumea
43(1): 233-239.
8. Adjirni et al., 1998. Anticalculus effect of Ruellia napifera Zollinger
(gempur batu) and Hemigraphis colorata Hall, (sambang getih) extracts
in albino rats. Research Report, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembanagn
Kesehatan, Jakarta, Indonesia.
9. Agarwal, A.K. et al., 1997. Management of giardiasis by a herbal drug
'Pippali Rasayana': a clinical study. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 56(3):
233-236.
10. Ahmad, F.B. & Holdsworth, D.K., 1994. Medicinal plants of Sabah,
Malaysia. Part II. The Muruts. International Journal of Pharmacognosy
32(4): 378-383.
11. Ahmad, F.B. & Holdsworth, D.K., 1994. Medicinal plants of Sarawak,
Malaysia. Part I. The Kedayans. International Journal of Pharmacog-
nosy 32(4): 384-387.
12. Ahmad, F.B. & Holdsworth, D.K., 1995. Medicinal plants of Terengganu
State, Malaysia. International Journal ofPharmacognosy 33(3): 259-261.
13. Ahmad, M. et al., 1993. Studies on the medicinal herb Ruellia patula. In-
ternational Journal ofPharmacognosy 31(2): 121-129.
14. Ahmad, S., Ansari, M.H., Ahmad, M. & Osman, S.M., 1987. Studies on
minor seed oils XII. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 89(4): 154-156.
15. Ahmad, V.U., Baqai, F.T., Iqbal Fatima & Roshan Ahmad, 1991. A spi-
rostanol glycoside from Cestrum nocturnum. Phytochemistry 30(9):

3057-3061.
16. Ahmadiani, A., Fereidoni, M., Semnanian, S., Kamalinejad, M. & Sare-
mi, S., 1998. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Sambucus
ebulus rhizome extract in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(3):
229-235.
17. Ahmed, M., Islam, M.M., Hossain, C F . & Khan, O.F., 2001. A prelimi-
nary study on the analgesic activity of Grangea maderaspatana. Fitoter-
apia 72(5): 553-554.
18. Aimi, N. et al., 1981. A novel triterpene from Thysanospermum [Cop-
tosapelta] diffusum Champ, var. longitubum Ohwi. Tetrahedron 37(5):
983-985.
19. Airy Shaw, H.K., 1972. The Euphorbiaceae of Siam. Kew Bulletin 26:
191-363.
20. Airy Shaw, H.K., 1975. The Euphorbiaceae of Borneo. Kew Bulletin Ad-
ditional Series IV. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, United King-
dom. 245 pp.
21. Airy Shaw, H.K., 1980. The Euphorbiaceae ofNew Guinea. Kew Bulletin
Additional Series VIII. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, United
Kingdom. 243 pp.
22. Airy Shaw, H.K., 1981.The Euphorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew Bulletin 36:
239-374.
23. Airy Shaw, H.K., 1982. The Euphorbiaceae of Central Malesia (Celebes,
Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Is.). Kew Bulletin 37: 1-40.
24. Airy Shaw, H.K., 1983. An alphabetical enumeration of the Euphor-
biaceae of the Philippines Islands. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United
Kingdom. 56 pp.
25. Aiyesanmi, A.F. & Oguntokun, M.O., 1996. Nutrient composition of Dio-
clea reflexa seed. An underutilized edible legume. Rivista Italiana delle
Sostanze Grasse 73(11): 521-523.
26. Akah, P.A., 1996. Antidiarrheal activity of Kigelia africana in experi-
mental animals. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 4(2):3 1 -
38.
27. Akao, T., Kobashi, K. & Aburada, M., 1994. Enzymic studies on the ani-
mal and intestinal bacterial metabolism of geniposide. Biological and
Pharmaceutical Bulletin 17(12): 1573-1576.
28. Akhtar, A.H. & Ahmad, K.U., 1995. Anti-ulcerogenic evaluation of the
methanolic extracts of some indigenous medicinal plants of Pakistan in
aspirin-ulcerated rats. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 46(1): 1-6.
29. Akunyili, D.N., Houghton, P.J. & Raman, A., 1991.Antimicrobial activi-
ties of the stem bark of Kigelia pinnata. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
35(2): 173-177.
30. Alarcon-Aguilara, F.J. et al., 1998. Study of the anti-hyperglycemic effect
of plants used as antidiabetics. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(2):
101-110.
31. Alen, Y. et al., 2000. Antinematodal activity of some tropical rainforest
plants against the pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.
Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, section B, Biosciences 55: 295-299.
32. Aleykutty, N.A., Srinivasan, K.K., Rao, P.G., Udupa, A.L. & Keshava-
LITERATURE 477
murthy, K.R., 1993. Diuretic and antilithiatic activity of Dendrophthoe

falcata. Fitoterapia 64(4): 325-331.
33. Ali, A.M., El Sharkawy, S.H., Hamid, J.A., Ismail, N.H. & Lajis, N.H.,
1995. Antimicrobial activity of selected Malaysian plants. Pertanika
18(1): 57-61.
34. Alias, Y. et al., 1995. An antimitotic and cytotoxic chalcone from Fis-
sistigma lanuginosum. Journal ofNatural Products 58(8): 1160-1166.
35. Allen, O.N. &Allen, E.K., 1981.The Leguminosae. A source book of char-
acteristics, uses and nodulation. MacMillan Publishers, London, United
Kingdom. 812 pp.
36. Amarasekara, A.S., Halwathura, C. & Gottlieb, H.E., 1991. Chemical
constituents ofArgyreia populifolia. Fitoterapia 62(1):89.
37. Anderberg, A.A., Stahl, B. & Källersjö, M., 2000. Maesaceae, a new
primuloid family in the order Ericales s.1.Taxon 49(2): 183-187.
38. Ando, M., Shimomura, K., Yamakawa, T. & Ishimaru, K., 1997. Poly-
acetylene production in hairy root cultures of Wahlenbergia marginata.
Journal ofPlant Physiology 151(6): 759-762.
39. Andriamihaja, B., Martin, M.T., Rasoanaivo, P. & Frappier, F., 2001. A
new diterpene from Hypoestes serpens. Journal of Natural Products
64(2): 217-218.
40. Ansari, R. & Balakrishnan, R., 1990. A revision of the Indian species of
Oberonia (Orchidaceae). Orchid Monographs. Vol. 4. Rijksherbarium/
Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Netherlands. 82 pp.
41. Anthony, S.H.H. &Mohd. Saifulaman, M.S., 1997. Potential cytotoxic ac-
tivity ofthe crude extract of Typhonium divaricatum. Paper presented at
the 13th Seminar of Natural Products, Forest Research Institute
Malaysia, Kepong, Malaysia.
42. Aoyagi, Y., Kasuga, A., Fujihara, S. & Sugahara, T., 1995. Isolation of
antioxidative compounds from Saxifraga stolonifera. Journal of the
Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology 42(12): 1027-1030.
43. Apers, S. et al., 2001.Antiviral, haemolytic and molluscicidal activities of
triterpenoid saponins from Maesa lanceolata: establishment of struc-
ture-activity relationships. Planta Medica 67(6): 528-532.
44. Arbain, D., Byrne, L.T., Sargent, M.V., Skelton, B.W. & White, A.H.,
1990. The alkaloids of Picrasma javanica, further studies. Australian
Journal of Chemistry 43(2):433-438.
45. Arbain, D. & Taylor, W.C., 1993. Cyclopeptide alkaloids from Antidesma
montana. Phytochemistry 33(5): 1263-1266.
46. Arditti, J. (Editor), 1977. Orchid biology. Reviews and perspectives, I.
Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. 310 pp.
47. Argall, M.E., Bradbury, J.H. &Shaw, D.C., 1994.Amino-acid sequence of
a trypsin/chymotrypsin inhibitor from giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza).
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1204(2): 189-194.
48. Argent, G., Lamb, A., Phillipps, A. & Collenette, S., 1988. Rhododen-
drons of Sabah. Sabah Parks Publication No 8. Sabah Parks Trustees,
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 145 pp.
49. Arisawa, M., Fujita, A., Morita, N. &Koshimura, S., 1990. Cytotoxic and
antitumor constituents in pericarps ofMallotusjaponicus. Planta Medica
56(4): 377-379.
50. Ariwasa, M. et al., 1990. Cytotoxic and antiherpetic activity of phloroglu-

cinol derivatives from Mallotusjaponicus (Euphorbiaceae). Chemical and
51. Armenia, 1992. Skrining hipokratik ekstrak etanol daun akar mambu
(Connarus grandis Jack, Connaraceae) [Hippocratic screening of the
ethanolic extract of'akar mambu' (Connarus grandis Jack, Connaraceae)
leaves]. Andalas 4(9): 28-33.
52. Asada, Y., Shiraishi, M., Takeuchi, T., Osawa, Y. & Furuya, T., 1985.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Crassocephalum crepidioides. Planta Me-
dica 1985: 539-540.
53. Asano, N. et al., 1997. Homonojirimycin isomers and glycosides from
Aglaonema treubii. Journal ofNatural Products 60(2): 98-101.
54. Aswal, B.S. et al., 1984. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity.
Part X. Indian Journal ofExperimental Biology 22(6): 312-332.
55. Ata, A. et al., 2002. New triterpenoidal alkaloids from Buxus semper-
virens. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, C, 57: 21-28.
56. Athukoralage, P.S., Herath, H.M., Deraniyagala, S.A., Wijesundera, R.L.
& Weerasinghe, P.A., 2001. Antifungal constituent from Gordonia das-
sanayakei. Fitoterapia 72(5): 565-567.
57. Atta-ur-Rahman et al., 1997. New steroidal alkaloids from Buxus longi-
folia. Journal ofNatural Products 60(10): 976-981.
58. Avé, W. & Sunito, S., 1990. Medicinal plants of Siberut. WWF Interna-
tional, Gland, Switzerland. 186 pp.
59. Awadh-Ali, N.A., Jülich, W.D., Kusnick, C. & Lindequist, U., 2001.
Screening of Yemeni medicinal plants for antibacterial and cytotoxic ac-
tivities. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 74(2): 173-179.
60. Awasthi, L.P., 1981. The purification and nature of an antiviral protein
from Cuscuta reflexa plants. Archives ofVirology 70(3): 215-223.
61. Azuine, M.A., Ibrahim, K., Enwerem, N.M., Wambebe, C. & Kolodziej,
H., 1997. Protective role of Kigelia africana fruits against benzo(a)py-
rene-induced forestomach tumourigenesis in mice and against albu-
men-induced inflammation in rats. Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological
Letters 7: 67-70.
62. Backer, CA. & Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr, R.C., 1964-1968. Flora of
Java. 3 volumes. Noordhoff, Groningen, the Netherlands. Vol. 1 (1964)
647 pp.,Vol. 2(1965) 641 pp.,Vol. 3 (1968) 761 pp.
63. Backhaus, R.A. et al., 1990. Biosynthesis ofthe antineoplastic pancratis-
tatin following tissue culture of Hymenocallis littoralis (Amaryllidaceae).
Acta Horticulturae No 306: 364-366.
64. Bajaj, Y.P.S. (Editor), 1988-1999. Medicinal and aromatic plants. 11vol-
umes. Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry series. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Germany.
65. Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C., 1936-1941. Revisio Ebenacearum Ma-
layensium. Contributions à l'étude de la flore des Indes Néerlandaises
XXXIII. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg, Série III, 15(1-4):
1-515.
66. Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C., 1943.A contribution to the knowledge of
the Melastomataceae occurring in the Malay Archipelago especially in
the Netherlands East Indies. Mededeelingen van het Botanisch Museum
LITERATURE 479
en Herbarium van de Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht No 91.391 pp.

67. Balakrishna, M. & Bhattacharjee, S.K., 1991. Studies on propagation of
ornamental trees through stem cuttings. Indian Journal of Horticulture
48(1): 87-94.
68. Balun, L. & Holdsworth, D.K., 1988. Ethnomedicine of the Gulf Province
of Papua New Guinea. Part 1: The mountains around Kanabea and
Kaintiba. International Journal of Crude Drug Research 26(1): 51-55.
69. Balzarini, J. et al., 1992. The mannose-specific plant lectins from Cym-
bidium hybrid and Epipactis helleborine and the (N-acetylglucosami-
ne)n-specific plant lectin from Urtica dioica are potent and selective in-
hibitors of human immunodeficiency virus and cytomegalovirus replica-
tion in vitro.Antiviral Research 18(2): 191-207.
70. Bandara, B.M., Kumar, N.S. & Samaranayake, K.M., 1989. An antifun-
gal constituent from the stem bark of Butea monosperma. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 25(1): 73-75.
71. Banskota, A.H. et al., 1998. Chemical constituents of Brazilian propolis
an their cytotoxic activities. Journal ofNatural Products 61(7): 896-900.
72. Barlow, B.A., 1983. A revision of the Viscaceae of Australia. Brunonia
6(1): 25-57.
73. Barlow, B.A., 1991. Conspectus of the genera Scurrula L. and Taxillus
Tieghem (Loranthaceae) in the Malesian region. Blumea 36(1):63-85.
74. Barlow, B.A., 1995. New and noteworthy Malesian species of Lorantha-
ceae. Blumea 40(1): 15-31.
75. Batista, J.S., Almeida, R.N. & Bhattacharyya, J., 1995. Analgesic effect
of Dioclea grandiflora constituents in rodents. Journal of Ethnopharma-
cology 45(3): 207-210.
76. Batra, A. & Mehta, B.K., 1985. Chromatographic analysis and antibac-
terial activity of the seed oil of Argyreia speciosa. Fitoterapia 56(6):
357-359.
77. Becking, J.H., 1976. Nitrogen fixation in some natural ecosystems in In-
donesia. In: Nutman, P.S. (Editor): Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in
Plants. International Biological Programme Synthesis Series No.7. Cam-
bridge University Press, pp. 539-550.
78. Belcher, R.O., 1989. Gynura (Compositae) in Australia and Malesia
emended. Kew Bulletin 44(3): 533-542.
79. Bell, J.M. &van Houten, A.S., 1993.The medicinal plants of Central Ser-
am. In: Edwards, I.D., MacDonald, A.A. & Proctor, J. (Editors): The nat-
ural history of Seram. Intercept, Andover, United Kingdom, pp. 207-230.
80. Benitez de Rojas, C. & D'Arcy, W.G., 1998. The genera Cestrum and
Sessea (Solanaceae: Cestreae) in Venezuela. Annals of the Missouri
Botanical Garden 85: 273-351.
81. Benoit, E., Laurent, D., Mattei, C , Legrand, A.M. & Molgo, J., 2000. Re-
versal of pacific ciguatoxin-lB effects on myelinated axons by agents
used in ciguatera treatment. Cybium 24, Suppl. 3: 33-40.
82. Benosman, A. et al., 1997.New terpenylated dihydrochalcone derivatives
isolated from Mitrella kentii. Journal of Natural Products 60(9): 9 2 1 -
924.
83. Berthou, S. et al., 1989. Limalongine, a modified hasubanan type alka-
loid and clolimalongine, its chlorinated derivative. Journal of Organic
Chemistry 54(14): 3491-3493.

84. Beutler, J.A., Alvarado, A.B.,McCloud, T.G. & Cragg, G.M., 1989. Distri-
bution of phorbal ester bioactivity in the Euphorbiaceae. Phytotherapy
Research 3(5): 188-192.
85. Beutler, J.A., Alvarado-Lindler, A.B. & McCloud, T.G., 1996. Further
studies on phorbol ester bioactivity in the Euphorbiaceae. Annals of the
Missouri Botanical Garden 83(4): 530-533.
86. Bhagat, S., Singh, V. & Singh, O., 1992 Studies on germination behav-
iour and longevity of Woodfordia fruticosa. Indian Forester 118(11):
797-799.
87. Bhakuni, D.S. et al., 1988. Screening of Indian plants for biological activ-
ity. Part XIII. Indian Journal ofExperimental Biology 26(11): 883-904.
88. Bhakuni, O.S., Dhar, M.L., Dhawan, B.N. & Mehrotra, B.N., 1969.
Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part II. Indian Journal
ofExperimental Biology 7: 250-262.
89. Bhandari, U. & Grover, J.K., 1998. A reappraisal of clinical studies on
the comparative influences of three indigenous plant drugs in diabetes
mellitus. Hamdard Medicus 41(2): 9-15.
90. Bhargava, S.K., 1986. Estrogenic and postcoital anticonceptive activity
in rats of butin isolated from Butea monosperma seed. Journal of
91. Bhatt, S.K. & Saxena, V.K., 1980. Antifungal activity of seed extracts of
Alocasia indica. Indian Drugs 17(7): 210-211.
92. Bidwari, A., Saxena, N., Daxena, N.K., Ram Prasad & Bodkhe, R.R.,
1991. Butea superba seed as a male antifertility agent: a detailed bio-
chemical study and mechanistic interpretations. Journal of Tropical For-
estry 7(3): 228-234.
93. Binutu, O.A., Adesogan, K.E. &Okogun, J.I., 1996.Antibacterial and an-
tifungal compounds from Kigelia pinnata. Planta Medica 62(4): 352-353.
94. Binutu, O.A. & Lajubutu, B.A., 1994. Antimicrobial potentials of some
plant species of the Bignoniaceae family. African Journal of Medicine
and Medical Sciences 23(3):269-273.
95. Bispo, M.D. et al., 2001.Antinociceptive and antiedematogenic effects of
the aqueous extract of Hyptis pectinata leaves in experimental animals.
Journal ofEthnopharmacology 76(1): 81-86.
96. Boakye Yiadom, K. &Konning, G.H., 1975. Incidence of antibacterial ac-
tivity in the Connaraceae. Planta Medica 28(4): 397-400.
97. Böhm, B.A. & Collins, C.W., 1975. Flavonoids of Philydrum lanugi-
nosum. Phytochemistry 14: 315-316.
98. Bohnenstengel, F.I. et al., 1999. Structure activity relationships of an-
tiproliferative rocaglamide derivatives from Aglaia species (Meliaceae).
Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, Section C:Biosciences 54(1-2): 55-60.
99. Bolli, R., 1994. Revision of the genus Sambucus. Dissertationes Botani-
cae 223.J. Cramer, Berlin &Stuttgart, Germany. 256 pp.
100. Bos, J.J., 1984. Dracaena in West Africa. Agricultural University Wa-
geningen Papers 84-1. 126 pp.
101. Bourinbaiar, A.S. & Lee-Huang, S., 1995. The activity of plant-derived
antiretroviral proteins MAP30 and GAP31 against Herpes simplex virus
infection in vitro. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communica-
LITERATURE 481
tions 219(3): 923-929.

102. Bowen, I.H. & Lewis, J.R., 1978. Rutaceous constituents part 10. A phy-
tochemical and anti tumor survey of Malayan rutaceous plants. Planta
Medica 34(2): 129-134.
103. Boyce, P.C., 1995. 269. Amydrium zippelianum (Araceae). Curtis's
Botanical Magazine 12: 85-89.
104. Boyce, P.C., 1998. The genus Epipremnum Schott (Araceae - Monsteroi-
deae - Monstereae) in West and Central Malesia. Blumea 43(1): 183-
213.
105. Boyce, P.C., 1999. The genus Rhaphidophora Hassk. (Araceae - Mon-
steroideae - Monstereae) in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Gar-
dens' Bulletin Singapore 51(2): 183-256.
106. Boyce, P.C., 2000. The genus Pothos (Araceae - Pothoideae - Potheae) of
Thailand and Indochina. Blumea 45(1): 147-204.
107. Boyce, P.C., 2001. The genus Rhaphidophora Hassk. (Araceae - Monste-
roidae - Monstereae) in Borneo. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 53(1): 19-
74.
108. Boyd, M.R. et al., 1994. Anti-HIV michellamines from Ancistrocladus ko-
rupensis. Journal ofMedicinal Chemistry 37(12): 1740-1745.
109. Bremekamp, C.E.B., 1955.A revision of the Malaysian Nelsonieae (Scro-
phulariaceae). Reinwardtia 3(2): 157-261.
110. Bremekamp, C.E.B. & Nannenga-Bremekamp, N.E., 1948. A prelimi-
nary survey of the Ruelliinae (Acanthaceae) of the Malay Archipelago
and New Guinea. Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche Aka-
demie van Wetenschappen, afd. Natuurkunde, Tweede Sectie, Deel XLV,
No 1. 39 pp.
111. Bremer, B., 1989. The genus Argostemma (Rubiaceae - Argostemmateae)
in Borneo.Annals ofthe Missouri Botanical Garden 76: 7-49.
112. Bremer, K., 1994. Asteraceae, cladistics & classification. Timber Press,
Portland, Oregon, United States. 752 pp.
113. Breteler, F.J. (Editor), 1989. The Connaraceae, a taxonomie study with
emphasis on Africa. Agricultural University Wageningen Papers 89-6.
403 pp.
114. Bridson, D.M., 1985. The reinstatement of Psydrax (Rubiaceae, subfam.
Cinchonoideae tribe Vanguerieae) and a revision of the African species.
Kew Bulletin 40(4): 687-725.
115. Bridson, D.M., 1992. The genus Canthium (Rubiaceae -Vanguerieae) in
tropical Africa. Kew Bulletin 47(3): 353-401.
116. Brophy, J.J., Rahmani, M., Toia, R.F., Croft, K.D. & Lassak, E.V., 1985.
The volatile oils of Evodia hortensis forma hortensis. Flavour and Fra-
grance Journal 1(1): 17-20.
117. Brown, W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants ofthe Philippines. Reprint of the
1941-1943 edition. 3 volumes. Technical Bulletin 10. Department of
Agriculture and Natural Resources. Bureau of Printing, Manila, the
Philippines. Vol. 1(1951) 590 pp., Vol. 2 (1954) 513 pp., Vol. 3 (1957) 507
pp.
118. Bruneton, J., 1995. Pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, medicinal plants.
Technique &Documentation Lavoisier, Paris, France. 915 pp.
119. Burger, A.M., Mengs, U., Schuier, J.B. & Fiebig, H.H., 2001. Anticancer
activity of an aqueous mistletoe extract (AME) in syngeneic murine tu-

mor models. Anticancer Research 21(3B): 1965-1968.
120. Burkill, H.M., 1985-2000. The useful plants of West tropical Africa. 2nd
Edition. 5volumes. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. Vol. 1
(1985), Families A-D, 960 pp.;Vol. 2 (1994), Families E-I, 636 pp.;Vol. 3
(1995), Families J-L, 857 pp.;Vol. 4 (1997), Families M-R, 969 pp;Vol. 5
(2000), Families S Z, 686 pp.
121. Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay
Peninsula. Revised reprint. 2 volumes. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-
operatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240, Vol. 2 (I-
Z)pp.1241-2444.
122. Burns, R.M. & Honkala, B.H. (Editors), 1990. Silvics of North America. 2
volumes. Agricultural Handbook 654. US Department of Agriculture,
Forest Services, Washington D C , United States.
123. Burtt, B.L. &Woods, P.J.B., 1975. Studies in the Gesneriaceae ofthe Old
World XXXIX: towards a revision ofAeschynanthus. Notes from the Roy-
al Botanic Garden Edinburgh 33(3): 471-489.
124. Cabrera, A.L. & Ragonese, A.M., 1978. Revision del genero Pterocaulon
(Compositae) [Revision ofthe genus Pterocaulon (Compositae)]. Darwini-
a n 21(2-4): 185-257.
125. Calixto, J.B.,Yunes, R.A. &Rae, G.A., 1991.Effect ofcrude extracts from
Leonotis nepetaefolia (Labiatae) on rat and guinea-pig smooth muscle
and rat cardiac muscle. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 43(8):
529-534.
126. Calzada, F., Mata, R., Bye, R. & Linares, E., 1990. A retrochalcone from
Anredera scandens. Phytochemistry 29(8): 2737-2738.
127. Castro, O. et al., 1999. Neutralizacion del efecto hemorragico inducido
por veneno de Bothrops asper (Serpentes: Viperidae) por extractos de
plantas tropicales [Neutralization ofthe haemorrhagic effects induced by
the venom of Bothrops asper (Serpentes: Viperidae) by extracts of tropi-
cal plants]. Revista de Biologia Tropical 47(3): 605-616.
128. Cellinese, N. &Renner, S.S., 1997. New species and new combinations in
Sonerila and Phyllagathis (Melastomataceae) from Thailand. Novon 7(2):
106-112.
129. Chai, J.G. et al., 1992. An extract of seeds from Aeginetia indica L., a
parasitic plant, induces potent antigen-specific antitumor immunity in
Meth a-bearing BALB/c mice. Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy
35(3): 181-185.
130. Chai, J.G. et al., 1994. Seed extract of Aeginetia indica L. induces cy-
tokine production and lymphocyte proliferation in vitro. Immunophar-
macology27(l): 13-21.
131. Chai, J.G. et al., 1995. Dissociation between the mitogenic effect and an-
titumor activity of seed extract from Aeginetia indica L. Immunopharma-
cology 30(3): 209-215.
132. Chai, P.P.K., 1975. Ethnobotany. Part 1. Sarawak Museum Journal
(Malaysia) 23(44): 37-51.
133. Chakrabarty, T. & Balakrishnan, N.P., 1990. A revision of the genus
Baliospermum Bl. (Euphorbiaceae) for the Indian subcontinent. Bulletin
ofthe Botanical Survey ofIndia 32: 1-27.
LITERATURE 483
134. Chakrabarty, T. & Rao, M.K.V., 1990. A note on Glochidion calocarpum

(Euphorbiaceae). Economic Botany 44(3):412-413.
135. Chan, K.C. & Toh, H.T., 1986. A 7-hydroxyaporphine alkaloid from
Desmos dasymaschalus. Phytochemistry 25: 1999-2000.
136. Chan, S.C., Chang, Y.S., Wang, J.P, Chen, S.C. & Kuo, S.C., 1998. Three
new flavonoids and antiallergic, anti-inflammatory constituents from the
heartwood ofDalbergia odorifera. Planta Medica 64(2): 153-158.
137. Chan, Y.Y. et al., 1998. A secoiridoid and other constituents of Gono-
caryum calleryanum. Phytochemistry 47(6): 1073-1077.
138. Chander, H. &Ahmed, S.M., 1983.Potential of some new plant products
as grain protectants against insect infestation. Bulletin of Grain Tech-
nology 21(3): 179-188.
139. Chang, C.H., Lin, C.C., Yang, J.J., Namba, T. & Hattori, M., 1996. Anti-
inflammatory effects ofemodin from Ventilago leiocarpa. American Jour-
nal ofChinese Medicine 24(2): 139-142.
140. Chang, G.-J., Wu, M.-H., Wu, Y.-C. & Su, M.J., 1996. Electrophysiologi-
cal mechanisms for antiarrhythmic efficacy and positive inotropy of lirio-
denine, a natural aporphine alkaloid from Fissistigma glaucescens.
British Journal ofPharmacology 118(7): 1571-1583.
141. Chang, P. & Chen, C F . , 1995. Isolation and characterization of antitu-
mor anthraquinones from Morinda umbellata. Chinese Pharmaceutical
Journal 47(4): 347-353.
142. Chang, Y.-S. et al., 1996. 20-Epibryonolic acid, phytosterols and ellagic
acid from Coriaria intermedia. Phytochemistry 42(2): 559-560.
143. Chapuis, J.C., Sordat, B. & Hostettmann, K., 1988. Screening for cyto-
toxic activity of plants used in traditional medicine. Journal of Ethno-
pharmacology 23: 273-284.
144. Chase, M.W., Fay, M.F. & Savolainen, V., 2000. Higher-level classifica-
tion in the Angiosperms: new insights from DNA sequence data. Taxon
49(4): 685-704.
145. Chatterjee, A. & Sukul, N.C., 1980. Nematicidal action of three wild
plants. Nematologica 26(4): 500-502.
146. Chattopadhyay, P.R. & Mukhopadhyaya, M.C., 1989. Comparative stud-
ies on the nematicidal properties of Typhonium trilobatum and Melia
azedarach. Indian Journal ofNematology 19(1): 5-9.
147. Cheek, M. & Turner, I., 1995. The correct name for Grewia hirsuta (Tili-
aceae). Kew Bulletin 50(1): 129-130.
148. Chen, I.-S. et al., 2001. Quinoline alkaloids and other constituents of
Melicope semecarpifolia with antiplatelet aggregation activity. Journal
ofNatural Products 64: 1143-1147.
149. Chen, K.S., Chang, Y.L., Teng, CM., Chen, C F . &Wu, Y.C., 2000. Furo-
quinolines with antiplatelet aggregation activity from leaves of Melicope
confusa. Planta Medica 66(1): 80-81.
150. Chen, K.S., Ko, F.N., Teng, C M . & Wu, Y.C, 1996. Antiplatelet and va-
sorelaxing actions of some benzylisoquinoline and phenanthrene alka-
loids. Journal ofNatural Products 59(5): 531-534.
151. Chen, K.S., Wu, Y.C, Teng, CM., Ko, F.N. & Wu, T.S., 1997. Bioactive
alkaloids from Illigera luzonensis. Journal of Natural Products 60(6):
645- 647.
152. Chen, L.G. et al., 1995. Tannins of euphorbiaceous plants XIII. New
hydrolyzable tannins having phloroglucinol residue from Glochidion
rubrum Blume. Chemical &Pharmaceutical Bulletin 43(12): 2088-2090.
153. Chen, L.M.J. & Turner, I.M., 1998. The use of Epipremnum pinnatum
(Araceae) in Singapore in the treatment of cancer: an unreported appli-
cation ofherbal medicine. Economic Botany 52(1): 108-109.
154. Chen, S.-X., Goh, C.-J. & Kon, O.L., 1997. Fatty acids from Typhonium
flagelliforme. Planta Medica 63(6): 580.
155. Chen, Y. & Yu, D.Q., 1996. Tonkinelin: a novel annonaceous acetogenin
from Uvaria tonkinensis. Planta Medica 62(6): 512-514.
156. Chen, Z.L. et al., 1997. Five taccalonolides from Tacca plantaginea. Plan-
ta Medica 63(1): 40-43.
157. Chen, Z.-S., Lee, G.-H. & Kuo, Y.-H., 1993. Disformone and dischidiol
from Dischidia formosana. Phytochemistry 34(3): 783-786.
158. Cheng, Z.J., Kuo, S.C., Chan, S.C., Ko, F.N. &Teng, CM., 1998. Antioxi-
dant properties of butein isolated from Dalbergia odorifera. Biochimica
et Biophysica Acta 1392(2-3): 291-299.
159. Chia, Y.C., Chang, F.R., Teng, C M . &Wu, Y.C., 2000. Aristolactams and
dioxoaporphines from Fissistigma balansae and Fissistigma oldhamii.
Journal ofNatural Products 63(8): 1160-1163.
160. Chiayvareesajja, S., Mahabusarakam, W., Maxwell, J.F., Wiriyachitra,
P. & Tower, G.H.N., 1987. Thai piscicidal plants. I. Journal of the Scien-
tific Society Thailand 13:29-45.
161. Chiayvareesajja, S., Rittibhonbhun, N., Hongpromyart, M. & Wiriyachi-
tra, P., 1997. Toxicity of the Thai piscicidal plant, Maesa ramentacea, to
freshwater fishes in ponds. Aquaculture 158(3-4): 229-234.
162. Chien, S.F. & Lin, CM., 1991. The conversion of group B red blood cells
into group O by an a-D-galactosidase from taro (Colocasia esculenta).
Carbohydrate Research 217: 191-200.
163. Chitre, A., Padmanabhan, S. & Shastri, N.V., 1998. A cysteine protease
of Dieffenbachia maculata. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Bio-
physics 35(6): 358-363.
164. Chiu, H.F., Lin, C.C., Yang, C.C. &Yang, F., 1988. The pharmacological
and pathological studies on several hepatic protective crude drugs from
Taiwan (I).American Journal of Chinese Medicine 16(3-4): 127-137.
165. Chomchalow, N. & Henle, H.V. (Editors), 1993. Medicinal and aromatic
plants in Asia. Breeding and improvement. RAPA Publication 1993/19.
Science Publishers, Lebanon, United States. 196 pp.
166. Choo, C.Y., Chan, K.L., Sam, T.W., Hitotsuyanagi, Y. & Takeya, K.,
2001. The cytotoxicity and chemical constituents of the hexane fraction
of Typhonium flagelliforme (Araceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology
77(1): 129-131.
167. Chow, H.T., 1986. In vitro propagation of Nervilia aragoana Gaud. Jour-
nal of the College of Science and Engineering National Chung Hsing
University 23: 47-58 (in Chinese).
168. Chuakul, W., 2000. Medicinal plants in North-eastern Thailand. Amarin
Printing and Publishing Public Co.Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand (in Thai).
169. Chuakul, W. & Chaikaew, C , 1998. Medicinal plants in Ubon Ratcha-
thani Province (3).Thai Journal ofPhytopharmacy 5(2): 28-56.
LITERATURE 485
170. Chuakul, W. & Saralamp, P., 1998. Medicinal plants in Ubon Ratcha-
thani Province (2).Thai Journal ofPhytopharmacy 5(1): 21-52.
171. Chuakul, W. & Saralamp, P., 1999. Medicinal plants used by Tai Lue at
the Phu Kham Village, Pua District, Nan Province (Thailand). Acta Phy-
totaxonomica et Geobotanica 50(1): 81-99.
172. Chuakul, W., Saralamp, P., Paonil, V. & Temsiririrkkul, R., 1996. Sa-
munpri puenban lanna [Medicinal plants in the northern part of Thai-
land]. Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Mahidol University. Amarin Printing and Publishing Public Co. Ltd.,
Bangkok, Thailand. 264 pp.
173. Chuakul, W., Saralamp, P., Paonil, W., Temsiririrkkul, R. & Clayton, T.
(Editors), 1997. Medicinal plants in Thailand. Vol. II. Department of
Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University,
Bangkok, Thailand. 248 pp.
174. Chuakul, W. & Soonthornchareonnon, N., 1997. Medicinal plants in
Ubon Ratchathani Province (1). Thai Journal of Phytopharmacy 4(2):
29-61.
175. Collins, R.A., Ng, T.B., Fong, W.P., Wan, C.C. & Yeng, H.W., 1997. A
comparison of human immunodeficiency virus type I inhibition by par-
tially purified aqueous extracts of Chinese medicinal herbs. Life Sciences
60(23): 345-351.
176. Conn, B.J. (Editor), 1995. Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea.
Vol. III. Melbourne University Press, on behalf of the Government of
Papua New Guinea. 292 pp.
177. Connolly, J.D., Haque, M.E. & Kadir, A.A., 1996. Two 7,7'- bisdehydroa-
porphine alkaloids from Polyalthia bullata. Phytochemistry 43(1): 295-
297.
178. Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside trees of Malaya. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes.
The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 774 pp.
179. Cota, R.H., Grassi-Kassisse, D.M., Spadari-Bratfisch, R.C. & Souza-
Brito, A.R., 1999. Anti-ulcerogenic mechanisms of a lyophilized aqueous
extract of Dalbergia monetaria L. in rats, mice and guinea-pigs. Journal
ofPharmacy and Pharmacology 51(6): 735-740.
180. Cottriall, C.L., Truong, H.T. & McBrien, N.A., 2001.Inhibition of myopia
development in chicks using himbacine: A role for M4 receptors? Neu-
roreport 12(11): 2453-2456.
181. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1948-1976. The wealth of
India: a dictionary of Indian raw materials & industrial products. 11vol-
umes. Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India.
182. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1985. The wealth of India:
a dictionary of Indian raw materials & industrial products. Revised Edi-
tion. Vol. 1. Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi, India.
513 pp.
183. Creagh, T. et al., 2001. Safety and pharmacokinetics of single doses of
(+)-calanolide A, a novel, naturally occurring nonnucleoside reverse tran-
scriptase inhibitor, in healthy, human immunodeficiency virus-negative
human subjects. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 45(5): 1379-
1386.
184. Crouch, I.J., Finnie, J.F. &van Staden, J., 1990. Studies on the isolation
ofplumbagin from in vitro and in vivo grown Drosera species. Plant Cell,
Tissue and Organ Culture 21(1): 79-82.
185. Cui, B. et al., 1997. Novel cytotoxic lH-cyclopenta(b)benzofuran lignans
from Aglaia elliptica. Tetrahedron 53(52): 17625-17632.
186. Cui, T.Y. et al., 1999. Screening for molluscicidal activity in medicinal
plants. In: Yang, C.R. & Tanaka, 0 . (Editors): Advances in plant glyco-
sides, chemistry and biology. Proceedings of the International Sympo-
sium on plant glycosides, Kunming, China, 12-15 August, 1997. Studies
in Plant Science 6. pp. 230-232.
187. Currens, M.J. et al., 1996. Antiviral activity and mechanism of action of
calanolide A against the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Journal
ofPharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 279(2): 645-651.
188. D'Arcy, W.G., 1980. Flora of Panama. Part IV. Family 123. Guttiferae.
Annals ofthe Missouri Botanical Garden 67: 969-1043.
189. Das, B., Chakravarty, A.K., Masuda, K , Suzuki, H. &Ageta, H., 1994. A
diterpenoid from roots of Gelonium multiflorum. Phytochemistry 37(5):
1363-1366.
190. Daulatabad, C D . &Mirajkar, A.M., 1992. Anew hydroxy fatty acid from
Scindapsus officinalis seed oil. International Journal ofFood Science and
Technology 27(1): 77-79.
191. Davenport, L.J., 1988. A monograph of Hydrolea (Hydrophyllaceae).
Rhodora 90(862): 169-208.
192. Davies, F.G., 1979. The genus Gynura (Compositae) in eastern Asia and
the Himalayas. Kew Bulletin 33(4): 629-640.
193. Davies, F.G., 1981.The genus Gynura (Compositae) in Malesia and Aus-
tralia. Kew Bulletin 35(4): 711-734.
194. Davies, S.J., 2001. Systematics of Macaranga sects. Pachystemon and
Pruinosae (Euphorbiaceae). Harvard Papers in Botany 6(2): 371-448.
195. Davies, S.J., 2002. Ethnobotany of Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) among
the Kedayan of Brunei Darussalam. Harvard Papers in Botany 7(1):
7-12.
196. de Guzman, C.C. & Siemonsma, J.S. (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of
South-East Asia No 13. Spices. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Neth-
erlands. 400 pp.
197. de Guzman, E.D., Umali, R.M. & Sotalbo, E.D., 1986. Guide to the Phi-
lippine flora and fauna. Vol. 3: Dipterocarps, non-dipterocarps. Natural
Resources Management Centre, Ministry of Natural Resources, Quezon
City &University ofthe Philippines, Los Banos, the Philippines. 414 pp.
198. de Kort, I. &Thijsse, G., 1984.Arevision of Indigofera in Southeast Asia.
Blumea 30(1): 89-151.
199. de Medeiros, J.M.R. et al., 2000. Antithrombin activity of medicinal
plants ofthe Azores. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 72(1/2): 157-165.
200. de Padua, L.S., Lugod, G.C. & Pancho, J.V., 1977-1983. Handbook on
Philippine medicinal plants. 4 volumes. Documentation and Information
Section, Office of the Director of Research, University of the Philippines
at Los Banos, the Philippines.
201. De Tommasi, N., Pizza, C , Bellino, A. & Venturella, P., 1997. Triter-
penoid saponins from Trevesia sundaica. Journal of Natural Products
60(11): 1070-1074.
LITERATURE 487
202. De Tommasi, N. et al., 2000. Antiproliferative triterpene saponins from

Trevesia palmata. Journal ofNatural Products 63(3): 308-314.
203. de Vogel, E.F., 1969. Monograph of the tribe Apostasieae (Orchidaceae).
Blumea 17(2): 313-350.
204. de Vos, M.P., 1984. The African genus Crocosmia Planchon. Journal of
South African Botany 50(4): 463-502.
205. de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1971.A monograph of the genus Adenia Forsk. (Pas-
sifloraceae). Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen 71-18. 281
pp.
206. de Wit, H.CD., 1956. A revision of Malaysian Bauhinieae. Reinwardtia
3:381-539.
207. de Wit, H.C.D., 1982. Aquariumplanten [Aquarium plants]. 4th Edition.
Uitgeverij Hollandia, Baarn, the Netherlands. 463 pp.
208. Deans, S.G., Svoboda, K.P., Gundidza, M. & Brechany, E.Y., 1992. Es-
sential oil profiles of several temperate and tropical aromatic plants:
their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Acta Horticulturae 306:
229-232.
209. Dhar, M.L. et al., 1973. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity.
IV. Indian Journal ofExperimental Biology 11(1): 43-54.
210. Dharma, A.P., 1981. Indonesische geneeskrachtige planten [Indonesian
medicinal plants]. De Driehoek, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 168 pp.
211. Didry, N., Dubreuil, L., Trotin, F. & Pinkas, M., 1998. Antimicrobial ac-
tivity of aerial parts of Drosera peltata Smith on oral bacteria. Journal of
212. Ding, W.G., Yang, L.M. &Yu, Y.M., 1993.The synthesis and bioactivities
of cholinergic tropane alkaloids. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica 28(4):
302-306 (in Chinese).
213. Dixit, V., Chaturvedi, R.V. &Tripathi, S.C., 1992. Evaluation of some es-
sential oils against pulse beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis). National
Academy Science Letters 15(8): 254-257.
214. Djojosoebagio, S. & Suprayogi, A., 1995. Activities studies of medicinal
plants with special reference on Sauropus androgynus Merr. Proceedings
of the Expert Group Meeting on Industrial Exploitation of Indigenous
Medicinal Plants, Jakarta, 19-21 December 1995.pp. 140-152.
215. Do, J.C., Jung, K.Y, Sung, Y.K., Jung, J.H. & Son, K.H., 1995. Spicato-
side C, a new steroidal saponin from the tubers of Liriope spicata. Jour-
nal ofNatural Products 58(5): 778-781.
216. Do Huy Bich, Nguyen Tap &Tran Toan, 1993.Medicinal plant resources
ofVietnam. Scientific and Technical Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam.
217. Do Tat Loi, 1995. Medicinal plants and traditional remedies in Vietnam.
7th Edition. Science and Technics Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam.
1485 pp. (in Vietnamese)
218. Doan Thi Nhu et al. (Editors), 1990. Les plantes médicinales au Viet-
nam. Livre 2. Medicine traditionelle et pharmacopée [The medicinal
plants of Vietnam. Volume 2. Traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia].
Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France. 189 pp.
219. Doust, A.N. & Conn, B.J., 1994. Xyris L. Section Xyris (Xyridaceae) in
Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 7: 455-484.
220. Dransfield, J. & Mogea, J.P., 1984. The flowering behaviour of Arenga
(Palmae: Caryotoideae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 88:

1-10.
221. Du, X.M. et al., 1999. Components of the ether-insoluble resin glycoside
fraction from the seed of Cuscuta australis. Journal of Natural Products
62(5): 722-725.
222. Du Puy, D.J. & Du Puy, B.P., 1989. An extraordinary population of
Corymborkis veratrifolia on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Orchid Re-
view 97,1147: 163-166.
223. Du Puy, D.J. & Lamb, A., 1984. The genus Cymbidium in Sabah. Orchid
Review 92, 1093:349-358.
224. Dubois, M.A., Benze, S. & Wagner, H., 1990. New biologically active
triterpene-saponins from Randia dumetorum. Planta Medica 56(5):
451-455.
225. Duke, J.A., 1961.Preliminary revision of the genus Drymaria. Annals of
the Missouri Botanical Garden 48(3): 173-268.
226. Eichler, H., 1958. Revision der Ranunculaceen Malesiens [A revision of
the Malesian Ranunculaceae]. Bibliotheca Botanica 124: 1-110.
227. Ejerta, C.I. & Solevilla, R.C., 1988. Determination of the acute toxicity
effects offive Philippine plants. Acta Manilana 37(10): 85-92.
228. El Shazly, A. et al., 1996. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids of Cynoglossum offici-
nale and Cynoglossum amabile (family Boraginaceae). Biochemical Sys-
tematica and Ecology 24(5): 415-421.
229. Ella, A.B. & Pitargue, F.C., 1998. Identification and end-use characteri-
zation of unexploited woody vines based on morphological and anatomi-
cal features. IAWAJournal 19(4):448.
230. Elsheikh, S.H., Bashir, A.K., Suliman, S.M. &Wassila, M.E., 1990. Toxi-
city of certain Sudanese plant extracts to cercariae and miracidia of
Schistosoma mansoni. International Journal of Crude Drug Research
28(4): 241-245.
231. Endo, T., Taguchi, H., Sasaki, H. & Yosioka, I., 1979. Constituents of
Aeginetia indica var. gracilis Nakai. Structures ofthree glycosides isolat-
ed from the whole plant. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 27(11):
2807-2814.
232. Ernst, E., 2001.Editorial comment. Mistletoe for cancer? European Jour-
nal of Cancer 37:9-11.
233. Espada, A., Rodriguez, J., Villaverde, M.C. & Riguera, R., 1990. Hypo-
glucaemic triterpenoid saponins from Boussingaultia baselloides. Cana-
dian Journal of Chemistry 68(11): 2039-2044.
234. Esser, H.-J., 1997.Arevision of Omalanthus (Euphorbiaceae) in Malesia.
Blumea 42(2): 421-466.
235. Esser, H.-J., 1999. A partial revision of the Hippomaneae (Euphor-
biaceae) in Malesia. Blumea 44(1): 149-215.
236. Etuk, E.U.I., Bassey, M.M., Ekpenyong, D.C. & Ibiong, I.O., 1997. Quali-
ty assessment of two rural, infant dietary vegetables. Indian Journal of
Nutrition and Dietetics 34(1): 5-9.
237. Evans, C S . , Bell, E.A. & Johnson, E.S., 1979. N-methyltyramine, a bio-
logically active amine in Acacia seeds. Phytochemistry 18:2022-2023.
238. Faden, R.B., 1980. The taxonomy and nomenclature of some Asiatic
species of Murdannia (Commelinaceae): the identity of Commelina med-
LITERATURE 489
ica Lour, and Commelina tuberosa Lour. Taxon 29(1): 71-83.

239. Faridah Hanum, I. & van der Maesen, L.J.G. (Editors), 1997. Plant Re-
sources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxiliary plants. Backhuys Publish-
ers, Leiden, the Netherlands. 389 pp.
240. Farnsworth, N.R. & Bunyapraphatsara, N. (Editors), 1992. Thai medici-
nal plants. Medicinal Plant Information Center, Prachachon Co., Bang-
kok, Thailand. 402 pp.
241. Fasihuddin, B.A., Ipor, LB. & Laily, B.D., 1995. Medicinal plants used by
the Kelabit Community in Bario, Sarawak. In: Ghazally, I. et al. (Edi-
tors): Chemical prospecting in the Malaysian forest. Pelanduk Publica-
tions, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, pp. 43-46.
242. Fernando, M.R., Thabrew, M.I. & Karunanayake, E.H., 1990. Hypo-
glycemic activity of some medicinal plants in Sri Lanka. General Phar-
macology 21(5): 779-782.
243. Fernando, M.R., Wickramasinghe, S.M.D.N. & Thabrew, M.I., 1998. Ex-
tra pancreatic actions of Hygrophila longifolia. Pharmaceutical Biology
36(5): 352-356.
244. Ferreira, R.R., Cavada, B.S., Moreira, R.A., Oliveira, J.T. & Gomes, J.C.,
1996. Characteristics ofthe histamine release from hamster cheek pouch
mast cells stimulated by lectins from Brazilian beans and concanavalin
A. Inflammation Research 45(9): 442-447.
245. Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. (Editors), 1996. Plant Resources of South-East
Asia No 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates. Backhuys Publishers,
Leiden, the Netherlands. 239 pp.
246. Fleischer, T.C., Waigh, R.D. & Waterman, P.G., 1997. Bisabolene ses-
quiterpenes and flavonoids from Friesodielsia enghiana. Phytochemistry
44(2): 315-318.
247. Flora Malesiana (various editors), 1950-. Foundation Flora Malesiana.
Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Netherlands.
248. Flora of Australia, 1981-. Australian Government Publishing Service,
Canberra, Australia.
249. Flora of Thailand (various editors), 1970-. The Forest Herbarium, Royal
Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
250. Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam [Flora of Cambodia, Laos
and Vietnam] (various editors), I960-. Muséum National d'Histoire Na-
turelle, Paris, France.
251. Florencia, K.T. Adji, 1982. Isolasi saponin dari buah Sapindus rarak DC
(lerak) dan penentuan daya antibakteri serta daya antijamur secara in
vitro [Isolation of saponins from the fruits of Sapindus rarak DC. (lerak)
and their antibacterial and antifungal activity in vitro]. Fakultas Far-
masi Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia.
252. Forman, L.L., 1971. A synopsis of Galearia Zoll. & Mor. (Pandaceae).
Kew Bulletin 26(1): 153-165.
253. Forman, L.L., 1975. The tribe Triclisieae Diels in Asia, the Pacific and
Australia. The Menispermaceae of Malesia and adjacent areas: VIII.
Kew Bulletin 30(1): 77-100.
254. Forster, P.I., 1991. A taxonomie revision of Sarcolobus R. Br. (Asclepi-
adaceae: Marsdenieae) in Australia and Papuasia. Austrobaileya 3(3):
335-360.
255. Forster, P.I., 1993. Taxonomie relationships and status of the genus Do-
rystephania (Asclepiadaceae: Marsdenieae) from the Philippines and
Borneo. Australian Systematic Botany 6: 351-357.
256. Forster, P.I., 1999. A taxonomie revision of Mallotus Lour. (Euphor-
biaceae) in Australia. Austrobaileya 5(3): 457-497.
257. Forster, P.I. & Liddle, D.J., 1990. Hoya R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) in Aus-
tralia -an alternative classification. Austrobaileya 3(2): 217-234.
258. Forster, P.I. & Liddle, D.J., 1991. Variation in Hoya australis R. Br. ex
Traill (Asclepiadaceae). Austrobaileya 3(3): 503-521.
259. Forster, P.I. & Liddle, D.J., 1992. Taxonomie studies on the genus Hoya
R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) in Papuasia, 1-5. Austrobaileya 3(4): 627-641.
260. Francois, G. et al., 1997. Growth inhibition of asexual erythrocytic forms
of Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei in vitro by naphthylisoquino-
line alkaloid-containing extracts of Ancistrocladus and Triphyophyllum
species. International Journal ofPharmacognosy 35(1): 55-59.
261. Friis, I., 1989. A revision of Pilea (Urticaceae) in Africa. Kew Bulletin
44(4): 557-600.
262. Fukuyama, Y. et al., 1995.Naturally occurring 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors.
VI. Structures of ardisiaquinones D, E, and F from Ardisia sieboldii.
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 43(8): 1391-1394.
263. Gafur, M.A., Obata, T., Kiuchi, F. &Tsuda, Y., 1997. Acacia concinna sa-
ponins. I. Structures of prosapogenols, concinnosides A-F, isolated from
the alkaline hydrolysate of the highly polar saponin fraction. Chemical
and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 45(4): 620-625.
264. Gagnepain, F. (Editor), 1907-1950. Flore générale de 1'Indo-Chine [Gen-
eral flora of Indo-China]. 7 volumes + suppl. Masson & Cie, Paris,
France.
265. Gamlath, C.B., Gunatilaka, A.A.L., Tezuka, Y., Kikuchi, T. & Balasubra-
maniam, S., 1990. Quinonemethide, phenolic and related triterpenoids of
plants of Celastraceae: further evidence for the structure of celastranhy-
dride. Phytochemistry 29(10): 3189-3192.
266. Ganapaty, S., Dash, G.K., Subburaju, T. & Suresh, P., 2002. Diuretic,
laxative and toxicity studies of Cocculus hirsutus aerial parts. Fito-
terapia 73(1): 28-31.
267. Gao, G.Y., Li, C.X., Duan, P., Han, X.Y. & Yang, Y.Q., 1989. Hemody-
namic effects of a water soluble extract of Liriope spicata Lour, on anes-
thetized cats. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 14(9): 552-554 (in Chinese).
268. Gardner, D.G., 1994. Injury to the oral mucous membranes caused by the
common houseplant Dieffenbachia. A review. Oral Surgery, Oral Medi-
cine and Oral Pathology 78(5):631-633.
269. Garg, S.C. & Dengre, S.L., 1988. Antifungal efficacy of some essential
oils. Pharmazie 43(2): 141-142.
270. Garg, S.C. &Dengre, S.L., 1992. Composition ofthe essential oil from the
leaves of Buddleia asiatica Lour. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 7(3):
125-127.
271. Garg, S.C. & Jain, R., 1999. Antifungal activity of Luvunga scandens
against some keratinophilic fungi. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sci-
ences 61(4): 248-249.
272. Gaur, A., Singh, A.K., Suri, S.S. & Ramawat, K.G., 1995. Bud culture
LITERATURE 491
and regeneration of plantlets in Cocculus pendulus, a woody medicinal

plant. Gartenbauwissenschaft 60(2): 69-72.
273. Ghosal, S., Banerjee, S., Chattopadhyay, B.K., Srivastava, R.S. & Cha-
krabarti, D.K., 1978. Toxic substances produced by Fusarium VII. Con-
trol of fusarial wilt of safflower by root exudates and extractives of Ruel-
lia tuberosa. Experientia 34(8): 1057-1058.
274. Ghosal, S., Biswas, K., Chakrabarti, D.K. & Chaudhuri, R.K., 1977. Con-
trol of Fusarium wilt of safflower by mangiferin. Phytopathology 67(4):
548-550.
275. Ghosal, S., Biswas, K. & Chaudhuri, R.K., 1978. Chemical constituents
of Gentianaceae XXIV: anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis activity of natu-
rally occurring xanthones and synthetic analogs. Journal of Pharmaceu-
tical Sciences 67(5): 721-722.
276. Ghosal, S. & Chaudhuri, R.K., 1975. Chemical constituents of Gen-
tianaceae XVI: antitubercular activity ofxanthones of Canscora decussa-
ta Schult. Journal ofPharmaceutical Sciences 64(5): 888-889.
277. Ghosal, S. &Jaiswal, D.K., 1980. Chemical constituents of Gentianaceae
XXVIII: flavonoids of Enicostema hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verd. Journal of
Pharmaceutical Sciences 69(1): 53-56.
278. Ghosal, S., Saini, K. & Sinha, B.N., 1983. Diffutin, a new adaptogenic
glucosyloxyflavan from Canscora diffusa. Journal of Chemical Research
12: 330.
279. Gilani, A.U.H., 1992. Effects of alkaloids from Galbulimima baccata on
guinea-pig ileum. Fitoterapia 63(3): 238-242.
280. Gilani, A.U.H., 1998. Novel developments from natural products in car-
diovascular research. Phytotherapy Research 12(S1): S66-S69.
281. Gilliland, H.B., 1971.A revised flora of Malaya. An illustrated systemat-
ic account of the Malayan flora, including commonly cultivated plants.
Vol. III. Grasses of Malaya. Botanic Gardens, Singapore. 319 pp. +
plates.
282. Goh, S.H., Soepadmo, E. & Chuah, C.H., 1993. Phytochemical guide to
Malaysian flora. 2nd Edition. Institute of Advanced Studies, University
ofMalaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
283. Gomes, A., Das, M. & Dasgupta, S.C., 2001. Haematinic effect of Hy-
grophila spinosa T. Anderson on experimental rodents. Indian Journal of
Experimental Biology 39(4): 381-382.
284. Gonda, R., Takeda, T. & Akiyama, T., 2000. Studies on the constituents
of Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bul-
letin 48(8): 1219-1222.
285. Gonzales, L.L. & Quimio, M.J., 1995. Hinggiw crafting livelihood.
Canopy International 21: 11.
286. Gonzalez, M.G. & Matamoros, O.M., 1996. Efectos cardiovasculares del
extracto acuoso de las hojas de Clusia coclensis (Guttiferae) [Cardiovas-
cular effects ofthe aqueous extract ofleaves of Clusia coclensis (Guttifer-
ae)]. Revista de Biologia Tropical 44(1): 87-91.
287. Gonzâlez-Coloma, A. et al., 1999. Selective insect antifeedant and toxic
action ofryanoid diterpenes. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry
47(10): 4419-4424.
288. Gopal, R.H., Vasanth, S., Vinnarasi, K.E. & Govindarajan, S., 1995. An-
tibacterial activity of Leonotis nepetaefolia. Fitoterapia 66(1): 83-84.

289. Graham, S.A., 1985. A revision of Ammannia (Lythraceae) in the west-
ern hemisphere. Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 66(4): 395-420.
290. Graham, S.A., 1995. Systematics ofWoodfordia (Lythraceae). Systematic
Botany 20(4): 482-502.
291. Gray, A.M., Abdel-Wahab, Y.H. &Flatt, P.R., 2000. The traditional plant
treatment, Sambucus nigra (elder), exhibits insulin-like and insulin-re-
leasing actions in vitro. Journal ofNutrition 130(1): 15-20.
292. Greshoff, M., 1894. Schetsen nuttige Indische planten [Sketches of useful
Indonesian plants]. Series 1 (1-50). Extra Bulletin van het Koloniaal
Museum. J.H. de Bussy, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 245 pp.
293. Grey-Wilson, C., 1990.A survey of Codonopsis in cultivation. The Plants-
man 12:65-99.
294. Grey-Wilson, C., 1995. Codonopsis convolvulacea and its allies. The New
Plantsman 2:213-225.
295. Grosvenor, P.W., Gothard, P.K., McWilliam, N.C., Supriono, A. & Gray,
D.O., 1995. Medicinal plants from Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia.
Part 1:Uses. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 45: 75-95.
296. Grosvenor, P.W., Supriono, A. & Gray, D.O., 1995. Medicinal plants from
Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Part 2: antibacterial and antifungal
activity. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 45: 97-111.
297. Guerranti, R., Aguiyi, J.C., Errico, E., Pagani, R. & Marinello, E., 2001.
Effects of Mucuna pruriens extract on prothrombin by Echis carinatus
venom. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 75: 175-180.
298. Guessregen, B. et al., 1997. New insecticidal rocaglamide derivatives
from flowers ofAglaia odorata. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, Section C:
Biosciences 52(5-6): 339-344.
299. Guh, J.H., Ko, F.N., Yu, S.M, Wu, Y.C. & Teng, C.M., 1995. Pharmaco-
logical evaluation of N-methyl-actinodaphnine, a new vascular alpha-
adrenoceptor antagonist, isolated from Illigera luzonensis. European
Journal ofPharmacology 279(1): 33-41.
300. Gunasekera, S.P., Kinghorn, A.D., Cordell, G.A. & Farnsworth, N.R.,
1981. Plant anticancer agents. XIX. Constituents of Aquilaria malaccen-
sis. Journal ofNatural Products 44(5): 569-572.
301. Gupta, H.K. & Balaraman, N., 1988. Nutritive value of dhutesaro (Se-
taria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapf) for goats. Indian Journal of Animal Re-
search 22(1): 47-48.
302. Gupta, S.R., Seshadri, T.R. & Sood, G.R., 1973. Flavonols and other com-
ponents of the leaves of Calycopteris floribunda. Phytochemistry 12(10):
2539-2540.
303. Gupta, S.S., Verma, P. &Hishikar, K , 1984. Purgative and anthelmintic
effects ofMallotus philippinensis in rats against tape worm. Indian Jour-
nal ofPhysiology and Pharmacology 28(1): 63-66.
304. Gustafson, K.R. et al., 1992. A nonpromoting phorbol from the samoan
medicinal plant Homalanthus nutans inhibits cell killing by HIV-1. Jour-
nal ofMedicinal Chemistry 35(11): 1978-1986.
305. Gustafson, K.R. et al., 1992. The guttiferones, HIV-inhibitory benzophe-
nones from Symphonia globulifera, Garcinia livingstonei, Garcinia ovali-
folia and Clusia rosea. Tetrahedron 48(46): 10093-10102.
LITERATURE 493
306. Gutierrez, H.G., 1980-1982. An illustrated manual of Philippine materia

medica. 2 volumes. Natural Research Council of the Philippines, Tagig,
Metro Manila, the Philippines. Vol. 1 (1980) pp. 1-234, Vol. 2 (1982) pp.
235-485.
307. Ha Van Ngac, 1991. Some observations on diuretic action of Copto-
sapelta flavescens (Rubiaceae). Tap chi Duo hoc [Journal ofPharmacy] 2:
25-27 (in Vietnamese).
308. Hacker, J.B., 1990.A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queens-
land. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, Australia. 351 pp.
309. Hamid, A.H., Kamaliah, M., Khozirah, S. &Toia, R.F., 1988.Alkaloids of
Desmos dasymachalus var. wallichii. Malaysian Journal of Science 10:
55-60.
310. Hansen, B., 1983. Notes on the genus Chroesthes (Acanthaceae). Nordic
Journal ofBotany 3(2): 207-211.
311. Hansen, B., 1992. The genus Ptyssiglottis (Acanthaceae). A taxonomie
monograph. Opera Botanica 116. Copenhagen. 58 pp.
312. Hansen, B., 1995. Notes on SE Asian Acanthaceae 2. Nordic Journal of
Botany 15(6): 583-590.
313. Hansen, C , 1982. A revision of Blastus Lour. (Melastomataceae). Bul-
letin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 4e série, 4, section B,
Adansonia, No 1-2: 43-77.
314. Hansen, C , 1993. The genus Phyllagathis (Melastomataceae): character-
istics; delimitation; the species in Indo-China and China. Bulletin du
Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, section B, Adansonia 14:
355-428.
315. Hansen, K. et al., 1995.In vitro screening oftraditional medicines for an-
ti-hypertensive effect based on inhibition of the angiotensin converting
enzyme (ACE).Journal ofEthnopharmacology 48(1): 43-51.
316. Hanumaiah, T. et al., 1985. Naphthalenes and naphthoquinones from
Ventilago species. Phytochemistry 24(8): 1811-1815.
317. Harborne, J.B., 1980.Achemotaxonomic survey offlavonoids in leaves of
the Oleaceae. Botanical Journal ofthe Linnean Society 81: 155-167.
318. Harish, M.S., Nagur, M. & Badami, S., 2001. Antihistaminic and mast
cell stabilizing activity of Striga orobanchioides. Journal of Ethnophar-
macology 76(2): 197-200.
319. Harley, R.M., 1988. Revision of generic limits in Hyptis Jacq. (Labiatae)
and its allies. Botanical Journal ofthe Linnean Society 98(2):87-95.
320. Hartley, T.G., 2001. On the taxonomy and biogeography of Euodia and
Melicope (Rutaceae). Allertonia 8(1): 1-328.
321. Hartwell, J.L., 1969. Plants used against cancer -a survey. Lloydia 32(3):
247-296.
322. Hasan, M., Ahmad, S. & Mahmood, K., 1982. Chemical investigation of
Trichodesma indicum leaves. 1.Non steroidal constituents ofthe petrole-
um ether extract. Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan 44:
281-283.
323. Hatusima, S., 1942. A revision of the Asiatic Buxus. Journal of the De-
partment ofAgriculture, Kyusyu Imperial University 6(6): 261-342.
324. Hay, A., 1993. The genus Typhonium (Araceae - Areae) in Australasia.
Blumea 37(2): 345-376.
325. Hay, A., 1998. The genus Alocasia (Araceae - Colocasieae) in West Male-
sia and Sulawesi. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 50: 221-334.
326. Hay, A., 1999. Revision of Homalomena (Araceae - Homalomeneae) in
New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands. Blumea
44(1): 41-71.
327. Hay, A., 1999. The genus Alocasia (Araceae - Colocasieae) in the Philip-
pines. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 51: 1-41.
328. Hayashi, N., Lee, K.H., Hall, LH., McPhail, A.T. & Huang, H.C., 1982.
Structure and stereochemistry of (-)-odorinol, an antileukemic diamide
from [leaves and twigs of] Aglaia odorata. Phytochemistry 21(9):
2371-2373.
329. He, Q., Xu, S. &Peng, B., 1998. Mechanism of Canscora lucidissima xan-
thones against arrhythmia induced by myocardial ischemia-reperfusion
in rats. Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi 23(9): 556-557 (in Chinese).
330. Heath, R.R., Landolt, P.J., Dueben, B. & Lenczewski, B., 1992. Identifi-
cation of floral compounds of night-blooming jessamine attractive to cab-
bage looper moths. Environmental Entomology 21(4): 854-859.
331. Hegnauer, R., 1962-1997. Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen [Chemotaxono-
my of plants]. 11volumes. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland.
332. Henderson, C.P. & Hancock, I.R., 1988. A guide to the useful plants of
Solomon Islands. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Honaira, Solomon
Islands. 481 pp.
333. Hettinger, A.L. & Cox, P.A., 1997. The making of the kato alu - a tradi-
tional tongan basket. Economic Botany 51(2): 144-148.
334. Heyne, K., 1950. De nuttige planten van Indonesië [The useful plants of
Indonesia]. 3rd Edition. 2 volumes. W. van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage, the
Netherlands/Bandung, Indonesia. 1660 +CCXLI pp.
335. Hidayati, S.N., Meijer, W., Baskin, J.M. &Walck, J.L., 2000. A contribu-
tion to the life history of the rare Indonesian holoparasite Rafflesia pat-
ma (Rafflesiaceae). Biotropica 32(3): 408-414.
336. Higashimoto, M. et al., 1993. Mutagenicity and antimutagenicity of ex-
tracts of three spices and a medicinal plant in Thailand. Mutation Re-
search 303(3): 135-142.
337. Hiramatsu, T., Imoto, M., Koyano, T. & Umezawa, K , 1993. Induction of
normal phenotypes in ras-transformed cells by damnacanthal from
Morinda citrifolia. Cancer Letter 73(2-3): 161-166.
338. Hiraoka, N. & Carew, D., 1980. Biotransformations with Catharanthus
roseus and Strobilanthes dyerianus cell cultures. Planta Medica 39:
282-283.
339. Hirazumi, A. & Furusawa, E., 1999. An immunomodulatory polysaccha-
ride-rich substance from the fruit juice of Morinda citrifolia (noni) with
antitumour activity. Phytotherapy Research 13(5): 380-387.
340. Hiremath, S.P., Badami, S., Hunasagatta, S.K. & Patil, S.B., 2000. An-
tifertility and hormonal properties of flavones of Striga orobanchioides.
European Journal ofPharmacology 391(1-2): 193-197.
341. Hiremath, S.P., Badami, S., Swamy, H.K., Patil, S.B. &Londonkar, R.L.,
1997. Antiandrogenic effect of Striga orobanchioides. Journal of
342. Hiremath, S.P. & Rao, S.H., 1990. Antifertility efficacy of the plant Stri-
LITERATURE 495
ga lutea (Scrophulariaceae) on rats. Contraception 42(4): 467-477.

343. Hiura, A. et al., 1996. Taste-modifying triterpene glycosides from Stau-
rogyne merguensis. Phytochemistry 43(5): 1023-1027.
344. Ho, C S . , Wong, Y.H. & Chiu, K.W., 1989. The hypotensive action of
Desmodium styracifolium and Clematis chinensis. American Journal of
Chinese Medicine 17(3-4): 189-202.
345. Hoe, V.B. & Siong, K.H., 1999. The nutritional value of indigenous fruits
and vegetables in Sarawak. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition
8(1): 24-31.
346. Hohmann, J. et al., 2002. Antiproliferative Amaryllidaceae alkaloids iso-
lated from the bulbs of Sprekelia formosissima and Hymenocallis xfesta-
lis. Planta Medica 68(5): 454-457.
347. Holdsworth, D.K., 1977. Medicinal plants of Papua New Guinea. Techni-
cal Paper No 175. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
123 pp.
348. Holdsworth, D.K., 1987. Medicinal plants of the Morobe Province, Papua
New Guinea. Part V. The Upper Watut. International Journal of Phar-
macognosy 25:225-230.
349. Holdsworth, D.K., 1991. Medicinal plants of the Central Province of
Papua New Guinea. Part V. Coastal villages to the West and East of Port
Moresby. International Journal ofPharmacognosy 29(3): 231-236.
350. Holdsworth, D.K., 1993. Medicinal plants ofthe Oro (Northern) Province
of Papua New Guinea. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 31:
23-28.
351. Holdsworth, D.K. & Balun, L., 1992. Medicinal plants of the East and
West Sepik Provinces, Papua New Guinea. International Journal of
Pharmacognosy 30: 218-222.
352. Holdsworth, D.K. & Kerenga, K., 1987. A survey of medicinal plants in
the Simbu Province, Papua New Guinea. International Journal of Crude
Drug Research 25: 183-187.
353. Holdsworth, D.K. & Kerenga, K., 1987. Medicinal plants of the Western
Highlands, Papua New Guinea. International Journal of Crude Drug Re-
search 25:171-176.
354. Holdsworth, D.K. &Lacanienta, E., 1981.Traditional medicinal plants of
the Central Province of Papua New Guinea. Part I. Quarterly Journal of
Crude Drug Research 19(4): 144-154.
355. Holdsworth, D.K. &Lacanienta, E., 1981.Traditional medicinal plants of
the Central Province ofPapua New Guinea. Part II. Quarterly Journal of
356. Holdsworth, D.K. & Mahana, P., 1983. Traditional medicinal plants of
the Huon Peninsula, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. International
Journal of Crude Drug Research 21: 121-133.
357. Holdsworth, D.K, Pilokos, B. & Lambes, P., 1983. Traditional medicinal
plants of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. International Journal of
358. Holdsworth, D.K. & Rali, T., 1989. A survey of medicinal plants of the
Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea. International Journal of Crude
Drug Research 27: 1-8.
359. Holdsworth, D.K. & Sakulas, H., 1986. Medicinal plants of the Morobe
Province. Part II. The Aseki Valley. International Journal of Crude Drug
Research 24: 31-40.
360. Holdsworth, D.K. & Sakulas, H., 1987. Medicinal plants of the Morobe
Province, Papua New Guinea. Part IV. The Snake River Valley. Interna-
tional Journal ofCrude Drug Research 25(4): 204-208.
361. Holdsworth, D.K. & Wamoi, B., 1982. Medicinal plants of the Admiralty
Islands, Papua New Guinea. International Journal of Crude Drug Re-
search 20:169-181.
362. Holm, L.G., Plucknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V. & Herberger, J.P., 1977. The
world's worst weeds. Distribution and biology. East-West Center, the
University Press ofHawaii, Honolulu, United States. 609 pp.
363. Holm-Nielsen, L.B., Nielsen, I.C. & Balslev, H. (Editors), 1989. Tropical
forests. Botanical dynamics, speciation and diversity. Academic Press,
London, United Kingdom. 380 pp.
364. Holttum, R.E., 1970. The genus Orchidantha (Lowiaceae). Gardens' Bul-
letin Singapore 25: 239-246.
365. Horgen, F.D.et al., 1997. Isolation and structure elucidation of ardise-
none: a new, cytotoxic alkenylphenol from Ardisia iwahigensis. Journal
ofNatural Products 60(5): 533-535.
366. Horobin, J., 1986.The epiphytic cacti. Plantsman 7(4):233-243.
367. Hosamani, K.M., 1994. Ricinoleic acid and cyclopropene acid in Tri-
chodesma zeylanicum seed oil. Phytochemistry 37(6): 1621-1624.
368. Hossain, M.S., Ferdous, A.J. & Hasan, CM., 1995. Alkaloids from the
stem bark ofDesmos longiflorus. Fitoterapia 66(5): 463-464.
369. Hou, Y.H., Zhang, L.S., Zhou, H.M., Wang, R.S. & Zhang, Y.Z., 1990. In-
fluences of refined konjac meal on the levels of tissue lipids and the ab-
sorption of four minerals in rats. Biomedical and Environmental Sci-
ences 3(3): 306-314.
370. Houghton, P.J., 1984. Ethnopharmacology of some Buddleja species.
Journal ofEthnopharmacology 11(3): 293-308.
371. Houghton, P.J. & Hikino, H., 1989. Anti-hepatotoxic activity of extracts
and constituents ofBuddleja species. Planta Medica 55(2): 123-126.
372. Houghton, P.J. et al., 1994.Activity ofextracts of Kigelia pinnata against
melanoma and renal carcinoma cell lines. Planta Medica 60(5):430-433.
373. Hsieh, W.-T., Tsai, H.-Y. & Wu, T.-S., 1998. The effects of bioactive com-
ponents from Nervilia purpurea on isolated rabbit aorta. Chinese Phar-
maceutical Journal Taipei 50(6): 351-360.
374. Hsiue, T.R. et al., 1998. Dose-response relationship and irreversible ob-
structive ventilatory defect in patients with consumption ofSauropus an-
drogynus. Chest 113(1): 71-76.
375. Hsu, H.-Y. et al., 1998. Toxic effects of Erycibe obtusifolia, a Chinese
medicinal herb, in mice. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 62(2): 101-105.
376. Hsu, H.-Y. et al., 1999. Evaluation ofthe antioxidant activities of Erycibe
obtusifolia. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 27(1): 117-122.
377. Hsu, J.D. et al., 1999. Suppression of the TPA-induced expression of nu-
clear-protooncogenes in mouse epidermis by crocetin via antioxidant ac-
tivity. Anticancer Research 19(5B): 4221-4227.
378. Hu Chi Ming, 1999. New synonyms and combinations in Asiatic Ardisia
(Myrsinaceae). Blumea 44(2): 391-406.
LITERATURE 497
379. Huang, J. & Lu, H., 1991. Study on the domestication of Nervilia fordii.
Forest Research 4 (Suppl.): 92-95 (in Chinese).
380. Huang, T.-C. (Editor), 1993-. Flora of Taiwan. 2nd Edition. Editorial
Committee ofthe Flora ofTaiwan, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
381. Hübner, H., Vierling, W., Brandt, W., Reiter, M. & Achenbach, H., 2001.
Minor constituents of Spigelia anthelmia and their cardiac activities.
Phytochemistry 57(2): 285-296.
382. Huh, H., Kim, H.K. &Lee, H.K., 1998. PAF antagonistic activity of 2- hy-
droxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid glucose ester from Gentiana scabra.
Archives ofPharmacal Research 21(4): 436-439.
383. Husain, S., Ahmad, M.U. & Osman, S.M., 1980. New hydroxy fatty acid
from seed oil ofBaliospermum axillare. Phytochemistry 19(1): 75-77.
384. Husaini, U., 1990. Deteksi aktivitas asparaginase dalam daun Loran-
thus globosus Roxb. [Detection of the activity of asparaginase in Loran-
thus globosus Roxb. leaves].SI Thesis, Faculty ofPharmacy, Gadjah Ma-
da University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 67 pp.
385. Hussain, S.F. et al., 1984. The alkaloidal profile of Cocculus pendulus.
Tetrahedron 40(13): 2513-2517.
386. Huxley, A., Griffiths, M. & Levy, M., 1992. The new Royal Horticultural
Society dictionary of gardening. 4 volumes. The MacMillan Press Ltd.,
London, United Kingdom. 3353 pp.
387. Huxley, CR., 1978. The ant-plants Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum (Ru-
biaceae), and the relationships between their morphology, ant occupants,
physiology and ecology. New Phytologist 80(1): 231-268.
388. Huxley, CR., 1993. The tuberous epiphytes of the Rubiaceae 6: a taxo-
nomie history ofthe Hydnophytinae. Blumea 37(2): 335-340.
389. Huxley, C R . & Jebb, M.H.P., 1991. The tuberous epiphytes of the Rubi-
aceae 1:a new subtribe -the Hydnophytinae. Blumea 36(1): 1-20.
390. Huxley, C R . & Jebb, M.H.P., 1993. The tuberous epiphytes of the Rubi-
aceae 5: a revision ofMyrmecodia. Blumea 37(2): 271-334.
391. Hyndman, D.C, 1984. Ethnobotany of Wopkaimin Pandanus: significant
Papua New Guinea plant resource. Economic Botany 38(3):287-303.
392. Ichikawa, K. et al., 1997. Retrodihydrochalcones and homoisoflavones
isolated from Thai medicinal plant Dracaena loureiri and their estrogen
agonist activity. Planta Medica 63(6): 540-543.
393. Idso, S.B. et al., 2000. Effects of atmospheric CO z enrichment on the
growth and development of Hymenocallis littoralis (Amaryllidaceae) and
the concentrations of several antineoplastic and antiviral constituents of
its bulbs.American Journal ofBotany 87(6): 769-773.
394. Immelman, K.L., 1991. Synopsis of the genera Nesaea and Ammannia
(Lythraceae) in southern Africa. Bothalia 21(1): 35-49.
395. Inad, A. et al., 2001. Cancer chemopreventive activity of odorine and
odorinol from Aglaia odorata. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin
24(11): 1282-1285.
396. Inada, A., Konishi, M., Murata, H. &Nakanishi, T., 1994. Structures of a
new limonoid and a new triterpenoid derivative from pericarps of Trichi-
na connaroides. Journal ofNatural Products 57(10): 1446-1449.
397. Intiyot, Y. et al., 2002. Antimutagenicity of Murdannia loriformis in the
Salmonella mutation assay and its inhibitory effects on azoxymethane-
induced DNA methylation and aberrant crypt focus formation in male

F344 rats. Journal ofMedical Investigation 49: 25-34.
398. Ishida, J. et al., 2001. Anti-AIDS agents. 46. Anti-HIV activity of har-
man, an anti-HIV principle from Symplocos setchuensis, and its deriva-
tives. Journal ofNatural Products 64(7): 958-960.
399. Ito, A., Kasai, R., Yamasaki, K., Nguyen Minh Due & Nguyen Thoi
Nham, 1994. Lignan glycosides from bark ofAlbizzia myriophylla. Phyto-
chemistry 37(5): 1455-1458.
400. Ito, A. et al., 1994. Alkaloid from bark ofAlbizzia myriophylla. Chemical
& Pharmaceutical Bulletin 42(9): 1966-1967.
401. Itoigawa, M. et al., 2001. Cancer chemopreventive agents, 4-phenyl-
coumarins from Calophyllum inophyllum. Cancer Letters 169(1): 15-19.
402. Itokawa, H., Nishimura, K., Hitotsuyanagi, Y. & Takeya, K., 1995. Iso-
sinococuline, a novel antitumor morphinane alkaloid from Cocculus
trilobus. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters 5(8): 821-822.
403. Itokawa, H. et al., 1987. An antitumor morphinane alkaloid, sinococu-
line, from Cocculus trilobus. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin
35(4): 1660-1662.
404. IUCN, WHO & WWF, 1993. Guidelines on the conservation of medicinal
plants. Gland, Switzerland. 50 pp.
405. Jabbar, A. & Khan, M.R., 1979. Anticancer activity of Sarcolobus globo-
sus. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific Research 2(A): 61-63.
406. Jackson, S.J., Houghton, P.J., Retsas, S. & Photiou, A., 2000. In vitro cy-
totoxicity of norviburtinal and isopinnatal from Kigelia pinnata against
cancer cell lines. Planta Medica 66(8): 758-761.
407. Jafarsidik, Y. & Sutomo, S., 1986. Jenis-jenis tumbuhan obat dan pengo-
batan tradisional penduduk di daerah Tamilo, Seram Selatan, Maluku
[Medicinal plants and traditional therapeutics in Tamilo, South Seram,
Maluku]. Buletin Penelitian Hutan 485: 19-29.
408. Jager, A.K., Hutchings, A. & Van Staden, J., 1996. Screening of Zulu
medicinal plants for prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitors. Journal of
409. Jain, S., Sareen, V. &Narula, A., 1993. Oestrogenic and pregnancy inter-
ceptory efficacy of a flavonoid mixture from Grangea maderaspatana
Poir. (Artemisia maderaspatana) in the mouse. Phytotherapy Research
7(5): 381-383.
410. Jain, S.P., Singh, S.C. & Puri, H.S., 1994. Medicinal plants of Neterhat,
Bihar, India. International Journal ofPharmacognosy 32(1): 44-50.
411. Jamal, J.A., Houghton, P.J. & Milligan, S.R., 1998. Testing of Labisia
pumila for oestrogenic activity using a recombinant yeast strain. Journal
ofPharmacy and Pharmacology 50 (Suppl.): 79.
412. Jansakul, C , Baumann, H., Kenne, L. & Samuelsson, G., 1987. Ardisia-
crispin A and B, two utero-contracting saponins from Ardisia crispa.
Planta Medica 53(5): 405-409.
413. Jansen, P.C.M, et al., 1991. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Basic
list of species and commodity grouping. Final version. Pudoc, Wagenin-
gen, the Netherlands. 372 pp.
414. Jansen, S., Dessein, S., Piesschaert, F., Robbrecht, E. & Smets, E., 2000.
Aluminium accumulation in leaves of Rubiaceae: systematic and phylo-
LITERATURE 499
genetic implications. Annals ofBotany 85(1): 91-101.

415. Jarikasem, S., Jiratchariyakul, W., Siritantikorn, S., Somanabandhu, A.
& Frahm, A.W., 1999. Antiviral components from Gynura procumbens
Merr. In: Proceedings of the Fourth Princess Chulabhorn International
Science Congress 'Chemicals in the 21th Century', 28 November-2 De-
cember 1999, Bangkok, Thailand.
416. Jayaseuirya, H. et al., 2000. Structure and stereochemistry of rediocide
A, a highly modified daphnane from Trigonostemon reidiodes exhibiting
potent insecticidal activity. Journal of the American Chemical Society
122(20): 4998-4999.
417. Jayatilaka, K.A.P.W. & Thabrew, M.I., 2000. Protection by Osbeckia as-
pera against carbon tetrachloride-mediated alterations in microsomal
drug metabolizing enzyme activity. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacol-
ogy 52(4):461-465.
418. Jayatilaka, K.A.P.W., Thabrew, M.I., Pathirana, C , de Silva, D.G. &
Perera, D.J., 1989. An evaluation of the potency of Osbeckia octandra
and Melothria maderaspatana as antihepatotoxic agents. Planta Medica
55(2): 137-139.
419. Jayatilaka, K.A.,Thabrew, M.I. & Perera, D.J., 1990. Effect of Melothria
maderaspatana on carbon tetrachloride-induced changes in rat hepatic
microsomal drug-metabolizing enzyme activity. Journal of Ethnophar-
macology 30(1): 97-105.
420. Jayaweera, D.M.A., 1963. The Rubiaceous genus Mussaenda: The mor-
phology of the Asiatic species. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 44:
111-126.
421. Jayaweera, D.M.A., 1963.The Rubiaceous genus Mussaenda: The species
ofIndia and Ceylon. Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 44: 232-267.
422. Jayaweera, D.M.A., 1964. The Rubiaceous genus Mussaenda: The species
ofthe Philippine islands. Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 45: 101-139.
423. Jeannoda, V.L.R., Valisolalao, J., Creppy, E.E. & Dirheimer, G., 1985.
Identification of the toxic principle of Cnestis glabra as methionine sul-
foximine. Phytochemistry 24(4): 854-855.
424. Jebb, M.H.P., 1998.A revision of the genus Trevesia (Araliaceae). Glasra
3(2): 85-113.
425. Jeffrey, C , 1969. The genus Mukia in Asia, Malesia and Australasia. Ar-
ticle accompanying Tabulae 3661, 3662, 3662, 3664. Hooker's Icônes
Plantarum 37(3).
426. Jensen, H.F.W., Jensen, S.R. & Nielsen, B.J., 1987. Eranthemoside a
new iridoid glucoside from Eranthemum pulchellum, Acanthaceae. Phy-
tochemistry 26(12): 3353-3354.
427. Jensen, S.R. & Nielsen, B.J., 1980. Iridoid glucosides in Griselinia, Ara-
lidium and Toricellia. Phytochemistry 19(12): 2685-2688.
428. Ji, X.Y., Tan, B.K. & Zhu, Y.Z., 2000. Salvia miltiorrhiza and ischemic
diseases. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 21(12): 1089-1094.
429. Jia, Z., Koike, K , Nikaido, T., Ohmoto, T. & Ni, M., 1994. Triterpenoid
saponins from Ardisia crenata and their inhibitory activity on cAMP
phosphodiesterase. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 42(11): 2309-
2314.
430. Jia, Z., Koike, K., Ohmoto, T. &Ni, M., 1994. Triterpenoid saponins from
Ardisia crenata. Phytochemistry 37(5): 1389-1396.

431. Jimenez-Misas, CA., Hernandez, N.M.R. &Abraham, A.M.L., 1979. Bio-
logical evaluation of Cuban plants I. Revista Cubana de Medicina Tropi-
cal 31: 5-12.
432. Jiratchariyakul, W., Okabe, H. & Frahm, A.W., 1996. A steroidal gluco-
side from Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) R.S. Rao & Kammathy. Thai
Journal ofPhytopharmacy 3(1): 31-39.
433. Jiratchariyakul, W., Okabe, H., Moongkarndi, P. & Frahm, A.W., 1998.
Cytotoxic glycosphingolipid from Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) Rolla
Rao &Kammathy. Thai Journal ofPhytopharmacy 5(1): 10-20.
434. Johansson, J.T., 1987. Revision of the genus Prismatomeris Thw. (Ru-
biaceae, Morindeae). Opera Botanica 94. 62 pp.
435. Johansson, J.T., 1989. Revision of the genus Rennellia Korth. (Rubia-
ceae -Rubioideae). Blumea 34: 3-19.
436. Johansson, J.T., 1994. The genus Morinda (Morindeae, Rubioideae, Ru-
biaceae) in New Caledonia: taxonomy and phylogeny. Opera Botanica No
122. 65 pp.
437. Johnson, D. (Editor), 1991.Palms for human needs in Asia: palm utiliza-
tion and conservation in India, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.
Balkema, Rotterdam &Brookfield. 258 pp.
438. Johnson, M., 2001. The genus Clematis. Magnus Johnsons Plantskola
AB. Södertälje, Sweden. 910 pp.
439. Jones, D.T., 1982. Lelang: limau of the mangrove (Merope angulata,
mangrove lime, Malaysia). Nature Malaysiana 7(3): 26-29.
440. Judd, W.S., Stern, W.L. & Cheadle, V.l., 1993. Phylogenetic position of
Apostasia and Neuwiedia (Orchidaceae). Botanical Journal of the Lin-
nean Society 113:87-94.
441. Juneja, R.K., Sharma, S.C. & Tandon, J.S., 1987. Two substituted bis-
benzyls and a dihydrophenanthrene from Cymbidium aloifolium. Phyto-
chemistry 26(4): 1123-1125.
442. Kadota, S. et al., 1990. Constituents ofthe leaves ofWoodfordia fruticosa
Kurz. I. Isolation, structure and proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic
resonance signal assignments of woodfruticosin (woodfordin C), an in-
hibitor of deoxyribonucleic acid topoisomerase II. Chemical and Pharma-
ceutical Bulletin 38(10): 2687-2697.
443. Kaido, T.L., Veale, D.J.H., Havlik, I. & Rama, D.B.K., 1997. Preliminary
screening of plants used in South Africa as traditional herbal remedies
during pregnancy and labour. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 55(3):
185-191.
444. Kakeya, H. et al., 1993. Isolation of a novel substrate-competitive tyro-
sine kinase inhibitor, desmal, from the plant Desmos chinensis. FEBS
Letters 320(2): 169-172.
445. Kamboj, S.S., Shangary, S., Singh, J., Kamboj, K.K. & Sandhu, R.S.,
1995. New lymphocyte stimulating monocot lectins from family Araceae.
Immunological Investigations 24(5): 845-855.
446. Kaneko, T. et al., 1995. Secoiridoid and flavonoid glycosides from Gono-
caryum calleryanum. Phytochemistry 39(1): 115-120.
447. Kang, J.J., Wang, H.W., Liu, T.Y., Chen, Y.C. &Ueng, T.H., 1997. Modu-
lation of cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenases, glutathione and
LITERATURE 501
glutathione S-transferase in rat liver by geniposide from Gardenia jasmi-

noides. Food and Chemical Toxicology 35:957-965.
448. Kang, Y.H., Kim, W.H., Park, M.K. & Han, B.H., 2001. Antimetastatic
and antitumor effects of benzoquinonoid AC7-1 from Ardisia crispa. In-
ternational Journal of Cancer 93(5): 736-740.
449. Kapoor, L.D., 2000. Handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants. CRC Press
Inc., Boca Raton, United States. 424 pp.
450. Kartawinata, K., 1982. Chydenanthus Miers (Lecythidaceae). Reinward-
tia 10(1): 27-34.
451. Kashiwada, Y. et al., 1998. Anti-AIDS agents. 30. Anti-HIV activity of
oleanolic acid, pomolic acid, and structurally related triterpenoids. Jour-
nal ofNatural Products 61(9): 1090-1095.
452. Kashman, Y. et al., 1992. The calanolides, a novel HIV-inhibitory class of
coumarin derivatives from the tropical rainforest tree, Calophyllum
lanigerum. Journal ofMedicinal Chemistry 35(15): 2735-2743.
453. Kasonia, K , 1995. Preliminary screening of plant extracts used in respi-
ratory pathology in Kivu/Zaire on isolated guinea pigs rings trachea. Bel-
gian Journal ofBotany 128(2): 165-175.
454. Kasparek, M., Gröger, A. & Schippmann, U., 1996. Directory for medici-
nal plant conservation. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, IUCN/SSC Medici-
nal Plant Specialist Group. Landwirtschaftsverlag, Bonn, Germany. 156
pp.
455. Kasture, V.S., Chopde, C.T. & Deshmukh, V.K., 2000. Anticonvulsive ac-
tivity of Albizzia lebbeck, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Butea monosperma
in experimental animals. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 71(1-2): 65-75.
456. Katrin, 1998. Pemeriksaan farmakognostik Dendrophthoe pentandra
(L.) Miq. dan Scurrula atropurpurea (Bl.) Dans. [The pharmacognosy of
Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq. and Scurrula atropurpurea (Bl.)
Dans.]. Warta Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 4(4):2-5.
457. Keng, H., 1970. Further observations on Ancistrocladus tectorius (An-
cistrocladaceae). Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 25: 235-237.
458. Keng, H., 1984. Florae Malesianae precursores - LVIII, part two. The
genus Gordonia (Theaceae) in Malesia. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore
37(1): 1-47.
459. Keng, H., 1990. The concise flora of Singapore. Gymnosperms and Di-
cotyledons. Singapore University Press, Singapore. 222 pp.
460. Kessler, P.J.A. (Editor), 2000. Secondary forest trees of Kalimantan, In-
donesia. A manual to 300 selected species. Tropenbos Kalimantan Series
3. MOFEC Tropenbos-Kalimantan Project, Wanariset Samboja, Balikpa-
pan, Indonesia. 404 pp.
461. Ketchum, R.E., Gibson, D.M., Croteau, R.B. & Shuler, M.L., 1999. The
kinetics of taxoid accumulation in cell suspension cultures of Taxus fol-
lowing elicitation with methyl jasmonate. Biotechnology and Bioengi-
neering 62(1): 97-105.
462. Khan, M.R., Kihara, M. & Omoloso, A.D., 2000. Antimicrobial activity of
Evodia elleryana. Fitoterapia 71: 72-74.
463. Khan, M.R., Kihara, M. & Omoloso, A.D., 2001.Antibacterial activity of
Picrasma javanica. Fitoterapia 72(4): 406-408.
464. Khan, M.R., Kihara, M. & Omoloso, A.D., 2001.Antimicrobial activity of
Clematis papuasica and Nauclea obversifolia. Fitoterapia 72(5): 575-278.

Omalanthus nervosus. Fitoterapia 72(3):281-283.
Symplocos cochinchinensis. Fitoterapia 72(7): 825-828.
467. Khan, M.R., Komine, K. & Omoloso, A.D., 1998.Antimicrobial activity of
Uvaria cordata. Fitoterapia 69(2): 177-178.
468. Khan, M.R. & Mlungwana, S.M., 1999. Gamma-sitosterol, a cytotoxic
sterol from Markhamia zanzibarica and Kigelia africana. Fitoterapia
70(1): 96-97.
469. Khan, M.T.J. &Ashraf, M., 1991.Chemistry and antibacterial activity of
the constituents of the leaves of Ardisia solanacea. Fitoterapia 62(1):
65-68.
470. Kher, A., 1978. Antibacterial activity in Ammannia baccifera. Bulletin of
the Botanical Society, University ofSaugar 25: 1-3.
471. Kiew, R., 1984. The genus Myxopyrum L. (Oleaceae). Blumea 29(2):
499-512.
472. Kiew, R., 1989. Lowland species of Pentaphragma (Pentaphragma-
taceae) in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Malayan Nature Journal
43: 1-12.
473. Kiew, R. &Vollesen, K., 1997.Asystasia (Acanthaceae) in Malaysia. Kew
Bulletin 52(4): 965-971.
474. Kiew, R. et al., 1987. A phytochemical survey at Ulu Endau, Johore,
Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal 41: 329-336.
475. Kikuchi T. et al., 1981. The constituents of orchidaceous plants 1. Con-
stituents of Nervilia purpurea and Nervilia aragoana 1. Chemical and
476. Kim, H.S., Lim, H.K., Chung, M.W. & Kim, Y.C., 2000. Antihepatotoxic
activity of bergenin, the major constituent of Mallotus japonicus, on car-
bon tetrachloride-intoxicated hepatocytes. Journal of Ethnopharmacolo-
gy 69(1): 79-83.
477. Kim, H.Y. & Han, S.W., 1996. Zizyphus jujuba and Codonopsis pilosula
stimulate nitric oxide release in cultured endothelial cells and kidney tis-
sues. Asia Pacific Journal ofPharmacology 11(3/4): 121-128.
478. Kim, K.H. &Wong, B.L., 1998. Pharmacological, electrophysiological and
toxicity studies of Limacia scandens Lour. (Menispermaceae). Journal of
479. Kim, M.K. et al., 1999. Screening of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase
(ACAT) inhibitors from natural sources. Korean Journal of Pharmacog-
nosy 30(4): 384-396 (in Korean).
480. Kim, N.C., Desjardins, A.E., Wu, C D . & Kinghorn, A.D., 1999. Activity
of triterpenoid glycosides from the root bark of Mussaenda macrophylla
against two oral pathogens. Journal of Natural Products 62(10): 1379-
1384.
481. Kim, S.Y., Son, K.H., Chang, H.W., Kang, S.S. &Kim, H.P., 1999. Inhibi-
tion of mouse ear edema by steroidal and triterpenoid saponins. Archives
ofPharmacal Research Seoul: 22(3): 313-316.
482. Kim, Y.C. et al., 1997. Effect of the aqueous extract of Aquilaria agal-
locha stems on the immediate hypersensitivity reactions. Journal of
LITERATURE 503

483. Kirtikar, K.R. & Basil, B.D., 1935. Indian medicinal plants. 4 volumes.
2nd Edition, edited by Blatter, E., Caius, J.F., Mhaskar, K.S. & Basu,
L.H. Allahabad, India, xxxvii +2793 pp.
484. Kitagawa, I., Mahmud, T., Kobayashi, M., Roemantyo & Shibuya, H.,
1995. Taxol and its related taxoids from the needles ofTaxus sumatrana.
485. Kitagawa, I. et al., 1993. Dehatrine, an antimalarial bisbenzylisoquino-
line alkaloid from the Indonesian medicinal plant Beilschmiedia
madang, isolated as a mixture of two rotational isomers. Chemical and
486. Kitaoka, M. et al., 1998. Prenylflavonoids: a new class of non-steroidal
phytoestrogen (Part 1). Isolation of 8-isopentenylnaringenin and an ini-
tial study on its structure-activity relationship. Planta Medica 64(6):
511-515.
487. Kittakoop, P., Kirtikara, K , Tanticharoen, M. & Thebtaranonth,Y.,
2000. Antimalarial preracemosols A and B, possible biogenetic precur-
sors of racemosol from Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Phytochemistry 55(4):
349-352.
488. Kleijn, D. &van Donkelaar, R., 2001.Notes on the taxonomy and ecology
of the genus Hoya (Asclepiadaceae) in central Sulawesi. Blumea 46(3):
457-483.
489. Klippel, K.F., Hiltl, D.M. & Schipp, B., 1997. A multicentric, placebo-
controlled, double-blind clinical trial of ß-sitosterol (phytosterol) for the
treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. British Journal of Urology
80(3): 427-432.
490. Kloner, R.A., 2000. Cardiovascular risk and sildenafil. American Journal
ofCardiology 86 (supplement): 57F-61F.
491. Kloppenburg-Versteegh, J., 1934. Wenken en raadgevingen betreffende
het gebruik van Indische planten, vruchten, enz. [Hints and recommen-
dations on the use ofEast-Indies plants, fruits etc.]. G.T.C, van Dorp, Se-
marang, Surabaya, Bandung, Dutch East Indies. (5th Edition. 1978.
Servire, Katwijk aan Zee,the Netherlands). 364 pp.
492. Ko, F.N., Wu, T.S., Liou, M.J., Huang, T.F. & Teng, CM., 1992. PAF an-
tagonism in vitro and in vivo by aglafoline from Aglaia elliptifolia Merr.
European Journal of Pharmacology 218(1): 129-135.
493. Ko, F.N. et al., 1994. (-)-Discretamine, a selective a-lD-adrenoceptor an-
tagonist, isolated from Fissistigma glaucescens. British Journal of Phar-
macology 112(4): 1174-1180.
494. Kobuski, C E . , 1952. Studies in the Theaceae, XXV. The genus Anneslea.
Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 33: 79-90.
495. Köhler, E. & Brückner, P., 1989. The genus Buxus (Buxaceae): aspects of
its differentiation in space and time. Plant Systematics and Evolution
162: 267-283.
496. Koike, K , Ishii, K , Mitsunaga, K. & Ohmoto, T., 1991.New quassinoids
from Picrasma javanica. Structures of javanicins U, V, W, X and Y.
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 39(8):2021-2023.
497. Koike, K., Yokoh, M., Furukawa, M., Ishii, S. & Ohmoto, T., 1995. Pi-
crasane quassinoids from Picrasma javanica. Phytochemistry 40(1):
233-238.
498. Kokpol, U. et al., 1990. Structure of trigonostemone, a new phenan-
threnone from the Thai plant Trigonostemon reidioides. Journal of Nat-
ural Products 53(5): 1148-1151.
499. Kokwaro, J.O., 1976. Medicinal plants of East Africa. East African Liter-
ature Bureau, Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam. 384 pp.
500. Kondo, Y., Takano, F. & Hojo, H., 1994. Suppression of chemically and
immunologically induced hepatic injuries by gentiopicroside in mice.
501. Konoshima, T., Takasaki, M., Tokuda, H. & Nishino, H., 2000. Cancer
chemopreventive activity of an iridoid glycoside, 8-acetylharpagide, from
Ajuga decumbens. Cancer Letters 157(1): 87-92.
502. Koster, J.T., 1980. The Compositae of New Guinea 7. Blumea 26: 2 3 3 -
243.
503. Kosuge, T. et al., 1985. Studies on bioactive substances in the Chinese
Materia Medica used for arthritic diseases in traditional Chinese medi-
cine. I. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effect of Chinese Materia Med-
ica use for arthritic diseases. Yakugaku Zasshi 105(9): 845-847 (in
Japanese).
504. Kosuge, T. et al., 1986. Studies on Chinese medicines for cancer. III. Cy-
totoxic constituents against HeLa cells in the fruit of Trapa bispinosa
Roxb.Yakugaku Zasshi 106(2): 183-185 (in Japanese).
505. Koul, O. et al., 1997. Bioefficacy of crude extracts ofAglaia species (Meli-
aceae) and some active fractions against lepidopteran larvae. Journal of
Applied Entomology 121(4): 245-248.
506. Koyama, H., 1995. A revision of the genus Salomonia (Polygonaceae).
Bulletin ofthe National Science Museum, Series B:Botany, 21(1): 1-12.
507. Koytchev, R., Aiken, R.G. & Dundarov, S., 1999. Balm mint extract
(Lo-701) for topical treatment of recurring herpes labialis. Phytomedi-
cine 6(4): 225-230.
508. Krishna, V. & Singh, P., 1999. A clerodane derivative from Grangea
maderaspatana. Phytochemistry 52(7): 1341-1343.
509. Krishnakumari, G.N., Bhuvaneswari, B. & Raja-Swapna, I., 2001. An-
tifeedant activity of quinones from Ventilago madaraspatana. Fito-
terapia 72(6): 671-675.
510. Kubitzki, K. (Editor), 1990-. The families and genera of vascular plants.
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany.
511. Kuiate, J.R. et al., 1999. Composition of the essential oils from the leaves
of Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) O. Kuntze and Helichrysum odoratissi-
mum (L.) Less, growing in Cameroon. Flavour and Fragrance Journal
14(2): 82-84.
512. Kulkarni, D.K., Kumbhojkar, M.S. & Nipunage, D.S., 1990. Note on fish
stupefying plants from western Maharashtra. Indian Forester 116:
331-333.
513. Kumar, K.C.S. &Müller, K , 1999. Medicinal plants from Nepal. II. Eval-
uation as inhibitors of lipid peroxidation in biological membranes. Jour-
nal ofEthnopharmacology 64(2): 135-139.
514. Kumar, T.K., Ranjini, C E . & Sasidharan, V.K., 1997. Antibacterial and
antifungal activity of secondary metabolites from some medicinal and
LITERATURE 505
other common plant species. Journal ofLife Science 2: 14-19.

515. Kumar, V., Niyaz, N.M.M. & Wickramaratne, D.B.M., 1995. Coumarins
from stem bark of Paramignya monophylla. Phytochemistry 38(3):
805-806.
516. Kunht, M., Probstle, A., Rimpler, H., Bauer, R. & Heinrich, M., 1995. Bi-
ological and pharmacological activities and further constituents of Hyp-
tis verticillata. Planta Medica 61(3): 227-232.
517. Kuo,Y.H. et al., 1997. Cytotoxic constituents from the stems of Diospyros
maritima. Planta Medica 63(4): 363-365.
518. Kuramochi-Motegi, A. et al., 1992. Woodfruticosin (woodfordin C), a new
inhibitor ofDNA topoisomerase II. Experimental antitumor activity. Bio-
chemical Pharmacology 44(10): 1961-1965.
519. Kusumoto, I.T. et al., 1992. Inhibitory effects of Indonesian plant ex-
tracts on reverse transcriptase of an RNA tumour virus (I). Phytotherapy
Research 6(5): 241-244.
520. Kusumoto, I.T. et al., 1992. Screening of some Indonesian medicinal
plants for inhibitory effects of HIV-1 protease. Shoyakugaku Zasshi
46(2): 190-193.
521. Kvaltinova, Z., Lukovic, L., Machova, J. & Fatranska, M., 1991.Effect of
the steroidal alkaloid buxaminol E on blood pressure, acetylcholin-
esterase activity and (3H)quinuclidinyl benzilate binding in cerebral cor-
tex. Pharmacology 43(1):20-25.
522. Kwon, H.C., Lee, K.R. & Zee, O.K., 1997. Cytotoxic constituents of Pilea
mongolica. Archives ofPharmacal Research Seoul 20(2): 180-183.
523. Lakshnakara Kashemsanta, M.C., Suvatabandhu, K. &Airy Shaw, H.K.,
1953. A new species of Pueraria (Leguminosae) from Thailand, yielding
an oestrogenic principle. Kew Bulletin 7(4): 549-551.
524. Lam, S.K., Abu Bakar, Z.A., Chua, K.S. & Ismail, R., 1997. Acute hy-
potensive effect of Gynura procumbens in the rat: a comparison with syn-
thetic hypotensive agents. In: Proceedings of the 12th Scientific Meeting
of the Malaysian Society of Pharmacology and Physiology, 2-3 June
1997. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
525. Lam, T.L. et al., 2000. A comparison of human immunodeficiency virus
type-1 protease inhibition activities by the aqueous and methanol ex-
tracts of Chinese medicinal herbs. Life Sciences 67: 2889-2896.
526. Lammers, T.G., 2001.Further nomenclatural innovations in world Cam-
panulaceae. Novon 11(1): 67-68.
527. Lange, D. & Schippmann, U., 1997. Trade survey of medicinal plants in
Germany. A contribution to international plant species conservation.
Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn, Germany. 128 pp. + annexes.
528. Latiff, A., 1982. Flavonols, ellagic acid and anthocyanidins in leaves of
some Malesian Vitaceae. Malaysian Journal ofScience 6(A): 95-100.
529. Latiff, A., 1984. Studies in Malesian Vitaceae. VII. The genus Tetrastig-
ma in the Malay Peninsula. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 36(2): 213-228.
530. Latiff, A. & Mat Salleh, K , 1999. Studies in Malesian Vitaceae: 11. Pte-
risanthes in Borneo, with additional notes on P. grandis and P. hirtiflora.
Sandakania 13:67-78.
531. Le Dien, 1977. Trong cay Dang sam o Son La [Planting Campanumoea
javanica in Son La].Thong bao Duoc lieu 9(1): 42-46.
532. Le Tran Duc, 1997. Medicinal plants ofVietnam. Agricultural Publishing

House, Hanoi, Vietnam. 310 pp.
533. Le Tung Chau et al., 1984. Summary result of study on 'Bo bo' (Adenos-
ma bilabiatum (Roxb.) Merr.). Thong bao Duoc lieu [Bulletin of Pharma-
ceutical Material] 16(1,2): 15-24.
534. Leaman, D.J., Yusuf, R. & Sangat-Roemantyo, H., 1991. Kenyah Dayak
forest medicines. Prospects for development and implications for conser-
vation. Report for the World Wide Fund for Nature, Indonesia Pro-
gramme. 34 pp. + appendices.
535. Lee, J.H., Kwon, J.T., Cho, B.H. & Moon, CK., 1993. Cyclobuxine pro-
tects the isolated rat heart from the myocardial injuries produced by is-
chemia and reperfusion. Planta Medica 59(4): 296-301.
536. Lee, S.K., Cui, B., Mehta, R.R., Kinghorn, A.D. & Pezzuto, J.M., 1998.
Cytostatic mechanism and antitumor potential of novel lH-cyclopen-
ta[b]benzofuran lignans isolated from Aglaia elliptica. Chemico-Biologi-
cal Interactions 115(3): 215-228.
537. Lee-Huang, S. et al., 1994. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1
(HIV-1) inhibition, DNA-binding, RNA-binding, and ribosome inactiva-
tion activities in the N-terminal segments of the plant anti-HIV protein
GAP31. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States ofAmerica 91(25): 11082-12212.
538. Leewanich, P. et al., 1996. Behavioral studies of alkaloids extracted from
the leaves of Hunteria zeylanica. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin
19(3): 394-399.
539. Leewanich, P. et al., 1997. Inhibitory effects of corymine, an alkaloidal
component from the leaves of Hunteria zeylanica, on glycine receptors
expressed in Xenopus oocytes. European Journal of Pharmacology
332(3): 321-326.
540. Lemmens, R.H.M.J., 1992. A reconsideration of Ellipanthus (Con-
naraceae) in Madagascar and continental Africa, and a comparison with
the species in Asia. Bulletin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle,
4e série, section B,Adansonia, 14(1): 99-108.
541. Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Editors), 1995.
Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor com-
mercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. 655 pp.
542. Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant Re-
sources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Pu-
doc, Wageningen, the Netherlands. 196 pp.
543. Li, G.L. & Zhu, D.Y., 1999. Two dichromenes from Evodia lepta. Journal
ofAsian Natural Products Research 1(4): 337-341.
544. Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors), 1975-1979. Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae. 6
volumes. Epoch Publishing Co.,Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
545. Li, H.-Y. et al., 1993. Anti-AIDS agents: 9. Suberosol, a new C-31 lanos-
tane-type triterpene and anti-HIV principle from Polyalthia suberosa.
546. Li, L. et al., 1993. Chemical studies of Strobilanthes cusia. Acta Pharma-
ceutica Sinica 28(3):238-240 (in Chinese).
547. Liao, S.X., Han, G.Y., Zhang, Y.R., Zheng, Q.T. &He, C.H., 1989. Studies
on the chemical constituents of the root of Desmos cochinchinensis Lour.
LITERATURE 507
Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica 24(2): 110-113 (in Chinese).

548. Liao, Y.H., 1997. Three cyclohexene oxides from Uvaria grandiflora. Phy-
tochemistry 45(4): 729-732.
549. Likhitwitayawuid, K., Dej-adisai, S., Jongbunprasert, V. & Krungkrai,
J., 1999. Antimalarials from Stephania venosa, Prismatomeris sessiliflo-
ra, Diospyros montana and Murraya siamensis. Planta Medica 65(8):
754-756.
550. Lim, S.-N., 1972. Cytogenetics and taxonomy ofthe genus Globba L. (Zin-
giberaceae) in Malaya I: Taxonomy. Notes from the Royal Botanic Gar-
den Edinburgh 31(2): 243-269.
551. Lim, S.-N., 1972. Cytogenetics and taxonomy ofthe genus Globba L. (Zin-
giberaceae) in Malaya II: Cytogenetics. Notes from the Royal Botanic
Garden Edinburgh 31(2): 271-285.
552. Lin, C.C., Chang, C.H., Yang, J.J., Namba, T. & Hattori, M., 1996. He-
patoprotective effects of emodin from Ventilago leiocarpa. Journal of
553. Lin, C.C., Lin, J.K. & Chang, C.H., 1995. Evaluation of hepatoprotective
effects of 'chhit-chan-than' from Taiwan. International Journal of Phar-
macognosy 33(2): 139-143.
554. Lin, C.C., Lin, J.M. & Chiu, H.F., 1992. Studies on folk medicine 'thang-
kau-tin' from Taiwan. (I) The anti-inflammatory and liver-protective ef-
fect. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 20(1): 37-50.
555. Lin, C.C. & Namba, T., 1982. Pharmacognostical studies on the crude
drugs of Orchidaceae from Taiwan 10. On koan-lan-hioh. Shoyakugaku
Zasshi 36(2): 119-131 (in Japanese).
556. Lin, C.C, Sung, T.C. &Yen, M.H., 1994. The antiinflammatory and liver
protective effects of Boussingaultia gracilis var. pseudobaselloides ex-
tract in rats. Phytotherapy Research 8(4): 201-207.
557. Lin, C.-H., et al., 1994. Pharmacological characteristics of liriodenine,
isolated from Fissistigma glaucescens, a novel muscarenic receptor an-
tagonist in guinea-pigs. British Journal of Pharmacology 113(1):
275-281.
558. Lin, C.N., Kuo, S.H., Chung, M.I., Ko, F.N. & Teng, CM., 1997. A new
flavone C-glycoside and antiplatelet and vasorelaxing flavones from Gen-
tiana arisanensis. Journal ofNatural Products 60(8): 851-853.
559. Lin, C.N. & Tome, W.P., 1988. Antihepatotoxic principles of Sambucus
formosana. Planta Medica 54(3): 223-224.
560. Lin, D., 1988. Tissue culture of Rhaphidophora decursiva shoot tips and
stem nodes in vitro.Acta Botanica Yunnanica 10(4): 499-500.
561. Lin, H.-Y., Kuo, S.-C, Lee Chao, P.-D. & Lin, T.-D., 1988. A new sa-
pogenin from Boussingaultia gracilis. Journal of Natural Products 51(4):
797-798.
562. Lin, J.M., Lin, C.C, Chen, M.F., Ujiie, T. &Takada, A., 1995. Scavenging
effects of Mallotus répandus on active oxygen species. Journal of Ethno-
pharmacology 46(3): 175-181.
563. Lin, L.Z. et al., 1995. Lycorine alkaloids from Hymenocallis littoralis.
564. Lin, S.-T. & Chien, W.-T., 1997. Silvicultural studies on Taiwan yew
(Taxus sumatrana). (II) Effects of different light quantum regimes on the
seedling performance of Taiwan yew. Quaterly Journal of the Experi-

mental Forest ofNational Taiwan University 11(1):81-98 (in Chinese).
565. Lin, T.J., Lu, C.C., Chen, K.W. & Deng, J.F., 1996. Outbreak of obstruc-
tive ventilatory impairment associated with consumption of Sauropus
androgynus vegetable. Journal of Toxicology, Clinical Toxicology 34(1):
1-8.
566. Lin, T.J. et al., 1998. Calcium oxalate is the main toxic component in
clinical presentations ofAlocasia macrorrhiza (L.) Schott &Endl. poison-
ings. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 40(2): 93-95.
567. Lin, W.-C. et al., 1997. Inhibitory effects of ethanolic extracts of Boussin-
gaultia gracilis on the spasmogen-induced contractions ofthe rat isolated
gastric fundus. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 56(1): 89-93.
568. Lin, W.Y., Teng, CM., Tsai, I.L. & Chen, LS., 2000. Anti-platelet aggre-
gation constituents from Gynura elliptica. Phytochemistry 53: 833-836.
569. Lin, Y.L., Tsai, Y.L, Kuo, Y.H., Liu, Y.H. & Shiao, M.S., 1999. Phenolic
compounds from Tournefortia sarmentosa. Journal of Natural Products
62(11): 1500-1503.
570. Lin, Y.-L. et al., 1997. Two new puriniums and three new pyrimidines
from Heterostemma brownii. Journal of Natural Products 60(10): 982-
985.
571. Ling, S.K., Tanaka, T. & Kouno, I., 2002. New cyanogenic and alkyl gly-
coside constituents from Phyllagathis rotundifolia. Journal of Natural
Products 65(2): 131-135.
572. Ling, S.K. et al., 2002. Iridoids and anthraquinones from the Malaysian
medicinal plant Saprosma scortechinii (Rubiaceae). Chemical and Phar-
maceutical Bulletin 50(8): 1035-1040.
573. Ling, S.K. et al., 2002. Sulfur-containing bis-iridoid glucosides and iri-
doid glucosides from Saprosma scortechinii. Journal of Natural Products
65(5): 656-660.
574. Liu, F. &Ng, T.B., 2000. Antioxidative and free radical scavenging activ-
ities of selected medicinal herbs. Life Sciences 66(8): 725-735.
575. Long, R.W., 1976. Biosystematics of Ruellia tuberosa L. (Acanthaceae).
American Journal ofBotany 63(7): 951-959.
576. Lozoya-Meckes, M. &Mellado-Campos, V., 1985. Is the Tecoma stans in-
fusion an antidiabetic remedy? Journal ofEthnopharmacology 14(1): 1-9.
577. Lu, C F . , Yang, L.L. &Yen, K.Y., 1992. Immunomodulative effects of Tai-
wan herbs. Journal of the Chinese Society of Veterinary Science 18(4):
233-242 (in Chinese).
578. Lu, Y. & Foo, L.Y., 2002. Polyphenolics of Salvia - a review. Phytochem-
istry 59(2): 117-140.
579. Lubis, I., Sastrapradja, S., Lubis, S.H.A. & Sastrapradja, D., 1981. L-di-
hydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa) in Mucuna seeds. Annales Bogorienses
7(3): 107-114.
580. Luo, D., Li, Y., Deng, S. & Zeng, X., 1991. Prophylactic effect of refined
Amorphophallus konjac on MNNG-induced lung cancers in mice. Journal
of West China University of Medical Sciences 22(3): 287-291 (in Chi-
nese).
581. Ma, X. et al., 1994. Cytotoxic clerodane diterpenes from Polyalthia bar-
nesii. Phytochemistry 37(6): 1659-1662.
LITERATURE 509
582. Maas, P.J.M. & Westra, L.Y.Th., 1984. Studies in Annonaceae. II. A
monograph of the genus Anaxagorea A. St. Hil. Part 1. Botanische
Jahrbücher für Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie 105(1):
73-134.
583. Maas, P.J.M. & Westra, L.Y.Th., 1985. Studies in Annonaceae. IL A
monograph of the genus Anaxagorea A. St. Hil. Part 2. Botanische
Jahrbücher für Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie 105(2):
145-204.
584. Mackeen, M.M. et al., 1997. Antinematodal activity of some Malaysian
plant extracts against the pine wood nematode Bursaphelenchus xy-
lophilus. Pesticide Science 51(2): 165-170.
585. Madan, B. & Ghosh, B., 2002. Canscora decussata promotes adhesion of
neutrophils to human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Journal of
586. Maguire, B., 1976.Apomixis in the genus Clusia (Clusiaceae) -A prelimi-
nary report. Taxon 25: 241-244.
587. Mahmood, K. et al., 1991. Cyathostemmine, a new shikimic acid deriva-
tive from Cyathostemma viridiflorum Griff. Tetrahedron Letters 32(43):
6117-6120.
588. Majumder, P.L. & Banerjee, S., 1988. Structure of flavanthrin, the first
dimeric 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene derivative from the orchid Eria flava.
Tetrahedron 44(23): 7303-7308.
589. Majumder, P.L. & Banerjee, S., 1990. Two stilbenoids from the orchid
Eria flava. Phytochemistry 29(9): 3052-3055.
590. Majumder, P.L. & Kar, A., 1987. Confusarin and confusaridin, two
phenanthrene derivatives of the orchid Eria confusa. Phytochemistry
26(4): 1127-1129.
591. Majumder, P.L. & Kar, A., 1989. Erianol, a 4-a-methylsterol from the or-
chid Eria convallarioides. Phytochemistry 28(5): 1487-1490.
592. Malhotra, S., Taneja, S.C. & Dhar, K.L., 1989. Minor alkaloid from
Coscinium fenestratum. Phytochemistry 28(7): 1998-1999.
593. Mall, S.L. & Singh, V.P., 1976. Effect of light intensity duration and fer-
tilizers on variability of alkaloid production in Ammannia baccifera.
Journal ofthe Indian Botanical Society 55(1): 71-74.
594. Mallavadhani, U.V., Panda, A.K. & Rao, Y.R., 1998. Review article num-
ber 134. Pharmacology and chemotaxonomy of Diospyros. Phytochem-
istry 49(4): 901-951.
595. Mander, L.N. &Wells, A.P., 1997. Regiocontrol in the rhodium (II) catal-
ysed reactions of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-l-naphthyl diazomethyl ketones: Po-
tential applications to the synthesis of Galbulimima alkaloids. Tetrahe-
dron Letters 38(32): 5709-5712.
596. Manfredi, K.P., Britton, M., Vissieche, V. & Pannell, L.K., 1996. Three
new naphthyldihydroisoquinoline alkaloids from Ancistrocladus tecto-
rius. Journal ofNatural Products 59(9): 854-859.
597. Mani, U.V., Sharma, M., Waghray, K , Iyer, U. &Mani, I., 1989. Effect of
Colocasia leaves (Colocasia antiquorum) on serum and tissue lipids in
cholesterol-fed rats. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 39(3): 245-255.
598. Mann, P., Tofern, B., Kaloga, M. & Eich, E., 1999. Flavonoid sulfates
from the Convolvulaceae. Phytochemistry 50(2): 267-271.
599. Mantle, D., Lennard, T.W. & Pickering, A.T., 2000. Therapeutic applica-
tions of medicinal plants in the treatment of breast cancer: a review of
their pharmacology, efficacy and tolerability. Adverse Drug Reactions
and Toxicological Reviews 19(3): 223-240.
600. Markgraf, F., 1984. Florae Malesianae Praecursores LXVI. Apocynaceae
VII. Hunteria, Lepiniopsis. Blumea 30(1): 169-172.
601. Masuda, K., Funayama, S., Komiyama, K., Umezawa, I. & Ito, L., 1987.
Constituents of Tritonia crocosmaeflora. I. Tricrozarin A, a novel antimi-
crobial naphthazarin derivative. Journal of Natural Products 50(3):
418-421.
602. Masuda, K., Funayama, S., Komiyama, K., Umezawa, I. & Ito, L., 1987.
Constituents of Tritonia crocosmaeflora. II. Tricrozarin B, an antitumor
naphthazarin derivative. Journal ofNatural Products 50(5): 958-960.
603. Matsuda, H., Cai, H., Kubo, M., Tosa, H. & Iinuma, M., 1995. Study of
anti-cataract drugs from natural sources: II. Effects of Buddlejae Flos on
in vitro aldose reductase activity. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin
18(3): 463-466.
604. Matsuse, LT., Lim, Y.A., Hattori, M., Correa, M. & Gupta, M.P., 1999. A
search for anti-viral properties in Panamian medicinal plants. The ef-
fects on HIV and its essential enzymes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
64(1): 15-22.
605. Matsuura, N., Iinuma, M. & Tanaka, T., 1994. Phylogenetic analysis in
genus Euchresta based on secondary metabolites. Biochemical Systemat-
ics and Ecology 22(6): 621-629.
606. Matsuura, N., Iinuma, M., Tanaka, T. & Mizuno, M., 1995. Chemotaxo-
nomic approach to the genus Euchresta based on prenylflavonoids and
prenylflavanones in roots of Euchresta formosana. Biochemical System-
atics and Ecology 23(5): 539-545.
607. Matthee, G., Wright, A.D. & König, G.M., 1999. HIV reverse transcrip-
tase inhibitors ofnatural origin. Planta Medica 65(6): 493-506.
608. Matthew, K.M., 1981-1988. The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. 4 vol-
umes. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirapalli, In-
dia.
609. Maxwell, J.F., 1982. Taxonomie and nomenclatural notes on Oxyspora
D C , Anerincleistus Korth., Poikilogyne Baker f., and Allomorphia Bl.
(Melastomataceae, tribe Oxysporeae). Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 35(2):
209-226.
610. Mayer, R., 1999. Calycopterones and calyflorenones, novel biflavonoids
from Calycopteris floribunda. Journal of Natural Products 62(9):
1274-1278.
611. Mayo, S.J., Bogner, J. & Boyce, P.C., 1997. The genera of Araceae. The
Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. 370 pp.
612. Maznah Ismail, Manickam, E., Danial, A.M., Asmah Rahmat & Asmah
Yahaya, 2000. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of Strobi-
lanthes crispus leaf extract. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 11:
536-542.
613. Mazumdar, U.K., Gupta, M. & Maiti, S., 1999. Chemical and pharmaco-
logical evaluation of Hygrophila spinosa root. Indian Journal of Pharma-
ceutical Sciences 61(3): 181-183.
LITERATURE 511
614. Mazumdar, U.K., Gupta, M., Maiti, S. &Mukherjee, D., 1997. Antitumor
activity of Hygrophila spinosa on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and sar-
coma-180 induced mice. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 35(5):
473-477.
615. McCormick, J.L., McKee, T.C., Cardellina II, J.H. & Boyd, M.R., 1996.
HIV inhibitory natural products. 26. Quinoline alkaloids from Euodia
oxburghiana. Journal ofNatural Products 59(5): 469-471.
616. McKee et al., 1998. Pyranocoumarins from tropical species of the genus
Calophyllum: a chemotaxonomic study ofextracts in the National Cancer
Institute collection. Journal ofNatural Products 61(10): 1252-1256.
617. Mengi, S.A. & Deshpande, S.G., 1995. Comparative evaluation of Butea
frondosa and flurbiprofen for ocular anti-inflammatory activity in rab-
bits. Journal ofPharmacy and Pharmacology 47(12A):997-1001.
618. Merrill, E.D., 1912. A flora of Manila. Department of the Interior, Bu-
reau ofScience, Manila, the Philippines. 491 pp.
619. Merrill, E.D., 1915. Studies on Philippine Anonaceae, I. Philippine Jour-
nal ofScience, C. Botany 10(4): 227-264.
620. Merrill, E.D., 1917. An interpretation of Rumphius's Herbarium am-
boinense. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bureau of
Science, Publication No 9. Bureau ofPrinting, Manila. 590 pp.
621. Merrill, E.D., 1923-1926. An enumeration ofPhilippine flowering plants.
4 volumes. Bureau ofPrinting, Manila, the Philippines.
622. Mez, C , 1902. Myrsinaceae. In: Engler, A. (Editor): Das Pflanzenreich.
Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany. Vol. 4, (fam.) 236 (Heft 9). 437
pp.
623. Miah, M.A.T., Ahmed, H.U., Sharma, N.R., Ali, A. & Miah, S.A., 1990.
Antifungal activity of some plant extracts. Bangladesh Journal of Botany
19(1): 5-10.
624. Middleton, D.J., 1995. A revision of Papuechites (Apocynaceae). Blumea
40(2): 439-442.
625. Middleton, D.J., 1996. A revision of Aganosma (Blume) G. Don (Apocy-
naceae). Kew Bulletin 51(3): 455-482.
626. Mimaki, Y. et al., 2001. Flavonol glycosides and steroidal saponins from
the leaves of Cestrum nocturnum and their cytotoxicity. Journal of Nat-
ural Products 64(1): 17-22.
627. Min, B.S. et al., 2001.Inhibitory effects of Korean plants on HIV-1 activi-
ties. Phytotherapy Research 15(6): 481-486.
628. Minderhoud, M.E. & de Vogel, E.F., 1986. A taxonomie revision of the
genus Acriopsis Reinwardt ex Blume (Acriopsidinae, Orchidaceae). Or-
chid Monographs. Vol. 1.E.J. Brill/Rijksherbarium, Leiden, pp. 1-16.
629. Mishra, P. & Agarwal, R.K., 1988. Some pharmacological actions of the
essential oil ofLuvunga scandens. Fitoterapia 59(6): 441-448.
630. Misra, P., Pal, N.L., Guru, P.Y., Katiyar, J.C. &Tandon, J.S., 1991.Anti-
malarial activity oftraditional plants against erythrocytic stages of Plas-
modium berghei. International Journal ofPharmacognosy 29(1): 19-23.
631. Mitscher, L.A. & Baker, W., 1998. Tuberculosis: a search for novel thera-
py starting with natural products. Medicinal Research Reviews 18(6):
363-374.
632. Miura, T., Nishiyama, Y., Ichimaru, M., Moriyasu, M. & Kato, A., 1996.
Hypoglycemic activity and structure-activity relationship ofiridoidal gly-

cosides. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 19(1): 160-161.
633. Miyamae, A., Fujioka, M., Koda, S. & Morimoto, Y., 1989. Structural
studies of FR900359, a novel cyclic depsipeptide from Ardisia crenata
Sims (Myrsinaceae). Perkins Transactions I No 5: 873-878.
634. Miyamoto, M. et al., 1998. Prenylflavonoids: a new class of non-steroidal
phytoestrogen (Part 2). Estrogenic effects of 8-isopentenylnaringenin on
bone metabolism. Planta Medica 64(6): 516-519.
635. Mohamad, K. et al., 1997.Argenteanones C-E and argenteanols B-E, cy-
totoxic cycloartanes from Aglaia argentea. Journal of Natural Products
60(2): 81-85.
636. Mohamad, K. et al., 1999. Cytotoxic 3,4-secoapotirucallanes from Aglaia
argentea bark. Journal ofNatural Products 62(2): 868-872.
637. Mohd Ilham Adenan, 1998. Opportunities on the planting of medicinal
and herbal plants in Malaysia. Planter 74, 867: 339-342.
638. Mohtar, M., Shaari, K., Ali, N.A.M. & Ali, A.M., 1998. Antimicrobial ac-
tivity of selected Malaysian plants against micro-organisms related to
skin infections. Journal ofTropical Forest Products 4(2): 199-206.
639. Moideen, S.V., Houghton, P.J., Rock, P., Croft, S.L. & Aboagye, N.F.,
1999. Activity of extracts and naphthoquinones from Kigelia pinnata
against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhode-
siense. Planta Medica 65(6): 536-540.
640. Moldenke, H.N., 1980. Additional notes on the genus Sphenodesme. I.
Phytologia 46(2): 121-134.
641. Moldenke, H.N., 1980. Additional notes on the genus Sphenodesme. II.
Phytologia 46(3): 156-172.
642. Moldenke, H.N., 1982. Additional notes on the genus Geunsia. IV. Phy-
tologia 50(5): 360-378.
643. Montagnac, A., Hadi, A.H.A., Remy, F. & Pais, M., 1995. Isoquinoline al-
kaloids from Ancistrocladus tectorius. Phytochemistry 39(3): 701-704.
644. Moosbrugger, I., Bischoff, P., Beck, J.P., Luu, B. & Borg, J., 1992. Stud-
ies on the immunological effects of fatty alcohols: I. Effects of n-hexa-
cosanol on murine macrophages in culture. International Journal of Lm-
munopharmacology 14(2): 293-302.
645. Morita, N., Shimizu, M., Arisawa, M. & Koshi, M., 1974. Studies on the
medicinal resources. XXXVI. The constituents of the leaves of Saxifraga
stolonifera Meerburg (Saxifragaceae). Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Bulletin 22(7): 1487-1489.
646. Morton, J.F., 1981. Atlas of medicinal plants of Middle America. Ba-
hamas to Yucatan. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, United
States. 1420 pp.
647. Mrvos, R., Dean, B.S. & Krenzelok, E.P., 1991. Philodendron/Dieffen-
bachia ingestions: are they a problem? Journal of Toxicology, Clinical
Toxicology 29(4): 485-491.
648. Mukarram, M., Ahmad, I. & Farooqi, J.A., 1986. Studies on minor seed
oilsVI. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 88(5): 182-183.
649. Mukherjee, K.C., Patnaik, G.K., Bhakuni, D.S. & Dhawan, B.N., 1984.
Mechanism of neuromuscular blocking action of isocorydine methochlo-
ride, a new quaternary alkaloid from Cocculus laurifolius DC. Indian
LITERATURE 513
Journal ofExperimental Biology 22(1): 54-56.

650. Mukherjee, K.S., Mehrotra, A., Bhattacharjee, P., Laha, S. & Chakra-
borty, C.K., 1991. A new diol from Randia longispina. Fitoterapia 62(6):
506-507.
651. Mukherjee, P.K., Mukherjee, K , Bhattacharya, S., Pal, M. & Saha, B.P.,
1998. Studies on the anti-inflammatory effects of Drymaria cordata
Willd. Natural Product Sciences 4(2): 91-94.
652. Mukherjee, P.K. et al., 1997.Antibacterial evaluation of Drymaria corda-
ta Willd. (Fam. Caryophyllaceae) extract. Phytotherapy Research 11(3):
249-250.
653. Mukherjee, P.K. et al., 1997. Studies on antitussive activity of Drymaria
cordata Willd. (Caryophyllaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 56(1):
77-80.
654. Mukherjee, P.K. et al., 1998. Studies on the anti-diarrhoeal profiles of
Bauhinia purpurea Linn leaves (Fam. Caesalpiniaceae) extract. Natural
Product Sciences 4(4): 234-237.
655. Mura, K., Shiramatsu, H. & Tanimura, W., 1996. Inhibitory substance
for the growth of lactic acid bacteria in samac (Macaranga grandifolia
Linn.) fruit (Study on 'basi' -Philippine sugarcane wine part IV). Journal
ofthe Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology 43(7): 866-872.
656. Murakami, N. et al., 1996. New hypoglycemic constituents in 'gymnemic
acid' from Gymnema sylvestre. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin
44(2): 469-471.
657. Murakoshi, I. et al., 1993.Absolute configuration of L-methionine sulfox-
imine as a toxic principle in Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr. Chemical and
658. Mustafa, M.R., 1993. Inhibition of calcium-dependent contractions of the
isolated guinea-pig ileal longitudinal muscle and Taenia coli by the total
glycosidic extract ofthe plant Sarcolobus globosus. Toxicon 31(1): 67-74.
659. Mustafa, M.R. & Hadi, A.H.A., 1990. Neuromuscular blocking activity of
a glycosidic extract of the plant Sarcolobus globosus. Toxicon 28(10):
1237-1240.
660. Nair, A.J., Sudhakaran, P.R., Rao, J.M. & Ramakrishna, S.V., 1992.
Berberine synthesis by callus and cell suspension cultures of Coscinium
fenestratum. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture 29(1): 7-10.
661. Nair, M.N.B. & Ganapathi, N. (Editors), 1998. Medicinal plants: cure for
the 21st Century (Biodiversity, conservation and utilization of medicinal
plants). Proceedings of the seminar, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia, October
15-16, 1998. Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang,
Malaysia. 162 pp.
662. Nakanishi, K. et al., 1965. Phytochemical survey of Malaysian plants,
preliminary chemical and pharmacological screening. Chemical and
663. Namba, T., Tsunezuka, M., Bae, K.H. & Hattori, M., 1981. Studies on
dental caries prevention by traditional Chinese medicines. Part 1.
Screening of crude drugs for antibacterial action against Streptococcus
mutans. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 35(4): 295-302.
664. Nan, J.X. et al., 2001. Anti-fibrotic effects of a hot-water extract from
Salvia miltiorrhiza roots on liver fibrosis induced by biliary obstruction
in rats. Journal ofPharmacy and Pharmacology 53(2): 197-204.

665. Nandy, A.C. & Chakrabarty, D.P., 1976. A note on the use of unripe
fruits of Randia dumetorum Lam. as a fish poison. Journal of the Inland
Fisheries Society ofIndia 8: 134-136.
666. Nasir, E. & Ali, S.I. (Editors), 1970-1988. Flora of West Pakistan. No
1-188. Department of Botany, University of Karachi and National
Herbarium, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad, Pak-
istan.
667. Nawamaki, T., Sakakibara, T. & Ohta, K , 1979. Isolation and identifica-
tion of Lachnophyllum lactone and osthol as repellents against a sea
snail. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 43(7): 1603-1604.
668. Nayar, T.S., Kumar, E.S.A. & Pushpangadan, P., 1999. Rotula aquatica,
Boraginaceae - First report on its psychoactive property. Economic
Botany 53(1): 115-117.
669. Ng, F.S.P., 1991-1992. Manual offorest fruits, seeds and seedlings. 2vol-
umes. Malayan Forest Record No 34. Forest Research Institute
Malaysia, Kepong, Malaysia. 997 pp.
670. Nguyen Nghia Thin, Nguyen Thi Hanh & Ngo True Nha, 2001. Tradi-
tional medicinal plants of Con Cuong district, Nghe An Province, Viet-
nam. Journal ofTropical Medicinal Plants 2(1): 107-131.
671. Nguyen Van Duong, 1993. Medicinal plants of Vietnam, Cambodia and
Laos. Mekong Printing, Santa Ana, California, United States. 528 pp.
672. Nguyen Van Dzu & Boyce, P.C., 1999. The genus Amydrium (Araceae:
Monsteroideae: Monstereae) with particular reference to Thailand and
Indochina. Kew Bulletin 54(2): 379-393.
673. Nguyen Xuan Dung, Le Van Hac & Leclercq, P.A., 1996. A new chemo-
type of Adenosma glutinosum (L.) Druce var. caeruleum (R. Br.) Tsoong
from Vietnam. Journal ofEssential Oil Research 8(4): 359-362.
674. Nicholl, D.S. et al., 2001. In vitro studies on the immunomodulatory ef-
fects of extracts of Osbeckia aspera. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
78(1): 39-44.
675. Nicoletti, M., Galeffi, C , Messana, I. & Marini-Bettolo, G.B., 1992. Hy-
poxidaceae: Medicinal uses and the norlignan constituents. Journal of
676. Nicoletti, M., Pieretti, S., Capasso, A. & Galeffi, C , 1996. Analgesic ef-
fects induced by hypoxoside, a norlignan glucoside from Hypoxis spp.
Phytotherapy Research 10(5): 398-401.
677. Nicolson, D.H., 1968. A revision of Amydrium (Araceae). Blumea 16(1):
123-127.
678. Nicolson, D.H., 1969. A revision of the genus Aglaonema (Araceae).
Smithsonian contributions to botany 1969, no 1.69 pp.
679. Nicolson, D.H., 1981. Summary of cytological information on Emilia and
the taxonomy of four Pacific taxa of Emilia (Asteraceae: Senecioneae).
Systematic Botany 5(4): 391-407.
680. Nicolson, D.H. & Sivadasan, M., 1981. Four frequently confused species
ofTyphonium Schott (Araceae). Blumea 27(2):483-497.
681. Nik Idris, Y., Loo, C.K. & Ikram, M.S., 1997. Some bioactive components
from the stem of Fissistigma latifolium (Dunal) Merr. Paper presented at
the 13th Seminar of Natural Products, Forest Research Institute
LITERATURE 515
Malaysia, 5-6 August 1997.

682. Nisa, M., Akbar, S., Tariq, M. & Hussain, Z., 1986. Effect of Cuscuta chi-
nensis water extract on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced skin
papillomas and carcinomas in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
18(1): 21-31.
683. Niwa, T. et al., 2002. Peroxynitrite scavenging activities of aromatic com-
pounds isolated from Konnyaku, Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch. Bio-
science, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 66(6): 1386-1388.
684. Nojima, H. et al., 1998.Antihyperglycemic effects of N-containing sugars
from Xanthocercis zambesiaca, Morus bombycis, Aglaonema treubii, and
Castanospermum australe in streptozotocin-diabetic mice. Journal of
685. Nooteboom, H.P., 1975. Revision of the Symplocaceae of the Old World,
new Caledonia excepted. Leiden Botanical Series, Vol. 1. Universitaire
Pers, Leiden, the Netherlands. 335 pp.
686. Nugroho, B.W. et al., 1997. Insecticidal rocaglamide derivatives from
Aglaia elliptica and A. harmsiana. Phytochemistry 45(8): 1579-1585.
687. Nugroho, Y.A. et al., 1989. Anti calculus effect of Ruellia napifera
Zollinger infusion in albino rats. Cermin Dunia Kedokteran, Jakarta, In-
donesia. Seri Tanaman Obat I, No 58.pp. 14-16.
688. Nyarko, A.K., Sittie, A.A. & Addy, M.E., 1993. The basis for the antihy-
perglycaemic activity of Indigofera arrecta in the rat. Phytotherapy Re-
search 7(1): 1-4.
689. Ochse, J.J. & Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C., 1980. Vegetables of the
Dutch East Indies. 3rd English edition (translation of 'Indische groen-
ten', 1931).Asher & Co.,Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 1016 pp.
690. Odek-Ogunde, M., Rajab, M.S., Migwi, G.J. &Ndegwa, J.M., 1993. Blood
pressure responses to an extract of Ajuga remota in experimentally hy-
pertensive rats. Planta Medica 59(6): 573-574.
691. Odishariya, K.Y., 1976. Some data on biological studies of Cocculus lauri-
folius. Trudy Sukhum Botan Sada 22:63-67 (in Russian).
692. Ogihara, K., Miyagi, Y., Higa, M. & Yogi, S., 1997. Pyrrolizidine alka-
loids from Messerschmidia argentea. Phytochemistry 44(3): 545-547.
693. Ogura, M., Koike, K , Cordell, G.A. & Farnsworth, N.R., 1978. Potential
anti cancer agents VIII. Constituents of Baliospermum montanum (Eu-
phorbiaceae). Planta Medica 33(2): 128-143.
694. Ohe, G. et al., 2001. Thl-cytokine induction and anti-tumor effect of 55
kDa protein isolated from Aeginetia indica L., a parasitic plant. Cancer
Immunology, Immunotherapy 50(5): 251-259.
695. Ohse, T., Ohba, S., Yamamoto, T., Koyano, T. & Umezawa, K , 1996. Cy-
clopentabenzofuran lignan protein synthesis inhibitors from Aglaia odo-
rata. Journal ofNatural Products 59(7): 650-652.
696. Ojo-Amaize, E.A. et al., 2001. Hypoestoxide, a novel anti-inflammatory
natural diterpene, inhibits the activity of IkappaB kinase. Cellular Im-
munology 209(2): 149-157.
697. Okamoto, M. et al., 2000. Purification and characterization of cytokine-
inducing protein of seed extract from Aeginetia indica L., a parasitic
plant. Immunopharmacology 49(3): 377-389.
698. Okuda, T., Yoshida, T., Chen, X.-M., Xie, J.-X. & Fukushima, M., 1987.
Corianin from Coriaria japonica A. Gray, and sesquiterpene lactones

from Loranthus parasiticus Merr. used for the treatment of schizophre-
nia. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 35(1): 182-187.
699. Okugawa, H., Ueda, R., Matsumoto, K., Kawanishi, K. & Kato, A., 1996.
Effect of Jinkoh-eremol and agarospirol from agarwood on the central
nervous system in mice. Planta Medica 62(1): 2-6.
700. Olugbade, T.A., Oluwadiya, J.O. & Yisak, W.A., 1982. Chemical con-
stituents of Cnestis ferruginea DC. I. Petroleum ether fraction. Journal
ofEthnopharmacology 6(3): 365-370.
701. Omino, E., 1996. A contribution to the leaf anatomy and taxonomy of
Apocynaceae in Africa. Wageningen Agricultural University Papers 96-1.
178 pp.
702. Omobuwajo, O.R. et al., 1996. Cytotoxic cycloartanes from Aglaia argen-
tea. Phytochemistry 41(5): 1325-1328.
703. Omulokoli, E., Khan, B. & Chhabra, S.C., 1997. Antiplasmodial activity
of four Kenyan medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 56:
133-137.
704. Onat, F., Yegen, B.C., Lawrence, R., Oktay, A. & Oktay, S., 1991. Site of
action ofgrayanotoxins in mad honey in rats. Journal ofApplied Toxicol-
ogy 11(3): 199-201.
705. Ong, H.C., 1986. Ecology, resource utilization and ethnobotany of the
Temuan at Ulu Langat, Selangor. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Science, Uni-
versity ofMalaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
706. Ong, H.C., 1994. The ethnobotany of Citrus and their relatives. Korean
Journal ofPlant Taxonomy 24(3): 157-171.
707. Ong, H.C. & Nordiana, M., 1999. Malay ethno-medico botany in
Machang, Kelantan, Malaysia. Fitoterapia 70:502-513.
708. Oshima, Y. et al., 1984. Antihepatotoxic principles of Salvia plebeia
herbs. Japanese Journal ofPharmacology 38(2): 201-202.
709. Otake, T. et al., 1995. Screening of Indonesian plant extracts for anti-hu-
man immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) activity. Phytotherapy Re-
search 9(1): 6-10.
710. Oyedeji, A.O., Ekundayo, O. &Konig, W.A., 1999. Constituents ofthe es-
sential oil from the leaves of Leonotis nepetaefolia (L.) Ait. f. Journal of
Essential Oil Research 11(6): 716-718.
711. Oyen, L.P.A. & Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors), 1999. Plant Resources of
South-East Asia No 19. Essential-oil plants. Backhuys Publishers, Lei-
den, the Netherlands. 277 pp.
712. Pachaly, P. & Khosravian, H., 1988. Neue Bisbenzylisochinolin-Alka-
loide aus Tiliacora triandra [New bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids from
Tiliacora triandra]. Planta Medica 54(5): 433-437.
713. Pachaly, P. & Khosravian, H., 1988. Tilitriandrin, ein neues Bisben-
zylisochinolin-Alkaloid aus Tiliacora triandra [Tilitriandrin, a new bis-
benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from Tiliacora triandra]. Planta Medica
54(6): 516-519.
714. Padma, P., Chansouria, J.P.N. & Khosa, R.L., 2000. Polyalthia cera-
soides: a possible antistress drug. Indian Journal of Natural Products
16(1): 20-23.
715. Padmaja, V., Thankamany, V. & Hisham, A., 1993. Antibacterial, anti-
LITERATURE 517
fungal and anthelmintic activities of root barks of Uvaria hookeri and

Uvaria narum. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 40(3): 181-186.
716. Page, Y.M. & van Staden, J., 1986. In vitro propagation of Hypoxis
rooperi from flower buds. South African Journal of Botany 52(3):
261-264.
717. Palasuntheram, C , Iyer, K.S., De Silva, L.B. & De Silva, T., 1982.
Anti-bacterial activity of Coscinium fenestratum against Clostridium
tetani. Indian Journal ofMedical Research 76(Suppl.): 71-76.
718. Palsson, K. & Jaenson, T.G., 1999. Plant products used as mosquito re-
pellents in Guinea Bissau, West Africa. Acta Tropica 72(1): 39-52.
719. Panda, S. & Kar, A., 1999. Withania somnifera and Bauhinia purpurea
in the regulation of circulating thyroid hormone concentrations in female
mice. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 67(2): 233-239.
720. Papageorgiou, V.P., 1980. Naturally occurring isohexenylnaphthazarin
pigments: a new class of drugs. Planta Medica 38(3): 193-203.
721. Pathak, V. et al., 1997. Antiandrogenic phenolic constituents from Dal-
bergia cochinchinensis. Phytochemistry 46(7): 1219-1223.
722. Patil, A.D. et al., 1993. The inophyllums, novel inhibitors of HIV-1 re-
verse transcriptase isolated from the Malaysian tree, Calophyllum ino-
phyllum Linn. Journal ofMedicinal Chemistry 36(26): 4131-4138.
723. Pavanand, K., Webster, H.K., Yongoanitachit, K. & Dechatiwongse, T.,
1989. Antimalarial activity ofTiliacora triandra against Plasmodium fal-
ciparum in vitro. Phytotherapy Research 3(5): 215-217.
724. Peekei, P.G., 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists.
Kristen Press, Madang, Papua New Guinea. 638 pp.
725. Pei-Gen, X. & Nai-Gong, W., 1991.Can ethnopharmacology contribute to
the development of anti-fertility drugs? Journal of Ethnopharmacology
32: 167-177.
726. Peng, W.H., Hsieh, M.T., Lee, Y.S., Lin, Y.C. & Liao, J., 2000. Anxiolytic
effect of seed of Ziziphus jujuba in mouse models of anxiety. Journal of
727. Pengsuparp, T., Serit, M., Hughes, S.H., Soejarto, D.D. & Pezzuto, J.M.,
1996. Specific inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 re-
verse transcriptase mediated by soulattrolide, a coumarin isolated from
the latex of Calophyllum teysmannii. Journal of Natural Products 59(9):
839-842.
728. Pennell, F.W., 1943. A second summary of the Scrophulariaceae of New
Guinea. Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 24(3): 243-274.
729. Pereda-Miranda, R. et al., 1993. Structure and stereochemistry of pecti-
nolides A-C, novel antimicrobial and cytotoxic 5,6-dihydro-oc-pyrones
from Hyptis pectinata. Journal ofNatural Products 56(4):583-593.
730. Perez-Guerrero, C , Herrera, M.D., Ortiz, R., Alvarez de Sotomayor, M. &
Fernandez, M.A., 2001. A pharmacological study of Cecropia obtusifolia
Bertol. aqueous extract. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 76(3): 279-284.
731. Perry, L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia. Attrib-
uted properties and uses. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United
States &London, United Kingdom. 620 pp.
732. Pételot, A., 1952-1954. Les plantes médicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et
du Vietnam [The medicinal plants of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam]. 4
volumes. Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques et Techniques,

Saigon, Vietnam.
733. Petterson, J.A., 1997. Identity of the original Wahlenbergia gracilis
(Campanulaceae) and allied species. An historical review of early collec-
tions. New Zealand Journal ofBotany 35(1): 55-78.
734. Petterson, J.A., 1997. Revision of the genus Wahlenbergia (Campanu-
laceae) in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal ofBotany 35(1): 9-54.
735. Pettersson, B., 1991.The genus Nervilia (Orchidaceae) in Africa and the
Arabian Peninsula. Orchid Monographs. Vol. 5. Rijksherbarium/Hortus
Botanicus, Leiden, the Netherlands. 90 pp.
736. Pettit, G.R., Goswami, A., Cragg, G.M., Schmidt, J.M. & Zou, J.C., 1984.
Antineoplastic agents, 103. The isolation and structure of hypoestes-
tatins 1 and 2 from the East African Hypoestes verticillaris. Journal of
737. Pettit, G.R. et al., 1995. Antineoplastic agents, 301. An investigation of
the Amaryllidaceae genus Hymenocallis. Journal of Natural Products
58(5): 756-759.
738. Peungvicha, P., Thirawarapan, S.S. & Watanabe, H., 1998. Possible
mechanism ofhypoglycemic effect of4-hydroxybenzoic acid, a constituent
of Pandanus odorus root. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 78(3):
395-398.
739. Peungvicha, P. et al., 1998. 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid: a hypoglycemic con-
stituent of aqueous extract of Pandanus odorus root. Journal of
740. Pham Hoang Ho, 1991-1993. An illustrated flora ofVietnam. 3 volumes.
Mekong Publisher, Montreal, Canada.
741. Pham Ngoc Thac, 1983. Results of the treatment of 24 hepatitis infected
patients by traditional medicines. Tap chi Duoc hoc [Journal of Pharma-
cy] 5:8 (in Vietnamese).
742. Phengklai, C , 1986. Study in Thai flora: Tiliaceae. Thai Forest Bulletin
(Botany) 16: 2-118.
743. Philipson, W.R., 1973.A revision of Harmsiopanax (Araliaceae). Blumea
21: 81-86.
744. Philipson, W.R. et al., 1980. The systematic position of Aralidium Miq. -
Amultidisciplinary study. Taxon 29(4): 391-416.
745. Philomena, P.A., 1993. Micropropagation of Sauropus androgynus (L.)
Merr. -multivitamin plant. Advances in Plant Sciences 6(2): 273-278.
746. Phongpaichit, S. et al., 1995. Inhibition of fungal growth by an aqueous
extract and saponins from leaves of Maesa ramentacea Wall. Biochemi-
cal Systematics and Ecology 23(1): 17-25.
747. Piacente, S., Pizza, C , de Tommasi, N. & Mahmood, N., 1996. Con-
stituents ofArdisia japonica and their in vitro anti-HIV activity. Journal
ofNatural Products 59(6): 565-569.
748. Piesschaert, F., Robbrecht, E., Poulsen, A.D. & Smets, E., 1999. Pyrene
and pollen observations in the pantropical genus Geophila (Rubiaceae -
Psychotrieae). Nordic Journal ofBotany 19(1): 93-100.
749. Plarre, W., 1995. Evolution and variability of special cultivated crops in
the highlands of West New Guinea (Irian Jaya) under present Neolithic
conditions. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter No 103: 1-13.
LITERATURE 519
750. Portillo, A., Vila, R., Freixa, B., Adzet, T. & Canigueral, S., 2001. Anti-
fungal activity of Paraguayan plants used in traditional medicine. Jour-
nal ofEthnopharmacology 76(1): 93-98.
751. Pras, N., Woerdenbag, H.J., Batterman, S., Visser, J.F. &van Uden, W.,
1993. Mucuna pruriens: improvement of the biotechnological production
of the anti-Parkinson drug L-dopa by plant cell selection. Pharmacy,
World and Science 15(6): 263-268.
752. Prasad, K.V., Bharathi, K. & Srinivasan, K.K., 1994. Evaluation of Am-
mannia baccifera Linn, for antiurolithic activity in albino rats. Indian
Journal ofExperimental Biology 32(5): 311-313.
753. Prashanth, D., Asha, M.K., Amit, A. & Padmaja, R., 2001. Anthelmintic
activity ofButea monosperma. Fitoterapia 72(4): 421-422.
754. Prathibha, S., Nambisan, B. &Leelamma, S., 1995.Enzyme inhibitors in
tuber crops and their thermal stability. Plant Foods for Human Nutri-
tion 48(3): 247-257.
755. Prendergast, H.D.V., Etkin, N.L., Harris, D.R. & Houghton, P.J. (Edi-
tors), 1998. Plants for food and medicine. Proceedings of the joint confer-
ence ofthe Society for Economic Botany and the International Society for
Ethnopharmacology, London, 1-6 July 1996. Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, United Kingdom. 438 pp.
756. Pu, F., Zhang, Z.J. & Shi, Y., 1988. Chemical composition of Fissistigma
shangtzeense Tsiang et P.T. Li flower extract. Flavour and Fragrance
Journal 3(4): 171-172.
757. Puff, C , Igersheim, A., Büchner, R. & Rohrhofer, U., 1995. The united
stamens of Rubiaceae. Morphology, anatomy; their role in pollination
ecology. Annals ofthe Missouri Botanical Garden 82: 357-382.
758. Purwanti, S., 1990. Pengaruh sari Dendrophthoe pentandra Miq. ter-
hadap aktivitas fosfatase alkali dan kadar protein total serum tikus
putih jantan yang telah diperlakukan dengan dimetilaminoazobenzen
[Effect of Dendrophthoe pentandra Miq. extract on activity of the alka-
line phosphatase and the total protein content of male white rat serum
treated with dimethylaminoazobenzene]. SI Thesis, Faculty of Pharma-
cy, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 110 pp.
759. Qais, N., Rahman, M.M., Abdullah Al Masum, M., Rashid, M.A. & Jab-
bar, A., 1996. Antibacterial and antileishmanial activities of Desmos chi-
nensis Lour. Bangladesh Journal ofBotany 25(2): 155-158.
760. Quisumbing, E., 1978. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Katha Pub-
lishing Co., Quezon City, the Philippines. 1262 pp.
761. Qureshi, S., Rai, M.K. & Agrawal, S.C., 1997. In vitro evaluation of in-
hibitory nature of extracts of 18 plant species of Chhindwara against 3
keratinophilic fungi. Hindustan Antibiotics Bulletin 39: 56-60.
762. Raghuvanshi, P., Bagga, R., Malhotra, D., Gopalan, S. & Talwar, G.P.,
2001 Spermicidal and contraceptive properties of Praneem polyherbal
pessary. Indian Journal ofMedical Research 113: 135-141.
763. Rahman, K.A. & Kiew, R., 1986. Optimum substrate for the establish-
ment of the epiphyte Dischidia nummularia (Asclepiadaceae). Pertanika
9(2): 257-260.
764. Rahman, M.M., Mosaddik, M.A., Wahed, M.I. & Haque, M.E., 2000. An-
timicrobial activity and cytotoxicity ofTrapa bispinosa. Fitoterapia 71(6):
704-706.
765. Ramawat, K.G., Bhardwaj, L. & Tewari, M.N., 1992. Anti-tumor drugs
produced by tissue culture: a short review. Bionature 12: 33-41.
766. Rana, T.S., Singh, K.K. & Rao, R.R., 1999. Studies on indigenous herbal
remedies for diabetes mellitus in India. Journal of Economic and Taxo-
nomie Botany 23(1): 115-120.
767. Ranganathan, R., Nagarajan, S., Mabry, T.J., Yong-Long, L. & Neuman,
P., 1980. 6-Hydroxyluteolin 7-O-apioside from Lepidagathis cristata.
768. Rani, M.A.N., Vijayasekarani, V. & Kameswaran, L., 1991. Central ner-
vous system effects of Coldenia procumbens. Journal of Pharmacology
23(4): 261-263.
769. Rao, B.K. et al., 1983.Anthraquinones in Ventilago species. Phytochem-
istry 22(11): 2583-2585.
770. Rashid, M.H., Jong, K. & Mendum, M., 2001. Cytotaxonomic observa-
tions in the genus Aeschynanthus (Gesneriaceae). Edinburgh Journal of
Botany 58(1): 31-43.
771. Rasmussen, F.N., 1977. The genus Corymborkis Thou. (Orchidaceae). A
taxonomie revision. Botanisk Tidsskrift 71(3-4): 161-192.
772. Ravelonjato, B. et al., 1992. Molluscicidal constituents of Calophyllum
from Madagascar: activity of some natural and synthetic neoflavanoids
and khellactones. Planta Medica 58:51-55.
773. Raynal, A., 1969. Revision du genre Enicostema Blume (Gentianaceae).
Adansonia, ser. 2, 9(1): 57-85.
774. Reanmongkol, W., Subhadhirasakul, S., Kongsang, J., Tanchong, M. &
Kitti, J., 2000. Analgesic and antipyretic activities ofN-butanol alkaloids
extracted from the stem bark of Hunteria zeylanica and its major con-
stituent, strictosidinic acid, in mice. Pharmaceutical Biology 38(1): 6 8 -
73.
775. Reanmongkol, W. et al., 1995. Effects of alkaloids extracted from the
stem bark of Hunteria zeylanica on acute inflammation in experimental
animals. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 18(1): 33-36.
776. Reanmongkol, W. et al., 1995. Inhibitory effect of alkaloids extracted
from the stem bark of Hunteria zeylanica on 5-lipoxygenase activity in
vitro. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 18(6): 910-912.
777. Reddy, P.S., Gopal, G.R. & Sita, G.L., 1998. In vitro multiplication of
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. - an important medicinal plant. Current Sci-
ence 75(8): 843-845.
778. Reddy, P.S.R., Rajasekhar, A. & Gopal, G.R., 1998. Vegetative propaga-
tion ofAcacia concinna DC. by stem cuttings. The Indian Forester 124(3):
264-266.
779. Regalado, J.C., 1990. Revision of Medinilla (Melastomataceae) of Borneo.
Blumea 35(1): 5-70.
780. Regalado, J.C., 1995. Revision of Philippine Medinilla (Melastoma-
taceae). Blumea 40(1): 113-193.
781. Rejesus, B.M. & Punzalan, E.G., 1995. Bioassay of Philippine plants for
molluscicidal activity. Philippine Journal ofCrop Science 20 (supplement
1):22.
782. A Revised Handbook to the flora of Ceylon (various editors), 1980-.
LITERATURE 521
Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi, India, and A.A. Balkema, Rotter-
dam, the Netherlands.
783. Ribeiro, A. et al., 1995. Molluscicidal saponins from the pericarp of
Sapindus saponaria. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 33(3):
177-180.
784. Richomme, P., Sinbandhit, S., David, B., Hadi, A.H.A. & Bruneton, J.,
1990. Oxymitrone et 9a-0-méthyloxymitrone, nouveaux dérivés hexahy-
droxanthéniques isolés de Oxymitra kingii [Oxymitrone and 9a-0-
methyloxymitrone, new hexahydroxanthenic derivatives isolated from
Oxymitra kingii].Journal ofNatural Products 53(2): 294-297.
785. Richomme, P. et al., 1991. A novel leishmanicidal labdane from Polyal-
thia macropoda. Planta Medica 57(6): 552-554.
786. Ridder-Numan, J.W.A., 1992. Spatholobus (Leguminosae - Papilionoi-
deae): a new species and some taxonomical notes. Blumea 37: 63-71.
787. Ridder-Numan, J.W.A., 1996. The historical biogeography of the South-
east Asian genus Spatholobus (Legum. - Papilionoideae) and its allies.
Blumea supplement 10: 1-144.
788. Ridder-Numan, J.W.A. & Wiriadinata, H., 1985. A revision of the genus
Spatholobus (Leguminosae -Papilionoideae). Reinwardtia 10(2): 139-205.
789. Ridley, H.N., 1922-1925. The flora of the Malay Peninsula. 5 volumes.
Government of the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States. L.
Reeve &Co, London, United Kingdom.
790. Ridsdale, C.E., 1985. The genus Fagerlindia (Rubiaceae) in the Philip-
pines. Blumea 31: 239-244.
791. Ridsdale, C.E., 1996.A review ofAidia s.1. (Rubiaceae) in Southeast Asia
and Malesia. Blumea 41: 135-179.
792. Rintz, R.E., 1980. A revision of the genus Sarcolobus (Asclepiadaceae).
Blumea 26(1): 65-79.
793. Rintz, R.E., 1980. The Peninsular Malayan species of Dischidia (Asclepi-
adaceae). Blumea 26(1): 81-126.
794. Roessler, H., 1975.The Compositae ofthe Flora Zambesiaca area. 5. Sub-
tribe Gorteriinae. Kirkia 10(1): 1-73.
795. Rogstad, S.H., 1989. The biosystematics and evolution of the Polyalthia
hypoleuca complex (Annonaceae) of Malesia, I. Systematic treatment.
Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 70(2): 153-246.
796. Rojas, A., Hernandez, L., Pereda-Miranda, R. & Mata, R., 1992. Screen-
ing for antimicrobial activity of crude drug extracts and pure natural
products from Mexican medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
35(3): 275-283.
797. Roman-Ramos, R., Flores-Saenz, J.L., Partida-Hernandez, G., Lara-
Lemus, A. & Alarcon-Aguilar, F., 1991. Experimental study of the hypo-
glycemic effect of some antidiabetic plants. Archivos de Investigacion
Medica 22(1): 87-93.
798. Roy, D., Kommalapati, R.R., Mandava, S S., Valsaraj, K T . & Constant,
W., 1997. Soil washing potential of a natural surfactant. Environmental
Science &Technology 31(3): 670-675.
799. Ruangrungsi, N., Sekine, T., Phadungcharoen, T., Suriyagan, S. & Mu-
rakoshi, I., 1995. Isocoumarins from Xyris indica. Phytochemistry 38(2):
481-483.
800. Ruangrungsi, N. et al., 1985. Traditional medicinal plants of Thailand,

V. Ancistrotectorine, a new naphthalene-isoquinoline alkaloid from An-
cistrocladus tectorius. Journal ofNatural Products 48(4): 529-535.
801. Rücker, G., Kehrbaum, S., Sakulas, H., Lawong, B. & Goeltenboth, F.,
1992. Acetylenic glucosides from Microglossa pyrifolia. Planta Medica
58(3): 266-269.
802. Rücker, G., Kehrbaum, S., Sakulas, H., Lawong, B. & Goeltenboth, F.,
1994. Acetylated aurone glucosides from Microglossa pyrifolia. Planta
Medica 60(3): 288-289.
803. Sabir, A.W., Bhatty, M.K., Khan, M.T.J., Ashraf, M. & Chaudhry, I.H.,
1987. Chemotherapeutic evaluation of the species of the Myrsinaceae
family of Pakistan. Part II. Phytochemical and antibacterial studies on
Ardisia solanacea. Fitoterapia 58(5): 357-360.
804. Said, I.M. et al., 1990. A phytochemical survey of Ulu Kinchin, Pahang,
Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal 43(4): 260-266.
805. Saifah, E. et al., 1993. Bisamides from Aglaia species: structure analysis
and potential to reverse drug resistance with cultured cells. Journal of
806. Sakai, S. & Inoue, T., 1999. A new pollination system: dung-beetle polli-
nation discovered in Orchidantha inouei (Lowiaceae, Zingiberales) in
Sarawak, Malaysia. American Journal ofBotany 86(1): 56-61.
807. Salah, A.M., Dongmo, A.B., Kamanyi, A., Bopelet, M. & Wagner, H.,
2001. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory effect by Ruellia
praetermissa. Pharmaceutical Biology 39(1): 16-19.
808. Salah, A.M. et al., 2000. In vitro purgative effect of Ruellia praetermissa
Schweinf. ex Lindau (Acanthaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72:
269-272.
809. Salam Abdullah, A., 1990. Poisonous plants of Malaysia. Tropical Press,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
810. Saluja, A.K. & Santani, D.D., 1984. Antifertility activity of Xeromphis
spinosa and Annona squamosa. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sci-
ences 46(1): 21-23.
811. Saluja, A.K. & Santani, D.D., 1993. Pharmacological investigation of the
unsaponifiable matter ofHyptis suaveolens. Fitoterapia 64(1): 3-6.
812. Salupete, S., 1992. Anti-bacterial activity test of the ethyl-acetate frac-
tion of Hemigraphis colorata Hall, leaves. Thesis, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 66 pp. (in Indonesian).
813. Samsudin, M.W., Ibrahim, M.N. & Said, I.M., 1998. Composition of the
steam volatile oil from Calophyllum inophyllum. ASEAN Review of Bio-
diversity and Environmental Conservation. May 1998. 3 pp.
814. Sang, S. et al., 2001.A new unusual iridoid with inhibition of activator
protein-1 (AP-1) from the leaves of Morinda citrifolia L. Organic Letters
3(9): 1307-1309.
815. Sanjappa, M., 1989. Revision of the genera Butea Roxb. ex Willd. and
Meizotropis Voigt (Fabaceae). Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India
29(1-4): 199-225.
816. Santa, I.G.P., 1998. Studi kemotaksonomi-farmakognosi benalu an-
tikanker Scurrula atropurpurea (Bl.) Dans, dan Dendrophthoe pentan-
dra (L.) Miq. [A study on the chemotaxonomy and pharmacognosy of
LITERATURE 523
anti-cancer mistletoes Scurrula atropurpurea (Bl.) Dans, and Dendroph-

thoe pentandra (L.)Miq.]. Warta Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 4(4): 14-15.
817. Saralamp, P., Chuakul, W., Temsiririrkkul, R. & Clayton, T. (Editors),
1996. Medicinal plants in Thailand. Vol. I. Department of Pharmaceuti-
cal Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thai-
land. 219 pp.
818. Sasaki, S., Aoyagi, S. & Hsu, H.Y., 1965. The isolation of taraxerol,
taraxeryl acetate, and taraxerone from Crossostephium chinense Makino
(Compositae). Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 13(1): 87-88.
819. Sastrapradja, D.S., Sastrapradja, S., Aminah, S.H. & Lubis, I., 1975.
Species differentiation in Javanese Mucuna spp. with particular refer-
ence to seedling morphology. Annales Bogorienses 6(1): 57-68.
820. Sastrapradja, S., 1978. Tumbuhan obat [Medicinal plants]. Lembaga Bi-
ologiNasional, Bogor, Indonesia. LBN 11/SDE 53. 126 pp.
821. Sastrapradja, S., Mogea, J.P., Sangat, H.M. & Afriastini, J.J., 1978.
Palem Indonesia [Palms of Indonesia]. Lembaga Biologi Nasional, LIPI.
Bogor, Indonesia. 120 pp.
822. Sati, O.P., Chaukiyal, D.C., Nishi, M., Miyahara, K. & Kawasaki, T.,
1986. An iridoid from Randia dumetorum. Phytochemistry 25(11):
2658-2660.
823. Sati, O.P., Rana, U., Chaukiyal, D.C., Madhusudanan, K.P. & Bhakuni,
D.S., 1987. Molluscicidal triterpenoidal glycosides of Xeromphis spinosa.
824. Sauer, J.D., 1972. Revision of Stenotaphrum (Gramineae: Paniceae) with
attention to its historical geography. Brittonia 24: 202-222.
825. Saxena, N., Bidwari, A., Saxena, N.K., Ram Prasad & Bodke, R.R., 1988.
Antifertility effect of selected forest plants. Journal of Tropical Forestry
4(3): 281-284.
826. Scott, A.J., 1978. A revision of Octamyrtus (Myrtaceae). Kew Bulletin
33(2): 303-309.
827. Seidenfaden, G., 1968. The genus Oberonia in mainland Asia. Dansk
Botanisk Arkiv 25(3). 125 pp.
828. Seidenfaden, G., 1978. Orchid genera in Thailand VI. Dansk Botanisk
Arkiv 32(2). 195 pp.
829. Seidenfaden, G., 1978. Orchid genera in Thailand VII. Oberonia Lindl. &
Malaxis Sol. ex Sw. Dansk Botanisk Arkiv 33(1). 94 pp.
830. Seidenfaden, G., 1982. Orchid genera in Thailand X. Trichotosia and
Eria. Opera Botanica 62.
831. Seidenfaden, G., 1983. Orchid genera in Thailand XL Cymbidieae Pfitz.
Opera Botanica 72.
832. Seidenfaden, G., 1992. The orchids of Indochina. Opera Botanica 114.
502 pp.
833. Sekine, T. et al., 1997. Structure and synthesis of a new monoterpenoidal
carboxamide from the seeds of the Thai medicinal plant Acacia concinna.
834. Semple, S.J., Nobbs, S.F., Pyke, S.M., Reynolds, G.D. & Flower, R.L.,
1999. Antiviral flavonoid from Pterocaulon sphacelatum, an Australian
Aboriginal medicine. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 68(1-3): 283-288.
835. Semple, S.J., Reynolds, G.D., O'Leary, M.C. & Flower, R.L., 1998.
Screening ofAustralian medicinal plants for antiviral activity. Journal of

836. Seo, E.K. et al., 1999. New biphenyl compounds with DNA strand-scis-
sion activity from Clusia paralicola. Journal of Natural Products 62(11):
1484-1487.
837. Seo, Y.J., Une, S., Tsukamoto, I. & Miyoshi, M., 1990. The effect of lectin
from Taro tuber (Colocasia antiquorum) given by force-feeding on the
growth of mice. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 36(3):
277-285.
838. Serrame, E. & Lim-Sylianco, C.Y., 1995. Anti-tumor promoting activity
of decoctions and expressed juices from Philippine medicinal plants.
Philippine Journal of Science 124(3): 275-281.
839. Seth, C.J., 1982. Cymbidium aloifolium (Orchidaceae) and its allies. Kew
Bulletin 37(3): 397-402.
840. Shah, V., Sunder, R. & de Souza, N.J., 1987. Chonemorphine and ra-
panone - antiparasitic agents from plant sources. Journal of Natural
Products 50(4): 730-731.
841. Shan, B.E., Yoshida, Y., Sugiura, T. &Yamashita, U., 1999. Stimulating
activity of Chinese medicinal herbs on human lymphocytes in vitro. In-
ternational Journal ofImmunopharmacology 21(3): 149-159.
842. Shankaranarayan, D., Gopalkrishnan, C. & Kameswaran, L., 1979.
Pharmacology of mangiferin. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
41(2): 78-79.
843. Sharma, N., Sundari, P., Gajaria, K. & Vyas, A.V., 1994. A study on
growth behaviour of medicinal plant Enicostema littorale under sun and
canopy shade conditions. Neo Botanica 2(1):45-48.
844. Shehnaz, D., Hamid, F., Baqai, F.T. & Uddin-Ahmad, V., 1999. Effect of
the crude extract of Cestrum parqui on carrageenin-induced rat paw
oedema and aggregation of human blood platelets. Phytotherapy Re-
search 13(5): 445-447.
845. Shetty, B.V. & Paramjit Singh, 1989. Notes on Vitaceae in India and
some neighbouring regions. Kew Bulletin 44(3): 469-478.
846. Shigematsu, N.,Asano, R., Shimosaka, M. & Okazaki, M., 2001.Effect of
administration with the extract of Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. leaves on
lipid metabolism in rats. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 24(6):
713-717.
847. Shimizu, K , Itoh, K., Nakajyo, S., Urakawa, N. &Atsuchi, M., 1997. Ef-
fects of extracts from Gymnema inodorum leaves on the increased ten-
sion and 0 2 consumption induced by high K+ solution in guinea-pig ileal
longitudinal muscle. Bulletin of Nippon Veterinary and Animal Science
University 46: 1-7.
848. Shimizu, K. et al., 2001. Structure-activity relationships of triterpenoid
derivatives extracted from Gymnema inodorum leaves on glucose absorp-
tion. Japanese Journal ofPharmacology 86(2): 223-229.
849. Shukla, Y.N., Srivastava, A. & Kumar, S., 1999. Phytotoxic and antimi-
crobial constituents ofArgyreia speciosa and Oenothera biennis. Journal
ofEthnopharmacology 67(2): 241-245.
850. Shylesh, B.S. & Padikkala, J., 1999. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activity ofEmilia sonchifolia. Fitoterapia 70: 275-278.
LITERATURE 525
851. Shylesh, B.S. & Padikkala, J., 2000. In vitro cytotoxic and antitumor
property of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC in mice. Journal of Ethnopharma-
cology 73(3): 495-500.
852. Sibanda, S., Ndengu, B., Multari, G., Pompi, V. & Galeffi, C , 1989. A
coumarin glucoside from Xeromphis obovata. Phytochemistry 28(5):
1550-1552.
853. Siemonsma, J.S. & Kasem Piluek (Editors), 1993. Plant Resources of
South- East Asia No 8. Vegetables. Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wa-
geningen, the Netherlands. 412 pp.
854. Siemonsma, J.S. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1989. Plant Re-
sources of South-East Asia. Proceedings of the first PROSEA Interna-
tional Symposium. May 22-25, 1989, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pudoc, Wa-
geningen, the Netherlands. 337 pp.
855. Sim, J.W.S., Tan, H.T.W. & Turner, I.M., 1992. Adinandra belukar: an
anthropogenic heath forest in Singapore. Vegetatio 102(2): 125-137.
856. Simanjuntak, P., Widayanti, Sagala, Z., Parwati, T. & Samsoedin-Hoshi,
R., 1997. Tumbuhan Polyalthia lateriflora sebagai sumber zat bioaktif
insektisida [Polyalthia lateriflora plants as a source of bioactive insecti-
cide]. Duta Farming 15(35): 9-16.
857. Simmons, M.P. & Hedin, J.P., 1999. Relationships and morphological
character change among genera of Celastraceae sensu lato (including
Hippocrateaceae). Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86(3):
723-757.
858. Simpol, L.R., Otsuka, H., Ohtani, K., Kasai, R. &Yamasaki, K., 1994. Ni-
trile glucosides and rosmarinic acid, the histamine inhibitor from Ehre-
tia philippinensis. Phytochemistry 36(1):91-95.
859. Simpson, D.A., 1992.Arevision ofthe genus Mapania (Cyperaceae). Roy-
al Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. 189 pp.
860. Sinclair, J., 1955. A revision of the Malayan Annonaceae. Gardens' Bul-
letin Singapore 14(2): 149-362.
861. Singh, A. &Handa, S.S., 1995. Hepatoprotective activity ofApium grave-
olens and Hygrophila auriculata against paracetamol and thioacetamide
intoxication in rats. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 49(3): 119-126.
862. Singh, G.B., Singh, S., Bani, S. &Malhotra, S., 1990. Hypotensive action
of a Coscinium fenestratum stem extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
30(2): 151-155.
863. Singh, K.K. &Maheshwari, J.K., 1994. Traditional phytotherapy of some
medicinal plants used by the Tharus of the Nainital district, Uttar
Pradesh, India. International Journal ofPharmacognosy 32(1): 51-58.
864. Singh, K.P., Pandey, V.B., Tripathi, Y.C. & Singh, U.P., 1991. Tiliacori-
nine, a new systemic fungicide effective against Alternaria blight of pi-
geon pea (Cajanus cajan). Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und
Pflanzenschutz 98(2): 213-219.
865. Singh, P.R., Mishra, K.B. &Prasad, B.K., 1996.Volatile antifungal activ-
ity of Fimbristylis junciformis root bits on the growth of Fusarium oxys-
porum. Neo Botanica 4(1): 31-32.
866. Singh, S.P., Mathur, A.K., Sinha, J.N., Singh, N. & Kohli, R.P., 1980.
Mechanism of the hypotensive activity of Buddleja asiatica. Quarterly
Journal of Crude Drug Research 18(2): 83-87.
867. Sinha, B.K., 1994. Some promising medicinal plants among the ethnic
tribes of Bay Islands, India. Ethnobiology in human welfare: abstracts of
the fourth international congress of ethnobiology, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh, India, 17-21 November 1994. National Botanical Research In-
stitute, p. 110.
868. Sinz, A. et al., 1998. Alkaloids from Dasymaschalon sootepense. Bio-
chemical Systematics and Ecology 26(8): 933-934.
869. Sinz, A. et al., 1998. Flavonol glycosides from Dasymaschalon soote-
pense. Phytochemistry 47(7): 1393-1396.
870. Sittie, A.A. &Nyarko, A.K., 1998. Indigofera arrecta: safety evaluation of
an antidiabetic plant extract in non-diabetic human volunteers. Phy-
totherapy Research 12(1): 52-54.
871. Siwon, J., Verpoorte, R., van Essen, G.F.A. & Svendsen, A.B., 1980.
Studies on Indonesian medicinal plants III. The alkaloids of Coscinium
fenestratum. Planta Medica 38(1): 24-32.
872. Slik, J.W.F. & van Weizen, P.C., 2001.A taxonomie revision of Mallotus
sections Hancea and Stylanthus (Euphorbiaceae). Blumea 46(1): 3-66.
873. Smit, B.J. et al., 1995. A phase I trial of hypoxoside as an oral prodrug
for cancer therapy - absence of toxicity. South African Medical Journal
85(9): 865-870.
874. Smith, J.F., Brown, K.D., Carroll, C.L. & Denton, D.S., 1997. Familial
placement of Cyrtandromoea, Titanotrichum and Sanango, three prob-
lematic genera ofthe Lamiales. Taxon 46: 65-74.
875. Smith, R.M., 1988. A review of Bornean Zingiberaceae: IV (Globbeae).
Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 45(1): 1-19.
876. Smith, S.L., Slywka, G.W. &Krueger, R.J., 1981.Anthocyanins of Strobi-
lanthes dyeriana and their production in callus culture. Journal of Nat-
ural Products 44(5): 609-610.
877. Soepadmo, E. et al. (Editors), 1995-. Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak.
Sabah Forestry Department, Forest Research Institute Malaysia and
Sarawak Forestry Department, Kepong, Malaysia.
878. Soerianegara, I. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Editors), 1993. Plant Resources
of South-East Asia No 5(1). Timber trees: Major commercial timbers. Pu-
doc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands. 610 pp.
879. Soerjani, M., Kostermans, A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987.
Weeds ofrice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta, Indonesia. 716 pp.
880. Soltis, D.E., Kuzoff, R.K., Conti, E., Gornall, R. & Ferguson, K., 1996.
MatK and rbcL gene sequence data indicate that Saxifraga (Saxifra-
gaceae) is polyphyletic. American Journal ofBotany 83(3): 371-382.
881. Somanadhann, B. et al., 1999. An ethnopharmacological survey for po-
tential angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors from Indian medicinal
plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65(2): 103-112.
882. Song, X., Gao, G. &Ye, L., 1996. Effect of total saponin of Liriope spicata
Lour, on experimental myocardial ischemia. Zongguo Yaolixue Tongbao
12(4): 329-332.
883. Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. & Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Editors), 1998. Plant
Resources of South-East Asia No 5(3). Timber trees: Lesser-known tim-
bers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. 859 pp.
884. Sotheeswaran, S., Bökel, M. & Kraus, W., 1989. A hemolytic saponin,
LITERATURE 527
randianin, from Randia dumetorum. Phytochemistry 28(5): 1544-1546.

885. Spino, C , Dodier, M. & Sotheeswaran, S., 1998. Anti-HIV coumarins
from Calophyllum seed oil. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters
8(24): 3475-3478.
886. Sridith, K., 1999. Four new species, a new variety, and a status change in
Argostemma (Rubiaceae) from Thailand. Nordic Journal of Botany 19(2):
171-178.
887. Srivastava, A., Shukla, Y.N., Jain, S.P. & Kumar, S., 1998. Chemistry
and pharmacology of the elephant creeper Argyreia speciosa - a review.
Journal ofMedicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences 20(3): 774-778.
888. Stanaitis, R., 1993.From plant to poison. IDRC Reports 20(4): 18-19.
889. Stanilova, S.A., Zhelev, Z.D. & Dobreva, Z.G., 2000. Preliminary studies
on the immunomodulatory effect of the C3 binding glycoprotein isolated
from Cuscuta europea. International Journal of Immunopharmacology
22(1): 15-24.
890. Stern, W.L., Cheadle, V.l. & Thorsch, J., 1993. Apostasiads, systematic
anatomy, and the origins of Orchidaceae. Botanical Journal of the Lin-
nean Society 111: 411-455.
891. Stevens, P.F., 1980. A revision of the Old World species of Calophyllum
(Guttiferae). Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum 61: 117-424.
892. Steyermark, J.A., Berry, P.E. & Hoist, B.K. (Editors), 1995-. Flora of the
Venezuelan Guayana. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, United
States.
893. Stone, B., 1985. New and noteworthy Palaeotropical species of Rutaceae.
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 137:
213-228.
894. Stone, B.C., 1988. Notes on the genus Labisia Lindl. (Myrsinaceae).
Malayan Nature Journal 42(1): 43-52.
895. Stone, B.C., 1989. New and noteworthy Malesian Myrsinaceae, III. On
the genus Ardisia Sw. in Borneo. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences ofPhiladelphia 141:263-306.
896. Stone, B.C., 1990. Studies in Malesian Myrsinaceae, V. Additional new
species ofArdisia Sw. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia 142: 21-58.
897. Stopp, K., 1963. Medicinal plants ofthe Mt. Hagen people (Mbowamb) in
New Guinea. Economic Botany 17(1): 16-22.
898. Sudhersan, C , 1998. Shoot bud regeneration from leaf expiants of a med-
icinal plant: Enicostemma axillare. Current Science 74(12): 1099-1100.
899. Sumana, K.R. & Kaveriappa, K.M., 1997. Regeneration of Asystasia
dalzelliana Santapau through callus cultures. Indian Journal of Plant
Physiology 2(4): 271-274.
900. Sumino, M., Sekine, T., Ruangrungsi, N. & Ikegami, F., 2001. Ardisiphe-
nols A-C, novel antioxidants from the fruits of Ardisia colorata. Chemi-
cal and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 49(12): 1664-1665.
901. Sunarno, B. & Ohashi, H., 1996. Dalbergia (Leguminosae) of Sulawesi,
Indonesia. Journal ofJapanese Botany 71(5): 241-248.
902. Sunarno, B. & Ohashi, H., 1997. Dalbergia (Leguminosae) of Borneo.
Journal ofJapanese Botany 72(4): 198-220.
903. Sung, T.V., Steffan, B., Steglich, W., Klebe, G. & Adam, G., 1992. Ses-
quiterpenoids from the roots of Homalomena aromatica. Phytochemistry

31(10): 3515-3520.
904. Sutantiningsih, E. & Maya, I., 1977. Effect of leaf infusions of Or-
thosiphon stamineus Bentham and Hemigraphis colorata Hall, on the
amount of urine droplets of anaesteted rabbits. Thesis, Faculty of Phar-
macy, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 39 pp. (in In-
donesian).
905. Suzuki, Y., Kondo, K , Ikeda, Y. & Umemura, K., 2001. Antithrombotic
effect of geniposide and genipin in the mouse thrombosis model. Planta
Medica 67(9): 807-810.
906. Svendsen, A.B., Hegnauer, R. & Malingre, T.M., 1982. A pharmacognos-
tical study of some Indonesian medicinal plants of the family Menisper-
maceae. J.H. Pasmans B.V., 's-Gravenhage, the Netherlands. 108 pp.
907. Swingle, W.T. &Reece, P.C., 1967.The botany of Citrus and its wild rela-
tives. In: Reuther, W., Webber, H.J. & Batchelor, L.D. (Editors): The cit-
rus industry. Revised edition. Vol. 1. History, world distribution, botany
and varieties. University of California Publications, Riverside, United
States, pp. 190-430.
908. 't Mannetje, L. & Jones, R.M. (Editors), 1992. Plant Resources of South-
East Asia. No 4. Forages. Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen, the
Netherlands. 300 pp.
909. Takadoi, M., Katoh, T., Ishiwata, A. &Terashima, S., 1999. Anovel total
synthesis of (+)-himbacine, a potent antagonist of the muscarinic recep-
tor ofM2 subtype. Tetrahedron Letters 40(17): 3399-3402.
910. Takeda, T., Narukawa, Y. & Hada, N., 1999. Studies on the constituents
of Leonotis nepetaefolia. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 47(2):
284-286.
911. Talwar, G.P., Raghuvanshi, P., Misra, R., Mukherjee, S. & Shah, S.,
1997. Plant immunomodulators for termination of unwanted pregnancy
and for contraception and reproductive health. Immunology and Cell Bi-
ology 75(2): 190-192.
912. Tan, C.H. & Smadiyah, A., 1983. Antifertility effects of two Malaysian
plants. Pertanika 6(1): 40-42.
913. Tan, R.X., Ma, W.G., Wei, H.X. & Zhang, L.X., 1998. Glycosides from
Wahlenbergia marginata. Phytochemistry 48(7): 1245-1250.
914. Taylor, C E . & Wong, K.M., 1987. Some aspects of herbal medicine
among Orang Ulu community at Kampung Peta, Johore, Malaysia.
Malayan Nature Journal 41: 317-328.
915. Taylor, P.B. et al., 1994. Kinetic and mutational analysis of human im-
munodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase inhibition by inophyl-
lums, a novel class of non-nucleoside inhibitors. Journal of Biological
Chemistry 269(9):6325-6331.
916. Taylor, R.S.L., Hudson, J.B., Manandhar, N.P. & Towers, G.H.N., 1996.
Antiviral activities of medicinal plants of southern Nepal. Journal of
917. Taylor, R.S.L., Manandhar, N.P., Hudson, J.B. & Towers, G.H.N., 1996.
Antiviral activities of Nepalese medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnophar-
macology 52(3): 157-163.
918. Tebbitt, M., 1999. The cultivated species of Saxifraga section Irreguläres.
LITERATURE 529
New Plantsman 6(4):208-213.

919. Tennekoon, K.H., Jeevathayaparan, S. & Karunanayake, E.H., 1992.
Evaluation of possible galactagogue activity of a selected group of Sri
Lankan medicinal plants. Journal of the National Science Council of Sri
Lanka 20(1): 33-41.
920. Tennekoon, K.H., Jeevathayaparan, S., Kurukulasooriya, A.P. & Karu-
nanayake, E.H., 1991.Possible hepatotoxicity ofNigella sativa seeds and
Dregea volubilis leaves. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 31(3): 283-289.
921. Teo, S.P. & Haron, N.W., 1999. Anatomical studies in West Malaysian
Icacinaceae. Australian Systematic Botany 11(5-6): 729-738.
922. Tezuka, Y., Honda, K., Banskota, A.H., Thet, M.M. & Kodata, S., 2000.
Kinmoonoside A-C, three new cytotoxic saponins from the fruits of Aca-
cia concinna, a medicinal plant collected in Myanmar. Journal of Natural
Products 63(12): 1658-1664.
923. Thabrew, M.I., de Silva, K.T., Labadie, R.P., de Bie, P.A. &van der Berg,
B., 1991. Immunomodulatory activity of three Sri-Lankan medicinal
plants used in hepatic disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 33(1-2):
63-66.
924. Thabrew, M.I., Hughes, R.D. & McFarlane, LG., 1997. Screening of he-
patoprotective plant components using a HepG2 cell cytotoxicity assay.
Journal ofPharmacy and Pharmacology 49(11): 1132-1135.
925. Thabrew, M.L., Joice, P.D.T.M. & Rajatissa, W., 1987. A comparative
study of the efficacy of Pavetta indica and Osbeckia octandra in the
treatment ofliver dysfunction. Planta Medica 53(3): 239-241.
926. Thalib, A., Widiawati, Y., Hamid, H., Suherman, D. & Sabrani, M., 1996.
The effects of saponin from Sapindus rarak fruit on rumen microbes and
performance of sheep. Jurnal Ilmu Ternak dan Veteriner 2(1): 17-21 (in
Indonesian).
927. Thiele, K.R. & West, J.G., 1995. Gouania exilis (Rhamnaceae), a new
species from northern Australia and Papua New Guinea, with notes on
the identity ofGouania hillii F. Muell. Austrobaileya 4(3): 411-416.
928. Thomas, B., 1999. Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell) Sprague, galbu-
limima agara. Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds,
new series 2: 82-88.
929. Thompson, P.N. & Gornall, R.J., 1995.Breeding systems in Coriaria (Co-
riariaceae). Botanical Journal ofthe Linnean Society 117(4): 293-304.
930. Tirvengadum, D.D., 1978. A synopsis of the Rubiaceae-Gardenieae of
Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Bulletin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle,
3e série, Botanique No 521,35: 3-33.
931. Tirvengadum, D.D., 1983.New taxa and name changes in tropical Asiat-
ic Rubiaceae. Nordic Journal of Botany 3(4): 455-469.
932. Todorova, M., Tho, P.T.T., Ognyanov, I. & Lawrence, B.M., 1988. The
composition of Homalomena aromatica Schott oil of Vietnamese origin.
Flavour and Fragrance Journal 3(4): 179-181.
933. Tofern, B., Kaloga, M., Witte, L., Hartmann, T. & Eich, E., 1999. Occur-
rence oflohne alkaloids in Argyreia mollis (Convolvulaceae). Phytochem-
istry51(8): 1177-1180.
934. Treseder, K.K., Davidson, D.W. & Ehleringer, J.R., 1995. Absorption of
ant-provided carbon dioxide and nitrogen by a tropical epiphyte. Nature
375(6527): 137-139.
935. Trigueiro, F., Cortes, S.F., Almeida, R.N. & Lemos, V.S., 2000. Endothe-
lium-independent vasorelaxant effect of dioclein, a new flavonoid isolat-
ed from Dioclea grandiflora, in the rat aorta. Journal of Pharmacy and
Pharmacology 52(11): 1431-1434.
936. Tsai, I.L., Sheen, W.S., Liu, S.L., Wu, S.J. & Chen, I.S., 1993.A bisstyryl
ether from Leucosyke quadrinervia. Phytochemistry 32(4): 1065-1067.
937. Tuchinda, P., Pohmakotr, M., Munyoo, B., Reutrakul, V. & Santisuk, T.,
2000. An azaanthracene alkaloid from Polyalthia suberosa. Phytochem-
istry 53(8): 1079-1082.
938. Tuntiwachwuttikul, P. et al., 1997. A triterpenoid saponin from Maesa
ramentacea. Phytochemistry 44(3): 491-495.
939. Tyagi, S.D., Singh, N., Joneja, S. &Agarwal, S.C., 1990. Crude powder of
Canscora decussata Roem. et Sch.: as spermicidal agent in albino rats.
Acta Botanica Indica 18(1): 139-140.
940. Uchendu, C.N. & Leek, B.F., 1999. Adrenergic influence of uterine mus-
cle contractions stimulated by a glycoside from the root of Dalbergia sa-
xatilis. Indian Journal ofExperimental Biology 37(4): 350-354.
941. Uhl, N.W. & Dransfield, J., 1987. Genera palmarum. A classification of
palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore, Jr. The L.H. Bailey Horto-
rium and the International Palm Society. Allen Press, Lawrence,
Kansas, United States. 610 pp.
942. Um, S.H., Lee, K.R., Zee, O.P. & Pyo, S., 1996. The effect of Salvia ple-
beia on murine macrophage-mediated cytotoxicity. Natural Product Sci-
ences 2:43-47.
943. Umadevi, I. & Daniel, M., 1991. Taxonomy of the Vitaceae: a chemical
approach. Acta Botanica Indica 19(2): 168-170.
944. Umar Dahot, M., 1999. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of small
protein of Indigofera oblongifolia leaves. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
64(3): 277-282.
945. Uphof, J.C.T., 1968. Dictionary of economic plants. Wheldon and Wesley
Ltd., New York, United States. 591 pp.
946. Utsunomiya, N. et al., 1998. Diospyros species in Thailand: their distrib-
ution, fruit morphology and uses. Economic Botany 52(4): 343-351.
947. Utteridge, T.M.A., 2000. Revision of the genus Cyathostemma (An-
nonaceae). Blumea 45(2): 377-396.
948. Utteridge, T.M.A., 2001. Two new species of Maesa (Maesaceae) from
New Guinea. Kew Bulletin 56(3): 677-683.
949. van der Maesen, L.J.G., 1998. Revision of the genus Dunbaria Wight &
Arn. (Leguminosae -Papilionoideae). Wageningen Agricultural Universi-
ty Papers 98-1: 1-109.
950. Van Puyvelde, L. et al., 1989. The hepatoprotective principle of Hy-
poestes triflora leaves. Journal ofEthnopharmacology 26(2): 121-127.
951. van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1969. Some comments concerning the reduction of
the genus Thysanospermum to Coptosapelta (Rubiaceae). American
Journal ofBotany 56(7): 805-807.
952. van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1972. The mountain flora of Java. E.J. Brill, Lei-
den, the Netherlands. 90 pp. +72 photographs +57 coloured plates.
953. van Steenis-Kruseman, M.J., 1953. Select Indonesian medicinal plants.
LITERATURE 531
Bulletin No 18. Organization for Scientific Research in Indonesia, Dja-

karta, Indonesia. 90 pp.
954. van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. & Ketner, P., 1994. Vegetation changes follow-
ing human disturbance of mid-montane forest in the Wau area, Papua
New Guinea. Journal ofTropical Ecology 10: 41-54.
955. van Weizen, P.C., 1995. Taxonomy and phylogeny of the Euphorbiaceae
tribe Erismantheae G.L. Webster (Erismanthus, Moultonianthus, and
Syndyophyllum). Blumea 40(2): 375-396.
956. Van Wyk, B.-E. & Gericke, N., 2000. People's plants. A guide to the use-
ful plants of Southern Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, South Africa.
351pp.
957. Vasanth, S., Gopal, R.H. & Rao, R.B., 1990. Plant anti-malarial agents.
Journal ofScientific and Industrial Research 49(2): 68-77.
958. Vasistha, H.B. & Soni, P., 1989. Germination behaviour of Buddleja asi-
atica - a promising shrub for regreening of degraded habitats. Indian
Forester 115(2): 120-121.
959. Veldkamp, J.F., 1968.A synopsis ofthe genus Enicostema Bl., nom. cons.
(Gentianaceae). Blumea 16(1): 133-136.
960. Veldkamp, J.F., 1994. A new variety of Sarcotheca laxa (Oxalidaceae)
from Sumatra. Blumea 38(2): 459-460.
961. Veldkamp, J.F., 1994. Miscellaneous notes on Southeast Asian Grami-
neae. IX. Setaria and Paspalidium. Blumea 39: 373-384.
962. Veldkamp, J.F., 1997. IX. Overlooked genera and species in the Malesian
flora: the case of Crocosmia (Iridaceae) and some others. Flora Malesiana
Bulletin 11(8): 511-514.
963. Veldkamp, J.F. & Flipphi, R.C.H., 1987. A revision of Leptonychia (Ster-
culiaceae) in Southeast Asia. Blumea 32: 443-457.
964. Veldkamp, J.F., Franken, N.A.P., Roos, M.C. & Nayar, M.P., 1978. A re-
vision ofDiplectria (Melastomataceae). Blumea 24: 405-430.
965. Verdcourt, B., 1979. A manual of New Guinea legumes. Botany Bulletin
No 11.Office ofForests, Division ofBotany, Lae, Papua New Guinea. 645
pp.
966. Verdcourt, B., 1998. FSA contributions 10: Trapaceae. Bothalia 28(1):
11-14.
967. Verheij, E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Editors), 1991. Plant Resources of
South-East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen, the
Netherlands. 446 pp.
968. Villiers, J.F., 1997. Nouvelles espèces de Gonocaryum Miquel (Icaci-
naceae) en Indochine [New species of Gonocaryum Miquel (Icacinaceae)
in Indochina]. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique National de Belgique
66(1-2): 25-29.
969. Vinitketkumnuen, V. et al., 1996. Antimutagenicity and DT-diaphorase
inducer activity of the Thai medicinal plant Murdania loriformis. Jour-
nal ofHerbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 4(1): 45-52.
970. Vivian, B., Tal, H. & Inna, K., 2001. The effect of Sambucol, a black el-
derberry-based, natural product, on the production of human cytokines:
I. Inflammatory cytokines. European Cytokine Network 12(2): 290-296.
971. Vo Van Chi, 1997. Dictionary of medicinal plants of Vietnam. Hanoi
Medical Publishing House, Hanoi, Vietnam. 1467 pp.
972. Wagner, H. et al., 1971.Synthese von Glucuroniden der Flavonoid-Reihe.

3. Isolierung von Apigenin-7-ß-D-glucuronid aus Ruellia tuberosa L. und
seine Synthese [Synthesis of glucuronides in the flavonoid series. 3. Iso-
lation of apigenin-7-ß-D-glucuronide from Ruellia tuberosa L. and its
synthesis]. Chemische Berichte 104(9): 2681-2687.
973. Wagner, H. et al., 1993. Preliminary pharmacologic evaluation of Spi-
gelia anthelmia aerial parts. International Journal of Pharmacognosy
31(1): 7-14.
974. Walker, E.H., 1976. Flora of Okinawa and the southern Ryukyu Islands.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C., United States. 1159
pp.
975. Wall, M.E. et al., 1988. Plant antimutagenic agents. 4. Isolation and
structure elucidation of maesol, an inactive constituent of Maesa spp.
976. Wall, M.E. et al., 1994. Plant antitumor agents. 31.The calycopterones, a
new class of biflavonoids with novel cytotoxicity in a diverse panel of hu-
man tumor cell lines.Journal ofMedicinal Chemistry 37(10): 1465-1470.
977. Wan, M.Y. & Su, C , 2001. Cancer preventive effect of Morinda citrifolia
(Noni).Annals ofthe New York Academy of Sciences 952: 161-168.
978. Wang, C.C., Chen, L.G. &Yang, L.L., 2001.Camelliin B induced apopto-
sis in HeLa cell line. Toxicology 168(3): 231-240.
979. Wang, X., 1988. Tissue culture of Cymbidium: plant and flower induction
in vitro. Lindleyana 3(4): 184-189.
980. Wang, Z.T. et al., 1997. Investigations on the protective action of
Codonopsis pilosula (Dangshen) extract on experimentally-induced gas-
tric ulcer in rats. General Pharmacology 28(3):469-473.
981. Watanabe, K , Miyakado, M., Iwai, T., Izumi, K. &Yanagi, K., 1988. Iso-
lation of aristolochic acid and aristolic acid from Cocculus triolobus DC.
as potent seed germination inhibitors. Agricultural and Biological Chem-
istry 52(4): 1079-1082.
982. Wattanapiromsakul, C. & Waterman, P.G., 2000. Flavanone, triterpene
and chromene derivatives from the stems of Paramignya griffithii. Phy-
tochemistry 55(3):269-273.
983. Weber, A., 1996. Inflorescence morphology of the Malayan species of
Phyllagathis (Melastomataceae). Feddes Repertorium 106(5-8): 445-461.
984. Weber, A. & Burtt, B.L., 1997. Remodelling of Didymocarpus and associ-
ated genera (Gesneriaceae). Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen 70:
293-363.
985. Weber, A. &Burtt, B.L., 1997. Revision ofthe genus Didissandra (Gesne-
riaceae). Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen 70: 191-223.
986. Weiss, CR., Moideen, S.V.K., Croft, S.L. & Houghton, P.J., 2000. Activi-
ty ofextracts and isolated naphthoquinones from Kigelia pinnata against
Plasmodium falciparum. Journal ofNatural Products 63(9): 1306-1309.
987. Weniger, B. et al., 2001. Antiprotozoal activity of Colombian plants.
Journal ofEthnopharmacology 78: 193-200.
988. Weniger, B. et al., 2001. Bioactive acridone alkaloids from Swinglea
glutinosa. Journal ofNatural Products 64(9): 1221-1223.
989. White, P.S., 1980. Dalea. In: Dwyer, J.D. et al. Flora of Panama. Part 5,
fasc. 5. Family 83. Leguminosae, subfamily Papilionoideae (conclusion).
LITERATURE 533
Annals ofthe Missouri Botanical Garden 67(3): 616-622.

990. Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya.
A manual for foresters. 2nd Edition. 4 volumes. Malayan Forest Records
No 26. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur &Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia.
991. Wijayakusuma, H.M.H., Dalimartha, S., Wirian, A.S., Yaputra, T. & Wi-
bowo, B., 1993. Tanaman berkhasiat obat di Indonesia [Medicinal plants
in Indonesia].Vol. 2.Pustaka Kartini, Jakarta, Indonesia. 138 pp.
992. Wijayakusuma, H.M.H., Wirian, A.S.,Yaputra, T., Dalimartha, S. & Wi-
bowo, B., 1992. Tanaman berkhasiat obat di Indonesia [Medicinal plants
in Indonesia].Vol. 1.Pustaka Kartini, Jakarta, Indonesia. 122 pp.
993. Williams, CA., 1979. The leaf flavonoids of the Orchidaceae. Phytochem-
istry 18(5): 803-814.
994. Williams, C.A. & Harborne, J.B., 1977. The leaf flavonoids of the Zingi-
berales. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 5:221.
995. Wilmot-Dear, CM., 1987. A revision of Mucuna (Leguminosae - Phase-
oleae) in the Indian subcontinent and Burma. Kew Bulletin 42(1): 23-46.
oleae) in the Pacific. Kew Bulletin 45(1): 1-35.
oleae) in the Philippines. Kew Bulletin 46(2): 213-251.
998. Wilmot-Dear, CM., 1991. Mucuna hainanensis Hayata subsp. multil-
amellata Wilmot-Dear: a new name for a long-known taxon (Legumi-
nosae - Phaseoleae) and a key to related species. Kew Bulletin 46(2):
205-212.
999. Wilmot-Dear, CM., 1991. Proposal to reject the name Citta nigricans
Lour. (Fabaceae) and all names based on it. Taxon 40(3): 517-520.
1000. Wilmot-Dear, CM., 1992. A revision of Mucuna (Leguminosae: Phase-
oleae) in Thailand, Indochina and the Malay Peninsula. Kew Bulletin
47(2): 203-245.
1001. Wilson, CR., Sauer, J. & Hooser, S.B., 2001. Taxines: a review of the
mechanism and toxicity of yew (Taxus spp.) alkaloids. Toxicon 39:
175-185.
1002. Windarti, S., 1990. Pengaruh sari Dendrophthoe pentandra Miq. ter-
hadap aktivitas glutamat piruvat transaminase dan kadar protein total
serum tikus putih jantan yang telah diperlakukan dengan dimetil-
aminoazobenzen [Effect of Dendrophthoe pentandra Miq. extract on the
activity of glutamate pyruvate transaminase and the total protein con-
tent of male white rat serum treated with dimethylaminoazobenzene].
SI Thesis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia. 73 pp.
1003. Wiriadinata, H., 1977. Kandungan alkaloida dan saponin pada
Spatholobus ferrugineus (Papilionaceae) [The alkaloid and saponin con-
tents in Spatholobus ferrugineus (Papilionaceae)]. Berita Biologi 2(2):
43-44.
1004. Womersley, J.S. (Editor), 1978. Handbooks of the flora of Papua New
Guinea. Vol. 1.Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Australia. 278 pp.
1005. Wong, K T . & Tan, B.K.H., 1996. In vitro cytotoxicity and immunomodu-
lating property of Rhaphidophora korthalsii. Journal of Ethnopharma-
cology 52(1): 53-57.

1006. Wood, J.J., 1977. Grammatophyllum scriptum (Rumph.) Bl. sensu lato
and its var. boweri (F. v. Muell.) Schltr. Orchid Review 85, No 1013:
323-327.
1007. Wood, J.J., 1977. The genus Cymbidium in New Guinea. The Orchid Re-
view 85,No 1005: 94-96.
1008. World Health Organisation & Institute of Materia Medica, 1990. Medici-
nal plants of Viet Nam. World Health Organisation Regional Publica-
tions, Western Pacific Series No 3.WHOAVPRO, Manila, the Philippines
& Institute ofMateria Medica, Hanoi, Vietnam. 410 pp.
1009. Wu, F., Cao, J., Jiang, J., Yu, B. & Xu, Q., 2001. Ruscogenin glycoside
(Lm-3) isolated from Liriope muscari improves liver injury by dysfunc-
tioning liver-infiltrating lymphocytes. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharma-
cology 53(5): 681-688.
1010. Wu, J.-B., Cheng, Y.-D., Chiu, N.-Y., Huang, S.-C. & Kuo, S.-C, 1993. A
novel morphinandienone alkaloid from Fissistigma oldhamii. Planta
Medica 59(2): 179-180.
1011. Wu, J.-B. et al., 1994. Fissoldhimine, a novel skeleton alkaloid from
Fissistigma oldhamii. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 42(10):
2202-2204.
1012. Wu, T.S. et al., 1997. Cytotoxic and antiplatelet aggregation principles
from Aglaia elliptifolia. Journal ofNatural Products 60(6): 606-608.
1013. Wu, Z.-Y. & Raven, P.H. (Editors), 1994-. Flora of China. Science Press,
Bejing, China &Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, United States.
1014. Xei, J., Harrison, L.J., Vittal, J.J., Xu, Y.J. & Goh, S.H., 2000. Four new
clerodane diterpenoids from Callicarpa pentandra. Journal of Natural
Products 63(8): 1062-1065.
1015. Xiang, Z. et al., 1989. Studies on synthesis of baogongteng A: a new
myotic agent. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica 24(2): 105-109.
1016. Xiao, J., Cui, F., Ning, T. & Zhao, W., 1990. Effects of alcohol extract
from Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce and Cuscuta australis R. Br.
on immunological function of mice injured by burns. Journal of Chinese
Materia Medica 15(9): 557-559 (in Chinese).
1017. Xiao, J.C. et al., 1989. Protective effects of the pollen of Codonopsis pilo-
sula (Franch.) Nannf. on liver lesions at the ultrastructural level. Zhong-
guo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 14(3):42-44, 64 (in Chinese).
1018. Xiao, L.Y. & Pu, Z.H., 1989. The propagation of Loranthaceae from
Xishuangbanna. Acta Botanica Yunnanica 11(2): 175-180.
1019. Xie, Y.S. et al., 1994. Biological activity of extracts of Trichilia species
and the limonoid hirtin against lepidopteran larvae. Biochemical Sys-
tematics and Ecology 22(2): 129-136.
1020. Xu, H.-X. et al., 1996. Screening of traditional medicines for their in-
hibitory activity against HIV-1 protease. Phytotherapy Research 10:
207-210.
1021. Xu, R., Zhao, W., Xu, J., Shao, B. & Qin, G., 1996. Studies on bioactive
saponins from Chinese medicinal plants. Advances in Experimental
Medicine and Biology 404: 371-382.
1022. Yadava, R.N., 1986. In vitro antimicrobial studies on the essential oil of
Lepidagathis hyalina Nees. Indian Perfumer 30(4): 481-482.
LITERATURE 535
1023. Yadava, R.N., 2001.A new biologically active triterpenoid saponin from
the leaves of Lepidagathis hyalina Nees. Natural Product Letters 15(5):
315-322.
1024. Yadava, R.N. & Reddy, K.I., 1998. A new bio-active flavonol glycoside
from the stems of Butea superba Roxb. Journal of Asian Natural Prod-
ucts Research 1(2): 139-145.
1025. Yaguchi, E., Miyase, T. &Ueno, A., 1995. Mazusaponins I-IV, triterpene
saponins from Mazus miquelii. Phytochemistry 39(1): 185-189.
1026. Yahara, S. et al., 1994. An alkaloid and two lignans from Cuscuta chi-
nensis. Phytochemistry 37(6): 1755-1757.
1027. Yamano, T. et al., 1988. Hepatotoxicity of Gardenia yellow color in rats.
Toxicology Letters 44: 177-182.
1028. Yamasaki, K. et al., 1998. Anti-HIV-1 activity of herbs in Labiatae. Bio-
logical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 21(8): 829-833.
1029. Yamuna et al., 1995. Regeneration and multiplication of shoots in
Glochidion multiloculare Muell.-Arg. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medi-
cinal Plants 3(1): 67-74.
1030. Yan, X., Zhou, J., Xie, G. & Milne, G.W.A. (Editors), 1999. Traditional
Chinese medicines - molecular structures, natural sources, and applica-
tions. Ashgate Publishing Limited, Aldershot, United Kingdom. 1024 pp.
1031. Yang, D., Liu, H., Li, X., Huang, X. & Qin, J., 1998. Chemical con-
stituents of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg. China Journal of
Chinese Materia Medica 23(7):419-421 (in Chinese).
1032. Yang, L.L., Yen, K.Y., Kiso, Y. & Hikino, H., 1987. Antihepatotoxic ac-
tions of Formosan plant drugs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 19(1):
103-110.
1033. Yen, G.C., Chen, H.Y. &Peng, H.H., 2001.Evaluation ofthe cytotoxicity,
mutagenicity and antimutagenicity of emerging edible plants. Food and
Chemical Toxicology 39(11): 1045-1053.
1034. Yeoh, H.H. & Wong, P.F.M., 1993. Food value of lesser utilised tropical
plants. Food Chemistry 46(3): 239-241.
1035. Yoshida, T. et al., 1986. Dimeric ellagitannins in plants of Melastoma-
taceae. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 34(6): 2676-2679.
1036. Yoshida, T. et al., 1990. Woodfordin C, a macro-ring hydrolyzable tannin
dimer with antitumor activity, and accompanying dimers from Woodfor-
dia fruticosa flowers. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 38(5):
1211-1217.
1037. Yoshikawa, K., Kageyama, H. & Arihaa, S., 1995. Phenolic glucosides
and lignans from Ehretia ovalifolia. Phytochemistry 39(3): 659-664.
1038. Yoshikawa, K. et al., 1998. Antisweet natural products. XIII. Structures
of alternosides I-X from Gymnema alternifolium. Chemical and Pharma-
ceutical Bulletin 46(7): 1102-1107.
1039. Yoshikawa, M., Murakami, T. & Matsuda, H., 1997. Medicinal food-
stuffs. X. Structures of new triterpene glycosides, gymnemosides-c, -d, -e,
and -f, from the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.: influence of gymne-
ma glycosides on glucose uptake in rat small intestinal fragments.
1040. Yoshimura, S.-L, Narita, H., Hayashi, K. & Mitsuhashi, H., 1983. Stud-
ies on the constituents ofAsclepiadaceae plants LVI. Isolation of new an-
titumor-active glycosides from Dregea volubilis (L.) Benth. Chemical and

1041. Younos, C. et al., 1990. Analgesic and behavioural effects of Morinda ci-
trifolia. Planta Medica 56(5): 430-434.
1042. Ysrael, M.C. & Croft, K.D., 1988. A biochemical assessment of the
anti-inflammatory activity of compounds from Philippine medicinal
plants. Acta Manilana 37: 65-70.
1043. Yu, B.,Yin, X., Xu, G. &Xu, L., 1991.Quality of tuberous root of Liriope
spicata (Thunb.) Lour. var. proliféra Y.T. Ma and Ophiopogon japonicus
(L. f.) Ker Gawl. - comparison of immune function. Zhongguo Zhong Yao
Za Zhi 16(10): 584-585 (in Chinese).
1044. Yu, B.Y. et al., 1996. Steroidal glycosides from the subterranean parts of
Liriope spicata var. proliféra. Phytochemistry 43(1): 201-206.
1045. Yuan, Z.Z. & Feng, J.C., 1989. Observation on the treatment of systemic
lupus erythematosus with a Gentiana macrophylla complex tablet and a
minimal dose ofprednisone. Chinese Journal ofModern Developments in
Traditional Medicine 9(3): 156-157 (in Chinese).
1046. Yukimune, Y., Hara, Y., Nomura, E., Seto, H. & Yoshida, S., 2000. The
configuration of methyl jasmonate affects paclitaxel and baccatin III pro-
duction in Taxus cells. Phytochemistry 54(1): 13-17.
1047. Yun, H.S., Yu, J.C. & Chang, I.M., 1981.Plants with liver protective ac-
tivities. V. Liver protective activities of Atractylodes japonica (alba) and
Gentiana scabra. Korean Journal ofPharmacognosy 12:23-25.
1048. Zafra-Polo, M.C, Gonzalez, M.C, Tormo, J.R., Estornell, E. & Cortes, D.,
1996. Polyalthidin: new prenylated benzopyran inhibitor of the mam-
malian mitochondrial respiratory chain. Journal of Natural Products
59(10): 913-916.
1049. Zee-Cheng, R.K.-Y., 1997. Anticancer research on Loranthaceae plants.
Drugs ofthe Future 22(5): 519-530.
1050. Zeng, X., Fang, Z. &Ma, J., 1991.Chemical constituents of Osbeckia chi-
nensis L. China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica 16(2): 99-101 (in
Chinese).
1051. Zhang, H.J., 2001.Antimalarial compounds from Rhaphidophora decur-
siva. Journal ofNatural Products 64(6): 772-777.
1052. Zhang, Q.H., Huang, S.L. & Wang, X.J., 1993. Studies on the sapogenins
and prosapogenins in Ardisia pusilla A. DC. Journal of Chinese Materia
Medica 18(9): 545-547 (in Chinese).
1053. Zhang, X.F. & Tan, B.K., 2000. Effects of an ethanolic extract of Gynura
procumbens on serum glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels in nor-
mal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Singapore Medical Journal
41(1): 9-13.
1054. Zhao, F., Morita, I., Murota, S.I. & Yao, X.-S., 1999. Anti-inflammatory
activities of Phyllanthus emblica and Betula alnoides through transcrip-
tion factor NF-kappa B pathway. Journal of Traditional Medicines 16(4):
155-162.
1055. Zhao, G., Jung, J.H., Smith, D.L., Wood, K.V. & McLaughlin, J.L., 1991.
Cytotoxic clerodane diterpenes from Polyalthia longifolia. Planta Medica
57(4): 380-383.
1056. Zhao, W., Yang, G., Xu, R. & Qin, G., 1996. Three monoterpenes from
LITERATURE 537
Mussaenda pubescens. Phytochemistry 41(6): 1553-1555.

1057. Zhao, W. et al., 1994. New triterpenoid saponins from Mussaenda pubes-
cens. Journal ofNatural Products 57(12): 1613-1618.
1058. Zhou, Y.B., 1988. Pharmacological actions of Lignum aquilariae resina-
tum (Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.) on the smooth muscle of intestines.
Chung Yao T'ung Pao 13(6): 40-42.
Acknowledgments
Our thanks are due to

- the Department of International Development Cooperation (DIDC), Finland,
for financial support;
- the Commission of the European Union, DG-I Programme 'Tropical Forests',
Brussels, Belgium, for financial support;
- the Netherlands Ministry ofAgriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries
for financial support;
- the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Directorate-General for Inter-
national Cooperation (DGIS), for financial support;
- the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science for financial
support;
- the 'Yayasan Sarana Wanajaya', Indonesia, for financial support;
- the Chairman of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jakarta, In-
donesia, for supporting the Prosea programme, and the Research and Devel-
opment Centre for Biology (RDCB), Bogor, Indonesia, for providing facilities
for the Prosea Network Office in the Herbarium Bogoriense;
- the Executive Board of Wageningen University, the Netherlands, for sup-
porting the Prosea programme, and the Department of Plant Sciences, for
providing facilities for the Prosea Publication Office;
- the coordinating institutions of the Prosea programme in Indonesia, Ma-
laysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, for pro-
viding facilities for the Prosea Country Offices;
- the Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (PUDOC-DLO),
Wageningen, the Netherlands, for support and documentation facilities;
- the Prosea Country Offices in South-East Asia, for their search work on
less-accessible literature, and for their support concerning contacts with au-
thors;
- Dr David K. Holdsworth, United Kingdom, who passed away on August 7,
2001, for his devotion as associate editor reviewing 60 manuscripts for this
volume, especially covering uses of medicinal plants in Borneo and New
Guinea;
- Professor Dr N.R. Farnsworth and Professor Dr H.S. Fong, College of Phar-
macy, University ofIllinois, Chicago, United States, for the permission to use
the NAPRALERT database;
- Mr S. Massalt, Foto Sijbout Massalt, Ede, the Netherlands, for scanning the
illustrations and chemical structures;
- Drs Judith Jansen for making the indexes;
- all persons, institutions, publishers and authors mentioned in the list
'Sources ofillustrations', for authorization to use these illustrations.
Acronyms of organizations
ASEAN: Association of South-East Asian Nations (Jakarta, Indonesia).

CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (Lausanne, Switzerland).
DGIS: Directorate-General for International Cooperation of the Netherlands
Ministry ofForeign Affairs (Den Haag, the Netherlands).
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Rome,
Italy).
FRIM: Forest Research Institute Malaysia (Kepong, Malaysia).
IEBR: Institute ofEcology and Biological Resources (Hanoi, Vietnam).
IPGRI: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (Rome, Italy).
IUCN: World Conservation Union (Gland, Switzerland).
LIPI: Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Jakarta, Indonesia).
PCARRD: Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Re-
sources Research and Development (Los Banos, the Philippines).
PROSEA: Plant Resources ofSouth-East Asia (Bogor, Indonesia).
RDCB: Research and Development Centre for Biology (Bogor, Indonesia).
TISTR: Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (Bang-
kok, Thailand).
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme (New York, United States).
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(Paris, France).
UNITECH: Papua New Guinea University of Technology (Lae, Papua New
Guinea).
UPLB: University of the Philippines at Los Banos (Los Banos, the Philip-
pines).
WHO: World Health Organization (Geneva, Switzerland).
WU (formerly WAU): Wageningen University (Wageningen, the Nether-
lands).
WWF: World Wide Fund for Nature (Gland, Switzerland).
Glossary
abortifacient: causing abortion; an agent that parts fused, e.g. ovary and calyx tube
causes abortion adrenoceptor: adrenergic receptor, i.e. postulated
abortive: imperfectly developed; effecting an abor- site on effector organs innervated by adrenergic
tion (abortifacient) fibres ofthe sympathetic nervous system
abortivum: agent inducing abortion adventitious: not in the usual place, e.g. roots on
abscess: a swollen, inflamed area in body tissues, stems, or buds produced in other than terminal
in which pus gathers or axillary positions on stems
acaulescent: lacking a visible stem aerial root: any root that grows above the ground
accession: in germplasm collections: plant materi- aestivation: the arrangement of sepals and petals
al of a particular collection, usually indicated in the bud
with a number aglycones: the non-sugar part of glycosides is
accrescent: increasing in size with age called the aglycone part or simply the aglycone;
acetates: a large group of secondary metabolites, in aglycones and their glycosides may be present
which acetylcoenzyme A ('acetate') is the build- in the same plant; furthermore, the combination
ing block; acetate itself is derived from primary of aglycone and sugar will alter the properties of
metabolism carbohydrates via pyruvic acid the molecule
acetogenins: a group of long-chain aliphatic com- agonist: a drug that has affinity for and stimu-
pounds, ending with a 'gamma' lactone, most of- lates physiological activity at cell receptors nor-
ten unsaturated and cyclized into one or two mally stimulated by naturally occurring sub-
tetrahydrofuran rings that may or may not be stances (see also antagonist)
adjacent agroforestry: land-use systems in which trees or
achene: a small dry indéhiscent one-seeded fruit shrubs are grown in association with crops
acne: inflammatory disease affecting hair follicles (agricultural crops or pastures) in a spatial
and glands ofthe skin; frequently used to desig- arrangement or a rotation and in which there
nate acne vulgaris, with lesions on the face, are both ecological and economic interactions
chest and back between the trees and the other components of
actinomorphic: radially symmetrical; applied to the system
flowers which can be bisected in more than one ague: a fever of malarial character marked by
vertical plane paroxysms of chills, fever, and sweating that re-
acuminate: ending in a narrowed, tapering point cur at regular intervals
with concave sides AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndrome, an
acute: in botany: sharp; ending in a point with epidemic, transmissible retroviral disease due
straight or slightly convex sides; in medicine: to infection with HIV (human immunodeficiency
with a short and relatively severe course virus), in severe cases manifested as a profound
acute toxicity: toxicity characterized by a sudden depression ofcell-mediated immunity
onset, sharp rise and short course air layering: a form of layering in which soil (root-
adaptogenic: strengthening the resistance of the ing medium) is brought to the branch to be lay-
body to stress ered; the ball of soil in a polyethene cover is
adaxial: on the side facing the axis (ventral) wrapped around the girdled branch; after ad-
adenocarcinoma: carcinoma derived from glandu- ventitious roots grow out above the girdle, the
lar tissue or in which the tumour cells form rec- layer can be separated
ognizable glandular structures albumen: the nutritive material stored within the
adherent: the union ofparts usually separate seed, and in many cases surrounding the em-
adnate: united with another part; with unlike bryo (endosperm)
GLOSSARY 541
alkaloids: large group of organic bases containing aniline: an oily liquid poisonous amine, colourless
nitrogen and usually oxygen that occur for the when pure
most part in the form of salts; usually optically annual: a plant which completes its life cycle in
and biologically active one year
allergenic: acting as an allergen; inducing allergy annular: used of any organs disposed in a circle
allergic: pertaining to, caused by, affected with, or annulus: a ring or a ring-like part
ofthe nature of allergy anodyne: relieving pain; a medicine that relieves
allergy: a state of hypersensitivity induced by ex- pain
posure to a particular antigen (allergen) result- antagonist: a substance that tends to nullify the
ing in harmful immunological reactions on sub- action of another, as a drug that binds to a cell
sequent exposures receptor without eliciting a biological response
alluvium: soil material deposited by running wa- (see also agonist)
ter in recent geological time anterior: of time, previous; of place, position in
alopecia: baldness; absence of the hair from skin front, or turned away from the axis
areas where it is normally present anthelmintic: destructive to worms: a drug or
alterative: tending to change gradually the condi- agent that destroys worms
tion ofthe body to a normal state; a drug having anther: the part ofthe stamen containing the pollen
this effect anthesis: the time the flower is expanded, or, more
alternate: leaves, etc., inserted at different levels strictly, the time when pollination may take
along the stem, as distinct from opposite or place
whorled anthocyanidins: the aglycone part of anthocya-
alveolate: marked as though honeycombed nins, compounds closely related to the flavo-
Alzheimer's disease: dementia of insidious onset noids but derived from the 2-phenyl benzopy-
and gradually progressive course, usually occur- rylium cation
ring after the age of 50 anthocyanins: glycosides ofthe anthocyanidins
amenorrhoea: abnormal absence or suppression of anthraquinones: a subgroup of the quinones, in
the menses which the dione is conjugated to the condensed
amoebiasis: the state of being affected by amoe- polycyclic aromatic system of anthracene
bae, especially with Entamoeba histolytica anti-inflammatory: suppressing or counteracting
amplexicaul: stem-clasping, when the base of a inflammation; an agent that suppresses or
sessile leaf or a stipule is dilated at the base, counteracts the inflammatory process
and embraces the stem anti-oestrogen: a substance capable of inhibiting
anaemia: a condition in which the blood is defi- the biological effects offemale sex hormones
cient in red blood cells, in haemoglobin, or in to- anti-ulcerogenic: preventing the production of ul-
tal volume cers
anaesthetic: producing loss ofsensation; producing antibiotic: any of a large class of substances pro-
loss of the ability to feel pain; an agent used to duced by various micro-organisms and fungi
abolish the sensation of pain and having the power of arresting the growth of
analgesia: absence of sensibility to pain; the relief other micro-organisms or destroying them; a
ofpain without loss of consciousness chemical, produced by plants, animals or syn-
analgesic: relieving pain; not sensitive to pain; an thetically, having similar properties
agent alleviating pain without causing loss of anticomplementary: reducing or destroying the
consciousness power of a complement (a complex system of
androgen: any substance that promotes masculin- heat-sensitive proteins present in serum and re-
ization acting with antibodies to destroy antigens)
angina pectoris: a paroxysmal thoracic pain, often antidiabetic: preventing or alleviating diabetes
radiating to the arms. It is most often due to de- antidiarrhoeal: counteracting diarrhoea
ficiency of blood in the myocardium and precipi- antidote: anything counteracting the effects of a
tated by effort or excitement poison
angiotensin: any of a family of polypeptide hor- antidysenteric: preventing, alleviating or curing
mones formed by the catalytic action of renin on dysentery
renin substrate and stimulating contraction of antifebrile: =antipyretic
the muscular tissue of the capillaries and arter- antifeedant: preventing something from being eat-
ies
anti filarial: effective against filaria aperient: a mild or gentle purgative; also called
antigastralgic: preventing or alleviating gastric laxative
colic apex (plural: apices): the tip or summit ofan organ
antihepatotoxic: counteracting injuries to the liver aphrodisiac: stimulating sexual desire; a drug
antihistamine: a drug that counteracts the action arousing the sexual instinct
ofhistamine; often used against allergy aphthae: plural of aphtha; recurrent inflammation
antileishmanial: effective against leishmania ofthe oral mucous membranes, characterized by
antileprotic: therapeutically effective against lep- the presence ofsmall ulcers
rosy apical: at the apex ofany structure
antileukaemic: preventing or alleviating leukae- apiculate: ending abruptly in a short point
mia apomixis: reproduction by seed formed without
antimicrobial: killing micro-organisms, or sup- sexual fusion (apomictic)
pressing their growth or multiplication; an apoptosis: fragmentation of a cell into membrane-
agent acting so bound particles, which are eliminated by phago-
antimitotic: inhibiting or preventing mitosis cytosis
antineoplastic: inhibing or preventing the develop- aporphine alkaloids: a subgroup of the alkaloids;
ment ofneoplasms (tumours) see also alkaloids
antinociceptive: having an analgesic effect appendage: a part added to another; attached sec-
antioxidant: a substance that opposes oxidation or ondary or subsidiary part, sometimes projecting
inhibits reactions promoted by oxygen or perox- or hanging
ides; many of these substances are used as appendix (botany): a name given to appendages of
preservatives in various products any kind, e.g. in Araceae the sterile top part of
antiphlogistic: counteracting inflammation and the spadix
fever; an agent counteracting inflammation and appressed: lying flat for the whole length ofthe or-
fever gan
antiplasmodial: destroying plasmodia arachnoid: like a cobweb
antiproliferative: preventing or inhibiting the re- architectural model: model describing the branch-
production ofsimilar cells ing habit of a tree as determined by the pattern
antiprotozoal: destroying protozoa, or checking of activity of axes, the pattern including timing,
their growth or reproduction positioning and fate (e.g. terminating in an in-
antipruritic: relieving or preventing itching florescence) of active axes
antipyretic: relieving or reducing fever; an agent aréole: an irregular square or angular space
that relieves or reduces fever marked out on a surface, e.g. of a fruit; a small
antirheumatic: relieving or preventing rheumatism cell or cavity
antiscorbutic: relieving or preventing scurvy; a areolate: with irregular squares or angular spaces
remedy for scurvy marked out on a surface, e.g. of a fruit; with
antisecretory: inhibiting or diminishing secretion small cells or cavities
antiseptic: pertaining to asepsis (prevention of aril: an expansion of the funicle enveloping the
contact with micro-organisms); preventing de- seed, arising from the placenta; sometimes oc-
cay or putrefaction; a substance inhibiting the curring as a pulpy cover (arillus)
growth and development of micro-organisms arillode: a false aril, a coat of the seed not arising
without necessarily killing them from the placenta
antispasmodic: relieving spasm; an agent that re- arilloid: like an aril
lieves spasm armed: bearing some form of spines
antispermatogenic: preventing or inhibiting the arrhythmia: any variation from the normal
production ofsemen or spermatozoa rhythm ofthe heartbeat
antithrombotic: preventing or interfering with the arteriosclerosis: a group of diseases characterized
formation of thrombi by thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial
antitussive: preventing or relieving cough; an walls
agent that prevents or relieves cough arthritis: inflammation ofajoint or joints
antrorse: directed upwards (opposed to retrorse) article: a segment of a constricted pod or fruit, as
anuria: complete suppression of urinary secretion in Desmodium
by the kidneys articulate: jointed, or with places where separa-
anxiolytic: reducing anxiety tion takes place naturally
GLOSSARY 543
articulation: a joint, popularly applied to nodes of beak: a long, prominent and substantial point, ap-
grasses plied particularly to prolongations of fruits
ascending: curving or sloping upwards beaked: used offruits which end in a long point
ascites: effusion and accumulation of serous fluid bearded: awned; having tufts of hairs
in the abdominal cavity bechic: a remedy or treatment of cough
asexual: sexless; not involving union of gametes benzenoids: chemical compounds containing a
asthma: a chronic disorder characterized by paro- characteristic benzene ring, often represented
xysms of the bronchi, shortness of breath, as a C6 ring with 3 double bonds alternating
wheezing, a suffocating feeling, and laboured with single bonds between the C-atoms
coughing to remove tenacious mucus from the benzoquinones: quinones with the dione conjugat-
air passages ed to an aromatic nucleus
astringent: an agent or substance causing con- beri-beri: a disease caused by a deficiency of thi-
striction of the skin, mucous membranes or raw amine (vitamin Bl), marked by inflammatory or
or exposed tissues; as such, ethanol is used in degenerative changes of the nerves and heart,
skin-toning lotions and aluminium chlorohy- and oedema
drate in anti-perspirants berry: a juicy indéhiscent fruit with the seeds im-
atherosclerosis: an extremely common form of ar- mersed in pulp; usually several-seeded without
teriosclerosis in which deposits of yellowish a stony layer surrounding the seed
plaques containing mainly cholesterol and biennial: a plant which flowers, fruits and dies in
lipoid material are formed on the walls of large its second year or season
and medium-sized arteries bifid: forked, divided in two but not to the base
atonic: lacking normal tone or strength bilabiate: two-lipped
attenuate: gradually tapering biliousness: a symptom complex with nausea, ab-
auct.: auctorum (Latin); of authors dominal discomfort, headache and constipation,
auct. non: auctorum, non (Latin); of authors not... formerly attributed to excessive secretion of bile
(author name); used after a scientific name bilocular: with two compartments or cells
when this name is erroneously applied by sever- biogenic: having origins in biological processes
al authors to material actually belonging to a bipinnate: when the primary divisions (pinnae) of
different species than the species described by a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnate
the author mentioned bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids: a subgroup of the
auricle: a small lobe or ear isoquinoline alkaloids; see also alkaloids
auriculate: eared, having auricles bisexual: having both sexes present and functional
awn: a bristle-like appendage, especially occur- in the same flower
ring on the glumes of grasses blade: the expanded part, e.g. ofa leaf or petal
axil: the upper angle between the leaf and the blennorrhoea: an excessive discharge of mucus;
stem former name for gonorrhoea
axile: (placenta) belonging to or situated in an axis blight: a general term applied to any of a wide
axillary: arising from the axil range ofunrelated plant diseases
axis: the main or central line of development of a blister: a small swelling ofthe skin, filled with wa-
plant or organ tery matter and caused by burning or rubbing
Ayurvedic: traditional Hindu system of medicine blotched: see variegated
based largely on homeopathy and naturopathy bole: the main trunk of a tree, generally from the
baccate: berrylike; pulpy or fleshy base up to the first main branch
bactericidal: destroying bacteria bract: a reduced leaf subtending a flower, flower
bark: the tissue external to the vascular cambium stalk or the whole or part ofan inflorescence
collectively, being the secondary phloem, cortex bracteole: a secondary bract on the pedicel or close
and periderm under the flower
basionym: the synonym of a scientific name that bradycardia: slowness of the heartbeat, as evi-
supplies the epithet for the correct name denced by a slowing of the pulse rate to less
batik: an Indonesian method ofhand-printing tex- than 60 in an adult
tiles by coating parts of the fabric with wax to breeding: the propagation of plants or animals to
resist dye, dipping in a cold dye solution, boiling improve certain characteristics
off the wax, and repeating the process for each bristle: a stiff hair or a hair-like stiff slender body
colour used bronchitis: inflammation ofone or more bronchi
bronchospasm: spasmodic contraction of the ripe into valves, or opening by slits or pores; in
smooth muscles of the bronchi, as occurs in medicine: a structure in which something is en-
asthma closed, e.g. a hard or soft, soluble container en-
bud: the nascent state of a flower or branch; often closing a dose of medicine
applied to those primordial vegetative or repro- carbohydrates: compounds formed from water and
ductive branches that are enclosed in a prophyl- carbondioxide; they can be grouped into sugars
lum and have a resting stage and polysaccharides
budding: the process of inserting a scion, which carbuncle: a necrotizing infection of skin and sub-
consists of the bud in a leaf axil on a shield of cutaneous tissue consisting of a cluster of boils,
rind, with or without a small piece of wood at- and with multiple formed or incipient drainage
tached, into a plant (rootstock) with the inten- sinuses; it is usually caused by Staphylococcus
tion that it will unite and grow there, usually in aureus
order to propagate a desired cultivar carcinogenesis: the production of carcinoma
bulb: an underground storage organ with a carcinogenic: producing carcinoma
much-shortened stem bearing fleshy leaf bases carcinoma: a malignant new growth consisting of
or scale leaves enclosing the next year's bud epithelial cells, which tends to infiltrate sur-
bulbil: an aerial bulb or bud produced in a leaf ax- rounding tissues and give rise to metastases
il or replacing the flower, which, on separation, cardenolides: cardiac glycosides in which the side
is capable ofpropagating the plant chain of the steroid aglycone is a 5-membered
bullate: surface much blistered or puckered lactone ring; see also cardiac glycosides
bush: a low thick shrub without a distinct trunk cardiac: pertaining to, situated near, or affecting
buttress: the enlargement of the base of trunks of the heart; pertaining to the opening between
tropical trees that ranges from a small spur or the oesophagus and the stomach
swelling to massive structures, partly root, part- cardioactive: having an effect on the heart
ly stem, reaching as high as 10 m up the stem, cardiotonic: having a tonic effect on the heart; an
thin and flat to thick, twisted or anastomose agent that has a tonic effect on the heart
cachexia: general ill health and malnutrition cardiovascular: pertaining to the heart and blood
caducous: falling off vessels
caespitose: forming mats or spreading tufts carinate: keeled
callus: in plants, small hard outgrowth at the base cariogenic: leading to the production of caries
of spikelets in some grasses, or tissue that forms carminative: relieving flatulence; an agent reliev-
over cut or damaged plant surface; in humans, ing flatulence and assuaging pain
localized hyperplasia of the horny layer of the carotenoids: a subgroup ofthe terpenoids, contain-
epidermis due to pressure or friction, or an un- ing 8 isoprene units (C40) named after ß-caro-
organized meshwork of woven bone which is tene
formed after a fracture ofa bone carpel: one of the foliar units of a compound pistil
calyptrate: operculate, having a deciduous lid or ovary; a simple pistil has only one carpel
calyx: the outer envelope of the flower, consisting carpophore: the part of the receptacle which is
of sepals, free or united prolonged between the carpels as a central axis
campanulate: bell-shaped cartilaginous: hard and tough
canaliculate: channelled, with a longitudinal caruncle: an outgrowth of a seed near the hilum
groove caryopsis: the fruit of a grass, in which the outer
cancer: a malignant neoplasm or tumour, charac- layer (testa) of the seed proper is fused to the
terized by a morbid proliferation of epithelial ovary wall
cells in different parts of the body, resulting in cataplasm: poultice or soft external application
progressive degeneration and often ending fa- catarrh: inflammation of the lining tissue of vari-
tally ous organs, particularly of the nose, throat, and
canopy: the uppermost leafy layer of a tree, forest air passages, and characterized by an outpour-
or crop ing of mucus
capitate: headed, like the head of a pin in some cathartic: causing evacuation of the bowels; an
stigmas, or collected into compact headlike clus- agent that causes evacuation of the bowels by
ters as in some inflorescences increasing bulk, stimulating peristaltic action
capsule: in botany: a dry dehiscent fruit composed etc.; also called purgative
of two or more carpels and either splitting when catkin: a close bracteate, often pendulous spike,
GLOSSARY 545
usually with unisexual flowers cleistogamous: pollination and fertilization taking

caudate: with a tail-like appendage place within the unopened flower
cauliflorous: with the flowers borne on the trunk clone: a group of plants originating by vegetative
cauline: belonging to the stem or arising from it propagation from a single plant and therefore of
chalaza: the basal part of the ovule or seed where the same genotype
it is attached to the funicle and the point at clustered: compactly gathered together; with sev-
which vascular tissues enter and spread into eral stems
the ovule coherent: the incorporation of one part with anoth-
chalcones: a subgroup of the flavonoids; see also er, as the petals to form a tubular corolla
flavonoids colic: acute, spasmodic pain in the bowels; per-
channelled: grooved, hollowed out like a gutter taining to the bowels
chartaceous: papery collar: the boundary between the above- and un-
chemotype: taxon which is morphologically similar derground portions ofthe axis ofa plant
to another one but with different chemical con- colleter: a multicellular glandular hair
tent column (botany): a cylindrical body, e.g. a tube of
chlorophyll: green pigment in plants which ab- connate stamen filaments or the central axis of
sorbs light for photosynthesis a fruit
cholagogue: an agent that promotes an increased coma: in medicine: a state of unconsciousness
flow ofbile from which the patient cannot be aroused; in
cholera: acute, infectious inflammation of the in- botany: the hairs at the end ofsome seeds; a tuft
testine, caused by an enterotoxin elaborated by ofleafy bracts or leaves at the top of an inflores-
Vibrio cholerae, and characterized by severe, cence (e.g. pineapple)
watery diarrhoea comose (ofseeds): tufted with hairs at the end
choleretic: stimulating the production of bile by compatibility: in floral biology: capable of cross- or
the liver self-fertilization; in plant propagation: stock-
cholinergic: stimulated, activated or transmitted scion combinations resulting in a lasting union
by acetylcholine; applied to the sympathetic and compound: in botany: of two or more similar parts
parasympathetic nerve fibres that liberate in one organ, as in a compound leaf or com-
acetylcholine at a synapse when a nerve im- pound fruit; in chemistry: a substance consist-
pulse passes ing of 2 or more elements combined chemically
chromosome: a structural unit in the nucleus in fixed proportions
which carries the genes in a linear constant or- concave: hollow
der; the number is typically constant in any concoction: a combination of crude materials that
species are prepared (cooked)together
chronic: persisting over a long period of time conduplicate: folded lengthwise
cicatrizant: an agent that promotes the formation cone: the fruit of a pine or fir tree (gymnosperms),
ofa scar largely made up ofimbricated scales
ciliate: with a fringe ofhairs along the edge confluent: blended into one, passing by degrees
ciliolate: fringed with small hairs from one into the other
cincinnus: a monochasial cymose inflorescence congeneric: belonging to the same genus or form-
with branches alternating from one side of the ing a single genus
vertical axis to the other and normally curved to conical: having the shape ofa cone (cone-shaped)
one side conjunctivitis: inflammation ofthe conjunctiva
circinnate: coiled into a ring or partially so connate: united orjoined
circumscissile: dehiscing or falling off along a cir- connective (botany): tissue between the pollen sacs
cular line ofan anther
cirrhosis: liver disease characterized by diffuse, connivent: having a gradually inward direction, as
interlacing bands of fibrous tissue that divide in many petals (convergent)
the hepatic parenchyma into nodular areas conspecific: belonging to the same species
clavate: club-shaped or thickened towards the end constipation: a condition of the bowels in which
claw: the basal, narrow part ofa petal or sepal the expulsion of waste matter is infrequent and
clawed: furnished with a basal, narrow part (the difficult
claw) contiguous: touching but not united, directly bor-
cleft: cut halfway down dering
contorted: twisted or bent crest: an elevation or ridge upon the summit of an

contraceptive: reducing the likelihood of or pre- organ
venting conception; an agent that reduces the crown: the aerial expanse of a tree, not including
likelihood ofor prevents conception the trunk; corona; a short rootstock with leaves;
convex: having a more or less rounded surface the base ofa tufted, herbaceous, perennial grass
convulsant: producing or causing convulsions crown shaft: in palms, a conspicuous cylinder
convulsion: a violent and involuntary contraction formed by tubular leaf sheaths at the top of the
ofthe voluntary muscles stem
coppice: a small wood which is regularly cut at crustaceous: ofhard but brittle texture
stated intervals; the new growth arising from cryptocotylar: of germination, condition in which
the stools the cotyledons remain enveloped in the persis-
cordate: heart-shaped, as seen at the base of a tent fruit wall and/or testa
leaf, etc.,which is deeply notched crystalline: ofthe nature of or relating to a crystal
core: central part; the seeds and integuments of a or crystals
pome, such as an apple; pith in dicotyledonous culm: the stem ofgrasses and sedges
plants cultigen: a plant species or race that has arisen or
coriaceous: ofleathery texture is known only in cultivation
corm: in botany: a solid, short, swollen under- cultivar (cv., plural: cvs): an agricultural or horti-
ground stem, usually erect and tunicated, of one cultural variety that has originated and persist-
year's duration, with that ofthe next year at the ed under cultivation, as distinct from a botani-
top or close to the old one cal variety; a cultivar name should be written
cormel: diminutive of corm, often indicating a sec- with an initial capital letter and given single
ondary corm or tuberous side-rhizome quotation marks (e.g. banana 'Gros Michel') un-
corolla: the inner envelope of the flower consisting less preceded by 'cv.'(e.g. cv. Gros Michel)
offree or united petals cuneate: wedge-shaped; triangular, with the nar-
corona: any appendage or extrusion that stands row end at the point of attachment, as the bases
between the corolla and stamens; crown; the re- ofleaves or petals
mains ofthe calyx limb on e.g. apples or pears cupular: furnished with or subtended by a cupule
corticosteroid: any of the 21-carbon steroids elabo- cupule: a small cup-like structure; the cup of such
rated by the adrenal cortex (excluding sex hor- fruits as the acorn, consisting of an involucre
mones of adrenal origin) in response to the re- composed of adherent bracts
lease of ACTH or angiotensin II; used clinically cupuliform: cupule-shaped
for hormone replacement therapy, for suppres- cusp: a sharp, rigid but small point
sion of ACTH secretion, for suppression of im- cuspidate: abruptly tipped with a sharp rigid point
mune responses and as antineoplastic, anti-al- cutting: a portion of a plant, used for vegetative
lergic and anti-inflammatory agents propagation
corymb: a flat-topped indeterminate inflorescence cyanogenic glycosides: a group of secondary meta-
in which the branches or pedicels sprout from bolites that form hydrocyanic acid on hydrolysis
different points, but attain approximately the cyme: a determinate inflorescence, often flat-top-
same level, with the outer flowers opening first ped, in which each growing point ends in a
corymbose: flowers arranged to resemble a corymb flower and the central flowers open first
cotyledon: seed-leaf, the primary leaf; dicotylous cymose: bearing cymes or inflorescences related to
embryos have two cotyledons and monocotylous cymes
embryos have one cymule: a diminutive, usually few-flowered cyme
coumarins: benzo-cc-pyrone (a-chromone) deriva- or portion of one
tives cystitis: inflammation ofthe urinary bladder
cover crop: a close-growing crop primarily grown cystolith (botany): mineral concretions, usually of
for the purpose of protecting and improving soil calcium carbonate on a cellulose stalk
between periods of regular crop production or cytokine: generic term for nonantibody proteins
between trees or vines in orchards and planta- released by a cell population on contact with a
tions specific antigen and acting as intercellular me-
crenate: the margin notched with blunt or rounded diators
teeth cytotoxic: pertaining to or exhibiting a destructive
crenulate: slightly crenate, with small teeth effect on certain cells
GLOSSARY 547
deciduous: shedding, applied to leaves, petals, etc. didynamous: with the stamens in two pairs, two
declinate: bent or curved downward or forward long and two short ones
decoction: a medicinal preparation or other sub- digestibility: the percentage of a foodstuff taken
stance made by boiling, especially in water into the digestive tract that is absorbed into the
decumbent: reclining or lying on the ground, but body
with the summit ascending dilated (botany): expanded into a flat structure
decurrent: extending down and adnate to the peti- dimer: a compound formed by combination of two
ole or stem, as occurs in some leaves identical simpler molecules
decussate: of leaves, arranged in opposite pairs on dimeric: showing the characteristics ofa dimer
the stem, with each pair perpendicular to the dimorphic: of two forms, as may occur with
preceding pair branches, etc.
deflexed: abruptly recurved; bent downwards or dioecious: with unisexual flowers and with the
backwards staminate and pistillate flowers on different
dehiscent: opening spontaneously when ripe, e.g. plants (dioecy)
ofcapsules, anthers diosgenin: a complex steroid obtained from certain
deltoid: shaped like an equilateral triangle species of yam and which can be converted into
demulcent: allaying the irritation of abraded or in- 16-dehydropregnenolone, one of the main active
flamed body surfaces, soothing; a soothing, mu- ingredients in oral contraceptives
cilaginous or oily medicine or application dipterocarp forest: woodland dominated by trees
dendritic: dendroid, tree-like in form or branching belonging to the family Dipterocarpaceae
dentate: margin prominently toothed with the disciform: shaped like a disk
pointed teeth directed outwards discoid: resembling a disk or discus, being flat and
denticulate: minutely toothed circular, e.g. of a leaf with a round thickened
depressant: diminishing functional activity; a lamina and rounded margins
medicine or drug which lowers functional activi- disjunct: separated
ty and vital energy in general disk (botany): a fleshy or elevated development of
depressed: sunk down, as ifflattened from above the receptacle within the calyx, corolla or sta-
depurative: tending to purify or cleanse mens, often lobed and nectariferous
dermatitis: inflammation ofthe skin dispersal: the various ways by which seeds are
dermatomycosis: superficial fungal infection of the scattered, e.g. by wind, water or animals
skin or its appendages, with the term including dissected: divided into many slender segments
dermatophytosis distal: situated farthest from the place of attach-
dermatophyte: a fungus parasitic on the skin ment
diabetes: a general term referring to disorders distichous: regularly arranged in two opposite
characterized by the excretion of excessive rows on either side ofan axis
amounts of urine. When used alone, usually re- diterpenes: a subgroup of the isoprenoids, formed
ferring to diabetes mellitus, i.e. a chronic syn- by coupling of4 C5 units
drome ofimpaired carbohydrate, protein and fat diuretic: tending to increase the flow of urine; an
metabolism owing to insufficient secretion of in- agent that promotes the excretion of urine
sulin or tissue insulin resistance divaricate: extremely divergent
diaphoretic: pertaining to, characterized by, or domatium (plural: domatia): a modified projection
promoting (profuse) perspiration; an agent in- that provides shelter for other organisms
ducing sweating, having the power to increase dormancy: a term used to denote the inability of a
perspiration resting plant or plant part (e.g. the seed, bulb,
diarrhoea: a profuse, frequent, and loose dis- tuber, or in tree crops usually the buds) to grow
charge from the bowels or to leaf out, even under favourable environ-
dichasium (plural: dichasia): a cymose inflores- mental conditions
cence with 2 equal or nearly equal lateral dorsal: back; referring to the back or outer surface
branches arising below the terminal flower, this ofa part or organ (abaxial)
pattern being repeated or not (compound and double blind: pertaining to a clinical trial or other
simple dichasium respectively) experiment in which neither the subject nor the
dichotomous: forked, parted by pairs person administering treatment knows which
dicotyledon: angiosperm with two cotyledons or treatment any particular subject is receiving
seed-leaves dropsy: oedema
drupaceous: resembling a drupe, whether actually soothes or softens the skin or soothes an irritat-
a drupe or not ed internal surface
drupe: a fleshy one-seeded indéhiscent fruit with encephalitis: inflammation ofthe brain
the seed enclosed in a strong endocarp endemic: exclusively native to a specified or com-
drupelet: a small drupe paratively small region; also used as a noun for
dysentery: any of various diseases characterized a taxon thus distributed
by inflammation of the intestines, abdominal endocarp: the innermost layer of the pericarp or
pain and frequent bloody, mucous faeces fruit wall
dysmenorrhoea: painful menstruation endogenous: originating from within the organism
dyspepsia: a condition ofdisturbed digestion endosperm: the starchy or oily nutritive material
dyspnoea: laboured or difficult breathing stored within some seeds, sometimes referred to
dysuria: difficult or painful urination as albumen; it is triploid, having arisen from
ebracteate: without bracts the triple fusion of a sperm nucleus and the two
EC50: median effective concentration, i.e. the con- polar nuclei ofthe embryo sac
centration that produces the desired effect in endotrophic: in mycorrhizae, finding nourishment
fifty percent ofa test population from inside
ecbolic: increasing uterine contractions and aiding energy value: the heat produced by the combustion
in or hastening expulsion or delivery of child of a unit weight of a fuel or food (= calorific val-
during birth; an agent acting so ue)
echinate: bearing spines or bristles ensiform: sword-shaped
ectomycorrhiza: see mycorrhiza enteritis: inflammation ofthe small intestine
eczema: a disease of the skin characterized by in- entire (botany): with an even margin without
flammation, redness, itching, and the formation teeth, lobes, etc.
of vesicles which exude a watery substance that epicotyl: the young stem above the cotyledons
evaporates and leaves the skin covered with epidermis: in plants, the true cellular skin or cov-
crusts ering of a plant below the cuticle; in humans,
ED50: median effective dose, i.e. the dose that pro- the outermost and nonvascular layer ofthe skin
duces the desired effect in fifty percent of a pop- epidermoid: belonging to or resembling the epider-
ulation mis
elaiosome: a seed or fruit outgrowth in which oil is epididymis: the cordlike structure at the posterior
stored; serves as food for ants part of the testis, whose coiled duct provides for
ellipsoid: a solid which is elliptical in outline storage, transit and maturation of spermatozoa
elliptical: oval in outline but widest about the epigeal: above the ground; in epigeal germination
middle the cotyledons are raised above the ground
emarginate: notched at the extremity epilepsy: any of a group of syndromes character-
embrocation: a liquid ointment ized by recurrent, transient disturbances of the
embryo: in plants, the rudimentary plant within a brain function, with manifestations including
seed, developed from a zygote (sexual) or from unconsciousness and uncontrolled motion
other nuclei in the embryo sac or cells ofthe nu- epipetalous: borne upon or placed before the petals
cellus or integuments (apomictic); in animals, epiphyte: a plant that grows on another plant but
those derivatives of the fertilized ovum that will without deriving nourishment from it
become the offspring, during their period of erect: directed towards summit, not decumbent
most rapid development; in humans, the devel- erysipelas: an acute, superficial form of dermati-
oping organism from the end ofthe 2nd week af- tis, usually caused by group A streptococci and
ter fertilization to the end ofthe 8th week characterized by a spreading, red, hot plaque
emergent: of a tree, one ofwhich the crown reaches erythema: name applied to skin redness produced
distinctly above the forest canopy; of cotyledons, by congestion ofthe capillaries
becoming free from the seed coat and other ex- essential oil: a volatile product, obtained from a
ternal tissues natural source, which agrees with that source in
emetic: tending to induce or cause vomiting; an odour and name; in a narrow sense, only volatile
agent that induces or causes vomiting products obtained by steam or water distillation
emmenagogue: a substance or measure that in- are called essential oils
duces menstruation eutrophic: providing adequate or with a large sup-
emollient: soothening and softening; an agent that ply of nutrition
GLOSSARY 549
evergreen: bearing foliage all year long; a plant filiform: slender; threadlike
that changes its leaves gradually fimbriate: fringed
ex situ: in an artificial environment or unnatural fissured: provided with fissures (cracks of consid-
habitat erable length and depth), e.g. in the bark of
exocarp: the outer layer of the pericarp or fruit some trees
wall fixed oil: a non-volatile oil, chemically a triglyc-
expectorant: promoting the ejection of mucus or eride of fatty acids; many fixed oils from plants
other fluids from the respiratory tract; an agent have faint odours, even when purified, showing
tending to promote discharge of mucus or other that they contain traces ofvolatile compounds
fluids from the respiratory tract flabellate: fan-shaped, dilated in a wedge-shape,
exserted: protrude beyond, as stamens beyond the sometimes plaited (folded)
tube ofthe corolla flaky: lamelliform, in the shape ofa plate or scale
exstipulate: without stipules flatulence: the presence of excessive amounts of
extract: a concentrated preparation of a vegetal or air or gases in the intestine
animal drug obtained by removing the active flavanones: a subgroup of the flavonoids; see also
constituents with a suitable solvent flavonoids
extraction: any process for separating aroma com- flavones: a subgroup of the flavonoids; see also
pounds from animal or plant matter using a flavonoids
volatile solvent; the product is called a concrete; flavonoids: a group of natural products in which
the composition, and hence odour quality, of an the basic structure is the 2-phenyl-chromane
aromatic extract depends strongly on the nature skeleton
ofthe solvent used fleshy: succulent
extrafloral: ofnectaries, beyond the flower flexuous: zigzag; bent alternately in opposite di-
exudate: the secreted substance rections
falcate: sickle-shaped floccose: covered with dense hairs that fall away in
fallow: land resting from cropping, often covered tufts, locks or flocci
by natural vegetation or planted with fast grow- floret: a small flower, one of a cluster as in grasses
ingherbs, shrubs or trees (fallow crop) or Compositae; a grass floret typically consists
fascicle: a cluster of flowers, leaves, etc., arising of a lemma, palea, 2 lodicules, 3 stamens and a
from the same point pistil with 2 plumose stigmas
fasciculate: connected or drawn into a fascicle flush: a brief period of rapid shoot growth, with
febrifuge: an agent serving to reduce fever unfolding of the leaf primordia which had accu-
ferruginous: rust-coloured mulated during the previous quiescent period
fertile: in plants: capable of completing fertiliza- fluted: ofa bole, with rounded grooves and folds
tion and producing seed; producing seed capable fodder: something fed to domesticated animals,
of germination; having functional sexual or- especially coarse, dried food from plants (hay,
gans; in humans: having the capacity to repro- straw, leaves)
duce; capable of developing into a new individ- foliaceous: leaf-like
ual (said of ova) foliolate: 2-, 3-,4-etc.,with 2-, 3-,4- leaflets
fertilization (biology): union of the gametes (egg follicle: in plants: a dry, unicarpellate fruit, de-
and sperm) to form a zygote hiscing by the ventral suture to which the seeds
fibrinolytic: pertaining to, characterized by or are attached; in humans: a sac or pouchlike de-
causing fibrinolysis, i.e. the dissolution of fibrin pression or cavity, e.g. hair follicle
by enzymatic action fomentation: treatment by the application of
fibroblast: connective tissue cell warm, moist substances; the substance thus ap-
fibrosarcoma: a malignant tumour consisting of plied
cells and fibres derived from fibroblasts forage: grassland and fodder plants suitable as
fibrosis: the formation offibrous tissue feed for herbivores, usually with lower nutrient
fibrous: composed ofor containing fibres concentration and digestibility than concen-
fig: the fleshy multiple fruit, derived from the in- trates such as grain
florescence ofFicus spp. (syconium) foveolate: with small pits
filament: thread; the stalk supporting the anther fractionation, fractional distillation: a distillation
filaria: a nematode parasite invading the tissues process in which a fractionating column is inter-
and body cavities posed between the distillation vessel and the
condenser; during fractionation of a homoge- glabrescent: becoming glabrous or nearly so

neous mixture of volatile components of differ- glabrous: devoid of hairs
ent boiling point, components with a lower boil- glandular: in botany: having or bearing secreting
ing point move up the column faster than com- organs or glands; in medicine: pertaining to or
ponents with a higher boiling point and the ofthe nature ofa gland
components distil over in sequence glaucoma: a group of eye diseases characterized
framboesia: see yaws by an increased intraocular pressure which
free: neither adhering nor united causes pathological changes in the eye and im-
fringed: fimbriate; with hair-like appendages paired vision, and which may lead to blindness
along the margin glaucous: pale bluish-green, or with a whitish
frugivorous: feeding on fruit bloom which rubs off
fruit: the ripened ovary with adnate parts globose: spherical or nearly so
fugacious: withering or falling off rapidly or early glomerule: a condensed head of almost sessile
fulvous: yellow, tawny flowers; a cluster of heads in a common involu-
fungicidal: destroying fungi cre
fungicide: an agent that destroys fungi or inhibits glucosidase: an enzyme that hydrolyses a gluco-
their growth side
funicle (funiculus): the little cord which attaches glucoside: compound that is an acetal derivative of
the ovule or seed to the placenta sugars and that on hydrolysis yields glucose
funnelform: salver-shaped; tubular with a spread- glume: the chaffy or membranous two-ranked
ing limb members of the inflorescence of grasses and
furuncle: a painful nodule in the skin caused by similar plants; lower glume and upper glume,
inflammation of the dermis and subcutaneous two sterile bracts at the base of a grass spikelet
tissue, enclosing a central core; it is caused by glutinous: sticky
staphylococci which enter through hair follicles glycoside: compound that is an acetal derivative of
fusiform: spindle-shaped; tapering towards each sugars and that on hydrolysis yields one or more
end from a swollen centre molecules of a sugar and often a noncarbohy-
galactagogue: promoting the flow of milk; an drate
agent that promotes the flow of milk goitre: an enlargement of the thyroid gland, re-
gallery forest: fringing forest, forest growing along sulting in a swelling in the front part ofthe neck
a watercourse in an otherwise non-forested area gonorrhoea: a venereal disease characterized by
gamopetalous: with united petals either through- inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
out their length or at the base genitourinary tract and a discharge of mucus
gamophyllous: with leaves which are united by and pus
their edges gout: a group of disorders of (purine) metabolism,
gargle: to rinse or medicate the throat and mouth characterized by inflammation of a joint, parox-
with a liquid kept in motion by the slow expul- ysmal recurrent pain and an excess of uric acid
sion of air from the lungs; a solution used for in the blood
rinsing or medicating the throat and mouth grafting: the process of inserting a scion, which
gastralgia: gastric colic consists of a piece of stem and two or more buds
gastric: pertaining to, originating in, or affecting ofthe plant to be propagated, into another plant
the stomach (rootstock) with the intention that it will unite
gastritis: inflammation ofthe stomach and grow
genetic erosion: the decline or loss of genetic vari- grain: of wood, the general direction or arrange-
ability ment ofthe fibres; texture
geniculate: abruptly bent so as to resemble the gram-negative: losing the stain or decolorized by
knee-joint alcohol in Gram's staining method, which is a
genotoxic: damaging to DNA, thereby causing mu- primary characteristic for bacteria with a cell
tations or cancer wall consisting of a thin layer of peptidoglycan
genus (plural: genera): the smallest natural group with an outer membrane of lipoprotein and
containing distinct species lipopolysaccharide
germplasm: the genetic material that provides the gram-positive: retaining the stain or resisting de-
physical basis of heredity colorization by alcohol in Gram's staining
gingivitis: inflammation ofthe gums method, which is a primary characteristic for
GLOSSARY 551
bacteria with a cell wall consisting of a thick hemiparasite: a facultative parasite; a parasitic
layer of peptidologlycan with attached teichoic plant that contains some chlorophyll and is
acids therefore capable of photosynthesis
granular: divided into or bearing little knots or tu- hepatitis: inflammation ofthe liver
bercles (also granulate) hepatocyte: liver cell
granulöse (granular): composed of or covered with hepatoprotective: capable ofprotecting the liver
grain-like minute particles hepatotoxic: having a toxic effect on liver cells
green manure: green leafy material applied to and herb: any vascular plant which is not woody
mostly worked into the soil to enrich the soil herbaceous: with the texture, colour and proper-
with nutrients and organic matter ties of a herb; not woody
gregarious: growing in associated groups or clus- herpes: any of several inflammatory diseases of
ters but not matted; at the same time; in bam- the skin caused by a herpesvirus and character-
boos gregarious flowering is used to indicate ized by clusters of vesicles
that a whole population flowers over a period of herpes simplex: group of acute infections caused
2-3 years and then dies, although sometimes by herpes simplex virus type 1or type 2, charac-
the rhizomes remain alive terized by the development of one or more small
gum: a colloidal polysaccharide substance that is fluid-filled vesicles on the skin or mucous mem-
gelatinous when moist but hardens on drying; brane, and occurring as a primary infection or
gum is exuded by plants or extracted from them recurring because of reactivation of a latent in-
gynobasic: of a style, attached to a prolongation fection
upwards ofthe receptacle between the carpels heterodistylous: with two kinds of plants, having
gynophore: a stalk supporting the gynoecium either short or long styles
formed by elongation ofthe receptacle heterogeneous: lacking in uniformity; exhibiting
habit (botany): external appearance or way of variability
growth of a plant heterostylous: having styles oftwo or more distinct
habitat: the kind oflocality in which a plant grows forms or of different lengths
haematinic: improving the quality ofthe blood, in- heterotristylous: with three kinds ofplants, having
creasing the haemoglobin level and the number long, short or intermediate styles
of erythrocytes hexagonal: having six angles and six sides
haematuria: the presence ofblood in the urine hexaploid: having six sets ofchromosomes (6n)
haemolysis: disruption of the integrity of the red hilum: the scar left on a seed indicating its point
blood cell membrane, causing release of haemo- of attachment
globin hirsute: with rather coarse stiff hairs
haemolytic: pertaining to, characterized by, or hispid: covered with long rigid hairs or bristles
producing haemolysis histochemical: pertaining to the chemical compo-
haemoptysis: expectoration of blood or blood- nents or activities ofcells and tissues
stained sputum from some part of the respirato- histopathological: pertaining to the histology of
ry tract diseased tissues
haemorrhage: bleeding; the escape of blood from HIV (human immunodeficiency virus): a virus
blood vessels that is the aetiological agent of acquired immu-
haemostatic: arresting the flow of blood; an agent nodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Two serotypes
that checks the flow of blood are distinguished: HIV-1, with a worldwide dis-
hallucinogenic: inducing hallucinations tribution, and HIV-2, which is largely confined
hardwood: the wood of an angiospermous tree as to West Africa
distinguished from that ofa coniferous tree hoarseness: to be rough or harsh in sound
hastate: with more or less triangular basal lobes homogeneous: uniform as to kind; showing no
diverging laterally variability
head: a dense inflorescence of small crowded often hyaline: almost transparent
stalkless flowers (a capitulum) hybrid: the first generation offspring of a cross be-
heartwood: wood from the inner portion of a tree tween two individuals of different species or
in which the cells are dead and no longer en- taxa
gaged in sap conduction and food storage hybridization: the crossing of individuals of differ-
heath forest: =kerangas ent species or taxa
hemi-: prefix, meaning half hydrolysis: a chemical reaction ofwater in which a
bond in the reactant other than water is split cus aureus, and mostly seen in children, usually
and hydrogen and hydroxyl are added on the face
hydrophilic: having a strong affinity for water implantation: the embedding of the fertilized egg
hydrophobia: any morbid dread ofwater; rabies in the uterus; the insertion or grafting of mater-
hydrophobic: resistant to or avoiding wetting ial into the body
hygroscopic: susceptible to extending or shrinking impotence: lack of power, specifically lack of copu-
on application or removal ofwater or vapour lative power in the male due to failure to initi-
hypanthium: a cup-like receptacle usually derived ate or maintain an erection
from the fusion of the floral envelopes and an- impressed: marked with slight depressions
droecium on which are seemingly borne the ca- in vitro: outside the living body and in an artificial
lyx, corolla and stamens environment
hyperacidity: excessive acidity incised: cut deeply
hypercholesterolemia: an excess of cholesterol in indéhiscent: not opening when ripe
the blood indigenous: native to a particular area or region
hyperglycaemia: an abnormally increased glucose indigestion: lack or failure of digestion
concentration in the blood indole alkaloids: a subgroup of the alkaloids; see
hyperglycaemic: pertaining to, characterized by, or also alkaloids
causing hyperglycaemia indumentum: a covering, as ofhairs, scales, etc.
hyperplasia: the abnormal multiplication or in- induplicate: with the margins bent inwards and
crease in the number of normal cells in normal the external face of these edges applied to each
arrangement in a tissue other without twisting; V-shaped in cross sec-
hypersalivation: excessive flow of saliva tion, trough-shaped
hypertension: high arterial blood pressure indurated: becoming firmer or harder
hypertensive: characterized by or causing in- inferior: beneath, lower, below; an inferior ovary is
creased tension or pressure, as abnormally high one which is situated below the sepals, petals
blood pressure and stamens
hypertrophy: the enlargement or overgrowth of an inflammation: a protective response of the body in
organ or part due to an increase in size of its response to injury, infection, irritation, etc.,
constituent cells aimed at destroying or isolating the injurious
hypocotyl: the young stem below the cotyledons agent and injured tissue, and characterized by
hypocrateriform: saucer-shaped, with a long and redness, pain, heat, and swelling
narrow tube and limbs at right angles to the inflexed: bent or curved inward toward the centre
tube inflorescence: the arrangement and mode of devel-
hypogeal: below ground; in hypogeal germination opment of the flowers on the floral axis; the
the cotyledons remain below ground within the branch that bears the flowers, including all its
testa bracts and branches
hypoglycaemic: pertaining to, characterized by, or influenza: an acute highly contagious virus dis-
producing an abnormally decreased glucose con- ease characterized by sudden onset, fever, pros-
centration in the blood (hypoglycaemia) tration, severe aches and pains, and progressive
hypotension: an abnormally low blood pressure inflammation of the respiratory mucous mem-
hypothermia: a lowbody temperature brane
ichthyotoxic: poisonous to fishes infraspecific: referring to any taxon below the
imbricate: overlapping like tiles; in a flower bud species level
when one sepal or petal is wholly external and infructescence: a ripened inflorescence in the fruit-
one wholly internal and the others overlapping ing stage
at the edges only infundibular: funnel-shaped
immunomodulating, immunomodulatory: aug- infusion: a liquid extract obtained by steeping or
menting or diminishing immune responses soaking something in a liquid for the purpose of
immunotoxic: coupling a toxin to an antibody or extracting its medicinal principles without boil-
antigen molecule ing; the therapeutic introduction of a fluid, oth-
imparipinnate: of leaves, pinnate with an un- er than blood, into a vein
paired terminal leaflet inner bark: the secondary phloem; the living part
impetigo: a contagious, purulent skin disease, ofthe tissue outside the cambium
caused by group A streptococci or Staphylococ- inotropic: affecting the force or energy of muscular
GLOSSARY 553
contractions (positive: increasing the force; neg- skin, mucous membranes and eyeball, resulting
ative:weakening the force) in yellowish pigmentation ofthese body parts
insecticidal: destroying or controlling insects joint; jointed: an articulation, like a node in plants
insecticide: an agent that destroys insects and a place of union of two bones in the human
insomnia: sleeplessness body; articulated
insulin: a protein hormone produced by ß-cells of jugate: connected or yoked together; e.g. in leaves
the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, which 1-n-jugate: with 1-n pairs of leaflets
is secreted in response to elevated glucose and keel (carina): a ridge like the keel of a boat; the
amino acid levels in the blood and promotes two anterior and united petals of a papiliona-
their storage and utilization. Insulin deficiency ceous corolla; the principal vein of a sepal or
is often the cause of diabetes, and exogenous in- glume
sulin is used to control that disease keeled (carinate): having a keel or carina
insulinotropic: changing the action of insulin keloid: an overgrowth of scar tissue
intercropping: the growing of two or more crops in kerangas: heath forest, a type of tropical forest
different but proximate rows generally consisting of comparatively small
internode: the portion of the stem (culm) between trees with thin trunks (pole forest), often overly-
two nodes ing a podsolic soil
interpetiolar: of stipules placed between the peti- keratinophilic: having an affinity for keratin, i.e.
oles ofopposite leaves any of a family of scleroproteins which form the
intramarginal: placed within the margin near the primary constituents of epidermis, hair, nails
edge; of a vein, running near and parallel with and horny tissues
the margin kernel: the nucellus of an ovule or of a seed, that
intrapetiolar: of stipules, positioned within the is, the whole body within the coats
petiole axil kino: gum of various trees, resembling catechu,
intrastaminal: within the stamens and used in medicine and tanning
involucral: belonging to an involucre knee: an abrupt bend in a stem or tree-trunk
involucre: a ring of bracts (involucral bracts) sur- labellum: lip; the lowest petal of an orchid;
rounding several flowers or their supports, as in petaloid anterior staminode in Zingiberaceae
the heads of Compositae or the umbels in Um- lac insect: a scale insect (Laccifer lacca, synonym
belliferae Kerria lacca) that produces lac, a resinous
involute: having the edges of the leaves rolled in- gold-coloured substance used for lacquerware
wards lacerate: torn; irregularly cleft or cut
iridoids: monoterpenes (C10)characterized by a cy- laciniate: slashed, cut into narrow lobes
clopentanotetrahydropyran ring system, also lamellate: made up ofthin plates
known as the iridane skeleton; seco-iridoids can lamina: see blade
be regarded as being formed from iridoids by lanate: with woolly hairs
opening of the cyclopentane ring between C7 lanceolate: lance-shaped; much longer than broad,
and C8 being widest at the base and tapering to the
isoflavonoids: a subgroup of the flavonoids, in apex
which the basic structure is the 3-phenyl chro- landrace: a locally developed kind of cultivar,
mane skeleton; see also flavonoids without formal recognition, and usually much
isomer: a compound, radical or ion containing the more variable than an official registered culti-
same numbers of atoms ofthe same elements in var and from which usually several cultivars
the molecule as one or more others, and hence can be selected
having the same molecular formula, but differ- larvicidal: destroying insect larvae
ing in the structural arrangement of the atoms lateral: on or at the side
and consequently in one or more properties laterite: a red soil that shows intensive weather-
isoquinoline alkaloids: a subgroup of the alka- ing and chemical change and leaching away of
loids; see also alkaloids bases and silica, leaving aluminium and iron ox-
jamu: a traditional Indonesian medicinal draught, ides
which is usually a mixture of several ingredi- latex: ajuice, usually white and sometimes sticky,
ents exuding from broken surfaces ofsome plants
jaundice: a syndrome marked by hyperbilirubi- lax: loose, distant
n e m i a and deposition of bile pigments in the laxative: aperient, mildly purgative; an agent that
promotes evacuation ofthe bowel corolla, as distinct from the tube or throat; the
layer: a branch caused to root while still connected lamina of a leaf or ofa petal; the branch ofa tree
to the parent and used for propagation (layer- linear: long and narrow with parallel sides
ing) liniment: an oily liquid preparation to be used on
LD50: median lethal dose, i.e. the amount of an the skin
agent that kills fifty percent of the organisms in lipophilic: having an affinity to fat; dissolving in
a test population lipids
leaflet: one part ofa compound leaf liquorice: black substance extracted from the root
lectins: proteins of glycoproteins, which are not of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. used in medicine espe-
antibodies or enzymes, but which have the abili- cially against coughs and colds
ty to attach themselves to specific sugars; the lithophyte: a plant that grows on rock
binding is not covalent, and the sugar can either lobe: any division of an organ or specially rounded
be free or constituent part of a larger molecule, division
which may be present, e.g. in a membrane lobed: divided, but not to the base
leishmania: a group of flagellate protozoa com- lochia: the vaginal discharge taking place during
prising parasites which are pathogenic for hu- the first week or two after giving birth
mans locular: divided by internal partitions into com-
lemma: the lower of the two glumes which sur- partments as in anthers and ovaries
round each floret in the spikelet of grasses loculicidal: the cavity of a pericarp dehiscent by
lenticel: lenticular masses ofloose cells protruding the back, the dorsal suture
through fissures in the periderm on stems, longitudinal: lengthwise
fruits and roots, usually arising beneath indi- lorate: strap-shaped
vidual stomata; their main function is gaseous lotion: a liquid suspension or dispersion for exter-
exchange nal application to the body
lenticellate: having lenticels lumbago: pain in the lumbar region of the back
lenticular: shaped like a double-convex lens (loins); lumbar rheumatism
lepidote: covered with small scales lupus: name originally given to localized destruc-
leprosy: a chronic, infectious, slowly progressive tion or degeneration of the skin caused by vari-
disease, caused by Mycobacterium leprae, char- ous cutaneous diseases; formerly the term was
acterized by lesions in the skin, mucous mem- used to designate lupus vulgaris and lupus ery-
branes, nerves, bones and viscera, and mani- thematosus, nowadays it is only used with mod-
fested by a broad range ofclinical symptoms ifier
leucoderma: a skin abnormality that is character- lymphoma: any neoplastic disorder of the lym-
ized by a usually congenital lack of pigment in phoid tissue; the term is often used alone to de-
spots or bands and produces a patchy whiteness note malignant lymphoma
leucorrhoea: a whitish, viscid discharge from the lyrate: ofa leaf with small pinnate lobes below and
female genitals a larger terminal lobe
leukaemia: a malignant, progressive disease of the maceration: a method of extract preparation in
blood-forming organs, with distorted prolifera- which the matter to be extracted is mixed with
tion and development of the white corpuscles the prescribed extraction solvent, and allowed
(leucocytes) and their precursors to stand in a closed container for an appropriate
liana: a woody climber time; the residue is separated from the extrac-
lignans: a group of natural products (dimers) de- tion solvent, and if necessary, pressed out; in
rived from condensation of 2 phenylpropane the latter case, the two liquids obtained are
units combined; see also percolation
lignified: converted into wood or woody tissue macronutrients: chemical elements of which rela-
ligulate: possessing an elongated flattened tively large quantities are essential for the
strap-shaped structure or ligule growth of a plant (such as N, P, Ca, Mg)
ligule: an elongated flattened strap-shaped struc- macrophage: any of the many forms of mononu-
ture; a membranous outgrowth on the upper clear phagocytes (cells capable of ingesting par-
surface of a grass leaf at the junction of the ticulate matter) found in tissues
sheath and the blade which may be presented Malesia: the biogeographical region including
by a ridge or by a line of hairs Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singa-
limb (botany): the expanded part of a tubular pore, Brunei and Papua New Guinea
GLOSSARY 555
malignant: tending to become progressively worse monoecious: with unisexual flowers, but male and
and to result in death female flowers borne on the same plant
mangrove: a brackish-water coastal swamp of monomer: the simple unpolymerized form of a
tropical and subtropical areas that is partly in- chemical compound having relatively low molec-
undated by tidal flow ular weight
margin: the edge or boundary line of a body monopodial: of a primary axis which continues its
marginate: furnished with a margin of distinct original line of growth from the same apical
character meristem to produce successive lateral branches
mast cell: a connective tissue cell whose specific monoterpenes: terpenes of molecular formula
physiological function remains unknown C10H16, e.g. limonene, myrcene and phellan-
mastitis: inflammation of the mammary gland or drene; most monoterpenes are readily oxidized
breast to coarse-smelling products, so essential oils
median: belonging to the middle containing them must be carefully preserved to
melanoma: a tumour arising from the melanocytic minimize this tendency
system of the skin and other organs; when used monotypic: consisting of a single element, e.g. of a
alone, the term refers to malignant melanoma genus consisting ofonly one species
membranous: thin and semi-transparent, like a monsoon forest: a deciduous tropical woodland ex-
fine membrane periencing periodic drought
menorrhagia: excessive uterine bleeding, occur- mordant: a compound that serves to fix a dye in or
ring at regular intervals, with the period of flow on a substance, e.g. a textile fibre, often a salt or
being ofusual duration; also called hypermenor- hydroxide ofchromium, aluminium or tin
rhoea mucilage: a gelatinous substance that is similar to
merous: 4-, 5- etc., with 4, 5 etc. parts or numbers gum but that swells in water without dissolving
ofsepals, petals etc. and forms a slimy mass
mesocarp: the middle layer of the pericarp or fruit mucilaginous: slimy
wall which is often fleshy or succulent mucolytic: an agent that destroys or dissolves
metabolism: the sum of all the physical and chem- mucin
ical processes by which living organized sub- mucous: pertaining to, resembling, producing,
stance is produced and maintained, and also the containing or covered with mucus
transformation by which energy is made avail- mucro: a sharp terminal point
able for the uses of the organism; biotransfor- mucronate: ending abruptly in a short stiff point
mation mulch: plant or non-living materials used to cover
metabolite: any substance produced by metabo- the soil surface with the object of protecting it
lism or by a particular metabolic process from the impact of rainfall, controlling weeds,
midrib: the main vein of a leaf which is a continu- temperature and evaporation
ation ofthe petiole muricate: rough, with short and hard tubercular
mitogen: a substance that induces blast transfor- excrescences
mation, the synthesis of DNA, RNA and pro- muscarinic: denoting the effects of muscarine or
teins, and the proliferation of lymphocytes acetylcholine
mitogenic: causing or inducing mitosis or cell pro- mutagen: an agent inducing or increasing genetic
liferation mutations by causing changes in DNA
mitosis: a method of indirect division of a cell, con- mutagenic: capable ofinducing genetic mutation
sisting ofa complex ofvarious processes, through mycorrhiza: a symbiotic association ofroots with a
which the two daughter nuclei normally receive fungal mycelium which may form a layer out-
identical complements ofthe chromosomes side the root (ectotrophic) or within the outer
molluscicidal: destroying molluscs such as snails root tissue (endotrophic)
moniliform: necklace-shaped myocardial: pertaining to the muscular tissue of
monocarp: a plant that flowers and fruits only the heart
once during its lifetime; the single carpel of an myocyte: a cell ofthe muscular tissue
apocarpous fruit myopia: nearsightedness
monocarpic: only flowering and fruiting once (said myosis: contraction ofthe pupil
of an annual or other plant) narcotic: pertaining to or producing narcosis or
monocotyledon: angiosperm having a single cotyle- stupor; an agent that in moderate doses dulls
don or seed-leaf the senses, relieves pain and induces sleep, but
in excessive doses may cause stupor, coma, con- the genus Rhizobium are active in the fixation
vulsions and death ofnitrogen from the air
nasopharynx: the upper part of the alimentary norlignans: condensation products of phenyl-
canal continuous with the nasal passages propanoid units with a C l7 skeleton
naturalized: introduced into a new area and estab- nucleus (plural: nuclei): an organized proteid body
lished there, giving the impression of wild of complex substance in the protoplasm of cells;
growth the central point in a starch granule
nausea (nauseous): an uncomfortable feeling in nut: a one- to many-seeded indéhiscent fruit with
and about the stomach associated with aversion a hard dry pericarp or shell
to food and a need to vomit nutlet: a little nut
necrosis: in plants, death of a portion of tissue of- oblanceolate: reverse of lanceolate
ten characterized by a brown or black discol- obligate: necessary, essential; the reverse of facul-
oration; in humans, the sum of morphological tative
changes indicative of cell death and affecting oblique: slanting; ofunequal sides
groups ofcells, parts ofstructures, or organs oblong: longer than broad, with the sides parallel
nectar: a sweet fluid exuded from various parts of or almost so
the plant (e.g. by the flower to attract pollina- obovate: reverse of ovate
tors) obovoid: a solid object which is obovate in section
nectary: a group of modified subepidermal cells in obpyriform: pear-shaped but attached at the broad
flowers or leaves (extrafloral) secreting nectar end
nematicide: an agent that destroys nematodes obtuse: blunt or rounded at the end
nematode: small elongated cylindrical worm-like oedema: the presence of abnormally large
micro-organism, free-living in soil or water, or amounts of fluid in the intercellular tissue
parasitic in animals or plants spaces ofthe body
neolignans: condensation products of phenyl- oestrogen: a sex hormone produced especially in
propanoid units with the bond involving a single the ovaries
ß-carbon oilgland: a glandular cell which secretes oil
nephritis: inflammation ofthe kidney oligomer: a chemical compound formed by poly-
nephrotic syndrome: general name for a group of merization and consisting essentially of a limit-
diseases involving defective kidney glomeruli ed number ofrepeating structural units
neuralgia: pain radiating along the course of one oligotrophia, providing inadequate or with a low
or more nerves supply of nutrition
neurasthenia: a syndrome of chronic mental and oliguria: reduced urine excretion
physical weakness and fatigue, which was operculum: a lid or cover which separates by a
thought to be caused by exhaustion of the ner- transverse line of division
vous system ophthalmia: severe inflammation of the eye, or of
neuritis: an inflammatory or degenerative lesion the conjunctiva or deeper structures ofthe eye
of a nerve marked especially by pain, sensory opposite: of leaves and branches when two are
disturbances, and impaired or lost reflexes borne at the same node on opposite sides of the
neuroleptic: term referring to effects of antipsy- stem
chotic drugs, such as producing a state of apa- orbicular: flat with a more or less circular outline
thy, lack of initiative, limited range of emotion, orchitis: inflammation ofa testis
and, in psychotic patients, normalization of psy- orthotropic: having a more or less vertical direc-
chomotor activity and reduced confusion and ag- tion of growth
itation ostalgia: pain in a bone or in the bones
neuron: any of the conducting cells of the nervous osteoporosis: reduction in the amount of bone
system mass, leading to fractures after minimal trauma
neurotrophic: pertaining to neurotrophy, i.e. the outer bark: the periderm or rhytidome; the
nutrition and maintenance ofnervous tissue non-living layer of fibrous or corky tissue out-
nocturnal: offlowers, flowering during the night side the cambium in woody plants which may be
node: the point on the stem or branch at which a shed or retained
leaf or lateral shoot is borne ovary: in plants, that part of the pistil, usually the
nodule: a small knot or rounded body, often in enlarged base, which contains the ovules and
roots of leguminous plants, where bacteria of eventually becomes the fruit; in humans, one of
GLOSSARY 557
the two sexual glands in which the female re- pectinate: pinnately cleft with narrow segments
productive cells (ova) are formed set close like the teeth ofa comb
ovate: egg-shaped in outline or in section; a flat pectoral: of, or pertaining to, the chest or thorax;
surface which is scarcely twice as long as broad relieving disorders of the respiratory tract; any
with the widest portion below the middle medicine against ailments ofthe chest
ovoid: a solid object which is egg-shaped (ovate in pedicel: the stalk ofan individual flower
section) pedicellate: furnished with a pedicel
ovule (botany): the immature seed (egg) in the peduncle: the stalk of an inflorescence or partial
ovary before fertilization inflorescence
oxidation: the processes of combining a compound pedunculate: furnished with a peduncle
with oxygen, dehydrogenating, or increasing the peel: the rind or skin ofthe fruit
proportion ofthe electro-negative part pellucid: translucent
palea: the upper of two membranous bracts en- peltate: of a leaf, with the stalk attached to the
closing the flower in grasses lower surface, not at the edge
palmate: of leaflets, leaf-lobes or veins, with the pendent, pendulous: drooping; hanging down from
different elements arising from the same point its support
palmatilobed: lobed in a palmate matter perennial: a plant living for many years and usu-
palmatisect: palmately cut ally flowering each year
palsy: paralysis perforation plate: the originally imperforate wall
panicle: an indeterminate branched racemose in- involved in the coalescence of two elements of a
florescence vessel
paniculate: resembling a panicle perfume: a harmonious composition prepared from
pantropical: distributed throughout the tropics natural and/or synthetic aromatic materials
papilionaceous corolla: a butterfly-like, pea-like having aesthetic appeal alone, or after incorpo-
corolla, with standard, wings and keel ration in an end-product
papillate: having minute nipple-like protuber- perianth: the floral leaves as a whole, including
ances both sepals and petals ifboth are present
papillose: covered with minute nipple-like protu- pericarp: the wall of the ripened ovary or fruit
berances whose layers may be fused into one, or may be
pappus: the various tufts of hairs on achenes or more or less divisible into exocarp, mesocarp
fruits; the limb of the calyx of Compositae flo- and endocarp
rets peristalsis: the movement by which the digestive
parasitic: deriving nourishment from some other tract and other tubular organs with both longi-
organism tudinal and circular muscle fibres propel their
parasympathomimetic: producing effects resem- contents
bling those of stimulation ofthe parasympathet- persistent: remaining attached; not falling off, not
ic nerve supply to a body part deciduous; applies to organs that remain in
parenchyma: in plants: ground tissue composed of place after they have fulfilled their natural
thin-walled, relatively undifferentiated cells, functions
e.g. the pith and mesophyll; in humans: the soft petal: a member of the inner series of perianth
cellular substance of glandular and other or- segments (corolla) which are often brightly
gans, or the essential elements of an organ coloured
parietal: placentation type, when the ovules are petaloid: petal-like
attached to the wall of a one-celled ovary petiolar: borne on, or pertaining to a petiole
paripinnate: a pinnate leaf with all leaflets in petiolate: having a petiole
pairs petiole: the stalk ofa leaf
parthenocarpy: the production of fruit without petiolulate: having a petiolule
true fertilization petiolule: the stalk ofa leaflet
particle board: board made from bonded particles phagocytosis: endocytosis (uptake by a cell of ma-
ofwood and/or other ligno-cellulosic material terial by invagination of its plasma membrane)
partite (parted): cleft, but not quite to the base of particulate material, such as microorganisms
patelliform: shaped like a small dish, circular and and cell fragments
rimmed pharmacopoeia: an authorative treatise on drugs
patent (botany): spreading out widely and their preparations; a book containing a list
of products used in medicine, with descriptions, pits: recesses in the secondary wall of a cell, often
chemical tests for determining identity and pu- in walls connecting two elements of a vessel (in-
rity, formulas for certain mixtures of these sub- tervessel pits), these can be arranged in
stances, and generally also statements of aver- ladder-like series (scalariform), in horizontal
age dosage rows (opposite) or in diagonal rows (alternate)
pharyngitis: inflammation ofthe pharynx placenta: in plants, the part of the ovary to which
phenolics: phenols are compounds which have an the ovules are attached; in higher mammals,
aromatic ring with an alcoholic group attached the vascular, spongy organ of interlocking ma-
toit ternal and foetal tissue by which the foetus is
phlegm: a viscid, stringy mucous secretion, like nourished in the uterus
that produced by the mucous membranes of the placentation (botany): the way in which the pla-
respiratory tract, as during a cold centae are arranged in the ovary
phlobaphene: a reddish-brown complex substance plagiotropic: having an oblique or horizontal di-
found in oak bark, or a similar substance ob- rection of growth
tained from bark or from tannins platelet activating factor: a substance released by
phloroglucinols: derivatives of 1,3,5-trihydroxy- basophils and mast cells in immediate hyper-
benzene sensitivity reactions and macrophages and neu-
photoperiod: the relative duration of illumination trophils in other inflammatory reactions. It is
in a cycle of light and darkness, whether occur- an extremely potent mediator of bronchocon-
ring naturally (day and night) or imposed in an striction and of the platelet aggregation and re-
artificial way lease reactions
phthisis: wasting away of (a part of) the body; tu- pleurogram: a characteristic fissure in the epider-
berculosis, especially ofthe lungs mal pallisade layer in some leguminous seeds
phylogenetic: based on natural evolutionary and (Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae); it is a
genealogical relationships U-shaped or horseshoe-shaped single or double
phytosterols: a group name for the widespread line found on both faces of the seed and some-
plant sterols sitosterol, campesterol and stig- times continuous between them and an impor-
masterol tant constant character to identify genera
pilose: hairy with rather long soft hairs plicate: folded to and fro, like a fan
pinna (plural: pinnae): a primary division or plumose: featherlike with fine hairs
leaflet of a pinnate leaf plywood: a panel material consisting of wood ve-
pinnate: arranged in pairs along each side of a neers glued together with the grains of adjacent
common axis layers arranged at right angles or at a wide an-
pinnatifid: pinnately divided about halfway to the gle
midrib pneumonia: inflammation of the lungs, with the
pinnatilobed: pinnately divided to about half-way lungs becoming firm following the filling of air
to the midrib spaces with exudate
pinnatisect: pinnately divided down to the midrib pod: a dry fruit composed of a single carpel and
pioneer species: a species able to establish itself on dehiscing by sutures, as in legumes; a general
bare ground, starting primary succession, often term for a dry dehiscent fruit
showing rapid growth and producing large pollen: spores or grains borne by the anthers con-
amounts of diaspores taining the male element (gametophyte)
piperidine alkaloids: a subgroup of the alkaloids; pollination: the transfer of pollen from the dehisc-
see also alkaloids ing anther to the receptive stigma
piscicidal: poisonous to or controlling fish pollinia: regularly shaped masses of pollen formed
pistil: the female part of a flower (gynoecium) of by the cohesion of a large number of pollen
one or more carpels, consisting, when complete, grains, as in orchids
ofone or more ovaries, styles and stigmas polyene: an organic chemical compound containing
pistillate: a unisexual flower with pistil, but no many double bonds
stamens polygamous: with unisexual and bisexual flowers
pistillode: a sterile, often reduced pistil in the same plant
pith: the soft core occurring in the structural cen- polymorphic: with several or various forms; vari-
tre of a log; the tissue, sometimes soft, in the able as to habit
centre ofthe stem of a non-woody dicotyledon polyphyletic: of a group of species or taxa, a
GLOSSARY 559
non-natural group in which the most recent proteolytic: pertaining to, characterized by, or pro-
common ancestor for all species (or taxa) is as- moting proteolysis
signed to another group, the characterization of proximal: in botany: the part nearest the axis (as
the group being based on convergent similarity opposed to distal); in human anatomy: relatively
polyploid: with more than two sets (genomes) of nearer to the central part ofthe body or point of
chromosomes in the somatic cells, e.g. triploid (3 origin
sets), tetraploid (4), pentaploid (5), hexaploid pruning: cutting off the superfluous branches or
(6),heptaploid (7),octoploid (8),etc. shoots of a plant for better shape or more fruit-
pomade: the highly fragrant, essential-oil-soaked ful growth
fat resulting from enfleurage and usually used pseudocarp: false fruit, a fruit not derived solely
for absolute production from the ovary, but also from adnate parts, e.g.
pome: a fruit ofwhich the apple is the type, result- a pome, an aggregate fruit
ing from a multi-locular inferior ovary imbed- pseudopetiole: a structure resembling a petiole,
ded in a fleshy receptacle but not being one
posterior: next to or towards the main axis pseudoraceme: raceme-like inflorescence but not a
poultice: a soft, moist, usually heated and some- true raceme
times medicated mass spread on cloth and ap- psoriasis: a common chronic, scaly dermatosis
plied to sores or other lesions to create moist lo- with polygenic inheritance and a fluctuating
cal heat or counterirritation course
preservative: a chemical formulation (usually in puberulent: covered with down or fine hairs
liquid form) used for the treatment of timber to puberulous: minutely pubescent
increase its durability pubescent: covered with soft short hairs
prickle: a sharp, relatively stout outgrowth from pulp: the soft fleshy part ofthe fruit; mechanically
the outer layers ground or chemically digested wood used in
proanthocyanidins: a group of tannins, being manufacturing paper and allied products
oligomers of 3-flavanols (catechins) and 3,4-fla- pulses: dry edible seeds of legumes
vandiols (leucoanthocyanidins) pulvinate: cushion-shaped
promastigote: any of the bodies representing the punctate: marked with dots or translucent glands
morphological (leptomonad) stage in the life cy- punctiform: in the form ofa point or dot
cle of certain trypanosomatid protozoa resem- pungent: bearing a sharp point; causing a sharp or
bling the adult form of members of the genus irritating sensation
Leptomonas, with the elongate or pear-shaped purgative: causing evacuation of the bowels; an
cell having a central nucleus, and at the anteri- agent causing evacuation of the bowels, espe-
or end a kinetoplast and a basal body from cially through stimulating peristaltic action; al-
which arises a long, slender flagellum socalled cathartic
prop roots: aerial roots pustular, pustulate: with blister-like prominences
prophylactic: tending to ward off disease pustule: a pimple or blister
prophyll: the first bract borne on the inflores- pyrene: a nutlet or kernel; the stone of a drupe or
cence; the bracteole at the base of an individual similar fruit
flower pyrexia: fever; an abnormal elevation of the body
prostaglandins: the prostaglandins, leucotriens temperature
and thromboxanes are a large group of modified pyriform: resembling a pear in shape
C20 fatty acids; they are known to occur widely pyrrolidine alkaloids: a subgroup of the alkaloids;
in animal tissues, but only in tiny amounts, and see also alkaloids
they have been found to exert a wide variety of pyrrolizidine alkaloids: a subgroup of the alka-
pharmacological effects (e.g. mediators of in- loids; see also alkaloids
flammation, platelet aggregation) on humans quadrangular: four-cornered or four-edged
and animals quadrate: approximately square or cubical
prostrate: lying flat on the ground quassinoids: a subgroup of the saponins; the agly-
protandrous: of flowers, shedding pollen before cone is a modified triterpene which has lost 10
the stigma is receptive carbons, and thus could be misinterpreted as a
proteolysis: the splitting of proteins by hydrolysis diterpene; most quassinoid structures also in-
of the peptide bonds with formation of smaller clude a lactone function in the molecule; see also
polypeptides saponins
quinoline alkaloids: a subgroup of the alkaloids; reforestation: the planting of a formerly forested
see also alkaloids area with forest trees
quinones: a group of oxygen-containing homo- refrigerant: in medicine: an agent that relieves
logues of aromatic derivatives, characterized by fever and thirst
a diketo pattern (dione-structure) regular: of a radially symmetrical flower; actino-
raceme: an unbranched elongated indeterminate morphic
inflorescence with stalked flowers opening from reniform: kidney-shaped
the base upwards répand: with an undulating margin
racemic: made up of two enantiomorphic isomers resin: solid to soft semisolid amorphous fusible
(stereoisomers which have molecules which are flammable substance obtained as exudate or as
mirror images of each other) and therefore opti- an extract of plants
cally inactive resinous: exuding, made of, or similar to resin
racemose: raceme-like resolvent: promoting resolution or the dissipation
rachis (plural: rachides): the principal axis of an of a pathological growth
inflorescence or a compound leaf beyond the pe- restorative: capable of restoring health, strength,
duncle or petiole consciousness; an agent having this capability
radial: lengthwise, in a plane that passes through resupinate: upside down, or apparently so
the pith; radiating, as from a centre (cf. tangen- reticulate: netted, as when the smallest veins of a
tial) leaf are connected together like the meshes of a
radical: arising from the root, or its crown net
radicle: the first root of an embryo or germinating retrorse: turned or directed backward or down-
seed ward (opposed to antrorse)
rain forest: a tropical forest receiving an annual retuse: with a shallow notch at a rounded apex
rainfall of at least 1800 mm, characterized by rheophyte: organism preferring or living in flowing
lofty evergreen trees forming a continuous ca- water
nopy below which terrestrial herbs and shrubs rheumatism: any of various disorders, character-
are poorly developed ized by inflammation, degeneration, or metabol-
ramentum (plural: ramenta): thin, chaffy scale of ic derangement of the connective tissue struc-
the epidermis tures ofthe body, especially thejoints and relat-
ramified: branched ed structures, and accompanied by pain, stiff-
ramiflorous: bearing flowers on the branches ness or limited mobility ofthese parts
raphe: a ridge on a seed, formed by a portion of the rhizome: an underground stem which is distin-
funicle that is adnate to the ovule, as in an anat- guished from a root by the presence of nodes,
ropous ovule buds, and leaves or scales
raphid (plural: raphides): a needle-shaped crystal rhombic: shaped like a rhomb, an equilateral
occurring typically as one of a closely packed, oblique-angled figure
sheaf-like bundle and consisting of calcium ox- rhomboid (botany): quadrangular, diamond-shap-
alate ed with the lateral angles obtuse
rash: a temporary eruption on the skin, as in ur- rind: the tough outer layer ofthe fruit
ticaria ringworm: popular name for tinea, which is a term
ray: the radiating branch of an umbel; the outer used to describe various fungal skin infections.
floret of an inflorescence of the Compositae with The name refers to the ring-shaped lesions
straplike perianth which differs from those in riparian: growing on the banks of streams or
the centre or disk rivers
receptacle (botany): the flat, concave or convex riverine forest: =riparian forest
part of the axis from which the parts of the root sucker: a shoot originating from adventitious
flower arise buds on the roots
recurved: bent or curved downward or backward rootstock: see rhizome; a stock for grafting consist-
reduced: subnormal in size; connotes also either a ing ofa root and part ofthe main axis
failure to fulfil a normal function, or a diminu- rosette: a cluster of leaves or other organs in a cir-
tion the expected number of parts in a set (of cular form
stamens, for example) rostellum: a small beak; in orchids a projection of
reflexed: abruptly bent or turned downward or the upper edge of the stigma in front of the an-
backward thers
GLOSSARY 561
rostrate: beaked schizocarpous: in the form of a schizocarp

rosulate: collected in a rosette sciatica: pain in the lower back, buttocks, hips or
rotate: wheel-shaped; circular and flat adjacent parts ofthe body
rotund: rounded in outline, somewhat orbicular, sclerotic: hardened, stony in texture
but a little inclined towards oblong scorpioid: circinnate; coiled as to resemble a scor-
rubefacient: reddening the skin by causing hyper- pion
aemia (an excess of blood); an agent that red- scrofula: tuberculosis of the lymph nodes of the
dens the skin neck
rudimentary: of organs, imperfectly developed and scrub: vegetation whose growth is stunted because
non-functional of lack of water coupled with strong transpira-
rufous: reddish tion
rugose: wrinkled scurf: abnormal skin condition in which small
rugulose: somewhat wrinkled flakes or scales become detached
ruminate: of endosperm, mottled in appearance, scurfy: bearing small scales on the surface (lepi-
due to the infolding of a dark inner layer of the dote; scaly)
seed-coat into the paler coloured endosperm secondary vegetation: a plant cover that has been
saccate: pouched disturbed by natural causes or by man
sagittate: shaped like an arrowhead; of a leaf base secondary venation: the collection ofveins of a leaf
with two acute straight lobes directed down- blade branching off from midrib in pinnately
wards veined leaves, or from the main veins in
samara: an indéhiscent winged fruit palmately veined ones
sapling: a young tree of more than 1.5 m tall and section (botany): a taxonomie rank between the
with a bole ofless than 10 cm in diameter genus and the species accommodating a single
saponins: a group of glycosides which have the or several related species
ability to lower the surface tension of aqueous secund: arranged on one side
solutions sedative: allaying activity and excitement; an
saprophytic: living upon dead organic matter such agent that allays excitement
as humus seed: the reproductive unit formed from a fertil-
sapwood: the outer layers of wood adjacent to the ized ovule, consisting of embryo and seed-coat,
bark which in the living tree contain living cells and, in some cases, also endosperm
and reserve materials seedling: a plant produced from seed; a juvenile
sarcoma: any of a group of tumours usually aris- plant, grown from a seed
ing from connective tissue, most of which are segment: one ofthe divisions into which a plant or-
malignant gan, as a leaf or a calyx, may be cleft; the divi-
sarcotesta: the fleshy outer seed-coat sion ofa palmate or costapalmate leaf
scaberulous: somewhat rough semi-: prefix, meaning half or incompletely, e.g.
scabies: a contagious dermatitis caused by the itch semi-inferior
mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) that burrows under the seminal vesicle: either of the paired, sacculated
skin and deposit eggs, causing intense itching pouches attached to the posterior part of the
scabrid, scabrous: rough to the touch urinary bladder
scalariform: ladder-like, having markings or per- sensu lato (s.l.): in the broad sense
forations suggestive of a ladder sensu stricto (s.S.): in the strict sense
scale: a thin scarious body, often a degenerate leaf sepal: a member of the outer series of perianth
or a trichome ofepidermal origin segments
scandent: climbing septate: divided by one or more partitions
scape: a leafless floral axis or peduncle arising septicidal: dehiscing along the septa ofthe ovary
from the ground septum (plural: septa): a partition or cross-wall
scarification: of seed, the cutting or softening of seriate: serial, disposed in series of rows
the wall ofa hard seed to hasten germination sericeous: silky
schistosomiasis: infection with flukes of the genus serrate: toothed like a saw, with regular pointed
Schistosoma; sometimes called bilharzia teeth pointing forwards
schizocarp: a dry fruit formed from a syncarpous serrulate: serrate with minute teeth
ovary which splits into one-seeded portions, sesquiterpene: terpenes of molecular formula
mericarps or 'split fruits' C15H24, e.g. caryophyllene and farnesene
sessile: without a stalk leucocyte) characteristic ofthe spleen

setose: set with bristles or bristle-like elements sporangium: a sac endogenously producing spores
shaggy: villous sporophyll: a leaf or leaf-like structure bearing or
shale: sedimentary rock formed by the consolida- subtending a sporangium
tion ofunaltered clay or silt sprue: a chronic deficiency syndrome due to sub-
sheath: a tubular structure surrounding an organ normal absorption of dietary constituents
or part, as the lower part ofthe leaf clasping the spur (botany): a hollow and slender extension of
stem in grasses some part ofthe flower, usually nectariferous
shell: the hard envelope ofa nut squamous cell carcinoma: carcinoma developed
shellac: a purified lac resin prepared by heating from squamous epithelium, having cuboid cells
and filtering lac from lac insects and characterized by keratinization and often
shoot: the ascending axis, when segmented into be preservation ofintercellular bridges
dissimilar members it becomes a stem; a young stamen: one of the male reproductive organs of a
growing branch or twig flower; a unit ofthe androecium
shrub: a woody plant which branches from the ba- staminate: a flower bearing stamens but no pistil
se, all branches being equivalent (see also tree) staminode: an abortive or rudimentary stamen
siliceous: containing silica without or with an imperfect anther
simple (botany): not compound, as in leaves with a standard (botany): the fifth, posterior or upper
single blade petal ofa papilionaceous corolla
sinuate: with a deep wavy margin starch: polysaccharide made up of a long chain of
sinuous: wavy glucose units joined by oc-1,4 linkages, either
softwood: the wood ofa coniferous tree unbranched (amylose) or branched (amy-
sore: popular term for almost any lesion of the lopectin) at a a-1,6 linkage, and which is the
skin or mucous membranes storage carbohydrate in plants, occurring as
spadix: a flower spike with a fleshy or thickened starch granules in amyloplasts, and which is hy-
axis, as in aroids and some palms drolysed by animals during digestion by amy-
spasmodic: of the nature of a spasm, i.e. a sudden, lases, maltase and dextrinases to glucose via
violent, involuntary contraction ofa muscle or of dextrins and maltose
a group of muscles stellate: star-shaped, as of hairs with radiating
spasmolytic: checking spasms; antispasmodic branches, or of petals arranged in the form of a
spathaceous: resembling a spathe star
spathe: a large bract enclosing a spadix, or two or stem: the main ascending axis of a plant; in bam-
more bracts enclosing a flower cluster boos usually named culm, in other plant groups
spatulate: spoon-shaped occasionally
specific gravity: ratio of the weight of a volume of sterile: unable to produce offspring; in plants: fail-
material to the weight of an equal volume of waing to complete fertilization and produce seed as
ter of4°C a result ofdefective pollen or ovules; not produc-
spermatorrhoea: involuntary, abnormally fre- ing seed capable of germination; lacking func-
quent, and excessive emission of semen without tional sexual organs (sterility)
copulation steroids: a group of modified triterpenes which
spherical: globular contain a ring system of three 6-membered and
spicate: spike-like one 5-membered rings
spiciform: with the form ofa spike stigma: the portion ofthe pistil which receives the
spike: a simple indeterminate inflorescence with pollen
sessile flowers along a single axis stilt root: an oblique adventitious root as in man-
spikelet: a secondary spike, one of the units of grove trees and similar forms
which the inflorescence is made in grasses, con- stimulant: producing a temporary increase of the
sisting of one or more florets on a thin axis, sub- functional activity or efficiency of an organism
tended by a common pair of glumes or any ofits parts; an agent acting so
spine (botany): a short, stiff, straight, sharp-point- stipe: the stalk supporting a carpel or gynoecium
ed, hard structure usually arising from the stipitate: borne on a stipe or short stalk
wood ofa stem stipulate: with or bearing stipules
spiral: as though wound round an axis stipule: a scale-like or leaf-like appendage at the
splenocyte: the monocyte (mononuclear phagocytic base of a petiole
GLOSSARY 563
stolon: a trailing stem usually above the ground symbiosis: the intimate living together of two dis-
which is capable of producing roots and shoots similar organisms in a mutually beneficial rela-
at its nodes tionship
stoloniferous: bearing a stolon or stolons sympathomimetic: mimicking the effects of im-
stoma (plural: stomata): a breathing pore or aper- pulses conveyed by adrenergic postganglionic fi-
ture in the epidermis bres ofthe sympathetic nervous system
stomachic: pertaining to the stomach; a medicine sympetalous: with united petals
stimulating the action ofthe stomach sympodial: of a stem in which the growing point
stone: the hard endocarp of a drupe containing the either terminates in an inflorescence or dies,
seed or seeds growth being continued by a new lateral grow-
straggling: extremely divergent, spreading very ing point
far apart; irregular, bushy syncarp: a multiple or fleshy aggregate fruit, in-
strain: a group of individuals of a common origin, cluding fruit produced from a more or less entire
usually a more narrowly defined group than a inflorescence (as inArtocarpus, Ananas, Morus)
cultivar syncope: a temporary suspension of respiration
striate: marked with fine longitudinal parallel and circulation due to cerebral ischemia
lines, as grooves or ridges syphilis: a disease usually communicated by sexu-
strigillose: covered with minute stiff hairs al contact, or via the blood or bite of an infected
strigose: with short stiff hairs lying close along the person, caused by a spirochete (Treponema pal-
surface lidum) and characterized by a clinical course in
stump: seedling with trimmed roots and shoot and 3 stages continued over many years
used as planting stock; the part of anything that tachycardia: excessive rapidity of the heartbeat,
remains after the main part has been removed, usually applied to a pulse rate of more than 100
e.g. the part of a tree remaining attached to the in an adult
root after the trunk is cut tail (botany): any long and slender prolongation
style: the part of the pistil connecting the ovary tannins: a large group of plant-derived phenolic
with the stigma compounds
styptic: astringent, tending to check bleeding taproot: the primary descending root, forming a
through astringent properties; a remedy which direct continuation ofthe radicle
is astringent and arrests bleeding taxon (plural: taxa): a term applied to any taxo-
sub-: prefix, meaning somewhat or slightly (e.g. nomie unit irrespective of its classification level,
subacute), or below (e.g. subterranean) or less e.g. variety, species, genus, etc.
than, imperfectly taxonomy: the study of principles and practice of
subfamily: a taxonomie rank between the family classifying living organisms (systematics)
and the tribe denoting a part ofa family tendril: a thread-like climbing organ formed from
subglobose: nearly globular the whole or part of a stem, leaf or petiole
subshrub: a small shrub which may have partially tepal: a segment of a perianth, applied when no
herbaceous stems distinction between sepals and petals can be
subspecies: a subdivision of a species, in rank be- made
tween a variety and a species terete: cylindrical; circular in transverse section
subulate: awl-shaped, sharply pointed terminal: placed at the end or apex; a termination,
succulent: juicy, fleshy end or extremity
sucker: a shoot, usually originating from adventi- termite: ant-like organism of the order Isoptera
tious buds on the roots or basal stem parts, damaging wood by characteristic irregular hon-
which does not fit in the architectural model, eycombing or wide channels with dry bore-dust
but is capable ofrepeating the model or dust cemented together
sudorific: causing or promoting the flow of sweat; ternate: in threes
an agent causing sweating terpenes: unsaturated hydrocarbons of molecular
suffrutescent: obscurely shrubby formula (C 5 H s )n. In monoterpenes n=2, in
superior: of an ovary, with the perianth inserted sesquiterpenes n=3. The term terpene is often
below or around its base, the ovary being at- used to refer to a terpenoid
tached at its base only terpenoids: chemical compounds derived from a
suture: the line ofjunction of two carpels; the line terpene
or mark ofsplitting open terrestrial: on or in the ground
tertiary venation: generally the collection of the necting the secondary veins, not necessarily in a
smallest veins of a leaf blade perpendicular way
testa: the outer coat ofthe seed trapezoid: like a trapezium, a figure of four un-
tetanus: an acute, often fatal, infectious disease equal sides
characterized by muscular contractions and ab- trauma: a wound or injury, whether physical or
normal reflexes, and caused by a toxin produced psychic
by Clostridium tetani, a bacillus which is usual- tree: a perennial woody plant with a single evident
ly introduced through a wound trunk (see also shrub)
tetraploid: having four times (An) the basic num- tribe: a taxonomie rank between the family and
ber of chromosomes or twice the diploid number the genus
(2n) trichome: any hair, bristle or scale-like outgrowth
thallus: a vegetative body without differentiation ofthe epidermis
into stem and leaf trichotomous: three-forked, branching into three
theca (plural: thecae): a spore- or pollen-case divisions
thorn: a woody sharp-pointed structure formed trifid: cleft in three parts
from a modified branch trifoliolate: with three leaflets
throat (botany): of a corolla, the orifice of a trigonous: three-angled, with plane faces
gamopetalous corolla trilocular: having 3 chambers, each usually bear-
thrush: infection of the mucous membrane of the ing an ovule or seed
mouth with a fungus of the genus Candida, es- tripartite: divided into 3 parts
pecially C. albicans, and characterized by the tripliveined: with 3 main veins
formation of creamy, white, somewhat elevated triquetrous: three-edged, with three salient angles
lesions triterpenes: a subgroup of the isoprenoids, formed
thyrse (thyrsus): a compound inflorescence com- by coupling of6 C5 units
posed of a panicle (indeterminate axis) with the truncate: cut off more or less squarely at the end
secondary and ultimate axes cymose (determi- trunk: the main stem ofa tree apart from its limbs
nate) and roots
thyrsiform: shaped like a thyrse tuber: the swollen portion of an underground stem
thyrsoid: like a thyrse or root which acts as a storage organ and
tincture: an alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solution of propagule; it is usually of one year's duration,
some principle used in medicine those of successive years not arising directly
tissue culture: a body of tissue growing in a cul- from the old ones nor bearing any constant rela-
ture medium outside the organism tion to them
tomentellous: minutely tomentose tubercle: a small tuber-like excrescence
tomentose: densely covered with short soft hairs tuberculate: covered with warty protuberances
tomentulose: slightly tomentose tuberculosis: any of the diseases in man and ani-
tomentum: pubescence mals caused by Mycobacterium spp., character-
tonic: restoring or producing the normal tone (de- ized by the formation of lesions (tubercles) and
gree of vigour and tension) of tissue or organs; necrosis in the tissue ofthe lung or other organs
characterized by continuous tension (e.g. tonic and having a tendency to great chronicity
spasm); medicinal preparation believed to have tuberous: producing tubers or resembling a tuber
the power of restoring normal tone to tissue or tufted: growing in tufts (caespitose)
organs tumour necrosis factor: a substance (lymphokine)
tonsillitis: inflammation ofthe tonsils produced by macrophages, capable of causing in
topical: pertaining to a particular surface area, as vivo haemorrhagic necrosis of certain tumour
a topical anti-infective applied to a certain area cells,but not affecting normal cells
of the skin and affecting only the area to which turbinate: top-shaped
it is applied turgid: swollen, but not with air
torus: =receptacle turnery: articles made by the process of turning
trailing: prostrate, but not rooting twining: winding spirally
transgenic: pertaining to the experimental splic- ulcer: an open sore on an external or internal body
ing of a segment of DNA from one genome to surface, usually accompanied by disintegration
DNA of a different genome oftissue and formation of pus
transverse: straight across; of tertiary veins, con- ultrabasic: of soil, very low in silica and rich in fer-
GLOSSARY 565
romagnesian minerals as in e.g. serpentine soils venereal: pertaining or related to or transmitted

umbel: an indeterminate, often flat-topped inflo- by sexual contact
rescence whose divergent peduncles (rays) and venereal disease: any of a diverse group of conta-
pedicels arise from a common point; in a com- gious diseases (as gonorrhoea or syphilis) that
pound umbel each ray itself bears an umbellule are typically transmitted by sexual contact
(small umbel) ventral: in botany: facing the central axis (adaxi-
umbelliform: umbrella-shaped al), opposed to dorsal (abaxial); in human anato-
umbellule: diminutive of umbel my: pertaining to the abdomen, or denoting a
unarmed: devoid ofthorns, spines or prickles position more toward the belly surface than
uncinate: hooked some reference object
undershrub: any low shrub; partially herbaceous ventricose: with a swelling or inflation on one side
shrub, the ends of the branches perishing dur- ventricular: pertaining to a ventricle, i.e. a small
ing the winter cavity, such as one of the several cavities of the
undulate: wavy, said for instance of a leaf margin brain, or one ofthe lower chambers ofthe heart
if the waves run in a plane at right angles to the vermifuge: an agent expelling worms or intestinal
plane ofthe leaf blade animal parasites; an anthelminthic
unguiculate: contracted at the base into a claw verrucose: warty
unifoliolate: with one leaflet only, but in origin a verruculose: very warty, much covered with warts
compound leaf verticillaster: a false whorl, composed of a pair of
unilateral: one-sided opposed cymes, as in Labiatae
unilocular: one-celled verticillate: in a whorl with several elements aris-
unisexual: of one sex, having stamens or pistils ing at the same node
only vertigo: an illusory sense that the surroundings or
urceolate: urn-shaped one's own body are revolving
urolithiasis: the formation of urinary stones or vesicant: causing blisters; an agent that induces
calculi blistering
urticaria: a vascular reaction, acute or chronic, vesicular: bladder-like
which can have various causes and is character- vesicular stomatitis: a vesicular eruption caused
ized by the development ofweals on the skin by a virus and affecting pigs, cattle and horses
uterotonic: giving muscular tone to the uterus vessel (anatomy): a continuous tube formed by su-
utricle: a small bladdery pericarp perposition of numerous cells whose common
valvate: of perianth segments, with their edges in walls are perforated or have broken down
contact, but not overlapping in the bud vestigial: small and imperfectly developed
valve: one of the parts produced by a dehiscing viability: ability to live, grow and develop
capsule villous: with long weak hairs
variegated: irregularly coloured in patches, vine: a plant having a stem that is not woody and
blotched too slender to hold itself erect and therefore sup-
variety: a botanical variety which is a subdivision ports itself by climbing over an object
of a species; an agricultural or horticultural va- viscid: sticky
riety is referred to as a cultivar viscous: glutinous, or very sticky
vasoconstriction: diminution of the calibre of ves- volatile: a volatile substance is one that evapo-
sels, especially of arterioles rates at room temperature. It is an essential
vasodilation: dilation of a vessel, especially dila- property ofodorous materials
tion of arterioles leading to increased blood flow volatile oils: see essential oils
to a part vulnerary: pertaining to wounds or the healing of
vein (botany): a strand of vascular tissue in a flat wounds; an agent promoting the healing of
organ, such as a leaf wounds
velutinous: see velvety wart (in medicine): a small, usually hard and
velvety: with a coating of fine soft hairs; the same non-malignant, excrescence on the skin
as tomentose but denser so that the surface re- warty: covered with firm roundish excrescences
sembles (and feels like) velvet wax: waxes are mixtures of esters of higher alco-
venation (botany): the arrangement ofthe veins in hols and higher fatty acids. Waxes are used as
a leaf stiffening agents in the manufacture of cosmet-
veneer: a thin sheet ofwood ics. Natural plant waxes are removed from con-
crêtes to produce absolutes

whorl: arrangement with more than two organs of
the same kind arising at the same level
wilt: loss of turgidity, usually in leaves, typically
caused by pathogens which colonize the vascu-
lar system
wing: any membraneous expansion attached to an
organ; a lateral petal of a papilionaceous corolla
wood: the hard, compact, fibrous substance be-
tween pith and bark
woolly: clothed with long and tortuous or matted
hairs
xylem: the main water-conducting tissue in vascu-
lar plants which extends throughout the body of
the plant and is also involved in transport of
minerals, food storage and support; primary
xylem is derived from the procambium, sec-
ondary xylem (e.g. the wood oftrees and shrubs)
from the vascular cambium; xylem is composed
of tracheary elements: tracheids and (in an-
giosperms) vessel elements; both are elongated
hollow cells, with thickened, usually heavily lig-
nified walls, and lacking protoplasts when ma-
ture; they arejoined end to end to form a contin-
uous conducting tube
yaws: an infectious, tropical disease caused by a
spirochete {Treponema pertenue), usually affect-
ing children under 15, and marked by skin ele-
vations (papules) and papilloma, with later
manifestations including deformation of skin,
bone andjoints (also called framboesia)
yellow fever: an acute destructive infectious dis-
ease caused by a virus transmitted by a mosqui-
to
zygomorphic: irregular and divisible into equal
halves in one plane only
Sources of illustrations
Acacia continua: Matthew, K.M., 1988. Further il- Aglaia odorata: Harms, H., 1896. Meliaceae. In:
lustrations on the flora of the Tamilnadu Car- Engler, A. & Prantl, K.: Die natürlichen Pflan-
natic. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph's Col- zenfamilien III, 4: p. 299, fig. 163A-D (flowering
lege, Tiruchirapalli, India. PI. 251 (branch with branch, male flower, male flower with sepals
leaves, flowering branch, flower); Nielsen, I., and petals removed, longitudinal section of male
1981. Légumineuses - Mimosoïdées. In: Aubré- flower with sepals and petals removed). Re-
ville, A. & Leroy, J.-F. (Editors): Flore du Cam- drawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nur-
bodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Vol. 19. Muséum haman.
National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France, p. Aglaonema simplex: Mayo, S.J., Bogner, J. &
59, pi. 9(15) (fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Boyce, P.C., 1997. The genera of Araceae. The
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United
Adenia cordifolia: de Wilde, W.J.J.O., 1971. A Kingdom, p. 224, pi. 72(A, D, F) (plant habit,
monograph of the genus Adenia Forsk. (Passi- spathe and spadix, spadix). Redrawn and adapt-
floraceae). Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool ed by Iskak Syamsudin.
Wageningen 71-18: p. 233, fig. 36 (branch with Ajuga bracteosa: Keng, H., 1978. Labiatae. In: van
male inflorescence, male flower in longitudinal Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Ser.
section, branch with fruit, dehisced fruit, seed 1, Vol. 8. Sijthoff & Noordhoff International
with aril removed). Redrawn and adapted by Publishers, Alphen aan den Rijn, the Nether-
Iskak Syamsudin. lands, p. 313, fig. 2 (plant habit, flower, nutlets).
Adenosma Indiana: Bejing Botanical Research In- Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
stitute, 1975. Iconographia Cormophytorum Si- Alchornea rugosa: Airy Shaw, H.K., 1981.The Eu-
nicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular phorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew Bulletin 36(2): p.
plants]. Vol. 4. Bejing, China, p. 21, fig. 5455 250, fig. IB (branch with male inflorescences,
(habit of plant, flower with corolla removed, male flower, branch with female inflorescence
opened corolla showing stamens). Redrawn and and fruits, female flower). Redrawn and adapt-
adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. ed byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Aeginetia indica: Hsiao, J.-Y., 1978. Orobancha- Alocasia macrorrhizos: Engler, A. & Krause, K.,
ceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Flora of Tai- 1920. Araceae - Colocasioideae. In: Engler, A.
wan. Angiospermae. Vol. 4. Epoch Publishing (Editor): Das Pflanzenreich. Regni vegetabilis
Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China, p. 689, conspectus. IV.23 E (Heft 71). Verlag von Wil-
pi. 1159 (habit of flowering plant, flower with helm Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany, p. 85, fig.
calyx removed and opened corolla, fruit). Re- 15 (plant habit); Bejing Botanical Research In-
drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. stitute, 1976. Iconographia Cormophytorum
Aeschynanthus radicans: van Steenis, C.G.G.J., Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular
1972. The mountain flora ofJava. E.J. Brill, Lei- plants]. Vol. 5. Bejing, China, p. 368, fig. 7566
den, the Netherlands, pi. 21(6) (flowering stem). (spathe and spadix, spadix). Redrawn and
Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Agelaea macrophylla: Leenhouts, P.W., 1958. Con- Ammannia baccifera: Iqbal Dar, M., 1975. Lythra-
naraceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): ceae. In: Nasir, E. & Ali, S.I. (Editors): Flora of
Flora Malesiana. Ser.1, Vol. 5. Noordhoff-Kolff West Pakistan. No 78. Department of Botany,
N.V., Djakarta, p. 501,fig. 2a, b, g (part of flow- University of Karachi and Stewart Herbarium,
ering stem, flower, dehisced fruit showing seed). Gordon College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, p. 10,
Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nur- fig. 2 (E, F) (plant habit, fruit); Soerjani, M.,
haman. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. &Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Edi-
tors), 1987. Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai plants]. Vol. 3. Bejing, China, p. 223, fig. 4400
Pustaka, Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 339, fig. 4.154 (root system); Nakai, T., 1923. Flora Sylvatica
(a, d2) (flower, seed). Redrawn and adapted by Koreana. Pars XIII. The Forestal Experiment
Iskak Syamsudin. Station, Government General of Chosen, Seoul,
Amorphophallus konjac: Bejing Botanical Re- Korea. Unnumbered plate (flowering branchlet,
search Institute, 1976. Iconographia Cormophy- fruiting branch). Redrawn and adapted by
torum Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese Iskak Syamsudin.
vascular plants]. Vol. 5. Bejing, China, p. 370, Argyreia nervosa: Herklots, G., 1976. Flowering
fig. 7569 (plant with leaf, spathe and spadix, tropical climbers. Dawson Science History Pub-
lower part of spadix). Redrawn and adapted by lications, Folkestone, United Kingdom, p. 110,
Iskak Syamsudin. fig. 155 (flowering branch), p. I l l , fig. 156 (in-
Anaxagorea luzonensis: Bejing Botanical Research fructescence). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak
Institute, 1971. Iconographia Cormophytorum Syamsudin.
Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular Asystasia nemorum: Backer, C.A., 1973. Atlas of
plants]. Vol. 1. Bejing, China, p. 806, fig. 1611 220 weeds of sugar-cane fields in Java. Hand-
(fruiting twig); Maas, P.J.M. &Westra, L.Y.Th., book for the cultivation of sugar-cane and man-
1985. Studies in Annonaceae. II. A monograph ufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7, atlas.
of the genus Anaxagorea A. St. Hil. Part 2. Indonesian Sugar Experiment Station. Pasuru-
Botanische Jahrbücher für Pflanzengeschichte an, Indonesia. PI. 629 (part of flowering and
und Pflanzengeographie 105(2): p. 186, fig. 29b, fruiting plant). Redrawn and adapted by
d (flower, fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Syamsudin. Baliospermum montanum: Radcliffe-Smith, A.,
Ancistrocladus tectorius: van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1986. Euphorbiaceae. In: Nasir, E. & Ali, S.I.
1948. Ancistrocladaceae. In: van Steenis, (Editors): Flora ofPakistan No 172. Department
C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. of Botany, University of Karachi and National
4. Noordhoff-Kolff N.V., Jakarta, Indonesia, p. Herbarium (Stewart Collection), Pakistan Agri-
9, fig. 1 (branch with inflorescence); Keng, H., cultural Research Council, Islamabad, Pak-
1970. Further observations on Ancistrocladus istan, p. 7, fig. l(E-I) (twig with fruits, male
tectorius (Ancistrocladaceae). Gardens' Bulletin flower, female flower, fruit, seed). Redrawn and
Singapore 25: p. 236, fig. ld, e (flower, flower in adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
longitudinal section); Bejing Botanical Research Bauhinia purpurea: Larsen, K., Larsen, S.S. &Vi-
Institute, 1971. Iconographia Cormophytorum dal, J.E., 1984. Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae.
Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular In: Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K. (Editors): Flora
plants]. Vol. 5. Bejing, China, p. 946, fig. 3621 of Thailand. Vol. 4(1). The Forest Herbarium,
(fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam- Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand,
sudin. p. 8, fig. 1 (twig with flower buds, flower bud,
Anredera cordifolia: van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1957. flower). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
Basellaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Nurhaman.
Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 5. Noordhoff-Kolff Blechum pyramidatum: Hsieh, C.-F. & Huang, T.-
N.V., Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 303, fig. 2(a, c, d, d') C , 1978. Acanthaceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Edi-
(flowering twig, flower bud, flower, opened peri- tors): Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 4.
anth and stamens). Redrawn and adapted by Epoch Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic
Iskak Syamsudin. of China, p. 626, pi. 1131(1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10) (plant
Aralidium pinnatifidum: Philipson, W.R., 1979. habit, calyx, corolla opened to show stamens,
Araliaceae - 1 . In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): pistil, dehisced fruit, seeds). Redrawn and
Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 9. Martinus Nij- adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
hoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers, the Hague/Bos- Buddleja asiatica: Leenhouts, P.W., 1962. Logani-
ton/London. p. 15, fig. 4(a, b, c, d) (flowering aceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora
branch, bud of male flower, male flower, bud of Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 6. Wolters-Noordhoff
female flower, female flower, fruit, seed). Re- Publishing, Groningen, the Netherlands, p. 338,
drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. fig. 24a (flowering branch); Leeuwenberg,
Ardisia crenata: Bejing Botanical Research Insti- A.J.M. &Vidal, J.E., 1972. Buddlejaceae. In: Vi-
tute, 1974. Iconographia Cormophytorum Sini- dal, J.E. & Galibert, Y. (Editors): Flore du Cam-
corum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular bodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Fascicule 13.
SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS 569
Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, Malesian Ranunculaceae]. Bibliotheca Botanica

France, p. 95, pi. 15(4, 5, 7, 8) (flower, opened 124. fig. 9(a, b, d) (flowering twig, flower, nut-
corolla showing stamens, fruit, seed). Redrawn let). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. Nurhaman.
Butea monosperma: Verdcourt, B., 1979. A manu- Clusia rosea: Pipoly, J.J., Kearns, D.M. & Berry,
al of New Guinea legumes. Botany Bulletin No P.E., 1998. Clusia L. In: Berry, P.E., Holst, B.K.
11. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae, & Yatskievych, K. (Editors): Flora of the
Papua New Guinea, p. 462, fig. 108 (flowering Venezuelan Guayana. Vol. 4. Missouri Botani-
twig); Sanjappa, M., 1989. Revision of the gen- cal Garden Press, St. Louis, United States, p.
era Butea Roxb. ex Willd. and Meizotropis Voigt 293, fig. 209 (branch with male flower with copi-
(Fabaceae). Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of ous resin production, female flower, dehisced
India 29(1-4): p. 224, fig. 2 (fruits). Redrawn fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. Nurhaman.
Calophyllum inophyllum: Soerianegara, I. & Lem- Cnestis palala: Leenhouts, P.W., 1958. Connara-
mens, R.H.M.J. (Editors), 1993.Plant Resources ceae. In: van Steenis, CG.G.J. (Editor): Flora
of South-East Asia No 5(1). Timber trees: Major Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 5. Noordhoff-Kolff N.V.,
commercial timbers. Pudoc Scientific Publish- Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 498, fig. l(a, b, c, e, f, i, j)
ers, Wageningen, the Netherlands, p. 124 (typi- (branch with leaves, branch with inflorescences,
cal habit of tree along beach, flowering twig, different types of flowers, different types of
fruits). fruits, seed). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad
Calycopteris floribunda: Lecompte, O., 1969. Com- Satiri Nurhaman.
bretaceae. In: Tardieu-Blot, M.-L. (Editor): Flo- Cocculus orbiculatus: Forman, L.L., 1986. Menis-
re du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Fase. permaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wil-
10. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, de, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1,
Paris, France, p. 103, pi. XII(1, 2, 6, 9, 10) (in- Vol. 10. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor-
tertwining branches, flowering branch, flower drecht/Boston/London, p. 232, fig. 16(a, d, f, h, j)
in longitudinal section, fruiting branch, fruit). (branch of male flowering plant, male flower, fe-
Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. male flower, infructescence, endocarp). Re-
Canscora diffusa: Backer, C.A., 1941. Onkruidflo- drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
ra der Javasche suikerrietgronden. Handboek Codonopsis javanica: World Health Organisation
ten dienste van de suikerriet-cultuur en de riet- 6 Institute of Materia Medica, 1990. Medicinal
suiker-fabricage op Java. Deel 7(15) (atlas) plants of Viet Nam. World Health Organisation
[Weed flora of Javanese sugar-cane fields. Regional Publications, Western Pacific Series
Handbook for the cultivation of sugar-cane and No 3. WHO/WPRO, Manila, the Philippines &
manufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7(15) Institute of Materia Medica, Hanoi, Vietnam, p.
(atlas)]. Vereniging het Proefstation voor de Ja- 112 (plant habit); Moeliono, B. &Tuyn, P., 1960.
va-Suikerindustrie, Pasuruan, Indonesia, pi. Campanulaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Edi-
464 (habit of flowering plant); Matthew, K.M., tor): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1,Vol. 6. Wolters-No-
1988. Further illustrations on the flora of the ordhoff, Groningen, the Netherlands, p. 120, fig.
Tamilnadu Carnatic. The Rapinat Herbarium, 7 (flower, fruit). Redrawn and adapted by
St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirapalli, India, pi. Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
373(2, 6, 9) (flower, corolla opened, showing sta- Coldenia procumbens: Backer, C.A., 1973.Atlas of
mens, pistil). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak 220 weeds of sugar-cane fields in Java. Hand-
Syamsudin. book for the cultivation of sugar-cane and man-
Catunaregam spinosa: Bridson, D. & Verdcourt, ufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7, atlas.
B., 1988. Rubiaceae (Part 2). In: Polhill, R.M. Indonesian Sugar Experiment Station. Pasuru-
(Editor): Flora of Tropical East Africa. A.A. Bal- an, Indonesia. PI. 513 (plant habit); Verdcourt,
kema, Rotterdam, Brookfield. p. 498, fig. 80(1, B., 1991. Boraginaceae. In: Polhill, R.M. (Edi-
4, 6, 10) (flowering branch, flower, opened corol- tor): Flora of Tropical East Africa. A.A. Balke-
la with stamens, style and stigma, fruiting ma, Rotterdam, Brookfield. p. 45,fig. 11(B,C, E,
branch). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam- G, H, I, J) (leaf upper surface, leaf lower surface,
sudin. corolla opened showing stamens, pistil, fruit,
Clematis papuasica: Eichler, H., 1958. Revision nutlet dorsal surface, nutlet ventral surface).
der Ranunculaceen Malesiens [Revision of Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Colocasia esculenta: Flach, M. & Rumawas, F. Institute, 1976. Iconographia Cormophytorum

(Editors), 1996. Plant Resources of South-East Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular
Asia No 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbohy- plants]. Vol. 5. Bejing, China, p. 745, fig. 8319
drates. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Neth- (plant habit); Seidenfaden, G., 1983. Orchid
erlands, p. 70 (plant habit, corm). genera in Thailand XL Cymbidieae Pfitz. Opera
Connarus monocarpus: Schellenberg, G., 1938. Botanica 72: p. 80, fig. 43(a, b, c) (part of inflo-
Connaraceae. In: Engler, A. & Diels, L. (Edi- rescence, lip in side view, expanded lip). Re-
tors): das Pflanzenreich. IV. 127 (103. Heft). drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, Ger- Cynoglossum lanceolatum: Bejing Botanical Re-
many, p. 232, fig. 43(A1, A3, BI, B2) (flowering search Institute, 1974. Iconographia Cormophy-
twig, flower, fruiting twig, seed); Leenhouts, torum Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese
P.W., 1958. Connaraceae. In: van Steenis, vascular plants]. Vol. 3. Bejing, China, p. 575,
C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. fig. 5103 (lower part of plant, upper part of
5. Noordhoff-Kolff N.V., Djakarta, Indonesia, p. plant); Martins, E.S., 1990. Boraginaceae. In:
527, fig. l l f (fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Launert, E. & Pope, G.V. (Editors): Flora
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. Zambesiaca. Vol. 7, Part 4. Flora Zambesiaca
Conyza sumatrensis: Soerjani, M., Kostermans, Managing Committee, London, United King-
A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987. dom, p. 106, tab. 30(3, 4, 5, 6) (flower, opened
Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Ja- corolla showing stamens, fruit, nutlet). Re-
karta, Indonesia, p. 85, fig. 4.28 (plant habit, drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
flower head, marginal flower, disk flower, fruit). Dalbergia pinnata: Wight, R., 1839. Icônes plan-
Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nur- tarum Indiae orientalis. Vol. 1. Madras, pi. 242
haman. (branch with inflorescences); Niyomdham, C ,
Coriaria intermedia: Li, H.-L. & Huang, T.-S., Pham Hoang Ho, Dy Phon, P. & Vidal, J.E.,
1993. Coriariaceae. In: Huang, T.-C. (Editor): 1997. Légumineuses - Papilionoidées - Dalber-
Flora of Taiwan. 2nd Edition. Vol. 3. Editorial giées. In: Hul, S., Vidal, J.E. & Vidal, Y. (Edi-
Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, Tai- tors): Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viet-
wan, Republic of China, p. 580, pi. 298(1, 4, 5, 7, nam. Vol. 29. Muséum National d'Histoire Na-
9) (fruiting branch, male flower, female flower, turelle, Paris, France, p. 47, pi. 7(1-4) (leaflets
fruit, fruit in cross section). Redrawn and adapt- from below and above, flower, standard, fruit).
ed by Iskak Syamsudin. Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Coscinium fenestration: Forman, L.L., 1986. Me- Dalea cliffortiana: White, P.S., 1980. Dalea. In:
nispermaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Dwyer, J.D. et al. (Editors): Flora of Panama.
Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. Part 5, fasc. 5. Family 83. Leguminosae, sub-
1, Vol. 10. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor- family Papilionoideae (conclusion). Annals of
drecht/Boston/London, p. 212, fig. 10(a, b, d, e) the Missouri Botanical Garden 67(3): p. 621, fig.
(part of male flowering stem, male flower, sta- 19 (flowering branch, flower). Redrawn and
mens, infructescence). Redrawn and adapted by adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. Dasymaschalon blumei: Boerlage, J.G., 1899.
Crassocephalum crepidioides: Soerjani, M., Kos- Anonaceae. Icônes Bogorienses. Vol. 1, Fasc. 3.
termans, A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Edi- Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg. E.J. Brill, Lei-
tors), 1987. Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai den, the Netherlands, pi. 73(4) (flower); Sin-
Pustaka, Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 73,fig. 4.22 (up- clair, J., 1955. A revision of the Malayan An-
per part of flowering and fruiting plant, flower, nonaceae. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 14(2): p.
fruit with pappus, fruit without pappus). Re- 270, fig. 16A (fruiting twig); Nguyen Tien Ban,
drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. 1975. Notes on the genus Dasymaschalon
Cryptocoryne cordata: de Wit, H.C.D., 1983. (Hook. f. et Thorns.) Dalla Torre et Harms (An-
Aquariumplanten [Aquarium plants]. 4th Edi- nonaceae) (in Russian). Botaniceskij Zurnal
tion. Uitgeverij Hollandia, Baarn, the Nether- 60(2): p. 226, fig. 2a (fruit). Redrawn and adapt-
lands, p. 224, fig. 71(right, 1, 2) (plant habit, ed byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
spatha), p. 188, fig. 55(right, 3) (opened basal Dentella repens: Soerjani, M., Kostermans,
part of spatha showing spadix). Redrawn and A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G., (Editors) 1987.
adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka,
Cymbidium aloifolium: Bejing Botanical Research Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 501, fig. 4.234 (plant
habit, flower, corolla opened, showing stamens, of Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 4. Epoch Pub-
fruit, seeds). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak lishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China,
Syamsudin. p. 233, pi. 981(1, 2) (flowering branch, flower);
Desmos chinensis: Sinclair, J., 1955. A revision of Kuriachen, P.M., Thomas, V. & Dave, Y., 1992.
the Malayan Annonaceae. Gardens' Bulletin Taxonomie and phylogenetic significance of fruit
Singapore 14(2): p. 267, fig. 15A (twig with walls in Asclepiadaceae. Feddes Repertorium
flower); Bejing Botanical Research Institute, 103: p. 186, fig. 29 (fruit). Redrawn and adapted
1994. Iconographia Cormophytorum Sinicorum by Iskak Syamsudin.
[Line drawings of Chinese vascular plants]. Vol. Drosera burmannii: Lecompte, O., 1965. Drose-
1. Bejing, China, p. 813, fig. 1625 (twig with raceae. In: Tardieu-Blot, M.-L. (Editor): Flore
fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Muséum
Nurhaman. National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France, p.
Diospyros montana: Matthew, K.M., 1988. Fur- 69, pi. 1(12, 13) (plant habit, leaf with stipules).
ther illustrations on the Flora of Tamilnadu Drosera indica: van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1953.
Carnatic. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph's Droseraceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor):
College, Tiruchirapalli, India, p. 345, pi. 345 Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 4. Noordhoff-Kolff
(twig with male flowers, male flower, female N.V., Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 378, fig. 1 (plant
flower); Phengklai, C , 1981. Ebenaceae. In: habit); Lecompte, O., 1965. Droseraceae. In:
Smitinand, T., & Larsen, K. (Editors): Flora of Tardieu-Blot, M.-L. (Editor): Flore du Cam-
Thailand. Vol. 2. The Forest Herbarium, Royal bodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Muséum Natio-
Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 309, nal d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France, p. 69, pi.
fig. 12 (twig with fruits). Redrawn and adapted 1(8) (part ofleaf). Drosera peltata: Lecompte, O.,
byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. 1965. Droseraceae. In: Tardieu-Blot, M.-L. (Edi-
Dipteracanthus repens: Backer, C.A., 1973. Atlas tor): Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viet-
of 220 weeds of sugar-cane fields in Java. Hand- nam. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle,
book for the cultivation of sugar-cane and man- Paris, France, p. 69, pi. 1(1, 3) (plant habit,
ufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7, Atlas. leaf). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam-
Indonesian Sugar Experiment Station, Pasuru- sudin.
an, Indonesia, pi. 619 (plant habit); Hsieh, C.-F. Drymaria cordata: Wild, H., 1961. Caryophyl-
& Huang, T.-C, 1978.Acanthaceae. In: Li, H.-L. laceae. In: Exell, A.W. &Wild, H. (Editors): Flo-
et al. (Editors): Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae. ra Zambesiaca. Vol. 1, Part 2. Crown Agents for
Vol. 4. Epoch Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Oversea Governments and Administrations,
Republic of China, p. 631, pi. 1134(10, 11) (de- London, United Kingdom, p. 345, tab. 62(A1,
hisced fruit, seed). Redrawn and adapted by A2, A3, A4, A6, A7, A8) (flowering stem, leaf
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. and stipules, flower with sepals removed, sepal,
Dischidia major: Rintz, R.E., 1980. The Peninsu- petal, dehisced fruit enclosed by sepals, seed).
lar Malayan species of Dischidia (Asclepi- Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
adaceae). Blumea 26(1): p. 108, fig. 6(a, c, d) Nurhaman.
(habit of flowering plant, flower, flower with Enicostema axillare: Backer, C.A., 1941. Onkruid-
opened corolla). Dischidia nummularia: Rintz, flora der Javasche suikerrietgronden. Hand-
R.E., 1980. The Peninsular Malayan species of boek ten dienste van de suikerriet-cultuur en de
Dischidia (Asclepiadaceae). Blumea 26(1): p. rietsuiker-fabricage op Java. Deel 7(15) (atlas)
120, fig. 18(a, b, c) (habit of flowering and fruit- [Weed flora of Javanese sugar-cane fields.
ing plant, flower, flower with opened corolla). Handbook for the cultivation of sugar-cane and
Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. manufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7(15)
Dracaena angustifolia: Ochse, J.J. & Bakhuizen (atlas)]. Vereniging het Proefstation voor de Ja-
van den Brink, R.C., 1980. Vegetables of the va-Suikerindustrie, Pasuruan, Indonesia, pi.
Dutch East Indies. 3rd English edition (transla- 463 (flowering stem); Raynal, A., 1969. Révision
tion of 'Indische groenten', 1931). Asher & Co., du genre Enicostema Blume (Gentianaceae)
Amsterdam, the Netherlands, p. 461, fig. 285 [Revision of the genus Enicostema Blume (Gen-
(flowering and fruiting branch). Redrawn and tianaceae)]. Adansonia, ser. 2, 9(1): p. 69, pi.
adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. 4(5, 6, 7) (flower, stamens, front and side view).
Dregea volubilis: Lu, F.-Y. &Kao, M.-T., 1978.As- Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
clepiadaceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Flora Epiphyllum oxypetalum: Schumann, K., 1890.
Cactaceae. In: von Martius, C F . P . (Editor): Flo- mantandraceae. In: Womersley, J.S. (Editor):
ra brasiliensis. Vol. 4(2). Leipzig, Germany, pi. Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea.
45 (branch with flower). Redrawn and adapted Vol. 1. Melbourne University Press, Carlton,
byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. Australia, p. 128, fig. 64 (twig with flowerbuds,
Epipremnum pinnatum: Liu, T.-S. & Huang, T.- flowering twig, fruit). Redrawn and adapted by
G, 1978. Araceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 5. Epoch Gentiana quadrifaria: van Steenis, C.G.G.J.,
Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of Chi- 1972. The mountain flora of Java. E.J. Brill,
na, p. 808, pi. 1528(1, 4) (plant habit, inflores- Leiden, the Netherlands, pi. 20(2a, 2b) (habit of
cence); Mayo, S.J., Bogner, J. & Boyce, P.C., plant from exposed locality, habit of plant from
1997. The genera ofAraceae. The Trustees, Roy- shaded locality). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak
al Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom, p. Syamsudin.
120, pi. 15(A, C, D) (leaf ofjuvenile shoot, stem Geophila repens: Chao, J.-M., 1978. Rubiaceae. In:
part with infructescences, seed). Redrawn and Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Flora of Taiwan. An-
adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. giospermae. Vol. 4. Epoch Publishing Co.,
Euodia hortensis: Hartley, T.G., 2001. On the tax- Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China, p. 268, pi.
onomy and biogeography of Euodia and Meli- 995(1, 2, 6) (habit of flowering plant, flower,
cope (Rutaceae). Allertonia 8(1): p. 59, fig. 14 dried fruit); Bejing Botanical Research Insti-
(flower, floral parts partially removed, fruit), p. tute, 1975. Iconographia Cormophytorum Sini-
60, fig. 15 (flowering twig with 3-foliolate corum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular
leaves, flowering twig with 1-foliolate leaves, plants]. Vol. 4. Beijing, China, p. 272, fig. 5957
leaf variability of putative cultigens). Redrawn (habit of fruiting plant). Redrawn and adapted
and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. by Iskak Syamsudin.
Fagerlindia fasciculata: Tirvengadum, D.D., 1983. Geunsia pentandra: Meijer, W., 1968.A taxonomie
New taxa and name changes in tropical Asiatic treatment of orders and families of trees of
Rubiaceae. Nordic Journal of Botany 3(4): p. Sabah with further revisions offamilies. Botani-
463, fig. 4(7, 9, 11) (flowering branch, corolla cal Bulletin, Herbarium, Forest Department,
opened, showing stamens, style and stigmas, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia No 10. Opposite p.
fruiting branch). Redrawn and adapted by 224 (flowering branch); Briquet, J., 1894. Verbe-
Iskak Syamsudin. naceae. In: Engler, A. (Editor): die natürlichen
Fimbristylis miliacea: Soerjani, M., Kostermans, Pflanzenfamilien IV, 3a. Wilhelm Engelmann,
A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987. Leipzig, Germany, p. 165, fig. 62A (flower);
Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Ja- Koorders, S.H. & Valeton, Th., 1914. Atlas der
karta, Indonesia, p. 243, fig. 4.106 (plant habit, Baumarten von Java [Atlas oftree species of Ja-
spikelet, fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak va]. Vol. 2. P.W.M. Trap, Leiden, the Nether-
Syamsudin. lands, fig. 279N (fruit). Redrawn and adapted
Fissistigma fulgens: Sinclair, J., 1955. A revision by Iskak Syamsudin.
of the Malayan Annonaceae. Gardens' Bulletin Globba pendula: Roxburgh, W., 1815. Plants of
Singapore 14(2): p. 354, fig. 25 (flowering the Coast of Coromandel. East India Company,
branch, flower, flower with petals detached, sta- London, United Kingdom. Vol. 3, part 2. PI. 228
mens, front and back view, pistil). Redrawn and (habit of flowering plant); Smith, R.M., 1988. A
adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. review ofBornean Zingiberaceae: IV (Globbeae).
Floscopa scandens: Hsu, K.-S., 1978. Commeli- Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edin-
naceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Flora of Tai- burgh 45(1): p. 7, fig. 2Be (flower). Redrawn and
wan. Angiospermae. Vol. 5. Epoch Publishing adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China, p. 169, Glochidion rubrum: Hsieh, C.-F., 1977. Euphor-
pi. 1309(1, 6, 15, 16, 17, 18) (plant habit, flower, biaceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Flora of
fruit, seeds in different views); Cherfils, H., Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 3. Epoch Publish-
1937. Commélinacées. In: Gagnepain, F. (Edi- ing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China, p.
tor): Flore Générale de lTndo-Chine. Vol. 6. 476, pi. 692(1, 3, 5, 9) (flowering twig, male
Masson & Co., Paris, France, p. 912, fig. 87(3) flower, female flower, part of twig with fruits).
(top of flowering stem). Redrawn and adapted Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. Nurhaman.
Galbulimima belgraveana: Croft, J.R., 1978. Hi- Grammatophyllum speciosum: Seidenfaden, G.,
1983. Orchid genera in Thailand XL Cymbi- Kingdom, p. 178, pi. 47(i)A (plant habit); Eng-
dieae Pfitz. Opera Botanica 72: p. 97, fig. 54(a, ler, A. & Krause, K , 1912. Das Pflanzenreich
b) (leafy stems and inflorescence, flower). Re- IV.23Da. Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann,
drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. Leipzig, Germany, p. 74, fig. 48(A, B, C) (part of
Grangea maderaspatana: Soerjani, M., Koster- flowering plant, inflorescence with spathe,
mans, A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), spadix). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad
1987. Weeds ofrice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Satiri Nurhaman.
Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 91, fig. 4.31 (plant habit, Hoya australis: Forster, P.I. & Liddle, D.J., 1991.
flower head, marginal flower, disk flower, fruit). Variation in Hoya australis R.Br, ex Traill (As-
Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nur- clepiadaceae). Austrobaileya 3(3): p. 511, fig.
haman. 5(A, B, C) (habit of flowering plant, flower in
Gunnera macrophylla: van Steenis, C.G.G.J., apical view, flower in side view). Redrawn and
1972. The mountain flora of Java. E.J. Brill, adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Leiden, the Netherlands, pi. 23(1) (habit of flow- Hunteria zeylanica: Omino, E., 1996. A contribu-
ering and fruiting plant). Redrawn and adapted tion to the leaf anatomy and taxonomy ofApocy-
byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. naceae in Africa. Wageningen Agricultural Uni-
Gymnema inodorum: Beijing Botanical Research versity Papers 96-1: p. 124, fig. 34(1, 3, 4, 6)
Institute, 1974. Iconographia Cormophytorum (flowering branch, opened corolla, pistil, fruit-
Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular ing branch). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak
plants]. Vol. 3. Beijing, China, p. 495, fig. 4943 Syamsudin.
(flowering branch, fruit, seed); Forster, P.I., Hydnophytum formicarum: Schumann, K., 1891.
1995. New names and combinations in Marsde- Rubiaceae. In: Engler, A. & Prantl, K. (Editors):
nia (Asclepiadaceae: Marsdenieae) from Asia die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. IV, 4. Verlag
and Malesia (excluding Papuasia). Australian von Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany, p.
Systematic Botany 8: p. 695, fig. 1(A, B) (flower 11, fig. 4A (plant habit); Burck, M.W., 1884. Sur
in apical view, flower in side view). Redrawn l'organisation florale chez quelques Rubiacées
and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. [About floral organization in some Rubiaceae].
Gynura procumbens: Backer, CA., 1973. Atlas of Annales du Jardin botanique de Buitenzorg 4:
220 weeds of sugar-cane fields in Java. Hand- PL 4, fig. 5 (flower in longitudinal section). Re-
book for the cultivation of sugar-cane and man- drawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurha-
ufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7, atlas. man.
Indonesian Sugar Experiment Station, Pasuru- Hydrolea zeylanica: Soerjani, M., Kostermans,
an, Indonesia. PI. 745 (flowering branch, flower A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987.
head, flower without ovary and pappus). Re- Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka,
drawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurha- Jakarta, Indonesia, p. 311, fig. 4.140 (flowering
man. branches, fruit with calyx removed, seed);
Harmsiopanax harmsii: Philipson, W.R., 1995. Backer, C.A., 1951. Hydrophyllaceae. In: van
Araliaceae (excluding Schefflera). In: Conn, B.J. Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Ser.
(Editor): Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New 1, Vol. 4. Noordhoff-Kolff N.V., Djakarta, In-
Guinea. Vol. III. Melbourne University Press, donesia, p. 208, fig. lb (flower). Redrawn and
on behalf of the Government of Papua New adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Guinea, p. 13, fig. 3 (part of trunk, top of stem Hygrophila ringens: Backer, C.A., 1973. Atlas of
with leaves, inflorescence branch, umbellule of 220 weeds of sugar-cane fields in Java. Hand-
flowers). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad book for the cultivation of sugar-cane and man-
Satiri Nurhaman. ufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7, atlas.
Homalanthus populneus: Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Indonesian Sugar Experiment Station, Pasuru-
Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant an, Indonesia. PI. 612 (plant habit); Hsieh, C.-F.
Resources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and & Huang, T.-C, 1978.Acanthaceae. In: Li, H.-L.
tannin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen, et al. (Editors): Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae.
the Netherlands, p. 101 (flowering branch, de- Vol. 4. Epoch Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan,
tail ofmale part ofinflorescence, male flower). Republic of China, p. 641, pi. 1138(3, 7) (flower,
Homalomena sagittifolia: Mayo, S.J., Bogner, J. & fruit enclosed in calyx). Redrawn and adapted
Boyce, P.C., 1997. The genera of Araceae. The byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Hypoxis aurea: Nasir, E., 1980. Amaryllidaceae.
In: Nasir, E. & Ali, S.I. (Editors): Flora of Pak- 5 (lower part of plant, basal part of leaf, inflo-
istan. No 134. National Herbarium, Pakistan rescence, part of inflorescence with 2 spikelets).
Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad, p. 4, Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
fig. 1(F, G) (habit of flowering plant, flower). Re- Lophopyxis maingayi; Sleumer, H., 1971. Lopho-
drawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurha- pyxidaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor):
man. Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1,Vol. 7. Noordhoff Inter-
Hyptis brevipes: Soerjani, M., Kostermans, national Publishing, Leyden, the Netherlands,
A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987. p. 90, fig. l(a, b, f, h) (flowering branch, male
Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Ja- flower, female flower, infructescence). Redrawn
karta, Indonesia, p. 319, fig. 4.144 (top of flower- and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
ing and fruiting stem, flower in lateral view, Macaranga tanarius: Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wuli-
flower in front view, fruiting calyx, fruit after jarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant Re-
removal of calyx). Redrawn and adapted by sources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tan-
Iskak Syamsudin. nin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen, the
Illigera luzonensis: Yang, Y-.P. & Lu. S.-Y., 1996. Netherlands, p. 88 (branch with male inflores-
Hernandiaceae. In: Huang, T.-C. (Editor): Flora cences, part of male inflorescence, fruiting
of Taiwan. 2nd Edition. Vol. 2. Editorial Com- branch).
mittee of the Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, Taiwan, Mallotus philippensis: Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wu-
Republic of China, p. 503, pi. 232 (fruiting lijarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant Re-
branch). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam- sources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tan-
sudin. nin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen, the
Indigofera linifolia: de Kort, I. &Thijsse, G., 1984. Netherlands, p. 92 (branch with female inflores-
A revision of Indigofera in Southeast Asia. cences, female flower, male flower, fruiting
Blumea 30(1): p. 124, fig. 14 (flowering and branch).
fruiting twig, old inflorescence, flower bud); Mazus pumilus: Yamazaki, T., 1990. Scrophulari-
Matthew, K.M., 1988. Further illustrations on aceae. In: Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K. (Editors):
the Flora of Tamilnadu Carnatic. The Rapinat Flora of Thailand. Vol. 5, Part 2. The Forest
Herbarium, St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirapalli, Herbarium, Royal Forest Department, Bang-
India, p. 173, pi. 173 (corolla). Redrawn and kok, Thailand, p. 158, fig. 45(3, 4, 6, 8) (plant
adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. habit, flower, corolla opened, showing stamens,
Lepidagathis incurva: Bejing Botanical Research seed). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
Institute, 1975. Iconographia Cormophytorum Nurhaman.
Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular Melicope denhamii: Hartley, T.G., 2001. On the
plants]. Vol. 4. Bejing, China, p. 165, fig. 5743 taxonomy and biogeography of Euodia and Meli-
(plant habit, flower); Malik, K.A. & Ghafoor, A., cope (Rutaceae). Allertonia 8(1): p. 186, fig. 21
1988. In: Nasir, E. &Ali, S.I. (Editors): Flora of (flowering twig, leaf variability ofputative culti-
Pakistan. No 188. Acanthaceae. Department of gens, bisexual flower, petals and stamens par-
Botany, University of Karachi, Pakistan, p. 52, tially removed, functionally female flower,
fig. 9C (fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad petals and stamens partially removed, detail of
Satiri Nurhaman. infructescence). Redrawn and adapted by
Limacia scandens: Forman, L.L., 1986. Menisper- Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
maceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, Melissa axillaris: Beijing Botanical Research In-
W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. stitute, 1974. Iconographia Cormophytorum
10. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/ Sinicorum [Line drawings of Chinese vascular
Boston/London, p. 220, fig. 12(j,k, m, p, q) (flow- plants]. Vol. 3. Beijing, China, p. 676, fig. 5306
ering branch of male plant, leaf, male flower, (base of plant); Keng, H., 1978. Labiatae. In:
fruit, endocarp in lateral view, endocarp in me- van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana.
dian view). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Ser. 1,Vol. 8. Sijthoff &Noordhoff International
Syamsudin. Publishers, Alphen aan den Rijn, the Nether-
Lophatherum gracile: Gilliland, H.B., 1971. A re- lands, p. 342, fig. 15 (apical part ofplant, flower,
vised flora of Malaya. An illustrated systematic fruiting calyx). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak
account of the Malayan flora, including com- Syamsudin.
monly cultivated plants. Vol. III. Grasses of Morinda citrifolia: Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wuli-
Malaya. Botanic Gardens, Singapore, p. 56, fig. jarni-Soetjipto, N. (Editors), 1991. Plant Re-
sources of South-East Asia No 3. Dye and tan- moved). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad
nin-producing plants. Pudoc, Wageningen, the Satiri Nurhaman.
Netherlands, p. 95 (flowering branch, inflores- Pentaphragma begoniifolium: Airy Shaw, H.K.,
cence-infructescence). 1954. Pentaphragmataceae. In: van Steenis,
Mucuna biplicata: Wilmot-Dear, CM., 1992.Are- C.G.G.J. (Editor): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1,Vol.
vision of Mucuna (Leguminosae: Phaseoleae) in 4. Noordhoff-Kolff N.V., Djakarta, Indonesia, p.
Thailand, Indochina and the Malay Peninsula. 526, fig. 2 (plant habit, flower). Redrawn and
Kew Bulletin 47(2): p. 231, fig. 8 (A, B, H, J) adapted byIskak Syamsudin.
(part of stem with leaf, part of stem with inflo- Picrasma javanica: Kulip, J. &Wong, K.M., 1995.
rescences, fruit, seed). Redrawn and adapted by Simaroubaceae. In:Soepadmo, E. &Wong,K.M.
Iskak Syamsudin. (Editors): Tree flora ofSabah and Sarawak.Vol.
Mukia maderaspatana: Liu, H.-Y., 1993. Cucur- 1. Sabah Forestry Department, Malaysia, For-
bitaceae. In: Huang, T.-C.(Editor): Flora ofTai- est Research Institute Malaysia and Sarawak
wan. 2ndEdition. Vol. 3.Editorial Committee of Forestry Department, Malaysia, p.437,fig.6(A,
the Flora ofTaiwan, Taipei, Taiwan, Republicof C, D, E) (flowering twig, male flower, female
China, p. 863,pi. 431(2, 4, 6) (part of stem with flower, sepals and petals removed, fruit). Re-
flowers and fruit, male flower, female flower). drawn and adapted byIskak Syamsudin.
Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Pilea microphylla: Backer, C.A., 1933. Onkruidflo-
Nurhaman. ra der Javasche suikerrietgronden. Handboek
Mussaenda glabra: Backer, C.A. & van Slooten, ten dienste van de suikerriet cultuur en de riet-
D.F., 1924.Geïllustreerd handboek der Javaan- suiker fabricage opJava. Deel 7(7)(atlas) [Weed
sche theeonkruiden en hunne beteekenis voor flora of Javanese sugar-cane fields. Handbook
de cultuur [Illustrated handbook of Javanese for the cultivation of sugar-cane and manufac-
weeds of tea and their significance for cultiva- turing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7(7) (atlas)].
tion]. Algemeen Proefstation voor thee, Batavia, Vereniging her Proefstation voor de Java-Suik-
fig. 204 (flowering twig). Redrawn and adapted erindustrie, Pasuruan, Indonesia, pi. 216 (plant
by Iskak Syamsudin. habit); Friis, I., 1989. A revision of Pilea (Ur-
Myrmecodia tuberosa: Huxley, C.R. & Jebb, ticaceae) in Africa. Kew Bulletin 44(4): p.597,
M.H.P., 1991.Thetuberous epiphytes ofthe Ru- fig. 15 (part of flowering stem); Boufford, D.E.,
biaceae 1: a new subtribe -the Hydnophytinae. 1997. Urticaceae. In: Flora of North America
Blumea 36(1): p.2,fig. Id (plant habit), p.8, fig. Editorial Committee: Flora of North America,
4a (tuber in longitudinal section); Burck, M.W., North of Mexico. Vol. 3. Oxford University
1884. Sur l'organisation florale chez quelques Press, New York, Oxford, p. 410 (fruit). Re-
Rubiacées [About floral organization in some drawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurha-
Rubiaceae]. Annales du Jardin botanique de man.
Buitenzorg 4:PL 4,fig.6 (flower in longitudinal Polyalthia longifolia: Khatoon, S., 1985. Annona-
section). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam- ceae. In: Nasir, E. &Ali, S.I. (Editors): Flora of
sudin. Pakistan. No 167. National Herbarium, Pak-
Nervilia aragoana: Liu, T.-S. & Su, H.-J., 1978. istan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad
Orchidaceae. In: Li, H.-L.et al. (Editors): Flora and Department of Botany, University of
of Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 5. Epoch Pub- Karachi, Pakistan, p. 8, fig. 2(A, B) (flowering
lishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. branch, centre of flower); Corner, E.J.H., 1952.
p. 1068,pi. 1626(1,8) (habit ofplant with leaf, Wayside trees of Malaya. 2nd Edition. Vol. II.
habit offlowering plant); Seidenfaden, G.,1978. Government Printing Office, Singapore, pi. 18
Orchid genera in Thailand VI. Dansk Botanisk (fruiting branch). Redrawn and adapted by
Arkiv 32(2): p. 169, fig. 105a (flower). Redrawn Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
and adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. Pothos scandens: Boyce, P.C., 2000. The genus
Osbeckia chinensis: Huang, S.-F. & Huang, T.-C, Pothos (Araceae -Pothoideae -Potheae) ofThai-
1993. Melastomataceae. In: Huang, T.-C. (Edi- land and Indochina. Blumea 45(1): p. 182,fig.
tor): Flora ofTaiwan. 2nd Edition. Vol.3. Edito- 9a(f) (part ofsterile shoot), p. 183,fig.9b(d) (in-
rial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, florescence); Mayo, S.J., Bogner, J. & Boyce,
Taiwan, Republic of China, p. 922, pi. 460(1, 2, P.C., 1997. The genera of Araceae. The Trust-
4, 6, 7) (flowering stem, flower in longitudinal ees, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,United King-
section, fruits, fruit with hypanthium partly re- dom, p. 99,pi. 5G (part offertile stem with leaf
and inflorescences). Redrawn and adapted by Rinorea anguifera: Ridley, H.N., 1922. The flora of
Iskak Syamsudin. the Malay Peninsula. Vol. 1 - Polypetalae. L.
Prismatomeris tetrandra: Johansson, J.T., 1987. Reeve & Co., London, United Kingdom, p. 133,
Revision of the genus Prismatomeris Thw. (Ru- fig. 12 (part offlowering twig, flower, upper part
biaceae, Morindeae). Opera Botanica 94: p. 28, of stamen); Ng, F.S.P., 1978. Violaceae. In: Ng,
fig. 21(B, C) (flowering branch, fruiting branch). F.S.P. (Editor): Tree flora of Malaya. A manual
Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. for foresters. Vol. 3. Longman Malaysia SDN,
Pseuderanthemum diversifolium: Backer, C.A., Berhad, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, p. 316, fig. 1
1973. Atlas of 220 weeds of sugar-cane fields in (fruiting twig). Redrawn and adapted by
Java. Handbook for the cultivation of sugar- Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
cane and manufacturing of cane-sugar in Java. Ruellia tuberosa: Backer, CA., 1973. Atlas of 220
Vol. 7,Atlas. Indonesian Sugar Experiment Sta- weeds of sugar-cane fields in Java. Handbook
tion, Pasuruan, Indonesia, pi. 632 (flowering for the cultivation of sugar-cane and manufac-
and fruiting branch). Redrawn and adapted by turing of cane-sugar in Java. Vol. 7, Atlas. In-
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. donesian Sugar Experiment Station, Pasuruan,
Pterocaulon redolens: Cabrera, A.L. & Ragonese, Indonesia, pi. 617 (plant habit, fruit). Redrawn
A.M., 1978. Revision del genero Pterocaulon and adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
(Compositae) [Revision ofthe genus Pterocaulon Sapindus saponaria: Leenhouts, P.W., 1994. Sa-
(Compositae)]. Darwiniana 21(2-4): p. 240, fig. pindus. In: Kalkman, C , Kirkup, D.W., Noote-
17(A, B, C, D, G) (upper part of flowering plant, boom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O.
flower head, marginal flower, disk flower, fruit). (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1,Vol. 11.Rijks-
Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri herbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the
Nurhaman. Netherlands, p. 715, fig. 70(a, c) (flowering
Rafflesia patma: Meijer, W., 1997. Rafflesiaceae. branch, fruit); Abdulla, P., 1973. Sapindaceae.
In: Kalkman, C. et al. (Editors): Flora Male- In: Nasir, E. &Ali, S.I. (Editors): Flora of West
siana. Ser. 1, Vol. 13. Foundation Flora Male- Pakistan. No 39. Stewart Herbarium, Gordon
siana. p. 16, fig. 8i (flower); Blume, CL., 1828. College, Rawalpindi and Department of Botany,
Flora Javae, nee non insularum adjacentium University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, p. 4,
[Flora of Java, and also adjacent islands]. Fasc. fig. 2(B, C, D) (male flower, female flower,
1. Rafflesiaceae. Brussels, Belgium. Tab. I, fig. petal). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam-
3, 4 (flower bud in side view, flower bud in basal sudin.
view), Tab. Ill, fig. 1(base offlower bud in longi- Sarcolobus globosus: Rintz, R.E., 1980. A revision
tudinal section). Redrawn and adapted by of the genus Sarcolobus (Asclepiadaceae). Blu-
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. mea 26(1): p. 74, fig. 3(a, c) (apical part of flow-
Rennelia speciosa: Johansson, J.T., 1989. Revision ering stem, seed); Greshoff, M., 1894. Schetsen
of the genus Rennellia Korth. (Rubiaceae - Ru- nuttige Indische planten [Sketches of useful In-
bioideae). Blumea 34: p. 12, fig. 3 (flowering donesian plants]. Series 1 (1-50). Extra Bulletin
branch, tip of branch with inflorescence, tip of van het Koloniaal Museum. J.H. de Bussy, Am-
branch with infructescence). Redrawn and sterdam, the Netherlands, pi. XX (fruit, fruit in
adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. longitudinal section). Redrawn and adapted by
Rhaphidophora korthalsii: Boyce, P.C., 1999. The Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
genus Rhaphidophora Hassk. (Araceae - Mons- Sauropus androgynus: Siemonsma, J.S. & Kasem
teroideae - Monstereae) in Peninsular Malaysia Piluek (Editors), 1993. Plant Resources of
and Singapore. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore South-East Asia No 8. Vegetables. Pudoc Scien-
51(2): p. 219, fig. 8A (part of sterile shoot), p. tific Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands,
220, fig. 9A, D (flowering shoot with leaves re- p. 245 (flowering and fruiting shoot, female
moved, spadix). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak flower, male flower).
Syamsudin. Saxifraga stolonifera: Huxley, A. (Editor), 1992.
Rhododendron fallacinum: Sleumer, H., 1966. The new Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary
Ericaceae. In: van Steenis C.G.G.J. (Editor): of Gardening. Vol. 4 (R-Z). The Royal Horticul-
Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 6. Wolters-Noord- tural Society. The MacMillan Press Limited,
hoff, Groningen, the Netherlands, p. 530, fig. 17 London, United Kingdom and the Stockton
(flowering twig, flower, fruit). Redrawn and Press, New York, United States, p. 218e (plant
adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. habit); Tebbitt, M., 1999. The cultivated species
of Saxifraga section Irreguläres. The New Epoch Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic
Plantsman 6(4): photograph p. 210 (flower). Re- of China, p. 624, pi. 1130(3, 5, 6, 7) (opened
drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin. corolla, pistil, dehisced fruit, seeds). Redrawn
Scleria lithosperma: Clarke, C.B., 1909. Illustra- and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
tions of Cyperaceae. Williams & Norgate, Lon- Styphelia malayana: Ridley, H.N., 1923. The flora
don, United Kingdom. Tab. CXXIII(1,2,3,5) of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. 2. Gamopetalae. L.
(plant habit, different types of fruits). Redrawn Reeve & Co., London, Great Britain, p. 224, fig.
and adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. 94 (flowering branch); Larsen, K., 1987.
Scurrula atropurpurea: Barlow, B.A., 1997. Lo- Epacridaceae. In: Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K.
ranthaceae. In: Kalkman, C , Kirkup, D.W., (Editors): Flora of Thailand. Vol. 5, Part 1. For-
Nooteboom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, est Herbarium, Royal Forest Department,
W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. Bangkok, Thailand, p. 71,fig. 25 (flowering and
13. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, fruiting twig, inflorescence with flowers and
the Netherlands, p. 384, fig. 41 (flowering fruits); Keng, H., 1978. Orders and families of
branch); Danser, B.H., 1931. The Loranthaceae Malayan seed plants. Revised edition. Singa-
of the Netherlands Indies. Bulletin du Jardin pore University Press, p. 230, fig. 134(B, G)
Botanique Buitenzorg, Séries 3, 11: p. 430, fig. (flower, fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad
22 (inflorescence, fruit). Redrawn and adapted Satiri Nurhaman.
by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. Symplocos cochinchinensis: Koorders, S.H. & Va-
Setaria palmifolia: Gilliland, H.B., 1971. A re- leton, Th., 1914. Atlas der Baumarten von Java
vised flora of Malaya. An illustrated systematic [Atlas of tree species of Java]. Vol. 2. P.W.M.
account of the Malayan flora, including com- Trap, Leiden, the Netherlands, fig. 387(B, G)
monly cultivated plants. Vol. III. Grasses of (part of flowering branch, flower); Kessler,
Malaya. Botanic Gardens, Singapore, p. 158, fig. P.J.A., 2000. Secondary forest trees of Kaliman-
30 (part of culm, part of inflorescence with tan, Indonesia. A manual to 300 selected
spikelets); Hsu, C.-C, 1978. Gramineae (Poa- species. MOFEC-Tropenbos-Kalimantan Pro-
ceae). In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): Flora of Tai- ject, p. 376, fig. 173 (fruiting branch). Redrawn
wan. Angiospermae. Vol. 5. Epoch Publishing and adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China, p. 606, Tacca integrifolia: Kubitzki, K., 1998. Taccaceae.
pi. 1448(2, 3) (top of sheath with ligule, inflores- In: Kubitzki, K. (Editor): The families and gen-
cence). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri era ofvascular plants. Vol. 3:Flowering plants -
Nurhaman. Monocotyledons, Lilianae (except Orchidaceae).
Spigelia anthelmia: Soerjani, M., Kostermans, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany,
A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987. p. 427, fig. 121(A, B, C) (plant habit, flower in
Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Ja- side view, flower in upper view); Phengklai, C ,
karta, Indonesia, p. 337, fig. 4.153 (plant habit, 1993. Taccaceae. In: Smitinand, T. &Larsen, K.
flower, fruit, seeds). Redrawn and adapted by (Editors): Flora of Thailand. Vol. 6, Part 1. The
Iskak Syamsudin. Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department,
Striga asiatica: Soerjani, M., Kostermans, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 2, fig. 1 (rhizome). Re-
A.J.G.H. & Tjitrosoepomo, G. (Editors), 1987. drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Weeds of rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Ja- Tapeinochilos ananassae: Schumann, K., 1904.
karta, Indonesia, p. 547, fig. 4.257 (plant habit, Zingiberaceae. In: Engler, A. (Editor): das
leaf, flower, corolla opened, showing stamens, Pflanzenreich. Heft 20. Verlag von Wilhelm En-
fruit, seeds). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad gelmann, Leipzig, Germany, p. 430, fig. 52(A, B,
Satiri Nurhaman. D) (habit of flowering plant, inflorescence,
Strobilanthes cusia: World Health Organisation & flower). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
Institute of Materia Medica, 1990. Medicinal Nurhaman.
plants of Viet Nam. World Health Organisation Taxus sumatrana: de Laubenfels, D.J., 1988.
Regional Publications, Western Pacific Series Coniferales. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de
No 3. WHO/WPRO, Manila, the Philippines & Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser.
Institute of Materia Medica, Hanoi, Vietnam, p. 1, Vol. 10. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor-
360 (flowering branch); Hsieh, C.-F. & Huang, drecht/Boston/London, p. 350, fig. 3 (twig with
T.-C, 1978.Acanthaceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al (Edi- fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri
tors): Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 4. Nurhaman.
Tiliacora triandra: Forman, L.L., 1986. Menisper- Uvaria rufa: Blume, C.L., 1830. Flora Javae, nee
maceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, non insularum adjacentium [Flora of Java, and
W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. also adjacent islands]. Fasc. 21. Anonaceae.
10. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/ Brussels, Belgium. Tab. IV (flowering and fruit-
Boston/London, p. 208, fig. 9(i, k, 1, m) (flowering branch). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad
ing branch of male plant, male flower with front Satiri Nurhaman.
inner sepal removed, fruit, endocarp). Redrawn Ventilago madraspatana: Matthew, K.M., 1982.
and adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. Illustrations on the Flora ofthe Tamilnadu Car-
Tournefortia sarmentosa: Riedl, H., 1997. Boragi- natic. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph's Col-
naceae. In: Kalkman, C , Kirkup, D.W., Noote- lege, Tiruchirapalli, India, p. 153, pi. 153(1, 3)
boom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (flowering and fruiting branch, flower). Re-
(Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 13. drawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Viscum ovalifolium: Danser, B.H., 1931. The Lo-
Netherlands, p. 122, fig. 13 (flowering branch, ranthaceae of the Netherlands Indies. Bulletin
flower, fruit). Redrawn and adapted by Achmad du Jardin Botanique Buitenzorg, Séries 3, 11:p.
Satiri Nurhaman. 465, fig. 27 (flowering and fruiting branch); Bar-
Trapa natans: Ghazanfar, S., 1976. Trapaceae. In: low, B.A., 1997. Viscaceae. In: Kalkman, C ,
Nasir, E. & Ali, S.I. (Editors): Flora of West Kirkup, D.W., Nooteboom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. &
Pakistan. No 97. National Herbarium, Agricul- de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors): Flora Malesiana.
tural Research Council, Rawalpini, and Depart- Ser. 1, Vol. 13. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botani-
ment of Botany, University of Karachi, Pak- cus, Leiden, the Netherlands, p. 384, fig. 41
istan, p. 2, fig. 1(A, E, H) (habit of flowering (node with flowers and fruits). Redrawn and
plant, different types offruits); Vu Van Cuong & adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Vidal, J.E., 1973. Trapacées. In: Vidal, J.E. & Woodfordia fruticosa: Iqbal Dar, M., 1975.
Galibert, Y. (Editors): Flore du Cambodge, du Lythraceae. In: Nasir, E. & Ali, S.I. (Editors):
Laos et du Vietnam. Vol. 14. Muséum National Flora ofWest Pakistan. No 78. Stewart Herbari-
d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France, p. 43, pi. um, Gordon College, Rawalpindi and Depart-
6(4) (flower); van Steenis, C.G.G.J., 1949. Hy- ment of Botany, University of Karachi, Karachi,
drocaryaceae. In: van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Editor): Pakistan, p. 4, fig. 1(D, F) (flowering and fruit-
Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 4. Noordhoff-Kolff ing branch, flower); Verdcourt, B., 1994. Lythra-
N.V., Djakarta, Indonesia, p. 43, fig. l e (fruit as ceae. In: Polhill, R.M. (Editor): Flora of Tropical
found on the market). Redrawn and adapted by East Africa. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the
Achmad Satiri Nurhaman. Netherlands, p. 5, fig. 1(12, 13, 14) (fruit in ca-
Trichodesma zeylanicum: Riedl, H., 1997. Boragi- lyx tube, fruit, seed). Redrawn and adapted by
naceae. In: Kalkman, C , Kirkup, D.W., Noote- Iskak Syamsudin.
boom, H.P., Stevens, P.F. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. Xyris complanata: Doust, A.N. & Conn, B.J., 1994.
(Editors): Flora Malesiana. Ser. 1, Vol. 13. Xyris L. Section Xyris (Xyridaceae) in Australia.
Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, the Australian Systematic Botany 7: p. 463, fig. 3(a,
Netherlands, p. 126, fig. 14 (part of flowering e, k) (plant habit, inflorescence, seed). Xyris in-
plant, flower, fruit in calyx). Redrawn and dien: Doust, A.N. & Conn, B.J., 1994. Xyris L.
adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. Section Xyris (Xyridaceae) in Australia. Aus-
Tropidia curculigoides: Liu, T.-S. & Su, H.-J., tralian Systematic Botany 7:p. 459, fig. l(a, e,j)
1978. Orchidaceae. In: Li, H.-L. et al. (Editors): (plant habit, inflorescence, seed). Redrawn and
Flora of Taiwan. Angiospermae. Vol. 5. Epoch adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman.
Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of Chi- Ziziphus angustifolia: Schirarend, C , 1995.
na, p. 1123, pi. 1649(1, 3, 4) (plant habit, flower Rhamnaceae. In: Soepadmo, E. & Wong, K.M.
in side view, flower in front view). Redrawn and (Editors): Tree flora of Sabah and Sarawak. Vol.
adapted byAchmad Satiri Nurhaman. 1. Sabah Forestry Department, Malaysia, For-
Typhonium flagelliforme: Hay, A., 1993. The est Research Institute Malaysia and Sarawak
genus Typhonium (Araceae - Areae) in Aus- Forestry Department, Malaysia, p. 316, fig. 4(A,
tralasia. Blumea 37(2): p. 349, fig. l(a, b, c) B, C) (flowering twig, flower, fruit). Redrawn
(habit of flowering plant, spadix with part of and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin.
spathe). Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syam-
sudin.
Index ofcompounds
acacetin 98,353,384, 425 betulinic acid 34, 62, 70, 423

acacetin-7-0-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(6-l)-ß-D-glu- bisdesmosidic saponins 406
copyranoside 98 boussingoside A 72
acetogenins 413 butein 153
acetylandromedol 347 butin 100
6-acetyl-2,2-dimethylchroman-4-one 231 buxaminol E 102
8-acetylharpagide 54 caffeic acid 41,265,298, 331,355, 386, 392
acridone alkaloids 391 3-caffeoyl-4-sinapoylquinic acid 208
acteoside 267 calanolides 103
actinodaphnine 260 calophyllic acid 103
agarospirol 76 calycopterone 106
aglafolin 46 calystegin 84
alizarin 303 camelliinB 220
alkannins 149 canthin-6-ones 330
alternosides 228 carvacrol 38
amarogentin 208 (+)-catechin 35,302
amaryllidaceae alkaloids 252 chlorogenic acid 365
a-amyrin 110 chrysosplenol C 340
ß-amyrin 110, 171,300 1,8-cineol 38
anaxagoreine 69 citrifolinoside 303
apigenin 34, 98, 170, 187, 195,244, 298, 315,353, clusiparalicolines 121
384, 385 cocculine 126
ardisenone 78 cocsulinin 126
ardisiacrispin 78 concinnamide 31
ardisianones 78 conduritolA 228
ardisiaquinones 78 cordatolide 103
ardisicrenoside(s) 78 coriamyrtin 136
ardisinols 78 corianin 136,370
ardisiphenols 78 coriatin 136,370
argenteanols 46 corilagin 278
argenteanones 46 corymine 247
aristolactams 200 p-coumaric acid 265
asimilobine 69 cristatinA 268
L-asparaginase 284 crocetin 207
L-asparagine 284 cycloartanes 46
atherosperminine 200, 204 cyclobuxine 102
atherosperminium I 200 cyclopenta[b]benzofurans 46
baccatinlll 398 cyngal 149
baliospermin 88 cynoglossophin-heliosupine alkaloid 149
baogongtengA 193 cytisine 195
benzoic acid 254 dalbergiones 153
benzylisoquinoline alkaloids 413 dalsaxin 153
berberine 139, 140 damnacanthal 303,304
bergenin 78, 132, 287, 288, 365 deacetylasperulosidic acid methyl ester 207
12-0-n-deca-2,4,6-trienoylphorbol-13-acetate 76 gallic acid 149, 284, 294, 405

degreosideA 177 gallotannin 279
dehatrine 93 gardenic acid 207
dehydro-cc-lapachone 265 gardenodic acid 207
4-demethylcalycopterone 106 gelonin 390
demethylracemosol 90 genipin 207
7-deoxynarciclasine 252 geniposide 207
7-deoxy-trans-dihydronarciclasine 252 gentiopicroside 208, 209
10-desacetylbaccatin III 398 geraniin 278,288
desmal 160 geranyl stilbenes 279
desmosic acid 160 gigantol 147
l,3-dibehenyl-2-ferulyl glyceride 76 glabrin 45
3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid 231 glochidioside 214
4,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid 231 2-ß-D-glucopyranosyloxy-l-hydroxy-trideca-
dicentrine 260 3,5,7,9,11-pentayne 300
dicentrinone 156, 260 grayanotoxins 347
dichapetalins 162 gummiferol 36
diffutin 107 gurmarin 228
5,6-dihydroxyindole 346 guttiferone E 121
L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine 306 gymnemic acids 228
2,6-dimethoxy-l,4-benzoquinone 147 gymnemosides 228
2,6-dimethoxyquinone 353 haemanthamine 252
dimethyltryptamine 322 harman 392
dioclein 164 hernovine 260
dioncophylline A 70 heteromines 237
diosgenin 394,395 n-hexacosanol 251,252
diospyrin 166 hexadecanyl p-hydroxycinnamate 84
diospyrol 166 heynic acid 160
diospyrol diglycoside 166 (+)-himbacine 205,206
dioxoaporphines 200 hirtin 238
discretamine 201 hispidulin 355
docetaxel 398 homonojirimycin 51
L-dopa 306,307 hydrocyanic acid 59
ecdysterone 61 hydrogen cyanide 164
ellagic acid 62, 66,113, 117,168, 328, 392 4-hydroxybenzoic acid 322
ellagitannins 58,136, 342, 375 6"-hydroxydehydrouvaretin 160
emodin 415 2-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid glucose ester
8-epi-deoxyloganic acid 170 208
5'-epi-odorine 46 hypoestestatins 254
epi-oleanolic acid 331 hypoestoxide 254
epi-tetraphyllin B 36 hypoxoside 255, 256
ergine 84 indigo 10,386,387
ergoline alkaloids 84 indirubin 386,387
ergometrine 84 inophyllums 103
ergot alkaloids 84 isocalycopterone 106
eupafolin 355 isocorydine-methochloride 126
ferulicacid 265,331 isodiospyrin 166
fissistin 200 isoergine 84
fluoroacetate 162 isofissistin 200
fluorocitrate 162 isohexenylnaphthazarins 149
fluoro-fatty acids 162 isomallotochroman 288
furoquinoline alkaloids 295 isomallotochromene 288
furosin 278,288 isomallotolerin 288
cc-D-galactosidase 130 8-isopentenylnaringenin 68, 69
INDEX COMPOUNDS 581
isopinnatal 265 narciclasine 252

isoquassin 329 neoquassin 329
isorottlerin 287 nigakilactone D 329
isosinococuline 126 nitropropanoic acid 261
jacobine 141 nitropropanoyl esters 261
javanicinocides 329 nocturnoside A 114
javanicins 329 norbergenin 78, 365
jinkoh-eremol 75 nortiliacorinine 401
kaempferol 34,43,66, 90, 132, 136, 171,177, 320, norviburtinal 265
331, 388 odorine 46
kigelinone 265 odorinol 46
kinmoonosides 31 oenothin 419
korundamine A 70 oleanolic acid 110, 257, 331
korupensamines 70 oleic acid 84, 250, 268, 366
lachnophyllum lactone 134 osbeckia acid 320
lapachol 265 osthol 134
launobine 260 oxo-oleanolic acid 331
lavandulifolioside 267 palmatine 139
levodopa 306 pancratistatin 252, 253
limacine 272 pannellin 46
linalool 31,38,201,242, 277 pannellin-1-O-acetate 46
liriodenine 201,260, 332 papaverine 205, 363
littoraline 252 pectinolides 257
lupeol 31,62, 170, 214, 244, 263,300, 353, 386 pectolinarigenin 192, 355
luteolin 34, 98, 143, 170, 199, 265,298, 384, 385 pedicin 200
luteolin-7-O-glucoside 98 phenylacetylaldehyde 115
lycorine 252 4-phenylcoumarins 103
lycorine alkaloids 252 phlobaphene 166
lysicamine 204,272 phorbol ester derivatives 88
macaranganin 278 phorbol esters 409
maesanin 78 phytic acid 164
magnoflorine 139 phytoecdysteroids 54
mallophenone 288 picrajavanins 329
mallotochroman 288 picrasidines 329
mallotojaponin 288 picrasmin 329
mangiferin 107,239 piriferine 46
martynoside 267 plumbagin 178, 179
matairesinol 392 polyalthidin 332
matrine 195 polysyphorin 346
matrine-N-oxide 195 pomolic acid 257
(-)-medicarpin 100 pristimerin 344
methionine sulfoximine 124 procyanidin 35
5-methoxy-7-hydroxyflavanone 160 prostratin 239
N-methylactinodaphnine 260 prunasin 328
O-methylbulbocapnine 260 pyridine-N-oxide-2-thiolate 332
N-methyltyramine 31 pyrrolizidine alkaloids 141,149, 372,403, 407
michellamines 70 quassin 329
modeccin 36 quassinoids 28,329,330
montanin 88 quassinol 329
morindin 303 quercetin 34,43,62,66, 106, 132, 136, 171,212,
morphinane alkaloids 126
265, 284, 320, 331,365,366, 381,388, 392
mussaendoside O 312
quercetin-3-glucoglucoside 320
oc-naphthoquinone 62
quercitrin 298
naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids 70, 71
2,4(lH,3H)-quinazolinedione 386
4(3H)-quinazolinone 386 thymol 38,257

racemosol 90 tigogenin 114
randianin 111 tiliacorine 401
rapanone 78 tiliacorinine 401,402
rediocideA 409 tricrozarin 142
rhaphidecurperoxin 346 tryptanthrin 386
rocaglamide derivatives 46, 47 tutin 136
rooperol 255 ursolic acid 72,211,257,320,356
rosmarinic acid 183,257, 298 uvarigrin 413
rotenone 164, 165, 376 vanillin 231
rottlerin 287 verbascoside (= acetoside) 98
rubiadin 336 vitexin 244
rubiadin-1-methyl ether 336 volkensin 36
ruscogenin glycoside 274 woodfordinC 419,420
rutin 43,212,284 woodfruticosin 419
ryanodine 379 xanthochymol 121
saponigenins 170 yuccagenin 114
sarcolobid 361 zeylenone 413
scopoletin 84, 111, 194
scutianine 74
3,4-secoapotirucallanes 46
serotonin 64, 181,272
serpendione 254
sideritoflavone 257
simaroubolides 329
sinococuline 126
sitosterol 31,40, 54, 110, 128, 153, 192, 255,265,
271, 300, 324, 353, 400
ß-sitosterol 54, 110, 128, 255,271,300, 324, 400
y-sitosterol 54, 265
smilagenin 114
soulattrolide 103
sphingosine-l-ß-D-D-glucopyranosyl-2-(2'-hy-
droxy-6'-ene-cosamide) 310
spicatosides 274
spiganthine 379
spigeline 379
steroidal sapogenins 394
stigmasterol 300, 316, 353, 394
stigmast-4-ene-3,6-dione 160
strictosidinic acid 247
strogins 380
suberosol 332
sweroside 208
swertiamarin 187, 208
swertisin 187
symposide 392
taccalonolides 394
taraxerol 128, 143, 171,271,275
taxines 398
taxiphilin 170
taxol 398,399
taxotere 398
tetraphyllin B 36
Index ofpharmaceutical terms
abortifacient 57, 98, 116, 157, 167, 178, 191,226, 358, 367, 392, 402, 413
239, 241, 278, 283,309, 310, 322, 332, 334, 382, antibiotic 122,419
416 anticomplementary 303
abortion 116-118,230,311,385-387 anticonvulsant 100, 101,129, 145
abortive 154,358 antidepressant 303
abortivum 150, 151,363 antidiabetic 51,84, 229,248, 322, 399
abscesses 84, 85, 93,129, 153, 165, 177, 189, 337, antidiarrhoeal 89-91, 117, 139, 165,294, 392
338, 352, 355,383,384, 410-413 antidote 56, 58,92, 118,130, 163, 173, 174, 189,
acne145,225,226 195, 196, 229,233,273,276, 281, 286, 292, 309,
acute toxicity 124, 265, 303 322, 350, 354, 361, 402, 403,407, 411
adaptogenic 107 antidysenteric 89, 354
adenocarcinoma 266, 413 antifebrile 165, 180, 260, 407
adjunct 64 antifeedant 46, 379, 401,415
adjuvant 416,423 antifertility 101,116, 287, 309, 384, 385
adrenoceptor 201,260 antifilarial 31,84,287
agonist 54,69,312 antifungal 36,46, 60, 84, 99, 100, 107, 113, 122,
ague 56,57, 168, 169, 192, 387, 401,406 156, 175, 198, 208, 210, 220, 239, 252, 261, 265,
AIDS 21,103,104, 258, 398 266, 268, 277, 286, 295,296, 298, 330, 332,333,
allergy 147,286,373 358, 402, 413
alterative 38,39, 85,93, 107, 126, 169, 263, 355 antigastralgic 107
amenorrhoea 54, 132,134, 258, 262, 278 antihepatotoxic 40, 72, 208, 228, 287, 288, 356,
amoebiasis 139, 214 370
anaemia 33,44, 54, 88,97, 210, 332, 383 antihistamine 183, 212
anaesthetic 260 antihistaminic 384
analgesia 183 antihyperglycaemic 51,403, 423
analgesic 72, 73,86, 87, 98, 101,103, 108, 113, antihypertensive 98, 113, 158, 205
118, 129, 130, 132, 140, 145, 164, 166, 167, 195, antileishmanial 160, 161,175,303, 333
205, 223,224, 242, 247, 248, 255,257, 259, 260, antileprotic 81
303, 306, 312, 356, 367-369, 392, 394, 419 antileukaemic 46, 303
androgen 153 antimalarial 70, 71,90, 93,94, 118, 160, 161,175,
angina pectoris 67, 356 187, 188,265, 268, 303, 330, 332, 333,336, 346,
angiotensin 129, 166,170, 227 392, 394, 401
anodyne 118, 120, 170, 173, 193,223,239, 277, antimicrobial 31,32,46, 76, 84, 90, 99-101, 119,
300, 309, 394 122, 124, 142,153, 159, 162, 178, 186,206, 214,
antagonist 56, 98,201,205, 260 220, 252, 257, 265,268, 279, 295,296, 300,301,
anthelmintic 31,43,44, 46, 50, 52, 88, 89, 92, 312, 330, 338,350, 358, 380, 392, 393,399, 401,
99-101,106, 119, 132, 134, 165-167, 187,213, 405, 414
226, 248, 254, 287, 291, 302, 303,305, 315, 354, antimitotic 200
355,366,390,391,413 antimuscarinic 205
anti-inflammatory 99, 415 antimutagenic 141,286, 310
antibacterial 31,36, 38,45,54, 56, 62, 63,90,98, antinauseant 165
102,103,113,149,156,160,161,165-167, 175, antineoplastic 126, 252, 352
178,181, 182, 225,239, 242, 257, 261,265, 266, antinociceptive 224, 247, 357
268, 279, 288,295, 298, 324, 330, 344, 346, 347, antioxidant 25, 69, 122, 153, 186,193, 207, 208,
288, 303,320, 321,355,357, 386 101,104,105,110, 130,170,177,180,183,184,

antiphlogistic 38,85, 160, 242 188, 196,228, 230, 244, 246, 247, 251-253, 259,
antiplasmodial 166, 390, 391,413 260, 264, 276, 278, 280, 287, 289, 295,296, 302,
antiplatelet aggregation 200, 231,260, 295 316, 318, 319, 337, 355,359, 370, 373,376, 400,
antiproliferative 252, 406 401, 404
antiprotozoal 55,366, 391 bradycardia 206,347
antipruritic 214 bronchitis 43,44, 55, 110-112,153, 180, 278, 309,
antipyretic 31,49, 89,134, 166, 167, 175,212, 336, 352, 417
233, 247,248, 306, 322, 335, 363,372, 383,390, bronchospasm 178
394,395,401,419 bruises 81,89,92, 153, 180, 189, 192, 219, 225,
antirheumatic 64, 118,243, 356 231, 233,252, 253,259, 298, 316-319, 331,335,
antiscorbutic 263 410
antisecretory 257 burns 54, 65, 103, 114, 121,123, 130, 139,141,
antiseptic 35,43,44, 84, 139, 223,237, 250, 257, 146, 148, 163, 171,172, 178, 195,220, 221, 244,
258, 301, 332, 383, 423 245, 263,267, 346, 365,392, 422
antispasmodic 34, 54, 56,178, 179, 188, 212,223, cachexia 126
259, 260, 298, 322, 335, 355, 385 calcinosis 115
antispermatogenic 100, 358 callus 87, 126, 140, 168, 188,243,252, 253,256,
antistress 332,333 312,386,411
antithrombotic 207 carbuncles 50, 84, 346, 373
antituberculosis 78 carcinogenesis 46, 207
antitumour 40, 41,47, 52,54, 78, 84,101, 107, carcinogenic 141, 143
118, 126, 137, 139, 142, 145, 149, 171,177, 178, carcinoma 76, 115, 122, 145, 166, 177, 186, 220,
201, 251, 252, 288, 303,333,355, 386, 387, 420 251,265,287,288,361,392
antitussive 84, 181, 182 cardiac 112, 136, 201,274, 398, 401
anuria 251 cardioactive 379
anxiety 75 cardiotonic 76, 80, 115, 170, 322, 370
anxiolytic 423 cariogenic 312
aphrodisiac 44, 62, 75,84, 85,93,101, 132, 195, carminative 64, 75,92, 143,226, 238, 295, 366
196, 207, 239, 255,274, 306, 308, 342, 343,366, catarrh 259, 267, 352, 355
396,406,417,419 cathartic 88
aphthae 222, 261,263,337, 338 central nervous system depressant activities 84
apoptosis 220,398 childbirth 34, 38, 39,46,49, 50, 58,59, 65,66,68,
appetizer 185,217, 238, 259, 406 69, 75,80, 87, 95,97, 98, 103, 105, 106, 108-110,
arrhythmia 107 112,124,130,135,139,146,150,151,156-158,
arteriosclerosis 178 160-163, 168, 169, 173-175, 191,193-196, 198,
arthritis 38,39, 72, 85, 125,146, 148, 180, 193, 200, 202-204, 207, 212-218, 220, 226, 235, 236,
200, 210, 228-230, 242, 244, 302, 304, 359, 417 239, 241-243, 258, 270, 275,281,289, 290, 292,
ascites 126, 139, 166, 186, 251 301, 305,309, 311,313,316, 317, 322-324,
asthma 46,49, 75,88,97,104, 110-112, 132-134, 327-329, 332, 334, 336, 337, 339, 342-347,351,
157, 164, 185,212, 239, 244, 246, 252, 253,264, 360, 363,364, 367-369, 371,373,375-377,381,
267, 278, 302, 304, 309, 311-313, 331,335, 352, 386, 388, 389, 394, 403,413-415, 419
366, 411-413 cholagogue 38, 39
astringent 54, 65,66, 84, 87,92, 93, 99,101,112, cholera 65,66, 226, 238, 289, 305,355, 357,365,
136, 157, 165,220, 226, 253,281,294, 311,342, 415
355,373,376,377,419 choleretic 207
atherosclerosis 65, 166 cholesterol 64, 65,130, 166, 228, 231,306
atonic 416 cicatrizant 81, 155
bactericidal 101,149, 352 cirrhosis 171, 173
bechic 165,259 colds 96, 117, 118, 141,148, 153, 180, 259,275,
biliousness 32, 43,44, 167, 375, 393 291, 297, 300, 340, 352, 354, 373, 392
blennorrhoea 96, 124, 251 colic 81,106, 135, 140, 150, 227, 235, 237, 242,
blisters 62 289, 299, 311,329, 355,357, 376, 377, 414
boils 41,42, 54, 64, 72, 73,76, 84-86, 89, 92, 99, colitis 89
INDEXPHARMACEUTICALTERMS 585
coma 115,136,177,324,361,362 dysmenorrhoea 266, 267, 367, 368, 388, 389

congestion 363,364 dyspepsia 38,93, 106, 127, 207, 298, 383, 416
conjunctivitis 35,37, 189, 359 dyspnoea 136, 361
constipation 32, 117,237, 264, 273,291,297, 326 dysuria 110,112, 275,338, 363, 364
contraceptive 164, 191,290, 332, 358, 384, 385 ecbolic 286,415
contusions 346, 415 eczema 97, 126, 171,173, 214, 259, 289, 365, 386,
convulsant 139, 177 387,411,412,422
convulsion 195 emetic 32,43,44, 87,110, 111, 117, 136, 165, 177,
cystitis 419 196, 224, 283,298, 300, 304, 352, 356, 372, 410
cytotoxic 31, 32,46, 55, 76, 78,90, 103, 113,115, emmenagogue 43,44, 64, 84, 108, 109, 118, 143,
121, 122, 124, 128, 160, 178, 189, 220, 223,255, 150, 152, 154, 189, 196, 204, 226, 259, 267, 278,
257, 279, 299, 302, 303,331,332, 346, 361, 405, 295, 297, 302, 304, 398
411,413,415,417 emollient 145, 182, 207, 233,304, 311,313,373,
deafness 311 407, 408
delirium 167,379 encephalitis 244
demulcent 225,407,408 enteritis 130,346
depressant 46, 84, 100, 107, 113,132, 166,225, epilepsy 87, 97, 114, 127, 134, 140, 230, 261, 263,
261,277,419 264, 300, 335
depression 48, 129, 247, 272, 273, 379 erysipelas 167, 233,386, 387
depurative 54, 65, 106, 268, 281,316, 336, 356, erythema 363,364
408, 422 euphoria 205
dermatitis 41,85,98, 153, 163, 244 expectorant 31,49, 55,64, 127, 150, 153, 177,
dermatomycosis 346 188, 216, 226, 259, 282, 322, 357, 359, 366, 409,
detoxicant 318, 319, 355 411
diabetes 40, 41,51,72, 73,75,98, 108, 112, 113, fatigue 239,303,356
122,145, 228-230, 261,271,274, 302, 304, 309, febrifuge 52, 53,91,118, 120, 126, 127, 134,161,
312, 352, 357, 373,386, 387, 398-400, 403 177, 180, 183, 199, 225,232, 259, 262, 267, 270,
diaphoretic 38,39, 74, 76, 89, 118, 150, 298, 356, 275, 278, 282, 293,295, 300, 329, 332, 334, 352,
366 402,413,414,416,417
diarrhoea 31,47, 56, 64, 72, 75, 79-81, 90, 92,98, fecundity 210
99,101,103,106,110-112,127,130,146,165, fertility 116,247,286, 382
182, 183, 186, 210, 214, 216, 220, 221,258,261, fibrinolytic 392
265, 271, 276, 278, 291, 297, 301, 304, 305,322, fish poison 36, 55-57, 81,102, 103, 110, 111, 114,
331, 337, 342, 346, 347, 349-351, 354, 355,357, 117, 120, 153, 165-168, 220, 239-241, 286, 287,
363, 365, 366, 373,380, 381,383,392-394, 398, 357-359, 379
407,410,414 flatulence 74, 127, 135, 140, 185,266, 306, 360,
digestive 93,94, 130, 179, 287, 358-360, 394 411
diuretic 32, 38,39, 54, 65,74, 81,84, 85,88,92, fractures 65,67, 121,123, 189, 192, 244, 318, 319,
93, 96, 101,110, 112, 113, 118, 126, 127,135, 335, 356
148, 150, 156, 157, 165, 166, 171,177, 187, 198, framboesia 171, 172
210, 214, 217, 225,226, 228, 230, 234, 244, 247, fungicidal 70, 101,235
251, 261,263, 267, 275,277, 285,291,300, 318, fungicide 390,391
319, 322, 325,331,337, 352, 355-357, 370,373, furuncles 59, 64, 189, 304, 372, 422
380, 381,399, 400, 404, 407, 408,419, 422, 423 galactagogue 118, 141,177, 217, 226, 229, 237,
dropsy 50, 52, 81,88,91,135,222, 251,267, 280, 259, 264, 274, 332, 372, 375
305, 312, 344, 345, 376 gallstones 234
drowsiness 205 gargle 93,233,263,281,282, 286, 320
dysentery 31,54, 64, 65, 70-72, 80, 89, 94, 96, gastralgia 75,271,418
105, 106, 108-112, 124, 130,139, 146, 153, 156, gastric 72, 90, 128, 145, 166, 271,287, 411, 413
157, 160,161, 165, 167, 180, 182, 199, 207, 208, gastric ulcer 128
214-216, 220, 222, 232, 234, 235,237, 259, 263, gastritis 188,399
264, 266, 274, 278, 279, 281-283, 290, 294, 296, genotoxicity 207
298, 302, 304, 305, 313,320, 322, 346, 355,383, giddiness 169,311
384, 392, 394, 401, 408, 410, 419, 422 gingivitis 386, 387
glaucoma 193, 194 immunotherapeutic 41

goitre 118, 171, 172 immunotoxic 390
gonorrhoea 31,56, 81,89, 105,110-112, 124,126, impetigo 126,386,387
141, 146,171-173, 175-177, 206, 207, 213,244, implantation 100, 111, 178, 223,346, 384
247, 264, 266, 278, 282, 352, 358, 367, 369, 393 impotence 165, 302
gout 54,163, 228-230, 359, 384, 419 indigestion 118, 140, 191,309, 335,408, 414
haematinic 251 infarction 166, 356
haematuria 208 inflammation 31,72, 85,93,98, 122, 139, 165,
haemolysis 299,372 180, 195,200, 208,228, 230, 233,265,291,309,
haemolytic 111,286,312 316,318,331,361,422
haemoptysis 153, 155,274, 278, 283,386, 387, influenza 112, 147, 352, 354, 356, 386, 387
402, 418 inotropic 119, 257
haemorrhoids 64, 65,99, 102, 105, 127, 228, 230, insecticidal 47,110, 111, 118, 126, 136, 153, 178,
234, 302, 305, 355,365, 419 235, 239, 257, 300, 332, 333,358,373,376, 379,
haemostatic 81,188,231,233, 294 409
hallucinogenic 56, 84, 206 insecticide 38,39, 47, 153,329, 357, 358
hepatitis 38-40, 177, 291,309, 317, 321,355,407, insomnia 165, 383
415 insulinotropic 261
hepatoprotective 119, 132, 251,254, 321,415 interferon 303
hepatotoxic 90, 115, 141,149, 207 intoxication 136,195, 361,379
herpes 90, 167, 171,173,231,233,286, 288,291, jaundice 38, 39,46,49, 88, 106, 127,139, 162,
298, 358, 390 167,177, 207, 208, 219, 302, 311,313,372, 375,
HIV 31,51,54, 60, 70, 71,78, 103-106, 121,122, 394, 404
147, 239, 252, 253,257, 288, 295,296, 298, 332, keloid 346
333, 358, 370, 372, 376, 390, 392,409, 420 kidney 32, 70, 128, 132, 157, 193,214, 226, 232,
hoarseness 242 240, 264, 291, 305,325, 352, 372, 386, 387, 398,
hookworm 165 406, 423
hydrophobia 226 larvicidal 98,111,242
hydrophobic 122 laxative 32, 50, 55,59, 61,70, 92, 107, 118, 126,
hyperacidity 423 130,134,165,180, 217,239, 241,255, 356, 375,
hypercholesterolaemia 166 390, 391, 409, 410, 415
hypercholesterolemic 64 leprosy 59, 153,180, 207, 247, 312, 322, 384,421,
hyperglycaemia 261 422
hyperglycaemic 399 leucoderma 88,110, 111
hypersalivation 195 leucorrhoea 84, 165, 191,282, 352, 383, 408
hypertension 91,108, 112, 126, 157, 158,302, leukaemia 76, 254, 284, 288, 299, 303,310,311,
304, 316, 379 386,392,394,411,413
hypogalactia 383 liver 40, 64, 72, 81,89, 93, 101,112, 115,128,
hypoglycaemic 55,72, 73,84, 113,166, 187,228, 132, 141, 157, 166, 171,172, 193,207, 208,248,
231, 251, 261,303,321, 322, 366, 392, 399 251, 261,263,274, 278, 284, 291, 309-311,
hypotension 347, 396, 399 320-322, 331-333, 355,356, 363,372, 383,390,
hypotensive 62, 78,84, 98,102,108, 119, 126, 391,415,419
128, 139, 145, 157, 166,167, 212, 231,257, 379, lochia 373
386, 423 longevity 175,239
hypothermia 90 lumbago 65,67, 80, 118, 121,134, 242, 243,304,
hypothermic 195 370, 372
ichthyotoxic 114, 136, 358 lungs 207,320
immune response 278 lupus 208
immune system 309, 356, 416 lymphoma 139, 186
immunomodulating 303, 386 malaria 21,26, 52, 70, 71,74, 83,93,94, 98, 124,
immunomodulatory 51,78,417, 419 125, 132, 142,161, 162,179, 180, 187, 188, 196,
immunopromotive 312 237, 242, 243,252, 263,280, 302, 326, 328-330,
immunostimulating 111, 129 371,372,383,403,410
immunosuppressive 268, 321 malignancy 411,412
INDEXPHARMACEUTICALTERMS 587
malignant 41,47,284 158, 159, 168-170, 172, 173, 180, 182-184, 186,
mastitis 189 193, 194, 196, 197, 200, 202, 212, 213, 219-221,
measles 74, 150, 286, 363, 364 229-231, 233,235,236, 242-244, 246-248,
melanoma 177,265,288 250-252, 254, 258, 267, 269, 270, 285,289, 290,
menorrhagia 49,110, 111, 247, 266, 355 294, 296, 300, 310, 312-314, 319, 326, 333,336,
microtubules 200,398 341, 344, 346, 351, 352, 354, 356, 360, 363,364,
migraine 31,105, 119, 298 369, 371, 376, 387, 396, 400, 401, 403,408, 412,
mitogenic 40, 59, 413 415-418, 423
mouthwash 182,370,371 proliferation 40, 72, 111, 128, 145,157, 255,321,
mucilage 149,318,391 346, 411
mutagenic 72 prophylactic 130, 139, 145, 157, 306
myopia 205 prostatic hypertrophy 255, 256
myosis 136 proteolytic 164
narcotic 88,267 psoriasis 373, 415
nausea 75, 110, 111, 309, 398, 411-413 psychoactive 205, 352
necrosis 400, 415 purgative 32, 52, 56, 57, 81,88, 105, 119,
nematicidal 126, 327, 411 121-123, 170, 226, 259, 263,264, 268, 278, 284,
nephritis 40,128,423 286, 287, 291,300, 306, 307, 322, 351, 352, 357,
nephrotic syndrome 214 379, 390, 391
neuralgia 365, 416-418 pustules 343
neurasthenia 383 pyrexia 31
neuritis 267 rabies 322
neuroleptic 75 refrigerant 375
neurotonic 298 repellent 75, 134, 256-259, 277, 278, 296, 307,
neurotrophic 251 357, 359, 369
oedema 31,65,66, 112,115, 125, 127, 177, 214, resolvent 233,372,411
228, 230, 258, 264, 265,274, 278, 287, 303,346, restorative 95, 194
404, 415 rheumatism 31,33,38,39, 44, 47, 54, 61,62, 64,
oliguria 38,110,112,322 65, 67-69, 75, 76, 78-81, 84-88,103,105,112,
ophthalmia 38,64, 134, 203,207, 208, 259, 272, 119, 125,126, 130, 134-136, 142, 155, 160,
300, 392 162-165, 175, 177, 184, 189, 212-214, 217, 226,
orchitis 65,67, 105, 244 232, 239, 242-244, 246, 247, 251,253,254, 256,
ostalgia 304,383 259, 260, 263,264, 267, 277, 278, 297, 312, 318,
osteoporosis 69 319, 335,344, 345,359, 361,366, 373,375,378,
palsy 54 383, 394, 395,402, 404, 406, 411, 415, 419, 422
paralysis 59, 135, 146, 189, 229, 232, 281,335 ringworm 35,37, 62, 105, 158,167,171, 172,199,
pectoral 81,121-123, 148,165, 407, 408 231, 264, 267, 373,421, 422
peptic ulcers 171,172 rubefacient 59, 61,85,88, 118, 130, 179, 411
peristalsis 178 scabies 79, 80, 97, 105, 117, 124, 154, 168, 239,
phagocytosis 103, 145, 251 259, 295,346, 357, 358, 392, 400
pharyngitis 188 scalds 267
phlegm 148, 188 schistosomiasis 111, 274
phthisis 105, 180, 271 sciatica 200,267
piles 86, 87, 130, 214, 226, 259, 264, 267,311, scrofula 93, 148, 149, 317
326, 372 scurf 35, 74
pimples 171,208, 233,357, 358, 365, 396 sedative 36, 67, 75,97, 99, 102, 110, 114, 145,
piscicidal 62,103,111,376 148, 153,204, 251, 298, 300, 302, 316, 322,355,
platelet activating factor 115, 208 386, 417, 419, 423
platelet aggregation 31,46, 78, 115, 153,200, senility 383
204, 207 sex hormones 394
pneumonia 130, 244, 304, 317 smallpox 31,75, 157, 207, 253,254, 284, 322, 326,
poultice 31,33,35,37, 39, 41,42,45,50, 56,58, 335,370
59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 75, 76, 80, 83,88, 91, 93, snakebites 59, 61,87,88,96, 99,102, 111, 112,
95, 106,124, 129, 130, 133-135, 152, 154, 155, 118, 130, 163, 182, 195, 196, 214, 223,228, 230,
261, 264, 272, 273,291,293,307, 311,313,326, venereal diseases 49, 65,66,92, 326, 390, 391
327, 336, 342, 350, 357, 371, 372, 383,384, 390, vermifuge 41,71,80, 86, 87, 93, 132, 150, 153,
394, 396, 401, 408, 410, 411, 413 157, 165, 189, 239, 241,255,262, 267, 278, 284,
sores 31,50, 51,59, 65,86, 87,92, 99, 101,105, 300, 306, 329, 370, 379, 384, 392, 422
110, 111, 121,122, 130, 140, 146, 148, 152, 153, vertigo 38, 105, 134,143, 146, 156, 157,160, 161,
155, 158-160, 162, 165, 180, 186,193, 194, 197, 211,291,301
198, 200, 212, 214, 220-222, 228, 229, 237, 242, vesicant 85, 118, 180
247, 254, 261, 264, 267, 275,278, 283,295, 304, vesicular stomatitis 286
312, 323,329, 331,349, 352, 384, 394, 396, 406 veterinary 74,93,403
spasmolytic 36, 84, 108, 166,205, 257, 298, 363 vulnerary 155,226, 231,233,243,252, 263,355,
spermatorrhoea 251,302, 311 372, 383
sprue 31,33, 173,394, 404, 419 yaws 56, 168, 171,172, 180,247,253,254, 289,
squamous cell carcinoma 115 363, 364
stimulant 49, 54, 74, 85,88, 96,103, 115,130, yellow fever 239,302
136, 162, 164,177, 226, 264, 271,322, 340, 366,
386,415,416,419
stomachic 38,75,81,85, 117, 119, 127,139-141,
165, 217, 223,228, 230, 247, 259, 267, 295, 304,
329, 384, 396, 415, 416
styptic 130, 153, 165,231,234, 289, 411
sudorific 145, 155,259, 309, 352, 356, 407, 408
sympathomimetic 272
syncope 132
syphilis 74,133, 146, 178, 242, 264, 266, 301,324,
350, 352, 399
tachycardia 115, 210
tapeworms 287, 379
tetanus 139
thrush 74, 278, 282, 309, 354, 363,364, 392, 394,
422
tonic 38,43,44,46, 49, 50, 52, 54, 68, 70, 75,84,
85, 93,94, 98,105-107, 112,118, 119, 124, 126,
127, 129, 134,145, 148, 153, 164, 165, 172, 177,
187-189, 195, 196, 198, 202, 204, 217, 223,226,
233, 238, 241, 242, 247, 248, 255,266, 267, 274,
275, 278, 292, 293,295-298, 301,302, 306, 310,
311, 315, 316, 318, 323-325, 331-333, 336, 337,
339, 347, 348, 355,372, 375,382, 383,386, 391,
392, 399,405, 406, 415-417, 419
tonsillitis 215,386, 387, 392
tuberculosis 31,76, 107, 134,148, 178, 188, 229,
255, 317, 319, 320, 327, 392, 402, 408
tumour necrosis factor 400
urinary 43,44, 62, 82, 124, 125, 145, 157, 167,
255, 263,267, 275,322, 331,335,352, 363,364,
422
urolithiasis 263
urticaria 52,286,295
uterine 69, 78, 134, 153, 188,204, 268, 377
uterotonic 226,227
vasoconstriction 195
vasodilating 200
vasodilation 316
vasodilator 257
Index ofscientific plant names
Page numbers printed in bold refer to main treatment.
Abarema clypearia (Jack) Kosterm. 428 Acriopsisjavanica Reinw. ex Blume 33

Abarema elliptica (Blume) Kosterm. 428 - var. floribunda (Ames)Minderhoud &de Vogel
Abarema microcarpa (Benth.) Kosterm. 428 34
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench 425 Acronychia arborea Blume 425
Abelmoschus manihot (L.)Medikus 425 Acronychia laurifolia Blume 425
Abelmoschus moschatus Medikus 425 Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. 425
Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. 425 Acronychia resinosa J.R. Forster ex Crevost &
Acacia Miller 31,56 Lemarié 425
- subgenus Aculeiferum 31 Acrostichum aureum L. 425
Acacia albida Del. 443 Acrotrema costatum Jack 34
Acacia arabica (Lamk) Willd. 425 Acrotrema uniflorum Hook. 34
Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. 31 Actinodaphne moluccana Blume 426
Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. 31,425 Actinodaphne sesquipedalis (Wallich ex O.
Acacia chrysocoma Miq. 425 Kuntze) Hook.f. &Thomson ex Meissner 426
Acacia chundra Willd. 425 Actinorhytis H.A. Wendland &Drude 35
Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC. 31,32 Actinorhytis calapparia (Blume) H.A. Wendland
Acacia farnesiana (L.)Willd. 31,425 & Drude ex Scheffer 34
Acacia glauca (L.)Moench 425 Actinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetgh. &D.A. Simp-
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. 425 son 426
Acacia mangium Willd. 31 Adactylus nudus (R.Br.) Rolfe 74
Acacia mearnsii De Wild. 31 Adelia neriifolia Heyne ex Roth 448
Acacia melanochaetes Zoll. 425 Adenanthera gersenii Scheffer 426
Acacia nilotica (L.)Willd. ex Del. 31,425 Adenanthera intermedia Merr. 426
Acacia pennata (L.)Willd. 31,32 Adenanthera pavonina L. 426
- subsp. kerrii Nielsen 31 Adenia Forssk. 35
Acacia pluricapitata Steudel ex Benth. 31,32, 33 - section Erythrocarpus 36
Acacia procera (Roxb.) Willd. 426 - section Microblepharis 36
Acacia pseudointsia Miq. 31,32, 33 Adenia acuminata (Blume) King 37
Acacia rugata (Lamk) Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. 32 Adenia acuminata auct. non (Blume) King 37
Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. 32 Adenia cardiophylla (Masters) Engl. 36
Acacia smallii Isely 425 Adenia cissampeloides (Planchon ex Hook.)
Acacia tomentosa Willd. 425 Harms 36
Acacia villosa (Sw.) Willd. 425 Adenia cordifolia (Blume) Engl. 36
Acaciella villosa (Sw.) Britton &Rose 425 Adenia crassa Merr. 36
Acetabularia crenulata J.V. Lamour. 425 Adenia digitata (Harv.) Engl. 36
- var. major Sond. 425 Adenia glauca Schinz 36
Acetabularia denudata Zanardini 425 Adenia heterophylla (Blume) Koord. 35,36, 37
Acetabularia gigas Solms 425 - subsp. heterophylla 37
Acetabularia major G. Martens 425 - var. celebica (Koord.) W.J. de Wilde 37
Achasma coccineum (Blume) Valeton 442 - var. heterophylla 37
Achasma walang (Blume)Valeton 442 - subsp. australis (R.Br, ex DC.)W.J. de Wilde
Achras zapota L. 452 37
Acioa barteri (Hook.f. ex Oliver) Engl. 438 Adenia hondala (Gaertner) W.J. de Wilde 35
Acriopsis Blume 34 Adenia kinabaluensis W.J. de Wilde 36
Adenialobata(Jacq.)Engl. 36 Aganosma calycina A.DC. 44

Adenia macrophylla (Blume) Koord. 35,36, 37 Aganosma caryophyllata G. Don 43, 44
Adenia nicobarica (Kurz ex Trim.) King 38 Aganosma caryophyllata auct. non G. Don 44
Adenia obtusa (Blume) Engl. 36 Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schumann 43, 44
Adenia parvifolia Pierre ex Gagnep. 38 Aganosma marginata (Roxb.) G. Don 43, 44
Adenia penangiana (Wallich ex G. Don) W.J. de Aganosma wallichii G. Don 43, 44
Wilde 35,36,38 Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv. 465
- var. penangiana 38 Agave L. 176
- var. parviflora (Pierre ex Gagnep.) W.J. de 38 Agelaea Sol. ex Planchon 45
Adenia populifolia (Blume) Engl. 37 - section Troostwykia 45
Adenia populifolia auct. non (Blume) Engl. 36 Agelaea borneensis (Hook.f.) Merr. 45
Adenia singaporeana (Wallich ex G. Don) Engl. Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh. 44, 45
37 Agelaea paradoxa Gilg 45
Adenia volkensii Harms 36 Agelaea pentagyna (Lamk) Bâillon 45
Adenosma R.Br. 38 Agelaea trinervis (Llanos) Merr. 44
Adenosmabilabiata(Roxb.)Merr. 39 Agelaea wallichii Hook.f. 44
Adenosma bracteosa Bonati 38 Ageratina riparia (Regel) R.M. King &H. Robin-
Adenosma buchneroides Bonati 39 son 426
Adenosma caerulea R.Br. 38, 39 Aglaia Lour. 45
Adenosma capitata (Benth.) Benth. ex Hance 39 - section Amoora 47
Adenosma glutinosa (L.) Druce 39 Aglaia affinis Merr. 426
- var. caerulea (R.Br.) Tsoong 39 Aglaia aquea (Jack) Kosterm. 450
Adenosma indiana (Lour.) Merr. 38, 39 Aglaia argentea Blume 46, 47
Adenosma javanica (Blume) Koord. 38 Aglaia canariifolia Koord. 48
Adina polycephala Benth. 454 Aglaia cedreloides Harms 50
Adina zschokkei Elmer 454 Aglaia chaudocensis Pierre 49
Adinobotrys atropurpurea (Wallich) Dunn 432 Aglaia diepenhorstii Miq. 426
Aeginetia L. 40, 41 Aglaia discolor Merr. 47
Aeginetia indica L. 40 Aglaia domestica (Correa) Pellegrin 450
Aeginetia pedunculata (Roxb.) Wallich 40 Aglaia dookoo Griffith 450
Aeginetia pedunculata auct. non (Roxb.) Wallich Aglaia duperreana Pierre 49
40 Aglaia edulis (Roxb.)Wallich 45,46, 47
Aegle glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. 391 Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A.H.L. Juss.) Benth. 46, 48
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa 426 Aglaia elliptica Blume 45,46, 48
Aeschynanthus Jack 41 Aglaia elliptifolia Merr. 49
Aeschynanthus lamponga Miq. 41,42 Aglaia ganggo Miq. 50
Aeschynanthus longicaulis R.Br. 41,42 Aglaia goebeliana Warb. 49
Aeschynanthus longiflorus (Blume) DC. 41 Aglaia harmsiana Perk. 48
Aeschynanthus marmoratus T. Moore 42 Aglaia havilandii Ridley 48
Aeschynanthus pulcher (Blume) G. Don 41 Aglaia heterophylla Merr. 426
Aeschynanthus radicans Jack 41,42 Aglaia lanceolata Merr. 49
Aeschynanthus speciosus Hook. 41 Aglaia latifolia Miq. 47
Aeschynomene afraspera J. Léonard 426 Aglaia lawii (Wight) C.J. Saldanha ex Ramamoor-
Aeschynomene aspera auct. non L. 426 thy 47, 48
Aeschynomene grandiflora (L.) L. 465 Aglaia littoralis Zippelius ex Miq. 48
Aeschynomene sesban L. 465 Aglaia llanosiana C D C . 49
Aframomum K. Schumann 164 Aglaia multifoliola Merr. 47
Afrardisia Mez 78 Aglaia oblanceolata Craib 49
Afzelia bijuga (Colebr.) A. Gray 449 Aglaia odorata Lour. 46, 49
Afzelia palembanica (Miq.)Baker 449 Aglaia odoratissima Blume 426
Agallochum malaccense (Lamk) O. Kuntze 428 Aglaia oxypetala Valeton 48
Aganosma (Blume) G. Don 43 Aglaia pirifera Hance 47
Aganosma acuminata G. Don 44 Aglaia pyramidata Hance 50
Aganosma blumei A.DC. 44 Aglaia rimosa (Blanco) Merr. 46, 49
INDEX SCIENTIFIC NAMES 591
Aglaia roxburghiana (Wight &Arnott) Miq. 48 Albizia nediana Kosterm. 426

Aglaia salicifolia Ridley 50 Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. 426
Aglaia silvestris (M.Roemer) Merr. 46, 47, 50 Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Blume ex Miq. 426
Aglaia splendens (Koord. &Valeton) Koord. & Albizia thorelii Pierre 55
Valeton 47 Albizia tomentella Miq. 426
Aglaia sulingi Blume 47 - var. salajeriana (Miq.) Koord. 426
Aglaia wallichii Hiern 48 Alchornea Sw. 56
Aglaia yzermannii Boerl. &Koord. 50 Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. &Thonn.) Müll.
Aglaonema Schott 50 Arg. 56
Aglaonema angustifolium N.E.Br. 52 Alchornea floribunda Müll. Arg. 56
Aglaonema commutatum Schott 50, 51 Alchorneajavanensis (Blume) Backer & Bakh.f.
Aglaonema crispum (Pitcher &Manda) Nicolson 57
50 Alchornea parviflora (Benth.) Müll.Arg. 56, 57
Aglaonema latius Alderw. 52 Alchornea philippinensis Pax &Hoffm. 57
Aglaonema marantifolium Blume 51 Alchornea rugosa (Lour.) Müll. Arg. 56, 57
Aglaonema nebulosum N.E.Br. 50, 52 Alchornea sicca (Blanco) Merr. 56, 57
Aglaonema nitidum (Jack) Kunth 50 Alchornea villosa (Benth.) Müll. Arg. 56, 57
Aglaonema oblongifolium auct. non Schott. 51 Aleurites J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 291,361
Aglaonema oblongifolium Schott 50, 51 Aleurites fordii Hemsl. 471
Aglaonema pictum Ridley non (Roxb.) Kunth. 52 Aleurites moluccana (L.)Willd. 426
Aglaonema roebelinii auct. 50 Aleurites saponaria Blanco 462
Aglaonema siamense Engl. 50 Aleurites triloba J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 426
Aglaonema simplex Blume 50, 52 Aleurites trisperma Blanco 462
Aglaonema tenuipes Engl. 50 Allomorphia Blume 58, 95
Aglaonema treubii auct. non Engl. 51 Allomorphia alata Scort. ex King 58
Aidia Lour. 52 Allomorphia bullata (Griffith) Cogn. 58, 59
Aidia cochinchinensis Lour. 52, 53 Allomorphia curtisii (King) Ridley 58
Aidia cochinchinensis auct. non Lour. 53 Allomorphia exigua (Jack) Blume 58, 59
Aidia densiflora (Wallich) Masam. 53 Allomorphia magnifica (Miq.) Guill. 59
Aidia micrantha (K. Schumann) Bullock ex F. Allomorphia malaccensis Ridley 59
White 53 Allophyllus cobbe (L.)Raeuschel 426
Aidia ochroleuca (K. Schumann) Petit 53 Allophyllus dimorphus Radlk. 426
Aidia racemosa (Cav.) Tirveng. 52, 53 Allophyllus fulvenervis (Blume) Blume 426
Aidia spicata (Valeton) Tirveng. 53 Allophyllus grossedentatus (Turcz.) Fern.-Vill.
Aidia wallichiana Tirveng. 53 426
Ailanthus Desf. 330 Alocasia (Schott) G. Don 59, 131
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. 426 Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G. Don 59
Aisandra butyracea (Roxb.) Baehni 441 Alocasia denudata Engl. 60
Ajuga L. 54, 55 Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach 60
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex Benth. 23, 54 Alocasia longiloba Miq. 59, 60
Ajuga decumbens Thunberg 54 Alocasia lowiiHook. 60
Ajuga lupulina Maxim. 54 Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don 59, 60
Ajuga remota Benth. 54 Alocasia watsoniana Masters 60
Ajuga reptans L. 54 AloeL. 415
Ajuga taiwanensis Nakai ex Murata 55 Alphonsea arborea (Blanco) Merr. 460
Ajuga turkestanica (Regel) Briq. 54 Alphonsea philippinensis Merr. 460
Alangium hexapetalum Lamk 426 Alpinia cardamomum (L.) Roxb. 441
Alangium lamarckii Thwaites 426 Alpinia globosa (Lour.) Horan. 426
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wangerin 426 Alsodeia capillata King 351
Alangium sundanum Miq. 426 Alsodeia comosa King 351
Albizia Durazz. 55, 56 Alsodeia echinocarpa Korth. 351
Albizialebbeck(L.) Benth. 55 Alsodeia floribunda King 351
Albizia lebbekoides (DC.) Benth. 426 Alsodeia horneri Korth. 351
Albizia myriophylla Benth. 55 Alsodeia kunstleriana King 351
Alsodeia lanceolata Oudem. 351 Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planchon 65, 66

Alstonia pneumatophora Backer ex den Berger Ampelocissus polystachya Planchon 67
426 Ampelocissus polythyrsa (Miq.) Gagnep. 67
Altinga excelsa Norofia 426 Ampelocissus rugosa (Wallich) Planchon 66
Alysicarpus nummularifolius (Willd.) DC. 427 Ampelocissus tomentosa (Heyne ex Roth) Plan-
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 426 chon 65
Alyxia Banks ex R.Br. 85 Ampelopteris proliféra (Retz.) Copel. 427
Alyxia reinwardtii Blume 315 Amydrium Schott 67, 190, 346, 367
Amansia glomerata C. Agardh 453 Amydrium magnificum (Engl.) Nicolson 67
Amischophacelus axillaris (L.)Rolla Rao & Kam- Amydrium sinensis (Engl.) H. Li 67
mathy 438 Amydrium zippelianum (Schott) Nicolson 67
Amischotolype Hassk. 61 Anabaena azollae Strasb. exWittr. 427
Amischotolype gracilis (Ridley) I.M. Turner 62 Anabaena oscillarioides Bory ex Bornet & Fla-
Amischotolype griffithii (C.B. Clarke) I.M. Turner hault 427
61,62 Anabaena variabilis status azolla Fjerd. 427
Amischotolype irritans (Ridley) I.M. Turner 62 Anacardium occidentale L. 427
Amischotolype mollissima (Blume) Hassk. 61 Anadendrum Schott 68
Ammannia L. 63 Anadendrum microstachyum (de Vriese & Miq.)
Ammannia auriculata Willd. 62 Backer &Alderw. 68
Ammannia baccifera L. 62 Anadendrum montanum Schott 68
Amomum aromaticum Roxb. 427 Anaxagorea A. St.-Hil. 68
Amomum cardamomum L. 441 Anaxagorea borneensis (Becc.)J. Sinclair 69
Amomum cardamomum auct. non L. 427 Anaxagorea javanica Blume 68,69
Amomum coccineum (Blume) K. Schumann 442 Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray 68, 69
Amomum compactum Soland. ex Maton 427 Anaxagorea radiata Robinson 69
Amomum globosum Lour. 426 Anaxagorea scortechinii King 69
Amomum kepulaga Sprague &Burkill 427 Anaxagorea zeylanica Hook. &Thomson 69
Amomum montanum Koenig 473 Ancistrocladus Wallich 71
Amomum repens Sonnerat 441 Ancistrocladus abbreviatus Airy Shaw 70
Amomum subulatum Roxb. 427 Ancistrocladus barteri Scott-Elliot 70
Amomum walang (Blume) Valeton 442 Ancistrocladus extensus Wallich ex Planchon 70
Amomum zerumbet L. 474 Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wallich ex J. Graham
Amomum zingiber L. 473 70
Amoora aphanamixis Schultes &Schultes f. 428 Ancistrocladus korupensis D.W. Thomas &
Amoora korthalsii Miq. 48 Gereau 70,71
Amoora lawii (Wight) Beddome 48 Ancistrocladus pinangianus Wallich ex Planchon
Amorphophallus Blume ex Decne. 64, 65 70
Amorphophallus campanulatus Decne. 64 Ancistrocladus tectorius (Lour.) Merr. 70
Amorphophallus konjac Koch 63 Ancylocladus oblongus (Hook.f.) O. Kuntze 472
Amorphophallus mairei H. Lev. 64 Ancylocladus tenuiflorus (Hook.f.) O. Kuntze 472
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson Andira excelsa Kunth 427
64 Andira inermis (W.Wright) DC. 427
Amorphophallus prainii Hook.f. 64 Andirajamaicensis (W.Wright) Urban 427
Amorphophallus rivieri Durieu ex Carrière 63 Andropogon ceriferus Hackel 438
Ampelocissus Planchon 65 Andropogon citratus DC. 438
Ampelocissus arachnoidea Planchon 66 Andropogon flexuosus Nees ex Steudel 438
Ampelocissus araneosa (Dalz. &Gibson) Planchon Andropogon martini Roxb. 438
65 Andropogon muricatus Retz. 471
Ampelocissus arnottiana (Wight &Arnott) Plan- Andropogon nardus (L.)Rendle 438
chon 65 - var. ceriferus Hackel 438
Ampelocissus artemisiaefolia Planchon 65 - var. flexuosus (Nees ex Steudel) Hackel 438
Ampelocissus cinnamomea (Wallich) Planchon 66 Andropogon zizanioides (L.)Urban 471
Ampelocissus gracilis (Wallich) Planchon 66 Aneilema R.Br. 310
Ampelocissus indica (L.)Planchon 65 Aneilema herbaceum (Roxb.)Wallich 311
Aneilemajaponicum (Thunberg) Kunth 311 Antidesma dallachyanum Bâillon 427

Aneilema lineolatum (Blume) Kunth 311 Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertner 74, 428
Aneilema loriforme Hassk. 311 Antidesma microcarpum Elmer 74
Aneilema nudiflorum (L.) Sweet 311 Antidesma montanum Blume 74
- var. terminale (Wight) C.B. Clarke 311 Antidesma neurocarpum Miq. 74
Aneilema platyphyllum Merr. 311 Antidesma nitidum Tul. 74
Aneilema scapiflorum (Roxb.) Kostel. 311 Antidesma rumphii Tulasne 427
Anethum L. 85 Antidesma tetrandrum Blume 74
Anethum foeniculum L. 444 Aphanamixis Blume 47
Anethum graveolens L. 427 Aphanamixis cumingiana (CDC.) Harms 428
Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming 427 Aphanamixis grandifolia Blume 428
Angiopteris evecta (G. Forster) Hoffmann 427 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wallich) R.N. Parker
Anisophyllea disticha (Jack) Bâillon 427 47, 428
Anisum officinarum Moench 459 Aphanamixis rohituka (Roxb.) Pierre 428
Anisum vulgare Gaertner 459 Apium anisum (L.) Crantz 459
Anneslea Wallich 72 Apium d u k e Miller 428
Anneslea crassipes Hook.f. ex Choisy 72 Apium graveolens L. 428
Anneslea fragrans Wallich 71 Apium lusitanicum Miller 428
- var. crassipes (Hook.f. ex Choisy) Pierre 72 Apium rapaceum Miller 428
Anneslea lanceolata (Hayata) Kanehira 72 Aplostellis flabelliformis (Lindley) Ridley 317
Anneslea steenisii Kobuski 72 Aplostellis velutina (Par. &Reichenb.f.) Ridley
Annona cherimola Miller 427 317
Annona glabra L. 427 Apostasia Blume 75
Annona myristica Gaertner 454 Apostasia brunonis Griff. 74
Annona palustris L. 427 Apostasia elliptica J.J. Smith 75
Annona purpurea Sessé &Moe. ex Dunal 427 Apostasia latifolia Rolfe 75
Annona reticulata L. 427 Apostasia lobbii Reichenb.f. 74
Annona squamosa L. 427 Apostasia nuda R.Br. 74
Anodendron aambe (Warb.) Warb. 323 Apostasia parvula Schltr. 75
Anodendron oblongifolium Hemsl. 427 Apostasia wallichii R.Br. 75
Anodendron paniculatum A.DC. 427 Aquilaria Lamk 76
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wallich ex Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. 75, 428
Guill. &Perr. 427 Aquilaria agallocha auct. non Roxb. 428
Anomanthodia Hook.f. 53 Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex H. Lecomte 75, 428
Anplectrum annulatum Triana ex C.B. Clarke 169 Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne.) Ridley 75
Anplectrum divaricatum (Willd.)Triana 169 Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk 75,76, 428
Anplectrum glaucum (Jack) Triana 169 Aquilaria pentandra Blanco 460
Anplectrum viminale (Jack) Triana 169 Aquilariella malaccensis (Lamk) v.Tiegh. 428
Anredera Juss. 72 Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. &de Vriese) Miq.
Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) v. Steenis 72, 73 76
Anredera scandens (L.)Moq. 72, 73 Arcangelisia flava (L.) Merr. 139
Antelaea azadirachta (L.)Adelb. 430 Archidendron bubalinum (Jack) I.C. Nielsen 428
Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. 427 Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen 428
Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk) A.Rich, ex Archidendron ellipticum (Blume) I.C. Nielsen 428
Walpers 427 Archidendron jiringa (Jack) Nielsen 428
Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich. 427 Archidendron microcarpum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen
Anthocephalus macrophyllus (Roxb.) Havil. 427 428
Anthostyrax tonkinense Pierre 467 Archytaea alternifolia (Vahl) Szyszyl. 461
Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) G.F. Hoffmann 427 Archytaea vahlii Choisy 461
Anthriscus longirostris Bertol. 427 ArdisiaSw. 77,80,410
Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 64, 123, 174 ArdisiaboissieriA.DC. 428
Antidesma L. 74 Ardisia colorata Roxb. non Link 80
Antidesma bunius (L.)Sprengel 74, 427 Ardisia copelandii Mez 78
Antidesma cuspidatum Müll. Arg. 74 Ardisia crassa C.B. Clarke 78, 79
Ardisia crenata Sims 77, 78, 79 Artemisia cina Berg ex Poljakov 254
Ardisia crispa A.DC. 79 Artemisia dracunculus L. 429
Ardisia drupacea (Blanco) Merr. 428 Artemisia inodora Willd. 429
Ardisia elliptica Thunberg 78, 428 Artemisia maderaspatana L. 223
Ardisia fuliginosa Blume 79 Artemisia redowskyi Ledeb. 429
Ardisia humilis Vahl 80 Artocarpus J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 77
Ardisia humilis auct. non Vahl 428 Artocarpus acuminatissimus Merr. 429
Ardisia iwahigensis Elmer 78 Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg 429
Ardisiajaponica (Hörnst.) Blume 78 Artocarpus blancoi (Elmer) Merr. 429
Ardisia laevigata Blume 78 Artocarpus borneensis Merr. 429
Ardisia lanceolata Roxb. 78 Artocarpus brasiliensis Gomez 429
Ardisia littoralis Andr. 428 Artocarpus camansi Blanco 429
Ardisia lurida Blume 78 Artocarpus communis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Ardisia odontophylla Wallich exA.DC. 80 429
Ardisia oxyphylla Wallich exA.DC. 78, 80 - var. blancoi Elmer 429
Ardisia pumila Blume 266 - var. pungens J.J. Smith ex K. Heyne 429
Ardisia pusilla A.DC. 78 Artocarpus cumingiana Trécul 429
Ardisia ridleyi King &Gamble 80 Artocarpus dadah Miq. 429
Ardisia sanguinolenta Blume 78,79, 80 Artocarpus dasyphyllus Miq. 429
Ardisia serrata (Cav.) Pers. 78 Artocarpus eberhardtii Gagnep. 429
Ardisia sieboldii Miq. 78 Artocarpus elasticus Reinw. ex Blume 429
Ardisia solanacea Roxb. 77, 78, 81 Artocarpus fretessii Teijsm. &Binnend. 429
Ardisia squamulosa Presl 78, 428 Artocarpus gomezianus Wallich ex Trécul 429
Ardisia villosa Roxb. 81 Artocarpus griffithii (King) Merr. 429
Areca calapparia Blume 34 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk 429
Areca catechu L. 35, 117, 196,369,424, 428 Artocarpus horridus Jarrett 429
Arenga Labill. 81 Artocarpus humilis Becc. 429
Arenga hastata (Becc.)Whitmore 81,82 Artocarpus inconstantissimus (Miq.) Miq. 429
Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. 81,428 Artocarpus leytensis Elmer 429
Arenga porphyrocarpa (Blume ex Mart.) H.E. Artocarpus lingnanensis Merr. 429
Moore 81,82 Artocarpus lowii King 429
Arenga saccharifera Labill. 428 Artocarpus masticatus Gagnep. 429
Arethusa glutinosa Blanco 445 Artocarpus maxima Blanco 429
Argostemma Wallich 82 Artocarpus nitidus Trécul 429
Argostemma klossii Ridley 83 Artocarpus ovatus Blanco 429
Argostemma montanum Blume ex DC. 83 Artocarpus paloensis Elmer 429
Argusia Boehm. 403 Artocarpus parva Gagnep. 429
Argusia argentea (L.f.) Heine 403, 428 Artocarpus petiolaris Miq. 429
Argyreia Lour. 83 Artocarpus philippensis Lamk 429
Argyreia acuta Lour. 84 Artocarpus pomiformis Teijsm. &Binnend. 429
Argyreia capitata (Vahl) Choisy 83 Artocarpus rubrovenius Warb. 429
Argyreia capitiformis (Poir.) v. Ooststroom 83, 84 Artocarpus rufescens Miq. 429
Argyreia maingayi (C.B. Clarke) Hoogland 84 Artocarpus sampor Gagnep. 429
Argyreia mollis (Burm.f.) Choisy 83, 84, 85 Artocarpus tampang Miq. 429
Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer 83,84, 85 A r u m L . 411
Argyreia populifolia Choisy 84 Arundo bambos L. 430
Argyreia rubicunda Wallich ex Choisy 86 Arundo donax L. 429
Argyreia speciosa (L.f.) Sweet 85 Asclepias tinctoria Roxb. 453
Aristolochia L. 125 Asparagopsis delile Mont. 429
Armoracia lapathifolia Gilibert 428 Asparagopsis javanica Kunth 430
Armoracia rusticana P.G. Gaertner 428 Asparagopsis schoberioides Kunth 430
Artanthe adunca (L.)Miq. 459 Asparagopsis taxiformis (Delile) Trevis. 429
Artemisia L. 143 Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. 430
Artemisia chinensis L. 143 Asparagus dubius Decne. 430
Asparagus lucidus Lindley 430 Bambusa spinosa Roxb. 430

Asparagus racemosus Willd. 430 Bambusa tuldoides Munro 430
Asystasia Blume 86 Bambusa ventricosa McClure 430
Asystasia blumei Nees 87 Bancalus macrophyllus (Roxb.) O. Kuntze 427
Asystasia coromandeliana Nees 87 Banksia speciosa Koenig 437
Asystasia dalzelliana Santapau 86 Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Bremek. 387
Asystasia gangetica (L.)T. Anderson 86, 87 Barleria strigosa Willd. 336
- subsp. gangetica 86 Barringtonia calyptrata (Miers) R.Br, ex F.M. Bai-
- subsp. micrantha (Nees) Ensermu 86 ley 430
Asystasia intrusa (Forssk.) Nees 86 Barringtonia flava Lauterb. 430
Asystasia intrusa auct. non (Forssk.) Nees 87 Barringtonia scortechinii King 430
Asystasia nemorum Nees 86, 87 Barringtonia vriesei Teijsm. &Binnend. 117
Atalantia Corrêa 300, 324 Baryosma tonga Gaertner 441
Atuna elata (King) Kosterm. 430 Basella L. 72
Atuna excelsa (Jack) Kosterm. 430 Basella alba L. 73,430
Atuna racemosa Raf. 430 Basella cordifolia Lamk 431
Averrhoa bilimbi L. 430 Basella lucida L. 431
Averrhoa carambola L. 430 Basella rubra L. 431
Avicennia alba Blume 430 Bassia butyracea Roxb. 441
Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. 430 Bauhinia L. 89
- var. alba (Blume) Bakh. 430 Bauhinia acuminata L. 91
Avicennia obovata Griffith 430 Bauhinia audax (de Wit) Cusset 91
Avicennia oepata Hamilton 430 Bauhinia bidentata Jack 431
Avicennia officinalis L. 430 Bauhinia binata Blanco 89
- var. alba (Blume) Hook, ex Jafri 430 Bauhinia borneensis Merr. 92
Avicennia spicata Kunth 430 Bauhinia calycina Ridley non Pierre ex Gagnep.
Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) Jacobs 430 91
Azadirachta indica A.H.L. Juss. 47, 430 Bauhinia Candida Aiton 93
Azadirachta integrifolia Merr. 430 Bauhinia castrata Blanco 91
Azukia umbellata (Thunberg) Ohwi 472 Bauhinia cummingiana (Benth.) Fern.-Vill. 90
Baccaurea brevipes Hook.f. 430 Bauhinia flammifera Ridley 90
Backeria stipularis (Blume) Bakh.f. 169 Bauhinia fulva Blume ex Korth. 91
Backeria viminalis (Jack) Bakh.f. 169 Bauhinia integrifolia Roxb. 90
Backhousia citriodora F. v.Mueller 430 Bauhinia kockiana Korth. 89
Badianifera officinarum O. Kuntze 448 Bauhinia lingua DC. 89
Baeobotrys indica Roxb. 286 Bauhinia linnaei Ali 91
Baeobotrys ramentacea Roxb. 287 Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. 89, 90, 431
Baillieria aspera Aubl. 436 Bauhinia pubescens DC. 92
Balanophora elongata Blume 430 Bauhinia pullei Craib 89
Balanophora fungosa J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster Bauhinia purpurea L. 89, 90, 91
430 Bauhinia racemosa Lamk 90
Balanophora gigantea Wallich ex Fawe 430 Bauhinia scandens L. 90, 431
Balanophora globosa Jungh. 430 Bauhinia semibifida Roxb. 92
Balanophora indica (Arnott) Griffith 430 - var. semibifida 92
Balanophora ungeriana Valeton 430 Bauhinia tomentosa L. 89, 92
Baliospermum Blume 89 Bauhinia triandra Roxb. 91
Baliospermum axillare Blume 88 Bauhinia vahlii Wight &Arnott 89, 90, 431
Baliospermum calycinum Müll. Arg. 89 Bauhinia variegata L. 90, 93
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Müll. Arg. 88 Bauhinia viridescens Desv. 89
Baliospermum solanifolium (Geiseler) Suresh 88 Beilschmiedia Nees 93
Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. 430 Beilschmiedia curtisii Gamble 94
Bambusa bambos (L.)Voss 430 Beilschmiedia madang Blume 93, 94
Bambusa longiflora W.T. Lin 430 Beilschmiedia malaccensis (Meissn.) Hook.f. 94
Bambusa pallescens (Doell) Hackel 430 Beilschmiedia pahangensis Gamble 94
Beilschmiedia scortechinii Gamble 94 Bridelia lancifolia Roxb. 431

Beilschmiedia sphaerocarpa Lecomte 93 Bridelia monoica Merr. 431
Beilschmiedia tonkinensis (Lecomte) Ridley 95 Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume 431
Benincasa cerifera Savi 431 Bridelia tomentosa Blume 431
Benincasa hispida (Thunberg exMurray) Cogni- Brindonia indica Thouars 445
aux 431 Brossaea fragrantissima O. Kuntze 445
Benzoin officinale Hayne 467 Brossaea leucocarpa (Blume) O. Kuntze 445
Berrya ammonilla Roxb. 431 Broussonetia papyrifera (L.)L'Hér. exVent. 431
Berrya cordifolia Roxb. 431 Brucea J.F. Miller 330
Beta vulgaris L. 431 Bruguiera conjugata Merr. 431
Betaphycus gelatinus (Esper) Doty ex P.C. Silva Bruguiera eriopetala Wight &Arnott ex Arnott
431 431
Biarum Schott 411 Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny 431
Bidaria inodora (Lour.) Decne. 229 Bruguiera rheedii Blume 431
Bidaria tingens (Roxb.) Decne. 229 Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poiret 431
Bignonia stans L. 399 Bryonia grandis L. 437
Bihania borneensis Meissner 443 Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume 431
Bixa orellana L. 431 Buchanania florida Schauer 431
Blachia Bâillon 89 Buchanania lanzan Sprengel 432
Bladhia glabra Thunberg 464 Buchanania latifolia Roxb. 432
Blastus Lour. 95 Buchanania lucida Blume 431
Blastus borneensis Cogn. 95 Buchanania platyphylla Merr. 432
- var. borneensis 95 Buchnera L. 96
- var. pulverulentus (Ridley) C. Hansen 95 Buchnera ciliata Pennell 97
Blastus cogniauxii Stapf 95 Buchnera cruciata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 97
Blechnum L. 96 Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 97
Blechum P. Browne 96 Buchnera ramosa Bonati 97
Blechum brownei Juss. 95 BuddlejaL. 98,99
Blechum pyramidatum (Lamk) Urb. 95 Buddleja americana L. 98
Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. 431 Buddleja asiatica Lour. 98
Boerlagiodendron palmatum (Zipp. ex Boerl.) Buddleja davidii Franch. 98
Harms 456 Buddleja madagascariensis Lamk 98
Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schlechter 431 Buddleja officinalis Maxim. 98
Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansfeld 431 Bulbostylis Kunth 199
Bombax aquaticum (Aubl.)K. Schumann 457 Buphthalmum oleraceum Lour. 443
Borago indica L. 408 Butea Roxb. exWilld. 23,99, 377
Borago officinalis L. 407,408,431 Butea ferruginea (Zoll. &Moritzi) Blatter 377
Borago zeylanica Burm.f. 408 Butea frondosa Roxb. ex Willd. 101
Borassus flabellifer L. 431 Butea littoralis (Hassk.) Blatter 377
Borassus flabelliformis L. 431 Butea monosperma (Lamk) Taub. 99, 100,101
Boussingaultia baselloides auct. non Humb., Bon- Butea superba Willd. 99, 100, 101
pl. &Kunth. 73 BuxusL. 102
Boussingaultia cordifolia Ten. 73 - section Eugeniobuxus 102
Boussingaultia gracilis Miers 73 - section Probuxus 102
Brachypterum microphyllum Miq. 439 - section Tricera 102
Brassica alba (L.) Rabenhorst 465 Buxus chinensis Link 465
Brassica eruca L. 442 Buxus harlandii Hance 102
Brassica hirta Moench 465 Buxus longifolia Boiss. 102
Brassica nigra (L.)W.D.J. Koch 431 Buxus microphylla Sieb. &Zucc. 102
Brassica oleracea L. 227 Buxus rolfei S.Vidal 102
Brassica rapa L. 227 Buxus sempervirens L. 102
Brassica rugosa Prain 126 Cacalia sonchifolia L. 441
Brassica sinapoides Roth 431 Caelospermum Blume 230
Bridelia glabrifolia Merr. 431 Caesalpinia dasyrhachis Miq. 458
CajanusDC. 182 Calysaccion siamense Miq. 452

Cajanus cajan (L.)Millsp. 182,402, 432 Camellia sasanqua Thunberg ex Murray 432
Cajanus indicus Sprengel 432 Campanumoea Blume 128
Calamus castaneus Becc. 432 Campanumoea cordata Miq. 127
Calamus filiformis Becc. 432 Campanumoeajavanica Blume 127
Calamus javensis Blume 432 Campanumoea maximowiczii Honda 127
Calamus longispathus Ridley 432 Campylospermum serratum (Gaertner) Bittrich &
Calamus ornatus Blume 432 M.C.E.Amaral 445
Calathea allouia (Aublet) Lindley 432 Cananga odorata (Lamk) Hook.f. &Thomson 432
Calla montana Blume 68 Cananga scortechinii King 432
Callerya atropurpurea (Wallich) Schot 432 Canangium odoratum (Lamk) Bâillon 432
CallicarpaL. 85,211 Canarium carapifolium Perkins 432
Callicarpa arborea Roxb. 432 Canarium commune L. 433
Callicarpa magna Schauer 432 Canarium grandiflorum Bennett 433
Callicarpa pentandra Roxb. 211 Canarium hirsutum Willd. 432
Callicarpa tomentosa auct. non (L.) Murr. 432 Canarium hirtellum Bennett 433
Calocarpum sapota (Jacq.) Merr. 461 Canarium hispidum Blume 432
Caloglossa leprieurii (Mont.) G. Martens 432 Canarium laxiflorum Decne. 433
- var. hookeri E. Post 432 Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray 432
Caloglossa mnioides Harv. exJ. Agardh 432 Canarium microcarpum Willd. 433
Calophyllum L. 23, 102 Canarium motleyanum Engl. 433
Calophyllum blancoi Planchon &Triana 104 Canarium multipinnatum Llanos 432
Calophyllum borneense Vesque 432 Canarium oleosum (Lamk) Engl. 433
Calophyllum calaba L. 103, 432 Canarium oliganthum Merr. 432
Calophyllum canum Hook.f. 103, 432 Canarium pilosum Bennett 433
Calophyllum cerasiferum Vesque 103 Canarium pimela Leenh. 433
Calophyllum cordato-oblongum Thwaites 103 Canarium polyanthum Perkins 432
Calophyllum dioscurii P.F. Stevens 103, 432 Canarium subcordatum Ridley 432
Calophyllum glabrum Merr. 104 Canarium vulgare Leenh. 433
Calophyllum inophyllum L. 102, 103, 104 Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. 433
Calophyllum lancifolium Elmer 105 - var. gladiata (Jacq.) O. Kuntze 433
Calophyllum lanigerum Miq. 103, 105 Canavalia ensiformis auct. non (L.)DC. 433
- var. austrocoriaceum (Whitm.) P.F. Stevens Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC. 433
103, 105 - var. ensiformis (L.) Benth. 433
- var. lanigerum 105 Canavalia maritima (Aublet) du Petit-Thouars
Calophyllum mindanaense Elmer 104 433
Calophyllum muscigerum Boerl. &Koord, ex K. Canavalia obtusifolia (Lamk) DC. 433
Heyne 432 Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. 433
Calophyllum pisiferum Planchon &Triana 103, Canna L. 41
432 Canna coccinea P. Miller 433
Calophyllum racemosum Merr. 104 Canna edulis Ker Gawl. 433
Calophyllum retusum auct. non Wallich ex Choisy Canna indica L. 433
432 Canna orientalis Roscoe 433
Calophyllum rubiginosum M.R. Henderson & Canscora Lamk 108
Wyatt-Smith 103,432 Canscora decussata (Roxb.) Roemer & Schultes
Calophyllum solomonense A.C. Smith 105 107
Calophyllum soulattri Burm.f. 105 Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roemer &
Calophyllum spectabile auct. non Willd. 105 Schultes 107
Calophyllum teysmannii Miq. 103, 106 Canscora lucidissima (H. Lev. &Vaniot) Hand.-
- var. inophylloide (King) P.F. Stevens 103, 106 Mazz. 107
- var. teysmannii 106 Canthium Lamk 108
Calycopteris Lamk 106 Canthium aciculatum Ridley 108, 109
Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Lamk 106 Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.) Alston 108,
Calycopteris nutans (Roxb.) Kurz 106 109
Canthium didymum Gaertner 109 Cassia surattensis Burm.f. 465

Canthium diococcum (Gaertner) Merr. 109 Cassia timoriensis DC. 465
Canthium horridum Blume 108, 109 Cassia verdickii de Wildeman 465
Canthium parviflorum Lamk 109 Cassine L. 344
Canthium parviflorum auct. non Lamk 109 Cassytha L. 145
Capparis cordifolia Lamk 433 Castanola macrophylla Schellenb. 44
Capparis mariana Jacq. 433 Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. &C. Praser
Capparis sandwichiana DC. 433 ex Hook. 433
Capparis spinosa L. 433 Castanospermum cunninghamii J. Wood 433
Capsicum L. 246,369 CasuarinaL. 249,419
Carallia Roxb. 110 Casuarina equisetifolia L. 433
Carallia brachiata (Lour.)Merr. 110 Casuarina litorea L. 434
Carallia fascicularis Guill. 110 Casuarina muricata Roxb. 434
Carallia suffruticosa Ridley 110 Catunaregam Wolf 110, 114, 198
Carapa granatum (J. Koenig) Alston 473 Catunaregam nilotica (Stapf) Tirveng. I l l
Carapa moluccensis Lamk 473 Catunaregam spinosa (Thunberg) Tirveng. 110,
Carapa obovata Blume 473 111,114
Cardamomum subulatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze 427 Catunaregam tomentosa (Blume ex DC.) Tirveng.
Carex L. 41 110,112
Careya arborea Roxb. 433 Caulerpa clavifera (Turner) C.Agardh 434
Carica papaya L. 433 Caulerpa kilneri J. Agardh 434
Carinta repens (L.) L.B. Sm. &Downs 209 Caulerpa lentillifera J. Agardh 434
Carissa carandas L. 433 Caulerpa longistipitata (Weber Bosse) Sved. 434
Carissa congesta Wight 433 Caulerpa plumaris Forssk 434
Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. 183 Caulerpa racemosa (Forssk.) J. Agardh 434
Carolinea princeps L.f. 457 Caulerpa sertularioides (S.G. Gmelin) M. Howe
Carthamus tinctorius L. 107, 353, 433 434
Carum carvi L. 433 Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C.Agardh 434
Carum roxburghianum (DC.) Benth. 470 Caulerpa uvifera C.Agardh 434
Carum velenovskyi Rohlena 433 Ceanothus L. 61
Caryophyllus aromaticus L. 467 Cecropia Loefl. 113
Caryophyllus racemosus Miller 459 Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol. 113
CaryotaL. 82 Cecropia peltata L. 23, 112
Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. 391,433 Cecropia surinamensis Miq. 112
Casearia hexagona Decne. 433 Cedrela calantas (Merr. &Rolfe) Burkill 470
Casearia laurina Blume 433 Cedrela febrifuga Blume 470
Casearia leucolepis Turcz. 433 Cedrela serrata Royle 470
Casimiroa edulis Llave &Lex. 433 Cedrela sinensis Adr. Juss. 470
Cassia angustissima Lamk 434 Cedrela sureni (Blume) Burkill 470
Cassia auriculata L. 433 Cedrela toona Roxb.ex Rottler &Willd. 470
Cassia densistipulata Taubert 433 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertner 434
Cassia didymobotrya Fresenius 465 Celtis cinnamomea Lindley ex Planchon 434
Cassia florida Vahl 465 Celtis collinsae Craib 434
Cassia foetida Pers. 465 Celtis crenato-serrata Merr. 434
Cassia glauca Lamk 465 Celtis kajewskii Merr. &L.M. Perry 434
Cassia hirsuta L. 465 Celtis latifolia (Blume) Planchon 434
Cassia leptocarpa Benth. 465 Celtis philippensis Blanco 434
Cassia mimosoides L. 434 Celtis strychnoides Planchon 434
Cassia nairobiensis L.H. Bailey 465 Celtis timorensis Spanoghe 434
Cassia obtusifolia L. 433 Celtis waitzii Blume 434
Cassia occidentalis L. 465 Celtis wightii Planchon 434
Cassia procumbens auct. non L. 434 Celtis zippelii (Blume) Planchon 434
Cassia siamea Lamk 465 Centroplacus Pierre 206
Cassia suffruticosa Heyne ex Roth 465 Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. 434
Cerbera floribunda K. Schumann 434 Chroesthes Benoist 116,269

Cerdana alliodora Ruiz &Pavón 437 Chroesthes longifolia (Wight) B.Hansen 116
Ceriops candolleana Arnott 434 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King &H. Robin-
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson 434 son 435
Ceriscoides (Hook.f) Tirveng. 114 Chrysanthemum coronarium L. 435
Ceriscoides curranii (Merr.) Tirveng. 114 Chrysanthemum spatiosum L.H. Bailey 435
Cestrum L. 115 Chrysobalanus icaco L. 435
Cestrum diurnum L. 115 Chrysophyllum cainito L. 435
Cestrum laevigatum Schlechtendal 115 Chukrasia tabularis A.H.L. Juss. 435
Cestrum nocturnum L. 23, 114 Chukrasia velutina (Wallich) Roemer 435
Cestrum parqui L'Hérit 115 Chydenanthus Miers 117
Chaerefolium cerefolium (L.) Schinz &Thell. 427 Chydenanthus excelsus (Blume) Miers 117
Chaetomorpha crassa (C.Agardh) Kütz. 434 Cibotium barometz (L.)J. Smith 435
Chaetospermum glutinosum (Blanco) Swingle Cinchona L. 25,26
391 Cinnamomum calophyllum Reinw. ex C. Nees
Chailettia griffithii Hook.f. 162 436
Chailettia setosa King 162 Cinnamomum camphora (L.)J.S. Presl 435
Chalcas paniculata L. 454 Cinnamomum camphoratum Blume 436
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) E. Greene 434 Cinnamomum celebicum Miq. 435
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert 453 Cinnamomum cinereum Gamble 436
Champereia griffithii Planchon ex Kurz 434 Cinnamomum culilaban (L.)J.S. Presl 435
Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr. 434 Cinnamomum culilawan (Roxb.) J.S.Presl 435
Chasmanthe N.E.Br. 142 Cinnamomum culitlawan (L.)Kosterm. 435
Chavicabetle(L.)Miq. 459 Cinnamomum endlicheriaecarpum Kosterm. 435
Chavica retrofracta (Vahl) Miq. 460 Cinnamomum eucalyptoides T. Nees 435
Chavica roxburghii Miq. 460 Cinnamomum eugenoliferum Kosterm. 435
Chavica sarmentosa (Roxb. ex Hunter) Miq. 460 Cinnamomum gigaphyllum Kosterm. 435
Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.f.) Sw. 434 Cinnamomum glanduliferum C. Nees 435
Chickrassia tabularis (A.H.L. Juss.) A.H.L. Juss. Cinnamomum grandiflorum Kosterm. 435
435 Cinnamomum hentyi Kosterm. 435
Chionachne R.Br. 116 Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Blume 435
Chionachne macrophylla (Benth.) W.D. Clayton Cinnamomumjavanicum Blume 435
115 Cinnamomum lampongum Miq. 436
Chisocheton beccarianus (Bâillon) Harms 434 Cinnamomum massoia Schewe 435
Chisocheton cumingianus (CDC) Harms 434 Cinnamomum massoy Oken 438
Chisocheton macrophyllus King 434 Cinnamomum mercadoi S. Vidal 435
Chisocheton microcarpus Koord. &Valeton 434 Cinnamomum mollissimum Hook.f. 435
Chisocheton morobeanus Harms 434 Cinnamomum neglectum Blume 435
Chisocheton paniculatus Hiern 434 Cinnamomum nitidum Blume 435
Chisocheton pentandrus (Blanco) Merr. 434 Cinnamomum paraneuron Miq. 435
Chisocheton spicatus Hiern 434 Cinnamomum parthenoxylon (Jack) C.Nees 435
Chisocheton thorelli Pierre 434 Cinnamomum pendulum Cammerl. 435
Chloranthus brachystachys Blume 464 Cinnamomum porrectum (Roxb.) Kosterm. 435
Chloranthus elatior Link 435 Cinnamomum rhynchophyllum Miq. 436
Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verde. 435 Cinnamomum sintoc Blume 436
Chloranthus inconspicuus Sw. 435 Cinnamomum sulphuratum C. Nees 435
Chloranthus indicus Wight 435 Cinnamomum sumatranum (Miq.) Meissner 435
Chloranthus obtusifolius Miq. 435 Cinnamomum verum J.S. Presl 436
Chloranthus officinalis Blume 435 Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume 436
Chloranthus spicatus (Thunberg) Makino 435 Cissus discolor Blume 436
Chondria obtusa (Huds.) C.Agardh 450 Cissusjavana DC. 436
Cissus repens Lamk 436
- var. paniculata C.Agardh 450
Chondria obtusa (Huds.) C.Agardh 450 xCitrofortunella microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands
- var. patentiramea Mont. 450 436
xCitrofortunella mitis (Blanco) J. Ingrain & H.E. Clematis vitalba L. 119

Moore 436 - subsp.javana (DC.) O. Kuntze 119
Citrullus lanatus (Thunberg) Matsum. & Nakai Clibadium asperum (Aubl.) DC. 436
436 Clibadium surinamense L. 436
Citrullus vulgaris Schrader ex Ecklon & Zeyher - var. asperum (Aubl.) Baker 436
436 Clinopodium hortense O. Kuntze 464
Citrus L. 392 Clitoria mearnsii De Wild. 437
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. &Panzer) Swingle Clitoria tanganicensis Micheli 437
436 Clitoria ternatea L. 436
Citrus aurantium L. 436 Clitoria zanzibarensis Vatke 437
- var. grandis L. 436 Clusia L. 23, 121
- var. medica Wight &Arnott 436 Clusia coclensis Standi. 121
Citrus crassa Hassk. 436 Clusia major auct. non L. 123
Citrus decumana L. 436 Clusia minor L. 122
Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck 436 Clusia odorata Seem. 122
Citrus hystrix DC. 88,282, 436 Clusia paralicola G. Mariz 121
Citrusjavanica Blume 436 Clusia rosea Jacq. 121,122, 123
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. 436 Cnesmone Blume 124
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. 436 Cnesmone javanica Blume 123
Citrus medica L. 436 Cnesmosa Blume 124
Citrus microcarpa Bunge 436 Cnestis Juss. 124, 125
Citrus mitis Blanco 436 Cnestis corniculata Lamk 124
Citrus notissima Blanco 436 Cnestis diffusa Blanco 124
Claoxylon indicum (Reinw. ex Blume) Hassk. 436 Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DC. 124
Claoxylon polot Merr. 436 Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr. 124
Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merr. 436 Cnestis platantha Griffith 124
Clausena laxiflora Quis. &Merr. 436 Cnestis polyphylla Lamk 124
Clausena sanki (Perr.) Molino 436 Cnestis urens Gilg 124
Cleidion Blume 118 Coccinia cordifolia auct. non (L.) Cogn. 437
Cleidionjavanicum Blume 117 Coccinia grandis (L.)Voigt 437
Cleidion spiciflorum (Burm.f.) Merr. 117 Coccinia indica Wight &Arnott 437
Clematis L. 118 CocculusDC. 23,125
- section Aspidanthera 119 Cocculus hirsutus (L.)Theob. 125, 126
- subsection Papuasicae 119 Cocculus laurifolius DC. 125, 126
Clematis aristata auct. non R.Br. ex Edw. 120 Cocculus orbiculatus (L.) DC. 125, 126, 127
Clematis chinensis Osbeck 118, 119 Cocculus pendulus (J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster)
Clematis clemensiae H. Eichler 118 Diels 126
Clematis glycinoides DC. 119 Cocculus sarmentosus (Lour.) Diels 127
Clematis glycinoides auct. non DC. 118, 119, 120 Cocculus triandrus Colebr. 401
Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. 118 Cocculus trilobus (Thunberg) DC. 127
Clematis gouriana auct. non Roxb. ex DC. 119 Cochlearia armoracia L. 429
Clematisjavana DC. 119 Cocos nana Griffith 437
Clematis leschenaultiana DC. 118 Cocos nucifera L. 437
Clematis loureiriana auct. non DC. 121 Cocos nypa Lour. 456
Clematis meyeniana Walpers 118 Codonoboea Ridley 236
Clematis multistriata H. Eichler 119 Codonopsis Wallich 127,128
Clematis papuasica Merr. &Perry 119, 120 Codonopsisjavanica (Blume) Hook.f. 127
Clematis perspicuinervia Merr. &Perry 120 Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf. 127, 128,
Clematis phanerophlebia Merr. &Perry 118, 120 129
Clematis pickeringii A. Gray 119, 120 Codonopsis tangshen Oliv. 127
Clematis pickeringii auct. non A. Gray 120 Coelodiscus montanus Müll.Arg. 289
Clematis smilacifolia Wallich 119, 121 Coelogyne trinervis Lindley 171
Clematis subpeltata Wallich 121 Coix agrestis Lour. 437
Clematis villosa DC. 119 Coix arundinacea Lamk 437
Coix lacryma-jobi L. 437 Corallopsis salicornia (C.Agardh) Grev. 446

Coix lacryma L. 437 Corchorus aestuans L. 437
ColdeniaL. 129 Corchorus capsularis L. 437
Coldenia procumbens L. 129 Cordia alliodora (Ruiz &Pavón) Oken 437
Coleus parviflorus Benth. 460 Cordia cerdana (Ruiz &Pavón) Roemer &
Coleus tuberosus (Blume) Benth. 460 Schultes 437
Colocasia Schott 59, 131 Cordyline Comm. ex R.Br. 176
Colocasia antiquorum Schott 130 Coriandrum diversifolium Gilib. 437
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott 96, 130, 243 Coriandrum globosum Salisb. 437
- var. antiquorum (Schott) Hubb. &Rehder 131 Coriandrum majus Gouan 437
Colocynthis citrullus (L.) O. Kuntze 436 Coriandrum sativum L. 437
Combretodendron quadrialatum (Merr.) Knuth Coriandrum testiculatum Lour, non L. 437
459 Coriaria L. 136, 137
Commelina axillaris L. 438 Coriaria intermedia Matsum. 136
Conferva crassa C.Agardh 434 Coriariajaponica A. Gray 137
Conferva simplex Wulfen 439 - subsp. intermedia (Matsum.) T.C. Hu 136
CongeaRoxb. 378 Coriaria myrtifolia L. 136
Connaropsis sericea Ridley 362 Coriaria nepalensis Wallich 137
Connaropsis simplicifolia Ridley 362 Coriaria papuana Warb. 136, 137
Connarus L. 132, 185 Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K D . Hill &L.A.S.
Connarus africanus Lamk 132 Johnson 437
Connarus agamae Merr. 132 Corymborkis Thouars 138, 410
Connarus ellipticus King 133 Corymborkis corymbis Thouars 138
Connarus ferrugineus Jack 132 Corymborkis longiflora (Hook.f.) O. Kuntze 137
Connarus gibbosus Wallich ex Hook.f. 133 Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume 137
Connarus grandis Jack 132, 133 - var. lauterbachii (Schlechter) F.N. Rasm. 138
Connarus lamii Leenh. 132 Corypha elata Roxb. 437
Connarus lucens Schellenb. 132 Corypha gembanga (Blume) Blume 437
Connarus monocarpus L. 132, 133 Corypha utan Lamk 437
- subsp. malayanus Leenh. 133 Coscinium Colebr. 140
Connarus mutabilis Blume 133 Coscinium blumeanum Miers ex Hook.f. & Thom-
Connarus neurocalyx Planchon 133 son 140
Connarus oligophyllus Wallich ex Planchon 133 Coscinium blumeanum auct. non Miers ex Hook.f.
Connarus schumannianus Gilg 132 &Thomson 139
Connarus semidecandrus Jack 132, 133 Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertner) Colebr. 139
Connarus suberosus Planchon 132 Coscinium usitatum Pierre 139
Conocarpus latifolia Roxb. ex DC. 427 Coscinium wallichianum Miers 139
ConyzaLess. 135,301 Cosmos bipinnatus Ridley non Cav. 437
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. 135 Cosmos caudatus Kunth 437
Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. 135 CostusL. 397
Conyza pyrifolia Lamk 300 Costus nepalensis Roscoe 437
Conyza redolens Willd. 340 Costus sericeus Blume 437
Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.H. Walker 134 Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Smith 437
Cookia anisum-olens Blanco 436 Coumarouna odorata Aublet 441
Coptosapelta Korth. 135, 136 Cracca purpurea L. 469
Coptosapelta diffusa (Champ, ex Benth.) v. Stee- Cracca vogelii (Hook.f.) O. Kuntze 469
nis 135, 136 Crassocephalum Moench 140, 141
Coptosapelta flavescens Korth. 135 Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore
Coptosapelta griffithii Hook.f. 135 140
Coptosapelta tomentosa (Blume) Valeton ex K. Crassocephalum rubens (Juss. ex Jacq.) S. Moore
Heyne 135 140
Corallina incrassata J. Ellis 447 Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore
Corallina opuntia L. 447 141
Corallina tuna J. Ellis &Sol. 447 Crocosmia Planchon 142
Crocosmia aurea (Pappe ex Hook.) Planchon 142 Curcuma L. 79,222

Crocosmia xcrocosmiiflora (Lemoine ex E. Mor- Curcuma americana Lamk 432
ren) N.E.Br. 142 Curcuma longa L. 158
Crocosmia masonorum (L. Bolus) N.E.Br. 142 Curcuma rotunda L. 431
Crocosmia pottsii (M'Nab ex Baker) N.E.Br. 142 Cuscuta L. 145
Crocus sativus L. 142, 437 Cuscuta australis R.Br. 144
Croixia gutta (Hook.f.) Baehni 457 Cuscuta chinensis Lamk 144, 145
Croomia Torr. 382 Cuscuta europaea L. 145
Crossostephium Less. 143 Cuscuta hygrophilae Pearson 144
Crossostephium artemisioides Less. 143 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 145
Crossostephium chinense (L.)Makino 143 Cussambium oleosum O. Kuntze 464
Crotalaria caerulaea Jacq. 438 Cyamopsis psoraloides (Lamk) DC. 438
Crotalaria heterophylla L.f. 437 Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)Taubert 438
Crotalaria incana L. 437 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) Sweet 438
Crotalaria laburnifolia L. 437 Cyathostemma Griff. 146, 413
Crotalaria mucronata Desv. 437 Cyathostemma micranthum (A.DC.) J. Sinclair
Crotalaria pallida Aiton 437 146
Crotalaria pubescens Moench 437 Cyathostemma viridiflorum Griff. 146
Crotalaria quinquefolia L. 437 Cycas circinalis L. 438
Crotalaria retusa L. 437 Cycas rumphii Miq. 438
Crotalaria sericea Retz, non Burm.f. 438 Cyclandrophora excelsa (Jack) Kosterm. 430
Crotalaria siamica Williams 437 Cylindrokelupha bubalina (Jack) Kosterm. 428
Crotalaria spectabilis Roth 437 Cymbidium Sw. 146, 147
Crotalaria striata DC. 437 - subgenus Cymbidium 147
Crotalaria verrucosa L. 438 - subgenus Cyperorchis 147
Croton mollissimus Geiseler 290 - subgenus Jensoa 147
Croton paniculatus Lamk 290 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. 146, 147
Croton philippense Lamk 290 Cymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. 146, 147, 148
Croton sebiferum L. 471 Cymbidium pendulum (Roxb.) Sw. 147
Cryphaea erecta Buch.-Ham. 435 Cymbidium simulans Rolfe 147
Cryptocarya R.Br. 94 Cymbidium sundaicum Schlechter 148
Cryptocarya aromatica (Becc.) Kosterm. 438 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf 369, 438
Cryptocarya massoy (Oken) Kosterm. 438 Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steudel) J.F.
Cryptocarya novoguineensis Teschner 438 Watson 438
Cryptocoryne Fisch, ex Wydler 144 Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) J.F. Watson 438
Cryptocoryne blassii de Wit 143 - var. motia auct. 438
Cryptocoryne cordata Griffith 143 Cymbopogon motia Gupta 438
Cryptocoryne siamensis Gagnep. 143 Cymbopogon nardus (L.)Rendle 438
Cryptocoryne spiralis (Retz.) Fisch, ex Wydler - var. mahapangiri auct. 438
143 Cymbopogon travancorensis Bor 438
Cryptocoryne wendtii de Wit 143 Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt 438
Cubeba officinalis Raf. 460 Cynoglossum L. 23,148, 149, 407
Cucumis L. 310 Cynoglossum amabile Stapf &J.R. Drumm. 148,
Cucumis sativus L. 438 149
Cucurbita hispida Thunberg ex Murray 431 Cynoglossum creticum Miller 149
Cucurbita lagenaria L. 450 Cynoglossum hellwigii Brand 149
Cudrania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Kudo & Masam. Cynoglossum javanicum auct. non Thunberg ex
452 Lehm. 149
Cudraniajavanensis Trécul 452 Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. 148, 150
Cuminum cyminum L. 438 Cynoglossum micranthum Desf. 150
Cuminum odorum Salisb. 438 Cynoglossum officinale L. 148, 149
Cupania erythrorhachis Miq. 454 Cynoglossum wallichii G. Don 148
Curculigo Gaertner 75 Cynosurus coracan L. 441
Curculigo latifolia Dryand. 438 CyperusL. 199,292
Cyperus pedunculatus (R.Br.) Kern 438 Dasymaschalon macrocalyx Finet &Gagnep. 156
Cyrta dealbata Miers 467 Dasymaschalon oblongatum Merr. 157
Cyrtandra J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 150 Dasymaschalon sootepense Craib 156
Cyrtandra cupulata Ridley 151 Decaspermum fruticosum auct. non J.R. Forster
Cyrtandra decurrens deVriese 150 &J.G. Forster 439
Cyrtandra grandiflora Ridley non Gaud. 151 Decaspermum paniculatum (Lindley) Kurz 439
Cyrtandra oblongifolia (Blume) C.B. Clarke 151 Decaspermum parviflorum (Lamk) A.J. Scott 439
Cyrtandra pendula Blume 150, 438 Deguelia microphylla (Miq.)Valeton 439
Cyrtandra pilosa auct. non Blume 151 Dehaasia Blume 94
Cyrtandra wallichii (C.B.Clarke) B.L. Burtt 151 Delaportea ferox Gagnep. 425
Cyrtandromoea Zoll. 151 Delaportea microphylla Gagnep. 425
Cyrtandromoea acuminata C.B. Clarke 152 Delesseria filicina J.V. Lamour. 446
Cyrtandromoea grandis Ridley 151, 152 Delesseria leprieurii Mont. 432
Cyrtandromoea subsessilis (Miq.) B.L. Burtt 152 Dendrobium Sw. 192
Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merr. 438 Dendrobium nutans Presl 445
Cyrtosperma edule Schott ex Seem. 438 Dendrolobium lanceolatum (Dunn) Schindler 219
Cyrtosperma lasioides Griffith 438 Dendrophthoe Mart. 157, 284, 370
Cyrtosperma merkusii (Hassk.) Schott 438 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. 157
Cytisus cajan L. 432 Dendrophthoe incarnata (Jack) Miq. 158
Cytisus laburnum L. 195 Dendrophthoe longiflora (Desr.) Ettingsh. 157
Cytisus sericeus Willd. 454 Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.)Miq. 157, 158
Dactyladenia barteri (Hook.f. ex Oliver) G.T. Dendrophthoe villosa Danser 158
Prance &F. White 438 Dendrotrophe Miq. 159
Daemonorops didymophylla Becc. 438 Dendrotrophe buxifolia (Blume) Miq. 159
Dalbergia L.f. 152 Dendrotrophe frutescens (Benth.) Danser 159
Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain 152 Dendrotrophe monticola (Gamble) Danser 159
Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre 153 Dendrotrophe umbellata (Blume) Miq. 159
Dentella J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 160
Dalbergia cumingiana Benth. 153, 154, 439
Dentella repens (L.)J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
Dalbergia ferruginea Roxb. 153, 154
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 153 159
Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. &Perr. 153 Dentella serpyllifolia Wallich ex Craib. 160
Dalbergia monetaria L. 153 Derris Lour. 376
Dalbergia odorifera T. Chen 153 Derris dalbergioides Baker 439
Dalbergia parviflora Roxb. 438 Derris indica (Lamk) J.J. Bennett 461
Dalbergia pinnata (Lour.) Prain 154 Derris microphylla (Miq.) B.D. Jackson 439
Dalbergia saxatilis Hook.f. 153 Desmodium striatum (Thunberg ex Murray) DC.
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. 153 449
Dalbergia stercoracea Maingay ex Prain 154 Desmodium timoriense DC. 461
Dalbergia stipulacea Roxb. 153 Desmodium viscidum (L.) DC. 462
Dalbergia tamarindifolia Roxb. 154 Desmos Lour. 156, 157, 160
Dalbergia velutina Benth. 153 Desmos chinensis Lour. 160, 161
Dalbergia volubilis Roxb. 153 Desmos cochinchinensis Lour. 160, 161, 162
Dalbergia zollingeriana Miq. 439 Desmos dasymaschalus (Blume) Safford 156
DaleaL. 155 Desmos dumosus (Roxb.) Safford 160
Dalea cliffortiana Willd. 155 Desmos pedunculosus (A.DC.) Ban 161
Dalenia Korth. 168 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf 439
Daphniphyllum conglutinosum Hemsl. 459 Dichapetalum Thouars 162
Dasymaschalon (Hook.f. &Thomson) Dalla Torre Dichapetalum barteri Engl. 162
& Harms 156, 161 Dichapetalum cymosum (Hook.) Engl. 162
Dasymaschalon blumei Finet &Gagnep. 156 Dichapetalum gelonioides (Roxb.) Engl. 162
Dasymaschalon clusiflorum (Merr.) Merr. 156, Dichapetalum griffithii (Hook.f.) Engl. 162
157 Dichapetalum madagascariense Poir. 162
Dasymaschalon longiflorum (Roxb.) Finet & Gag- Dichapetalum toxicarium (G.Don) Bâillon 162
nep. 156 Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)Wight &Arnott 439
Dicliptera Juss. 255, 327 Dioscorea daemona Roxb. 440

DiclipterajavanicaNees 439 Dioscorea deflexa Hook.f. non Grisebach 440
Dicliptera laevigata (Vahl) Juss. 439 Dioscorea diepenhorstii Miq. 440
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw. 439 Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill 440
Dicranostyles Benth. 194 Dioscorea hirsuta Dennst. 440
Dictyoneura integerrima Radlk. 444 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. 440
Dictyopterisjamaicensis W.R. Taylor 439 Dioscorea laurifolia Wallich ex Hook.f. 440
Dictyosphaeria cavernosa (Forssk.) B0rgesen 439 Dioscorea maliliensis R. Knuth 440
Dictyosphaeria favulosa (C.Agardh) Decne. ex Dioscorea oppositifolia auct. 440
Endl. 439 Dioscorea piscatorum Prain &Burkill 440
Didissandra C.B. Clarke 163 Dioscorea prainiana R. Knuth 440
Didissandra frutescens (Jack) C.B. Clarke 163 Dioscorea pyrifolia Kunth 440
Didymocarpus Wallich 151,235 Dioscorea tiliifolia Kunth 440
Didymocarpus atrosanguineus Ridley 236 Dioscorea triphylla L. 440
Didymocarpus crinitus Jack 236 Dioscorea zollingeriana Kunth 440
Didymocarpus oblongus D. Don 235 Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii (Stapf) Diels 440
Didymocarpus pedicellatus R.Br. 235 Dioscoreophyllum lobatum Diels 440
Didymocarpus platypus C.B. Clarke 236 Diospyros L. 165
Didymocarpus reptans Jack 236 - subgenus Cargillia 166
Didymosperma hastatum Becc. 82 - subgenus Diospyros 166
Didymosperma porphyrocarpum (Blume ex Mart.) - subgenus Hierniodendron 166
H. Wendl. &Drude 82 - subgenus Maba 166
Dieffenbachia Schott 164 - subgenus Mabacea 166
Dieffenbachia maculata (Lodd.) D. Don 163 Diospyros blancoi A.DC. 165
Dieffenbachia picta (Lodd.) Schott 163 Diospyros calcarea Fletcher 167
Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott 163 Diospyros camarinensis Merr. 440
Digenea simplex (Wulfen) C.Agardh 439 Diospyros canomoi A.DC. 167
Digenia wulfenii Kütz. 439 Diospyros clavigera C.B. Clarke 440
Digitaria endlichii Mez 439 - var. pachyphylla (C.B. Clarke) Ridley 440
Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle) Stapf 439 Diospyros collinsae Craib 441
Digitaria mombasana C.E. Hubbard 439 Diospyros cordifolia Roxb. 167
Digitaria polevansii Stent 439 Diospyros decandra Lour. 165, 166, 440
- subsp. peterana Henrard 439 Diospyros digyna Jacq. 165, 440
Digitaria setivalva Stent 439 Diospyros diversilimba Merr. &Chun 167
Digitaria swynnertonii Rendle 439 Diospyros ebenaster Hiern non Retz. 440
Dillenia aurea auct. non J.E. Smith 439 Diospyros ebenum Koenig 440
Dillenia baillonii Pierre ex Lanessan 439 Diospyros ehretioides Wallich ex G. Don 165, 219
Dillenia catmon Elmer 439 Diospyros embryopteris Pers. 440
Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg 439 - var. siamensis (Hochr.) Lecomte 440
Dillenia indica L. 439 Diospyros foveo-reticulata Merr. 441
Dillenia obovata (Blume) Hoogl. 439 Diospyros glaberrima Rottb. 440
Dillenia ovata Wallich ex Hook.f. &Thomson 439 Diospyros globularia (Miq) Koord. &Valeton 440
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. 439 Diospyros glutinifera Roxb. 440
Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe 439 Diospyros incisa Buch.-Ham. ex Wallich 441
Dillenia speciosa Thunberg 439 Diospyros kaki L.f. 165, 166, 440
Dimocarpus litchi Lour. 451 Diospyros lanceifolia Roxb. 165, 440
Dimocarpus longan Lour. 439 Diospyros laxa (R.Br.) Bailey 441
Dioclea Kunth 164, 165 Diospyros liukiuensis Makino 441
Dioclea hexandra (Ralph) Mabb. 164 Diospyros lotus Blanco non L. 167
Diocleajavanica Benth. 164 Diospyros lucida Wallich exA.DC. 440
Dioclea reflexa Hook.f. 164 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. 165, 166,
Dioscorea L. 118, 394, 395 440
Dioscorea aculeata L. 440 Diospyros maritima Blume 165, 166, 440
Dioscorea borneensis R. Knuth 440 Diospyros mollis Griffith 165, 166
Diospyros montana Roxb. 165, 166,167 Dolichos erosus L. 457

Diospyros multiflora Blanco 167 Dolichos gladiatus Jacq. 433
Diospyros nigra (J.F. Gmelin) Perrottet 440 Dolichos maritimus Aublet 433
Diospyros pachyphylla C.B. Clarke 440 Dolichos montanus Lour. 462
Diospyros peregrina Guerke 440 Dolichos palmatilobus Moc. &Sessé ex DC. 457
Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 165 Dolichos phaseoloides Roxb. 462
Diospyros rhodocalyx Kurz 165 Dolichos uniflorus Lamk 452
Diospyros rufa King &Gamble 165, 441 Donacodes walang Blume 442
Diospyros siamensis Hochr. 440 Donax canniformis (G.Forster) K. Schumann 441
Diospyros toposia Buch.-Ham. 165, 441 Dorystephania Warb. 362
Diospyros wallichii King &Gamble ex Williams Doxoma vriesei (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Miers 117
165, 168 Dracaena L. 175
Diplectria (Blume) Reichenb. 168 Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. 175, 176
Diplectria barbata (C.B.Clarke) Franken & Roos Dracaena arborea (Willd.) Link 175
168 Dracaena cambodiana Pierre ex Gagnep. 175
Diplectria conica Bakh.f. 168 Dracaena cinnabari Balf. 175
Diplectria divaricata (Willd.) O. Kuntze 168, 169 Dracaena cochinchinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen 175,
Diplectria furfurascens (Elmer) Nayar 168 176
Diplectria latifolia (Triana) O. Kuntze 168 Dracaena draco (L.)L. 175
Diplectria micrantha Veldk. 168 Dracaena loureiri Gagnep. 175
Diplectria papuana (Mansf.) Bakh.f. 168 Dracaena mannii Baker 175
Diplectria stipularis (Blume) O. Kuntze 168, 169 Dracaena umbratica Ridley 176, 177
Diplectria viminalis (Jack) O. Kuntze 168, 169 Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. &Rolfe 441
Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam 441 Dracontomelon edule (Blanco) Skeels 441
Dipteracanthus Nees 170,325, 353 Dracontomelon mangiferum (Blume) Blume 441
Dipteracanthus patula (Jacq.) Nees 170 Dracontomelon puberulum Miq. 441
Dipteracanthus repens (L.) Hassk. 169 Dracontomelon sylvestre Blume 441
Dipteris conjugata Reinw. 441 Dregea E. Mey. 177
Dipteryx odorata (Aublet) Willd. 441 Dregea formosana T. Yamazaki 177
Dipteryx tetraphylla Spruce ex Benth. 441 Dregea lanceolata Sant. &Wagh. 177
Dischidia R.Br. 171, 172 Dregea sinensis Hemsl. 177
Dischidia acuminata Costantin 171 Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. 177
Dischidia bengalensis Colebr. 171, 172 Drosera L. 23,178
Dischidia chinensis Champ, ex Benth. 171 Drosera burmannii Vahl 178,179
Dischidia formosana Maxim. 171 Drosera indica L. 178,179
Dischidia gaudichaudii Decne. 173 Drosera peltata J.E. Smith exWilld. 178, 179,
Dischidia imbricata (Blume) Steudel 172 180
Dischidia major (Vahl)Merr. 171, 172 Drosera rotundifolia L. 178
Dischidia minor (Vahl) Merr. 173 Drymaria Willd. ex Schultes 181
Dischidia nummularia R.Br. 172, 173 Drymaria arenarioides Schultes 181
Dischidia purpurea Merr. 172, 173 Drymaria cordata (L.)Willd. ex Schultes 180
Dischidia rafflesiana Wallich 172 - subsp. cordata 181
Disocactus Lindley 189 - subsp. diandra (Blume) J.A. Duke 181
Dissochaeta Blume 168, 173, 294 Drymaria diandra Blume 181
Dissochaeta bracteata (Jack) Blume 174 Dryobalanops Gaertner f. 217
Dissochaeta celebica Blume 173, 174 Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertner f. 441
Dissochaeta gracilis (Jack) Blume 173, 174 Dryobalanops camphora Colebr. 441
Dissochaeta punctulata Hook.f. ex Triana 175 Dryobalanops sumatrensis (J.F. Gmelin) Kosterm.
Ditremexa occidentalis (L.)Britton &Rose ex
441
Britton &Wilson 465 Duchesnea indica (H.C.Andrews) Focke 461
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f.) K. Schumann 441 Dunbaria Wight &Arnott 182
Dolichos biflorus auct. non L. 452 Dunbaria bella Prain 182
Dolichos bulbosus L. 457 Dunbaria harmandii Gagnep. 182
Dolichos ensiformis L. 433 Dunbaria incana (Zoll. &Moritzi) Maesen 182
Dunbaria nivea Miq. 182 Endospermum malaccense Benth. 442

Dunbaria punctata (Wight &Arnott) Benth. 182 Endospermum moluccanum (Teijsm. & Binnend.)
Dunbaria scortechinii Prain 182 Kurz 442
Durio acuminatissima Merr. 441 Engelhardtia chrysolepis Hance 442
Durio oxleyanus Griffith 441 Engelhardtia polystachya Radlk. 442
Durio zibethinus Murray 441 Engelhardtia roxburghiana Lindley ex Wallich
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. 126 442
Ecliptaalba(L.)Hassk. 441 Engelhardtia wallichiana Lindley ex CDC. 442
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 441 Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle 442
Ehretia P. Browne 183, 352 Enicostema Blume 187
Ehretia acuminata R.Br. 183 Enicostema axillare (Lamk)A. Raynal 186
Ehretia navesii S.Vidal 182 - subsp. axillare 187
Ehretia ovalifolia Hassk. 183 - subsp. latilobium (N.E.Br.) A. Raynal 187
Ehretia philippinensis A.DC. 182 - subsp. littorale (Blume) A. Raynal 187, 188
Ehretia resinosa Hance 182,183 Enicostema hyssopifolium (Willd.)I. Verd. 186
Elaeagnus philippensis Perr. 441 Enicostema littorale Blume 186
Elaeagnus triflora Roxb. 441 Enicostema verticillatum auct. non (L.) Gilg 186
Elatostema J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 183, 331 Enydra fluctuans Lour. 442
Elatostema repens (Lour.) Hallier f. 183, 184 Enydra longifolia (Blume) DC. 442
Elatostema sessile J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster Enydra paludosa (Reinw.) DC. 442
183, 184 Epiphyllum Haw. 188, 189
Eleiodoxa conferta (Griffith) Burret 441 Epiphyllum hookeri Haw. 189
Eleocharis R.Br. 199 Epiphyllum oxypetalum (DC.) Haw. 188
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Trinius ex Henschel Epipremnopsis zippeliana (Schott) Alderw. 67
405, 441 Epipremnum Schott 67,190, 346, 367
Eleocharis plantaginea Roemer &Schultes 441 Epipremnum aureum (Linden &André) G.S.
Eleocharis tuberosa Roemer &Schultes 441 Bunting 190
Elephantopus scaber L. 336 Epipremnum giganteum (Roxb.) Schott 189
Elettaria cardamomum (L.)Maton 441 Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl. 189
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner 441 - cv.Aureum 190
Ellipanthus Hook.f. 132, 185 Epipremnum zippelianum (Schott) Engl. 67
Ellipanthus beccarii Pierre 185 Epirixanthes Blume 191,355
Ellipanthus gibbosus King 185 Epirixanthes aphylla (Griffith) Merr. 190
Ellipanthus griffithii Hook.f. 185 Epirixanthes elongata Blume 190
Ellipanthus luzoniensis S.Vidal 185 Equisetum ramossissimum Desf. 442
Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz 185 Eragrostis cynosuroides (Retz.) P. Beauv. 439
- subsp. kingii (Boerl. &Koord.) Leenh. 185 Eranthemum L. 192
- subsp. tomentosus 185 Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roemer &
Elythranthe (Blume) Blume 285 Schultes 191
Elytranthe cochinchinensis (Lour.) G. Don 285 Eranthemum pulchellum Andrews 191
Elytranthe globosus (Roxb.) G. Don 285 Eranthemum roseum (Vahl) R.Br. 191
Elytranthe robinsonii Gamble 285 Eranthemum sumatranum Bremek. 192
Emilia (Cass.) Cass. 186 Eranthemum viscidum Blume 191
Emilia angustifolia DC. 185 Eranthemum whartonianum Hemsl. 191
Emilia coccinea (Sims) G. Don 186 Erechtites valerianifolia (Wolf) DC. 141
Emilia papuana Mattfeld 185 Eria Lindley 192
Emilia prenanthoidea DC. 185 - section Strongylaria 192
Emilia sonchifolia (L.)DC. 186,441 Eria arnica Reichenb.f. 192
Encoelium clathratum C.Agardh 448 Eria flava Griff. 192
Endospermum beccarianum Pax &Hofftn. 442 Eriajarensis Ames 192
Endospermum borneense Benth. 442 Eriajavanica (Sw.) Blume 192
Endospermum diadenum (Miq.)Airy Shaw 442 Eria pannea Lindley 192
Endospermum formicarum Becc. 442 Eria spicata (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz. 192
Endospermum labios Schodde 442 Eria teretifolia Griffith 192
Erigeron L. 301 Eugenia aquea Burm.f. 467

Erigeron linifolius auct. non Willd. 134 Eugenia aromatica (L.) Bâillon 467
Erigeron sumatrensis Retz. 134 Eugenia balsamea Ridley 468
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunberg) Lindley 442 Eugenia brasiliensis Lamk non Aublet 442
Erioglossum edule (Blume) Blume 450 Eugenia caryophyllus (Sprengel) Bullock & Harri-
Erioglossum rubiginosum (Roxb.) Blume 450 son 467
Eriope Kunth ex Benth. 257 Eugenia chlorantha Duthie 467
Erismanthus Wallich ex Müll. Arg. 193 Eugenia cumini (L.)Druce 467
Erismanthus obliquus Wallich ex Müll.Arg. 193 Eugenia dombeyi (Sprengel) Skeels 442
Erismanthus sinensis Oliv. 193 Eugenia domestica Bâillon 468
Eruca foetida Moench 442 Eugenia jambolana Lamk 467
Eruca sativa Miller 442 Eugenia jambos L. 468
Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. 442 Eugeniajavanica Lamk 467,468
- subsp. sativa (Miller) Thellung 442 Eugenia lineata (Blume) Duthie 468
ErycibeRoxb. 193 Eugenia longiflora (K. Presl) Fern.-Vill. 468
Erycibe aenea Prain 194 Eugenia malaccensis L. 468
Erycibe angulata Prain 194 Eugenia mananquil Blanco 468
Erycibe dubia Elmer 194 Eugenia michelii Lamk 442
Erycibe hainanensis Merr. 193 Eugenia mindanaensis C.B. Robinson 467
Erycibe henryi Prain 193 Eugenia nitida Duthie 468
Erycibe maingayi C.B. Clarke 194 Eugenia polyantha Wight 468
Erycibe malaccensis C.B. Clarke 194 Eugenia pustulata Duthie 468
Erycibe obtusifolia Benth. 193, 194 Eugenia teysmannii (Miq.) Koord. &Valeton 468
Erycibe obtusifolia auct. non Benth. 193 Eugenia uniflora L. 442
Erycibe rheedii Blume 194 Euodia J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 197, 296
Eryngium antihystericum Rottler 442 Euodia alata F. v. Mueller 298
Eryngium foetidum L. 442 Euodia anisodora K. Schumann &Lauterb. 297
Erythrina micropteryx Poeppig ex Walpers 442 Euodia aromatica Blume 297
Erythrina poeppigiana (Walpers) O.F. Cook 442 Euodia bonwickii F. v.Mueller 296
Erythrina stricta Roxb. 219 Euodia confusa Merr. 453
Erythroxylum burmanicum Griffith 442 Euodia hortensis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 196
Erythroxylum cuneatum (Miq.) Kurz 442 Euodia latifolia DC. 453
Erythroxylum densinerve O.E. Schulz 442 Euodia lepta (Sprengel) Merr. 295
Erythroxylum ecarinatum Burck 442 Euodia longifolia A. Rich. 196, 197
Erythroxylum platyphyllum Merr. 442 Euodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertner) Merr. 297
Erythroxylum salomonense C.T. White 442 Euodia peekelii Lauterb. 295
Erytrochilus indicus Reinw. ex Blume 436 Euodia radlkoferiana Lauterb. 296
Etlingera punicea (Roxb.) R.M. Smith 442 Euodia ridleyi Hochr. 296
Etlingera walang (Blume) R.M. Smith 442 Euodia roxburghiana (Cham.) Benth. 297
Eucalyptus L'Hér. 241,419 Euodia schullei Warb. 296
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. 442 - var. simplicifolia Guill. 196
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. 437
Euodia speciosa Reichenb.f. &Zoll, exTeijsm. &
Eucalyptus maculata Hook. 437
Binnend. 296
- var. citriodora (Hook.) Bailey 437 Euodia tietaensis (Guill.) T.G. Hartley 197
Eucalyptus melissiodora Lindley 437 Euodia villamilii Merr. 296
Eucalyptus rostrata Schlechtendal 442 Eupatorium chinense L. 442
Eucarya spicata (R.Br.) Sprague & Summerh. Eupatorium conyzoides Vahl 435
464 Eupatorium cordatum Burm.f. 454
Euchema gelatinum (Esper) J. Agardh 431 Eupatorium harrisii Urban 426
Euchresta Benn. 195 Eupatorium japonicum Thunberg ex Murray 443
Euchresta formosana (Hayata) Ohwi 195, 196 Eupatorium odoratum L. 435
Euchresta horsfieldii (Lesch.) Benn. 195, 196 Eupatorium rebaudianum Bertoni 467
Euchresta horsfieldii auct. non (Lesch.) Benn. Eupatorium riparium Regel 426
196 Euphorbia thymifolia L. 262
Euphoria cinerea Radlk. 439 Ficus altissima Blume 443

Euphoria didyma Blanco 451 Ficus blancoi Elmer 444
Euphoria gracilis Radlk. 439 Ficus chrysochlamys Lauterb. &K. Schumann
Euphoria longana Lamk 439 443
Euphoria malaiensis Radlk. 440 Ficus chrysocoma Blume 443
Euphoria morigera Gagnep. 440 Ficus decaisneana Miq. 444
Euphoria nephelioides Radlk. 440 Ficus drupacea Thunberg 443
Euphoria scandens Winit &Kerr. 440 Ficus edelfeltii King 443
Eupteron nodosa (Blume) Miq. 461 Ficus elegans Hassk. 444
Eurya acuminata DC. 443 Ficus glomerata Roxb. 444
Euryajaponica auct. non Thunberg 443 Ficus minahassae (Teijsm. &de Vriese) Miq. 443
Eurya monticola Ridley 443 Ficus montana Burm.f. 444
Eurya wrayi King 443 Ficus padana Burm.f. 444
EurycomaJack 330 Ficus payapa Blanco 443
Eurycoma longifolia Jack 26 Ficus philippinensis Miq. 444
Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. &Binnend. 443 Ficus pilosa Reinw. ex Blume 443
Ewyckia medinilliformis Naudin 462 Ficus pseudopalma Blanco 444
Exocarpos latifolius R.Br. 443 Ficus quercifolia Roxb. 444
Exocarpos luzonensis (Presl)A.DC. 443 Ficus racemosa L. 444
Exocarpos ovatus Blume 443 Ficus retusa L. 444
Fagerlindia Tirveng. 198 Ficus semicostata F.M. Bailey 444
Fagerlindia fasciculata (Roxb.)Tirveng. 197 Ficus toxicaria L. 444
Fagraea Thunberg 53 Ficus truncata Miq. 444
Fagraea affmis S. Moore 443 Ficus trymatocarpa Miq. 444
Fagraea ampla S. Moore 443 Ficus vesca F. v. Mueller ex Miq. 444
Fagraea berteriana A. Gray ex Benth. 443 Ficus virgata Reinw. ex Blume 444
Fagraea bodenii Wernham 443 Fimbristylis Vahl 198, 292, 421
Fagraea cochinchinensis A. Chev. 443 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.)Vahl 198,199
Fagraea elliptica Roxb. 443 Fimbristylis dura (Zoll. &Moritzi) Merr. 198
Fagraea fragrans Roxb. 443 Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth 198, 199
Fagraea gigantea Ridley 443 Fimbristylis globulosa (Retz.) Kunth 198
Fagraea javanensis (Blume) Bakh.f. 443 Fimbristylis junciformis (Nées) Kunth 199
Fagraea maingayi C.B. Clarke 443 Fimbristylis littoralis Gaudich. 199
Fagraea morindaefolia (Reinw.) Blume 443 Fimbristylis miliacea (L.)Vahl 198, 199
Fagraea novae-guineae Cammerl. 443 Fimbristylis pauciflora R.Br. 198
Fagraea papuana Merr. &Perry 443 Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth 199
Fagraea racemosa Jack exWallich 443 Fimbristylis schoenoides (Retz.)Vahl 198
Fagraea sair Gilg &Gilg-Ben. 443 Fimbristylis umbellaris (Lamk) Vahl 198, 444
Fagraea speciosa (Blume) Blume 443 Finschia chloroxantha Diels 444
Fagraea suaveolens Cammerl. 443 Fissistigma Griffith 200, 204, 302, 342
Fissistigma balansae (Aug. DC.)Merr. 200
Fagraea subreticulata Blume 443
Fissistigma cylindricum (Maingay ex Hook.f. &
Fagraea sumatrana Miq. 443
Fagraea wallichiana Benth. 443 Thomson) Merr. 201,341
Faidherbia albida (Del.)A.Chev. 443 Fissistigma fulgens (Hook.f. &Thomson) Merr.
Falkenbergia hildebrandii (Bornet) Falkenb. 429 201
Feronia elephantum Correa 450 Fissistigma glaucescens (Hance) Merr. 200, 201
Feronia limonia (L.) Swingle 450 Fissistigma kingii (Boerl.) Burkill 202
Ferula assa-foetida L. 443 Fissistigma lanuginosum (Hook.f. & Thomson)
Ferula pseudalliacea Rech.f. 443 Merr. 200,202
Ferula rubicaulis Boissier 443 Fissistigma latifolium (Dunal) Merr. 200,201,
Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers 443 202
Fibraurea tinctoria Lour. 443 Fissistigma mabiforme (Griffith) Merr. 201,302
Fibraurea trotteri Watt ex Diels 443 Fissistigma manubriatum (Hook.f. & Thomson)
Ficus L. 122,417 Merr. 200,202
Fissistigma oldhamii (Hemsl.) Merr. 200, 201 Galbulimima F.M. Bailey 206
Fissistigma polyanthum (Hook.f. & Thomson) Galbulimima baccata F.M. Bailey 206
Merr. 200,201 Galbulimima belgraveana (F.v. Mueller) Sprague
Fissistigma prismaticum (Hook.f. & Thomson) 23, 205
Merr. 341 Galearia Zoll. &Moritzi 206
Fissistigma shangtzeense Tsiang &P.T. Li 200, Galearia affrnis (R.Br.) Miq. 207
201 Galearia filiformis (Blume) Boerl. 206
Flacourtia euphlebia Merr. 444 Galearia fulva (Tul.) Miq. 206, 207
Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. 444 Galearia philippinensis Merr. 207
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeuschel 444 Galearia ridleyi Gage 207
Flacourtia ramontchi L'Hérit. 444 Galega villosa L. 469
Flacourtia rukam Zoll. &Moritzi 444 Ganonema farinosum (J.V. Lamour.) K.C. Fan &
Flagellaria indica L. 444 Yung C. Wang 444
Floscopa Lour. 203 Ganophyllum falcatum Blume 444
Floscopa scandens Lour. 203 Garcinia cherryi F.M. Bailey 469
Fluggea microcarpa Blume 465 Garcinia gaudichaudii Planchon &Triana 445
Fluggea virosa (Roxb. exWilld.)Bâillon 465 Garcinia gutta Wight 445
Foeniculum capillaceum Gilib. 444 Garcinia hanburyi Hook.f. 444
Foeniculum officinale Allioni 444 Garcinia hombroniana Pierre 445
Foeniculum vulgare Miller 315, 444 Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy 445
Forrestia A. Rich. 61 Garcinia lateriflora Blume 445
Forrestia gracilis Ridley 62 Garcinia mangostana L. 445
Forrestia griffithii C.B. Clarke 62 Garcinia microstigma Kurz 445
Forrestia irritans Ridley 62 Garcinia morella (Gaertner) Desr. 444, 445
Fragaria indica H.C. Andrews 461 - var. pedicellata Hanbury 444
Fragaria vesca L. 444 Gardenia Ellis 114,207, 208
Fraxinus eedenii Boerl. &Koord. 444 Gardenia augusta(L.) Merr. 445
Fraxinus formosana Hayata 444 Gardenia carinata Wallich ex Roxb. 208
Fraxinus griffithii C.B. Clarke 444 Gardenia curranii Merr. 114
Fraxinus philippensis Merr. 444 Gardenia fasciculata Roxb. ex Sprengel 197
Friesodielsia v. Steenis 203 Gardenia florida L. 445
- subgenus Amblymitra 204 Gardenia grandiflora Lour. 445
- subgenus Friesodielsia 204 Gardeniajasminoides Ellis 207, 208, 445
- subgenus Oxymitropsis 204 Gardenia pseudopsidium (Blanco) Fern.-Vill. 207
Friesodielsia bakeri (Merr.) v. Steenis 204 Gardenia sootepensis Hutch. 207
Friesodielsia biglandulosa (Blume) v. Steenis 204 Garuga abilo Merr. 445
Friesodielsia enghiana (Diels)Verde. 204 Garuga floribunda Decne. 445
Friesodielsia kingii (J. Sinclair) v. Steenis 204 Garuga littoralis Merr. 445
Friesodielsia latifolia (Hook.f. &Thomson) v. Garuga pacifica Burkill 445
Steenis 204 Gastrochilus pandurata (Roxb.) Ridley 431
Friesodielsia velutina (Sprague &Hutch.) v. Stee- Gaultheria crenulata Kurz 445
nis 204 Gaultheria cumingiana Vidal 445
Fucus edulis S.G. Gmelin 446 Gaultheria fragrantissima Wallich 445
Fucus filicina Wulfen 446 - var. punctata (Blume) J.J. Smith 445
Fucus gelatinus Esper 431 Gaultheria fragrantissima auct. non Wallich 445
Fucus prolifer M. Blanco 447 Gaultheria leucocarpa Blume 445
Fucus racemosus Forssk. 434 Gaultheria punctata Blume 445
Fucus sertularioides S.G. Gmelin 434 Gelonium glomerulatum (Blume) Hassk. 390
Fucus taxifolius Vahl 434 Gelonium multiflorum A.Juss. 391
Fucus taxiformis Delile 429 Geniosperum parviflorum Wallich ex Benth. 453
Funtumia elastica (P.Preuss) Stapf 444 Genipa americana L. 445
Galactia striata (Jacq.) Urban 444 GentianaL. 23,208,209
Galactia tenuiflora (Klein ex Willd.) Wight & Gentiana arisanensis Hayata 208
Arnott 444 Gentiana laxicaulis Zoll. 208
Gentiana loureiroi (G. Don) Griseb. 208 Glochidion wallichianum Müll. Arg. 215
Gentiana lutea L. 208, 209 Gluta wallichii (Hook.f.) Ding Hou 445
Gentiana macrophylla Pallas 208 Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim. 445
Gentiana quadrifaria Blume 208 Glycine max (L.)Merr. 445
Gentiana scabra Bunge 208, 209 Glycine striata Jacq. 444
Gentingia J.T. Johanss. &K.M. Wong 345 Glycine tenuiflora Klein ex Willd. 444
Geocallis fasciculata Horan. 427 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 55, 372
Geodorum nutans (Presl)Ames 445 Gnetum campestre Gamble ex Ridley 445
Geodorum semicristatum Lindley 445 Gnetum tenuifolium Ridley 445
Geophila D. Don 210 Gomphandra Wallich ex Lindley 217
Geophila herbacea (Jacq.) O. Kuntze 209 Gomphandra affinis (Miers) Masters 217
Geophila obvallata (Schumach.) Didr. 210 Gomphandra lanceolata (Masters) King 217
Geophila reniformis D. Don 209 Gomphandra mollis Merr. 217
Geophila repens (L.)I.M.Johnst. 209 Gomphandra quadrifida (Blume) Sleumer 217
Getonia floribunda Roxb. 106 Gomphandra salicifolia Ridley 217
Geunsia Blume 211 Gomphandra tonkinensis Gagnep. 217
Geunsia farinosa Blume 211 Gomphia serrata (Gaertner) Kanis 445
Geunsia pentandra (Roxb.) Merr. 211 Gomphia sumatrana Jack 446
Gjellerupia Lauterb. 270 Gomphostemma Wallich ex Benth. 218
Glinus oppositifolius (L.) DC. 445 Gomphostemma crinitum Wallich ex Benth. 218
Gliricidia maculata (Kunth) Kunth ex Walpers Gomphostemma javanicum (Blume) Benth. 218
445 Gomphostemma oblongum Wallich ex Benth. 218
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walpers 445 Gomphostemma philippinarum Benth. 218
GlobbaL. 212 Gomphostemma phlomoides (Reinw. ex Blume)
Globba atrosanguinea Teijsm. &Binnend. 212 Benth. 218
Globba aurantiaca auct. non Miq. 213 Goniothalamus giganteus Hook.f. & Thomson
Globba malaccensis Ridley 213 446
Globba marantina L. 212 Gonocaryum Miq. 219
Globba panicoides Miq. 213 Gonocaryum calleryanum (Bâillon) Becc. 219,
Globba patens Miq. 212, 213 446
Globba pauciflora Baker 212 Gonocaryum diospyrosifolium Hayata 446
Globba pendula Roxb. 212, 213 Gonocaryum gracile Miq. 219
Globba perakensis Ridley 213 Gonocaryum lobbianum (Miers) Kurz 219
Globba uliginosa Miq. 213 Gonocaryum longiracemosum King 219
Globba variabilis Ridley 212, 213 Gonocaryum tarlacense S.Vidal 446
Globba wallichii Baker 213 Gonocaryum teysmannianum R. Scheffer 446
Globba winitii C.H. Wright 212 Gonystylus keithii Airy Shaw 446
Glochidion J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 214 Gonystylus maingayi Hook.f. 446
Glochidion calocarpum Kurz 214 Gordonia Ellis 220
Glochidion eriocarpum Champ. 214 Gordonia acuminata Choisy 446
Glochidion glaucum Blume 216 Gordonia amboinensis (Miq.) Merr. 220, 446
Glochidion glomerulatum (Miq.) Boerl. 214, 215 Gordonia axillaris (Roxb. ex Ker Gawl.) Endl. 220
Glochidion lanceolarium (Roxb.)Voight 214 Gordonia brassii Kobuski 446
Glochidion littorale Blume 215 Gordonia dassanayakei B.M. Wadhwa &A.
Glochidion magnificum K. Schumann 217 Weerasooriya 220
Glochidion molle Blume 215 Gordonia excelsa (Blume) Blume 220, 446
Glochidion multiloculare (Roxb. exWilld.) Müll. Gordonia excelsa auct. non Blume 219
Arg. 214,215 Gordonia papuana Kobuski 446
Glochidion obscurum (Roxb. exWilld.) Blume Gordonia penangensis Ridley 219
215,216 Gordonia rumphii Merr. 446
Glochidion rubrum Blume 214, 216 Gouania Jacq. 220
Glochidion submolle (Lauterb. &K. Schumann) GouaniajavanicaMiq. 221
Airy Shaw 217 Gouania leptostachya DC. 220, 221
Glochidion velutinum Wight 214 Gouania tiliaefolia Lamk 221
Gracilaria bailinae ( C F . Zhang &B.M. Xia) C F . Guilandina moringa L. 454

Zhang &B.M. Xia 446 Guioa Cav. 215
Gracilaria blodgettii Harv. 446 Guioa aptera Radlk. 447
Gracilaria cylindrica B0rgesen 446 Guioa bullata Radlk. 446
Gracilaria edulis (S.G. Gmelin) P.C. Silva 446 Guioa diplopetala (Hassk.) Radlk. 446
Gracilaria euchematoides Harv. 446 Guioa fuscidula (Kurz) Radlk. 446
Gracilaria gracilis (Stackh.) Steentoft 446 Guioa koelreuteria (Blanco) Merr. 447
Gracilaria heteroclada C F . Zhang &B.M. Xia non Guioa lasiothyrsa Radlk. 447
(Mont.) Feldmann &Feldm.-Maz. 446 Guioa mindorensis Merr. 447
Gracilaria minor (Sond.) Durair. 446 Guioa perrottetii (Blume) Radlk. 447
Gracilaria salicornia (C.Agardh) E.Y. Dawson Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk. 447
446 Guioa salicifolia Radlk. 447
Gracilaria tenuistipitata C F . Chang &B.M. Xia Guioa squamosa Radlk. 447
446 Guioa subapiculata Radlk. 447
Gracilaria verrucosa (Huds.) Papenf. 446 Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass. 447
Gracilariopsis bailinae C F . Zhang &B.M. Xia Guizotia oleifera (DC.) D C 447
446 GunneraL. 227
Gracilariopsis heteroclada C F . Zhang &B.M. Xia Gunnera macrophylla Blume 226
446 Gunnera perpensa L. 226, 227
Gracilariopsis longissima (S.G. Gmelin) Steentoft Gunnera tinctoria (Molina) Mirb. 227
446 Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Wallich ex
Grammatophyllum Blume 147, 222 Hook.f. &Thomson) Warb. 447
Grammatophyllum scriptum (L.)Blume 222 Gymnartocarpus venenosa (Zoll. &Moritzi) Boerl.
Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume 222, 223 457
Grangea Adanson 224 GymnemaR.Br. 228
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. 223 Gymnema acuminatum (Roxb.) Wallich 229
Grateloupia filicina (J.V. Lamour.) C Agardh 446 Gymnema affine Decne. 230
Greenea Wight &Arnott 225 Gymnema alterniflorum (Lour.) Merr. 230
Greenea corymbosa (Jack) K. Schumann 224 Gymnema inodorum (Lour.) Decne. 228, 229
Greenea jackii Wight &Arnott 224 Gymnema reticulatum (Moon)Alston 229
Greenwayodendron Verde. 333 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schultes 228, 230
Grevillea densiflora White 444 Gymnema syringifolium (Decne.) Boerl. 229
Grevillea papuana Diels 186 Gymnema tingens (Roxb.) Sprengel 229
GrewiaL. 225 Gymnopetalum chinense (Lour.) Merr. 447
Grewia abutilifolia Vent, ex Juss. 225, 226 Gymnopetalum cochinchinense (Lour.) Kurz 447
Grewia acuminata Juss. 446 Gymnopetalum leucostictum Miq. 447
Grewia asiatica L. 225, 446 Gymnopetalum quinquelobum Miq. 447
Grewia aspera Roxb. 226 Gynochtodes Blume 230, 303
Grewia conferta Warb, ex Burret 446 Gynochtodes coriacea Blume 230
Grewia glabra Jack 454 Gynochtodes sublanceolata Miq. 230, 231
Grewia hainesiana Hole 446 Gynopachis Blume 53
Grewia hirsuta Vahl 225, 226 Gynotroches axillaris Blume 447
Grewia humilis Wallich ex Masters 446 GynuraCass. 23,231
Grewia microcos L. 454 Gynura ajakensis Hochr. 231
Grewia polygama Roxb. 226 Gynura aurantiaca (Blume) D C 231
Grewia sclerophylla Roxb. ex G. Don 226 Gynura bicolor (Roxb. exWilld.) DC. 231
Grewia subinaequalis DC. 446 Gynura biflora (Burm.f.) Merr. 233
Grewia tomentosa Juss. 226 Gynura crepidioides Benth. 140
Grewia ulmifolia Roxb. 454 Gynura divaricata (L.) DC. 231
Grewia vestita Masters 446 Gynura elliptica Yabe &Hayata 231
Griffonia barteri Hook.f. ex Oliver 438 Gynurajaponica (Thunberg) Juel. 231
Griselinia J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 77 Gynura ovalis Ker Gawl. 231
Grislea tomentosa Roxb. 419 Gynura pinnatifida (Lour.) DC. 231
Guettarda speciosa L. 446 Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr. 231,232
Gynurapseudochina(L.)DC. 231,233 Henslowia monticola Gamble 159

Gynura sarmentosa (Blume) DC. 232 Henslowia umbellata (Blume) Blume 159
Gynura segeturn Lour, ex Merr. 231 Heritiera littoralis Aiton 447
Gyrinops Gaertner 76 Heritiera minor (Gaertner) Lamk 447
Gyrinopsis cumingiana Decne. 75 Hernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitzki 448
Haematoxylum campechianum L. 447 Hernandia peltata Meissn. 448
Halimeda cordata J. Agardh 447 Hetaeria Blume 237
Halimeda cylindracea Dec. 447 Hetaeria obliqua Blume 237
Halimeda gigas W.R.Taylor 447 Heterostemma Wight &Arnott 237
Halimeda gracilis Harv. ex J. Agardh 447 Heterostemma brownii Hayata 237
Halimeda incrassata (J. Ellis) J.V. Lamour. 447 Heterostemma cuspidatum Decne. 237
- var. simulans B0rgesen 447 Heterostemma oblongifolium Costantin 237
Halimeda opuntia (L.)J.V. Lamour. 447 Heynea Roxb. ex Sims 238
Halimeda platydisca Dec. 447 Heynea sumatrana Miq. 238
Halimeda polydactylis J. Agardh 447 Heynea trijuga Sims 238
Halimeda simulans N. Howe 447 Heynea velutina How &Chen 238
Halimeda tuna (J. Ellis &Sol.)J.V. Lamour. 447 Hibiscus abelmoschus L. 425
Harmsiopanax Warb. 233 Hibiscus bacciferus J.G. Forster 470
Harmsiopanax aculeatus (Blume) Boerl. 233 Hibiscus cannabinus L. 448
Harmsiopanax harmsii K. Schumann ex K. Schu- Hibiscus esculentus L. 425
mann &Lauterb. 233 Hibiscus manihot L. 425
Harmsiopanax ingens Philipson 233, 234 Hibiscus populneoides Roxb. 470
Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. 447 Hibiscus populneus L. 470
Harpullia confusa Blume 447 Himantandra belgraveana (F.v. Mueller) F. v.
Harpullia cupanioides Roxb. 447 Mueller ex Diels 205
Harpullia imbricata (Blume) Thwaites 447 Hippocratea beccarii Tuyn. 462
Harpullia pedicellaris Radlk. 447 Hippocratea glaga Korth. 462
Harpullia rupestris (Blume) Blume 447 Hippocratea indica Willd. 344
Harpullia thanatophora Blume 447 Hiptage Gaertner 239
Harpullia tomentosa Ridley 447 Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz 238
HedyotisL. 160 Hiptagejavanica Blume 238
Hedyotis umbellata (L.) Lamk 456 Hiptage madablota Gaertner 238
Hedysarum crinitum L. 471 Hodgsonia capniocarpa Ridley 448
Hedysarum lagopodioides L. 471 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. 448
Hedysarum prostratum Burm.f. 262 Homalanthus A.Juss. 239
Hedysarum striatum Thunberg ex Murray 449 Homalanthus alpinus Elmer 240
Hedysarum vaginale L. 427 Homalanthus beguinii J.J. Smith 241
Hedysarum viscidum L. 462 Homalanthus bicolor Merr. 240
Heleocharis plantaginoidea W.F.Wight 441 Homalanthus crinitus Gage 241
Helicteres isora L. 447 Homalanthus deltoideus Airy Shaw 241
Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. 447 Homalanthus fastuosus (Linden) Fern.-Vill. 240
Hemigraphis Nees 170, 235, 353 Homalanthus longistylus Lauterb. &K. Schu-
Hemigraphis alternata (Burm.f.) T. Anderson mann 240
234, 325 Homalanthus nervosus J.J. Smith 239, 241
Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) Hallier f. 234 Homalanthus novoguineensis (Warb.) K. Schu-
Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.f.) T. Moore 447 mann 240,241
Henckelia Sprengel 163, 235 Homalanthus nutans (J.G. Forster) Guillemin
Henckelia atrosanguinea (Ridley) A.Weber 236 239
Henckelia crinita (Jack) Sprengel 236 Homalanthus papuanus Pax &K. Hoffm. 241
Henckelia falcata (Kiew)A.Weber 235 Homalanthus populifolius auct. non Graham 241
Henckelia platypus (C.B. Clarke) A.Weber 236 Homalanthus populneus (Geiseler) Pax 239, 240,
Henckelia reptans (Jack) Sprengel 236 241
Henslowia buxifolia Blume 159 Homalanthus tetrandrus J.J. Smith 241
Henslowia frutescens Benth. 159 Homalanthus vernicosus Gage 241
Homalomena Schott 205, 242 Hydroclathrus clathratus (C.Agardh) M. Howe

Homalomena aromatica (Roxb. ex Sims) Schott 448
242, 243 Hydroclathrus tenuis CK. Tseng &B.Ren Lu 448
Homalomena cordata Schott 243 Hydrocotyle benguetensis Elmer 448
Homalomena griffithii (Schott) Hook.f. 242, 243 Hydrocotyle delicata Elmer 448
Homalomena lindenii (Eodigas) Ridley 242 Hydrocotyle rotundifolia DC. 448
Homalomena obliquata (Schott) Hook.f. 243 Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lamk 448
Homalomena occulta (Lour.) Schott 242, 243 HydroleaL. 250
Homalomena peekelii Engl. 242, 243 Hydrolea spinosa L. 250
Homalomena philippinensis Engl. 243 Hydrolea zeylanica (L.)Vahl 249
Homalomena sagittifolia Jungh. ex Schott 242, Hydropunctia fastigiata ( C F . Chang &B.M. Xia)
244 M.J.Wynne 446
Homonoia riparia Lour. 448 Hydropyrum latifolium Griseb. 474
Hornstedtia macrocheilus Ridley 442 Hydrosme rivieri (Durieu ex Carrière) Engl. 63
Houttuynia cordata Thunberg 448 - var. konjac (Koch) Engl. 63
HoyaR.Br. 244 Hygrophila R.Br. 251
Hoya australis R.Br, ex Traill 244, 245 Hygrophila angustifolia R.Br. 250
Hoya carnosa (L.f.) R.Br. 244 Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine 251
Hoya coriacea Blume 244, 246 Hygrophila erecta (Burm.f.) Hochr. 250
Hoya coronaria Blume 244, 246 Hygrophila quadrivalvis (Buch.-Ham.) Nees 250
Hoya diversifolia Blume 244, 246 Hygrophila ringens (L.) R.Br, ex Steudel 250, 354
Hoya fraterna Blume 246 Hygrophila salicifolia (Vahl)Nees 250
Hoya fungii Merr. 244 Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M.R. Almeida &
Hoya griffithii Hook.f. 244 S.M.Almeida 251,252
Hoya imbricata Decne. 246 Hygrophila spinosa T.Anderson 251
Hoya kerrii Craib 171,172, 244 Hymenaea candolleana Kunth 448
Hoya lactea S. Moore 245 Hymenaea courbaril L. 448
Hoya lacunosa Blume 244, 246 Hymenaea retusa Willd. ex Hayne 448
Hoya lauterbachii auct. non K. Schumann 246 Hymenocallis Salisb. 23,252, 253
Hoya lyi H. Léveillé 244 Hymenocallis caribea (L.) Herbert 253
Hoya multiflora Blume 244, 247 Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. 252
Hoya pandurata Tsiang 244 Hymenocallis narcissiflora (Jacq.) MacBr. 253
Hoya pottsii Traill 244 Hymenocallis speciosa (Salisb.) Salisb. 253
Hoya rumphii Blume 244, 247 Hypenia (Mart, ex Benth.) Harley 257
Hoya sussuela (Roxb.) Merr. 246 Hypobathrum Blume 253
Hoya villosa Costantin 244 Hypobathrum racemosum (Roxb.) Kurz 253, 254
Hugonia L. 264 Hypobathrum venulosum (Hook.f.) K.M. Wong
Hullettia dumosa King ex Hook.f. 448 254
Humbertia Comm. ex Lamk 194 Hypoestes Sol. ex R.Br. 254, 255
Hunteria Roxb. 247 Hypoestes aristata (Vahl) Sol. ex Roemer &
Hunteria ballayi Hua 247 Schultes 254
Hunteria corymbosa Roxb. 247 Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) Sol. ex Roemer &
Hunteria ghanensis Hall &Leeuwenberg 247 Schultes 254
Hunteria umbellata (K. Schumann) Hallier f. 247 Hypoestes phyllostachya Baker 254
Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner ex Thwaites Hypoestes polythyrsa Miq. 254
247 Hypoestes psilostachyus C.B. Clarke ex S. Moore
Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis. 448 254
Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. 448 Hypoestes rosea P. Beauv. 254
Huperzia serrata (Thunberg ex Murray) Trevis. Hypoestes serpens (Vahl) R.Br. 254
448 Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roemer & Schultes
Hydnophytum Jack 249, 315 254
Hydnophytum formicarum Jack 248 Hypoestes verticillaris auct. 254
Hydnophytum montanum Blume 248 Hypolepis punctata (Thunberg) Mett. ex Kuhn
Hydroclathrus cancellatus Bory 448 448
Hypoporum lithospermum (L.)Nees 368 Indigofera guatemalensis Moe, Sessé &Cerv. ex

Hypoporum pergracile Nees 368 Backer 449
HypoxisL. 255,256 Indigofera hirsuta L. 261,448
Hypoxis aurea Lour. 255 Indigofera indica Miller 449
Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch. &C.A. Mey. 256 Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. 261, 262
Hypoxis rooperi S. Moore 256 Indigofera linnaei Ali 261,262
Hypserpa Miers 272 Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. 261,262, 263
Hypserpa nitida Miers 272 Indigofera paucifolia Delile 263
Hyptidendron Harley 257 Indigofera prostrata (L.)Domin 262
Hyptis Jacq. 256 Indigofera pulchella Roxb. 261
Hyptis brevipes Poit. 258 Indigofera suffruticosa Miller 261,449
Hyptis capitata Jacq. 256, 257, 258 Indigofera tinctoria L. 261
Hyptis lantanifolia Poit. 257 Indigofera zollingeriana Miq. 261
Hyptis obtusiflora C. Presl ex Benth. 257 Indorouchera Hallier f. 264
Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. 256, 257, 258 Indorouchera contestiana (Pierre) Hallier f. 264
Hyptis rhomboidea M. Martens &Galeotti 257 Indorouchera griffithiana (Planchon) Hallier f.
Hyptis spicigera Lamk 256, 259 263
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. 256, 257, 259, 336 Inga dulcis (Roxb.) Willd. 460
Hyptis verticillata Jacq. 257 Inga megacarpa M.E. Jones 448
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.)R.Br. 448 Inocarpus J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 274
Iguanura geonomiformis (Griffith) Mart. 448 Inocarpus edulis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 449
Iguanura malaccensis Becc. 448 Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson) Fosberg 449
Iguanura wallichiana (Wallich ex Mart.) Hook.f. Intsia amboinensis DC. 449
448 Intsia bakeri (Prain) Prain 449
- subsp. malaccensis (Becc.) Kiew Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) O. Kuntze 449
- var. elatior Kiew 448 Intsia palembanica Miq. 449
- var. malaccensis 448 Intsia plurijuga Harms 449
Ilex bogorensis Loes. 448 Intsia retusa (Kurz) O. Kuntze 449
Ilex cymosa Blume 448 Ipomoea L. 84
Ilex domestica Reissek 448 Isoglossa Oerst. 341
Ilexjavanica Koord. &Valeton 448 Ixonanthes dodecandra Griffith 449
Ilex mate A. St.-Hil. 448 Ixonanthes icosandra Jack 449
Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. 448 Ixonanthes lucida (Blume) Blume 449
Ilex paraguensis D. Don 448 Ixonanthes obovata Hook.f. 449
Ilex pleiobrachiata Loes. 448 Jambosa alba Blume 468
Illicium anisatum Lour, non L 448 Jambosa lineata (Blume) DC. 468
Illicium verum Hook.f. 448 Jambosa malaccensis (L.) DC. 468
Illigera Blume 260 Jasminum floribundum R.Br, ex Fresen 449
Illigera appendiculata auct. non Blume 260 Jasminum grandiflorum L. 449
Illigera cardiophylla Merr. 259 Jasminum officinale L. 449
Illigera lucida Teijsm. &Binnend. 260 - var. grandiflorum (L.)Stokes 449
Illigera luzonensis (Presl) Merr. 259 Jasminum officinale L. f. grandiflorum (L.) Kobus-
Illigera ovatifolia Quis. &Merr. 259 ki 449
Illigera parviflora Dunn 260 Jateorhiza palmata (Lamk) Miers 139
Illigera pulchra Blume 260 Jatropha moluccana L. 426
Illigera ternata (Blanco) Dunn 259 Jessinia bataua (Mart.) Burret 449
Imperata Cirillo 41 Jessinia polycarpa Karsten 449
IndigoferaL. 261 Jessinia repanda Engel 449
Indigofera angustifolia Blanco 448 Juglans camirium Lour. 426
Indigofera anil L. 449 Juncus effusus L. 449
Indigofera arrecta Höchst, exA. Rich. 261 Justicia L. 354
Indigofera cassioides Rottler ex DC. 261 Justicia bicalyculata (Retz.) Vahl 458
Indigofera enneaphylla L. 262 Justicia bracteata Ridley 353
Indigofera ferruginea Schum. &Thonn. 449 Justicia clarkeana Ridley 353
Justicia laevigata Vahl 439 Lathyrus sativus L. 450

Justicia über C.B. Clarke 353 Laurencia cartilaginea Yamada 450
Kaempferia pandurata Roxb. 431 Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) J.V. Lamour. 450
Kayea lepidota (T.Anderson) Pierre 454 - var. snackeyi (Weber Bosse) Yamada 450
Kayea parviflora Ridley 454 Laurencia paniculata (C.Agardh) J. Agardh 450
Khaya grandifoliola C D C . 449 - var. snackeyi Weber Bosse 450
Khaya grandis Stapf 449 Laurencia patentiramea (Mont.) Kiitz. 450
Khaya kerstingii Engl. 449 Laurencia snackeyi (Weber Bosse) Masuda 450
Khaya punchii Stapf 449 Laurus camphora L. 435
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A.Juss. 449 Laurus cinnamomum L. 436
Kibessia acuminata Decne. 462 Laurus cubeba Lour. 451
Kibessia angustifolia Blume 462 Laurus culitlawan L. 435
Kibessia echinata (Jack) Cogn. 462 Laurus nobilis L. 450
Kickxia elastica P. Preuss 444 Laurus sesquipedalis Wallich ex O. Kuntze 426
Kiesera sericea Reinw. 468 Laurus undulata Miller 450
KigeliaDC. 265 Lavandula stoechas L. 450
Kigelia aethiopica (Fenzl) Decne. 264 Lawsonia alba Lamk 450
Kigelia africana (Lamk) Benth. 23, 264 Lawsonia inermis L. 336, 450
Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC. 264 Lawsonia spinosa L. 450
Kiosmina hispanica (L.) Rafin 463 Legazpia Blanco 267
Kleinhovia hospita L. 449 Legazpia mucronulata (Benth.) Yamazaki 266
Knema furfuracea (Hook.f. &Thomson) Warb. Legazpia polygonoides (Benth.) Yamazaki 266
449 Lens culinaris Medikus 450
Kokoona Thwaites 344 Lens esculenta Moench 450
Koompassia excelsa (Becc.)Taubert 449 Leonotis (Pers.) R.Br. 268
Koompassia parvifolia Prain ex King 449 Leonotis leonurus (L.)R.Br. 267, 268
Koordersiodendron celebicum Engl. 449 Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. 23, 267
Koordersiodendron papuanum Kaneh. & Hatus. Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson 267, 268
449 Lepidagathis Willd. 116,268
Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blanco) Merr. 449 Lepidagathis cristata Willd. 268
Kummerowia striata Thunberg ex Murray 449 Lepidagathis heudelotiana Nees 268
Labisia Lindley 266 Lepidagathis hyalina Nees 269
Labisia pothoina Lindley 266 Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 268,
Labisia pumila (Blume) Fern.-Vill. 266 269
Laburnum anagyroides Medic. 195 Lepidagathis longifolia Wight 116
Lactuca brevirostris Champ, ex Benth. 449 Lepidagathis rumphii Merr. 269
Lactuca indica L. 449 Lepidagathis trinervis Nees 268
Lactuca sativa L. 449 Lepionurus Blume 270
Lactuca scariola L. 450 Lepionurus oblongifolius (Griffith) Masters 270
- var. hortensis Bisch. 450 Lepionurus sylvestris Blume 270
- var. sativa Boiss. 450 Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh. 450
Lactuca serriola L. 450 Lepisanthes hirta Ridley 450
- var. sativa Moris 450 Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh. 450
Lagenandra Dalzell 144 Leptocodon (Hook.f.) Lem. 128
Lagenaria leucantha Rusby 450 Leptonychia Turcz. 271
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley 450 Leptonychia caudata (Wallich ex G. Don) Burrett
Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe 450 270
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae Retz. 450 Leptonychia glabra Turcz. 270
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. 450 Leptonychia heteroclita Kurz 270
Lannea speciosa (Blume) Engl, ex Perk. 449 Lespedeza striata (Thunberg ex Murray) Hook. &
Lansium Corrêa 47 Arnott 449
Lansium domesticum Corrêa 450 Lettsomia maingayi C.B. Clarke 84
Lasia spinosa (L.)Thwaites 450 Lettsomia rubicunda (Wallich ex Choisy) C.B.
Lasianthus Jack 303 Clarke 86
Leuconotis cuspidatus Blume 450 Litsea chinensis Lamk 451

Leuconotis eugenifolius A.DC. 450 Litsea citrata Blume 451
Leucopogon R.Br. 388 Litsea clarissae (Teschner) Kosterm. 451
Leucopogon malayanus Jack 388 Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. 451
- subsp. novoguineensis (Sleumer) Pedley 389 Litsea elliptica Blume 451
Leucopogon philippinensis (Merr.) Hosok. 389 Litsea geminata Blume 451
Leucopogon suaveolens Hook.f. 389 Litsea glabraria A.L. Juss. 451
Leucosyke Zoll. &Moritzi 271 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B. Robinson 451
Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. 271 Litsea hexantha A.L.Juss. 451
Leucosyke quadrinervia C.B. Robinson 271 Litsea kauloensis Teschner 451
Lexarza funebris La Llave 462 Litsea lucida Blume 450
Liagora cheyneana Harv. 444 Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. 451
Liagora farinosa J.V. Lamour. 444 Litsea nigricans (Meissn.) Boerl. 451
Licuala Thunberg 424 Litsea odorifera Valeton 451
Ligusticum cuminum (L.) Crantz 438 Litsea pallida (Blume) Boerl. 451
Limacia Lour. 271 Litsea penangiana Hook.f. 451
Limacia blumei (Boerl.)Diels 272 Litsea petiolata Hook.f. 451
Limacia cuspidata Hook.f. &Thomson 272 Litsea pipericarpa (Miq.) Kosterm. 451
Limacia oblonga Hook.f. &Thomson 272 Litsea polyantha A.L. Juss. 451
Limacia scandens Lour. 272 Litsea stickmanii Merr. 451
Limacia triandra (Colebr.) Hook.f. & Thomson Litsea tetranthera (Willd.) Pers. 451
401 Litsea timoriana Span. 451
Limacia velutina Hook.f. &Thomson 272 Litsea tuberculata (Blume) Boerl. 451
Limnochloa caduciflora Turcz. ex Trinius 474 Litsea umbellata (Lour.) Merr. 451
Limonia acidissima L. 450 Litsea utilis (Meissn.) Boerl. 451
Limonia aurantifolia Christm. &Panzer 436 Lonchocarpus cyanescens (Schum. & Thonn.)
Limonia glutinosa Blanco 391 Benth. 451
Lindera lucida (Blume) Boerl. 450 Lophatherum Brongn. 276
Lindera malaccensis Hook.f. 450 Lophatherum gracile Brongn. 275
Lindera pipericarpa (Miq.) Boerl. 451 Lophopetalum curtisii King 451
Lindera selangorensis Ridley 450 Lophopetalum fuscescens Kurz 451
Linum usitatissimum L. 451 Lophopetalum javanicum (Zoll.) Turcz. 451
LiparisRich. 273,274 Lophopetalum oblongifolium King 451
Liparis amboinensis J.J. Smith (1914) non J.J. Lophopetalum pallidum M. Lawson 451
Smith (1905) 273 Lophopetalum toxicum Loher 451
Liparis condylobulbon Reichenb.f. 273 Lophopyxis Hook.f. 277
Liparis confusa J.J. Smith 273 Lophopyxis maingayi Hook.f. 276
- var. amboinensis J.J. Smith 273 Lophopyxis pentaptera (K. Schumann) Engl. 276
Liparis nervosa (Thunberg) Lindley 273 Lophopyxis pierrei Boerl. 276
Liparis treubii J.J. Smith 273 Loranthus atropurpureus Blume 371
Lippia berlandieri J. Schauer 451 Loranthus ferrugineus Roxb. ex Jack 371
Lippia graveolens Kunth 451 Loranthus globosus Roxb. 285
Liriope Lour. 274, 275 Loranthus grandifrons King 158
Liriope graminifolia (L.) Baker 274 Loranthus parasiticus (L.)Merr. 372
Liriope muscari (Decne.) L.H. Bailey 274 Loranthus pentandrus L. 158
Liriope spicata Lour. 274 Loxocarpus R.Br. 236
Litchi chinensis Sonn. 451 Lucuma mammosa (L.) Gaertner f. 461
Litchi philippinensis Radlk. 451 Lumanaja fluviatilis Blanco 448
Litchi sinense J. Gmelin 451 Lumnitzera coccinea Wight &Arnott 452
Lithocardium alliodorum (Ruiz &Pavón) O. Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt 452
Kuntze 437 Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. 452
Litsea acerina Blume 455 Luvunga Buch.-Ham. ex Wight &Arnott 277
Litsea amara Blume 451 Luvunga sarmentosa (Blume) Kurz 277
Litsea cassiaefolia Blume 455 Luvunga scandens (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight
&Arnott 277,278 M a d u r a cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner 452

LuzulaDC. 41 Maclurajavanica Blume 452
Lycianthes laevis (Dunal) Bitter 452 Macrolenes muscosa (Blume) Bakh.f. 452
Lycium chinense Miller 452 Macropiper latifolium Miq. 460
Lycium rhombifolium (Moench) Dippel 452 Macropiper methysticum (G. Forster) Hook. &
Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic. Serm. 452 Arnott 460
Lycopodium clavatum L. 452 Macrosolen Blume 284
Lycopodium complanatum L. 452 Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) v. Tiegh. 284,
Lysiostyles Benth. 194 285
Lythrum fruticosum L. 419 Macrosolen robinsonii (Gamble) Danser 285
Macaranga Thouars 240, 278, 288 Macrosolen tricolor (Lecomte) Danser 284
Macaranga aleuritoides F. v.Mueller 280 Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lamk.)Verde. 452
Macaranga bancana (Miq.) Müll. Arg. 280 Madhuca betis (Blanco) J.F. Macbride 452
Macaranga barteri Müll.Arg. 278 Madhuca butyracea (Roxb.) J.F. Macbride 441
Macaranga beccariana Merr. 278 Madhuca leerii (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Merr. 458
Macaranga bicolor Müll. Arg. 280 Madhuca lucida (Wallich ex G. Don) Baehni 458
Macaranga carolinensis Volk. 279 Madhuca philippinensis Merr. 452
Macaranga conifera (Zoll.) Müll. Arg. 280 MaesaForssk. 286
Macaranga densiflora Warb. 280 Maesa denticulata Mez 286
Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Müll. Arg. 278, Maesaedulis C.T. White 286
281 Maesa haplobotrys F. v. Mueller 286
Macaranga gigantea (Reichenb.f. &Zoll.) Müll. Maesa indica (Roxb.)A.DC. 286
Arg. 279,281 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. 286
Macaranga glaberrima (Hassk.) Airy Shaw 281 Maesa laxa Mez 286
Macaranga grandifolia (Blanco) Merr. 279, 281 Maesa macrophylla (Wallich) A.DC. 286
Macaranga griffithiana Müll. Arg. 282 Maesa ramentacea (Roxb.) A.DC. 286, 287
Macaranga heterophylla (Müll.Arg.) Müll. Arg. Maesa tetrandra (Roxb.)A.DC. 286
278 Maesopsis berchemioides (Pierre) A. Chev. 452
Macaranga hullettii King ex Hook.f. 282 Maesopsis eminii Engl. 452
Macaranga hurifolia Beule 278 Magnolia aequinoctialis Dandy 452
Macaranga hypoleuca (Reichenb.f. &Zoll.) Müll. Magnoliajavanica Koord. &Valeton 452
Arg. 282 Magnolia macklottii (Korth.) Dandy 452
Macaranga incisa Gage 281 Malachra capitata (L.) L. 452
Macaranga involucrata (Roxb.) Bâillon 282 Malachra fasciata Jacq. 452
Macaranga megalophylla (Müll. Arg.) Müll. Arg. Mallotus Lour. 279,287
Mallotus anisophyllus Hook.f. 290
281
Mallotus barbatus Müll.Arg. 288
Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Müll.Arg. 279
Mallotus blumeanus Müll. Arg. 289
Macaranga pleioneura Airy Shaw 283
Mallotus cardiophyllus Merr. 470
Macaranga pleiostemon Pax &Hoffm. 279
Mallotus cochinchinensis Lour. 290
Macaranga populifolia (Miq.) Müll.Arg. 280
Mallotus eriocarpus (Thwaites) Müll.Arg. 289
Macaranga riparia Engl. 280
Mallotus floribundus (Blume) Müll. Arg. 289
Macaranga schweinfurthii Pax 279
Mallotusjaponicus (Thunberg) Müll. Arg. 132,
Macaranga similis Pax &Hoffm. 283
Macaranga spinosa Müll. 278 287, 288
Macaranga subfalcata (Reichenb.f. &Zoll, ex Zoll.) Mallotus macrostaehyus (Miq.)Müll. Arg. 289
Müll.Arg. 281 Mallotus miquelianus (Scheffer) Boerl. 290
Macaranga tanarius (L.)Müll.Arg. 278, 279, 283 Mallotus mollissimus (Geiseler) Airy Shaw 287,
Macaranga triloba (Thunberg) Müll. Arg. 279, 288, 290
280, 284 Mallotus paniculatus (Lamk) Müll.Arg. 290
Macaranga triloba auct. non (Thunberg) Müll. Mallotus philippensis (Lamk) Müll. Arg. 287,
Arg. 280 288, 290
Macaranga vitiensis Pax &Hoffm. 278 Mallotus répandus (Willd.)Müll. Arg. 287, 288,
Machilus arisanensis (Hayata) Hayata 458 291
Machilus thunbergii Sieb. &Zucc. 458 Mallotus ricinoides (Pers.) Müll. Arg. 290
Malpighia glabra L. 452 Medinilla magnifica Lindley 294

Malpighia punicifolia L. 452 Medinilla quadrifolia (Blume) Blume 294
Malvaviscus populneus (L.) Gaertner 470 Medinilla radicans (Blume) Blume 294
MammeaL. 104 Medinilla speciosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Blume 294
Mammea americana L. 452 Megistostigma Hook.f. 124
Mammea siamensis (Miq.) T.Anderson 452 Meizotropis J.O. Voigt 100, 377
Mangifera foetida Lour. 452 Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden &Betche) Cheel
- var. odorata (Griffith) Pierre 452 453
Mangifera horsfieldii Miq. 452 Melaleuca cajuputi Powell 453
Mangifera indica L. 452 Melaleuca leucadendron (L.) L. 453
Mangifera minor Blume 452 - var. minor (Smith) Duthie 453
Mangifera oblongifolia Hook.f. 452 Melaleuca liniariifolia Smith 453
Mangifera odorata Griffith 452 - var. alternifolia Maiden &Betche 453
Mangifera pinnata L.f. 466 Melaleuca minor Smith 453
Mangostana garcinia Gaertner 445 Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T. Blake 453
Mangostana morella Gaertner 445 Melaleuca viridiflora Sol. ex Gaertner 453
Manilkara kauki (L.)Dubard 452 - var. angustifolia (L.f.) N.B.Byrnes non Blume
Manilkara zapota (L.) P. van Royen 452 453
Mansonia gagei J.R. Drummond ex Prain 452 - var. rubriflora Brong. &Gris 453
Mapania Aublet 292 Melanamansia glomerata (C.Agardh) R.E. Norris
Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien 291 453
Mapania humilis Fern.-Vill. 291 Melanorrhoea maingayi Hook.f. 445
Mapania kurzii C.B.Clarke 292 Melanorrhoea wallichii Hook.f. 445
Mapania palustris (Hassk. ex Steudel) Fern.-Vill. Melanorrhoea woodsiana Scort. ex King 445
292 Melanthium cochinchinense Lour. 430
Mapania petiolata C.B. Clarke 291 Melia azadirachta L. 430
Mapania sumatrana (Miq.) Benth. 292 Melia azedarach L. 453
Maranta allouia Aublet 432 Melia composita Willd. 453
Maranta arundinacea L. 453 Melia dubia Cav. 453
Maranta sylvatica Roscoe exJ.E. Smith 453 Melia excelsa Jack 430
Maripa Aublet 194 Melia indica (A.H.L.Juss.) Brandis 430
Mariscus pedunculatus (R.Br.) Koyama 438 Melia koetjape Burm.f. 464
Marsdenia R.Br. 228 Melia sempervirens (L.) Sw. 453
Marsdenia sylvestris (Retz.) P.I. Forster 230 Melicope J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 197, 295
Marsdenia tinctoria R.Br. 453 Melicope bonwickii (F.v. Mueller) T.G. Hartley
Marsdenia tingens (Roxb.) P.I. Forster 229 295, 296
Marsilea crenata C. Presl 453 Melicope burttiana B.C. Stone 295
Marumia muscosa Blume 452 Melicope confusa (Merr.) P.S. Liu 295, 453
Matricaria chamomilla auct. non L. 453 Melicope denhamii (Seem.) T.G. Hartley 197,
Matricaria coronaria (L.)Desr. 435 295, 296
Matricaria courrantiana DC. 453 Melicope elleryana (F.v. Mueller) T.G. Hartley
Matricaria recutita L. 453 295
Matthaea Blume 292 Melicope latifolia (DC.) T.G. Hartley 295, 453
Matthaea chartacea Merr. 292 Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertner) T.G. Hartley
Matthaea pinchotiana Perkins 292 295, 296, 297
Matthaea sancta Blume 292, 293 Melicope pteleifolia (Champ, ex Benth.) T.G.
Matthaea williamsii Perkins 292 Hartley 295
MazusLour. 293 Melicope semecarpifolia (Merr.) T.G. Hartley 295
Mazusjaponicus (Thunberg) O. Kuntze 293 Melicope triphylla (Lamk) Merr. 297
Mazus miquelii Makino 293 Melicope xanthoxyloides (F.v.Mueller) T.G. Hart-
Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) van Steenis 293 ley 298
Mazus rugosus Lour. 293 Melilotus suavolens Ledeb. 453
Medinilla Gaudich. 168,294, 295 Meliosma cuspidata Blume 453
Medinillacrispata(L.) Blume 294 Meliosma nitida Blume 453
Meliosma philippinensis Merr. &L.M. Perry 453 Microglossa DC. 301

Meliosma sumatrana (Jack) Walpers 453 Microglossa pyrifolia (Lamk) O. Kuntze 300
Melissa L. 23,299 Microglossa volubilis DC. 300
Melissa altissima J.E. Smith 453 Micropteryx poeppigiana Walpers 442
Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh.f. 298 Microstachys A.Juss. 301
Melissa inodora Bornm. non Hassk. 453 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll. Arg. 301
Melissa officinalis L. 298, 299, 453 Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L. Robinson 454
Melissa parviflora Benth. non Salisb. 298 Mikania scandens Hook.f. non (L.)Willd. 454
Melodorum fulgens Hook.f. &Thomson 201 Mikania volubilis (Vahl)Willd. 454
Melodorum kingii Boerl. 202 Millettia atropurpurea (Wallich) Benth. 432
Melodorum lanuginosum Hook.f. &Thomson 202 Millettia novo-guineensis Kanehira & Hatusima
Melodorum latifolium (Dunal) Hook.f. & Thomson 461
202 Millettia sericea (Vent.) Wight &Arnott 371
Melodorum manubriatum Hook.f. & Thomson Mimosa dulcis Roxb. 460
202 Mimosa elata Roxb. 426
Melodorum prismaticum Hook.f. &Thomson 341 Mimosa farnesiana L. 425
Melothria affinis King 473 Mimosa glauca L. 425
Melothria indica Lour. 422 Mimosa juliflora Sw. 461
Melothria leucocarpa (Blume) Cogn. 422 Mimosa leucophloea Roxb. 425
Melothria maderaspatana (L.) Cogn. 309 Mimosa procera Roxb. 426
Melothria marginata (Blume) Cogn. 473 Mimosa tomentosa (Willd.) Rottier 425
Memecylon curtisii Burkill &Hend. 453 Mimusops elengi L. 454
Memecylon dichotomum (C.B. Clarke) King 453 Mimusops kauki L. 452
Memecylon edule Roxb. 453 Mimusops parvifolia R.Br. 454
Memecylon eugeniiflora Ridley 453 Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsley 470
Memecylon globiferum Wallich 453 Miscanthus Andersson 41
Memecylon gracilipes Ridley 453 Mischocarpus lessertianus Ridley 454
Memecylon ovatum Smith 453 Mischocarpus sundaicus Blume 454
Merope M. Roemer 300,324 MitrellaMiq. 302
Meropeangulata(Willd.) Swingle 299 Mitrella kentii (Blume) Miq. 201,302
Merrillia caloxylon (Ridley) Swingle 453 Mollugo oppositifolia L. 445
Mesona palustris Blume 453 Momordica lanata Thunberg 436
Mesona parviflorum (Wallich ex Benth.) Briq. Monenteles spicatus Labill. 340
454 Monodora grandiflora Benth. 454
Mesona wallichiana Benth. 454 Monodora myristica (Gaertner) Dunal 454
Messerschmidia argentea (L.f.) I.M. Johnst. 403, Monostroma latissimum Wittr. 454
428 Monostroma nitidum Wittr. 454
MesuaL. 104 Monstera Adanson 67
Mesua ferrea L. 454 Montbretia xcrocosmiiflora Lemoine ex E. Morren
Mesua lepidota T.Anderson 454 142
Metadina trichotoma (Zoll. &Moritzi) Bakh.f. Morinda L. 23,230,302, 337
454 Morinda bracteata Roxb. 304
Metrosideros quinquenervia Cav. 453 Morinda citrifolia L. 302, 303, 304
Meyna Roxb. ex Link 109 Morinda elliptica (Hook.f.) Ridley 305
Michelia xalba DC. 454 Morinda geminata DC. 302
Michelia beccariana Agostini 452 Morinda longiflora G. Don 302
Michelia champaca L. 454 Morinda lucida Benth. 302, 303
Michelia longifolia Blume 454 Morinda morindoides (Baker) Milne-Redh. 302,
Michelia pilifera Bakh.f. 454 303
Michelia pubinervia Blume 454 Morinda officinalis How 302, 303, 304
Michelia velutina Blume 454 Morinda parvifolia Bartl. 303
Microcos L. 225 Morinda royoc L. 302
Microcos paniculata L. 454 Morinda speciosa Wallich ex Kurz 345
Microdesmis Hook.f. ex Hook. 206 Morinda umbellata L. 302, 303,304, 305
Moringa oleifera Lamk 454 Mussaenda elmeri Merr. 311

Moringa polygona DC. 454 Mussaenda erythrophylla Schumach. & Thonn.
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertner 454 312
MorusL. 370 Mussaenda ferruginea K. Schumann 313
Motleyia Johansson 345 Mussaenda frondosa L. 312
Moultonianthus Merr. 193 Mussaenda frondosa auct. non L. 313
Mucuna Adanson 305 Mussaenda glabra Vahl 311,312, 313
- subgenus Mucuna 306 Mussaenda macrophylla Wallich 312
- subgenus Stizolobium 306 Mussaenda philippica A. Rich. 311,312, 313
Mucuna biplicata Teijsm. &Binnend. ex Kurz Mussaenda pubescens W.T.Aiton 312
307 Mussaenda vidalii Elmer 314
Mucuna comorensis Vatke 462 Myrianthus P. Beauv. 113
Mucuna diabolica Backer ex Keuch. 306 Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. 455
Mucuna gigantea (Willd.)DC. 306, 307 Myrica farquhariana Wallich 455
Mucuna hainanensis Hayata 308 Myrica nagi auct. non Thunberg 455
- subsp. multilamellata Wilmot-Dear 308 Myrica sapida Wallich 455
Mucuna junghuhniana (O.Kuntze) Prain 306 Myristica aromatica Lamk 455
Mucuna macrophylla Miq. 306 Myristica fatua Houtt. 455
Mucuna nigricans auct. non (Lour.) Steudel 308 Myristica fragrans Houtt. 455
Mucuna pruriens (L.)DC. 305, 306, 307, 308 Myristica moschata Thunberg 455
- var. pruriens 308 Myristica officinalis L.f. 455
- var. sericophylla (Perk.) Wilmot-Dear 308 Myristica plumeriifolia Elmer 455
- var. utilis (Wallich ex Wight) Baker ex Burck Myristica spadicea Blume 455
308 Myristica tomentosa Thunberg 455
Mucuna revoluta Wilmot-Dear 307 Myrmecodia Jack 249, 315
MukiaArnott 310 Myrmecodia armata DC. 314
Mukiajavanica (Miq.) C.Jeffrey 309 Myrmecodia echinata Gaudich. 314
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. Roemer 309 Myrmecodia rumphii Becc. 314
Mukia scabrella (L.)Arnott 309 Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack 314
Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chev. 454 Myrodia funebris (La Llave) Benth. 462
Muntingia calabura L. 454 Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms 455
Myroxylon pereirae (Royle) Klotzsch 455
Murdannia Royle 310
Myroxylon toluiferum Kunth 455
Murdannia edulis (Stokes) Faden 310, 311
Myrtus acris Sw. 459
Murdannia elata (Vahl)A. Briickn. 311
Myrtus cumini L. 467
Murdannia formosana (N.E.Br.) K.S. Hsu 311
Myrtus dioica L. 459
Murdannia japonica (Thunberg) Faden 310, 311
Myrtus dombeyi Sprengel 442
Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) R.S. Rao & Kam-
Myrtus lineata Blume non Sw. 468
mathy 310,311
Myrtus pimenta L. 459
Murdannia loureirii (Hance) R.S. Rao & Kam-
Myrtus saligna Burm.f. 453
mathy 311
Myrtus samarangensis Blume 468
Murdannia nudiflora (L.)Brenan 310
Myrtus tomentosa Aiton 463
Murdannia scapiflora (Roxb.) Royle 311
Myxopyrum Blume 315
Murdannia spirata (L.)A. Briickn. 310
Myxopyrum nervosum Blume 315
Murraya caloxylon Ridley 453
Murraya exotica L. 454 - subsp. coriaceum (Blume) Kiew 315
Murraya odorata Blanco 454 - subsp. nervosum 315
Murraya paniculata (L.)Jack 454 Napeodendron altissimum Ridley 472
- var. exotica (L.) Huang 454 Narthex polakii Stapf &Wettst. 443
Murraya sumatrana Roxb. 455 Nasturtium armoracia (L.) Fries 429
Musa textilis Née 455 Nasturtium heterophyllum Blume 463
Musanga C.Sm. ex R.Br. 113 Nauclea coadunata Roxb. ex J.E. Smith 455
Musanga cecropioides R.Br, ex Tedlie 113 Nauclea macrophylla Roxb. 427
Mussaenda L. 311 Nauclea orientalis (L.) L. 455
Mussaenda anisophylla S. Vidal 312 Nauclea trichotoma Zoll. &Moritzi 454
Neesia altissima (Blume) Blume 455 Nymphaea nelumbo L. 455

Neesia ambigua Becc. 455 Nypa fruticans Wurmb 300, 456
Nelumbium nelumbo (L.)Druce 455 Oberonia Lindley 318
Nelumbium speciosum Willd. 455 Oberonia anceps Lindley 319
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner 455 Oberonia denticulata Wight 318, 319
Neodissochaeta Bakh.f. 174 Oberonia gammiei King &Pantling 319
Neodissochaeta celebica (Blume) Bakh.f. 174 Oberonia iridifolia Lindley 319
Neodissochaeta gracilis (Jack) Bakh.f. 174 Oberonia longibracteata Lindley 318
Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser 427 Ochanostachys amentacea Masters 456
Neolamarckia macrophylla (Roxb.) Bosser 427 Ochanostachys bancana (Becc.)Valeton 456
Neolitsea cassiaefolia (Blume) Merr. 455 Ochrocarpos siamensis (Miq.) T.Anderson 452
Neonauclea sessilifolia (Roxb.) Merr. 219 Ocimum L. 355
Nepenthes ampullaria Jack 455 Ocimum africanum Lour. 456
Nepenthes boschiana Korth. 455 Ocimum americanum L. 456
Nepenthes reinwardtiana Miq. 455 Ocimum basilicum L. 355, 456
Nephelium chryseum Blume 455 Ocimum brachiatum Blume 456
Nephelium lappaceum L. 455 Ocimum brachiatum Hassk. 456
Nephelium litchi Cambess. 451 Ocimum canum Sims 456
Nephelium longana Cambess. 440 Ocimum flexuosum Blanco 456
Nephelium malaiense Griffith 440 Ocimum frutescens L. 458
Nephelium obovatum Ridley 455 Ocimum gratissimum L. 456
Nephelium sufferrugineum Radlk. 455 Ocimum sanctum L. 456
Neptunia natans (L.f.) Druce 455 Ocimum suave Willd. 456
Neptunia oleracea Lour. 455 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. 456
Neptunia prostrata (Lamk) Bâillon 455 Ocimum viride Willd. 456
Nervilia Comm. ex Gaudich. 316
Ocimum viridiflorum Roth 456
Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. 316, 317
Octamyrtus Diels 319
Nervilia discolor (Blume) Schlechter 317
Octamyrtus behrmannii Diels 319
Nervilia fordii (Hance) Schlechter 316, 317
Octomeles moluccana Teijsm. &Binnend. ex
Nervilia plicata (Andr.) Schlechter 316, 317
Hassk. 456
Nervilia purpurea (Hayata) Schlechter 316
Octomeles sumatrana Miq. 456
Neurocalyx Hook. 83
Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. 456
Neuwiedia Blume 75
Oenanthe stolonifera DC. 456
Nicotiana asiatica Schultes 455
Oenocarpus bataua Mart. 449
Nicotiana humilis Link 455
Oldenlandia L. 160
Nicotiana mexicana Schlecht. 455
Oldenlandia repens L. 159
Nicotiana pilosa Moc. &Sessé ex Dun 455
Oldenlandia umbellata L. 456
Nicotiana rugosa Miller 455
Oleandra neriiformis Cav. 456
Nicotiana rustica L. 455
Oligosporus condimentarius Cass. 429
Nicotiana tabacum L. 455
Omalanthus A.Juss. 240
Nicotiana virginica C.Agardh 455
Nigella cretica Miller 456 Oncosperma horridum (Griffith) R. Scheffer 456
Nigella indica Roxb.ex Fleming 456 Oncus esculentus Lour. 440
Nigella sativa L. 456 Onychium siliculosum (Desv.) C.Chr. 456
Nipa fruticans Thunberg 456 Ophioglossum pendulum L. 456
Nipa litoralis Blanco 456 Ophioglossum reticulatum L. 456
Nispero achras (Miller) Aubréville 452 Ophiopogon Ker Gawl. 274
Nothocnide Blume ex Chew 318 Ophiopogon japonicus (L.f.) Ker Gawl. 274
Nothocnide repanda (Blume) Blume 318 Orchidantha N.E.Br. 320
Nothofagus Blume 206 Orchidantha fimbriatum Holttum 320
Nothofagus grandis v. Steenis 456 Orchidantha inouei Nagamasu &Sakai 320
Notobuxus Oliv. 102 Orchidantha longiflora auct. non (Scort.) Ridley
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. 456 320
Nyctanthes dentata Blume 456 Oreocnide integrifolia Miq. 456
Oreocnide rubescens Miq. 456
Origanum benghalense Burm.f. 461 Pandanus Parkinson 321, 369

Ortholobium bubalinum (Jack) Kosterm. 428 - subgenus Acrostigma 323
Oryza aristata Blanco 456 - section Acrostigma 323
Oryza glutinosa Lour. 456 - subgenus Rykia 323
Oryza montana Lour. 456 - section Rykia 323
Oryza praecox Lour. 456 Pandanus affinis Kurz 322, 323
Oryza sativa L. 41,456 Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. 322, 457
OsbeckiaL. 321 Pandanus antaresensis St. John 322
Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume 320, 321 Pandanus atrocarpus Griffith 322
Osbeckia chinensis L. 320 Pandanus aurantiacus Ridley 323
Osbeckia crinita Benth. ex Triana 320 Pandanus brosimos Merr. &Perry 322
Osbeckia octandra (L.)DC. 320, 321 Pandanus conoideus Lamk 322
Osmia odorata (L.) Schultz-Bip. 435 Pandanus furcatus Roxb. 322, 457
Osmoxylon palmatum (Lamk) Philipson 456 Pandanus hasskarlii Merr. 457
Otophora cambodiana Pierre 450 Pandanus klossii Ridley 321,322, 323
Otophora fruticosa Blume 450 Pandanus latifolius Hassk. 457
Otophora resecta Radlk. 450 Pandanus leram Jones ex Pontana 322
Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. 456 Pandanus luzonensis Merr. 322
Ottelia condorensis Gagnep. 457 Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. 322
OtteliajaponicaMiq. 457 Pandanus odorus Ridley 457
Otteliajavanica Miq. 457 Pandanus polycephalus Lamk 322
Ouratea angustifolia (Vahl) Bâillon & Lanessan Pandanus tectorius Parkinson 322, 457
446 Panicum italicum L. 465
Oxalis corymbosa DC. 457 Panicum maximum Jacq. 457
Oxalis debilis Kunth 457 Panicum miliaceum L. 41
- var. corymbosa (DC.) Lourteig 457 Panicum palmifolium J. König 373
Oxalis martiana Zucc. 457 Panicum polygamum Sw. 457
Oxalis violacea auct. non L. 457 Papuechites Markgr. 324
Oxyceros Lour. 198 Papuechites aambe (Warb.) Markgr. 323
Oxyceros fasciculata (Roxb.) Yamazaki 197 Paramignya Wight 277, 300, 324
Oxymitra (Blume) Hook.f. &Thomson 204 Paramignya angulata (Willd.) Kurz 299
Oxymitra bakeri Merr. 204 Paramignya griffithii Hook.f. 324
Oxymitra latifolia Hook.f. &Thomson 204 Paramignya longispina Hook.f. 299
OxysporaDC. 58,95 Paramignya monophylla Wight 324
Oxyspora bullata (Griffith) J.F. Maxwell 59 Paramignya scandens (Griffith) Craib 324
Oxyspora curtisii King 58 Parartocarpus triandra (J.J. Smith) J.J. Smith
Oxyspora exigua (Jack) J.F. Maxwell 59 457
Pachira aquatica Aubl. 457 Parartocarpus venenosus (Zoll. &Moritzi) Becc.
Pachira macrocarpa (Schlechtendal & Cham.) 457
Walpers 457 Parartocarpus woodii (Merr.) Merr. 457
Pachyrhizus angulatus Rich, ex DC. 457 P a r a m e n i a Bremek. 170, 325, 353
Pachyrhizus bulbosus (L.) Kurz 457 Pararuellia napifera (Zoll.) Bremek. 325
Pachyrhizus erosus (L.)Urban 457 Parinari glaberrimum (Hassk.) Hassk. 430
Pachyrhizus palmatilobus (Moc. &Sessé ex DC.) Parkia harbesonii Elmer 457
Benth. 457 Parkia macrocarpa Miq. 457
PaederiaL. 360 Parkia speciosa Hassk. 457
Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K. Schumann 457 Parosela glandulosa (Blanco) Merr. 155
Pajanelia multijuga (Wallich) DC. 457 Paspalidium Stapf 382
Pajanelia rheedii Wight 457 Paspalum conjugatum Bergius 457
Palaquium acuminatum Burck 457 Passiflora biflora Lamk 457
Palaquium gutta (Hook.f.) Bâillon 457 Passiflora incarnata L. 457
Palaquium oblongifolium (Burck) Burck 457 Passiflora lunata Willd. 457
Palaquium optimum Becc. 457 Pastinaca sativa L. 457
Panda Pierre 206 Paullinia asiatica L. 470
Paullinia cupana Kunth 457 Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach 458

Paullinia sorbilis Martius 457 Persicaria odorata (Lour.) Sojâk 458
Payena croixiana Pierre 458 Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross 458
Payena dasyphylla (Miq.) Pierre 458 Persicaria pubescens (Blume) Hara 459
- var. glabrata King &Gamble 458 Petalinia bancana Becc. 456
Payena glutinosa Pierre 458 Petersianthus quadrialatus (Merr.) Merr. 459
Payena leerii (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Kurz 458 Petroselinum crispum (Miller) Nyman ex A.W.
Payena lucida (Wallich ex G. Don) A.DC. 458 Hill 459
Pedicellarum M. Hotta 336 Petroselinum hortense Hoffm. 459
Pelargonium L'Hérit. 458 Petroselinum sativum Hoffm. 459
- cv. group Rosat 458 Petroselinum vulgare J. Hill 459
Pelargonium xasperum Ehrh. exWilld. 458 Petunga roxburghii DC. 254
Pelargonium graveolens auct. 458 Petunga venulosa Hook.f. 254
Pelargonium roseum auct. 458 Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Hiern 427
Peliosanthes Andrews 274 Peucedanum sowa (Roxb.ex Fleming) Kurz 427
Pellionia Gaudich. 184 Phalaris zizanioides L. 471
Pellionia daveauana N.Br. 184 Phaleria capitata Jack 459
Pellionia repens (Lour.) Merr. 184 Phanera fulva (Blume ex Korth.) Benth. 91
Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz 458 Phanera purpurea (L.) Benth. 91
Peltophorum ferrugineum (Decne.) Benth. 458 Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth. 92
Peltophorum grande Prain 458 Phanera sumatrana Miq. 92
Peltophorum inerme (Roxb.) Naves &Villar 458 Phanera variegata (L.)Benth. 93
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq. 471
Heyne 458 Phaseolus angularis (Willd.) W.F. Wight 472
Peltophorum tonkinense (Pierre) Gagnep. 458 Phaseolus bipunctatus Jacq. 459
Pentadesma butyracea Sabine 458 Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. 472
Pentadesma leucantha A.Chev. 458 Phaseolus limensis Macfad. 459
Pentaphragma Wallich ex G. Don 326 Phaseolus lunatus L. 459
Pentaphragma begoniifolium (Roxb. ex Jack) Wal- Phaseolus max L. 445
lich ex G. Don 325 Phaseolus mungo L. 472
Pentaphragma ellipticum Poulsen 326 Philbornea Hallier f. 264
- var. flocculosum (King &Gamble) Kiew 326 Philydrum Banks ex Gaertner 328
Perakanthus Robyns 109 Philydrum lanuginosum Banks &Sol. ex Gaert-
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton 458 ner 327
Perilla nankinensis (Lour.) J. Decne. 458 Phoebe cuneata (Blume) Blume 459
Perilla ocymoides L. 458 Phoebe grandis (Nees) Merr. 459
Peristrophe Nees 255,326, 327, 354 Phoebe kunstleri Gamble 459
Peristrophe acuminata Nees 326 Phoebe multiflora Blume 459
Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees 327, 458 Phoebe opaca Blume 459
Peristrophe bivalvis (L.)Merr. 326, 458 Phormium tenax J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 459
Peristrophe hyssopifolia (Burm.f.) Bremek. 327 Phyllagathis Blume 328, 375
Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt 327, Phyllagathis cordata Ridley 328
458 Phyllagathis griffithii (Hook.f. ex Triana) King
Peristrophe roxburghiana (Schultes) Bremek. 328, 329
458 Phyllagathis magnifica A.Weber 329
Peristrophe tinctoria (Roxb.) Nees 458 Phyllagathis rotundifolia (Jack) Blume 328, 329
Peronema canescens Jack 458 Phyllagathis stonei A. Weber 329
Peronema heterophyllum Miq. 458 Phyllanthus L. 214,364
Persea americana Miller 458 Phyllanthus accrescens J.J. Smith 459
Persea arisanensis (Hayata) Kosterm. 458 Phyllanthus gomphocarpus Hook.f. 459
Persea drymifolia Schlecht. &Cham. 458 Phyllanthus pulcher Wallich exMuell.Arg. 124
Persea gratissima Gaertner f. 458 Phyllocactus acuminatus (K. Schumann) K. Schu-
Persea nubigena L.O.Williams 458 mann 188
Persea thunbergii (Sieb. &Zucc.)Kosterm. 458 Physalis peruviana L. 459
Phyteuma begoniifolium Roxb. ex Jack 325 Pithecellobium ellipticum (Blume) Hassk. 428
Picralima Pierre 248 Pithecellobium jiringa (Jack) Prain 428
Picrasma Blume 330 Pithecellobium lobatum Benth. 428
Picrasma excelsa Planchon 329 Pithecellobium microcarpum Benth. 428
Picrasmajavanica Blume 329 Pithecellobium waitzii Kosterm. 428
Picrasma nepalensis A.W. Bennett 329 Pithecolobium myriophyllum Gagnep. 426
Picrasma philippinensis Elmer 329 Pittosporum acuminatissimum Merr. 460
Picrasma quassioides (D.Don) A.W. Bennett 329 Pittosporum brachysepalum Turcz. 460
Pierranthus capitatus (Bonati) Bonati 97 Pittosporum epiphyticum Merr. 460
Pilea Lindley 331 Pittosporum fernandezii Fern.-Vill. 460
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. 330 Pittosporum ferrugineum Aiton 460
Pilea muscosa Lindley 330 Pittosporum nativitatis Baker 460
Pilea pumila (L.)A. Gray 331 Pittosporum pentandrum (Blanco) Merr. 460
Piliostigma acidum (Reinw. ex Korth.) Benth. 431 Pittosporum pseudostipitatum Merr. 460
Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth. 431 Pittosporum resiniferum Hemsl. 460
Pimela nigra Lour. 433 Pittosporum rufescens Turcz. 460
Pimelodendron amboinicum Hassk. 459 Pittosporum versteeghii Merr. &L.M. Perry 460
Pimelodendron papuanum Warb. 459 Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link 460
Pimenta acris (Sw.) Kostel. 459 Plagiospermum benzoin Pierre 467
Pimenta dioica (L.)Merr. 459 Planchonella obovata (R.Br.) Pierre 461
Pimenta officinalis Lindley 459 Planchonia papuana Knuth 460
Pimenta racemosa (Miller) J.W. Moore 459 Platyadenia B.L. Burtt 236
Pimpinella alpina Koord.-Schum. non Host 459 Platycerium bifurcatum (Cav.) C C h r . 460
Pimpinella anisum L. 459 Platymitra arborea (Blanco) Kessler 460
Pimpinella pruatjan Molkenb. 459 Plectranthus rotundifolius (Poiret) Sprengel 460
Pinardia coronaria Lessing 435 Plectronia horrida (Blume) Benth. &Hook.f. ex
Piper aduncum L. 459 Kurz 109
Piper angustifolium Ruiz &Pavón 459 Pleiocarpa Benth. 248
Piper aromaticum Lamk 460 Pleocnemia irregularis (CPresl) Holttum 460
Piper attenuatum auct. non Miq. 459 Pleomele angustifolia (Roxb.) N.E.Br. 176
Piper banksii Miq. 460 Ploiarium alternifolium (Vahl) Melchior 461
Piper bantamense Blume 459 Ploiarium elegans Korth. 461
Piper betleL. 459 Podocarpus decipiens N.E. Gray 461
Piper caninum Blume 460 Podocarpus discolor Blume 461
Piper chaba Hunter 460 Podocarpus leptostachya Blume 461
Piper cubeba L.f. 460 Podocarpus neglecta Blume 461
Piper elongatum Vahl 459 Podocarpus neriifolius D. Don 461
Piper latifolium Hunter 460 Podocarpus polyantha (Wasscher) Gaussen 461
Piper lauterbachii CDC. 460 Pogonarthria bipinnata (L.) Chiov. 439
Piper lolot CDC. 460 Pogonia flabelliformis Lindley 317
Piper longum L. 460 Pogonolobus F. v. Mueller 230
Piper macrocarpum C D C 460 Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.f.) O. Kuntze
Piper methysticum G. Forster 460 461
Piper nigrum L. 460 Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. 461
Piper officinarum (Miq.) C D C 460 Pogostemon comosus Miq. 461
Piper pinguispicum C D C &Koord. 460 Pogostemonjavanicus Backer exAdelb. 461
Piper retrofractum Vahl 460 Pogostemon parviflorus Benth. 461
Piper sarmentosum Roxb. ex Hunter 460 Pogostemon patchouly Pellet. 461
Pipturus répandus (Blume)Wedd. 318 Pogostemon plectranthoides auct. non Desf. 461
Pistacia oleosa Lour. 464 Poikilospermum Zipp. ex Miq. 113
Pithecellobium angulatum Benth. 428 Polimnia abyssinica L.f. 447
Pithecellobium bubalinum (Jack) Benth. 428 Polyadenia pipericarpa Miq. 451
Pithecellobium clypearia (Jack) Benth. 428 Polyalthia Blume 332
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. 460 Polyalthia aberrans Maingay 466
Polyalthia barnesii Merr. 332 Premna cordifolia Roxb. 461

Polyalthia beccarii King 333 Prismatomeris Thwaites 197, 337, 345
Polyalthia bullata King 332, 333 Prismatomeris albidiflora auct. non Thwaites.
Polyalthia cauliflora Hook.f. &Thomson 333 336
Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. 332 Prismatomeris fragrans Geddes 336
Polyalthia debilis (Pierre) Finet &Gagnep. 332 Prismatomeris malayana Ridley 336
Polyalthia evecta (Pierre) Finet &Gagnep. 332 Prismatomeris sessiliflora Pitard 336
Polyalthia hypoleuca Hook.f. &Thomson 333 Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) K. Schumann
Polyalthia lateriflora (Blume) King 332 336
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites 332, 333, - subsp. malayana (Ridley) J.T. Johansson 337
334 - subsp. tetrandra 337
Polyalthia macropoda King 332 Pristimera indica (Willd.)A.C. Smith 344
Polyalthia nemoralis Aug. DC. 332 Prosopisjuliflora (Sw.) DC. 461
Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thwaites 332, 334 Prosopis vidaliana Naves 461
Polycavernosa fastigiata C.F. Chang &B.M. Xia Prunus arborea (Blume) Kalkman 461
446 Prunus marsupialis Kalkman 461
Polychroa repens Lour. 184 Pseudarthria viscida (L.)Wight &Arnott 461
Polygonum flaccidum Meisner 458 Pseuderanthemum Radlk. 191,192, 337
Polygonum gracile R.Br. 458 Pseuderanthemum atropurpureum Radlk. 337
Polygonum hydropiper L. 458 Pseuderanthemum bicolor (Schrank) Radlk. 337,
Polygonum leptostachyum de Bruyn 459 338
Polygonum odoratum Lour. 458 Pseuderanthemum carruthersii (Seem.) Guill.
Polygonum perfoliatum L. 459 337
Polygonum pubescens Blume 459 Pseuderanthemum diversifolium (Blume) Radlk.
Polygonum roettleri Merr. non Roth 459 338
Polyscias nodosa (Blume) Seem. 461 Pseuderanthemum graciliflorum (Nees) Ridley
Polytoca macrophylla Benth. 115 339
Polytrema javanicum Bremek. 341 Pseuderanthemum racemosum (Roxb.) Radlk.
Polytrema vulgare C.B. Clarke 341 337
Pometia pinnata J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 461 Pseuderanthemum reticulatum Radlk. 337
Pongamia glabra Ventenat 461 Pseuderanthemum zollingerianum (Nees) Bre-
Pongamia pinnata (L.)Pierre 461 mek. 338
Pongelion excelsum (Roxb.) Pierre 426 Pseudomussaenda Wernham 312
Pongelion wightii v. Tiegh. 426 Pseudomussaenda flava Verde. 312
Popowia aberrans Pierre 466 Psidium aromaticum Blanco 462
PopulusL. 153 Psidium cujavillus Burm.f. 462
Portulaca oleracea L. 461 Psidium guajava L. 462
Portulaca racemosa L. 468 Psidium guineense Sw. 462
Portulaca triangularis Jacq. 468 Psidium pumilum Vahl 462
Potentilla indica (H.C. Andrews) Wolf 461 Psophocarpus longepedunculatus Hassk. 462
Pothoidium Schott 336 Psophocarpus palustris auct. non Desv. 462
PothosL. 335 Psophocarpus scandens (Endl.)Verde. 462
Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr. 335 PsychotriaL. 210
Pothos hermaphroditus (Blanco) Merr. 334 Psydrax Gaertner 109
Pothos kerrii Buchet ex P.C. Boyce 335 Psydrax diococca Gaertner 109
Pothos pilulifer Buchet ex P.C. Boyce 335 Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn 462
Pothos repens (Lour.) Druce 335 Pterisanthes Blume 339
Pothos scandens L. 334 Pterisanthes cissoides Blume 339
Pothos zollingerianus Schott 334 Pterisanthes rufula (Miq.) Planchon 340
Poupartia pinnata Blanco 466 Pternandra capitellata Jack 462
Pouteria mammosa (L.) Cronquist 452 Pternandra coerulescens Jack 462
Pouteria obovata (R.Br.) Baehni 461 Pternandra echinata Jack 462
Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore &S t e a m 461 Pternandra latifolia (Blume) Triana 462
Pouzolzia sanguinea (Blume) Merr. 461 Pterocaulon Elliott 340
Pterocaulon cylindrostachyum C.B. Clarke 340 Remirea pedunculata R.Br. 438

Pterocaulon redolens (Willd.)Fern.-Vill. 340 Rennellia Korth. 337, 344
Pterocaulon sphacelatum (Labill.) Benth. & Rennellia amoena (Bremek.) J.T. Johansson 345
Hook.f. ex F. v. Mueller 340, 341 Rennellia elliptica Korth. 344
Ptychotis roxburghiana DC. 470 Rennellia morindiformis (Korth.) Ridley 344, 345
Ptyssiglottis T. Anderson 341 Rennellia paniculata King &Gamble 345
Ptyssiglottis kunthiana (Nées) B. Hansen 341, Rennellia speciosa (Wallich ex Kurz) Hook.f. 344,
354 345
Pueraria hirsuta (Thunberg) Matsumura 462 Reutealis trisperma (Blanco) Airy Shaw 462
Pueraria javanica (Benth.) Benth. 462 Rhamnus jujuba L. 474
Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi 462 Rhaphidophora Hassk. 67, 190,346, 367
Pueraria mirifica Airy Shaw &Suvat 100 Rhaphidophora celebica K. Krause 347
Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. 69, 462 Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott 346
Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. 462 Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott 346
Pueraria thomsoni Benth. 462 Rhaphidophora merrillii Engl. 189
Pueraria thunbergiana (Sieb. &Zucc.) Benth. 462 Rhaphidophora minor Hook.f. 347
Pueraria tonkinensis Gagnepain 462 Rhaphidophora montana (Blume) Schott 68
Pueraria triloba (Houtt.) Makino 462 Rhaphidophora pinnata (L.) Schott 189
Punica granatum L. 462 Rheum L. 415
Pygeum arboreum (Blume) Blume 461 Rheum xcultorum Thorsrud &Reisaeter 462
Pygeum glandulosum Merr. 461 Rhizanthes Dumort. 343
Pygeum parviflorum Teijsm. &Binnend. 461 Rhizophora apiculata Blume 462
Pygeum pubescens Merr. 461 Rhizophora candelaria DC. 462
Pygeum stipulaceum King 461 Rhizophora caseolaris L. 466
Pyramidanthe Miq. 342 Rhizophora conjugata Arnott non L. 462
Pyramidanthe prismatica (Hook.f. &Thomson) J. Rhizophora latifolia Miq. 462
Sinclair 201,341 Rhizophora macrorrhiza Griffith 462
Quararibea funebris (La Llave)Vischer 462 Rhizophora mucronata Poiret 462
Quassia L. 330 - var. typica A. Schimper 463
Quassia amara L. 329 Rhizophora sexangula Lour. 431
Rafflesia R.Br. 342,400 Rhodamnia cinerea Jack 463
Rafflesia arnoldii R.Br. 342 Rhodamnia trinervia auct. non (J.E. Smith)
Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar 343 Blume 463
Rafflesia patma Blume 342, 343 Rhododendron L. 347
Rafflesia zollingeriana Koord. 343 - subgenus Rhododendron 348
Ramtilla oleifera DC. 447 - section Vireya 348
RandiaL. 53,111 Rhododendron astrapiae Förster ex Schlechter
Randia aculeata Blanco non L. 114 349
Randia cochinchinensis auct. non (Lour.) Merr. Rhododendron brookeanum Low ex Lindley 349
53 Rhododendron culminicolum F. v. Mueller 347
Randia dasycarpa (Kurz) Bakh.f. 112 Rhododendron curranii Merr. 350
Randia densiflora (Wallich) Benth. 53 Rhododendron devrieseanum Koord. 349
Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Poir. I l l Rhododendron fallacinum Sleumer 348
Randia fasciculata (Roxb.) DC. 197 Rhododendron hansemannii Warb. 349
Randia racemosa (Cav.) Fern.-Vill. 53 Rhododendron herzogii Warb. 347
Randia spinosa (Thunberg) Blume 111 Rhododendron javanicum (Blume) Benn. 347, 349
Randia tomentosa (Blume ex DC.) Hook.f. non Rhododendron konori Becc. 347, 349
Wight &Arnott 112 Rhododendron lauterbachianum Förster 349
Raphia hookeri G. Mann &H. Wendl. 462 Rhododendron lussoniense Rendle 350
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz 24 Rhododendron macgregoriae F. v. Mueller 347,
Reissantia N. Halle 344 349
Reissantia cassinoides (DC.) Ding Hou 462 Rhododendron moultonii Ridley 349
Reissantia indica (Willd.) N. Halle 344 Rhododendron vidalii Rolfe 347, 350
Remirea maritima Aubl. 438 Rhododendron whiteheadii Rendle 350
Rhodomyrtus (DC.) Reichenb. 319 Sagittaria sinensis Sims 463

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk. 463 Sagittaria trifolia L. 463
Rhophalandria cumminsii Stapf 440 Salacca conferta Griffith 441
Rhophalandria lobatum C.H. Wright 440 Salacia chinensis L. 463
Ricinus communis L. 463 Salacia flavescens Kurz 463
Ricinus salicinus Hassk. 448 Salacia grandiflora Kurz 463
Ridleyandra A.Weber &B.L. Burtt 163 Salacia korthalsiana Miq. 463
RinoreaAubl. 350 Salacia latifolia Wallich ex Lawson 463
Rinorea anguifera (Lour.) O. Kuntze 350, 351 Salacia macrophylla Blume 463
Rinorea floribunda (King) Merr. 351 Salacia philippinensis Merr. 463
Rinorea homeri (Korth.) O. Kuntze 351 Salacia prinoides DC. 463
Rinoreajavanica (Blume) O. Kuntze 350 Salix azaolana Blanco 463
Rinorea kunstleriana (King) Taub. 351 Salix horsfieldiana Miq. 463
Rinorea lanceolata (Wallich) O. Kuntze 351 Salix tetrasperma Roxb. 463
Robinia Candida Roxb. 468 Salomonia Lour. 191,354, 355
Robinia grandiflora L. 465 Salomonia aphylla Griffith 190
Rollinia deliciosa Safford 463 Salomonia cantoniensis Lour. 354
Rollinia emarginata Schlechtendal 463 Salomonia ciliata (L.) DC. 355
Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Bâillon 463 Salomonia elongata (Blume) Kurz ex Koord. 190
Rollinia orthopetala A.DC. 463 Salvia L. 355,356
Rollinia salacifolia Schlechtendal 463 Salvia brachiata Roxb. 355
Rorippa dubia (Pers.) Hara 463 Salvia chia Sessé &Moc. 463
Rorippa heterophylla (Blume) Williams 463 Salvia chromatica Hoffsgg. 463
Rosa L. 563 Salvia hispanica L. 355, 463
- cv. group Damascus 463 Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge 355, 356
Rosa damascena Miller 463 Salvia minutiflora Bunge 355
Rosa gallica L. 463 Salvia officinalis L. 355, 463
- var. damascena Voss 463 Salvia papulosa Hoffsgg. 463
Rosmarinus angustifolius Miller 463 Salvia plebeia R.Br. 355
Rosmarinus latifolius Miller 463 Salvia rosmarinus Schleiden 463
Rosmarinus officinalis L. 463 Salvia schiedeana Stapf 463
RotalaL. 63 Sambucus L. 357
Rotula Lour. 352 Sambucus ebulus L. 357
Rotula aquatica Lour. 352 Sambucus formosana Nakai 356
Rotula lycioides (Mart.) I.M. Johnst. 352 Sambucus henriana Samutina 356
Roucheria griffithiana Planchon 263 Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume 356
RoureaAubl. 363 Sambucus nigra L. 356, 357
Rubia cordifolia L. 463 Sambucus thunbergiana Blume ex Miq. 356, 357
Rubia javana DC. 463 Sandoricum indicum Cav. 464
Rubia mitis Miq. 463 Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. 463
Rubia munjista Roxb. 463 Sandoricum maingayi Hiern 464
Rubus ellipticus J.E. Smith 463 Sandoricum nervosum Blume 464
RuelliaL. 170,325,353 Sandoricum vidalii Merr. 464
Ruellia napifera Zoll. 325 Sansevieria Thunberg 176
Ruellia praetermissa Schweinf. ex Lindau 170 Sansevieria trifasciata Prain 464
Ruellia repens L. 169 Santalum album L. 464
Ruellia tuberosa L. 23, 352 Santalum cygnorum Miq. 464
Rungia Nees 354 Santalum diversifolium (Miq.)A.DC. 464
Rungia grandis T. Anderson 354 Santalum myrtifolium (L.)Roxb. 464
Rungia klossii S. Moore 354 Santalum ovatum R.Br. 464
Rungia laxiflora C.B. Clarke 353 Santalum spicatum (R.Br.) A.DC. 464
Sagittaria hirundinacea Blume 463 Sapindus L. 357
Sagittaria sagittifolia L. 463 Sapindus microcarpus Jardin 359
- subsp. leucopetala (Miq.) Hartog 463 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertner 359
Sapindus rarak DC. 357, 358 Scaphium wallichii Schott &Endl. 464
Sapindus saponaria L. 357, 358, 359 Schima bancana Miq. 464
Sapindus trifoliatus L. 357, 358 Schima crenata Korth. 464
Sapindus vitiensis A. Gray 359 Schima noronhae Reinw. ex Blume 464
Sapium P. Browne 301 Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. 220, 464
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. 471 Schizaea dichotoma (L.) Smith 464
Sapria Griffith 343 Schizomussaenda Li 312
Saprosma Blume 359, 360 Schizomussaenda dehiscens (Craib) Li 312
Saprosma arboreum Blume 360 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken 464
Saprosma glomerulatum King &Gamble 360 Schleichera revoluta Turcz. 454
Saprosma scortechinii King &Gamble 360 Schleichera trijuga Willd. 464
Saprosma ternatum Hook.f. 360 Schoenoplectus lacustris (L.)Palla 464
Saraca bijuga Prain 464 Scindapsus Schott 67, 190, 346, 367
Saraca harmandiana Pierre 464 Scindapsus hederaceus Schott 366
Saraca indica L. 464 Scindapsus officinalis Schott 366, 367
Saraca kunstleri Prain 464 Scindapsus pictus Hassk. 366
Saraca minor (Zoll. &Moritzi) Miq. 464 Scindapsus pinnatus (L.) Schott 189
Sarcandra glabra (Thunberg) Nakai 464 ScirpusL. 199
Sarcandra hainanensis (Pei) Swamy &Bailey 464 Scleria P.J. Bergius 367
Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq. 455 Scleria biflora Roxb. 367
Sarcocephalus undulatus Miq. 455 Scleria levis Retz. 367, 368
Sarcolobus R.Br. 362 Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. 368
Sarcolobus banksii Roemer &Schultes 361 Scleria multifoliata Boeck. 369
Sarcolobus globosus Wallich 361 Scleria oryzoides Presl 369
- subsp. globosus 362 Scleria pergracilis (Nees) Kunth 367, 368
- subsp. peregrinus (Blanco) Rintz 362 Scleria poaeformis Retz. 367, 369
Sarcolobus narcoticus Span, ex Miq. 361 Scleria purpurascens Steudel 367, 369
Sarcolobus spanoghei Miq. 361 Scleria sumatrensis Retz. 369
Sarcotheca Blume 362 Scorodocarpus borneensis (Bâillon) Becc. 464
Sarcotheca laxa (Ridley) Knuth 362 Scorzonera hispanica L. 464
Sasanqua vulgaris Nees 432 Scurrula L. 157,158, 284, 370
Satureja hortensis L. 464 Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser 370, 371
Satureja laxiflora K. Koch 464 Scurrula ferruginea (Roxb. ex Jack) Danser 371
Satureja pachyphylla K. Koch 464 Scurrula fusca (Blume) G. Don 372
Sauropus Blume 363 Scurrula gracilifolia (Schultes) Danser 370, 372
Sauropus albicans Blume 364 Scurrula parasitica L. 370,371,372
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. 363, 364 Scurrula philippinensis (Cham. & Schlechtendal)
Sauropus bacciformis (L.)Airy Shaw 301 G.Don 371
Sauropus brevipes Müll. Arg. 363,364, 365 Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertner f. 464
Sauropus parvifolius Ridley 365 Sebastiana Sprengel 301
Sauropus sumatranus Miq. 364 Sebastiana chamaelea (L.)Müll. Arg. 301
Saxifraga L. 366 Secamone R.Br. 404
- section Irreguläres 366 Secamone villosa Blume 404
Saxifraga ligulata Murray 365 Securinega acuminatissima (C.B.Rob.) C.B. Rob.
Saxifraga sarmentosa L.f. ex Schreber 365 465
Saxifraga stolonifera W. Curtis 365 Securinega flexuosa (Müll. Arg.) Müll. Arg. 464
Scandix cerefolium L. 427 Securinega keyensis Warb. 465
Scaphium affinis (Masters) Pierre 464 Securinega samoana Croizat 465
Scaphium beccarianum Pierre 464 Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Bâillon 465
Scaphium lychnophorum (Hance) Pierre 464 Selenicereus (A.Berger) Britton &Rose 189
Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex K. Selliguea feei Bory 465
Heyne 464 Semecarpus anacardium L.f. 465
Scaphium scaphigerum (Wallich ex G. Don) Gui- Semecarpus cassuvium Roxb. 465
bourt &Planchon 464 SenecioL. 186,372,373
Senecio chinensis (Sprengel) DC. 372 Solanum L. 83

Senecio pseudochina L. 233 Solanum americanum Miller 466
Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 372 Solanum blumii Nees ex Blume 452
Senecio sonchifolius (L.)Moench 442 Solanum coagulans Forssk. 466
Senna Miller 415 Solanum cumingii Dunal 466
Senna didymobotrya (Fresenius) Irwin & Barneby Solanum ferrugineum Jacq. 466
465 Solanum largiflorum C White 466
Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin &Barneby 465 Solanum melongena L. 466
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link 465 Solanum nigrum auct. non L. 466
Senna siamea (Lamk) Irwin &Barneby 465 Solanum nodiflorum Jacq. 466
Senna sumatrana (Roxb.ex Hörnern.) Roxb. 465 Solanum pressum Dunal 466
Senna surattensis (Burm.f.) Irwin &Barneby 465 Solanum torvum Sw. 466
Senna timoriensis (DC.) Irwin &Barneby 465 Solenospermum pallidum (M. Lawson) Loes. 451
Sericocalyx crispus (L.)Bremek. 387 Solenostemon rotundifolius (Poiret) J.K. Morton
Sesbania aegyptiaca Poiret 465 460
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poiret 465 Solenostigma latifolium Blume 434
Sesbania leptocarpa auct. non DC. 426 Sonchus L. 186
Sesbania sesban (L.)Merr. 465 Sonchus oleraceus L. 466
Setaria P. Beauv. 373, 374 Sonchus sundaicus Blume 466
Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. 373 Sonchus wightianus DC. 466
- cv.group Foxtail Millet 465 Sonerila Roxb. 328,375
Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumaeh.) Stapf & C E . Sonerila begoniaefolia Blume 375
Hubb. 373 Sonerila gimlettei Ridley 376
Setaria palmifolia (J. König) Stapf 373 Sonerila heterostemon Naudin 375
- var. blepharoneuron (A.Braun) Veldkamp 374 Sonerila moluccana Roxb. 375
Setaria parviflora (Poir.) Kerguélen 373 Sonerila nidularia Stapf 376
Setaria plicata (Lamk) T. Cooke 374 Sonerila obliqua Korth. 375
Setaria viridis (L.)P. Beauv. 373 Sonneratia acida L.f. 466
- subsp. italica (L.)Briquet 465 Sonneratia alba auct. non J. Smith 466
Severinia Ten. 300,324 Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. 466
Sideroxylon ferrugineum Hook. &Arnott 461 Sonneratia obovata Blume 466
Simmondsia californica Nuttall 465 Sonneratia ovata Backer 466
Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C K . Schneider 465 Sophora L. 195
Sinapis alba L. 465 Spatholobus Hassk. 100, 376
Sinapis nigra L. 431 Spatholobus ferrugineus (Zoll. &Moritzi) Benth.
Sindora coriacea Maingay ex Prain 465 376, 377
Sindora intermedia (J.G. Baker) Prain ex King Spatholobus gyrocarpus Benth. 466
466 Spatholobus littoralis Hassk. 377
Sindora leiocarpa Backer ex K. Heyne 465 Spatholobus parviflora (Roxb.) O. Kuntze 376
Sindora parvifolia Symington 466 Spatholobus roxburghii Benth. 376
Sindora sumatrana Miq. 465 Spatholobus suberectus Dunn 376
Sindora supa Merr. 466 Sphaerococcus gelatinus (Esper) C.Agardh 431
Sindora velutina J.G. Baker 466 Sphaerococcus salicornia C.Agardh 446
Sindora wallichii Graham ex Benth. 466 Sphaerocoryne aberrans Ridley 466
Siphonodon celastrineus Griffith 391 Sphaerostephanos heterocarpus (Blume) Holttum
Sirium myrtifolium L. 464 466
Sisymbrium nigrum (L.)Prantl 431 Sphenodesme Jack 378
Siumjavanicum Blume 456 Sphenodesme barbata Schauer 378
Skaphium lanceatum Miq. 473 Sphenodesme pentandra Jack 378
SmithiaAiton 375 Sphenodesme racemosa ( C Presl) Moldenke 378
Smithia conferta J.E. Smith 375 Sphenodesme triflora Wight 378
Smithia javanica Benth. 375 Sphenomeris chinensis (L.)Maxon 466
Smithia sensitiva Aiton 375 SpigeliaL. 380
Soja max (L.) Piper 445 Spigelia anthelmia L. 379
Spilanthes acmella auct. non (L.)Murr. 466 Stereospermum suaveolens (Roxb.) A.DC. 467
Spilanthes paniculata Wallich ex DC. 466 Stereospermum tetragonum A.DC. 467
Spilanthes pseudo-acmella auct. non (L.) Murr. Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Bertoni 467
466 Stichoneuron Hook.f. 382
Spondias amara Lamk 466 Stichoneuron caudatum Ridley 382
Spondias cytherea Sonnerat 466 Stichoneuron membranaceum Hook.f. 382
Spondias dulcis Soland. ex J.G. Forster 466 Stilago bunius L. 427
Spondias dulcis Blanco non Soland. ex J.G. Stillingia sebifera (L.) Michx. 471
Forster 466 Stizolobium pruriens (L.) Medik. 308
Spondias malayana Kosterm. 466 Stravadium excelsus (Blume) DC. 117
Spondias mangifera Willd. 466 Streptocaulon Wight &Arnott 382
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz 466 Streptocaulon baumii Decne. 383
Spondias pinnata auct. non (Koenig ex L.f.) Kurz Streptocaulon griffithii Hook.f. 383
466 Streptocaulon juventas (Lour.) Merr. 383
Spondias purpurea L. 466 Streptocaulon tomentosum Wight &Arnott 383
Spondias wirtgenii Hassk. 466 StrigaLour. 384,385
Stachys affinis Bunge 466 Striga asiatica (L.) O. Kuntze 384
Stachys sieboldii Miq. 466 Striga gesnerioides (Willd.)Vatke 384
Stachys tuberifera Naudin 467 Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. 384
Stapfiola bipinnata (L.) O. Kuntze 439 Striga lutea Lour. 384
Staurogyne Wallich 380 Striga orobanchioides (Endl.) Benth. 384
Staurogyne elongata (Blume) O. Kuntze 381 Strobilanthes Blume 385
Staurogyne malaccensis C.B. Clarke 381 Strobilanthes acrocephala T. Anderson 386
Staurogyne merguensis (T.Anderson) O. Kuntze Strobilanthes auriculata Nees 386
380, 381 Strobilanthes crispa (L.)Blume 386, 387
Staurogyne setigera (Nees) O. Kuntze 381 Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) O. Kuntze 385, 386,
Steganthera Perkins 292 387
Stelechocarpus burahol (Blume) Hook.f. & Thom- Strobilanthes dyeriana Masters 386
son 467 Strobilanthes flaccidifolia Nees 387
Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd. 467 Strophanthus aambe Warb. 323
Stenolobium stans (L.)Seem. 399 Strychnos L. 135
Stenotaphrum Trin. 382 StypheliaSm. 388
Stenotaphrum helferi Munro ex Hook.f. 381 Styphelia malayana (Jack) Sprengel 388
Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) O. Kuntze - var. novoguineensis Sleumer 389
381,382 Styphelia philippinensis Merr. 389
Stephania Lour. 125 Styphelia suaveolens (Hook.f.) Warb. 388, 389
Sterculia cordata Blume 467 Styrax benzoin Dryand. 467
Sterculia crassiramea Merr. 467 Styrax hypoglaucus Perkins 467
Sterculia foetida L. 467 Styrax macrothyrsus Perkins 467
Sterculia macrophylla Vent. 467 Styrax paralleloneurum Perkins 467
Sterculia oncinocarpa F. v. Mueller &Forbes 467 Styrax sumatranus J.J. Smith 467
Sterculia pachyclados K. Schumann 467 Styrax tonkinensis (Pierre) Craib ex Hartwich
Sterculia parkinsonii F. v. Mueller 467 467
Sterculia polyphylla R.Br. 467 Suregada Roxb. ex Rottl. 389
Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. 467 Suregada glomerulata (Blume) Bâillon 390
Stereospermum chelonoides auct. non (L.f.) DC. Suregada multiflora (A.Juss.) Bâillon 389, 390,
467 391
Stereospermum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex Dillw.) Suregada zanzibariensis Bâillon 390
Mabb. 467 Swietenia senegalensis Desr. 449
Stereospermum fimbriatum (Wallich ex G. Don) Swinglea Merr. 391
A.DC. 467 Swinglea glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. 391
Stereospermum mekongense Dop. 467 Sympetalandra schmutzii v. Steenis 467
Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) Chatterjee Symphorema Roxb. 378
467 Symphytum L. 407
Symplocos Jacq. 392,393 Talinum racemosum (L.) Rohrb. 468

Symplocos brandiana King &Gamble 394 Talinum trianguläre (Jacq.) Willd. 468
Symplocos caudata Wallich ex G. Don 392 Tamarindus indica L. 468
Symplocos chinensis (Lour.) Druce 392 Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertner 468
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore 392, Tamarindus officinalis Hook. 468
393 Tapeinochilos Miq. 397
Symplocos crassipes C.B. Clarke 394 Tapeinochilos ananassae (Hassk.) K. Schumann
Symplocos fasciculata Zoll. 392 396
Symplocos glomerata King ex C.B. Clarke 392 Tapeinochilos pungens (Teijsm. &Binnend.) Miq.
Symplocosjavanica Kurz 393 396
Symplocos laurina Wallich ex G. Don 393 Taxillus v. Tiegh. 370
Symplocos lucida (Thunberg) Sieb. &Zucc. 392 Taxillus atropurpureus (Blume) Ban 371
Symplocos monticola King &Gamble 394 Taxillus ferrugineus (Roxb. ex Jack) Ban 371
Symplocos odoratissima (Blume) Choisy ex Zoll. Taxillus parasiticus (L.) Ban 372
394 Taxillus philippinensis (Cham. & Schlechtendal)
Symplocos ophirensis C.B. Clarke 392 Ban 371
Symplocos paniculata (Thunberg) Miq. 392 Taxus L. 23,397,398,399
Symplocos penangiana King &Gamble 394 Taxus brevifolia Nutt. 398
Symplocos pulverulenta King &Gamble 394 Taxus chinensis (Pilger) Rehder 399
Symplocos racemosa Roxb. 392 Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) de Laub. 397
Symplocos spicata Roxb. 393 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. 399
Symplocos sumuntia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don 392 Taxus wallichiana auct. non Zucc. 397
Symplocos wenzelii Merr. 394 TecomaJuss. 400
Syndyophyllum K. Schumann &Lauterb. 193 Tecoma stans (L.)Juss. ex Kunth 23, 399
Syzygium aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston 467 Tecomaria(Endl.)Spach 400
Syzygium aromaticum (L.)Merr. &Perry 467 Tectona grandis L.f. 468
Syzygium chloranthum (Duthie) Merr. & Perry Tectona theka Lour. 468
467 Teijsmanniodendron pteropodum (Miq.) Bakh.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 467 468
Syzygium jambolanum (Lamk) DC. 467 Tephrosia Candida (Roxb.) DC. 468
Syzygiumjambos (L.)Alston 468 Tephrosia diffusa (Roxb.) Wight &Arnott 469
Syzygium lineatum (Blume) Merr. &Perry 468 Tephrosia hookeriana Wight &Arnott 468
Syzygium longiflorum K. Presl 468 - var. amoena Prain 468
Syzygium malaccense (L.)Merr. &Perry 468 Tephrosia incana (Roxb.) Sweet 469
Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walpers 468 Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker 468
Syzygium pustulatum (Duthie) Merr. 468 Tephrosia purpurea (L.)Pers. 469
Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry Tephrosia subamoena Prain 468
468 Tephrosia suberosa DC. 454
Tacca J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 394 Tephrosia villosa (L.)Pers. 469
Tacca bibracteata Drenth 395 Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. 469
Tacca celebica Koord. 395 Tephrosia wallichii Graham ex Fawc. & Rendle
Tacca chantrieri André 394, 395 469
Tacca cristata Jack 395 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth 469
Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl. 394, 395 Terminalia arborea Koord. &Valeton 469
Tacca involucrata (Limpr.) Schum. &Thonn. 468 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.)Wight &Arnott 469
Tacca laevis Roxb. 395 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb. 469
Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) O. Kuntze 394, 395, Terminalia berryi Wight &Arnott 469
468 Terminalia blancoi Merr. 469
Tacca palmata Blume 395, 396 Terminalia calamansanai (Blanco) Rolfe 469
Tacca paxiana H. Limpr. 395 Terminalia catappa L. 469
Tacca pinnatifida J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 468 Terminalia chebula Retz. 469
Tacca plantaginea (Hance) Drenth 394 Terminalia citrina (Gaertner) Roxb. ex Fleming
Tacca viridis Hemsley 468 469
Taenitis blechnoides (Willd) Sw. 468 Terminalia comintana Merr. 469
Terminalia coriacea (Roxb.) Wight &Arnott 469 Thespesia macrophylla Blume 470
Terminalia curtisii Ridley 469 Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex Corrêa 470
Terminalia edulis Blanco 469 Thymus aestivus Reuter exWillk. &Lange 470
Terminalia foveolata C.T. White &Francis ex Thymus ilerdensis F. Gonzalez ex Costa 470
Lane-Poole 469 Thymus vulgaris L. 470
Terminalia glabra (Roxb.)Wight &Arnott 469 Thymus webbianus Rouy 470
Terminalia hypargyrea K. Schumann & Lauterb. Thysanospermum Champ, ex Benth. 136
469 Thysanospermum diffusum Champ, ex Benth.
Terminal iajavanicaMiq. 469 136
Terminal:ia latialata C.T. White 469 Tiliacora Colebr. 402
Terminal ia latifolia Blanco non Sw. 469 Tiliacora acuminata (Lamk) Hook.f. & Thomson
Terminal:ia laurinoides Teijsm. &Binn. ex Miq. 401
469 Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels 401
Terminal ia macrocarpa Steudel 469 Timonius rumphii DC. 470
Terminal:ia mauritiana Blanco 469 Timonius sericeus (Desf.) K. Schumann 470
Terminal:ia microcarpa Decne. 469 Timonius timon (Sprengel) Merr. 470
Terminal ia moluccana Lamk 469 Tiquilia Pers. 129
Terminal:ia nigrovenulosa Pierre ex Gagnep 469 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray 470
Terminal:ia obliqua Craib 469 Toddalia aculeata (Smith) Pers. 470
Terminal:ia parviflora Thwaites 469 Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lamk 470
Terminal:ia procera Roxb. 469 Toluifera balsamum L. 455
Terminal:ia punctata Roth 469 Toona australis Harms 470
Terminal:ia pyrifolia (Presl) Kurz 469 Toona calantas Merr. &Rolfe 470
Terminal:ia tomentella Kurz 469 Toona ciliata M.J. Roemer 470
Terminal:ia tomentosa (Roxb.)Wight & Arnott Toona febrifuga (Blume) M.J. Roemer 470
469 Toona microcarpa (CDC.) Harms 470
Terminal:ia triptera Stapf 469 Toona paucijuga Merr. 470
Terminal ia tripteroides Craib 469 Toona serrata (Royle)M.J. Roemer 470
Terminal:ia zeylanica van Heurck &Müll. Arg. Toona serrulata (Miq.) Harms 470
469 Toona sinensis (Adr. Juss.) M.J. Roemer 470
Ternstroemia cherryi (F.M. Bailey) Merr. 469 Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. 470
Ternstroemia rehderana Kobuski 469 Toona ternatensis (Miq.) Bahadur 470
Tetrameles grahamiana Wight 470 Torenia polygonoides Benth. 266
Tetrameles horsfieldii Steudel 470 Tournefortia L. 402
Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br. 470 Tournefortia argentea L.f. 402, 403, 428
Tetranthera alnoides Miq. 451 Tournefortia hirsutissima L. 403
Tetranthera monopetala Roxb. 451 Tournefortia montana Lour. 402
Tetranthera polyantha Wallich ex Nees 451 Tournefortia sarmentosa Lamk 402, 403
- var. citrata Meissner 451 Toxocarpus Wight &Arnott 404
Tetrapanax papyriferus (Hook.) K. Koch 470 Toxocarpus villosus (Blume) Decne. 404
Tetrardisia Mez 78 Toxocarpus wightianus Hook. &Arnott 404
Tetrastigma (Miq.) Planchon 343, 400 Trachyspermum involucratum (Royle) H. Wolff
Tetrastigma harmandii Planchon 470 470
Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels &Gilg 400 Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff
Tetrastigma kunstleri (King) Craib 401 470
Tetrastigma lanceolarium (Roxb.) Planchon 401 Tradescantia axillaris L. 438
Tetrastigma lawsonii (King) Burkill ex Suess. TrapaL. 406
401 Trapa bicornis Osbeck 405
Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) Alston ex Trapa bispinosa Roxb. 405
Mabb. 400,401 Trapa cochinchinensis Lour. 405
Tetrastigma papillosum (Blume) Planchon 470 Trapa natans L. 405
Tetrastigma planicaule (Hook.f.) Gagnep. 400 TrevesiaVis. 406,407
Thea sasanqua (Thunberg ex Murray) Cels 432 Trevesia burckii Boerl. 406
Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell &A. Gibson 470 Trevesia cheirantha (C.B. Clarke) O. Kuntze 406
Trevesia palmata (Roxb. ex Lindley) Vis. 406, 407 Typhonium giganteum Engl. 411
Trevesia sundaica Miq. 406 Typhonium roxburghii Schott 411,412
Trewia macrophylla Roth 470 Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott 411,412
Trewia macrostachya Klotzsch 471 Typhonium trilobatum auct. non (L.) Schott 412
Trewia nudiflora L. 470 Ulva cavernosa Forssk. 439
Triadica sebiferum (L.) Small 471 Uncaria gambir (Hunter) Roxb. 471
Trichilia connaroides (Wight &Arnott) Bentv. Unona mesnyi Pierre 466
238 Uraria alopecuroides (Roxb.) Sweet 471
Trichodesma R.Br. 407 Uraria crinita (L.) Desv. ex DC. 471
Trichodesma africanum (L.) Lehm. 407 Uraria lagopodioides (L.) Desv. ex DC. 471
Trichodesma indicum (L.)J.E. Smith 407, 408 Urnularia flavescens (Hook.f.) Stapf 472
Trichodesma sericeum Lindley 408 Urobotrya Stapf 270
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. 407, 408 Urophyllum arboreum (Reinw. ex Blume) Korth.
- var. sericeum (Lindl.) Benth. 408 471
Trichomanes javanicum Blume 471 Urophyllum hirsutum (Wight) Hook.f. 471
Trichosporum D. Don 42 UvariaL. 146,413
Trichosporum lampongum (Miq.) Burkill 42 Uvaria afzelii Scott-Elliot 413
Trichosporum marmoratum (T.Moore) O. Kuntze Uvaria burahol Blume 467
42 Uvaria chamae P. Beauv. 413
Trichosporum radicans (Jack) Nees 42 Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston 413, 414
Tridax procumbens L. 471 Uvaria grandiflora Roxb. ex Wallich 414
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 471 Uvaria hookeri King 413
Trigonostemon Blume 409 Uvaria klaineana Engl. &Diels 413
Trigonostemon longifolius Bâillon 409 Uvaria lucida Benth. 413
Trigonostemon reidioides (Kurz) Craib 409 Uvaria macrophylla Roxb. ex Wallich 414
Trigonostemon sumatranus Pax &Hoffm. 409 Uvaria micrantha (A.DC.) Hook.f. & Thomson
Trigonostemon viridissimus (Kurz) Airy Shaw 146
409 Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wallich 413
Triphasia aurantiola Lour. 471 Uvaria odorata Lamk 432
Triphasia trifolia (Burm.f.) P. Wilson 471 Uvaria purpurea Blume 413, 414
Tritonia Ker Gawl. 142 Uvaria ridleyi King 414
Tritonia crocosmiiflora G. Nicholson 142 Uvaria rufa Blume 413, 414
Tropaeolum mucronatum Meyen 471 Uvaria tonkinensis Finet &Gagnep. 413
Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz &Pavón 471 Vachellia farnesiana (L.)Wight &Arnott 425
Trophaeum tuberosum (Ruiz &Pavón) O. Kuntze Vallaris heynei Sprengel 471
471 Vallaris solanacea (Roth) O. Kuntze 471
Tropins scandens (Lour.) Hook. &Arnott 471 Valonia favulosa C.Agardh 439
Tropidia Lindley 138, 410 Vanilla aphylla Blume 172
Tropidia curculigoides Lindley 410 Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames 471
Turpinia brachypetala (Schlechter) B.L. Linden Vanilla griffithii Reichb.f. 471
471 Vanilla mexicana P. Miller 471
Turpinia lucida Nakai 471 Vanilla planifolia H.C. Andrews 471
Turpinia ovalifolia Elmer 471 Vanilla viridiflora Blume 471
Turpinia papuana Merr. &L.M. Perry 471 Ventilago Gaertner 415
Turpinia pentandra (Schlechter) B.L. Linden 471 Ventilago dichotoma (Blanco) Merr. 416
Turpinia trifoliata Ridley 471 Ventilago leiocarpa Bunge 415
Turpinia versteeghii Merr. &L.M. Perry 471 Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner 415, 416
Tylanthera C. Hansen 328 Ventilago monoica Blanco 416
Typhonium Schott 410 Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy Shaw 471
Typhonium blumei Nicolson &Sivadasan 411 Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. 471
Typhonium cuspidatum (Blume) Blume 412 Vernonia celebica DC. 471
Typhonium divaricatum Blume 412 Vernoniajavanica DC. 471
Typhonium divaricatum auct. non Blume 412 Vernonia wallichii Ridley 471
Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume 411,412 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.)Nash 471
Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal 471 Willughbeia beccarii (Pierre) K. Schumann 472
Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi &Ohashi 471 Willughbeia cochinchinensis (Pierre) K. Schu-
Vigna calcarata(Roxb.) Kurz 472 mann 472
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper 472 Willughbeia coriacea Wallich 472
Vigna umbellata (Thunberg) Ohwi &Ohashi 472 Willughbeia curtisiana (Pierre) K. Schumann 472
Villebrunea integrifolia Gaudich. 456 Willughbeia dulcis Ridley 472
Vireyajavanica Blume 349 Willughbeia edulis Roxb. 472
Viscum L. 416 Willughbeia elmeri Merr. 472
Viscum album L. 416, 417 Willughbeia firma Blume 472
Viscum articulatum Burm.f. 416, 417 Willughbeia flavescens Dyer ex Hook.f. 472
Viscum orientale Willd. 416 Willughbeia minutiflora (Pierre) K. Schumann
Viscum orientale auct. non Willd. 418 472
Viscum ovalifolium DC. 416, 417, 418 Willughbeia nodosa (Pierre) K. Schumann 472
Viscum pedunculatum Barlow 418 Willughbeia oblonga Dyer ex Hook.f. 472
Vitex altissima L.f. 472 Willughbeia rufescens Dyer ex Hook.f. 472
Vitex littoralis Decne. 472 Willughbeia stapfii Merr. 472
Vitex parviflora A.L. Juss. 472 Willughbeia tenuiflora Dyer exHook.f. 472
Vitex peralata King 468 Wissadula periplocifolia (L.) Presl ex Thwaites
Vitex philippinensis Merr. 468 472
Vitex pinnata L. 472 Woodfordia Salisb. 420
Vitex pteropoda Miq. 468 Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. 419
Vitex pubescens Vahl 472 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)Kurz 419
Vitex timoriensis Walpers 472 Wormia excelsa Jack 439
Vitis cinnamomea Wallich 66 Wormia oblonga Wallich ex Hook.f. & Thomson
Vitis cissoides (Blume) Backer 339 439
Vitis discolor (Blume) Dalz. 436 Wormia tomentella Martelli 439
Vitis flexuosa Thunberg 472 Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabberley 472
Vitis gracilis Wallich 66 Wrightia hamiltoniana Wallich 472
Vitis lanceolaria (Roxb.) Wallich 401 Wrightia pubescens R.Br. 473
Vitis lawsonii King 401 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. 473
Vitis polystachya Wallich 67 Wrightia tomentosa (Roxb.) Roemer & Schultes
Vitis polythyrsa Miq. 67 472
Vitis quadricornuta Miq. 436 Wrightia wallichii A.DC. 473
Vitis repens Wight &Arnott 436 Xanthophyllum glaucum Wallich ex Hassk. 473
Vitisvinifera L. 66 Xanthophyllum lanceatum (Miq.)J.J. Smith 473
Wahlenbergia Schrad. ex Roth 419 Xanthophyllum microcarpum Chodat 473
Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunberg) A.DC. 418 Xeromphis spinosa (Thunberg) Keay 111
Wallichia Roxb. 82 Xeromphis tomentosa (Blume ex DC.) Yamazaki
Walsura aherniana Perkins 472 112
Walsura neurodes Hiern 472 Xerospermum acuminatum Radlk. 473
Walsura pinnata Hassk. 472 Xerospermum intermedium Radlk. 473
Walsura trijuga (Sims) Kurz 238 Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk. 473
Wattakaka Hassk. 177 Xerospermum muricatum Radlk. 473
Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf 177 Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume 473
Whitfordiodendron pubescens (Craib) Burkill 432 Xerospermum unijugum Radlk. 473
Wikstroemia androsaemifolia Decne. 472 Xerospermum wallichii King 473
Wikstroemia candolleana Meisner 472 Ximenia borneensis Bâillon 464
Wikstroemia indica (L.) C.A. Meyer 472 Xiphocarpus candidus (Roxb.) Endl. ex Hassk.
Wikstroemiajunghuhnii Miq. 472 468
Wikstroemia lanceolata Merr. 472 Xylia dolabriformis Benth. 473
Wikstroemia ovata C.A. Meyer 472 Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taubert 473
Wikstroemia spanoghii Decne. 472 Xylocarpus australasicus Ridley 473
Willughbeia angustifolia (Miq.) Markgr. 472 Xylocarpus gangeticus (Prain) C.E. Parkinson
Willughbeia apiculata Miq. 472 473
Xylocarpus granatum J. König 473 Ziziphus rufula Miq. 474

Xylocarpus mekongensis Pierre 473 Ziziphus vulgaris Lamk 423
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lamk) M. Roemer 473 Zygiajiringa (Jack) Kosterm. 428
Xylocarpus obovata (Blume) A. Juss. 473
Xylophyllos latifolius (R.Br.) O. Kuntze 443
Xylopia altissima Boerl. 473
Xylopia ferruginea (Hook.f. &Thomson) Hook.f. &
Thomson 473
Xylopia maingayi Hook.f. &Thomson 473
Xylopia malayana Hook.f. &Thomson 473
Xylopia mucronata Boerl. 473
Xylopia oxyantha Hook.f. &Thomson 473
Xylopia pustulata Hook.f. &Thomson 473
Xylopia undulata P. Beauv. 454
XyrisL. 421
Xyris anceps auct. non Lamk. 421
Xyris capensis Thunberg 421
Xyris complanata R.Br. 421
Xyris indica L. 421,422
Yucca L. 176
Z e a m a y s L . 41,116
Zehneria Endl. 422
Zehneria indica (Lour.) Keraudren 422
Zehneria japonica (Thunberg) H.-Y. Liu 422
Zehneria marginata (Blume) Keraudren 473
Zingiber Boehm. 41,205
Zingiber amaricans Blume 474
Zingiber aromaticum Valeton 474
Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. 473
Zingiber chrysostachys Ridley 473
Zingiber griffithii Baker 473
Zingiber littorale Valeton 474
Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Dietrich 473
Zingiber officinale Roscoe 205, 473
Zingiber ottensii Valeton 473
Zingiber purpureum Roscoe 473
Zingiber spectabile Griffith 473
Zingiber zerumbet (L.)J.E. Smith 473
Zizania caduciflora (Trinius) Handel-Mazzetti
474
Zizania latifolia (Griseb.) Turcz. ex Stapf 474
Ziziphus Miller 423
Ziziphus angustifolia (Miq.) Hatus. ex v. Steenis
423, 424
Ziziphus elegans Wallich 424
Ziziphus forbesii Baker f. 424
Ziziphus grewioides (Warb.) L.M. Perry ex v. Stee-
nis 424
Ziziphus inermis Merr. 424
Ziziphusjujuba Miller 423
Ziziphusjujuba (L.) Gaertner non Miller 474
Ziziphus kunstleri King 423
Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk 423, 474
Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Miller 423, 474
Index ofvernacular plant names
For transcriptions ofVietnamese names, see at the end ofthe index.
aa noi 320 akar chabang limah a k a r l a r a k 201,302, akar pisang-pisang 161

aai baao 409 401 414 akar pisang-pisang
[aas]u n[uw][ows]c 405 akar chabang tujoh 67 akar larak hutan 333 beledu 202
abal 296 akar chaping kera 246 akar larak merah 202 akar pisang-pisang buk-
abalong 130 akar charek biawak 67 akar lebang aleh 366 it 342
abang asuh 139 akar charek puteh 291 akarlempedu 230 akar pisang-pisang jan-
abir 60 akar charek puteri 66 akar lintang ruas 378 tan 414
acuk-acuk 422 akar china 272 a k a r l u m u t 378 akar pisang-pisang tan-
adal-adal 88 akar chinchin 133 akar mali 230 dok 414
adap-adap 313 akar darah 161 akar mambu 133 akar pitah-pitah 315
adas-adasan 199 akar dedewai 315 akar manis 55 akar puding rimba 66
adui 283 akar duri 197 akar melukut 42 akar raral 202
aet 193 akar gamat 339 akar memali 378 akar ratus 353
agaas 369 akar garam-garam 263 akar membur 133 akar saga molek 86
aganapa 313 akar gerit puteh 44 akar meroyan busuk akar saga paya 154
agara 205 akar gueh 377 175 akar salah hutan 201
agoago 158 akar iang-iang rimba akar meroyan jantan akar sarikan lanang
agogo 155 66 174 377
agor 199 akarjala 37 akar meroyan paya 174 akar saut 37
agosip puti 393 akarjangkang 202 akar meroyan sejuk akar sebengkak 66,340
aguioi 57 akar julong hitam 70 174 akar sebiak 232
agusais 373 akar kail 37 akar meroyan sembang akarsebueh 221
ai funan 399 akar kalat 133 68 akar segunja 68
ai ram yai 80 akar kara nasi 88 akar metedong 135 akar sejangat 377
ajenjo 143 akar katjap 263 akar minyak 272 akar sekijang 194
ajos-ajos nga maputi akar katup-katup 378 akar nasi 330 akar sembelit 202
252 akar kechubong ayer akar noh kroh 401 akar senduduk 174,
akakelesi 377 42 akar noh papan 401 175
akar api-api 159 akar keladi tanah 66 akar nyamok 44, 133 akar sengolok 201
akar ara batu 159 akar kelipunang 37 akar nyamok jantan akar serapat 246
akar ara tanah 44 akar kenchong 202 133 akar serau malam 329
akar bani 172 akar keping 277 akar papan 401 akar serawan 263
akarbanok 172 akar keremak 169 akar peleh angin 162 akar serawan jantan
akar batu 376 akar keremunting 169 akar pelir kambing 361 194
akar bebulus 70 akar kuku lang 197 akar penurun lotong akar serimbong 57
akar belimbing hutan akar kul 172 207 akar serumat 109
276 akar kulit manis 55 akar penurun tupai akar sesudu bukit 246
akar berenas 42 a k a r k u n i n g 139,272 207 akar setebal 42, 246
a k a r b e r u r u 307 akar kunjal 133 akar pera bentak 86 akar sial menahun 175
a k a r b i s a 378 akar kunyit 139 akar perut ayam 305 akar sindodo 169
akar buah keping 278 akar kunyit-kunyit akar perut kijang jan- a k a r s k u e t 377
akar bumi 345 272, 273, 401 tan 194 akar subang 378
akar bunga butang 84 akar kusin 401 akar petjah tutuban 37 akarsulong 231
akar chabang lima 378 akar langsa 154 akar pinang kutai 44 akar sumpu darah 236
INDEX VERNACULAR NAMES 637
akar susudu bukit 246 api-apijantan 285 babakoan 403 banciputih 221
akar talun tungang 37 apis 335 babalan 254 banet 333
akar tanak rimau 378 apit 254 babalu bugis 259 bangbanglo 369
akar tanduk 44, 263 apoy-apoyan 62 babang-di-putukan 293 banghai 248
akar tawan-tawan 302 areuy babalingbingan babawangan 199 bangkongan 133
akar terong-terong 84 36 babi kurus 351 bankoro 304
akar tulang daeng 133 areuy bajur 377 babing 364 bânla: sâ-'ot 32
akar tulang daeng areuy beurit 238 badiang 60 bantengan 401
padang 133 areuy bohol keboh 85 bagang-aso 69 baruwang 384
akar ulan gajah 84 areuy calingcing 36 bagnang-pula 217 b[as]n h[aj] nam 413
akar ular 366 areuy garut 32 bago 75 b[as]n h[aj] roi 412
akar urat-urat 154 areuy ki barera 401 bago-bago 133,293 b[as]n t[uwj] c[ar]nh
al 304 areuy ki caang 133 baho-baho 92 234
alabong 330 areuy ki kandel lalaki baib[as]i 290 basoi 281
alagasi 271 246 bai rabaat 85 batag-kabalang 415
alakai 202 areuy k i k u p u 315 b a i t a a n g d o k 313 bataruwa 281
Alexandrian laurel 104 areuy ki loma 154 baih patuh senggulin bath[uw]a 393
alibalibin 260 areuy ki sambangan 124 bawal hutan 329
alibangbang 92 377 bain 180 bayam beraleh 152
alibungog 182 areuy kokotokan 44 b[aj]c bi[eer]n 403 bayanti 49
aligbangon 203 areuy kupu-kupu 91 b[aj]c than do d[or] 86 bayukon 182
alilipai 308 areuy mangender 344 b[aj]c thau l[oo]ng bayur 47
allagat 415 areuy manjel 294 m[eef]m 85 beach calophyllum 104
alomangoi 185 areuy munding jalu b[aj]chdan 289 bebangun 151
alukba 293 377 b[aj]ch trinh bi[eer]n b[ee]nbai 247
alupayi 243 areuy patuk manuk 37 252 b[ef]o d[aas]t 179
alusa 205 areuy sahagi 221 bajing talang 48 bekak 48, 50
am pous 134 areuy siwurungan 313 bakalanga 180 bekoi 193
ambin-ambin 301 areuy tatapayan 85 baket 136 belimbing cherchek
ambokgobang 388 aroy kupu-kupu 91 bakong 252 362
ambong 211 artillery plant 330 balai 76,226 belimbing hutan 362
amlong 189 asanas 373 balanti 57,241 belulus 70
amnok 121 asam tikus 243 balbalili 369 beluntas cina 233
amotan 259 asistasia 87 balekadap 313 bén bit 124
amugauen 397 Assam indigo 387 balek angin 288-290 benalu 158,285,371,
ananayop 314 ata-ata 218 balet 333 372
anaplan 290 atarolon 79 balibagan 154 benalu teh 371
anapur ayer 51 atarukan 185 balik angin 281 benjen 369
anatel 121 ati-ati puteh 258 balik-balik 47 bentul 130
anceng 44 auaan 202 balimbing 329 berkerak 360
ande-ande 74 autumn gold 142 baling-manok 334 berkunyit 401
andor balimbing 124 awal 296 balintodok 154 berpulut 39
anega 130 ayalea 350 balisaog 194 berudang 421
anggerek darat 33 ba 130 balitadhan 154 berumbing 289
anggrekboki 222 baloi 226 berunai 74
ba b[es]t ch[uf]m to 289
anggrektebu 223 balok-bok 393 besole 117
ba b[es]t hoa nhi[eef]u
angkeb 208,418 balsam apple 123 bestru 109
289
angleng 180 balungkayu 206 betur belulang 105
ba b[es]t nam b[ooj]
'ân-nadaa 290 bambang 91 bia 173
290
anruda borong 293 bamburia 95 bia mai 172
ba b[es]t n[aa]u 290
antimon tikus 422 ban ma 71 bias-pugo 62
b[aaf]u d[aas]t 232
antinagam 167 banato 290 bidara gunung 167
b[aaf]u d[aas]t d[aj]i
apatot 304 banauak 414 biga 60
233
api-api 418 banauan 293 bikit 136
baayaa 87
biloun 130 bon som 244 bulangan 64,109 cendawan matahari

biluan 283 bon-nam 130 bu ngaa yai 415 343
binahian 364 bongtal 352 bunga belangkas hutan cha antan besar 409
binakag 250 b[oof]b[oof] 39 266 cha khep 335
biniguasan 237 bLoof]h[of]n 359 bunga bidadari 223 cha sam kaeo 152
binoyok-boyok 37 b[oof] ng[os]t 364 bunga dari kandang cha-em thai 55
bintangor batu 106 b[oof]ng[os]t ch[aa]n 422 cha-kep 335
bintangor belulang 105 ng[aws]n 365 bungajari hutan 414 chaa horn 169
bintangor labu 105 b[oof]n b[oof]n 327 bungajarum 236 ch[aa]n tr[aa]u xanh
bintangor lanchar 105 b[oof]ng b[oof]ng 176 bunga karang 159 317
bintangor laut 104 b[ooj]i tinh ng[ux] bunga kasi hutan 286 ch[af]m b[if]a [aw]n
bintipalo 179 h[uf]ng 378 bunga kasturi 396 tr[aa]u 154
binukat 75 b[oor]b[es]o ch[er] bunga kertas 91 ch[af]m linne 263
binunga 283 t[uw] 217 bunga maniran 49 ch[af]m l[as] lanh 262
binungang-malapad b[oo]ng b[oos]ng n[us]oc bunga palita 246 ch[af]m m[ef]o 387
281 340 bunga perak 91 ch[af]m nhu[ooj]m 387
bira 60 Borneo mahogany 104 bunga pitam 154 chaanghaek 377
bira ayer 51 bosur-bosur hau 33 bunga putri 222 chaang ngaa dieo 278,
birakecil 412 botai 314 bungbulang peucang 324
birah hitam 60 botgo 49 289 chalit chitcho 221
birahkechil 412 botinag 240 bungo-bungo laki-laki chamaep 69
birah keladi 130 botonesan 258 269 chamkhruea 79
birah kijang 60 boyag 391 bunyau 48 champaa khom 333
birah negeri 60 brinvillière 379 bu oc sa 177 champuun 69
biruwak 281 broadleaved bristle- b[us]pl[eej] 98 chan ki[eej]u 102
b[is]d[awj]c 264 grass 373 bussi 241 chanchamot 50
bitangol 104 b u a y a a 319 buta 240 chang nao 185
bitangol-sibat 105 buah anku 62 butalau 104 chang-bato 107
bitaog 104 buah larak merah 333 butetulupan 85 changkru 47
bi[ees]hoa 87 buah pitis 361 buu ngong 157 chapa 134
blistering ammannia buakat 136 buyok-buyok 237 char 101
62 b[uf] d[er]hoa d[or] 415 buyon 312,313 chaska 115
blue blade 289 b[uf] qu[ar] hoa nh[or] c[aaf]u qua [aas]n 309 chat phra in 267
bobonoyang 69 146 c[aar]mdiala 179,395 chat pra in 258
bobontengan lalaki 422 b[uf] [oos]cleo 177 c[aar]m t[uwr] n[us]i ch[aws]p b[aws]c b[ooj]
boborongan 258 b[uf]ng b[uj]c 288 88 95
bogle 97 bugna 215 c[aa]y b[uf] nh[ow]n ch[ef] b[es]o 71
bogto 158,418 b[uj]c 97 106 ch[ef]c[as]t 39
b[oj]ch[os] 98 b[uj]cb[aj]c 290 c[aa]y h[aj]t ph[or]ng ch[ef] l[oo]ng 44
b[oj] c[aj]p tr[uw][owf]n b[uj]c b[uj]c leo 291 250 ch[ef] n[ooj]i 39
403 b[uj]c ch[uf]m to 289 c[aa]y m[uf]u 104 chekup manis 364
b[oj]n[ej]t 57 b[uj]cn[aa]u 290 cabuk 217 chelagi 421
b[oj]x[is]t n[uw][ows]c b[uj]c qu[ar] th[aaf]u cacingan 144 chempaku hutan 218
340 d[aaf]u 290 caka ma gaole 368 chemperai 217, 270
b[oj]t [ees]ch bi[eer]n bujong samalam bukit calappa palm 34 chenduan 190
215 80 calik angin 289,290 cheng man 184
b[oj]t [ees]ch g[aa]n buk ruesi 396 cangkudu 304 cheremai antan 217
m[owf] 217 bukabuk 403 capungongo 194 cheremai hantu 270
b[oj]t [ees]ch l[uf]n 215 bukang-bukang 314 c[ar]i d[oof]ng 223 cherum 293
b[oj]t [ees]ch ven bukkau 308 carmion 74 chi angkam 232
su[oos]i 217 bula-bula 284 c[as]nh b[ooj]ng 207 chickweed 180
bo:n 130 bulalo 369 c[as]nh ki[ees]n 291 chimbuai 190
bon baeo 412 bulang 109 c[as]p di[eef]n 129 Chinese rice-flower 49
bo:n bièw 412 bulang pelandok 109 cekur manis 364 chingklom 334
chipras 270 coralberry 79 d[aa]y chua l[ef] 232 d[ar]ng s[aa]m 127
chiput-chiput 315 c[os]i ba g[aa]n 369 d[aa]y ch[uw]ng cheo dasheen 130
cho 224 c[os]i ba g[aa]n 106 dau 289
ch[of]i m[of]g[aa]n c[uws]ng 369 d[aa]y c[as]m 361 daun boba 172
l[ox]m 74 c[os]i qu[aw]n d[aa]y c[oor]tay 159 daundewa 232,233
ch[of]i m[of]i n[us]i 74 l[uw][owx]i li[eef]m d[aa]y d[aaf]u m[aaf]u daun ekor bukit derim-
choi nang 401 199 106 ba 217
chok bo wai 179 c[os]i qu[aw]n t[of] te d[aa]y d[aaj]u hoang daun ekur bukit kam-
chokere'n 49 199 182 pong 146
chongkho dok luean 92 cowitch 308 d[aa]y d[of]n g[as]nh daun ketam 68
chua l[ef] n[us]i 186 c[ow]m ch[as]y 356 221 daun larak 146
chuchur atap 388 c[ow]mg[af]o 117 d[aa]y g[aa]n b[oo]ng daun lipah 341
ch[uf]m ng[os]t 364 c[ow]m ngu[ooj]i c[af] h[ej]p 221 daun merayat 301
ch[uf]m th[awr]ng 422 81 d[aa]y g[as]o vLaf]ng daun moreto 88
chuk rohini 172 c[ow]m ngu[ooj]i l[oo]ng 404 daun picah beling 387
chukal 250 81 d[aa]yh[us]c 344 daun pitis 247
chukka rohini 383 c[ow]m ngu[ooj]i m[af]u d[aa]y k[oof] c[aaf]u daun pitis kecil 173
chulan 49 80 126 daun puteri 313
chum set 217 c[ow]m ngu[ooj]i d[aa]y lu[oof]n hang daun putihan 98
chunpong 360 r[aw]ng 79 308 daun sa-helai sa-tahun
chu[oos]i con ch[oof]ng c[owx]tr[os]i g[af 179 d[aa]y l[oos]p b[oos]p 317
414 croton tinctorial 290 134 daun satu tahun 317
ciliutan 88 c[ur] [aas]u 405 d[aa]ym[ooj]t 127 daun sau sik 215
cinamomo 49 c[ur] ch[os]c 413 d[aa]ym[or]qu[aj] 172 daun sekeras akar 341
cocok bubu 83 c[ur] ch[os]c mo d[af]i d[aa]ym[os]c 182 daun tapak badak 406
c[of] ke l[as] r[ooj]ng 412 d[aa]yp[oj]p 422 daun tutchol antu 76
226 c[ur] ch[os]c [aas]n d[aa]y say n[aws]ng 38 d[awf]ng giang 139
c[of] ke l[oo]ng nh[as]m d[ooj] 412 d[aa]y s[oos]ng r[aws]n d[a]y [oo]ng l[ax]o 121
226 c[ur] n[uw]a 64 32 dayang 95
c[oj]t[uw]a 88 c[ur]v[us]b[of] 383 d[aa]y tr[uw][owf]ng dayap-dayap 109
colog-colog 293 curran kaniue 47 ng[aa]n 44 debit 226
common pom-pom tree curuglukur 395 d[aa]y v[af]ng hoan 135 dedalu api gajah 158,
289 c[us]cd[aj]i 223 d[aa]y v[aws]p c[aaf]y 371
congkok 349 c[us]c h[oof]ng leo 372 124 dedalu apijantam 158
c[oof]ng tr[aws]ng 105 c[us]c m[oos]c 143 d[aa]yxanh 127 dedalu apijantan 285
c[oor]Ian tr[aaf]n 74 c[us]c voi 134 dagtung 44 dedalu api laut 248
copey 123 c[uw][ow]ng l[as]ng dahan kagurangen 281 dedalu api merah 371
c[or]b[uw][ows]m 368 dahon-pula 234 dedalu api puteh 158
tr[aws]ng 266 c[uwr]u ly linh 372 d[aj] l[ys] h[uw][ow]ng dedalu umping 418
c[or]du[oo]i l[uw][ow]n d[aaf]ug[af] 185 114 dedekan 262
327 d[aaf]u r[if]u leo 203 d[aj]i c[as]n nam 285 degene-esi 349
c[or] d[aaf]u r[if]u hoa d[aaj]u b[aaf]n 308 d[aj]i c[as]n robinson dekemp 149
ch[uf]y 203 d[aaj]u m[ef]o l[ows]n 285 dempul 215,217
c[or]d[es] 381 307 d[aj]m tr[us]c di[eej]p dempul lelet 215
c[or]l[as] d[uwf]a 373 d[aaj]u m[ef]o r[uwf]ng 275 dener 349
c[or]l[as] tre 275 308 dalairo 69 deras malam 169
c[or]m[aa]y 275 d[aaj]u m[is]t 375 dalu-dalu 159 derita dapur 218
c[or]n[us]c 381 daat 368 dam 329 devil's tongue 64
c[or] quai ch[ef]o 381 d a a t t a k u a 234 dam khao 168 dhubaja 419
c[or]r[uw][ow]i th[ar]o d[aa]ybu 182 dama de noche 114 di 290
311 d[aa]yb[as] 366 damping-banal 51 di ngu wa 395
c[or]tr[or]i g[af] 179 d[aa]y b[oj] n[ej]t 123 dap yaang 57 di[eef]n th[oo]ng 327
c[or]t[of]te 199 d[aa]y cam th[ar]o nam dapong-kahoi 371 d[ij]a Ian l[as] d[uwf]a
c[or]v[af]ng 421 55 dapong-tubo 40 138
dilang-butiki 159 eddoe 130 g[aw]ng gai 109 h[af]th[ur] [oo]

dilang-usa 408 ekur gajah 223 g[aw]ng tr[aa]u 111 tr[aws]ng 383
dinalpa 283 ekurtupai 207 g[aw]ng tr[aws]ng 112 hagpo 336
dingkai 263 elephant climber 85 g[aw]ng tu h[us] 111 h[aj] tr[aa]m 255
dingkaran 104 elephant creeper 85 g[aw]ng v[af]ng gai 109 hak 71
dinh h[uf]ngjava 218 elephant ear 60 gedilule 241 hakekjehun 323
dinh h[uf]ng l[oo]ng emprak 117 gegunjah puteh 151 haleki daun kecil 282
d[af]i 218 en aa noi 320 gemotan pachat 351 halia hutan 213
dlundung 318 en aa thao 174 gempur batu 325 halon 305
do[ar]n ki[ees]m 147 enyohkelo 387 genggeyan 258 häm fan 185
docban 93 [es]cu[oos]ng ng[aws]n gerinji 362 ham ma 226
d[oj]c t[aw]ng 32 258 geruseh 53 hamindang 280
dok din daeng 40 [es]hoa d[aaf]u 258 getah aguh 247 hamuki 396
dokfon 2 98 [es]h[if|nh thoi 258 ghi l[as] h[if]nh xoan hamurauon 154
dok ka deng 106 [es]th[ow]m 259 418 'han 32
dokkhap 98 ese-kureka 318 ghi ph[aa]n d[oos]t 417 'han'kha:w 32
d o k k h a t k h a o 135 etaetava 142 ghost's foot 406 hanlagasi 271
doklakhon 399 evarbei 243 giant alocasia 60 hantatampsi 117
dok mai hu chang 282 faa maeng 169 giant taro 60 harendong 169
dok ton 286 famee 289 giba kolano 75 hariyang gede 226
dolo 53 faux baobab 264 gi[ef]ng gi[ef]ng 101 hat khruea 378
dom d[os]m 57 feriyanuya 120 gi[ef]ng gi[ef]ng d[ej]p hati-hati paya 143
dom nghob 364 feu feuw 133 102 hawar-hawar 203
d[oof]i 264 flame ofthe forest 101 gigabi 105 ha:x na: 39
d[ow]n h[oof]ng 287 fleabane 134 ginabang 281 hempedal itek 248
d[ow]n m[awj]t qui 305 gabi 130 gitan obat 247 hempedu buaya 76
d[ow]n r[aw]ng c[uw]a gadembo 298 godongkeji 381 hen t[as]n 159
286 gading gajah 192 godongpuser 258 herbe à vers 379
d[ow]n x[uw][ow]ng gading tulang 53 gogotifo 172 hilagak 415
180 gadu gajah 409 g[oj]ngv[os] 179 himamaliu 394
d[ow]n [aas]n d[ooj] gadung tikus 396 g[oj]ng v[os]l[as] b[as]n himindang 283
286 gaere 33 nguy[eej]t 180 hin 217
drejeg 57 gagabusan 249 gongai 32 hinggiu-kalabau 383
duai 318 gaing 389 g[ooj]i duy[ee]n h[ar]i hinlalaki-saging 414
duak 238 galamat 356 48 hinlaumo 290
duea khruea 44 galela 91 g[ooj]in[us]i 50 hipan 335
dueikai 324 galipungbulu 218 g[ooj]i n[us]i, g[ooj]i hipoi 308
dufadufa 399 galuga furu 290 d[or] 48 hiptage 238
duhat-matsing 334 gambir hutan 287 got 33 hitang mararu 49
duhut bane-bane 74 gambir-gambir 287 grande tayove 60 h l a k n a : 39
dulang-dulang 217 gambiran 217 guci 127 hnha:z do:k le 97
dumb cane 163 ganak 154 gumgumayeng 180 hnha:z khauz kamx 39
dungb[ooj]p 393 ganchek kechil 394 gumi-gumi 421 hoa ban 93
duung 394 ganggang katup 92 gunchiak 74 hoab[as]t 422
d[uwj]a chu[ooj]t d[aj]i ganggo 50 gunchian 74 hoa d[er] l[oo]ng den
ganona 67 gunda 249
422 162
garangan 221 gunpowder plant 330
d[uws]a cam 323 ho[af]ng d[aaf]u 422
garden montbretia 142 gupak 48
d[uw]ng d[oof]ng ho[af]ng d[awf]ng 139
garing-garing 124 gurahbukit 339
th[as]p 369 ho[aj]i h[uw][ow]ng 360
garut areuy 33 gyok tawbut 167
d[uw]ngd[or] 369 hoam[aaj]t 298
gasatin 49 h a e n p i k 238
d[uw]ng h[aj]t c[uws]ng hoa sao kh[as]c l[as]
g[aw]ng 112 haeo kratai 311
368 246
g[aw]ng b[oj]t 112 h[af] th[ur] [oo]nam
d[uw]ng l[as]ng 368 hoeh tutung 344
g[aw]ng c[ow]m 109
d[uw]ngm[ar]nh 369 383 hojas de seda 85
hom 387 jangot tutu 421 kacang rimau 307 kaniue 47

hom hok 218 jaranan 238 kacham akar 232 kankong gajah 401
hom khrang 234 jarong bubukuan 191 kachangpaleh 307 kansulud 47
hometa kasu kavu 384 jarum 270 kachit fatimah 376 kanumai 167
homklai 49 jarum-jarum 53 kacip fatima 266 kap 323
hongte 188 jarum-jarum rimba 224 kadudu besar 169 kapal-kapal 403
'honkai 1 124 Javanese elder 356 kaeo naamaa 60 kapalan 247
hoo gi[er]th[ow]m 161 jawar 34 kaeo raknaa 62 kapasan 290
h[oof] hoa gi[ar] 247 jawerkotok 298 kafaak thao haa phao kaph'uk 60
h[oof]ly 123 jelatang badak 123 chok 417 kapu 403
h[oof] nho nh[eejln 66 jelatang gajah 123 kagong 218 kapu-kapu 329
hoomz baanz 387 jelatang rusa 123 kahoi-dalaga 313 kara 369
h[oor] nho nhi[eef]u jenjulong akar 70 k a i k h a t h i n 290 kara benguk 308
ch[uf]m 67 jerangau padang 422 kait-kait 109 karai 270
h[oor] nh[ix] th[ar]o jirak 393 kajanghelang 121 karamunting akar 169
365 jirek 393 kak phnèk kdam 199 karangtang kwaang
horaa 60 jugul 98 kakas 238 123
houn hai 1 134 jukut abang 124 kakuwasa 194 kare karon 147
hpawng-awn 290 jukut bau 259 kalak 414 karong daeng 185
h u c h a n g l e k 283 jukut cancang 384 kalakalamyasan 124 karpo 403
hua ling 361 jukut cengcang 208 kalalaki-ti-dugep 229 kasibeng 359
hua roi ruu 248 jukut ibun 180 kalamat 356 kasingsat 88
huan muu 177 jukut ilat 368 kalanevuda 185 kasip keledut 193
hubuk 120 jukut mata keuyeup kalanigi 207 kasirau 290
hujan panas 215 293 kalavagala 245 kasunisuni 218
hujan panas puteh 215 jukut pentolan 422 kalikadep 313 kat 280
huru 94 jukut puntir 379 kalingsir 232 katabad 368
huu chang 281 jukut riut 418 kalipkip 173 katanda 196
huu mee 325 julang rimba 236 kaliyage 109 kate-kate kecil 32
hu[yf]nh li[ee]n 399 juloh-juloh 335 kalo yaai thaai 288 katimuru 289
hvaan baanz 364 julongjantan 57 kalupat 119 katudai-bantai 313
ihadud 169 juranggunung 271 kalu-ui 259 katuk 364
ikugkuting 259 ka choh nok 60 kam-langwua thaloeng katumpangan 330
ilang-ilang gubat 161 k a t h a e n g 112 69 kayap 33
ileus 412 k a t h u e a n c h a n g 311 kamaduhan 285 kayong 215
iliplua 259 ka-do-nong aa-pee 238 kamagong-bundok 167 kayu attarodan 76
impoh 215 kaa-chae kuu-do 91 kamagong-liitan 167 kayu balut-balut 270
inai kechil 351 kaadaao krachaai 117 kamal 296 kayu barik-barik 217
Indian mulberry 304 kaafaak ma muang 158 kamala tree 290 kayu berkuching 289
indil-indil 127 kaafaak mai cheko hin kamangi 155 kayu bolomongkoeni
itituwa 120 418 kamao khao 59 167
iyalo 180 kaafaak mai mahuat kambang sa-tahun 33 kayu ekur gajah 254
jae kera 213 418 kamiwa 369 kayu gading 247, 254
jajaruman 422 kaafaak mai taatum kamlai 117 kayu gerang jantan
jalantir 134 kamlang chang phueak
418 217
jalongan sasak 47
kaafaak ton pao 417 81 kayu hok 138
jalu mampang 189
kaalong 91 kamlang chang phuek kayujangan 48
jalu-jalu bobudo 330
kaan tong 364 238 kayu kering 290
jambe sinagar 34
kaaraa 259 kamot 134 kayu labu 424
jambulan pante 80
kabelo 37 kamugna 119 kayu mata buah 80
jampak luyak 154
kabku 368 kanalong 396 kayu mata buta darat
jamuju 144
kacangbabi 308 kanama 349 241
jang-mejang-an 373
kacanglaut 164 kandueng 393 kayu mata hari 169
janggutbaung 351
kacang pinggang 164 kangon-kangon 250 kayu mati hidup 382
kayu minak-minak 217 kenanga paya 156 k h e t k h a a n g 111 ki plengpeng 33

k a y u p a h i t 329 kenching pelandok 74 khieo hua duan 68 kiracun 277
kayu saludang 98 kendal sapi 85 khiiz moon 290 ki sariawan 394
kayu taji 397 kentut-kentut 360 'khiHhao 1 290 kita ko 206
kayu te pa'ei 271 kenyan pasir 74 :khi:zka:k 422 ki tespong 356
kayu topu lisak 217 keo l[as] me 32 khlet 111,112 kitimbul 217
kayu tulang 206 kepala berok 248 k h l e t n u u 109 kiang phaa lai 98
kayu unggu bisa 81 kepet 221 khnhaè 308 ki[ees]n k[yf] nam 248
kayu wole 50 k e r a k n a s i 266 khokiu 335 kihadio 291
kchyong 104 kerakap rimau 329 khoai n[uw]a 64 kihapit 254
k'da:t haôra: 60 kerantai merah 185 khoai n[uw][ows]c 130 kingkilaban 313
keci beling 325,387 keremak 250 khoai s[oj] 130 kinh gi[ows]i daj]i 355
kedondong bulan 162 keretup hitam 91 khokiu 366 kipma lorn 172
kedudok cherang 95 keris-keris 369 kholaen 47 kisikiri 403
kedudok hutan 95 kerisan 368,369 khon maa 70 kitkitli 255
keduduk gajah 59 kertupai 135 khon maa khaao 176 klaa-dee kae-la 60
keduduk gajah batu 58 kesimbukan 360 khon non 218 klabangan 334
keduduk hutan 59 ketemung 217 khotdin 396 k l e t k h a i 173
kedungleutik 57 ketip-ketip 221 khot nok kuut 76 klonduu 138,218
k[ee] nao 351 ketumbang 215 khoua kau san 121 kluai haang lai 147
kejibeling 234 ketumbel 215 khraam 387 kluai khruea 161
k[ej]n son ch[uj]m 390 khaa horn 369 khraibok 98 kluai mai 172
kekapur 69 k h a a p i a 378 khraiyoi 287 kluai muu sang 414
kekarajuleh 308 khaang daeng 134 khram 217 kluai phangphon 414
kekaras gatal 308 khaangpoi 57 khruea hen 139 kluaimai phannguu
keladi 130 khaao saan luang 287 khruea khao klaep 161 247
keladi china 130 khaao saan noi 286 khruea khao nam 401 kluengklom 334
keladi murai 395 khaao tok taek 106 khruea ma taek 404 kobamba 107
keladi paya 143 khaao yen noen 409 khruea phuu ngoen 85 koh-naa-si 177
keladi puyoh 412 'khai 1 pou 49 khruea sut 404 (kô'k)chan 101
keladi puyuh 412 k h a k a k a i a 92 khtung 104 kok tap 286
keladi rimau 60 kham khok 233 (khua)chan 101 kokorabegisi 319
keladi sebaring 60 kham rok 185 khua kha:ng hung 1 komkhom 329
kelapong 91 k h a m s a e t 290 kongkaai 373
khuang 55
kelemai merah 232 khamin khruea 139 konjac 64
khua mak mah pa 305
kelemoyang 243, 244 khan laen 254 kopetan 218
khua ngouang bouang
kelemoyang akar 347 khan thong phayabat korontillo 320
37
kelemoyang ayer 395 kowas 308
391 khua 'phak poun 37
kelentit nyamok 44 kra chap 405
khangkhao 47, 48 khuy[eer]n thi[eej]t
kelichi 33 kra phaak laak 124
khaochi 226 150
kelimparan tuli 266 khao haai 44 kh[oor] di[eej]p 329 k r a t h i n g 104
kelin 185 khao kam 39 kh'aay paax 290 kra thung maabaa 177
kembanggeni 349 khao khwaai 405 ki beunteur 271 kra-maa 70
kembang paku konde khao ki wok 226 ki bewok 57 krachao pheemot 248
223 khat khao thong 53 ki carang areuy 133 krachap 405
kembhang pakma 343 k h a t n a 217 kicepot 127 kradaat 60
kemendulan 396 khauz kamx no:yz 97 ki harepang prongpeng kradaat dam 60
kemoja hutan 339 khayong 49 281 kraduk 391
kemoyan batu 234 khee chaang 33 k i h u r a 82 k r a d u k k a i 80, 336
kemoyang 243, 244 khee kaa 38 k i h u u t 215 kradukkhiat 48
kemubang 48 khee nuea 290 ki meyong 290 kraduuk kai dam 365
kemuning hutan 247 kheethao 288 ki pacar 126 krak 68
kenanga hutan 156, khem chaang 53 k i p a h i t 329 kratai cham 39
khet 112 ki pare lalaki 217 krathin thung 422
161, 162
kremah 159 Ian l[oo]h[ooj]i 147 lidah sapi 70 x[uw][ow]ng 71

kriap 351 Ian qu[aj]t l[as] du[oo]i ligaa 424 luy[ees]n h[uw][ow]ng
krokot putih 159 di[eef]u 319 ligam 418 44
kruut 106 landas bukit 280 lilimbo 378 ma cham kong 80
ksouohs 106 landep iju 254 limang-sugat 338 ma hang 281,282
ku-mung 168 langkong 333 limau buaya 299 ma kham dee khwaai
kubin 281 langsat hutan 194 limaulaut 299 232
kublit 338 langsat lutung 48 limau lelang 299 ma khroh 44
kudakalang 151 langsat-langsat 48 limau-limau 390,391 ma khwet 111
kugla 373 langsat-lotung 47 linkhwaai 207,246 ma ngaeng 405
kuliak-daga 109 langsatan 47 lire 234 ma nok hon 335
kuliat-mato 271 lanot 372 lirio 252 ma phap 286
kulibambang 91 lantupak 47, 50 litiran 221 ma pop khruea 291
kulitmelabai 281 lapo 40 liwini 282 ma re hin 58
kulutai 352 larak 415 lo 289 ma rua 217
kumis ucing 395, 396 larakapi 157,162,202 lokhao 283 ma yom paa 364
kumkum 115 larak kuching 204 lokhon 289 ma-ho-ra 412
kundoh 283 larak salai 162 longaam 280 maa daeng 124
kunit wawakas imbolay larak tahi kuching 414 lo[ax]ti 229 m[aaf]n m[aa]y 391
133 larap nyapa 414 lobak hutan 320 maak mok 270
kunyit-kunyit babi 139 larap putih 414 logolai 417 maak song 134
kupu 92 larate 120 loko-loko 259 m[aa]y m[aa]y 97
kupu-kupu 91,92 lasat-lasat 48 lolapaka 172 mabulo 408
kura kubong 192 lasatan 349 lolo munding 189 madeemee 117
kurapia 291 lasih 48 l[oos]p b[oos]p 185 Madeira vine 73
kuripatong 260 l a t k o u a 290 lopong 350 maduea din 44
kwaao 101 law 282 lorotan haji 154 maduk lueam 391
kwaao khruea 101 lot 393 mae maai 98
l[aw]nt[aw]n 330
k[yf] k[uw][ow]ng 146 l[aw]ng trang 336 lot thanong 409 mae mae 241
k[yf] nam gai 314 layang-layang 36 loum pouh 134 mael 60
k[yf] nam ki[ees]n 314 layaupan 211 loum puos 134 maeng lak khaa 259
k[yf] nh[oo]ng 301 leat 373 louôtchom' 393 mafai nok khum 62
laa-koh 414 lebok hutan 320 lovieng 112 mafiong 233
l[aa]m ph[as]t 419 l[ee] ga d[af]y 266 lowkhao 280 mafueang paa 238
l[aa]m v[oos] 101 l[eej] du[uw][ow]ng 40 lowui 282 magunjantan 39
l[aa]n ch[uf]y 269 lek naang yong 138 l[ox]a trai ng[oj]t 311 mahang abu 284
l[aa]nv[ix] 270 lelemak 133 luai 287 mahang bulan 282
laba 293 lelukawinga 120 l u a t m a 2 290 mahang gajah 281
lachang 373 lelumbah paya 137 lubigan 291 mahang kapur 282
lagasi 271 lemakbatu 151 lucung asu 254 mahang merah 280
lagdangang-bibit 204 lembabatu 381 ludahi 241 mahang puteh 282,283
lagitik 260,344 lempedu hitam 231 ludai api 280 mahang serindit 282
laguan 196 lempedu tanah 230 ludang-ludang 388 mahangtekukur 280
lagundisalasa 98 lempeni 80 luhu-luhu akar 169 mahang tutup 282
lakambing 361 leng 351 luhung di kamaduyung maharaja lela 88
lakum hutan 340 lengkat 405 349 majamuju 144
lalagang 266 lengkian 204 luja koi 88 mak 233
lalasa 373 lengkong 405 luka-lukam 47 mak dip namkhang 266
lampeni 80 lerak 358 lukumuaia 180 makham dee khwaai
lampeni gede 80 leuksa 318 luluwan kebo 373 358
lampesan 259 li-daa saa-pee 70 lupit 92 makhilab 196
lamuran 358 lian 416 lutut ayam 80 maki china 388
lanc[owf] 317 liane de cerf 238 luut 393 malaatis 157
Ian ki[ees]m 148 lidaa 319 lu[uw][ow]ng malabato 73
malabayabas 207 marbles vine 164 mengkudujantan 304 m[oo]n n[uw][ows]c 130
malabinunga 241 maribari 291 mengkudu rimba 345 m[oo]n tr[uw][owf]ng
maladosdos 338 m[as] d[af]o th[aa]n menjulong bukit 218 sanh 163
malagaap 102 d[af]i 42 menkuang tikus 74 m[or] chim 117
malagos 349 masak 358 mentimun paya 37 moral babulu 403
malakabuyau 391 mata ayam 79 mentua pelandok besar morinde 304
malalubigan 291 mata bisul 52 409 morotoalah 167
malam petai 57 mata hudang 52 mentua pungsu 167 morotombo 167
malang-malang 105 m a t a i t e k 80,81 mentulang 336 m[os]cm[ef]o 32,308
malapalitpit 359 mata pelandok 79, 80 merading 307 m[os]ng b[of] tr[aws]ng
malarayap 114 mata pelandok gajah merajah santah 365 91
malasagiat 157 81 merakubong 281 m[os]ng b[of] t[is]m 92
malasaging 47, 48 mata pelandok rimba merangan 119 m[os]ng b[of] v[af]ng 92
malasambal 176 266 meransi 110 m[os]ng r[uf]a 319
malasambung 98 mata ular 53 merbuloh paya 360 m[os]ng r[uf]a hai
malasampaga 114 mata yuyu 159 merensa 133 d[aaf]u 319
malasibi 37 mata-mata 48 merom 240 mossolan 259
malasibuias 199 mataa-suea 304 meroyan berok 213 mountain ebony tree 93
malatuba 117 matagusa 293 meroyan kabut 151, mréeh' te:hs 39
malatumbaga 48 mauseu tahang 94 162 mu maeng sang 232
malbar hutan 259 m[awf]n c[as]y 127 meroyan kemput 345 muat[es]p 320
malidin 210 m[ax]k[yf] 388 meroyan kerbau 236 mueang mon 85
malingal 107 m[ax]r[aj]ng 283 meroyan minko 351 m[uf]Ich[os] 62
mallotus balabakan may ngieng pa 111 meroyan punai t a n a h m[uf]ng t[ow]i c[ur] 73
290 maya-maya 289 34 m[uf]u 104
mallotus marambokan me shui Ian 49 meroyan tinggal 213 munat 334
289 mecanduk 324 mesepat 280,281 mundess 336
malutai 194 medang gambot 351 met garnet 263 mungla 120
mamak 238 medang hitam 393 metal-leaf 234 musing 221
maman babi 250 medang kohat 94 mieo 207 muu-duu 305
maman kurai 42 medang mekolopon 94 mignonette vine 73 m u u k k h a o 247
mamao hin 74 medang punggok 94 mimisan 109 mu[oof]i 336
mamao khon 74 medang salah 94, 95 mintak 105 naam khaa bai 278,
mamitik 250 medang tandok 94 minyak madja 290 324
mamori 396 medung 76 moak mok 38 naam khue kai 278
mamui 308 m[eef]g[af] 273 m[oj]t 291 naam leprok 109
man phlaen 395 mek 283 mok bo 1cay 179 naang dam 162
manenea 424 melamut 388 mok khan ngue 404 naang hak 417
mang re hin 58 melilin 333 molikotlang 293 naang rong 189
mang-kamang 259 melon-daga 422 mônhnyin 199 n a a t h a e n g 233
mangendeuh 285 melon-gubat 309 monkey face tree 290 n a a t k h a m 409
mangkunai 394 melor angin 351 monko 266 nakau 289
manpuu 215 melor hutan 109 monyenyen 134 n a m d a p f a i 221,250
mansaambra 49 memaya 280 m[oof]c[oo]i 179 nam khi raet 32
manyiritan 377 mendalu 158 m[oof]ng g[af] 185,273 nampong 267
mao polo 74 menderong gajah 213 m[ooj]c k[ys] n[ow]m namtao noi 146
mao ty t[is]ch Ian 408 mengkuang bunga 323 nangsi areuy 318
nh[ij] 158
mapu 283 mengkuang kayu 323 naowakan 104
m[ooj]c ph[of]ng ky 127
mara 283 mengkudu 304 naowi 120
m[ooj]c ti[eef]n nh[or]
mara bodas 284 mengkudu akar 305 natcho 88
173
marago beja 140 mengkudu besar 304 natong 130
m[ooj]c v[eej] k[ys] sinh
maraipus 383 mengkudu daun kecil n'dralang 276
372
marakubong 280 305 m[ooj]c v[eej] s[es]t 371 nektamuk 349
maratampui 167 mengkudu hutan 305 m[ooj]c v[eej] ti[as] 371 nenalu asap 371
neraphusi thai 395 nyamplung 104 pangpayung 369 phakcham 334

ng[aa]u diu, g[ooj]i olop 172 pantat berok 210 phak chiang daa 229
[oor]i 47 obolo 233 panuhan 50 phak kon maa 176
ng[aa]u, hoa ng[aa]u 49 oichang 55 parapit-angit 62 phak nom hin 152
ngao 304 old cocoyam 130 pasak 47 phak paa 325
ng[ar]i m[oj]i 213 olibato 73 pasal 80 phak phaeo 408
ng[ar]i r[is]t 233 olor bahai 194 pasil-pasil 424 phak phaeo khaao 408
ng[ar]i r[owj]m 395 ongali 133 pasiu 176 phakplaap 203
nghfeej] h[uw][ow]ng [oo]d[uw][owj]c 126 pasu-pasu 289 phak rabaat 85
142 [oor]ki[ees]n 248 patayud 403 p h a k w a a n 270
ngohpaa 351 orchid tree 91 patilaler 329 phak waan baan 364
ngonkai 124 oreganong-lalaki 129 patikan 418 phakhaan 140
ngot 189 oro-ola 335 patong urat 182 phakkaat nok khao 233
ngotkhao 189 oyod gepeng 401 pauangkilon 51 phakkuut nao 87
ngouang 'soum 106 oyod sambang 154 pauh-pauh paya 297 phakphet chaang 140
nguy[eej]t b[aj]ch 143 pa 285 paui-pauikan 246 phang krasa hin 81
nh[aa]n tr[aaf]n 39 paak cha khe 40 payau 243 phapuu nga 76
nh[aa]n tr[aaf]n hoa paak kaa 38 payong-payong 320 phirangkasa 81
d[aaf]u 39 paba 240 payung-payungan 396 phlapphlueng teenpet
nh[af]ud[or] 305 pacar cina 49 pedas kancil 213 252
nh[af]u l[os]chanh 304 pacar culam 49 pedendang 37 phlong in 169
nh[af|u n[us]i 304 pacar kidang 50 pedidi 259 pho-phe 93
nh[af]u t[as]n 305 pace 304 pegaga tikus 210 ph'ông 104
nh[oo]n 167 padma 343 pegaga ular 210 phongba 403
nho r[uwf]ng 66 pahampak 221 pein-mohawaya 60 phraao phan lam 176
nhoër srôk 304 pahang merah 280 pelawas 106 phre 341
nhoër thôm' 304 p a k h u a n m u 177 peler kambing 361 phrik kratai 39
nhoo baanz 304 pakan manok 270 peler tupai 48 phrommakhot 76
nian paa 168 pakan rimba 59 pelir kambing 270 phuak 130
nigad 215 pakma 343 peluruh 80 phüak 130
night blooming cestrum pakopatoli-alog 223 penaga 104 phuang charitaa 221
pakpak-tutubi 416 penaga laut 104 phuang kaeo kudan
114
palakiya 196 penawar Fatimah 291
night bloomingjes- 121
palapasagi 258 penawar puteh 390
samine 114 pia 60
palasa 101 pendusta utan 176
nilaphusi 395 piaas 215
palate 241 penggeheh 52
nino 305 piang phako 93
pali monyet 69 penluroh 116
nipai 308 pik 289
palisan 75 peparu hitam 341
n[ir] Ian r[as]ch 192 pikal 290
palm grass 373 peper 218
n[ir] Ian t[ar] t[ow]i 192 pinang hantu 34
palo maria 104 perapoh 95
nkung di[eej]n b[af]i pinang kalapa 34
palo maria del monte perawan 139
291 pinang kesa 164
periokhantu 314
nom chaang 414 104 pinang penawar 34
perutak 314
nom khwaai 415 palo santo 124 pinang sendawa 34
peruwal 135
nom maeo 146, 415 pama 343 pingarut 80
pet-waing 281
nom mia 246 pamintaogon 105 ping chap 79
petagar bunga 349
nom wua 202 pamitagen 51 pinhd[or] 395
petagar Hamzar 348
nommia hin 42 pan 393 pisang-pisang 415
ph[aas]t d[ur] h[ej]p
nong pom 88 panagit 157 pisek 48
n[oos]i c[oo]i 161 panak rimba 324 176 pitch apple 123
noraa 238 panawar ganggang 194 ph[as]o b[oo]ng 330 pitis-pitis 361
n u a i s u t 106,378 panawar saribu 91 pha-yaa mutti 223 pitis-pitis kecil 173
n[uw]a ch[aa]n v[ij]t pancal kidang 48 phaen din yen 317 pitpit 373
396 pandan ikan 323 phai pen lek 275 piukbanau 102
nwong-kye 281 pangaplasin 290 phakbieo 203 plao 342
plaoyai 289 pramat det 293 r[as]y th[uw][owj]ng rumput keladi 199
plasa 101 pranajiwa 196 th[uj]n[us]i 68 rumput kelurut 275
platikan 379 prathat nuan 285 r[as]y [aw]n 60 rumput kerak rimba
plinten 169 prayong 49 rau c[os]c 223 381
po khee haet 281 prik 289 rau d[aws]ng 293 rumput kipas 327
po pae 226 prual 135 raul[us]i 232 rumput kuching-kuch-
po phee 249 prue 369 rau m[uw][ow]ng 186 ing 39
po yap 226 prue naa 369 rau ng[os]t 364 rumput kumbar 369
pohon daun payung 112 prue-proh 172 rau t[aaf]u bay 140 rumput kurau 199
pois mascate 308 puarbirah 213 r[aw]ng c[uw]a 110 rumput lidahjin 326
pois velus 308 puargembur 213 rebha bisah 186 rumput luwung 368
poko churow 293 puar halia 213 red berry 290 rumput nyonya 87
poko lumsoo 293 puar hudang 213 red-flame 234 rumput sekera 354
pokok achar 202 puarlilipan 395 redip pepuyoh 110 rumput siku dana 369
pokok api-api 393 pudinghutan 58 remah 169 rumput siku-siku 384
pokok cheret murai 381 puding hutan jantan rembete 32 rumput sisek naga 266
pokok ekor kuching 353 remek daging 234 rumput tahi kerbau
236 pugad-labuyo 203 rengkok 351 199
pokok ikan mati 168 pulus areng 123 rerek 358 rumput tapak itek 203
pokok keldai 302 pulusjalantong 123 reundeu 381 rumput ular ari 194
pokok kemangi 259 pum pao 248 reundeu badak 83 rungo-rungo 221
pokok manchong 215 pungapung 64 reundeu bulu 83 r[us]troi 375
pokok mati hidup 311 punggu api 179 rhema mon-hoi 262 ruuhinee 33
pokok pelampas budak purple bauhinia 91 ri got 32 sa maakfai 57
74 purum bilibili 421 romdenh meas 336 sa m[oo]n qu[ar]ng
pokok pelandok paya p u tk h o n 213 romdenh men 336 d[oo]ng 354
79 p u t n u u 213 rong mai 339 sa oy 412
pokok peleh angin 333 puun 69 room 387 sa ya nang 38
pokok ruseh 333 puyung-puyung 117 rot nam 215 saa lao 162
pokok salang-suang qgnu 106 rottlière des teinturiers saam ngaam 297
325 qu[aaf]n d[aaf]u v[or] 290 s[aa]m ru[ooj]ng 418
pokok sampu landak s[oos]p 334 ruaigajah 219 saan tao 236
62 qu[ar] d[aaf]u ng[oox]ng ruât 217 saang-parang 320
pokok sampu menahun 69 ruesee phasom laeo 234 saao yut 161
152 qu[ar] n[oor]b[of] 169 r[uf] r[if] c[as]t 352 sabasasi 54
pokok serawan kubang q[ur]a n[oor] 352 r[uf]m nao 291 sabawel 308
381 raachaa se-khue 123 rugu-robu 120 sabsabui 318
pokok tambak hutan r[aaf]y c[as]y 127 rugum bukit 236 sadumdum 389
237 raatree 114 rukam ayer 193 saeo ton 53
pokok tampang puteri r[aa]uh[uf]m 395 ruku hutan 39 saet 290
339 rabu kumbang 57 rumah semut 314 sai krok africaa 264
pokok tangkai jerami rajatawa 40, 384 rumba mutong 262 sajat-sajat jelma 368
326 rambai hutan 219 rumput bagau 422 saka-saka 37
pokok tangki bukit 375 rambai kuching 290 r u m p u t b a m b u 275 sakae dong 126
pokok telur belangkas rambutan pacat 351 rumput buak 354 sakat 319
49 rami bukit 57 rumput bulu 275 sakat bawang 33
ponnyet 104 rami hutan 57 rumput bunga putih 87 sakat lidah buaya 319
popinoh 79 ramin bukit 289 rumput dada lipan 381 sakat ubat kepialu 33
porih pae 199 ranchang hantu 410 rumput gembot 39 sakko 33
posor 338 r[as]y 60 rumput halyor 169 saladai 194
potkhon 34 r[as]yleo 335 rumput hantu 87 salaikat 405
pouk-pen 101 r[as]y leol[as] x[er] 189 rumputjarang 275 salakapo 403
pra-kham dee khwaai r[as]y l[as] d[af]i 60 rumputjohong beraleh salamingai 50
232 r[as]y ng[os]t 189 203 salapaang bai yai 288
salapau 416 sayor pepe 229 sepugit bukit 152 sisek naga bukit 184
salet-nga-nalabaga 243 sebalai 76 sepuri tanah 79 sisek puyu 110
saligao 117 sebueh api 229 serapat kuning 229 sisek tenggiling 184
saling-uak 185 sedaman 280,282 serawan hutan 223 slerem 119
salingbuabong 119 sedaman buta buta 283 serengan kerbau 376 smao 199
salip 368 sedaman puteh 282 serenta bumi 179 'sop 'sêp 134
salipau 416 sedang-dahon 85 sererep 221 so-suai 40
salo kliang 281 seduwayah 419 serga 116 soap pod tree 32
salotoi 48 segani recop bulung 33 seri bulan 329 soap-berry tree 359
salsaladoi 124 segentut 76 seri sabulan 418 soap-nut 359
'sa mât 124 segera 48, 50 serugat 410 sohlenat 291
sam d[as] 184 seginting 335 serupet 353 soi daao 290
sam sam 250 sekam bulan 224 serut rambat 404 soi thong 399
sam sit 233 sekatan 169 sesayang 369 soksaikokohugwe 349
samak pulut 215 sekati lima 44 sesayang gajah 369 som khon 32
sambilau 203 sekentut 360 setawar 152 som poi 32
samblung 189 sekobang kechil 69 setawar betina 62 som poi wan 55
sambong-gala 340 selam-phao 159 setawar gajah 62 'sôm 2 pory1 32
sâmburèr kâk' 55 selaseh hutan 259 setawar hutan 62 som sieo 91
sambung mjawa 232 selaut 333 setawar jantan 62 sompoi thet 358
sampalok-sampalokan selimpat ayer 52 setawar ular 326 son pa 336
155 selingsingan 291 seu meut 393 song d[uwj]c 169
SanBartolome 237 selungkit 109 si marsari-sari 74 songkae 238
san tao 34 seluntas orang tinggi si rempas bide 180 songly 173
san-yao 387 81 si sarsar bulung 74 song lyk[ees]t h[onj]p
sanabugan 180 selusoh semang 202 siak-siak rimba 291
172
sanam chao 39 semar 176 sialitdudok 368
songly to 172
sandalino 134 sembangun 234 sialittajam 369
s[oos]ng r[aws]n 33, 55
sandaru 33 sembelit kecil 124 sialit tumpul 369
s[os]cche 217
sangkatong 48 sembelit merah 124 siamit hutan 368
s[os]c ch[uj]m 215
sang yuu khaao 334 semboyan 236 sibassa 270
s[os]c d[ij]ch 356
sanghur 121 sembuku 314 sibot-sibotan 383
s[os]cd[or] 217
sangketan 298 sembung 134 sidawayah 419
s[ow]n d[aaj]u c[aw]n
sangkhriat-klong 47 sembung ku-uk 249 sidodo akar 169
sieo dok daeng 92 196
sano lek 375 semburan angin 345 spiceberry 79
sapin-sapin 95 semelitjangkar 154 sieo dok khaao 93
sieowaan 92 spider lily 252
saraphee naen 104 semongokina 149 sramar sbat 185
saraphi 71 sempayang 297 sigang-dagat 408
sigoh 351 srintil 88
sarapuyau 102 sempit 291
sikjot 50 St. Thomas'tree 93
sarigintung 394 sempoh tarang 236
silu 419 star gooseberry 364
saripangil 344 semunyong 244
simani 364 suako-ti-uak 40
sasariwu 37 senayan hutan 368
simbo krah 133 subusob 340
sate-ton 290 sendayan 369
simpuru 276 suji 176
sau phi 71 sendudok akar 169
sinamomong-sunsong sukmadiluwih 226
saucissonnier 264 sendudok halus 169 sulatri 105
sauheun 373 sendudok rimba 95 49 sulipa 207
sauko 356 sendudok rimbah 169 sinasampaga 114 sulmin 48
sausage tree 264 senduduk gajah 59 singhara nut 405 sulur apijantan 158
sautan 37 senduduk hutan 58, 59 sipungul janten 297 sumpoh lumpok 80
sawi bulan 134 sengitan 356 sipupaipai 206 sumpu kering 83
sawi enggang 258 senjuang 177 sirau-sirau 199 sumpuh bulan 52
sawi hutan 258 senkam 217 sirawan bumi 208 sumpuh kering 52
s[aw]ngm[ar] 110 sente 60 sirisi-buyas 199 sumpuh lumpok 80
saya ngawa 222 sepedeh 336 sisek keli 184 suob-kabayo 259
sup 196 talig-harap 312 tembak-tembak hutan thong urai 399

suramarit 126 taligbuhuk 176 134 th[oor] m[aj]ch m[oo]n
susoh ayam hutan 278 talisaian 48 tembesi 277 274
susong-kalabau 414 talokop 173 temuras 80 th[oor] tam th[aas]t
susu perada 212 t a m n h è 308 tenggek burong 297 233
susuh ayam 324 tambong 211 tepak 342 thopthaep 133
susulin 53 tampang ari 194 tepis 333 thopthaep khruea 134
susun kelapa hutan 336 tampangbesi 211 tepus hutan bukit 213 th[uf]y d[af]i 60
s[uw]nh[ix] 267 tampang ular ari 194 terap kompong 88 thu[oos] d[aas]u 341
s[uws]a 254 tampin 288 terindak ati 388 thu[oos]c l[aaj]u 301
s[uws]a ca 254 tampinurbatu 397 terutap batu 266 thu[oos]c m[oj]i 356
suwoto 91 tampong urat 182 teteles 368 th[ur]y l[eej] 249
swinglea 391 tampu 283 tetimah 217 th[uw] di[eej]p d[ij]
t a k a i 80 tamyae khruea 123 tetjai 349 di[eej]p 37
ta khloiyaan 44 tamyan hak hom 383 t e t u l a n g 399 th[uw] di[eej]p l[as]
ta phit kap yao 412 tan 421 th[aaf]n x[aj] nh[or] 38
t a suos 106 tan-dam 167 h[uw][ow]ng 278 th[uw][owj]ng c[aw]n
ta-baa 246 tanara-daganan 403 th[aaf]n x[aj] hoa 190
ta-khaa 246 taneng nuu 309 tr[uw][owf]n 277 ti[as] t[oo]d[aas]t 298
ta-po leh-mai 151 tang k[ys] sinh 158 th[aaj]p v[aj]n th[as]c ti[as]t[oo] d[aj]i 259
ta-puti-ku 213 tangalo 34 87 ti[eex]u qu[ar] l[oo]ng
t[aaf]m g[uwr]i d[ej]t tanghon baiyai 105 thanat-ka-wa 49 404
417 tangisong burong 238 thanfaiphi 167 ti mia muea yang 159
taan oi 381 tangkop 91 thanhd[aj]i 387 tiger orchid 223
taanlaai 42 tangkur gunung 275 thanh ng[oj]c 148 tikastikas 359
tabango 215 tanglar 47,281 thanh thi[ee]n q[uf]y tikos-maiadon 154
tabatabokol 129 tangx thôôm 290 tilad 54
317
tabatib 189 tanht[as]ch 352 tiligibe 185
thanh thi[ee]n q[uf]y
tabi 283 tao luang 281 timun-ambau 422
l[as]x[ees]p 317
tabog 391 tapak harimau 406 t i n t r a n h 409
thanh tuy[eef]n 223
tabu 283 t a p a k i t e k 297,406 tinchamkhok 79
thao hua duan 172
tabungau 37 tapak kerbau 93 tinga-tinga 312
thao man daeng 44
tado ikan 50 tapak kuda 91 tingei 350
thao nuai 231
t a e k n a a 207 tapalakisa 369 t o k r a d u k 336
thao phung pla 172
tagat-thitto 47,48 tapanawa kecil 335 tobung-tobung 219
thao prasong 383
tagpo 79 tapen 289 toei-cha-khruu 351
thao som ching 44
tagusala 290 tapiasin 129 toi ting 352
thao teen toe 221
tahidlabuyo 154 tappla 79 toiting 250
thao thakhaap 68
tahoi 247 tarate gunung 226 tolasola 174
thao wan daeng 404
tai d[aas]t 40 taring pelandok 168 torn 263
thao wan duan 172
taid[as] 184 t[ar]nlan 138 tong khôp 281
thao wan khieo 401
taka 417 taro 130 tong khôp 'hou sang 2
thao yaai mom paa 409
takad 352 tarom 387
th[ar]ob[aj]cg[aa]n 85 281
takip-asin 281 tarom hutan 163
thickhead 140 tong taek 88
takkolan 263 tarom siam 387
th[ij]n[us]i 167 tong taep 281
takotin 189 tasek-tasek 39
thmâ: roëb' 32 tong 'khao 2'san 281
talaid 368 taung-kado 289
t h n â k ' t u k 422 tongkat ali 333
talas 130 tawa-tawa 222
thondi 88 tongkil-tongkil 33
tali kancu 92 tayabak 44
thong kruea 102 t[oor]y[ees]n 33
tali kancu beureum 93 tebu gajah 55
thong kwaao 101 top tan ruesi 173
tali pisang 414 tebu kera 62
thong pling 315 topi 240
tali sesawi 276 t e h k a m p u n g 271
thong thaa khruea 229 tore 290
talibobong 182 tejan 126
thong thammachaat t[os]c ti[ee]n r[uwf]ng
talibubu 416 telinga gajah 281
101 274
totop 241 tutup awu 290 waan ngot hin 52 yaa dok khaao 199
t[ow] h[oof]ng nam 144 tutup bumi rimba 329 waan nguu lueam 223 yaa kaap phai 373
t[ow]m[af]nh 238 tutup kancil 290 waan phetchahueng yaa kho on 140
t[ow] v[ix] tre 373 uam 297 223 yaa khom baang 368,
toyoh 219 ubah paya 217 waan phra chim 317 369
trainh[aaj]t 311 ubah puteh 215 waeng 369 yaa khom baang lek
tr[aa]m b[ooj]t 215 ubal 215 waga 205 368
tr[aa]n ch[aa]u x[ees]p u-bee kaling-ai 143 wagadei 349 yaa khon kai 269
317 udu 394 wageva 280 yaa khui mai phai 275
tra:w 130 udumudungbio'266 wai mai 335 y a a k l e t h o i 180
tr[aws]c l[as] me 154 uduk-udukhutan169 wajo 297 yaa kong kaai 373
trayang 49 ueangpaakpet147 walikambing 361 yaa lin krabue 381
trembuku 254 ueangphraao223 waliwaboya 67 yaa nuat plaa duk 199
trenggiling mentik 412 uisiuis 204 wan chai maha prap 34 yaa phlong khon 320
tro bu[oof]n 150 ulali 44 wan dakdae 412 yaa plong khon 203
tr[oj]ng d[ux]a 79 uleang khaao kam 42 wan khao nieo 311 yaa raknaa 62
trom prei 393 umpaong puteh 254 wan phangphon 395 yaa rat khiat 199
trumpet bush 399 upak-upak 139 water caltrop 405 yaa saam khom 368
trumpet tree 112 upunan 393 water chestnut 405 yaa teentukkae 129
trungbulus 70 urap gundor 345 werewere 121 yaa teentukto 129
trung qu[aa]n 70 urek-urek polo 248,314 wetune 52 yaa tupto 129
tr[us]c kinh 410 uring 53 white butterfly bush 98 yaai plang 339
truspala 262 uris-urisan 217 white magnolia 205 yaan duei bit 44
tr[uw][owf]ng kh[ees] usai 333 witchweed 384 yaan duuk 378
124 uta mata 229 wlingi 369 yaan khlong 135
tr[uw][owf]ng n[as]t u t t a p h i t 412 worm grass 379 yaan nom khwaai 414
238 uttaphit nam 210 worm weed 379 yaan taan 85
tr[uw][owf]ng s[ow]n v[af]ng d[aws]ng 139 woyo 185 yaan thua raet 182
224 var kombo 37 wunen 74 yaang khaao 247
tuba buah 168 v[ar]y cong 269 xanh tam 401 yaayaa 87
t u b a u l e t 329 v[awf]ng kirn cong 121 x[as]o leo 324 yae-yai 304
tubobala 212 v[eej] ch[aa]u 126 x[oo]n d[aj]i 355 yakang 106
t[uf]t[if] 180 velvet bean 308 xu[aa]n hoa m[arlnh yakuandumo 318
tugnang 98 velvet leaf 403 yang nan ton 126
339
tula-tula 289 yat nang 401
via 60 ya khao kam 39, 97
tulang betina 254 yee nam bai lek 329
village ardisia 79 ya khao kam khao 97
tultulisan 258 yellow bells 399
voë toahs 229 y a k h i k l a k 422
tumbong-aso 304 yieo maeo 291
voë 'a:èm, ph-'a:èm 55 y a k r a t h i a m 421,422
tungang-basing 396 yobaan 231,304
vo[of]ng ph[as] v[af]ng ya krathin 421
turalak 414 yo paa 305
384 ya mae mot 384
turn-in-the-wind 290 yothuean 305
v[oo]ho[aj]n t[uwr] 359 y a n a m k h a n g 179
t[us]y ng[uw] th[ar]o yoyaan 305
wa bakar 263 ya pakking 311
yo-ma-hin-yo 364
98 waa nam 143 y a p i t 226
yogobikabika 140
tutup 241 waai tamoi 335 yathewada 311
yom 162
tutup abang 241 waan haang hanumaan yaa chaam luang 223
zanzanfulolo 119
tutup ancur 283,284 138 yaa chon 326
Transcriptions of Vietnamese characters
[aa] =â [ar] = â [ax] =â [ej] =e [oo] = Ô [ow] = d [uj] = u [UWX] : =ü
[aaf] =à [as] = â [ee] =ê [er] =è [oof] =b [owf] = d [ur] = ù [UX] :=ü
[aaj] =â [aw] = ä [eef] =è [es] =é [ooj] =ô [owj] = d [us] = û

[aar] =â [awf] = à [eej] =ê [ex] =ê [oor] =Ô [owr] = d [uw] = vt
[aas] =ä [awj] = ä [eer] =ê
m =i [oos] =6 [ows] = d [uwf] = ù
[aax] =â [awr] = ä [ees] = ê' [is] =ï [oox] =ô [owx] = d [uwj] = \i
[af] =à [aws] = ä [eex] =ê [of] =ö [or] =o [ox] = ô [uwr] =uf
[aj] =a [awx] = ä [efl =è [oj] =o [os] =ó [uf] = ù [uws] = rï
General index ofspecies,genera and families ofVolume 12
Containing the names of species (when only one species of a genus is treated), genera and families
treated in the 3 volumes on medicinal and poisonous plants.
Abrus Adanson 12(1): 73 Amaranthaceae 12(1):86, 105, 110; 12(2): 39, 206,
Abutilon Miller 12(2): 29 207
Acacia Miller 12(3): 31 Amaranthus spinosus L. 12(1): 110
Acalypha L. 12(2): 31 Amaryllidaceae 12(2): 194; 12(3): 252
Acanthaceae 12(1): 119, 327,431;12(2): 36,98; Amischotolype Hassk. 12(3): 61
12(3): 86, 95, 116, 169, 191,234, 250, 254, 268, Ammannia baccifera L. 12(3): 62
325, 326, 337, 341, 352, 353,380, 385 AmomumRoxb. 12(1): 113
Acanthus L. 12(2): 36 Amorphophallus konjac Koch 12(3): 63
Achillea millefolium L. 12(1): 77 Ampelocissus Planchon 12(3): 65
Achyranthes L. 12(2): 39 Amydrium zippelianum (Schott) Nicolson 12(3):
Acoraceae 12(1): 81 67
Acorus calamus L. 12(1): 81 Anacardiaceae 12(2): 469
Acriopsisjavanica Eeinw. ex Blume 12(3): 33 Anadendrum microstachyum (de Vriese & Miq.)
Acrotrema costatum Jack 12(3): 34 Backer &Alderw. 12(3): 68
Actinorhytis calapparia (Blume) H.A. Wendland Anamirta cocculus (L.)Wight &Arn. 12(2): 73
& Drude ex Scheffer 12(3): 34 Anaxagorea A. St.-Hil. 12(3): 68
Adenia Forssk. 12(3): 35 Ancistrocladaceae 12(3): 70
Adenosma R.Br. 12(3): 38 Ancistrocladus tectorius (Lour.) Merr. 12(3): 70
Adenostemma viscosum J.R. Forster & J.G. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wallich ex
Forster 12(2): 43 Nees 12(1): 119
Aeginetia indica L. 12(3): 40 Angelica acutiloba (Siebold &Zucc.) Kitagawa
Aerva Forssk. 12(1): 86 12(1): 123
Aeschynanthus Jack 12(3): 41 Anisomeles R.Br. 12(2): 75
Aganosma (Blume) G. Don 12(3): 43 Anneslea fragrans Wallich 12(3): 71
Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh. 12(3): 44 Annonaceae 12(2): 85,282, 415; 12(3): 68, 146,
Ageratum L. 12(1): 88 156, 160,200, 203, 302, 332, 341, 413
Aglaia Lour. 12(3): 45 Anredera Juss. 12(3): 72
Aglaonema Schott 12(3): 50 Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 12(1): 126
Aidia Lour. 12(3): 52 Antidesma montanum Blume 12(3): 74
Ailanthus Desf. 12(2): 45 Apocynaceae 12(1): 185,296, 424; 12(2):49, 61,69,
Aizoaceae 12(2): 382, 555 151, 322, 386, 402,519, 530, 544, 582; 12(3):43,
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex Benth. 12(3): 54 247, 323
Albizia myriophylla Benth. 12(3): 55 Apostasia nuda R.Br. 12(3): 74
Alchornea Sw. 12(3): 56 Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne.) Ridley 12(3): 75
Allamanda L. 12(2): 49 Araceae 12(2):436; 12(3): 50, 59, 63,67, 68, 130,
Alliaceae 12(1): 93 143, 163, 189,242, 334, 346, 366, 410
Allium L. 12(1)93 Araliaceae 12(1): 433; 12(3): 233, 406
Allomorphia Blume 12(3): 58 Aralidiaceae 12(3): 76
Alocasia (Schott) G. Don 12(3): 59 Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. &de Vriese) Miq.
Aloe L. 12(1): 100 12(3): 76
Alpinia Roxb. 12(2): 52 Arcangelisia flava (L.)Merr. 12(1): 129
Alstonia R.Br. 12(2): 61 Arctium lappa L. 12(2): 78
Alternanthera Forssk. 12(1): 105 Ardisia Sw. 12(3): 77
Alyxia R.Br. 12(2): 69 Arenga Labill. 12(3): 81
Argemone mexicana L. 12(2): 82 Cannabis sativa L. 12(1): 167

Argostemma Wallich 12(3): 82 Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R.Br. ex Roemer &
Argyreia Lour. 12(3): 83 Schultes 12(3): 107
Aristolochia L. 12(1): 133 Canthium Lamk 12(3): 108
Aristolochiaceae 12(1): 133; 12(2): 546 Capparaceae 12(2): 138, 167, 188
Artabotrys R.Br, ex Ker Gawl. 12(2): 85 Capparis L. 12(2): 138
Artemisia L. 12(1): 139 Caprifoliaceae 12(2):352; 12(3): 356
Asclepiadaceae 12(2): 89, 113,564; 12(3): 171, 177, Carallia suffruticosa Ridley 12(3): 110
228, 237,244, 361, 382, 404 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. 12(1): 176
Asclepias curassavica L. 12(2): 89 Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. 12(1): 178
Asphodelaceae 12(1): 100 Caryophyllaceae 12(3): 180
Asystasia Blume 12(3): 86 Cassia L. 12(1): 181
Ayapana triplinervis (Vahl) R.M. King & H. Cassytha filiformis L. 12(2): 142
Robinson 12(2): 91 Cassythaceae 12(2): 142
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell 12(2): 93 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don 12(1): 185
Baeckea frutescens L. 12(2): 96 Catunaregam Wolf 12(3): 110
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.)Müll. Arg. Cayratia A.H.L. Juss. 12(2): 144
12(3): 88 Cecropia peltata L. 12(3): 112
Balsaminaceae 12(2): 306 Cecropiaceae 12(3): 112
Barleria L. 12(2): 98 Celastraceae 12(2): 147; 12(3): 344
Barringtonia J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(2): Celastrus paniculatus Willd. 12(2): 147
101 Centella asiatica (L.)Urb. 12(1): 190
Basellaceae 12(3): 72 Centipeda minima (L.)A.Br. &Asch. 12(2): 149
Basilicum polystachyon (L.)Moench 12(2): 107 Cerbera L. 12(2): 151
Bauhinia L. 12(3): 89 Ceriscoides curranii (Merr.) Tirveng. 12(3): 114
Beilschmiedia Nees 12(3): 93 Cestrum nocturnum L. 12(3): 114
Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC. 12(1): 148 Chenopodiaceae 12(1): 194
Bidens L. 12(1): 150 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 12(1): 194
Bignoniaceae 12(2): 191,394; 12(3): 264, 399 Chionachne macrophylla (Benth.) W.D. Clayton
Biophytum DC. 12(2): 108 12(3): 115
Blastus borneensis Cogn. 12(3): 95 Chroesthes longifolia (Wight) B.Hansen 12(3):
Blechum pyramidatum (Lamk) Urb. 12(3): 95 116
BlumeaDC. 12(1): 155 Chydenanthus excelsus (Blume) Miers 12(3): 117
BoerhaviaL. 12(2): 111 Cinchona L. 12(1): 198
Boraginaceae 12(1): 178, 292; 12(2): 185,524; Cissampelos pareira L. 12(1): 205
12(3): 129, 148, 182, 352, 402, 407 Cissus L. 12(2): 155
Borreria G. Mey. 12(2): 116 Clausena Burm.f. 12(2): 160
Breynia J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(2): 119 Cleidion spiciflorum (Burm.f.) Merr. 12(3): 117
Bruceajavanica (L.) Merr. 12(1): 160 Clematis L. 12(3): 118
Bryophyllum Salisb. 12(1): 163 Cleome L. 12(2): 167
Buchnera L. 12(3): 96 Clerodendrum L. 12(2): 171
Buddleja asiatica Lour. 12(3): 98 Clusia L. 12(3): 121
Buddlejaceae 12(3): 98 Cnesmonejavanica Blume 12(3): 123
Butea Roxb. exWilld. 12(3): 99 Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr. 12(3): 124
Buxaceae 12(3): 102 Cocculus DC. 12(3): 125
Buxus rolfei S.Vidal 12(3): 102 Codonopsisjavanica (Blume) Hook.f. 12(3): 127
Cactaceae 12(3): 188 Colchicaceae 12(1): 289
Caesalpinia L. 12(2): 123 Coldenia procumbens L. 12(3): 129
Callicarpa L. 12(2): 129 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott 12(3): 130
Calophyllum L. 12(3): 102 Combretaceae 12(1):421;12(2): 178; 12(3): 106
Calotropis R.Br. 12(2): 133 Combretum Loefl. 12(2): 178
Calycopteris floribunda (Roxb.) Lamk 12(3): 106 Commelina L. 12(2): 181
Campanulaceae 12(2): 348; 12(3): 127, 418 Commelinaceae 12(2): 181;12(3): 61,203, 310
Cannabaceae 12(1): 167 Compositae 12(1): 77, 88, 139, 150, 155,250,475,
SPECIES, GENERA, FAMILIES VOL. 12 653
493; 12(2):43, 78,91,149, 209, 227, 237, 267, Dendranthema (DC.)Des Moul. 12(2): 209
310, 441,488, 500, 503,507, 528, 587, 590; Dendrobium Sw. 12(2): 213
12(3): 134, 140, 143, 185,223,231,300, 340, 372 Dendrocnide Miq. 12(2): 217
Connaraceae 12(2):474; 12(3):44,124, 132, 185 Dendrolobium (Wight &Arn.) Benth. 12(2): 220
Connarus L. 12(3): 132 Dendrophthoe Mart. 12(3): 157
Convallariaceae 12(3): 274 Dendrotrophe umbellata (Blume) Miq. 12(3): 159
Convolvulaceae 12(2): 258, 312, 366, 389; 12(3): Dentella repens (L.)J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster
83,144, 193 12(3): 159
Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.H. Walker 12(3): Derris Lour. 12(1): 234
134 Desmodium Desv. 12(1): 242
Coptosapelta tomentosa (Blume)Valeton ex K. Desmos Lour. 12(3): 160
Heyne 12(3): 135 Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. 12(2): 223
Cordia dichotoma J.G. Forster 12(2): 185 Dichapetalaceae 12(3): 162
Coriaria intermedia Matsum. 12(3): 136 Dichapetalum griffithii (Hook.f.) Engl. 12(3): 162
Coriariaceae 12(3): 136 Dichroa febrifuga Lour. 12(2): 224
Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume 12(3): Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) O. Kuntze 12(2):
137 227
Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertner) Colebr. 12(3): Didissandra frutescens (Jack) C.B. Clarke 12(3):
139 163
Costaceae 12(3): 396 Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott 12(3): 163
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Dilleniaceae 12(2): 540; 12(3): 34
12(3): 140 Dioclea hexandra (Ralph) Mabb. 12(3): 164
Crassulaceae 12(1): 163, 335 Dioscorea L. 12(2): 229
Crateva L. 12(2): 188 Dioscoreaceae 12(2): 229
CrescentiaL. 12(2): 191 Diospyros L. 12(3): 165
Crinum L. 12(2): 194 Diplectria (Blume) Reichenb. 12(3): 168
Crocosmia xcrocosmiiflora (Lemoine ex E. Mor- Dipteracanthus repens (L.) Hassk. 12(3): 169
ren) N.E.Br. 12(3): 142 Dischidia R.Br. 12(3): 171
Crossostephium chinense (L.)Makino 12(3): 143 Dissochaeta Blume 12(3): 173
Croton L. 12(2): 198 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. 12(2): 234
Cruciferae 12(2): 334 Dracaena L. 12(3): 175
Cryptocoryne cordata Griffith 12(3): 143 Dracaenaceae 12(3): 175
Cucurbitaceae 12(1): 353,484; 12(3): 309, 422 Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. 12(3): 177
Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. 12(2): 203 Drosera L. 12(3): 178
Cupressaceae 12(2): 439 Droseraceae 12(3): 178
Curculigo orchioides Gaertner 12(1): 207 Drymaria cordata (L.)Willd. ex Schultes 12(3):
Curcuma L. 12(1): 210 180
Cuscuta australis R.Br. 12(3): 144 Dunbaria incana (Zoll. &Moritzi) Maesen 12(3):
Cyathostemma micranthum (A.DC.) J. Sinclair 182
12(3): 146 Ebenaceae 12(3): 165
Cyathula prostrata (L.)Blume 12(2): 206 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 12(2): 237
Cyclea Arn. ex Wight 12(1): 219 Ehretia philippinensis A.DC. 12(3): 182
Cymbidium Sw. 12(3): 146 Elaeocarpaceae 12(2): 241
Cynoglossum L. 12(3): 148 Elaeocarpus L. 12(2): 241
Cyperaceae 12(1):222; 12(3): 198,291.367 Elatostema J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(3): 183
Cyperus L. 12(1): 222 Elephantopus L. 12(1): 250
Cyrtandra J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(3): 150 Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz 12(3): 185
Cyrtandromoea Zoll. 12(3): 151 Embelia Burm.f. 12(1): 254
Dalbergia L.f. 12(3): 152 Emilia prenanthoidea DC. 12(3): 185
Dalea cliffortiana Willd. 12(3): 155 Enicostema axillare (Lamk) A. Raynal 12(3): 186
Dasymaschalon (Hook.f. &Thomson) Dalla Torre Entada Adanson 12(2): 246
& Harms 12(3): 156 Epacridaceae 12(3): 388
Datura L. 12(1): 229 Epiphyllum oxypetalum (DC.) Haw. 12(3): 188
Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk) Merr. 12(2): 207 Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl. 12(3): 189
Epirixanthes elongata Blume 12(3): 190 217

Eranthemum viscidum Blume 12(3): 191 Gomphostemma Wallich ex Benth. 12(3): 218
Eria pannea Lindley 12(3): 192 Goniothalamus Hook.f. &Thomson 12(2): 282
Ericaceae 12(3): 347 Gonocaryum gracile Miq. 12(3): 219
Eriosema chinense J.R.T. Vogel 12(2): 249 Goodeniaceae 12(2): 491
Erismanthus obliquus Wallich ex Müll. Arg. 12(3): Gordonia penangensis Ridley 12(3): 219
193 Gouania Jacq. 12(3): 220
Erycibe Roxb. 12(3): 193 Gramineae 12(1): 307; 12(3): 115,275, 373, 381
Erythrina L. 12(2): 250 Grammatophyllum Blume 12(3): 222
Erythroxylaceae 12(1): 258 Grangea maderaspatana (L.)Poir. 12(3): 223
Erythroxylum P. Browne 12(1): 258 Greenea corymbosa (Jack) K. Schumann 12(3):
Euchresta Benn. 12(3): 195 224
Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. 12(2): 255 Grewia L. 12(3): 225
Eucommiaceae 12(2): 255 Guazuma ulmifolia Lamk 12(2): 286
Euodia hortensis J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster Gunnera macrophylla Blume 12(3): 226
12(3): 196 Guttiferae 12(1):303; 12(3): 102, 121
Euphorbia L. 12(1): 263 Gymnema R.Br. 12(3): 228
Euphorbiaceae 12(1): 263,320, 381;12(2): 31,119, Gynochtodes Blume 12(3): 230
198, 260, 361;12(3):56, 74, 88, 117, 123,193, Gynura Cass. 12(3): 231
195, 214, 239,278, 287, 301, 363,389, 409 Haloragaceae 12(3): 226
Eurycoma Jack 12(1): 272 Harmsiopanax harmsii K. Schumann ex K. Schu-
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 12(2): 258 mann &Lauterb. 12(3): 233
Excoecaria L. 12(2): 260 Harrisonia R. Brown exA.H.L. Juss. 12(2): 288
Fagerlindia fasciculata (Roxb.) Tirveng. 12(3): 197 Hedychium J. König 12(2): 290
Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.) K. Haraldson 12(2): Hedyotis L. 12(2): 295
265 Heliotropium L. 12(1): 292
Fatoua villosa (Thunb. ex Murray) Nakai 12(1): Hemigraphis alternata (Burm.f.) T. Anderson
275 12(3): 234
Ficus L. 12(1): 277 Henckelia Sprengel 12(3): 235
Fimbristylis Vahl 12(3): 198 Hernandiaceae 12(3): 259
Fissistigma Griffith 12(3): 200 Hetaeria obliqua Blume 12(3): 237
Flacourtiaceae 12(1): 299; 12(2): 400 Heterostemma cuspidatum Decne. 12(3): 237
Flemingia Roxb. ex W.T.Aiton 12(2): 267 Heynea trijuga Sims 12(3): 238
Floscopa scandens Lour. 12(3): 203 Hibiscus L. 12(2): 297
Friesodielsia v. Steenis 12(3): 203 Himantandraceae 12(3): 205
Galbulimima belgraveana (F.v. Mueller) Sprague Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz 12(3): 238
12(3): 205 Holarrhena R. Br. 12(1): 296
Galearia Zoll. &Moritzi 12(3): 206 Homalanthus A.Juss. 12(3): 239
Gardenia pseudopsidium (Blanco) Fern.-Vill. Homalomena Schott 12(3): 242
12(3): 207 Hoya R.Br. 12(3): 244
Gelsemium elegans (Gardner &Champ.) Benth. Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner ex Thwaites
12(2): 270 12(3): 247
Gentiana quadrifaria Blume 12(3): 208 Hydnocarpus Gaertner 12(1): 299
Gentianaceae 12(3): 107, 186, 208 Hydnophytum formicarum Jack 12(3): 248
Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. 12(3): 209 Hydrolea zeylanica (L.)Vahl 12(3): 249
Gesneriaceae 12(3):41,150, 151,163, 235 Hydrophyllaceae 12(3): 249
Geunsia pentandra (Roxb.) Merr. 12(3): 211 Hygrophila ringens (L.) R.Br, ex Steudel 12(3):
Gleditsia L. 12(2): 272 250
Globba L. 12(3): 212 Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. 12(3): 252
Glochidion J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(3): 214 Hypericum L. 12(1): 303
Gloriosa superba L. 12(1): 289 Hypobathrum Blume 12(3): 253
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A.DC. 12(2): 275 Hypoestes polythyrsa Miq. 12(3): 254
Gmelina L. 12(2): 278 Hypoxidaceae 12(1):207; 12(3): 255
Gomphandra quadrifida (Blume) Sleumer 12(3): Hypoxis aurea Lour. 12(3): 255
S P E C I E S , GENERA, FAMILIES VOL. 12 655
Hyptis Jacq. 12(3): 256 Lonicerajaponica Thunb. ex Murray 12(2): 352

Icacinaceae 12(3):217, 219 Lophatherum gracile Brongn. 12(3): 275
Illiciaceae 12(2): 303 Lophopyxidaceae 12(3): 276
Illicium anisatum L. 12(2): 303 Lophopyxis maingayi Hook.f. 12(3): 276
Illigera luzonensis (Presl) Merr. 12(3): 259 Loranthaceae 12(3): 157, 284, 370
Impatiens L. 12(2): 306 Lowiaceae 12(3): 320
Imperata Cirillo 12(1): 307 Ludwigia L. 12(2): 355
Indigofera L. 12(3): 261 Lunasia amara Blanco 12(2): 359
Indorouchera griffithiana (Planchon) Hallier f. Luvunga Buch.-Ham. ex Wight &Arnott 12(3):
12(3): 263 277
Inula helenium L. 12(2): 310 Lythraceae 12(3): 62, 419
Ipomoea L. 12(2): 312 Macaranga Thouars 12(3): 278
Iridaceae 12(1): 148; 12(3): 142 Macrosolen Blume 12(3): 284
IxoraL. 12(1): 311 Maesa Forssk. 12(3): 286
Jasminum L. 12(1): 315 Maesaceae 12(3): 286
J a t r o p h a L . 12(1): 320 Mallotus Lour. 12(3): 287
JusticiaL. 12(1): 327 Malpighiaceae 12(3): 238
Kadsura scandens (Blume) Blume 12(2): 320 Malvaceae 12(2): 29, 297, 496, 575
KaempferiaL. 12(1): 331 Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien 12(3): 291
Kalanchoe Adans. 12(1): 335 Matthaea Blume 12(3): 292
Kibatalia G. Don 12(2): 322 Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) v. Steenis 12(3): 293
Kigelia africana (Lamk) Benth. 12(3): 264 Medinilla r a d k a n s (Blume) Blume 12(3): 294
Labiatae 12(1): 344, 368,403,438; 12(2): 75,107, Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume)
331, 331,443; 12(3):54, 218, 256, 267, 298, 355 Rchb.f. &Zoll. 12(2): 361
Labisia pumila (Blume) Fern.-Vill. 12(3): 266 Melastoma L. 12(2): 363
Lantana L. 12(1): 338 Melastomataceae 12(2):363; 12(3): 58,95, 168,
Laportea Gaudich. 12(2): 324 173, 294, 320, 328, 375
Lauraceae 12(3): 93 Meliaceae 12(3):45, 238
Lecythidaceae 12(2): 101;12(3): 117 Melicope J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(3): 295
Leea van Royen ex L. 12(2): 327 Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh.f. 12(3): 298
Leeaceae 12(2): 327 Melochia corchorifolia L. 12(1): 342
Legazpia polygonoides (Benth.) Yamazaki 12(3): Menispermaceae 12(1): 129, 205, 219, 254,463,
266 479; 12(2): 73,410, 461,550; 12(3): 125, 139,
Leguminosae 12(1): 73, 181,234, 349, 417, 442, 271,401
460, 472; 12(2): 123,203,220, 246, 249, 250, Mentha arvensis L. 12(1): 344
272, 376, 404, 420, 538; 12(3): 31,55,89, 99, Merope angulata (Willd.) Swingle 12(3): 299
152, 155, 164, 182, 261,305,375, 376 Merremia Dennst. ex Endl. 12(2): 366
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. 12(3): 267 Microglossa pyrifolia (Lamk) O. Kuntze 12(3): 300
Leonurus sibiricus L. 12(2): 331 Micromelum minutum (J.G. Forster) Wight &
Lepidagathis Willd. 12(3): 268 Arn. 12(2): 373
Lepidium sativum L. 12(2): 334 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Müll. Arg. 12(3): 301
Lepionurus sylvestris Blume 12(3): 270 Millettia Wight &Arn. 12(2): 376
Leptonychia caudata (Wallich ex G. Don) Burrett Mimosa pudica L. 12(1): 349
12(3): 270 Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. 12(2): 380
Leucas R.Br. 12(2): 337 Mitrella kentii (Blume) Miq. 12(3): 302
Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. 12(3): 271 Mollugo pentaphylla L. 12(2): 382
Limacia Lour. 12(3): 271 Momordica L. 12(1): 353
Limnophila R.Br. 12(2): 341 Monimiaceae 12(3): 292
Linaceae 12(3): 263 Moraceae 12(1): 126, 275, 277, 359; 12(2): 516
Lindernia All. 12(2): 345 Morinda L. 12(3): 302
Liparis treubii J.J. Smith 12(3): 273 Morus L. 12(1): 359
Liriope graminifolia (L.) Baker 12(3): 274 Mucuna Adanson 12(3): 305
Lobelia L. 12(2): 348 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. Roemer 12(3):
Loganiaceae 12(1):467; 12(2): 270; 12(3): 379 309
Murdannia Royle 12(3): 310 Philydrum lanuginosum Banks &Sol. ex Gaert-

Mussaenda L. 12(3): 311 ner 12(3): 327
Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack 12(3): 314 Phormiaceae 12(2): 223
Myrsinaceae 12(3): 77, 266 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene 12(2): 418
Myrtaceae 12(2):96; 12(3): 319 Phyllagathis Blume 12(3): 328
Myxopyrum nervosum Blume 12(3): 315 Phyllanthus L. 12(1): 381
Nervilia Comm. ex Gaudich. 12(3): 316 Phyllodium Desv. 12(2): 420
Nothocnide repanda (Blume) Blume 12(3): 318 Physalis L. 12(2): 423
Nyctaginaceae 12(2): 111, 432 Phytolacca L. 12(1): 392
Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. 12(2): 384 Phytolaccaceae 12(1): 392
Nymphaeaceae 12(2): 384 Picrasma javanica Blume 12(3): 329
Oberonia Lindley 12(3): 318 Picria fel-terrae Lour. 12(2): 426
Ochrosia A.L. Juss. 12(2): 386 Pilea microphylla (L.)Liebm. 12(3): 330
Octamyrtus behrmannii Diels 12(3): 319 Piper umbellatum L. 12(2): 428
Oldenlandia L. 12(1): 364 Piperaceae 12(1): 379; 12(2): 428
Oleaceae 12(1): 315; 12(3): 315 Pipturus Wedd. 12(2): 430
Onagraceae 12(2): 355 Pisonia L. 12(2): 432
Operculina turphetum (L.) S. Manso 12(2): 389 Pistia stratiotes L. 12(2): 436
Ophiorrhiza L. 12(2): 391 Plantaginaceae 12(1): 397
Opiliaceae 12(3): 270 Plantago L. 12(1): 397
Orchidaceae 12(2): 213;12(3): 33,74, 137, 146, Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco 12(2): 439
192, 222, 237, 273,316, 318, 410 Plectranthus L'Hér. 12(1): 403
Orchidantha fimbriatum Holttum 12(3): 320 Pluchea indica (L.) Less. 12(2): 441
Orobanchaceae 12(3): 40 Plumbaginaceae 12(1): 409
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz 12(2): 394 Plumbago L. 12(1): 409
Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. 12(1): 368 Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Hassk. 12(2): 443
Osbeckia chinensis L. 12(3): 320 Polyalthia Blume 12(3): 332
Oxalidaceae 12(1):371;12(2): 108; 12(3): 362 Polygala L. 12(2): 445
Oxalis corniculata L. 12(1): 371 Polygalaceae 12(2):445; 12(3): 190, 354
Paederia foetida L. 12(2): 396 Polygonaceae 12(2):265,412,449,466, 480
Palmae 12(3): 34, 81 Polygonum aviculare L. 12(2): 449
Pandaceae 12(3): 206 Pothos scandens L. 12(3): 334
Pandanaceae 12(3): 321 Pouzolzia Gaudich. 12(2): 451
Pandanus Parkinson 12(3): 321 P r e m n a L . 12(1): 413
Pangium edule Reinw. 12(2): 400 Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) K. Schumann
Papaver L. 12(1): 373 12(3): 336
Papaveraceae 12(1):373;12(2):82 Pseuderanthemum Radlk. 12(3): 337
Papuechites aambe (Warb.) Markgr. 12(3): 323 Psychotria L. 12(2): 454
Parameria laevigata (A.L. Juss.) Moldenke 12(2): Pterisanthes Blume 12(3): 339
402 Pterocaulon redolens (Willd.)Fern.-Vill. 12(3): 340
Paramignya scandens (Griffith) Craib 12(3): 324 Ptyssiglottis kunthiana (Nees) B.Hansen 12(3):
P a r a m e n i a napifera (Zoll.) Bremek. 12(3): 325 341
Parkia R.Br. 12(2): 404 Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. 12(1): 417
Passifloraceae 12(3): 35 Pycnarrhena manillensis S.Vidal 12(2): 461
Pavetta indica L. 12(2): 408 Pyramidanthe prismatica (Hook.f. &Thomson) J.
Pentaphragma begoniifolium (Roxb. ex Jack) Wal- Sinclair 12(3): 341
lten ex G. Don 12(3): 325 Quassia L. 12(2): 463
Pentaphragmataceae 12(3): 325 Quisqualis L. 12(1): 421
Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth 12(1): 379 Rafflesia R.Br. 12(3): 342
Pericampylus glaucus (Lamk) Merr. 12(2): 410 Rafflesiaceae 12(3): 342
Peristrophe acuminata Nees 12(3): 326 Ranunculaceae 12(3): 118
Persicaria Miller 12(2): 412 Rauvolfia L. 12(1): 424
Phaeanthus Hook.f. &Thomson 12(2): 415 Reissantia indica (Willd.) N. Halle 12(3): 344
Philydraceae 12(3): 327 Rennellia Korth. 12(3): 344
SPECIES, GENERA, FAMILIES VOL. 12 657
Rhamnaceae 12(3):220, 415, 423 SmilaxL. 12(1): 447

Rhaphidophora Hassk. 12(3): 346 Smithia sensitiva Aiton 12(3): 375
Rheum palmatum L. 12(2): 466 Solanaceae 12(1): 229, 453; 12(2):423; 12(3): 114
Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.)Kurz 12(1): 431 Solanum L. 12(1): 453
Rhizophoraceae 12(3): 110 Solidago virgaurea L. 12(2): 503
Rhododendron L. 12(3): 347 Sonerila Roxb. 12(3): 375
Rhus L. 12(2): 469 Sophora tomentosa L. 12(1): 460
Rinorea Aubl. 12(3): 350 Soulamea amara Lamk 12(2): 505
Rosaceae 12(2): 477 Spatholobus Hassk. 12(3): 376
Rotula aquatica Lour. 12(3): 352 Sphaeranthus L. 12(2): 507
RoureaAubl. 12(2): 474 Sphenodesme Jack 12(3): 378
Rubiaceae 12(1): 198,311,364; 12(2): 116,295, Spigelia anthelmia L. 12(3): 379
380, 391,396, 408, 454, 568; 12(3):52,82. 108, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.)Vahl 12(2): 510
110, 114, 135, 159, 197,207,209,224, 230, 248, Staurogyne Wallich 12(3): 380
253, 302, 311, 314, 336, 344, 359 Stemona tuberosa Lour. 12(2): 513
Rubus L. 12(2): 477 Stemonaceae 12(2):513; 12(3): 382
Ruellia tuberosa L. 12(3): 352 Stenotaphrum helferi Munro ex Hook.f. 12(3): 381
Rumex L. 12(2): 480 Stephania Lour. 12(1): 463
Rungia laxiflora C.B. Clarke 12(3): 353 Sterculiaceae 12(1):342; 12(2): 286, 585; 12(3):
Ruta L. 12(2): 484 270
Rutaceae 12(2): 160, 275, 359, 373,484, 594; 12(3): Stichoneuron caudatum Ridley 12(3): 382
196, 277, 295, 299, 324, 391 Streblus Lour. 12(2): 516
Salomonia cantoniensis Lour. 12(3): 354 Streptocaulon Wight &Arnott 12(3): 382
Salvia plebeia R.Br. 12(3): 355 Striga asiatica (L.) O. Kuntze 12(3): 384
Sambucusjavanica Reinw. ex Blume 12(3): 356 Strobilanthes Blume 12(3): 385
Santalaceae 12(3): 159 Strophanthus DC. 12(2): 519
Sapindaceae 12(1): 176; 12(2): 234; 12(3): 357 Strychnos L. 12(1): 467
Sapindus L. 12(3): 357 Styphelia Sm. 12(3): 388
Saprosma Blume 12(3): 359 Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott 12(1): 472
Sarcolobus globosus Wallich 12(3): 361 Suregada Roxb. ex Rottl. 12(3): 389
Sarcotheca laxa (Ridley) Knuth 12(3): 362 Swinglea glutinosa (Blanco) Merr. 12(3): 391
Sauropus Blume 12(3): 363 Symphytum officinale L. 12(2): 524
Saussurea costus (Falc.) S.J. Lipschitz 12(2): 488 Symplocaceae 12(3): 392
Saxifraga stolonifera W. Curtis 12(3): 365 Symplocos Jacq. 12(3): 392
Saxifragaceae 12(2):224; 12(3): 365 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertner 12(2): 528
Scaevola taccada (Gaertner) Roxb. 12(2): 491 Tabernaemontana L. 12(2): 530
Schefflera J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(1): 433 Tacca J.R. Forster &J.G. Forster 12(3): 394
Schisandraceae 12(2): 320 Taccaceae 12(3): 394
Scindapsus hederaceus Schott 12(3): 366 Tadehagi H. Ohashi 12(2): 538
Scleria P.J. Bergius 12(3): 367 Tapeinochilos ananassae (Hassk.) K. Schumann
Scoparia dulcis L. 12(2): 493 12(3): 396
Scrophulariaceae 12(2):93,341,345,426,493; Taraxacum officinale Weber ex F.H. Wigg. 12(1):
12(3): 38,96, 266, 293, 384 475
Scurrula L. 12(3): 370 Taxaceae 12(3): 397
Scutellaria L. 12(1): 438 Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) De Laub. 12(3): 397
Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don 12(3): Tecoma stans (L.)Juss. ex Kunth 12(3): 399
372 Tetracera L. 12(2): 540
Senna Miller 12(1): 442 Tetrastigma (Miq.) Planchon 12(3): 400
Setaria palmifolia (J. König) Stapf 12(3): 373 Theaceae 12(3): 71,219
Sida L. 12(2): 496 Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 12(2): 544
Sigesbeckia orientalis L. 12(2): 500 Thottea Rottb. 12(2): 546
Simaroubaceae 12(1): 160, 272; 12(2):45, 288, Thymelaeaceae 12(3): 75
463, 505; 12(3): 329 Tiliaceae 12(2):562; 12(3): 225
Smilacaceae 12(1): 447 Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels 12(3): 401
Tinomiscium petiolare Hook.f. &Thomson 12(2):

550
Tinospora Miers 12(1): 479
Tournefortia L. 12(3): 402
Toxocarpus villosus (Blume) Decne. 12(3): 404
Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague ex Turrill
12(2): 552
Trapa natans L. 12(3): 405
Trapaceae 12(3): 405
Trevesia burckii Boerl. 12(3): 406
Trianthema portulacastrum L. 12(2): 555
Tribulus L. 12(2): 557
Trichodesma R.Br. 12(3): 407
Trichosanthes L. 12(1): 484
Trigonostemon Blume 12(3): 409
Triumfetta bartramia L. 12(2): 562
Tropidia curculigoides Lindley 12(3): 410
Tylophora R.Br. 12(2): 564
Typhonium Schott 12(3): 410
Umbelliferae 12(1): 123, 190; 12(2): 552
Uncaria Schreb. 12(2): 568
Urena lobata L. 12(2): 575
Urticaceae 12(2):217, 324, 430, 451;12(3): 183,
271,318,330
Uvaria L. 12(3): 413
Ventilago Gaertner 12(3): 415
Verbena officinalis L. 12(1): 491
Verbenaceae 12(1): 338, 413,491,497; 12(2): 129,
171, 278,418, 510; 12(3): 211,378
Vernonia Schreber 12(1): 493
Viola L. 12(2): 578
Violaceae 12(2): 578; 12(3): 350
Viscaceae 12(3): 416
Viscum L. 12(3): 416
Vitaceae 12(2): 144, 155; 12(3): 65,339, 400
VitexL. 12(1): 497
Voacanga Thou. 12(2): 582
Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunberg) A.DC. 12(3):
418
Waltheria indica L. 12(2): 585
Wedelia Jacq. 12(2): 587
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz 12(3): 419
Xanthium strumarium L. 12(2): 590
Xyridaceae 12(3): 421
Xyris L. 12(3): 421
Zanthoxylum L. 12(2): 594
Zehneria indica (Lour.) Keraudren 12(3): 422
Zingiberaceae 12(1): 113,210, 331;12(2): 52, 290;
12(3): 212
Ziziphus Miller 12(3): 423
Zygophyllaceael2(2): 557
The Prosea Foundation
(Plant Resources ofSouth-East Asia)
Name, location, legal status and structure
- Prosea is a Foundation under Indonesian law, with an international charter,

domiciled in Bogor. It is an autonomous, non-profit, international agency,
governed by a Board of Trustees. It seeks linkage with existing regional and
international organizations;
- Prosea is an international programme focusing on the documentation of in-
formation on plant resources of South-East Asia;
- Prosea consists of a Network Office in Bogor (Indonesia) coordinating 6
Country Offices in South-East Asia, and a Publication Office in Wageningen
(The Netherlands).
Participating institutions
- Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM), Karung Berkunci 201, Jalan

FRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;
- Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Sasana Widya Sarwono, Jalan Gatot
Subroto 10,J a k a r t a 12710, Indonesia;
- Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources (IEBR), Nghia Do, Cau Giay,
Hanoi, Vietnam;
- Papua New Guinea University ofTechnology (UNITECH), Private Mail Bag,
Lae 411,Papua New Guinea;
- Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Re-
search and Development (PCARRD), Los Banos, Laguna, the Philippines;
- Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR), 196
Phahonyothin Road, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand;
- Wageningen University (WU), Costerweg 50, 6701 BH Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
Objectives
- to document and make available the existing wealth of information on the

plant resources of South-East Asia for education, extension work, research
and industry;
- to make operational a computerized data bank on the plant resources of
South-East Asia;
- to publish the results in the form of an illustrated, multi-volume handbook in
English;
- to promote the dissemination ofthe information gathered.
Target groups
- those professionally concerned with plant resources in South-East Asia and

working in education, extension work, research and commercial production
(direct users);
- those in South-East Asia depending directly on plant resources, obtaining
relevant information through extension (indirect users).
Activities
- the establishment and operation of data bases;

- the publication ofbooks;
- the sponsorship, support and organization oftraining courses;
- research into topics relevant to Prosea's purpose;
- the publication and dissemination ofreports and the research results.
Implementation
The programme period has been tentatively divided into 4 phases:

- preliminary phase (1985-1986): publication of 'Plant Resources of South-
East Asia, Proposal for a Handbook' (1986);
- preparatory phase (1987-1990): establishing cooperation with South-East
Asia through internationalization, documentation, consultation and publica-
tion; reaching agreement on the scientific, organizational and financial
structure of Prosea;
- implementation phase (1991-2000): compiling, editing and publishing of the
handbook; making operational the computerized data bank with the texts
and additional information; promoting the dissemination of the information
obtained.
- Prosea beyond 2000 (Phase 2001-2005): handbook finalization; emphasis on
lesser-known useful plants, and making the information services demand-
driven.
Documentation
A documentation system has been developed for information storage and re-
trieval called Prosea Data Bank. It consists of 7data bases:
- BASELIST: primarily a checklist ofmore than 6200 plant species;
- CATALOG: references to secondary literature;
- PREPHASE: references to literature from South-East Asia;
- ORGANYM: references to institutions and their research activities;
- PERSONYM: references to specialists;
- TEXTFILE: all Prosea publications and additional information;
- PHOTFILE: photographs ofuseful plants of South-East Asia.
Publication
The handbook in blue cover (hardbound) is distributed by Backhuys Publish-

ers, Leiden, the Netherlands (formerly by Pudoc, Wageningen, the Nether-
THE PROSEA FOUNDATION 661
lands). The handbook in green cover (paperback) is distributed in two price-

classes: a low-price paperback, distributed by Prosea South-East Asia for all
developing countries; a medium-price paperback, distributed by Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands, and by Prosea South-East Asia for devel-
oped countries (becoming available two years after publication of the hard-
bound edition). The bibliographies are distributed by Prosea South-East Asia.
The handbook
- No 1. Pulses. L.J.G. van der Maesen and Sadikin Somaatmadja (Editors).
Pudoc, Wageningen. 1989/ESCAP CGPRT Centre, Bogor. 1990 (out of
printyProsea, Bogor. 1992.
- No 2. Edible fruits and nuts. E.W.M. Verheij and R.E. Coronel (Editors). Pu-
doc, Wageningen. 1991/Prosea, Bogor. 1992.
- No 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Wuli-
jarni-Soetjipto (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1991/Prosea, Bogor. 1992.
- No 4. Forages. L. 't Mannetje and R.M. Jones (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen.
1992/Prosea, Bogor. 1992.
- No 5(1). Timber trees. Major commercial timbers. I. Soerianegara and
R.H.M.J. Lemmens (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1993/Prosea, Bogor. 1994.
- No 5(2).Timber trees. Minor commercial timbers. R.H.M.J. Lemmens, I. Soe-
rianegara and Wong Wing Chong (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
- No 5(3).Timber trees. Lesser-known timbers. M.S.M. Sosef, L.T. Hong and S.
Prawirohatmodjo (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1998/Prosea, Bo-
gor. 1998.
- No 6. Rattans. J. Dransfield and N. Manokaran (Editors). Pudoc, Wagenin-
gen. 1993/Prosea, Bogor. 1994.
- No 7. Bamboos. S. Dransfield and E.A. Widjaja (Editors). Backhuys Publish-
ers, Leiden. 1995/Prosea, Bogor. 1995.
- No 8. Vegetables. J.S. Siemonsma and Kasem Piluek (Editors). Pudoc, Wa-
geningen. 1993/Prosea, Bogor. 1994.
- No 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates. M. Flach and F. Rumawas
(Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1996/Prosea, Bogor. 1996.
- No 10. Cereals. G.J.H. Grubben and Soetjipto Partohardjono (Editors). Back-
huys Publishers, Leiden. 1996/Prosea, Bogor. 1996.
- No 11.Auxiliary plants. I. Faridah Hanum and L.J.G. van der Maesen (Edi-
tors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1997/Prosea, Bogor. 1997.
- No 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. L.S. de Padua, N. Bun-
yapraphatsara and R.H.M.J. Lemmens (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Lei-
den. 1999/Prosea, Bogor. 1999.
- No 12(2). Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg and N.
Bunyapraphatsara (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2001/Prosea, Bo-
gor. 2002.
- No 12(3). Medicinal and poisonous plants 3. R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Bun-
yapraphatsara (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2003/Prosea, Bogor.
2003.
- No 13. Spices. C.C. de Guzman and J.S. Siemonsma (Editors). Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden. 1999/Prosea, Bogor. 1999.
- No 14. Vegetable oils and fats. H.A.M. van der Vossen and B.E. Umali (Edi-
tors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2001/Prosea, Bogor. 2002.

- No 15(1).Cryptogams: Algae.W.F. Prud'homme van Reine and G.C. Trono J r
(Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2001/Prosea, Bogor. 2002.
- No 15(2). Cryptogams: Ferns and fern allies. W.P. de Winter and V.B.
Amoroso (Editors), (expected publication date 2003).
- No 15(3). Cryptogams: Fungi.
- No 16. Stimulants. H.A.M. van der Vossen and M. Wessel (Editors). Back-
huys Publishers, Leiden. 2000/Prosea, Bogor. 2000.
- No 17.Fibre plants. M. Brink &R.P. Escobin (Editors), (expected publication
date 2003).
- No 18. Plants producing exudates. E. Boer and A.B. Ella (Editors). Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden. 2000/Prosea, Bogor.2001.
- No 19. Essential-oil plants. L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors).
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1999/Prosea, Bogor. 1999.
- No 20. Ornamental plants.
Bibliographies
- Bibliography 1:Pulses. Edition 1.N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto and J.S. Siemonsma
(Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1990.
- Bibliography 2: Edible fruits and nuts. Edition 1. Part 1and part 2. N. Wuli-
jarni-Soetjipto and J.S. Siemonsma (Editors). Prosea, Bogor/Pudoc, Wa-
geningen. 1993.
- Bibliography 3: Dye and tannin-producing plants. Edition 1. N. Wulijarni-
Soetjipto and J.S. Siemonsma (Editors). Prosea, Bogor/Pudoc, Wageningen.
1991.
- Bibliography 4: Forages. Edition 1. N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto (Editor). Prosea,
Bogor/Pudoc, Wageningen. 1994.
- Bibliography 5(1): Timber trees: Major commercial timbers. Edition 1. Part 1
and part 2. Sarkat Danimihardja and Soedarsono Riswan (Editors). Prosea,
Bogor/Pudoc, Wageningen. 1994.
- Bibliography 5(2): Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Edition 1.
Sarkat Danimihardja and Djunaedi Gandawidjaja (Editors). Prosea, Bogor.
1996.
- Bibliography 5(3): Timber trees: Lesser-known timbers. Edition 1. Sarkat
Danimihardja and Djunaedi Gandawidjaja (Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1998.
- Bibliography 6: Rattans. Edition 1. N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto and Sarkat Dan-
imihardja (Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1995.
- Bibliography 7: Bamboos. Edition 1. N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto and Sarkat Dan-
imihardja (Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1996.
- Bibliography 8: Vegetables. Edition 1. Part 1 and part 2. Sarkat Danimi-
hardja and M.H. van den Bergh (Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1995.
- Bibliography 9 (CD-ROM & Floppies): Plants yielding non-seed carbohy-
drates. Edition 1. Sarkat Danimihardja and Djunaedi Gandawidjaja (Edi-
tors). Irfan Afandi (Electronic design). Prosea, Bogor. 1999.
- Bibliography 10 (CD-ROM & Floppies): Cereals. Sarkat Danimihardja and
B.P. Naiola (Editors). Irfan Afandi (Electronic design). Prosea, Bogor. 1999.
- Bibliography 11:Auxiliary plants. Edition 1. Sarkat Danimihardja and Dju-
naedi Gandawidjaja (Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1997.
- Bibliography 13 & 19 (CD-ROM & Floppies): Spices & Essential-oil plants.
THE PROSEA FOUNDATION 663
Sarkat Danimihardja and B.P. Naiola (Editors). Irfan Afandi (Electronic de-
sign). Prosea, Bogor. 2000.
CD-ROMs
- Integral CD-ROM Version 2. Prosea 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. Pudoc-DLO, Wageningen.
1997.
- Commodity group CD-ROM 'Vegetables'. Prosea 8. ETI, Amsterdam/
Springer Verlag, Berlin. 1997.
- Commodity group CD-ROM 'Edible fruits and nuts'. Prosea 2. ETI, Amster-
dam/Springer Verlag, Berlin. 1999.
- Commodity group CD-ROM 'Timber trees'. Prosea 5. ETI, Amsterdam/
Springer Verlag, Berlin. 1999-2000.
- Commodity group CD-ROM 'Rattans and Bamboos'. Prosea 6 and 7. ETI,
Amsterdam. 2001.
Miscellaneous
- A Selection. E. Westphal and P.CM. Jansen (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen.
- Basic list of species and commodity grouping. Version 1. R.H.M.J. Lemmens,
P.C.M. Jansen, J.S. Siemonsma, F.M. Stavast (Editors). Prosea Project, Wa-
geningen. 1989. (out of print).
- Basic list of species and commodity grouping. Final version. P.C.M. Jansen,
R.H.M.J. Lemmens, L.P.A. Oyen, J.S. Siemonsma, F.M. Stavast and
J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1991/Prosea, Bogor.
1993.
- Proceedings of the First Prosea International Symposium, May 22-25, 1989,
Jakarta, Indonesia. J.S. Siemonsma and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto (Editors).
Pudoc, Wageningen. 1989. (out of print).
- Proceedings of the Second Prosea International Workshop, November 7-9,
1994, J a k a r t a and Cisarua, Indonesia. Rusdy E. Nasution and N. Wulijarni-
Soetjipto (Editors). Prosea, Bogor. 1995.(out of print).
- Proceedings of the Third Prosea International Workshop, November 15-17,
1999, Bogor, Indonesia. Junus Kartasubrata, Soedarsono Riswan and
Soetarjo Brotonegoro (Editors). Prosea, Bogor, 2000.
In brief, Prosea is
- an international programme, focused on plant resources of South-East Asia;

- interdisciplinary, covering the fields of agriculture, forestry, horticulture and
botany;
- a research programme, making knowledge available for education and exten-
sion;
- ecologically focused on promoting plant resources for sustainable tropical
land-use systems;
- committed to conservation of biodiversity;
- committed to rural development through diversification of resources and ap-
plication offarmers' knowledge.
Prosea Network Office
Research and Development Centre for Biology

Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 22
P.O. Box 332
Bogor 16122, Indonesia
tel: +62 251 322859, 370934
fax: +62 251 370934
e-mail: info@proseanet.org
Prosea Publication Office
Wageningen University
Haarweg 333
P.O. Box 341
6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands
tel: +31 317 484587
fax: +31317 482206
e-mail: prosea@wur.nl
Homepages: http://www.proseanet.org and http://www.prosea.nl

/ ^-•,^/«-- / ' v ''? CHINA \,'--J \ mmu
X K
BURMA ~\-^) "! ;:-^W?K . . . ^ - X ~'
^_./- r " ; ') LAOS "> r~'' ,X-\

s
I r~' 'x c :/ >•''
l
«'=v
\ x' ( .•--. ' - X '"": s
\ \ zx-*-' ' \ ;"\ \' \ '" x; .
. A \ • Luzon ,' ' '18 '
k. A / " *. r THAILAND \ "> ' • V X v ; '"

1 <"' 1 '/ •• \« I ,
?
\ \ I f 7 VIETNAM PHILIPPINES »f 20,,/
l
H '; ,A ? :-'' ~ \ i V'-'^"' '":S'
'y'\ ' t - O CAMBODIA { i •^'"',:-l-.T
"'S 'X '4 -•-- <? ~' .if' x X ? 5 ' ;
^ // "-, 1 . r- • X •;•' ^ . 2 4 \ ^ -
- ,'-. .•- /i 23,; X X >
X vx ..' is x , ; •! -y-:•<•.'i,
f V ,- (27'A J..29 i-J
v
f ; •' •-- "•-"- - X
tr-, - "' ,-i"' X v X 30 '.
**- ^ i f~33,< \ '•
r KJ;
^ "*V **'* \ '-r-
\ i ' -.. •l-' \ C ' '32 / Ù
j - •. ''t ; < ' ' • / - • ' • . ,
V
Î ' L S W K MALAYSIA '' ^-> 35"<* » ^.V
14
Ç — .x 4*//6;^ _ BRUNEI „.>: ....^•* ~X
f
\ 36 "i ! \~' ~ \ j -' X X U .--.-..,-._''*- -
V. c'X V-i, 8 4 £ \ - :''
x 1; 38 •••) H1-°A-x t \ j 13
•'
BOme
"~Z^S r ^ - x Ù SINGAPORE /W ^ . ° %
•.
\ --, \ „' 40 ^ > ^ * ^ > '•-.. - c fin , . ••; / • ~s~^ < ,•
39'> \^->\,, '^43^^ I S~'\ r" ,/r-.>.—^§?_. '
%] \ Sumatra <? fâ { 57 .--' ''• •; ;':- ^ ^
' r \ 4 2 ) 4 1 y-^s ^-- % V-, 7 ' - ,j '-k /•'.- r ~.-> N
MenteiM9/\4 \ y 4R . - - . - ? < - « *-• -; '~ 58 ,r'; ='' r'63",.-' ^ 'r-^—
fe/ancfs \ Vex,--'' - '' ' " X • ;. ... \ ', ; - ' '-^ Sütewes» "!; >• l w
'"-
' X > ,- '- 50 • - . .->i ^-;64i ',65\,

v
' x / 51 INDONESIA / •' ^-X'i-ee
V
* \ v /-. ƒ '\ ••': ' X ' ^
52
^->- f—— '' >"~V-73 « ~
""~^Jv!3,- v \ ' 55 '- --, LesserSunda Islands ' \f_
Java 54----,--,.,./-.. ^ " ) r - , X " " ' , . . — . f ^z-^}"--'-:
J - X
"~-• ~.-X../" ',-! /' V-.-...X -' ' ' " ; "~
67 68 " 6 9 ,. — . 71 ,.-"'
•- "-. Î -•• 72
70'" ' ,; X"
•-' /
MAP OF SOUTH-EAST ASIA FOR PROSEA

Names of countries in capital letters and islands in lower case;
numbers refer to the key.
Keyofislands (;'),states(s), regions (r)and provinces(p)
MALAYSIA Northern Mindanao r 30 Morotai /73

East Malaysia r13-14 Palawan ; 15 Nias / 39
Johor s 12 Panay i 23 North Sulawesi p 62
Kedah s 3 Samar / 25 North Sumatra p 38
Kelantan s 6 Southern Tagalog r 20 Obi / 75
Langkawi ;'2 Southern Mindanao r 31 Riau p 40
Melaka s11 SuluArchipelago /'35 Riau Archipelago / 43
NegeriSembilan s10 Western Mindanao r 33 Seram /78
Pahang s 8 Siberut ;42
Peninsular Malaysia INDONESIA Simeuluë / 37
(West Malaysia) r 1-12 Aceh p 36 Singkep / 45
Perak s 5 Ambon ;79 South-East Sulawesi p 65
Perlis s 1 Am Islands ; 82 South Kalimantan p 59
Pinang s 4 Bali ;67 South Sulawesi p 64
Sabah s14 Bangka / 49 South Sumatra p 48
Sarawak s 13 Belitung i 50 Sula Islands /76
Selangor s 9 Bengkulu p 47 Sumba /70
Terengganu s 7 Buru /77 Sumbawa / 69
Butung ƒ 66 Talaud Islands / 61
PHILIPPINES Central Java p 53 Tanimbar Islands ; 81
Babuyan Islands / 16 Central Kalimantan p 58 Timor ;72
Basilan ;34 Central Sulawesi p 63 West Daya Islands / 80
Bicol r 21 EastJava p 55 WestJava p 52
Bohol / 29 East Kalimantan p 60 West Kalimantan p 57
Cagayan Valley r18 Flores ;71 West Sumatra p 41
Cebu / 28 Halmahera /74 Yogyakarta p 54
Mindanao
Central Mindanao r 32 IrianJaya p 84
Central Luzon r19 Jambi p 46 PAPUA NEW GUINEA
llocos r17 Kai Islands ;'83 Bougainville Island ; 87
Leyte / 26 Lampung p 51 D'Entrecasteaux Islands ; 88
Masbate ; 24 Lingga / 44 Louisiade Archipelago / 89
Mindoro ; 22 Lombok ;68 New Britain / 86
61
Negros / 27 Madura ƒ 56 Papua r 85
••;fO ™
eh ' /*<Pv--.
fJ-.'re ' «- T?,_ n '; ° ~f>
oluccas ^~' ' - -,-.->? s /
-'.1
n
-, n-"v^. • • ' ' ' , " : Bismarck ^'^.
79 V- \ --•-, X_._ 84 ; Archipelago
,, ,*i
—. NewGuinea r. } ,y '••' % 87
83„ ~>,
V -f2r '•> ! k>
- \ _ ' " N l . 86"^/'~ '\ •
;: 85
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
'"'•'v-^~.i
L
r' \
•-. - r ' /''81 ' /**.'•>-. - " V
'""'"• %
«
; "^ -r1
v.
'\ r
";
' — ^ . • - < . - * -
'. *.. '•-•••; c f 88

~' *•- - ~ - ~ - . * V "
V ->
-";
(,v--/:" ; -'-_, : v "" 8K ?
. . - ^ . / - " " " • ""•/••;:'

V
*r
- ; '•
'^,
«j
AUSTRALIA ,
S"V, ~
1986 JB

Prosea 12.3 Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prosea 12.3 Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TEELT

Medicinal and poisonous plants 3

R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Bunyapraphatsara

Backhuys Publishers, Leiden 2003

© Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 2003.

Printed in The Netherlands byVeenman drukkers, Ede.

Editors and contributors 12

Prosea Board ofTrustees and Personnel 19

1.1 Choice of species 23

2 Alphabetical treatment ofgenera, species and groups 29

Acacia soap pod tree 31

3 Medicinal and poisonous plants with other primary use 425

Acronyms oforganizations 539

Sources ofillustrations 567

Index ofcompounds 579

Index ofpharmaceutical terms 583

Index ofscientific plant names 589

Index ofvernacular plant names 636

General index of species, genera and families ofVolume 12 651

The Prosea Foundation 659

General editors of the Prosea Handbook

P.C.M. Jansen, E. Westphal and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto

Editorial staff of this volume

- Editors: R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Bunyapraphatsara

- Sjamsul Arifin Achmad, Department of Chemistry, Institut Teknologi Ban-

Morobe Province 411,Papua New Guinea (Harmsiopanax harmsii)

S.F.J.A. Horsten, Steenmarterakker 1, 3994 GE Houten, the Netherlands

Sekip Utara, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia (Cestrum nocturnum, Macroso-

Aprilani Soegiarto (LIPI, Indonesia), chairman

J.M. Schippers (PUDOC-DLO)

Soekiman Atmosoedaryo (à titre personnel)

A. Budiman, Programme Leader

Abdul Razak Mohd. Ali, Programme Leader

Papua New Guinea

P. Siaguru, Programme Leader

P.S. Faylon, Programme Leader

Soonthorn Duriyaprapan, Programme Leader

Nguyen Tien Ban, Programme Leader

Network Office, Bogor, Indonesia

Made S. Prana, Head

Publication Office, Wageningen, The Netherlands

J.S. Siemonsma, Head

Nieuwegein, October 2002

Prof. Dr. Rudi P. Labadie

1.1 Choice of species

The choice of the genera/species covered in each of the 3 volumes on medicinal

1.2 Collection from the wild versus cultivation

1.2.1 The need for conservation

1.2.2 Joint efforts for conservation

Coordinated international work on medicinal plant conservation on a global

medicinal plant conservation worldwide, the IUCN Species Survival Commis-

1.2.3 Germplasm collection

In Asia organized efforts to collect and conserve germplasm of medicinal plants

1.2.4 Cultivation and breeding

In several tropical countries a kind of transition exists between plants raised

1.2.5 Recommendations for the wise use of medicinal plants

1.3 The medicinal and poisonous plants of South-East Asia

Family Number ofgenera Weighted importance

loids in Menispermaceae and quassinoids in Simaroubaceae.

Table 2. Habit of more important South- Table 3. Habitat of more important

Habit Proportion Habit Proportion

Tree 18% Forest habitat (wild) 31%

Acacia Miller a known cause of dietary migraine. The fruit pulp

also in forest margins and clearings, up to 1000 m