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FIEL .± NA
Zoology
NEW SERIES, NO. 39
STUDIES IN NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY

Essays in Honor of Philip Hershkovitz
Edited by Bruce D. Patterson and Robert M. Timm
December 31, 1987

Publication 1382
PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

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Phiup Hershkovttz
FIELDIANA
Zoology
NEW SERIES, NO. 39

Edited by
Bruce D. Patterson
Division of Mammals
Field Museum of Natural History
Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496
Robert M. Timm
Division of Mammals
Field Museum of Natural History
Present address:
Museum of Natural History
Department of Systematics and Ecology
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66045
Accepted for publication July 30, 1985

December 31, 1987
Publication 1382
PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

HELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
New Series, No. 39
Studies in Neotropical Mammalogy:

Bruce D. Patterson and Robert M. Timm, Editors
© 1987 Field Museum of Natural History

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 87-82549
ISSN 0015-0754
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Table of Contents
Preface vii
A Biographical Sketch of Philip Hershkovitz, with a Complete Scientific Bibliography 1
Bruce D. Patterson
A History of the Recent Mammalogy of the Neotropical Region from 1492 to 1850 11
Philip Hershkovitz
A New Superfamily in the Extensive Radiation of South American Paleogene Marsupials 99
Rosendo Pascual and Alfredo A. Carlini
An Additional 14-Chromosome Karyotype and Sex-Chromosome Mosaicism in South American
Marsupials 1 1 1
Milton H. Gallardo and Bruce D. Patterson

Notes on the Black-Shouldered Opossum, Caluromysiops irrupta 117
Robert J. Izor and Ronald H. Pine
Feeding Habits of the Opossum {Didelphis marsupialis) in Northern Venezuela 125

Gerardo A. Cordero R. and Ruben A. Nicolas B.
Notes on Distribution of Some Bats from Southwestern Colombia 133
Michael S. Alberico
Distributional Records of Bats from the Caribbean Lowlands of Belize and Adjacent Guatemala
and Mexico 137
Timothy J. McCarthy
New Species of Mammals from Northern South America: Fruit-Eating Bats, Genus Artibeus
Leach 163
Charles O. Handley. Jr.
Seasonality of Reproduction in Peruvian Bats 173

Gary L. Graham
Tent Construction by Bats of the Genera Artibeus and Uroderma 187
Robert M. Timm
Comparative Ultrastructure and Evolutionary Patterns of Acinar Secretory Product of Parotid

Salivary Glands in Neotropical Bats 213
Carleton J. Phillips, Toshikazu Nagato, and Bernard Tandler
Distribution of the Species and Subspecies of Cebids in Venezuela 231
Roberta Bodini and Roger Perez- Hernandez
Host Associations and Coevolutionary Relationships of Astigmatid Mite Parasites of New World
Primates. I. Families Psoroptidae and Audycoptidae 245
Barry M. OConnor
Notes on Bolivian Mammals. 2. Taxonomy and Distribution of Rice Rats of the Subgenus Oli-
goryzomys 261
Nancy Olds and Sydney Anderson
New Records and Current Status of Euneomys (Cricetidae) in Southern South America 283
Jose L. Ydhez, Juan C Torres-Mura. Jaime R. Rau, and Luis C. Contreras
Morphological Variation, Karyology, and Systematic Relationships of Heteromys gaumeri (Ro-

dentia: Heteromyidae) 289
Mark D. Engstrom. Hugh H. Genoways, and Priscilla K. Tucker
Species Groups of Spiny Rats, Genus Proechimys (Rodentia: Echimyidae) 305

James L. Patton
An Assessment of the Systematics and Evolution of the Akodontini, with the Description of New
Fossil Species of Akodon (Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae) 347
Osvaldo A. Reig
V
Biogeography of Octodontid Rodents: An Eco-Evolutionary Hypothesis 40 1
Luis C. Contreras, Juan C. Torres-Mura, and Jose L. Ydnez
Population Dynamics and Ecology of Small Mammals in the Northern Chilean Semiarid
Region 413
Peter L. Meserve and Eric Le Boulenge
Demography and Reproduction of the Silky Desert Mouse (Eligmodontia) in Argentina 433
Oliver Pearson. Susana Martin, and Javier Bellati
Baculum of the Lesser Andean Coati, Nasuella olivacea (Gray), and of the Larger Grison, Galictis
vittata (Schreber) 447
Edgardo Mondolfi
Origin, Diversification, and Zoogeography of the South American Canidae 455
Annalisa Bert a
Comparative Cytogenetics of South American Deer 473

Angel E. Spot orno. Nadir Brum, and Mariela Di Tomaso
Faunal Representation in Museum Collections of Mammals: Osgood's Mammals of Chile 485
Bruce D. Patterson and Clare E. Feigl
Taxonomic Index 497
Subject Index 505
VI
Preface therefore prevailed upon him to write such a his-
toricalsurvey to complement and enhance this
volume. We convinced him that, by assembling a
In the early 1 980s, we discussed the possibility historical analysis of the subject, he would provide
of a testimonial volume for Philip Hershkoviiz a tremendous service to younger workers.
with Larry Marshall, then with the Department of Other contributions to the volume came from
Geology, Field Museum. As the senior mammal- friends and colleagues of Hershkovitz. All share
ogist at Field Museum and a student of South an interest in the distribution, taxonomy, and nat-
American mammalogy for almost half a century, ural history of Neotropical mammals, and each
Hershkovitz had generously provided invaluable one was inspired to honor Hershkovitz with their
advice and assistance to each of us in the early contribution. Each of the contributions focuses on
stages of our careers. We felt a Festschrift in his those fields of Neotropical mammalogy to which
honor might repay a portion of our debts to him Hershkovitz has contributed most significantly.
and, at the same time, serve as an independent, We owe thanks to numerous persons connected
lasting tribute to his life-work. with this volume. First and foremost, Tanisse Be-
In the entire history of Field Museum, only zin, Managing Editor of Field Museum Press, de-
three testimonial volumes had been produced in serves recognition. Her keen eye for grammar and
honor of museum scientists. Each recognized the style eliminated numerous editorial inconsisten-
contributions of men who were both preeminent cies forwarded by the volume editors. Graham
scientists and museum administrators: Wilfred H. Harles, Field Museum Press copy editor, provided
Osgood, Chief Curator of Zoology, 1921-1941; skillful editing and proofreading. The Scientific
Karl P. Schmidt, Chief Curator of Zoology, 1941- Editor for Fieldiana, Timothy Plowman, endured
1956; and Rainer Zangerl, Chief Curator and countless interruptions during production of this
Chairman of Geology, 1962-1974. Although volume and served as corresponding editor for our
Hershkovitz has never served in an upper-level own papers. Translations of abstracts into Spanish
administrative capacity, his contributions to the and Portuguese were kindly provided by Myriam
museum through distinguished and continuing re- Ibarra (an Ecuadorean ichthyologist) and Debra
search clearly qualified him for this honor. Moskovits (a Brazilian ecologist), who offered these
However, plans for a testimonial volume in as their own tributes to Hershkovitz. Assistance
Fieldiana: Zoology did not materialize until No- in assembling the indices was provided by Mary
vember 1 983. By that time, Marshall had assumed Anne Rogers.
a new
position at the University of Arizona and Finally, we
are enormously indebted to a ded-
Hershkovitz had just celebrated his 74th birthday. icatedbody of reviewers, who critically evaluated
Given and publication schedules,
realistic editing papers in this volume. Their constructive advice
we were faced with the prospect of producing the and recommendations made editorial tasks far
volume nearly midway between traditionally cel- lighter. The W. T. Atyeo,
editors gratefully thank:
ebrated anniversary dates. Nevertheless, such tim- P. V. August, K. Benirschke, W. A. Clemens, J.
ing is somehow fitting: Hershkovitz the man is A. Davis, W. B. Davis, M. R. Dawson, M. D.
both extemporaneous and unconventional. Engstrom, J. Fooden, G. L. Forman, M. H. Ga-
Another notable departure from the Festschrift llardo, A. L. Gardner, H. H. Genoways, W. E.
tradition is evident from the table of contents: Glanz, M. S. Hafner, D. Hunsaker II, R. J. Izor,
Hershkovitz himself is a contributor! On many J. A. W. Kirsch, K. F. Koopman, M. A. Mares,
occasions Hershkovitz had lamented the lack of a R. E. Martin, T. J. McCarthy, G. G. Musser, P.

historical review of South American mammalogy. Myers, J. L. Patton, O. P. Pearson, R. H. Pine, W.
During the present information explosion, scien- B. Quay, L. Radinsky, O. J. Reichman, D. S. Rog-
tists are hard-pressed to keep up with current de- ers, W. Thorington, Jr., W. D. Tumbull, J. H.
R.
velopments of direct relevance to their research; Wahlert, S. D. Webb, C. Wemmer, J. O. Whitaker,
much less are they afforded the occasion to amble Jr., D. E. Wilson, R. G. Wolff, and A. E. Wood,
through historical records in Latin, German, in addition to anonymous reviewers of our own
French, Spanish, and Portuguese, even though these papers.

records are full of interesting and relevant infor-
mation. As a result of his 50 years in the discipline,
Hershkovitz may be unique in his broad knowl- B. D. Patterson
edge of both historical literature and current re- R. M. TiMM
search on Neotropical mammals. The editors Chicago, Illinois
A Biographical Sketch of Philip Hershkovitz,
with a Complete Scientific Bibliography
Bruce D. Patterson
Philip Hershkovitz was bom October 12, 1909, career. Colin Sanborn, then Curator of Mammals
in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Aba Hershkovitz during Wilfred Osgood's tenure as Chief Curator
and Bertha Halpem. He was the second of four of Zoology (1921-1941), befriended Hershkovitz
children and their only son. He attended primary and loaned him the necessary supplies. As a con-
and secondary schools in Pittsburgh, graduating sequence, the mammals that Hershkovitz collect-
from Schenley High School in February 1927. In ed in Texas that first of many field seasons were
1929 he enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh deposited in the Field Museum collections. He
where he majored in zoology, serving as an Un- now maintains that his chance visit to Field
dergraduate Assistant in that department during Museum in 1932 indelibly fixed that institution
1 930-1 931. Having exhausted Pittsburgh's course as the place at which to pursue his career goals.
offerings in zoology and seeking to pursue a career Hershkovitz's formal education was delayed by
in mammalogy, he was advised to transfer to the worsening economic situation during 1 933. No
another school with an expanded curriculum (Har- longer able to afford tuition, he sought advice on
vard University, University of Michigan, or Uni- subsistence during the Depression, and was told
versity of California, Berkeley). In his junior year that Ecuador and Paraguay were undoubtedly the
(1931), he transferred to the University of Mich- least expensive countries in this hemisphere in
Ann Arbor because of its proximity to his
igan at which to live. Transportation costs decided the
home. There he became an Undergraduate Assis- issue, and in 1933 he set sail via the Grace Line
Museum of Zoology, working under the
tant in the from New York to Guayaquil, Ecuador for the
supervision of Professor and Curator Lee R. Dice whopping sum of $600, one-way.
during 1931-1932. He supplemented the meager He stayed in Ecuador until 1937. During this
earnings of this position with taxidermy jobs, which period, he mastered Spanish and learned how to
supported him during the early years of the Great live off the land in the Neotropics. His boots dis-
Depression. integrated after six months' time and thereafter he

His first fieldwork was undertaken during the went barefoot. He assembled a fine collection of
summer of 1932. He went to the San Marcos re- Ecuadorean mammals for the Museum of Zool-
gion of Texas to collect blind cave salamanders ogy, University of Michigan, supporting his activ-
{Typhlomolge rathbuni) for Professor Uhlenhuth ities in part by selling horses bought on the Pe-
of the University of Maryland Medical School. ruvian frontier.

Having a principal interest in mammals, he want- He then returned to the University of Michigan
ed to collect small mammals in areas surrounding where he again enrolled as an undergraduate, grad-
the caves, but Dice could spare no traps for him uating in 1938 with a Bachelor of Science degree.
and told him to purchase some in Texas. By this time. Dice had moved from the Museum
While hitchhiking from Ann Arbor to Texas, of Zoology to the Laboratory of Vertebrate Ge-
Hershkovitz stopped to visit friends in Chicago. netics, and William H. Burt had assumed the cu-
There, a chance visit to Field Museum of Nat- ratorship in the Museum. Hershkovitz spent the
ural History secured him the traps and supplies years 1938-1941 as a graduate student enrolled at
he needed and seemingly set the course of his later the University of Michigan, working on his Ecua-
PATTERSON: BIOGRAPHY OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ

dorean collection under Burt's direction. From continuation of his graduate studies untenable; and
1939-1941, he was supported in this work by a (4) aspirations to a curatorial position had been
Graduate Assistantship. In 1940 he received his the raison d'etre of his graduate program; a cur-
Master of Science degree and immediately entered atorial position made the graduate degree sujjer-
the doctoral program. fluous. Thus he jumped at the offer of employment
Two years before the expected completion of at Field Museum, knowing full well that it marked
his doctoral program, the Curator of Reptiles and the end of his graduate program at Michigan. Like
Amphibians at the Museum
of Zoology, Helen many similar institutions, Michigan had a final
Gage, told Hershkovitz about the Walter Rath- year-in-residence degree requirement. Unfortu-
bone Bacon Travelling Scholarship of the United nately, Osgood died in June of 1947, and what
States National Museum. This program was cus- might have been a remarkably productive ap-
tomarily reserved for postdoctoral support, but prenticeship under Osgood never came to pass.
Mrs. Gage strongly urged him to apply immedi- Upon his arrival at Field Museum, Hershkovitz
ately. Thus encouraged, Hershkovitz submitted a
found an uncurated backlog of some four or five
brief proposal for work in the Santa Marta region years of accessions. Nevertheless, he wasted little
of northern Colombia; his compliance with Mrs. time in returning to the field, prompted in part by
Gage's wishes in this matter was so perfunctory postwar housing shortages in Chicago. (One can
that he failed to include a map of the proposed almost hear him now, telling the Museum's Di-
itinerary. But Remington Kellogg at the National rector Clifford Gregg that the nearest affordable
Museum had long wished to obtain a Bacon Schol- housing was in Bogota!) In 1 948 he and his family
ar for the Mammal Division and asked Hersh- moved to Colombia where he resumed his inven-
kovitz to send the omitted material. Much to his tory of the mammals of that country. He remained
surprise, Hershkovitz was awarded the scholar- in Colombia until the press of curatorial duties
ship and left Ann Arbor immediately for Wash- and a gently delivered ultimatum from Sanborn
ington. He spent two months there studying the finally recalled him to Chicago in 1952.
then very poor collection of Neotropical mam- The collections he made in Colombia, first for
mals. Afterward he spent two years in Colombia the National Museum, then for Field Museum,
(1941-1943) collecting mammals, other verte- were to be the heart of all his subsequent research.
brates, and The resulting collection
ectoparasites. But unlike others studying the mammal faunas of
was the National Museum's first large and repre- specific geographical regions, Hershkovitz found
sentative Neotropical mammal accession. it unsatisfying to assess the systematics of Colom-
In 1943 Hershkovitz's work was interrupted by bian mammals without following them across na-
World War II, and he returned to Ann Arbor to tional boundaries. Studies of a species or species
enlist in the Armed Services. He was
assigned to group in Colombia led him to evaluate its context
the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and served within genera, families, and even orders; and the
from 1943-1946 in the European Theater. While remarkable diversity of Colombia's mammal fau-
serving in France, he met Anne Marie Pierrette, na led him into most major groups and most Neo-
whom he married in 1946. The two returned to tropical subregions. In the course of his career, he
the United States, where in 1946 and 1947 he has published dozens of generic, tribal, and fa-
continued his Bacon Scholarship studies of Co- milial revisions, covering all 1 2 orders of Neo-
lombian mammals in Washington. The first of tropical mammals. Few spatial and temporal
three children (Francine, Michael, and Mark) was boundaries have withstood the onslaught of his
bom in 1947. studies of Neotropical mammals. As examples one
About this time, he was contacted regarding the can point to the cosmopolitan Catalog of Living
opening of a curatorial position at Field Museum Whales {\9()6)—2iiXtr all, most cetaceans do occur
in Chicago, an opportunity he eagerly hailed for in South American waters— and studies of Oli-
several reasons: ( 1 ) The comprehensive collections gocene and later fossils (1974, 1982).
of Neotropical mammals at Field Museum would One senses that the Department of Zoology dur-
be a tremendous resource for what he had already ing Hershkovitz's early years was a stimulating,
decided would be his life's work; (2) he had the harmonious one. Chief Curator Karl P. Schmidt
highest regard for W. H. Osgood, who as a prin- took an almost paternal interest in junior staff and
cipal authority on South American mammals served as a confidant on the most personal of mat-
would be a great personal resource on which to ters. In addition to Colin Sanborn, who was most
draw; (3) the press of family responsibibties made considerate of his junior curator's interests and
HELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
talents,Hershkovitz shared mammalogical prob- firmly held views brand him as something other
lems and topics with Dwight Davis, Curator of than conciliatory or diplomatic, they accurately
Anatomy, and Bryan Patterson, Curator of Ver- reflect hisabiding passion and zest in science. Un-
tebrate Paleontology. During the early and mid- fortunately, some acerbic exchanges had the effect
1950s, Hershkovitz established a vigorous and of stifling the scientific dialogue to which they were
productive research program and participated in offered penial morphology).
(e.g.,
all aspects of departmental affairs. Hershkovitz has focused his research on Neo-
However, upon Schmidt's retirement in 1957, tropical mammals, their origin, evolution, dis-
Austin S. Rand became Chief Curator of Zoology, persal, classification, nomenclature, and system-
and neither Rand nor Hershkovitz did much to atics. Specialists in these fields are well aware of
disguise their antipathy for one another. Over the his impact. However, he is perhaps most widely
ensuing years, Hershkovitz increasingly detached known for his work on three general topics of
himself from museum operations, culminating with Neotropical mammalogy: faunal origins, meta-
Joseph Moore's appointment as Curator of Mam- chromism, and New World monkeys. It would be
mals in 1961, and Hershkovitz's appointment that folly to attempt to review all of his research, and
year to Research Curator. No one before or since more definitive appraisals on selected topics can
has held this title at Field Museum. Hershkovitz be found scattered throughout this volume. How-
formally retired in 1971, although his work has ever, some comments on these general issues seem
continued unabated as Curator Emeritus. During in order.
his career, he assisted countless students in mam- As late as his revision of phyllotine rodents
mal projects, but has served on only a single grad- ( 962), Hershkovitz adhered to traditional notions
1
uate committee, that of Jack Fooden, now himself of the derivation of certain South American taxa,
a renowned biologist and primate specialist at Field notably "cricetid" rodents, from North and Mid-
Museum. dle American stocks. This hypothesis of origins
Few scientists can claim the independence in has been advocated most articulately by George
research that is indicated in Hershkovitz's bibli- G. Simpson, Bryan Patterson, and Rosendo Pas-
ography. Of his approximately 300 scientific, pop- cual, and more recently by Larry G. Marshall and
ular, and encyclopedia articles, only three repre- S. David Webb. However, in the early 1960s,
sent collaborative efforts. The first, with William Hershkovitz was approached by Rupert Wenzel,
P. Harris, an important benefactor of the Museum Curator of Insects at Field Museum, who ques-
of Zoology of the University of Michigan, was tioned him on the evidence for Plio-Pleistocene
suggested by Burt in recognition of Harris's inter- origins of the Neotropical cricetids. Wenzel's stud-
ests in squirrels and in token repayment for his ies of the ectoparasites of Panamanian mammals
patronage of the museum. The second, with Paul suggested much earlier. South American origins.
Rode, came about one afternoon in the Museum His interest piqued, Hershkovitz reviewed avail-
National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris when able evidence, synthesizing continental drift (which
Hershkovitz offhandedly suggested that designat- was then becoming established in geological cir-
ing a lectotype might solve a nomenclatural prob- cles)and neontological studies of mammals (es-
lem that Rode had encountered in his research. pecially those of Hooper and Musser, which
Rode insisted that Hershkovitz share authorship showed a relatively sharp dichotomy between sim-
on the resulting paper. Later, after further study ple and complex penis-types of cricetids). He con-
in the United States, Hershkovitz arrived at a concluded that continental drift permitted a much
trary opinion and wrote a paper, with Rode as greater role for paleotropical stocks in South
coauthor, correcting their earlier one. American faunal origins than was allowed by the
Independent thought is also exemplified by the Simpsonian school, which in turn pointed to a
sometimes heated debates in which Hershkovitz much greater time period for independent evo-
has participated over the years. His published re- lution. Interestingly, and perhaps even character-
views and the discussion sections of many of his istically, Hershkovitz concluded that South Amer-
papers record his clearly enunciated views on such ican rodents were not only not derived from North
topics as the role of penial morphology in rodent American stocks, but instead gave rise to them.
taxonomy, the age and derivation of the South These views were published in 1966, 1969, and
American fauna, panbiogeography, evolution of 1972.
pelage coloration, and the systematic position of Hershkovitz's theory of metachromism, or de-
certain species (e.g., Dolichocebus). While such terministic evolution of pelage coloration through

the loss of one or the other or both classes of hair modest work; it has been described by Pine (1 982;
pigments (eumelanins and phaeomelanins), was Vol. 6, Spec. Publ. Ser., Pymatuning Lab. Ecol.)
first pubHshed in 1968. Since then he has used it as "the most heroically monumental revisionary
repeatedly in describing geographic variation in monograph ever devoted to a Neotropical group."
platyrrhine monkeys (e.g., 1977). However, the In 1984, Hershkovitz turned 75 years old. The
origins of this concept stem from his earlier work 14 years he spent in the field in South America
on the Sciunds granatensis group in northern Co- have served him well, for he seems younger than
lombia where populations of squirrels thoroughly many men 15 years his junior. His tireless energy
isolated from one another show similar progres- is best indicated by his habitual use of stairs rather
sions of pelage patterns. Few workers other than than elevators (even his two divisional offices are
Neotropical primatologists (and not all of these) three floors apart), a continuing program of field-
have accepted his interpretations, although the work (most recently in Brazil during 1986 and
theory is potentially applicable to a variety of oth- 1987), and a museum workday that extends from
er, mostly diurnal taxa showing pelage pattern 9 a.m. to 6 p.m., uninterrupted by coffee breaks
variations. While Timothy Lawlor detailed some or even lunch. Visitors to his home, now within
theoretical misgivings with the theory in a 1969 walking distance of the Museum, know of his office
paper in Evolution (rebutted by Hershkovitz in there which relieves the chronic insomnia of ad-
1970), to my knowledge it has not been substan- vancing years. He is an outstanding cook, a genial
tially refuted. The theory is eminently testable: host, a trusted and valued friend, and an awe-
refutation would simply entail showing that pelage somely productive scientist.
pattern variation of taxa arranged by metachro-

mism is not congruent with well-established phy-
letic patterns.
Publications of Philip Hershkovitz
Finally, some explanation seems warranted for
Hershkovitz's current devotion to primates. In- 1938
deed, many recent workers unschooled in mam-
1. A new caecilian from Ecuador. Occasional
malian systematics think of him as a primatolo-
Papers, Museum of Zoology, University of
gist. Nothing could be further from the truth, as
Michigan, 370:1-3.
he hastens to point out. He had published several
2. Two new squirrels fi-om Ecuador. Occasion-
articles on primates in the course of working up
al Papers, Museum of Zoology, University
his Colombian collections, but gave these taxa no
of Michigan, 391:1-6 (with W. P. Harris).
special attention until the 1960s. Then govern-
3. A review of the rabbits of the andinus group
ment funding for primate studies soared, largely
and their distribution in Ecuador. Occasion-
because of interest in biomedical applications, es-
al Papers, Museum of Zoology, University
pecially for the complex and taxonomically con- of Michigan, 393:1-15.
fused Callitrichidae. For almost 20 years, Hersh-
kovitz has focused first on the Callitrichidae and 1940
Callimiconidae, now on the Cebidae. His slower 4. Four new oryzomyine rodents from Ecua-
progress through these groups is attributable to the dor. Journal of Mammalogy, 21:78-84.
vast body of current knowledge about them; his 5. Notes on the distribution of the akodont ro-
1977 and subsequent works serve as model
dent, Akodon mollis, in Ecuador with a de-
syntheses of skin and skull morphology with bio- scription of a new race. Occasional Papers,
chemistry, karyology, ethology, serology, and ep- Museum of Zoology, University of Michi-
idemiology. By his own estimation, monkeys do gan, 418:1-3.
not culminate his studies of Neotropical mam- 6. A new spiny mouse of the genus Neacomys
mals, but rather represent a large and complex from eastern Ecuador. Occasional Papers,
group to be covered in his attempt to treat all South Museum of Zoology, University of Michi-
American mammals. After seven years of work on
gan, 419:1-4.
Volume II of his primate monograph, he has near-
1941
ly completed generic revisions of cebids lacking
prehensile tails and
is beginning comparative stud- 7. The South American harvest mice of the ge-
iesof their organ systems. In 1 984 he submitted nus Reithrodontomys. Occasional Papers,
another grant proposal for this work, totaling one- Museum of Zoology, University of Michi-
half million dollars in direct costs. His is not a
gan, 441:1-7.
FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
1944 1 9. Mammals
of northern Colombia. Prelimi-
4: Monkeys (Primates), with
nary report no.
8. A systematic review of the Neotropical water taxonomic revisions of some forms. Pro-
ratsof the genus Nectomys (Cricetinae). Mis-
ceedings of the United States National Mu-
cellaneous Publications, Museum of Zool-
seum, 98:323-427.
ogy, University of Michigan, 58:1-88. 20. Mammals of northern Colombia. Prelimi-
nary report no. 5: Bats (Chiroptera). Pro-

1945
ceedings of the United States National Mu-
9. Designation d'un lectotype de Callithrix seum, 99:429-454.
penicillatus (E. Geoffroy). Bulletin du Mu- 21. Status of names credited to Oken, 1816.
seum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris Journal of Mammalogy, 30(3):289-301.
17(3):22 1-222 (with P. Rode).
22. Tapirs: Strange mammals native to Asia and
tropical America from Mexico south. Chi-
1947 cago Natural History Museum Bulletin,
20(9):6-7.
10. A correction. Journal of Mammalogy, 28(1):
68 (with P. Rode). 1950
1 1 . Mammals of northern Colombia. Prelimi-
nary report no. 1 Squirrels (Sciuridae). Pro-
:
23. Mammals of northern Colombia. Prelimi-
ceedings of the United States National Mu- nary report no. 6: Rabbits (Leporidae), with
notes on the classification and distribution
seum, 97:1-46.
of the South American forms. Proceedings
1948 of the United States National Museum, 100:
327-375.
12. Mammals of northern Colombia. Prelimi-
nary report no. 2: Spiny rats (Echimyidae), 1951
with supplemental notes on related forms.
24. Mammals from British Honduras, Mexico,
Proceedings of the United States National
Jamaica and Haiti. Fieldiana: Zoology,
Museum, 97:125-140.
Mammals of northern Colombia. Prelimi- 31(47):547-569.
13.
nary report no. 3: Water rats (genus Necto-

1953
mys), with supplemental notes on related
forms. Proceedings of the United States Na- 25. Zorilla I.Geoffroy and Spilogale Gray, ge-
tional Museum, 98:49-56. neric names for African and American pole-
1 4. The technical name of the Virginia deer with cats, respectively. Journal of Mammalogy,
a of the South American forms. Pro-
list
34(3):378-382.
ceedings of the Biological Society of Wash- 26. Four years on a zoological expedition in Co-
ington, 61:41-48. lombia. Chicago Natural History Museum
1 5. Names of mammals dated from Frisch, 1 775, Bulletin, 24(l):3-4.
and Zimmermann, 1777. Journal of Mam- 27. The reindeer— Important to man in fact and
malogy, 29(3):272-277. fancy. Chicago Natural History Museum
Bulletin, 24(12):3-4.
1949
1954
1 6. Technical names for the fallow deer and Vir-
ginia deer. Journal of Mammalogy, 30(1): 28. Mammals of northern Colombia, Prelimi-
94. nary report no. 7: Tapirs (genus Tapirus),
1 7. Generic names of the four-eyed pouch opos- with a systematic review of American species.
sum and the woolly opossum (Didelphidae). Proceedings of the United States National
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Museum, 103:465-496.
Washington, 62:11-12. 29. What the groundhog undergoes to make a
18. Technical names of the African muishond "holiday." Chicago Natural History Mu-
(genus Zorilla) and the Colombian hog-nosed seum Bulletin, 25(2):3-4.
skunk (genus Conepatus). Proceedings of the 30. Who's a cow? Chicago Natural History Mu-
Biological Society of Washington, 62: 13-16. seum Bulletin, 25(7):5.

3 1 . Some ecological aspects of natural versus ar- Opinion 465, International Commission on
tificial rehabilitation of a water basin area in Zoological Nomenclature, 16(4):49.
Bogota, Colombia. Boletin del Instituto de 45. Comments on the validation of the name
U Salle, Bogota, 41(193/194):80-83. Phacochoerus Cuvier. Opinion 466, Inter-
national Commission on Zoological No-
1955 menclature, 16(5):67-68.
46. Comments on the validation of the name
32. South American marsh genus Holochi-
rats
Odobenus Brisson. Opinion 467, Interna-
lus with a summary of sigmodont rodents.
tional Commission on Zoological Nomen-
Fieldiana: Zoology, 37:639-673.
clature, 16(6): 84-8 5.
33. [Review] Mammals, a guide to familiar
The systematic
47. position of the marmoset,
American species. Chicago Natural History Simia leonina Humboldt (Primates). Pro-
Museum Bulletin, 26(7):7.
Wash-
ceedings of the Biological Society of
34. Notes on American monkeys of the genus
ington, 70: 1 7-20.
Cebus. Journal of Mammalogy, 36:449-452.
48. The type locality of Bison bison Linnaeus.
35. Status of the generic name Zorilla (Mam-
Proceedings of the Biological Society of
malia): Nomenclature by rule or by caprice.
Washington, 70:31-32.
Proceedings of the Biological Society of
49. A synopsis of the wild dogs of Colombia.
Washington, 68:185-192.
Novedades Colombianas Museo de Historia
36. On the cheek pouches of the tropical Amer-
Naturale Universidad del Cauca (Popayan),
ican paca. Agouti paca (Linnaeus, 1766).
no. 3:157-161.
Saiigetierkundliche Mitteilungen, 3(2):67-70.
50. On the possible occurrence of the spectacled
37. Know your rabbits. Sports Afield, 134(6):
bear, Tremarctos ornatus(F. Cuvier, 1825),
36-41,88.
in Panama. Saugetierkundliche Mitteilun-
gen, 5(3): 122-1 23.
1956
38. Comments on Galerella Gray, Herpestes II- 1958

liger, Leucomitra Howell, Icticyon Lund,
5 [Review] Biological investigations in the Sel-
1 .
Lutreola Wagner, Oryctogale Merriam,

va Lacandona, Chiapas, Mexico. Quarterly
Paracynictis Pocock. Opinion 384 Interna-
Review of Biology, 33(1):67.
tional Commission of Zoological Nomen-
52. [Review] Mammals of the Anglo-Egyptian
clature, 12(5):71-190(intext).
Sudan, by Henry Setzer. Quarterly Review
39. Critical remarks on the status of names in
of Biology, 33:82.
Oken's "Lehrbuch." Opinion 417, Interna-
53. Technical names of the South American
tional Commission on Zoological Nomen-
marsh deer and pampas deer. Proceedings
clature, 14(l):33-35.
of the Biological Society of Washington, 71:
13-16.
1957
54. Type localities and nomenclature of some
40. Comments on Canis dingo Meyer. Opinion American Primates, with remarks on sec-
Commission on Zoolog-
451, International ondary homonyms. Proceedings of the Bi-
Nomenclature, 15(17):335-336.
ical ological Society of Washington, 71:53-56.
41. Comments on the validation of Muntiacus 55. Stabilization of zoological nomenclature by
Rafinesque. Opinion 460, International a "Law of prescription." Bulletin of Zoolog-
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, ical Nomenclature, 15B(20/21):630-632.
15(26):467-468. 56. A critique of Professor Chester Bradley's

42. Comments on the generic name Mormoops "Principle of conservation." Bulletin of Zoo-
Leach. Opinion 462, International Com- logical Nomenclature, 15B(25/28):9 11-913.
mission on Zoological Nomenclature, 16(1): 57. The status of secondary homonyms and the
8-9. concept of permanent rejection. Bulletin of
43. Comments on Sciurus gambianus. Opinion Zoological Nomenclature, 15B(37/38):1242-
464, International Commission on Zoolog- 1243.
Nomenclature, 16(3):36-39.
ical 58. A geographic classification of Neotropical
44. Comments on the validation of silvestris mammals. Fieldiana: Zoology, 36(6):583-
Schreber, 1777 [Felis {catus) silvestris]. 620.
FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
59. The metatarsal glands in white-tailed deer 1962
andrelated forms of the Neotropical region.
73. Suriname zoological expedition. Chicago
Mammalia, 22(4): 5 3 7-546.
Natural History Museum Bulletin, 33(4):3,
7-8.
1959 74. Bats and their menus. Chicago Natural His-
tory Museum Bulletin, 33(8):2-3, 5-8.
60. The scientific names of the species of ca-
75. Evolution of Neotropical cricetine rodents
puchin monkeys (Cebus Erxleben). Proceed-
(Muridae) with special reference to the phyl-
ings of the Biological Society of Washington,
lotine group. Fieldiana: Zoology, 46:1-524.
72:1-4.
61 . Two new genera of South American rodents
(Cricetinae). Proceedings of the Biological 1963
Society of Washington, 72:5-10.
A new American brocket,
76. A systematic and zoogeographic account of
62. species of South
the monkeys of the genus Callicebus (Cebi-
genus Mazama (Cervidae). Proceedings of
dae) of the Amazonas and Orinoco River
the Biological Society of Washington, 72:
45-54.
basins. Mammalia, 27(l):3-79.
77. [Review] Primates. Comparative Anatomy
63. A new race of red brocket deer {Mazama and Taxonomy. Vol. V, Cebidae, part B., A
americana) from Colombia. Proceedings of
the Biological Society of Washington, 72:
Monograph; Edinburgh University Press.
American Journal of Physical Anthropolo-
93-96.
gy, 21(l):92-98.
64. The type locality of Felix concolor concolor
78. [Review] Primates. Comparative Anatomy
Linnaeus. Proceedings of the Biological So-
and Taxonomy. Vol. V, Cebidae, part B., A
ciety of Washington, 72:97-100.
65. Nomenclature and taxonomy of the Neo-
Monograph; Edinburgh University Press.
American Journal of Physical Anthropolo-
tropical mammals described by Olfers, 1818.
gy, 2 1(3):39 1-398.
Journal of Mammalogy, 40(3):337-353. 79. Notes on South American dolphins of the
genera Inia, Sotalia and Tursiops. Journal
1960 of Mammalogy, 44(1):98-103.
80. The nomenclature of South American pec-
66. Supposed ape-man or "missing link" of caries.Proceedings of the Biological Society
South America. Chicago Natural History
of Washington, 76:85-88.
Museum Bulletin, 31(4):6-7. 81. The Recent mammals of South America.
67. [Review] The Mammals of North America. XVI Con-
Proceedings of the International
Chicago Natural History Museum Bulletin,
gress of Zoology, Washington, D.C., Aug.
31(5):6-7.
20-27, 1963.
68. Publication dates for names of the Anubis 82. Comments on the proposed suppression of
baboon. Journal of Mammalogy, 41 (3):402- Zorilla I. Geoffroy, 1826. Z.N.(S.) 758. Bul-
403. letin of Zoological Nomenclature, 20(4):242-
69. Mammals of northern Colombia. Prelimi- 244.
nary report no. 8: Arboreal rice rats, a sys-
tematic revision of the subgenus Oecomys,
genus Oryzomys. Proceedings of the United 1965
States National Museum, 1 10:513-568.
83. Primate research and systematics. Science,
147(3662):1 156-1 157.
1961
84. The importance of taxonomy in primate re-
search and care. Illinois Society for Medical
70. On the South American small-eared zorro Research— Chicago Branch— Animal Care
Atelocynus microtis Sclater (Canidae). Field- Panel Bulletin, 39:2 pp.
iana: Zoology, 39(44):505-523.
71. On the nomenclature of certain whales.
1966
Fieldiana: Zoology, 39(49):547-565.
72. "This is a mammal." Chicago Natural His- 85. Catalog of living whales. Bulletin of the
tory Museum Bulletin, 3 2(6): 3. United States National Museum, 246: 1-259.

86. Taxonomic notes on tamarins, genus Sa- 1 00. Dynamics of rodent molar evolution: A study
guinus (Callithricidae, Primates), with de- based on New World Cricetinae, family Mu-
scriptions of four new forms. Folia Prima- ridae. Journal of Dental Research, Suppl. to
tologica, 4:381-395. 46(5):829-842.

87. On the identification of some marmosets,
1968
family Callithricidae (Primates). Mamma-
30(2):327-332.
lia,
101. Metachromism or the principle of evolu-
88. What ever happened to hairy man? Science, tionary change in mammalian tegumentary
153:362. colors. Evolution, 22(3):556-575.
89. Comments on the proposal for conservation 102. [Review] Dynamics of rodent molar evolu-
oi Pan Oken, 1816, and Panthera Oken, tion: Astudy based on New World Cricet-
1816. Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, inae, family Muridae. Oral Research Ab-
23(2/3):67-69. stracts, May 1968.
90. [Review] Evolutionary and Genetic Biology

1969
of Primates, vol. II; Academic Press. Amer-
ican Biology Teacher, 28(7):564-565. 103. Comments on Cynocephalus Boddaert ver-
sus Galeopithecus Pallas. Z.N.(S.) 792. Bul-
91. Comments on the proposed suppression of
1
Meles montanus Richardson, 1829, and M. letin of Zoological Nomenclature, 25(6):202-

203.
jeffersonii Harlan, 1825. Z.N.(S.) 1639. Bul-
of Zoological Nomenclature, 22(5/6):
letin 1 04. The evolution of mammals on southern con-
336-337. tinents. VI. The Recent mammals of the
92. On the status of Procyon brachyurus Wieg- Neotropical Region: A zoogeographic and
mann and P. obscurus Wiegmann. Z.N.(S.) ecological review. Quarterly Review of Bi-
1640. Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, ology, 44(1): 1-70.
22(5/6):338. 1970
93. South American swamp and fossorial rats of 105. The decorative chin. Field Museum of Nat-
the Scapteromyine group (Cricetinae, Mu- ural History Bulletin, 41(5):7-10.
ridae) with comments on the glans penis in
106. Dental and periodontal diseases and abnor-
murid taxonomy. Zeitschrift fiir Saugetier- malities in wild-caught marmosets (Pri-
kunde, 31(2):81-149. mates— Callithricidae). American Journal of
94. Status of the black-footed ferret in Wyo- Physical Anthropology, 32(3):377-392.
ming. Journal of Mammalogy, 47(2):346- 107. [Review] Taxonomy and Evolution of the
347.
Monkeys of Celebes (Primates: Cercopithe-
95. Comments on the proposal on Zorilla by Dr. No.
cidae); Bibliotheca Primatologica, 10;
Van Gelder and the counter proposal by Dr.
Karger. Folia Primatologica, 13(l):75-76.
China. Z.N.(S.) 758. Bulletin of Zoological
108. Metachromism like it is. Evolution, 24(3):
Nomenclature, 2 3(2/3): 74-7 5. 644-648.
96. Museum taxonomy serves medical research. 1 09. Notes on Tertiary platyrrhine monkeys and
Bulletin of the Field Museum of Natural
description of a new genus for the Late Mio-
History, 37(9):4-7. cene of Colombia. Folia Primatologica, 12:
97. Mice, land bridges and Latin American fau-
1-37.
nal interchange, pp.725-751. In Wenzel, R. on Tertiary platyrrhine mon-
110. Errata: Notes
L., and V. J. Tipton, eds.. Ectoparasites of
keys and description of a new genus for the
Panama. Field Museum of Natural History,
Late Miocene of Colombia. Foha Primato-
Chicago.
logica, 12:1-37(1970).
111. Cerebral fissural patterns in platyrrhine
1967
monkeys. Folia Primatologica, 13:213-240.
98. (Review] Evolutionary and Genetic Biology 112. [Review] The Squirrel Monkey; Academic
of Primates, vol. Academic Press. Amer-
I;
Press. Journal of Mammalogy, 51(4):836-
ican Biology Teacher, Nov. 1967:665. 839.
99. Reply to Mayr's comment on the proposed 113. Supplementary notes on Neotropical Ory-
preservation oi Pan from Oken, 1816. zomys dimidiatus and Oryzomys hammondi
Z.N.(S.) 482. Bulletin of Zoological Nomen- (Cricetinae). Journal of Mammalogy, 51(4):
clature 24(5): 1 p. 789-794.
FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
1971 1977
1 14. Stapedial processes in tympanic cavities of

126. Comment: Pan and Panthera or Oken's
capuchin monkeys (Cebus). Journal of
Lehrbuch? Z.N.(S.) 482. Bulletin of Zoolog-
Mammalogy, 52(3):607-609. ical Nomenclature, 33(3/4): 135-1 36.
115. Basic crown patterns and cusp homologies
127. [Review] Catalogue of Primates in the Brit-
of mammalian teeth, pp. 95-150. In Dahl-
ish Museum (Natural History). I. Families
berg, A. A., ed., Dental Morphology and Callitrichidae and Cebidae; British Museum
Evolution. University of Chicago Press, Chi-
(Natural History). Folia Primatologica, 28:
cago.
315.
116. A new rice rat of the Oryzomys palustris
128. Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini).
group (Cricetinae, Muridae) from north-
With an Introduction to Primates. Volume
western Colombia, with remarks on distri-
I. University of Chicago Press, Chicago,
bution. Journal of Mammalogy, 52(4):700-
xiv +1117 pp.
709.
1972 1979
1 1 7. Notes onNew World monkeys. Internation- 1 29. Races of the emperor tamarin, Saguinus im-
alZoo Yearbook, 12:3-12. perator Goeldi (Callitrichidae, Primates).
118. The Recent mammals of the Neotropical Primates, 20(2):277-287.
Region: Azoogeographic and ecological re- 1 30. The species of sakis, genus Pithecia (Cebi-
view, pp. 31 1-431. In Keast, A., F. C. Erk, dae, Primates), with notes on sexual dichro-
and B. Glass, eds.. Evolution, Mammals and matism. Folia Primatologica, 31:1-22.
Southern Continents. State University of
New York Press, Albany.
1981
1974 131. Comparative anatomy of platyrrhine man-

119. The ectotym panic bone and origin of higher
dibular cheek teeth dpm4, pm4, ml with
primates. Folia Primatologica, 22:237-242. particular reference to those oT Homunculus
120. A new genus of Late Oligocene monkey (Cebidae), and comments on platyrrhine
(Cebidae, Platyrrhini) with notes on post- origins. Folia Primatologica, 35:179-217.
orbital closure and platyrrhine evolution. 132. Philander and four-eyed opossums once
Folia Primatologica, 21:1-35. again. Proceedings of the Biological Society
of Washington, 93(4):943-946.
1975
1982
121. [Review] Taxonomic Atlas of Living Pri-
mates; Academic Press. American Journal 133. Supposed squirrel monkey affinities of the
of Physical Anthropology, 41:155-156.
Oligocene Dolichocebus gaimanensis.
late
122. The scientific name of the \tsstv Noctilio
Nature, 298(5870):20 1-202.
(Chiroptera), with notes on the chauve-sou-
134. Subspecies and geographic distribution of
ris de la Vallee d'Ylo (Peru). Journal of
black-mantle tamarins Saguinus nigricollis
Mammalogy, 56(l):242-247.
Spix (Primates: Callitrichidae). Proceedings
123. Comments on the taxonomy of Brazilian
of the Biological Society of Washington,
marmosets (Callithrix, Callitrichidae). Folia
95(4):647-656.
Primatologica, 24:137-172. 135. Neotropical deer (Cervidae). Part I. Pudus,
1976 genus Pudu Gray. Fieldiana: Zoology, n.s.,

11:1-86.
124. The taxonomic status of """Noctilio ruber 136. The staggered marsupial lower third incisor
Rengger." Mammalia, 40(1): 164-166. (I3), pp. 191-200. In Buffetaut, E., P. Jan-
125. Comments on generic names of four-eyed vier, J. C.Rage, and P. Tassy, eds., Phylo-
opossums (family Didelphidae). Proceed- genie et Paleobiogeographie. Livre jubiliare
ings of the Biological Society of Washington, en I'honneur de Robert Hoffstetter. Geobios,
89(23):295-304. memoire special 6, Lyon.

1983 143. The piebald saki. Field Museum of Natural
History Bulletin, 57(2):coverplate + 24-25.
137. Two new species of night monkeys, genus
Aotus (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A preliminary
report on Aott4s taxonomy. American Jour- 1987
nal of Primatology, 4:209-243.
138. On the validity of the family-group name 144. Uacaries, New World monkeys of the genus
Callitrichidae (Platyrrhini, Primates). Mam- Cacajao (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A prelimi-
malia, 48:153. nary taxonomic review with the description
39. Taxonomy of squirrel monkeys, genus Sai-
1
of a new subspecies. American Journal of
miri (Cebidae. Platyrrhini): A preliminary
Primatology, 12:1-53.
report with description of a hitherto un- 1 45. First SouthAmerican record of Coue's marsh
named form. American Journal of Prima- couesi. Journal of Mam-
rice rat, Oryzomys
tology, 6:257-312. malogy, 68(1): 152-1 54.
140. [Review] Mammalian Biology in South 146. The titi. Field Museum of Natural History
America. M. A. Mares and H. H. Genoways,
Bulletin, 58(6): 11-15.
eds. Ecology, 65(6): 1944-1 945. 147. The taxonomy of South American sakis, ge-
nus Pithecia (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A pre-
1985
liminary report and critical review with the
141. A preliminary taxonomic review of the South description of a new species and a new sub-
American bearded saki monkeys, genus Chi- species. American Journal of Primatology,
roptes (Cebidae, Platyrrhini), with the de-

12:387-468.
scription of a new subspecies. Fieldiana: Zo-
ology, n.s., 27:1-46.
In Press
1986
148. More on the Homunculus Dpm4 and ml
142. [Review] Handbook of Squirrel Monkey Re- and comparisons with Alouatta and Stirto-
search. L. A. Rosenblum and C. L. Coe, eds. nia (Primates, Platyrrhini, Cebidae). Amer-
Quarterly Review of Biology, 61:286-287. ican Journal of Primatology.
10 HELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
A History of the Recent Mammalogy
of the Neotropical Region from 1492 to 1850
Philip Hershkovitz
ABSTRACTS
The history of Neotropical mammalogy began with the first voyage of Christopher Colum-
bus in 1492. The earliest notices were purely anecdotal, recorded by Spanish chroniclers from
the mouths of the sailors on their return from voyages of discovery during the 1 5th and 1 6th
centuries. Colonization of the Guianan and Brazilian coasts during the 1 7th century provided
opportunities for inventories and descriptions of the mammals by trained European naturalists
and physicians. The systematization and scientific naming of the known Brazilian species by
Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 were based primarily on the mammals described in the 17th century
monograph of Brazilian biota by Georg Marcgraf The actual collection and preservation of
mammals for study, however, began in the 18th century with the Brazilian-bom Alexandre
Rodrigues Ferreira. The 18th and first half of the 19th century was an explosive and romantic
period of independently or govemmentally sponsored scientific expeditions for field observa-
tions, collections, preservations, and taxonomic studies of the specimens shipped to European
museums and private collectors. Outstanding among the naturalists who made significant con-
tributions to mammalogy during this period are Alexander von Humboldt, Johann Baptist
Ritter von Spix (Brazil), Maximilian Prinz Wied-Neuwied (Brazil), Johann Natterer (Brazil),
Sir Robert Herman Schomburgk and Richard Schomburgk (Guyana), Claudio Gay (Chile),
Johann Jakob von Tschudi (Peru), Felix de Azara (Paraguay), Rudolph Rengger (Paraguay),
Alcide Charles Victor d'Orbigny (Argentina, Bolivia), and Charles Robert Darwin (Patagonia
and Galapagos). Their itineraries, collections of mammals, taxonomies, and some field notes are
included in the accounts of these and other noteworthy naturalists. By the middle of the 1 9th
century, the mammalian fauna of South America became the best known of any continent with
exception of the western European part of Eurasia. The problems of origins and distribution
of Neotropical mammals intrigued scholars from among the earliest chroniclers down to pre-
evolutionary Darwin. Their concepts on these subjects are briefly discussed.
La historia de mastozooloâ neotropical empieza con el primer viaje transatlantico de Cris-

tobal Colon en 1492. Poco despues de desembarcarse de sus viajes de regreso los descrubridores
y conquistadores del Mundo Nuevo en los siglos quince y diez y seis contaron a los cronistas
espaiioles de las cosas curiosas que encontraron. Colonizacion de las costas guyanas y brasileras
durante el siglo diez ysiete ofrecio oportunidades a los naturalistas y medicos europeos residentes
para le van tar inventarios de los mamiferos y anotar y hacer informes sobre sus observaciones.
La sistematizacion y el nombramiento cientifico de las especies brasileras conocidas por Carolus
Linnaeus en 1758 fueron basadas primariamente sobre los mamiferos descritos y figurados por
Jorge Marcgraf en su monografia del siglo diez y siete. La coleccion y preservacion efectiva de
mamiferos para el estudio empezo en comienzos del siglo diez y ocho con el "Viajem Filosofica"
de Alejandro Rodriguez Ferreira, brasilero de nacimiento.
From the Division of Mammals, Department of Zo-

ology, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illi-
nois 60605-2496.
HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY 1 1

El siglo diez y ocho y las primeras decadas del siglo diez y nueve senalaron un periodo explosive
y romantico de expediciones cientificas fomentadas por gobiemos europeos, o por naturalistas

particulares con los objectos de hacer observaciones sobre la fauna, tomar notas de campo, y
recoger y preservar ejemplares para estudios taxonomicos en los museos extranjeros. Entre los
naturalistas europeos que hicieron contribuciones de consequencia a la mastozoologia neo-
tropical en este epoca, se cuentan Alejandro von Humboldt, Juan Baptista Ritter von Spix
(Brasil),Maximiliano Principe de Wied-Neuwied (Brasil), Juan Natterer (Brasil), Lord Roberto
Herman Schomburgk y Ricardo Schomburgk (Guyana), Claudio Gay (Chile), Juan Jacobo von
Tschudi (Peru), Felix de Azara (Paraguay), Rodolpho Rengger (Paraguay), Alcidio Carlos Victor
d'Orbigny (Argentina, Bolivia), y Carlos Roberto Darwin (Patagonia y Galapagos). Compren-
dido en este informe son los itinerarios, listas de mamiferos coleccionados y observados,
taxonomias, y algunas experiencias de campo de los naturalistas mentados, y de otros digno
de atencion.
A mediados del siglo diez y nueve, la fauna mamifera de Sud America llego a ser la mejor
conocida de todos los continentes del mundo menos Europa. Problemas de origen y reparticion
geografica de los mamiferos del Mundo Nuevo estimularon la imaginacion de sabios desde los
primeros cronistas del Descubrimiento hasta el joven Darwin pre-evolutionario. Los conceptos
sobre estos temas son brevemente discutidos.
A historia da mastozoologia neotropical, come90u com a primeira viagem transatlantica de

Cristovao Colombo, em 1492. Os primeiros relatorios, puramente anedotais, foram registrados
pelos cronistas espanhois, logo apos o regresso das viagens de descobrimento durante os seculos
XV e XVI. As colonizacoes da costa Guianense e Brasileira durante o seculo XVII, ofereceram
amplas oportunidades a naturalistas e medicos, de treinamento Europeu, para inventoriar e
descrever os mamiferos encontrados. A sistematica e a nomenclatura cientifica das especies
Brasileiras conhecidas por Carolus Linnaeus em 1758 basearam-se primariamente nos ma-
miferos descritos por Georg Marcgraf, em sua monografia do seculo XVII. No entanto, as
colecoes e preservacoes de mamiferos para estudos comeâram, efetivamente, no seculo XVIII,
com a "Viajem filosofica" do Brasileiro, Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira.
Marcaram o seculo XVIII, e as primeiros decadas do seculo XIX, um periodo explosivo e
romantico nas expedicoes cientificas. Estas foram patrocinadas tanto por naturalistas indepen-
dentes, como por govemos Europeus, a fim de realizarem observacoes sobre a fauna e colecoes
para estudos taxonomicos nos museus Europeus. Entres os naturalistas Europeus que distin-
guiram-ce em suas contribuicoes aos estudos de mamiferos neotropicais durante esta epoca,
sobressaem: Alexandre von Humboldt, Juan Baptista Ritter von Spix (Brasil), Maximilian
Principe de Wied-Neuwied (Brasil), Johan Natterer (Brasil), Sir Robert Herman Schomburgk
e Richard Schomburgk (Guiana), Claudio Gay (Chile), Johan Jakob von Tschudi (Peru), Felix
de Azara (Paraguai), Rudolph Rengger (Paraguai), Alcides Charles Victor d'Orbigny (Argentina,
Bolivia) e Charles Robert Darwin (Patagonia e Galapagos). Os itinerarios, as listas de mamiferos
observados e colecionados, as taxonomias, e algumas notas de campo encontram-se incluidos
nos relatorios aqui apresentados sobre estes e outros naturalistas importantes.
Nas meadas do seculo XIX, a fauna mamifera sul-americana tomouse a melhor conhecida
de todos OS continentes, exceto a da Europa. Os problemas de origem e da distribuicao geografica
dos mamiferos neotropicais estimularam a imaginacao de varios estudiosos, desde os primeiros
cronistas ate o pre-evolucionario Darwin. Seus conceitos sobre estes temas sao brevemente
discutidos.
Organization II. Voyages of Discovery: 1 5th and

16th Centuries 14
I. Introduction 13 III. Spanish Chroniclers of New
The Neotropical Region Defined . . 14 World Discoveries 14
IV. First Mammals: Anecdotal Period XIII. Patagonia 71
16 Alcide Charles Victor d'Orbigny
Island Mammals of the (1802-1857) 71
Discoverers 16 Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
Mainland Mammals of the 77
Discoverers 18 XIV. Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon
V. Brazil: Mammalogy Through (1707-1788) 87
8th Century
1 21 XV. Faunal Origins and Distribution
Andre Thevet (1503-1592) 21 87
Georg Marcgraf (1610-1644) 21 Jose de Acosta (1539-1600) 87
Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa
(1756-1815) 21 (1560/1575-1630) 90
VI. Brazil: Mammalogy to Middle of Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) ... 90
1 9th Century 27 Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon
Introduction 27 (1707-1788) 90
Johann Baptist Ritter von Spix Johann Andreas Wagner
(1781-1826) and Carl Friedrich (1797-1861) 91
von Martius (1794-1866) 27 Maximilian Prinz von Wied-
Maximilian Prinz von Wied-Neu- Neuwied (1782-1867) 91
wied (1782-1867) 31 Johann Jacob von Tschudi
Johann Natterer (1787-1843) .... 34 (1818-1889) 91
VII. GuiANAs: Mammalogy to End of Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
1 8th Century 38 91
Pierre Barrere (1690-1755) 38 XVI. Inventories to Middle of 1 9th
Jose Gumilla (d. 1750) 38 Century 91
Jacques Nicolas Bellin (1703-1772) System Naturce of Linnaeus,
38 1758, 1766 91
Edward Bancroft (1744-1821) 38 .... Histoire Naturelle of Buffon,
Philippe Fermin (1720-1790) .... 39 1750-1789 92
Monsieur Bajon (1763?) 40 Synopsis Mammalium of Schinz,
John Gabriel Stedman (1744-1797) 1844 92
40 XVII. Summary 92
VIII. GuiANAs: Mammalogy of First XVIII. Acknowledgments 94
Half of 19th Century 43 XIX. Literature Cited 94
Sir Robert Herman Schomburgk
(1804-1865) and Richard
Schomburgk (181 1-1891) 43 I. Introduction
IX. Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769-
1859) AND AlME BONPLAND The gradual accumulation of knowledge of
(1773-1858) 51 Neotropical mammals is recorded here from the
X. Paraguay 57 time of the voyage of discovery by Christo-

first
Felix de Azara (1746-181 1) 59 pher Columbus in 1492 to the middle of the 19th
Johann Rudolph Rengger century, or just before the Darwinian revolution
(1795-1832) 64 in biological thought. The knowledge was mainly
XI. Chile 64 of species or kinds, the numbers of kinds, their
Giovanni Ignazio Molina behavior, habitat, geographic distribution, and re-
(1737-1829) 64 lationship toman. Early voyagers to the New World
Eduard Friedrich Poeppig followed by naturalist-travelers gathered the data
(1798-1868) 65 used later by philosophers and scientists for the
Claudio Gay (1800-1873) 65 development of biological principles. Only the
XII. Peru 65 most important and better-known contributors are
Johann Jacob von Tschudi discussed here. At least as many more personages
(1818-1889) 65 could be included in a more extended account.
HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY 13

The Neotropical Region Defined were Pinzon, who followed Columbus to the Ven-
ezuelan coast in 1 500, and Amerigo Vespucci, who
The Neotropical Region, as defined by its mam- sailed first with Ojeda to Brazil in 1499 and in-
malian fauna, includes all South America, Middle dependently again in 1 502 and 1 503 in the service
America except the dry and temperate zones of of Portugal. Pedro Cabral, however, had already
Mexico, continental islands of coastal Middle and claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1 500 on his way to
South America, and the oceanic Bahamas, West India. In 1516 Juan Diaz de Solis discovered the
Indies, Galapagos, and Falklands (Hershkovitz, estuary of the Rio de la Plata, and Sebastian Cabot,
1972, p. 326). in the service of Spain, sailed in 1526 up the Rio
With few exceptions, modem names for Neo- Parana. Vasco Nunez de Balboa accompanied En-
tropical countries and geographic features are used ciso to Panama in 1510, and in 1513, with Fran-
throughout the text. The map (fig. 1) shows the cisco Pizarro, crossed the isthmus to behold the
South America of the colonial period with colonial vast Pacific Ocean. Pizarro visited Panama again
or precolonial names for political subdivisions and in 1531, recrossed the isthmus, and sailed south
geographic features. along the west coast of South America to the dis-
covery and conquest of Peru. Cabeza Alvarez Nu-
nez de Vaca arrived in Buenos Aires in 1541 and
continued overland into Paraguay. Pedro de Val-
divia visited Venezuela in 1 530, Peru in 1 532, and
II.Voyages of Discovery:
15th and 16th Centuries Chile in 1540, 1541, and 1552. The explorations
of Colombia by Gonzalez Jimenez de Quesada
The inhabited islands found by Columbus on from 1536 to 1539 and again in 1569 to 1571
his voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492
first signaled the end of the period of discovery and
were thought to be near the mainland of China or conquest.
India. The islanders welcomed the ships' crews
with food and drink, but the great stores of pre-
cious metals, stones, and artifacts the travelers ex-
pected to find were not seen. Nevertheless, the III. Spanish Chroniclers of New World
voyagers claimed the islands for the Spanish crown Discoveries
and returned with accounts told to awaiting re-
porters of their discoveries, including their de- The recorders or chroniclers of New World dis-
scriptions of plants and animals of economic value coveries, conquests, happenings, and natural phe-
or imputed medicinal virtues. nomena were the clerics and scribes who accom-
Zoological results of the four transatlantic voy- panied the explorers or awaited their return to
ages commanded by Christopher Columbus— the Spain for recording the news. Most of the accounts
first (1492-1493) and second (1493-1496) to the or records remained unpublished, but some of the
and Ven-
Antilles, the third (1498) to the Antilles manuscripts are reportedly preserved in the ar-
ezuela, 502-1 504) to Middle Amer-
and the last (1 chives of Spain or the Vatican. The chroniclers
ica—included reports of a variety of mammals. whose published narratives contain interesting in-
The kinds seen were identified with such familiar formation on mammals include the following.
Old World forms as lion, tiger, bear, fox, dog, Peter Martyr of Anghiera (1455-1526), Italian
boar, goat, sheep, rodent, mon-
ferret, rabbit, deer, by birth, and the first and most prestigious chron-
key, and
ape. Characterizations given were less iclerof the Discovery, was a member of the Royal
descriptions of external morphology than of gen- Spanish Council of the Indies, Prothonotary of the
eral mien, gross habitat, behavior in response to Catholic Church, correspondent of Popes, confi-
human confrontations or predation on human dant of Christopher Columbus, and friend of sea
property, gastronomic qualities, and use, if any, captains, clergymen, and other contemporary voy-
in medical treatment, ceremonial rites or magic, agers to the New World. News he received from
or as household pets. his informants constitutes the first records of New
Those who followed Columbus in the discovery World discoveries. His chronicles, known as the
and exploration of the mainland returned with Decades and addressed to the Pope, began to ar-
additional bits of information on mammals noted rive at the Vatican in 494. The first Decade de
1
by the attendant Spanish chroniclers. Among the Orbe Novo, with first notices of American mam-
more important of these voyagers of discovery mals, was published in 1516, but pirated Italian
Fig. 1. Map, South America of the Colonial period from the Stevens (1726) translation of Herrera y Tordesillas.
editions appeared in 1504 and 1507. The fourth directly to him by provincial governors and other
Decade was published in 1521, and the complete New World officials. Included were Oviedo's own
set of eight of the projected 10 appeared posthu- observations and results of investigations during
mously in 1587. his residence as representative of the Spanish
Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes (1478- Crown in the Provinces of Darien, Panama, Gua-
1557) was appointed royal chronicler of news sent temala, Cuba, and Santo Domingo. He published
HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY IS

the first part of his Historia de las Indias in 1 526, According to Peter Martyr, who reported results
other parts in 1535 and 1 547. The entire work was of the voyage in his first Decade (1504, 1516),
printed between 1851 and 1855 in Madrid. quadrupeds were not seen, but three kinds of
The Spanish Jesuit Jose de Acosta ( 1 539-1 600) "rabbits" were said to occur in Hispaniola (Haiti
wrote his Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias and Dominican Republic). The same animals, ac-
during a residence in Peru from 1571 to 1 587 and tuallycaviomorph rodents, were described later
saw it 590. Acosta's philosophical
published in 1 by Oviedo during his residence in Santo Domingo.
inquiries extended to all asjjects of nature in the The following accounts are freely translated or
New World and greatly influenced the thinking of paraphrased from the Spanish of the Paraguayan
his contemporaries. (1944-1945) edition of Oviedo's work.
Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa (b. between 1560 Hutia, the
first "rabbit" (1944, libro XII, cap.
and 1575, d. 1630), a Carmelite missionary, lived I), smaller than the ordinary rabbit, its ears
is
many years in Spanish America, most of them in smaller and tail ratlike. The hutia is said to be
Peru and Mexico. His natural history notes are dark grayish in color and very good eating. It was
compiled from many sources, including his per- hunted and killed by the barkless dogs of the na-
sonal observations and testimony of people he met tives, but is no longer found, except rarely.
in travels connected with his clerical duties. The Gerrit S. Miller (1929, p. 12), studied the re-
forgotten manuscript of his Compendium was dis- mains of mammals in kitchen middens of the Sa-
covered in the Vatican library by Charles Upson mana Bay region, Dominican Republic, and con-
Clark in the early part of the 20th century. Clark's cluded that the original description of the hutia
English translation of the work was published in "would apply as well to the species of Plagiodon-
1 942 by the Smithsonian Institution, and his tran- tia,and presumably also to the Isolobodons [sic]
scription of the original Spanish in 1 948 by the that there seems to be no reason to doubt that
same institution. these were the animals Oviedo had in mind."
Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas (1559-1625), The quemi, second of the "rabbits" (1944, libro
historiographer to the King of Spain, compiled XII, cap. II), is said to be blackish like the hutia
the General History of the Vast Continent and Is- and similar in form, but larger like an ordinary
lands of America from archived reports by the hound. Natives of the island who saw and ate the
New World discoverers and conquistadores, gov- animal found it savory. Oviedo believed them ex-
ernors, clergy, colonists, and travelers. He also tinct.
borrowed heavily from published accounts, in- All attributions to the quemi, according to Mil-
cluding those of other chroniclers. There is no in- ler ( 1 929, p. 13), agree with those of a "large rodent
dication that his notices on mammals were based whose remains I found in the caves near St. Mi-
on personal observations. The first edition chel, Haiti, in 1925.Consequently, I proposed for
of Herrera's History was published in 1601, it the generic name Quemisia. The presence of the
another in 1 60 1-1 6 1 5. These and a 1 728 Spanish same creature in the Boca del Infiemo kitchen
edition in the Library of Congress are cited in the midden appears to confirm my guess."
bibliography. I have not seen these works. The The mohuy "rabbit" (1945, libro XII, cap. Ill),
Stevens translation, published 1725-1726, was is smaller than the hutia, a paler brown or grayish
used here. Whatever the quality of the translation, in color, its flesh highly esteemed by the island's
I find no fault with the descriptions of mammals, caciques and noblemen. The pelage, unlike that of
and the stories about them are in line with similar the hutia, is stiff", sharply pointed, and erect. Ovie-
accounts in other sources. do saw no mohuy, but knew persons on the island
who did and reportedly regarded its flesh as better
than that of the other "rabbits."
"There be little if any doubt," says Miller ( 1 929,
p. 13), "that the animal Oviedo thus described
IV. First Mammals: Anecdotal Period was Brotomys voratus ... its remains have been
found in every kitchen midden that has been ex-
Island Mammals of the Discoverers amined in the Dominican Republic. . . . The ac-
count of stiff", pointed, erect-standing hairs of the
The first Columbian voyage, in 1492, resulted back seems especially applicable to a relative of
in the discovery of the Antillean islands of Cuba, the South American spiny-rats."
Hispaniola, and part of the Bahaman Archipelago. The cori, a fourth "rabbit," described by Oviedo
(1945, libro XII, cap. IV), is almost certainly the abundant. But no matter how long the meat may
domestic guinea pig. Miller (1929, p. 14) ques- be cooked or roasted, it is no less tough to chew.
tioned whether the guinea pig was pre-Columbian This characterization seems to fit the insectivore
or a Spanish introduction. He inclined to the sec- Solenodon. On the other hand, the flesh of Cap-
ond alternative "chiefly because remains of the romys, as of most if not all caviomorphs, is tender
animal have been found in only one midden." It and, as a rule, delectable.
appears, however, that one Simone Verde, who From his correspondents Oviedo received no-
accompanied Columbus on his first voyage, men- ticeof still another mammal, the guacabitinax, an
tioned in a letter dated 20 March 1494 (cf. Martyr inhabitant of the islands near those of Las Perlas
in Gaffarel, 1907 trans, p. 12, footnote 2; p. 14, in the Golfo de San Miguel and the Isla de las
footnotes 1 , 2) the existence on the island of a Culebras or Gorgona, off" the southwest coast of
black and white dormouse-like animal without tail. Colombia. The name, not to be confused with the
The guinea pig or cui, domesticated in Peru, was preceding, and the description and details of the
carried by pre-Columbian Indians for food and animal's habits, are unmistakably those of the paca
barter and introduced into islands and many parts {Agouti paca Linnaeus).
of mainland South America where cavies do not Manatees sighted at sea at various times by Co-
naturally occur. Many of them, such as completely lumbus and his men were believed to be mer-
isolated colonies I saw in Colombia near Bogota, maids, albeit ugly ones. Martyr's narrative of a
had become feral, their coloration having reverted captive manatee as given in the available French
to the wild or agouti pattern. translation of his third Decade (Gaffarel, 1907) is
Other Hispaniolan mammals mentioned by composite. The account by Herrera of the same
Oviedo are the barkless domestic dogs and house manatee (in Stevens's translation, 1725, vol. 1, p.
rats, the latter certainly brought by the Spaniards. 278) appears to hew closer to the original source
Apart from the extinct insectivore Nesophontes, of information:
Miller found no remains of mammals the size of
mice or rats in kitchen middens or owl pellets. The Spaniards at this Time found a new
Two additional native West Indian mammals Sort of Fish, which was a considerable ad-
observed by Oviedo in 1 523 or 1 524 in Cuba differ
vantage to them; tho' in those Parts there is
from those of Hispaniola. My paraphrased trans- much Variety. It is call'd Manati, in shape
lation of Oviedo's Spanish descriptions follows. like aSkin they use to carry Wine in, having
The guabiniquinax is somewhat larger than a only two Feet at the Shoulders, with which
rabbit, its feet similar, the tail long and ratlike, the it swims, and it is found both in the Sea and
pelage smoother than that of a badger, the skin in Rivers. From the Middle it sharpens off"
white, the flesh savory. It lives and breeds in the to the Tail, the Head of it is like that of an
mangroves along the coast. To capture it, the In- Ox, but shorter, and more fleshy at the Snout;
dians position their canoes beneath the mangroves the Eyes small, the Colour of it grey, the Skin
where it nests, then shake the tree to cause the very hard, and some scattering Hairs on it.
animal to fall into the water where it is seized. Some of them are twenty Foot long, and ten
The animal as described above is certainly a in Thickness. The Feet are round, and have
form of Capromys, but Oviedo continues as fol- four Claws on each of them. The Females
lows: "The animal is the size of a hare, looks like bring forth like the Cows, and have two Dugs
a fox, its color is dark brown mixed with reddish, to give suck. The Taste of it is beyond Fish;
the tail hairy and the head shaped like that of a when fresh it is like Veal, and salted like
ferret. Itabounds along the Cuban coast." The Tunny-Fish, but better, and will keep longer;
characterization and habitat are obviously out of the Fat of it is sweet, and does not grow
place and probably were meant to be included with rusty. Leather for Shoes is dress'd with it.
the description of the ayre, the second of the Cu- The Stones it has in the Head are good against
ban mammals reported by Oviedo. Herewith my the Pleurisy and the Stone. Sometimes they
paraphrased translation of his description of that are taken ashore, grazing near the Sea, or
animal. Rivers, and when young they are taken with
The ayre is reddish brown, the size of a rabbit Nets. Thus the Cazique Caramestex took
with pointed muzzle, its flesh exceedingly tough. one, and fed it twenty-six Years in a Pond,
Notwithstanding, the natives cook or roast as many and it grew sensible and tame, and would
of the animals as they can capture, for they are come when call'd by the Name of Mato,

which signifies Noble. It would eat what- tic dog, like that first seen in the Antilles, was
soever was given it by Hand, and went out barkless.
of the Water to feed in the House, would An encounter with vampire bats by Pinzon's
play with the Boys, let them get upon him, men is reported by Martyr in the first Decade.
was pleas'd with Musick, carry'd Men over Vampires are also mentioned in the second De-
the Pool, and took up ten at a Time, without cade in connection with Enciso's disastrous ex-
any Difficulty. periences in the Darien and in the third Decade
in accounts of the animals of the Golfo de Uruba.
Martyr's third Decade mentions many "rab- The following characterization of a vampire bat
bits" and deer encountered in 1 5 1 6 by Andre Mo- by Herrera (in Stevens's translation, 1726, vol. 2,
rales on the forested IslaRica (now San Jose) of p. 7 1 ) is a translation from the original sources in
the Archipielago de las Perlas in the Golfo de Pa- Spanish.
nama. The deer, most likely Mazama gouazoubira "This venomous Creature has one quality that
permira Kellogg, 1 946, and rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.) tho' it bites one man among an hundred one Night,
were said to be so abundant that Spaniards could the next Time it only bites in the very same Place,
shoot them with arrows from horseback. The re- tho' the Person bit be among two hundred; which
tiring tapeti, Sylvilagus brasiliensis, the only rabbit itdoes either on the Toes, the Fingers, or the Head,
known from mainland Panama and the Pearl Is- and much Blood runs from it."
lands, would have been an unlikely target for the That the same vampire bat should visit the same
equestrian Spaniards. person sleeping in the same place on successive
nights may not be unusual. An experience of mine
in 1935 on the Rio Napo in Ecuador is of interest
in this regard. Two Indian families and I, alto-
Mainland Mammals of the Discoverers gether 10 persons including a five-year-old girl,
traveled three days upstream in a large dugout
First knowledge of mainland American mam- canoe. The river was low and we could bivouac
mals was contained in reports of the Paria Pen- on sandbars at the end of each day's travel. On
insula, Venezuela, by Columbus on his third trans- each of the three nights, a vampire bat visited the
atlantic voyage in 1498 and Vicente Yaiiez Pinzon, little girl, scraped the skin of her nose, and fed on
who followed in the tracks of Columbus. Martyr's the trickling blood. No other member of the party
first Decade carried the news of their encounters was attacked. It seems improbable that the same
with the common opossum (Didelphis marsupi- bat should have found the same victim at each of
alis), sloths, armadillos, anteaters, deer (Odocoi- the three different bivouacs. Perhaps the child slept
leus, Mazama), peccaries, tapir, kinkajou (Potos more soundly than the others of the party, or her
flavus), barkless dog {Canis familiaris), jaguar, blood was more attractive to the vampires which
puma and their color varieties, vampire(?) bats, abounded in the region.
and red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus). The last of Martyr's eight Decades includes de-
On his fourth and last voyage (1 502-1 504), Co- scriptions of Spanish settlements in the Golfo de
lumbus explored the Atlantic coast of Middle Paria, Venezuela. In addition to those mammals
America from the Golfo de Uruba to Guatemala. previously mentioned by Martyr (above) are the
Spanish emissaries charged with establishing set- lesser anleater
(Tamandua tetradactyla), capuchin
tlements followed quickly. Mammals reported by monkey (Cebus apella or C. nigrivittatus), peccary,
them and noted in Martyr's second and third deer (Odocoileus virginianus), jaguar {Felis onca),
Decades, and by Oviedo, include the common spotted cats {Felis pardalis and/or F. wiedii), wea-
opossum, bats, monkeys, three-toed sloths, ant- sels(Mustela frenata), skunk (Conepatus chinga),
eaters, armadillos {Dasypus novemcinctus), white- porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), and manatee
tail deer, red brocket, collared and white-lipped {Trichechus manatus). Oviedo described the same
peccaries, squirrels, a composite of carnivorous animals of the region in greater detail, but with no
species identified as raposas (including Didel- additions of sp>ecies. Vazquez de Espinosa, who in
phis?), zorros (foxlikeCamivora), lobos (Dusicyon 1628 presumably visited the northern Venezuelan
or Lutra), rabbits (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), "hares" coastand the town of Santo Tomas above the
(Dasyprocta sp.. Agouti paca, and perhaps the newly mouth of the Rio Orinoco, reported the same
introduced European hare or rabbit). The domes- mammals as well as squirrels (Sciurus aestuans)
18 FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
and many kinds of monkeys. He claimed that Isla is tame and eaten. The Perico Ligero [Bra-
Margarita, off the Venezuelan coast, was overrun dypus variegatus] is three hours climbing a
with rabbits {Sylvilagus floridanus). Tree, goes about in the Night, gives a cry
Many of the larger mammals of Colombia in every time it lifts a Foot, and is half an Hour,
the territories of the Muso and Colima Indians between every Step, is as big as a Barbary
north of Bogota were already known by 1544. monkey, and fierce, yet does no harm. There
With bats and other small mammals omitted, more are cats (?) that sleep all the Day, and all the
kinds were reported by Herrera than could be re- Night catch Birds and Mice. The Pizma [Na-
corded today from the same region on the basis sua nasua] about as big as a large Lap Dog,
of extant specimens preserved in museums. Her- has a bad countenance, a long Snout, its voice
rera, in the English version by Stevens (1726, vol. like a Bird, defends itself against Dogs, and
6, p. 191), states: the Spaniards call them Badgers. The

Hedgehogs [spiny echimyids] are like those
There are a great number of grey Swine in Spain, the largest like Porcupines [Coen-
[Tayassu pecan] that have the Navel on the dou sp.] darting out their Prickles. There are
Back, and a smaller sort of several Colours many sort of Apes, squirrels.
[Tayassu tajacu] much like wild boars. Ti-
gers (Felis onca) not numerous but very Elsewhere, in the Province of Bogota, Herrera
fierce; Lions (Felis concolor) that do no harm, (in Stevens's translation,
1726, vol. 6, p. 77) notes
except only among the Cattle and two other "innumerable apes, monkeys, ferrets [marsupi-
sorts of Tigers that were inoffensive besides als?], squirrels, weasels [Mustela frenata], deer
another sort that are always in the water, [Odocoileus virginianus], roebuck [Mazama rufi-
like Greyhounds, and all their four feet are na] and Rabbits [Sylvilagus brasiliensis] but . . .
like those of a Goose [Lutra annectens]. The not Hares." Manatees were reported from the Rio
black wild cats [Felis yagouaroundi] seize Magdalena.
the Hens, carry them away under one of From coastal Colombia, at Zaragoza, 30 leagues
their front legs and run away on the other from Caceres in the lower Rio Cauca Valley, Vaz-
three.The black Bears [Tremarctos ornatus] quez de Espinosa records jaguar, puma, danta
like those in Spain,do no hurt but only to (Tapirus terrestris), oso (Myrmecophaga or Ta-
the small Cattle. The Ant-Bears [Myrme- mandua), cuchumbi (Nasua), armadillo (Dasy-
cophaga tridactyla] when they go, lay their pus), raposa (Dusicyon thous), chucha (Didelphis
Tail, which is long, on their Heads,
winding marsupialis), "three" species of sahinos or pec-
them about their Necks, and so walk from cary, perico ligero (Bradypus variegatus), nutria
Ant-hill to Ant-hill, stretch out their Tongues (Lutra or Chironectes), and guadatinaja (Agouti
near half a Yard which are soon cover'd with paca).
Pismires, then they draw them back and eat Acosta's long residence in Peru made him fa-
them. There are Dantas [Tapirus pinchaque miliar with some of the mammals in the vicinities
or T. terrestris]. Deer [Odocoileus virgini- of Cuzco and Lima and others about which he
anus] like ours in Europe, and others red may have learned from travelers or records. He
like wild Goats [Mazama rufina or Mazama described sahinos (peccaries), dantas (tapir), ar-
americana], and the Bezoar stones found in madillos, perico ligero (three-toed sloth), osos
them are best. The Guadatinajas [Agouti (anteaters), otoronco (bear), chinchilla, vizcacha,
paca] are like Hares; and the Zorillas [Di- cui (guinea pig). The "liebres verdaderas" or true
delphis marsupialis] or little foxes, that have hares are certainly the introduced European hare.
a purse under their Belly, in which they carry He affirmed that conejos or rabbits (Sylvilagus
their Cubs, the ever so many, are very mis- brasiliensis)occur in the Reino de Quito (Ecua-
chievious to the Henroosts. The little Crea- dor).
tures call'd Umazia [Marmosa] have a dug Acosta declared there were monkeys of all kinds
growing out for every one of their young, throughout America, but those he described were
and they stick to it till bred up. The Ar- Middle American. At Capira near Nombre de Dios,
madillo [Dasypus novemcinctus] which has Panama, he saw monkeys (presumably spider
been spoken of having five claws in each monkeys) swing by their tails from a tree on one
Forefoot, with which it throws up the Earth, side of a stream to another tree on the opposite

side. Where the river was too wide for this ma- mations in the Kidneys, as are Quilts made
neuver, the monkeys of the troop, he related, of the Wooll, because they moderate the
crossed by forming a hanging chain holding on to Heat, and the same in the Gout; and in them
each other's tail, then swinging so that the endmost the Bezoar Stones are found.
could grab the branch of a tree on the other side
of the river and let all the others clamber up. The abundance and ubiquity of llamas may have
The anecdote is less a fabrication than an ex- inspiredsome Spaniards to attempt to raise Old
aggeration. Individual howlers and spider mon- World camels in Peru. According to Acosta, some
keys, usually the alpha male or an old suckling brought from the Canary Islands were bred for a
female, may bridge a narrow gap in the canopy while.
pathway by holding with its prehensile tail the Sebastian Cabot's journal of conquest and ex-
branch on one side of the gap and with it swinging ploration of the Province of Rio de La Plata, then
the body to catch, with outstretched arms, the consisting of modem northern Argentina, cisan-
nearest branch of the far side. Monkeys too small dean Bolivia, and southeastern Brazil, included
or weak to hurdle the gap run or scramble over data on natural history. As recorded by Herrera,
the bridging back of their elder. I have seen strong the mammals seen were the hairy armadillo
young adults take advantage of the same conve- {Chaetophractus sp.) and several other kinds, ca-
nience. vies {Cavia), swamp deer (Blastocerus dichotomus),
Acosta also narrated the tale of a monkey that pampa deer {Blastoceros bezoarticus), brockets
resided in the palace of a provincial governor. As (Mazama sp.), tapirs {Tapirus terrestris), peccaries
related to him, the simian was trained to fetch (any or all of the known species), howler monkeys
wine from the town tavern. The animal would set (Alouatta), canids (Dusicyon), lesser anteater (7a-
off with the empty wine pitcher in one hand, the mandua tetradactyla), jaguar (Felis onca), and
wine money gripped in the other. Not before the puma (Felis concolor). Southern Brazilian mam-
pitcher was filled to the brim did the sage monkey mals in particular included deer, peccary, tapir,
release his coins to the tavern keeper. There were "rabbits" with small, round ears {Dolichotisl), paca
times on these errandswhen taunting street ur- {Agouti paca), armadillo, sloth (Bradypus torqua-
chins chased and hurled stones at the monkey. tus), opossum {Didelphis albiventris), monkeys, and
Annoyed by this sport, the simian halted, set down coastal seals, most Arctocephalus australis.
likely
the pitcher, and returned the stones with sufficient Vazquez de Espinosa adds capybaras, armadil-
force and accuracy to rout his tormentors. Retriev- los (tatu and quirquincho specified), and guanacos.
ing his pitcher, he moved on serenely to deliver In the vicinity of Chuquisaca (La Plata), Bolivia,
the wine at the palace. the missionary notes brockets {Mazama), vicufia,
Peruvian "sheep" or camelids were greatly ad- guanaco, dark gray wildcats known as oscollos,
mired by the Spaniards when first seen. Acosta's jaguar called "otorongo," puma locally called
interesting account of them was suitably appre- poma, a large beast called lilisto with a horselike
ciated by Herrera, and the English translation by head that lures cattle and humans, a ferret called
Stevens (1726, vol. 4, p. 36) is quoted herewith. skunks or anatiria {Co-
siqui {Mustela frenatal),
nepatus), bear {Tremarctos ornatus), antbears
There are no such Vicunas and Sheep in (probably Tamandua), vizcacha {Lagidium), and
New Spain [Mexico] As those of Peru, and cuis {Cavia porcellus).
those Sheep are Tame, and very serviceable; The occurrence of sea lions {Otaria flavescens)
but the Vicunas are wild, and have no Horns, and fur seals {Arctocephalus) on both southern
the like of them not to be seen in the whole continental coasts was mentioned by Vazquez de
World, but only in Peru and Chile, bigger Espinosa. The
sea lions along the coast of Are-
than Goats, but smaller than Calves, their quipa, Peru, he reported come out of the water
Colour almost Murrey, breeding on the onto the rocks and make low sounds at night. The
highest Mountains, in cold and desert Places, animals were hunted by the Indians for their hides.
which they call Punas. They go in flocks, In northern Chile, the natives of Arua and Ata-
run swiftly, and when they see any Men, fly cama converted the hides into balloon-like floats
and drive their Young before them. Of their for support of their seagoing fishing rafts.
Wooll are made very valuable Mantles, The conquest of Chile by Pedro de Valdi via in
which never lose their Colour, because it is 1 54 1 provided the chroniclers with additional in-
natural; they are said to be good for Inflam- formation on mammals. Vazquez de Espinosa re-
ported huemul {Hippocamelus bisulciis), "fallow ty,which included the young physician Piso (1611-
deer" (spotted fawns of huemul), guanaco, and 1678), landed in Pemambuco. Explorations were
vicuna in the vicinity of Osomo. According to the restricted to northeastern Brazil in the present states
same authority, the Rio Guasco valley (29°S) har- of Pemambuco, Paraiba, and Rio Grande do
bored "squirrels" (chinchillas) with very fine fur. Norte. Among MarcgraPs accomplishments were
the construction of an astronomical observatory,
the first of its class in the New World, and a mono-
graphic study of the plants and animals of the
V. Brazil: Mammalogy Through region. After turning over his notes and illustra-
18th Century tions to Moritz, for preparation and publication,
the naturalist sailed for Africa, where he died
Andre Thevet (1503-1592) shortly after arrival. MarcgraPs monumental His-
toriae Rerum
Naturalia Brasiliae, a part of Willen
The French missionary Andre Thevet arrived Piso's Historia Naturalis Brasilia, was published
in 1555 in Rio de Janeiro, the principal port of a in 1648 in Amsterdam.
French colony in the ephemeral France Antarc- Of the mammals of the northeastern region of
tique. Thevet returned to France via the Antilles Brazil described by Marcgraf, 32 were native
a year later, and the accounts of his travels were species, the others introduced. Their detailed de-
published in 1557 or 1558. Father Thevet's cu- scriptions and life history notes, together with crude
riosity about all he saw in the New World knew but useful woodcuts (fig. 2), were among the pri-
no bounds, and he became an avid collector of mary references on which Linnaeus based bino-
Indian artifacts, local birds, and insects. Not all mials in the 10th (1758) and 12th (1766) editions
objects and events described in his book con- of his Systema Naturce.
formed European prejudices or gen-
to popular The mammals are listed in Table 1 by the in-
erally accepted misconceptions. The work stirred digenous names used by Marcgraf and their cur-
up considerable debate and was rejected by many rent scientific names. Provenance of the forms
not prepared to accept the realities that opossums which served as types for binomialists, mainly
had pouches or that the bodies of American In- Linnaeus, was restricted for taxonomic purposes
dians were not densely furred. to Pemambuco by Thomas (1911).
The Brazilian mammals described or men-
tioned by Thevet include the locally common
opossum (Didelphis albiventris), tapeti (Sylvilagus Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira (1756-1815)
{Dasyprocta leporina, declared
brasiliensis), agouti
good eating), peccaries, deer (probably Mazama), The Brazilian naturalist of European ex-
first
coati {Nasua nasua), tapir (Tapirus terrestris), ca- traction,Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira, was bom
puchin monkey {Cebus apella), golden tamarin in Salvador, Bahia. He pursued higher studies in
{Leontopithecus rosalia), armadillos, jaguar (Felis Portugal, received his doctorate in 1779 from the
onca), and deer-hunting canids (Speothos"?), but University of Coimbra, and was then appointed
no lions or wolves. The three-toed sloth was abun- Naturalist of the Museu Real d'Ajuda in Lisbon.
dant, but never observed eating or drinking. The- He retumed to Brazil in 1783 commissioned by
vet adds, however, that there are those who believe the museum to collect samples of plants, animals,
the beast sustains itself solely by the small, slender and minerals and to record all matters of scientific
leaves of a very high tree called amahut. and The expe-
political interest within his scope.
dition, or "Viagem Filosofica," explored the prov-
inces of Grao Para, Rio Negro, Mato Grosso, and
Georg Marcgraf (or Marggrav or Marggraf] Cuiaba from 783 to 792 (fig. 3). Rodrigues Fer-
1 1
(1610-1644) reira retumed to Lisbon the following year.

The scientific materials collected in Brazil, with
Most illustrious of the pre-Linnaean naturalist- notes and illustrations, were deposited in the Mu-
explorers of Brazil was Georg Marcgraf Bom in seu d'Ajuda. Included were 4 1 7 species of animals
Liebstad, Saxony, educated in Holland with em- represented by 592 specimens. Of these, 76 spec-
phasis on astronomy and botany, he sailed for imens represented 65 species of mammals. The
Brazil in 1638 on a scientific expedition led by whole collection was confiscated by the invading
Johann Moritz, Count of Nassau-Siezen. The par- armies of Napoleon and taken to Paris for study

•c
2-*
03 so
<N ea
O u
Cl, a
22 HELDIANA: ZOOLCXJY
Table 1. The Brazilian mammals of Marcgraf (1648) and their current Linnaean names.
Page Vernacular name Linnaean name Figure

221 Ai sive Ignavus Bradypus variegaltds Schinz, IS25 2
222 Carigueya, female Didelphis albiventris Lund, 1 840 2
223 Tai-ibi (male) Didelphis albiventris Lund, 1 840
223 Aperea, type of the species Cavia aperea Erxleben, 1777 2
223 Tapeti, type of the species Sylvilagus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758* 2
224 Cavia Cobaya Cavia porcellus Linnaeus, nSS 2
224 Paca, type of the sjsecies Agouti paca Linnaeus, 1 766 2
224 Aguti vel Acuti Dasyproct a leporina Linnaeus, 175% 2
225 Tamandua guacu, type of the species Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus, 1758 2
225 Tamandua-i, type of the species Tamandua tetradactyla Linnaeus, 1758 2
226 Guariba (fig. misplaced on p. 228), type of the Alouatta belzebul Linnaeus, 1 766 2
species
226 Lower figure only of caitaia misplaced with Cebus apella libidinosus Spix, 1 823 (fig. only) 2
textof the guariba
227 Cagui minor, type of the species Callithrix jacchus Linnaeus, 1758 2
227 Caitaia Cebus apella libidinosus Spix, 1823 2
228 Coati, type of the species Nasua nasua Linnaeus, 1766 2
228 Coatimondi Nasua nasua Linnaeus, 766 1
229 Tapiierete, type of the species 7a/7/ru5 r^rrw/m Linnaeus, 1758 2

229 Mus araneus, type of the species Monodelphis americana Miiller, 1776
229 Tajacu Caaigoara ra>'a$5M /a/acM Linnaeus, 1758 2
230 Capybara, Rio Sao Francisco, type of the Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Linnaeus, 1 766 2
species
230 Scyurus Sciurus aestuans Linnaeus, 1 766
231 Tatu Dasypus septemcinctus Linnaeus, 1758
231 Tatu-ete Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus, \1 5% 2
232 Tatu Apara Tolypeutes Linnaeus, 1758
trici net us 2
233 Maraguo sive Maracaia Felis tigrina Schreber, 1775
233 Cuandu, type of the species Coendou prehensilis prehensilis. Linnaeus,
1758 2
234 Ibiya, typeof the species Pteronura brasiliensis Gmelin, 1 788 2
235 Cuguacu-ete (female), type of the species Blastoceros bezoarticus Linnaeus, 1 758
235 Cuguacu-apara (male) Blastoceros bezoarticus Linnaeus, 1758
235 Jaguara, type of the species F(e//5 onca Linnaeus, 1758 2
235 Jaguarete Felis onca (melanistic) 2
235 Cuguacuarana Felis concolor Linnaeus, 1771
*
Editors' Note: Here and elsewhere in this paper. Article 51(c) of the International Code of 2kx)logical Nomen-
clature, governing the use of parentheses in scientific names, is not followed.
by Etienne Geoffroy St.-Hilaire of the Museum Except for the descriptions by the French zo-
National de Histoire Naturelle in Paris. ologist, the specimens and manuscripts of Rod-
Monkeys constituted a sizeable part of the loot, rigues Ferreira were largely neglected during the
and the following were described as new by Etienne The several portions of the
naturalist's lifetime.
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire in 1812 and by others as not- memoirs published posthumously were heavily
ed in brackets; the current form of each name is edited. In 1972, however, the entire Viagem Fi-
used: Callithrix jacchus penicillatus, Callithrix losofica, in two text volumes and two of colored
jacchus geoffroyi [Humboldt], Callithrix jacchus plates, was published by the Conselho Federal de
aurita, Callithrix humeralifer, Callithrix argentata Cultura of the Brazilian Ministry of Education and
melanura, Saguinus labiatus, Saimiri ustus [I. Culture.
Geoffroy], Callicebus amictus, Callicebus person- Treatment of mammals in the zoological mem-
al us, Pithecia monachus, Alouatta fusca, Cebus oir was a model of its kind for the times. Each
apella cirrifer. Cebus flavus, and Lagothrix la- species was described, with bibliographic refer-
gothricha canus. Mounted specimens of
previ- ences for the ones better known, external char-
ously named forms also brought to Paris from the acters and what was learned of habitat, habits,
Lisbon museum included Callithrix jacchus Lin- reproduction, utilization by man, and gastronomic
naeus, Leontopithecus rosalia Linnaeus, Chiro- rating.With respect to the last, Rodriguez Ferreira
potes satanas Hoffmannsegg, Brachyteles arach- grouped the Brazilian mammals according to those
noides E. Geoffroy, Inia geoffrensis Blainville, and used most widely for food (peccary, deer, tapir,
probably others lost or discarded. paca, agouti), those eaten only by Indians and some

' W'
KOIFIRO |)A AIAC.KM l'll<IS<^nc:A RF.AI.I/AI>A POR AlfXANDRK RODRU.I Is

l-F.RRHRA. \l MA hISI ANCIA APROXIMADA l>E Vf J7'.' kM (17M \-<K>
"
Fio. 3. Map of Brazil showing routes (bold lines) of Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira, during the Viagem Filosofica,
1783-1792; from Rodrigues Ferreira (1972).
Table 2. Mammals illustrated in the Viagem Filosoftca by Rodrigues Ferreira (1971),
Plate no.
Fio. 4. Four monkeys of the "Viagem Filosofica" collections: upper left, parauaco (Pithecia monachus E. Geoffroy),
possibly the holotype; upper right, saui-de-bigode-branco {Saguinus labiatus labiatus E. GeofTroy), possibly the
holotype; lower left, mico-de-cheiro (Saimih ustus I. Geoffroy), possibly the holotype; lower right, saui (Callithrix
jacchus penicillata E. Geoffroy), possibly the holotype; from Rodrigues Ferreira (1972).
preservation, and market value of the flesh. The Johann Baptist Ritter von Spix (1781-1826)
author decried the slaughter of the young and not- and Carl Friedrich von Martins (1794-1866)
ed the disappearance of manatees in certain lakes.
Of all Brazilian mammals described or merely The German naturalist Johann Baptist Ritter
listed in the Viagem Filosofica, those depicted in von Spix first studied for the priesthood, but after
color in the 50 plates (each 1 9 x 29 cm) are rep- two years his attention turned to medicine and
resentative. They are listed in Table 2 by plate natural history. His doctorate was earned in 806. 1
number with their Brazilian and current scientific That same year he was appointed assistant in the
names. The animals were postured as prepared by Museum of the Munich Academy of Science, with
taxidermists (fig. 4). Many of the monkeys are responsibility for the organization of the zoolog-
those later described by E. Geoffroy. ical collections. In 1816 he was ordered by the
King of Bavaria to undertake a two-year scientific

expedition to Brazil, together with the museum's
assistant in botany, Carl Friedrich von Martins.
VI. Brazil: Mammalogy to Middle of The two departed on 10 April 1817 through the
19th Century port of Trieste, and after considerable delay, they
arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 15 July 1817.
Introduction The exuberance and variety of the native plant
life in eastern Brazil at first awed and bewildered
Growth of science South America during the
in the two young naturalists. Everything they saw was
first third of the 19th century shifted from the new to them, and all they could possibly collect
Spanish colonies, with their wars for independence and preserve was easily reached along the trails
and internal political turmoil, to the relatively sta- they traveled from Rio de Janeiro to Minas Gerais
ble Portuguese colony of Brazil. Following the in- and beyond. Real or fantasized dangers lurking in
vasion of Portugal by the Napoleonic armies, the what they imagined as dark, brooding, impene-
royal family fled to Brazil and made Rio de Janeiro trable forests restrained their urges for stepping ofl"
its capital and center of cultural activities. During the beaten path. The strange and wonderful wild-
previous years Brazil had been closed to foreigners encountered on
life the roads was enough to gratify
to prevent the mines of precious metals and min- theirutmost expectations and inspired them to
erals from passing out of control of the ruling Por- record their impressions in ecstatic prose. On the
tuguese. Dom Joao VI, however, opened the ports tripfrom Ipanema, Sao Paulo, to Vila Rica, Minas
and changed the environment to one befitting an Gerais, they described, as translated into English
enlightened monarch in residence. Cultural insti- by Lloyd in equally romanticized and tortured
tutions, including museums, libraries, and uni- prose, the
versities, were built, and scientific investigations
were promoted. Betrothal of the Archduchess Leo- numerous flocks of little monkeys [that] run
poldina, daughter of the Emperor of Austria, with whistling and hissing to the recesses of the
Dom Pedro, Crown Prince of Portugal and Brazil, forest; the cavies, running about on the tops
became the most important single factor in the of the mountains, hastily secrete themselves
advancement of science in the New World during under loose stones; the American ostriches
the first half of the 9th century. The entourage
1
(Emas), which herd in families, gallop at the
of the bride on her voyage to Brazil included some slightest noise, like horses through the bush-
of the best and most adventurous of the younger es, and over hills and valleys, accompanied
scientists of Austria and Bavaria. by their young; the dicholopus {Seriemas),
The Viennese naturalists of the party included which pursues serpents, flies, sometimes
the field collector Johann Natterer, and from the sinking into the grass, sometimes rising into
court of Munich, the zoologist Spix and the bot- the trees, or rapidly climbing the summits
anist Martins. Two years earlier, in 1815, the most of the hills, where it sends forth its loud
accomplished of the naturalist-travelers, Maxi- deceitful cry, resembling that of the bustard;
milian Prinz Wied zu Neuwied of Prussia, arrived the terrified armadillo {Tatu Canastra, Peba,
on the scene. Bola) runs fearfully about to look for a hid-
Modem Brazilian mammalogy begins with the ing place, or, when the danger presses, sinks
scientific accounts of the collections and travels of into its armour; the ant-eater {Tamandud,
these naturalists. Bandeira mirim) runs heavily through the

^^ ^'Salvador
(Bahia)
Januaria
liPbrto de Salgado)
aOiamantina
\>^
^-^buro Preto
(Villa ricQ)
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Poulo
Kane von Brasilien mit dem eingezeichneten Reiseweg von Johann Baptist von Spix und
Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius anlaBlich ihrer Expedition in den Jahren 1817-1820.
Fig. 5. Map of Brazil showing routes of the Spix and Martius expedition (1817-1820); only principal stations
plotted; from Tiefenbacher(1983).
plain, and, in case of need, lying on its back, the prowling wolf, and of the shy fox, or the
threatens its pursuers with its sharp claws. roaring of the ounces, complete the singular
Far from all noise, the slender deer, the black picture of the animal kingdom in these
tapir or a pecari, feed on the skirts of the peaceful plains.
forest. Elevated above all this, the red-head-
ed vulture (urubii) soars in the higher re- For the next three years, the zoologist and bot-
gions; the dangerous rattle-snake {Casca- anist explored the eastern states of Brazil from Sao
vel), hidden in the grasses, excites terror by Paulo and Minas Gerais north to Para. Most of
its rattle; the gigantic snake sports suspended July and August of 1 8 1 9 was spent in Belem (Para).
from the tree with its head upon the ground; On 2 1 August they shipped up the Rio Amazonas,
and the crocodile resembling the trunk of a making stopovers at the mouth of the Rio Tocan-
tree, basks in the sun on the banks of the tins,the Rio Xingu ( 1 September), Santarem on
pools. After all this has passed during the the Rio Tapajos ( 1 8 September), Obidos (23 Sep-
day before the eyes of the traveler, the ap- tember), Parintins, and Vila Nova da Rainha (1
proach of night, with the chirping of the October). The mouth of the Rio Madeira was
grasshoppers, the monotonous cry of the passed 5 October, and on 22 October they landed
1
goat-sucker {Jodo corta pdo), the barking of at Barra do Rio Negro (Manaus). Travel upstream
continued in November with a stop at Tefe (for- Table 3. Mammals of the sertao of Campos Gerais
de Sao Felipe, Minas Gerais, recorded by Spix and Mar-
merly Ega) on 26 November. Spix then traveled
tius (1828, p. 541, footnote 3). Current scientific names
alone up the Solimoes to Tabatinga at the Peru-
to species only are used. The Spix and Martius usage of
vian border, arriving 9 January 1820. Martius, for local, German, and scientific names is too confused for
his part, ascended the Rio Japura to Araracuara tabulation. The arrangement is phylogenetic.
in eastern Colombia.
Marsupialia
Spix returned to Manaus on 3 February 1820.
On 1 1 February he ascended the Rio Negro to Caluromys philander Linnaeus
Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus
Barcelos and was back again in Manaus 28 Feb-
Primates
ruary to continue his travels downstream to Be-
Callithrix jacchus Linnaeus
lem, where he arrived on 16 April. He embarked
Cebus apella Linnaeus
on 14 June 1820 for Europe from Rio de Janeiro Alouatta fusca E. GeofTroy
(fig. 5). Alouatta caraya Humboldt
In the Reise. Spix and Martius (1828, p. 541)
Edentata
made up an impressive list of the mammals of the Tamandua tetradactyla Linnaeus
sertao (scrub country) of Campos Gerais de Sao Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus
Felipe in the angle between the Rio Sao Francisco Bradypus torquatus Desmarest
and eastern tributary, the Rio Verde Grande,
its Bradypus variegatus Schinz
northern Minas Gerais. The data were evidently Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus
Tolypeutes tricinctus Linnaeus
compiled uncritically from a number of sources, Priodontes maximus Kerr
including local informers, personal observations, Euphractus sexcinctus Linnaeus
and publications based on the Wied-Neuwied Carnivora
(1826) collections. Their use and misuse of names Dusicyon thous Linnaeus
are too involved to unravel here. Except for the Chrysocyon brachyurus Illiger
missing bats (given elsewhere by Spix, 1823) and Nasua nasua Linnaeus
some small rodents, it is unlikely that a similar or Procyon cancrivorus G. Cuvier
Conepatus chinga Molina
larger number of mammalian species of the area, Eira barbara Linnaeus
based on actual specimens, could be made today. Pteronura brasiliensis Gmelin
The sertao mammals of the Spix and Martius ex- Felis wiedii Schinz
Felis tigrina Schreber
pedition are listed in Table 3 by current scientific
Felis pardalis Linnaeus
names of the species only, with the Spix and Mar-
Felis concolor Linnaeus
tius equivalents omitted. Felis onca Linnaeus
In his journey up the Amazon, Spix noted habits Felis yagouaroundi E. Geoffroy
of the inia {Inia geoffrensis) (Spix &, Martius, 1831, Perissodactvla
p. 1 1 1 9) and of the manatees (Trichechus inunguis) Tapirus terrestris Linnaeus
(Spix & Martius, 1831, p. 1122).
Artiodactyla
The results of the expedition are recorded in
Mazama gouazoubira Fischer
several publications, including theSimiarum et Mazama americana Erxleben
Vespertilionum Brasiliensium by Spix (1823). The Blastoceros bezoarticus Linnaeus
account of the nearly three-year journey or Reise Lagomorpha
in Brazil by Spix and Martius (1823-1831) is re-
Sylvilagus brasiliensis Linnaeus
plete with observations on the biology, geography, RODENTIA
geology, paleontology, mineralogy, meteorology, Sciurus aestuans Linnaeus
and the various human cultures and industries of Wiedomys pyrrhorhinos Wied-Neuwied
the parts of the country they traveled. Many kinds Echimys and/or Proechimys species?
of mammals are mentioned, but except for bats Myocastor coypus Molina
Kerodon rupestris Wied-Neuwied
and monkeys, few of them were collected.
Cavia aperea Linnaeus
Thezoological material actually collected con- Dasyprocta leporina Linnaeus
sisted of thousands of invertebrates and 498 species Agouti paca Linnaeus
of vertebrates, of which 34 were monkeys and 15 Coendou insidiosus Kuhl
bats. Altogether, according to Avila Pires (1974, Chaetomys subspinosus Olfers
p. 139), 85 species of mammals were collected.
Spix (1823) reported only on the monkeys and bats

and illustrated in color the types of all species.

d.
c 5?
11
c 5
1^
2 i"
•S
Table 4. Monkeys (Primates) of the Spix and Martius Expedition described by Spix (1823); the arrangement is
phyiogenetic.
Current name Spix and Martius synonym Figure
Cebuella pygmaea Spix, 1 823

Callithrix jacchus jacchus Linnaeus, 1758 Jacchus albicollis Spix, 1 823
Callithrix jacchus penicillatus E. Geoffroy, 1812
Saguinus bicolor bicolor Spix, 1823
Saguinus fuscicollis fuscicollis Spix, 1823
Saguinus mystax mystax Spix, 1823
Saguinus nigricollis nigricollis Spix, 1 823
Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi Pucheran, 1845 Midas oedipus (varietas), Spix, 1823
Callicebus cupreus Spix, 1823
Callicebus personatus personatus E. Geoffroy, 1812
Callicebus personatus nigrifrons Spix, 1 823
Callicebus personatus melanochir Kuhl, 1820 Callithrix gigot Spix, 1823
Callicebus torquatus torquatus Hoffmannsegg, 1 807 Callithrix amicta E. Geoffroy, 1812
Callicebus cinerascens Spix, 1823
Aotus vociferans Spix, 1 823
Actus azarae infulatus Kuhl, 1820 Nyctipithecus felinus Spix, 1823
Pithecia monachus monachus E. Geoffroy, 1812 Pithecia hirsuta Spix, 1823;
Pithecia inusta Spix, 1823
Pithecia pithecia pithecia Linnaeus, 1 766 Pithecia capillamentosa Spix, 1823
Chiropotes satanas chiropotes Humboldt, 1812 Brachyurus israelita Spix, 1 823
Cacajao melanocephalus ouakary Spix, 1823
Alouatta caraya Humboldt, 1812 Mycetes barbatus Spix, 1823
Alouatta belzebul discolor Spix, 1823
Alouatta fusca Spix, 1823
Alouatta seniculus stramineus Humboldt, 1812
Cebus albifrons unicolor Spix, 1 823 Cebus gracilis Spix, 1823
Cebus apella libidinosus Spix, 1823
Cebus apella macrocephalus Spix, 1823
Cebus apella xanthosternos Wied-Neuwied, 1 820 Cebus cucullatus Spix, 1823;
Cebus xanthocephalus Spix, 1823
Lagothrix lagothricha lagothricha Humboldt, 1812 Gastrimargus infumatus Spix, 1823
Lagothrix lagothricha carta E. Geoffroy, 1812 Gastrimargus olivaceus Spix, 1 823
Brachyteles arachnoides E. Geoffroy, 1 806 Brachyteles macrotarsus Spix, 1 823
most life-size. Separate reports on all groups of Rio de Janeiro, Wied-Neuwied left for Cabo Frio
animals collected by Spix have been brought to- on 15 August 1815, stopping at many fazendas
gether in a Festschrift in his honor edited by Tie- and villages along the way. He left Cabo Frio on
fenbacher (1983). The mammals are treated by 8 September for Sao Salvador dos Campos dos
Kraft (1983). Goitacazes (now simply Campos) on the Rio Pa-
The 31 presently recognized species and sub- raiba, and arrived on 25 September. After more
species of monkeys ( 1 5 new) and the 1 4 recognized excursions and more collections in the state of Rio
species of bats (six new) are listed in Tables 4 and de Janeiro, he crossed the Rio Itabapoana on 26
5 by current names with synonyms in parentheses. November into the state of Espirito Santo. A con-
siderable amount of time was devoted there to
explorations of the Rio Doce region. February 1816
Maximilian Prinz von Wied-Neuwied (1782-1867) saw Wied-Neuwied where he occupied
in Bahia,
himself until May 1817. The
town of Bel-
coastal
Maximilian Prinz von Wied-Neuwied was bom monte, where he arrived in August 1816, was the
in Prussia and studied biological sciences at the base for explorations of Botocudo Indian territory.
University of Gottingen under the famous natu- In December 1816 Wied-Neuwied established II-
ralist-anthropologist Blumenbach. His ambition heus as center for travel westward to Sao Pedro
to travel and study nature in South America was de Alcantara, now Itabuna, and the border of Mi-
realized when he sailed for Rio de Janeiro from nas Gerais. On 1
May Wied-Neuwied embarked
England the first week of May 1815, and arrived atSalvador for Lisbon, then transshipped to Ger-
on 17 July. many through an English port.
After a few excursions in the surroundings of Wied-Neuwied's itinerary is difficult to track be-

Table 5. Bats (Chiroptera) of the Spix and Martius Expedition described by Spix (1823); the arrangement is
phylogenetic.
Current name Spix and Martins synonym
Rhynchonycteris naso Wied-Neuwied, 1820 Proboscidea rivalis Spix, 1 823;

Proboscidea saxatilis Spix, 1 823
Noctilio albiventris albiventris Desmarest, 1818 Noctilio albiventer Spix, 1823
Noctilio leporinus leporinus Linnaeus, 1 758 Noctilio rufiis Spix, 1823
Tonatia bidens Spix, 1823
Trachops cirrhosus Spix. 1823
Glossophaga sohcina Pallas, 1 766 Glossophaga amplexicaudata Spix, 1823
Carollia perspiciUata Linnaeus, 1758 Vampynts soricinus Spix, 1823
Artibeus planirostris Spix, 1 823
DiphyUa Spix, 1823
Diphylla ecaudata Spix, 1 823
Thyroptera Spix. 1 823
Thyroptera tricolor Spix, 1823
Eptesicm brasiliensis Desmarest, 1823
Promops nasutus Spix Molossus fumarius Spix, 1823
Molossus ater E. Geoffroy, 1 805 Molossus ursinids Spix, 1823
cause of his many roundabout journeys and short low palm {Allagoptera pumila and others)-
excursions with too few dates for fixing comings covered sandy coastal districts not far from
and goings. To add to the difficulty, the names of the mouth of the Espirito Santo. . . .
many localitieshe visited no longer exist or were

never plotted on any official map; a few names The following excerpt of Wied-Neuwied's
have changed. Bokermann's (1957) gazetteer of (1826, p. 161) observations on the golden lion
nearly all localities of the Reise, with page refer- tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia rosalia Linnaeus)
ences to their mention in Wied-Neuwied's works, brings together his observations on distribution,
is indispensable for study of the naturalist's op- habits, habitat, food, and reproduction:
erations in Brazil.
Wied-Neuwied was interested in all aspects of The sahuim vermelho is nowhere abundant;
nature, but the fauna and Indians engaged most we saw only single individuals or family
of his attention. His species accounts are models groups, particularly in the Serra da Inua, the
of precision, his descriptions detailed, and com- forests of Sao Joao, and in the hilly forest
parisons where needed are made with published surrounding Ponta Negra and Gurupina. The
descriptions by Humboldt, Azara, Buffon, and animal lives just as well on bushy sandy
others. The bibliographic
references to the species plains as in the high mountain forests. It
are complete. Observations of habitats and repro- feeds on fruits and insects and hides from
duction are carefully recorded, and geographic strangers by disappearing into the leafy tree-
range usually given with circumspection. Wied-
is tops. One or two young are produced at a
Neuwied's account of Geoffi"oy's tufted-ear mar- birth. The female carries the offspring on her
moset (his Hapale leucocephalus) is an example back or at her breasts [when suckling] until
(my translation): they are strong enough to follow her on their

own. Any excitement causes them to erect
. . .
I found it in the state of Espirito Santo. I the long hair surrounding their faces. In gen-
am unable to determine if it extends north eral, however, their habits are similar to those
of the Rio Doce or beyond as I could not of other sahuis.
hunt often in the dark forests of this river
because of the Botocudo Indians. I can Wied-Neuwied also accurately delimited the
therefore state that the habitat of this species distribution of the subspecies Leontopithecus ro-
lies between 20° and 21" south latitude. The salia chrysomelas and added information on hab-
animal is common of the Rio
in the forests itsand reproduction. Wied-Neuwied notes (1826,
Espirito Santo, especially in the outlying bush p. 1 59) that "sahuis bom in Europe are carried by
and the mangue bush {Conocarpus and Av- the father but I have never seen this here."
icennis) bordering the river, as well as in the Although generally careful in interpreting his
". ^....
Fig. 7. Some animals of the Wied-Neuwied Brazilian expedition: upper left, Hapale chrysomelas Wied-Neuwied
(= Leontopithecus rosalia chrysomelas), possibly the holotype; upper right, Mus pyrrhorhinos Wied-Neuwied (=
fViedomys pyrrhorhinos), possibly the holotype; lower left, Desmodus rufus Wied-Neuwied (= Desmodus rotundus
E. Geoffroy); lower right, Felis macroura Wied-Neuwied (= Felis wiedii Schinz), possibly the holotype; from Wied-
Neuwied (1822-1831).
data, Wied-Neuwied could arrive at unwarranted mouth of innocent phyllostomine bats as adap-
conclusions. Among the bats collected, the leaf- tations for blood-sucking. Ironically, Wied-Neu-
nosed Phyllostomus hastatus was largest and for wied (1824, 1826) later described and figured the
this reason was regarded as a blood-sucking vam- external and dental characters of a bat he named
pire, although Wied-Neuwied found only insects Desmodus rufus, unaware it was a real blood-suck-
and no blood in the stomach of this or any other ing vampire.Wied-Neuwied noted, however, that
bat he had examined. After confessing he had nev- he had no opportunity to observe the live animal,
er seen a bat feed on blood, he correctly blamed because it had been captured and prepared as a
the large bats seen fluttering around the pack mules specimen by assistants during his absence. The
at night for causing them to appear next morning food and habits of this bat, he believed, were no
covered with blood. Convinced in his judgment, different from those of other bats.
he described the wartlike excrescences around the The mammals of Wied-Neuwied's Brazilian ex-

pedition are described or recorded in several pub- imals as museum specimens. In 1 8 1 6 he was em-
lications. Those under Wied-Neuwied's own name ployed as assistant in the Imperial Natural History
are found in Isis ( 1 820, 1821), the Reise nach Bra- Museum of Vienna and in 1817 was appointed
silien in two volumes ( 1 820, 1821), the Abbildun- member of an expedition to investigate the Bra-
gen zur Naturgeschichte Brasi liens 822-1 83 1 see ( 1 , He arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 5
zilian biota.
fig. 7 for some samples), and the four-volume Bei- November accompanied by Mikan and Pohl, both
trdge zur Naturgeschichte von Brasilien. The first naturalists, and Schott, a botanist. Within a year
volume of the last title is on reptiles, the second Mikan, Sochor, a hunter, and two artists who were
on mammals ( 1 826), the third and fourth on birds. to accompany Natterer, retumed to Europe. Pohl
diagnoses and binomials that Wied-Neu-

Some and Schott retumed in 1821.
wied proposed for new forms received duly ac- Natterer was primarily a bird collector, but his
knowledged advance publication by Kuhl (1820) interest in collecting extended to mammals, other
and Schinz (1821). Authorship of such newly vertebrates, insects, and parasitic helminths. He
named forms continues to be attributed to Wied- traveled light and, as a rule, worked alone or with
Neuwied, according to Articles 1 1 and 50 of the few native helpers (Ihering, 1 902). He collected in
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. most of the eastem coastal states and in Mato
In the few cases where Kuhl or Schinz proposed Grosso and the Amazonian region between the
names other than those used by Wied-Neuwied, Rios Tapajos and Madeira and in the Rio Negro
authorship is determined by priority. basin north of the Rio Amazonas (fig. 8). His main
The actual number of mammals collected by base for the first five years was Ipanema, Sao Pau-
Wied-Neuwied is unknown. According to him, they lo. His itinerary— with goings and comings, side
represented 82 species, but the number recognized trips, short stopovers in some sites, long delays in
today as valid is 7 1 The specimens were preserved
. others— was arranged chronologically by Pelzeln
in his private museum, but duplicates were dis- (1871,1883) into "Reisen" (or journeys), with dates
tributed to the natural history museums of Berlin, given for all points visited, and is summarized
Frankfurt, Leiden, and Paris. After Wied-Neu- below. Only general areas or terminal points and
wied's death, the remainder of the collection was inclusive dates are given.
sold, and the American Museum
of Natural His-
tory in New York acquired a part in 1869. Avila Johann Natterer's Brazilian Reisen, 1817-1835.
Pires ( 1 965, p. 3) affirms that fewer than 600 spec- I. Rio de Janeiro, 5 November 1817 to 1 No-
imens of the original collection are registered in vember 1818.

the catalogue of mammals of the New York in- II. Eastem Sao Paulo, 2 November 1818 to
stitution. Of these, only 38 skins and 16 skulls are March 1820.

of South American origin. Included are holotypes III.Southern Sao Paulo to boundary between
(or syntypes) of Didelphis aurita Wied-Neuwied, Rio Grande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro, July
Didelphis cinerea Temminck, Molossus plecotus 1820 to 1 February 1821.
Wied-Neuwied, Phyllostoma brevicaudum Wied- IV. Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, 1 February to
Neuwied, Vespertilio leucogaster Wied-Neuwied, September 1822.
Vespertilionaso Wied-Neuwied, Hypudeus dasy- V. Northern Sao Paulo, Goias, eastem Mato
trichos Wied-Neuwied, and Mus pyrrhorhinos Grosso, Minas Gerais, October 1822 to 31
Wied-Neuwied. December 1824.
Table 6 mammalian species recorded by
lists all VI. Mato Grosso, January 1825 to July 1829.
Wied-Neuwied. Current names are used; syn- VII. Mato Grosso, Rio Madeira, and upper trib-
onyms used by Wied-Neuwied are included. utaries to Borba in Amazonas (Capitania
Rio Negro), 15 July 1829 to June 1830.
VIII.Borba to Rio Negro, Rio Casiquiare, Ven-
Johann Natterer (1787-1843) ezuelan border, retum to Barcelos and Bor-
ba, June 1830 to 31 August 1830.
Johann Natterer, bom near Vienna, was well IX. Rio Negro from Barcelos to Rio Branco, 5
schooled in the sciences, especially biology, and September 1831 to 2 July 1832; Barra do
in modem languages and illustration. Natterer's Rio Negro, 29 August 1832 to 7 July 1834;
father, the imperial falconer and collector of birds Rio Tapajos, August 1834.
and insects, taught him to hunt and preserve an- X. Para, Maranhao, Rio Grande, Paraiba, Per-
/yj/__/"/»«-»r ornt .\tm^ni6er A*!// <»«.»<'
'
6fx Ar^rintr fS'2/
/«y.//r/«- /«;'/< 17'f/l'ri.
./mm /îfA/jt . 1ntft,*l /xV
1/:^/- /S'y? .-r -IZ
Fig. 8. Map of Brazil showing routes of Johann Natterer (bold line); from [brother of Johann] Natterer (1833,
Oken's Isis, heft VI, pi. 14).
nambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, September Natterer's enormous collections were sent to the
1834 to September 1835 (no mammal col- Vienna museum and, except for the birds and
lections). mammals, were never fully reported. His friend
Sailed for Europe 15 September 1835. Andreas Wagner (1797-1861) described most of

Table 6. Brazilian mammals recorded by Wied-Neuwied (1826) with some figured in the Abbildungen (1822-
1831); the arrangement is phylogenetic.
Current name Wied-Nenwied synonym Figure
Marsupiaua
Afarmosa murina Linnaeus, 17S8
Marmosa cinerea Temminck, 1 824
Philander opossum frenata Olfers, 1818 Didelphys myosuros Temminck. 1 825
Didelphis marsupialis aurita Wied-Neuwied, 1826 Didelphis marsupialis. Wied-Neuwied, 1826, not
Linnaeus
Chiroptera
Rhynchonyaeris naso Wied-Neuwied. 1820 (Reise)
Centronyaeris maximiliani Fischer, 1 829 Vespertilio caJcaratus Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz,
1821, not Rafinesque, 1818
Peropteryx macrotis Wagner. 1843 Vespertilio caninus Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz,
1821, not Blumenbach, 1797
Diclidurus albus Wied-Neuwied, 1819 Diclidurus freyreissii Wied-Neuwied
1822, Abbild.
Noctilio leporinus Linnaeus, 1 758 Noctilio dorsatus Desmarest, 1818; Noctilio
unicolor Desmarest, 1818
Xfacrophyllum macrophyllum Wied-Neuwied, in
Schinz, 1821
Phyllostomus hastatus Pallas, 1867
PhvUostomus obscunis Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz, Artibeus planirostris Spix, 1823
i821
Glossophaga soricina 766
Pallas, 1
Glossophaga amplexicaudata E. Geoflftoy, 1818
Anoura caudifera 1818
E. Geoffrey,
CaroUia brevicauda Wied-Neuwied, 1821 Phyllostoma bernicaudum {sic) Wied-Neuwied,
in Schinz, 1821
Carollia perspicillata Linnaeus, 1 758 Phyllostoma brachyotos (sic) Wied-Neuwied,
in Schinz, 1821
Artibeus liturcaus 0\fcT%, 1818 Phyllostoma superciliatum Wied-Neuwied,
in Schinz, 1821
Desmodus rotundus E. Geoffiroy, 1810 Rhinolophus ecaudatus Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz,
1821; ZJesmorfus rw^ Wied-Neuwied, 1824
Myotis albescens E. Geoflfroy, 1806 Vespertilio leucogaster Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz,
1821
Myotis nigricans Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz, 1821
Eumops perotis Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz, 1 82 1
Primates
Callithrix jacchus penicillatus E. Geoffix)y, 1812 Hapale penicillatus kuhlii Wied-Neuwied, 1826
p. 142)*
Callithrix jacchus geoffroyi Humboldt, 1812 Hapale leucocephalus Kuhlii (sic), Wied-Neuwied,
1826t
Leontopithecus rosalia chrysomelas Kuhl, 1 820
Leontopithecus rosalia rosalia Linnaeus, 1758
Callicebm personatus persoruUus E. GeoflSroy, 1812
Callicebus personatus melanochir Wied-Neuwied,
1820 (Reise)
Alouatta caraya Humboldt, 1812 Mycetes niger Kuhl, 1820
Alouatta fusca E. Geoffroy, 1812 Mycetes ursinus Humboldt, 1812, not Humboldt,
1805
Cebus apella nigritus Goldfiiss, 1 809 Cebus cirrifer E. Geoffroy, 1812, not Cebus fatuel-
lus Linnaeus
Cebus apella robustus Kuhl, 1 820
Cebus apella xanthostemos Wied-Neuwied, 1820 ? Cebus flavus E. Geoffroy, 1812
(Reise)
Brachyteles arachnoides E. Geoflfroy, 1806 Ateles hypothanthus Kuhl, 1820
Edentata
Tamarulua tetradactyla Linnaeus, 1758
Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus, 1758 Myrmecophaga jubata Linnaeus, 1766
Edentata
Bradypus torquatus Desmarest, 1816 Bradypus tridactylus Wied-Neuwied, 1826, not
Linnaeus, 1758
Table 6. Continued.
Current name Wied-Neuwied synonym Figure
Cabassous unicinctus Linnaeus, 1758

Euphractus sexcinctus Linnaeus, 1758 Dasypus setosus Wied-Neuwied, 1 826; Dasypus
gilvipes Illiger, 1815
Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus, 1 758 Dasypus longicaudus Vîcd-Neuwied, 1826
Priodontes maximus Kerr, 1 792 Dasypus gigas Cuvier, 1822
Carnivora
Dusicyon thous brasiliensis Wied-Neuwied, in Canis azarae Wied-Neuwied, 1 823
Schinz, 1821
Chrysocyon brachyurus Illiger, 1815 Canis campestris Wied-Neuwied, 1826
Nasua nasua solitaria Wied-Neuwied, in Schinz, Wied-Neuwied, 1826
AâsMfl 50c/a//5
1821
Procyon cancrivorus G. Cuvier, 1 798
Potosflavus nocturnus Wied-Neuwied, 1826
Eira barbara Linnaeus, 1758 Mustela gulina Wied-Ncuwied, 1821
Pteronura brasiliensis Gmelin, 1 788
Felis wiedii Schinz, 1821 Felix macroura Wied-Neuwied, 1 823
Felis pardalis mitis F. Cuvier, 1820 Felis pardalis. Wied-Neuwied, 1826
Felis yagouaroundi eyra Fischer, 1814 Felis yaguarundi, Wied-Neuwied, 1 826
Felis concolor Linnaeus, 1 77 1
Felis onca Linnaeus, 1758 Felis brasiliensis Wied-Neuwied, 1 82 1
SiRENIA
Trichechus manatus lAnnditns, 1758 Manatus americanus Link, 1795
Perissodactyla
Tapirus terrestris lArmaitxis, 1758 Tapirus americanus Gmelin, 1788
Artiodactyla
Tayassu tajacu Linnaeus, 1758 Dicotyles torquatus Cuvier, 1817
Tayassu pecari Link, 1795
Mazama gouazoubira Fischer, 1814 Cervus simplicicornis Illiger, 1815
Mazama americana Er\\ehcn, Mil Cervus rufus Cuvier, 1817
Blastoceros bezoarticus Linnaeus, 1758 Cervus campestris 'Wied-Nexxwied, 1826,
not Cuvier, 1817
Blastocerus dichotomus Illiger, 1815 Cervus paludosus Desmarest, 1 822
Lagomorpha
Sylvilagus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758
RODENTIA
Sciurus aestuans Linnaeus, 1 766
Wiedomys pyrrhorhinos Wied-Neuwied, 1821
(Reise)
Oxymycterus rufus dasytrichos Wied-Neuwied, Hypudeus dasytrichos Wied-Neuwied, 1826
in Schinz, 1821
Proechimys myosuros Lichtenstein, 1818
Cavia aperea Erxleben, 1 777
Kerodon rupestris Wied-Neuwied, 1820 (Isis)
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Linnaeus, 1 766
Dasyprocta leporina aguti Linnaeus, 1 766
Agouti paca Linnaeus, 766 1
Coendou insidiosus Olfers, 1818

Chaetomys subspinosus Olfers, 1818
* The name is a
correctly formed trinomial but this form was not in use at the time, and Wied-Neuwied used no
trinomials elsewhere in his publications on Brazilian mammals.
t The name appears to be a trinomial although the patronymic, properly in the genitive, is not italicized. Most
likely Wied-Neuwied meant to cite Kuhl for this and the preceding taxon as authority for his use of the names in
question. It was common practice at the time to cite the author who replaced an earlier generic name with a different
one.

the new mammalian species in a series of reports the Guianas but were not mentioned by Barrere
published in the Archivfur Naturgeschichte ( 1 842, are the golden handed tamarin {Saguinus midas),
1843), in the Abhandlungen der Akademie .Vfiin- red brocket (Mazama americana), red acuchi (A/y-
chen ( 1 847-1 849), and his supplementary volumes oprocta exilis), tayra (Eira barbard), white-lipped
of Schreber's Sdugethiere (1840-1855). Finally, peccary (Tayassu pecari), and silky anteater (Cy-
Pelzeln (1883) brought together most, if not all, clopes didactylus).
available taxonomic, descriptive, and geographic
data in a single report. Natterer intended to work
up the entire collection himself, but died within a Jose Gumilla (d. 1750)
few years of his return to Europe. His journal, with
notes on habits, reproduction, and anatomy of the A natural history and geography of the Rio Ori-
Brazilian animals collected, was lost. noco region in Spanish, published by Father Jose
Natterer collected 78 specimens of mammals,
1
Gumilla, provides interesting, but largely erratic,
representing more than half (58%) of the currently descriptions of the countryside and human inhab-
known Brazilian genera and nearly as many (44%) itants, but nothing of interest regarding native
of the species (table 3). Most poorly represented mammals. Gumilla's explorations of the interior
and mouse opossums. Had Natterer
are bats, mice, ledhim to deny the reported existence of a con-
been equipped with suitable traps and trammel nection between waters of the Orinoco and Negro
nets known at the time but not used in fieldwork, rivers.
he might have collected nearly all the mammalian
genera and species now known to occur in Brazil.
Still, his collection represented more species and
Jacques Nicolas Bellin (1703-1772)
included t\pes of more new species than had been
collected in Brazil by anyone else in the century,
The description of the Guianan possessions of
or p)ossibIy at any time.
France, Spain, Holland, and Portugal, from the
The numbers of genera and species of mammals
Orinoco River to the Amazonas River, by Jacques
collected by Natterer, as identified by Pelzeln Nicolas Bellin, published in 1763, contains infor-
(1883), are listed in Table 7. The totals are com-
mation on natural history, but adds nothing note-
pared with the numbers currently recognized, some
worthy to the then-known mammalian fauna.
genera having been increased and some species
eliminated by synonymy. The revised numbers of
genera and species are shown, in turn, as percent-
Edward Bancroft (1744-1821)
ages of the estimated total numbers of currently
known Brazilian genera and species of mammals.
The English physician Edward Bancroft lived
three years in Dutch Guiana, now Suriname, prac-
ticing medicine and gathering notes for his Essay
on the Natural History of Guiana. The work, pub-
lished in 1 769, deals broadly with plants and an-
VII. Guianas: Mammalogy to End of
18th Century imals, but the author's knowledge of mammals
was mostly limited to hearsay, although he also
Pierre Barrere (1690-1755) made some observations on animals brought to
him by natives or seen in captivity or during short
The physician, botanist, and correspondent of walks into the countryside. Persistent reports of
the French Royal Academy of Sciences, Pierre the existence of apes or ape-men in South America
Barrere, resided three years (1752-1755) in Cay- were recounted by Bancroft (p. 1 30) in these terms:
enne, with instructions to prepare a detailed report
on the natural history of French Guiana. The The Orang-Outang of Guiana is much larger
work he finally published in 174 1 however, is no
, than either the African or the Oriental, if the
more than an abbreviated glossary- of Guianan accounts of the natives may be relied on; for
minerals, plants. moUusks, fishes, reptiles, birds, I do not find that any of them have been
and mammals. The list of mammals was uncrit- seen by the White inhabitants of this coast,
ically compiled from Marcgraf and others. Species who never penetrate far into the woods.
previously recorded by early chroniclers from the These animals, in all the different languages
lower Rio Orinoco region which occur throughout of the Natives, are called by names signi-
Table 7. Numbers of mammalian genera and species Table 7. Continued.
collected by Johann Natterer in Brazil, 1817-1835, based
on Pelzeln (1883), and compared with currently known
totals.
(probably Nectomys squamipes). The carnivores numerous observations and dissections, he failed
include tayra, otter, jaguar, puma, margay, ocelot, to solve the mystery of marsupial birth.
and two kinds of bush dogs (Dusicyon thous and Bajon's monographic account of the tapir {Tap-
possibly Speothos venaticus). Monkeys are Sa- irus terrestris) includes detailed, but not always
guinus midas, Saimiri sciureus, Pithecia pithecia, accurate, descriptions of anatomy, reproduction,
Chiropotes satanas, Cebus apella, Alouatta seni- development, behavior, food, vocalization, hunt,
culus, Ateles paniscus. and variants of some of and human utilization.
them regarded as distinct species. African simians
introduced with the slave trade and mentioned by
Marcgraf are included. The ungulates are tapir,
brocket {Mazama americana), and the collared John Gabriel Stedman (1744-1797)
and white-lipped peccaries.
Regarding white-lipped peccaries, Fermin af- A soldier of the Scots Brigade of the Nether-
firms they form herds of as many as 300 individ- lands, John Gabriel Stedman arrived in Suriname
uals. Hunters, he states, tremble when they hear in 1773 to help subdue the uprising of the African
the sound of their clicking tusks. When attacked, slaves. Most of the fighting was already over when
only two avenues of escape are open: The first is he landed, so Stedman devoted much of his time
a tree, if it can be climbed; the second and surest to recording his observations of life in the country
is standing ground and urinating, the odor of the and wilderness. His Narrative, published in 1 796
urine, he affirms, being a powerful peccary repel- in two volumes, contains much on the natural
lant. history of Suriname, with illustrations by his own
hand (fig. 9). The mammals, some only listed, oth-
ers described, often with anecdotes, are the fol-
Monsieur Bajon (1763?) lowing. Stedman used local names, current bino-
mials are in parentheses.
The French physician, surgeon, and anatomist
Bajon, with 2 years' residence in French Guiana,
1 Volume I, p. 14. Narwhal (Monodon monoceros).
investigated climate, agriculture, natural history, Sighted from shipboard at Devil's Island off
and human diseases. The knowledge he gained was Cayenne. ". appeared but six or eight feet
. .
acquired firsthand, much of it new

or supplemen- in length, and
its horn about four. The . . .
tary to what was already contained in the ency- narwhal ... is more frequently found in cold
clopedic volumes on natural history by Buffon and than warm climates. The female is said to be
Daubenton. unprovided with that protuberance so re-
In the second of his two-volume work, Bajon markable in the male. It appears that some
(1778, p. 178) declared that, contrary to popular authors have confounded this animal with the
belief, the jaguar feared man and did not attack sword-fish, to which however it does not prove
without provocation. His accounts of habits and to have the very smallest resemblance."
detailed descriptions of intestinal morphology and The locality record for the circumpolar narwhal
female genitalia of peccaries supplement Dauben- is unexpected, and no doubt erroneous.
ton's (in Buffon) gross anatomy of a male collared Nevertheless, Stedman's description is accu-
peccary. Bajon clarified the differences between rate albeit the dimensions given seem small.
the agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) and acouchi {My- At the same time, Stedman provided a de-
oprocta exilis). He described the male agouti penis, tailed description and good figure of a sword-
with its peculiar complement of spines, erectile fish or sawfish to prove it was not a sawfish
spears, and sharp blades. Descriptions with life he saw!

history notes are given for the chien sauvage {Du- Volume I, p. 153, pi. 16. Sicapo (Bradypus tri-
sicyon thous), eira {Eira barbara), and chien cra- dactylus).

bier (Procyon cancrivorus). Marsupials fascinated Volume I, p. 153, pi. 16. Dago luyaree (Choloepus
him, particularly the role of the pouch in females didactylus).
of the pean {Didelphis marsupialis), quatre-ouel Volume I, p. 153. Ourang-outang.
(Philander opossum), and also the pouchless rat have never seen, nor heard described, while
"I
de bois {Marmosa sp.). The commonly held belief I was in this country. ." . .
that each didelphid young is bom and develops at Volume I, p. 166, pi. 18. Micoo or mecoo {Cebus
the end of a teat was rejected by Bajon, but despite apella) (fig. 9).
•^
Volume I, p. 166, pi. 18. Kessee-keesee or kishee Volume II, p. 10, pi. 42. Quata or Quato (Ateles
kishee (Saimiri sciureus) (fig. 9). paniscus).
Volume I, p. 167. Monkee-monkee {Saguinus mi- "Their throwing short sticks and excrements
das). seems to be no more than a mimicking of the
"One morning I saw from my barge a monkey human actions without any purpose, as they
of this kind come down to the water's edge, neither have strength to throw far, nor dex-
rinsing his mouth, and appearing to clean his terity to hit their objects, and if they befoul
teeth with one of his fingers." them it is by accident only. But what appears
Volume I, Tavous (Lutra enudris).
p. 168. to be peculiarly remarkable is, that when one
Volume I, 221. Sea-cow (Trichechus manatus).
p. ishurt by a musket or arrow, the poor animal
About three in the morning while asleep in a instantly claps its hand on the wound, looks
boat, Stedman and a companion were sud- at the blood,and with the most piteous lam-
denly thrown from their bunks. entations ascends to the very top of the tree,
"By the account of the negroes [a manati had] in which he is assisted by his companions;
slept under the boat, which, by the creature's where, hanging by the tail, he continues to
awakening, had been lifted up and thrown bewail his fate, till by the loss of blood he
upon one side, and again replaced when the grows totally faint, and drops down dead at
manati made its escape from underneath. I the feet of his adversaries.
did not so much as see the creature, nor in- "It is not so extraordinary that one of this species,
deed hardly had the negro, owing to the dark- when wounded, should be assisted by one of
ness of the night." his companions in climbing; but that they
Volume I, p. Capasce (Dasypus no-
222, pi. 24. should have so much knowledge in botany,
vemcinctus); largest armadillo (Priodontes as to procure vulnerary herbs, and chew and
maximus). apply them to the wound, is what I cannot
Volume I, p. 223, pi. 24. Adjora (Coendou pre- credit, though it is so confidently asserted by
hensilis). a late traveller; and as to the assistance they
Volume I, p. 224. Hedge-hog (spiny rat, family give in passing a river, by holding each others
Echimyidae). tails, and swinging till the lowermost is thrown
Volume I, p. 308, pi. 33. Bajew {Odocoileus vir- up to the branch of a high tree ... I must take
ginianus, adult male and spotted fawn); boo- the liberty to doubt this fact. . . .
see-cabritta (Negro), wirrebocerra (Indian) Volume II, p. 12. Wanacoe (Pithecia pithecia,
(Mazama americana, large spotted female, male).
smaller spotted fawn). "This monkey is the only one of the species
Volume I, p. 347. Coney coney (Negro), puccarara [monkeys] that is not sociable, being constant-
{Dasyprocta leporina). ly found alone, and so despicable is this sol-
Volume I, p. 355, pi. 37. Pingo (Tayassu pecari). itary animal, that he is continually beaten and
"They live in herds of sometimes above three robbed of his food by all the others, from
hundred and run always in a line, the one whom he is too lazy to escape, though too
closely following the other; when the foremost cowardly to fight."
or leader shot, the line is instantly broken,
is Volume II, p. 12. Saccawinkee {Callithrix jacchus
and the whole herd is in confusion, for which jacchus).
reason the Indians take care (if possible) to [Common marmosets were brought from Brazil
knock their captain on the head before the for the pet market. They are not native to the
rest; after this the others even often stand still, Guianan region.]
stupidly looking at one another, and allowing Volume II, Brown squirrel (Sciurus
pp. 16-17.
themselves to be killed one by one, of which aestuans); white squirrel (Sciurus aestuans,
I have been a witness.
They do not attack the albinotic); flying squirrel (probably mistaken
human species, or make any resistance at all, impression of a leaping pygmy squirrel, Sci-
like the European wild-boar, when wounded, urillus pusillus).
as has been by some authors erroneously as- Volume II, p. 40, pi. 46. Taibo, woodrat (My-
serted." oprocta exilis).
Volume I, p. 355. Peccary (Tayassu tajacu). The description is better than the figure which
Volume I, p. 356. Cras pingo {Sus scrofa). suggests a doglike marsupial.
42 HELDIANA: ZCX)LOGY
Volume II, p. 41, pi. 46. Crabbo-dago {Galictis Volume II, p. 327, pi. 74. Quacy-quacy (Nasua
vittata). nasua).
Volume 49, pi. 48. Tyger (Felis onca).
II, p. Volume II, p. 328, pi. 74. Great ant-eater (Myr-
"It has even happened that Ihe jaguar has car- mecophaga tridactyla).
ried off young negro women at work in the Volume II, p. 329. Tamandua (Tamandua tetra-
field, and too frequently their children." dactyla).

Volume II, p. 50. Red tyger (Felis concolor). Volume II, p. 329. Fourmillier (Cyclopes didac-
Volume II, p. 50, pi. 48. Tyger-cat (Felis pardalis). tylus).
Volume II, p. 5 Jaguaretta (melanistic Felis onca).
1 .
"I have never seen one."

Volume II, p. 135. Cabiai (Hydrochaeris hydro- VIII. Guianas: Mammalogy of First
chaeris). Half of 19th Century
Volume II, p. 142, pi. 57. Vampire or spectre
(Vampyrum spectrum). Sir RobertHerman Schomburgk (1804-1865)
Figured are a flying bat and a side view of a and Richard Schomburgk (1811-1891)
truncated head that had been preserved in
spirits.Stedman, while asleep, had been bitten Robert Herman Schomburgk was bom in Frei-
on by a true vampire bat, likely Des-
his toe burg, Germany, son of a Protestant minister. In
modus rotundus. He had not seen his attacker, 1829 he went to the United States and in 1830 to
but like others believed most bats were vam- Anegada of the Virgin Islands. His survey of the
pires, particularly the larger species, most cer- island, submitted to the Royal Geographical So-
tainly the largest, Vampyrum spectrum. ciety of London, won him the command of an
Volume II, p. 144, pi. 47. Murine or mouse opos- exploring expedition to British Guiana (Guyana)
sum (Philander opossum). in 1835.
Volume II, p. 152, pi. 58. Paca (Agouti paca). Robert Schomburgk's accounts of his travels in
"Nothing can be better eating than the Paca or the colony and bordering parts of Brazil and Ven-
spotted Cavey." ezuela during 1835-1839 were published by the
Volume II, p. 153, pi. 58. Agouti pacarara, Indian Royal Geographical Society in its Journal for vol-
coney (Dasyprocta leporina). umes 6 (1836), 7 (1837), and 10 (1840). The re-
Volume II, p. 153. Indian rat-coney (Myoprocta ports were translated into German by O. A.
exilis). Schomburgk and published in 1841 as a single
"This I never saw, unless it is the same animal volume. This, in turn, was translated back into
. . . that I have described under the name of English by Roth (1931). A brief description of the
bush-rat." colony by Robert Schomburgk was published in
Volume II, p. 175, pi. 59. Sea-cow or manatee 1840. Some notes on natural history by Schom-
(Trichechus manatus) (fig. 9). burgk were included in his reports to the Geo-
Volume II, p. 1 76, pi. 59. Tapir (Tapirus terrestris) graphical Society; others appeared in several num-
(fig. 9). bers o^ the Annals of Natural History (London) for
Volume II, p. 176. Mermaid. 1840.
"Major Abercromby . . . declared that a mer- Upon the successful conclusion of his explora-
maid was lately seen in the River Surinam. tions in 1839 and return to England, Robert
Lord Monboddo also positively affirms the Schomburgk was commissioned in 1840 by the
existence of sea-women and sea-men, while government to survey the colony and fix its bound-
he asserts that they were seen so late as 1 720. ary with Venezuela. He was knighted in 1 845 after
But, however respectable his lordship's judge- his return to England.
ment and authority may be on other subjects, Richard Schomburgk, with the patronage of the
I can no more agree with him, as to men and King of Prussia, accompanied his older brother on
women, having fins and scales, than to their the second journey to British Guiana. Plants and
having tails." animals collected by the expedition were sent to

Volume II, p. 235. Howling baboon (Alouatta se- the Berlin museum for scientific study where they
niculus). were examined by Richard Schomburgk and other

Volume II, pp. 325-326. Awaree (Didelphis mar- specialists; the mammals were studied by Schom-
supialis). bui^ and Cabanis. Richard Schomburgk's three-

volume account in German of the travels from Chironectes minimus minimus Zimmermann
1840 to 1844 was published 1847-1848. Roth's (Chironectes variegatus)
English translation of the first two volumes ap- Reise 111:777 (distribution).
peared in 1922-1923.
As a result of the Schomburgk expeditions, Brit- CHIROPTERA
ishGuiana advanced from a practically unknown
South American country to one of the then best Molossus molossus Pallas (Molossus obscurus)
known for its geography, biota, and ethnology. Tonatia bidens Spix (Phyllostoma bidens)
all major physical features of the Guia-
Reise in:772 (habitat; colony size; characters).
Virtually
nan region, from the Corentyne River between
British and Dutch Guiana (Suriname), west across EDENTATA
the colony and headwaters of the Rios Branco and
Myrmecophaga tridactyla tridactyla Linnaeus
Negro in Brazil to headwaters of the Rio Orinoco
in were traversed, described, and
(Myrmecophaga jubatd)
Venezuela,
Reise 11:44, 214, 223, 374 (characters; habits;
mapped in detail (fig. 10). The reported observa-
defense; chase; flesh).
tions on mammals are as good and as welcome Reise 111:782 (distribution).
today as when first published.
Annals 4:203-207 (characters; habits; capture):
The following excerpts of observations on mam-
"The young Ant-bear was quite wild at first,
mals taken from the three volumes of the Reise
and sought for some dark comer in the room
originated with Richard, Robert, or both. Those
in which it was confined, in order to hide
from the earlier published Annals are Robert's.
itself When we approached it, it put itself
The mammals were first by Cabanis.
identified
immediately in defense like the adult ones,
Current scientific names, however, are used here
and struck out with its right paw, uttering at
with the Cabanis synonyms in parentheses. None
the same time a growl like that of an incensed
of the animals were figured in the original works
puppy. After a few days, however, it became
cited.
accustomed to its situation, and an Indian
woman took upon her to feed it with milk and
MARSUPIALIA
Cassada [cassava] and sometimes White Ants.
Didelphis marsupialis marsupialis Linnaeus {Di- It soon showed great attachment to her and
delphys cancrivord) followed her like a dog.

Reise 1:192 (human breast-fed young). "It appeared to be of a very cold nature;
Annals 5:343. ". if we could reconcile the
. . not only the extremities, but the whole body
geographical distribution of Z). virginiana over felt cold to the touch, although we kept it
a space so different in temperature, I should wrapped up in a blanket. It preferred, how-
consider the specimen [of D. marsupialis] I ever, to be nestled, and to be taken up, and
am now describing a variety of that species; on putting it down it uttered a whining but
the circumstance that the ears are of uniform not unpleasant sound; when it did not succeed
black would scarcely constitute a specific dif- in attracting attention, and was not taken up
ference." again, the whining sound was raised to a harsh
Reise 111:777 (behavior in captivity). and grating noise. In following a person, it
Philander opossum opossum Linnaeus {Didelphys directed its course more by the smell than by
quica) sight, and carried its snout close to the ground.

Reise 111:777 (distribution). If it found itself at fault, it wheeled round at
Annals 5:344 (description; habits). right angles upon the hind legs, and snuflTed
Caluromys philander philander Linnaeus (^Didel- the air in all directions, until it found the right
phys philander) scent again. Of the dimness of its sight we had
Reise 111:777 (distribution). various proofs; it hurt itself frequently against
Annals 5:344 (description; habits). objects that stood in its way, not observing
Marmosa murina murina Linnaeus (Didelphys them until it came in contact with them. Its
dorsiguera. D. musculus Cabanis) power of smelling was exquisite, and it could
Reise 111:777 (distribution; characters; habitat). discover its nurse, or any person to whom it
Annals 5:345 (description; habits). had taken a liking, at a considerable distance.

Lutreolina crassicaudata turneri Gunther Upon these occasions it would immediately
Reise 111:777 (predation). commence the whining sound so peculiar to
Fig. 1 0. Map of British Guiana (Guyana) and bordering parts of Venezuela, Dutch Guiana (Suriname), and Brazil.
Robert Herman Schomburgk's routes and surveying areas (1835-1839) shown by large dots. The map (without the
dots) was copied and redrawn by A. Lee Owen for the Roth translation of R. H. Schomburgk (1841).
this animal. It was an expert climber; it hap- Cyclopes didactylus didactylus Linnaeus
pened that was one of its favourites, and
I Reise 111:782 (distribution).
whilst writing on my table it used to come Bradypus tridactylus Linnaeus (Bradypus gularis)
softly behind me, and as soon as it was sure Reise 1:142, 258, 455 (capture; swimming;
it had found me out, it climbed up my legs climbing; mother-infant).
with great dexterity. It showed its attachment Reise 111:781 (distribution).
by licking, and was very gentle and even spor- Bradypus variegatus Schinz {Bradypus torquatus)
tive; we all
prized it highly. . . . Priodontes giganteus E. Geoffrey
"It secretes a liquid substance, transparent Reise 11:97 (characters; flesh).
like water, which drops down almost con- Annals 5:32-33 (habits; description).
stantly out of its nostrils and mouth; this is Dasypus novemcinctus novemcinctus Linnaeus
the more remarkable, as it used very little {Dasypus peba)
water. ..." Reise 11:24, 29 (excavation).
Tamandua tetradactyla tetradactyla Linnaeus Annals 5:34 (description; habits; reproduction).
{Myrmecophaga tamandua) Cabassous unicinctus unicinctus Linnaeus (Dasy-
Reise 111:782 (distribution). pus tatouay)

Reise 111:782 (distribution). Reise 111:767 (troop size; reproduction; mother-
Annals 5:34 (description). infant).
Euphractus sexcinctus sexcinctus Linnaeus (Da- Alouatta seniculus seniculus Linnaeus
sypus encoubert) Reise 1:278, 352 (vocalization; habits; flesh).
Reise 111:782 (distribution). Reise 111:768 (characters; distribution; vocal-
['!\Dasypus sabanicola Mondolfi {Dasypus minu- ization; social organization; mother-infant).
tus not Desmarest [= Zaedyus pichiy Des-
Cebus apella apella Linnaeus (and other monkey
marest])
species)
Reise 11:49 1"Of the fauna of the Sandhills [for-
.
Reise 1:354 (sociability; troop size, 400-500 in-

mation across Guyana 2 to 40 miles from
dividuals).
coast], the genus Dasypus seemed to be the Reise 11:247. "It Canuku Ranges
is only in the
most numerous among the mammals and of
that I can call to mind having met troops of
the species present in Guiana three are found
monkeys that consisted solely of Cebus apella:
on the sandhills alone: Dasypus Peba Desm.
seem generally limited to partic-
their haunts
([= D. novemcinctus] lessy of the Arawaks); ular localities because except in the Ranges
D. minutus Desm. (lessy Barakatta of the Ar-
just mentioned, I have only seen them on the
awaks); and D. tatouay Desm. [= Cabassous
coast and then always among C capucinus
unicincius]."
[C. with which the neat little
nigrivittatus]
[ly' Dasypus villosus""{Chaetophractus villosus Callithrix [= Saimiri] sciurea had also often
Desmarest [not Guianan]
associated itself. I invariably found Mycetes
Reise 11:24. "One of the boys brought me an
[= Alouatta], Ateles, Pithecia and Hapale [=
armadillo {Dasypus villosus Desm.) which he
Saguinus midas] absolutely separate from
had surprised on his way across the savannah
one another and even among Pithecia leuco-
[south of the Kanuku Mountains]."
cephala [= P. pithecia] never a specimen of
Reise 11:97. "The sharp eyes of a Wapisiana
Pithecia [= Chiropotes satanas] chiropotes.""
again noticed something alive moving about Reise 111:768-770 (characters; troop size; be-
in the savannah below; he quickly ran to the
havior; urine washing; tool use): "I placed
spot and soon returned carrying another but
some fruit near the chained monkey out of
smaller [than Priodontes giganteus] armadillo
arms reach so he tried to sweep it nearer with
by the tail. It was Dasypus villosus Desm. his tail. This failing, he searched around as
According to the statements of the Indians far as he could and found a stick and with it
this species is particularly distinguished by a
managed to roll the fruit to himself."
peculiar growth of hair that covers not only
also the plates on the back, is
Cebus nigrivittatus olivaceus Schomburgk (Cebus
the body but
capucinus not Linnaeus)
solely present in the savannahs, and for the
Reise 1:247, 437 (variation; mother-infant; do-
most part lives on carrion ... a characteristic
that is ascribed only to this one species mestication).
Reise 111:770 (most common and widely dis-
amongst the seven met with in Guiana."
Reise 111:782 (distribution). tributed Guianan monkey).
Annals 5:34. "The savanna armadillo is Des- Saimiri sciureus sciureus Linnaeus
marest's Dasypus villosus; and, as we were Reise 1:333 (social relations; mother-infant).
assured by the Indians, it inhabits only the Reise 11:247, 366 (associations).
plains, and is never to be met in the forest, Reise 111:770 (distribution; not viable in captiv-
the Indians accuse it of feeding occasionally ity).
on carrion." Humboldt {Pithecia
Chiropotes satanas chiropotes
chiropotes, P. satanas)
PRIMATES Reise 1:351, 352 (description; social relations;
Ateles paniscus paniscus Linnaeus flesh).
Reise 11:93. "One finds them mostly in com- Reise 111:771 (distribution).
panies of 1 6 to 20; often also in lesser number. Pithecia pithecia pithecia Linnaeus {Pithecia leu-
I never noticed them on the
ground but always cocephalus)
on the highest trees. When exposed to the full Reise 1:352 (social relations).
rays of the sun, they lie at full length stretched Reise 111:771 (troop size; distribution).
out on the branches, to bathe themselves in Royal Geographical Society of London, 6:265
iL" (1836):
". . . numerous monkeys jumped from branch lin, published it in his Fauna Peruana, al-
to branch, and, astonished at the uncommon though it does not occur there."
visit, accompanied us for a considerable dis- Annals 5:431-432:
tance [along the banks of the upper Essequibo "They live in large societies, and know how
River]. Our Caribbees called this species ar- to defend themselves bravely if attacked by
ieghi, or yahriae; the male has straight long dogs; indeed they fall often en masse upon
hair of a shining black, the head rather round, them and kill the assailants. They are excel-
the forehead and part of the face and neck lent climbers, and in descending a tree they
covered with short, yellowish hair, part of the always come down head foremost. Their food
front, the nose, and mouth black, the latter consists of insects, fruits, roots and such small
slightly bearded, hands black, nails claw-like, prey as they are able to secure. They are de-
except the thumb. The female is different in structive to young birds, and expert in digging
colour, and her fur resembles that of the Eu- after large beetles, for which their claws, which
ropean hare; her hands are likewise black, and are very strong, are admirably adapted. They
covered with short yellowish hair, from under do not burrow in the ground for a residence."
the eyes to the chin extends hair of a similar
Procyon cancrivorus cancrivorus Cuvier
colour, but somewhat longer than those of the
Reise 11:443 (behavior).
front and cheeks, the breast is nearly naked,
Annals 4:433-434:
and the oshyoides [(sic) oschyoides or scrotal
"Although the Racoon [sic] is not an animal
pad] visible.They jumped with great agility which inhabits the savannahs, its relation to
from tree to tree, the female and sometimes
the preceding genus induces me to give now
the male carrying the young ones upon the
the few particulars which I know about its
back. . . ."
habits. It frequents the sea coast, and is gen-
The strongly marked sexual dichromatism
erally found in the neighbourhood of inhab-
described in 1 836 by Robert Schomburgk was
ited spots, where it is destructive to poultry.
not discerned by taxonomists until late in the
"Among the favourite haunts of these an-
century. Twelve different names had been be-
imals are the thickets of Curida bushes {Avi-
stowed on Pithecia pithecia, five of them based
cennia tomentosa), which extend along the sea
on males, the others on females.
coast, where they feed upon crabs which they
Aotus sp. (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) are expert in killing, first tearing off their claws
Reise 11:460 (house pet seen at Asacota, Bari- or nippers; and being thus disabled from doing
mani River, Br. Guiana). NW harm, the crab dog or racoon uses its sharp
Saguinns midas midas Linnaeus {Midas rufiman- teeth to break the shell. In their native state
us) they sleep by day, and issue at dusk in search
Reise 11:366, 367, 505 (distribution; behavior). of food; birds, insects, roots, and vegetables,
Reise 111:772 (distribution; vocalization; captiv- nothing comes amiss; and as they possess a
ity). particular fondness for sweets, I have been
told by practical planters that the injury which
they do to sugar plantations is very consid-
CARNIVORA erable.
Nasua nasua vittata Tschudi (Nasua socialis; Na- "They take their food with both paws like
sua solitaria) and are fond of dipping it in water.
the squirrel,
Reise 11:247-248. "The new Nasua I discovered I have noted with astonishment that they drink
here suffered a strange fate in its identi-

. . . as well by lapping like the dog as by sucking.
fication ... we took it for a new species, but I have had several in a domesticated state, all
unfortunately possessing too few natural-his- of which possessed this peculiarity."

tory books to confirm our subspecies, for-
Potos flavus flavus Schreber (Cercoleptes caudi-
warded it to Berlin with the next assignment
volvulus)
undescribed. I was accordingly all the more
Reise 11:435 (habits; food; predation).
surprised to find that very same Nasua de-
Annals 5:29 (habits; distribution).
termined as A^. vittata by von Tschudi in his
Untersuchung iiber die Fauna Peruana. The Eira Barbara poliocephala Traill {Galictis barbard)
specimen was shown him on its arrival and Reise 11:99 (chase; characters).
he, recognizing it as new, took the required Annals 5:30 (habits; distribution): ". like the . .
notes, and before it was yet described in Ber- coati or Nasua, are able to run down a tree

. . . head first. They are sometimes tamed and "The young remain for a considerable time
are thus gentle and playful; but they are easily under the protection of their parents, the
excited, and when preparing for defense or mother teaching them to plunge and dive at
war they erect the hair of their tail." approaching danger.
Galictis vittata vittata Schreber (Galictis allaman- "We had entered the upper Essequibo by
di) itstributary the Cuyuwini, and passed at the
Reise 11:447 (characters). foot of a ridge of mountains, when we ob-
Annals 5:31-32 (habits). served on a large ledge of rocks a family of
Desmarest, or perhaps
['?]Lutreolina crassicaudata Otters, consisting of about fifteen, including
Mustela africana Desmarest (Mustela brasi- old and young. At our approach they broke
liensis?) out into their peculiar noisy cry, and the par-
Reise 111:775: "I have only a few incomplete ents seizing the young with their mouth they
stuffed specimens found among the Arekuna plunged into the water and disappeared, —and
Indians who wore them as ornaments." having placed their young in security, we saw
Lutra enudris enudris F. Cu vier (Lutra enydris [sic]) them shortly after appearing at the head of
Reise 1:340 (encounter). our canoe. They raised themselves with half
Reise 111:775 (distribution). their body out of the water, snoring for rage
Pteronura brasiliensis brasiliensis Zimmermann and showing their formidable teeth. At ap-
{Pterura [sic] sambachii) proaching danger or when apprehensive of it,
Otters {Lutra and/or Pteronura) they collected in a body, deputing the most
Reise 1:340; 11:35 (habits). courageous in advance; as our canoe came
Annals 5:284-285 (habits): nearer, they sank under as if by a precon-
"We watched a pack of Otters at the Great certed sign, and appeared the next moment
Cataracts of the Corentyn, where, at the basin within a few yards of it. We saw nothing again
which one of the cataracts formed, they ap- of the young; but the adults and larger-sized
peared to carry on their pursuits with great young ones accompanied us, threatening and
success.One had secured a Haimura at least snoring, until no doubt we were so far out of
from ten to twelve pounds weight, and carried reach of their stronghold that they considered
it in its mouth to a rock which was partly over their progeny now safe. In other instances,
water. Here it began devouring its prey with- when we attempted to find out their holes,
out taking much notice of us, although we they became so outrageous that they bit our
were not twenty yards from it on the opposite paddles and left the print of their teeth. The
shore. It did not care for our shouting; its Indians know nevertheless how to surprise the
success was however disputed by the Indians, young ones, who are then taken home alive,
who got into the canoe and paddled so rapidly and become in a short time so tractable that
towards the rock, that the Otter saw itself they follow their masters like dogs."
obliged to retreat and to leave the better half Dusicyon thous thous Linnaeus (Canis cancrivo-
of thefish to the Indians. Although the Otters rus; Canis azarae)
were numerous round the rock, none of them Reise 11:196, 338 (habits).
showed any intention to share the prey with Annals 4:430-43 1 (characters; habits):
the successful hunter or to dispute its posses- "They vie in cunning and art with the Eu-
sion. ropean fox, and the depredations which they
"I have already alluded to their having their commit on the hen-roosts are considerable.
holes on the edge of rivers, sheltered by the Their favourite haunts are thickets near open
impending bank. Every rock in the vicinity savannahs, and if a pack succeed in entering
of their residence bears the mark of their ex- the village and in surprising the Indians' poul-
crements; and their feeding-places are so de- try, few escape, as they completely surround
void of vegetation, if we except the larger the roosting-place, and generally carry off their
bushes and trees, that they cannot be mistak- spoil before the inhabitants have any idea of
en, even if the number of scales and fish-bones their presence. have been assured by the
I
did not point out the frequency of their visits. Indians that they soon run down deer, and
A complete path leads up to these places, pursue their game under full cry. They destroy i
which, in consequences of their ascending and in other ways large quantities of game. ... :
descending in single file, is hollowed out. They seldom lose, even when domesticated, \
48 HELDIANA: ZOOLOGY 1
their depredatory habits, and those Indians circling round a camp or cattle-pen, it is al-
who raise them for the sake of procuring a ways with a continual purring; not until hunt-
cross breed with the dog, are obliged to keep ing at night for its prey does it set up a frightful
them tied, as otherwise, they would kill all the roar, that booms through the whole forest."
fowls and parrots. It is called by the Macusis Annals 4:262-263:
Maikang, in Warrau Warityou. "I consider the number of wild cattle scat-
variety which has sprung from the

"The tered over the savannahs at about 4000, but
breed between the Indian domestic dog and I doubt whether they are on the increase, as
the Carasissi more resembles the dog, its body man and jaguars commit fearful ravages
is however longer in proportion to its size, among them. Their most deadly enemy is
. . .
and its ears are pricked up. Their progeny the greater jaguar, Felis onca, Linn., which
become prolific. They are hardy, and many hovers in such quantities about Fort San Joa-
of them prove excellent hunters; they are quim, that during the month of June 1838,
therefore very much
prized by the Indians, twelve individuals were killed by the cattle-
who pay great attention to their training." drovers. They are very daring, and sometimes
Reise 111:775 (distribution). kill cattle within a few yards of houses that
Felis concolor discolor Schreber are inhabited. They care very little for the fires
Reise 11:86 (characters; predation). which are made to prevent their encroach-
Annals 4:325-326 (characters; habits; preda- ments. If one or a pair of these animals would
tion): take up their quarters in the vicinity of a cattle
"It is very destructive to the cattle farms, farm, scarcely a night passes in which they do
and it is so powerful an animal, that I have not commit ravages. They do not eat much
been told by an eye witness, that it killed a of any they kill, perhaps ten or twelve pounds,
mule and dragged it across a trench to the and principally of the breast; but they prefer
opposite side, although the trench was not every time they are hungry. When
killing fresh
quite full of water, and the Puma had to drag out of the reach of cattle farms or the wild
it a few feet up hill, after it landed with its herds of the savannahs, they subsist on Pec-
prey on the other side. My informant, who caris, Capybaras, Tapirs, and Deer. ." . .
had watched proceedings, had meanwhile

its
Felis pardalis melanurus Ball [or 9 Felis onca onca
sent for his gun, and shot him while attempt-
Linnaeus]
ing to pull the mule into the wood. They seem Reise 11:83 (characters; predation).
to be particularly partial to dogs, and a great Annals 4:263:
number of those which are kept by the settlers "Not less destructive is the Turtle-tiger, a
for thepurpose of hunting, are killed and eat- species or variety of the former [Felis onca].
en by them. They follow in the woods the
They are of the same strong build as the great-
herds of Peccaries, and watch their motion in er jaguar,and very much resemble it both in
order to seize upon the stragglers, being well
form, colour, and disposition of its spots, but
aware that if they attacked the flock, they
they are about a third less in size. In the vi-
would be overpowered and torn to pieces. of human habitations they commit great
cinity
They hunt as well by day as in the night, and
ravages among domestic animals; Hogs,
feed also on deer and the smaller domestic
Sheep, Goats, &c. are alike exposed to their
animals. They give birth to two young ones, never heard of an authenticated
attacks, but I
seldom three, which have spots of a darker instance of their attackingman, although they
hue, more or less visible, according as the come
will boldly to his habitation, and even
lights fall upon them, and which I have been enter the houses and carry away the dogs from
told they lose after the first year. . . ."
the fireside."
Felis onca onca Linnaeus {Felis nigra)
Reise 1:436 (encounter). Felis tigrina tigrina Schreber
Reise 11:34, 85-90, 504 (encounter; characters; Felis wiedii vigens Thomas (Felis macroura)
predation; distribution; vocalization; artifacts Reise 1:85 (characters).
of teeth and hides): "Except during the period Felis yagouaroundi yagouaroundi E. Geoffrey (Felis
when the female has her young, the jaguar jaguarundi; F. unicolor)
does not seem to possess any particular lair. Reise 11:227 (encounter).
... It swims over the widest rivers. When . . . Annals 4:327 (description; predation).

RODENTIA Cavia porcellus guianae (Cavia leucopyga Cabanis
not Brandt)
Sciurus aestuans aestuans Linnaeus
Reise 11:249:
Reise 11:491 (characters).
"Six to eight living specimens would often
Reise 111:778 (distribution).
be brought to us but without our being able
Echimys armatus armatus I. Geoffroy {Echinomys
to keep them alive. The Indians' statement
hispidus not Desmarest)
that they could never by any manner or means
Reise 11:498-499: "The strange hedgehog Echi-
be tamed, was confirmed. Had we ten or twelve
nomys hispidus Geoffr. seems most plentiful, none would be alive after the third
together,
especially in the neighborhood of the small
day. They live in holes out of which they are
forest streams. It appears to reside upon the
driven by pouring water in, and then easily
trees: at least I have never come across it on
caught. ... Its silky fur is attached so deli-
the ground. In climbing and springing from
cately to the skin that even the slightest touch
branch to branch it can vie with the smartest
of the hand knocks it off" and leaves a bare
The female drops 4 young in the hol-
squirrel.
space."
low limb of a tree, and these soon follow at
their mother's heels: they constitute a special
dainty for the Indians. It seems to be spread

PERISSODACTYLA
all over British Guiana, because I at least found
Tapirus terrestris terrestris Linnaeus
it everywhere." Reise 11:167 (chase), 169: ". since. . I could not
Echimys chrysurus chrysurus Zimmermann override the definite instructions given me not
Reise 111:779 (distribution). to forward any skins of the larger mammals
Coendou prehensilis prehensilis Linnaeus {Cerco- to Berlin, I handed the hide over to the In-
labes insidiosus not Kuhl) dians to make sandals of. I prepared the skel-
Reise 111:779 (habits). eton for the Anatomical museum."
Dasyprocta leporina cayana Lacepede {Dasyprocta Reise 111:783 (distribution; habitat; forage; jag-
agouti) uar; flesh).
Reise 11:80 (food).
Reise 111:779 (distribution; predation; chase).
ARTIODACTYLA
Myoprocta acouchy acouchy Erxleben (Dasyprocta
acuchy) Tayassu tajacu patira Sonnini (Dicotyles torqua-
Reise 111:779 (distribution). tus)
Agouti paca paca Linnaeus Reise II: 100, 164 (description; habits; chase).
Reise 11:491, 492 (chase). Reise 111:783 (distribution; characters).
Reise 111:780 (distribution; habitat; food). Annals 5:401 (description; habits; chase).
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Linnaeus Tayassu pecari pecari Link (Dicotyles labiatus)
{Hydrochoerus capybara) Reise 11:98, 164 (habits; chase): "June and July
Reise 1:418: "Among the many domesticated would seem to be the time when they drop
animals met with at the settlement [was a] full [give birth]."
grown water-haas. The creature was so tame Reise 111:784 (distribution; herd size).
that it regularly stuck to the heels of the wom- Annals 5:402 (description; habits; chase).
en. Although the river Nappi flowed past the Mazama americana americana Erxleben (Cervus
houses not fifty paces away, it never visited rufus)
its favorite element otherwise than in com- Reise 11:57 (ectoparasites; habits).
pany with the women when they went to draw Reise 111:784 (distribution).
water and even then only to drink." Mazama gouazoubira nemorivaga F. Cuvier (Cer-
Reise 11:29: vus simplicicornis)
"I often found 6 to 8 of them together [along Reise 111:785 (distribution; species not seen).
the Essequibo River] forming a line in the Mazama sp.? [= M. gouazoubira'^] {Cervus humilis
middle of which the young were to be seen. not Bennett [= Pudu puda Molina])
But unless we killed it outright the wounded "The fourth and smallest species is
Reise 11:58.
animal every time escaped us by immediately known under the name of Wilibisiri {Cervus
rushing into the water the neighborhood of humilisl): its home is also in the dense forest."
which it seldom left." Reise 11:363. "In the evening the hunters brought
Reise 111:780 (distribution). us [in camp at mouth of Aripai, upper Ru-
pununi, Kanaku Mts.] one of those pretty deer large portion of their seven to eight foot long
which the Indians call Walibisiri. It is the body."
smallest species met with in Guiana, hardly Reise 111:786 (Rio Tacutu, upper Rio Branco,
1 '/3 ft. high." Brazil, near Guianan border).
Odocoileus virginianus gymnotis Wiegmann {Cer-
vus savannarum Cabanis and Schomburgk;
Cervus mangivorus)
Reise 11:57. "The female must throw her young
in March or April because we found amongst
IX. Alexander von Humboldt
our four specimens very advanced in preg-
lot
(1769-1859) and
nancy; but as I have killed deer in a similar Aime Bonpland (1773-1858)
condition during September or October, they
must either throw twice a year, or else they Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland
are not usually limited to any fixed breeding
were rigorously trained scientists highly qualified
season. The deer is never present in the for-
to survey the natural resources and native peoples
ests."
of a major part of tropical America. Their inves-
Reise II: 1 57. "In cutting up the venison [secured
tigations and discoveries in the New World from
in savannas of Rio Cotinga, upper Rio Bran- 1799 to 1803 resulted in numerous publications
co] we found does well advanced in pregnan- of primary importance.
cy, which helped to strengthen my previously Alexander von Humboldt was bom into a
expressed opinion that they either throw twice,
wealthy and distinguished family and could pursue
or else have no particular pairing season." his cultural interests without stint. His studies in
Reise 111:785 (description; distribution). the arts and sciences prepared him to develop into
one of the most innovative and versatile scientific
SIRENIA investigators of his time, if not all time. He was
at once botanist, zoologist, anthropologist, ecol-
Trichechus inunguis Natterer {Manatus australis
ogist, geologist, cartographer, biogeographer, phy-
not Tilesius)
sicist, chemist, astronomer, demographer, histo-
Reise 11:141, 156:
rian,mountain climber, poet, artist, and linguist.
"The Peixe Boys, as the vaqueiros [cow- He excelled in every field and gained recognition
hands] call the Sea cow {Manatus) had already and prominence in all. Humboldt raised geog-
left the neighborhood of the Fazenda [Rio
raphy to a science. Knowledge of the fundamental
Branco above Fort Sao Joaquim] several days
principles of climatology is due to him. Last but
before, the water having commenced falling; not least of his many talents appears in Hum-
that during high water they usually travel up
boldt's writings, which inspired a generation of
as far as the mouth of the Maku which so
naturalist-travelers, including Charles Darwin.
many had visited this rainy season, and that The young Humboldt's greatest desire was for
ten had been harpooned. ... As soon as the
an opportunity to apply his skills, knowledge, and
Takutu begins to fall a few feet, the Manatis the scientific instrumentation accumulated at his
disappear and make their way back to below own expense to the exploration of little-known
the rapids of the Rio Branco. The search for
lands. After disappointing starts on a number of
more abundant food probably brings them to
prospective expeditions, he visited Spain in June
the Takutu where their favorite grasses, species
1799 accompanied by the young French botanist
of Panicum and Paspelum, grow in abun- Aime Bonpland. While in Madrid he had the good
dance." fortune to meet an influential friend who helped
[I have observed that when the river drops him secure royal orders for travel throughout the
a few feet and manatees cannot reach forage
Spanish colonies in America to study natural re-
growing on the edge of the embankments, they sources and collect samples of scientific interest.
move elsewhere, usually downstream.]
Humboldt and Bonpland sailed for South
America on June 1799 and landed 16 July 1799
5
CETACEA
at Cumana, capital of Nueva Andalucia (Vene-
Inia geoffrensis Blainville {Delphinus amazonicus) zuela). The remainder of that year and part of the
Reise 11:18: "They would not only raise their following were spent in exploration of the coastal
pointed snouts out of the water but mostly a region. Of prime interest, however, was the planned

^
T3
C
a
c
o
09
2
waters of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers, the ex- divide between the waters of the Orinoco and Ne-
plorers shipped 750 miles downstream to arrive gro, the travelers "were astonished by an extraor-
at Angostura (Ciudad Bolivar) in mid-June 1800. dinary noise. On beating the bushes a shoal of
After more work on the coast, Humboldt and Bon- toninas (fresh-water dolphins) four feet long sur-
pland departed Venezuela on 24 November 1800 rounded our boat. They fled across the forest,
for Havana, Cuba. They remained there until 7 1
throwing out those spouts of compressed air and
March 80 1 then sailed for Colombia with land-
1 , water. . . ."
ings along the Rio Sinu on 25 March and Carta- Other Venezuelan mammals mentioned in the
gena on 30 March. The journey thereafter was narrative include the expected jaguar, otter, deer,
devoted mainly to explorations of the Cordilleras and vampire bats.
peccaries, capybara,
of Colombia and Ecuador, then through moun- Monkeys, however, absorbed more of Hum-
tains, deserts, and the upper Amazonia of Peru boldt's attention than other animals. He carried
south to Lima. The few mammals observed or with him a number of live simians captured in the
described during this part of the journey are men- upper Rio Orinoco region for shipment to the Jar-
tioned in Humboldt's (1805-181 1) Recueil. din des Plantes in Paris via the Antillean island
From Lima, Humboldt and Bonpland em- of Guadeloupe. The newly discovered bearded saki
barked on 24 December 1 802 for Guayaquil and {Chiropotes satanas chiropotes Humboldt; fig. 14)
left 15 February 1803 for Mexico. died before transshipment, but its skin was saved
Humboldt's lively Personal Narrative evokes vi- and arrived in Paris. The type specimen of red
sions of Venezuelan life and landscapes from howler, Simla urslna Humboldt (= Alouatta se-
coastal plains to the headwaters of the Rio Ori- nlculus arctoides Cabrera) survived the journey,
noco. The narrative is replete with descriptions of whereas the first-known douroucouli or night
geography, ecology, astronomical orientations, monkey {Aotus trivlrgatus Humboldt; fig. 14) suc-
widths, depths, and volumes of rivers, histories, cumbed in Guadeloupe.
languages and customs of Indians, Catholic mis- Humboldt often mentioned the ubiquitous,
sions, missionaries, and the human interest trials highly visible howler or araguato {Alouatta seni-
and tribulations of the travelers. Information on culus). At one time he saw from the road below
mammals, however, is comparatively meager, but troops of 30 to 40 individuals crossing through the
some interesting bits can be quoted or paraphrased trees. In a carefully deployed experiment in Ara-
from the Ross translation of the original French gua, he calculated the distance the howler's vo-
(Humboldt, 1884). calization could be heard as 800 toises (6 ft 4.73
Humboldt and Bonpland found manatees abun- inches x 800 = 5,1 15 ft) or nearly 1 mile (5,280
dant in the Rio Orinoco and tributaries Meta and ft).
Apure, but absent above the cataracts of Mai- Humboldt (Ross translation, 1884, vol. II, p.
pures. Some of the animals they caught were 1 453) recounts the Indian tale of bearded sakis
to 12 feet long and weighed 500 to 800 pounds. (Chiropotes) and uacaries (Cacajao) of the Orinoco
Humboldt's dissection of one (fig. 1 3) revealed "no "placing themselves in a circle and, by striking the
vestige of nails on the external surfaces of the fins shell [of the Brazil nut pericarp] with a stone, suc-
which were quite smooth, but little rudiments of ceed in opening it so as to take out the triangular
nails appear at the third phalanx when the skin of nuts." Although Humboldt dismissed the story as
the fins is taken off." The lungs, they observed, fabulous, he did believe that the monkeys cracked
consisted of "large cells resembling immense the shell of the Bertholletia nut with their teeth to
swimming bladders; they [the lungs] are 3 feet long. obtain the meat which they devoured with gusto.
Filled with air they have a bulk of more than a Belief in the existence of a hairy man of the
thousand cubic inches [Humboldt, Ross transla- woods was practically universal. The missionary
tion, 1884, vol. II, p. 169]." Its distinction from Father Gili gravely related to Humboldt the tale
T. manatus was not appreciated, however, until of a woman "in the town of San Carlos in the
1883 when described by Natterer (in Pelzeln, 1 883). Llanos of Venezuela who much praised the gentle
There is also considerable doubt that a clawless character and attentions of the man of the woods.
manatee does occur in the Rio Orinoco basin or She is stated to have lived several years with one
anywhere outside the Amazonian watershed. in great domestic harmony, and only requested
Dolphins (Sotalia) were seen above and below some hunters to take her back because she and the
the great cataracts of the Orinoco and often swam children (a little hairy also) were weary of living
alongside the canoe. In the inundated forest of the so far from the church and the sacraments." Hum-
IkbU.
^ %
Fig. 1 3. The Orinoco clawless manatee, supposedly Trichechus inunguis Natterer left, lateral (1) and ventral (2)
views; right, head from above (1), mouth, upper inner view (2), mouth, lower inner view (3), mouth, side view (4),
and trunk, sagittal section (5); original illustrations by Humboldt; from Humboldt (1838).
boldt resented that he and Bonpland "were every- odiles, all from the Rio Magdalena region. Another
where blamed, in the most cultivated class of so- memoir on the carnivores includes descriptions
ciety, for being the only persons to doubt the reality of Gulo quitensis (= Conepatus chinga quitensis
of the great anthropomorphic monkey of Ameri- Humboldt) from Quito, Ecuador, Mustela sinuen-
ca." sis (= Eira barbara sinuensis Humboldt), from the
Humboldt's Recueil d 'Observations de Zoologie Rio Sinu, Colombia, and a discourse on other
et d 'Anatomic Comparee, a collection of memoires mustelids and the kinkajou {Potos Jlavus Schre-
published as a volume in 181 1-1812, deals with ber).The memoir on monkeys of the upper Rio
many species of invertebrates and vertebrates, but Orinoco and connecting Rios Casiquiare and Ne-
a large share of the text is about monkeys. One gro includes the original descriptions o^ Aotus tri-
memoir with excellent illustrations by Humboldt virgatus, Chiropotes satanas chiropotes, Cacajao
ison the comparative anatomy of the hyoid bone melanocephalus, Callicebus torquatus lugens, La-
and larynx of the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus gothrix lagothricha, and Cebus albifrons. A
chap-
oedipus oedipus Linnaeus; fig. 1 4), and that of the ter on the monkeys of Colombia and the upper
red howler {Alouatta seniculus seniculus Lin- Amazonian region includes the description of a
naeus), the Colombian squirrel {Sciurus granaten- representative each of Cebus capucinus Linnaeus
sis granatensis Humboldt; fig. 14), birds, and croc- from the Rio Sinu, A teles belzebuth marginatus E.

V M. PSIT TAl- 1 S AR Al' RAN A.
N"
N° Ml. SI n HIS (.RANATF.NSIS.
_;?•«•
V. vm. SIMIA OKDIHl S.
-. •»«
Fig. 1 4. Monkeys and anatomical dissections from Humboldt (1811): upper left, Simia melanocephala Humboldt
(= Cacajao melanocephalus), holotype; lower left, two views of Simia trivirgata Humboldt (= Aotus trivirgaius),
holotype; upper right, Simia satanas Hoffmannsegg (= Chiropotes satanas satanas), lectotype; lower right, throat
cartilages of Psiltacus araurana Linnaeus (= Ara araurana), Sciurus granatensis Humboldt, and Simia oedipus
Linnaeus (= Saguinus oedipus oedipus).
Table 8. New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) recorded by Humboldt (1812); the arrangement is phylogenetic.
Current name Humboldt synonym Figure

Callitrichidae
Callithrix jacchus jacchus Linnaeus, 1758
Callithrix jacchus penicillata E. Geoffroy, 1812
Callithrix jacchus geoffroyi Humboldt, 1812 Jacchus leucccephalus Geoffroy, 1812
Callithrix jacchus aurita E. Geoffroy, 1812
Callithrix humeralifer humeralifer E. Geoffroy,
1812
Callithrix argentata melanura E. Geoffroy, 1812
Callithrix argentata argentata Linnaeus, 1771
Saguinus fuscicollis fuscus Lesson, 1840 Simla leonina Humboldt, 1805, not Shaw, 1800 13
Saguinus labiatus labiatus E. Geoffroy, 1812
Saguinus midas niger E. Geoffroy, 1 803 Simla Ursula Hoffmannsegg, 1808
Saguinus midas midas Linnaeus, 1758
Saguinus oedipus oedipus Linnaeus, 1758 14
Leontopithecus rosalia rosalia Linnaeus, 1 766
Cebidae
Saimiri sciureus cassiquiarensis Lesson, 1 840 Not Simla sciurea Linnaeus
Callicebus moloch moloch Hoffmannsegg, 1 808
Callicebus torquatus lugens Humboldt, 1811
Callicebus torquatus torquatus Hoffmannsegg, 1 808 Simla amicta Humboldt, 1811
Callicebus personatus personatus E. Geoffroy, 1812
Actus trivirgatus Humboldt, 1811 13
Actus azarae azarae Humboldt, 1811
Pithecia mcnachus monachus E. Geoffroy, 1812
Pithecia pithecia pithecia Linnaeus, 1 766 Pithecia rufiventer E. Geoffroy, 1812; Simla leuco-
cephala E. Geoffroy, 1812
Chiropotes satanas satanas Hoffmannsegg, 1 808 13
Cacajac melanocephalus Humboldt, 1811
Alouatta caraya Humboldt, 1812
Alouatta seniculus arctoidea Cabrera, 1 940 Simla ursina Humboldt, 1805, not Bechstein, 1800
Alouatta seniculus straminea Humboldt, 1812
Cebus capucinus capucinus Linnaeus, 1758 Simla hypoleuca Humboldt, 1811
Cebus nigrivittatus nigrivittatus Wagner, 1 848 Simla capucina Humboldt, 1812, not Linnaeus,
1758
Cebus apella apella Linnaeus, 1 758 Cebus barbatus Humboldt, 1812, attributed to E.
Geoffroy
Cebus apella xanthosternos Wied-Neuwied, 1 820 Simla variegata Humboldt, 1812, not Kerr, 792 1
Cebus apella nigritus Goldfuss, 1810 Simla cirrifera Humboldt, 1812; Cebus niger E.
Geoffroy, 1812
Lagcthrix lagcthricha lagothricha Humboldt, 1812
Lagothrix lagcthricha cana E. Geoffroy, 1812
Lagcthrix flavicauda Humboldt, 1811
Atetes paniscus chamek Humboldt, 1812
Ateles paniscus paniscus Linnaeus, 1 766
Ateles belzebuth belzebuth E. Geoffroy, 1 806
Ateles belzebuth marginatus E. Geoffroy, 1809 Simla chuva Humboldt, 181 1, p. 340; 1812, p. 362,
footnote 2
Brachyteles arachnoides E. Geoffroy, 1 806
Geoffroy from lower Amazonia, Alouatta senicu-

lus Linnaeus from the Rio Magdalena, and La- X. PARAGUAY
gothrix flavicauda Humboldt from northern Peru.
In anaddendum, Humboldt listed all platyrrhine The Paraguayan province, claimed by Spain,
monkeys known to 1812. They are arranged in was first 1526 by Sebastian Cabot and
visited in
Table 8 by current scientific names with Hum- then explored by Cabeza Alvarez Nunez de Vaca
boldt's synonyms. in 1541. For the next two centuries, waves of mis-

Fig. 1 5. Map of Azara's Paraguay and adjacent parts of Brazil and Argentina; from Azara (1809).
sionaries and colonists penetrated to the remotest Shortly after its completion, the author received
comers of the province in quest of climates or a shipment of several volumes of a Spanish trans-
environments that resembled or could be translation of Buffon's Histoire Naturelle. Not surpris-
formed into the familiar ones of Spain. ingly, Azara found in them much with which to
The monumental Histoire du Paraguay by the disagree, but some of his adverse criticism was
Jesuit missionary Pierre Francois Xavier de Char- unfair. Azara knew Paraguayan mammals better
levoix (1682-1761), published in 1757, describes than anyone else, but only a minority of the species
the land that extended from the Atlantic to the were the same as the Neotropical species described
eastern base of the Andes between latitudes 1 5° in the Histoire Naturelle, and those that were the
and 35° in the drainage basin of the Rio Parana- same did not always behave in the same way at
Paraguay. It relates the history of the province different times or in different places.
from the time of the conquest, describes native Azara sent a copy of the manuscript of the quad-
customs, conversions to Christianity, and estab- rupedos to his brother, Jose Nicolas, then Spanish
lishment of missions. The little of natural history ambassador to Paris, who arranged for publication
in the text adds nothing about wild mammals not in that city after translation into French by M.-L.-E.
already recorded by others. Two decades later Fe- Moreau de Saint-Mery. A
year after his return to
lix de Azara wrote the most complete natural his- Spain in 1801, Azara secured publication in Ma-
tory account of the mammalian fauna of Paraguay drid of the original Spanish manuscript with
for its time and ever since. emendations and addition of 1 species, for a total1
of 77.
Felix de Azara (1746-1811) Azara may not have been aware that as many
as 62 of the 77 species he described were still un-
The Spaniard Don Felix de Azara (1 746-1 811), known to science. His clear and precise charac-
an army engineer, was commissioned in 1781 to terization of each of the species or subspecies,
assist in defining the boundaries between Spanish however, provided contemporary cataloguers and
and Portuguese territories. Unmapped territories systematists with the bases for the descriptions of
between Brazil and Paraguay were assigned to 50 new species, many with their vernacular ap-
Azara, but the Portuguese showed no interest in pellations in the binomial. Actual specimens served
their share of the work. With time on his hands as types for the remaining 1 2 species.
and a disposition toward the natural sciences, Azara The mammals described by Azara are listed be-
devoted nearly the full 20 years, from 1781 to low, with the scientific name of each given first
1800, of his American residence to the study of
followed by its local name(s). The page references
are to Azara's works in French (Essais, 1801),
geography, Guarani Indians, and the birds and
mammals of Paraguay and northeastern Argen- Spanish (Apuntamientos, 1802), and the Voyage
tina between 24° and 36°S and about 54°3r to (1809). The last is a French translation in four
56°W (or 60°W of Greenwich) (fig. 15). volumes of Azara's travels in Paraguay with sep-
With no schooling in the natural sciences and arate atlas, but only the first volume and atlas
no books for reference or guidance, Azara de- contain information on mammals.

pended on his own resources. They proved ade-
quate. Azara recorded his observations with care, Tapirus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758
precision, meticulous attention to detail, and rig- Mborebi, Essais I, p. 1; Mborebi, Apunt., I, p.
orous exclusion of speculation and fantasy. His 1; Mborebi ou tapir. Voyage, p. 246.
anatomical descriptions, measurements, and ac- Tayassu G. Fischer, 1814

counts of behavior were based on animals ob- Coure ou Tayazou, Essais, I, p. 18; Cures o
served in the wild or in captivity, usually in his Tayaziis, Apunt., I, p. 14; Cure ou tayazii.
own home or garden. Useful information received Voyage, p. 248.
from others was credited to the informants. Pop- Tayassu pecari albirostris Illiger, 1815
ular beliefs and hearsay were labeled as such. Tagnicati, Essais, I, pp. 2 1 , 25; Taiiicati, Apunt.,
Without other sources of information, Azara used p. 19; Tanicati, Voyage, p. 249.
the Guarani names for most of the amimals he Bibliographic type of the subspecies.
described and Spanish epithets for the remainder. Tayassu tajacu Linnaeus, 1758
The manuscript of the mammals or quadrupe- Taytetou, Essais, I, pp. 21,31; Taytetvi, Apunt.,
dos of Paraguay contained accounts of 66 species. I, p. 23; Taytetu, Voyage, p. 249.

CERVIDAE Micoure cinquieme, ou micoure a queue courte,
Essais,
I, p. 295; Colicorto, Apunt., I, p.
Gazou, Essais. I, p. 43; Venados, Apunt., I, p.
258; Colicorto, Voyage, p. 293.
29; Guazu, Voyage, p. 250.
Bibliographic type of the species.
Blastocenis dichotomus Illiger, 1815
Gouazoupoucou, Essais, I, p. 70; Guazu-pucu,
Apunt., I,guazu-pucu. Voyage, p. 250.
p. 33; MYRMECOPHAGIDAE
Hormigueros, Apunt., I, p. 61.
Blastoceros bezoarticus leucogaster Goldfuss, 1817
Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus, 1758
Gouazouti, Essais, I, p. 77; Giiazu-ti, Apunt., I,
Gnouroumi, ou Yoquoui, Essais, \, p. 89; Nu-
p. 41; Guazu-ti, Voyage, p. 251.
rumi o Yoqui, Apunt., I, p. 66; Nurumi ou
Bibliographic type of the subspecies.
tamandua. Voyage, pp. 253, 255.
Mazama americana gouazoupita Fischer, 1814
Tamandua tetradactyla Linnaeus, 1758 (fig. 16)
Gouazoupita, Essais, I, p. 82; GUazu-pita,
Cagouare, Essais, \, p. 103; Cagiiare, Apunt., \,
Apunt., I, p. 5
Guazu-pita, Voyage,
1 ; p. 252.
p. 74; Cagiiare, Voyage, pp. 253, 256; Atlas,
Bibliographic type of the subspecies. VII (tamandua noir), pi. VIII (Cag-
pi.
Mazama gouazoubira gouazoubira Fischer, 1814
uouare).
Gouazoubira, Essais, I, p. 86; Giiazu-bira,
Apunt., I, p. 57; Guazu-bira, Voyage, p. 252.
Bibliographic type of the species. FELIDAE
Gatos, Apunt., I, p. 85.
DIDELPHIDAE
Felis onca Linnaeus, 1758
Micoures, Essais, I, p. 240; Fecundos, Apunt., Yagouarete, £'55a/5, 1, p. 1 14; Yaguarete,^;?Mm.,
I, p. 204; Feconds, Voyage, p. 281. I, p. 91; Yaguarete, Voyage, p. 258; Atlas,
1 840 IX.
Didelphis albiventris Lund, pi.
Micoure premier, ou micoure propement dit, Yagiiarete negro, Apunt., I, p. 114; Yaguarete
Essais, 244; Micure, Apunt.,
I, p. I, p. 209; noir. Voyage, p. 267.
Micure, Voyage, p. 283. Felis concolor Linnaeus, 1771
Caluromys lanatus Olfers, 1818 Gouazouara, Essais, I, p. 133; Giiazuara, Apunt.,

Micoure second, ou Micoure laineux, Essais, I, I, p. 120; Guazuara, Voyage, p. 268.
p. 175; Lanoso, Apunt., I, p. 221; Lanoso, Felis geoffroyi D'Orbigny and Gervais, 1 844
Voyage, p. 287. Mbaracaya, ^/7Mn/., I, p. 147; Baracaya, Voyage,
Holotype Museo de Cien-
in alcohol, no. 528, p. 271.
cias Naturales,Madrid, captured 22 July Note: Said not to exist in Paraguay.
1789, by Felix d'Azara (Cabrera, 1916, Felis species?
Bol. Real Soc. espanola Hist. Nat., 16, Negro, Apunt., I, p. 154; Chat noir. Voyage, p.
p. 1). 273.
Lutreolina crassicaudata Desmarest, 1 804 Felis pardalis Linnaeus, 1758
Micoure troisieme, ou micoure a queue grosse, Chibigouazou, Essais, I, p. 152; Chibi-giiazii,
Essais, 284; Coligrueso, Apunt.,
I, p. I, p. Apunt., I, p. 132; Chibi-guazu, Voyage, p.
229; Coligrueso, Voyage, p. 290. 269.

Bibliographic type of the species. Herpailurus yagouaroundi eyra Fischer, 1814 (fig.
Marmosa pusilla Desmarest, 804 1 16)

Micoure quatrieme, ou micoure a queue longue, Yagouaroundi, Essais, I, p. 171; Yaguarundi,
Essais, 290; Colilargo, Apunt.,
I, p. I, p. Apunt., I, p. 156; Yaguarundi, Voyage, p.
251; Colilargo, Voyage, p. 291. 273, Atlas, pi. X (Yagouarondi, black
Bibliographic type of Marmosa macrura Ol- phase); Eyra, Essais, I, p. 177; Eyra, Apunt.,
fers, 1818 (= M. pusilla Desmarest). I, p. 159; Eyra, Voyage, p. 274 (red phase).
Micoure sixieme, ou micoure nain, Essais, I, p. Bibliographic type of the subspecies.

304; Enano, Apunt., I, p. 262; Enano, Voy- Felis colocolo pajeros Desmarest, 1816
age, p. 284. Chat pampa, Essais, I, p. 1 79; Pajero, Apunt.,

Bibliographic type of Marmosa pusilla Des- I, p. 160; Pajero, Voyage, p. 274.
marest, 1804. Bibliographic type of the species.
Monodelphis brevicaudis Olfers, 1818 Note: Said not to exist in Paraguay.
.( ').i.'..M.ir<imll /' / /./,,• ).,.„..„.,'. I
l.r (' .1M(. 11.11 . /' ' oil 'r.llll.lllllll.l I'm.II I/^/ ,l.;y; /.„.,„„./«., < .,,
Fig. 1 Two of Azara's Paraguayan animals: top, le yagouarondi (= Eira yagouarondi eyra Fischer); bottom,
6.
le
cagouare or cagiiare (= Tamandua tetradactyla Linnaeus); from Azara ( 1 809).

MUSTELIDAE Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris dabbenei Rovereto,
1913
Furets, Essais, I, p. 185; Hurones, Apunt.. I, p.
Capiygoua, Essais, II, p. 12; Capibara, Apunt..
167.
II, p. 8; Capibara, Voyage, p. 309.
Galictis cujafurax Thomas, 1907
Agouti paca Linnaeus, 1758
Petit furet, Essais, I, p. 190; Huron menor,
Pay, Essais, II, p. 20; Pai, Apunt., II, p. 14; Pay,
Apunt., I, p. 182; Huron minor. Voyage, p.
Voyage, p. 310.
276.
Eira barbara Linnaeus, 1758 Dasyprocta azarae paraguayensis Liais, 1872
Grand Huron mayor, Acouti, Essais. II, p. 26; Acuti, Apunt.. II, p. 21;
furet, Essais, I, p. 197;
Huron major, Voyage, Acuty, Voyage, p. 312.
Apunt., I, p. 172; p.
Vizcacia maximus Desmarest, 1817
275, Atlas, pi. XI.
Vizcache, Essais.II, p. 41; Vizcacha, Apunt.. II,
Conepatus chinga suffocans Illiger, 1815
p. 45;Vizcacha, Voyage, p. 316.
Yagoure, Essais, I, p. 211; Yagiiare, Apunt.. I,
p. 187; Yaguare, Voyage, p. 277.
Note: Vizcacia Schinz, 1 824 (Naturg. Abbild.
Pteronura brasiliensis paranensis Rengger, 1830 Saugeth., p. 243) antedates Viscaccia
Schinz, 1825 and Lagostomus Brookes,
Loutre, Essais. I, p. 348; Nutria, Apunt., I, p.
1825.
304; Loutre, Voyage, p. 304.
Dolichotis patagonum Zimmermann, 1780
CANIDAE Lievre pampa, Essais. II, p. 5 1 Liebre patagona, ;
Apunt., I, p. 51; Lievre patagon, Voyage, p.

ZoTTO, Apunt., I, p. 264; Renard, Voyage, p. 295. 318.
Chrysocyon brachyurus Illiger, 1815 Note: Said not to exist in Paraguay.
Agouara-gouazou, Essais, I, p. 307; Agiiara- Cavia aperea hypoleuca Cabrera, 1953
guazvj, Apunt., I, p. 266; Aguara-guazii, Aperea, Essais, II, p. 65; Aperea, Apunt., II, p.
Voyage, p. 296.
37; Aperea, Voyage, p. 314.
Euryzygomatomys spinosus Fischer, 1814
Dusicyon gymnocercus Fischer, 1814 Rat premier, ou rat epineus, Essais, II, p. 73;
Agouarachay, Essais, I, p. 317; Aguarachai,
Espinoso, Apunt., 76; Epineuse, Voy-
II, p.
Apunt., I, p. 271; Aguarachay, Voyage, p.
age, p. 326, Atlas, pi. XIII.
298, Atlas, pi. XII.
Oryzomys megacephalus Fischer, 1814
Rat second, ou rat a grosse tete, Essais, II, p.
PROCYONIDAE
82; Cola igual al cuerpo, Apunt., II, p. 87;
Procyon cancrivorus nigripes Mivart, 1886 Cola igual al cuerpo. Voyage, p. 330.
Agouarapope, Essais, I, p. 324; Pope, Apunt.. I, Bibliographic type of the species.
p. 278; Pope, Voyage, p. 299. Note: Antedates Oryzomys capito Olfers.
Nasua nasua spadicea Olfers, 1818 Oryzomys angouya Fischer, 1814
Couati, Essais, p. 334; Cuati, Apunt..
I, I, p. Rat troisieme, ou rat angouya, Essais, II, p. 86;
293; Cuati, Voyage, p. 301. Anguya, Apunt.. II, p. 89; Anguya, Voyage,
Bibliographic type of the subspecies. p. 331.
LEPORIDAE Note: Antedates Oryzomys buccinatus Olfers.
Reithrodon auritus Fischer, 1814
Sylvilagus brasiliensis paraguensis Thomas, 1 90 1
Rat quatrieme, ou rat oreillard, Essais, II, p. 91 ;
Tapiti, Essais. II, p. 57; tapiti, Apunt.. II, p. 32;

Orejon, Apunt., II, p. 83; Orejon, Voyage,
Tapity, Voyage, p. 313.
p. 329.

RODENTIA
Oxymycterus rufus Fischer, 1814
Roedores, Apunt., II, p. 68. Rat cinquieme, ou rat roux, Essais, II, p. 94;
Myocastor coypus bonariensis Commerson, 1805 Hocicudo,/ipM/7/., II, p. 80; Hocicudo, Voy-
Quouiya, Essais, II, p. 5; Quiya, Apunt., II, p. age, p. 328.
1; Quiya, Voyage, p. 308. Bibliographic type of the species.
Oryzomys nigripes Olfers, 1818 Chaetophractus villosus Desmarest, 1 804
Rat sixieme, ou rat a tarse noir, Essais, II, p. Tatou quatrieme, ou tatou velu, Essais, II, p.
98; Colilargo, Apunt.. II, p. 91; Colilargo, 164; Peludo, Apunt., II, p. 140; Tatou velu,
Voyage, p. 331. Voyage, p. 343.
Bibliographic type of the species. Bibliographic type of the species.
Calomys laucha Olfers, 1818 Dasypus novemcinctus niger Desmarest, 1 804
Rat septieme, ou rat laucha, Essais, II, p. 102; Tatou cinqui^me, ou tatou noir, Essais, II, p.
Laucha, Apunt., II, p. 96; Laucha, Voyage, 175; Negro, Apunt., II, p. 144; Tatou noir,
p. 333. Voyage, p. 346.
Bibliographic type of the species. Bibliographic type of the subspecies.
Coendou insidiosus Olfers, 1818 Dasypus hybridus Desmarest, 1 804
Couiy, Essais, 105; Cuiy, Apunt.,
II, p. II, p. 55; Tatou sixieme, ou tatou mulct, Essais, II, p. 1 86;
Cuiy, Voyage, p. 320. Mulita, Apunt., II, p. 156; Tatou mulita,
Bibliographic type of the species. Voyage, p. 348.
Akodon colibreve Brants, 1827 Bibliographic type of the species.
Colibreve, /i/7M/i/., II, p. 86; Colibreve, Voyage, Zaedyus pichiy Desmarest, 804 1
p. 329. Tatou septieme, ou tatou pichiy, Essais, II, p.
Bibliographic type of the species. 192; Pichiy, Apunt., II, p. 158; Tatu-pichy,
Note: Akodon obscurus Waterhouse, 1837, is Voyage, p. 345.
probably a junior synonym, but see Lang- Bibliographic type of the species.
guth(1978). Tolypeutes matacus Desmarest, 1 804
Ctenomys tucotuco Brants, 1827 Tatou huitieme, ou tatou mataco, Essais, II, p.
Tucutuco, Apunt., II, p. 89; Tucutuco, Voyage, 197; Mataco, Apunt., II, p. 161; tatou-ma-
p. 324. taco. Voyage, p. 350.
Akodon agreste Brants, 1827
Agreste, Apunt., II, p. 94; Agreste, Voyage, p. PLATYRRHINI
332.
Singes, Essais, II, p. 206; Micos, Apunt., II, p.
Note: Antedates Akodon azarae Fischer. 167; Singes, Voyage, p. 351.
Alouatta caraya Humboldt, 1812
"Musdubius", Fischer, 1829 [= ?]
Blanco debaxo, Apunt., Caraya, Essais,II, p. 208; Caraya, Apunt., II, p.
II, p. 97; Blanco-de-
169; Caraya, Voyage, p. 351.
baxo, Voyage, p. 333.
Cebus apella cay, Illiger, 1815
DASYPODIDAE Cay, Essais, II, p. 230; Cay, Apunt., II, p. 182;
Cay, Voyage, p. 354.

Tatous, Essais, II, p. 122; Tatiis, Apunt., II, p. Bibliographic type of the subspecies.
99; Tatous, Voyage, p. 334. Aotus azarae azarae Humboldt, 1812
Priodontes maximus giganteus, E. Geoffroy, 1 803 Miriquouina, Essais, II, p. 243; Miriquina,
Tatou premier, ou grand tatou, Essais, II, p. Apunt., II, p. 195; Miriquina, Voyage, p.
132; Maximo, Apunt., II, p. 110; Grand 356.
tatou ou geant. Voyage, p. 336. Bibliographic type of the species.
Bibliographic type of the subspecies. Callithrix jacchus penicillatus E. Geoffroy, 1812
Euphractus sexcinctusjlavimanus Desmarest, 1804 Titi, Essais. II, p. 254; Titi, Apunt., II, p. 200;
Tatou second, tatou poyou, ou tatou a main Titi, Voyage, p. 359. "N'est pas du Para-
jaune, Essais, II, p. 142; Poyu, Apunt., II, guay, mais du Bresil." [Description is of a
p. 118; Tatu-poyu, Voyage, p. 338. captive pair seen in the province of Buenos
Bibliographic type of the subspecies. Aires.]
Cabassous tatouay Desmarest, 1 804
Tatou troisieme, ou tatou tatouay, Essais, II, p.
MICROCHIROPTERA
155; Tatuai, Apunt., II, p. 131; Tatuai, Voy- Chauve-souris, Essais, II, p. 264; Murcielagos,
age, p. 341. Apunt., II, p. 288; chauve-souris. Voyage,
Bibliographic type of the species. p. 382.

Artibem lituratus Olfers, 1818 Myotis ruber E. Geoffroy, 1 806
Chauve-souris premiere, ou chauve-souris ob- Chauve-souris onzieme, ou chauve-souris can-
scure et rayee, Essais, II, p. 269; Obscuro nelle, Essais, II, p. 292; Acanelado, Apunt.,
listado, Apunt., II, p. 291. II, p. 308.
Bibliographic type of the species. Bibliographic typ>e of the species.
Vampyrops lineatus E. Geoffroy, 1810 Myotis albescens E. Geoffroy, 1 806
Chauve-souris seconde, ou chauve-souris brune Chauve-souris douzieme, ou chauve-souris
et rayee, Essais, II, p. 271; Pardo listado, brun-obscur, Essais, II, p. 294; Pardo ob-
Apunt., p. 292 scuro, Apunt., II, p. 309.
Desmodus rotundus E. Geoffroy, 1810
Chauve-souris troisieme, ou chauve-souris brune,
Essais, II, p. 273; Mordedor, Apunt., II, p. Johann Rudolph Rengger (1795-1832)
293.
Bibliographic type of the species. Azara was followed by Johann Rudolph Reng-
[Azara was first to distinguish true vampires Swiss pharmacist and naturalist, who arrived
ger, a
from other bats, particularly Vampyrum in Paraguay in 1819 and devoted himself to the
spectrum.] study of its mammals. His six-year study culmi-

Sturnira lilium E. Geoffroy, 1810 nated in the Naturgeschichte der Saeugethiere von
Chauve-souris quatrieme, ou chauve-souris Paraguay, published 1830. A total of 59 species
brun-rougeatre, Essais, II, p. 277; Pardo was described, including four as new of which only
roxizo, Apunt., II, p. 299. Calomys callosus and Proechimys longicaudatus
Bibliographic type of the species. survived revisions. Azara distinguished 77 species,
Noctilio leporinus rufescens Olfers, 1818 or 1 8 more, but several are not strictly Paraguayan.
Chauve-souris cinquieme, ou chauve-souris Among the Paraguayan forms missed by Rengger
rougeatre, Essais, II, p. 280; Roxizo, Apunt., but recognized by Azara are the murine opossum
II, p. 301. (Marmosa), hairy armadillo (Chaetophractus),
Bibliographic type of the subspecies. three-banded armadillo (Tolypeutes), skunk (Co-
Molossus ater castaneus E. Geoffroy, 1805 nepatus), tucotuco (Ctenomys), four cricetine ro-
Chauve-souris sixieme, ou chauve-souris cha- dents, and two bats. Well over 100 species are
taine, Essais, II, p. 282; Castano, Apunt., presently known from Paraguay.
II, p. 302. No doubt Azara set standards for the high qual-
Bibliographic type of the subspecies. ity and accuracy of Rengger's descriptions and be-
Lasiurus cinereus villosissimus E. Geoffroy, 1806 havioral accounts. The wealth of information in
Chauve-souris septieme, ou chauve-souris brun- the Naturgeschichte has hardly been tapped by
blanchatre, Essais, II, p.284; Pardo blan- modem mammalogists.
quizco, Apunt., II, p. 303.
Histiotus velatus I. Geoffroy, 1824
Orejon, Apunt., II, p. 304. XI. Chile
Tadarida laticaudata E. Geoffroy, 1 805
Chauve-souris huitieme, ou chauve-souris ob- Giovanni Ignazio Molina (1737-1829)
scure, Essais, II, p. 286; Obscuro, Apunt.,
II, p. 305. Knowledge of Chilean land mammals as a re-
Bibliographic type of the species. gional fauna begins with publication of the Saggio
Molossus molossus Pallas, 1 766 in 1782 by the Jesuit priest Don Giovanni (Juan)
Chauve-souris neuvieme, ou petit chauve-sou- Ignazio Molina, who lived in Chile the first 30
ris obscure, Essais, II, p. 288; Obscuro me- years of his life. Expulsion of the Jesuits from the
nor, Apunt., II, p. 306. country obliged Molina to emigrate in 1768 and
Molossus crassicaudatus E. Geoffroy, 1 805 settle in his ancestral Italy. What Molina knew
Chauve-souris dixieme, ou chauve-souris bnin- about Chilean mammals he learned before 1768;
cannelle, Essais, II, p. 290; Pardo acane- much of what he wrote about them thereafter suf-
lado, Apunt., II, p. 307. fered from a decayed memory.
Bibliographic type of the species. Molina was a naturalist in the broadest sense
and was familiar with the Systemce of Linnaeus. first volume (1847) of eight on zoology contains
He was not, however, particularly dedicated to any virtually all Chilean mammals known at the time.
one branch of science, and his descriptions of the Fifty-four species are described, with accounts of
Chilean mammals are, for the most part, vague, and geographic distribution of each.
habits, habitat,
inaccurate, and sometimes composite. A few of For the most part. Gay worked from actual spec-
his subjects were fanciful, and none of the re- imens brought to him by natives or observed by
mainder were closely examined. Nevertheless, by him on his travels throughout the country. On his
dint of elimination and stretches of the imagina- return to France,Gay included in his studies the
tion, modem mammalogists have come to agree- Chilean material preserved in the Paris Natural
ment on the application of most of the Linnaean History Museum.
names proposed by Molina for the likeliest species The species recorded by Gay include Marsupi-
he may have had in mind. alia, 2 (4% of the total); Chiroptera, 7 (13%); Gar-
Thirty kinds of mammals were described in the ni vora, 12 (22%); Pinnipedia, 6(11%); Rodentia,
Saggio. According to Osgood (1943, p. 15), five 23 (43%; myomorphs, 24%, caviomorphs, 18%);
of them are unidentifiable, four (armadillos) are Artiodactyla, 3 (5%). Among the 30 species re-
extraterritorial, two are but one and the same, and corded by Molina, only 3 or 10% are rodents. Of
one is duplicated. The 14 still valid, with names the 20 Chilean species collected by Darwin, 12 or
dating from Molina, 1782, are Lutra felina, My- 60% are rodents. In this volume Patterson and
ocastor coypus, Conepatus chinga, Galictis cuja, Feigl recognize 93 living Chilean sF)ecies, of which
Dusicyon culpaeus, Felis guigna, Felis colocolo, 53 or 57% are rodents (33% myomorphs, 24%
Felis concolor puma, Spalacopus cyanus, Octodon caviomorphs), and 1 or 1 1 % are bats.
degus, Vizcacia vizcacia, Pudu puda, Vicugna vi-
cugna, and Hippocamelus bisulcus. Remaining
species, notably the larger mammals, recorded by
Molina were well known to early voyagers, chron- XII. Peru
iclers, and naturalists and had already received
Linnaean names. Johann Jacob von Tschudi (1818-1889)
The Swiss biologist Johann von Tschudi was

Eduard Friedrich Poeppig (1798-1868) bom in the town of Glarus and studied the sciences
at Swiss, French, and German universities. In-
The German naturalist Eduard Poeppig is known spired by the accounts of the travels of Humboldt
for his Reise in Chile, Peru, and on the Rio Ama- and Darwin in South America, Tschudi sailed on
zonas during the years 1827-1832. The account 27 February 1838 from Le Havre for Peru. The
of his travels, in two volumes, was published first landing on the continent was made 5 June
1835-1836. The Chilean mammals recorded in- 1 838 on the Chilean island of Chiloe. After a delay
clude seals, sea lions, and elephant seals, the degu, of about three weeks and many observations of
Spalacopus cyanus Molina (Psammomys nocti- the natural history of the island, von Tschudi
vagus Poeppig, a synonym), the coypu, and a small reembarked for Callao, Pern, with short stopovers
canid, probably Dusicyon griseus Gray. In Antuco, in Valdivia and Juan Femandez.
Province of Bio Bio, he encountered the pudu, From August 1838 through most of 1843, von
huemul, and two species of bats, one described as Tschudi traveled over much of Peru. Of particular
Nyticyus varius (= Lasiurus borealis bonariensis interest to him were the higher vertebrates and the
Lesson & Gamot, 1827), the other as Nycticyus physical factors controlling their geographic dis-
macrotus (currently Histiotus macrotis Poeppig, tribution. He distinguished faunal zones based on
1835). mling ecological The major zones were

features.
Pacific coast, Andean of westem
altitudinal zones
and eastem slopes, and the tropical Amazonian
Claudio Gay (1800-1873) selva. Apparently, no one had preceded von
Tschudi in the recognition of definable biogeo-
Between the years 1 844 and 1871, Claudio Gay, graphic areas in the New World.
French naturalist and longtime resident of Chile, The narrative of von Tschudi's travels in Pern
produced 25 volumes, including two of plates, on was published in 1846 in German, followed in
the history, geography, and biota of Chile. The 1847 by Thomasina Ross's English translation.

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The scientific accounts of the mammals are found and the third rather lighter. They are fas-
in a preliminary report (1844a) and first part of tened to long, elastic strings, made of twisted
the Untersuchungen liber die Fauna Peruana, pub- sinews of the vicuria, and the opposite ends
lished later the same year ( 1 844b). of the strings are all tied together. The Indian
Although von Tschudi attempted to provide the holds the lightest of the three balls in his
fullest account possible of Peruvian mammals, it hand, and swings the two others in a wide
appears he had little or no contact with the ma- circleabove his head; then taking his aim at
jority of them. Most of his characterizations and the distance of about fifteen or twenty paces,
life history accounts are taken from Humboldt, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which all the
Spix, Wied-Neuwied, other European travelers and three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round
natives. Camelids, the dominant animals of the the object aimed at. The aim is usually taken
Peruvian landscape fascinated von Tschudi, and at the hind legs of the animals, and the cords
he wrote more about them than of other animals. twisting round them they become firmly
His description of a vicuria hunt is quoted below bound. requires great skill and long prac-
It
from the Ross translation (Tschudi, 1 847, pp. 2 1 9- tice to throw the bolas dexterously, espe-
220). cially when on horseback: a novice in the

art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting
The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in either himself or his horse,
by not giving the
hunting the vicunas. They catch them by balls the proper swing, or by letting go the
what they term the chacu. In this curious hand-ball too soon.
hunt, one man at least belonging to each The vicuiias, after being secured by the
family in the Puna villages takes a part, and bolas, are killed, and the flesh is distributed
women accompany the train, to officiate as in equal portions among the hunters. The
cooks to the hunters. The whole company, skins belong to the Church. The price of a
frequently amounting to seventy or eighty vicuna skin is four reals. When all the ani-
individuals, proceeds to the Altos (the most mals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &c., are
secluded parts of the Puna), which are the packed up carefully, and conveyed to another
haunts of the vicuiias. They take with them spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is
stakes, and a great quantity of rope and cord. again fixed up. The hunting is continued in
A spacious open plain is selected, and the this manner for the space of a week. The
stakes are driven into the ground in a circle, number of animals killed during that inter-
at intervals of from twelve to fifteen feet val varies according to circumstances, being
apart, and are connected together by ropes sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other times
fastened to them at the height of two or two several hundred. During five days I took part
and a half feet from the ground. The circular in a chacu hunt in the Altos of Huayhuay,
space within the stakes is about half a league and in that space of time 122 vicurias were
in circumference, and an opening of about caught. With the money obtained by the sale
two hundred paces in width is left for en- of the skins a new altar was erected in the
trance.On the ropes by which the stakes are church of the district. The flesh of the vicuiia
fastened together the women hang pieces of is more tender and better flavored than that
colored rags, which flutter about in the wind. of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made
The chacu being fully prepared, the men, of the wool. When taken young, the vicurias
some of whom are mounted on horseback, are easily tamed, and become very docile;
range about within a circuit of several miles, but when old, they are intractable and ma-
driving before them all the herds of vicurias licious. At Tarma I possessed a large and
they meet with, and forcing them into the very fine vicuria. It used to follow me like a
chacu. When a sufficient number of vicunas dog whenever I went out, whether on foot
is collected, the entrance is closed. The timid or on horseback.
animals do not attempt to leap over the ropes, The frequent hunting seems not to have
being frightened by the fluttering rags sus- numbers of these
the effect of diminishing the
pended from them, and, when thus secured, animals. If in the vicinity of the villages
the Indians easily kill them by the tolas. where chacus are frequently established, they
These bolas consist of three balls, composed are less numerous than in other parts, it is
either of lead or stone; two of them heavy, because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters,

Table 9. Peruvian mammals according to Tschudi (1844a,b); current scientific names are used followed by
Tschudi's synonym or misidentification, local names, and figure in this text; extralimital species are bracketed;
arrangement of taxa follows Tschudi.
Tschudi synonym or
Current wune misidentification Local name Figure
Aieles paniscus chamek Hum- Ateles marginatus; Aieles ater; Chuva; maquisapa; chamek;
boldt Ateles pentadactylus mahmonda; machucusillo;
supaya
LagothrLx lagothricha poeppigi Lagothrix humboldti; Lagothrix Mono oki; choko
Schinz canus
LagolhrLx flavicauda Humboldt Mycetes flavicaudatus (sic)
Alotmtta seniculus Linnaeus Mycetes stramineus Coro [= coto?]
[Mycetes rufimanus Kuhl] Alouatta belzebul
Cebus apella Linnaeus Cebus robustus Macaquito
Cebus albifrons Humboldt
[Cebus capucinus Linnaeus]
Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis Chrysothrix sciureus
Hershkovitz
Callicebus torquatus Hofimann- Callithrix amictus
segg (subsp.?)
[Callicebus personatus E. Geof- Callithrix personatus
froyl
Aotus nigriceps E)ollman Nyctipithecus trivirgatus Tocon
[Chiropotes] IPithecia*
Saguinus mystax mystax Spix [Midas labiatus]
Saguinus nigricollis Spix [Midas labiatus]
Saguinus fuscicollis Spix [Midas labiatus]
[Saguinus midas midas Lin- [Midas rufimanus]
naeus]
[Leontopithecus rosalia chryso- [Midas chrysomelas]
melas Kuhl]
Chiroptera
Phyllostomus elongatus E. Geof-
fh)y
Phyllostomus hastatus Pallas Hatmnmasu
Phvlloslomus discolor Wagner, Phyllostomus innominatum
i843 Tschudi
Artibeus cinereus Gervais Phyllostomus (Artibeus) pusil-
lum
Stumira erythromos Tschudi
Sturnira oporophilum Tschudi Phyllostomus (Sturnira) oporo-
philum Tschudi
Glossophaga soricina Pallas Glossophaga amplexicauda
Anoura geoffroyi peruana Glossophaga (Choeronycteris)
Tschudi peruana Tschudi
Eptesicus innoxius Gervais Vespertilio innoxius
Histiotus macrotus Poeppig Vespertilio ( Vesperugo) velatus
Noctilio leporinus Linnaeus Noctilio unicolor
Noctilio albiventris Desmarest Noctilio affinis
Tadarida brasiliensis I. Geoffroy Molossus (Dysopes) naso
Xfolossus molossus Pallas? Molossus (Dysopes) velox
Eumops auripendulus Shaw Molossus (Dysopes) ferox; Dy-
sopes longimanus
Molossus ater E. Geofiroy Molossus (Dysopes) myosuros
Tschudi; Molossus anonymus
Tschudi
[Promops nasutus Spix] Dysopes fitmarius
Carnivora
Tremarctos omatus F. Cuvicr Ursus fivgilegus Tschudi Hucamari
Nasua nasua montana Tschudi Nasua socially, Nasua solitaria, Achuna, mishash 17
Nasua leucorhynchos Tschudi
Potosflavus Schreber Cercoleptes caudivolvidus Cushumbi
Eira barbara Linnaeus Galictis barbara Omeyro
68 HELDIANA: ZOOLCXJY
Table 9. Continued.
Tschudi synonym or
Current name misidentification L4>cal name Figure
Carnivora {continued)
Mustela frenataagilis Tschudi
Conepatus chinga Molina Molina (Thiosmus) mapurita;
Mephitis furcata; Mephitis
amazonica
Lutra felina Molina Lutra chilensis
Lutra montana Tschudif
Dusicyon thous Linnaeus Canis azarae
Felis concolor Linnaeus Poma, leon
Felis onca Linnaeus Felis onza Choque china, yana cheque,
tigre
Felis pardalis Linnaeus Uturunco
Feiis wiedii Schinz Felis macrura (sic
= Felis ma-
croura); Felis celidogaster
Felis yagouaroundi E. Geoffroy Felis yaguaruruii
PlNNIPEDIA
Otaria flavescens Shaw Otaria jubata; Otaria ulloae
Tschudi; Otaria aurita Hum-
boldt (in Tschudi)
Marsupialia
Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus Didelphys azarae Mucamuca, jarachupa
Metachirus nudicaudatus E. Didelphys myosuros
Geoffroy
Philander opossum Linnaeus
Marmosa noctivaga Tschudi
Marmosa impavida Tschudi
Marmosa murina Linnaeus
Caluromys lanatus ornatus 17
Tschudi
RODENTIA
Sciurus aestuans Linnaeus
Sciurus pyrrhinus Thomas \Sciurus variabilis]
Sciurus stramineus Eydoux and
Souleyet
Sciurus spadiceus tricolor
Tschudi
Proechimys sp.? [Echinomys leptosoma]
Chinchilla brevicaudata Water- Eriomys chinchilla
house
Lagidium peruanum Meyen Lagidium peruvianum {sic)
Lagidium viscacia Molina^ Lagidium pallipes

[Octodon degus Molina] [Octodon cummingii]
[Myocastor coypus Molina] [Myopotomus coypus]
Coendou bicolor Tschudi Sphingurus {sic) bicolor
Dasyprocta leporina Linnaeus Dasyprocta aguti Linnaeus
Dasyprocta variegata Tschudi Cutspi or cushpi 17
Akodon boliviensis Meyen Acodon boliviense
Phyllotis darwini Waterhouse Hesperomys darwini
Oryzomys longicaudatus de- Hesperomys destructor
structor Tschudi
Oryzomys melanostoma Tschu- Hesperomys melanostoma
di
Rhipidomys leucodactylus Hesperomys {Rhipidomys) leu-
Tschudi codactylus
Agouti paca Linnaeus Coelogenys fulvus
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Lin- Hydrochoerus capybara
naeus
Cavia porcellus Linnaeus Cavia cutleri Cuy del monte

Table 9. Continued.
Tschudi synonym or
Current name misidentification Local name Figure
Lagomorpha
Sylvilagus brasiliensis Linnaeus Lepus brasiliensis
Edentata
Bradypus vahegatus Schinz Bradypus infuscatus
[Bradypus torquatus lUiger]
Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus Dasypus 9-cinctus {sic)
Cabassous unicinctus Linnaeus Dasypus tatuay {sic = tatouay) Quirquincho
Tamandua tetradactyla Lin- Myrmecophaga tamandua
naeus
Cyclopes didactylus Linnaeus Myrmecophaga didactyla
Perissodactyla
Tapirus terrestris Linnaeus Tapirus americanus
Tapirus pinchaque Roulin
Artiodactyla
Tayassu tajacu Linnaeus
Tayassu pecari Link
Lama glama Linnaeus
Lama pacos Linnaeus
Lama guanicoe Miiller
Vicugna vicugna Molina
Mazama americana Erxleben
Mazama gouazoubira peruana
Tschudi
Hippocamelus antisensis d'Or-
bigny
hairy tapir (Tapirus villosus, Wagn.)
little June 1828 and continuing through 1829, his at-
ventures only at twilight out of his close am- tentions were devoted to faunal studies in the
bush to forage in the long grass. provinces of Buenos Aires and Rio Negro. The
chronology of the early part of 1829, as given by
The systematic arrangement in the Untersu- d'Orbigny (1835-1847) in the Voyage, confuses
chungen is said to include all mammals known at time spent in the two provinces with that spent in
Corrientes. In any event, d'Orbigny was clearly in
the time to occur in Peru. By von Tschudi's count,
the fauna consists of 9 species in 48 genera.
1 1
Buenos Aires and Rio Negro during the last half
These totals include domestic animals, the intro- of 1 829.He returned to Montevideo in December
duced house mouse, some duplicated names of 1829 and on 29 December sailed on to Patagonia
native species, and a number of others not known and Chile.

to occur in Peru. In terms of currently recognized Cape Horn was rounded on 19 January 1830
species found in Peru, von Tschudi's combined and Valparaiso, Chile, was reached 16 February.
lists (1844a, pp. 244-255; 1844b, pp. 6-20; 21- Because of the political unrest in the country, d'Or-
264) consist of 87 species in 58 genera. The species bigny sailed to the then Bolivian port of Cobija,
are listed in Table 9 with von Tschudi's synonyms where he landed on 8 April; 20 April found him
or misidentifications. Author attributions of the in Arica and Tacna, both ports then in Peru's pos-
synonyms are omitted unless they are to von session. After some investigation of the coast,
Tschudi himself Vernacular names, if given, are d'Orbigny left Tacna on 19 May for La Paz, the
included. Extralimital species are shown in brack- mountain capital of Bolivia, arriving there 28 or
ets.In the case of unrevised groups or where two 29 May.
or more subspecies occur in Peru without possi- For the next three years, d'Orbigny explored,
bility of determining which were described by von mapped, and sampled the natural resources of the
Tschudi, only the specific names are given. country. He crisscrossed Bolivia from La Paz east
to the Paraguayan border and from Potosi in the
south to the lower Rio Mamore in the north. D'Or-
XIII. Patagonia bigny's actual itinerary is almost impossible to
track because of the inaccuracies of the then avail-
Alcide Charles Victor d'Orbigny (1802-1857) able maps. Modem maps aided Pilleri and Arvy
(1977) in their reconstmction of the itinerary in
The French-bom Alcide d'Orbigny was educat- chronological sequence (fig. 1 8).
ed by his country's leading naturalists. His apti- A complete account of d'Orbigny's South Amer-
tudes were recognized by authorities of the Mu- ican joumey with observations on and descrip-
seum National d'Histoire Naturelle, and with that tions of the geology, paleontology, living plants,
institution's financial and material assistance, he animals, and Indians is contained in seven huge
sailed for South America charged with making a volumes published serially from 835 through 1847
1
scientific survey of the southern half of the con- in Paris under the title Voyage dans I'Amehque
tinent. Circumstances restricted his studies and Meridionale. A full report on the mammals was
collections of mammals almost entirely to Argen- reserved for thelast, or perhaps a separate pub-
tina and Bolivia. but a turn in d'Orbigny's fortunes inter-
lication,
D'Orbigny left France 3 1 July 826 and arrived

1 rupted the work. A number of colored plates of
in Rio de Janeiro 24 September 1826 on his way mammals believed new to science and a few short
to Montevideo where he landed on 29 September. articleson others had already been published. So
The natural history of the region between Mal- that would not be lost, a synoptic systematic
all
donado east of Montevideo and Buenos Aires en- report on the mammals collected was published
gaged his attention for several months. in 847 jointly with the distinguished mammal-
1
On 14 February 1827, d'Orbigny ascended the ogist Paul Gervais, as number 2 of volume 4 of
Rio Parana and arrived 1 5 March at the important the Voyage. Brief notes on distribution and be-
fluvial port of Corrientes, capital of the province havior accompany the abbreviated descriptions of
of the same name. With the town as base, d'Or- each species. The species are listed in Table 10
bigny explored the province throughout much of with abstracted locality data. Scientific names used
one year. are current with synonyms and misidentifications
On his return to Buenos Aires in April 1828, he added. The specimens are deposited in the Mu-
made stops in Entre Rios and Santa Fe. Beginning seum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris.

5 : ' '
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•e
o
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CAI.ITKIN M».pkn" '*•
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Fig. 1 Animals of the d'Orbigny Bolivian Expedition: upper left, Callithrix entomophagus d'Orbigny (= Saimiri
9.
I. Geoffroy and Blainville); upper right, Callithrix donacophilus d'Orbigny (= Callicebus do-
boliviensis boliviensis
nacophilus donacophilus); lower left, Felis geoffroyi d'Orbigny and Gervais (= Felis colocolo geoffroyi); lower right.
Mephitis humboldtii (= Conepatus chinga suffocans Illiger); from d'Orbigny and Gervais (1847).

Table 10. Mammals of the southern half of South America, mostly Bolivia and Argentina, recorded by d'Orbigny
and Gervais (1847); the arrangement is phylogenetic.
Current name d'Orbigny and Gervais synonym Locality Figure
Chiroptera
Noctilio albiventris Desmarest, Noctilio affinis d'Orbigny, 1835 BOLIVIA: Moxos Province
1818
Noctilio leporinus rufipes d'Or- BOLIVIA: Chiquitos and
bigny, 1835 Moxos provinces
Tonatia sylvicola d'Orbigny, BOLIVIA: Yuracare territory,
1835 base of eastern Cordillera
Artibeus planirostris Spix, 1 823 Not Vespertilio perspicillatus BOLIVIA: Chiquitos Province
Linnaeus, 1758
Desmodus rotundus E. Geoffroy, Desmodus rufus Wied-Neuwied, BOLIVIA: Chiquitos
1810 1824; Edostoma cinerea d'Or-
bigny, 1835
Myotis nigricans Wied-Neu- Vespertilio hypothrix d'Orbigny BOLIVIA: Moxos
wied, 1821 and Gervais, 1847
Eptesiciis furinalis d'Orbigny ARGENTINA: Corrientes
and Gervais, 1 847
Myotis albescens E. Geoffroy, Vespertilio isidori d'Orbigny and ARGENTINA: Corrientes
1806 Gervais, 1847
Myotis ruber E. Geoffroy, 1 806 ARGENTINA: Corrientes
Histiotus velatus I. Geoffroy, BOLIVIA: Chuquisaca
1824
Tadarida brasiliensis I. Geof- Molossus rugosus d'Orbigny, ARGENTINA: Corrientes
froy, 1824 1835, not Molossus nasutus
Spix, 1823
Molossus crassicaudatus E. Geof- Molossus moxensis d'Orbigny, BOLIVIA: Moxos and Chiqui-
froy, 1805 1835; Molossus velox Tem- tos provinces
minck, 1827
Primates
Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis I. Calithrix (sic) entomophagus BOLIVIA: Chiquitos; Moxos; 19
Geoffroy and Blainville, 1 834 d'Orbigny, 1835 Santa Cruz
Callicebus donacophilus donaco- BOLIVIA: Moxos Province 19
philus dÔrhigny, 1835
Alouatta seniculus sara Elliot, Not Stentor stramineus E. Geof- BOLIVIA: Santa Cruz; Chiqui-
1910 froy tos; Moxos
Cebi4s apella paraguayanus Cebus fulvus var. BOLIVIA: near Santa Cruz de
Fischer, 1829 la Sierra
Carnivora
Dusicyon gymnocercus Fischer, Not Canis cancrivorus Desma- BOLIVIA: Chiquitos
1814 rest, 1820
Chrysocyon brachyurus Illiger, Canis jubatids Desmarest, 1820 Tropical South America to 41°S
1815
Tremarctos ornatus F. Cuvier, BOLIVIA: Cochabamba; Chu-
1825 quisaca
Procyon cancrivorus nigripes Not Procyon cancrivorus Cuvier, BOLIVIA: Chiquitos; ARGEN-
Mivart, 1886 1798 TINA: Corrientes
Nasua nasua solitaria Wied- Nasua fusca Desmarest, part BOLIVIA: tropics to 30'^
Neuwied, 1821
PotosflavusSchxc\xT, 111 A Cercoleptes caudivolvulus Schre- BOLIVIA: foot of eastern Cordi-
ber, 1774 llera
Lyncodon patagonicus Blain- ARGENTINA: Rio Negro

ville, 1842
Galictis cujafurax Thomas, Not Mustela brasiliensis Gme-
1907 lin, 1788
Conepatus chinga suffocans Illi- Mephitis castaneus d'Orbigny 19
ger, 1815 and Gervais, 1 847, not Me-
phitis humboldtii Gray, 1837
Lutra platensis Waterhouse, ARGENTINA: Rio Parana in
1838 Provinces Buenos Aires and
Corrientes
Table 10. Continued.
Current name d'Orbigny and Gervais synonym Locality Figure

Carnivora
Felis colocolo pajeros Desma- ARGENTINA: from 35°-45'S
rest, 1816
Felis geoffroyi d'Orbigny and ARGENTINA: Pampas to 44'S 19
Gervais, 1847
Felis concolor Linnaeus, 1771 BOLIVIA; ARGENTINA: to
Straitsof Magellan
Felis onca Linnaeus, 1758 Tropical South America not be-
yond 40^; ARGENTINA:
Pampas; Serrania de Tandil
PiNNIPEDIA
OtariaflavescensShs^N, 1800 Otaria jubata Schreher, 1776 ARGENTINA: S mouth Rio
Negro
Arctocephalus australis Zimmer- Otaria porcina Molina, 1782 ARGENTINA: coast; PERU:
mann, 1782 coast
Mirounga leonina Linnaeus, Phoca proboscidea Peron, 1817 ARGENTINA: Rio Negro, near
1758 mouth
Artiodactyla
Mazama gouazoubira Fischer, Cervus simplicicornis Illiger, Tropical South America to 28°S
1814 1815
Blastoceros bezoarticus Lin- Not Cervus campestris F. Cu- Lowland savannas to northern
naeus, 1758 vier, 1817 Patagonia
Hippocamelus antisensis d'Or- BOLIVIA: La Paz; Cochabam- 20
bigny, 1834 ba; Chuquisaca; rarely below
3500 m
Blastocerus dichotomus Illiger, Cervus paludosus Desmarest, ARGENTINA: Corrientes; BO-
1815 1822 LIVIA: Chiquitos
RODENTIA
Sciurus spadiceus Olfers, 1818 Not Sciurus igniventris Wagner, BOLIVIA: Chiquitos
1842
Eligmodontia typus F. Cuvier, ARGENTINA: Corrientes
1837
Octodon degus Molina, 1782 CHILE: Santiago de Chile
Octodontomys gliroides, Gervais BOLIVIA: La Paz
and d'Orbigny, 1 844
Ctenomys boliviensis Water- Not Ctenomys brasiliensis ARGENTINA: Corrientes; BO-
house, 1848 Blainville, 1826 LIVIA: Santa Cruz de la Sie-
rra
Ctenomys magellanicus Bennett, ARGENTINA: northern Pata-
1835 gonia
Microcavia australis Gervais ARGENTINA: Rio Negro
and d'Orbigny, 1833
Galea flavidens Brandt, 1835 BOLIVIA: Cochabamba; Chu-
quisaca; La Paz
Dolichotis patagonum Zimmer- Dasyprocta patachonica Desma- ARGENTINA: northern Pata-
man, 1780 rest, 1820 gonia; Corrientes
Dasyprocta azarae Lichtenstein, Not Dasyprocta nigricans Wag- Tropical South America
1827 ner, 1842
Cetacea
Inia boliviensis d'Orbigny, 1834 BOLIVIA: rivers of Moxos and 20
Chiquitos
[Pontoporia blainvillei Gervais URUGUAY: Montevideo
and d'Orbigny, 1 844; not part
of d'Orbigny collection]
Lagenorhynchus cruciger Quoy Atlantic Ocean (57»-76'«, E and
and Gaimard, 824 1 S of Cape Horn)
Lissodelphis peroni Lacepede, Atlantic Ocean (48°-64'«); At-
1804 lantic-Pacific Oceans around
Cape Horn

'
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) In July 1832 the Beagle left Brazil for the Pa-
tagonian subregion. Up to this time, Darwin's zoo-
Charles Robert Darwin was bom in Shrews- logical collections consisted mainly of insects and
bury, England, to a wealthy and distinguished fam- mollusks. Because only negligible contact with the
ily. Although his early schooling emphasized the rich mammalian fauna of Brazil had been made,
classics, Darwin's interests since boyhood were in Darwin was deprived of a basis for direct com-
natural history, particularly of the insects he col- parisons with the comparatively poor but largely
lected, and in hunting as a sport. As a university unique mammalian fauna of the Patagonian
student, he dropF)ed out of medical school after subregion, which he studied zealously. As a result,
two years, then took up theology, and abandoned his attention focused on morphological and eco-
that after three years. Nevertheless, through the logical differences between the individual species
influence of his teachers, he developed and sharp- (or subspecies) he collected or observed in La Pla-
ened his interests in biology and geology, and his ta, Bahia Blanca, Patagonia, the Falklands, Chile,
reading of Humboldt's Personal Narrative of and the Galapagos and the same or nearly related
Travels to the Equinoctial Regions ofAmerica fired species of Paraguay and Chile described by Azara
him with a zeal for travel and discoveries in distant and Molina. How much would Darwin's concept
and unexplored lands. of the origin of life been affected if his thoughts
The opportunity for travel in exotic parts soon had been directed primarily to faunas and faunal
came. At age 22, with his mostly self-acquired regions rather than to species and their geographic
knowledge of geology and systematic biology and variation?
exjjerience as a collector and hunter, Charles Dar- The Beagle remained in the area of La Plata
win accepted the unsalaried post of Naturalist on from July 1832 to July 1833, affording Darwin
H.M.S. Beagle for a five-year cruise of chrono- opportunities to collect near Maidonado, a short
metrical explorations round the world. The ex- distance up the coast from Montevideo. The Bea-
periences on the voyage, which began 27 Decem- gle then sailed south to the mouth of the Rio Ne-
ber 1831 (fig. 21), transformed Darwin into the gro. While the vessel's crew mapped and took
leading naturalist of his time and were the prime soundings up and down the coast between the Rio
source of inspiration for Darwin's theory of or- Negro and Rio Plata, Darwin made a number of
ganic evolution by natural selection. excursions into the Pampas, Bahia Blanca, Sierra
The Beagle touched the South American main- de la Ventana, Rio Colorado, Rio Parana, and Rio
land at Bahia (now Salvador), Brazil, on 29 Feb- Uruguay. Many observations were made on the
ruary 1 832 for a short stay. Before the ship left for behavior and habitat of mammals characteristic
Rio de Janeiro in March, Darwin captured and of the region, but few animals were actually col-
prepared for study a specimen of the very common lected. Among the species mentioned are arma-
phyllostomid bat, Carollia perspicillata Linnaeus, dillos (known as pichiy, peludo, apar, and mulita),
his first mammalian sp)ecimen of the exp)edition. the Patagonian hare or mara (misnamed "agou-
In Rio de Janeiro, Darwin was taken on a hunt ti"), the capybara, cavia, skunk, puma, jaguar,
by an old Portuguese priest. Two howler monkeys guanaco, and pampas deer. Darwin (1839, p. 144)
{Alouattafusca E. Geoffroy), described by Darwin was fascinated by the viscacha's packrat-like hab-
( 1 839, p. 32) as "two large bearded monkeys," had its such as:
been shot the day before by his companion. Dar-

win wrote:
dragging every hard object to the mouth of
These animals have prehensile tails, the ex- its burrow; around each group of holes
tremity of which, even after death, can sup- many bones of cattle, stones, thistle stalks,
port the whole weight of the body. One of hard lumps of earth, dry dung, etc., are col-
them thus remained fast to a branch, and it lected into an irregular heap, which fre-
was necessary to cut down a large tree to quently amounts to as much as a wheelbar-
procure it. This was soon effected and down row would contain. I was credibly informed
came tree and monkey with an awful crash. that a gentleman, when riding on a dark night,
dropped his watch; he returned in the morn-
The Darwin with an eyra cat
priest later presented ing, and by searching the neighborhood of
(Herpailurus yagouaroundi eyra Fischer) that had every bizcacha hole on the line of the road,
just been killed in the Gavea mountain. as he exp>ected, soon found it.

lOV
Coplapo'U
Coqulabo pLl-a
Coocepcirfn J9 \ l
Buenos Aires
^-xJUjtontevldeo
Y (SIERRA DF, ^fo Plata
CHARLES DARUIN
TOTAGE OF B.M.S. BEACLE
SOUTH AMERICAN LOCALITIES
(1832-1835)
CBOHOS*-
-w
AXCRIPELACO^^ ,'
Hp-y^^ ^/San Julian
Good Success
(snia dc Good Uickf FALKLAND ISLANDS
tllUA DEL ruioo

Canai fagla
T. J 1 L.
80* 60* 50* 30*
Fig. 2 ! .
Map showing principal South American stations visited by Charles Darwin ( 1 832-1 835) on world cruise
of H.M.S. Beagle (1832-1836).
u

Table 1 1 .Mammals collected or observed by Oanvin in the Maldonado Region, Uruguay and parts of Argentina,
and those recorded by Waterhouse (1838-1839); the arrangement is phylogenetic.
Waterhouse synonym or
Current name misidentification Locality Figure
Marsupialia
Didelphis albiventris Lund Didelphis azarae AucL URUGUAY: Maldonado
Lutreolina crassicaudata Des- URUGUAY: Maldonado
marest
Monodelphis dimidiata Wagner Didelphis brachyura Auct. URUGUAY: Maldonado 22
Chiroptera
Tadarida brasiliensis I. Geoffroy Not Dysopes nasutus Spix URUGUAY: Maldonado
Edentata
Dasypus hybridus Desmarest URUGUAY: Maldonado
Zaedyus pichiy Desmarest Dasypus minutus AucL ARGENTINA: Banda Oriental,
Entre Rios
Chaetophractus villosus Desma- ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
rest (observed)
Tolypeutes matacus Desmarest ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
(observed)
Carnivora
Dusicyon gymnocercus Fischer Not Canis azarae Wied-Neu- ARGENTINA: La Plata (ob-
wied served)
Felis colocolo pajeros Desmarest ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
Galictus cujafurax Thomas Not Galictis vittata Schreber URUGUAY: Maldonado
Lutra platensis Waterhouse URUGUAY: Maldonado
Conepatus chinga gibsoni ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
Thomas (observed)
Felis concolor acrocodia Gold- ARGENTINA: the pampas (ob-
man served)
Felis onca palustris Ameghino ARGENTINA: in the Rio Pa-
rana (observed)
Artiodactyia
Blastoceros bezoartiats Lin- Not Cervus campestris Cuvier URUGUAY: Maldonado; AR-
naeus GENTINA: Bahia Blanca;
Rio Negro
Lama guanicoe Muller ARGENTINA: Rio Negro (ob-
served)
RODENTIA
Myomorpiia
Oryzomys flavescens Waterhouse URUGUAY: Maldonado
CaJomys laucha Olfers Mus bimaculatus Waterhouse; ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
Mus gracilipes Waterhouse
Eligmodontia typus Cuvier Mus elegans Waterhouse ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
Holochilus brasiliensis darwini ARGENTINA: Bahia Blanca
Thomas
Reithrodon physodes typicus URUGUAY: Maldonado
Waterhouse
Akodon azarae Fischer Mus arenicola Waterhouse URUGUAY: Maldonado
Akodon colibreve Brants Mus obscurus Waterhouse URUGUAY: Maldonado
Scapteromys tumidus Water- URUGUAY: Maldonado
house
Oxymycierus rufus nasutus URUGUAY: Maldonado
Waterhouse
Caviomorpiia
Cavia porcellus Linnaeus Cavia cobaia Auct. URUGUAY: Maldonado
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Lin- Hydrochoerus capybara Auct. URUGUAY: Maldonado
naeus
Table 1 1 . Continued.
Caviomorpha (continued)
Dolichotis patagonum Zimmer- ARGENTINA: Rio Negro (ob-

man served)
Vizcacia maximus Desmarest Lagostomus trichodactylus URUGUAY: Maldonado
Brookes
Ctenomys brasiliensis Blainville URUGUAY: Maldonado
Darwin could not explain the viscacha's behavior. from its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean to about 60
Pampas deer (Blastoceros bezoarticus) were miles from the nearest arm of the Pacific Ocean
abundant throughout the La Plata region. Darwin on the opposite side of the cordillera.
(1839, p. 55) saw Darwin was greatly impressed by the number,
variety, and great size of fossil mammals, mostly
very many small herds, containing from five
Pleistocene, exposed on the Patagonian plains.
to seven animals each, near the Sierra Ven-
These, he (1839, p. 209) believed, were confir-
tana, and among the hills north of Maldo-
mation of the "law" that existing animals in an
nado. If a person crawling close along the
area have a close relation in form with extinct
ground, slowly advances toward a herd, the
species in the same area. The natural causes for
deer frequently, out of curiosity, approach
extinction, however, eluded Darwin. After pro-
to reconnoitre him. I have by this means
posing and rejecting a number of explanations, the
killed, from one spot, three out of the same
nonevolutionist Darwin (1839, p. 212) concluded
herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, yet
that
when approached on horseback, they are ex-
ceedingly wary. In this country nobody goes the whole series of animals, which have been
on foot, and the deer knows man as its en- created with f>eculiar kinds of organization,
emy only when he is mounted and armed are confined to certain areas; and we can
with the bolas. hardly suppose these structures are only ad-
aptations to peculiarities of climate or coun-
The jaguar by some accounts is a man-killer, by
try; for otherwise, animals belonging to a
others, fearsman. Darwin (1839, p. 159) records
distinct type, and introduced by man, would
several instances reported to him of man-killing
not succeed so admirably even to the exter-
jaguars of the Rio Parana region.
mination of the aborigines. On such grounds
The Beagle left the Rio Plata on December 8331
itdoes not seem a necessary conclusion that
for Puerto Deseado, or Port Desire, on the Pata-
the extinction of species, more than their
gonian coast. The mammals collected by Darwin
creation, should exclusively depend on the
and reported by Waterhouse (1838-1839), with
nature (altered by physical change) of their
descriptions and supplementary notes by Darwin,
country. All that at present can be said with
are listed in Table 1 1, with the Waterhouse syn-
certainty, is that, as with the individual, so
onyms (misidentifications included). Added are the with the species, the hour of life has run its
few species Darwin mentioned in his Journal but
course, and is spent.
did not collect. Unless otherwise indicated, all
species are from the neighborhood of Maldonado, The small number of extant large mammals and
Uruguay. greatnumber and variety of small mammals, also
The geology and natural history of Patagonia
impressed Darwin (1839, p. 215).
investigated byDarwin included those of the Straits
of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego (December 1 832- Patagonia, poor as she is in some resj)ects,
January 1833; May-June 1834), Puerto Deseado can, however, boast of a greater stock of
(Port Desire) (December 1833-January 1834), small rodents than p)erhaps, any other coun-
Santa Cruz (April-May 1834), and the Falkland try in the world. Several sjjecies of mice are
Islands (March 1834). The Beagle itself (fig. 22) externally characterized by large thin ears
sailed up the Rio Santa Cruz to a point 1 40 miles and a very fine fur. These little animals

swarm amongst the thickets in the valleys, The mammals collected by Darwin in the Ar-
where they cannot for months together taste gentine Patagonia (including Falkland Islands) and
a drop of water. They all seem to be can- bordering parts of the Chilean Straits of Magellan
nibals, for no sooner was a mouse caught in are listed in Table 12.
one of my traps than it was devoured by The Chilean leg of the cruise began in May 834
1
others. A small and delicately-shaped fox with the passage of the Beagle into the eastern
which is likewise very abundant, probably mouth of the Straits of Magellan and ended July
derives its entire support from these small 1835 with departure from Copiapo in northern
animals. Chile.While the Beagle sailed up and down the
Chilean coast, Darwin explored the coast, islands,
The guanaco was regarded as the characteristic archipelagos, and cordillera. He crossed the Andes
on 21 March 1835 through the Portillo Pass south
quadruped of the Patagonian plains (Darwin, 1 839,
of Santiago, and proceeded to the town of Men-
p. 215).
doza in Argentina. Differences observed between
the biota of eastern and western versants of the
Herds of fifty or a hundred were common,
cordillera impressed Darwin. The mountains, he
and, as I have said, we saw one which must
have contained at least five hundred. The (1839, p. 399) reasoned,
puma with the condor in its train, follows

and preys upon these animals. The footsteps have existed as a great barrier, since a period
of the former were to be seen almost every- so remote that whole races of animals must
where on the banks of the river [Santa Cruz]; subsequently have perished from the face of
and the remains of several guanaco, with the earth. Therefore, unless we suppose the
their necks dislocated, and bones broken, same species to have been created in two
showed how they had met their death. different countries,we ought not to expect
any closer similarity between the organic
beings on opposite sides of the Andes, than
In March 1834, Darwin visited the Falkland
on shores separated by a broad strait of the
Islands. On a tour he encountered large numbers
sea.
of horses, cattle, swine, and rabbits {Oryctolagus
cuniculus Linnaeus [= Lepus magellanicus Lesson
The correlation between geographic isolation and
and Gamot] in domestic and feral states. The an-
faunal peculiarity was noted in other circum-
imals had been brought by French colonists in
stances. Darwin (1839, p. 439) observed that
1 764. Darwin wrote (p. 249),
next to lizards, mice appear to be able to

The only quadruped native to the island, is
support existence on the smallest and driest
a large wolf-like fox [Dusicyon (Iculpaeus)
portions of the earth— even on islets in the
australis Kerr] which is common to both
midst of great oceans. I believe it will be
East and West Falkland. I have no doubt it
found, that several islands, which possess no
is a peculiar species and confined to this
other warm-blooded quadruped, have small
archijjelago. These wolves are well known
. . .
rodents peculiar to themselves.

. . . lameness and curiosity. ... To
[for] their
this day their manners remain the same. . . .
As far as I am aware, there is no other in-

Ratadas or rat plagues in Chile also caught Dar-
stance in any part of the world, of so small win's attention. One of the earliest recorded for
a mass of broken land, distant from a con- Oryzomys longicaudatus longicaudatus, viewed
tinent, possessing so large a quadruped pe- through the eyes of Darwin (in Waterhouse, 1 838,
culiar to Their numbers have rapidly
itself. p. 40), "overran the wooded country south of Con-
decreased; they are already banished from cepcion, in swarms of infinite numbers."
that half of the island which lies to the east-
The mammals of Tierra del Fuego tallied by
ward of the neck of land between St. Sal- Darwin (1839, p. 300) included, besides cetaceans
vador Bay and Berkeley Sound. Within a and phocids,
very few years after these islands shall have
become regularly settled, in all probability one bat [not named but likely Histiotus
this fox will be classed with the dodo, as an montanus magellanicus Philippi], a mouse
animal which has perished from the face of with grooved front teeth {Reithrodon of
the earth. Waterhouse) and two other species, the tu-
Table 12. Patagonian mammals collected by Darwin and recorded by Waterhouse (1838-1839); arrangement is
phylogenetic.
Carnivora
Dusicyon australis Kerr Canis antarcticus Shaw Falkland Islands
Dusicyon griseus Gray Not Canis azarae Wied-Neu- ARGENTINA: PaUgonia
wied
Felis colocolo pajeros Desmarest ARGENTINA: Santa Cruz 22
Artiodactyla
Lama guanicoe Miiller Auchenia llama Desmarest ARGENTINA: Patagonia
RODENTIA
Oryzomys longicaudatus magel- ARGENTINA: Puerto de
lanicus Bennett Hambre (Port Famine);
CHILE: Straits of Magellan
Akodon xanthorhinus Water- CHILE: Peninsula de Hardy
house
Akodon canescens Waterhouse ARGENTINA: Puerto Deseado
(Port Desire); Santa Cruz
Auliscomys micropus Water- ARGENTINA: Rio Santa Cruz,
house Santa Cruz
Graomys griseojlavus Water- ARGENTINA: Rio Negro
house
Phyllotis xanthopygus Water- ARGENTINA: Puerto Deseado
house (Port Desire); Santa Cruz
Reithrodon physodes cunicu- ARGENTINA: Puerto Deseado
loides Waterhouse (Port Desire); San Julian; Rio
Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz
Euneomys chinchilloides Water- ARGENTINA: Eastern entrance
house to Straits of Magellan
Myocastor coypus Molina ARGENTINA: Rio Chubut
Microcavia australis I. Geoffroy ARGENTINA: 41°S to Straits
and d'Orbigny of Magellan
Dolichotis patagonum Zimmer- Cavia patachonica Shaw ARGENTINA: Patagonia
man
Cetacea
Lagenorhynchus cruciger Quoy Delphinus fitzroyi Waterhouse ARGENTINA: Golfo San Jose,
and Gaimard 42°30'S, Chubut
cotuco (the greater number of these rodents icusfueginus Philippi (Osgood, 1943, p. 1 19). Dar-
are confined to the eastern and dry part), a win (1839, p. 327) also mentioned the occurrence
fox, sea-otter, guanaco, and one deer [un- of the puma {Felis concolor) in Tierra del Fuego,
named but likely Hippocamelus bisulcus]. and relatedsomething of its habits in other parts
The latter animal is rare, and is not, I be- of Chile and Argentina.
lieve, to be found south of the Straits of The type specimen of Darwin's zorro {Dusicyon
Magellan, as happens with the others. fulvipes Martin), peculiar to the island of Chiloe,
was discovered by Darwin (p. 34 1 ) on 6 December
With respect to geographic distribution, Darwin 1834 sitting on the rocks and so intently absorbed
(1839, p. 300), in watching the maneuvers of two ship's officers
engaged in surveying,
observing the general correspondence of the
cliffs of soft sandstone, mud, and shingle, on that I was able, by quietly walking up be-
the opposite side of the Strait, together with hind, to knock him on the head with my
those on some intervening islands [was] geological hammer. This fox, more curious
strongly tempted to believe that the land was or more scientific, but less wise, than the
once joined and thus allowed animals so del- generality of his brethren, is now mounted
icate and helpless as the tucotuco, and in the museum of the Zoological Society.
Reithrodon to pass over.
Sea otters {Lutrafelina Molina) were described
The tucotuco in question is Ctenomys magellan- by Darwin (in Waterhouse, 1838, p. 24) as ex-

ceedingly common amongst the innumerable counts of the stopovers in Iquique, Callao. and
channels and bays which form the Chonos Ar- Lima make no mention of indigenous mammals.
chipelago. The Galapagos Archipelago, it seemed to Dar-
win ( 839. p. 454), was "a little world within itself;
1
.
they may generally be seen quietly swim-
. .
the greater number of its inhabitants both vege-
ming with their heads just out of water amidst table and animal being found nowhere else." Dar-
the great entangled beds of kelp, which win (p.464) "endeavoured to make as nearly a
abounds on this coast. They burrow in the every branch as time permit-
p)erfect collection in
ground, within the above the
forest, just ted" but the only land mammals he found were
rocky shore, and I was told, that they some- the Chatham Island rice rats described by Water-
times roam about through the woods. This house as Oryzomys galapagoensis (fig. 23), and the
otter does not, by any means, live exclu- introduced Rattus on James Island.
sively on fish. One was shot whilst running Darwin's investigations of the Galapagos fauna,
to its hole with a large volute-shell in its and cer-
Ijarticularly the birds, lizards, tortoises,
mouth; another (I believe the same species) and generated new
tain plants stirred old beliefs
was seen in Tierra del Fuego devouring a and conflicting thoughts. However, at the time he
cuttle fish.But in the Chonos Archipelago wrote his journal in October 1835, Darwin (1839,
perhaps the chief food of this animal, as well p. 474) made no
as that of the immense herds of great seals,
and flocks of terns and cormorants, is a red- attempt to come to any definite conclusions,
coloured crab (belonging to the family Mar- as the sp)ecies have not [as yet] been accu-
rouri) of the size of a prawn, which swims rately examined; but we may infer, that, with
near the surface in such dense bodies, that the exception of a few wanderers, the organic
the water appears of a red colour. This spec- beings found on this archipelago are peculiar
imen weighed nine pounds and a half to it; and yet their general form strongly par-
takes of an American character. This

. . .
The vampire bat which Darwin (1839, p. 25) between distant islands and
similarity in type
recognized as a species of d'Orbigny's genus Edos- continents, while the sp)ecies are distinct, has
toma (= Des modus) was singled out as scarcely been noticed. The circumstances
would be explained according to the views
often the cause of much trouble, by biting of some authors, by saying that the creative
the horses on their withers. The injury is
power had acted according to the same law
generally not so much owing to the loss of
over a wide area.
blood, as to the inflammation which the
pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. Writers on Darwin, quoting from his revised
The whole circumstance has lately been (1845) edition of the Journal, attribute to Darwin
doubted in was therefore fortun-
England; I more foresight on the origin of species than is ap-
ate in being present when one was actually parent in the first (1839) edition quoted here. At
caught on a horse's back. We were bivouack- the time of its publication, two years delayed, Dar-
ing late one evening near Coquimbo, in Chile, win, still a creationist and believer in the immut-
when my servant, noticing that one of the abilityof species, had yet to know the identity or
horses was very restive, went to see what of the vast majority of the plants
specific aflinities
was the matter, and fancying he could dis- and animals he had collected. This knowledge
tinguish something, suddenly put his hand served him later for definition and elaboration of
on the beast's withers, and secured the vam- thoughts expressed in the second and other revised
pire. In the morning, the spot, where the bite editions of the Journal, but not in the first.
had been inflicted, was easily distinguished The following impressions of the biota of the
from being slightly swollen and bloody. The Galapagos Islands in the second edition (p. 372 of
thirdday afterwards we rode the horse, with- an 1 899 "authorized edition") and oft quoted in
out any ill effects. whole or in part by various authors, are absent in
the first.
The Chilean mammals collected and others, only
observed by Darwin, are listed in Table 13. The natural history of the islands is emi-
Departing Chile on 12 July 1835, the Beagle nently curious and well deserved attention.
sailed north along the Peruvian coast before turn- Most of the organic productions are aborig-
ing west to the Galapagos Islands. Darwin's ac- inal creations, found nowhere else; there is
Table 13. Chilean mammals collected or only observed by Darwin, and those identified by Waterhouse (1838-
1839); the arrangement is phylogenetic.
Current name misidentification L4>cality Figure
Marsupialia
Marmosa elegans Waterhouse Valparaiso
Chiroptera
Histiotus montanus magellani- Tierra del Fuego (observed)
cus Philippi
Myotis chiloensis Waterhouse Chiloe
Tadarida brasiliensis I. Geoffroy Not Dysopes nasutus Spix Valparaiso
Desmodiis rotundus dorbignyi Coquimbo
Waterhouse
Carnivora
Dusicyon culpaeus magellanicus Copiapo; Straits of Magellan
Gray
Dusicyon fulvipes Martin Chiloe 22
Dusicyon griseus Gray Not Canis azarae Wied- Copiapo; Straits of Magellan
Neuwied
Lutra felina Molina Lutra chilensis Bennett Chonos Archipelago
Felis concolor Linnaeus Tierra del Fuego and central
Chile to 10,000 ft elevation
(observed)
Artiodactyla
Hippocamelus bisulcus Molina Tierra del Fuego (observed)
RODENTIA
Oryzomys longicaudatus longi- Concepcion
caudatus Bennett
Oryzomys longicaudatus magel- Puerto de Hambre, Straits of
lanicus Bennett Magellan
Akodon olivaceus olivaceus Mus renggeri Waterhouse Valparaiso; Coquimbo
Waterhouse
Akodon olivaceus brachiotus Chonos; Chiloe
Waterhouse
Akodon xanthorhinus xantho- Hardy Peninsula, Tierra del
rhinus Waterhouse Fuego
Abrothrix longipilis longipilis Coquimbo
Waterhouse
Phyllotis darwini darwini Water- Coquimbo 22
house
Reithrodon chinchilloides Straits of Magellan
Waterhouse
Abrocoma bennetti Waterhouse Abrocoma cuvieri Waterhouse Valparaiso; Aconcagua
Spalacopus cyanus Molina Poephagomys ater Cuvier Valparaiso
Myocastor coypus Molina Chonos Archipelago
Octodon degus Molina Octodon cummingii Bennett Valparaiso
Ctenomys magellanicus fueginus Tierra del Fuego (observed)
Philippi
even a difference between the inhabitants of the more astonished at the number of their
the different islands; yet all show a marked and at their confined range.
aboriginal beings,
relationship with those of America, though Seeing every height crowned with its crater,
separated from that continent by an open and the boundaries of most of the lava-
space of ocean, between 500 and 600 miles streams still distinct, we are led to believe
in width. The archijjelago is a little world that within a period, geologically recent, the
within itself, or rather a satellite attached to unbroken ocean was here spread out. Hence,
America, whence has derived a few stray
it both in space and time, we seem to be
colonists, and has received the general char- brought somewhat near to that great fact—
acter of its indigenous productions. Consid- that mystery of mysteries— the first appear-
ering the small size of these islands, we feel ance of new beings on this earth.

"-(SI
XIV. Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon anatomical drawings of the Histoire Naturelle are
(1707-1788) original. A small sampling is reproduced here (figs.
24-25).
Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon was bom into Buffon was the first naturalist to recognize re-
wealth and devoted his life to scientific labors; he and to discriminate between
gional faunas as such
won recognition as the leading naturalist of his Old World species and different but similar ap-
time. In 1739 he was appointed keeper of the Jar- pearing or like-named species of the New World.
din du Roi in Paris (now the Jardin des Plantes), He perceived the platyrrhine-catarrhine dichoto-
which he turned into one of the most important my of primates, and the phylogenetic distance be-
centers of biological research during the 18th cen- tween the groups. He further distinguished pre-
tury. Buffon's lifetime work was a general natural hensile-tailed monkeys from non-prehensile-tailed
history in 36 volumes. The first volume dealt with species,and cebids from callitrichids by their un-
science in general, the second with man, the next gues and teeth.
1 3 with nonhuman mammals
( 1 750-1 767). These Buffon's sense of rivalry with the contemporary
were followed by nine volumes on birds, seven Linnaeus led him to find fault with and cast scorn
volumes (1789) supplementary to the preceding, on the binomial system used in the Systema Na-
and the last five on minerals, including fossils. turae. Buffon argued for retention of vernacular
Treatment of most species in the Histoire Na- names for species as well as a makeshift vernacular
turelle is usually monographic. Gross descriptions, terminology for generic or supergeneric groups.
including measurements and weights, are based Lack of a scientific system of nomenclature in
on individuals received in the Jardin du Roi. Geo- Buffon's work, and the almost universal adoption
graphic distribution of the species is included with of the Linnaean binomial system by contemporary
the description. Habits observed in captivity and and later authors caused the Histoire Naturelle to
mentioned in the literature are recorded. Anatom- be regarded as no better than a layman's encyclo-
ical descriptions by Daubenton, Buffon's collab- pedia of science. It has been republished with many
orator, are of the skeleton, with soft parts and revisions in many editions and languages. It is
tegumentary structures of particular interest. unfortunate that Buffon's important contributions

Complete bibliographic references and synony- to life histories, morphology, and evolutionary bi-
mies, including those to the 10th edition of the ology were largely ignored by Darwin and are little
Linnaean Systema Natura, accompany each spe- appreciated today. It seems that the greater luster
cies account. credited to Darwin owes much to the dimming of
Buffon drew together much if not everything Buffon's because of his lack of organization and
known of a species, often an indiscriminate com- consistency in his writings.
posite of species. Most of the information was
compiled, some of it original. Many life history
notes were received from correspondents, partic-
XV. Faunal Origins and Distribution
ularly M. de la Borde, the royal physician resident
in Cayenne, French Guiana. Another correspon-
Early attempts to explain observed similarities
dent, M. Saint Lurrent of Trinidad, believed he
and differences between Old and New World
had solved the mystery of marsupial birth (cf p.
mammals supposedly descended from occu-
all
40). At a certain stage of development, he in-
pants of Noah's ark, began with the 1 6th century
formed Buffon, the embryonic op>ossum crawled
philosopher and chronicler Acosla and in some
from the uterus through a tube at the end of which
quarters continues to this day.
it found a long teat to which it remained attached
until fully developed. An easily verifiable discov-

ery by Daubenton (in Buffon) was that tapirs have
simple stomachs, not the complex ruminant type Jose de Acosta (1539-1600)
claimed by Bajon (above). Buffon reported that
domestic cats kill but do not eat shrew- or short- Jose de Acosta argued that the animals of the
tail opossums of the genus Monodelphis. House New World had not been carried there by man.
cats do indeed kill these animals and usually de- His evidence indicated that New World man
posit them whole in the middle of the path leading brought nothing but himself over a land route. The
from the house to the garden. possibility that animals migrating from the ark
Most of the illustrations of mammals and all might have crossed the Atlantic Ocean by swim-

IIJI.IXI /W ,. j^^ ,„ J"/ X-W /-.ff //y
I.B 5.VOOI IV \ ri.(;.\|HK.\IKNl AvPBi.r. Msnt, i>K :«i»iT.
///. 11// /..y
h iu'vaxnb IK c- \i;; \i
i.A URAXDK riiAivr-soiRis mn- im- i.ajht h"
Fig. 24. Mammals figured in the Histoire Naturelle of Buffon: upper left, le saki (= Pithecia pithecia Linnaeus,
male; from Buffon, 1767); upper right, le sagouin singe de nuit (= Pithecia pithecia Linnaeus, female; from Buffon,
1
789); lower left, la grande chauve-souris fer-de-lance de la Guyanne (= Phyllostomus hastatus Pallas; from Buffon,
1 789); lower
right, le cabiai (= Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Linnaeus; from Buffon, 1 764).
rtijii j-^ lit
I'fFK l"|-K 111' fllll.l l>K. MIR IK llf, l.A <.l'^.^NNK
// Win ..^ f-
Xm >U
ming or island hopping was also dismissed be- philosophers before him, he believed all species
cause, as Acosta pointed out, none of the animals were created as they are now in one place from
was known to occur on oceanic islands. The leg- which they spread in search of the habitats for
endary island of Atlantis, which might have been which they were specially created. This idea of a
part of a former transatlantic archipelago, was staging area as the center of origin and dispersal,
treated as fable. Other conjectures discarded, still dominant today in the minds of some students
Acosta resolved that New and Old World northern of Neotropical mammalogy, was critically reex-
continents were or had been connected, or very amined by Buffon.
nearly approximated, at their polar extremities.
Differences between New and Old World species,
he affirmed, could be explained by the disappear-
Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1707-1788)
ance of connecting Old World populations, mu-
tations among the New World sijecies engendered
Buffon, on comparing faunas of New and Old
by their isolation environments, or by
in different
Worlds, was impressed by similarities between
degeneration. No accounting or explanations were some of the species and differences between others.
needed for "imperfect" organisms such as rats, His explanation for similar-apjjearing sp>ecies, like
frogs, insects, or vermin in general. These, it was
that of the chroniclers, was that a land connection
commonly held, arose spontaneously from decay-
permitted passage of animals from Old to New
ing matter. World. Differences between New and Old World
species, he suggested, in agreement with the chron-
icler Jose Acosta, could have resulted from de-
Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa (1560/1575-1630) generation, environmental pressures, or isolation

of the New World derivatives. On the other hand,
Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa agreed with the Buffon argued, species peculiar to the New World
explanation of a northern migratory or connecting or without Old World analogs must have arisen
route but added (1948, chap. 36), in the awkward in situ, an opinion already intimated by Vazquez
de Espinosa.
phrasing of Clark's translation, that
Buffon was the first naturalist to envision the
near the Straits of Magellan in what is called
mammals of the region as a community or fauna
that might well have originated indeF>endently of
Tierra del Fuego, which is still not well
known or explored, and there are numerous other regional faunas. Noah's ark had no place in
his concept of faunal origins, and he rejected as
other quarters where the mainland of the
New World could have communicated with too short the scripturally based 6,000-year esti-
that of the Old, or at least have lain so close

mate of the earth's age. Buffon's ideas of organic
as to afford passage not merely for the peo- evolution and multiple centers of origin were nov-
eland prepared the minds of his and succeeding
ples who settled the New World, but the
various kinds of animals which live in generations for the acceptance of Darwinian evo-
lution.
them— many of species well known in Eu-
rope and elsewhere, and others peculiar and Linnaeus, the arch exponent of the fixity of
species and their origin and dispersal from a
unique in the New World, like the Peruvian single
center, conceived the elements of his binomial sys-
sheep [llamas], the guanacos [regarded as the
wild form of llamas], vicuiias and tarugas tem as symbols for nailing down his credo. The
[Hippocamelus bisulcus].
system was so good it proved to be the best yet
devised for the expression of genetic relationships
between species and the surest base for the con-
struction of evolutionary sequences in nominate
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) terms. On the other hand, Buffon, independent of
the religious constraints of his time and evolu-
Linnaeus played no direct role in the develop- tionist in thought if not always in words, never
ment of Neotropical mammalogy apart from pro- attained the stature of his contemporary for lack
viding scientific names for some species discov- of a competing system, key, code, or standard that
ered or described by others. His impact on the would bring cohesion to his rambling philoso-
scientific world, however, was enormous. Like the phies.
Johann Andreas Wagner (1797-1861) barriers such as mountains and large bodies of
water.
Johann Andreas Wagner, the foremost masto-
zoologist of his generation and author of a mono-
graph on the geographic distribution of mammals,
summarized (1844, p. 13) the three current but XVI. Inventories to Middle of
disparate opinions on mammalian origin and dis- 19th Century
persal. First, all species were created in one and
the same region and spread from there to all cor-
Systema Naturm of Linnaeus, 1758, 1766
ners of the earth. Second, the species could have
been created in separate localities in the same or The 1 0th edition of the Systema Naturce pub-
different regions. Finally, each species could have lished in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carolus
arisen spontaneously anywhere and developed ac- Linnaeus ( 1 707-1 778), marks the beginning of the
cording to its peculiar constraints. consistent application of his binomial system of
Zoogeographers of the early half of the 19th cen- zoological nomenclature. According to the uni-
tury divided the world into major faunal regions versally accepted International Code of Zoological
correlated primarily with climate. Wagner (1844)
Nomenclature, names for animals published be-
separated the earth into four provinces: the Nord- fore 1 758 are not available, no matter how clearly
liche north of 30°N, the Mittlere between BCN
defined the species. Likewise, zoological names for
and 30°S, excluding the Australische roughly be-
species published after 1757 that are not binomial
tween 0°S-55°S and 30°W-200''W, and the South
1
or do not satisfyall provisions of the Code are not
American Magellanische, south of 30°S. The South available.The effect of the Code in practice is that
American portion of the pantropical Mittlere
species without Linnaean names are treated as un-
Province extended from Mexico southward to known to science.
southern Brazil and central Chile. Wagner's de- The 0th edition of the Systema Naturce lists a
1
scriptions of the provincial faunas included tab- total of 72 species of mammals, exclusive of ma-
1
ulations of their resfjective genera and included rine cetaceans, each with its binomen consisting
species. of a defined generic and defined specific name.
Subsequent revisions of the bases for the names
revealed that some represented more than a single
Maximilian Prinz von Wied-Neuwied (1782-1867)
species, others were duplicates or synonyms, and
a few were equivocal or belonged to unidentifiable
Scriptural constraints were not evident in the animals. The revisions, however, made no signif-
thinking of the Maximilian Prinz
field naturalists.
icant change in the total number of real mam-
von Wied-Neuwied recognized the limitations of malian species known to Linnaeus in 1758.
geographic range as a property of a species. The 1 2th and last revised edition of the Systema
Naturae by Linnaeus himself, published in 1766,
lists a world total of 208 mammalian species. Ta-
Johann Jacob von Tschudi (1818-1889)
ble 14 compares the relative numbers of world.
Neotropical, and Nearctic genera and species in
Tschudi attempted to follow Wied-Neuwied in
the Linnaean 10th and 12th editions of the Sys-
defining specific ranges, but nearly all were based
tema Naturce with the totals in Buffbn's Histoire
on the presumption that the geographic range of
Naturelle. Cetaceans are omitted because they are
the species coincided with ecological life zones.
oceanic species known before the discovery of
The ecological life zones of Peru described by von
America.
Tschudi on the basis of fauna, flora, and climate,
are the first of their kind for any Neotropical re-
Primary sources for the definition and naming
of the Linnaean New World species were speci-
gion.
mens preserved in the Swedish museums, partic-
ularly the Adolphi Friderici Regis Museum, and
Charles Robert I>arwin (1809-1882) primary bibliographic references. Such references
for the Neotropical mammals were the works of
The young Darwin also recognized geographic Marcgraf (1648), Anson (1748), Browne (1756),
limitations of distribution in the light of physical and Seba (1 734-1 765). For both Neotropical and

Table 14. Number of world and New World mammals known to Linnaeus (1758, 1766) and to Buffon (1750-
1 789) and their percentage of world total.
Author
animals, often served as models for the woodcut Table 1 5. Number of world, Neolropic, and Nearc-
drawings of early treatises on natural history. Some
tic species (subspecies) of mammals known to Schinz
( 1 844); species common to both regions are included in
specimens were purchased for museums or cabi- both.
nets of collectors, including those of Linnaeus,
King Frederick Adolph of Sweden, Reaumur of Order
Paris, the King of France (Jardin du Roi), or the
shelves of the Dutch pharmacist, Albert Seba. Most
of the Neotropical specimens probably originated
in the South American possessions of Holland and
France.
The few crude attempts at classification of mam-
mals during the 16th and 17th centuries were hard-
ly more than random arrangements equivalent to
shopping lists. Species, being individually created
kinds, were unrelated to other created kinds, or
simply arose spontaneously from putrefying mat-
ter.
The scientific study of mammals, or mammal-

ogy, of the Neotropical Region began with the ex-
plorations of northeastern Brazil by Georg Marc-
graf and culminated with the publication in 1648
of his Historic Rerum Naturalium Brasilia. His
accounts of the included 32 sp)ecies of mammals
reveal the glimmer of an attempt at natural group-
ings of kinds or the beginnings of a classification
of Neotropical mammals. Insofar as is known,
none of MarcgraPs animals were preserved. Lin-
naean names for the species of the Historice were
based on bibliographic references to their descrip-
tions and figures (cf. fig. 2, table 1).
The expedition to the Neotropical Region
first
actually committed to the collection and perma-

nent preservation of mammals (and other objects)
for scientific study was the Brazilian Viagem Fi-
losofica,1783 to 1792, conceived by the Portu-

guese government and conducted by the Brazilian-
bom naturalist Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira. The
large number of specimens gathered by the ex-
pedition was deposited in Lisbon's Museu d'A-
juda. The specimens of monkeys that had been
carried away to the Paris Natural History Museum
were studied by the French scientist Etienne Geof-
froy St.-Hilaire. His descriptions were published
without reference to source of material.
Alexander von Humboldt followed on the heels
of the Viagem Filosofica with his explorations of
northwestern South America from 1799 through
1802. His expedition was highly successful and in
scope has rarely been equaled by other "one-man"
surveys of a large portion of the South American
continent. The personal narrative of his travels
inspired successive naturalist-travelers, most no-
tably the explorers of Brazil, Spix and Martius,
Maximilian Wied-Neuwied, and Johann Natterer.
narratives of travel provided much reliable data of the 10th edition of the Linnaean Systema Na-
on geographic distribution, habitat, life histories, tura and starting date of zoological nomenclature,
ecological backgrounds, itineraries and maps of to mid- 1 9th century, exceeded by far that of the
the expeditionary routes, and stopping and col- Nearctic region and any other equivalent area of
lecting localities. Descriptions of the collected the world. Neotropical mammals were also better
mammals, most of them by the naturalist-trav- known than those of other continents except west-
elers themselves, were often based on skeletal, em Europe.
dental, and soft parts in addition to purely tegu- By mid- 9th century, about 90% of currently
1
mentary characters. Their classifications were pu- known Neotropical mammalian species larger than
tatively natural groupings on the ordinal, family, common tree squirrels had already been described,
and, as a rule, the generic levels. The prevailing 10% of the smaller forms.
but no more than about
belief in the biblical version of creation and fixity The number and variety of Neotropical
great
of species, not confessed in writing, did not blind mammals (and animals generally) known to sci-
systematists of the period to evident relationships ence by mid- 19th century and the accumulated
between species and their clusterings into supra- knowledge gained from study of living and pre-
specific groups. Descriptions of species were, served specimens in field and laboratory, much of
nevertheless, typological. Subspecies or geograph- it contributed by Charles Darwin, helped pscvt the
ic races were, at best, vaguely conceived but de- way to the Darwinian revolution of the next half
scribed as species. The infrequent or rare use of century.
trinomials was accidental or equivocal and not
certainly intended for a clearly defined geographic
race. The term usually used for deviates firom
"types" was "variety." XYIII. Acknowledgments

Controversies regarding origin of species or fau-
nas centered on where, not how. Philosopher- I am indebted to Benjamin W. Williams, As-
chroniclers of the first era accepted Noah's ark sociate Librarian and Librarian of Rare Books,
the one place of origin and disjiersal of
literally as Field Museum of Natural History, for p)ermission
the Recent fauna. Acosta may have been the first to consult at pleasure in the Museum's Mary W.
to suggest the former existence of intercontinental Runnells Rare Book Room the books needed for
connections for passage of Old World animals into
writing this article; and to Bruce D. Patterson,
the New World. Robert M. Timm, Ronald H. Pine, Debra Mos-
More and knowledge of the world's fauna
better
kovitz, and J. A. Gagliano for reviewing the manu-
during the second era revealed the weaknesses or script. Map>s shown in Figures 11, 12, and 2 1 were
fallacy of the ark dogma. Staunch creationists such prepared by the author with assistance of Mary
as Linnaeus pointed instead to a vaguely located Anne Rogers from accounts of the travelers cited
region as the place from which all species dispersed and other sources. Photographic reproductions of
to occupy predestined habitats for which they had the figures are by Field Museum of Natural His-
been created. Other authorities like Buffon argued Ron Testa. Technical
tory Staff Photographer
for multiple centers of origin, with sp)ecies origi- Assistants Barbara Brown and Mary Anne Rogers
nating in the habitats for which they were adapted. typed the manuscript and contributed in other ways
Darwin also believed in multiple places of origin, toward its completion.
or faunal regions separated by geographic barriers
but with some trepidation. The belief in multiple
creations was heretical.
Inconsistencies between religious dogma and
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368.
A New Superfamily in the Extensive Radiation
of South American Paleogene Marsupials
Rosendo Pascual and Alfredo A. Carlini
ABSTRACTS
Significant new mammals have been recovered from the Colhuehuapian mammal-bearing
beds (latest Oligocene) exposed in the Gaiman region of Patagonia (Chubut Province, Argentina).
Some fragmentary mandibles and isolated teeth belong to a new genus and species, Patagonia
peregrina. The mandibular and dental specializations of this form are so distinctly convergent
on those of some fossorial rodents that it is regarded as a distinct clade of South American
marsupials. It represents the type of a new family, Patagoniidae, which is assigned to a new
superfamily, Patagonioidea, which represents a natural evolutionary group in the same sense
as other superfamilies of marsupials recognized by Simpson. Its systematic position within the
superorder Marsupialia awaits comprehensive analysis of those enigmatic marsupials (Groe-
berioidea and Argyrolagoidea) apparently most closely related to it.
Varios nuevos y significativos mamiferos han sido recogidos de capas mamaliferas del Col-
huehuapense (Oligoceno tardio) expuestas en la region de Gaiman, Patagonia (Chubut, Argen-
tina). Algunos fragmentos mandibulares y dientes aislados pertenecen a un nuevo genero y
especie, Patagonia peregrina. Esta forma presenta especializaciones mandibulares y dentarias
tan distintamente convergentes hacia las de albunos roedores cavadores que es considerada
como un distinto clado de marsupiales sudamericanos. Representa el tipo de una nueva Familia,
Patagoniidae, que es asignada a la nueva Superfamilia Patagonioidea, porque representa un
grupo evolutivo natural como los de otras Superfamilias de marsupiales reconocidas por Simp-
son. Su posicion sistematica dentro del Superorden Marsupialia depende del analisis integrado
de aquellos marsupiales enigmaticos (Groeberioidea y Argyrolagoidea) aparentemente mas
estrechamente relacionados a el.
Novos mamiferos foram recuperados dos leitos de Colhuehuapian (do alto Oligoceno), ex-
postos na regiao de Gaiman, Patagonia (Provincia de Chubut, Argentina). Fragmentos man-
dibulares e dentes isolados pertencem a um novo genero e especie, Patagonia peregrina. As
especializa9oes mandibulares e dentais encontradas sao tao claramente convergentes as de alguns
roedores fossorios, que esta forma e considerada uma classe distinta de marsupiais sulameri-
canos. A especie representa o tipo de uma nova familia, Patagoniidae, a qual e designada a
uma nova superfamilia, Patagonioidea, por formar um grupo evolutivo bem definido, como o
formam as outras familias de marsupiais, reconhecidas por Simpson. A posi9ao sistematica
dos Patagonioidea, dentro da superordem Marsupialia, aguarda uma analise mais compreensiva
dos marsupiais ainda enigmaticos (como Groeberioidea e Argyrolagoidea) aparentemente e seus
relativos mais proximos.
From the Division Paleontologia Vertebrados, Museo

de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque, 1900 La Plata, Argentina;
and CONICET, Argentina.
PASCUAL & CARLINI: NEW SUPERFAMILY OF PALEOGENE MARSUPIALS 99

Introduction terized by the diagnoses of that family and its only
known species. Justification for its superfamilial
The taxon described paper is yet another
in this rank is given in a later section on affinities.
example of the great adaptive radiation and dis-

persal of marsupials in South America. It repre- Family Patagoniidae nov.
sents a second line of marsupials that is convergent
on the rodent adaptive zone (cf Groeberioidea— Type— Patagonia gen. nov. The only known ge-
Patterson, 1952; Simpson, 1970c; Clemens & nus.
Marshall, 1976). However, it is distinct from pre- Known Distribution— Late Oligocene. Col-
viously named forms, not only phylogenetically huehuapian from Central Patagonia (Chubut
but also ecologically.
Province, Argentina).
The new form does not suggest that marsupials Diagnosis.— Small marsupials with the same
attained the breadth and diversity of rodent ad- reduced number of lower teeth as the Groeberi-
aptations, but it does show that marsupials oc- idae, but with a different dental formula: 1.1.0.3.
cupied the rodent adaptive zone in previously un- Open-rooted and rodent-like lower incisor, oval
imagined ways. This new marsupial indicates that in cross section, strongly curved, although not as
marsupial radiations in South America were al- much as in the Groeberiidae, and with the intra-
most as broad and reached as great extremes as alveolar portion differently arranged. The incisor
those in Australia. The find is consistent with the extends lingually along the ventral border of the
view that "A complete record of South American mandible to the root of the inflected crest beneath
marsupials would certainly include a large number the last molar, where it forms a prominence sim-
of taxa, probably some of high categorical rank, ilar to that of hystricognathous rodents, but ven-
now unknown" (Simpson, 1970a, p. 59). This and trally. Lower canine smaller, procumbent, appar-
other forms recently found in northwestern Ar-
ently incisor-like and closed-rooted, separated from
gentina (Pascual, 1980a, b, 1981, 1983) validate the cheekteeth by a short, crested diastema at al-
Simpson's prophetic suggestion that ". major
. .
veolar level. Lower cheekteeth rectangular in cross
parts of marsupial evolution were occurring in areas section, decreasing in size posteriorly, hypselo-
and facies inadequately sampled, if at all, by the dont, rootless, wholly surrounded by enamel, and
known fossil deposits and the collections so far slightly curved, with the concavity forward. Hor-
made" (Simpson, 1970a, p. 58). These deposits izontal ramus of the mandible short and deep, with
indicate the value of applying new sample-col- the highest part posterior, beneath the masseteric
lecting techniques at mammal-bearing localities
fossa, where the body of the mandible becomes
that are supposedly well known; it is only neces-
strongly convex and inflected; deep pterygoid fos-
sary to find new, appropriate facies. sa, limited ventrally by a flange like that found in
The new ecological type from the Paleogene pro- some Australian marsupials
Argyrolagidae and in
vides evidence to support Gould's (1983) view of
(e.g.,Macropodidae); strong, salient coronoid pro-
"early experimentation, later standardization," cess; masseteric fossa relatively deep but reduced,
with a consequent reduction in diversity. As in
dorsally situated with a prominent masseteric crest;
al., 1985) the diversification
therians (Pascual et subvertical symphysis unfused, with nearly smooth
of South American marsupials took place princi-
symphyseal surfaces.
pally in the Paleogene.
Measurements reported in Table 1 are depicted
and are given in millimeters. The ab-
in Figure 3 PATAGONIA gen. nov.
breviation MACN CH is used for the Museo Ar-
gentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Ri-
Etymology- From Patagonia, its geographical
vadavia" (Buenos Aires), Coleccion Chubut. record.
Type— Patagonia peregrina sp. nov.
Known Range and Diagnosis— Same as that
of the family.
Classification
Superfamily PATAGONIOIDEA nov. Patagonia peregrina sp. nov. Figures 1-3
The only known family of this taxon is the Pat- Etymology— From Latin peregrinns, strange or
agoniidae.The superfamily is sufficiently charac- rare.

«f *^ «
Fig. 1 Patagonia peregrina gen. et sp. nov. A-B, Stereopairs of

. MACNCH-865, a fragment of a right mandibular
ramus with m,.,: A, occlusal view; B, posterior view; C-D, X-ray of fragments of two right mandibular rami with
i,, alveolus of c,, and m,., complete (C, holotype; MACNCH-869) and with alveoli of i,, and c,, and m,., complete
(D,MACN CH-865). Graphic scale = 2 mm.
HoLOTYPE-MACN CH-869 (fig. 2A-B). Frag- MACN CH-864, part of right mandibular ramus
ment of right mandibular ramus with three cheek- with and second cheekteeth, part of alveolus
first
teeth, intra-alveolar portion of the incisor, and of the third, and part of alveoli of incisor and
alveolus of the canine. canine; MACN CH-865, part of right ramus with
Hypodigm — Holotype and the following: three cheekteeth and alveoli of the incisor and

B
'C,
cheekteeth and part of the alveolus of the incisor;
and MACN CH-876, three isolated upper(?)
cheekteeth.
Horizon and Locality— Both
the holotype and
the hypodigm come from the Trelew Member of
the Sarmiento Formation (see Mendia & Bayar-
sky, 1981) and are Colhuehuapian (Late Oligo-
cene) in age. Apparently they were found in the
upper unit, exposed on the south side of the Chu-
but River valley, Chubut Province, Argentina
(Central Patagonia; see Fleagle & Bown, 1983, pp.
242-244). Quite probably this corresponds to
Simpson's "stratum F of Fig. 1," which is part of
his "Trelew beds" (= "Trelewense"). The material
was recovered by O. E. Donadio, M. Soria, J. G.
Fleagle, and T. M. Bown (see Fleagle & Bown,
1 983) through dry-screening local deflation lag de-
B
posits.
Diagnosis— The only known species of the fam-
ily.
Description— Dentition— See Figures 1 A,C-D;
2-3. Each side of the lowerjaw has one fully ro- /r-
dent-like gnawing incisor, only incompletely pre-
served in the holotype; it is posteriorly bordered
by a relatively shallow and conical alveolus (the ^[ii^dEJE).--]^
tooth being absent in all specimens at hand) sep-
arated from the medial one by bone and set at a
relatively oblique angle (figs. IC-D; 2C). Homol-
ogies of these teeth are uncertain, but the rodent-

like medial tooth is surely an incisor, designated
for description as i,. The shape and
disposition of
the second alveolus agrees with the procumbent
canine of Polydolopidae (Epidolopinae; cf Paula
Couto, 1952, 1961; Pascual & Bond, 1981) and
Prepidolopidae(Pascual, 1980b, fig. 2D-E); it thus
appears that this tooth is c,. This alveolus is fol-
lowed by a short diastema at alveolar level, then
three cheekteeth, all rectangular in cross section
(with some differences among them) and in close
approximation, forming a molariform series. They
are surrounded by enamel on all sides and are not
Fig. 3. Patagonia peregrina gen. et sp. nov. Outline
of a right mandibular ramus fragment, with alveoli of i,
strictly lobate, nor are the trigonid, talonid, or and c,, and m,., complete (MACN CH-865), showing
original cusps clearly indicated, as occlusion with the measurements ofTable 1 A, Labial view; B, occlusal
.
the uppers was mediated through practically flat view; C, cheekteeth series (m ,.3); D, lingual view. Graph-
ic scale = 2 mm.
areas. The dentine forms a shallow basin sur-
rounded by the highest enamel layer, which is
slightly higher on the lingual side. There is a slight-
ly deeper anteroposterior wear groove, extending they are homologous with those typically desig-
from the anterolabial comer to the posterolingual nated m,_3 in marsupials and are so designated
one (fig. lA). Grinding involved a longer propal- here, yielding the lower dental formula 1.1.0.3.
inal movement and a shorter ectental stroke. The which is provisionally homologized as i,, c,, m,.,.
homologies of these teeth with the more numerous However, many specialized marsupials from the
ancestral series cannot be determined. Plausibly South American fossil record show tendencies (1)
PASCUAL &. CARLINI: NEW SUPERFAMILY OF PALEOGENE MARSUPIALS 103

Table 1 . Dimensions of specimens of Patagonia peregrina gen. et sp. nov. (see fig. 3 for measurement references).
Dimensions
Specimen
MACN CH-864
MACN CH-865 3.68 4.08 1.40
MACN CH-866
MACN CH-867 1.12
MACN CH-868 4.08
MACN CH-869 3.60
MACN CH-870
MACN CH-874
MACN CH-875
not as extensively inflected. The coronoid process they consist of two incisors and a canine, the me-
has its root beneath the m,, forming a strong, sa- dial incisor being quite reduced and the canine
lient lamina (known only by its root), so that a well developed, single, and closed-rooted.
conspicuous diagonal valley is formed between the As in Groeberia the negative evidence is that
coronoid and the alveolar border behind m, (fig. Patagonia has no features precluding its reference
lA); a similar structure is present in Groeberia to the Marsupialia. It does exhibit characters mak-
minoprioi (see Patterson, 1952, p. 41); the valley ing reference to any Eutheria highly improbable.
is open labially and lingually limited by a prom- Its habitus is rodent-like, but its two differentially
inence similar to that present in Australasian Po- procumbent lower teeth rule out reference to the
toroinae. Rodentia. While the incisor is rodent-like in shape,
In many respects this strong, salient, ascending oriented differently than that in rodents, ex-
it is
ramus and correlated features are reminiscent of tending along the ventral border of the horizontal
highly fossorial caviomorphs, such as burrow-in- ramus, first below the m,, then lingually to other
habiting Ctenomyidae. Although the mandibular molars, without curving upward. It apparently
angle is not preserved in any of the specimens, it shapes the ventral border of the mandible. In ad-
probably was inflected, as suggested by the inflec- dition, the shortdiastema extends at the level of
tion of the ventral border, beginning at the level alveoli.Among known rodents, only Paramyidae
of mj, which defines a lingual flanged crest (figs. and Ischyromyidae developed diastemas at the al-
IB; 2B) similar to that producing the extremely veolar level, but even in these groups, the incisor
inflected angle in the Macropodidae. This lingual extends as in other rodents, not as in Patagonia.
ventral flanged crest seems to be the lingual border A more-or-less rodent-like habitus was also char-
of an expanded and relatively deep pterygoid fos- of some notoungulates, especially among
acteristic
sa, resembling that of argyrolagids (see Simpson, Typotheria and Hegetotheria, but insofar as known
1 970a). There is a relatively large alveolar foramen not so extreme in development as in Patagonia.
within the pterygoid fossa, level with the alveolar Neither the enlargement of the incisor nor the re-
border and within a pit (fig. 3D), and a mental duction of the cheekteeth is known in any prim-
foramen beneath the anterior face of m, at the itive Paleocene notoungulates or in other South
level of the alveolus of i, (fig. 2 A). American "ungulates." Even later rodent-like no-
toungulates were much less specialized than the

Oligocene Patagonia. South American marsupials
Affinities diverged very early into unique evolutionary lin-
eages (see Simpson, 1970a-c, 1971, 1 980; Pascual,
As in the case of Groeberia (see Simpson, 1 970c), 1980a,b, 1981; Paula Couto, 1979; Reig, 1981).
the conclusion that Patagonia is a marsupial rests Patagonia peregrina is unquestionably a mar-
on a combination of definite, negative, and indi- supial because its unique and diagnostic combi-
rect evidence. The most definite evidence for its nation of characters are unknown in any eutherian.
being a marsupial is the inflected ventral border Nevertheless, it could be regarded as another of
of the mandible and probably the related inflected the extinct South American mammals considered
angle. This evidence alone is inconclusive, as a by some as incertae sedis and by others as a tertium
few marsupials lack an inflected angle and a few quid with regard to the eutherian-marsupial di-
placentals have one.However, no known placental chotomy (McKenna, 1980; Reig, 1981). However,
has such an extended and upturned flange-shaped the marsupial affinities of other peculiar fossil
inflection, and even in marsupials it is rarely so

mammals from South America remain unques-
well developed (e.g., Groeberiidae [Patterson, tioned, despite weaker support than that offered
here for Patagonia. For example, the basis for con-
1952]. Argyrolagidae [Simpson, 1970a,b], and the
Australasian Macropodidae). Unlike Groeberia, sidering the Polydolopidae as marsupials is the
combination of an inflected mandibular ramus,
Patagonia has other characters supporting its mar-
supial affinities, namely the lower procumbent in- palatal vacuities, and a cheektooth formula of
cisor-like canine. In the 1-3 1-4
Epidolopinae (Pascual &. P—-- and ^-r~z- These characters were formerly
Bond, 1981) there are three procumbent lower
teeth, the third being unquestionably the canine. used to exclude the polydolopids from the Allothe-
Within the more advanced Polydolopidae (Poly- ria. But, as these characters are present in prim-
dolopinae), there are one or three procumbent itive therians outsideSouth America, their diag-
lower teeth; in the latter case, evidence suggests nosis of marsupials can be considered an "act of

Fig. 4. Labial (1) and occlusal (2) outlines of mandibles, showing the diflFerent development of incisor. A, Ar-
gyrolagus parodii Rusconi; B, Groeberia minoprioi Patterson; C, Proargyrolagus bolivianus Wolff, D, Patagonia
peregrina gen. et sp. nov. Graphic scale = 2 mm.
faith based on .
geography and stratigraphic po-
. . sil record without known ancestors (see Simpson,
sition rather than on biology" (McKenna, 1 980,
. . . 1970c, p. 16) only to vanish again soon afterward:
pp. 58-59). We beheve that assignment of poly- Groeberiidae (Divisaderan Age, Late Eocene); Pat-
dolopids to marsupials represents the most par- agoniidae (Colhuehuapian Age, Late Oligocene);
simonious conclusion. Necrolesiidae (Santacrucian Age, Early Miocene);
Like the newly described Proargyrolagus boli- Argyrolagidae (Huayquerian to Uquian Ages, Late
vianus (Wolff, 1984), Patagonia peregrina is Miocene to Early Pleistocene). We
believe there
another peculiar marsupial that appears in the fos- are cedent reasons to think of Proargyrolagus bo-

livianus Wolff, 1984, described as a Deseadan ar- include any South American families within the
gyrolagid, as possibly representing a distinct fam- Australasian order Diprotodonta (Reig, 1981), de-
ilyof Argyrolagoidea. spite some suggestions to the contrary (e.g., Pas-
This raises the question of the position of Pat- cual & Herrera, 1 973, 1 975). While the allocations
agonia among the varied ranks of South American of these groups seems unambiguous, the positions
marsupials. The previous descriptions and illus- of most remaining groups (e.g., Argyrolagidae,
trations demonstrate that Patagonia peregrina has Necrolestidae, and Groeberiidae) remain uncer-
many peculiarities that are rare, differently devel- tain.With some reservation, Kirsch (1977b) in-
oped, or completely absent in other marsupials (cf cluded the Necrolestidae in the polyprotodont
fig. 4). The most striking of these are: Borhyaenoidea (as did Patterson, 1958), and the
Groeberioidea and Argyrolagoidea within the
1 . Mandible extremely short and deep, with un- Paucituberculata. Independently, Clemens and
fused subvertical symphysis, dorsally posi- Marshall 976) also treated these animals as mar-
( 1
tioned masseteric fossa, ventral border in- supials, recognizing each as superfamilies: Argy-
flected at level of the mj, enveloping there rolagoidea, Necrolestoidea, and Groeberioidea.
the alveolus of the incisor. Like Simpson, they made these assignments with
2. Presence in each ramus of mandible of one disclaimers that the interrelationships of these
rodent-like rootless incisor that extends lin- groups were far from clear.
gually along ventral border of mandible to Reig (1981, p. 60) not only questioned whether
below the m,. the Argyrolagidae (his Microtragulidae) were mar-
3. Presence in each ramus of one procumbent supials, as none of its known characters are ty-
canine, single- and closed-rooted, scarcely pologically diagnostic, but conjectured probable
separated from the incisor and with the oc- affinities to the Anagalida. Further, without rig-
clusal apex probably appressed to the inci- orous analysis, he suggested that the Argyrolagidae
sive apex. could be treated as an independent order, pro-
4. Three rectangular and continuously growing posing the name Argyrolagida. He concluded that
cheekteeth arranged in close sequence. only more intensive study or additional records
could substantiate allocation of this order to the
These and other less striking characters under- Metatheria or the Eutheria.
score the unique specializations of Patagonia per- Remains of Patagoniidae exhibit a unique mo-
egrina, leading to its assignment to a new family, saic of characters, some of which are absent or
Patagoniidae. But the distinctive combination of differently developed in Groeberiidae and Argy-
characters in the Patagoniidae identify it as a dis- rolagidae. Despite their similarities, each of these
tinct evolutionary group, that is, a different clado- taxa apF)ears prima facie to represent indep)endent
genetic unit. Simpson (1945, 1970a, 1980) des- evolutionary trends. To assess their interrelation-
ignated natural evolutionary groups of marsupials ships, common and distinctive characters of each
as suF>erfamilies. Following this line of reasoning, must be carefully weighed. Remains of Argyro-
Patagoniidae should be allocated to a new super- lagoidea obtained in the same horizon and locality
family, the Patagonioidea. as the hypodigm of Patagonia peregrina should
What are the affinities of this new superfamily be particularly useful in this regard and are now
to other superfamilies within the superorder Mar- under study. Ordinal and subordinal allocation of
supialia? Any discussion of its affinities
depends the Patagonioidea await this more comprehensive
on the systematics of other taxa, many of which analysis. Known representatives of this taxon are
are problematic. The systematics of fossil and ex- so highly derived, as is the case with other peculiar
tant South American marsupials, including the marsupials, that their relationships to other mar-
merits of recognizing Marsupialia as a superorder, supial groups are obscure and can only be clarified
are discussed by Simpson (1970a, 1971) and Pas- by an expanded record of earlier forms.
cual (1980b).
The majority of South American marsupials
represent the order Polyprotodonta; this is roughly
equivalent to Ride's ( 1 964) Marsupicamivora, but Ecology and Historical Biogeography
also includes Ameghino's Paucituberculata (see
Pascual, 1980b; contra Kirsch, 1977a,b; Reig, Biological inferences of Patagonia are necessar-
1981). There is as yet no compelling argument to ilylimited to the mandibular fragments thus far
PASCUAL & CARLINL NEW SUPERFAMILY OF PALEOGENE MARSUPIALS 107

known. These demonstrate unique characters Many other vertebrate remains recovered at this
among marsupials, Hving or extinct, which are ob- site (seeBordas, 1939; Donadio, 1983) suggest an
viously related to a particular mode of life. No environment of well-watered tropical woodlands.
known eutherian possesses such mandibular fea- Conversely, however, both Argyrolagoidea and
tures. Superficiallyit is similar to Groeberia, both very advanced Cephalomyidae rodents from this
being rodent-like marsupials: each has a short and site (currently under study) show dental features
deep mandible with a single enlarged, open-rooted reminiscent of desert or at least drier environ-
incisor, deeply extended along the mandible, with ments. Generally, the Colhuehuapian vertebrate
the extra-alveolar part apparently nearly vertical. fauna from central Patagonia (see Pascual, 1970;
These represent functional not phylogenetic sim- Pascual & Odreman Rivas, 1971; Marshall et al.,
ilarities, as similar states were attained by different 1983) is forest and open-coun-
composed of both
routes: in Groeberia this tooth extended within an try types, presumably brought together in a sub-
odd medial posterior projection of the symphysis, tropical savanna. Thus, the Patagoniidae, Ceph-
whereas in Patagonia the intra-alveolar portion is alomyidae, and Argyrolagoidea occurred in
truly rodent-like, in being extended along the hor- apparently inappropriate environments, probably
izontal ramus (cf fig. 4B,D). No doubt both were restricted to xeric patches in the subtropical sa-
powerfial gnawers as the lower incisor worked al- vanna mosaic. Because the Colhuehuapian Pata-
most vertically, much more so than in most ro- gonioidea were already highly specialized for xeric
dents. The unknown face and snout of Patagonia habitats, they probably evolved earlier in the Pa-
was probably short and deep; whether it had two leogene. It therefore seems likely that ancestral
pairs of lagomorph-like upper incisors like Groe- forms existed in the Deseadan (Early Oligocene).
beria remains unknown. Related to this gnawing Another highly specialized group of marsupials,
specialization, both Groeberia and Patagonia show the Argyrolagoidea, suggests this hypothesis. For-
a short diastema near the alveolar level and a re- merly believed present in the record fi-om the
duced number of postincisive teeth, four in both; Huayquerian (Late Miocene) to the Uquian (Early
however, Patagonia has three cheekteeth, whereas Pleistocene; see Marshall et al., 1983), argyrola-
Groeberia has four. The rodent-like habitus of Pat- goids have now been reported from the Deseadan
agonia is especially advanced, because the three of Bolivia (Wolff, 1984), and here from the Col-
cheekteeth are truly hypselodont, rectangular- huehuapian beds of central Patagonia.
shaped in cross section, with at most only shallow The pre-Deseadan record contains no potential
lateral grooves representing the remnants of an- ancestor for either Argyrolagoidea or Patagonioi-
cestral bilobate cheekteeth. dea. Simpson (1970c, p. 17) proposed that "these
This combination of features suggests food was groups (including Groeberioidea) evolved in what
obtained by gnawing and prepared for swallowing are now (and quite likely were then) the tropics
by grinding. It represents extraordinary conver- and are picked up in our record only when they
gence on some desert-adapted and fossorial forms, spread rather briefly to what was for them a mar-
such as the Octodontidae. The evolution of cheek- ginal area."It seems quite probable that the en-
teeth toward a rectangular shape and numerically vironments responsible for their initial divergence
reduced sequence has been recognized as occurring were poorly or not represented in the known fossil
within the Octodontoidea (from the Octodontidae record.
to the Ctenomyidae; Pascual et al., 1965). The Global diastrophic movements in the Late
dental features of Patagonia are also convergent Eocene, and apparently related climatic and en-
on those of the desert-dwelling African Bathyer- vironmental changes, are thought to be responsi-
gidae, particularly to the sand rat Heterocephalus ble for the cosmopolitan turnover in Early Oh-
glaber,and to the North American Geomyidae. gocene mammal communities (Kurten, 1971). This
These convergent anatomical features suggest that turnover also occurred in South America (Pascual,
Patagoniidae were probably fossorial marsupials. 1984). Mammal communities in the Deseadan
Anatomical convergence of Patagonia on des- (Early Oligocene) are substantially different from
ert-dwelling fossorial rodents is curious, because Eocene communities in composition (see Pascual
prevailing conditions in central Patagonia during et al., 1 985), apparently reflecting Stehlin's '^^grande
the Colhuehuapian Age were not highly favorable coupure."" The apparently sudden occurrence of
to desert dwellers. The first record of platyrrhine the Argyrolagoidea. and probably the Patagonioi-
monkeys in Patagonia occurs at the same locality dea, in the Deseadan Age is probably another ex-
and level (Fleagle & Sown, 1983) as Patagonia. ample of this global turnover.

It is remarkable that, to the numerous succes- KiRSCH, J. A. W. 1977a. The classification of marsu-
sive parallel trends ("successive trends" or "iter- pials, pp. 1-48. In Hunsaker II, D., The Biology of
Marsupials. Academic Press, New York, San Francis-
ation"; Simpson, 1953, pp. 248-259; 1961, p. 127)
co, London, 537 pp.
in the evolutionary history of South American
. 1977b. The comparative
serology of Marsu-
mammals, especially from the Deseadan on, can pialia, and a of marsupials. Australian
classification
be added the convergence of Oligocene patagoniid Journal of Zoology, Supplementary Series, 52: 1-152.
marsupials and Pliocene to Recent ctenomyid ro- KuRTfeN, B. 1971. The Age of Mammals. Columbia
dents on a common morphology. These conver- University Press, New York, 250 pp.
gences are products of similar responses to re- Marshall, L. G. 1976. Revision of the South Amer-
ican fossil marsupial subfamily Abderitinae (Mam-
peated environmental conditions. The anatomical
malia, Caenolestidae). Publicaciones Museo Munici-
and functional similarities of Patagonia peregrina
pal de Ciencias Naturales de Mar del Plata "Lorenzo
with the extant Ctenomys are so striking that we
Scaglia," 2(3): 57-90.
are tempted to call the former the "marsupial tuco- . 1980. Systematicsofthe South American mar-
tuco." supial family Caenolestidae. Fieldiana: Geology, n.s.,
5: i-vii, 1-145.
Marshall, Hoffstetter, and R. Pascual.
L. G., R.
1983. Mammals and
stratigraphy: Geochronology of
the continental mammal-bearing Tertiary of South
Acknowledgments America. Palaeovertebrata, Memoire Extraordinaire,
Montpellier, 1983: 1-93.
All of the material studied here was discovered McKenna, M. C. 1980. Early history and biogeogra-
by 1983 and 1984 expeditions of the Museo Ar- phy of South America's extinct land mammals. In
Ciochon, R. L., and A. B. Chiarelli, eds.. Evolutionary
gentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Ri-
Biology of the New World Monkeys and Continental
vadavia" (MACN), in which Lie. Oscar E. Don- Drift. Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, xvi + 528
adio and Lie. Miguel Soria (both of MACN) and pp.
the American paleontologists John G. Fleagle and Mendia, J. E., AND A. Bayarsky. 1981. Estratigrafia
Thomas M. Bown participated. Dr. Jose F. Bo- del Terciario en el valle inferior del rio Chubut. VII
Congreso Geologico Argentino, San Luis (20-26 Sep-
naparte, Chief of the Seccion Paleontologia Ver-
tiembre 1981), Actas 3: 593-606.
tebrados, MACN, and responsible for these ex-
Pascual, R. 1970. Evolucion de comunidades, cam-
peditions, generously put this and other marsupial bios faunisticos e integraciones biocenoticas de los
material at our disposal. The x-ray plates were vertebrados cenozoicos de Argentina. Actas IV Con-
made by Dr. Roberto Guevara, Profesor de Odon- gresso Latinoamericano de Zoologia (Caracas, 10-16
de Noviembre de 1968), 2 (Paleontologia Sudameri-
tologia, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, by the
cana): 991-1088.
authority of the Dean, Dr. Oscar Barletta. We thank 1980a. Nuevos singulares tipos ecologicos de
.
all of them very much.

marsupiales extinguidos de America del Sur (Paieo-
ceno tardio o Eocene temprano) del Noroeste Argen-
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Bioestratigrafia y I Congreso Latinoamericano de Pa-
leontologia (Buenos Aires, 2-6 de Abril 1 978), 2: 151-
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An 14-Chromosome Karyotype and
Additional
Sex-Chromosome Mosaicism in
South American Marsupials
Milton H. Gallardo and Bruce D. Patterson
ABSTRACTS
The karyotype of Rhyncholestes Osgood is described for the first time. The karyotype has
2n = 14 and is similar in most respects to karyotypes of similar number found in other American
and Australasian genera in several families. The karyotype of somatic (bone marrow) tissues
from male Dromiciops Thomas is presented for the first time; surprisingly, it differs from the
2n = 14 complement previously reported from female bone marrow and male gonads. The
2n = 1 3 karyotype found in bone marrow of male Dromiciops lacks a minute element thought
to be the Y chromosome. This instance of somatic chromosome elimination represents the first
case reported for American marsupials and presents an interesting parallel to sex-chromosome
mosaicism among Australasian Peramelidae and Petauridae.
El cariotipo de Rhyncholestes Osgood es descrito por primera vez. El cariotipo consta de

2n = 14 y es muy similar a cariotipos de igual mimero encontrados en otros generos americanos
y australoasiaticos de varias familias. El cariotipo de tejidos somaticos (medula osea) de un
Dromiciops Thomas macho es presentado por primera vez; sorprendentemente, difiere del
complemento 2n = 14 reportado previamente de medula osea femenina y gonadas masculinas.
El cariotipo 2n = 3 encontrado en medula osea del Dromiciops macho carece de un diminuto
1
elemento que supuestamente corresponde al cromosoma Y. Este ejemplo de eliminacion so-

matica de cromosomas representa el primer caso reportado en marsupiales americanos y pre-
senta un interesante paralelo con el extenso mosaicismo de los cromosomas sexuales descrito
entre las formas australoasiaticas.
Descreve-se pela primeira vez, o cariotipo de Rhyncholestes Osgood. O cariotipo e de 2n =

1 4, e, na maioria de seus aspectos, assemelha-se aos cariotipos de numeros similares encontrados
em outros generos americanos e austral^sios. O cariotipo de tecidos somdticos (da medula ossea)
de Dromiciops Thomas machos e descrito pela primeira vez. Supreendentemente, este cari-
otipo difere do complemento de 2n
= 1 4, previamente descrito para a medula ossea das femeas
e para as gonadas dos machos. No cariotipo de 2n = 13, encontrado na medula ossea de
Dromiciops machos, falta um elemento miudo, possivelmente o cromossomo Y. Este e o
primeiro exemplo documentado da elimina9ao somatica de um cromossomo em marsupiais
americanos, e apresenta um paralelo interessante ao mosaico frequentemente encontrado nos
cromossomos sexuais de outras formas austral^sias.
From the Institute de Ecologia y Evolucion, Univer-

sidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567, Valdivia, Chile; and
Division of Mammals, Field Museum of Natural His-
tory, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
GALLARDO & PATTERSON: KARYOTYPES OF MARSUPIALS 1 1 1

Introduction somatic sex-chromosome mosaicism in South
American marsupials.
Several unusual cytological features, including
low diploid number (Hayman & Martin, 1969;
Reig et al., 1977), paternally derived X inactiva-
tion (Lyon, 1974a,b), multiple sex-chromosome Materials and Methods
systems (Hayman & Martin, 1969; Schneider,
1977), somatic elimination of sex-chromosomes Seven specimens of D. australis (five males and
(Schneider, 1977; Close, 1984), and sperm con- two females) from Valdivia (39°32'S, 72°52'W),
jugation (Biggers & Creed, 1962; Biggers & De- Osorno (4r06'S, 72°30'W), and Concepcion
Lamater, 1965), have made marsupials interesting (37»26'S, 73°19'W) provinces, Chile, were ana-
subjects of cytological research. These studies have lyzed by the in vivo colchicine-hypotonic citrate
clarified fundamental cytological mechanisms. technique using bone marrow as a source of mi-
Additionally, results of the research have shed Ught toses (Patton, 1967). Modifications of the same
upon directions of chromosomal evolution and procedure were used for the one R. raphanurus
upon interrelationships of lineages (Hayman & collected atLa Picada, Volcan Osorno (41*^6'S,
Martin, 1969; Reig et 1977; Sharman, 1982).
al., 72''30'W); incubation with colchicine lasted 2.5
A 14-chromosome karyotype occurs in several hours and a slightly more hypotonic solution of
distinct lineages in all living American families: sodium citrate was used. A total of 4 1 9 mitotic
Didelphidae (Reig et al., 1 977), Microbiotheriidae plates was examined: 29 1 from male and 1 20 from
(Spotomo & Fernandez, 1971; Reig et al., 1972), female D. australis and 10 from R. raphanurus.
and Caenolestidae (Hayman et al., 1971). This Museimi specimens were deposited in the Collec-
karyotype also occurs in several Australian mar- tion of Mammals, Instituto de Ecologia y Evolu-
supial lineages (Hayman & Martin, 1969) and is cion, Universidad Austral de Chile, and Field Mu-
therefore considered the primitive chromosome seum of Natural History.
number for Metatheria (Reig et al., 1977). Direc-
tion of chromosome evolution in Metatheria has
proceeded via centromeric dissociations— with
superimposed on the basic
pericentric inversions Results and Discussion
Robertsonian mechanism— to give rise to the re-
maining 2n = 1 8 and 2n = 22 karyotypes known Rhyncholestes raphanurus presents a 2n
= 14
for American forms (Hayman & Martin, 1969; complement, consisting of three pairs of large
Reig et al., 1977). Extremes of karyotypic varia- metacentric, one pair of medium-sized metacen-
tion in Australasian marsupials are 2n = 10 to 32 and two pairs of small metacentric autosomes.
tric,
(Schneider, 1977). The sex-chromosomes are an acrocentric X and a

Two autochthonous and endemic South Amer- minute Y (fig. 1). This karyotype differs morpho-
ican genera, Rhyncholestes and Dromiciops, are logically from the didelphid 2n = 1 4 in not show-
especially interesting from an evolutionary viewing a clear break between chromosome groups A
point. Both are represented by a single species and and B. It also differs in arm ratios (table 1) from
occur only in the temperate Valdivian rainforests the other living caenolestids, Lestoros and Caeno-
of southern Chile and Argentina. Rhyncholestes. lestes (see Hayman et al., 1971). Moreover, the
one of three extant genera of Caenolestidae, is interstitial region of the short arm of pair two shows
widely isolated from its relatives in the northern an achromatic area, resembling a secondary con-
Andes and presents some striking morphological striction, not described in other caenolestids (but
specializations. Dromiciops. thought by some to see discussion in Sharman, 1982). Nevertheless, a
have special affinities with Australasian lineages 2n = 14 karyotype characterizes all three genera
(Sharman, 1982; Szalay, 1982), is the only hving of Caenolestidae, which supports previous claims
genus of the otherwise extinct Microbiotheriidae that this karyotype is primitive for Metatheria
(Marshall, 1982). Its affinities with other marsu- (Hayman &
Martin, 1969; Hayman et al., 1971;
pialgenera are currently uncertain. In this note we Reig et 977) and reinforces the pattern of low
al., 1
present the first somatic karyotypes of male Rhyn- karyotypic variation within marsupial families.
cholestes raphanurus and Dromiciops australis. Secondary constrictions can serve as chromo-
Additionally, we document the first instance of some markers and are thus useful, in the absence

of banding data, for phylogenetic reconstruction.
However, the secondary constriction evident in
the karyotype of Rhyncholestes is unreported in
other South American marsupials, although sec-
ondary constrictions are widespread among Aus-
(( a
A-2
(»
A-3
A-1
tralasian marsupials (Hayman &.
Martin, 1969).
Considering commonality and in-group and out-
group comparisons, we regard the secondary con-
striction of Rhyncholestes as apomorphic. Thus,
a
B-1
the similar structures of Australasian marsupials
were apparently independently derived and can-
not be traced back to some marsupicamivorous II II •«
or other common ancestor. C-1 C-2 XY
Chromosome counts from all four male D. aus-
tralis consistently indicated 2n = 13 chromo-
somes. The diploid number for females was 2n =
14 as was previously reported (Spotomo & Fer-
nandez, 1971; Reig et al., 1972). No differences
among our specimens from geographically isolated
localities were detected, nor were secondary con-
strictions evident.
Electron microscope studies of sex-chromo- D& Si! \l
somes in spermatocytes of D. australis and the
A-1 A-2 A-3
didelphid Marmosa elegans demonstrate striking
similarities (Fernandez et al., 1979). These simi-
larities suggest that a 2n = 14 karyotype should
be present in D. australis, its Y chromosome should

B U lOjLL
resemble that of M elegans, and both genera should

B-1
exhibit an XX/XY sex-chromosome system.
We have consistently found 2n = 13 chromo-
somes in somatic tissues of male Dromiciops and
»'' A« ^^
2n = 14 in female somatic tissue. The missing c-1 c-2 XX
chromosome in males is dotlike and probably the
Y chromosome (fig. 1). Translocation of the Y to
an autosome is an unlikely mechanism for the dif-
ferences between sexes because males have 2n =
14 in germinal cells and because the sex vesicle
appears normal (Fernandez et al., 1979). While it
is possible that such a small chromosome might
be overlooked in one or a few chromosomal

spreads, its universal absence in all counted plates
iiii
A-1
!3
A-2
WA-3
makes this alternative highly unlikely. Available
data favor a somatic elimination of the Y chro-
mosome.
Previous studies have shown that both consti-
B-1
tutive and facultative heterochromatin can be de-
leted from marsupial cells in vivo without appar-
ent deleterious effects on cell replication and Ift 6A
survival (Hayman &
Martin, 1969). Most exam- c-1 c-2 X
ples of somatic elimination of sex-chromosomes
in marsupials involve the X
chromosome in dos- Fig. 1
.
Karyotypes from bone marrow cells of A,
Rhyncholestes raphanurus, male; B, Dromiciops aus-
age compensation (e.g., perameUds and petaurids; tralis (2n = 1 4), female; C, Dromiciops australis (2n =
Close, 1984). Mitotic figures from the testes of 13), male.
GALLARDO & PATTERSON: KARYOTYPES OF MARSUPIALS 113

Table 1 . Arm ratios Gong arm/short arm) of Rhyn-
cholestes autosomes (ratios are based on 1 counted plates;
sex chromosomes are acrocentric).
Pair 1:
of marsupials, pp. 191-217. In Benirschke, K., ed.. Reig, O. a., R. Fernandez, and O. A. Spotorno. 1 972.
Comparative Mammalian Cytogenetics. Springer, New Further occurrence of a karyotype of 2n = 14 chro-
York. mosomes in two species of Chilean didelphoid mar-
. 1974. Mammalia. I: Monotremata and Mar- supials. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde, 37: 37—42.
supialia, pp. 1-110. In John, B., ed.. Animal Cyto- Reig, O. A., A. L.Gardner, N. O. Bianchi, and J. L.
genetics. Vol. 4: Chordata 4. Gebriider Bomtraeger, Patton. 1977. The chromosomes of the Didelphi-
Berlin. dae (Marsupialia) and their evolutionary significance.
Hayman, D. L., J. A. W. KiRscH, P. G. Martin, and Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 9: 191-216.
P.F.Waller. 1971. Chromosomal and serological Schneider, L. K. 1977. Marsupial chromosomes, cell
studies of the Caenolestidae and their implications for cycles, and Hunsaker II,
cytogenetics, pp. 51-93. In
marsupial evolution. Nature (London), 231: 194-195. D. D., ed.. The Biology of Marsupials. Academic Press,
Lyon, M. F. 1974a. Evolution of X-chromosome in- New York.
activation in mammals. Nature (London), 250: 651- Sharman, G. B. 1 982. Karyotypic similarities between
653. Dromiciops australis (Microbiotheriidae, Marsupi-
.1974b. Mechanisms and evolutionary origins alia) and some Australian marsupials, pp. 711-714.
of variable X-chromosome activity in mammals. Pro- In Archer, M., ed.. Carnivorous Marsupials, Vol. IL
ceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Royal 2toological Society of New South Wales, Sydney,
187: 243-268. 804 pp.
Marshall, L. G. 1982. Systematics of the South Spotorno, O. A., and D. 1971. The
R. Fernandez.
American marsupial family Microbiotheriidae. Field- chromosomes of the "monito monte" Dromiciops
del
iana: Geology, n.s., 10: 1-75. australis Philippi. Mammalian Chromosomes News-
letter 12(2): 40-41.
Ohno, S. Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked
1967.
Cells. Springer- Verlag, Berlin, 192 pp. SzALAY, F. S.1982. A new appraisal of marsupial phy-
L. 1967. Chromosome studies of certain logeny and classification, pp. 621-640. In Archer, M.,
Patton, J.
ed.. Carnivorous Marsupials, Vol. II. Royal Zoological
pocket mice, genus Perognathus (Rodentia: Hetero-
Society of New South Wales, Sydney, 804 pp.
myidae). Journal of Mammalogy, 48: ll-'il.
GALLARDO & PATTERSON: KARYOTYPES OF MARSUPIALS 115

Notes on the Black-Shouldered Opossum,
Caluromysiops irrupta
Robert J. Izor and Ronald H. Pine
ABSTRACTS
Caluromysiops is from the three species of Caluromys in external, cranial, dental,
distinct
skeletal, and two genera are certainly more closely related to
phallic characters, although the
each other than to any other extant genus. Much uncertainty remains regarding the ecology and
distribution of this rare opossum.
Caluromysiops es distinto de las tres especies de Caluromys en caracteres extemos, craneales,

dentales, esqueletales y falicos, aunque los dos generos son por cierto mas cercanamente rela-
cionados entre si que lo es ningun otro genero existente. Todavia hay mucha incertidumbre en
relacion a la ecologia y distribucion de este rara raposa.
Caluromysiops difere das tres especies de Caluromys en carateres extemos, craniais, dentais,
esqueletais e falicos, embora sejam os dois generos claramente mais proximos entre si do que
entre qualquer outro genero atualmente existente. A
ecologia e a distribuifao desta rara especie
continuam muito pouco conhecidas.
Introduction acquisition, history in captivity, and eventual dis-

position of animals. All known specimens pre-
The black-shouldered opossum, Caluromysiops served in collections were examined by one or both
irrupta Sanborn, the rarest of the larger didel-
is of us, and all tag data were recorded.
phids. Its history as a subject of scientific study is
peculiar, beginning with a very late discovery
(1951); also, many more specimens have been dis-
played in zoos (15) than have been collected for Results

museums directly from the wild (2). Despite the
paucity of associated data and other shortcomings, Small sample sizes have hampered previous
zoo animals have been the source of some valuable work on this species, and have affected this study
information during this study. to some extent. Most published information is
based on single specimens. Some of the characters
described by Sanborn (1951) as diagnostic are in-
Materials and Methods
dividually or ontogenetically variable and not re-
liable for identification in all cases.
All zoos known
or suspected to have kept Cal-
For example, the extent of the hair on the dor-
uromysiops were contacted for information on the sum of the tail is distinctive in Caluromysiops,
although not as extreme as originally described.

From the Division of Mammals, Field Museum of
Natural History, Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496. Dr. Pine's
On immature animals such as the holotype, the
present address is Illinois Mathematics and Science
furred area reaches nearly to the end of the tail.
Academy, Aurora, Illinois 60506-1039. Adults, however, lack fur on the distal 1 5-20 mm.
IZOR & PINE: CALUROMYSIOPS IRRUPTA 117

A^ -i;
Fig. 1. Ventral and lateral views of the cranium and lateral view of the mandible of adult male Caluromysiops
irrupta. fmnh 60698. Certain incisors have fallen out and have been lost.

Fig. 2. Adult female Caluromysiops irrupta with two young (one is specimen no. cvg M-17 BE 173). Photo
courtesy of Edward T. Maruska and the Cincinnati Zoo.
The portion of the tail covered dorsally with fur cinnati Zoo, the pattern is obscured by a general
is still much more extensive than even in Calu- grizzling. A
common variant of the pattern has
romys lanatus, in which only the proximal 50%- the back of the hand white, with the dark stripe
70% is covered. Except perhaps for some Glironia, beginning as a sharply delineated black band
Caluromysiops is unique among didelphids in that around the wrist. This feature may occur on one
the fur extends onto a distal unpigmented portion or both forefeet.
of the tail. The distal one-quarter to one-third of As Sanborn and others have noted, some in-
the tail also white. In other genera of didel-
fur is dividuals of the woolly opossums Caluromys der-
phids, individuals with some distal portion of the bianus and C. lanatus have coloration suggesting
tail skin unpigmented have fur of the tail confined the characteristic dorsal markings of Caluromy-
to the proximal pigmented area of the tail skin. siops. In the species of Caluromys, there is typi-
The most striking external feature of Caluro- cally a darker brown or reddish dorsal area which
mysiops is probably the pair of dark lateral and grades into the paler, grayer sides of the body. In
dorsal stripes. These typically arise on the back of some individuals, this darker region is bisected on
the hand and run up the inner side of the forelimb the back of the head, neck, and shoulders by a
onto the shoulder, where they reach their greatest middorsal gray streak. The supposed similarity to
width of 15-30 mm. They approach each other Caluromysiops, however, is not at all close. The
middorsally but usually do not merge, and run in darker dorsal areas in Caluromys are most sepa-
narrowing parallel bands to the rump. In one old rated in the place where in Caluromysiops they
individual, cvg M-30 BE 95, which had been dis- are closest to merging. Moreover, the individuals
played for six years and eight months at the Cin- of Caluromys having the gray middorsal stripe

Table 1 .
Caluromysiops irrupta formerly exhibited in zoos.
Sex Date arrived Date died Disposition of remains Acquisition data
Bronx 2too (New York 2ôlogical Society)

F 10 Sept. 1962 28 July 1969 Incinerated? 'Iquitos, Ecuador" (presumably Peru)
F 20 Nov. 1963 26 Dec. 1964 amnh 208101
National Zoo (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.)
M 4 Nov. 1969
M 31 Mar. 1971
also strongly tend to have the palest extremities, the minute P', which is frequently lost in adults,
whereas Caluromysiops has extremities with broad but otherwise the dental formula conforms to that
blackish bands (on the inner side of the forelimbs of the other didelphids. The single root of the usu-
and outer side of the hind limbs). ally spicule-like P' differs from the condition in
Other differences in pelage include the Mar- Caluromys, in which the tooth is double rooted,
mosa-like eye rings and the median facial stripe or at least very broad with an incipient division.
of all Caluromys, which are completely lacking in There is a strong tendency in Caluromys for the
most Caluromysiops and only faintly suggested in small cusps on the labial stylar shelf to be subdi-
a few. There is no feature of the color pattern vided into as many as nine small, low cusps. Cal-
indicating that Caluromys and Caluromysiops uromysiops typically has five such cusps, each being
represent simple variants of a single evolutionary higher and more distinct than in Caluromys.
trend. Caluromys and Caluromysiops are united by the
Cranially, the extant didelphids present a rather apparently derived character (Archer, 1 982) of clo-
restricted array of morphologies. All have the same sure of the maxillary palatal fenestrae. This feature
dental formula. The skulls differ primarily in size, alone is sufficient to distinguish them from all oth-
in the presence and arrangement of palatal vacu- er living New World marsupials, with the possible
ities, and of the masticatory apparatus
in details exception of some Marmosa. Archer apparently
such as shape of the zygomata, and
sagittal crests, erred in attributing such closure to Glironia. Cal-
the postorbital processes. To our knowledge, a key uromysiops is slightly farther along in the process
to the skulls of the genera has never been con- than Caluromys, with only small, round, paired
structed. not surprising, therefore, that it is
It is foramina remaining at the maxillopalatal suture.
difficult to findtrenchant cranial characters sup- Species of Caluromys have more or less elongate
porting the distinctiveness of Caluromysiops as a foramina.
genus. In the context of the family's relative uni- Several cranial features of Caluromysiops sug-
formity, this does not necessarily argue against gest adaptations for strong biting forces. The sag-
generic distinction. Pine, however, indicated in ittal crest in adults is very pronounced, and the
Honacki et al. (1982) that he prefers to regard zygomatic arches are robust and widely bowed
Caluromysiops as a subgenus o^ Caluromys, most- outward. Rostral length is relatively shorter than
ly because of similarity in skull shape. in Caluromys, and the mandible is deeper, with
The dentition of Caluromysiops irrupta was de- the ascending ramus broader and more upright.
scribed by Sanborn (1951) as having larger M'-- This seems incongruous in view of the description
and m,., than Caluromys. He noted the absence by Janson et al. (1981) of nectarivorous behavior.
in the holotype of M^, M^*, and m4 and attributed Zoo animals, however, have readily accepted a
the lack ofan M^ to its probable loss in the cleaning varied diet including animal products (Collins,
of the skull, but did not discuss the absence of the 1973), and the species probably only exploits nec-
other molars. The holotype is a juvenile and the tar and pollen opportunistically.
developing alveolus of the m4 is quite evident, so Cranial asymmetry is prevalent in our sample.
the tooth probably unerupted. The larger size
is About half of the skulls examined had some sort
of the molars is generally a valid character distin- of deviation of the rostral axis relative to that of
guishing Caluromysiops from Caluromys. Some the braincase, or deflection of the sagittal crest
individuals oi Caluromysiops may never have had from the midline.
Table 2. Continued.
Postcranial anatomy of the black-shouldered 1 mm), comified, recurved spines. These are dis-
opossum displays some interesting but as yet tributed primarily on the rather rugose tip and
inexplicable differences from that of woolly opos- medial sides of the glans, along the urethral groove.
|
sums. The hind limbs of Caluromysiops are rel- Osgood (1921) described the glans of Caenolestes
atively much shorter than the forelimbs. The fore- as rugose proximally and covered distally by small i
arm is especially long. In addition, all of the skeletal circular papillae, but Biggers ( 1 966) noted no such
elements are more heavily built than in Caluro- structures on Caluromys or other didelphids ex- j
mys, with larger articular surfaces. Both genera amined.

exhibit a slightly offset articulation of the second The taxonomic affinities of Caluromysiops ir-
metacarpal, which allows the animals to spread rupta have been controversial at both the generic
the second and third digits and grasp small branch- and suprageneric levels. Cabrera (1958), Hersh-
es between them. This schizodactylous grip, also kovitz (in Marshall, 1982), and Pine (in Honacki
found in phalangeroids, is useful for slow, delib- et al., 1982) have suggested that its evident rela-
erate climbers which may back up along a branch tionship to Caluromys might be better expressed
rather than turn around to proceed headfirst. The by including it in the latter genus. The present
tail has 30-31 vertebrae, compared to 36-38 in authors are divided on the question of whether
Caluromys, and has well-developed chevron bones thischange would improve the current arrange-
throughout its
length. ment.
Rosenthal ( 1 972, 1 975) noted that a female Cal- Reig's (1955) assertion that this species belongs
uromysiops was received at the Lincoln Park Zoo in the Microbiotheriidae has received adequate
with pouch young, which 40 days later still lacked refutation (Segall, 1969; Szalay, 1982). Kirsch's
markings and body hair. Details of pouch anatomy (1977) attempt to subdivide the Didelphidae is
were not provided. undermined by the fact that his subfamily names
All of the didelphids examined to date have a Caluromyinae and Dactylopsilinae, as proposed,
more or less cleft glans penis. Biggers ( 1 966) noted are nomina nuda. Given his uncertainty about the
that Caluromys derbianus differed from other contents of the supposed subfamilies of didel-
species he examined in the greater extent of the phids, this fact could spare future workers consid-
cleft (half the length of the penis), in the contin- erable confusion, although the names may have
uation of medial urethral grooves to the apices, since become available inadvertantly in subse-
and in the rounded, slightly bulbous ends of the quent publications.
glans.The single available dissected-out specimen As most zoo animals have changed hands sev-
of a Caluromysiops penis (fmnh 60698) suffered eral times before reaching their final destinations,
some postmortem deterioration and may not be there is little likelihood of accurate field data ac-
completely representative, but still shows clearly companying them. Among dubious origins re-
a very deeply split glans (ca. 4 cm) with distinctly ported for zoo-held Caluromysiops are Sao Paulo,
enlarged, rounded tips. The urethral grooves also Brazil, and Iquitos, Ecuador (sic). According to J.
seem to extend nearly to the ends. A. Davis, Jr. (in litt.), the latter animal "was said
These characters of the genitalia would seem to by the dealer to have been captured in a backyard
ally Caluromys and Caluromysiops. However, on the outskirts of Iquitos, Peru"; see also Bridges
Caenolestes also has a deeply cleft glans penis (Os- (1968) and Davis (1965). Another purported lo-
good, 1921), and many Australian marsupials ex- cality, Cuxio, Peru, has not been located and may
hibit some version of the same phenomenon, so represent a transcription error for Cuzco.
it represent a shared primitive character.
may There are only three unquestioned locality rec-
Moreover, a large majority of didelphid species ords, all from southern Amazonian Peru, as fol-
have not been evaluated in this regard, and the lows:
significance cannot be properly assessed. Genitalia
of mammals lacking bacula generally have been Peru: Depto. Cuzco; Prov. Quispicanchis,
less studied, even though soft tissue structure can Quince Mil (13°16'S, 70°38'W), 680 m, fmnh
be equally informative (Woolley, 1982), and our 68336 (the holotype).
cursory survey of preserved material indicates Peru: Depto. Madre de Dios; Itahuania (12°47'S,
considerable undocumented variety. 7 1°1 3'W), skull is fmnh 84426, skin is in the
A remarkable feature, poorly preserved on fmnh Museo Nacional de Historia Natural "Javier
60698, but manifest on the protruding penial apex Prado", Lima.
of FMNH 60398, is a dense covering of small (ca. Peru: Depto. Madre de Dios; Manu National

Park, Cocha Cashu Biological Station ( 1 1°55'S, Literature Cited
7 1°1 8'W) (Janson et al., 1981; Terborgh et al.,
1984; Emmons, 1984). Archer, M. 1982. A

review of Miocene thylacinids
(Thylacinidae, Marsupialia), the phylogenetic position
These three localities are within 1 50 km of each of the Thylacinidae and the problem of apriorisms in
character analysis, pp. 445-476. In Archer, M., ed.,
other, along the western margin of the Amazon Carnivorous Marsupials. Royal Society of New South
basin,between 400-700 m elevation. The only Wales.
sympatric species of Caluromys recorded is la- C BiGGERS, J. D. 1 966. Reproduction in male marsupials,
natus.
pp. 251-280. In Rowlands, I. W.. ed., Symposia of
Simonetta's (1979) report of a Caluromysiops the Zoological Society of London, 15: 1-559.
near Leticia, Colombia, is a problem. Although Bridges, W. 1968. The Bronx Zoo Book of Wild An-
we are unable to locate the original account, it is imals. New York Zoological Society and Golden Press,
our opinion that this record is best discounted.
New York, 8 unnumbered pp. + 304 pp.
The photograph appears to have been staged with Cabrera, A. 1958. Catalogo de los mamiferos de
America del Sur. I. (Metatheria-Unguiculata-Camiv-
a captive specimen, since the species is nocturnal
ora). Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Na-
(Collins, 1973; Janson et al., 1981; Terborgh et turales "Bernardino Rivadavia": 2k>ologia (1957), 4:
al., 1984). Leticia is at least 900 km from the three 1-307.
well-documented localities, and one of the mu- Collins, L. R. 1973. Monotremes and Marsupials.
seum specimens we examined (usnm 397626) is Smithsonian Publication 4888, Smithsonian Institu-
known to have passed through Leticia from an tion, Washington, D.C., 323 pp.
unknown source en route to a zoo in Florida. Le- Davis, J. A., Jr. 1965. Agreat year for rarities. Animal
Kingdom, 68(5): 130-133.
ticia is the locationof a major animal dealership,
Emmons, L. H. 984. Geographic variation in densities
and the point of exportation of many Amazonian 1
and diversities of non-flying mammals in Amazonia.

species to the U.S. The dusky brown color on the
Biotropica, 16: 210-222.
crown of the head, which Simonetta suggests may
HoNACKJ, J. H., K. E. Kjnman, and J. W. Koeppl, eds.
differentiate his Colombian specimen subspecifi- 1 982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press and
we examined, and
cally, is variable in the material Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence,
is probably of no taxonomic importance. Kansas, 694 pp.
Janson, C, J. Terborgh, and L. H. Emmons. 1981.
Non-flying mammals as pollinating agents in the Am-
azonian forest. Biotropica, 12(Suppl.): 1-6.
KiRSCH, J. A. W. 1977. The comparative serology of

Conclusions
Marsupialia, and a classification of marsupials. Aus-
tralian Journal of Zoology, supp. sen, 52: 1-152.
Caluromysiops irrupta is a species which has Marshall, L. G. 1982. Evolution of South American
often been erroneously or incompletely character- Marsupialia, pp. 251-272. In Mares, M. A., and H.
ized in the scientific literature. There are now H. Genoways, eds.. Mammalian Biology in South
America. Special Publication Series, F*ymatuning Lab-
enough specimens in collections to allow reason-
oratory of Ecology, University of Pittsburgh, 6: 1-539.
ably complete treatments of its morphology, al-
Osgood, W. H. 1921. A monographic study of the
though it remains an almost complete ecological
American marsupial, Caenolestes. Field Museum of
and behavioral enigma. Natural History, Zoological Series, 14: 1-156.
Reig, O. A. 1955. Noticiapreliminarsobrelapresencia

de microbiotherinos vivientes en la fauna sudameri-
cana. Investigaciones Zool6gicas Chilenas, 2: 121-130.
Rosenthal, M. A. 1972. Observations on the water

Acknowledgments opossum or yapok (Chironectes minimus). Proceed-
ings 48th Annual Conference American Association
The authors thank those of Zoological Parks and Aquariums held in Portland,
individuals and insti-
Oregon, Oct. 1-5, 1972: 95-98.
tutions listed in Table 1 for their invaluable as-
1975. Observations on the water opossum or
.
sistance in compiling these data, and for loans of

yapok Chironectes minimus in captivity. International
specimens in their care. Anita McQuaig, Linda E. Zoo Yearbook, 15: 4-6.
Pine, Nobuko Etoh Pine, Joyce Shaw, and Mary Sanborn, C. C
1951. Two new mammals from south-
Reed helped with the manuscript. Joseph A. Davis em Peru. Fieldiana: Zoology. 31: 473-477.
and the editors and reviewers made many helpful Segall, W. 1 969. The middle ear region of Dromi-
suggestions. ciops. Acta Anatomica, 72: 489-50 1 .

SiMONETTA, A. M. 1979. First record of Ca/Mrow>'5;op5 cies of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Manu Na-
from Colombia. Mammalia, 43: 247-248. tional Park, Peru. Fieldiana: Zoology, n.s., 21: 1-29.
SzALAY, P. S. 1982. A new appraisal of marsupial phy- Woolley, P. A. Phallic morphology of the Aus-
1982.
logeny and classification, pp. 621-640. //J Archer, M., tralian species of Anlechinus (Dasyuridae: Marsupi-
ed., Carnivorous Marsupials. Royal Society of New alia): A new taxonomic tool?, pp. 767-781. /« Archer,
South Wales. M., ed.. Carnivorous Marsupials. Royal Society of New
Terborgh, J. W., J. W. FiTZPATRiCK, AND L. Emmons. South Walcs.
1984. Annotated checklist of bird and mammal spe-

Feeding Habits of the Opossum
{Didelphis marsupialis) in Northern Venezuela
Gerardo A. Cordero R. and Ruben A. Nicolas B.
ABSTRACTS
The food items in the annual diet of the opossum {Didelphis marsupialis) in northern Ven-
ezuela are reported by season, sex, and dental age. One hundred eight opossums were sampled
in 21 different sites on a monthly basis from March 1983 to March 1984. The number of food
items recorded varies seasonally. By volume, animal foods (63.5%) are more important than
plant foods (22.9%) throughout the year. Birds (2 1 .5%), mammals (1 5.3%), insects (14.8%), and
fruits (12.8%) are the most prominent foods, by volume. Feeding habits of males and females
do not differ significantly. However, diets of young and old animals are different.
Se seiialan los componentes de la dieta anual del rabopelado {Didelphis marsupialis) en el

norte de Venezuela por epoca del ano, sexo y edad. El muestreo se hizo mensualmente colec-
tandose 108 animales desde Marzo 1983 a Marzo 1984 de 21 localidades diferentes. El numero
de componentes de la dieta varia estacionalmente. En terminos de volumen, los alimentos de
origen animal (63.5%) son mas importantes que los de origen vegetal (22.9%) a traves del aiio.
Las aves (21.5%), los mamiferos (15.3%), los insectos (14.8%) y las frutas (12.8%) son las
alimentos mas sobresalientes, en terminos de volumen. Los habitos alimentarios de los machos
y las hembras no difieren significativamente. Sin embargo, las dietas de los animales jovenes
y viejos son diferentes.
Relata-se os componentes da dieta anual do gamba {Didelphis marsupialis) no norte da

Venezuela, por epoca, sexo e idade. Amostras foram coletadas mensalmente de marfo de 1983
a marfo de 1 984, e de 2 1 locais diferentes, para um total de 108 animais examinados. O nvimero
dos componentes da dieta varia sasonalmente. Em termos de volume, os alimentos de origem
animal (63,5%) sao mais importantes do que os de origem vegetal (22,9%) atraves do ano. Aves
(21,5%), mamiferos (15,3%), insetos (14,8%), e frutos (12,8%) foram os alimentos mais abun-
dantes por volume. Apesar dos habitos alimentares nao diferirem entre machos e femeas, a
dieta dos animais jovens difere da dieta dos adultos.
Introduction of at least seven of 70 species are known (Fleming,

1972; Hunsaker, 1977; Atramentowicz, 1982;
Feeding habits of neotropical didelphid mar- Streilein, 1982; Charles-Dominique, 1983; cf.
supials are poorly known, in spite of their high Kirsch & Calaby, 1977). However, the informa-
diversity and broad geographical distribution. Diets tion reported for most species is based on quali-
tative data. This paper reports the food items in-
gested by opossums {Didelphis marsupialis) in

From the Facultad Ciencias Institute de Zoologia northern Venezuela throughout the year by sea-
Tropical, Apartado 47058, Caracas 1041 -A, Venezuela. son, sex, and dental age.
CORDERO & NICOLAS: FEEDING HABITS OF OPOSSUMS 125

Study Area dry season, 1 6(15.7%) and wet
season, 86 (84.3%).
Data for these 102 stomachs appear in Table 1
Fieldwork was conducted mainly in the Barlo- and Figure 1 Percentage of volume and frequency
.
vento region of the State of Miranda and within of occurrence are shown for each class of items in
the city of Caracas and its surroundings in north- Table 1.
em Venezuela (10°00'-l(y30'N, 66°00'-67°00'E). Considerable seasonal variation exists in the
The climate is highly seasonal, with a humid pe- number of food items recorded. During the dry
riod of nine months (May-January) and a dry pe- season, the most important food items are mam-
riod of three months (February-April) in Barlov- mals, birds, and insects. In the wet season, birds
ento and seven months of rainfall (May- are more important by volume than mammals or
November) and five months of drought (Decem- insects, and fruits seem to be of greater impor-
ber-April) in Caracas. Annual mean temperature tance. Gastropods are ingested in a higher pro-
of Barlovento is 26° C versus 20.6° C in Caracas portion during dry season than wet season. Snakes,
and surroxmdings. Rainfall is 2,053
its at Bar- mm toads, and earthworms are consumed only in the
lovento and 1,011 mm
at Caracas. Elevations latter period.
sampled range from 40 m to more than 1 ,000 m Food of animal origin is more important (63.5%
above sea level. According to the Holdridge Life by volume) than plant food (22.9%) in the diet of
Zones (Ewel et al., 1976), the vegetation of Bar- opossums throughout the year. By volume, birds
lovento is primarily a humid tropical forest, (21.5%), mammals (15.3%), insects (14.8%), and
whereas that of Caracas is mostly in premontane fi-uits (12.8%) are the principal foods ingested by
humid forest. opossums. In terms of frequency, insects (49.1%),

fiiiits( 18.6%), birds (12.7%), and mammals (8.8%)
contribute to the annual diet.
Domestic cats {Felis catiis) and rats (Rattus rat-
tus) were considered as prey items of opossums
because no dipteran carrion larvae were observed
The sample of 108 opossums was assembled
in stomach contents. However, unidentified mam-
March 1 983 to March 1 984, either from road-
fi"om
malian remains are more important than those of
or hunting. Fifty-two animals were taken from
kills
cat and rat by both volume and frequency. Birds
nine localities at Barlovento, whereas 56 speci-
ingested by opossums were either chickens (Gallus
mens were taken from 1 2 localities in or near Ca-
sp.) or young birds which were more numerous in
racas. Body measurements, sex, and dental age of
the wet season; during the dry season, chickens
each animal were recorded. Age determination was
were recorded as carrion. Avian material account-
based on tooth eruption and wear (Petrides, 1 949;
ed for 12.7% of the stomach contents and 21.4%
Tyndale-Biscoe & MacKenzie, 1976), permitting
by volunie. Snakes and toads are consumed at low
their grouping into seven age classes (Cordero, un-
levels in relation to their abundance in study sites,
publ. data, see Appendix 1). Stomach contents were
suggesting that these food items are of little im-
analyzed according to Korschgen's (1980) rec-
portance for opossums in northern Venezuela.
ommendations. Each stomach and its contents were
Insects of at least nine families occurred in 49.0%
placed in a fine sieve ( 1 -mm diameter mesh screen)
of the stomachs, with an annual volume of 14.8%.
and thoroughly washed under running water in
Beetles and grasshoppers accounted for the ma-
order to separate fine from coarse material. After
jority of insects consumed.
measuring the entire volume of the contents, each
Slugs (Veronicellidae) were recorded in the rainy
item was separated under a dissecting microscope
season (1.7% by volume), whereas Vulimulidae
and its volume recorded. A reference collection
are important in the dry season (6.3% by volume).
was used for the identification of insects.
Centipedes and earthworms were poorly repre-
sented in the stomachs.
Fruits such as Psidium guajava and Giiazuma
Results ulmifolia are very important in the diet of opos-
sums. By both volume and frequency of occur-
Opossum Foods and Seasonal Variation rence, ftiiits are more important in the rainy sea-
son.
Six (5.6%) of the 108 stomachs we examined Miscellaneous foods such as garbage (paper,
were empty. Numbers of stomachs with items were: plastic bags, felt, thread filaments), particulate ma-

Table 1. Percentages of volume (V) and frequency (F) of food items of opossums in northern Venezuela in 1983
and 1984, by season and for the year.
GRASS 0.7 %
SNAKES 0.3%
CENTIPEDES 1.5%
EARTHWORMS 1.0%
Fig. 1. Proportionate annual volumes of major groups of items from 102 stomach contents of opposums from
northern Venezuela between March 1983 and March 1984.
and plant remains comprised 2.0%, 1 1.6%,

terial,
and 9.4% by volume, respectively. Garbage items
were only recorded for those animals collected in
Table 2. Food items, by sex, in terms of volume (V)
or near Caracas. and frequency (F).
Variation of Food Items by Sex
Feeding habits of male and female opossums

arecompared in Table 2. By volume, males con-
sume mainly fruits (22.8%), birds (17.1%), plant
remains (15.4%), and insects (14.5%), whereas fe-
males consume mammals (31.4%), birds (14.5%),
insects (11.6%), and fruits (8.8%). However, by
frequency of occurrence, males consume primarily
insects (30%), fruits (19.2%), and plant remains
(15.6%); females consume insects (28.6%), plant
remains (12.2%), mammals (10.2%), and fruits
(10.2%). Both comparisons by means of a Mann-
Whitney U test indicate no significant differences
between the sexes.
A Mann-Whitney U test was also used to com-
pare volumes of principal food groups (mammals, oo<ooooooor-;t-»r-oo
birds, amphibians, and plant re-
fruits, insects,
mains) in the diets of male and female opossums;

no significant differences were detected. Despite
this,the composition of the diet suggests that males
are more arboreal than females. However, a / test
comparing the capture frequencies of both sexes
r^ ir>
on the ground in a 26-hectare grid indicates no
significant differences {P > 0.05; Cordero, unpubl.
data). grid contained 18x18 National live-
The
traps, with a distance of 30 m
between stations
and rows, and was run from December 1981 to
May 1984.
Variation of Food Items by Age
Food of opossums by age classes appears in Ta-

ble3. Note that the number of food items increases
as animals become older. By volume and fre-

quency of occurrence, animals of younger ages (I,
II, III, and IV) consume mainly invertebrates,
fruits, and plant remains, while older animals (ages
V, VI, and VII) take those items plus mammals

and birds, which become more important as the
animal ages.
Diets of opossums were compared by successive
ages, that is, II with III, III with IV, and so on, by
Mann-Whitney U tests. No significant differences
were detected. However, when diets of young and
old animals were compared, significant differences
were demonstrated. Nothing has been published
on age-related diet variation for D. virginiana, D.
albiventris, or any other marsupial.
Discussion
These results provide a preliminary view of the

annual diet of Didelphis marsupialis in north-
western Venezuela. This study shows that opos-
sums, while omnivorous, are more carnivorous
and insectivorous than herbivorous or frugivo-
rous. However, we accept these patterns guardedly
because they may represent methodological arti-
facts: (1) most of our specimens (84.3%) were tak-
en in the wet season, so that trophic habits during
the dry season are imprecisely known; and (2) the
rinsing step in processing stomach contents may
have inadvertently washed away traces of fruit pulp
that might have been studied using other methods.
Our results indicate that insects, fruits, birds,
and mammals figure prominently in the annual
diet. These figures contrast with those reported by
Molins de la Sema and Lorenzo (1 982) in a study Acknowledgments
of stomach contents of 47 Didelphis marsupialis
sampled from February 1981 to May 1982 in the This study was partly granted by CONICET
lowlands of Sierra de Perija in the State of Zulia, Project SI- 1158. Wethank J. Ojasti for sugges-
northwestern Venezuela. In their study, the order tions and review of the manuscript. We
greatly
of importance of food items, by frequency, is as appreciate the editorial assistance of B. Patterson.
follows: plant leaves (68.3%), fruits (56.2%), rep- The staff members of the Estacion Experimental
tiles (42.6%), insects (29.2%), amphibians (28.8%), Rio Negro, Universidad Simon Rodriguez pro-
birds (14.3%), mammals (15.1%), mollusks vided logistical support during fieldwork. L. Du-
2.2%), and seeds ( 1 1 .4%). The effects of seasonal
( 1 que and R. Martinez helped us in the identification
and habitat differences in the two studies may ex- of snakes and slugs, and E. Pannier provided some
plain these differences, since the main vegetation stomach contents. To all of them, our thanks.
types of the lowlands of Perija are dry and humid
tropical forests, with eight months of rainfall
(April-November) and four months of drought
(December-March). Literature Cited
Other studies have also shown that opossums
feed on vertebrates. The volume we recorded for Atramentowicz, M. 1982. Influence du milieu sur
mammalian prey (15.3%) is low in comparison locomotrice et la reproduction de Caluromys
I'activite
with diets determined for the Virginia opossum philander (L). Revue d'Ecologie Appliquee (Terre Vie),
36: 373-395.
{Didelphis virginiana), except for Lay's ( 1 942) 7%
Blumenthal, E. M., and G. L. Kirkland. 1976. The
value. Hopkins and Forbes (1980) also recorded
biology of the opossum, Didelphis virginiana in south-
cats and low frequencies and volumes in
rats in
central Pennsylvania. Proceedings of the Pennsylvania
the diets of opossums in Oregon. Similarly, do- Academy of Science, 50: 81-85.
mestic chickens figured prominently in the diet of Charles-Dominique, P. 1983. Ecology and social ad-
our specimens and have been reported as prey or aptations in didelphid marsupials: Comparison with
carrion of D. virginiana in New York (Hamilton, eutherians of similar ecology, pp. 395-422. In Eisen-
Iowa berg, J. F., and D. G. Kleiman, eds., Advances in the

1951, 1958), Missouri (Reynolds, 1945),
Study of Mammalian Behavior. Special Publication
(Wiseman &
Hendrickson, 1950), Michigan of the American Society of Mammalogy, no. 7.
(Taube, 1947), and Kansas (Sandidge, 1953). In
EwEL, J. J., A. Madriz, and J. A. Tosi. 1976. Zonas
contrast, snakes and toads were taken infrequent- de vida de Venezuela. Fondo Nacional de Investiga-
ly, paralleling the results of Blumenthal and Kirk- ciones Agropecuarias, Caracas, 265 pp.
land (1976), who reported traces of amphibians in Fleming, T. H. 1972. Aspects of the population dy-
the diets of Pennsylvania Didelphis, and of Wise- namics of three species of opossums in the Panama
man and Hendrickson who showed Canal Zone. Journal of Mammalogy, 53: 619-623.
(1950), rep-
tileshave a frequency of 1% in the diet of Iowa Gardner, A. L. 1982. Virginiaopossum {Didelphis
virginiana), pp. 3-36. In Chapman, J. A., and G. A.
opossums. The importance of insects in the diet Feldhamer, eds., Wild Mammals of North America.
of our animals is somewhat lower than that pre- Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
viously reported foropossums in Michigan (30.4%; Hamilton, W. J. 1951. The food of the op>ossum in
Gardner, 1982, citing Dearborn, 1932), Missouri New York State. Journal of Wildlife Management, 15:
(34.2%; Reynolds, 1 945), and Kansas (42.2%; San- 258-264.
didge, 1953). However, the volumes we report are 1958. Life history and economic relations of
.
higher than those in literature records for New

theopossum {Didelphis marsupialis virginiana) in New
York Slate. Cornell University Agricultural Station
York (Hamilton, 1951, 1958), Oregon (Hopkins
Memoir, 354: 1-48.
& Forbes, 1980), and Pennsylvania (Blumenthal
Hopkins, D. D., AND R. B. Forbes. 1980. Dietary pat-
& Kirkland, 1976). Records for other inverte- terns of the Virginia oix)ssum in an urban environ-
brates are also similar to those in existing literature ment. The Murrelet, 61: 20-30.
reports (e.g., Taube, 1947; Hamilton, 1951, 1958; HuNSAKER, D. 1977. Ecology of New World marsu-
Reynolds, 1945; Sandidge, 1953). 95-156. In Hunsaker II, D., ed.. Academic
pials, pp.
Our data and literature records indicate that Di- Press, New York.
have similar diets, embracing a wide KiRSCH, J. A. W., andJ. H. Calaby. 1977. The species
delphis species
of living marsupials: An annotated list, pp. 9-26. In
range of food items. More detailed studies, espe- Stonehouse, B., and D. Gilmore, eds.. The Biology of
cially of food-use in relation to availability, will Marsupials. The Macmillan Press Ltd., London and
be needed to establish the degree of euryphagy. Basingstoke.

KoRSCHGEN, L. 1980. Procedures for food-habits
J. Tyndale-Biscoe, C. H., and R. B. Mackenzie. 1976.
analyses, pp.13-127. /n Schemnitz, S. D., ed.. Wild-
1
Reproduction in Didelphis marsupialis and D. albi-
life Management Techniques. The Wildlife Society, ventris in Colombia. Journal of Mammalogy, 57: 249-
Washington, D.C. 265.
Lay, D. W. 1
Ecology of the opossum in eastern
942. Wiseman, G. L., and G. D. Hendrickson. 1 950. Notes
Texas. Journal of Mammalogy, 23: 147-159. on the life history and ecology of the oi>ossum in south-
MOLINS DE LA SeRNA, M., AND J. LORENZO PrIETO. 1982. east Iowa. Journal of Mammalogy, 31: 331-337.
Alimentacion del rabipelado {Didelphis marsupialis)
de la Sierra de Perija. Acta Cientifica Venezolana, 33:
410.
Petrides, G. a. 1949. Sex and age determination in
the opossum. Journal of
Appendix 1. E>ental age classes for Didelphis mar-
Mammalogy, 30: 364-378.
supialis.
Reynolds, H. C. 1 945. Some aspects of the life history
and ecology of the opossum in central Missouri. Jour-
Tooth
nal of Mammalogy, 26: 361-379.
Sandidge, L. L. 1953. Food and dens of the opossum
{Didelphis virginiana) in northeastern Kansas. Kansas
Academy of Science, 56: 97-106.
Streilein, K. E. 1982. Ecology of small mammals in
the semiarid Brazilian Caatinga. I. Climate and faunal
composition. Annals of Carnegie Museum, 51: 79-
107.
Taube, C. M. 1947. Food habits of Michigan opos-

sums. Journal of Wildlife Management, 11: 97-103.
Notes on Distribution of Some Bats
from Southwestern Colombia
Michael S. Alberico
ABSTRACTS
Noteworthy range extensions are presented for Noctilio albiventris, Rhinophylla alethina,
Sturnira aratathomasi, and Lonchophylla handleyi, including the second Colombian report for
the last. A
previous report of Molossops brachymeles is clarified as representing M. abrasus.
Se presentan algunas notables extensiones del rango de distribucion para las especies Noctilio
albiventris,Rhinophylla alethina, Sturnira aratathomasi y Lonchophylla handleyi, este ultimo
siendo el segundo reporte para Colombia. Un reporte anterior de Molossops brachymeles se
clarifica como representativo de M. abrasus.
Apresentam-se notaveis extenôes mas distribui96es das especies Noctilio albiventris, Rhin-
ophylla alethina, Sturnira aratathomasi, e Lonchophylla handleyi, esta ultima sendo apenas o
segundo registro para a Colombia. Clarifica-se o registro anterior de Molossops brachymeles
como representativo de M. abrasus.
Introduction of Noctilio albiventris, Lonchophylla handleyi,

Rhinophylla alethina, Sturnira aratathomasi, and
Despite considerable interest in Neotropical Molossops abrasus.
mammals, southwestern Colombia remains poor- All specimens mentioned were collected in mist
ly understood in this respect. This is mainly a nets, prepared as standard study skins with skulls,
result of a lack of adequate collections caused by and deposited in the mammal collection of the
the inaccessible nature of much of the zone. Early Departamento de Biologia, Universidad del Valle,
collecting expeditions to which we owe much of Colombia (UV).
Cali,
our knowledge were undertaken around the turn
of the century by personnel of the American Mu-
seum of Natural History and summarized by Allen Distribution
(1916). Bats were typically underrepresented in
these early collections because of inadequate col- Noctilio albiventris
lecting techniques in use at the time. Now, with
the aid of Japanese mist nets, we are able to obtain The lesser bulldog bat was recently reviewed by
more complete samples of bat communities. In Davis (1976) and by Hood and Pitocchelli (1983).
this report I present results of a continuing col- Both mapped the distribution as including eastern
lecting effort during the past five years in this poor- Colombia across the Llanos and Amazonas and
ly known region, extending the known distribution the northern Caribbean coast. Davis (1976) re-
ported the altitudinal range of the species as ex-
From the Departamento de Biologia, Universidad del tending up to 1 1 00 m. We have found this species
,
Valle, Call, Colombia. to be common in the upper Cauca valley, between
ALBERICO: DISTRIBUTION OF COLOMBIAN BATS 133

the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Occi- Cauca: Rio Cajambre, approx. 60 km S Buena-
dental of the Andes, where the elevation reaches ventura, 3°20'N, 77°00'W, 480 m
(1 9, UV3694).
this approximate limit. Fifteen specimens from
the Departamento (= state) del Valle del Cauca
and adjacent Departamento del Cauca were com- Rhinophylla alethina
pared with the descriptions and measurements of
all subspecies recognized by Davis (1976). This This species was described based on specimens
population is indistinguishable from N. a. minor from western Colombia in the Departamento del
in all characters examined and undoubtedly fol- Valle del Cauca (Handley, 1 966) and until recently
lows the Rio Cauca south from the Caribbean low- was known only from the type locality. Albenco
lands. A similar southern extension is most prob- and Orejuela (1982) reported it from Narifio near
able in the valley of the Rio Magdalena to the the Ecuadorian border and suggested that it might
Departamento de Huila, but has yet to be con- have a broader geographic range than previously
firmed by collections. thought, which was confirmed by Baud (1982) who
Specimens Examined— Cauca: Rio Palo, 18 km reported the species for Ecuador. Our collections
S, 5 km E Puerto Tejada, 3°04'N, 76°22'W, 1,050 show R. alethina to be relatively common in the
m (3 92, UV3 1 3, 324, 325); Valle del Cauca: 2 km Pacific lowlands and the adjacent lower slopes of
S, 4 km WCandelaria, 3°23'N, 76°23'W, 1,000 m the westernAndes up to 850 m. That this species
(1 (5, UV676); Universidad del Valle (Melendez was only recently described and remains poorly
Campus), 8 km S Cali, 3°22'N, 76°32'W, 1,000 m known is undoubtedly due to insufficient collect-
(5 S6,UV2602, 2603, 2604, 2608, 2609; 2 99, ing in the forests of this zone.
UV2605, 2607); 13 km S, 1 km E Cali, 3°22'N, Specimens Examined— Nariflo: 5 km E Junin,
76°32'W, 1,000 m (2 66, UV2620, 2611; 1 9, 1°20'N, 78°08'W, 850 m (3 66, UV3029, 3033,
UV2612). 3036; 5 99, UV3030, 3031, 3032, 3034, 3035).
Valle del Cauca: Alto Anchicaya, 35 km S, 20 km
E Buenaventura, 3°34'N, 76°54'W, 400 m (2 66,
Lonchophylla handleyi UV3166, 3167); Rio Azul, 5 km N, 25 km W

Darien, 3°59'N, 76°44'W, 560 m (1 9, UV3391);
This species was described on the basis of spec- Rio Cajambre, approx. 60 km S Buenaventura,
imens from Peru and southern Ecuador by Hill 3°20'N, 77°00'W, 480-520 m (l 6, UV3702; 1 9,
(1980), who suggested that some individuals in UV3703); Rio Cahma, 13 km N, 14 km E Bue-
existing collections might be misidentified as L. naventura, 4°00'N, 76°59'W, 40 m (1 9, UV2809).
robusta. Lonchophylla handleyi was first reported
for Colombia by Alberico and Orejuela (1982),
who collected a single individual from near the Stumira aratathomasi
Ecuadorian border at 850 m. A specimen recently
collected from the Departamento del Valle del In their description of this species, Peterson and
Cauca at 480 m provides the second record for Tamsitt (1968) reported three specimens, the ho-
Colombia. Both specimens are larger (greatest lotype from the Departamento del Valle del Cauca
length of skull, 28.4 and 28.6 mm, respectively) in western Colombia and two from an unknown
than the largest L. robusta reported by Hill (1980) locality in Ecuador. They stated that it might be
for Peru and Ecuador and are larger than any L. of the Andes. Thomas
restricted to the Pacific side
robusta in our collections from western Colombia. and McMurray ( 1 974) provided measurements for
Both Colombian specimens of L. handleyi are from the holotype and six individuals collected near the
the lower slope Andean forests, probably one of type locality and suggested that this species may
the last habitats to be intensively sampled for be common at high elevations in the western An-
mammals in this country. The presence of this des of Colombia. Our recent collections extend the
species in a relatively narrow elevational band known range some 150 km to the north in the
within this habitat type attests to the importance Cordillera Occidental and, more importantly, re-
of continued collecting in the Pacific slope of the cord the presence of S. aratathomasi in the Cor-
Andes in southwestern Colombia. dillera Central, where it was previously unknown.
Specimens Examined— Nariilo: 5 km E Junin, This species appears to inhabit medium to high
l''20'N, 78°08'W, 850 m (1 6, UV3007); Valle del elevation forests which are relatively continuous

in Colombia, and its occurrence both farther to Literature Cited
the north and in the Cordillera Oriental is likely.
Specimens Examined— Valle del Cauca: Cor- Alberico, M., and L. G. Naranjo-H. 1982. Primer
registro de Molossops brachymeles (Chiroptera: Mo-
dillera Central: Hacienda "Los Alpes," 6 km S, 1 1
lossidae) para Colombia. Cespedesia, II: 141-143.
km E Florida, 3°16'N, 76°09'W, 2,400 m (1 9,
Alberico, M., AND J. E. Orejuela. 1982. Diversidad
UV3482); Cordillera Occidental: Betania, 10 km especifica de dos comunidades de murcielagos en Na-
N, 15 km W Bolivar, 4°26'N, 76''19'W, 1,800 m rino, Colombia. Cespedesia, Suplemento no. 3(4 1-42):
(1 9, UV3876); Parque Nacional "Los Farallones

31-40.
de Cali," 1 km S, 1 6 km W
Cali, 3°22'N, 76°4 1 'W, Allen, J. A. 1916. List of mammals collected in Co-
m Paso de Galapagos, 8 km lombia by the American Museum of Natural History
2,600 (1 9, UV3373);
expeditions, 1910-1915. Bulletin of the American
N, 4 km E El Cairo, 4°50'N, 76°12'W, 1,800 m Museum of Natural History, 35: 191-238.
{2 66, UV4131,4133). Baud, F. J. 1982. Presence de Rhinophylla alethina
(Mammalia, Chiroptera) en Equateur et repartition
actuelle du genre en Amerique du Sud. Revue Suisse
de Zoologie, 89: 8 1 5-82 1
Molossops abrasus
.
Cabrera, A. 1958. Catalogo de los mamiferos de

America del Sur. Revista del Museo Argentino de
This species was reported for Colombia by Al-
Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia", Ciencias
berico and Naranjo-H. (1982) as M. brachymeles,
Zoologicas, 4: 1-307.
based on specimens from the Cauca valley in Carter, D. C, and P. G. Dolan. 1978. Catalogue of
northern Valle del Cauca. Although often referred type specimens of neotropical bats in selected Euro-
to by this latter specific epithet (see Cabrera, 1958; pean museums. Special Publications, The Museum,
Texas Tech University, 15: 1-136.
Freeman, 1981), the holotype of Dysopes abrasus
from Brazil has been shown to represent this species Davis, W. B. 1976. Geographic variation in the lesser
noctilio, Noctilio albiventris (Chiroptera). Journal of
(Husson, 1962; Carter & Dolan, 1978). The Co- Mammalogy, 57: 681-107.
lombian record extends the known distribution of P. W. 1981. A multivariate study of the
Freeman,
M. abrasus in western South America from An- family Molossidae (Mammalia, Chiroptera): Mor-
dean Peru some 1 ,600 km to the north. phology, ecology, evolution. Fieldiana: Zoology, n.s.,
Specimens Examined— Valle del Cauca: 1 1 km 7: 1-173.
S, 2 km W
Cartago, 4''39'N, 75°56'W, 930 m (2 Handley, C. O., Jr. 1966. Descriptions of new bats
{Choeroniscus and Rhinophylla) from Colombia. Pro-
66, UV2451, 2452; 1 9, 2453).
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 79:
83-88.
Hill, J. E. 1 980. A
note on Lonchophylla (Chiroptera:
Phyllostomatidae) from Ecuador and Peru, with the
Acknowledgments description of a new species. Bulletin of the British
Museum (Natural History), Zoology Series, 38: 233-
236.
This report is combined efforts
the result of the
Hood, C. and J. Pitocchelll 1983. Noctilio al-
S.,
of many and students, too numerous to
friends
Mammalian Species, 197: 1-5.
biventris.
mention by name, who have collaborated either
HussoN, A. M. 1962. The bats of Suriname. Rijks-
by accompanying the author in the field, by sharing museum van Natuurlijke Historic, Leiden, 58: 1-282.
specimens collected during other activities, or both. Peterson, R. L., and J. R. Tamsitt. 1968. A new
However, a few individuals have contributed more species of bat of the genus Sturnira (family Phyllosto-
than could be expected in the normal turn of events, matidae) from northwestern South America. Life Sci-
ences Occasional Papers, Royal Ontario Museum, 12:
and their support in the field and out has been
1-8.
especially important in the present study: Eduardo
Thomas, M. E., and D. N. McMurray. 1974. Ob-
Velasco, Gloria Giral, Alonso Gonzalez, Guiller- servations on Sturnira aratathomasi from Colombia.
mo Cantillo, and Luz Marina Alberico. To these, Journal of Mammalogy, 55: 834-836.
the author is most appreciative.
ALBERICO: DISTRIBUTION OF COLOMBIAN BATS 135

Distributional Records of Bats
from the Caribbean Lowlands of Belize
and Adjacent Guatemala and Mexico
Timothy J. McCarthy
ABSTRACTS
Thirty new species records are presented for the bat fauna of Belize, along with secondary
records for eight bats that had been recorded previously from that country. Contiguous lowland
localities in Guatemala provided new department records: nine for El Peten, five for Izabal,
and two for Alta Verapaz. The El Peten records include the first confirmation of Vampyrum
spectrum in Guatemala. One state record for Quintana Roo, Mexico, is reported. These species
represent the genera Saccopteryx, Balantiopteryx, Diclidurus, Noctilio, Pteronotus, Mormoops,
Micronycteris, Lonchorhina, Macrophyllum, Mimon, Phyllostomus, Phylloderma,
Tonatia,
Trachops, Chrotopterus, Vampyrum, Glossophaga, Uroderma, Vampyrops, Vampyrodes, Vam-
pyressa, Chiroderma, Artibeus, Centurio, Diphylla, Natalus, Myotis, Eptesicus, Lasiurus, Bau-
erus, Eumops, and Molossus. Range extensions are acknowledged for Saccopteryx leptura,
Diclidurus virgo, Noctilio leporinus, Micronycteris nicefori, Macrophyllum macrophyllum, Phyl-
lostomus discolor, Vampyrum spectrum, Glossophaga commissarisi, Uroderma bilobatum, Vam-
pyrodes caraccioli, Artibeus toltecus, and Bauerus dubiaquercus. A checklist of the bat fauna of
Belize, which stands at 66 species, is presented.
Se registran 30 especies que no habian sido citadas antes para la fauna de murcielago de
Belice, con registros secundarios para ocho murcielagos ya conocidos de ese pais. En ciertas
localidades contiguas de las tierras bajas de Guatemala, se obtuvieron nuevos registros depar-
tamentales: nueve de El Peten, cinco de Izabal, y dos de Alta Verapaz. Los registros de El Peten
incluyen primera confirmacion de Vampyrum spectrum en Guatemala. Ademas, se presenta
la
un nuevo registro estatal para Quintana Roo, Mexico. Las especies obtenidas estan segregadas
en los generos Saccopteryx, Balantiopteryx, Diclidurus, Noctilio, Pteronotus, Mormoops, Mi-
cronycteris, Lonchorhina, Macrophyllum, Tonatia, Mimon, Phyllostomus, Phylloderma, Trach-
ops, Chrotopterus, Vampyrum, Glossophaga, Uroderma, Vampyrops, Vampyrodes, Vampyressa,
Chiroderma, Artibeus, Centurio, Diphylla, Natalus, Myotis, Eptesicus, Lasiurus, Bauerus, Eu-
mops, y Molossus. Para cada una de las siguientes especies de murcielagos se anota el alcance
geografico de su distribucion conocida: Saccopteryx leptura, Diclidurus virgo, Noctilio leporinus,
Micronycteris nicefori, Macrophyllum macrophyllum, Phyllostomus discolor, Vampyrum spec-
trum, Glossophaga commissarisi, Uroderma bilobatum, Vampyrodes caraccioli, Artibeus tolte-
cus,y Bauerus dubiaquercus. Se incluye una lista de 66 especies que representan la fauna de
murcielagos de Belice.
Apresenta-se records de 30 novas especies de morcegos para Belice, e de oito especies pouco
conhecidas no pais. Areas adjacentes, na Guatemala, providenciaram novos records para: El
From the Department of Mammalogy, American Mu-

seum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th
Street, New York, NY 10024.
MCCARTHY: DISTRIBUTION OF BATS 137

Peten (nove especies), Izabal (cinco especies), e Alta Verapaz (dois especies). Os records de El
Peten incluem as primeiras confirmaôes de Vampyrum spectrum na Guatemala. novo Um
record para Quintana Roo, Mexico, e incluido. Estas especies representam os generos Saccop-
teryx, Balantiopteryx, Diclidurus, Noctilio, Pteronotus, Mormoops, Micronycteris, Lonchorhina,
Macrophyllum, Tonatia, Mimon, Phyllostomus, Phylloderma, Trachops, Chrotopterus. Vam-
pyrum, Glossophaga, Uroderma, Vampyrops, Vampyrodes, Vampyressa, Chiroderma, Artibeus,
Centurio. Diphylla, Natalus, Myotis, Eptesici4s, Lasiurus. Bauerus, Eumops, e Molossus. Re-
conhece-se extensoes nas areas onde sao encontrados Saccopteryx leptura, Diclidurus virgo,
Noctilio leporinus, Micronycteris nicefori, Macrophyllum macrophyllum, Phyllostomus discolor,
Vampyrum spectrum, Glossophaga commissarisi, Uroderma bilobatum, Vampyrodes caraccioli,
Artibeus toltecus. e Bauerus dubiaquercus. Apresenta-se uma lista da fauna de morcegos em
Belice, que agora conta com 66 especies.
Introduction est peak at 1113m (Wright et al., 1959). Annual

rainfall in portions of Izabal averages from 3,000
Inventories of bat communities in Mexico and to nearly 5,000 mm (Portig, 1976). Over 4,500
Central America have increased significantly dur- mm of rainfall was reported from the most south-
ing the last twenty-five years (Jones et al., 1977). em coastal area of Belize. North and northwest-
Although the resulting data have enhanced our ward of the Maya Mountains, rainfall decreases
knowledge of the distributions and the zoogeo- appreciably to less than 1 ,500 mm
in north-central
graphical relationships of species, incomplete sur- El Peten and northern Belize, where less than 1 ,400
veys exist for certain regions. The northern low- mm was recorded near the Quintana Roo border
lands along the Caribbean coast of Honduras, (Walker, 1973). The severity of this northward
Guatemala, Belize, and Quintana Roo, in Mexico, reduction of rainfall is intensified by the increased
is one such region. Travel within this coastal ver- lack of surface drainage into the Yucatan Penin-
sant has agricultural and settle-
improved with sula of Mexico. Because the limestone shelf of
ment expansion. The isolation of Belize from its northern Belize has geological affinities with the
neighbors has been reduced with the construction Yucatan Peninsula (Wright et al., 1 959), the south-
of roads in Guatemala's frontier of El Peten and em limit of this peninsula can be considered the
Mexico's former territory of Quintana Roo. A fault line extending from north of the Maya Moun-
paved road from Izabal now connects El Peten tains westward through the northem shore of Lake
and Belize with the Pan-American Highway in Peten-Itza, El Peten (Wadell, 1938; West, 1964).
western Guatemala. Road development continues Effectively, the northem plain of Belize and north-
within Belize for all-weather travel. em El Peten are portions of the Yucatan Peninsula.
Belize is situated within the Caribbean lowland The northward shift from alluvial soils to shallow
drainage of northern Central America. Contiguous calcareous along with the mentioned cli-
soils,
with Belize on this eastern slope is the eastern matic changes, create edaphic conditions that af-
portion of the department of El Peten to the west fect the composition and the structure of the vege-
and, to the south, the department of Izabal, both tation that can be supported (Lundell, 1 934, 1 937;
of Guatemala. Southern Quintana Roo of penin- Standley & Record, 1936; Wright el al., 1959; Pen-
sular Mexico borders to the north (see fig. 1 and nington & Samkhan, 1968). The potential effect
Gazetteer). The topography of these Caribbean of this transitional physiography on the distribu-
lowlands extends from the lower ranges (600 m tion and relative abundance of bats in this Carib-
and below) of the eastern Sierra de Chama, the bean lowland region will require further inventory
Sierras de las Minas, the Sierra de Santa Cruz, the studies.
Sierra del Meredon, and the Montarias del Mico This paper documents 30 new records for Belize.
in Alta Verapaz and Izabal, and the Maya Moun- A checklist of the known bat fauna for this country
tains of southern Belize and southeastern El Peten isannotated in the Appendix. Sixty-six species are
to the low undulating relief of southern Quintana cited. Included here are also records from nearby
Roo. The Maya Mountains represent a heavily localities for El Peten, Izabal, and Alta Verapaz,
eroded Paleozoic formation that now ranges at the Guatemala, and Quintana Roo, Mexico. Nine
top from 671 to 853 m in elevation, with the high- species records from EI Peten, five records from

Izabal, and two records from Alta Verapaz in- Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
crease the number of reported species for these (USNM) [E. L.
Tyson].
departments to 35, 31, and 40, respectively (see Systematic arrangement of species accounts and
Jones, 1966; Carter etal., 1966; Rick, 1968; Smith, nomenclature, unless otherwise indicated, follow
1972; LaVal, 1973a; Martinez R., Mc-
1980; Jones et al. (1977) and Handley (1980). Disney
Carthy, 1982). Jones et al. (1973) and Bimey et (1968) did not provide data for the first records
al.(1974) summarized the records for 31 species of Pteronotus davyi, Tonatia minuta, and Eptesi-
from Quintana Roo, and this paper provides one cusfurinalis from Belize. Those data are presented
additional record. in the respective accounts of this report, with ad-
ditional records. Further secondary records from
Belize of Mimon crenulatum, Trachops cirrhosus,
Glossophaga commissarisi, Vampyressa pusilla,
and Eumops auripendulus are also included. All
Materials and Methods of the species accounts are discussed in the context
of their range and elevational distributions in
The bats that I collected during the years 1974- Mexico and Central America. Hall (1981) was the
1984 in Belize and El Peten (Parque Nacional Ti- primary reference for this unless cited otherwise.
kal), Guatemala, were obtained principally with Forest types in Belize follow Wright et al. ( 1 959),
mist nets set at ground level; aerial netting and the whose classification was partially based on the sea-
use of a bat trap were limited. Unless otherwise sonal formation series (Beard, 944), which refers
1
stated, mist netting was carried out during the first to structural appearance. The correct political
half of the night. A limited number of specimens alignments between the states of the Yucatan Pen-
were obtained with hand nets or plastic funnel insula are inconsistent among a number of pub-
traps at roost sites. Specimens were prepared as lished maps. The state boundary between Quin-
standard museum skins with skulls and/or skele- tana Roo and Campeche on the map in Figure 1
tons, or as fluid-preserved specimens. These (see also Gazetteer) is based on a number of Gov-
vouchers are housed in Field Museum of Natural ernment of Mexico (Secretaria de Programacion y
History, Chicago (FMNH); The Museum, Mich- Presupuesto) maps, including "Carta Topografica,
igan State University, East Lansing (MSU); Car- Merida" (1:1 ,000,000; 1 979 and 1 983) and "Mapa
negie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh Geografica" (1:5,000,000; 1980).
(CM); and American Museum of Natural History,
New York (AMNH).
A survey of 45 museum collections in the United
States, Canada, Mexico, Guatemala, and England Species Accounts
resulted in additional specimens from Belize, El
Peten, Izabal, Alta Verapaz, and Quintana Roo. Family EMBALLONURIDAE
Pertinent specimens (147) have been included in
this report from the following institutions [collec- Subfamily EMBALLONURINAE
tors in brackets]:American Museum of Natural
History, New York [N. Sullivan]; British Museum Saccopteryx leptura (Schreber, 1 774)
(Natural History), London, England (BM) [R. H.
L. Disney; P. Williams; A. M. Hutson; R. E. Steb- Specimen Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: 2. 1 km
bings]; Carnegie Museum of Natural History [N. NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 1 9 (cm).
A. Bitarj; Field Museum of Natural History [L. The known distribution of this small sac-winged
de la Torre]; Florida State Museum, University of Panama extends through Costa Rica
bat north of
Florida, Gainesville (FSM) [F. J. Bonaccorso]; and Nicaragua to Chiapas along the Pacific ver-
Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, sant. The presence of predominantly lowland Sac-
Baton Rouge (LSUMZ) [D. M. Uy]; Royal On- copteryx leptura in southern Belize represents a
tario Museum, Toronto, Canada (ROM) [R. L. country record and an extension of its distribution
Peterson; J. Kamstra; J. Fragoso]; Texas Coop- along the Caribbean side from southeastern Nic-
erative Wildlife Collections, Texas A«&,M Uni- aragua.
versity, College Station (TCWC) M.
[D. C. Carter; Small bats were observed foraging up to heights
D. Engstrom]; Texas Tech University, Lubbock of 13-13.5 m during the twilight period of the
(TTU) [P. Diamond]; and United States National evening. Flight appeared to be concentrated within

a small, open area below the lower canopy of ev- arms. This may explain why there are few speci-
ergreen seasonal forest. A
short mist net was hand- mens available in collections.
hoisted to capture (24 March) this adult specimen. Goodwin ( 969) considered Diclidurus virgo at
1
Saccopteryx bilineata was collected shortly after best not more than subspecifically different from
the capture of S. leptura. D. albus. Both species were recognized by Ojasti
and Linares (1971), who questioned Goodwin
( 1 969) because they believed that his South Amer-
Balantiopteryx io Thomas, 1 904 ican comparative material represented D. virgo and
not D. albus.
Specimens Examined— GUATEMALA. EI Pe-
ten: Poptun, Finca Ixobel, \S 66, 1 8 99 (cm).
The restricted distribution of Balantiopteryx io Family NOCTILIONIDAE
ranges from the Gulf lowlands of Veracruz, Oa-
xaca, and Tabasco to the lowlands of Belize and Noctilio leporinus mastivus (Vahl, 1797)
eastern Guatemala. Kirkpatrick et al. ( 1 975), Cart-
wright and Kirkpatrick (1977), and Sanborn (1936) Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Banana
represent the previous records for Belize and Iza- Bank, 1 <5, 1 9 (fmnh); Barton Creek, at Western
bal. The Poptun locality represents the first record Hwy., 1 9 (fmnh). Stann Creek: Melinda, Stann
for El Peten. Creek River, 1 6 (fmnh). Toledo: 1.2 km E Agua-
The specimens reported here were collected ( 1 2 cate, Aguacate River, 2 66 (cm), 1 9 (bm); Big Fall,
June) by N. A. Bitar as they exited from a cave vicinity Rio Grande Bridge, 1 9 (fmnh); Salamanca
surrounded by secondary forest. The distribution Camp, 1 9 (bm).
of this colonial species may be restricted in part The fishing bat occurs along the riparian habi-
by the availability of adequate cave habitats as tatsof river systems, inland lakes, and coastlines
roosting sites. in primarily lowland regions from northwestern
(northern Sinaloa), eastern (southern Veracruz),

and peninsular (Yucatan) Mexico throughout Cen-
Subfamily DICLIDURINAE tral America (Davis, 1973;Hellebuycketal., 1985).
Dickerman et al. (1981) reported a locality for

Diclidurus virgo Thomas, 1903 Noctilio leporinus from Alta Verapaz as in the Ca-
ribbean drainage when it was clearly in the Rio
Specimen Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: 1.5 km Usamacinta drainage of the Gulf lowlands. The
SSW Roaring Creek, 1 6 (fmnh). Belizean localities extend northward the recorded
The white bat is represented by relatively few occurrence of A^. leporinus from Izabal and north-
localities in Middle America, which extend from western Honduras (Carter et al., 1966).
western (Nayarit) and eastern (southern Veracruz) All of the specimens were obtained (March,
Mexico through Central America. Specimens from April, May, July, August) over rivers and a pond
southwestern El Peten were reported by Jones except for one individual, which was mist netted
(1966). The single specimen from Belize repre- (28 August) low over a pasture adjacent to a flood-
sents a northward range extension in the Carib- ed river. This bat was foraging primarily for insects
bean lowlands from northwest Honduras (Carter since its feces contained the chitinous remains of
& Dolan, 1978) and a record for the country. these prey. Additional fishing bats from the lo-
The single bat apparently was roosting on the calities in Cayo and Stann Creek districts were
trunk of a fig tree (Ficus insipida) overhanging a captured, banded, and released. This bat was com-
pool along the Roaring Creek River. It was cap- mon along the South Stann Creek drainage. Cocks-
tured (May) by C. Tzul after being observed on a comb Basin. A specimen belonging to M. Craig,
number of occasions roosting near, but not among, Belize Audubon Society, was collected
at Indian
a group of Rhynchonycteris naso. Jones ( 1 966), Church (Lamanai), New River Lagoon, Orange
Starrett and Casebeer
( 1 968), and Handley ( 1 976)
Walk District. An old specimen of M
leporinus in
commented on the high foraging habits of Dicli- the collections of British Museum (Natural His-
durus. Similar to the molossid bats, Diclidurus tory) was 909 without pertinent field
registered in 1
probably concentrates its foraging efforts at levels data. The two peninsular records from Campeche
well above the tree canopy and beyond the reach (Jones et al., 1973) and Yucatan (Bimey et al.,
of conventional collecting techniques, except fire- 1974) were obtained in coastline habitat along the

Gulf of Mexico. Although subsurface drainage Thedistribution of Pteronotus personatus psi-
predominates north of Belize into Quintana Roo, lotisextends from western (southern Sinaloa) and
shallow inland "lagunas" are fairly common and eastern (Tamaulipas) Mexico southeastward to
probably support Noctilio populations. Honduras and El Salvador (Smith, 1972), with
Caribbean lowland localities in Campeche
(Jones
Peten (Jones, 1966), and Alta Ver-
et al., 1973), El
Family MORMOOPIDAE apaz (Jones, 1966). Elevations range from 123 to

984 m. These localities from southern Belize are
Pteronotus davyi fulvus (Thomas, 1 892) the first records for the country.
Fifty-three percent of the small moustache bats
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Central were collected (March, May, July) over open water;
Farm, 1 <5 (cm), $ (fmnh); Ontario, 5.5
1 km W the remainder were foraging (January, April, Au-
Teakettle, 1 S (fmnh); Unitedville, 9 km WSW gust,December) in open areas adjacent to build-
Teakettle, 1 <5 (fmnh). Orange Walk: Tower Hill, ings or corralled cattle.
B.S.I, compound, 3 99 (fmnh). Toledo: Aguacate,
1 (3 (cm); 1.2 km E Aguacate, 1 $ (bm), 1 $ (cm);
Rice Station, 2 6$ (fmnh); 0.4 km Rice Station, W Mormoops megalophylla megalophylla
1 $ (fmnh); San Antonio, 1 $ (fmnh). GUATE- Peters, 1864
MALA. El Peten: Parque Nacional Tikal, 1 $ (msu).
Smith (1972) summarized the majority of the Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize: 6.6 km
capture localities for this subspecies of naked- N Churchyard, 1 9 (cm). Cayo: 1.6 km NW Au-
backed bat, which ranges from northwestern (So- gustine, Rio Frio, 1 3 (ttu). Stann Creek: Melinda,
nora), northeastern (Tamaulipas), and peninsular 1 3 (fmnh). Toledo: Forest Home, 1 3 (msu); Pueb-
1 3 (fmnh). GUATEMALA. Izabal: 25

(Yucatan) Mexico southeastward to Honduras and lo Viejo,
El Salvador, but omitted the only record for Belize km SSW Puerto Barrios, 1 3 (tcwc).
(Disney, 1968). Parque Nacional Tikal is the first The leaf-chinned bat has been reported through-
record for El Peten, and the Belizean specimens out Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Hon-
provide additional records for Belize. duras (Smith, 1972). Davis and Carter (1962),
Disney ( 1 968) did not present data for his single Jones (1966), and Taibel (1977) provided lowland
Pteronotus davyi specimen. This male was ob- records for El Peten and Alta Verapaz. Elevations
tained ( 1 November) in Cayo District, at Listowel range from near sea level to 2270 m. These lo-
along the Belize River, and is housed in British calities are the first records for Belize and Izabal.
Museum (Natural History). The subsequent spec- Except for one Belizean specimen, which was
imens reported here were collected (October-De- captured (9 June) in a cave, these leaf-chinned bats
cember, May, July, August) in open areas, bor- were associated (March, April, December) with
dering on vegetation and buildings, and over water. open areas bordering on forest or orchard edges,
The specimen from El Peten was captured (25 including pine savanna.One Mormoops specimen,
March) along a trail in upland deciduous forest. which was registered into the British Museum
An additional P. davyi from Tikal was captured, (Natural History) collections in 1892, may have
banded, and released. been obtained in the vicinity of Belize City. The
Guatemalan specimen was collected by D. C. Car-
ter.
Pteronotus personatus psilotis (Dobson, 1878)
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: 1 .2 km Family PHYLLOSTOMIDAE

E Aguacate, Aguacate River, 9 (bm), 4 33, 9 1 1
(CM); Big Fall, 1.5 km WSW Rio Grande Bridge, Subfamily PHYLLOSTOMINAE
1 $ (fmnh); 0.8 km NW Blue Creek, 9 (fsm); 1
Crique Jute, 1 $ (fmnh); Crique Lagarto,

1 km Micronycteris brachyotis (Dobson, 1878)
NW San Antonio, 1 9 (fmnh); Jacinto Creek, at
Punta Gorda Road, 1 3 (msu); 0.4 km Rice W Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: 1 km
Station, 1 9 (fmnh); Salamanca Camp, 1 9 (usnm); NW Augustine, 2 $S (fmnh). Toledo: Crique Ne-
San Antonio, 1 9 (fmnh); 0.9 km WNW San Pedro gro, Columbia Forest, 3 (bm). 1
Columbia, 1 9 (fmnh). The first Middle American specimen of Micro-
McCARTHY: DISTRIBUTION OF BATS 141

nycteris brachyotis was initially reported from Nic- caves and limestone chambers, bridge approach-
aragua as M. syhestris by Goodwin (1946), but ments, abandoned rum factory boiler) and col-
was correctly identified by Sanborn (1949). Sub- lected in forest habitats (riparian marsh, evergreen
sequent records are from the Gulf-Caribbean low- and semi -evergreen, deciduous semi -evergreen,
lands of southern Veracruz (Medellin L. et al., and deciduous seasonal). The Tikal specimen was
1983), Oaxaca (Schaldach, 1964), Chiapas (Davis captured (6 June) roosting in a passageway of an
et al., 1964), and El Peten (Jones, 1966; Rick, excavation tunnel within a ruin complex. A second
1 968; McCarthy, 982); and the Pacific-Caribbean
1
juvenile male was captured, banded, and released
versants of Costa Rica (Howell & Burch, 1974; (29 July) in escobal palm (Cryosophila argentea)
Starrett, 1976; LaVal & Fitch, 1977) and Panama forest, 1.9 km SE Tikal Reservoir.
(Handley, 1966; Fleming etal., 1972; Bonaccorso,
1979). Reported elevations range from 40 to 594
m. The present specimens are the first records of Micronycteris nicefori Sanborn, 1 949
the yellow-throated bat for Belize.
Two specimens were captured (29 July) as they Specimen Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: 0.4 km
exited from a cave into a low deciduous seasonal NE Aguacate, 1 2 (fmnh).
forest, and a third bat was taken (28 May) along Handley ( 1 966) documented the first specimens
a path in an evergreen seasonal forest. The two of Micronycteris nicefori north of South America,
specimens from Cayo, which I obtained while as- from Panama. Subsequently, it has been reported
sisting a histoplasmosis survey, were listed as "M. from southeastern Nicaragua (Baker & Jones, 1975)
bardyoiis" in a preliminary report (Quinones et and both the dry Pacific (Starrett, 1976) and wet
al., 1978, p. 559) and no specific locality data were Caribbean (LaVal, 1977) lowlands of Costa Rica.
provided. These Central American localities range from near
sea level to over 100 m. This first record from
Belize also represents a significant Central Amer-
Micronycteris megalotis mexicana Miller, 1898 ican range extension along the Caribbean versant.
The M. nicefori specimen reported here was mist
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Corozal: San netted on 1 5 December
along a track in hilltop,
Antonio, 2 km NW
Corozal, 1 6 (fmnh). Orange evergreen seasonal forest.
Walk: San Antonio, Rio Hondo, 2 55, 1 2 (fmnh).
Toledo: Aguacate, 1 6 (cm); Big Fall, 2 km E Rio
Grande 1 2 (bm); Cuevas Creek
Bridge, Bridge, 10 Micronycteris schmidtorum Sanborn, 1935
km NW Punta Gorda, 1 5, 1 2 (bm), 1 S (amnh),
1 2 (msu); Nimli Punit, 1 2 (cm); Rocky Run Ranch, Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Corozal: Pat-
4.8 km NWPunta Gorda, 1 3, 1 2 (bm); Union chakan, 2 22 (fmnh). Orange Walk: 1 .3 km San W
Camp, 2 22 (bm); Vista Hermosa Ranch, 3.7 km Antonio, Rio Hondo, 1 6 (fmnh). Toledo: Big Fall,
WNW Punta Gorda, 1 2 (cm). GUATEMALA. El 1 km ERio Grande Bridge, 1 6 (cm).
Peten: Parque Nacional Tikal, 1 <5 (fmnh). Micronycteris schmidtorum was described (San-
The distribution of this subspecies of big-eared bom, 1935) from specimens collected in the Ca-
bat extends from western (Jalisco), eastern (south- ribbean lowlands of Izabal. An additional Gua-
em Tamaulipas), and peninsular (Yucatan) Mex- temalan specimen was recorded in the Pacific
ico, along the Pacific coastal and highland regions, piedmont (Dickerman et al., 1981). The remaining
to Costa Rica. Gardner et 970) suggested that
al. ( 1 Central American records represent both the Pa-
the southern extent of Micronycteris megalotis cific and Caribbean lowland slopes from Honduras
mexicana is in the Cordillera Talamanca of Costa (Sanbom, 1941), Nicaragua (Davis et al., 1964;
Rica. This species has been recorded most often Baker & Jones, 1 975), Costa Rica (Starrett & Case-
atlowland-moderate elevations, up to 2870 m. beer, 1968; Fleming et al., 1972; Howell & Burch,
Specimens from Isla Cozumel, Quintana Roo, rep- 1974; LaVal & Fitch, 1977), and Panama (Han-
resent the only record for Quintana Roo (Jones et dley, 1 966). Specimens from Yucatan assigned to
al., 1973).The records of A/, m. mexicana which M. schmidtorum by Villa-R. (1966) were reiden-
are reported here are the first for Belize and El tified as M. megalotis by Jones et al. (1973). An
Peten. identification of M. schmidtorum (Jones et al.,
Belizean specimens were obtained (May, July, 1 973) for a specimen from Isla Cozumel,
Quintana
August, November) in diurnal roost sites (shallow Roo, was questioned by Hall (1981) because this

specimen previously was identified as M. mega- Macrophyllum macrophyllum (Shinz, 1821)
lot is (Jones & Lawlor, examined this spec-
1 965). I
imen (University of Kansas 9 1 539) and agree that Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Sibun
it is M. schmidtorum. The northern distribution River at Indian Creek, 1 $ (fmnh). Toledo: Big
of this big-eared bat extends to the Caribbean coast Fall, 1.7 km NE Rio Grande Bridge, 1 $ (cm).
of the Yucatan Peninsula. The specimens reported Tabasco, Mexico, represents the northernmost
here are the first records for Belize. occurrence for the long-legged bat, which is known
At Parque Nacional Tikal, one juvenile and two from both the Caribbean and Pacific regions of
adult females, which were captured (30 July) in a Central America. Primarily a lowland inhabitant,
hollow tree (Bursera semirouba) of an upland de- Macrophyllum macrophyllum ranges from 40 to
ciduous seasonal forest, were photographed, band- almost 600 m. These specimens represent a Ca-
ed, and released. This site was revisited during the ribbean lowlands range extension from north-
following March, but no Micronycteris were found. western Honduras (Valdez «& LaVal, 1971) and
These individuals of M. schmidtorum were the the first records for Belize.
first seen in El Peten. Similarly, Sanborn (1935) Harrison and Pendleton (1974), Gardner (1977),
and Starrett and Casebeer (1968) reported indi- and Dickerman et al. (1981) indicated that long-
The Belizean specimens
viduals from tree hollows. legged bats be closely associated with aquatic
may
were captured (February, September, November) habitats. Similarly, the Belizean specimens were
in the orchard vegetation of a village, along a sec- obtained ( 1 7 March, 1 April) from along the Sibun
ondary forest edge, and in riparian secondary River, although not directly above water, and over
vegetation. the surface of the Rio Grande. The first bat was
taken at approximately 0340 in a stand of shade
trees, dominated by cohune palms (Orbignya co-
Lonchorhina aurita aurita Tomes, 1863 hune), at the edge of an open pasture.
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Stann Creek:

5.3 km WNW Quam Bank, Cockscomb Basin, 1
9 (CM). Toledo: 0.8 km NW Blue Creek, 1 3, 1 2 Tonatia bidens bidens (Spix, 1823)
(amnh); Crique Jute Village, 1 9 (cm); Crique Ne-
gro, Columbia Forest, 1 S (bm), 1 $ (usnm); 2. 1 km Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Rio
NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 3 66 Frio, 1 .6 km W
Augustine, 1 9 (cm). Toledo: Nimli
(CM). GUATEMALA. El Peten: Poptun, Finca Punit, 1 6 (cm); Orange Creek, 1.5 km SW Punta
Ixobel, 2 66 (cm). Gorda, 1 6 (msu); 2. 1 km NNE Salamanca Camp,

was first recorded in Middle
Lonchorhina aurita Columbia Forest, 1 6 (cm); 2.2 km NNE Sala-
America from Panama (Miller, 1912). Subsequent manca Camp, Columbia Forest, 9 (cm). 1
collecting has found this cave-dwelling bat north- Goodwin (1946) first recorded Tonatia bidens
ward through Central America to southeastern in Central America from the Pacific lowlands of
(southern Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco) and pen- Costa Rica. Other humid lowland records include
insular (Quintana Roo) Mexico. Predominately both the Caribbean and Pacific versants of Pan-
lowland, this distinctive leaf-nosed bat extends up ama, continuing along the Caribbean corridor of
to more than 1500 m in representative habitats. Nicaragua, Honduras, and Guatemala. The north-
Jones et al. (1973) reported the only record from ernmost record is from eastern Chiapas (Medellin
Quintana Roo, while specimens from Izabal (San- L., 1983). The Guatemalan records are from the
bom, 1936) are apparently the next Caribbean ver- Caribbean lowlands of El Peten (McCarthy, 1982)
sant record north of eastern Costa Rica (Nelson, and Izabal (Carter et al., 1966). Elevations range
1965); records from Nicaragua and Honduras are from near sea level to around 660 m. The present
lacking. The specimens examined for this account specimens constitute the first records from Belize.
are the first records from Belize and El Peten. Four adult males were taken (March, April) over
All specimens from Belize were captured (March, a creek in a low transitional forest, in a high ev-
April, May, August) in deciduous seasonal and ergreen seasonal forest, and in a deciduous sea-
evergreen seasonal forests. The Guatemalan bats sonal forest. A subadult male was captured (24
were captured by N. A. Bitar as they exited from September) in the courtyard of a Mayan archae-
the cave discussed in the Balantiopteryx io ac- ological site located in a high deciduous seasonal
count. forest.

Tonatia evotis Davis and Carter, 1978 the discussion by McCarthy ( 1 982). Gardner ( 1 976)
referred to a personal communication with C. O.
Specimen Examined- GUATEMALA. El Pe- Handley, Jr., who suggested that all small Tonatia
ten: Parque Nacional Tikal, 1 6 (fmnh). (including minuta) represent a single species, T.
Davis and Carter ( 1 978) described Tonatia evo- brasiliense. Because the taxonomy is poorly under-
tis on the basis of its smaller size in comparison stood, a systematic review of this group would be
to T. sylvicola; a female from Izabal was designated useful.
as the holotype. El Peten is part of a Gulf-Carib-
bean distribution which extends from southern
Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas, and Campeche to Be- Mimon cozumelae Goldman, 1914
lize, and continues along northern Honduras (Da-
vis & Carter, 1978). Martinez R. (1980) recorded Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize:
an additional eastern Guatemalan locality in Aha Churchyard, Sibun River, 1 2 (fmnh). Cayo:
Verapaz. All recorded elevations are less than 100 "Mountain Pine Ridge", 2 33, 1 2 (bm); 0.8 km W
m. The T. evotis from Tikal represents the first Augustine, 1 6 (cm); 1 km NW Augustine, 2 $6
record for El Peten. (fmnh); Barton Creek, at Western Hwy., 2 $S, 3
Two adult
males and one pregnant female were 22 (fmnh). Toledo: vicinity Aguacate, 2 $S, 2 22
mist netted (20 February, 29 and 25 March) in (cm), 1 (5 (fmnh); Crique Negro, Columbia Forest,
Tikal along the Uaxactun Road, at a permanent 1 2 (bm); Pueblo Viejo, 1 3, 1 2 (fmnh); 2. 1 km
water pool in escobal palm forest, and in an upland NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 2 6S
deciduous seasonal forest. One male and the fe- (cm); 2.2 km NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia
male were banded and released. Forest, 1 <5 (cm); vicinity Union Camp, 2 5(5, 1 2
(bm), 2 22 (cm).
This spear-nosed bat ranges from southeastern
Tonatia minuta Goodwin, 1 942 (northern Oaxaca, southern Veracruz) and pen-
insular (Yucatan, Quintana Roo) Mexico south-
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: 1.1 km eastward along the humid Caribbean side of Cen-
W Augustine, 1 2 (fmnh); Central Farm, at Belize tral America. Specimens from Isla Cozumel,
River, 1 9 (fmnh); 1.2 km E Macaw Bank, 1 2 Quintana Roo, provided the original description
(fmnh). Toledo: Big Fall, 1.7 km NE Rio Grande for this species (Goldman, 1914). Recorded ele-
Bridge, 1 2 (msu); San Lucas, 1 2 (msu). vations extend to 495 m. The Belizean localities
This small Tonatia was originally described from reported here are the first records for the country.
the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua as T. nicaraguae Mimon cozumelae were collected (January,
(Goodwin, 1942a). Its Middle American distri- March, May, July, August, September, December)
bution is lowland ( 1 5 to 6 1 m) along Caribbean along the edge of deciduous and semi-evergreen
and Pacific versants, from southern Veracruz seasonal forests bordered with pasture, on riparian
(Lackey, 970) to El Peten, Guatemala (McCarthy,
1 flood plains, over rivers, along paths in high de-
1982) and Belize (Disney, 1968), continuing ciduous, semi-evergreen seasonal forests, and in
through Honduras (LaVal, 1969; Valdez & LaVal, caves.
1971; Greenbaum & Jones, 1978), Nicaragua Schaldach (1964), Villa-R. (1966), and Hall
(Jones et al., 1971; Greenbaum & Jones, 1978), (1981) considered cozumelae a subspecies of ben-
and Costa Rica (Gardner et al., 970; LaVal, 1 977),
1 nettii. I tentatively accept cozumelae at the specific
to Panama (Davis et al.,
1964; Handley, 1966). level.
This account represents additional records for the
small round-eared bat in Belize.
Disney (1968) reported no data for the first To- Minion crenulatum keenani Handley, 1 960
natia minuta specimen from Belize, which was a
female collected (25 November) in Cayo District, Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Listow-
along the Belize River. This specimen
at Listowel, el, Baking Pot, 1 S (fmnh). Toledo: Crique Negro,
was deposited in British Museum (Natural His- Columbia Forest, 1 6 (usnm).
tory). The additional specimens reported here were There are few records for Mimon crenulatum
captured (November, January, February, April, keenani from Middle America. The distribution
May) over rivers or in a deciduous seasonal forest. of this distinctive spear-nosed bat extends along
The name minuta is applied in accordance with the Caribbean versant, from Panama (Handley,

1966; Bonaccorso, 1979), Costa Rica (Gardner et surements of rf/5co/or would place them much clos-
1970; LaVal, 1977), Nicaragua (Greenbaum
al., & er to verrucosus."'' He suggested the Panamanian
Jones, 1978), Belize (Ruiz, 1983), El Peten P. d. discolor are assignable to verrucosus based on
(McCarthy, 1982), and Campeche (Jones, 1964) larger size. Felten (1956) and ûrt and Stirton
to the Gulf lowlands of eastern Chiapas (Medellin (1961) concurred with his statement by referring
L.,1 983). All recorded elevations range below 265 a large series from El Salvador to verrucosus; with
m. These specimens are the second and third rec- the availability of greater series of specimens, Da-
ords from Belize. The first record (Ruiz, 1 983) was vis and Carter (1962) indicated they could not
obtained near Blue Hole, 14 km SE Belmopan, recognize two subspecies of P. discolor in Central
Cayo District. America and northern South America, acknowl-
One Mimon crenulatum was captured (8 Oc- edging only P. d. verrucosus. Handley ( 1 966) ap-
tober) in a house after itflew through an open parently disagreed as he recognized the subspecies
window. The house was situated along the Belize discolor in Panama. Multivariate analysis of mor-
River in an agricultural area. The second specimen phological data (Power & Tamsitt, 1 973) suggested
was netted (29 March) along a path in evergreen this species might be monotypic.
seasonal forest. E. L. Tyson collected the specimen
from Toledo District.
Phylloderma stenops septentrionalis

1905
Goodwin, 1940
Phyllostomus discolor verrucosus Elliot,
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: Cri-

Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: Cri-
que Negro, Columbia Forest, 1 2 (usnm); 2. 1 km
que Lagarto, 1 km NW
San Antonio, 1 S (fmnh);
NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 2 $S
1 km NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 1
(CM).
(3 (cm). GUATEMALA. Alta Verapaz: Lanquin,
This rarely encountered species has been re-
Lanquin Cave, approx. 1 49 km WSW
Puerto Bar-
corded north of Panama from the Caribbean coast
rios, 1 (5, 1 5 (fmnh).
of Costa Rica (LaVal, 1977), the highlands of Hon-
Records of Phyllostomus discolor extend from
duras (Goodwin, 1940), the Caribbean lowlands
southern (Oaxaca, Veracruz) Mexico along both
of Guatemala (McCarthy, 1982), and the Gulf
the Pacific and Caribbean corridors of Central
lowlands of Chiapas (Carter et al., 1966). Limited
America. Records are more common at lower el-
elevational data are from lowland to approxi-
evations, less than 600 m. The new records from
southern Belize provide a limited range extension mately 1320 m. The specimens oi Phylloderma
stenops from Belize represent the eighth, ninth,
northward from eastern Izabal (Sanborn, 1936).
and tenth specimens north of Panama and the first
An adult from Crique Lagarto was captured ( 1
records from Belize.
January) along the edge of low secondary forest
All specimens were mist netted (March, Decem-
bordering this settlement. The head of the bat was
ber) in similar evergreen seasonal forest habitats.
covered with yellow pollen. The second specimen
E. L. Tyson collected the specimen from Crique
was netted (21 March) in secondary vegetation,
Negro.
which resulted from slash-bum agriculture. Whit-
ish pollen dusted the face, chest, and ventral wing
Handley ( 1 966) regarded the Panamanian spec-
imens to be Phylloderma stenops stenops, and those
surfaces. A male subadult Phyllostomus discolor
from northward into Middle America were thought
that was taken ( 1 3 July) along a fenceline of sec-
to be subspecifically different from the nominal
ondary vegetation between two pastures, 1 .9 km
species. LaVal (1977) did not designate a subspe-
ENE Rio Grande Bridge, Big Fall, Toledo District,
cies for his Costa Rican specimen.
was photographed, banded, and released. L. de la
Torre apparently captured (3 June) the two Phyl-
lostomus from Alta Verapaz inside the entrance
of Lanquin Cave. Trachops cirrhosus coflini Goldman, 1925
tentatively follow Jones et al. (1977) in as-
I
signing the specimens of Phyllostomus discolor Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Orange Walk:
from the Caribbean lowlands to the subspecies Richmond Hill (Goat Hill), 8.9 km SSW Orange
verrucosus. Sanborn (1936, p. 98) recognized ver- Walk Town, 1 3, $ (cm). Toledo: 2.2 km NNE
1
rucosus subspecifically, stating the "available mea- Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 1 $ (cm).

GUATEMALA. Izabal: 25 km SSW Puerto Bar- ters based his description on one or more speci-
rios, 1 $ (tcwc). mens from Brazil and compared these with a spec-
This lowland subspecies of the fringe-lipped bat imen from an unrecorded locality in Mexico as
isrecognized from eastern (southern Veracruz) and the "verwandten Art aus Mexico." Handley ( 1 966)
southeastern (eastern Oaxaca) Mexico southeast- doubted that subspecies were recognizable.
ward to Nicaragua. Recorded elevations are from
near sea level to approximately 330 m. Jones
(1966), Rick (1968), and McCarthy (1982) pro- Vampyrum spectrum (Linnaeus, 1758)
vided records for El Peten. The description of this
subspecies was based on specimens from eastern Specimen Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: Santa
El Peten (Goldman, 1925). The first Belizean rec- Elena, 1 S (fmnh).
ords were reported from Belize District in the vi- Two southern Veracruz, Mexico
localities in
cinity of Belize City (Sanborn, 1941) and Rock- (Goldman, 1917; Navarro L., 1 979) are the north-
stone Pond (Pendergast, 1979). The specimen from westernmost records of the false vampire bat's
Izabal is the first record for that Guatemalan de- Middle American distribution, which continues in
partment. Nicaragua (Dobson, 1 878; Allen, 1910), Costa Rica
D. C. Carter obtained the single specimen from (Casebeer et al., 1963; Armstrong, 1969; Gardner
Izabal on 19 February. The additional Belizean et al., 1970; Howell &. Burch, 1974; Vehrencamp
specimens were mist netted (March, April) in de- et al., 1977; LaVal & Fitch, 1977), and Panama
ciduous marsh and evergreen forests. (Handley, 1966; Peterson & Kirmse, 1969; Bo-
naccorso, 1979). Although primarily lowland in
distribution, its highest recorded elevation was
Chrotopterus auritus (Peters, 1856) about 1815m. The occurrence of Vampyrum spec-
trum in the Caribbean lowlands of Belize is doc-
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: vicin- umented by this specimen.
ity Crique Negro, Columbia Forest, 1 9 (fmnh); There appears to be no definite record of this
1.6 km NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, carnivorous bat from Guatemala (Jones, 1966).
1 9 (fmnh). Dobson (1878, p.471) recorded "Guatemala" as
Chrotopterus was first reported in Central Amer- part of the Central American range for Vampyrum,
ica from El Salvador (Burt & Stirton, 1961). Sub- but did not list any examined specimens. Alston
sequently, this carnivorous bat has been recorded (1879-1882, p. 39) stated Dobson (pers. comm.)
from southern (southern Veracruz, northern Oa- saw specimens from Guatemala, although Alston
xaca, Chiapas)and peninsular (Yucatan, Quintana realized the collector, O. Salvin, had not obtained
Roo) Mexico southeastward throughout Central specimens of Vampyrum; hence, the identification
America at lowland and upland elevations (40 to of this species is doubtful. Five false vampire bats
over 880 m). Chrotopterus auritus has been re-
1 were mist netted on three separate dates in Parque
ported from Quintana Roo (Jones et al., 1 973) and Nacional Tikal, El Peten. Two females were cap-
El Peten (Rick, 1968; McCarthy, 1982). These tured during the dry season (22 and 24 March) in
specimens from southern Belize provide the first an upland deciduous seasonal forest, in the vicin-
records for the country. ity of Central Plaza of the archaeological site, and
The Belizean specimens were netted (10 April, at a permanent water pool in escobal palm forest,
28 July) in an evergreen seasonal forest at ground 2.6 km SE Central Plaza. Two females and one
level along a pathand at a height of about 13.7m male were netted during the wet season (22 July)
over an intermittent stream bed. Both were active at a location along an archaeological transect in
during the morning hours, 0418 and 0330, re- escobal palm forest, 1 km SE Tikal Reservoir. All
spectively. of these bats were released after being observed,
subspecific name Chrotopterus auritus au-
The measured, and/or photographed. These individ-
ritushas been applied to Middle American pop- uals provide the first record for Guatemala and,
ulations (Jones et al., 1971). Carter and Dolan along with the specimen from Belize, bridge an
(1978) stated the type specimen for Vampyrus au- intermittent distribution that now extends north-
ritus Peters, 1856, actually was collected in Santa ward toward peninsular Mexico.
Catarina, Brazil, not in Mexico. The discussion by The Vampyrum spectrum from Belize was cap-
Carter and Dolan (1978, p. 37) suggested that Pe- tured (8 April) during the early morning (0300) in

an open field. We were "trapping" Desmodus ro- Subfamily STENODERMATINAE
tundus during a vampire bat control effort in the
village. This large bat was captured after it made Uroderma bilobatum molaris Davis, 1968
a number of low passes over horses and mules,
which were encircled by mist nets. The bat died Specimen Examined— MEXICO. Quintana Roo:
while enroute to captivity via an assistant. 2 kmN, 8 km W
Bacalar, 1 $ (tcwc).
The Central American population of Vampy- Davis (1968) recognized this subspecies of the
rum was described as a distinct subspecies, V. s. tent-making bat from the Gulf-Caribbean versant
nelsoni (Goldman, 1914), but Handley (1966) ar- of southern Veracruz, Tabasco, northeast Oaxaca,
gued that the species was monotypic. northern Chiapas, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, and northwest Panama. Disney (1968)
and Pendergast (1979) also reported the occur-
rence of Uroderma bilobatum from Belize. The
specimen reported here represents the first record
Subfamily GLOSSOPHAGINAE for Quintana Roo and a marginal range extension
into the Mexican peninsula of Yucatan.
Glossophaga commissarisi commissarisi The above specimen was taken in a net on 6
Gardner, 1962 August by M. D. Engstrom along a path leading
to an inland lagoon.
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize: Rock-
stone Pond, 2 SS, 3 99 (rom). Toledo: Aguacate, 1
9 (fmnh), 1 9 (cm); Big Fall, 1 km SE Rio Grande Vampyrops helleri helleri Peters, 1866
Bridge, 2 $S (cm); Forest Home, 1 9 (fmnh); 2.8
km NNW Punta Gorda, 1 9 (fmnh). GUATE- Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Banana
MALA. Izabal: 25 km SSW Puerto Barrios, 7 SS, Bank, 5 99 (fmnh); 0.8 km W
Macaw Bank, 1 6
6 99 (tcwc). (fmnh). Toledo: Big Fall, 1.9 km ENE Rio Grande
Webster and Jones (1982) summarized the dis- Bridge, 1 9 (amnh), 1 9 (cm), 1 $ (msu); Crique
tribution for this subspecies of nectivorous bat, Negro, Columbia Forest, 1 $ (bm); Forest Home,
which was documented from eastern (Veracruz) 1 (5 (fmnh), 1 (5 (msu); Salamanca Camp, 1 S (bm),
and southern (Oaxaca, Chiapas) Mexico and 1 (5 (fmnh), 1 9 (usnm); 1.8 km NNE Salamanca
southern Belize southeastward throughout Central Camp, Columbia Forest, 9 (fmnh); vicinity Union
1
America. Hellebuyck et al. (1985) recently re- Camp, 1 9 (bm), 2 99 (cm).

ported records from El Salvador. The specimens The Middle American records of this fruit bat
from Izabal are the first records from this Gua- indicate a distribution from sea level to elevations
temalan department. The specimens from Belize of over 1 300 m and a range from southeastern
District extend northward the distribution of Glos- Mexico (southern Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco)
sophaga commissarisi along the Caribbean low- throughout Central America. Lowland records
lands. have been reported from El Peten (Rick, 1968)
According to D. C. Carter's field notes, the ma- and Izabal (Carter et al., 1966). This account con-
jority of the Guatemalan Glossophaga commis- stitutes the first records from Belize.
sarisi were mist netted (February, March) over a Eighty-seven percent of the Vampyrops helleri
stream and in the adjacent undisturbed forest. specimens were captured along or in proximity to
Many of these nectivorous bats were captured in waterways. Eleven additional individuals were re-
association with night-blooming "bat flowers" leased at Banana Bank, where a concentration of
bordering on a stream. The Belizean specimens stenodermatines (Sturnira, Uroderma, Vampyres-
reported (Webster & Jones, 1982) from Lubaan- sa, Chiroderma, Artibeus, and Vampyrops) was
tun, Toledo District, were collected ( 1 8 April) in observed. The remaining localities were in upland
a disturbed semi-evergreen seasonal forest. Ad- evergreen seasonal forest and in disturbed village
ditional specimens were secured (January, July, vegetation. A specimen in the collection of St.
September, December) in secondary and orchard John's College, Belize City, was collected by E. L.
vegetation of villages, in riparian secondary vege- Tyson in Columbia Forest.
tation, and from the hollow of a mamey tree (Pou- I follow Dickerman et al. (1981) for the taxo-
teria mammosa). nomic assignment of the subspecific epithet.

Vampyrodes caraccioli major G. M. Allen, 1908 Campeche (Jones et al., 1973). This account pro-
vides additional records of this species.
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: Agua- These specimens of Vampyressa pusilla were
cate, 1 (5 (CM); Big Fall, 1 .9 km ENE Rio Grande collected (February-May, July-September, De-
Bridge, 1 S (cm), 1 6 (fmnh); Big Fall, 2.1 km E cember) in moist habitats, the majority of which
Rio Grande Bridge, 1 S (bm); Crique Negro, Co- were associated directly with riparian vegetation
lumbia Forest, 1 S (bm), 1 5, 1 9 (msu); Salamanca or in village and pasture-edge vegetation situated
Camp, 1 S (usnm); 1.6 km N Salamanca Camp, near rivers. Evergreen seasonal forest provided an
Columbia Forest, 1 S (fmnh); 2. 1 km NNE Sala- upland habitat.
manca Camp, Columbia Forest, 4 66, I 9 (cm); San
Antonio, 1 9 (fmnh).
The published distribution of Vampyrodes car- Chiroderma villosum jesupi J. A. Allen, 1900
accioli major northwestward of Costa Rica and
Panama is confined to the Gulf-Caribbean low- Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: Banana
lands as far as southern Mexico (Oaxaca, southern Bank, 1 3, 5 99 (fmnh). Corozal: Chan Chen, 1 6
Veracruz, Chiapas); elevational data are less than (fmnh). Toledo: Big Fall, vicinity Rio Grande
300 m. The records from Belize extend the range Bridge, 1 6 (fmnh); Big Fall, 1 .7 km NE Rio Grande
of this stenodermatine north of Izabal (Sanborn, Bridge, 1 9 (msu); Big Fall, 1 .9 km ENE Rio Grande
1936). Bridge, 1 3, 1 9 (cm); San Antonio, 1 6 (fmnh); 1
The Belizean localities represent habitats of ri- km WNW San Pedro Columbia, 1 9 (fmnh). GUA-
parian lowland and upland evergreen seasonal for- TEMALA. EI Peten: Parque Nacional Tikal, 1 6
estsand village secondary vegetation. The capture (fmnh).
dates cover both the dry and wet seasons (March, The Middle American occurrence of Chiroder-
April, May, July-September, December). ma villosum has been documented in southern
I follow Carter and Dolan (1978) for the correct (Oaxaca, southern Veracruz, Chiapas) and pen-
spelling of Vampyrodes caraccioli. insular (Campeche, Quintana Roo) Mexico, Gua-
temala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Hel-
lebuyck et al. (1985) recently reported this fruit
Vampyressa pusilla thyone Thomas, 1 909 bat from El Salvador. Locality records reach from
the coastal lowlands to upland habitats at 1 300 m.
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: 1.6 km Southeastern Campeche (Jones et al., 1973) and
NW Augustine, 3 66, I 9 (cm); Banana Bank, 1 9 northern Quintana Roo (Bimey et al., 1974) are
(fmnh); Blancaneaux, 8.3 km NNE Augustine, 1 previous Caribbean lowland localities, in addition
9 (fsm). Toledo: vicinity Aguacate, 1 9 (bm), 3 99 to thesefirst records from Belize and El Peten.
km E Aguacate, 3, 9 (cm); Big Fall,

(cm); 1.2 1 1 All but one of the Belizean Chiroderma were
1km E Rio Grande Bridge, 9 (cm); Big Fall, 2. 1 1 associated either directly with or in the vicinity of
km E Rio Grande Bridge, 6 (cm); Big Fall, .9 1 1 riparian evergreen or semi-evergreen seasonal for-
km ENE Rio Grande Bridge, 5, 9 (cm), 9 1 1 1 ests (April, May, August, September, December).
(fmnh); Crique Negro, Columbia Forest, 1 6 (msu), One individual was captured (15 November) in
1 6 (usnm); Forest Home, 1 6
(msu); Pueblo Viejo, village orchard vegetation. Five additional indi-
1 9 (fmnh); 1 .6 km NNE Salamanca Camp, Co- viduals were released at Banana Bank. The Tikal
lumbia Forest, 2 99 (fmnh). 1 3, specimen was captured (24 March) along the per-
The general distribution of the little yellow-eared manent water pool mentioned in the Tonatia ev-
bat extends from southern (Oaxaca, southern Ve- otis account.
racruz, Chiapas) and peninsular (Campeche) Mex-
ico and continues southeastward along the Carib-
bean slope to both the Pacific and Caribbean Artibeus toltecus toltecus (Saussure, 1 860)
corridors of southern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and
Panama, into South America. Elevational data are Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: vicinity
primarily lowland, from sea level up to a recorded Augustine, 2 66, 4 99 (fsm); 1 .6 km NW
Augustine,
2200 m. Peterson (1966) reported the only record Rio Frio, 1 3, 1 9 (fmnh), 5 66 (ttu), 4 66 (cm);
of Vampyressa pusilla in Belize, from Rockstone "Rio On," ? km N Augustine, 1 9 (ttu); 1.1 km
Pond, Belize District. There are also previous rec- S Baldy Beacon, Bald Hills, 3 99 (cm); vicinity San
ords from El Peten (Rick, 1 968) and southeastern Luis, 7.1 km SSW Augustine, 1 9 (ttu). Toledo:

Orange Point, 1 2 (fmnh); Pueblo Viejo, 3 9$ continues southeastward through Central America
(fmnh); Union Camp, 4 92 (cm). 5 S6, at principally lower to upland elevations (sea level
In his revision of the small Artibeus of Middle to 1882 m). The records given here are the first
America, Davis (1969) recognized the range of for Belize, Alta Verapaz, and Izabal.
Artibeus toltecus toltecus from southern Tamau- The distribution of this unusual bat in Belize
lipas, Mexico, southeastward along the mountain- reflects apparent ecological flexibility. Centurio se-
ous region of the Gulf versant, upland of southern nex has been captured in low and
littoral forest
Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and mangrove swamp edge on the coastal sand strip
Costa Rica. He did not examine Panamanian spec- of Ambergris Caye, to about 720 m in evergreen
imens. Handley (1966) summarized the Pana- and semi-evergreen seasonal forest on the south-
manian localities for /I. toltecus. This bat primarily ern slope of the Maya Mountains. Evergreen sea-
occurs at elevations between 328 and 1640 m, sonal and transitional forests, secondary forest, and
although elevations near sea level were recorded agriculturally disturbed areas provide additional
(Davis, 1969). Consequently, the occurrence of ^. habitats. This bat was captured throughout the
toltecus in the Maya Mountain range of southern year. Twomales and one female were mist netted
Belize and southeastern El Peten was not unex- and released at Orange Point, Toledo District.
pected. These Belizean localities represent the first Brother N. Sullivan collected (15-17 January) the
northern Caribbean lowland records. specimen from Alta Verapaz, but I assume the bat
The Belizean localities range in elevation from was captured outside of Lanquin Cave. The spec-
near sea level to approximately 720 m. Artibeus imens from Izabal were obtained (February,
toltecus is more common at the higher elevations. March) by D. C. Carter and field party. Field data
These dark-colored Artibeus were captured (De- are limited, but four Centurio were captured over
cember-February, April, June, September) in hab- a stream.
itats of deciduous seasonal forest, semi-evergreen
seasonal forest, transitional forest, and pine forest-

savanna. Diphylla ecaudata Spix, 1823
The subspecies toltecus isapplied, based on the
proximity of Belize to its distribution as defined Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: vicinity
by Davis (1969). Augustine, 1 S (rom); San Antonio, 1 6 (fmnh).
Toledo: Crique Jute, 1 $ (amnh); San Antonio, 1
9 (fmnh); Santa Elena, 1 9 (fmnh).
Centurio senex senex Gray, 1 842 The distribution of Diphylla ecaudata appears
primarily restricted along the Gulf side and in the
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize: 1 .4 km Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico southeastward
S San Pedro, Ambergris Caye, 1 3, 1 9 (fmnh). throughout Central America, where this bat occurs
Cayo: 1.6 km NW
Augustine, Rio Frio, 1 <5 (ttu); from the coastal lowlands up into the mountainous
vicinity Augustine, Rio On, 1 9 (ttu); Blanca- highlands (1880 m). The hairy-legged vampire bat
neaux, 8.3 km NNE Augustine, 1 9 (fsm); Central has been recorded from El Peten (McCarthy, 1 982)
Farm, 1 3, 1 9 (fmnh); Teakettle, Young Gal Road and Quintana Roo (Jones et al., 1973). The spec-
at Belize River, 1 3, 1 9 (fmnh); Xunantunich, 1 imens reported here are the first records from Be-
$ (fmnh). Corozal: 1.2 km E, 1.6 km N Corozal, lize.
1 (5
Orange Walk: 1.6 km
(LSUMZ). San An- NW Four of the localities represent village environ-
tonio, Rio Hondo, 1 9 (fmnh). Toledo: Big Fall, ments where Diphylla was captured (April, July,
1.9 km ENE Rio Grande Bridge, 1 S (cm); Crique August, December) along with Desmodus rotundus
Negro, Columbia Forest, 1 5, 1 9 (usnm); Forest during vampire bat control activities. Mist netting
Home, 1 9 (amnh); vicinity Union Camp, 2 99 was carried out in direct immediacy to domestic
(BM), 1 9 (CM). GUATEMALA. Alta Verapaz: Lan- livestock and homes. The feeding activities of £>/-
quin, vicinity Lanquin Cave, approx. 149 km WSW phylla in these villages were not documented, al-
Puerto Barrios, 1 $ (amnh). Izabal: 25 km SSW though one blood meal was obtained for analysis.
Puerto Barrios, 1 3, 5 99 (tcwc). P. Boreham, Imperial College Field Station, En-
The recorded distribution of the wrinkle-faced gland, reported (in litt.) a weak precipitin reaction
bat extends from western (southern Sinaloa), for a mammal host from the blood meal sample
northeastern (southern Tamaulipas), and penin- without a response for bird or reptile. It is not
sular (Campeche and Quintana Roo) Mexico and known if this blood meal was obtained in the vil-
McCARTHY: DISTRIBUTION OF BATS 149

lage (Santa Elena). Gardner (1977) summarized peche) regions of Mexico to Honduras, Nicaragua,
the sanguivorous preference ofDiphylla as for pri- and northeastern Costa Rica. Subsequent records
marily avian hosts. The hairy-legged vampire from were reported from the Pacific side of Costa Rica
Augustine was apparently taken (22 February) in and the Caribbean lowlands of El Peten (LaVal,
a deciduous seasonal forest. 1977; McCarthy, 1982). The majority of eleva-
tions are less than 20 m, ranging to 750 m. These
1
additional Caribbean lowland localities are the first

Family NATALIDAE records from Belize.
Two elegant Myotis were netted (1 July) along
Natalus stramineus saturatus a tractor track, in low riparian vegetation domi-
Dalquestand Hall, 1949 nated by bamboo and thistle palms. Four indi-
viduals were obtained (January, February, May,
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: 1.6 km December) at a coastal locality in low vegetation
NW Augustine, Rio Frio, 2S6,2 9i (fsm); 0.8 km bordering on disturbed mangrove (Rhizophora
W Augustine, 2 66, 3 22 (cm); 1.5 km N Augustine, mangle, Avicennia germinans) habitat.
5 22 (cm); Sibun Camp, Hummingbird Hwy. at
Silver Creek, 1 2 (fmnh). Orange Walk: Richmond
Hill (Goat Hill), 8.9 km SSW Orange Walk Town, Eptesicus furinalis gaumeri
1 2 (cm). Stann Creek: Kendal, 1 6 (fmnh). Toledo: (J. A. Allen, 1897)
vicinity Aguacate, 1 3, 3 22 (cm); 1.2 km E Agua-

cate, 1 2 (cm); Vista Hermosa, 3.7 km WNW Punta Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize: Belize
Gorda, 8 66,6 22 (fmnh). City, Landivar, 1 2 (cm). Cayo: Central Farm, 2
The northern range of Natalus stramineus sa- 22 (cm), 5 66, 16 22 (fmnh), 2 66,19 (TTu); Little
turatus extends from both northwestern (Sinaloa) Vaquero Creek, 9.3 km NNW Augustine, 5, 21 1
and northeastern (Nuevo Leon) Mexico, including (fsm); Ontario, 5.5 km W Teakettle, 2 (fmnh);
1
the Yucatan Peninsula, southeastward through Teakettle, 1 6 (fmnh). Corozal: Estero Lagoon, 4
Central America where the number of records for km W Patchakan, 1 3, 1 2 (fmnh); Santa Clara, 1
this species is noticeably reduced beyond Guate- 2 (fmnh). Orange Walk: Honey Camp Lagoon, 1
mala to Panama. Although predominately a low- 6,2 22 (fmnh); Tower Hill, B.S.I, compound, 3 66
land species, elevations were recorded as high as (CM), 1 5, 4 22 (fmnh); 2 km SSW Tower Hill
2400 m. The presence of the funnel-eared bat in Bridge, 1 Stann Creek: Melinda, 3 22 (fmnh);
2 (cm).
Belize was anticipated, as it appears to be well Dangriga (Stann Creek), 1 <5 (usnm). Toledo: Or-
reported throughout the Gulf-Caribbean versant. ange Creek, 1.5 km S Punta Gorda, 1 2 (msu);
Those specimens obtained (April, August, Sep- Punta Gorda, 2 (msu).
1
tember) at roost were from caves.

sites in Belize The Mexicandistribution of Eptesicus furinalis
Other capture localities include low riparian forest gaumeri ranges from the western (Jalisco) and the
and open areas bordering on forest, in orchard eastern (San Luis Potosi) versants southeastward
habitats, and alongside a building. to South America. Davis (1965), Disney (1968),
and Starrett and Casebeer (1968) reported records
from all of the Central American countries except
Family VESPERTILIONIDAE El Salvador. Lowland elevations range from near
sea level to 1800 m, the majority being below 500
Subfamily VESPERTILIONINAE m. This tropical brown bat has been reported from
El Peten (Rick, 1968; McCarthy, 1982) and Quin-
Myotis elegans Hall, 1962 tana Roo (Jones et al., 1973). The localities here
are additional records for Belize.
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize: Belize Disney ( 1 968) did not present locality data for
City, Landivar, 1 2 (amnh), 1 3, 1 2 (fmnh), 1 6 histwo specimens of Eptesicusfurinalis. Both were
(msu); Mussel Creek, 7.5 km W Burrell Boom, 1 males, captured (16 November, 29 December) in
6, 1 2 (fmnh). Cayo District, near Central Farm and Esperanza
LaVal (1973a) summarized the lowland distri- (4.5 km W Central Farm). These are located in
bution of Myotis elegans. ranging from the Gulf British Museum (Natural History). An additional
(eastern San Luis Potosi, Veracruz), Pacific coastal 1 96 individuals were captured from three of the
(Chiapas), and peninsular (southeastern Cam- localities reported here; themajority of these were
ISO FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY

banded and released during a behavioral study. ation. Consequently, the limits of the distributions
The majority was found in direct association with for the recognized subspecies remain unresolved.
buildings, utilizing the infrastructure of the walls
or floors and the space behind window shutters as
roost sites. Individuals have been taken over water Lasiurus ega (Gervais, 1855)
(creeks and a swimming pool) at three localities
and in riparian vegetation along two lagoons. Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Belize: Trop-
ical Park, Mi. 14.5 Western Hwy., 1 S (fmnh).
Orange Walk: Tower Hill, B.S.I, compound, 2 6i
(FMNH), 1 (3 (cm). Stann Creek: 5.3 km WNW Quam
Lasiurus borealis (Muller, 1776) Bank, Cockscomb Basin, 2 66, I 9 (cm). Toledo:
Big km NE Rio Grande Bridge,
Fall, 1.7 1 9 (cm);
Speomens ExAMnsfED— BELIZE. Orange Walk: Orange Creek, .5 km SW Punta Gorda,
1 1 6 (msu).
Tower Hill, B.S.I, compound, 9 (fmnh). Stann
1 Similar to Lasiurus borealis, the distribution for
Creek: 5.3 km NNW
Quam Bank, Cockscomb the two recognized subspecies of the yellowish bat
Basin, 1 9 (cm). GUATEMALA. El Peten: Parque is not well understood. While L. e. panamensis
Nacional Tikal, 1 9 (fmnh). was recognized along the Pacific versant of Chia-
The subspecies ranges southward from
teliotis pas (Baker &. Patton, 967) and Guatemala (Dolan
1
both the western and eastern regions of Mexico to & Carter, 1979;Dickermanetal., 1981), Goodwin
Oaxaca and the northern Yucatan Peninsula. ( 1 969) identified panamensis from the moderate
Specimens of Lasiurus borealis from the Guate- elevations of the Gulf drainage in northern Oaxaca
malan central highlands were assigned by Jones and suspected xanthinus may occur in the
L. e.
(1966) to the Central American subspeciesyra«/z/7, drier Pacific portion of that state. Baker et al. ( 1 97 1 )
based on Handley (1960). Carter et al. (1966) as- determined the variation in karyotypes and pelage
signed specimens from both lowland and highland color of L. ega from near Brownsville, Texas, re-
Chiapas Xofrantzii, suggesting that the
localities in sembled those from eastern coastal and southern
region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec represents Mexico and referred the Texas specimens to L. e.
the break heXwecn front zii and teliotis. Hall (1981) panamensis. Meanwhile, L. e. xanthinus was rec-
concurred with this arrangement. Similarly, Jones ognized in the Yucatan Peninsula (Jones et al.,
et al. (1973) suggested that southern Mexico, in- 1973; Bimey et al., 1 974). The yellow bat is poorly
cluding the Yucatan Peninsula, may represent a represented from the remainder of Central Amer-
zone of intergradation between frantzii and teli- ica, which includes Honduras (Goodwin, 1942b;
otis. Few specimens of L. borealis are available LaVal, 1969; Greenbaum &. Jones, 1978), Costa
from El Salvador (Burt & Stirton, 1961), Honduras Rica (Goodwin, 1946; Starrett & Casebeer, 1968;
(Goodwin, 1942b), Nicaragua (Davis & Carter, Gardner et al., 1970; LaVal & Fitch, 1977), and
1962— as L. b. teliotis), Costa Rica (Goodwin, Panama (Handley, Where
designated, the
1966).
1 946; Gardner et al., 1 970) and Panama
(Handley, subspecies panamensis has been applied to these
1 966). Recorded elevations (near sea level to about
preceding Central American localities, although
2540 m) are primarily low or moderate (< 1 155 Hall (1981) did not acknowledge panamensis north
m). Koopman (1959) reported the only record from of Costa Rica. Elevational data are similar to those
Quintana Roo. This account represents the first for L. borealis. Ingles (1958) reported two L. ega
records for Belize and eastern Guatemala from El from Quintana Roo. Jones et al. (1973, p. 23)
Peten. translated Ingles's locality from Spanish as "Puer-
The red bats captured in Belize (April, May) to Morelos" when it was actually a collection site
were netted over a stream and a swimming pool. only 16 km east of the state border with Yucatan,
The Tikal specimen was taken (30 July) while it along the highway from Valladolid (Yucatan) to
was flying in an open area near a large man-made Puerto Morelos (Quintana Roo). Alvarez and Ra-
reservoir. mirez-P. (1972) cited an additional Caribbean
I hesitate to assign a subspecific designation be- lowland record from southeastern Campeche. This
cause I see no practical purpose in account provides the first L. ega records from Be-
doing so until
adequate series of specimens from throughout the lize.
range of Lasiurus borealis become available. Han- Eight yellowish bats were captured (April, May)
dley (1960) had fewer specimens of L. borealis at over streams, a river, and a swimming pool.
hand for a proper evaluation of subspecific vari- Another was netted ( 1 8 August) at about 5 above m

the ground while circhng a building located in grass- Engstrom and Wilson (1981) and Martin and
sedge savanna. Schmidly (1982) evaluated the taxonomic status
of Antrozous (Bauerus) dubiaquercus and con-
cluded the chromosomal, cranial, postcranial, and
Lasiurus intermedius intermedius phallic differences between this bat and Antrozous
(H. Allen, 1862) (Antrozous) pallidus were sufficient to recognize
Bauerus as a distinct genus. I follow their conclu-
Specimen Examined— BELIZE. Toledo: Crique sions and agree that the species is monotypic since
Jute, 1 9 (cm). the mainland sample size that previously was as-
The range of this subspecies of the large yellow signed to A. d. meyeri Pine, 1971, was limited to
bat extends southeastward from Mexico to Hon- a total of five specimens representing both sexes.
duras (Handley, 1960; Carter et al., 1966), El Sal-
vador (Hellebuyck et al., 1985), and Guatemala
(Carter et 966). Lasiurus intermedius has been
al., 1 Family MOLOSSIDAE
recorded in Mexico from the northern Yucatan
Peninsula and Chiapas northwestward to Texas Eumops auripendulus auripendulus (Shaw, 1 800)
along the eastern coast and to Sinaloa on the Pa-
cific side. Recorded elevations range from lowland Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Orange Walk:
to highland (1620 m) habitats. A
specimensingle Orange Walk Town, 1 ? (cm); Tower Hill, B.S.I,
of L. intermedius from northern Quintana Roo compound, 1 9 (fmnh).
(Bimey et al., 1974) provided the only record for The recorded distribution of Eumops auripen-
that Mexican state. This Belizean specimen rep- dulus auripendulus includes both moist uplands
resents the first record for the country. and drier lowland coastal and plateau areas, rang-
The above specimen was obtained on 30 March ing from eastern Oaxaca, Tabasco, Quintana Roo,
over the stream Crique Jute surrounded by sec- and Belize, through Guatemala, western Hondu-
ondary vegetation. ras, El Salvador, western Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
and Panama, into South America (Eger, 1974;
Greenbaum & Jones, 1978). Villa-R. (1956) and
Bauerus dubiaquercus (Van Gelder, 1959) Eger (1974), respectively, reported this free-tailed
bat from Quintana Roo and Belize (Belize District:
Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Cayo: 1.6 km Rockstone Pond). This account provides the sec-
NW Augustine, Rio Frio, 1 2 (rom). Toledo: 2. 1 ond and third records for Belize.
km NNE Salamanca Camp, Columbia Forest, 1 6 The Orange Walk specimen consists of a man-
(CM). dible and partial skull, which were recovered from
The published localities of the rarely encoun- an owl {Tyto alba) roost in a church tower. The
tered Bauerus dubiaquercus are scattered from the second specimen was discovered (July) alive by L.
Islas Tres Marias (Nayarit), Jalisco, and southern G. Hoevers, after it apparently was attacked by a
Veracruz in Mexico to eastern Honduras and Cos- bird.
ta Rica (Engstrom & Wilson, 1981; Dinerstein,
1985). Mainland elevations range from approxi-

mately 460 to 1450 m
and appear to represent Eumops bonariensis nanus (Miller, 1900)
mid-elevation and montane forest habitats (Pine,
1 966; Pine et al., 1 97 1 Engstrom & Wilson, 1981;
; Specimens Examined— BELIZE. Orange Walk:
Dinerstein, 1985). These first occurrences of Bau- Orange Walk Town, 2 ?? (cm).
erus in Belize extend northward a scattered dis- Eger (1977) summarized the few available Mid-
tribution along the northern Caribbean lowlands dle American localities for this small mastiff bat,
in Central America. which are limited to southeastern Mexico (south-
J. Kamslra and J. Fragoso collected (8 July) one em Veracruz, Tabasco, Yucatan), eastern Hon-
specimen inside the main Rio Frio cave, located duras, and Panama. These and additional locali-
in a deciduous seasonal forest at approximately ties in Panama (Dolan & Carter, 1979) and
410m. The second Bauerus was netted (26 March) Nicaragua (Hall, 1981) are restricted to coastal
along an open forestry track in an evergreen forest lowland environments. This is the first recording
at about 180 m. of Eumops bonariensis for Belize.

Entire specimens oi Eumops bonariensis as yet bat records from the Maya Mountains Forest Re-
are unavailable from Belize. Documentation is

serve, Belize. Mammalia, 51(1): 161-164.
based on two fragmented sets of maxillary tooth-

rows, which were sifted from regurgitated rubble
A bat specimen from Stann Creek was reported
beneath an owl {Tyto alba) roost in a church tower. (Miller & Allen, 1928, p. 180) as Myotis nigricans
nigricans. examined this specimen at USNM and
I
found be an immature Eptesicus furinalis. It

it to
Moiossus ater nigricans is included in this paper under the species account
(Miller, 1 902)
for the latter species.
Specimens Examined— GUATEMALA. Izabal:

Miller, G. S., Jr., and G. M. Allen. 1928. The
25 km SSW Puerto Barrios, 2 33, 4 99 (tcwc).
American bats of the genera Myotis and Pizonyx.
The black mastiff bat is a common inhabitant
Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 144:
of roof spaces throughout its lowland Middle 1-218.
American range, from western (Sinaloa) and east-
em (Tamaulipas) Mexico southeastward into South Silva-Taboada and Koopman (1964, p. 3) re-
America. This species has been reported from the ported specimens of Tadarida laticaudata (= Nyc-
Caribbean lowlands of Quintana Roo (Jones et al., tinomops laticaudatus) from Corozal District. Most
1973) and Belize (Murie, 1935; Pendergast, 1979). of the bat species discussed in an unpublished dis-
These Moiossus ater from Izabal are the first rec- sertation by A. M. Cartwright were also reported
ord for that department. Apparently, all of these by Kirkpatrick et al. (1975) and Cartwright and
specimens were collected on 1 5 February over a Kirkpatrick (1977). The remaining identifications
stream by D. C. Carter and his field party.
(Cartwright, 1977, pp. 240, 242-246, 250, 251),
which were from Belize District, included Rhyn-
chonycteris naso, Saccopteryx bilineata, Carollia
brevicauda, C. perspicillata, Sturnira lilium, Arti-
beus lituratus, A. phaeotis, Des modus rotundus,
Addendum
Eptesicus furinalis, Rhogeessa tumida, and Mo-
iossus moiossus. Baker et al. (1985, p. 236) re-
While this paper was in press, other papers and
additional information concerning bats in Belize ported cytogenetic data from specimens of Rho-
came to my attention. Two recent papers provide geessa tumida that I collected in Belize District.
new country records of the glossophagines Li-

and Hylonycteris Baker, R. J., J. W. Bickham, and M. L. Arnold.
chonycteris obscura (Hill, 1985)
1985. Chromosomal evolution in Rhogeessa (Chi-
underwoodi (McCarthy & Blake, 1987), which
roptera: Vespertilionidae): Possible speciation by
increase the known bat fauna to 68 species. Both centric fusions. Evolution, 39(2): 233-243.
records are from Toledo District. McCarthy and Cartwright, A. M. F. 1977. Patterns of Neotrop-
Blake (1987) also reported the occurrence of the ical chiropteran reproduction including histological
and ecological aspects of bats collected in Belize.
following bats:Rhynchonycteris naso, Saccopteryx
Ed.D. diss.. Ball State University, Muncie, Ind., 278
bilineata, Balantiopteryx io, Noctilio leporinus,
pp.
Pteronotus parnellii, Micronyctehs megalotis, M. Silva-Taboada, G., and K. F. Koopman. 1964.
nicefori, M. schmidtorum, Tonatia evotis, Mimon Notes on the occurrence and ecology of Tadarida
cozumelae, Phyllostomus discolor, Trachops cir- laticaudata yucatanica in eastern Cuba. American
Museum Novitates, 2175: 1-6.
rhosus, Chrotopterus auritus, Vampyrum spec-
trum, Glossophaga soricina, Carollia brevicauda,
C. perspicillata, Sturnira lilium, Uroderma bilo- A mammal checklist was included in a resource
batum, Vampyressa pusilla, Artibeus jamaicensis, paper on Belize (Hartshorn et al., 1984). The list
A. lituratus, A. phaeotis, A. watsoni, Centurio se- of bats supposedly was a compilation of known
nex, Natalus stramineus, Rhogeessa tumida, Bau- and expected species. The result is inaccurate and
erus dubiaquercus, and Eumops underwoodi. undocumented. The reader is referred to the
checklist in the Appendix as correct.
Hill, J. E.985. The status of Lichonycteris degener

1
Miller, 1931 (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). Mam-

malia, 49(4): 579-582. Hartshorn, G., et al. 1984. Belize. Country En-
McCarthy, T. J., and M. Blake. 1 987. Noteworthy vironmental Profile. A Field Study. United States

Agency for International I>evelopment, San Jose, Acknowledgments
Costa Rica. 151 pp.
Grateful acknowledgments are due H. Flowers,

O. Rosado, R. Belisle, and E. O. Bradley, E>e-
Additional specimens of Micronycteris mega-
partment of Forestry, Belize, and H. Topsey, W.
lotis (2: Belize District, Cayo District), Artibeiis Branche, E. A. Graham, and J. Palacio, Depart-
toltecus (11: Cayo District), Centurio senex (2: Cayo ment of Archaeology, Belize, for the necessary per-
District), and Diphylla ecaudata (3: Cayo District) mission to conduct fieldwork. The Department of
were found in the mammal collection of Royal
Agriculture, Belize, provided opportunities and
Ontario Museum. D. J. Tallman collected speci-
support while I headed the Vampire Bat Education
mens of M. megalotis ( 1 ) and Mimon cozumelae and Control Program (1975-1978). Division of
(2) from Orange Walk District, which were de-
Mammals, Field Museum of Natural History, pro-
posited in Bell Museum of Natural History, Uni- vided partial equipment needs (1974) and partial
versity of Minnesota. I secured further voucher
funding ( 1979). Mellon North American Mammal
specimens (AMNH) of Mimon cozumelae (1), Research Institute, O'Neil Fund, and Section of
Vampyrodes caraccioli ( 1 ), Vampyressa pusilla ( 1 ), Mammals, Carnegie Museum of Natural History,
and Bauerus dubiaquercus (1) from Toledo Dis-
supported further fieldwork (1982, 1984). Nu-
trict.
merous colleagues and friends have been of direct
Certain specimens (Sturnira lilium and Rho- assistance to my needs in Belize, and the following
geessa tumidd) that were catalogued by Dobson are but a few: E.Awe, P. Boreham, H. Bums, W.
(1878, pp. 540, 246) were listed as collected in D. Burton, Cab, G. Cal, G. C. Canto, J. Chun,
J.
"Honduras." These were obtained by D. Dyson M. Craig, L. de la Torre, L. Dieckman, R. Foster,
and H. Cuming between November 1844 and late P. W. Freeman, P. Gamble, E. Garcia, J. P. and
1845. During that time, "Honduras" correspond-
M. Garcia, H. H. Genoways, E. Gomez, L. Hen-
ed to the present region that extends from southern
derson, R. W. Henderson, L. G. and E. Hoevers,
Quintana Roo, Mexico, southeastward to northern A. M. Hutson, R. J. Izor, T. Juring, E. King, K.
Honduras. Many early collectors did not differ-
Leacock, D. Owen-Lewis, N. MacKenzie, G. T.
entiate between the area of Belize ("British settle-
McCarthy, H. Pastor, R. H. Pine, A. Rabinowitz,
ment in Honduras") and that of the Republic of M. L. Reed, C. J. Rushin, K. and T. Salisbury, R.
Honduras ("Spanish Honduras"), but recorded
Schmidt, B. M. Silva, M. F. Valentine, L. Waight,
only "Honduras" or "Bay of Honduras" without L. Wilkins, and A. C. S. Wright. Various regiments
further locality data. The above specimens did not
and the Royal Air Force of Her Majesty's British
originate from present day Honduras, but were Forces provided certain logistical support over the
collected in Belize. Additional specimens of Mi-
years.
cronycteris megalotis (Dobson, 1 878, p. 479) from
My fieldwork in Parque Nacional Tikal, El Pe-
the "Bay of Honduras" and Rhynchonycteris naso
ten, Guatemala, was made possible while assisting
(Dobson, 1878, p. 368) from "Honduras" remain D. J. Howell and J. G. Cant during their respective
orphaned records of the historical literature. visits to the park. M. Dary-R., Universidad de
Uroderma bilobatum was reported (Sanchez-H. San Carlos, and F. Polo-Sifontes, Instituto de An-
et al., 1986) from southern Quintana Roo while
tropologia y Historia, graciously assisted and per-
this volume was delayed. Ten specimens were col-
mitted my work in 1979. J. R. Martinez R. kindly
lected at Ruinas de Kohunlich (18°23'N; 88''42'W),
provided a copy of his thesis.
about 16 km W
Estevez on the Belizean border.
The courtesies rendered to me by the personnel
Four other species {Pteronotus davyi, Mormoops
of the following institutions while providing either
megalophylla, Tonatia evotis, T. minuta) were
information, the loan of specimens, or assistance
documented for the first time from Quintana Roo, visits are greatly appreciated: American
during
from localities within 35 km of the northern bor- Museum of Natural History; British Museum
der of Belize. The known bat fauna of Quintana
(Natural History); Carnegie Museum of Natural
Roo is now represented by 36 species.
History; Field Museum of Natural History; Flor-
ida State Museum, University of Florida; Museum
of Natural History, University of Kansas; Mu-
Sanchez-H., O., G. Tell£z-G., R. A. Medelun, and
G. Urbano-V. 1986. New records of mammals
seum of Zoology, Louisiana State University; The
from Quintana Roo. Mexico. Mammalia, 50(2): 275- Museum, Michigan State University; Royal On-
278. Museum; Texas Cooperative Wildlife Col-
tario

lection,Texas A «& M
University; The Museum, reproduction, structure, and status of peninsular pop-
ulations. Occasional Papers, Bell Museum of Natural
Texas Tech University; United States National
History, University of Minnesota, 13: 1-25.
Museum of Natural History. I am grateful to N. 1979. Foraging and reproductive
Bonaccorso, F. J.
A. Bitar, F. J. Bonaccorso, D. C. Carter, M. D.
ecology in a Panamanian bat community. Bulletin of
Engstrom, A. M. Hutson, J. Kamstra, R. L. Pe- the Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences, 24:
terson, and E. L. Tyson for sharing information 359-408.
concerning their field efforts in either Belize, El Burt, W. H., andR. A. Stirton. 1961. The mammals
of El Salvador. Miscellaneous Publications of the Mu-
Peten, Izabal, or Quintana Roo.
seum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 117: 1-69.
Besides J. R. Choate, J. K. Jones, Jr., K. F.
Carter, D. C, and P. G. Dolan. 1978. Catalogue of
Koopman, and R. M. Timm, two anonymous re-
type specimens of Neotropical bats in selected Euro-
viewers enhanced earlier manuscripts with their
pean museums. Special Publications of The Museum,
comments and editorial skills. E. Mendez kindly Texas Tech University, 15: 1-136.
reviewed my Spanish abstract. Verification of the Carter, D. C, R. H. Pine, and W. B. Davis. 1966.
state boundaries in the Yucatan Peninsula was Notes on Middle American bats. Southwestern Nat-
uralist. 11(4): 488-499.
provided by T. Dachtera, National Geographic
Cartwright, a. M., and R. D. Kjrkpatrick. 1977.
Society, and G. de la Torre M., Secretaria de Pro-
A range extension of Peropteryx kappleri (family Em-
gramacion y Presupuesto, Mexico. M. A. Schmidt, ballonuridae) in Central America. Proceedings of the
R. A. Rollin, V. Risoli, and S. Cramer typed var- Indiana Academy of Sciences, 86: 466.
ious versions of the manuscript. S. M. Velez guid- Casebeer, R. S., R. B. Linskv, and C. E. Nelson. 1 963.
ed the manuscript during my absence. This report The phyllostomid bats, Ectophylla alba and Vampy-
is a contribution of the Mammals of Belize Pro- rum spectrum, in Costa Rica. Journal of Mammalogy,
44(2): 186-189.
gram.
Davis, W.B. 1965. Re\iev/ ofxheEptesicusbrasiliensis
complex Middle America with the description of a
in
new subspecies from Costa Rica. Journal of Mam-
malogy, 46(2): 229-240.
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1972. Systematics of the chiropteran fam-
Supplementary Report. 3: 1-145.
ily Mormoopidae. Miscellaneous Publications of the
Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Webster, W. D., and J. K. Jones, Jr. 1982. A new
56: 1-132. subspecies of Glossophaga commissarisi (Chiroptera:
Phyllostomidae) from western Mexico. Occasional Pa-
Standley, p. C, and S. J. Record. 1936. The forests
and flora of British Honduras. Field Museum of Nat- pers of The Museum, Texas Tech University, 76: 1-6.
ural History. Botanical Series, 12: 1-432. West, R. C. 1 964. Surface configuration and associated
Starrett, a. 1976. Comments on bats newly recorded geology of Middle America, pp. 33-83. In West, R.
from Costa Rica. Natural History Museum of Los C, ed.. Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol.
1. University of Texas Press, Austin, 570 pp.
Angeles, Contributions in Science, 277: 1-5.
Wright, A. C. S., D. H. Romney, R. H. Arbuckle, and
Starrett, A., AND R. S. Casebeer. 1968. Records of
V. E. Vial. 1959. Land in British Honduras. Report
bats from Costa Rica. Los Angeles County Museum,
of the British Honduras Land Use Survey Team. Co-
Contributions in Science, 148: 1-21.
lonial Research Publication, London, 24: 1-327.
Taibel, a. M. 1977. Mammiferi del Guatemala, con
Gazetteer
The numbers for localities are plotted in Figure 1 .
MEXICO GUATEMALA
QUINTANA ROO El PETfeN
2. Parque Nacional Tikal 1 7°20'N; 89°39'W

1. Bacalar 18°43'N; 88°22'W 3. Poptun 16°2rN; 89''26'W

Fig. 1. Distribution of localities in the districts of Belize; Quintana Roo, Mexico; and El Peten and Izabal,
Guatemala. The numbers refer to those listed in the Gazetteer. This map does not display the Caribbean lowlands
of Guatemala and Mexico in their entirety.

IZABAL 30. Teakettle 17°13'N; 88°5rw
31. Xunantunich 17«t)5'N; 89°08'W
4. Puerto Barrios 15°43'N; 88°36'W
Stann Creek District
32. Kendal 16°49'N; 88°22'W

BELIZE 33. Melinda 17°00'N; 88°18'W
34. Quam Bank, Cockscomb Basin 16°47'N:
CoROZAL District 88°28'W
5. Chan Chen 18°26'N; 88»27'W

6. Corozal 18°24'N; 88°24'W Toledo District
7. Patchakan 18°24'N; 88''29'W
8. Santa Clara 18°18'N; 88°30'W 35. 16°10'N; 89°06'W
Aguacate
36. Big Fall 16''15'N; 88°53'W
37. Blue Creek 16°12'N; 89°03'W
Orange Walk District 38. Crique Jute and Salamanca Camp (Forestry
Camp) 16°16'N; 89°0rw
9. Honey Camp Lagoon 18°03'N; 88°27'W 39. Crique Negro, Columbia Forest 16°17'N;
10. Orange Walk Town 18°05'N; 88°34'W 89°02'W
11. San Antonio, Rio Hondo 18°1 1'N; 88°39'W 40. Cuevas Creek and Jacinto Creek Bridges, at
12. Tower Hill, Belize Sugar Industries (B.S.I.) Punta Gorda Road 16°09'N; 88°53'W
18°02'N; 88''34'W 41. Forest Home 16'^8'N; 88°50'W
42. Nimli Punit 16°20'N; 88''48'W
43. Orange Point 16°04'N; 88°49'W
Belize District 44. Pueblo Viejo 16°13'N; 89°09'W
45. Punta Gorda 16°07'N; 88°48'W
13. Belize City 17°30'N; 88°12'W 46. Rice Station (Agricultural Station) 16°08'N;
14. Churchyard 17°18'N; 88°33'W 88°51'W
15. Mussel Creek 17°39'N; 88°24'W 47. San Antonio 16°15'N; 88°02'W
16. Rockstone Pond (Altun Ha) 17°46'N; 48. San Lucas (deserted) 16°05'N; 89°06'W
88°22'W 49. San Pedro Columbia 16°17'N; 88°58'W
17. San Pedro, Ambergris Caye 17°55'N; 50. Santa Elena 16°14'N; 89'X)6'W
87°58'W 51. Union Camp 16°24'N; 89°08'W
18. Tropical Park 17°28'N; 88''23'W
Cayo District
19. Augustine 16°58'N; 88°59'W Appendix

20. Baldy Beacon, Bald Hills 17°0rN; 88°47'W
21. Banana Bank 17°15'N; 88''48'W This district checklist of the bat fauna of Belize
22. Barton Creek at Western Hwy. 17°13'N; is based on published accounts. The citations refer
89''57'W to the initial taxonomic treatments of specimens.
23. Central Farm and Listowel 17°irN; Districts are arranged from north (left) to south
89°00'W (right). Abbreviations are as follows: Cz
= Coro-
24. C.I.T.A.,Sibun River at Indian Creek 17''16'N; zal; OW = Orange Walk; Bz = Belize; Cy = Cayo;
88''34'W SC = Stann Creek; Td = Toledo.
25. Macaw Bank 17°05'N; 89'^4'W In order to give an accurate list of bats, it is
26. Roaring Creek 17°15'N; 88''47'W necessary to present certain discrepancies that have
27. San Antonio 17°05'N; 89°0rW appeared in the literature. Dobson (1878) referred
28. San Luis 16°54'N; 89°00'W to certain early sp>ecimens that may have origi-
29. SibunCamp 17°05'N; 88°39'W nated from Belize. One reference (Dobson, 1878,

p. 520) to "Half-Moon Key, Honduras" for a spec- without locality data. These specimens, which are
imen of Artibeus perspicillatus (= jamaicensis) be- housed in British Museum (Natural History) and
longs to Belize, since this specimen was collected Royal Ontario Museum, are all from Cayo Dis-
by O. Salvin (see Salvin, 1864). Sanderson (1941, trict. J. L. Eger (pers. comm.) identified the ques-
p. 228) recalled "Anoura sp." in his descriptive tionable specimen of Molossus bondae in Disney
narrative of a visit to then British Honduras. This ( 1 968, p. 7) as M. molossus. Quinones et al. ( 1 978,
species was not identified (Hershkovitz, 1951) in p. 559) reported six species, which I collected and
the Sanderson bat collection. Diaemus youngi was identified, without the exact locality information
cited from Belize (Villa-R., 1966, p. 340), but R. other than "the Maya Mountains region." This
L. Peterson (pers. comm.) stated that the specimen locality is 1 km NW Augustine, Cayo District.
in question was actually from Guyana. Specimens Sixty-six bat species are recognized in Belize.
of 17 species of bats were listed in Disney (1968)
Species
Species Cz OW Bz Cy SC Td References
CaroUia brevicauda
Carollia perspicillata
Sturnira lilium
Uroderma bilobatum
Vampyrops helleri
Vampyrodes caraccioli
Vampyressa pusilla
Chiroderma villosum
Artibeus intermedius*
Artibeus jamaicensis*
Artibeus lituratus*
Artibeus phaeotis
New Species of Mammals from Northern South America:
Fruit-Eating Bats, Genus Artibeus Leach
Charles O. Handley, Jr.
ABSTRACTS
The larger species of Artibeus of the Amazon Basin are defined, and a new giant species is
named and described from Venezuela and Colombia. Artibeus fallax, A. Hercules, and A. pla-
nirostris are regarded as subspecies of Artibeus jamaicensis, by far the most variable of the
larger Artibeus of the region.
The smaller Artibeus are keyed and arranged in six species groups. A new dwarf species is
described from Brazil, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela. Distribution and diversity of
the smaller species are discussed. Artibeus cinereus, once thought to range throughout Central
America and much of South America and to include all of the smaller taxa except A. concolor
and A. include only the nominate form and A. quadrivittatus of the lower
hartii, is restricted to
Amazon Basin and adjacent coastal areas.
With these additions and changes in status, at least nine species of Artibeus now are known
to occur in northeastern South America.
Las especies de gran tamaiio de Artibeus de la Cuenca del Rio Amazonas son definidas y una
nueva especie gigante de Venezuela y Colombia es nombrada y descrita. Artibeus fallax, A.
hercules, y A. planirostris son consideradas como subespecies de Artibeus jamaicensis, que es
el mas variable de los grandes Artibeus de la region.
Una clave es preparada para las especies de Artibeus menores, y las especies son arregladas
en seis grupos. Una nueva especie enana de Brasil, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, y Venezuela es
descrita. La distribucion y la diversidad de las especies menores son discutidas. Artibeus cinereus,
que antes se penso estaba distribuida en Centro America y una gran parte de Sudamerica, y
que incluyera todas las taxa mas pequeiias (a excepcion de A. concolor y A. hartii), es ahora
restringuida para incluir solamente la especie nominal y A. quadrivittatus a la Cuenca baja del
Rio Amazonas y a las areas costeras adyacentes.
Con estas adiciones y cambios de "status," por lo menos nueve especies de Artibeus ya son
conocidas y se encuentran en el nordeste de Sudamerica.
Sao definidas as especies maiores de Artibeus que ocorrem na Bacia Amazonica, e uma especie
nova, gigante, e descrita. Artibeus fallax, A. hercules, e A. planirostris sao consideradas subes-
pecies de Artibeus jamaicensis, certamente a especie mais variavel dos Artibeus maiores da
regiao.
Uma chave para os Artibeus menores, os quais foram designados a seis grupos de especies,
e fomecida. Uma especie nova aiia e descrita do Brasil, Equador, Guiana, Peru, e Venezuela.
A diversidade, e as distribuiôes geograficas destas especies, sao discutidas. Artibeus cinereus,
o qual acreditava-se abranger toda America Central e grande parte da America do Sul, alem
de incluir todos taxa menores com excessao de A. concolor e A. hartii, e reduzido a um unico
taxon, restrito ao sul da Bacia Amazonica e as suas areas adjacentes.
Incluindo as adi9oes e mudanâs de status propostas neste trabalho, sao reconhecidas, atual-
mente, ao menos nove especies de Artibeus na regiao nordeste da America do Sul.
From the National Museum of Natural History,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560.
HANDLEY: NEW SPECIES OF ARTIBEUS 163

Introduction zon Basin, so large in fact that the subspecies there,
A. j. fallax Peters and A. j. Hercules Rehn, until
Mammals and their ectoparasites were collected recently have been aligned by most authors with
in Venezuela between 1965 and 1968 by the the universally large A. lituratus, although they
Smithsonian Venezuelan Project (SVP), supported differ from it in many characteristics other than
in part by a contract (DA-49-MD-2788) of the size. To the southeast of the Amazon Basin {A. j.
Medical Research and Development Command, planirostris Spix) and to the north of it (A. j. trin-
Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Army. Nu- itatis Andersen), A. jamaicensis is dramatically
merous papers have described the ectoparasites smaller, in fact similar in size to A. fuliginosus.
and mammals of the Project. Throughout these Everywhere east of the Andes A. jamaicensis has
papers undescribed species of mammals have been 3/3 molars; west of the Andes and in Central
referred to by alphabetical designations. Some of America it has 2/3 molars.
these have been named subsequently by Handley Specimens in the SVP collection show that the
and Ferris (1972), Handley and Gordon (1980), large Artibeus jamaicensis fallax and small A. j.
and Handley (1984). This paper deals with fruit- trinitatis apparently intergrade in the Llanos of
eating bats of the genus Artibeus Leach. Venezuela where the habitat is marginal for A.
The cranial measurements reported here were jamaicensis and where it is an uncommon bat.
taken as outlined by Handley (1959, p. 98). Hind Furthermore, intergradation between the small,
foot, tibia, calcar, and forearm were measured on 1 2-molar A.
j. trinitatis and the slightly larger, 10-
dry museum si)ecimens or on specimens preserved molar A. j. aequatorialis Andersen of the north-
in alcohol; all other external dimensions were west coast of South America can be seen in spec-
measured on fresh specimens in the field. All mea- imens from northern Colombia.
surements are in millimeters. Coloration was de- These two zones of intergradation are of crucial
termined under Examolites (Macbeth Corp., New- importance in the nomenclature oi Artibeus, for
burg, NY 12533) with natural light excluded. they serve to link "/I. jamaicensis^'' of the West
Indies and Central America and "A. planirostris"
of eastern South America. They are especially im-
portant in the present context because of the dis-
covery of a fourth large Artibeus, superficially sim-
A New Giant Artibeus ilar to but larger than A. j. fallax, occurring together
with itin southern Venezuela and with the small
It is now generally agreed that in and around A. j. trinitatis in western Venezuela and northern
the Amazon Basin there are three large species of Colombia. It can be recognized as follows:
Artibeus. Handley (1976) recognized them as: (1)
/1./m//^;>jo51« Gray— smaller, molars 3/3, rostrum

arched, postorbital process poorly developed, fur
Artibeus amplus new SF>ecies
long, coloration blackish, facial stripes faint or ab-
sent, interfemoral membrane (IM) naked; (2) A.
jamaicensis Leach — larger, molars 3/3, rostrum HoLOTYPE— USNM 440932, adult female with
arched, postorbital process poorly developed, fur suckling young, skin and skull, collected 1 5 April
short, coloration gray-brown, facial stripes present 1968 by Norman E. Peterson, F. P. Brown, Jr.,
but not sharply defined, IM naked; and (3) A. li- and J. O. Matson at Kasmera, 2 1 km SW Machi-
turatus Olfers— larger, molars 2/3, rostrum flat- ques, Estado Zulia, Venezuela, 270 m, in a damp
tish, postorbital process well developed, fur short, cave in a cliff across the Rio Yasa from the Kas-
coloration chocolate brown, facial stripes promi- mera Biological Station, eastern foothills of the
nent and well defined, IM hairy. However, as shown Sierra de Perija. Original number, svp 22086.
by Koopman (1978) and Honacki et al. (1982), Etymology— Latin amplus, large, referring to
there is no consensus on the delimitation of these the large size of this bat, one of the largest Artibeus.
species. Distribution— Northern foothills of the Cen-
The difficulty in defining the species arises pri- tral Andes
Colombia; lower eastern slopes of
in
marily from the fact that Artibeus jamaicensis is and the Venezuelan Andes in
the Sierra de Perija
unusually variable geographically in morphology. western Venezuela; and the vicinity of Cerro Dui-
The other species show very little variation in this da and the low mountains of southeastern Bolivar
region. Artibeus jamaicensis is large in the Ama- in southern Venezuela. It probably occurs in ad-

jacent parts of Guyana and Brazil as well. The SVP calcar 6.2, weight 70.4g. Greatest length of skull
collectors found A. arnplus near streams and in 31.9, zygomatic breadth 18.3, postorbital breadth
other moist areas (98%); in evergreen forest (90%) 7.7, breadth of braincase 13.3, depth of braincase
and in forest openings such as yards and orchards 1 length of maxillary toothrow 1 1.2, postpal-
1.6,
(10%). Most specimens were mist netted (86%), atal length 9.8, palatal breadth outside of M^ 12.9,
but some ( 1 4%) were found roosting in the twilight rostral breadth at base of canines 8.3. See Table
zone of caves. Elevational range, 24-1200 m. 1 for additional measurements.
Holdridge life zones (Ewel & Madriz, 1 968): Trop- Comparisons— Four large species of Artibeus
ical humid forest (10%), Tropical very humid for- occur in Venezuela, all of them together in the
est (22%), Premontane humid forest (12%), Pre- southern part of the country. Among these, Arti-
montane very humid forest (2%), Premontane rain beus amplus and A. jamaicensis are most alike;
forest (4%), Lower montane very humid forest but despite the superficial resemblance, the two
(10%), and Lower montane rain forest (40%). Ridge can be distinguished by many characters, both ex-
slopes and valley floor in the area where the ho- ternal and amplus examined have
cranial. All A.
lotype was collected were clothed with second the lower edge of the noseleaf horseshoe bound
growth evergreen forest, while lawns, shrubbery, down, while about 95% of A. jamaicensis from the
banana and papaya plants, and scattered grapefruit same localities have it free; all A. amplus have the
trees characterized the grounds of the biological interfemoral membrane slightly hairy and fringed
station. medially, hwX A. jamaicensis never does; and while
Description— Size large (forearm 70.0, greatest A. jamaicensis often has the wings white-tipped,
length of skull 31.3, maxillary toothrow 11.2
— A. amplus never does. Cranially, A. amplus differs
averages of Venezuelan specimens). Coloration of from A. jamaicensis having a longer, narrower
in
fur as in sympatric Artibeus jamaicensis (dorsum skull; longer, somewhat more
ffattened rostrum
blackish brown to brown; facial stripes present but (most easily seen in dimensions of rostral shield);
obscure; underparts blackish brown, usually frost- less arched nasals; margins of supraorbital nearly
ed with white; underarms with abundant long, parallel, rather than converging posteriorly, and
usually whitish hairs); ears dark fuscous to black, usually not as well developed; zygomata thinner
paler basally; lips and noseleaf blackish; mem- and more and usually subparallel rather
fragile
branes blackish; wing tips undifferentiated or gray- than diverging markedly posteriorly; posterolater-
ish, never white. Horseshoe of noseleaf bound al angle of skull not so flaring; palate narrower and
down mediobasally; legs and interfemoral mem- toothrows usually less nearly circular in outline;
brane slightly hairy, the latter particularly medio- and postpalatal extension usually longer and nar-
ventrally, where hairs extend as a short fringe be- rower, parallel sided (not flaring posteriorward).
yond edge of membrane; forearm long. The two species are hosts of different species of
Skull superficially like that of Artibeus jamai- parasitic streblid ffies.
censis, but relatively longer and narrower; rostrum Specimens Examined— Total 55. COLOMBIA.
long and flattish; supraorbital ledges subparallel Antioquia: La Tirana, 33 km SW Zaragoza, 520
and together with postorbital processes often poor- m (2 usnm). VENEZUELA. Apure: Nulita, Selvas
ly develojDed or even ill-defined; zygomata not very de San Camilo, 29 km SSW Santo Domingo, 24
flared from skull, usually subparallel to one another, m (2 usnm). Bolivar: 21 to 33 km NE Icabani,
and in side view, thin and fragile; posterolateral 775-851 m (6 usnm); Km 125, 85 km SSE El
angle of skull not particularly flared; palate rela- Dorado, 826-1165 m (5 usnm). T.F. Amazonas:
tively narrow and toothrows ovoid in outline; Belen, Rio Cunucunuma, 56 km NNW
Esmeralda,
postpalatal extension usually long, narrow, and 1 50 m (9 usnm); Cabecera del Caiio Culebra, Cerro
parallel sided; dentition as in A. jamaicensis, ex- Duida, 40 km NNW

Esmeralda, 1 1 40-1 200 m (2 1
cept only weakly bilobed; dental formula 2/2-
I' usnm); Caiio Culebra, Cerro Duida, 50 km NNW
1/1-2/2-3/3 X 2 = 32. This bat is the only known Esmeralda, 800 m (2 usnm); Tamatama, Rio Ori-
host of Strebla paramirabilis Wenzel and Tri- noco, 2 km above Boca del Casiquiare, 135 m (2
chobius assimilis Wenzel (Diptera: Streblidae), so usnm). Zulia: Kasmera, 21 km SW Machiques,
itcan be distinguished from other Artibeus by its 270 m (3 USNM, 1 ucv); 15 km W Machiques (1
parasites as well as its morphology. amnh); Novito, 19 km WSW Machiques, 1 135 m
Measurements of the holotype, an adult female: (1 usnm).
total length 101, tail vertebrae 0, hind foot (dry) Remarks— In previous publications of SVP, Ar-
17, ear from notch 25, forearm 69.2, tibia 24.1, tibeus amplus has been known as ""Artibeus sp. D".

Table 1 Measurements of adult Artibeus ampins and A. jamaicensis. For each measurement, line 1 includes the
.
mean plus or minus two standard errors, line 2 the extremes, and line 3, in parentheses, the number of specimens
measured. All specimens are from Venezuela unless otherwise stated.
Hind foot Greatest Zygomatic Postorbital

Total length (dr>) Ear Forearm length breadth breadth
Artibeus amplus, males and females, Zulia and Colombia

100.4 ± 3.88 18.4 ± 0.60 23.7 ± 1.28 70.8 ±1.78 31.4 ± 0.26 18.6 ± 0.20 7.9 ± 0.20
93-104 17-19 22-26 68.6-75.3 31.0-31.9 18.1-18.8 7.6-8.3
(5) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7) (7)
A. amplus, males and females, T.F. Amazonas and Bolivar

89.9 ± 2.22 18.3 ± 0.30 23.0 ± 0.98 69.1 ± 0.90 31.2 ± 0.24 18.4 ± 0.14 7.8 ± O.IO
80-100 17-20 18-26 65.0-73.2 30.3-32.8 17.4-19.1 7.3-8.4
(21) (22) (21) (22) (29) (30) (31)
A. jamaicensis, females, Zulia

86.4 ± 2.90 15.9 ± 0.40 22.6 ± 0.96 61.1 ± 0.64 27.7 ± 0.24 16.9 ± 0.30 6.8 ± 0.08
77-95 14-18 17-25 58.9-64.2 26.7-28.5 16.0-17.7 6.5-7.1
(19) (19) (19) (19) (19) (12) (19)
A. jamaicensis, males, Zulia

83.8 ± 4.14 15.4 ± 0.32 22.2 ± 0.98 59.3 ± 0.92 27.4 ± 0.14 17.0 ± 0.28 6.8 ± 0.14
73-91 15-16 20-25 56.2-61.4 27.1-27.7 16.6-17.6 6.3-7.0
(10) (10) (10) (10) (10) (6) (10)
A. jamaicensis, females, T.F. Amazonas
88.1 ± 1.62 17.8 ± 0.32 24.6 ± 0.46 66.8 ±1.12 30.7 ± 0.28 19.1 ± 0.14 7.5 ± 0.10
80-93 16-19 23-26 62.1-70.1 29.4-31.3 18.7-19.6 7.1-7.7
(17) (17) (17) (17) (14) (13) (14)
A. jamaicensis. males, T.F. Amazonas
86.3 ± 1.60 18.3 ± 0.32 24.6 ± 0.52 65.4 ± 1.42 30.7 ± 0.26 19.3 ± 0.32 7.6 ± 0.16
82-90 18-19 24-26 62.4-68.6 30.2-31.4 18.6-20.2 7.2-7.9
(8) (8) (8) (8) (8) (8) (8)
A New Dwarf Artibeus Artibeus pumilio is an enigmatic taxon. Many

museum specimens bear the name A. pumilio, but
The taxonomy of the smaller Artibeus is in a perhaps the only specimen properly associated with
stateof flux. As recently as 35 years ago all of the the name is the holotype. This specimen may be
smaller species except A. concolor Peters and A. only an odd variant of one of the other species,
hart a Thomas were believed to be variants of .-i. but not of the species described here. For the pres-
cinerens Gervais. Since then, first one and then ent, A. pumilio must be regarded as unplaceable.
another of the supposed subspecies of .4. cinereus The same can be said for A. rosenbergi, charac-
has been shown to be independent species. Today teiized by a curiously long, narrow skull such as
only A. bogotensis Andersen, A. glaucus Thomas, can be found occasionally in large samples of most
A. pumilio Thomas. A. quadrivittatus Peters. A. species o{ Artibeus. Because of their equivocal sta-
rosenbergi Thomas, and A. watsoni Thomas re- tus, neither A. pumilio nor A. rosenbergi is includ-
main associated with A. cinereus (Honacki et al., ed in the appended list of species and key. The
1982). However, except for^. quadrivittatus, these characteii sties and status of these taxa will be the
do not properly belong with A. cinereus either. subject of another paper.
Artibeus glaucus and A. bogotensis intergrade in Thus, .A. cinereus now has been shorn of all of
Ecuador and form an Andean-northern South its supposed subspecies except A. c. quadrivittatus.
American species sympatric with A. cinereus in Its supposed range has been reduced from encom-
southern Venezuela. Artibeus glaucus thus has two passing most of Central Ameiica and tropical South
subspecies, the nominate form and A. g. bogoten- America to occupying only the Amazon Basin
sis. Artibeus watsoni Thomas of northwestern South (possibly only the lower basin) and adjacent coast-
Ameinca and Central America is closely related, al areas. Sympatric with A. cinereus in much of its
but intergradation with A. g. glaucus or A. g. bo- range is a distinctive dwarf species which can be
gotensis has not been obseiêd. known as:

Table 1. Continued.
Braincase
breadth
Table Measurements of adult male and female (combined) Artibeus gnomus and A. glaucus bogotensis. For
2.
each measurement, line includes the mean plus or minus two standard errors, line 2 the extremes, and line 3, in
1
parentheses, the number of specimens measured. All specimens are from Venezuela.
Hind foot Greatest Zygomatic Postorbital

Total length (dry) Ear Forearm length breadth breadth
Artibeus gnomus, Rio Supamo, Los Patos, and EI Manaco
47.5 ± 1.40 9.5 ± 0.28 16.9 ± 0.62 36.7 ± 0.54 18.5 ± 0.18 11.0 ±0.18 4.9 ± 0.10
44-54 9-10 14-19 34.0-38.3 17.9-19.1 10.4-11.2 4.5-5.2
(13) (13) (13) (13) (14) (8) (14)
A. glaucus bogotensis. Km 125, 85 km SSE El Dorado
52.2 ± 0.86 10.6 ± 0.22 17.4 ±0.38 39.6 ± 0.60 20.3 ± 0.10 11.6 ±0.10 5.0 ± 0.04
49-56 10-11 16-19 36.8-41.9 19.4-21.2 10.8-12.1 4.6-5.3
(19) (19) (19) (19) (50) (44) (51)
deep and arched, and much swollen posterolater- the sympatric taxa in its more prominent white
ally (part on rostral shield, part within orbit, above facial stripes; more colorful ears, noseleaf, and lips;
eye); excavation for orbital nerve large and deep; average browner, less grayish coloration of pelage;
braincase short and deep, with swelling at pos- shorter face and rostrum (except when compared
terodorsal apex interrupting junction of sagittal with A. concolor); more swollen supraorbital re-
and lambdoidal crests; postpalatal extension rel- gion; average largerand deeper orbital nerve ex-
atively short; internal edge of pterygoid fossa cavation (sometimes equally large and deep in A.
strongly ridged, narrowing mesopterygoid fossa and g. bogotensis);and more cupped pterygoid fossa,
cupping pterygoid fossa which opens straight back; with internal ridge so enlarged as to significantly
vomerine ridge visible in mesopterygoid fossa; va- narrow the mesopterygoid fossa.
cuities in roof of posterior nares much anterior to Artibeus gnomus differs from the sympatric taxa
mesopterygoid fossa and not easily seen; outline individually in several other ways. It is much
of maxillarv toothrows nearly circular; upper ca- smaller than A. concolor (forearm averages 36-38
nine small (especially in basal diameter); M' with vs.46-48). In contrast to A. hartii it has notched
accessory internal ridge on lateral cusps, and with inner upper incisors, brownish rather than dark
relatively wide talon; m, present (75 of 79 speci- chocolate coloration, and a wide, unfringed inter-
mens examined). femoral membrane. Compared with A. aruierseni
Measurements of the holotype, an adult female: (including the holotype, fmnh 21331), ^. gnomus
total length 47, tail vertebrae 0, hind foot (dry) 9, is similar in size (slightly larger than Rio Madeira
ear from notch 18, forearm 36.5, tibia 12.6, calcar A. anderseni); has rostrum much deeper, more
4.9, weight 10.5 g. Greatest length of skull 18.2, arched, narrower, and shorter; face not dished;
zygomatic breadth 10.8, postorbital breadth 4.8, orbit larger; zygomata more nearly parallel; and
breadth of braincase 8.5, depth of braincase 7.2, vacuities in roof of p)OSterior nares far forward of
length of maxillary toolhrow 5.5, postpalatal length mesopterygoid fossa, rather than opening in it or
6.5, palatal breadth outside of M' 7.1, rostral close to it.
breadth at base of canines 4.6. See Table 2 for At Belem, Brazil, both Artibeus gnomus and A.
additional measurements. cinereus were numerous and were often taken in
Comparisons— ^r//Z)e«5 gnomus differs from A. the same nets. There, fresh specimens of the two
concolor and A. hartii in many ways, but most species were compared. Artibeus gnomus is smaller
significantly in lack of M\ From all other small in size, and has a smaller head and shorter face;
Anibeus {A. anderseni, A. cinereus, and A. glaucus facial stripes much more sharply defined,
brighter,
bogotensis) that occur within its range, A. gnomus and more prominent; and lips more
ears, noseleaf,
can be distinguished by its possession of mj. Among brownish, less grayish; ear edgings, antitragus, and
the specimens examined, m, is consistently absent tragus bright yellow, rather than cream; and nose-
in these other taxa while it is consistently present leaf edged with cream, rather than plain gray-
in A. gnomus (except in southern Venezuela, where brown. Furthermore, it has zygomata more nearly
it is absent from both mandibles in four of 53 parallel; rostrum deeper and shorter; supraorbital
specimens and from one mandible only in two area much swollen and its edges nearly parallel;
others). In addition, A. gnomus differs from all of and smaller teeth.
168 HELDIANA: ZOOLCX}Y

Table 2. Continued.
Braincase Braincase Maxillary Postpalatal Width at Width at

breadth depth toothrow length molars canines Tibia
Artibeus gnomus, Rio Supamo, Los Patos, and El Manaco

8.5 ± 0.14 7.4 ± 0.14 5.7 ±
0.06 6.3 ±
0.10 7.5 ± 0.12 4.9 ± 0.08 13.2 ± 0.46
8.1-9.0 7.1-8.0 5.5-5.9 6.0-6.7 7.1-7.9 4.6-5.1 11.2-14.4
(14) (14) (14) (14) (14) (14) (13)
A. glaucus bogotensis, Km 125, 85 km SSE El Dorado
9.0 ± 0.06 7.9 ± 0.06 6.5 ± 0.04 7.0 ± 0.08 8.0 ± 0.06 5.1 ± 0.06 13.6 ± 0.36
8.5-9.5 7.2-8.3 6.0-6.8 6.5-7.5 7.5-8.7 4.9-5.6 12.3-15.8
(48) (48) (51) (47) (50) (50) (19)
In southern Venezuela Artibeus gnomus is sym- 2. Artibeus hartii Group— Mexico and Central
patric with A. glaucus bogotensis. Compared with America, across northern South America to Trin-
Venezuelan specimens and with the holotype (bm idad, and south to Peru east of the Andes and to
99.11.4.35) of this taxon, A. gnomus is much Ecuador west of the Andes. Includes only Artibeus
smaller and shorter faced; has a deeper, shorter hartii.
rostrum; disproportionately wider zygomatic 3. Artibeus glaucus Group— Mexico, Central
spread; and smaller teeth. America, and South America to Mato Grosso and
In addition to comparisons of /I. gnomus with Peru. Includes Artibeus glaucus (with two subspe-
sympatric species, two other small Artibeus need bogotensis and A. g. glaucus), A. gnomus,
cies, A. g.
to be considered: and A. watsoni.
Artibeus toltecus Group— Mexico and Cen-
4.
tralAmerica. Includes Artibeus aztecus Andersen
1. Artibeus g. glaucus —This species occurs
and Artibeus toltecus Saussure, each with several
nearby in the Andes.
(including the holotype,
It
subspecies.
BM 94.8.6.13) possesses m„
and its skull has the
basic shape of /i. gnomus. However, it is much
5. Artibeus cinereus Group— Guiana region,
coastal Brazil, and lower Amazon Basin (dubious-
larger and darker in color, has the hind extremities
ly also upper Amazon Basin). Includes only Ar-
much hairier, the supraorbital region usually less
tibeus cinereus, with A. c. quadrivittatus as a sub-
swollen, and the pterygoid fossa much less cupped
species.
and opening to the mesopterygoid fossa.
6. Artibeus phaeotis Group — Mexico, Central
2. Artibeus fvatsoni— West of the Andes and ex-
America, and South America to upper Amazon
tending into Central America is another small
Basin and western Ecuador. Includes Artibeus an-
species, A. watsoni Thomas, which like A. gnomus
derseni Osgood and Artibeus phaeotis Miller, with '
possesses m,. (including its holotype, bm

It
several subspecies.
0.7. 1 1 1 9) is larger than A. gnomus; has larger teeth;
.
Diversity in the small Artibeus is greatest in east-

longer rostrum, with reduced supraorbital swell-
ern South America, where representatives of five
ing; shallower and less well-defined orbital nerve
of the six groups occur and where three of the
excavation; and like A. glaucus has the pterygoid
groups are endemic. Altogether six species occur
fossa not cupped and opening into the mesopter-
in and around the Amazon Basin, while only one
ygoid fossa (which consequently is not narrowed
is known with certainty in the central portion of
by the inner pterygoid ridge).
the Basin; there are three in the lower Amazon
Discussion— The ten small species of Artibeus

recognized here can be associated in six species '
Until recently (Koopman, p. 152, in Honacki et al.,
groups: 1982) it has not been generally recognized that Artibeus
phaeotis and A. ravus are conspecific. They inlergrade in
eastern Panama and western Colombia. Both names date
1. Artibeus concolor Group— Amazon and up-
from Miller (1902). Although A. ravus was named first,
per Orinoco basins and Guianas. Includes only on an earlier page, A. phaeotis became embedded in the
Artibeus concolor. literature as the name of this species.

and on the southern fringes in Brazil and Bohvia, 6'. Molars 2/2; dorsum pale brownish or grayish;
four or five in southern Venezuela, and five in east- ears pale; forearm 37-41 mm
em Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. In contrast, only Artibeus glaucus bogotensis
three of the species groups occur in Central Amer- 7. Interfemoral membrane narrow and fringed;
ica, and only one of them is endemic there. coloration blackish
Several distributional patterns are represented Artibeus toltecus Group, 8
in the complex of Amazonian species. Artibeus 7'. Interfemoral membrane broad, naked; col-
concolor is found throughout the Basin but scarce- oration brownish 9
ly beyond it; A. cinereus occurs in the lower Am- 8. Larger, forearm 42-48 mm
azon and along the coast for some distance north Artibeus aztecus
and south of the river; A. anderseni is known from 8'. Smaller, forearm 37-41 mm
the upper Amazon and an isolated area in northern Artibeus toltecus
Colombia; A. glaucus is higher up, in the Andes, 9. Rostrum deep and arched; palate long and
and eastward around the northern edge of the Ba- moderately wide Artibeus cinereus
sin in Venezuela; the range of A. hartii resembles 9'. Rostrum shallow and flattened; palate short
that of A. glaucus, but extends on into Central and very wide
America; and the dwarf /I. gnomus has a p)eculiar Artibeus phaeotis Group, 10
circular range, completely ringing the Amazon Ba- 10. Maxillary toothrow 5.2-6.2 mm; rostrum
sin but apparently not extending into its interior. often tilted up anteriorly
Artibeus anderseni
10'. Maxillary toothrow 6.7-7.1 mm; rostrum
Key to the Smaller Species of Artibeus
usually not tilted up anteriorly^
1. Molars 3/3 (mj large) 2 Artibeus phaeotis
r. Molars 2/3 (mj minute) or 2/2 3
2. V notched; facial stripes absent; coloration Specimens Examined— /irf/Aeiii anderseni —
pale brown; interfemoral membrane broad BRAZIL. Amazonas: Borba, Rio Madeira (1
and naked; forearm 43-52 mm amnh). Rondonia: Porto Velho (2 amnh, 2 fmnh,
Artibeus concolor including holotype of ^. anderseni); Sto. Antonio
2'. I' not notched; facial strip>es present; color- do Hauayara (4 amnh). COLOMBIA. Bolivar: Ca-
ation dark chocolate brown; interfemoral tival. Upper Rio San Jorge, 120 m (16 fmnh).
membrane narrow and fringed; forearm 36- Antioquia: Aljibos, 26 km S and 22 km Zara- W
42 mm Artibeus hartii goza, 630 m (2 usnm); nr. La Tirana, 24 km S and
3. Supraorbital region much swollen; molars 22 km W
Zaragoza, 520 m (2 usnm). ECUAIX)R.
2/3 (2/2 m A. g. bogotensis and occasionally Napo: Rio Suno (Abajo) (4 amnh). Pastaza: Mon-
in the others) . Artibeus glaucus Group, 4
. . talvo, Rio Bobonaza ( 1 fmnh); Rio Pindo Yacu
3'. Supraorbital region little, or not at all, swol- (1 fmnh); Rio Yana Rumi (1 fmnh). PERU. Hua-
len; molars 2/2 7 nuco: Monte Alegre (1 amnh). Loreto: Boca Rio
4. Rostrum short and moderately arched; pter- Curaray (1 amnh); Boca Rio Peruate, Rio Ama-
ygoid fossa cupijed and opening back, causing zonas, 90 m (1 FMNH); Lagarto, Alto Ucayali (1
mesopterygoid fossa to be narrowed; forearm amnh); Mazan (1 amnh); 59 km W
Pucallpa (1
34-38 mm Artibeus gnomus usnm); Puerto Indiana, Rio Amazonas (2 amnh);
4'. Rostrum long and much or only moderately Rio Morona (Quebr. Pushaga), Alto Amazonas,
arched; pterygoid fossa not cupped, opening 220 m
(2 FMNH); Rio Yavari Mirim (Quebr. Es-
into and not narrowing mesopterygoid fossa peranza), 200 m
(2 fmnh); Santa Cecilia, Rio Man-
5 iti, Iquitos, 110 m
(3 fmnh); Santa Luisa, Rio
5. Rostrum much arched; orbital nerve exca- Nanay, Iquitos, 160 m
(1 fmnh); Sarayacu, Rio
vation shallow and often ill-defined; dorsum Ucayali (1 amnh). Pasco: San Juan, Oxapampa,
pale brownish; ears pale; forearm 35-41 mm
Artibeus watsoni
^
5'. Rostrum moderately arched; orbital nerve Couplet 10 will separate Artibeus anderseni and A.
excavation deep and well defined 6 phaeotis in South America and in southern Central
America, but it will not distinguish A. anderseni from
6. Molars usually 2/3; dorsum dark grayish or Mexican A. phaeotis nanus. In such a comparison, A.
blackish; ears dark; forearm 38-42 mm . . .
anderseni can be recognized by its relatively broader
Artibeus glaucus glaucus skull.
170 FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY j

274 m (3 usnm). Departamento (?): Yuhucumayo, 100 m (1 ucv); Los Patos, 28 km SE El Manteco,
1200 ft [= Puno: Yahuaramayo, 366 m?] (1 mcz). 1 m (4 usnm); Rio Supamo, 50 km SE El Man-
50
Artibeus cinereus c/iiere«5— BRAZIL. Amazo- teco, 150 m (1 usnm); Salto Chalimaha, Rio Pa-
nas: Sta. Clara, Vila Bela Imperatriz [nr. Parintins] ramichi, Rio Paragua (1 ucv); Salto Ichun, Rio
(1amnh). Para: Fordlandia, Rio Tapajos (2 amnh); Paragua (2 ucv). T.F. Amazonas: Belen, Rio Cu-
Maracano, Rio Jamunda [= Nhamunda?], Faro (5 nucunuma, 56 km NNW
Esmeralda, 150 (2 m
amnh); Rio Yumunda, Faro ( 1 bm). usnm); Boca Mavaca, 84 km SSE
Esmeralda, 1 38
Artibeus cinereus quadrivittatus — BRAZIL,. m (1 usnm); Caiio Leon, Cerro Duida, 325 (1 m
Maranhao: Juryassu [= Turia9u?] (1 bm). Para: amnh); Capibara, Brazo Casiquiare, 106 km SW
Belem (10 usnm); Benevides (1 bm); Para [= Be- Esmeralda ( 1 usnm); Esmeralda, Cerro Duida, 325
lem] (1 bm); Ilha do Taiuna, Rio Tocantins (3 m (3 amnh); 14 to 65 km S, SSE, and SSW Pto.
amnh). Pemambuco: Pemambuco [= Recife] (2 Ayacucho, 119-161 m
(16 usnm); Rio Mavaca,
bm). Rio Grande do Norte: Natal (1 usnm). SUR- 108 km SSE Esmeralda, 40 m (7 usnm); San Juan,
1
IN AME. Surinam ( bm). VENEZUELA. Bolivar:

1 Rio Manapiare, 163 km ESE Pto. Ayacucho, 155
Hato San Felipe, Serrania de Nuria (1 ucv); Hato m (6 usnm); Tamatama, Rio Orinoco, 135 m (7
San Jose, 20 km W
La Paragua, 300-324 m (2 usnm).
usnm). Artibeus phaeot is— HoXoXyTpcs o{A. phaeotis and
Artibeus glaucus bogotensis — COLOMBIA. A. ravus, plus hundreds of other specimens from
Cundinamarca: Bogota (2 bm): nr. Bogota ( bm); 1 Mexico, Central America, and NW South Amer-
Curiche, nr. Bogota (2 bm, including holotype of ica.
A. bogotensis); Fomeque (1 amnh); Fusagasuga (2 Artibeus pumilio— PERU. Loreto: Masisea,

mcz); Rio Negro, nr. Bogota (2 bm). GUYANA. Tushemo, Rio Ucayali, 328 m (1 bm, holotype of
Kanuku Mts. (3 bm). VENEZUELA. Bolivar: El A. pumilio).
Manaco, 59 km SE El Dorado, 150 (3 usnm); m Artibeus watsoni— PANAMA. Chiriqui: Boga-

Hato San Jose, 20 km W
La Paragua, 300-324 m va,250 m
(5 bm, including holotype of A. watsoni);
(3 USNM); 23 to 45 km NE Icabaru, 824-851 (3 m Progreso (34 usnm); Puerto Armuelles (2 usnm).
USNM); Km 125, 85 km SSE El Dorado, 826-1 165 Remarks— In previous publications of SVP,
m ( 1 20 usnm); Rio Supamo, 50 km SE El Manteco, Artibeus gnomus has been known
''''
as Artibeus sp.
1 50 m A".
(2 usnm). T.F. Amazonas: Belen, Rio Cu-
nucunuma, 56 km NNW
Esmeralda, 150 (1 m
usnm); Caiio Culebra, Cerro Duida, 50 km NNW
Esmeralda, 800 m
(3 usnm).
Artibeus glaucus glaucus— BOIAW A. Santa
Cruz: Buenavista, 400 m
(1 fmnh). ECUADOR.
Napo: Baeza (1 bm). PERU.

Cuzco: Collpa de San
Lorenzo, Quincemil, 700 m
(1 1 fmnh); Hda. Ca- Acknowledgments
dena, Quincemil, 1000 m
(9 fmnh). Junin: Chan-
chamayo, 1000 m
(2 bm, including holotype oi A. Among the persons who helped me put together
glaucus); Huacapistana ( 1 f>4Nh). Puno: Rio Inam- thispaper I am especially grateful to Sally DeMott,
bari, 670 m(3 amnh); Santo Domingo (1 amnh); who measured the SVP skulls; Linda Gordon, who
Yahuaramayo, 366 m (1 bm, 1 usnm). compiled the tables and worked with me on the
Artibeus gnomus-ToXdA 104. BRAZIL. Mate comparisons; and Jane Ailes Small, who read and
Grosso: Serra do Roncador, 264 km N (by road) criticized the manuscript and did the word pro-
Xavantina, 533 m (17 usnm). Para: Belem, Sta. cessing. Curators of several collections kindly per-
A, IPEAN (7 usnm); Belem, Utinga (5 usnm); Be- mitted me to study specimens under their care in
lem, Benevides (2 usnm). ECUADOR. Pastaza: the preparation of these descriptions: American
Canelos, upper Rio Bobonaza (1 amnh). GUY- Museum of Natural History (AMNH), British
ANA. E. Berbice District: Wikki River (3 usnm). Museum (Natural History) (BM), Field Museum
Mazaruni-Potaro District: Issano Road, 1 2 mi W of Natural History (FMNH), Museum of Com-
of Bartica-Potaro Road (1 usnm). PERU. Loreto:
parative Zoology, Harvard University (MCZ), and
59 km SW Pucallpa (1 usnm); Santa Rosa, Alto Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV). The
Ucayali (10°42'S, 73''50'W) (2 amnh). VENE- SVP collection is in United States National Mu-
ZUELA. Bolivar: El Manaco, 59 km SE El Do- seum of Natural History (USNM); a portion of its
rado, 150 m (12 usnm); Km 38, SE El Dorado, specimens have been returned to Venezuela.

Literature Cited ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 84:
519-523.
Handley, C. O., Jr., and L. K. Gordon. 1980. New
EwEL, J. J., AND
A. Madriz. 1968. Zonas de Vida de mammals from northern South America.
species of
Venezuela. Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria, Caracas, Mouse possums, genus Marmosa Gray, pp. 65-72. In
265 pp., map.
Eisenberg, J. F., ed.. Vertebrate Ecology in the North-
Handley, C. O., Jr. 1959. A revision of American em Neotropics. Smithsonian Institution Press, Wash-
bats of the genera Euderma and Plecotus. Proceedings ington, D.C.
of the United States National Museum, 110: 95-246. HoNACKJ, J. H., K. E. Kjnman, and J. W. Koeppl, eds.
. 1976. Mammals of the Smithsonian Venezue- 1982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press,
lan Project. Brigham Young University Science Bul- Inc., and the Association of Systematic Collections,
letin, Biological Series, 20(5): 1-91. Lawrence, Kansas, 694 pp.
.
Newspeciesof mammals from northern
1984. Koopman, K. F. 1978. Zoogeography of Peruvian bats
South America: A long-tongued bat, genus Anoura with special emphasis on the role of the Andes. Amer-
Gray. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Wash- ican Museum Novitates, 2651: 1-33.
ington. 97: 513-521. Miller, G. S., Jr. 1902. Twenty new American bats.
Handley, C. O., Jr., and K. C. Ferris. 1972. De- Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
scriptions of new bats of the genus Vampyrops. Pro- Philadelphia, 54: 389-412.

Seasonality of Reproduction
in Peruvian Bats
Gary L. Graham
ABSTRACTS
The reproductive conditions of 3,489 specimens were used to determine seasonal patterns
of pregnancy and parturition in Peruvian bats. More species that are trophic generalists yield
birth records for the dry season than do trophic specialists. Relatively more highland than
lowland species have births recorded for both seasons (dry and wet). Presumably, trophic
generalists and highland species experience less seasonal variation in food supplies compared
to the other groups. A larger percentage of nectarivorous species than frugivores have birth
records for the dry season; the reverse is true for the wet season. These patterns are associated
with greater floral resource abundance during the dry season and a greater abundance of fruit
resources during the wet season.
Las condiciones reproductivas de 3489 especimenes fueron usadas para describir patrones
estacionales de embarazo y alumbramiento en murcielagos peruanos. Mas especies de gener-
alistas alimenticios tienen registros de nacimiento durante los dos estaciones (seca y mojada)
que tienen especialistas. Relativamente mas especies desde tierras altas que desde tierras bajas
tienen registros de nacimiento durante la estacion seca. Possiblamente, generalistas alimenticios
y especies de tierras altas sufrir menos variacion estacional de provisiones alimentos que los
otros grupos. Un mayor porcentaje de especies nectivoras que frugivoras tienen registros de
nacimiento durante la estacion seca pero, el opuesto exista para la estacion mojada. Estos
patrones son asociados con un mayor abundancia de recursos de flores durante la estacion seca
y con un mayor abundancia de recursos de frutas durante la estacion mojada.
As condi96es reprodutivas de 3489 especimes de morcegos p)eruanos foram usadas para

descrever seus padroes de parturiâo. Os morcegos de habitos alimentares generalizados pos-
suem uma propor9ao maior de especies que possuem registros de partos durante a epoca da
seca, do que os morcegos com habitos alimentares especializados. Proporcionalmente mais
especis de morcegos de areas elevadas, do que das planicies, possuem registros de partos durante
as duas epocas (seca e chuvosa). Morcegos generalizados e os de areas elevadas provavelmente
experimentam menos variaâo epocal em a quantidade da comida, do que os morcegos das
planicies ou morcegos com habitos alimentares especializados. Uma porcentagem maior das
especies nectarivoras, do que das especies frugivoras, possuem registros de partos durante a
epoca da seca, sao a regra ao inves da exce9ao entre os morcegos que consumen fruta. Estes
padroes podem ser interpretados como adpata96es de individuos a recursos alimentares que
sao regularmente, ou ocasionalmente, obteniveis durante a epoca da seca.
From the Department of Biology, University of New

Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131.
GRAHAM: PERUVIAN BATS 173

Introduction I also offer suggestions as to how dry season births
may be adaptive.
Although the timing of reproductive events is

an important Hfe history adaptation, there are few
studies of the reproductive phenology of South
American bats (Racey, 1982). Most of these stud- Methods
ies are of individual species and cover only part
of the year. Gestation, parturition, lactation, and The bat specimens from Peru housed in the col-
lections of the American Museum of Natural His-
weaning should be timed to correspond with vari-
ations in the abundance and diversity of food sup- tory, Field Museum of Natural History, Louisiana
State University Museum of Zoology, National
plies (Fleming et al., 1972; Bradbury & Vehren-
camp, 1977; Bonaccorso, 1979; Wilson, 1979;
Museum of Natural History, and the Texas Co-
operative Wildlife Collection were examined in
August & Baker, 1 982). These variations are known
late 1977 and early 1978 for information on re-
to be seasonal in most of the Neotropics (Janzen,
1967, 1973; Foster, 1982; Wolda, 1982; Smythe, production. Data were taken directly from Tuttle
1982; Terborgh, 1983). Which reproductive event (1970) and Bowles et al. (1979) for specimens not
in the above collections but included in their re-
is actually synchronized with peak food supplies
ports. Information on reproductive condition of
is likely to be determined by the relative cost of
each event. Lactation is the most costly period for bats was also obtained from the notes of A. L.
most females, but weaning and dispersal pose the Gardner and J. L. Patton. Fieldwork at several
localities in Peru, conducted from June through
greatest survival problem for young bats (Wilson,
1979; Racey, 1 982). These authors, and Tuttle and August 1977 and from June through November
Stevenson (1982), agree that the weaning of young 1978, enabled me to collect and record the repro-
is the most critical period for individuals of most
ductive data for many of the bats now in the Lou-
bat populations. isiana State University collection. Diet informa-
Most tion was taken from the literature (Heithaus et al.,

species of Neotropical bats that have been
studied are polyestrous (Fleming et al., 1972 1975; Paradiso, 1975; Gardner, 1977) and is given
Thomas, 1972; Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 1977

inGraham ( 1 983). Nomenclature follows Graham
(1983) except for Artibeus glaucus, which I now
Myers, 1977; Wilson, 1979; Bonaccorso, 1979
consider a distinct species.
Humphrey & Bonaccorso, 1979). Each year, fe-
male bats confront the problem of timing two Recorded data consisted of species identifica-
and macroscopic
tion, locality, elevation, sex, age,
(rarely three in a few vespertilionids) periods of
lactation and weaning with variations in food reproductive condition. Individuals with incom-
pletely ossified phalangeal epiphyses were classi-
availability. Individuals of most species handle
fied as juveniles. Females were designated as preg-
this problem by producing their young so that the
first isweaned at the beginning of the wet season nant or lactating if this information was included
as fruit supplies are reaching their peak, and the
on specimen tags or indicated by dissection of fluid
second later in thewet season when fruit avail- preserved females. The crown-rump lengths of
ability reaches a second peak or remains relatively embryos (including extra-embryonic membranes)
were either measured (in mm) or taken from spec-
high (Wilson, 1979; Tuttle «& Stevenson, 1982).
imen tags. Length of testes was also noted when
Exceptions to this general pattern of seasonal poly-
it was recorded on sp>ecimen tags, but was not used
estry have been observed in most studies (Fleming
to establish reproductive patterns because of un-
et al., Thomas, 1972; Myers, 1977; Myers
1972;
certainties in the relationship between testes size
& Wetzel, 1983; Bonaccorso, 1979; see Mares &
and sexual activity (Taddei, 1976; Thomas, 1972).
Wilson, 1 97 Bradbury & Vehrencamp, 1 977; and
1 ;
Monthly pregnancy frequencies are based only on

August & Baker, 1982 for good discussions of dry
those female SF>ecimens for which I am confident
season birth periods).
that the presence (or absence) of embryos had been
The purpose of this study is to examine some
properly recorded. This limitation excludes most
of the details of dry season reproduction in Pe- of the specimens collected prior to 1960.
ruvian bats. I demonstrate that the different feed- I classified each species with adequate data (those
ing assemblages and the faunas of different zoo- with evidence of at least one birth period) into
geographical regions differ in the proportion of those that can give birth in the dry (May-Septem-
species with birth records during the dry season. ber) and/or wet (October-April) seasons. I as-

sumed that a birth between 1 May and 3 1 August lowland if they were collected below 1000 m east
also indicates weaning of the young during the dry of the Andes and highland if collected above this
season. Species with births recorded only for the elevation. Pacific coastal species are those col-
month of September (usually a dry month) were lected either along the arid coast or adjacent An-
not included in either breeding season, since these dean foothills (including the mesic areas of north-
young could be weaned either as the dry season western Peru).
ended or as the wet season began. The above clas- The Pacific coastal plain is characterized by low
sificationswere accomplished by determining the (< 50 mm) annual rainfall, most of which falls
distribution of births across all months, as indi- between December and April. The mesic areas on
cated by the distribution of juveniles, lactating fe- the northwestern Andean slopes experience great-
males, and embryo sizes. If a single birth was in- er rainfall over an extended period. Rainfall east
dicated for a given season, then that species was of the Andes (fig. 1 ) is seasonal and abundant, with
identified as having the potential to produce young the greatest amounts deposited between the ele-
during that season. The presence of juveniles or vations of 1 000 and 3000 m
(Bowman, 1916). The
lactating females was assumed to indicate partu- wet season begins in October and continues through
rition during the month prior to capture. If a fe- April and the dry season begins in May and ex-
male was carrying a large, near-term embryo, par- tends through September.
turition was assumed to take place in that month. Most investigators agree that food resources are
On the other hand, if the embryo was very small primarily modulated by rainfall seasonality (Jan-
relative to the adult body length, birth was as- zen, 1967, 1973; Frankie et al., 1974; Ricklefs,
sumed to take place four months later for most 1975; Buskirk & Buskirk, 1976; Wolda, 1978a,b,
species, three months later for small insectivorous 1982; Foster, 1982; Smythe, 1982; Terborgh,
species (Findley & Wilson, 1 974), and five months 1983). Many of the following generalizations on
emballonurids (Bradbury & Vehrencamp,
later for seasonal changes in food supplies for bats of mid-
1977) and Desmodus rotundus (Wilson, 1979). dle and higher elevations are based on the as-
Classification of a species as one that can give sumption that Peruvian plants and insects respond
birth during the dry season does not necessarily to environmental conditions in a manner similar
mean that it does so each year. I was unable with to closely related organisms in Costa Rica, Pan-
method to determine the actual frequency of
this ama, or Puerto Rico (as described by the above
births during either season. A
dry season classi- authors). Terborgh's (1983) study of the changes
fication simply means that individuals can at least in fruit, flower, and insect supplies in Manu Na-
occasionally produce young during the dry season. tional Park indicates that in the lowlands of south-
The lack of birth records for a given species for eastern Peru, fruit abundance and diversity usually
either season can be the result of an actual absence increase in October with the onset of the wet sea-
of birthing during that season, or it may be due to son, peak inNovember and December and again
an inadequate sample from that season. If I as- inMarch, and decrease to the lowest level in May
sume that the lack of a breeding record for a given and June. Not only is the first peak greater but it
season is not due to inadequate sampling, then I also includes a greater proportion of plants in the
can use the G test (Sokal &
Rohlf, 1981) to assess family Moraceae (Terborgh, pers. comm.), which
the significance of the differences between the have fruit favored by bats (Gardner, 1 977). Flower
groups of species compared. This is a safe as- abundance peaks dry season, but some flow-
in the
sumption, since most of the specimens were col- ers are present throughout the year (Terborgh,
lected during the Peruvian dry season (the season 1983). At middle to higher elevations, the phe-
with which this study is principally concerned) and nology of fruit and flower species is probably sim-
because the groups of bats predicted to have the ilar to lowland species, but less seasonal (Ter-
greatest proportion of dry season births are the borgh, 1977; Nevling, 1971). Changes in insect
groups most poorly sampled (see Appendix and resources are more difficult to generalize because
below). the species in different size classes (Smythe, 1982;
Wolda, 1982) and in different habitats (Bradbury
& Vehrencamp, 1976; Terborgh, 1983; Janzen,
Regions and Climate 1983) have different periods of peak abundance
and diversity. If the supply across size classes and
I follow Koopman's ( 1978) division of Peru into habitatsis considered, then it is probably rather
three zoogeographical regions. He lists SF)ecies as high throughout the year. I will not discuss the

600.
500.
400.
5 300.
I 200_
100.
Fig. 1. Average rainfall amounts at
Iquitos (lowland) and Yurac (middle el-
evation), Department of Loreto, Peru.
Data are taken from a map published in
1971 by the Servicio Nacional de Me-
teorologia e Hidrologia in Peru and are
Month averaged from 1 years of records.
seasonal changes in food levels west of the Andes parturition, as suggested by the October drop in
in Peru because less is known of this region. the frequency of pregnant females and by the ju-
veniles collected in January (Appendix). The be-
ginning of the second reproductive cycle of the
season is also indicated by the females of Carollia
Results castanea (l), Vampyrops dorsalis (7), and Artibeus
planirostris (1) that were simultaneously lactating
More than 3,400 female specimens divided and pregnant in November and December (Ap-
among 109 species were included in this study. pendix). On the other hand, the pregnancy curve
Twins were recorded for only one female, a Car- of Myotis (fig. 2) and the records of juveniles and
ollia perspicillata, collected in November bearing lactating females of Carollia (fig. 2) and Artibeus
two well-developed embryos (24 and 29 mm). (Appendix) for May-September indicate that births
Specimens were collected almost exclusively be- can occur outside of the wet season. Individuals
tween May and December, with June through Au- of some species (i.e., Desmodus rotundus, Myotis
gust having the largest samples (see sample sizes nigricans, and perhaps Glossophaga soricina and
in Appendix). The reproductive records are also Artibeus planirostris; see Appendix) may be able
unevenly distributed among the species (Appen- to produce young during any month of the year.
dix). These sampling problems made it difficult to Table 1 lists the number of species in each fam-
identify the reproductive patterns for most species. ily or subfamily with births recorded during the
If, however, the percentages of all the females that seasons. I was able to identify birth periods for 79
were pregnant are determined for each species for (72.5%) of the 109 species listed in the Appendix.
each month, many species have data that fit the Most species (63 of the 79. 79.7%) have birth rec-
pattern of seasonal polyestry. This pattern is well ords for the wet season but a surprisingly large
by the pregnancy curve ofCarollia per-
illustrated proportion of all of the species (46 out of 79, 58.2%)
spicillata Pregnancy levels peak in Septem-
(fig. 2). have records of dry season parturition. The ab-
ber and December and are followed by periods of sence of birth records during the wet season

Carollia perspiclllata
3 3 24 38 100 18 15 23 15
60-1
Fig. 2. Changes in pregnancy levels of Carollia perspiclllata and Myotis nigricans. The numbers across the top
refer to the sample sizes for each month. The ordinate represents the percentage of all females for each month that
were recorded as pregnant.
(Mormoopidae) and the dry season (Furipteridae tating and pregnant in June and August (Appen-
and Thyropteridae) may represent real periods of dix) provide evidence that some species with dry
no births but may also be the result of inadequate season birth records are polyestrous, becoming
sampling. pregnant again during the dry season. Bats of the
Are there groups of bats that have a greater ten- Pacific coastal and slope region also show a strong
dency than other groups toward parturition during tendency toward dry season births.
the dry season? If seasonal fluctuations in food If trophic generalists (those that consume more
supplies are less in the highlands than in the low- than one type of food, such as fruit and insects)
lands, then proportionately more highland than can switch to another resource when one type be-
lowland species could be expected to produce and comes scarce, they should be less vulnerable to
wean young during the dry season and, if most seasonal fluctuations in their food supply than are
species are polyestrous, during both seasons. Thir- trophic specialists (those species that use only one
ty-one of the 58 lowland species (53.4%) and 17 major type of food). This reduced seasonality of
of the 27 highland species (63.0%) have records food resources should be reflected by a tendency
of dry season births (table 2). Although the 9.6% for births to occur during the dry season and, if
difference is in the predicted direction, it is not polyestry is common, for both seasons. Nine of
significant {P > 0.25). The highland region has a the 1 1 generalist species (81.8%) and 23 of the 68
greater proportion of species with birth records specialists (33.8%, table 2) have records of indi-
from both seasons (51.9% vs. 34.5%, P < 0.05). viduals that have given birth during the dry sea-
The highland Sturnira bogotensis that were lac- son, and relatively more generalists (63.6%) than

Table 1. Number of species of Peruvian bats with
births recorded for each season.
Family
Table 2. Number of species of Peruvian bats with births recorded for each season, by geographical region and
ecological group.
Season*
vores, trophic specialists and generalists) showed thank Susan T. Graham for her support during the
different seasonal birth patterns. If unusual dry several revisions of this work.
season rains were the principal factor, then equal 1
acknowledge the financial support
gratefully
proportions of the different ecological groups of the LSUMZ
Peruvian fieldwork by John S.
should have responded by producing young during Mcllhenny, Irving and Laura R. Schweppe, E. W.
the normally dry season. Mudge, and the late Babette M. Odom. Travel to
My data support the hypothesis that dry season other museums was made possible in part by an
births are adaptations for producing and perhaps LSU Foundation-Graduate Student Travel Award.
weaning young when food resources are available
predictably or occasionally during this time. These
patterns need to be confirmed by long term studies
of actual bat communities, and of the resources
used by individuals at both highland and lowland Literature Cited
localities and during both seasons.
August, P. V., and R. J. Baker. 1982. Observations
on the reproductive ecology of some Neotropical bats.
Mammalia, 46: 177-181.
BoNACcoRso, F. J. 1979. Foraging and reproductive
Acknowledgments ecology in a Panamanian bat community. Bulletin of
the Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences, 24:
I am grateful to the many people who assisted 359^08.
me in Peru and in the United States. Antonio Brack Bowles, J. B., J. B. Cope, AND E. A. Cope. 1979. Bi-
E., EricCardich Briceno, Richard Bustamante M., ological studies of selected Peruvian bats of Tingo
and Susana Moller-H. of the Direccion General Maria, Departamento de Huanuco. Transactions of
the KansasAcademy of Sciences, 82: 1-10.
Forestal y de Fauna, Ministerio de Agricultura,
Bowman, I. 1916. The Andes of Southern Peru: Geo-
Lima, provided the necessary collecting permits.
graphical Reconnaissance Along the Seventy-Third
Hernando de Macedo R. and Ramon Ferreyra of Meridian. H. Holt and Co., New York, 336 pp.
the Museo de Historia Natural "Javier Prado" Bradbury, J. W.. and S. L. Vehrencamp. 1 976. Social
were also helpful. I thank Arturo Koenig R., Man- organization and foraging in emballonurid bats. I. Field
uel A. Plenge, and Gustavo del Solar for their studies. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 1:337-
381.
hospitality and help in making this study possible.
1977. Social organization and foraging in em-
appreciate the assistance provided by Faucet and
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I
ballonurid bats. IV. Parental investment patterns. Be-
Aero Peru. Without the reliable assistance of my havioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2: 1 9-29.
Peruvian associates, Manuel Sanchez, Klaus Wehr,
BusKiRK, R. E., and W. H. Buskjrk. 1976. Changes
and Reyes Rivera, the fieldwork would have been in arthropod abundance in a highland Costa Rican
much more difficult. forest. American Midland Naturalist, 95: 288-298.
Karl F. Koopman (American Museum of Nat- FiNDLEY, J. S., AND D. E. WiLSON. 1974. Observations
ural History), Don E. Wilson (National Museum on the Neotropical disk-winged bat, Thyroptera tri-
color Spi\. Journal of Mammalogy. 55: 562-571.
of Natural History), David J. Schmidly and Wil-
Fleming, T. H., E. T. Hooper, and D. E. Wilson. 1972.
liam B. Davis (Texas Cooperative Wildlife Col-
Three Central American bat communities: Structure,
lection), and Patricia W. Freeman (formerly of reproductive cycles, and movement patterns. Ecology,
Field Museum of Natural History) were very help- 53: 555-569.
ful during trips to their museums. Koopman and Foster, R. B. 1982. The seasonal rhythm of fruitfall
James L. Patton (Museum of Vertebrate Zoology) of Barro Colorado Island, pp. 151-172. In Leigh. E.
loaned fluid-preserved bats. James B. Cope (Jo- G., Jr., A. S. Rand, and D. M. Windsor, eds.. The
Ecology of a Tropical Forest. Smithsonian Institution
seph Moore Museum), Alfred L. Gardner (Na- Press, Washington, D.C.. 468 pp.
tional Museum of Natural History), and Patton
Frankie, G. W., H. G. Baker, and P. A. Opler. 1974.
were kind enough to send me unpublished manu- Comparative phenological studies of trees in tropical
scripts and field notes. For valuable assistance in wet and dry forests in the lowlands of Costa Rica.
the field I thank Linda J. Barkley, J. William Eley, Journal of Ecology, 62: 881-919.
Gardner, A. L. 1977. Feeding habits, pp. 293-350.
Gary R. Graves, John P. O'Neill, Theodore A.
Parker, III, Thomas S. Schulenberg, and Morris
In Baker, R. J., J. K. Jones, Jr., and D. C
Carter, eds..
Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllosto-
D. Williams. The excellent suggestions on the matidae. Part II. Special Publications, The Museum,
manuscript by Philip Myers were appreciated. I Texas Tech University, 13: 1-364.

Graham, G. L. 1983. Changes in bat species diversity 57-104. In Kunz, T. H., ed.. Ecology of Bats. Plenum
along an elevational gradient up the Peruvian Andes. Press,New York, 425 pp.
Journal of Mammalogy, 64: 559-571. RiCKLEFS, R. E. 1975. Seasonal occurrence of night-
Heithaus, E. R., T. H. Fleming, and P. A. Opler. 1975. on Barro Colorado Island, Panama Canal
flying insects
Foraging patterns and resource utilization in seven Zone. Journal of the New York Entomological Society,
species of bats in a seasonal tropical forest. Ecology, 83: 19-32.
56:841-854. Smythe, N. 1982. The seasonal abundance of night-
Humphrey, S. R., and F. J. Bonaccorso. 1979. Pop- flying insects in a Neotropical forest, pp. 309-318. In
ulation and community ecology, pp. 409-441. In Ba- Leigh, E. G., Jr., A. S. Rand, and D. M. Windsor, eds..
ker, R. J., J. K. Jones, Jr., and D. C. Carter, eds., The Ecology of a Tropical Forest. Smithsonian Insti-
Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllosto- tution Press, Washington, D.C., 468 pp.
matidae. Part III. Special Publications, The Museum, SoKAL, R. R., AND F. J. Rohlf. 1981. Biometry, 2nd
Texas Tech University, 16: 1-441. ed. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, Calif, 859 pp.
Janzen, D. H. 1967. Synchronization of sexual repro- Taddei, V. A. 1976. The reproduction of some Phyl-
duction of trees within the dry season in Central Amer- lostomidae (Chiroptera) from the northwestern region
ica. Evolution, 21: 620-637. of the State of Sao Paulo. Boletim de Zoologia, Uni-
. 1973.
Sweep samples oftropical foliage insects: versidade de Sao Paulo, 1: 313-330.
Effectsof seasons, vegetation types, elevation, time of Terborgh, J. 1977. Bird species diversity on an An-
day, and insularity. Ecology, 54: 687-708. dean elevational gradient. Ecology, 58: 1007-1019.
. 1983. Insects: Introduction, pp. 619-645. In . 1983. Five New World Primates. Princeton
Janzen, D. H., ed., Costa Rican Natural History. The University Press, Princeton, N.J., 260 pp.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 816 pp.
Thomas, M. E. 1972. Preliminary study of the annual
Koopman, K. 1978. Zoogeography of Peruvian bats
F.
breeding patterns and population fluctuations of bats
with special emphasis on the role of the Andes. Amer- in three ecologically distinct habitats in southwestern
ican Museum Novitates, 2651: 1-33. Colombia. Ph.D. diss., Tulane University, New Or-
LaVal, R.K., AND H.S. Fitch. 1977. Structure, move- leans, La., 161 pp.
ments and reproduction in three Costa Rican bat com- TuTTLE, M. D. 1970. Distribution and zoogeography
munities. Occasional Papers, Museum Natural His- of Peruvian bats, with comments on natural history.
tory, Universityof Kansas, 69: 1-27.
University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 49: 45-86.
Mares, M. A., and D. E. Wilson. 1971. Bat repro- TuTTLE, M. D., AND D. Stevenson. 982. Growth and
1
duction during the Costa Rican dry season. Bio- survival of bats, pp. 105-150. In Kunz, T. H., ed.,
Science, 21: 471^77. Ecology of Bats. Plenum Press, New York, 425 pp.
Myers, 1977. Patterns ofreproduction of four species
P. E. 1979. Reproductive patterns, pp. 3 1 7-
Wilson, D.
of vespertilionid bats in Paraguay. University of Cal- 378. In Baker, R. J., J. K. Jones, Jr., and D. C. Carter,
ifornia Publications in Zoology, 107: 1-41.
eds., Biology of bats of the New World family Phyl-
Myers, P., and R. M. Wetzel. 1983. Systematics and lostomatidae. Part III. Special Publications, The Mu-
zoogeography of the bats of the Chaco Boreal. Mis- seum, Texas Tech University, 16: 1-441.
cellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, Uni- WoLDA, H. 1978a. Fluctuations in rainfall, food and
versity of Michigan, 165: 1-59. abundance oftropical insects. Journal of Animal Ecol-
Nevling, L. I., Jr. 1971. The ecology of an elfin forest ogy, 47: 369-381.
in Puerto Rico, 16. The flowering cycle and an inter- . 1978b. Fluctuations in abundance of tropical
pretation of its seasonality. Journal of the Arnold Ar- insects. American Naturalist, 112: 1017-1045.
boretum, 52: 586-613. .1982. Seasonality of Homoptera on Barro Col-
Paradiso, J. L., ED. 1975. Walker's Mammals of the orado Island, pp. 319-330. In Leigh, E. G., Jr., A. S.
World, 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2. Johns Hopkins Uni- Rand, and D. M. Windsor, eds., The Ecology of a
versity Press, Baltimore, 1,500 pp. Tropical Forest. Smithsonian Institution Press, Wash-
Racey, p. a. 1 982. Ecology of bat reproduction, pp. ington, D.C., 468 pp.

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s
Tent Construction by Bats
of the Genera Artibeus and Uroderma
Robert M . Timm
ABSTRACTS
Herein, I describe new styles of tents cut and utilized by Artibeus anderseni, A. glaucus, A.
gnomus, A. phaeotis, A. toltecus, A. watsoni, Uroderma bilobatum, and U. magnirostrum; review
and summarize the literature on tent use by Artibeus and Uroderma; and discuss the effectiveness
of tents as diurnal roosts. Artibeus anderseni alters the shape of Heliconia leaves by cutting the
lateral nerves and interconnected tissue extending out from the midrib. Artibeus glaucus cuts
the basal lateral nerves in Xanthosoma, causing the two sides of the leaf to collapse downward
around the midrib. Artibeus phaeotis cuts the lateral nerves and interconnected tissues in both
banana and Heliconia imbricata; the basal cuts veer out from the midrib such that a distinctive
V-shaped enclosure is formed by the hanging leaf Artibeus toltecus cuts the basal nerves on
Anthurium, causing the sides of the leaf to fold down around the midrib to form a pyramid-
shaped tent. Artibeus watsoni was found to make four distinctive styles of tents, including simple
V-shaped cuts on bifurcated palms, cuts of a few side veins on aroids to produce a rounded
pyramid, elongate J-shaped cuts on banana and Heliconia, and polygonal cuts on Carludovica
palmat a. Artibeus watsoni has the greatest repertoire in tent styles, and uses the most diverse
array of plant species and leaf shapes. Two styles of tents constructed by Uroderma bilobatum
are reported for the first time, one on the large pinnately leafed palm Scheelea rostrata and the
second on banana. The common denominator between the Uroderma bilobatum tents reported
herein and those previously described is that all are on large, broad leaves and all have a
V-shaped pattern cut by the bats. Uroderma magnirostrum also creates an inverted
distinctive
elongate V-shaped tent on pinnately leafed palms.

All New World tent-makers described to date are tropical members of the phyllostomid
subfamily Stenoderminae. Each species of tent-making bat has one or more distinctive style of
tent. Bats select leaves of specific shapes, sizes, and angles for tent construction. Most species
appear to be obligate tent-roosters. Tents provide bats with a cryptic diurnal roost site, in
addition to providing shelter from both the sun and rain and an early warning to the approach
of predators.
Aqui yo describo nuevos estilos de carpas cortadas y utilizadas por Artibeus anderseni, A.
glaucus, A. gnomus, A. phaeotis, A. toltecus, A. watsoni, Uroderma bilobatum, y U. magnirostrum
reviso y hago un sumario de la literatura acerca del uso de carpas por filostomidos; y discuto
laefectividad de las carpas como perchas diumas. Artibeus anderseni altera la forma de las
hojas de Heliconia cortando las nervaduras centrales y tejido interconectado que se extiende
From the Division of Mammals, Field Museum of

Natural History, Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496. The au-
thor's present address is Museum of Natural History and
Department of Systematics and Ecology, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045.
TIMM: ARTIBEUS AND URODERMA 187

exteriormente desde la nervadura central. Artibeus glaucus corta la base de las nervaduras
en Xanthosoma, causando asi que los dos lados de la hoja colapsen hacia abajo al
laterales
rededor de la nervadura central. Artibeus phaeotis corta las nervaduras laterales y tejidos in-
terconectados en banana y Heliconia imbricata; los cortes basales viran hacia afuera desde la
nervadura central de tal modo que una forma de V es formada por la
distintiva cavidad en
hoja colgante. Artibeus toltecus corta las nervaduras basales de Anthurium, adi que los lados
de la hoja doblen en redor de la nervadura central de tal modo que una cavidad es formada
en forma de una piramide. Artibeus watsoni fue encontrada haciendo cuatro distintos estilos
de carpas, incluyendo simples cortes en forma de V en palmas bifurcadas, cortes en unas pocas
nervaduras laterales en araceas para producir una piramide redondeada, cortes alargados en
forma de J en banana y Heliconia. y cortes poligonales en Carludovica palmat a. Artibeus watsoni
tiene el mas grande repertorio en estilos de carpas y usa la mas diversa serie de plantas y formas
de hojas. Dos estilos de carpas construidas por Uroderma bilobatum son reportadas por primera
vez; una en la larga y pinnada hoja de palma Scheelea rostrata y la segunda en banana. El
comun denominador entre carpas de Uroderma bilobatum repnirtadas aqui y aquellas previa-
mente descritas es que todas usan hojas grandes y anchas y todas tienen un distintivo patron
en forma de V cortado por los murcielagos. Uroderma magnirostrum tambien corta una carpa
en forma de V-invertido en hojas pinnadas de palmas.
Todos los filostomidos cortadores y utilizadores de carpas descritos del Nuevo Mundo son
membros tropicales de la subfamilia Stenoderminae. Cada especie tiene uno o mas estilos
distintos de carpas. Los murcielagos escogen hojas de formas especificas, y constroen sus carpas
en angulos peculiares. La mayor parte de las especies parecen utilizar las carpas obligatoriamente.
Las carpas oferecen una percha oculta durante el dia, asi como un abrigo del sol, de la lluvia,
y de predadores.
Neste trabalho, (1)descrevo novos estilos de tendas cortadas e utilizadas por Artibeus an-
derseni, A. glaucus, A. gnomus, A. phaeotis, A. toltecus, A. watsoni, Uroderma bilobatum, e U.
magnirostrum; (2) reviso e resumo a literatura sobre o uso de tendas pelos morcegos da familia
Phyllostomidae, e (3) discuto a eficiencia de tendas como alojamentos diumos. Artibeus an-
derseni altera a forma das folhas de Heliconia, cortando as veias laterais e os tecidos interligados
que estendem da veia central. Artibeus glaucus corta as veias basilares laterais em Xanthosoma,
causando com que os dois lados da folha caiam contra o centro. Artibeus phaeotis corta as veias
laterais e os tecidos interligados nas folhas de bananas e de Heliconia imbricata. Os cortes
basilares partem da veia central, formando um abrigo distinto em forma de "V". Artibeus
toltecus corta as veias basilares de Anthurium, causando com que os lados da folha dobrem em
volta da veia central, criando um abrigo em forma de piramide. Artibeus watsoni constroi
quatro tipos diferentes de tendas, incluindo simples cortes em forma de "V" em folhas de
palmeiras bifurcadas; cortes em algumas das veias laterais em folhas de trepadeiras (resultando
em piramides redondas); cortes alongados, em forma de "J", em folhas de bananas e de
Heliconia; e cortes poligonos em fdlhas de Carludovica palmata. Artibeus watsoni possue o
maior repertorio de estilos de tendas, e usa o conjunto mais di verso de especies de plantas e
de configura96es de folhas. Dois estilos de tendas construidas por Uroderma bilobatum sao
descritos pela primeira vez; um nas fdlhas grandes da palmeira Scheelea rostrata, e outro nas
folhas de bananas. Fatores comuns entre as tendas construidas por Uroderma bilobatum aqui
descritas, e as descritas previamente, sao a forma distinta em "V" cortada pelos morcegos, e
o uso de folhas grandes e largas para a construfao das tendas. Uroderma magnirostrum tambem
constroe tendas em forma de "V" invertido nas folhas de palmeiras.
Todos morcegos construidores de tendas no Novo Mundo p)ertencem a subfamilia Steno-
derminae (familia Phyllostomidae), e cada especie exibe um ou mais estilos caracteristicos de
constru9ao. A maioria destas especies de morcegos parecem alojar-se obrigatoriamente em
tendas, as quais oferecem nao so um abrigo diumo camuflado, mas tambem prote9ao contra
sol, chuva, e predadores.

Introduction are tropical members of the phyllostomid subfam-
ily Stenodermatinae.
The use of cut leaves for diurnal roosting sites The phyllostomid genus Artibeus, which in-
by bats was first described by Thomas Barbour some 5 species, is widespread in the Noo-
cludes 1
(1932), who
reported on diurnal roosts of Uro- tropics from northern Mexico southward to Ar-
derma bilobatum near the Panama Canal. He found gentina and Chile. These bats range in size from
these bats roosting under the leaves of two culti- 10 g (A. anderseni and A. watsoni) to 70 g (A.
vated palms identified as Livistona chinensis and lituratus). Uroderma, a closely related genus of
Prichardia pacifica. Not only were these bats found medium-sized stenodermatines that includes only
roosting under palm fronds, but they had also al- two species, is found from southern Mexico through
tered the leaf to produce a diurnal roosting struc- the Amazon Basin of South America. The better
ture.Barbour (1932, p. 307) stated that "by nip- known of the two species, U bilobatum, weighs
ping the ridges of the plications on the under side from 13 to 21 g.
the leaf weakened and as the bitten spots are
is
Herein I describe tent construction and utili-
skillfullyand serially distributed the leaf finally is zation by Artibeus anderseni, A. glaucus, A. gno-
sufficiently weakened so that the distal portion mus, A. phaeotis, A. toltecus, A. watsoni, Uroderma
droops sharply downward." Chapman (1932, p. bilobatum, and U. magnirostrum; describe several
555) discovered Artibeus watsoni roosting under new styles of tents; review and summarize the lit-
the cut veins of a bifurcated palm, Geonoma cuon
erature tent use by Artibeus and Uroderma;
neata (reported as G. decurrens), on Barro Colo- discuss the effectiveness of tents as diurnal roosts;
rado Island, Panama, and first called these mod- and suggest directions for future research.
(1953) also reported A.
ified leaves "tents." Ingles
watsoni constructing tents in the palm Geonoma
oxycarpa (reported as G. binervia) on Barro Col- Methods
orado Island. Goodwin and Greenhall (1961, p.
262) found Artibeus cinereus roosting "under cut Descriptions of Study Areas
leaves of palm trees and on the under side of ba-
nana leaves" and Uroderma bilobatum roosting Costa Rica— Bosque Brrancia, also known lo-
under cut leaves of the carat palm, Sabal glau- cally asBosque Blanco, is located 0.8 km west of
cescens, and coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, on Cuarto Cruces on the south side of the Pan Amer-
Trinidad. Ectophylla alba was reported by Timm ican Highway (Route 1) in Guanacaste Province,
and Mortimer (1976) to alter the leaves of five lowlands of western Costa Rica. Bos-
in the Pacific
species of Heliconia in Costa Rica; the bats se- que Brrancia is a restricted area of undisturbed
lected specific leaves for both size and angle to the lowland forest classified as Tropical Moist Forest;
ground. Artibeus jamaicensis was found by Foster the dominant vegetation includes A nacardium ex-
and Timm (1976) roosting under the cut leaflets celsum and Scheelea rostrata. This stand of forest
on a pinnately leafed palm, Scheelea rostrata, in probably has not been logged previously, and rep-
a tropical dry forest in Costa Rica. Recently, Timm resents a close approximation to the original (pre-
( 1 984) reported tent construction by another phyl- Columbian) forests of this part of Guanacaste.
lostomid, Vampyressa pusilla, in Costa Rica, and Further descriptions of this forest can be found in
Koepcke (1984) found Mesophylla macconnelli Janzen (1971) and Wilson and Janzen (1972).
utilizing similar tents in Peru. Only one Old World Parque Nacional de Corcovado is located on
bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Pteropodidae), has been the Osa Peninsula of southwestern Costa Rica,
reported to alter the shape of palm leaves to pro- Puntarenas Province (between 08°27'N and
duce a diurnal roosting structure (Goodwin, 1 979). 08°39'N, and 83°25'W and 83°45'W); the eleva-
Reviews of roosting site selection by bats were tion ranges from sea level to 400 m. Corcovado
provided by Tuttle (1976) and Kunz (1982). lieswithin the Tropical Wet Forest Life 21one
To date, seven species of phyllostomids {Arti- (Holdridge, 1967), with lowland evergreen forest
beus cinereus, A. jamaicensis, A. watsoni, Ecto- being the dominant forest type. Mean annual rain-
phylla alba, Mesophylla macconnelli, Uroderma fall is 3,800 + mm
and the wettest months are from
bilobatum, and Vampyressa pusilla) have been re- August through November; mean monthly tem-
ported to modify leaves of plants to produce diur- peratures range from 25.0°C to 26.5°C. Vegetation
nal roosting sites herein referred to as tents. All and habitat types at Corcovado have been de-

scribed by Herwitz (1981) and Hartshorn (1983). redia Province. The elevational range at which Ar-
Areas surveyed included both primary forest and tibeus toltecusand associated tents were observed
secondary scrub along the coast. was from 700 to 1400 m, within the Premontane
The La Selva Biological Station is the field sta- Rain Forest Zone with midelevational evergreen
tion of the Organization for Tropical Studies lo- forest and tall palms being the dominant forest
cated 1 km SW of Puerto Viejo de Sarapiqui, types. Mean annual rainfall at this elevational range
Heredia Province in the Caribbean lowlands of is perhaps as much as 5,000 mm, although no
northeastern Costa Rica (10°27'N,84°00'W); ele- exact measurements are yet available. The vege-
vation ranges from 29 to 100 m. Mean annual tation and habitat types at the midelevational
rainfall is 3,990 mm, with the wettest months being ranges also have yet to be described. On 14-15
November, December, and February; mean April 1986, 3 km of trail ranging from 700 to 1 100
monthly temperatures range from 24.5°C (Decem- m were surveyed for bat tents. Additionally, an
ber) to 26.1°C (April). La Selva lies within the intensive netting effort with Richard K. LaVal and
Tropical Wet Forest Life Zone, with lowland ev- Don E. Wilson was conducted in this area over a
ergreen forest being the dominant forest type. 7-day period to determine what species of bats
Vegetation and habitat types of La Selva have been were present and their relative abundance.
described by Slud (1960), Holdridge et al. (1971), At Finca Las Cruces (2 km S of San Vito, Pun-
Sawyer and Lindsey (1971), and Hartshorn ( 1 983). tarenas Province, 08°45'N, 82°58'W, 1200 m) in
One unusual feature of the subcanopy of the La the Premontane Wet Forest-Rain Forest transition
Selva forest is the diversity and abundance of dwarf area, approximately 2 km of trail leading down to
palms (Hartshorn, 1983), especially the broad- the Rio Jaba was surveyed for tents on 1 3 August
leaved species, Geonoma congesta and Asterogyne 1982.
martiana. These species are regularly utilized by Ecuador— Cascada San Rafael lies 17 km (by
Artibeus watsoni for tent construction. The tran- road) west of the village of Reventador, Napo
sect surveys, which included all Artibeus tents ob- Province, in northeastern Ecuador (00°5.8'S,
served, were restricted to primary forest. The Uro- 77°34.4'W). Rainfall averages 1,500 to 2,000 mm;
derma tents described from this site were restricted average temperatures range from 18°C to 22°C.
to an open banana patch. The elevation is 1200 m. Reventador lies within
Palo Verde (Refugio Nacional de Fauna Sil- the Humid Subtropical Life Zone.
vestre Dr. Rafael Lucas Rodriguez Caballero) is a Lagarto Cocha and Zancudo Cocha are military
wildlife refuge located 2 km S and 12 km E of encampments along the Rio Aguarico of Ama-
Bolson, in the Pacific lowlands of Guanacaste zonian Ecuador named for prominent lagoons.
Province, northwestern Costa Rica (10''30'N, Both areas are undisturbed primary lowland rain
85°20'W); the elevational range is from 3 to 183 forests classified as Moist Forest, with an annual
m. Palo Verde lies within the Tropical Dry Forest rainfall averaging from 2,000 to 3,000 mm; the
Life Zone, with lowland deciduous forest and riv- elevation is approximately 200 m.
erineswamp forest being the dominant forest types. Peru— Hacienda Amazonia lies just north of
The vegetation and habitat types of Palo Verde the confluence of the Alto Rio Madre de Dios and
have been described by Slud ( 1 980) and Hartshorn the Rio Pinipini in the department of Madre de
(1983). Mean annual rainfall is 1,700+ mm, with Dios, southeastern Peru (12°58'S, 71'>09'W), just
the wettest months being April, May, September, north of Atalaya. The Hacienda is located just east
and October; mean monthly temperatures range of Parque Nacional del Manu in the Upper Trop-
from 26.0°C (November) to 29.7°C (April). The ical Zone on the eastern foothills of the Andes. On
immediate vicinity of the survey at this site was 25 July 1985 Barbara L. Clauson searched the
in a mosaic of primary forest and secondary scrub ridge above the Hacienda for bat tents at an ele-
that included considerable bananas scattered vation of 825 m in primary rain forest that had
throughout. received some selective timber harvest; she re-
The newly expanded Parque Nacional Braulio turned to this site again on 3 November 1985.
Carrillo is located in northeastern Costa Rica (be- Cerro de PantiacoUa lies above the Rio Palotoa,
tween 10°05'N and 10°25'N, and 83°54'W and 10-15 km NNW of Shintuya, in the department
84'^5'W); the elevation of the park ranges from of Madre de Dios, southeastern Peru (12°35'N,
100 to 2600 m. Braulio Carrillo is located on the 71''18'W). On 15 November 1985 Clauson
eastern, Caribbean slope of Volcan Barba in He- searched a steep sloping ridge at 600 m. The sur-

Table 1. Individual measurements (in cm or degrees) collected from four tents constructed by Artibeus anderseni
on Heliconia in Ecuador.
Fig. 1. Photograph of an adult male, adult female, and juvenile Artibeus anderseni roosting in a Heliconia leaf
tent. Details of the cut side nerves can be seen along the midrib of the leaf
Artibeus glaucus Thomas, 1 893 population of Xanthosoma that occupied approx-

imately 1 ha on a steep east-facing hillside.
Artibeus glaucus is found at midelevalions along The basal lateral nerves from 2 to 5 (usually 3)
the eastern slopes of the Andes from Venezuela to of the Xanthosoma leaves were severed near the
Peru. The status of the name glaucus has long been midrib, causing the two sides of the leaf to collapse
in a state of flux; it often has been considered a downward around the midrib. The midrib was not
subspecies of A. cinereus. I concur with Handley cut. Four of the five cut leaves were measured in
(1987) in regarding .4. glaucus as a distinct species. September; one found in November was measured
A single old adult male Artibeus glaucus (fmnh (table 2). The leaves that were selected by Artibeus
124844) was observed roosting under a cut Xan- glaucus for tents all had the midrib running ap-
thosoma leaf at Cascada San Rafael, Ecuador, on proximately parallel to the ground, whereas the
21 September 1983. Four cut leaves on separate majority of unaltered leaves in the p>opulation stood
plants were observed in close proximity to each at more vertical angles.
other; a fifth cut leaf was observed approximately

10 to 1 5 m to the south. Only the one cut leaf was
occupied by the single bat. An adult female A. Artibeus gnomus (Handley, 1987)
glaucus was netted in the vicinity that evening. All
tent leaves were cut down at the time and four Artibeus gnomus, the dwarf fruit-eating bat, is
were measured. On 26 November, two more cut found in a peculiar circular range ringing the west-
leaves were found in this Xanthosoma population; em edge of the Amazon Basin. Although this
one contained three A. glaucus. The Xanthosoma species has a wide distribution from Venezuela
in which the bats were roosting were part of a and Guyana to Peru, it was only recently recog-

Table 2. Individual measurements (in cm or degrees) collected from five tents constructed by Artibeus glaucus
on Xanthosoma in Ecuador.
Blade
Petiole Basal
Length Width Angle length height Remarks
57 68 60 140 230 3 basal cut veins on each side, 2-3 cm from midrib
53 • • •
40 • • •
230 3 basal cut veins on each side, 1.5-3.0 cm from midrib
55 62 40 • • 230 2 veins cut left, 4 cut right side, 2-3 cm from midrib
64 36 45 137 300 3 basal veins cut on each side, 1.5-3.0 cm from midrib;
adult male A. glaucus hanging 16 cm from base
61 66 20 145 275 5 basal veins cut on each side, 3.5-4.0 cm from midrib; 3 ^.
glaucus
nized as a distinct species, and little biological in- Artibeus jamaicensis was reported roosting un-
formation is available (Handley, 1987). der the cut leaflets of Scheelea rostrata in Costa
On 15 November 1985 Barbara L. Clauson Rica by Foster and Timm (1976). Scheelea ros-
found a single adult male Artibeus gnomus roost- trata is a large, pinnately leafed palm with the
ing under a cut Monstera lechleriana leaf. The leafletsextending out at right angles from the hor-
Monstera was growing as an epiphyte approxi- izontal rachis. Leaflets within the middle 1.3 m
mately 10 m off the ground on a tree on a sloping region of the frond were cut at varying distances
hillside at 600 m elevation at Cerro de Pantiacolla, that increased going up to the center of the cut
southeastern Peru. The single cut leaf was green area, then decreased. "As a result . . . the distal
and healthy and hung horizontally. No other cut parts of the leaflets folded perpendicularly, hung
leaves were observed in the immediate vicinity. vertically below the frond, and formed a broadly
The altered leaf was 70 cm long and 38.5 cm at lanceolate tent" (Foster &
Timm, 1976, p. 266).
itswidest point. All lateral nerves along the basal Although several Artibeus jamaicensis occupied
nearly two-thirds of the leaf were severed imme- the roost, only two males were captured, one an
diately adjacent to the thick midrib; this included adult with enlarged testes, and the second a smaller
the basal 12 nerves on one side and 14 on the male not in breeding condition. Artibeus jamai-
other. The midrib was severed at 44.5cm from censis apparently has a harem mating system, in
the base which caused the apical third of the leaf which a single breeding male defends a roost used
to droop downward perpendicular to the midrib. by several females and their offspring; nonbreed-
All nerves proximal to the midrib cut were sev- ing males may be found either singly or in small
ered. The lateral nerves along the apical, drooping groups (Morrison, 1979; Kunz et al., 1983). Ar-
25.5 cm
were unaltered. tibeus jamaicensis has been found roosting in a
The tent resulting from these cuts was quite en- wide variety of situations, including caves, hollow
closed, being formed by the sides of the leaf col- trees, buildings, and under unaltered leaves (Tut-
lapsing downward around the midrib and the dis- tle, 1976), and thus is certainly not an obligate
tal third of the leaf folding down, perpendicularly tent-roosting species, as apparently are the smaller
to the midrib. The lone Artibeus gnomus was species oi Artibeus.
roosting 9 cm toward the base from the severed
midrib of the leaf.
Artibeus phaeotis (Miller, 1 902)
Artibeus jamaicensis Leach, 1821 Artibeus phaeotis, the pygmy fruit-eating bat, is
found from central Mexico to northern South
Artibeus jamaicensis, the Jamaican fruit-eating America (Timm, 1985). Most accounts of habitat
bat, is found throughout much of tropical Central for pygmy fruit-eating bats mention their being
America, the northern half of South America, and netted in close proximity to stands of bananas,
the Greater and Lesser Antilles. At many localities Musa X para^/5/aca (Ramirez-Pulidoetal., 1977;
this is one of the most common species of bats Watkins et al., 1972). Davis (1970) suggested that
encountered and consequently has received more they might roost under the leaves of bananas.
study than any other phyllostomid. During the summer of 1982, Artibeus phaeotis

Fig. 2. Top, Dorsal view of a banana leaf {Midsa x paradisiacd) showing the cut nerves running aloQg the midrib
and flaring outtoward the base; bottom, tent of Art ibeus phaeotis made from a banana leaf
was observed roosting under the leaves of banana presumably represented an individual plant, the
and Heliconia imbricata at Palo Verde and La number of stalks (ramets) per clump was counted;
Selva, respectively, in Costa Rica. In all cases the the height of each ramet was estimated to the near-
leaves had been altered to produce tents. est half meter. This was done for all clumps of
Art ibeus phaeotis constructs roosts in both ba- Musa in the patches that could be located, both
nanas and Heliconia imbricata by biting the lateral those with tents and without bat tents. When a bat
nerves and interconnecting tissue that extend at tent was located, the following measurements were
right angles from the midrib, causing the blade to taken in centimeters: the angle of the petiole (mid-
fold over in a V-shaped enclosure. The two sides way from stalk to blade), angle of blade (midway
of the leaf collapse downward, hanging beneath on blade), petiole length, blade length, blade width,
the midrib (fig. 2). Nerves and interconnected tis- height of base of blade, height of tip of blade,
sues are not completely severed, thus the sides of height of roost, isolation distance (distance from
the leaf provide some support for the entire length nearest solid object on the same vertical level),
of the cut. The cuts ran from the base of the leaf length of uncut basal portion of blade, and length
to near the tip (table 3). Near the base, the cuts of uncut distal portion. I also noted whether the
flared out from the midrib to the sides to form an roosts were in direct sunlight or in shade (table 3).
elongate J-shaped pattern. The uncut tip and basal Also for all tents the number of stalks on that
portion of the leaf provide additional strength. The column was counted, and the age of the leaf rel-
undersides of roost leaves are obscured from view ative to other expanded leaves was recorded. The
from almost all angles except from directly be- oldest (lowest leaf) on a plant was assigned the
neath the tent. number 1 then the rest counted up from there.
,
To characterize Musa clumps, each of which I scored 232 individual stalks of Musa, which

Table 3. Individual measurements (in cm or degrees) collected from 19 tents constructed by Artibeus phaeotis
on leaves of banana, Musa x paradisiaca, in Costa Rica.
Petiole
Fig. 3. Photograph of an adult female Artibeus phaeotis roosting in a banana leaf tent. Details of the cut side
nerves can be seen along the midrib of the leaf.
I have found it only from 650 to 1 500 m in ele- roosts imder banana leaves, although he did not
vation. indicate that the bats were modifying the leaves.
In April 1986 I observed a single Artibeus tol- Davis (1944, p. 378) stated:
tecus roosting under a cut leaf of Anthurium ca-
peratum in Braulio Carrillo National Park, north-
.
they had regularly established roosts tin-
. .
eastern Costa Rica. The Anthurium was growing

der the large, drooping leaves of the banana
as an epiphyte on a small tree at 800 m (IVi km
trees, each one easily recognized by the man-
S, 11 km E of San Miguel, 10°17'N, 84'>05'W).
ner in which the vane of the leaf hung limply
One leaf on the plant was altered; it was IVi off m
suspended from the midrib. The closely ap-
the ground and the midrib hung parallel to the
pressed vanes of the leaf, plus the natural
ground. Four or five lateral nerves were cut basally
darkness within the depths of the grove, af-
on each side, causing the sides of the leaf to fold
forded good concealment. These bats, too,
down around the midrib. A break of the midrib
were wary and that feature coupled with the
at itsmidpoint caused the distal half of the leaf to
nature of their retreat caused considerable
droop down (fig. 4). Seven additional tents of this
difficulty in procuring specimens.
style were observed on Anthurium in this area,
ranging in elevation from 700 to 1400 m. It is
assumed that they were made by A. toltecus, the In light of Davis's description of the roost sites of
only small species of Artibeus we netted there, al- A. toltecus in banana leaves and my own obser-
though these tents were not occupied. Six tents vations on A. toltecus, I suspect that this species
were observed in a 3-km transect ranging from was creating tents similar to those I observed for
700 to 1 100 m in elevation. A. phaeotis in Costa Rica. The tents formed by A.
Davis (1944) reported that Artibeus toltecus phaeotis in Musa (see fig. 2) are similar in ap-

Fig. 4. Top, Ventral view of an Anthurium caperatum leaf showing the cut nerves along the base of the leaf and
the broken midrib; bottom, tent of Art ibeus toltecus.
TIMM: ARTIBEUS AND URO DERMA 197

pearance to those described by Davis (1944) for three groupings of four, three, and two individuals.
A. toll ecus. Four of the single bats were all adult males.
Artibeus toltecus has also been reported in caves A trail running up to a ridge top was surveyed
(Davis et al., 1964; Jones, 1966; Jones & Alvarez, from 9 through 1 1 August 1982, with the following
1 and Goodwin ( 1 934, p. 1 2) reported a single
964), results: 25 tents found of which 16 were on Hel-
specimen collected "in one of the buildings iconia imbricata (64%), 8 on Calathea insignis
(church?) at San Lucas [the] rest of the con-
. . .
(32%), and 1 on Carludovica palmata (4%). Three
gregation seemed to be Glossophaga." tents were occupied by two (sexes unknown), one
male, and one female. Near the mouth of the Rio
Llorona on 8 and 9 August I counted the following
groups of bats: eight (three adult females, three
Artibeus watsoni Thomas, 1 90 1 young, and two not caught), two (adult female with
volant young), two (sexes unknown), and three
Artibeus watsoni, Thomas's fruit-eating bat, is singles (one a nonreproductive adult female). Ad-
one of the smaller members of the genus Artibeus ditional tents were observed in banana, coconut
and found from southern Veracruz south through palm (Cocos nucifera), Calathea insignis, and Car-
Central America to northern South America. It ludovica cf. drudei.
appears to be restricted to lowland and midele- In August 1 984, 1 found 63 tents constructed by
vation humid forests. Artibeus watsoni. These were distributed on the
During the summers of 1974, 1982, 1984, and following plants: Anthurium ravenii (36, 57%),
1 986, numerous individuals of Artibeus watsoni Heliconia sp. (14, 22%), Musa x paradisiaca (7,
were seen roosting under 19 different sj)ecies of 1 1%), Calathea insignis (3, 5%), Carludovica pal-
broadleafed plants at several localities in Costa mata (\, 1.6%), IVelfia georgii (1 , 1.6%),and(/eo/i-
Rica. At Parque Nacional de Corcovado, Costa oma sp. (1, 1.6%). Only 3 of the 63 tents were
Rica, trails were surveyed on three separate oc- occupied; one had two bats and two each had sin-
casions for the presence of tents made by Artibeus gle bats. As I noted in 1982, tents on Anthurium
watsoni, in June and August 1982 and again in ravenii were often clumped on the same plant with
August 1984. In mid-June 1982, the following an average of 2.5 tents per plant.
groupings of Artibeus watsoni were observed: two At La Selva 43 Artibeus watsoni
in July 1982,
(both adults, a male and pregnant female), two tents were located over a 5 -day period in the fol-
(pregnant female and one not captured), two (not lowing species of plants: Asterogyne martiana (33,
captured), and six hanging singly (of which two 77%), Geonoma congest a (6, 14%), Geonoma cu-
were captured and found to be adult males). Ad- neata (2, 5%), and an unidentified species of Cy-
ditionally, several tents on banana and Heliconia clanthaceae (2, 5%). One adult male A. watsoni
were marked for relocation later in the summer. was found under an Asterogyne martiana tent on
A marked on Heliconia imbricata was relo-
tent the first day. On the fifth day an adult female with
cated 60 days later. The tent was still intact, al- young was found under another A. martiana tent
though it was beginning to break down; a single that had been unoccupied for the previous fovu"
A. watsoni v/zs using it. All other marked tents had days, as was a third adult (not captured) under
decomposed. another A. martiana tent. All other tents were un-
On 10 August 1982 I found 90 tents constructed occupied.
by Artibeus watsoni along the trail through Cor- In 1974 1 surveyed approximately 10 km of trails
covado's "Monkey Woods." These tents were made at La Selva and found 29 on the following
tents
from the following species of plants: Musa x par- species of palms: Asterogyne martiana (19, 66%),
adisiaca (49, 54%), Anthurium ravenii (13, 14%), Bactris wendlandiana ( 1 3%), Geonoma congesta
,
unidentified aroid (11, 12%), Heliconia imbricata (2, 7%) and Geonoma cuneata (7, 24%); all were
(9, 10%), Heliconia latispatha (1, 1%), Heliconia unoccupied. Foster and Timm (1976) reported
sp. (3, 3%), and Calathea insignis (4, 4%). Tents tents in these palms, although they were not able
located on Anthurium ravenii were most often to associate bats with the tents. My recent studies
found clumped, with an average of 2.6 tents per at La Selva have confirmed that these tents were
plant, whereas in the other species of plants it was made by A. watsoni.
uncommon to find more than one tent per indi- At Finca Las Cruces in mid-August 1982, 13
vidual plant. Bats were found singly (five) or in tents constructed by Artibeus watsoni were located;

2
'^
e
o
•a
00
Si
eo|
C *
(/J c*
. k»
a T
•2 o
I a
c g
. u
C f
3 ->
P «
« to
x:
^ CO
o S
li
-3 e
o V

Fig. 6. Top, Dorsal view of the cyclanth, Carludovica palmata, showing the polygonal cuts; bottom, tent of Artibeus
waisoni on C. palmata.

Fig. 7. Photograph of adult female Artibeus watsoni and her subadult offspring roosting in a Carludovica leaf tent.
Details of the polygonal cuts and folds can be seen in the background.
one was occupied by an adult male. The tents were Tents generally are found clumped, both on a
distributed on the following species of cyclanths: single plant if leaf morphology and age are appro-
Asplundia euryspatha (6, 46%), Carludovica drudei priate, and in restricted areas. Up to five tents have
(4, 31%), and Cyclanthus bipartitus (3, 23%). been found on a single Anthurium ravenii, and
Artibeus watsoni uses a variety of species of plants when present the mean number of tents was 2.5.
and a wide array of leaf shapes for diurnal roosts. At Parque Nacional de Corcovado, Choe and
I have found four distinct styles of tents at a single Timm (1985) found that Artibeus watsoni showed
locality (Corcovado). These styles include the sim- strong preference for Anthurium ravenii leaves that
ple V-shaped cuts on bifurcated palms (fig. 5), cut- were medium sized, low within the plant, and grew
ting a few side veins on aroids to produce a round- closer to the ground than average A. ravenii leaves.
ed pyramid, the elongated J-shaped cuts on banana Also at this site, Boinskiand Timm (1985) doc-
and Heliconia leaves, and the polygonal cuts on umented that squirrel monkeys {Saimiri oerstedi)
Carludovica (figs. 6-7). For each distinct leaf shape, were major predators on A. watsoni, with the adult
the cuts create a well-concealed diurnal roost. Ar- male monkeys being the most successful at cap-
tibeus watsoni probably is an obligate tent-rooster, turing bats. Additionally, double-toothed kites
as has only been found roosting under cut leaves.
it {Harpagus bidentatus) followed troops of foraging
On several instances a bat occupied the same squirrel monkeys, using them as "beaters." When
tent, or tents in close proximity, for two to three tent-making bats were flushed by the monkeys and
days in succession. Those tents might then remain escap)ed, they were routinely captured and con-
unoccupied for several days in succession. Dis- sumed by the attending double-toothed kites.
turbed bats generally flew directly to another tent Artibeus watsoni has long been known to cut
from 20 to 50 m
away, or attempted to return to palm tents for diurnal roosts, although prior to
the tent where originally found. this study little had been published on roosting

Fig. 8. Dorsal view of Scheelea rostrata showing the leaflets cut by Uroderma bilobatum to form a tent

behavior of this species. The elongate J-shaped On 25 August 1982 a colony of Uroderma bi-
cutsmade on bifurcated palms were first described lobatum was roosting under a modified frond of
and illustrated by Chapman (1932, p. 555). He thepalm Scheelea rostrata at Bosque Brrancia.
stated that "both vanes of the leaf whence the bat The colony included an adult male with enlarged
flew were cut diagonally to the midrib of the leaf, testesand four adult females.
so that their terminal portions drooped downward The Scheelea rostrata frond in which the colony
to form a tentlike shelter." Chapman appropri- of Uroderma bilobatum roosted was a mature leaf,
ately termed these three-sided diurnal roosts approximately 6.5 m in length. The bats were
"tents," and I have expanded the use of the word hanging approximately 4.5 m
off"the ground; most
tents to include all modified leaves by bats. were clustered together, although a few were spread
Barbour's (1932) original description of Uro- out over 50 cm of the frond. The cut leaflets started
derma bilobatum cutting palm leaves for roosts at about 3.5 m off" the ground and proceeded up
also provides a secondhand report (p. 308) by H. the frond for the next 2.5 m
(fig. 8). The general
C. Clark stating that "Clark has just found for the pattern of the cut leaflets was a tapering effect, with
first time a youngish coconut palm, a single leaf the cuts on the lowermost leaflets being farthest
of which was being cut by bats of the genus Uro- from the midrib. Leaflets along the proximal 2 m
derma way." The common use
in a very similar and the distal 50 cm were unmodified. Only the
of young coconut palms {Cocos nucifera) by Ar- midrib of the leaflets was cut. Each leaflet had a
tibeus watsoni in Costa Rica, coupled with the total distinctive V-shaped fold at its base where it was
lack of evidence that Uroderma bilobatum uses attached to the midrib. The bats were hanging
juveniles of this palm, leaves that small, or roosts from the leaflets rather than the midrib.
that close to the ground, suggests that the tents From the dorsal aspect of the leaf, the proximal
seen by Clark were in fact made by A. watsoni. portion of the tent (cut leaflets) extended 50 cm
Artibeus watsoni also is abundant on Barro Col- further down on the right side than on the left to
orado Island, Panama. Apparently no voucher include 10 basal leaflets whose opposites on the
specimens of the bats were preserved at the time. left were unaltered. The basalmost cut leaflet was
Allen (1939, p. 69) reported "a specimen of A. cut 34 cm from the midrib. Proceeding distally,
watsoni that was hanging by day from the under- the length of the unmodified basal portion of each
side of a banana leaf" Perhaps the natural-looking leaflet decreases. The basalmost cut leaflet on the
folds caused by the cuts running parallel to the left was cut 19 cm from the midrib. The overall
midrib were not noticed at the time. Ingles (1953) appearance of the tent was a sharp, convergent
reported on tents of A. watsoni in two species of taper for the next meter. Following this section,
Geonoma on Barro Colorado Island; one tent was there was a 7 5 -cm section in which the cuts were
occupied by three individuals. Thomas's fruit-eat- close to the midrib (within 3 cm). On the distal-
ing bat has been found roosting in an artificial tent, most 30 cm of the tent, the leaflets were cut closer
an inverted hanging box. Wilson (1970) reported to the midrib on the left side than on the right.
that several females raised young in the comer of Similar tents, each housing a colony of Uroderma
a suspended box on Barro Colorado Island. bilobatum, were found in a large stand of Scheelea
rostrata at Corcovado in 1984, and William A.
Haber (pers. comm.) informed me that he has seen
similarly cut leaves in the same species of palm at
Uroderma
Cahuita (09°44'N, 82°49'W) in the Caribbean low-
lands of southeastern Costa Rica in 1 984.
Uroderma bilobatum Peters, 1865
In June of 1982 and again in March of 1986, I
found numerous banana leaves cut by Uroderma
Uroderma bilobatum has been given the dis-
bilobatum just to the north of the field station at
tinctive "common" name of Peters's tent-making
La Selva. The midrib on vertical leaves was cut
bat. Tents constructed by Uroderma bilobatum
to the extent that the distal portion of the leaf
were seen at three separate localities in Costa Rica
collapsed downward to form a two-sided tent
during the summers of 1982, 1984, and again in
(fig.
1986, the first at Bosque Brrancia near Cuarto 9). Severing the midrib on vertical leaves had the
Cruces in the Pacific lowlands of northwestern effect of folding the leaf back upon itself creating
Costa Rica, the second at Corcovado on the Osa a tight, dark crevice at the fold where the bats
Peninsula, and the third at La Selva in the Carib- roosted (fig. 1 0). In addition to severing the mid-
bean lowlands. rib, the bat cut a large V-shaped pattern running

Fig. 9. Left, Dorsal view of a banana leaf showing the cut midrib and the large V-shaped cuts through the side
nerves; right, tent of Uroderma bilobatum made from a banana leaf.
from the midrib to the base of the leaf. The side In 1982 five tents in widely separated banana
veins and interconnected tissues were partly sev- leaves were located (table 4). One was occupied
ered. However, because the leaf stood nearly ver- by eight Uroderma bilobatum, which included one
tical, these V-shaped cuts did not cause further adult male with enlarged testes and seven females.
folding of the leaf The only cut creating the tent In 1986 eight tents were observed in the same
was that of the midrib. banana patch. On this occasion eight U. bilobatum

tentswere clustered in three clumps of bananas. Table 4.Individual measurements (in cm or de-
from four tents constructed by Uroderma
grees) collected
Only one tent was occupied; it contained 1 3 bats.
bilobatum on banana, Musa x paradisiaca, in Costa
This folded broad-leaved style of tent is un-
Rica.
doubtedly the tent style illustrated by Walker ( 1 960,
p. 30) in his photograph of roosting Uroderma
Blade
bilobatum, although he did not describe it nor
mention where it was observed. Interestingly, I
have searched several dozen banana and larger
Heliconia groves throughout Costa Rica and Ec-
uador specifically looking for this style of tent, and
none were observed. Uroderma bilobatum is an
abundant and widespread species in the lowlands,
but employment of this particular style of tent
I have not observed it elsewhere.
appears spotty as
Panama, Barbour (1932) found that colony
In
sizeunder a single cut leaf of Prichardia pacifica
varied from a few bats to 56. Prior to Barbour's
discovery that Uroderma altered leaves, Goldman
(1920, p. 199) stated of these bats in Panama.
In the forest near Gatun Uroderma biloba-

tum was located several times, a few in a
place, clinging during the day in clusters to
the midribs on the under sides of large palm
leaves. They usually choose darkened spots
where the leafwas folded over, or over-
hanging pinnae shut out much of the light.
Burt and Stirton (1961) reported U. bilobatum in

El Salvador roosting beneath the leaves of bananas
and coconut palms. I strongly suspect that the bats
had altered these leaves and that these authors had
failed to notice or failed to associate the hanging
it
bats with the damage to the leaves. Bloedel (1955,

p. 234) stated of Uroderma bilobatum in Panama
that:
Iobserved these bats only in their palm-leaf

tents. ... In the latter part of March most
females have nursing young, and are roost-
ing in clusters of 20 to 40, while the males
are separated from them, usually solitary or
in small groups of from 2-5.
In Trinidad, Goodwin and Greenhall (1961, p.

254) found them
on the under side of the fan-shaped leaves

of certain palm trees, especially the carat
palm (Sabal glaucescens). The bat makes
. . .
a series of cuts across the pleated surface of

a leaf, causing half of the leaf to bend at an
angle to form a protected retreat.
Fig. 11. Tent of Vroderma
magnirostrum on the pinnately
leafed palm Astrocaryum muru-
muru.
tually a small species of Artibeus, probably A. that although it was widely distributed only seven
phaeotis; the tent style and size and coloration of specimens had been collected prior to the wide-
the bats are typical oi A. phaeotis. spread use of mist nets in the 1960s, and that all
specimens available to him had come from local-
ities less than 1000 feet in elevation. He stated
Uroderma magnirostrum Davis, 1968 that "These facts strongly suggest basic differences
in the habits of the two species and that those bats
Although Vroderma magnirostrum is a widely with a deep rostrum are not 'tent-makers' as are
distributed bat found from Mexico to Bolivia, it members of the species Uroderma bilobatum"
was not recognized as a species distinct from U. (Davis, 1968, p. 678). There have been no reports
bilobatum until 1968 (Davis, 1968), and few spec- on the behavior or ecology of U. magnirostrum.
imens are represented in collections. When W. B. On 25 July 1985 Barbara L. Clauson discovered
Davis described this new species he commented a colony of two male and three female Uroderma

magnirostrum roosting under the cut leaflets of the ture leaf which was an older leaf than the occupied
pinnately leafed palm, Astrocaryum murumuru. tent, with many broken, yellowed, and brown leaf-
The single occupied tent found was on the ridge lets. The leaf was approximately 6 m in length and
above Hacienda Amazonia at 825 m in south- 2 m in width at the widest point, with a petiole .8
eastern Peru. The entire colony was collected by m long. The leaf left the trunk at 2.9 m from the
John W. Fitzpatrick. On 3 November Clauson re- ground and hung at an angle of approximately 60°.
turned to the site to measure ,»ie leaf and noted Cuts were distributed asymmetrically along the
an additional cut leaf in the same plant. length of the leaf The cut leaflets on the left side
When first observed, four bats were hanging to- of the leaf started 3.05 m from the lowest leaflet
gether and one was hanging several centimeters and proceeded up the frond for the next 1 .3 m, to
away. When observed an hour later, all five were .88 m from the tip. The cut leaflets on the right
hanging together in a tight cluster approximately side of the leaf started 3.25 m from the lowest
7.5 m
off the ground. The bats were hanging from leaflet and proceeded up the frond for the next
the leaflets rather than the midrib, approximately 1.49 m, to .49 m from the tip. The cuts on the
200 cm from the tip of the leaf The colony in- lower leaflets were farthest from the midrib. The
cluded one adult male with enlarged testes, two lowest severed leaflets were cut up to 35 cm from
adult females, and two subadults, one female and the midrib, whereas the distal leaflets were severed
one male. as close as 1.5 cm from the midrib. Leaflets along
The roosting structure of Uroderma magniros- the proximal 3.05 m and 3.25 m
and the distal
trum was in a pinnately leafed palm (fig. 1 1 ). The .88 m and .49 m were unmodified.
bats severed the leaflets along the upper two-thirds I propose the common name of Davis's tent-
of the leaf; those along the lower third were un- making bat for this species.
altered, as were the leaflets at the very tip. As the
leaflets proceeded up the tent they were severed
closer to the midrib forming an elongate, conver-
The general appear-
gently tapering tent (fig. 1 1).
ance of the U. magnirostrum tent is similar to that Conclusions
described herein for U. bilobatum on the pinnately
leafedpalm Scheelea rostrata. A review of the literature on tent-making bats
The Astrocaryum frond in which the colony of contains some 32 primary references covering the
Uroderma magnirostrum roosted was a mature leaf, 55-year period from 1932 through 1986. Surpris-
approximately 6.1 m in length and 1.9 m in width ingly,we actually know very little about the bi-
at the widest point, with the petiole 1.1m long. ology of these bats.
The leaf left the trunk (d.b.h. .4 m) at 3 m from As late as 1975 Eisentraut was yet doubting th^t
the ground and hung at an angle of approximately bats were cutting leaves to make tents, stating:
50°. The bats were hanging approximately 7.5 m
the ground. The cut leaflets started at 1.5
off" m . observers maintain that the bats form
. .
from the lowest leaflet and proceeded up the frond these tentlike structures themselves, by
for the next 2.9 m to nearly the tip (fig. 1 1). The making a series of holes running across the
cuts on the lowermost were furthest from
leaflets middle of a large palm leaf The bats then
the midrib. The lowest severed leaflets were cut supposedly bend the outer half of the leaf
up to 34 cm from the midrib, whereas the distal around, so they can then rest inside this
leaflets were severed only 2 cm from the midrib 'tent'. On the basis of personal obser-
. . .
of the leaf The midribs of the leaflets were cut vations in tropical regions in Africa, I tend
causing the distal portion of the leaflets to fold to believe instead that these holes were made
downward. Leaflets along the proximal 1.5 m and by were still
insect larvae while the leaves
the distal .5 m were unmodified. The trunk, pet- rolled up. A storm can then easily break the
iole, and midrib of this palm were covered with leaf along the line of holes and form the tent
sharp, penetrating spines several centimeters in roof which is so convenient for the bats (Ei-
length. After 14'/2 weeks this tent was still alive sentraut, 1975, p. 142).
and green, most of the leaflets appearing as fresh
in November as they did in July. Eisentraut, by his own admission, had never seen
This Astrocaryum contained a second cut leaf a bat tent. I believe that if he had, he would have
that was unoccupied. This roost was also in a ma- come to the same conclusion Thomas Barbour did

nearly a half century earlier, that the bats and not typical tents look like? (9) How and why did tent
insects were making the cuts. construction evolve?
Although we have yet to actually observe bats On occasionhave found "cheaters," species of
I
cutting leaves to form the roosting structures de- bats roosting in a tent made by another species.
scribed herein, I hope the volume of data pre- Is cheating an evolved strategy of roost site selec-
sented here and in my other works establishes for tion of some bats?
a fact that many species of small and medium sized Bats of the genera Artibeus and Uroderma ac-
stenodermines are indeed tent-makers. The ob- tively modify leaves to produce diurnal roosting
servations presented represent data collected from structures, but by biting the tissue between veins
several hundred tents located over a 1 5 -year pe- along the midrib and leaving the midrib and most
riod. Several facts consistently emerge between my veins intact, do not kill the leaves. The resulting
observations and those independently corrobo- tent is available for use as a roost for an extended
rated by others. Bats of the genera Artibeus and period of time; one was observed in use for more
Uroderma (as well as Ectophylla, Mesophylla, and than 60 days. Bats select for specific sizes and
Vampyressa) roost under cut leaves. These leaves shapes of leaves. Tents provide concealment from
may be on a wide variety of species of plants, but predators and protection from the rain, wind, and
generally the shape of the leaves is similar. The sun. This type of roost offers the additional ad-
shape of the cuts is very characteristic for each vantage that the bats are warned about the ap-
species of bat and the patterns and styles of tents proach of a potential predator, because even slight
created by the bat species are consistent. movements of the leaf stem or the leaf itself are
The behavioral repertoire associated with tent- transmitted as magnified vibrations to the roosting
making in bats certainly evolved more than once, bat. Tents may provide bats with suitable roosting
as evidenced by the patchy distribution of tent- sites that would not otherwise be available in close
making species with the chiropteran suborders proximity to prime food resources.
Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera. Within the One of the most productive areas for future re-
Megachiroptera, a single species of tent-maker is search will be exploring aspects of the biology of
known, Cynopterus sphinx. Within the Microchi- these bats from an evolutionary perspective. Fu-
roptera, tent-makers are known only from one ture subjects I will be addressing include the role
subfamily of the Phyllostomidae, the Stenoder- of tent roosting in controlling ectoparasites and
minae. The Stenoderminae constitute an ex- the correlation between complexity of tents and
tremely speciose and diverse group of bats, with social systems in these bats. I believe that tent-
more than 30 species currently recognized. Tent making originated as an antipredation strategy and
construction within stenodermines may be a trait has since, secondarily, evolved to play a major
that evolved once, twice, or as many as three times. role in controlling ectoparasites and in social be-
The Artibeus- Uroderma group are sister genera and havior.
form one clade of the tent- making repertoire. Sec- Many factors influence the choice of roost site
ondly, the Mesophylla- Vampyressa group are sis- selection by bats. Included among these are vul-
tergenera (and perhaps should be considered con- nerability to predation, physical stability of the
generic) and would constitute the second clade. site, proximity to food sources, and general ap-
Finally, Ectophylla would constitute a third lin- propriateness of the nest microenvironment for
eage. The relationship between these three lineages the rearing of young. It seems likely that tent con-
is uncertain and warrants further investigation. struction requires considerable time and energy
Knowing that bats modify the leaves of several expenditure by bats, attesting to intense selection
species of plants to produce diurnal roosting struc- pressures involved.
tures led to the following questions: (1) Are bats
selecting specific species of plants for tents? (2)
What of tents are cut by bats and do these
styles
differ between species? (3) Do bats select for a Acknowledgments
particular angle, size, or shape of leaf for diurnal
tents? (4) Are leaves selected preferably in larger I thank Eduardo Lopez Pizarro and El Depar-
clumps or smaller clumps? (5) Are older or youn- tamento de Vida Silvestre and Fernando Cortes
ger leaves selected? (6) Are leaves of a particular and Servicio de Parques Nacionales of Costa Rica
height class selected? (7) Are leaves that are not for making this study possible. The Organization
adjacent to solid objects selected? (8) What do for Tropical Studies (OTS), Rebecca Butterfield,

William A. Haber, Gary Hartshorn, Charles E. Chapman, F. M. 1932. A home-making bat. Natural
Schnell, and Joe M. Wunderle are gratefully ac- History, 32: 555-556.
knowledged for assistance with logistics. Robert J. Choe, J. C, andR. M. Timm. 1985. Roosting site
selectionby Art ibeus watsoni {ChiToplera: Phyllostom-
Izor assisted with field logistics in Costa Rica and
idae) on Anthurium ravenii (Araceae) in Costa Rica.
Peru, and John W. Fitzpatrick assisted in Peru. In Journal of Tropical Ecology, 1: 241-247.
Ecuador I thank the Comandancia General del Davis, W. B. 1 944. Notes on Mexican mammals. Jour-
Ejercito Ecuatoriano, the Corporacion Estatal Pe- nal of Mammalogy, 25: 370-403.
trolera Ecuatoriana, and the Ministerio de Agri- . 1 968. Review of the genus Uroderma (Chirop-
cultura y Ganaderia for making our studies there tera). Journal of Mammalogy, 49: 676-698.
possible. Luis Albuja, Ramiro Barriga, Angelitos -. 1970. A review of the small fruit bats (genus
Artibeus) of Middle America. Part II. Southwestern
Garrett, Myriam Ibarra, Gustavo Orces, and Don- Naturalist, 14: 389-402.
ald J. Stewart provided logistic assistance in Ec-
Davis, W. B.. D. C. Carter, and R. H. Pine. 1964.
uador. Kerry A. Barringer, William C. Burger,
Noteworthy records of Mexican and Central Ameri-
Thomas B. Croat, Robin B. Foster, Barry Ham- can bats. Journal of Mammalogy, 45: 375-387.
mel, and Timothy Plowman provided identifica- Dickerman, R. W., K. F. Koopman, and C. Seymour.
tions or confirmed identifications of the plants. 1981. Notes on bats from the Pacific lowlands of
Barbara L. Clauson, Alfred L. Gardner, Lawrence Guatemala. Journal of Mammalogy, 62: 406—4 1 1 .
R. Heaney, Karl F. Koopman, Thomas H. Kunz, Eisentraut, M. 1975. The insectivorous bats, pp. 1 1 1-
1 48. /n Grzimek, H. C. B., ed., Grzimek's Animal Life
Bruce D. Patterson, and Timothy Plowman pro-
Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Mammals 11. Van Nostrand
1 ,
vided valuable suggestions on earlier drafts of the Reinhold Company, New York, 635 pp.
manuscript. My wife, Barbara, provided superb Foster, M. S., and R. M. Timm. 1976. Tent-making
assistance with aspects of this project, including
all by Artibeus jamaicensis (Chiroptera: Phyllostomati-
providing several of the photographs used and all dae) with comments on plants used by bats for tents.
data on Uroderma magnirostrum. Rosanne Mie- Biotropica, 8: 265-269.
Goldman, E. A. 1920. Mammals of Panama. Smith-
Nina Cummings,
zio prepared the illustrations.
sonian Miscellaneous Collections, 69(5): 1-309.
Ron Testa, and Diane White expeditiously and
Goodwin, G. G. 1934. Mammals collected by A. W.
cheerfully executed my photography requests. This
Anthony in Guatemala, 1924-1928. Bulletin of the
project was funded in part by grants from the Rice American Museum of Natural History, 68: 1-60.
Foundation of Chicago, the National Science Goodwin, G. G.. and A. M. Greenhall. 1961. A
Foundation [INT-8303 194], National Geographic review of the bats of Trinidad and Tobago: Descrip-
tions, rabies infection, and ecology. Bulletin of the
Society, and Field Museum of Natural History. I
American Museum of Natural History, 122: 187-302.
especially thank Mr. and Mrs. Arthur A. Nolan,
Goodwin, R. E. 1979. The bats of Timor Systematics
Jr. for their continuing support of my research.
and ecology. Bulletin of the American Museum of
This paper is dedicated to Philip Hershkovitz Natural History, 163: 73-122.
in recognition of his contributions to Neotropical
Handlev, C. O., Jr. 1987. New species of mammals
mammalogy, and most especially for the friend- from northern South America: Fruit-eating bats, genus
ship he has shown me. Artibeus Leach, pp. 163-172. In Patterson, B. D., and
R. M. Timm, eds.. Studies in Neotropical mammal-
ogy: Essays in honor of Philip Hershkovitz. Fieldiana:
Zoology, U.S., 39: 1-506.
Hartshorn, G. S. 1983. Plants, pp. 1 1 8-1 57. /« Jan-

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Appendix
List of scientific names of plants mentioned in the text and used by Neotropical bats for tent con-
struction.
Anacardiaceae Araceae (cont'd.)

Monstera lechleriana Schott
Anacardium excelsum (Bertero & Balbis) Skeels Xanthosoma sp.
Araceae Cyclanthaceae
Anthurium caperatum Croat &. Baker Asplundia euryspatha Hari.

Anthurium ravenii Croat & Baker Carludovica dmdei Masters

Cyclanthaceae (cont'd.) Palmae
Carludovica palmata R. & P.
Cyclanthus bipartitus Poit. Asterogyne martiana (H. Wendl.) H. Wendl. ex

Hemsley
Astrocaryum murumuru Mart.
Bactris wendlandiana Burret
Marantaceae Cocos nucifera L.
Geonoma congesta H. Wendl. ex Spruce
Calathea insignis Petersen Geonoma cuneata H. Wendl. ex Spruce (syn. G.
decurrens H. Wendl.)
Geonoma oxycarpa Martius (syn. G. binervia
Oerst.)
Musaceae Livistona chinensis (Jacq.) R. Br. ex. Mart.
Prichardia pacifica Seem. & H. Wendl.
Heliconia imbricata (Kuntze) Baker Sabal mauritiiformis (Karsten) Griseb. &. H.
Heliconia latispatha Benth. Wendl. ex Griseb. (syn. S. glaucescens Lodd. ex
Musa X paradisiaca L. H. E. Moore)
Plenakospermum guyanense Endl. (syn. Ravenala Scheelea rostrata (Oersted) Burret
guyanensis Petersen) Welfia georgii H. Wendl. ex Burret
212 FIELDIANA: ZOOLCX5Y

Comparative Ultrastructure and Evolutionary Patterns
of Acinar Secretory Product
of Parotid Salivary Glands in Neotropical Bats
Carleton J. Phillips, Toshikazu Nagato, and Bernard Tandler
ABSTRACTS
Secretory products produced by acinar cells of the parotid salivary glands of 1 5 species of
Neotropical bats {Pteronotus parnellii, Phyllostomus elongatus, P. latifolius, Tonatia bidens, T.
sylvicola, Trachops cirrhosus, Glossophaga soricina, Leptonycteris sanborni, Sturnira lilium,
Artibeus jamaicensis, Ariteus flavescens, Eptesicus lynni, E. brasiliensis, Tadarida brasiliensis,
and Molossus molossus) were compared by transmission electron microscopy. Extensive inter-
and intrageneric differences were found in the ultrastructure of the mature acinar secretory
granules. This variation in secretory cell product exceeded any previously reported intraordinal
phenotypic variation at the cellular level, but was in keeping with previously reported bio-
chemical data on salivary protein polymorphism in primates and rodents. Data from molecular
biology and systematics lend support to the hypothesis that the microscopic variations are
directly representative of genie differences among species. It also is postulated that intrageneric
microscopic differences at least partly are due to neutral (nonfunctional) differences in molecular
structure or charge (or both) rather than evolutionary selection. Among the phyllostomids, a
general trend in parotid acinar cell product was found in Artibeus and Ariteus, in which a
decrease in enzymatic content of the product could be correlated with ultrastructural differences.
The secretory product in Artibeus and Ariteus also differed significantly from that of the genus
Sturnira. and it is proposed that the phenotypic differences between Sturnira and the other two
stenodermatines represent a major genetic difference of systematic importance. The ultrastruc-
turalappearance and substructure of the parotid acinar secretory granules could not be con-
sistently correlated with diet alone,although insectivorous-animalivorous SF)ecies have enzyme-
rich, mostly electron-dense granules, whereas two fruit bats, Artibeus and Ariteus, have pale,
enzyme-poor parotid granules.
Productos de secrecion producidos por celulas acinares de las glandulas salivales de 1 5 esF>ecies
de murcielagos neotTopicales (Pteronotus parnellii, Phyllostomus elongatus, P. latifolius, Tonatia
bidens, T. sylvicola, Trachops cirrhosus, Glossophaga soricina, Leptonycteris sanborni, Sturnira
lilium, Artibeus jamaicensis, Ariteus flavescens, Eptesicus lynni, E. brasiliensis, Tadarida bra-
siliensis y Molossus molossus) fueron comparados mediante microscopio electronico de trans-
mision. Extensivas diferencias inter- e intragenericas fueron encontradas en la estructura de
granulos glandulares acinares maduros. Esta variacion en productos de celulas secretoras excedio
From theDepartment of Biology, Hofstra University,

Hempstead, NY 11550 (Phillips); and Department of
Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Case Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, OH 44106 (Nagato and Tandler).
Dr. Nagato's present address is Department of Oral and
Ehime University School of Med-
Maxillofacial Surgery,
Shizukawa, Shigenobu, Onsen-gun, Eshime 79 -02,
icine, 1
Japan.
PHILLIPS ET AL.: SALIVARY GLANDS IN BATS 213

cualquier variacion fenotipica intraordinal previamente reportada a nivel celular, pero estuvo
en armonia con datos bioquimicos previamente reporlados de polimorfismo en proteinas sa-
livales de primates y roedores. Datos de biologia molecular y sistematica proveen apoyo a la
hipotesis de que las variaciones microscopicas son direclamente representativas de diferencias

geneticas entre especies. Es lambien postulado que diferencias microscopicas intragenericas, al
menos parcialmente, son debidas a diferencias neulrales (no funcionales) en estructura molecular
o carga(o ambas) mas bien que a seleccion evolutiva. Entre los filostomidos, una tendencia
general en el producto parotido de las celulas acinares fue encontrado en Artibeus y Ariteus, en
los cuales una disminucion en contenido enzimatico del producto p>odria estar relacionado con
diferencias ultraestructurales. El producto secretado en Artibeus y Ariteus tambien se diferencio
significativamente de aquel del genero Sturnira y es propuesto que las diferencias fenotipicas
entre Sturnira y los otros dos stenodermatinos representan una mayor diferencia genetica de
importancia sistematica. La apariencia ultraestructural y subestructura de los granulos secre-
torios parotidos acinares podria no estar consistentemente correlacionada solo con la dieta,
aunque especies insectivoras-animalivoras tienen granulos ricos en enzimas mayormente densos

en electrones, mientras que los murcielagos frugivoros, Artibeus y Ariteus, tienen granulos
parotidos palidos y pobres en enzimas.
Produtos secretorios produzidos por acinos das glandulas parotidas de 15 especies de mor-'
cegos neotropicos (Pteronotus parnellii, Phyllostomus elongatus, P. latifolius, Tonatia bidens,
T. sylvicola, Trachops cirrhosus, Glossophaga soricina, Leptonycteris sanborni, Sturnira lilium.
Artibeus jamaicensis, Ariteus flavescens, Eptesicus lynni, E. brasiliensis, Tadarida brasiliensis,
e Molossus molossus) foram comparados atraves da microscopia de transmissao eletronica.
Vastas diferengas intra- e intergenericas foram encontradas na ultra-estrutura dos granulos
maduros dos acinos secretorios. Esta variafao no produto das celulas secretorias supera qualquer
variaâo fenotipica intraordinal previamente relatada para o nivel celular, porem concorda
com as rela96es publicadas sobre dados bioquimicos do polimorfismo de proteinas salivares
em primatas e em roedores. Dados sistematicos, e de biologia molecular, apoiam a hipotese
que variances microscopicas sao diretamente representativas das diferenâs geneticas entre
especies. Propoese tambem, que estas diferenâs microscopicas intragenericas sao ao menos
parcialmente causadas por diferen9as neutras (i.e., naofuncionais) nas estruturas moleculares
ou nas suas cargaseletricas (ou ambas), ao inves de serem consequencias da seleâo evolutiva.
Entre os morcegos da familia Phillostomidae, foi encontrado em Artibeus e em Ariteus um
padrao geral nos produtos dos acinos parotideos, onde uma redu9ao do conteudo enzimatico'
e correlacionado a diferencas nas ultraestruturas dos granulos produzidos. Os produtos secre-
torios em Artibeus e em Ariteus sao significantemente diferentes dos produtos do genero Sturnira.
e prop6e-se que as diferen9as fenotipicas entre Sturnira e os outros dois stenodermatinos
representam uma grande diferen9a genetica, de importancia sistematica. A
aparencia ultraes-
dos granulos secretorios dos acinos parotideos, nao se correlacionam
trutural, e a subestrutura
consistentemente com a dieta por si, apesar de que as especies insetivoras-animalivoras possuem
granulos ricos em enzimas e densos em eletrons, equanto que dois morcegos frugivoros, Artibeus
e Ariteus, (wssuem granulos parotideos palidos e com poucas enzimas.
Introduction 1984; Freeman, 1979, 1981; Eisenberg «t Wilson,

1978; Studier et al., 1983). The major salivary
Neotropical bats are extremely diversified; ex- glands are yet another system that has attracted
perhaps the most outstand-
isting species represent attention, primarily because histological, ultra-
ing mammalian example of ecomorphological ad- structural, and histochemical investigations have
aptation. Dentitions, jaw morphology, brains, consistently revealed striking interspecific differ-
kidneys, tongues, and digestive tracts are only a ences and unusual histological and secretory fea-
few examples among the anatomical features that tures (Wimsatt, 1956; DiSanto, 1960; Junqueira
have been investigated in recent years (e.g., Phil- & Fava de Moraes, 1965; Junqueira et al., 1967,
lips, 1971; Forman, 1972; Phillips et al., 1977, 1973; Phillips etal., 1977; Mineda, 1977, 1978;

Pinkstaff et al., 1982; Tandler & Cohan, 1984; ranged from insectivory and animalivory to om-
Nagatoetal., 1 984; Tandler & Phillips, 1985; Phil- nivory and frugivory. This investigation is the first
lips & Tandler, 1985, 1987; Tandler et al., in press). comprehensive interspecific survey of secretory
Mammalian salivary glands are highly complex product ultrastructure, and addresses the follow-
organs that not only secrete digestive enzymes but ing questions: ( 1 ) what
the range of variation in
is
also can secrete hormones, antibodies, and toxins, secretory products; (2) what are the evolutionary
to name but a few known products (e.g., Tandler, patterns in parotid secretory product; and (3) what
1972; Hand, 1980b). Data are available on the systematic conclusions can be reached by com-
biochemistry of saliva in humans and common parative ultrastructural analysis?
laboratory species; but very little is known about
the specific biochemistry of the parotid acinar se-
cretory granules except for laboratory rats in which Materials and Methods
some of the proteins have been characterized (Ro-
binovitch & Sreebny, 1969; Ball, 1974; Wallach Numbers and sex of specimens used in the pres-
et al., 1975). The complex structure and function ent study are given in the Appendix. All of these
of salivary glands is underscored by data from bats were collected during fieldwork in Mexico,
studies of Neotropical bats, which recently have Jamaica, and Suriname. Voucher specimens for
been analyzed by both transmission electron mi- all species and collecting localities are deposited
croscopy and histochemistry. For example, the ac- mammal collections of either the Carnegie
in the
cessory submandibular gland of Trachops cirrho- Museum of Natural History or The Museum, Tex-
sus has been shown to differ histologically from as Tech University. Bats typically were collected
any known mammalian salivary gland, with the at night with mist nets, and were kept overnight
exception of the same gland in Megaderma lyra without food until they were killed between 0900
and M. spasma. Megaderma lyra is an Old World and 1 200 the following morning. The animals were
ecological equivalent of Trachops (Phillips &. anesthetized with 0.25 ml of sodium pentobarbital
Tandler, 1985, 1987; Phillips et al., 1987). Both (50 mg/ml, intraperitoneally) and the salivary
of these unrelated species feed on frogs (Lekagul glands removed, placed on dental wax, flooded
& McNeely, 1977; Tuttle & Ryan, 1981), which with freshly mixed fixative, and diced into pieces
possibly has been a factor in the convergent evo- measuring approximately 1 mm'.
lution of their submandibular glands. A previously Two fixation protocols were used at different
unknown cellular organelle has been described in times during the project. Specimens collected in
another Neotropical bat, Tonatia sylvicola (Na- Mexico and Jamaica were fixed in 2% glutaral-
gato et al., 1984). In this species, the presence of dehyde in 0. 1 M phosphate buffer and then stored
xmique crystalloid smooth endoplasmic reticulum unrefrigerated in fresh fixative. The specimens col-
in seromucous acinar cells is sex-linked (being lected in Suriname were fixed in a modified tri-
found only in submandibular acinar cells in males); aldehyde-dimethylsulfoxide (dmso) mixture, first
a steroid product produced by this organelle pos- described by Kalt and Tandler (1971) and later
sibly serves as a species-isolating mechanism or modified slightly for fieldwork (Phillips, 1 985). The
as part of a chemo-behavioral system, or both. trialdehyde fixative, consisting of 3% glutaralde-
Lastly, a comparative investigation of the secre- hyde, 1% paraformaldehyde, 0.5% acrolein, 2.5%
tory product in seromucous acinar cells in sub- DMSO, and 1 mM
CaClj in a 0.05 cacodylate M
mandibular glands of ofArtibeus has
five species buffer and sucrose at pH 7.2, proved superior to
revealed that the ultrastructural characteristics of the simple glutaraldehyde fixative in that (1) a
secretory products can have systematic implica- higher percentage of tissues proved to be ade-
tions (Tandler et al., 1983, 1986). This study was quately fixed for study, and (2) the mitochondria
of particular interest because the salivary gland tended to remain intact instead of being disrupted.
data matched genie data independently derived by Although the composition of the fixatives was dif-
Koop and Baker (1983). ferent, we have not found any evidence that these
For the present investigation we surveyed par- differences introduced undesirable artifacts that
otid acinar cell secretory products in a selected would influence our analysis. Additional details
group of 1 5 species of Neotropical bats. Our group about the techniques can be found in both Phillips
comprised four families (Mormoopidae, Phyllo- (1985) and Nagato et al. (1984).
stomidae, Vespertillionidae, and Molossidae) and To remove unbound aldehydes, the tissue blocks
included a group of species in which dietary habits were subjected to prolonged washing in phos-

acinar lumen.
acinar cell
secretory
graauLej
striated Lntercalated acinus

duct duct
Fig. I . Schematic diagram of a secretory unit in a typical parotid gland. A cluster of secretory cells, arranged
around a lumen to form an acinus, drains into an intercalated duct that in turn empties into a striated duct. In reality,
more than one acinus may be associated with an intercalated duct, which itself may be branched. The acinar cells
elaborate the primary saliva, which has plasma-like concentrations of electrolytes, and add their organic secrelory
products to it. The precise role of the intercalated duct cells has not been established, but they probably play a role
in secretionand transport. The principal function of the striated ducts is resorption of electrolytes, mainly sodium,
from the primary saliva, rendering it hypotonic.
phate-buffered sucrose. The blocks were postfixed (2) the appearance of the granule was not altered
for two hours in phosphate-buffered 2% OSO4, in any meaningful way by variations in fixation;
rinsed in distilled water, soaked overnight in cold (3) the appearance of the secretory granules had
aqueous 0.25 uranyl acetate, rinsed again in dis- to be unrelated to their location within the spec-
tilled water, dehydrated in ascending concentra- imen block; and (4) the development of the gran-
tions of ethanol, passed through propylene oxide, ules could be traced (from Golgi complex to apical
and embedded in Epon-Maraglas (Tandler & Wal- cytoplasm) without any major breaks in devel-
ter, 1977). Thin sections were doubly stained with opmental sequence.
methanolic uranyl acetate (Stempak & Ward, 1 964)
and lead citrate (Venable & Coggeshall, 1965). All
'
sections were examined in a Siemens Elmiskop la Results
transmission electron microscope (tem). Semithin
sections ( 1 nm) used for orientation were stained The basic histology of the parotid salivary gland
with toluidine blue (Bjorkman, 1962) and exam- was similar in all 15 sp)ecies examined; in each
ined in a Zeiss Ultraphot. species the acinus was formed by a cluster of cells
Tissue samples used for comparisons were se- connected to the striated duct by intercalated ducts
from among available tissue blocks.
lected carefully of varying lengths (fig. 1). At the tem level, acinar
We generally avoided edges of tissues where me- cell secretory products were found to differ in all
chanical trauma often affects not only the cellular species examined (figs. 2-5). These differences
ultrastructure but also the microscopic appearance could not be related to granule ontogeny by com-
of the secretory granules. In selecting representa- paring "immature" Golgi-GERL (Golgi-endoplas-
tive "mature" granules we took into account the mic reticulum-lysosomes)-associated granules with
full array of inter- and intracellular variability as "mature" granules in the apical cytoplasm. In our
well as the often complex substructural geometry samples that consisted of both males and females,
of the granules. Selection of the most representa- we found no evidence of sexual dimorphism in
tive granules admittedly was subjective, but based secretory granule substructure, and in our largest
on our experience, four principal criteria were samples (5 to 1 specimens) we found no examples
applied: (1) cells selected for analysis showed no of individual or geographic variation that could
signs of shrinkage or swelling, and sensitive or- not be attributed to typical inter- or intracellular
ganelles, such as mitochondria, were not distorted; variation or to granule geometry. Although vari-

53 F
•8
c
u
ation may occur at the individual level, we found the appearance of several continuous dense layers
no unequivocal evidence that detectable by
it is in the outer portion of the granules (fig. 2).
transmission electron microscopy. Last, the ex- Glossophaga soricina— The bulk of each
amples selected to illustrate each species (figs. 2- granule was occupied by homogeneously dense
5) should be regarded as "average" or represen- material, which formed a smooth interface with
tative of the most common, well-fixed granule the remainder of the granule. The other portion
morphology. of each granule was pale and contained minute,
Pteronotus parnellii— The secretory granules dense specks (fig. 3). The lighter material occa-
consisted of a moderately dense, homogeneous, sionally intruded into the dense zone in the form
variably thick outer zone and a slightly lighter in- of a tortuous ribbon.
terior in which were embedded a collection of lin- Leptonycteris sanborni— The secretory gran-
ear densities, usually randomly disposed but ules contained an amorphous, dense, central in-
sometimes showing a degree of orderliness. Each clusion in a paler matrix. A small bundle of short
of these densities was outlined by a thin, barely filaments was occasionally present in the matrix
discernible, lucent layer (fig. 2). (fig. 3).
Phvllostomus elongatus— The matrix of the Sturnira liuum— The secretory granules in this
secretory granules was uniformly dense and con- species resembled those in Trachops cirrhosus.
tained a series of irregular shell-like densities, which They consisted of a large, central, dense core sur-
in thin section appeared as ribbons consisting of rounded by a rim of lucent material in which were
a dense line flanked by thin lucent plies. In certain embedded distinct punctate densities often dis-
granules, the ribbons were aligned in concentric posed in layers (fig. 3).
fashion, imparting a layered appearance to the pe- Artibeus jamaicensis— The granules were large
riphery of these cell structures. and pale and contained some faintly discernible,
Phvllostomus latifolius— These granules twisted fibrils. A few granules possessed a small,
bore some resemblance to those in P. elongatus in dense, usually peripheral inclusion (fig. 3).
that some had one or two ribbon-like layers im- Ariteus FLA vescens— These secretory granules
mediately subjacent to their limiting membrane, had a pale matrix in which were numerous, flat,
but many granules lacked these layers. Instead, the narrow, moderately dense lamellae in a random
prevailing inclusion was a lucent, coreless strand arrangement. Viewed on edge, the lamellae ap-
disposed in a complex skeinlike or twisted pretzel peared as dense lines; face on, as gray, irregular
conformation (fig. 2). structures (as seen in fig. 3). In a few granules,
Ton ATI A BiDENS— These secretory granules con- there was a dense polygonal plate that lacked pe-
tained several groups of hexagonally-packed tu- riodicity.
bules just beneath the limiting membrane. In fa- Eptesicus lynni— These granules had a com-
vorable transverse sections, such packets appeared plex substructure. The limiting membrane was un-
as honeycomb structures, whereas in longitudinal derlaid by a layer of moderately dense material
section they appeared as parallel linear densities. that made incursions, arcuate and anfractuous, into
The dense matrix shows a vermiculate pattern (fig. a dense matrix, producing a variety of patterns.
2). These extensions of the F>eripheral light material
ToNATiA SYLVicoLA— The secretory granules in had a layered structure (fig. 4, top).
from those in T. bidens. The
this species differed Eptesicus brasiliensis— As in E. lynni. the lim-
granules consisted of light and dark material that iting membrane was subtended by layered mate-
displayed two principal patterns. Either the dark rial, usually in several plies, that extended into the
material was centrally placed, where it often con- dense matrix. These extensions were less tortuous
tained one or several lucent spaces, or the light than those in E. lynni and appeared to subdivide
and dark material each occupied one hemisphere the granule interior (fig. 4, bottom).
of the granule. In either case, crystalloid tubules Tadarida brasiliensis— The secretory granules
of the sort found in T. bidens never were present in this species exhibited a spectrum of patterns.
(fig. 2). The most common was relatively simple, with
Trachops cirrhosus— In this species, the gran- either short, dense prisms or dense dots being
flat,
ules consisted of a large, central, very dense spher- suspended in a slightly less dense matrix. A few
ule surrounded by a lucent cortex. The cortical granules contained dense hollow spheres, whereas
material contained linearly arranged punctate den- others had a mazelike configuration based on light
sities that, at low to moderate magnifications, gave and dark laminations (fig. 5, top).

Fig. 4. Higher magnification of mature secretory granules in parotid acinar cells in Eptesicus lynni (top) and E.
hrasiliensis (bottom). Note the subtle but consistent differences in the granule substructure. Eptesicus lynni, x 63,000;
E. brasiliensis, x 76,800.

Fig. 5. Parotid acinar cell granules in Tadarida brasiliensis (top) are compared to those found in Molossus molossus
(bottom). Note the range of variation in granule substructure in T. brasiliensis. Tadarida brasiliensis, x 26,000;
Molossus molossus, x 24,000.

MoLOSSUs MOLOSSUS— The variable morphol- eitheris discharged from the cell into the acinar
ogy of the granules in this species appeared to lumen (thus becoming part of the formative saliva)
depend on their stage of maturation. Early gran- or, after an unknown storage interval, is broken
ules were small, with a moderately dense matrix down through autophagy and recycled within the
in which were some prominent dense particles. As cell. The glycoprotein components of the acinar
the granules matured (based on size, density, and secretory product are elaborated by the rough en-
spatial relationship to the Golgi complex), they doplasmic reticulum acting in concert with the
enlarged and the particles decreased somewhat in Golgi complex and are perhaps the most interest-
density. The mature granules had a farinaceous ing feature from a comparative point of view. Syn-
matrix probably resulting from comminution of thesis of these glycoproteins begins with transcrip-
the dense particles (fig. 5, bottom). tion of a very small segment of the genome into
mRNA. The exportable proteins of the secretory
granules could be regarded as providing a "win-
Discussion dow" on the genome because, although all somatic
cellshave the same genome (Briggs &
King, 1 952,
The idea of using comparative ultrastructural 1957), only a small portion actually is operational
analysis of homologous, morphologically differ- in any given fully differentiated cell. A
protein
entiated cells to study evolutionary pathways and synthesized for export thus directly reflects a por-
to explore systematic relationships is new to the tion of the operational genome. Any polysaccha-
study of mammalian orders, but has been used in ride components of the secretory granules prob-
broader studies of vertebrates and invertebrates ably are at least one more step removed from the
(Eakin, 1968; Rieger &
Tyler, 1979; PhiUips & genome because synthesis of complex carbohy-
Tandler, 1987). Nevertheless, the potential value drates is enzymatically determined and usually
of ultrastructural comparisons has been demon- takes place within saccules in the Golgi complex
strated recently by studies of gastric mucosa, ret- (Tandler, 1978). Even so, the polysaccharides also
ina, and submandibular salivary glands (Phillips have considerable potential for comparative anal-
et al., 1984; Feldman & Phillips, 1984; Tandler et ysis.
al., 1983, 1986; Phillips & Tandler, 1987). The Production of secretory granules can be consid-
discovery of patterns of intersF>ecific differences in ered in terms of ontogeny. The first "granules"
cellular architecture and cellular secretory prod- typically are seen in direct proximity to the Golgi
ucts keeping with previously successful use
is in complex, where carbohydrates are linked to pro-
of histology in evolutionary and systematic mam- teins and the membrane that will encase the gran-
malogy (e.g.. Quay, 1954; Forman, 1972; Phillips ule is synthesized in a process involving both the
& Oxberry, 1972; Sands et al., 1977; Naumova, GERL and the Golgi complex itself (Tandler, 1978;
1981; Hood & Smith, 1982, 1983). Hand, 1 980a; Hand & Oliver, 1 984). Newly formed
Secretory cells, such as the parotid acinar cells ("immature") granules differ greatly from "ma-
used in the present study, seem to hold special ture" granules (see Castle et al., 1975) and were
promise for comparative investigation. Firstly, the not used by us in describing the product for each
entire secretory process— from nuclear dna to syn- of our species. Nevertheless, in view of species
thesis of proteins and complex carbohydrates and differences found by us, it is interesting to ask
packaging of materials into secretory granules and whether or not immature granules of one species
their subsequent discharge— has been studied in- might resemble mature granules in another species.
tensively over the past several decades (e.g., Such similarities might be expected if hetero-
Jamieson & Palade, 1971; Castle et al., 1975; Pa- chronic differences accounted for differences in
lade, 1975). Secondly, the secretory process seems mature product. However, because no such cross-
to be relatively conservative— in the sense that species similarities were found by us between
basic pathways are the same in virtually all secre- immature and mature secretory granules, hetero-
tory cells— and, therefore, interspecific compari- chrony does not seem to account for sp>ecies dif-
sons are facilitated and interpretation is somewhat among the 1 5 bats examined here.
ferences, at least
simplified (Phillips &
Tandler, 1987). No two Neotropical sfiecies examined here ex-
In the present study we limited our descriptive hibited the same mature secretory granules in their
comparisons to "mature" secretory granules. These parotid gland acinar cells, although in a few cases
are the secretory granules that accumulate within there was a degree of resemblance. This extreme
the apical cytoplasm of the acinar cell; this product variability is easily the greatest ever reported for

homologous cells within an order or, as in the case chemical components such as certain enzymes or
of the Phyllostomidae, within a family of mam- mucosubstances, so from microscopic images alone
mals (or any other vertebrates). To what can we we cannot say precisely how the granules in our
attribute this striking finding? species differ chemically from one another. How-
One consideration is fixation, which certainly ever, some conclusions can be inferred from the
affects the appearance of any cellular feature as literature. For example, an electron-dense image
viewed with transmission electron microscopy. In- (see, for example, fig. 2), labeled classically as "se-
deed, it can be said that the appearance of cells rous," can be associated with granules rich in en-
and their products essentially is the consequence zymes. Such an image is typical in species such as
of their intrinsic chemistry combined with the laboratory rodents and primates, for which some
chemistry of the fixative at the moment in time data are available on the biochemistry of parotid
when fixation occurred. Different fixatives and tis- saliva (e.g., Jacobsen «Sc Hensten-Pettersen, 1974).
sue processing can have profound effects on the On the other hand, the presence of electron-dense
microscopic appearance of secretory granules in "serous" granules does not preclude the presence
salivary glands (Simson et al., 1978). However, we of mucosubstances within the secretory granules.
used consistent processing techniques and two Pinkstaff'et al. (1982) reported that, although the
similar fixatives. Our specimens of Ariteus and parotid product in the little brown bat, Myotis
Leptonycteris both were fixed with 2% glutaral- lucifugus, was "serous" with standard histological
dehyde, whereas all of our other specimens were techniques, both neutral and acidic mucosub-
fixed with a trialdehyde-DMSO fixative (Kalt & stances could be demonstrated histochemically.
Tandler, 1971; Phillips, 1985). We were able to The parotid granules in Artibeus and Ariteus are
eliminate fixation as a source of variation because interesting in this regard because electron-dense
we also have examined specimens of Artibeus that material is scarce (especially in Artibeus, fig. 3) and
had been fixed in both solutions, coincidentally enzyme production is extremely low, at least in
with Leptonycteris, Ariteus, and all of the other Artibeus (Junqueira et al., 1973). By way of con-
species examined (see A. phaeotis parotid in Phil- trast, Sturnira lilium has largely electron-dense
lips et al., 1977). granules (fig. 3) and thus differs considerably from
Generally speaking, given consistent prepara- the other two stenodermatines; Sturnira produces
tion techniques, microscopic differences in secre- saliva rich in enzymes (Junqueira et al., 1973).
tory granule substructure can be ascribed to bio- Although the parotid granules in Artibeus (and,
chemical differences among the granules. by extension, Ariteus) are low in enzyme content,
Microscopically detectable sequestration of indi- to what can we attribute their tem image? This is
vidual types of macromolecules within secretory an intriguing question because Wimsatt (1956) re-
granules has been demonstrated only rarely (Ra- ported that the gland was negative for mucosub-
vazzola &
Orci, 1980; Kousvelari et al., 1982) but stances, whereas Radtke (1972) reported the pres-
clearly the best available explanation of intra-
is ence of sialomucins in parotid acinar cells. In part,
granule substructure. Based on fundamental prin- this apparent disagreement is the result of differ-
ciples of biochemistry, it thus can be concluded ences in techniques that cannot be resolved by
that macromolecules packaged in the secretory transmission electron microscopy.
granules most likely sort themselves out according What can be determined about the parotid sal-
to charge and steric effects, as well as chemical ivary glands in Neotropical bats that relates to
interactions, to yield a characteristic pattern for their diets, evolutionary history, or systematic re-
each species. However, it also should be noted that lationships? Clearly the ultrastructure of parotid
a homogeneous appearance of intragranular sub- secretory granules has systematic significance, be-
stance does not in itself preclude sequestration of cause no two genera (or species either) are exactly
differentenzymes within the granule. Separate lo- alike. This finding is in keeping with our studies
calization of different enzymes (a-amylase and of the submandibular gland in five species of Ar-
chymotrypsinogen A or a-amylase and trypsino- tibeus (Phillips et al., 1977; Tandler et al., 1983,
gen) within pancreatic cell zymogen granules has 1986). The seromucous cells in this gland were
been demonstrated with a combination of hrp found to contain granules that allowed for three
(horseradish-p)eroxidase)-labeled and ferritin-la- groupings of Artibeus species {A. cinereus-A.
beled antibodies (Ono et al., 1980). phaeotis, A. jamaicensis-A. lituratus, and A. con-
At present impossible to correlate exactly
it is color) that matched the independently derived
secretory granule substructure with particular genie data (from isozyme analysis) reported by

Koop and Baker ( 1 983). The differences in parotid lecular surface charges (Perutz, 1983). For the
acinar product in Eptesicus lynni and E. brasi- present we postulate that similar nonselected, non-
liensis (fig. 4) also are interesting from this per- functional variations could account for the micro-
spective because independent genie data from 1 9 scopically detectable intrageneric differences in
presumptive loci show that E. lynni probably orig- salivary proteins in Tonatia bidens and T. sylvi-
inated from the E. fuscus species complex, sepa- cola, Phyllostomus latifolius and P. elongatus, and
rate from the origin of E. brasiliensis (Arnold et Eptesicus lynni and E. brasiliensis. This explana-
al., 1980). Eptesicus lynni was found to share only tion seems more parsimonious than the alterna-
62% of analyzed alleles with E. brasiliensis. which would be to assume that the acinar cell
tive,
Itmight seem surprising that the microscopic component of the parotid saliva is "functionally"
images of salivary gland secretory products are different in closely related, ecologically similar
generically (and often specifically) distinctive, but species. The extent or degree of microscopic dif-
variation of such a fine resolution actually is in ferences in the mature acinar cell product ulti-
keeping with numerous genetic studies of mam- mately might tell us more about relative times of
malian saliva. Several genetic markers have been divergence than about ecological differences among
found in human saliva (Azen & Opp)enheim, 1 973; congeneric species of bats.
Ashton & Balakrishinan, 1974; Tan & Ashton, Microscopic comparisons of salivary gland se-
1976), and salivary proteins in particular tend to cretory products could be valuable to cladistic
be polymorphic (Azen, 1972, 1973). Additionally, studies of chiropteran families, at least to judge
both sex and strain differences in salivary proteins from our data. The phyllostomines generally are
have been reported in laboratory mice (Ikemoto regarded as the most primitive (least derived) of
& Matsushima, 1984). Although none of these dif- the Phyllostomidae (Smith, 1976), and their par-
ferences has been demonstrated microscopically otid acinar products thus would qualify as plesio-
(all are based on biochemical analysis alone), their morphic (following Henning, 1 966). The products
occurrence nevertheless is significant to compar- examined (Phyllostomus elon-
in all five species
isons among mammalian species. gatus, P. latifolius, Tonatia bidens, T. sylvicola,
Although the sometimes subtle but consistent and Trachops cirrhosus) contained large amounts
microscopic differences between species within the of electron-dense material (fig. 2), as did the se-
genera Phyllostomus, Tonatia, and Eptesicus (figs. cretory product in Pteronotus parnellii (a closely
2, 4) are in keeping with our hypothesis of the related mormoopid), Eptesicus lynni and E. bra-
sensitivity of secretory product to genie differ- siliensis (Vespertilionidae), and Tadarida brasi-
ences, they cannot readily be related to any known liensis and Molossus molossus (Molossidae), all of
ecological differences between species within each which serve as "outgroups."
genus. It is altogether possible that such species If the electron-dense, enzyme-rich secretory
differences do not represent direct evolutionary granules are regarded as plesiomorphic in micro-
selection. Instead, the differing
images might rep- chiropteran bats, then it would be reasonable to
resent species-specific protein polymorphisms of regard a granule with less electron-dense material
a type that would not significantly affect "perfor- as apomorphic (derived). The glossophagine gen-
mance" of the saliva even though differences in era examined (Glossophaga and Leptonycteris) are
primary molecular structure or surface charges (or representative of a phyllostomid evolutionary trend
both) could be indirectly detected by transmission in which dentition, tongues, and associated mus-
electron microscopy (Phillips & Tandler, 1987). culature were modified for feeding on fruit, pollen,
The existence of such "nonfunctional" (and pre- and nectar (Park &
Hall, 1951; Phillips, 1971;
sumably nonselected, i.e., "neutral") interspecific Greenbaum & Phillips, 1974; Griffiths, 1982, 1983;
variation in a protein molecule has been demon- Smith 8l Hood, 984). In these genera the electron-
1
strated previously in the otherwise conservative dense component has been reduced in comparison
hemoglobin molecule (Perutz, 1983). In this ex- to the phyllostomines. Carollia perspicillata, which
ample the tertiary and quaternary structures ap- is omnivorous, fits into this category in that the
parently are conserved regardless of large numbers parotid secretory granules contain relatively little
of functionally neutral amino acid substitutions in electron-dense material. In this bat the secretory
the primary structure. Although these substitu- granules are very distinctive because the electron-
tions in themselves most often have no effect on dense inclusions are often in the form of cagelike
the functional capacity of the molecule, they geodesic structures (Phillips & Tandler, 1987;
nevertheless are known sometimes to change mo- Tandler et al., in press).

Perhaps the most interesting systematic finding nor glands) that are located throughout the oral
in our data lies within the nominal subfamily region and that contribute substances to the saliva.
Stenodermatinae. These bats represent an evolu- Some data suggest that different glands in different
tionary trend toward frugivory that includes ex- species might have been more responsive, in an
treme gastric adaptation at the gross, histological, evolutionary sense, to changes in diet. For ex-
histochemical, and cellular levels (Forman, 1972; ample, it is the accessory submandibular glands
Forman et al., 1979; Phillips & Studholme, 1982; of Trachops and Megaderma that are unique in
Phillips et al., 1984). The pale parotid secretory histology and might correlate with feeding on frogs
granules in Artibeus and Ariteus are synapomor- (Phillips &. Tandler, 1985; Phillips et al., 1987);
phous, whereas the parotid granules in Sturnira the parotid in Trachops is similar to that of other
are electron-dense, enzyme-rich, and more nearly phyllostomines.
like the plesiomorphic granules of the phyllosto- A which we presently have no
third factor, for
mines, in particular Trachops cirrhosus (figs. 2-3). data, the possibility that parotid acinar cells can
is
This example is interesting because Sturnira al- respond in some way to diet at the individual level.
ways has been something of an enigma. Although Our sample sizes are large enough to convince us
de la Torre (1961) allied this genus with Vampy- of the near uniformity of secretory granule mor-
rops-\\\it stenodermatines and Smith (1976) in- phology within a population. However, Schick et
cluded it with the "long-faced" stenodermatines, al. (1984) have recently published the first report
others (e.g., Walton & Walton, 1968) previously of a secretory cell responding to dietary intake by
had placed the genus in a separate subfamily (Stur- a shift in enzyme production. This is the first such
nirinae) based on a variety of morphological fea- detailed molecular data known to us and, although
tures that seemed inconsistent with the other, more pancreatic acinar cells in laboratory rats were the
traditional, stenodermatines such as Artibeus. In- source of the data, the implications for compar-
deed, Slaughter (1970) pointed out that Sturnira ative studies of salivary glands are worth noting.
has some distinctive dental features that possibly A final factor for consideration is the complex
link the genus to the glossophagines. The differ- role that salivary glands play in the lives of mam-
ences in the parotid secretory granules thus are in mals. Salivary glands in Artibeus, Chiroderma, and
keeping with a variety of other phenotypic differ- Ametrida might contribute to gastric cytoprotec-
ences. While it is reasonable to suggest that secretion (Studier et al., 1983; Phillips et al., 1984). In
tory granule differences of this magnitude repre- Tonatia sylvicola an unusual organelle found in
sent a major interspecific difference in the submandibular seromucous cells of males might
operational segment of the genomes of homolo- be related to species isolation or sex recognition,
gous parotid acinar cells, the eventual systematic or both (Nagato et al., 1984). If these examples
value of such data will await availability of data are typical for bats, then digestion is but one of
about still other phyllostomid genera. several major functions of salivary glands.
Although our comparative data clearly docu- In conclusion, this first systematic microscopic
ment great microscopically detectable plasticity in survey of a secretory cell product has demonstrat-
the secretory product of parotid acinar cells, many ed a previously unknown, extraordinary degree of
questions about their evolution remain unan- variation within a group of related sjjecies. Based
swered. For example, what has been the role of on our findings, one might conclude that Neo-
diet?At first glance, our data suggest that insec- tropical microchiropteran bats will serve as a sig-
tivorous and animalivorous species have enzyme- nificant model for study of how secretory cells
rich, electron-dense granules, whereas frugivores have evolved in mammals; meanwhile, data from
have enzyme-poor, pale secretory granules. Yet, comparative investigations will contribute to our
what about Sturnira lilium, which certainly in- knowledge of genie relationships among these an-
cludes large amounts of fruit in its diet (Gardner, imals.
1977)?
At least three factors interfere with any effort to
correlate parotid acinar cell product with diet. First, Acknowledgments
acinar cells are but one cell type among several
that influence the biochemistry of parotid saliva. Financial support for field and laboratory re-
Second, and possibly more important, the par- search that led to the data reported here came from
otid is but one salivary gland among a host of a variety of sources, which we are pleased to ac-
glands (the submandibular and sublingual and mi- knowledge: Research Corporation Grant C-1251

(to Phillips); NIH Grant DE 03455-02 (to Phil- Briggs, R., AND T. J. King. 1952. Transplantation of
living nuclei from blastula cells into enucleated frogs'
lips); NSF Grant CDP-80 1-8653 (to Phillips);
eggs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
Hofstra University HCLAS Executive Committee ences, USA, 38: 455-463.
grants (to Phillips); NIH Grant AM-08305 (to . 1957. in the nuclei of differentiating
Changes
Tandler); NIH Grant RO DE 07648-01 Al (to endoderm revealed by nuclear transplantation.
cells as
j
Tandler & Phillips); the Alcoa Foundation (through Journal of Morphology, 100: 269-3 1 2. \
Dr. Hugh H. Genoways, Carnegie Museum of Nat- Castle, D., J. D. Jamieson, and G. E. Palade. 1975.
J.
ural History); and the Graham Netting Research Secretion granules in the rabbit parotid gland. Isola-
tion, and characterization of the
subfractionation,
Fund via a grant from the Cordelia S. May Char-
membrane and content subfractions. Journal of Cell
itable Trust (through Genoways). In addition to
Biology, 64: 182-210.
recognizing our financial support, we also wish to DE LA Torre, L. 1 96 1 The evolution, variation, and
.
thank several colleagues whose field companion- systematics of the Neotropical bats of the genus Stur-
nira. Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Urbana.
ship in such places as Suriname and Jamaica, hard
work, and willingness to share time and ideas in DiSanto, P. E. 1960. Anatomy and histochemistry of
the salivary glands of the vampire bat, Desmodus ro-
their laboratories played a major part in our study.
tundus murinus. Journal of Morphology, 106: 301-
These are: Hugh H. Genoways, Carnegie Museum 335.
of Natural History; Gary W. Grimes and Dorothy
Eakjn, R. M. 1968. Evolution of photoreceptors, pp.
E. Pumo, Hofstra University; Robert J. Baker, 194-242. In Dobzhansky, T., M. K. Hecht, and W.
Texas Tech University; and Henry A. Reichart, C. Steere, eds.. Evolutionary Biology, vol. 2. Appleton-
formerly of STINASU, in Suriname. Field assis- Century-Crofts, New York, 452 pp.
tance was provided by K. M. Studholme, S. L. EiSENBERG, J. F., AND D. E. WiLSON. 1978. Relative
brain size and feeding strategies in the Chiroptera.
Williams, N. M. Sposito, J. Groen, R. L. Honey-
Evolution, 32: 740-751.
cutt, B. Koop, M. Arnold, B. A. Oxberry, P. Bil-
Feldman, J. L., AND C.J. Phillips. 1984. Comparative i
leter, J. Bickham, and J. Patton. We also acknowl- '
retinal pigment epithelium and photoreceptor ultra-
edge technical assistance of Carol Ayala, Case structure in nocturnal and fossorial rodents: The east-
Western Reserve University, and typing by Linda em woodrat, Neotomafloridana, and the plains pocket
gopher, Geomys bursarius. Journal of Mammalogy,
Cossen, Special Secretarial Services, Hofstra Uni-
65:231-245.
versity. Artwork and lettering were done by Helen
FoRMAN, G. L. 1 972. Comparative morphological and
Tandler. All specimens were collected and im-
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United States. FoRMAN, G. L., C. J. Philups, and C. S. Rouk. 1979.
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Schick, J., R. Verspohl, H. Kern, and G. Scheele. Tandler, B., and R. J. Walter. 1977. Epon-Maraglas
1 984. Two distinct adaptive responses in the synthe- embedment for electron microscopy. Stain Technol-
sis of exocrine pancreatic enzymes to inverse changes
ogy, 52: 238-239.
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TuTTLE, M. D., AND M. J. Ryan. 1981. Bat predation
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1978. Morphology and cytochemistry of acinar se-
Venable, J. H., AND R. CoGGESHALL. 1965. A simpli-
fied lead citrate stain for use in electron microscopy.
cretory granules in normal and isoproterenol-treated
Journal of Cell Biology, 25(no. 2, pt. 1): 407-408.
rat submandibular glands. Journal of Microscopy,
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The proteins of the content of the secretory granules
Slaughter, B. H. 1970. Evolutionary trends of chi-
of the rat parotid gland. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta,
ropteran dentitions, pp. 51-83. In Slaughter, B. H.,
382: 552-564.
and D. W. Walton, eds.. About Bats. Southern Meth-
odist University Press, E>allas, Texas, 339 pp. Walton, D. W., and G. W. Walton. 1968. Com-
parative osteology of the pelvic and pectoral girdles
Smith, J. D. 1976. Chiropteran evolution, pp. 49-69.
of the Phyllostomatidae (Chiroptera; Mammalia).
In Baker, R. J., J. K. Jones, Jr., and D. C. Carter, eds..
Journal of the Graduate Research Center, Southern
Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllosto-
Methodist University, 37: 1-35.
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Texas Tech University, 10: 1-218. WiMSATT, W. A. 1956. Histological and histochemical
observations on the parotid, submaxillary and sublin-
Smith, J. D., and C. S. Hood.
1984. Genealogy of the
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to Griffiths. Systematic Zoology, 33: 435-460. jamaicensis Leach. Journal of Morphology, 99: 69- 1
209.
Stempak, J. G., AND R. T. Ward. 1964. An improved

Appendix (Jamaica) were collected in Brokopondo Province,
Suriname.
Pteronotus parnellii, 10 (5 S6, 5 29); Tonatia bi-
Specimens Examined dens, 3 {2 SS, 1 2); T. sylvicola, 2 {66); Trachops

cirrhosus, 2 (1 3, 1 2); Phyllostomus elongatus, 3
Voucher specimens of each species and each (\6,2 22); P. latifolius, 1(2); Glossophaga soricina,
of the Car-
locality are deposited in the collections 3 (2 $6, 1 2); Leptonycteris sanborni, 2 (3<5); Sturnira
negie Museumof Natural History and The Mu- lilium, 5 (2 35, 3 22); Artibens jamaicensis, 3 (22);
seum, Texas Tech University. All specimens ex- Ariteus flavescens, 1 (2); Eptesicus lynni, 2 {$$); E.
cept those of Leptonycteris sanborni (Jalisco, Tadarida brasiliensis,
brasiliensis, 3 (22); 1 (S); Mo-
Mexico) and Ariteus flavescens and Eptesicus lynni lossus molossus, 8 (4 66, 4 22).

Distribution of the Species and Subspecies of
Cebids in Venezuela
Roberta Bodini and Roger Perez-Hernandez
ABSTRACTS
Thirteen species of Primates representing nine genera in the family Cebidae are found in
Venezuela. The geographic distribution of these species exhibits four main patterns. Alouatta
and Cebus are widely distributed in all parts of the country. Four genera, Saimiri, Callicebus,
Cacajao, and Chiropotes are restricted to south-central Venezuela; their distribution is centered
in theAmazonian lowlands. Aotus and Ateles are each represented by one species or subspecies
in south-centralVenezuela and another in northwestern Venezuela. Pithecia is mainly restricted
to the in eastern Venezuela, with a single known outlying locality in south-
Guianan highlands
central Venezuela. Of the nine cebid genera in Venezuela, all occur in south-central Venezuela,
four occur in northwestern and north-central Venezuela, and only three occur in eastern Ven-
ezuela. Distribution maps for the 1 3 species in Venezuela are presented with exact localities of
specimens.
Nueve generos de cebidos representados por trece especies se hallan en Venezuela. La re-
particion geografica de en cuatro patrones geograficos principales. De

las especies se resuelve
este modo, Alouatta y Cebus son extensamente repartido por todo el pais. La distribucion de
los generos, Saimiri, Callicebus, Cacajao y Chiropotes esta restringida al sur-central de Vene-
zuela con concentracion en las tierras bajas Amazonicas. Aotus y Ateles son representatados,
cada cual, por una especie (o subespecie), en el sur-central, y otra especie in el noroeste del
pais. Pithecia se reparte en las alturas guayanas venezolanas del este, y es conocido, a la vez,
por un solo dato de captura del sur-central venezolano. En resumen, la totalidad de los nueve
generos esta presente en el sur-central de Venezuela, cuatro de ellos en el noroeste y norte-
central, y tres en la Venezuela oriental. La reparticion de las trece especies esta documentado
por mapas.
Treze especies de Primatas, representando nove generos da familia Cebidae, sao encontradas
na Venezuela. A distribuifao geografica destas especies exibem quatro padroes principais. Al-
ouatta e Cebus espalham-se por todas partes do pais. Quatro generos, Saimiri, Callicebus,
Cacajao, e Chiropotes, limitam-se ao centro-sul de Venezuela; a Bacia Amazonica sendo seus
focos de distribuifoes. Aotus e Ateles sao representados por uma especie ou subespecie cada
no centro-sul da Venezuela, e por outra especie no noroeste do pais. Pithecia limita-se ao
planalto Guianense,no leste da Venezuela, com apenas uma localidade conhecida no centro-
sul do Pais. Em
suma, todos nove generos de Cebidae ocorrem no centro-sul da Venezuela,
quatro ocorrem no centro-norte e noroeste do Pais, e apenas tres ocorrem no regiao leste da
Venezuela. Apresentam-se mapas de distribui96es das 13 especies na Venezuela, com locali-
dades exatas dos especimes colecionados.
From the Institute de Zoologia Tropical, Universidad

Central de Venezuela, Apartado 47058, Los Chaguara-
mos, Caracas 1041 -A, Venezuela.
BODINI & PEREZ-HERNANDEZ: CEBIDS IN VENEZUELA 231

Introduction Specific and Subspecific Distributions
Primates of the family Cebidae are some of the Saimiri

most conspicuous mammals in the Neolropics, as
they are diurnal, often forage in large troops, and In a recent revision of the squirrel monkeys,
may be quite vocal. However, we actually know Hershkovitz (1984) recognized four species: Sai-
very little about the exact distributions of most miri boliviensis, S. oerstedi. S. sciureus, and S.
species of cebids. In Venezuela, several authors ustus. All those squirrel monkeys found in north-
have discussed cebids as part of generic revisions em South America he referred to the single species
(see Elliot, 1912; Hershkovitz, 1949, and later S. sciureus (fig. 1 ). Squirrel monkeys from Ama-
works; HiU, 1960, 962; Kellogg & Goldman, 1944)
1 zonian Venezuela and adjacent Brazil and Colom-
and in works on the status or collections of specific bia he regarded as 5. sciureus cassiquiarensis.
species (i.e., Bodini, 1983; Handley, 1976; Mon- Hershkovitz (1984) plotted several localities in
dolfi & Eisenberg, 1979; Rudran & Eisenberg, Territorio Federal Amazonas, but listed only a
1982). Rio (mouth),
single specific locality: "Casiquiare,
Herein we summarize the distribution of cebids 2°01'N, 67"X)7'W." Hill (1960) previously had
in Venezuela based on recent collections, speci- mapped the distribution of 5. sciureus as occurring
men records from several museums, and the lit- throughout all of Venezuela, although he listed
erature. Specimens reported on are housed in the only a single locality in the state of Bolivar (Camp
following collections: Estacion Biologica Rancho Canaracuni, 4''36'N, 64''10'W). The name cassi-
Grande (EBRG); Museo de Biologia, Universidad quiarensis Lesson is based on Humboldt's descrip-
Central de Venezuela (MBUCV); Museo de Cien- tion of a captive female from the banks of the Rio
cias Naturales (MCN); and Museo de Historia Casiquiare, Amazonas, Venezuela.
Natural La Salle (MHNLS). Our objectives are to Specimens Examined— Total 29. Bolivar: Ca-
provide accurate locality records and distribution naracuni (4°36'N, 64«'10'W). Territorio Federal
maps that may be utilized in future investigations. Amazonas: Campo Cacuri (4°49'N, 65°26'W); Cano
Yureba, Rio Ventuari (3''35'N, 66°46'W); Rio Pu-
runame, 40 km from union with Rio Orinoco
(3°19'N, 65°15'W); Rio Ventuari (3°59'N,
Generic Distributions 67'^2'W); San Fernando de Atabapo (4°02'N,
67»37'W); San Juan de Manapiare (5°14'N,
The nine genera of cebids that inhabit Venezuela 66'^2'W).
exhibit four main patterns of geographic distri-
bution (figs. 1-7). (1) Two geneT^—Alouatta and Aotus
Cebus— arc widely distributed in all paris of the
coimtry. (2) Four genera— Sa/m/r/, Callicebus, Night monkeys are found from Panama
Cacajao, and Chiropotes—UTe restricted to south- throughout much of Amazonian South America
central Venezuela, centering on the Amazonian to Paraguay. Historically, it has generally been as-
lowlands (see Eisenberg & Redford, 1 979). (3) Two sumed that all night monkeys represented the sin-
genera— .4orw5 and Ateles—are each represented gle speciesAotus trivirgatus. However, in a recent
by one species or subspecies in south-central Ven- revision of the genus, Hershkovitz (1983) recog-
ezuela and another in northwestern Venezuela or nized nine allopatric species. A tenth species, Aotus
northwestern and north-central Venezuela, which hershkovitzi from Colombia, has recently been
is the region of the northeastern spurs of the An- proposed by Ramirez-Cerquera (1983). Two
dean chain and the enclosed Maracaibo basin. (4) and A. trivirgatus.
species of Aotus, A. lemurinus
One genus— Pithecia— is mainly restricted to the have been reported from Venezuela (fig. 2).
Guianan highlands in eastern Venezuela, with a Aotus lemurinus griseimembra Elliot is known
single known
outlying locality in south-central in Venezuela only fi-om the extreme northwestern
Venezuela. In summary, of the nine cebid genera region, the states of Cojedes and Merida (Hersh-
in Venezuela, all occur in south-central Venezuela kovitz, 1983), and the states of Tachira, Trujillo,
(including the outlier record of Pithecia), four oc- and Zulia (Handley, 1976).
cur in northwestern and north-central Venezuela, Specimens Examined— Total 10. Zulia: Campo
and only three occur in eastern Venezuela. a Rosario, EHstrito Catatumbo (l''44'N, 67°03'W);

233
BODINI & PEREZ-HERNANDEZ: CEBIDS IN VENEZUELA
234
HELDIANA: ZOOLOGY
Reserva San Manuel, Los Canaguatos (9*t)4'N, 67"06'W); Alto Ventuari (3°50'N, 67°04'W); Boca
71''56'W); Kunana, Rio Negro, Sierra de Perija Cano Maica, Rio Ventuari (66°30'W); Cano Ya-
(9*75'N, 72*25'W); Rio Tocuco (72''25'W). gua, Cerro Cucurito, Departamento Atabapo
Aotus trivirgatus trivirgatus Humboldt is known 66»25'W); Cacuri, Alto Ventuari (4°49'N,
(3''38'N,
from the region south of the Rio Orinoco in Ter- 65"26'W); La Esmeralda (3"X)8'N, 65°32'W); Rio
ritorio Federal Amazonas and the state of Bolivar. Cunucunuma (3°10'N, 66°0rW); Rio Puruname
The Venezuelan national collections contain (3°19'N, 65''15'W); La Neblina, east of Rio Varia
specimens from Cano Manapiare and Rio Anta- (0°59'N, 66°10'W).
vari, and two literature records report
specimens
from the right bank of the Rio Caroni (INP- Alonatta
ARQUES, 1982;MARNR-DGS-POA-SFS, 1982). Alouatta is the only genus within the subfamily
Our recent discovery of Aotus trivirgatus in Alouattinae and is represented by some six species
Guyana to the east of the Rio Caura, well outside widely distributed in Central and South America.
of the Rio Orinoco basin, led to an investigation A single species, Alouatta seniculus, is abundant
of geographic variation in the species. Preliminary and widely distributed in Venezuela. Hill (1962)
results suggest that these A. trivirgatus represent a
recognized three subspecies of A. seniculus as oc-
new geographic race (Bodini & Ferreira, in prep.).
curring in Venezuela. Alouatta seniculus seniculus
Specimens Examined— Total 1 1. Bolivar: Cano Linnaeus is foimd in extreme northwestern Ven-
Manapiare (7»1 1'N, 66°40'W); Rio Antavari ezuela, primarily in the states of Apure, Tachira,
(S'Ô'N, 63°10'W). Territorio Federal Amazonas: and Zulia, with a single record from Barinas (Ti-
Alto Manapiare (S'^S'N, 66°02'W); San Juan de
coporo Forest, 8'X)6'N, 70*'40'W). Alouatta seni-
Manapiare (S^M'N, 66°02'W); near Isla Cigarron, culus arctoidea Cabrera, called the "Caracas howler
Rio Negro (r44'N, 67°03'W); recently collected the coastal
monkey" by Humboldt, inhabits all
in La Neblina, east of Rio Varia (0°59'N, 66°10'W).
region from Falcon to the state of Miranda. Ca-
brera (1 958) proposed Caracas as the type locality.
Callicebus A third subspecies, A. seniculus stramineus Hum-
boldt, inhabits all of Venezuela south of the Rio
The genus the sole representative

Callicebus is Orinoco in Territorio Federal Amazonas and the
of the subfamily Callicebinae and is found from state of Bolivar (fig. 4).
northern South America south to northern Para- In addition to these three subspecies, we believe
guay. Hershkovitz (1963) and Kinzey (1982) rec- a fourth, previously unrecognized, form exists and
ognized three species, Callicebus moloch, per-C is widely distributed throughout the Venezuelan
sonatus, and C. torquatus, of which only C. llanos. This undescribed subspecies is character-
torquatus is found in Venezuela. ized by coloration and size. The southern limit of
Callicebus torquatus lugens Humboldt is known its distribution is clearly defined by the Rio Ori-
in Venezuela south of the Rio Orinoco (fig. 3). Hill noco, but its northern and western limits in the
(1960) originally suggested that C. torquatus is Andean piedmont are as yet undetermined.
found as far east as Guyana, although this was Howler monkeys are extremely adaptable to a
questioned by both Handley (1976) and Hersh- wide array of environments, and we believe they
kovitz (1963), who reported Venezuelan speci- are found throughout Venezuela. Their apparent
mens only from Territorio Federal Amazonas. absence in certain regions probably reflects lack of
Handley (1976) reported 31 specimens from collecting rather than true distributional gaps, as
southern Territorio Federal Amazonas. Bodini our records demonstrate for the state of Anzoa-
(1981) reported specimens from Maripa, Camp tegui. The problem of current and historical dis-
Canaracuni, and the Rio Antavari in Venezuela. tribution and systematic relationships of the var-
Recent reports by Kinzey ( 1 982) and Bodini (1981) ious populations in Venezuela is in need of study.
confirm the presence of C torquatus in Guiana Specimens Examined— Total 80. Anzoategui:
Region. Los Cocos, Rio Caris (8''30'N, 64'^5'W). Apure:
Specimens Examined— Total 26. Bolivar: Cana- Caiio San Agustin, Selva de San Camilo (7"'19'N,
racuni (4'36'N, 64°10'W); Maripa, 150 km from 7r57'W); Hato El Frio (7°44'N, 68°54'W); Las
Ciudad Bolivar (7*22'N, 65'^9'W); Rio Antavari Raicitas, El Saman (7°55'N, 68°40'W). Aragua:
(5»20'N, 63M0'W); Alto Paragua (4°30'N, Asentamiento Los Castillos, Turagua (10°09'N,
63*WW). Territorio Federal Amazonas: Alto Cano 67»3rW); Cumbre de Guacamaya (10°2rN,
Caname, Departamento Atabapo (3*'33'N, 67'40'W); Los Picachos, Rancho Grande ( 1 0*2 1'N,
236 FIELDL\NA: ZOOLOGY

6T4l'W). Barinas: Reserva Forestal Ticoporo Maripa and Caiio Maniapure (Bolivar), but we are
(8°09'N, 70°40'W). Bolivar: Guayoba, Rio Caura, aware of no specimens from this region.
4 km from Maripa (7°20'N, 65°10'W); Hato Bella Specimens Examined— Total 29. Territorio
Vista, El Palmar (8°00'N, 62°00'W); Represa del Federal Amazonas: Cacuri, Alto Ventuari (4°49'N,
Guri, Operacion Rescate (7°40'N, 63°00'W); San 65''26'W); Caiio Yureba, Departamento Atabapo
Martin de Turumban, Anacoco-Cuyuni (6°42'N, (3°3rN, 66''44'W); Caiio Yagua, Cerro Cucurito
61°02'W). Carabobo: Las Quiguas, San Esteban (3''3 1 'N, 66°44' W); Laguna de Chiripo, Caiio Blan-
(10''25'N, eSÔrW). Cojedes: Hato Barbasco co (3°27'N, 66°40'W); Rio Ocamo, Alto Orinoco
(9°04'N, 68°08'W); Hato Itabana, 38 km from Las (2°44'N, Puerto Ayacucho (5°36'N,
65°11'W);
Vegas (9°17'N, 68*'13'W); Las Queseras, El Baul 67''35'W);Rio Orinoco, S of San Fernando de Ata-
(8'*25'N, 68°17'W); Montaria Las Lomas, San Car- bapo (4'^0'N, 67°38'W); San Fernando de Ata-
los (9°38'N, 68°34'W). Distrito Federal: Hacienda bapo (4°02'N, 67°37'W); San Juan de Manapiare
El Limon (10°28'N, 67''1 7'W). Falcon: Sanare, De- (5°14'N, 66'^2'W).
partamento Silva (10°23'N, 68°25'W); Sierra San
Luis (1 1°15'N, 69°10'W). Guarico: Corozo Pando
(8°14'N, 67°17'W); Hato Mapurite, 40 km N of Cacajao
Calabozo (9°17'N, 67°24'W); Manapire, near San
Antonio (9°1 7'N, 66''1 1 'W); Rio Tiznado (8°1 8'N, The genus Cacajao, or uakaris, contains two
67°48'W). Lara: Cumbre de Las Trojas, 45 km S species which are found in northern South Amer-
of Cabudare (9°45'N, 69°07'W). Miranda: Rio Ne- ica (Cabrera, 1958; Hershkovitz, 1972; Mit'ter-
gro (10°20'N, ee'lS'W); La Guzmanera, Guatopo meier & Coimbra-Filho, 1981). One species, Ca-
(10'X)0'N, 66°15'W). Portuguesa: Agua Blanca cajao melanocephalus, is found in Venezuela
(9°40'N, 69°07'W). Tachira: Cerro El Teteo, Bura- restricted to the upper Orinoco region of southern
gua (7°30'N, 7 r57'W); La Fria (8°1 3'N, 72°14'W); Territorio Federal Amazonas (fig. 5). Although few
Paramo Tama (7°27'N, 72°26'W). Territorio Fed- specimens exist in collections, they appear to be
eral Amazonas: Cacuri, Alto Ventuari (4°49'N, abundant.
65°26'W); Caiio Yureba, Ventuari (3°35'N, Specimens Examined— Total 2. Territorio Fed-
66°46'W); Rio Hacha, Alto Ventuari (3°47'N, eral Amazonas: Alto Cano Atacavi, Departamento
65''38'W); Rio Puriname, 40 km from confluence Casiquiare (3°05'N, 67'>02'W); La Nebhna, E of

of Rio Orinoco (3°19'N, 65°15'W); San Juan de Rio Varia (0°59'N, 66°10'W).
Manapiare (9°05'N, 66°02'W); Cerro La Neblina,
E of Rio Varia (0°59'N, 66°10'W). Territorio Fed-
eral Delta Amacuro: Caiio Caneima (9°05'N, Cebus
60°55'W); Guiniquina (9°10'N, 61°06'W). Zulia:
Laguna de Manaties, Departamento Catatumbo The capuchin monkeys are found from Hon-
(9°27'N, 72°02'W); La Victoria, Rio Negro (9°36'N, duras south through Central America and the
72°1 5'W); Rio Guasare ( 1 1°02'N, 72°05'W); Sierra northern two-thirds of South America. Four species
de Perija (9°00'N, 72°00'W). currently are recognized (Cabrera, 1958; Hersh-
kovitz, 1972). Three species of Cebus are repre-
sented in Venezuela: Cebus albifrons, C apella,
Chiropotes and C. «/^rm//a/z^s (Hershkovitz, 1949, 1958).
Three subspecies of Cebus albifrons are found
The bearded sakis comprise two species limited in Venezuela (fig. 6). Cebus albifrons adustus
to northern South America (Cabrera, 1958; Hersh- Hershkovitz was described on the basis of three
kovitz, 1977;Mittermeier«Sc.Coimbra-Filho, 1981). specimens from "near head of Rio Cogollo (Apon)
One species is found in southern Venezuela rep- at eastern base of Sierra de Perija, about 5 kilo-
resented by a single subspecies, Chiropotes satanas meters northwest of Machiques, Lake Maracaibo
chiropotes Humboldt (fig. 5). All of our records region, Zulia" (Hershkovitz, 1949, p. 369). We
and those reported by Handley (1976) are from report additional specimens from Rio Guasare and
Territorio Federal Amazonas. Cruz Lima (1945) Kasmera. This subspecies is restricted to the Sierra
and Rudran and Eisenberg (1982) proposed the de Perija of extreme northwestern Venezuela and
occurrence of this species in the state of Bolivar adjacent Colombia. Cebus albifrons leucocephalus
on the basis of Humboldt's description; Mondolfi Gray is found in extreme western Venezuela, in
(1976) reported observations of Chiropotes at the region south of the Lago de Maracaibo basin.

and the states of Apure, Merida, Tachira, and Zu- ports the type locality as "Vicinity of 'Our Village,'
lia. Cebus albifrons unicolor Spix is found in ex- said to be situated at latitude 4°57'N., 61°rW.,
treme southern Venezuela in Territorio Federal altitude 3,100 feetabove sea level, southern foot
Amazonas. Hershkovitz (1949) reported speci- of Mount Roraima."
mens from Marimonda, Rio Orinoco, and from We believe that an undescribed subspecies, Ce-
Solano, Rio Casiquiare. Handley (1976) reported bus nigrivittatus subsp., is widely distributed
specimens from Rio Mavaca and Tamatama. All throughout central and northern Venezuela north
Venezuela
locality records for this subspecies in of the Orinoco. The status of this population is
are south of the Rio Ventuari. currently under study.
Specimens Examined— Total 15. Apure: Caiio The Orinoco Delta region, which Eisenberg and
San Augustin, Selva de San Camilo (7°19'N, Redford ( 1 979) excluded from their consideration
7r57'W). Merida: Palmichoso, S of Las Virtudes of biogeographic regions due to insufficient data,
(9'^9'N, 70°57'W). Tachira: La Fria (8°13'N, is now shown by the distributions of Alouatta,
72°14'W). Territorio Federal Amazonas: Cano Cebus, and Pithecia to be clearly aligned with the
Yagua, Cerro Cucurito, Departamento Atabapo Guyana highlands. The Llanos region now extends
(B^SS'N, 66''25'W); near Boca Padamo, left side of up to the western edge of the delta, but does not
Rio Orinoco (3°02'N, 65°13'W). Zulia: Kasmera, include it, as demonstrated by the distributions of
Perija (10°05'N, 72°45'W); Kunana (9°36'N, Alouatta and Cebus.
72°15'W); Rio Bravo, Distrito Catatumbo (9°05'N, Specimens Examined— Total 75. Anzoategui:
72°22'W); Rio Guasare (1 1°02'N, 72°05'W). Los Cocos, Rio Caris (8°30'N, 64°05'W); 10 km
Cebus apella is represented in Venezuela by two W of Laguna de Unare (10°02'N, 65°12'W); Mor-
subspecies (fig. 6). Cebus apella apella Linnaeus is ichal Largo [between Anzoategi and Monagas]
Amazonian Venezuela, the Territorio
restricted to (8°18'N, 63°15'W). Aragua: Rancho Grande
Federal Amazonas, and is found along both banks (10°10'N, 67°19'W). Barinas: Reserva ForestalTi-
of the upper Orinoco. Cebus apella margaritae coporo, on Barinas-Pedregal road (8°03'N,
HoUister is endemic and restricted to Margarita
to 70°18'W). Bolivar: Caiio La Urbina (7°15'N,
Island. The 800-km gap between the ranges of 66°25'W); Carretera Caicara-S. Juan de Mana-
these two subsp>ecies is striking and unexplained. piare, km 1 75 (6°02'N, 66°29'W); Carretera El Do-
Specimens Examined— Total 10. Nueva Espar- rado-Santa Elena, km 33 (6°12'N, 6ri4'W); Cur-
ta:Sierra de Copey (1 1°03'N, 63°56'W). Territorio aima. El Palmar (8°01'N, 61°26'W); El Dorado-
Federal Amazonas: Alto Caiio Caname (3''22'N, Santa Elena, km 121 (5°18'N,6ril'W);Guayopo,
67°08'W); Caiio Yapacana (3°30'N, 66°45'W); San Rio Caura, 14 km from Maripa (7°09'N, 65°10'W);
Fernando de Atabapo (4°02'N, 67°37'W). Canaracuni (4°17'N, 64°05'W); Guri, Operacion
Cebus nigrivittatus is widely distributed in Ven- Rescate (7°18'N, 63°00'W); Rio Antavari (5'i09'N,
ezuela and represented by perhaps five subspecies 63°05'W); Rio Marajano, Meseta de Jaua (4°08'N,
(fig. 6) (Hershkovitz, 1949; Cabrera, 1958). Cebus 64°1 1'W); Rio Villacoa, 4 km N of mouth (6°16'N,
nigrivittatus apiculatus was described by Elliot 67'^5'W); San Martin de Turumban, Rio Cuyuni
(1912) on the basis of specimens from La Union, (6"'19'N, 61'^9'W). Carabobo: Bahia de Patanemo
Rio Caura, near its confluence with the Rio Ori- (10"'12'N, 67''26'W); Urama (10°12'N, 68°08'W).
noco. It is distributed throughout central Vene- Cojedes: Cerro Azul, La Blanquera (8°26'N,
zuela south of the Orinoco between the Rio Caroni 68°07'W); Montana Las Loma, San Carlos (9°1 7'N,
and the Rio Ventuari. 68°16'W); Pica, Las Vegas (9°1 5'N, 68°1 7'W). Dis-
Cebus nigrivittatus brunneus was described by Avila, Caracas (10° 14'N, 66°13'W);
trito Federal: El
J. A. Allen (1914) from specimens from Aroa, a Hacienda El Limon (lO^B'N, 67°08'W). Falcon:
station on the Bolivar Railway, Yaracuy, north- Sanare, Distrito Silva (8''23'N, 68°12'W). Guarico:
western Venezuela. Hershkovitz (1949) reported Hato Flores Moradas, Calabozo (8°23'N, 67"! 3'W);
an additional specimen from the Paria Peninsula. Hato Mapurite, 40 km N of Calabozo (9°08'N,
These records plus our specimens suggest that C. 67°irW); Parmana (7°28'N, 65°18'W); San Jose
n. brunneus is continuously distributed through- de Tiznados (9°16'N, 67''16'W). Lara: La Pastora,
out the Cordillera de la Costa of extreme northern 1 1 km SSW of Sanare (9°2rN, 70°07'W). Miran-
Venezuela. Cebus nigrivittatus nigrivittatus Wag- da: Rio Negro (10''20'N, 66°17'W); La Guzma-
ner is restricted in Venezuela to the Amazonian nera, Guatopo (10°00'N, 66°15'W). Territorio
region of Territorio Federal Amazonas. Cebus ni- Federal Amazonas: Alto Manapiare (5''13'N,
grivittatus olivaceus Schomburg is found in south- 66°0rW); Alto Ventuari (4°45'N, 65°20'W); Caiio
eastern Venezuela. Hershkovitz (1949, p. 348) re- Yureba, Rio Ventuari (3°16'N, 66''21'W); Cano

c
o
3
•c
* m **
T r 2 5 ^ :: 2
• > Z Q. • =»
« e e e e e
uu uoo o
o o n <

<

Mayaba, Rio Ventuari (4°07'N, 66°16'W); Cano Amazonas south of the Rio Ventuari, and L. I.
Morrocoy, Alto Ventuari (5°08'N, 66°02'W); La lugens, in the Selva de San Camilo, state of Apure
Esmeralda (S-^S'N, 65°32'W); Ocamo, Rio Oca- (Fooden, 1963; Hemandez-Camacho & Cooper,
mo (2°20'N, 65°15'W); Puruname, 40 km from 1976).
Rio Orinoco (3°19'N, 65°15'W); La Neblina, E of
Rio Varia (0°59'N, 66°10'W). Territorio Federal
Delta Amacuro: Cano Araguabisi (9°12'N, Pithecia
60*'27'W); Guiniquina (9''10'N, 61'X)3'W); Tobe-
juba, Guayo (9°09'N, 6r25'W). Yaracuy: Agua Sakis are found only in northern South America;
Negra (10°14'N, 68''14'W); Carretera Boca de Hershkovitz (1979) recognized four monotypic
Aroa, 20 km from Palmasola (lOÔl'N, 69°27'W). species, of which only Pithecia pithecia Linnaeus
is found in Venezuela. P. pithecia is found in Ven-
ezuela south of the Rio Orinoco and throughout
Ateles the Guianasand northeastern Brazil. In Venezuela

specimens have been reported primarily from the
extreme northeastern region, the state of Bolivar
Spider monkeys are widely distributed from
northeastern Mexico throughout tropical South and Territorio Federal Delta Amacuro (fig. 5), with
America. Four species are recognized, of which a single outlier locality record for Belen, Rio Cunu-
only Ateles belzebuth occurs in Venezuela (fig. 7). cunuma, Territorio Federal Amazonas (3°39'N,
Ateles belzebuth belzebuth GeofFroy is found in 65°46'W) (Handley, 1976). If the distribution pro-
southern Venezuela, south of the Rio Orinoco; posed by Hershkovitz (1979) and Mittermeier and
most records are from Territorio Federal Ama- Coimbra-Filho (198 1) is correct, P. pithecia should
zonas. Kellogg and Goldman ( 1 944) indicate a wide inhabit the entire region between the upper Rio
distribution in Guyana and report the Venezuelan Orinoco and the Rio Caroni, an enormous area
localities of La Union, Rio Mato, and El Llagual for which no specimens have been recorded.
Specimens Examined— Total 24. Bolivar: Rio
(on both banks of the Rio Caura).
Ateles belzebuth hybridus Geoffroy is known Curumo (7°15'N, 61°20'W); Rio Grande (8°16'N,
from northern and western Venezuela (Hershko- 6 ri 7'W); Gurisoco, El Palmar (8°62'N, 6 1°26'W);
vitz, &
Goldman,
1949; Cabrera, 1958; Kellogg
La Trinidad, El Palmar (7°12'N, 6r23'W); Guri,
1944). Handley (1976) reported specimens from Operacion Rescate (7°18'N, 63°00'W); Rio Boto-
Apure and Trujillo in western Venezuela. Our namo, near Rio Cuyuni (6°59'N, 6rirW); San
Martin de Turumban, Rio Cuyuni (6''59'N,
specimens are from the states of Barinas, Tachira,
and Zulia. Mondolfi and Eisenberg (1979) report- 61°02'W). Territorio Federal Delta Amacuro: Al-
ed it from Cupira and Guatopo, state of Miranda, tiplanicie de Nuria (7°50'N, 61°18'W); Yotacuay,
suggesting a discontinuous distribution on the

SW of Cupiare (8°30'N, 61°00'W).
coast.
Specimens Examined— Total 16. Barinas: Re-
serva Forestal de Ticoporo, Sabana de Anare Literature Cited
(8°06'N, 70°40'W). Bolivar: Canaracuni (4°06'N,
Allen, J. A. 1914. New South American Monkeys.
64°10'W). Miranda: Cupira (10°10'N, 65°44'W).
BviUetin of the American Museum of Natural History,
Tachira: La Fria (8°13'N, 72°14'W). Territorio
33: 653.
Federal Amazonas: Cacuri, Rio Ventuari (4°49'N,
BoDiNi, R. 1981. Musculatura locomotora de la viudita
65°26'W); Rio Ocamo, Alto Orinoco (2°44'N, (Callicebus torquatus lugens). Sus implicaciones fun-
65°11'W); Salto del Oso, Alto Ventuari (4''55'N, cionales y iilogeneticas. Memoria de la Sociedad de
Ciencias Naturales La Salle, 16(XL): 1-165.
65°25'W); San Juan de Manapiare (S^M'N,
1983. Distribuci6n, status de la investigacion
66°02'W). Zulia: Rio Guasare
.
( 1 1°02'N, 72°05'W).
y conservaci6n de los cebidos en Venezuela, p. 1 39.
In Symjwsio sobre Primatologia en Latinoamerica. IX
Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia, Arequipa,
Peru.
Lagothrix
Cabrera, A. 1957(1958]. Calalogo de los mamiferos
de America del sur. Revista Museo Argentine de Cien-
Woolly monkeys have not been collected in
"Bernardino Rivadavia," +
cias Naturales, 4(1): xviii
Venezuela; however two subspecies of Lagothrix 138 pp.
lagothricha are to be expected: L. lagothricha la- Cruz Lima, E. 1945. Mammals of Amazonia. I. Gen-
got hricha should be found in Territorio Federal eral introduction and Primates. Contribution from the

Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi de Historia Natural e 1984. Taxonomy of squirrel monkeys genus
.
Etnografia, Belem do Para, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, 274 Saimiri (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A preliminary report
pp., 42 pis. with description of a hitherto unnamed form. Amer-
J. F., AND K. Redford. 1979. A biogeo- ican Journal of Primatology, 7: 155-210.
EiSENBERG,
graphic analysis of the mammalian fauna of Vene- Hill, W. C. O. 1 960. Primates. Comparative Anatomy
zuela, pp. 31-36. In Eisenberg, J. F., ed., Vertebrate and Taxonomy. IV. Cebidae, Part A. Edinburgh Uni-
Ecology in the Northern Neotropics. Smithsonian In- versity Press, London, 523 pp.
stitution Press, Washington, D.C., 271 pp. .1962. Primates. Comparative Anatomy and
Elliot, D. G. 1912. A Review of the Primates. Vols. Taxonomy. V. Cebidae, Part B. Edinburgh University
I and II. American Museum of Natural History, New Press, London, 537 pp.
York. INPARQUES. 1982. Guia de los Parques Nacionales
FooDEN, J. 1963. A
revision of the woolly monkey y Monumentos Naturales de Venezuela. Ediciones
(genus Lagothrix). Journal of Mammalogy, 44: 213- Fundacion de Educacion Ambiental, Caracas.
247. and E. A. Goldman. 1944. Review of
Kellogg, R.,
Handley, C. O., Jr. 1976. Mammals
of the Smith- the spider monkeys. Proceedings of the United States
sonian Venezuelan project. Brigham Young Univer- National Museum, 96(3186): 1-45.
sity Sciences Bulletin, Biological Series, 20(5): 1-91. Kjnzey, W. G.
1982. Distribution of primates and for-
Hernandez-Camacho, J., and R. W. Cooper. 1976. est refuges, pp. 455-482. In Prance, G. T., ed.. Bio-
The nonhuman Primates of Colombia, pp. 35-69. In logical Diversification in the Tropics. Columbia Uni-
Thorington, R. W., Jr., and P. G. Heltne, eds.. Neo- versity Press, New York, 7 1 4 pp.
tropical Primates: Field Studies and Conservation. MARNR-DGS-POA-SFS. 1982. Informe Nacional de
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Fauna Silvestre. Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Re-
Hershkovitz, P. 1949. Mammals of northern Colom- cursos Naturales Renovable, Caracas.
bia. Preliminary report No. 4: Monkeys (Primates),
Mittermeier, R. a., and A. Coimbra-Filho. 1981.
with taxonomic revisions of some forms. Proceedings
Systematic: Species and subspecies, pp. 29-109. In
of the United States National Museum, 98(3232): 323- Coimbra-Filho, A. F., and R. A. Mittermeier, eds..
427.
Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates. Aca-
1958. Type localities and nomenclature of some
. demia Brasileira de Ciencias, Rio de Janeiro.
American primates, with remarks on secondary hom- MoNDOLFi, E. 1976. Fauna silvestre de los bosques
onyms. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Wash- humedos tropicales de Venezuela, pp. 113-181. In
ington, 71: 53-56. Hamilton, L. S., J. Steyermark, J. P. Veillon, and E.
1963. A systematic and zoogeographic account Mondolfi, eds., Conservacion de los bosques humedos
of the monkeys of the genus Callicebus (Cebidae) of de Venezuela. Sierra Club— Consejo de Bienestar Ru-
the Amazonas and Orinoco river basins. Mammalia, ral, Caracas.
27: 1-79.
MoNDOLR, E., AND J. F. EiSENBERG. 979. Ncw records1
. 1972. The Recent mammals of the Neotropical for A teles belzebuth hybridus in northern Venezuela,
region: A
zoogeographic and ecological review, pp. pp. 93-96. In Eisenberg,J. F., Vertebrate Ecology in
31 1-431. In Keast, A., F. C. Erk, and B. Glass, eds.. Northern Neotropics. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Evolution, Mammals, and Southern Continents. State Washington, D.C, 271 pp.
University of New York Press, Albany, N.Y. 543 pp. Ramirez-Cerquera, J. 1983. Reporte de una nueva
Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhi-
1977. especit de Primates del genero Aotus de Colombia, p.
ni) with an Introduction to Primates. University of 146. Symposio sobre Primatologia en Latinoamerica.
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1117 pp. IX Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia. Arequipa,
1 979. The species of sakis, genus Pithecia (Ce- Peru.
bidae, Primates), with notes on sexual dichromatism. RuDRAN, R., AND J. F. Eisenberg. 1982. Conservation
Folia Primatologica, 31: 1-22. and status of wild primates in Venezuela, pp. 52-59.
1983. Two new species of night monkeys, ge- In Olney, P. J. S., ed.. International Zoo Yearbook,
nus Aotus (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A preliminary report Vol. 22. The Zoological Society of London, London,
on Aotus taxonomy. American Journal of Primatol- 488 pp.
ogy, 4: 209-243.

Host Associations and Coevolutionary Relationships
of Astigmatid Mite Parasites of New World Primates
I. Families Psoroptidae and Audycoptidae
Barry M. OConnor
ABSTRACTS
Coevolutionary patterns among mites of the families Psoroptidae and Audycoptidae and
New World Primates are reviewed. Host records from
for primate parasites originally described
artificial situations are compared with field collections from Peruvian primates, with most host
associations verified. A new of Audycoptidae, Saimirioptes hershkovitzi, is described
sp)ecies
from Cebus apella. The psoroptid subfamily Cebalginae is hypothesized to be a monophyletic
group based upon 10 synapomorphies. Phylogenetic relationships within the Cebalginae are
reviewed, with cospeciational histories supported for the genera Alouattalges and Schizopodalges
and their hosts, and a more diffuse cospeciational pattern observed for the genera Cebalgoides,
Cebalges, and Fonsecalges and their hosts. Historical relationships of the genus Procebalges
remain problematical.
Patrones coevolutivos entre acaros de las familias Psoroptidae y Audycoptidae y primates

del Nuevo Mundo son revisadas. Registros de huespedes para parasitos de primates originar-
iamente descritos de situaciones artificiales son comparados con colecciones de campo de
primates peruanos, con la mayoria de asociaciones de huesped verificadas. Una nueva especie
de Audycoptidae, Saimirioptes hershkovitzi, es descrita de Cebus apella. Los psoroptidos de
la subfamilia Cebalginae son hipotetizados ser un grupo monofiletico basado en 10 sinapo-
morfias. Relaciones filogeneticas entre los Cebalginae son revisadas, con historias coesp>ecia-
cionales soportadas F>or el genero Alouattalges y Schizopodalges y sus huesp>edes, y un patron
coespeciacional mas difuso observado en los generos Cebalgoides, Cebalges y Fonsecalges y sus
huesjjedes. Relaciones historicas del genero Procebalges p>ermanecen problematicas.
Padroes coevolucionarios entre os acarinos das familias Psoroptidae e Audycoptidae, e os

primatas do Novo Mundo, sao revisados. Os registros de hospedes primatas de parasitas, que
foram descritos em situaôes artificials (cativeiros), sao comparados com cole96es de campo
de primatas peruanos, e a maioria das associagoes hospedeiras atualmente registradas foram
averiguadas. Uma nova esjjecie de Audycoptidae, Saimirioptes hershkovitzi, encontrada em
Cebus apella e descrita. Baseando-se num estudo de 1 sinapomorfias, prop6e-se ser a subfamilia
psoroptidea, Cebalginae, um grupo monofiletico. As rela96es filogeneticas entre os Cebalginae
sao revisadas, e as historias de coesF>ecializa9ao entre os generos Alouattalges e Schizopodalges,
e seus respectivos hospedes, sao confirmadas. Os padroes de coespecializa9ao entre os generos
Cebalgoides, Cebalges e Fonsecalges, e seus hospedes, sao mais difusos. Os relacionamentos
historicos do genero Procebalges permanecem incertos.
From the Museum of Zoology and Department of Bi-

ology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48 109.
OCONNOR: MITE PARASITES OF NEW WORLD PRIMATES 245

Introduction lections where contamination in the field or in the
museum may also have been a problem. Finally,
Coevolutionary patterns among hosts and par- the actual field locality from which either parasites
asiteshave been the focus of much recent study or hosts were collected is known for extremely few
and discussion (Brooks, 1979, 1981, 1985; Brooks of the known primate parasites. The uncertainties
& Glen, 1982; Futuyma & Slatkin, 1983; Nitecki, involved in the host range and geographic distri-
1983). Phylogenetic analysis of evolutionary re- bution of so many of the known species of primate
lationships among parasite groups or host groups parasites render the phylogenetic analyses pro-
can provide additional data sets (e.g., treating par- posed earlier (OConnor, 1984) subject to some
asite distributions as character states of their hosts), doubt.
or such analyses can be used as tests for hypotheses In 1 was invited by Philip Hershkovitz to
98 1 , 1
regarding evolutionary relationships of the other from specimens of a number of

collect parasites
lineages of associated organisms. These phyloge- primate species which had been collected or ob-
netic analyses are especially useful when the par- tained during field studies in Peru in 1 980. very A
asite groups are host specific and indicate little large number of mites was collected, providing a
history of secondary colonization of new hosts. unique survey of the primate parasites in a small
The associations between mites and primates are area in Peru and a test for previously reported
particularly amenable to such analysis because a host-parasite associations. These collections yield-
number of acarine groups are specifically associ- ed specimens belonging to three families of astig-
ated with primates, and these lineages exhibit matid mites: Psoroptidae, Audycoptidae, and
enough within-group diversity to allow the con- Atopomelidae. In the present paper, the collec-
struction and comparison of phylogenetic hypoth- tions of Psoroptidae and Audycoptidae will be
eses. Ihave previously detailed such hypotheses discussed. The collections of Atopomelidae, con-
for several groups of astigmatid mites parasitic on sisting of a number of described and undescribed
primates (OConnor, 1984). species of the genus Listrocarpus, will be studied
Formulation of hypotheses regarding the his- separately.
tory of associations between primates and their
associated mites requires three steps. First, the
r
parasite taxa must be described and their natural
host and geographic ranges discovered. Second, Materials and Methods
taxa above the species level in classically derived
classifications must be tested for naturalness (i.e., Primate specimens were collected in the field by
monophyly). Finally, phylogenetic relationships Hershkovitz or obtained from local individuals.
among all taxa must be elucidated. In the present These specimens were prepared by removing and
paper, each of these questions will be addressed simply drying the skins at the time of collection.
for the associations among certain groups of as- Upon their arrival in the United States, one or
tigmatid mites and New World Primates. For the more skins of each species collected were made
reader interested in summary information regard- available to me for parasite removal before the
ingknown host-parasite relationships for New skins were sent for tanning. The following species,
World primates, an exhaustive list of literature all identified by Hershkovitz, were examined
recordsmay be found in Hershkovitz (1977). (number examined in parentheses): Cebus apella

One major difficulty in the application of this (3);C. albifrons (1); Lagothrix lagothricha (1); L.
methodology to the study of the history of mite- flavicauda ( 1 ); Alouatta seniculus ( 1 ); Pithecia hir-
primale associations is the scanty knowledge of suta (3); Callicebus moloch (1); Aotus nancymai
the distribution and identity of the parasite sp)ecies (4);and Saimiri sciureus (5).
and their natural host ranges. Although many aca- Parasites were removed in two ways. First, all
rine parasites of primates have been described, skins examined were vigorously brushed over white
much of the material has originally come from paper, with the dislodged parasites collected under
zoos and primate research centers where the f>os- a dissecting microscop>e. Finally, one skin of each
sibility of unnatural interspecific contact between species was soaked water and mild soap until
in
host species makes the transfer of parasites a real soft (the singlespecimen oi L. flavicauda was not
problem. Many other sjjecies have been described soaked). These skins were then gently washed, the
from preserved host specimens in museum col- wash water filtered through a 200-mesh sieve (mesh

openings 75 micrometers), and the residue ex- tritonymphs. Among 1 1 protonymphs in the pres-
amined under a dissecting microscope. Mites col- ent collection, eight exhibit characteristics similar
lected were preserved in 70% ethanol for subse- to the male tritonymphs (i.e., posterior opistho-
quent study. somal lobes sclerotized; coxal fields III well scler-
In the laboratory, mites were cleared in lacto- otized) while three exhibit characteristics of female
phenol and mounted in Hoyer's medium, with tritonymphs (posterior lobes unsclerotized; scler-
some specimens retained in alcohol in the cases otization of coxal fields III much weaker). I inter-
of large series. Voucher specimens of nominal pret these differences as evidence for sexual di-
species are deposited in Field Museum of Natural morphism at the protonymphal instar in this
History, Chicago, and, when available, will be species.
placed in the following institutions: Museum of Material Examined— Total 133. Twenty-nine
Zoology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; females, 43 males (of which 3 1 were in tandem
The United States National Museum of Natural with female tritonymphs), 38 female tritonymphs,
History, Washington, D.C.; LTnstitut Royale des 8 male tritonymphs, 3 female protonymphs, 8 male
Sciences Naturelles, Brussels, Belgium; and the protonymphs, 4 larvae from Cebus albifrons.
collection of F. S. Lukoschus, Katholieke Uni- PERU, Loreto: Nauta, Rio Tigre, 6 km above Rio
versiteit, Nijmegen, Netherlands. Tigrillo; 18 December 1980; P. Hershkovitz (9264).
Host now a tanned skin (fmnh 122795). Mites
labeled bmcx: 81-081 1-3. No specimens were re-
covered from Cebus apella.
Species Accounts
Family PSOROPTIDAE Alouattalges corbeti Fain, 1963
Seven species of mites in the family Psoropti-

Alouattalges corbeti Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci.
dae, subfamily Cebalginae, are known to parasitize Nat. Belg., 39(32): 122. Fain, 1966, Acarologia 8:
New World primates. These species, with their 103.
known hosts and distributions, are listed below, Rosalialges cruciformis Lavoipierre, 1 964, Acarologia,
6: 348.
with new records from the Peruvian collections of
Hershkovitz indicated under "Material Exam-
This species was briefly described from the ho-
ined." Keys to most of these species may be found
in Fain (1963c). lotype female collected from a preserved specimen
of Alouatta seniculus macconnelli which had been
collected at Paramaribo, Surinam and preserved
in the British Museum
(Natural History) (Fain,
Cebalgoides cebi Fain, 1963
1 963c). Although only the holotype was described,
several specimens were apparently recovered from

Cebalgoides cebi Fain, 1 963, Bull. Ann. Soc. Roy. Ent.
this host. Almost simultaneously, Lavoipierre
Belg., 99: 331. Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci. Nat.
Belg., 39(32): 91. (1964a) described and figured the female based
upon two specimens collected from an "Aotes''''
This species was briefly diagnosed by Fain (sic) sp. which had died in San Francisco, Cali-
(1963a) from specimens collected from Cebus al- fornia, after its importationfrom Peru. Fain (1966)
bifrons which originated"Amerique du Sud"
in provided illustrations of the female and illustrated
and died in the Antwerp (Belgium) Zoo. It was but did not describe the male beyond length and
more thoroughly described and illustrated by Fain width measurements.
(1963c), who listed specimens from Cebus albi- Material Examined— Total 15. Five females,
frons from Venezuela (type collection), apella C 8 males, 2 female tritonymphs from Alouatta se-
from "Amerique du Sud," and Leontocebus (Oed- niculus. PERU, Loreto: Nauta, Rio Samiria; 18
ipomidas) oedipus (= Saguinus oedipus) from Co- November 1980; P. Hershkovitz (9050). Host now
lombia. All these hosts had died in the Antwerp a tanned skin (fmnh 122789). Mites labeled bmoc
Zoo. 81-0809-5. No specimens were recovered from
Fain (1963c) noted sexual dimorphism in tri- Aotus nancymai, suggesting the possibility that the
tonymphs of C
cebi. The two protonymphs he two specimens collected by Lavoipierre (1964a)
examined exhibited the characteristics of the male represent contamination.

Schizopodalges lagothricola Fain, 1 963 imens were recorded from a specimen of Hapale
jacchus leucocephalus (= Callithrix jacchus geof-
Schizopodalges lagothricola Fain, 1963, Bull. Ann. Soc. froyi) collected in Bahia, Brazil, and preserved in
Roy. Ent. Belg., 99: 469. Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Brussels.
Sci. Nat. Belg., 39(32): 100.
Material Examined— None.
This species was described from numerous spec-

imens from two juvenile Lagothrix lagothricha
Fonsecalges saimirii Fain, 1963
which died in the Antwerp Zoo. The origin of the
hosts was stated as "Amerique du Sud" (Fain,
Fonsecalges saimirii Fain, 1963, Bull. Ann. Soc. Roy.
1 963b). Fain ( 1 963c) provided illustrations of male
Ent. Belg., 99: 330. Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci.
and female and indicated that the hosts originated Nat. Belg., 39(32): 90. Fain, 1966, Acarologia, 8:
in Colombia. 107.
Material Examined— Total 30. Eleven fe-

Dunnalges lambrechti Lavoipierre, 1 964, Acarologia,
6: 343.
males, 1 1 males, 3 tritonymphs, 2 protonymphs,
3 larvae from Lagothrix lagothricha. PERU, Lo-
This species was briefly described from numer-
reto:Nauta, Rio Samiria; 15 November 1980; P.
ous specimens collected from two Saimiri sciureus
Hershkovitz (9032). Host now a tanned skin (fmnh
from "Amerique du Sud" and which died in the
122790). Mites labeled bmcx: 81-0809-10.
Antwerp Zoo in 1959 and 1963 (Fain, 1963a).
Fain (1963c) provided further descriptive infor-
mation and indicated the original hosts had come
Cebalges gaudi Fain, 1 962
from "Amazonie" and had died shortly after their
arrival at the Antwerp Zoo. He also mentioned
Cebalges gaudi Fain, 1962, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr., 66:
160. Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci. Nat. Belg., additional specimens from "Tamarins spp. ori-
39(32): 81. ginaires d' Amazonie." The inexact locality infor-
mation leaves the actual identity of the type host
This species was briefly described from numer- in doubt following the revision of the genus Sai-
ous sp)ecimens collected from a preserved speci- miri by Hershkovitz (1984). Lavoipierre (1964a)
men of Cebus capucinus with no locality infor- described and illustrated this species as Dunnalges
mation (Fain, 1962). Full descriptions and figures lambrechti, from "a long series of sjiecimens com-
were provided later (Fain, 1963c). prising all stages" from several Tamarinus nigri-
Material Examined— Four females from Ce- collis(= Saguinus nigricollis) from eastern Peru
bus apella. PERU, Loreto: Nauta, Rio Samiria; 18 which died in San Francisco, California. Fain
November 1980; P. Hershkovitz (9049). Host now ( 966) illustrated parts of this species from the
1
a tanned skin (fmnh 122792). Mites labeled bmoc type specimens.

81-0811-2. Fain (1963c) did not observe sexual dimor-
phism in the nymphs of this species, as only two
tritonymphs and some shed tritonymphal cuticles

were examined. Sexual dimorphism was noted in
Fonsecalges johnjadini Fain, 1962 the tritonymphs during the present study. All lar-
vae and protonymphs examined bear three pairs
Fonsecalges johnjadini Fain, 1 962, Rev. Zool. Bot.
of sclerotized apophyses in the ventrolateral re-
Afr., 66: 161. Fain, 1963, Bull. Ann. Soc. Roy. Ent.
Belg., 99: 468. Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci. Nat. gion: a rounded apophysis immediately posterior
Belg., 39(32): 86. to trochanter II, a pointed apophysis lateral to the
base of leg III, and a pointed apophysis poster-
This species was briefly described from several iolaterally near the posterior lobes. Tritonymphs
Caliithrixjacchus which had died in captivity (Fain, in which these apophyses are retained are here
1 962). Fain ( 1 963b) provided an illustration of the
interpreted as males, while those in which all
male, and Fain (1963c) gave a complete descrip- apophyses are lost are interpreted as females.
tion with figures of both male and female. The Material Examined— Total 59. Three females
hosts, which were listed as eight
Hapale jacchus from Saimiri sciureus macrodon. PERU, Loreto:
(= Callithrix jacchus) imported from the "bassin Nauta, Rio Tigre, 5 km above Rio Tigrillo; 17
de I'Amazone," died in Antwerp. Additional sjiec- December 1980; P. Hershkovitz (9257). Host now

a tanned skin (fmnh 122810). Mites labeled bmoc Audycoptes greeri Lavoipierre, 1 964
81-0809-15. Two females, 1 male from same host
species and locality; P. Hershkovitz (9258, fmnh Attdycoptes greeri Lavoipierre, 1 964, Ann. Natal Mus.,
16: 194.
122811, BMOC 8 1 -0809- 1 6). Twenty-four females,
8 males, 5 female tritonymphs, 8 male trito-
This species was described from females col-
nymphs, 5 protonymphs, 1 larva from same host
species. PERU, Loreto: Nauta, Rio Tigre, 6 km lectedfrom the sinus-hair follicles of Saimiri sci-
above Rio same date; P. Hershkovitz
ureus collected in eastern Peru and kept in captiv-
Tigrillo;
(9268,FMNH 1 228 1 6, bmoc 8 1 -0809- 1 8). Two fe- ity in California (Lavoipierre, 1964b). In the
males from same host sjjecies and locality; P. absence of more detailed collection information,
Hershkovitz (9267, fmnh 1 228 1 5, bmoc 8 1 -0809- the true host may have been either S. sciureus or
S. boliviensis, as both occur in eastern Peru (Hersh-
19).
kovitz, 1984).
Material Examined— Five females from "5fl/-
Procebalges pitheciae Fain, 1963
muri sciurea" (sic), without further collection data,
from the Lavoipierre collection. University of Cal-
Procebalges pitheciae Fain, 1963, Bull. Ann. Soc. Roy. ifornia, Davis.
Ent. Belg., 99: 332. Fain, 1963, Bull. Inst. Roy. Sci.
Nat. Belg., 39(32): 96.
Audycoptes lawrencei Lavoipierre, 1964

This species was briefly described from speci-
mens collected from a Pithecia monachus im- Audycoptes lawrencei Lavoipierre, 1964, Ann. Natal
ported from "Amerique du Sud" and which died Mus., 16: 199.
in the Antwerp Zoo (Fain, 1963a). The descrip-
tions were completed and illustrations provided This species was described from the same hosts
later (Fain, 1963c). and habitat as Audycoptes greeri (Lavoipierre,
Material Examined— Total 242. Nineteen fe- 1964b), so the actual specific identity of the host
males, 28 males (7 in tandem with female trito- remains uncertain, as indicated for greeri.
nymphs), 15 female tritonymphs, protonymph
1 Material Examined— Two females from "â/-
from Pithecia hirsuta. PERU, Loreto: Nauta, Rio muri sciurea"" (sic), without further collection data,
Samiria; 30 November 1980; P. Hershkovitz from the Lavoipierre collection, University of Cal-
(91 5). Host now preserved as a tanned skin (fmnh
1 ifornia, Davis.
122797). Mites labeled bmoc 81-0809-7. Forty-
seven females, 8 males ( 7 in tandem with female
1 1
tritonymphs), 22 female tritonymphs, 8 male tri- Saimirioptes paradoxus Fain, 1968

tonymphs, 13 protonymphs, 8 larvae from same
host and locality; P. Hershkovitz (9088, fmnh Saimirioptes paradoxus Fain, 1968, Acarologia, 10:
122796, BMOC 81-0809-9). 286.
This species was described from a single female,

containing a larva, collected from a Saimiri sci-
ureus which had died in the Antwerp Zoo (Fain,
Family AUDYCOPTIDAE 1968). No information concerning the geographic
origin of the host was given, making the specific
Three species of hair follicle inhabiting mites of identity of the host uncertain.
the family Audycoptidae have been previously de- Material Examined— None.
scribed from New World primates, all from squir-
rel monkeys identified as Saimiri sciureus. With
the recent recognition of several valid species in Saimirioptes hershkovitzi, new species
the genus Saimiri (Hershkovitz, 1984), the exact
identification of the reported hosts is problemat- In the following description, all measurements
Specimens representing a fourth sr>ecies were
ical. are given in micrometers and are presented as ho-
recovered from Cebus apella from the present col- lotype (range of three measured specimens).
lections. Female (figs. 1-2)— Body elongate, cylindrical

Fig. 1 .
Saimirioptes hershkovitzi, female. A, dorsum; b, venter.
to somewhat flattened dorsoventrally; length in- striations encircling protuberances along most of
cluding gnathosoma 4 1 5 (4 1 5—42 1 ), width at level their length; lengths 29 (28-29). Idiosomal chae-
of transverse coxal apodemes III 146 (135-146); totaxy as follows: scapular setae filiform, in a
entire body with transverse striations which are transverse line posterior to prodorsal sclerite,
very thick anteriorly, thin posteriorly. lengths sci 4 (4-5), see 39 (29-39); setae J, and /,
Dorsum (fig. la)— Prodorsal sclerite narrow an- very short and rounded, subdivided into two dis-
teriorly, much widenedmedially, narrowed pos- h and sh filiform, lengths 9 (6-
tinct lobes; setae
teriorly and fused internally with apodemes of cox- 9); setae di subdivided into three parts, a ventral
al fields II in most posterior
region. Sclerite filiform part, length 26 (23-26), and two dorsal
traversed by anterior transverse striations later- rounded lobes; setae d^ similar to ^2 but filiform
ally. Length of sclerite 70 (70-77). Paired dorsal part shorter, length 19 (14-19), and middle lobe
protuberances present mesal to setae h and sh. with more elongate; remaining setae filiform; /j 29 (28-

< >

29); /, ventrally positioned, 18 (18-19); ^^4 24 (19- Legs 2a-f) — Legs I-II similar in structure,
(figs.
24); ^5 21 (no variation); l^ ventral, 5 (4-5); l^ with segments free, lengths 84 (80-90). Femora
all
ventral, 30 (27-32); a, ventral, 14 (no variation); I-II bearing two ventral apophyses, one filiform
a, 30 (27-30). Four pairs of idiosomal cupules seta vF. lengths: I, 9 (8-9); II, 33 (30-33). Genua
present: ia dorsal between setae h and sh; im dorsal I-II each with large ventral apophysis; setae cG
between and lateral to setae d2 and d^; ip ventral expanded basally, then tapering, lengths 22 (20-
slightly anterior to seta /j; ih ventral, between and 25), setae mG
filiform, lengths 43 (40-45). Tibiae
mesal to setae U and /j. Opisthosomal glands pres- I-II each with large ventral apophysis; setae gT
ent, small, opening between and lateral to setae d^ short, filiform, lengths 6 (5-6); solenidia api-
and /,. Anus terminal. Opening to bursa copulatrix codorsal, lengths: I, 20 (18-20); II, 22 (21-23).
terminal, above anal opening. Tarsi I-II each with pointed dorsal apophysis, two
Venter (fig. lb)— Coxal apodemes well devel- distal hooked apophyses; chaetotaxy of tarsi I-II
oped. Anterior apodemes of coxal fields I straight, similar; setae d as strongly hooked, apical claws,
length 66 (57-66), fused medially to form a ster- lengths 5 (no variation); e filiform, lengths 40 (43-
num of length 23 (23-24). Anterior apodemes of 50); /filiform, lengths 7 (6-7); la filiform, lengths
coxal fieldsII curving mesally, length 75 (75-79); 6 (5-6); wa very short, not measurable; ra filiform,
posterior apodemes of coxal fields II transverse, lengths 6 (5-6); solenidia «, blunt apically, lengths:
fused ventromedially with anterior apodemes of I, 14 (no variation); II, 26 (24-26). Pretarsi I-II
coxal fieldsIII, extending dorsally, length of ven- similar, total lengths 40 (37-40); pretarsi divided
tralportion 50 (46-50), length of dorsal portion into long ambulacral stalk and rounded ambula-
31 (28-31). Anterior apodemes of coxal fields III cral disc; ambulacral disc with condylophore guide
extending almost longitudinally from trochanters and ventral "rays" (fig. 2b); condylophores atten-
III to F>osterior apodemes of coxal fields II, then uate, appearing to divide at base of ambulacral
bending at right angles to fuse with the latter, length disc.
of longitudinal portion 49 (49-51), transverse Legs III-IV similar, each with fused trochanter-
portion 39 (39-44). Anterior apodemes of coxal femur bearing a large, ventral apwaphysis. Genua
fieldsIV very wide, anteriomedially directed, length III-IV glabrous. Tibiae III-IV each with setae kT
50 (50-53). Ovipore located between coxal fields enlarged, bifurcate, and deeply rooted; tibia III
III and IV; a crescentic epigynal apodeme posi- with solenidion 0, length 6 (6-7), IV absent.
tioned anterior to ovipore; genital valve elongate, Tarsi III-IV each with apical, pointed apophysis,
disappearing posteriorly under transverse flap; a three setae: fi^ apical, lengths: III, 100(91-100); IV,
pair of small thickenings along posterior, internal 97 (86-97); r filiform, lengths 7 (6-7); w filiform,
portion of valves; two pairs of vestigial genital lengths 3 (no measurable variation).
papillae lateral to genital ojiening. Three pairs of Types— Holotype and two paratype females from
filiform coxal setae present: cxI at posterior end Cebus apella. PERU, Loreto: Nauta, Rio Samiria;
of coxal fields I between coxal apodemes II, length 18November 1980; P. Hershkovitz (9049). Host
12 (9-12); cxIII on median apex of coxal apo- now a tanned skin (fmnh 122792). Mites labeled
demes IV, length 9 (6-9); cx/P'mesad of the base BMOC 81-0811-2. Holotype and paratype de- 1
of leg IV, length 7 (6-7). Genital setae absent. posited in Field Museum of Natural History, Chi-
Gnathosoma (fig. 2g)— Gnathosoma elongate, cago; paratype in Museum of Zoology, Univer-
1
somewhat widened posteriorly, then tapering to a sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

point ventrally, length (excluding chelicerae) 62 Systematic Position— Saimirioptes hershko-
(59-62), maximum width 26 (24-26). Chelicerae vitzishares with 5". paradoxus, the tyF>e-sp)ecies and
elongate, with small, toothed digits, length 46 (44- only other member of the genus, the presence of
46). Palps apparently two-segmented; basal seg- dorsal lobes between setae ^1 and t/j^ the similar
ment bearing two very short,filiform setae, 1 prox- form of setae t/, and /, (rounded, bifurcate, and
imodorsal, 1 medioventral; distal segment with without filiform part), and the expansion of the
short solenidion and 5 sclerotized, pxjinted pro- bases of setae cG of genua I-II. The new sF>ecies
jections. Subcapitulum with pair of short, filiform differs from the type-species in the relative lengths
setae medioventrally; with pair of sclerotized, of the scapular setae (sce:sci 5-6:1 in S. hershko-
pointed projections positioned slightly anterior to vitzi, 1.5:1 in S. paradoxus); the shorter filiform
subcapitular setae, and unpaired projection ante- fKJrtion of setae f/, (not reaching dy in S. hersh-
riomedially; median rutellar lobes with sclerotized kovitzi, extending past d^ in S. paradoxus); the
points medially. shorter lengths of setae 4 (29 in S. hershkovitzi.

67 in S. paradoxus); the presence of setae U (absent outgroup comparison to polarize the states. I have
in S. paradoxus); the longer pretarsi I-II (37-40 previously hypothesized that the taxa comprising
in S. hershkovitzi, 17 in S. paradoxus); and the the four subfamilies of Psoroptidae which para-
greater lengths of setae d on tarsi III-IV (at least sitize the Primates form a monophyletic group
twice as long as the entire leg in S. hershkovitzi, (OConnor, 1984). These taxa include the Makial-
less than half the leg length in S. paradoxus). ginae (sensu OConnor, 1984; i.e., including the
Cheirogalalginae and Galagalgidae of Fain), par-
asites of the Strepsirrhini; the Paracoroptinae, par-
asites of African Cercopithecidae and Hominidae;
Discussion the Nasalialginae, parasites of Asian Cercopithe-
cidae; and the Cebalginae, from New World pri-
The Peruvian collections reported upon here mates. This grouping of taxa is regarded as the
support the hypothesis that most of the records ingroup in the following analysis. Outgroups used
of primate-Cebalginae associations previously rein defining the character state polarities were the
ported reflect natural host-parasite associations. other subfamilies of Psoroptidae and earlier de-
The association between Alouattalges corbeti and rivative groups in the Astigmata.
Aotus species was not verified and remains ques-
tionable. As there were no field collected repre-
sentatives of the Callitrichidae examined during Character Analysis
this study, the occurrence of cebalgine mites on
these hosts remains generally untested in natural 1 Presence of retrograde apophyses on coxa!
.
situations, with only Fonsecalges johnjadini re- fields III.This state is unique to the cebalgine
corded from noncapti ve callitrichids (Fain, 1 963c). genera, with such apophyses not occurring in other
Having established that most records of pri- taxa in the ingroup or outgroup.
mate-cebalgine associations reflect natural asso- 2. Male body size much smaller than female.
two additional hypotheses must be pro-

ciations, In the outgroups and other ingroups, males are
posed and tested before any coevolutionary similar in size to females or somewhat larger or
hypotheses may be tested. These preliminary hy- smaller. The substantial reduction in body size of
potheses concern the monophyly of the Cebalginae male Cebalginae is unique.
and the phylogenetic relationships of the taxa 3. Female opisthosoma more or less squared
I have previously discussed these
within the group. posteriorly and laterally, reinforced with sclero-
questions (OConnor, 1 984) but, due to space con- tized areas. This condition is exhibited by all Ce-
straints, was unable to detail the reasoning behind balginae, but not inany outgroup. Among the in-
my conclusions. groups, the squared body is unique to the
Cebalginae, but sclerotized reinforcement is also
found in the Nasalialginae and some Paracorop-
Monophyly of the Cebalginae tinae (Pangorillalges). Among outgroup taxa,
sclerotized reinforcement is present in some Pso-
Before any hypothesis of historical associations ralginae (Edentalges), but again without the squared
may be tested, at least one of the lineages must be body form.
hypothesized to be monophyletic (Brooks, 1981). 4. Male with legs III very modified, with 3-4
In this study, the psoroptid subfamily Cebalginae, terminal segments fused and bearing medially di-
which comprises all psoroptid mites parasitizing rected projections. The modification of the third
New World Primates, must be tested for mono- pair of legs in male Cebalginae is unique and pres-
phyly. In last defining this subfamily. Fain ( 1 963c) ent in all taxa. No similar modification occurs
listed 21 character states for the group. Because anywhere in ingroup or outgroup.
the comprehensive morphological studies of Fain 5. Reduction or loss of paranal suckers in males.
(1963c) were carried out before the methods of Paranal suckers are present in males in the out-
phylogenetic systematics became widely discussed groups and ingroups. In the Cebalginae, the suck-
and no distinction between ancestral and
utilized, ers are very reduced or absent.
derived states was made in the diagnosis of the 6. Tarsus I with 2 apical solenidia. I regard the
Cebalginae. In order to test whether the Cebalgi- apical displacement of solenidion oj, in the Ce-
nae represents a monophyletic group, I have ex- balginae as derived. In the other ingroups and most
amined the characters listed by Fain (1963c) using outgroups, this solenidion is median or basal on

the tarsus. Apical displacement of this solenidion kialginae but lost in the Cebalginae, Paracorop-
also occurs in the subfamily Psoroptinae and the tinae, and Nasalialginae. I regard this loss as
monobasic Marsupialginae, conditions I regard as characterizing these latter three groups as a natural
conveiênt. unit and thus plesiomorphic for the Cebalginae.
7. Loss of dorsal seta ^,. Seta d^ is absent in all 12. Female bursa copulatrix subterminal or
Cebalginae and retained in the other ingroups and ventral. In the outgroups, the female bursa cop-
most outgroups. This seta is also lost in the Lis- ulatrix is terminal, as it is in the Cebalginae, Ma-
tropsoralginae and the psoroptid parasites of ro- and Nasalialginae among ingroups. I re-
kialginae,
dents (Echimyalges. Myoproctalges, and Coen- gard the dorsal position of the bursa in the
dalges), conditions I regard as convergent. Paracoroptinae as derived. Thus, this character
8. Reduction or loss of apophyses from the pos- retains the plesiomorphic condition in the Cebal-
terior tarsi of the female. Apophyses are present ginae.
on the posterior tarsi of some of the outgroups 13. Base of the gnathosoma with retrograde
such as the Listropsoralginae and are retained in apophyses. In some outgroups as well as in the
some ingroups, the Makialginae and Paracorop- Cebalginae, Makialginae and some Paracordpti-
tinae. I consider the presence of these apophyses nae (i.e., Pangorillalges), the base of the gnatho-
to be plesiomorphic for the primate-associated soma bears retrograde apophyses. These are ab-
psoroptid lineage. In the Cebalginae, taxa in which sent in certain outgroups (e.g., the Psoroptinae)
females have well-developed posterior legs retain and and Nasalialges among in-
in Paracoroptes
vestiges of these apophyses, while taxa in which group taxa.regard

I the retention of these apoph-
the legs are reduced retain no traces. I consider yses in the Cebalginae as plesiomorphic.
this reduction tobe a derived state for the Cebal- 14.Absence of retrograde apophyses on coxae
ginae and regard the loss of these structures in the I-II.Retrograde apophyses occur on coxae I-II
Cebalginae and Nasalialginae as convergent. only in the Makialginae. They do not occur on
9. Posterior edge of female opisthosoma with both coxal fields in any other ingroup or outgroup
2 pairs of long, strong setae. In most ingroups and and Myocop-
taxa, although the Listropsoralginae
psoroptid outgroups, seta /, is long and strong while tidae have apophyses on coxae II. I regard, these
seta di is shorter and thinner. Of the ingroups, structures as synapomorphies characterizing the
setae l^ and d^ are equally well developed in the Makialginae, and their absence in the Cebalginae
Cebalginae and Nasalialginae. However, in the Ce- as plesiomorphic.
balginae, setae /, and d^ are closely associated, usu- 15. Well-developed "claws" on tarsi I-II.
ally on a single projection, while in the Nasalial- Clawlike apophyses on the apices of tarsi I-II are
ginae these setae are separate, on distinctly different present in many outgroup taxa, including both
projections. I regard these two conditions as con- mammal and bird parasites. I regard the presence
vergent. also regard as convergence the elonga-
I of this character state as ancestrally characterizing
tion of seta di in some Psoralginae. all Psoroptidia, and thus plesiomorphic for the
10. Dorsal seta l^ sometimes absent. Seta I4 is Cebalginae.

absent in allCebalginae except Cebalgoides cebi. 16. Tarsus II with solenidion apically dis-
The seta is retained in that species, the other in- placed. Solenidion oj is apically displaced in the
groups, and most outgroups. The loss of seta I4 Cebalginae, Paracoroptinae, and Nasalialginae. In
could be regarded as a synapomorphy defining a most outgroups and in the Makialginae, the so-
group containing all Cebalginae except Cebal- lenidion retains its ancestral, basal position. I re-
goides.However, this hypothesis conflicts with gard this displacement as diagnosing a natural
groupings suggested by all other characters (see group consisting of the above three primate-as-
page 256). At this point, it is more parsimonious sociated subfamilies and thus plesiomorphic for
to regard the loss of seta U as a synapomorphy for the Cebalginae.
the Cebalginae, with a reversal in Cebalgoides. 17. Female tarsal chaetotaxy 7-7-6—4 or -5.
1 1 Loss of retrograde apophyses on the ante-
. Possession of 7 setae on tarsi I-II involves the loss
Retrograde apophyses are present on the
rior legs. of seta ba in the Paracoroptinae and Cebalginae
some of the outgroups, notably the
anterior legs in and probably the Nasalialginae. Retention of 8
Listropsoralginae and Marsupialginae in the Pso- setae on these segments (including ba) is charac-
roptidae and in the related families Audycoptidae, teristic for most outgroup taxa and the Makial-
Rhyncoptidae, and Myocoptidae. Among the in- ginae. I regard this state as diagnosing a natural
groups, these apophyses are retained in the Ma- group comprising the Cebalginae, Paracoroptinae,

and Nasalialginae and thus plesiomorphic for the larger groups which include the Cebalginae (char-
Cebalginae. acter-states 11-17), and four represent within-
1 8. Angles of female opisthosoma generally with group apomorphies diagnosing smaller groups
strong hooks. Such hooks are found in the cebal- within the Cebalginae (character-states 1 8-2 1 ). The
gine genera Cebalges, Cebalgoides. and Fonse- ten synapomorphies diagnosing the Cebalginae
calges, but not in other taxa in the outgroup or leave no doubt that the group is a natural one.
ingroup. I regard the presence of these structures
as characterizing a monophyletic unit within the
Cebalginae but not the group as a whole.
19. Posterior legs of female normal or atro- Phylogenetic Relationships
phied. Legs III-IV of the female are reduced in Within the Cebalginae
size and may exhibit fusion of segments in the
genera Cebalges and Fonsecalges but not in other I have previously presented a hypothesis of phy-
Cebalginae nor other members of the ingroup. logenetic relationships among genera in the Ce-
Well-developed legs are characteristic of most out- balginae based upon 17 characters (OConnor,
group taxa, although similar reduction of the pos- 1
984). This cladogram is reproduced here (fig. 3),
terior legs occurs in some Psoroptinae and Pso- with numbers on the cladogram referring to the
ralginae. regard the atrophied legs of some
I derived states of the characters listed below. In the
Cebalginae as characterizing a smaller monophy- earlier study, space limitations prevented discus-
letic unit within the group and convergent with sion of the different states of these characters and
the outgroup taxa noted above. the reasons for interpreting their polarity. Addi-
20. Posterior legs of nymphal stages normal or tionally, an error in character 1 2 appeared in the
short and atrophied and bearing a long seta. The list of character-states. As I have hypothesized that
reduction of the legs in the nymphs is found in all the Cebalginae form a monophyletic group within
cebalgine genera except Procebalges. It is also found a larger lineage comprising the Makialginae, Par-
in a few outgroup taxa (e.g., the Psoroptinae and acoroptinae, and Nasalialginae, taxa in these three
Psoralginae), but not in most outgroups or in other lineages were used as outgroups to polarize the
ingroup taxa. I regard this state as diagnosing a character-states within the Cebalginae.
group within the Cebalginae and not characteriz- 1. Female with coxal apodemes III-IV fused.
ing the group as a whole. In all taxa in the outgroups, coxal apodemes III-
2 1 Dorsal seta d^ sometimes absent. Seta d^ is
. IV end freely. Within the Cebalginae, these apo-
absent in Schizopodalges lagothricola and Fon- demes are fused together on either side in the gen-
secalges johnjadini (but not F. saimirii), and pres- era Procebalges, Schizopodalges, and Fonsecalges.
ent in other Cebalginae, other ingroups, and most Although I regard the fused condition to be de-
outgroups. The distribution of this derived state rived, conflicts with many other characters suggest
within the Cebalginae strongly suggests the inde- that these apodemes have fused independently in
pendent lossof this seta in the two species sharing the three genera.
the state. This character at best diagnoses a group Female epigynum fused with coxal apo-
2.
within the Cebalginae, but is more likely a case of demes I. In most outgroup taxa, the female ovi-
convergence. In no way does this character diag- pore is located between coxal fields II and III.
nose the group as a whole. There has been a trend toward anterior displace-
ment of the ovip)ore in a number of psoroptid
lineages Psoralginae, Listropsoralginae, Pso-
(e.g.,
Conclusions roptinae), and the more anterior p>osition occurs
in certain taxa among the primate associated lin-
On the basis of the above analysis, I conclude (e.g., Lemuralges in the Makialginae).
eage as well
that, of the 21 character-states listed by Fain Within the Cebalginae, this derived state occurs
(1963c) as diagnosing the Cebalginae, five repre- in the genera Procebalges and Schizopodalges. Be-
sent unique synapomorphies which diagnose the cause this character-state distribution conflicts with
Cebalginae and occur in no other group (character- many other characters, I regard the presence of
synapomorphies which diag-
states 1-5), five are this state in the two genera as convergence.
nose the Cebalginae but which also occur as con- 3. Male with paranal suckers lost. In all out-
vergent states in certain other taxa (character-states groups, the male retains paranal suckers. Within
6-10), seven are symplesiomorphies diagnosing the Cebalginae, the suckers are retained only in
OCONNOR: MITE PARASITES OF NEW WORLD PRIMATES 2SS

V)
O
O
zopodalges and Alouattalges. In the outgroups and 13. Male with opisthosomal lobes widely
other ingroup taxa, such a spur does not exist. I spaced. In most outgroup taxa, the opisthosomal
regard the presence of this character-state as in- lobes of the male are close together, a condition
dicative of common ancestry of these two genera. also found in most Cebalginae. These lobes are
8. ridges on leg III restricted to tibial
Male with widely spaced in the genus Cebalgoides within the
element. Ridges on the distal portion of leg III of Cebalginae, a condition I regard as derived. Con-
the male characterize the Cebalginae (see above). vergence occurs, with this state also occurring in
Such ridges do not occur in any outgroup. I regard Nasalialges (Nasalialginae).
the restriction of the ridges to a spur extending 1 4. Male with apodeme between genital and anal
from the tibial portion of the leg as a derived state region strongly reduced. In the outgroup taxa, males
defining the group Schizopodalges + Alouattalges do not possess a transverse apodeme between the
because this condition forms a functional complex genital and anal regions. A large apodeme is pres-
with the spur on tarsus III (character 7) and a ent in this position in most male Cebalginae. In
dorsal spur on femur IV. This latter character was the prior analysis (OConnor, 1 984), I stated that
not considered in the previous analysis (OConnor, this apodeme was absent in Cebalgoides as indi-
1984). The conjunction of the three spurs serves cated by Fain (1963c) and regarded this as a re-
and IV together into a unit.
to lock legs III versal. Closer examination of a number of speci-
9. Female with recurved hooks on posterior mens indicates that a very small apodeme is present
border of opisthosoma. Strong hooks are present in some males of this taxon. I regard the presence
in this position in females of Cebalgoides, Ce- of the apodeme as a derived condition for the
balges. and Fonsecalges. Weaker development in Cebalginae, and its reduction or loss in Cebal-
this area is characteristic of other cebalgine genera, goides as a further derived state.
while in the outgroups, no projections exist. I re- 1 5. Female with tibiae-tarsi III-IV fused. In the
gard the possession of strong hooks as a derived outgroups, the tibia and tarsus of legs III-IV are
condition defining a lineage comprising the three freely articulated. This condition is present in most
genera noted above. Cebalginae as well. In the genera Cebalges and
10. Male with pretarsus III lost. Males retain a Fonsecalges, these segments are fused in the fe-
pretarsus on leg III in most outgroup taxa. This male, a condition I regard as derived within the
pretarsus is lost in the genera Galagalges and Chei- Cebalginae. Similar fusions occur in some other
rogalalges (Makialginae), and also in the cebalgine psoroptid subfamilies but not within the primate-
genera Cebalgoides, Cebalges, and Fonsecalges. I associated lineage.
regard the loss of pretarsus III as a synapomorphy 16. Female with gnathosomal apophyses lost.
for the latter three genera within the Cebalginae, Gnathosomal apophyses are retained in females
with independent loss in the makialgine lineage of most outgroup taxa and are retained in some
comprising the former two genera. Cebalginae. These apophyses are lost in the female
1 1 Female without opisthosomal sclerite. A
. but retained in the male in the genus Fonsecalges.
median sclerite is present in females of most out- I regard this loss as independent of the loss of
group taxa and is retained in all
Cebalginae except apophyses in the Schizopodalges-Alouattalges lin-
Schizopodalges. regard this loss as derived in the
I eage, where the apophyses are lost in both sexes
latter genus. Convergence in this character occurs (character 5).
with some outgroup taxa. This sclerotization is 17. Female with pretarsi III-IV lost. Pretarsi
also lost in Gaudalges caparti, and Lemuralges III-IV are retained in the female in all outgroup
(Makialginae), and Nasalialges (Nasalialginae). taxa and in Cebalginae except Fonsecalges. I
all
12. Female with seta s of tarsi III-IV enlarged regard this loss as derived and convergent with the
and clawlike. In the previous study (OConnor, similar loss in females in other psoroptid groups
1984), a lapsus occurred in that the state "seta 5 (e.g., some Psoroptinae, Psoralginae).
of tarsi III-IV reduced" was listed as a derived
condition for the genus Alouattalges. In fact, pos-
session of a small, filiform seta s on these tarsi
must be regarded as the ancestral condition, as it History of Primate-Cebalgine Evolution
occurs in all outgroup taxa as well as in most Ce-
balginae. In the genus Alouattalges, seta 5 is en- The present knowledge of the diversity and host
larged and recurved on tarsi III-IV, a condition I associations of the family Audycoptidae is not suf-
regard as the true derived state. ficient for formulating hypotheses concerning the
OCO^fNOR: MITE PARASITES OF NEW WORLD PRIMATES 257

history of their host associations. However, given are common to several or all of these. These may
the phylogenetic relationships among cebalgine be compared with the cladogram of mite relation-
taxa presented in the cladogram (fig. 3), two meth- ships to test the cospeciational hypothesis.
ods exist for using these relationships to make hy- One host relationship which is supported by al-
potheses regarding the history of the associations most all data sets is the relationship between Al-
between the New World primates and the Cebal- ouatta and the Atelinae (including Lagothrix). Of
ginae. The first method would involve comparing the hypotheses cited above, only the karyological
the phylogenetic hypothesis for the parasite group evidence did not support this relationship, and
with a similar hypothesis for the hosts. The hy- then only because the karyotype of Lagothrix is
pothesis tested by this comparison is whether the so derived that Chiarelli ( 1 980) made no hypoth-
current pattern of host-parasite associations di- This relationship be-
esis as to its relationships.
rectly results from cospeciation between the

strict tween Alouatta and Lagothrix is mirrored by the
hosts and their parasites. Given a phylogenetic sister group relationship between their parasites,
hypothesis for each group, such a hypothesis is Alouattalges and Schizopodalges, which is among
The second type of conclusion which
easily tested. the most strongly supported relationships among
might be drawn from the parasite cladogram is a the Cebalginae.
phylogenetic hypothesis concerning host relation- A
second host relationship which is partially
ships. This method is dependent upon the as- mirrored in the mile phylogeny is the relationship
sumption of cospeciation, or at least noncoloni- between the genera Cebus and Saimiri, which was
zation, between the two lineages. supported by all data sets except the integumen-
The current state of knowledge concerning the tary data (Perkins & Meyer, 1980). In this case,
phylogenetic relationships among New World pri- the mite phylogeny suggests a cospeciational pro-
mates is somewhat confused. Many early hypoth- cess, but some additional hypotheses are required
eses were based upon classical methodology in to explain the distributions of the genera Cebal-
which ancestral and derived character-states were goides, Cebalges, and Fonsecalges. The relation-
not differentiated in proposing hypotheses of re- ships among these three parasite genera are com-
lationships. Schwartz et al. (1978) summarized the patible with a cospeciational scenario if an early
state of knowledge only a few years ago by saying between the Cebalgoides and the
sjjeciation event
that "Platyrrhini apF>ears in and of itself to be a Cebalges-Fonsecalges lineages occurred in con-
natural group, although both its wider relation- junction with a common ancestor of Cebus and
ships and the relationships among its members Saimiri. Extinction of the Cebalgoides lineage on
remain unclear" (p. 128). Much new information the Saimiri line, with cospeciation of the Cebalges-
relating to this question was presented in symp>osia Fonsecalges lineage in both host lines, leads to the
in 1978-1979 and published in a volume edited present distribution on the Cebidae. In all cases,
by Ciochon and Chiarelli (1980). In the following colonization events are required to explain the
discussion, I refer to phylogenetic hypotheses for presence of both of these lineages on the Callitrich-
New World primates suggested by Rosenberger idae, given the probable monophyly of that taxon.
(1977) and contributors to the Ciochon and Chi- Certain other relationships among the parasite
arellivolume as representing the most modem taxa are not mirrored by host phylogenies. The
phylogenetic thinking regarding Platyrrhine rela- sistergroup relationship between Procebalges and
tionships. allother cebalgines is not reflected in any hyp)oth-
Returning to the question of cospeciation be- esis of host relationships. The relationship of Pi-
tween primates and cebalgine mites, the first dif- thecia to the Alouatta-Lagothrix lineage was sug-
ficulty encountered is the lack of a consensus con- gested by both dental data (Rosenberger, 1977)
cerning phylogenetic relationships among all New and karyology (Chiarelli, 1 980). Interestingly, the
World primates. Phylogenetic hypotheses based integumentary data (Perkins &. Meyer, 1980) sug-
on the following types of data sets are in strong gest that Pithecia retains the most plesiomorphic
disagreement: dentition (Rosenberger, 1977; 3 skin characteristics of any mite-bearing New World
separate hypotheses); integumentary characters primate (Aotus was regarded as even more plesio-
(Perkins & Meyer, 1980); karyology (Chiarelli, morphic). As cebalgine mites are skin inhabitants,
1980); immunological methods (Sarich & Cronin, itmight be suggested that plesiomorphic skin re-
1980); and other immunological data and protein tains plesiomorphic mites, a hypothesis which
sequence data (Baba et al., 1 980). Despite the strong would require the ancestral possession of a Pro-
disagreement among these data sets, some patterns cebalges lineage on other cebids with subsequent

extinction on all but Pithecia in order to retain a studying the evolution of ecological associations. An-
nals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 72: 660-681.
basically cospeciational history. Discovery of ce-
Brooks, D. R., and D. R. Glen. 1982. Pinworms and
balgine mites on hosts related to Pithecia (Chi-
Primates: A case study in coevolution. Proceedings of
ropotes, Cacajao) will provide a test of these hy-
the Helminthological Society of Washington, 49: 76-
potheses. 85.
The utility of using the proposed mite phylogeny Chiarelli, A. B. 1980. The karyology of South Amer-
to infer a hostphylogeny at higher levels than ican Primates and their relationship to African and
mentioned above depends upon the degree to which Asian species, pp. 387-398. In Ciochon, R. L., and
A. B. Chiarelli, eds.. Evolutionary Biology of the New
cospeciational patterns outweigh colonizations or
World Monkeys and Continental Drift. Plenum Press,
extinctions in the hypothesized historical relation-
New York.
ships. Among the entire psoroptid lineage para-
Ciochon, R. L., and A. B. Chiarelli, eds. 1980. Evo-
sitizing all Primates, cospeciational patterns ap- lutionary Biology of the New World Monkeys and
pear to be supported in a large majority of cases Continental Drift. Plenum Press, New York, 528 pp.
(OConnor, 1984). However, noncosj)eciational Fain, A. 1 962. Diagnoses d'acariens nouveaux. Revue
de Zoologie et de Botanique Africaines, 66: 154-162.
patterns such as the distribution of the genus Le-
muralges in the Makialginae, or the cebalgine par- . 1 963a. Nouveaux acariens psoriques parasites
de marsupiaux de singes sud-americains (Psoralgi-
et
asitesof the Callitrichidae, make the use of these
dae: Sarcoptiformes). Bulletin et Annales de Societe
mites as consistent indicators of host phylogeny
Royale d'Entomologie de Belgique, 99: 322-332.
at least somewhat suspect. Given the large dis- 1 963b.
. Un nouvel acarien producteur de gale
parity in phylogenetic hypotheses generated from chez un singe sud-americain. Bulletin et Annales de
subsets of the overall character matrix for the New Societe Royale d'Entomologie de Belgique, 99: 467-
World Primates, 470.

this parasite data deserves to be
at least considered by future workers in this area. 1 963c. Les acariens producteurs de gale chez
leslemuriens et les singes avec une etude des Psorop-
tidae (Sarcoptiformes). Bulletin du Institut Royal des
Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, 39(32): 1-125.
966. Les acariens producteurs de gale chez les
1
Acknowledgments lemuriens et les singes II. Nouvelles observations avec
description d'une espece nouvelle. Acarologia, 8: 95-

114.
I would like to thank Philip Hershkovitz, with-
. 1968. Notes sur trois acariens remarquables
out whose cooperation and interest this study could
(Sarcoptiformes). Acarologia, 10: 276-291.
not have been attempted. I also thank Robert
FuTUYMA, D. J., AND M. Slatkin, EDS. 1983. Cocvo-
Timm and Bruce Patterson, Field Museum of Nat- lution. Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland, Mass., 555
ural History, for their hospitality and cooperation pp.
during the processing of host specimens and for Hershkovitz, P. 1977. Living New World Monkeys
their critical review of the manuscript. I thank J. (Platyrrhini), vol. 1 .
University of Chicago Press, Chi-
H. S. Klompen, University of Michigan, for his cago, 1117 pp.
comments on thank Margaret

the manuscript. I
1984. Taxonomy of squirrel monkeys genus
.
Saimiri (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A preliminary report

van Bolt, Museum of Zoology, University of
with description of a hitherto unnamed form. Amer-
Michigan, for assistance with the illustrations. ican Journal of Primatology, 7: 155-210.
Lavoipierre, M. M. J. 1964a. A note on the family

Psoralgidae (Acari: Sarcoptiformes) together with a
description of two new genera and two new species
parasitic on primates. Acarologia, 6: 342-352.
Literature Cited .1964b. A
new family of acarines belonging to
the Suborder Sarcoptiformes parasitic in the hair fol-
Baba, M., L. Darga, and M. Goodman. 1980. Bio- licles of Primates. Annals of the Natal Museum, 16:
chemical evidence on the phylogeny of Anthropoidea, 191-208.
pp. 423-443. In Ciochon, R. L., and A. B. Chiarelli, NiTECKi, M. H., ED. 1983. Coevolution. University of
eds.. Evolutionary Biology of the New World Monkeys
Chicago Press, Chicago, 392 pp.
and Continental Drift. Plenum Press, New York.
OConnor, B. M. 1984. Co-evolutionary patterns be-
Brooks, D. R. 1979. Testing the context and extent of tween astigmatid mites and primates, pp. 186-195. In
host-parasite coevolution. Systematic Zoology, 28: 299- Griffiths, D. E., and C. E. Bowman, eds., Acarology
307. Horwood Ltd., Chichester, England.
VI, vol. 1. Ellis
1981. Hennig's parasitological method: A pro-
.
and W. C. Meyer. 1980. The phy-
Perkins, E. M.,
posed solution. Systematic Zoology, 30: 229-249. logenetic significance of the skin of primates: Impli-
. 1985. Historical ecology: A new approach to cations for the origin of New World monkeys, pp.

331-346. In Ciochon, R. L., and A. B. Chiarelli, eds., R. and A. B. Chiarelli, eds., Evolutionary Biology
L.,
Evolutionary Biology of the New World Monkeys and of theNew World Monkeys and Continental Drift.
Continental Drift. Plenum Press, New York. Plenum Press, New York.
RosENBERGER, A. L. 1977. A'e«o//?r/jc and ceboid phy- Schwartz, J. H., I. Tattersall, and N. Eldredge.
logeny. Journal of Human Evolution, 6: 461-481. 1978. Phylogeny and classification of the Primates
AND J.E. Cronin. 1 980. South Amer- revisited. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 21: 95-
Sarich, V. M.,
ican mammal molecular systematics, evolutionary '33.
clocks, and continental drift, pp. 399-422. In Ciochon,

Notes on Bolivian Mammals
2. Taxonomy and Distribution of Rice Rats
of the Subgenus Oligoryzomys
Nancy Olds and Sydney Anderson
ABSTRACTS
There are at least three kinds of small, long-tailed rice rats of the subgenus Oligoryzomys
(genus Oryzomys) in Bolivia. We use the names Oryzomys microtis (including O. fornesi), O.
chacoensis, and O. longicaudatus for these taxa. The correctness of these names is less certain
and resolution of the nomenclatorial questions awaits study of specimens from outside Bolivia.
The ranges of O. chacoensis and O. microtis are at low elevations and probably overlap to some
degree geographically. The range of O. longicaudatus is in the highlands. No sample from one
locality includes specimens of more than one species; therefore, ecological and microgeographic
differences at places where any two of the three species meet are unknown. Further study may
reveal other and more cryptic species within Bolivia. No one measurement or other characteristic
that we have studied will unequivocally distinguish all adult specimens of any one of the three
kinds from Bolivia. Geographic variation probably occurs within as well as beyond Bolivia in
two of the three species (the most uniform seems to be O. chacoensis), but more material
at least
isneeded to describe such patterns. We refrain from using subspecies names in consideration
of an ignorance of both geographic patterns of variation and the status of available names. The
only name in the subgenus with a Bolivian type locality, O. chaparensis, is tentatively considered
a synonym of O. microtis.
Existen en Bolivia por lo menos tres clases de pequefias ratas arroceras de cola larga del
subgenero Oligoryzomys (genero Oryzomys). Nosotros usamos los nombres de Oryzomys mi-
crotis (incluyendo O. fornesi), O. chacoensis, y O. longicaudatus para estos taxa. La exactitud
de estos nombres es menos cierta y la resolucion de problemas de nomenclature necesita estudio
de esp>ecimenes de fuera de Bolivia. Los rangos de distribucion de O. chacoensis y O. microtis
estan en bajas elevaciones y probablemente se superponen geograficamente en algun grado.
Ninguna muestra de una localidad contiene especimenes de mas de una especie. Diferencias
ecologicas y microgeograficas son desconocidas en lugares donde cualquiera de las dos o tres
especies se encuentran. Ulterior estudio puede revelar otras y mas cripticas especies en el interior
de Bolivia. Ninguna medida u otra caracteristica que nosotros hemos estudiado separara cla-
ramente todos los especimenes adultos de Bolivia. Variacion geografica ocurre probablemente
dentro asi como fuera de Bolivia en al menos dos de las tres especies (la mas uniforme parece
ser O. chacoensis), pero mas material es necesario para describir tales patrones de variacion.
Nos abstenemos de usar nombres subespecificos en consideracion de la ignorancia de los
patrones de variacion y el estado de los nombres disponibles. El unico nombre en el subgenero
con una localidad tipica en Bolivia, O. chaparensis, es tentativamente considerado como O.
microtis.
From the Department of Mammalogy, American Mu-

seum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024.
OLDS & ANDERSON: RICE RATS OF SUBGENUS OLIGORYZOMYS 261

Existem no minimo tres tipos de pequenos ratos-de-arroz, de cauda longa, pertencentes ao
subgenero Oligoryzomys (genero Oryzomys) na Bolivia. A estes taxa damos os nomes de Ory-
zomys microtis (incluindo O. fornesi), O. chacoensis, e O. longicaudatus. A precisao destes
nomes e incerta, e resoluôes da nomenclatura aguardam estudos de especimes nao bolivianos.
O. chacoensis e O. microtis ocorrem em eleva?6es baixas, e as duas esjiecies provavelmenle
coocorrem em algumas areas. Oryzomys longicaudatus ocorre em areas montanhosas. Amostras
de um so local nao incluem mais do que uma esF)ecie, e nao se conhecem diferen9as ecologicas
ou microgeograficas em areas onde duas ou mais especies possam coocorrer. Com futuros
estudos, novas especies, mais ocultas, poderao ser encontradas na Bolivia. Nenhum unico
carater que estudamos pode inequivocamente separar especimes adultos dos tres tipos de
Oligoryzomys na Bolivia. Varia96es geograficas provavelmente ocorrem na Bolivia, bem como
em outras areas, mas mais material e necessario para poder documentar quaisquer padroes
geograficos (O. chacoensis parece ser a esp>ecie mais uniforme em aparencia). Dada a falta de
conhecimento, ambos dos padroes geograficos, e da disponibilidade dos nomes, nao usamos
nomes de subespecies. O unico subgenero com localidade de tipo na Bolivia, O. chaparensis,
e aqui lentativamente considerado como sinonimo de O. microtis.
Introduction
coensis, and O. fornesi. They also clarified no-
Bolivian landscapes range from less than 300 m menclatorial questions relating to the 'name
to more than 4000 m, and habitats range from the Oryzomys nigripes. Since Paraguay borders Boliv-
humid lowland Amazonian tropical forests and ia, this recent study was used as our starting point.
subtropical savannahs to the high barren plains We used the same measurements and comparable
and snow-capped peaks of the Andean altiplano analyses. We
assumed that O. chacoensis and O.
(fig. 1 ). Habitats may change abruptly, often within fornesi occurred also in southeastern Bolivia, near
only a few kilometers. The mammals of Bolivia the Paraguayan border. If O. nigripes occurs in
are also diverse, and provide excellent opportu- most probable place for it is in eastern
Bolivia, the
nities for ecological and taxonomic studies of broad Santa Cruz, from which no specimens are now
scope. However, the animals are poorly known available.
(Mares & Genoways, 1982); before satisfactory At least six names have been used in the liter-
general conclusions can be reached, the Bolivian ature or in museum collections for Bolivian sjdcc-
species need to be clearly delimited, both mor- imens of the subgenus Oligoryzomys: Oryzomys
phologically and geographically. longicaudatus and O. stolzmanni (of the high-
Mice of the genus Oryzomys occur throughout lands); O. chaparensis (from the lowlands of Co-
South America and are important members of chabamba); O. nigripes (used for all forms); O.
small mammal communities (Myers & Carleton, delicatus (used for a few specimens at middle el-
1981; Mares et al., 1981; Alho, 1982; O'Connell, evations); and 0./7ave5ce/ts (lowland). These names
1982;Streilein, 1982a-c; Viega-Borgeaud, 1982). have been used with considerable uncertainty in
We examined critically one subgenus of Oryzo- the past (see summaries in Tate, 1932, and espe-
mys, Oligoryzomys, in Bolivia to determine how cially Myers & Carleton, 1981). One cause of this
many species are present and where they occur. problem is that the original descriptions are vague
For a general description of the subgenus, see Myers or apply equally well to more than one species of
and Carleton (1981, pp. 9-12). Oligoryzomys.
The subgenus Oligoryzomys needs revision. The taxonomic confusion can be resolved by
There are few published studies of the more than detailed study of adequate numbers of museum
45 named forms (Tate, 1932; Ellerman, 1941; Ca- specimens, and the nomenclatorial confusion re-
brera, 1961; Myers & Carleton, 1981; Honacki et solved by comparisons with type specimens. Re-
al., Myers and Carleton (1981) studied
1982). newed interest in South American mammals has
Oligoryzomys from Paraguay, where they recog- resulted in more specimens, which will help in
nized three species: Oryzomys nigripes. O. cha- these tasks.
262 FIELDIANA: ZCX)LOGY

-
II
Brasi
Chile
Argentina V _
Fig. 1
.
Map of Bolivia showing the departments and the 500- and 3000-m contour lines. Be, Beni; Ch, Chuquisaca;
Co, Cochabamba; LP, La Paz; Or, Onaro; Pa, Pando; Po, Potosi; SC, Santa Cniz; Ta, Tarija.

Methods Age Class III: M '
flat or slightly concave; enam-
el island of above well isolated; M' and M-
We examined specimens in the collections of substantially worn.
the American Museum of Natural History Age Class IV: M^ concave; enamel island oblit-
(AMNH); Academy of Natural Sciences in Phila- erated; teeth well worn, but main cusps still
delphia (ANSP); California Academy of Sciences discernible.
(CAL): Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH); Age Class V: M '
and M- flat or concave; folding

Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of Cal- pattern obliterated.
ifornia (MVZ); Museum of Zoology, University of
Michigan (UMMZ); and United States National Individuals in age class I were examined, mea-
Museum of Natural History (USNM). sured,and included in mapping geographic ranges,
Measurements were obtained as follows: exter- but were excluded from statistical treatment of
nal measurements are from the original labels or character variation.
field notes, when available, or remeasured (fluid- Sp)ecimens examined are listed by locality and
preserved specimens only). The following cranial museum catalogue number in the Appendix. Lo-
measurements were taken to the nearest 0.0 1 mm calities are plotted in Figure 2. Statistical analyses
on a craniometer (see Anderson, 968) following
1 were done using the computer facilities of the City
Myers and Carleton (1981) and Musser (1979): University of New York (CUNY) and programs
from SAS (Statistical Analysis System) Institute,
ZN =
depth of zygomatic notch Inc. (1982).
LR =
length of rostrum from tip of nasals to
posterior edge of zygomatic notch
GLS = greatest length of skull Taxonomy
ZB = zygomatic breadth
BB = breadth of braincase Our knowledge of geographic variation and the
BIC = breadth of interorbital constriction some of the names is sketchy at best, so
status of
LIF = length of incisive foramen we do not use subspecific names. The name Ory-
LPB = length of palatal bridge zomys (Oligoryzomys) longicaudatus stolzmanni
LMl, LM2, LM3 = crown lengths of upF>er mo- was first used by Hershkovitz (1940, p. 81), by
lars inference for Bolivian populations, but we are not
WMl, WM2, WM3 = crown widths of upjjer certain that O. stolzmanni (Thomas, 1894; type
molars locality Huambo, 3700 ft, department of Ama-
MM = greatest breadth across molars (labial zonas, Peru) and O. longicaudatus (type locality
edges) restricted to Valparaiso, Chile) are conspecific or
LMX = crown length of upp>er toothrow that the Bolivian specimens are conspecific with
LNP = length of nasal projection either. The resolution of these problems awaits
LD = length of diastema further study beyond Bolivia.
LB = length of bulla We noticed no diflerence between Bolivian spec-
HB = height of bulla imens from Beni and Brazilian SF)ecimens from
TL = total length, including tail the vicinity of the typ>e locality of O. microtis (Low-
T = tail length er Rio Solimoes, 50 mi above mouth), and thus
HP = length of hind foot, including claw the subspecific name Oryzomys microtis microtis
E = length of ear, from notch might be applied to Bolivian specimens. However,
we need to know more about geographic variation
Specimens were sorted by age, using dental cri- in the species (see Remarks under O. microtis).
teria as outlined here (following Myers & Carleton, Some other names that may refer to consjsecific
1981): populations and thus be relevant as possible sub-
specific epithets are as follows:
Age Class I: M' not erupted or newly erupted,
M- unworn. 1. Oryzomys destructor from lowland eastern
Age Class II: M^ slightly to moderately worn, Peru has been assigned to longicaudatus but may
but not flat; M- slightly worn; enamel island prove to be consp)ecific with microtis; if so, de-
formed by the isolation of the internal part of structor is the senior synonym. If destructor and
the mesoflexus of M-. microtis are conspecific, the northern Bohvian mice

Fig. 2. Distribution of Bolivian Oligoryzomys: • = Oryzomys microtis; O = O. longicaudatus; X= O. chacoensis.
might be known as Oryzomys destructor destruc- Bolivia on geographic and ecological grounds, al-
tor, or perhaps O. destructor microtis. though no specimens are presently available. Myers
2. Oryzomys fornesi from northern Argentina and Carleton (1981) referred specimens from San
might also be expected to occur in southeastern Joaquin, Beni, to O. fornesi.

3. Oryzomys mattogrossae from Brazil just to (ZB), length of the first upper molar (LMl), and
the east of Bolivia conspecific with O. microtis
is length of the hind foot (HF), by species, to plot i
and has its type locality nearest the department of graphically the relationship between relative age I
Beni, where most of the Bolivian specimens have and size. Based on study of these graphs, we de-
been taken; thus, for geographic reasons, it must cided to include age classes II-V in further anal-
be considered in any future subspecific determi- yses, as did Myers and Carleton (1981). Most spec- I
nations. The uncertain specific status of utiariten- imens were juveniles (age class I) or young adults
sisfrom the same type locality as mattogrossae is (age classes II-III). Few specimens of age classes
noted below. If it is conspecific with mattogrossae, IV-V were present among the species we exam-
utiaritensis should be regarded as a synonym ined. See Tables 2 and 3 for the mean adult ages
thereof at the subspecies level also. of the specimens studied.
We concur with Myers and Carleton (1981) in

the recognition of two species groups of Oligory- Principal Components
zomys. These are the smaller-bodied, small-toothed
Oryzomys microtis. O.Jlavescens, and O. delicatus, We analyzed principal components (with the
and the larger-bodied, larger-toothed O. chacoen- Princomp procedure of SAS on a correlation ma-
sis, O. longicaudatus, and O. nigripes. trix) using measurements taken on individuals of
In the Species Accounts section, synonymies all sp)ecies (the approximate numbers of specimens
cover only Bolivian records. Other relevant names are in tables 2 and 3, some specimens were ex-
are discussed elsewhere in the text. cluded because of missing measurements). When
plotted, the first principal component tends to sep-
arate the smaller species {O. microtis and O. fla-
vescens) from the larger species {O. chacoensis and
Results of Statistical Analyses O. longicaudatus). The percentage of the totJil vari-
ance accounted for by the first three components
Sex and Age Variation is 68.7%.
We examined sex and age variation in Oryzomys

microtis. O. longicaudatus. O. chacoensis. and O. Discriminant Analysis
flavescens (from Uruguay). Males are slightly larg-
er in general; the average size differences, consid- We performed several different discriminant
ering all characters for each species, are 2.7%, 1 .6%, analyses (using theSAS programs Discrim, Step-
2.5%, and 2. 1%, respectively. We
examined sexual disc, and Candisc). A stepwise discriminant anal-
dimorphism in all measurements for each species ysis chose the following characters (in order of
by one-way and two-way analyses of variance of selection): tail length, breadth of interorbital con-
sex and of sex and age for each species. Results of striction, diastema length, length of incisive fo-
two-way analyses of variance of sex and age (using ramina, rostral length, bullar length, length of
all specimens of tooth wear class II or greater) on hind foot, molar breadth, length of nasal projec-
specimens of O. microtis from the department of tion, length of zygomatic notch, total length, zy-
Beni, Bolivia, are presented in Table 1 . Our results gomatic breadth, length of palatal bridge, and length
are roughly comparable to those of Myers and of maxillary toothrow.
Carleton (1981). We
did not separate sexes in fur- Using the SAS program Discrim, we were able
ther statistical analyses, although we watched for to test the posterior probability of group mem-
unbalanced sex ratios in samples when interpret- bership. In all analyses, we used as "known" groups
ing results. samples of the species Oryzomys microtis from
Age variation is more as no
difficult to assess, Beni, Bolivia; O. flavescens from Uruguay; O. lon-
detailed study has been published. Mice of this gicaudatus from the department of La Paz. Boliv-
subgenus probably continue to grow for most of ia; and O. chacoensis from Paraguay. Plots of the
their lives (see Myers &. Carleton, 1981), although individual mice on the first two canonical corre-
the rate slows with age. We performed least-squares latesshowed little overlap among the four species.
regression analyses (General Linear Models pro- We assumed that the following "unknowns" be-
cedures of SAS) on five variables: greatest length longed to one of the four "known" groups. We
of skull (GLS), total length (TL), zygomatic breadth submitted as "unknowns" the holotypes of O. mi-

crotis,O. mattogrossae, and O. chaparensis; the Table 1
.
Nongeographic variation in Oryzomys mi-
crotis. Results of analysis of variance of Bolivian O. mi-
paratype of O. chaparensis; and two specimens crotis.
from Beni assigned by Myers and Carleton (1981)
to O. chacoensis (see Remarks under O. microtis). Char-
The holotypes of O. microtis and O. mattogrossae
were assigned to the O. microtis species sample,
with a posterior probability of more than 95%.
The holotype of O. chaparensis was also assigned
to O. microtis (P = 0.987). The paratype of O.
=
chaparensis was assigned to O. microtis (P 0.985).
Several other specimens that we wanted to test,
including the type of O. delicatus, had missing
values and could not be used in the analysis. We
recognize that the validity of the taxonomic con-
clusions based on these analyses depends on the
correctness of the initial assumption, and that it
needs further testing. Not all measurements were
available for all skulls, but in each comparison
the largest possible subset was used.
Species Accounts
Subgenus Oligoryzomys Bangs, 1 900
Diagnosis— Within the genus Oryzomys, the

subgenus Oligoryzomys is distinguished by small
size and delicate structure throughout, tail rela-
tively long, hind foot long and slender; skull small,
delicate, interorbital region narrow, outer edges of
frontals squarish but unbeaded, braincase smooth
and unridged, zygomatic narrow and with
plate
slight forward projection, molar teeth and incisors
small and delicate but with cusp pattern like other
Oryzomys (description adapted from Bangs, 1 900).
Oryzomys of the subgenus Microryzomys are also
small and delicate, but they differ from Oligory-
zomys in having a more slender rostrum, shallow-
er zygomatic notch, shorter and more rounded
braincase, sphenofrontal foramen and squamo-
soalisphenoid groove present, and karyotype with
a low FN/2n ratio (Myers & Carleton, 1981, p.
12).
Oryzomys chacoensis Myers and Carleton, 1981
Oryzomys chacoensis Myers and Carleton, 98 p. 19 1 1 ,
(typ)e locality "419 km by road NW Villa Hayes

[alongside the Trans Chaco Highway], Dept. Bo-
queron, Paraguay").
Diagnosis— C>ryzc>my5 chacoensis Myers and

Carleton (1981, p. 20) was diagnosed as "A me-
Table 2. Mean, standard deviation, and range (in mm) for Oryzomys chacoensis and O. longicaudatus.
niles are grayer, as are all
young Oligoryzomys in amined the two darker ones. When skulls are com-
Bolivia, but this is on the
especially noticeable pared, the two darker mice are among the older
venter, which has mixed gray and white hairs. In- and larger individuals in the series. They seem to
cisive foramina extend posteriorly to the anterior have relatively broader braincases than most, but
edge of M' or slightly beyond. Alisphenoid strut there is no character shared by these two that is
(a strut of the alisphenoid bone that covers the not also seen in one or more of the others. In a
lateral part of the alisphenoid canal, see Musser, discriminant analysis (SAS program Discrim) the
1982, p. 29) is generally absent (table 4). The sides posterior probability of membership (in the four
of the interorbital constriction are divergent pos- reference species) allies these two mice with O.
teriorly (less parallel-sided than in O. longicau- chacoensis (ansp 18187, P = 0.997, and ansp
datus) (fig. 3). The following quotes are from Myers 18188, P = 0.954 with chacoensis). We have as-
and Carleton (1981, first and second quotes, p. 21 , signed these mice to O. chacoensis. Since Rio Li-
third quote, p. 24): pto is in the area where these two species meet,
further study there should reveal whether sym-
Oryzomys chacoensis differs from O. cha- patry exists and if species differences remain dis-
parensis Osgood (1916) primarily in color tinct.
pattern: the type of chaparensis is much Specimens from Argentina (listed in the Ap-
darker and less hispid dorsally,
yellowish pendix) are similar in coloration to both Para-
ventrally, lacks the orange tufts anterior to guayan and Bolivian specimens, but are woolier.
the ears, and has a grayish throat. The distal This sample extends the known range of O. cha-
portions of the nasals of the holotype flare coensis into the department of Jujuy, northwestern
laterally to an extent not seen in chacoensis. Argentina.
Oryzomys chacoensis can be distinguished

from fornesi, with which it occurs sympat-
Oryzomys longicaudatus (Bennett, 1832)
rically, by its larger size (maxillary toothrow
usually > 3.3mm, ears usually > 15mm),
Mus longicaudatus Bennett, 1832, p. 2 (type locality
characteristic karyotype, lack of preputial "In trees in Chile," restricted to Valparaiso by Ca-
glands, and in most specimens by its lack of brera, 1961, p. 391).
buff" on the belly. Oryzomys longicaudatus: Thomas, 1898, p. 3 (Aguai-
renda Mission, San Francisco, perhaps not O. lon-
gicaudatus); Thomas, 1926, p. 194 (Tupiza).
. . . the hind feet of chacoensis are relatively
Oryzomys Stolzmanni: Thomas, 1902, p. 130 (Cha-
short compared to those of the more terres- ruplaya, Choro); Neveu-Lemaire and Grandidier,
trial fornesi. 1 9 1 1
, p. 9 (Charuplaya, Choro).
Oryzomys ^X>;flavescens groMTp: Thomas, 1925, p. 578
(Carapari, perhaps not O. longicaudatus).
In reference to the last point, however, our cal-
Oryzomys stolzmanni stolzmanni: Sanborn, 1950, p.
culations of length of hind foot relative to length 2 (Rio Aceramarca, Cocapunco, Nequejahuira,
of head and body (using data from tables 2 and 3) Okara, Pitiguaya, Pongo).
are about 26% both O. chacoensis and O. mi-
for
crotis (including fornesi). Comparison of speci- Diagnosis— Bolivian specimens referred to this
mens also reveals no noticeable difference. species differ from other Bolivian Oligoryzomys
Remarks— This species is clearly distinct from in that they are larger (especially in the size of the
O. microtis (here including O. fornesi). In most teeth) than O. microtis and lack the buffy wash on
morphometric characters, O. chacoensis grossly the venter; are grayer-bellied, darker, and less griz-
resembles O. longicaudatus from Bolivia and O. zled dorsally than O. chacoensis; and occur at gen-
nigripes from Brazil. erally higher elevations (at least in northern Bo-
Our specimens from Santa Cruz show some livia).
variation in coloration: two specimens (amnh Distribution in Bolivia— O. longicaudatus is
247772-247773) are pale. The specimens from found in the valleys and mountains of the Andes
Tarija resemble the Paraguayan samples more from at least middle elevations (1200 m, Entre
closely thando the specimens from Santa Cruz. Rios) up to 3720 m (Poopo). Specimens from near
A of 13 sp)ecimens from Rio Lipeo in-
series Camiri and Cuyambuyo in southern Bolivia are
cludes two with darker pelage that resemble O. from elevations of 780 to 1000 m. Specimens (see
longicaudatus. We measured these mice and ex- Appendix) have been reported or examined from

Fig. 3. Dorsal and ventral views of skull of (left), Oryzomys longicaudatus stolzmanni; (middle), O. chacoensis,
and (right), O. microtis microtis. Specimens in the American Museum of Natural History. Scale at lower right represents
10 mm.
the departments of Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La are dark with paler cheeks. Often there are pale
Paz, Oruro, Polosi, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (see spots just behind the ears. Hind feet are pale above.
map, fig. 2). The tail is brown above, weakly to strongly bi-
General Description and Comparisons— colored, and relatively long compared to that of
Cranial and external measurements are presented any other Bolivian Oligoryzomys. Incisive foram-
in Table 2. The belly is gray, rarely washed with ina generally extend to the anterior edge of M' or
buff; upper parts are a dark brown lined with black slightly behind. Alisphenoid strut is generally ab-
hairs,and often the sides are more rufous. A thin sent (table 4). The interorbital area is slightly more
orange lateral line may be present. Nose and face constricted on the average than that of O. cha-

coensis, and has relatively parallel sides (see fig. tus (F= 0.956). There are problems in distinguish-
3). ing O. longicaudatus and O. chacoensis solely by
Remarks— Oryzomys longicaudatus may be a cranial morphology in all areas.
composite of more than one species. Oryzomys
destructor and O. stolzmanni were considered sub-
species of 6>. longicaudatus by Cabrera ( 1 96 1 ) and
Oryzomys microtis Allen, 1916
full species by Soukup (1961). Gardner and Patton
(1976) found four karyotypic variants in speci-
mens they assigned to O. longicaudatus, and com- Oryzomys (Oligoryzomys) microtis Allen, 9 6, p. 525 1 1
(type locality Lower Rio Solimoes, 50 mi above

mented that these may represent four separate mouth [80 km from its confluence with Rio Negro,
species. One of their karyotypic variants, no. 2, is Amazonas, Brazil]).
represented by 1 7 specimens from Balta, depart- Oryzomys chaparensis Osgood, 9 6, p. 205 (holotype
1 1
and paratype, type locality Todos Santos, on Rio

ment of Loreto (now Acayali), Peru, at an eleva-
Chapare, Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia);
tion of about300 m. Myers and Carleton (1981,
Gyldenstolpe, 1932, p. 25 (Todos Santos); Myers
p.26) mentioned that the karyotype of these spec- and Carleton, 1981, p. 38 (Todos Santos); all in
imens as reported by Gardner and Patton (1976) reference to the same specimens.
agreed better with results they obtained for O.for-

Oryzomys fornesi Massoia, 1973, p. 22 (type locality
Naineck, Dept. Rio Pilcomayo, province of For-
nesi (= O. microtis) than for either O. chacoensis
mosa, Argentina); as used by Myers and Carleton,
or O. longicaudatus. We have examined these 1981, p. 25 for five specimens fVom San Joaquin,
specimens and judge that they are clearly different Beni, Bolivia.
from O. longicaudatus and belong with either O.
microtis or O. destructor (Balta is near the type Diagnosis— Allen described Oryzomys microtis
locality of O. destructor). The inclusion of karyo- as being readily distinguished from other Olig-
type no. 3 under O. longicaudatus, represented by oryzomys by its pale coloration, relatively small
one female from Venezuela, also needs verifica- ears, and
tail less than half total length. However,
tion. the of the holotype is more than half of the

tail
We have five specimens from Caracato, de- total length, a discrepancy noted by Goodwin
partment of La Paz (amnh 248977-248981), that (1953). Massoia (1973) diagnosed O. fornesi, here
are quite different from other Bolivian Oryzomys considered a junior synonym of O. microtis, as the
longicaudatus. The pelage closely resembles that smallest species of the subgenus in Argentina, hav-
of O. nigripes from Paraguay in color and texture; ing the ears covered with short ochraceous hairs,
it is paler and more obviously lined with black the pterygoids short (shorter than the molar se-
hairs dorsally than the pelage of typical O. lon- ries), the interorbital constriction narrow, and the
gicaudatus. They are also slightly larger bodied, incisive foramina not extending to the molar se-
but four of the five are old individuals (age classes ries. In Bolivia, it can be distinguished by its small
IV-V) and this may account for the larger size. body size, toothrow generally less than 3.3, gray-
Because of the small sample size and the single buffy color of the belly, and relatively short tail in
locality, we chose not to distinguish this popula- proportion to body.
tion taxonomically. Distribution in Bolivia— Specimens (see Ap-
possible that Andean populations may oc-
It is pendix) from the lowlands of Bolivia, in the de-
cupy areas that are rather widely scattered and partments of Beni, Cochabamba, Pando, La Paz,
physically isolated in different valleys or side can- and Santa Cruz have been examined. Habitat in-
yons. If so, there may be considerable geographic cludes marshes and wet forests up to an elevation
variation. More specimens are needed to detect of 1 800 m (Guanay, see fig. 2).
and describe such patterns. General Description and Comparisons —

The sjjecimens from near Cuyambuyo are at Smallest of the Bolivian Oligoryzomys, with small
comparatively low elevations (980 to 1000 m) for teeth,toothrow generally less than 3.3 (averaging
O. longicaudatus, although the species occurs at 3.10). Massoia ( 1 973) gave general measurements
progressively lower elevations farther south (Os- useful in distinguishing this species from other Ar-
good, 1916). The two localities near Cuyambuyo gentine species of Oryzomys (Oligoryzomys) as fol-
are only about 60 km from Rio Lipeo, where O. lows: length of hind foot generally less than 24,
chacoensis occurs. The SAS Discrim program length of ear generally less than 13, breadth of
analysis allied the largest adult specimen from near braincase less than 10.8, and length of incisive
Cuyambuyo (ummz 155891) with O. longicauda- foramina generally less than 4.5. All of his mea-

Table 3. Mean, standard deviation, and range (in mm) for Oryzomys microtis and O. flavescens.
surements fall within the extremes of our values Table 4. Presence or absence of alisphenoid strut in
measurements of the five speciesof Oryzomys (Oligoryzomys) expressed as a
for O. microtis, except for
percentage; number of specimens in parentheses.
toothrow (LMX), in which his are on the upper
end of our range. Values of cranial and external Alisphenoid strut
measurements are listed in Table 3. The venter is
Species
white mixed with gray to gray-bufFy and clear huf-
fy. The dorsum is rufous brown, lined with black
hairs, and has paler sides. Often there is no clear
demarcation between sides and belly. There are
no white spots behind ears. Juveniles are similar
to adults, but show a grayer belly. The tail is dark
above and weakly bicolored. Occasionally orange-
tipped hairs lie anterior to the ear. Hind feet are
white above. Incisive foramina generally extend
posteriorly to the anterior edge of M' and not
beyond. In comparison with adults of O. cha-
coensisand O. longicaudatus, O. microtis has a
shorter skull, longer braincase, shorter incisive fo-
ramina, a relatively broader interorbital constric-
tion with divergent sides, and smaller, narrower
teeth; also, an alisphenoid strut is more often pres-
ent (table 4).
Remarks— This species is similar to Oryzomys
flavescens ofUruguay and Argentina (see Myers
& Carleton, 1981). Specimens of both species were
reported from the same locality, Capitan Solari,
in the province ofChaco, northern Argentina, by
Contreras and Berry (1983). Measurements of 6>.
flavescens from Uruguay are listed in Table 3 (see
also Langguth, 1 comparison with O. mi-
963). In
crotis, specimens of O. flavescens have slightly
larger teeth, larger bullae, longer incisive forami-
na, and are generally larger. Oryzomys flavescens
needs to be more clearly defined. Massoia and
Fomes ( 1 967) once synonymized O. flavescens with
O. nigripes, but according to the later analyses of
Massoia (1973) and Myers and Carleton (1981)
these taxa are not consjiecific. Uruguayan speci-
mens oi O. flavescens are clearly different from O.
nigripes from eastern Paraguay. Future studies may
reveal additional relationships, including the pos-
sibility that O. microtis and O.fiilvescens of Cen-
tral America and northern South America are con-
specific (Handley, 1976, referred Venezuelan
specimens to O. fiilvescens).
The name Oryzomys microtis flyrnesi might be
used to reflect the conspecific status oiflyrnesi and
microtis. This subspecific name would apply to at
least the five specimens identified by Massoia
(1973), pending more detailed studies that would
test whether geographic differences warrant con-
tinued subspecific recognition.
Until the relationships of the Andean ""longi-
caudatus -group" are clarified, it is also possible
included in the synonymy above because the name and length of hind foot (/ = 3.24, P < 0.01); all
has never been used in print for a Bolivian spec- have greater average values in Bolivian specimens, |
imen). As mentioned by Myers and Carleton but the ranges of values overlap. One possible con-
( 1 98 1 ), O. utiaritensis may belong with O. nigripes. founding factor is that the Brazilian sample is com-
More specimens from Mato Grosso are needed to posed of mostly males (ca. 95%) and has a lower
'
establish the characteristics of the species there. average adult age than the Bolivian or Peruvian
Oryzomys microtis was considered a synonym of samples (see tables 2-3). If the degree of sexual
O. delicatus by Alho ( 1 982) and Pine ( 1 973); how- dimorphism in this species is considered (2.72%,
ever, because of the slightly damaged condition of see p. 266), the difference may actually be less than i
the skin and

of the holotype of O. delicatus
skull noted in our tests. For these reasons the subspecies !
and the remoteness of its type locality (on the is- name Oryzomys microtis microtis might be ap- I
land of Trinidad, Allen & Chapman, 1 897), we propriate for specimens from northern Bolivia.
defer any decision on this question. More differences exist between Peruvian and
We have reexamined the two specimens from Bolivian samples. The Bolivian specimens are
Beni that Myers and Carleton (1981) referred to generally larger: the zygomatic notch is deeper,
Oryzomys chacoensis (usnm 39 1 297, 46074 1 ) and diastema longer, braincase broader, zygomatic
have assigned them to O. microtis. These speci- breadth greater, and interorbital constriction
mens are young adults (age class II), have external broader. However, Bolivian specimens have sig-
measurements that fit well with O. microtis and nificantly narrower teeth. Brazilian specimens, as
that are rather small for O. chacoensis (TL 200, noted above, are similar to Bolivian specimens
200; T 111, 110; HF 19, 24, respectively), and and differ from the Peruvian material about as
have toothrows measuring 3.34 and 3.40, respec- much as Bolivian specimens do. The Peruvian mice
tively.The toothrows fall on the upper end of the used in this comparison come from a lowland site
range for O. microtis and the lower end of the range in Pasco, the department just south of Huanuco,
for O. chacoensis (tables 2-3).We then compared which is near the type locality of Oryzomys de-
their measurements through a discriminant anal- structor.
ysis with the samples ofO.flavescens, O. microtis, One skin (amnh 247776) from near Villa Tunari
O. chacoensis. and O. longicaudatus. The posterior in Cochabamba is dorsally paler and ventrally
probability of membership for both was greatest whiter (not bufly) than any skin from Pando or
for O. microtis (usnm 391297, P= 0.937; usnm Beni. A skin (amnh 246809) from near Buena Vis-
460741,/' = 0.953). Santa Cruz is comparable to the darker spec-
ta in
We (fmnh 21330) and the
refer the holotype imens from Beni, but is ventrally less bufl[> .
one paratype (amnh 40787) o^ Oryzomys chapa-

rensis to Oryzomys microtis. The holotype is the
largest and one of the oldest individuals we have

identified as O. microtis. Its greatest skull length
is 26.8, zygomatic breadth 13.4, breadth of brain- Concluding Remarks
case crown length of maxillary toothrow 3.5,
1 1.2,
tail length 111, and length of hind foot 26. The Given the considerable pelage
differences noted
skull length, the toothrow, and hind foot length few available specimens from
in reference to the
are larger than other Bolivian O. microtis (see table Cochabamba and Santa Cruz in the accounts of
3). The pelage coloration of this specimen falls Oryzomys chacoensis and O. microtis, the prob-
within the range of variation in O. microtis. For lems noted in reference to sF>ecimens from south-
a comparison of pelage coloration between O. cha- em Tarija in the accounts of O. chacoensis and O.
parensis and O. chacoensis, see the account of O. longicaudatus, the difficulty of identification that
chacoensis under General Description and Com- results from overlapping ranges of measurements,
parisons. the sketchy knowledge of geographic variation, and
Geographic Variation— We were unable to the small samples from most critical areas, the
detect significant differences in p>elage coloration taxonomy of Bolivian Oligoryzomys will probably
between our samples from Brazil, Bolivia, and prove to be more complicated than that presented
Peru. The Brazilian specimens are much like the here. We hojie our summary will provide infor-
Bolivian specimens. A / test showed only three mation useful in further taxonomic work on the
variables that differ significantly: bullar height (/ = subgenus. All of our data and detailed analyses are
5.45, P< 0.001), tail length (/
= 2.61, P< 0.05), deposited in the Department of Mammalogy,

American Museum of Natural History, and are Cabrera, A. 1961. Catalogo de los mamiferos de
available for the use of other interested workers. America del Sur. Revista del Museo Argentino de
Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia," Ciencias
More than 400 additional specimens, many in-
Zoologicas, 4: 309-732.
cluding karyological and biochemical prepara- Cole, Y.I. 1984. Genetic structure of a wild population
tions, have been collected in 1984, 1985, and 1986 of a Neotropical rodent (Oryzomys [Oligoryzomys]
since this paper was written. Study of these will longicaudatus; Muridae, Cricetinae). M.A. thesis. New
certainly help to clarify remaining taxonomic York University, New York, 165 pp.
CoNTRERAS, J. R., AND L. M. Berrv. 1 983. Notas acer-
problems.
ca de los roedores del genero Oligoryzomys de la Pro-
vincia del Chaco, Republica Argentina (Rodentia, Cri-
cetidae). Historia Natural, 3(15): 145-148.
Ellerman, J. R. 1941. The Families and Genera of
Acknowledgments Living Rodents. Vol. 2, Family Muridae. British Mu-
seum (Natural History), London, xii + 690 pp.
This study was partially funded by a grant from Gardner, A. L., and J. L. Patton. 1976. Karyotypic
the Undergraduate-Graduate Research Fund Pro- variation in oryzomyine rodents (Cricetinae) with
comments on chromosomal evolution in the Neo-
gram, which is supported by the Susan Greenwall
tropical cricetine complex. Occasional Papers of the
Foundation and administered by the American Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, 49:
Museum of Natural History. We thank Dr. Leslie 1-48.
F. Marcus for his statistical advice. Masaaki Yone- Goodwin, G. G. Catalogue of type specimens
1953.
da kindly provided us with a list of SF>ecimens in of Recent mammals in American Museum of Nat-
the
ural History. Bulletin of the American Museum of
the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, La Paz,
Natural History, 102: 207-412.
Bolivia (MNHN). We are grateful to the curators
A manual of Neotropical sig-
Gyldenstolpe, N. 1 932.
of the collections referred to here, especially Dr. modont rodents. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakade-
Philip Myers, Dr. Guy G. Musser, and Dr. Michael miens Handlingar. Tredje Serien, Bd. 11, no. 3: 1-
D. Carleton, for their generous advice and assis- 164, 17 plates.
tance in various ways. We also thank Dr. Robert Handley, C. O., Jr. 1976. Mammals of the Smith-
S. Voss, Dr. James L. Patton, and Dr. Robert M. sonian Venezuelan Project. Brigham Young Univer-
sity Science Bulletin, Biological Series, 20: 1-91.
Timm for reviewing the manuscript.
Hershkovitz, p. 1 940. Four new oryzomyine rodents
from Ecuador. Journal of Mammalogy, 21: 78-84.
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Streilein, K. E. 1982a. Ecology of small in

Appendix ^
Specimens Reported or Examined
The latitude and longitude are abbreviated; 1657/6523 means 16*'57'S, 65''23'W, for example. Where
references are given (to Thomas), the specimens have not been examined by us. As noted, there are a
few other specimens that we have not seen.
O. chacoensis Boquer6n
Specimens: 88. 4 1 9 km by road NW Villa Hayes, 1 amnh (248397).
Chaco
BOLIVIA
50 km WNW Fortin Madrejon, 9 amnh (248398-
Santa Cruz 248406).
1623/6059, San Ignacio, province of Velasco, 10

USNM (390120-390121, 390664-390666,
391522-391526). ARGENTINA
1808/6312, 7 km E and 3 km N Ingeniero Mora,
13 AMNH (247758-247761, 247765-247773). JUJUY
Yuto, 10 AMNH (167855, 179976, 179980, 182570-

Tarua 182571, 182738-182739, 183312, 185226-
185227, 185269).
2056/6321, 2 km S and 10 km E of Tiquipa, 4 Sta. Barbara, 4 amnh (185224-185225, 185228,
amnh (246799-246801, 246822). 186954).
21 19/6325, 8 km S and 10 km E of Villa Monies,
8 AMNH (246802-246806, 246810, 146912,
246914).
2128/6317, 35 km by road SE Villa Montes, Ta-
ringuiti, 5 ummz (155937-155938, 156332-
156334).
2241/6426, Rio Lipeo, 13 ansp (18176-18188). O. longicaudatus
Specimens: 134.
PARAGUAY
Presidente Hayes BOLIVIA
Rio Pilcomayo, 15 mi W Rio Paraguay, 3 amnh Chuquisaca

-
-
(143892-143894).
1927/6407, Tola Orko, Tomina Province, 6 usnm
(271588-271590, 545226-545227, 545229).
NuEVA AsuNa6N 1929/6433, Horcus, 80 km SE Sucal, 3 mvz
(134654-134656).
19 km by road WSW, km 588 Trans Chaco, 8 1931/6409, Monte Canto, 1 usnm (271591).
amnh (249255-249262). ?, Chuyayacu, 1 fmnh (72889).
OLDS & ANDERSON: RICE RATS OF SUBGENUS OLIGORYZOMYS zm.

CCXTHABAMBA km by road N of Cuyambuyo, 2
22 1 2/6436, 8
UMMZ
(156326-156327).
1620/6645, Yungas, 1 cm (5276). 2213/6436, 4 km by road N of Cuyambuyo, 10
1654/6642, El Choro, 1amnh (1 19405), 12 fmnh UMMZ (155889-155891, 156312-156313,
(74902-74913), 1 bm (Thomas, 1902). 156315-156317, 156319-156320).
1714/6541, Incachaca, 19 amnh (38525-38542,
38550, not seen), 2 cm (5081-5082).
1734/6621, Parotani, 2 amnh (38543-38544), 1 Department Uncertain
fmnh (21668).
1742/6509, 20 mi E Totora, 1 mvz (1 19916). ?, Zapial, 1 usNM (270911).
1807/6509, Aiquile, 2 fmnh (50970-50971).
La Paz
O. microtis
1530/6824, Cocapunco, 1 amnh (72644).

Specimens: 230.
1535/6843, Tacacoma, 1 amnh (91540).
1535/6843, Tacacoma-Sorata, 2 amnh (91541-
91542).
1539/6824, Okara, 2 amnh (72704-72705).
BOLIVIA
1543/6840, 10 km by road N of Sorata, 3 ummz
(156301-156303).
Beni
1547/6840, Sorala, at base of Ml. Sorata, 4 amnh
(91536-91539).
1049/6525, Guayaramerin, 2 amnh (210050-
1600/6516, Charuplaya, 16 bm (Thomas, 1902).
210051).
1618/6753, Rio Aceramarca, 2 amnh (72693-
1110/6522, 4 km below Santa Cruz, 1 "amnh
72694).
amnh (72722, 72724- (211727).
1619/6752, Nequejahuira, 3
1 km S Santa Rosa, 4 amnh (2 1 1 729-
142/65 1 6, 4
72725).
ummz 211730, 211791-211792).
1620/6808, Mt. Chacaltaya, 1 (1 1571 1).
1 200/6502, Rio Itenez, 20 km from mouth, 2 amnh
1620/6756, Pongo, 15 amnh (72702-72703,
(211756-211757).
72706-72715, 72726, 81283, 241612).
1200/6506, Puerto More, Rio Itenez, 3 amnh
1621/6747, Pitiguaya, 4 amnh (72716, 72729-
(211758-211760).
72731).
1 2 1 3/65 1 3, Mamore River on bank opposite Cas-
1659/6749, Caracato, 5 amnh (248977-248981).
16 amnh (211724-211725, 211754, not
cajal,
1823/6659, Poopo, 1 mnlp (not seen).
211762-211774).
seen,
1226/6511, Mamore River, 2 amnh (211721,
POTOSi 211761).
1229/6417, Rio Itenez, opposite Costa Marques,
1 844/6609, 3 km SE of Pocoata, 1 amnh (255946). Brazil, 11 amnh (210122, 210038-210045,
2127/6543, Tupiza, 1 bm (Thomas, 1926). 210365-210366).
1229/6418, Rio Itenez, 1.5 km below Costa Mar-
ques, Brazil, 1 amnh (210364).
Santa Cruz 1230/6415, Pampa de Meio, 2 amnh (210046-
210047).
1754/6429, 5 mi W Comarapa, 1 mvz (1 19917). 1 230/64 1 8, Baures River mouth, 6 amnh (2 0028-
1
2005/6334, nr. Camiri, 1 cal (13803). 210031, 210382, 210383, not seen).
1240/6330, Curiche River mouth, 6 amnh
(210032-210037).
Tarua 1241/6432, 15 km above Horquilla on Rio Ma-
chupo, 1 amnh (210053).
2131/6445, 10 mi NW Tarija, 1 mvz (1 19918). 1244/6318, Versalles, 1 amnh (210052).
2 1 32/64 1 2, Entre Rios, 3 USNM (27 1 4 1 1-27 1 4 1 2, 1244/6428, Las Perias, 3 fmnh (1 17079-1 17081),
271432). 1 USNM (460741).
278 FIELDL\NA: ZOOLOGY

1300/6515, Mamore River, 1 amnh (21 1722). Pando
1304/6449, San Joaquin, 1 fmnh (1 17075), 6 usnm
(364735, 364738, 391299, 460273, 460742- 1117/6855, Rio Nareuda, 11 amnh (248982-
460743). 248990. 248993-248994).
1312/6410, Cachuelita, 1 usnm (460739).
1 3 1 2/65 1 5, 8 km N Exaltacion, 6 amnh (2 1 1 775-
211780). Santa Cruz
1313/6221, 20 km W Larangeira, Bahia de los
Casara, 2 amnh (210048-210049). 1 703/6335, 7 km N Santa Rosa, amnh (25460
1 1 ).
1313/6409, Boroica, 1 usnm (460740). 1724/6344, 7 km N

and 17 km W
of Buena Vista,
1322/6520, Palacios, province of Yacuma, 1 usnm 3 AMNH (246809, 246820, 246935).
(461082).
1324/6442, Chaco Lejo, 20 km SE San Ramon, 2
usnm (391295-391296).
1325/6435, Tacuaral, 1 usnm (391297).
1343/6521, Puerto Caballo, 2 amnh (211785, BRAZIL
214597).
1420/6455, 10 km W San Pedro, on Mamore Riv- Amazonas
er, 5 AMNH1786-21 1790).
(21
1428/6734, Rurrenabaque, 2 amnh (247774- Solimoes, 10 amnh (37088-37097, 37091 = ho-
247775). lotype of O. microtis).
1434/6455, 23 km W
San Javier, 1 amnh (214760). Guatsue, 1 amnh (37100).
1437/6457, Ibare River mouth, 2 amnh (21 1783- Lower Solimoes, 1 amnh (37157).
211784).
1446/6451, Ibare River, 24 km from mouth, 1
amnh (21 1755, not seen). ParA

1454/6422, 6 km W of Casarabe, 7 amnh (255947-
255953). Capim, 150 mi SE Belem, 1 amnh (188964).
1503/6658, 1 km E of La Embocada, 2 ummz Capim, Est. B.R. 14, km 97, 1 amnh (203400).
(155940, 156292). Rio Xingu; Porto de Moz, 1 amnh (95983).
1515/6415, El Triunfo,1 usnm (391298). Rio Xingu; Villarinho do Monte, 4 amnh (95984-
1550/6441, 5 km NW
Grande River mouth, 2 95986, 95997).
AMNH (21 1781-21 1782).
?, Centenela, 1 fmnh (1 17074).
?, "Beni" only, 1 amnh (232699). GoiAs: Rio Madeira
Auara Igarape, 5 amnh (91874, 91876-91878,

COCHABAMBA 94245).
Sta.Antonio du Uayara, 4 amnh (92258-92261).
1648/6508, Todos Santos, 1 amnh (paratype of Rosarinho, Lago Miguel, 1 1 amnh (92705-92715).
O. chaparensis, 40787), 1 fmnh (holotype, Rosarinho, Lago Sampaio, 2 amnh (9271 6-927 1 7).
21330).
1657/6523, 2 km E of Villa Tunari, 4 amnh
(247662-247664, 247776). Mato Grosso
Utiarity, Papagaio River, 3 amnh (37540-37542;

La Paz 37541 = type of O. 37542 = type
utiaritensis,
of 6). mattogrossae).
1 1 5/68 1 0, Mapiri, 5 amnh (7272 1
5 730 1 1 72732, , ,
72697-72698).
1528/6752, Guanay, 1 amnh (72701). ? Amazonas
1528/6818, Ticunhuaya, 1 amnh (72700).
1540/6742, 4 km NW
Alcoche, 2 ummz (126777, S bank R. Amazon: Villa Bella Imperatriz, 2 amnh
127167). (91899-91900).

PARAGUAY Maldonado
Caaguazu Barra del Arrojo Maldonado, 9 km ENE Punta

del Este, 1 amnh (205994).
24 km NNW Carayao, 1 ummz (133821).
Montevideo
Presidente Hayes
Rio Santa Lucia, 1 km SE Santiago Vasquez, 2
24 km NW Villa Hayes, 3 UMMZ (133830-1 33831, AMNH (205995-205996).
133833).
ROCHA
PERU 22 km SE Lascano, 18 amnh (205997-206009,

206011-206015).
Ayacucho
Hda. Luisiana on Rio Apurimac, 1 amnh (242484). San Jose
Dept. only, 3 amnh (232216-232218).

Pasco
Ca. 1 km N Puerto Bermudez, 38 amnh (24555 1- Soriano

245588).
3 km E Cardona, 1 amnh (206016).
Treinta y Tres
O. flavescens
16 km SSW Boca del Rio Tacuari, 1 amnh
Specimens: 33. (206017).
URUGUAY
Artigas
6 km NNW Belen, 2 amnh (205986-205987). O. nigripes
Specimens: 31.
Cerro Largo
Sierra de Vaz, Rio Tacuari, 20 km SE Melo, 1
amnh (205988). BRAZIL
GOIAS
Lavalleja
Anapolis, 7 amnh (134528-134530, 134532,
12 km WSW Zapican, 4 amnh (205989-205905). 134534, 134538, 134540).

MiNAS Gerais PARAGUAY
(Serrado Caparao), Rio Caparao, 8 amnh (80369- Ainambay

80370, 80372, 80375-80379).
(Serra do Caparao), Boa Espera, 1 amnh (80391). 4 km by road SW Cerro Cora, ummz (125523).
1
Mato Grosso CaaguazO
Maracaju, 9 amnh (134541-134542, 134544- N of Coronel Oviedo, 1 ummz (124212).

134547, 134551, 134838, 134902). 24 km NNWCarayao, 3 ummz (133835-133837).
SAo Paulo
Piquete, 1 amnh (36496).

New Records and Current Status of Euneomys (Cricetidae)
in Southern South America
Jose L. Yaftez, Juan C. Torres-M iira, Jaime R. Rau, and Luis C. Contreras
ABSTRACTS
New records of Euneomys from central and southern Chile are given. Specific assignment of
owing to the lack of good diagnostic characters, small number of
this material is difficult,
specimens, and spotty distribution. Absence of clear-cut differences between Euneomys localities
suggests that there is only a single species, E. chinchilloides. Subspecific assignments are deferred,
because at present they can only be made geographically, and the gaps between localities seem
to be more apparent than real.
Se citan nuevos registros de Euneomys para Chile Central y Sur. La determinacion es-
pecifica de este material es dificil debido a la carencia de buenos caracteres diagnosticos, al
bajo niimero de especimenes y a la distribucion localizada con grandes hiatos intermedios. La
ausencia de claras diferencias entre Euneomys de distintas localidades sugiere la existencia de
tan solo una especie, E. chinchilloides. Las nominaciones subespecificas se posponen, ya que
al moment© estas solo se pueden realizar basadas en las localidades geograficas y los hiatos
parecen ser mas aparentes que reales.
Sao citados novos registros de Euneomys para o Sul e Centro do Chile. Dada a falta de bons
carateres diagnosticos, o baixo numero de especimes, e a distribuiâo localizada com hiatos
intermediarios, e dificil a determina9ao esfiecifica deste material. A
ausencia de caracteristicas
distintas entre Euneomys de uma especie apenas:
localidades diferentes sugere a existencia de
E. chinchilloides. Nao foram
designadas nomina96es subespecificas ja que, no momento, estas
so poderiam ser realizadas na base das localidades geograficas, e os hiatos podem ser mais
aparentes do que reais.
Introduction kovitz, 1 962; Mann, 1978). The genus has a known

distribution from 33°00'S to Cape Horn (fig. 1),
The genus Euneomys one of the least studied
is mainly along and to the east of the Andes (Hersh-
South America. These
cricetid rodents in southern kovitz, 1962; and subsequent reports).
herbivorous, volelike rodents have a relatively In Chile Euneomys is known from Lago Fag-
large, heavy body and a short tail and ears (Os- nano and Hermite Island (Tierra del Fuego), Punta
good, 1943). Euneomys has close affinities with Arenas (Magallanes), Torres del Paine and Laguna
the phyllotine and sigmodontine groups (Hersh- Lazo (Ultima Esperanza), Puerto Ibaiiez (General
Carrera), Campo Bandera (Aysen), Pino Hachado
(Malleco), and Lo Valdes and Farellones (Santia-
From Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Casilla go) (Osgood, 1943; Mann, 1944, 1978; Markham,
787, Santiago, Chile (Yanez); Dei>artamento Biologia y
1971; Greer, 1965; Reise & Venegas, 1974; Pine
Quimica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Talca,
et al., 1979). In Argentina Euneomys iscertainly
Casilla 747, Talca, Chile (Torres-Mura and Contreras);
and Estacion Biologica de 'Doiiana' (Sevilla), Apartado known from Bahia del Buen Suceso (Tierra del
1056, Sevilla 41013, Espana (Rau). Fuego), upper Rio Chico (Santa Cruz), Paso de
YANEZ ET AL.: NEW RECORDS AND STATUS OF EUNEOMYS 283

Fig. 1. Collecting localities of Euneomys. 1, Farellones; 2, Lo Valdes; 3, Bartos del Flaco; 4, Pino Hachado; 5,
Lastarria; 6, Puerto Ibariez; 7, Torres del Paine; 8, Rio Baguales and Cueva del Milodon; 9, Estrecho de Magallanes
and Palli Aike; 10, Punta Arenas; 11, Lago Fagnano; 12, Hermite Island; 13, Grevy Island; 14, San Rafael; 15, Cueva
Traful; 16, Cerro Leones; 17, Paso de los MoUes, Pilcaniyeu; 18, Upper Rio Chico, Santa Cruz; 19, Bahia del Buen
Suceso. Open circles represent new localities.

Table 1. Mandibular measurements of Euneomys found in bam owl pellets from Lastarria and Baiios del Flaco
and from animals trapped in Farellones near Santiago.
Character Farellones* BaAos del Flaco Lastarria
MH-1
,
« o g
« « aS
1^
1^
§2
5
E
p « « * B
I
e
3 « e
0Q«
k. sn a>
ae •2
H g
1^
c .t:
ea —
u 3
00 5
e —
a u
0^ J=
SJ^
mainly of mandibles and maxillae. The limited Literature Cited
samples and their disintegration make a statistical
analysis impossible. Comparisons of the owl pellet Greer, J. K. 1965. Mammals of Malleco Province,
Chile. Publications of The Museum, Michigan State
material with the seven specimens collected near
University, Biological Series, 3: 51-151.
Santiago (table 1) show no differences. The same 1962. Evolution of Neotropical cric-
Hershkovitz, P.
results are obtained when comparisons are ex- etine rodents (Muridae). Fieldiana: 2kx)logy, 46: 1-
tended to include all known Chilean specimens 524.
(table 2).Using these criteria it is impossible for Mann, G. 1 944. Dos nuevas especies de roedores. Bio-
us to assign specimens from Lastarria and Banos logica (Santiago), 1: 95-126.
del Flaco to either E. c. mordax or E. c. petersoni. . 1978. Los pequenos mamiferos de Chile. Gay-
ana: Zoologia, 40: 1-342.
Markham, B. 1971. Catalogo de los anfibios, reptiles,

aves y mamiferos de la Provincia de Magallanes, Chile.
Publicaciones Instituto de la Patagonia, Serie Mono-
grafias N2. 3, 64 pp.
Conclusion
Massoia, E. 1982. Restos de mamiferos recolectados
en el paraje Paso de Los Molles, Pilcaniyeu, Rio Negro.
The absence of clear-cut differences between lo- Revista Investigaciones Agropecuarias INTA, Buenos
calities in Table 2 suggests that there only a is Aires, 17: 39-53.
single species represented, E. chinchilloides. Be- Miller, S. D., and J. Rottmann. 1976. Guia para el
cause subspecific assignments at present can only reconocimiento de mamiferos chilenos. Ed. Gabriela
Mistral, Santiago, 200 pp.
be made geographically, treatment of subspecies
Osgood, W. H. 1943. The mammals of Chile. Field
is deferred until an adequate sample of specimens
Museum of Natural History, Zoological Series, 30: 1-
is The fact that Euneomys are not taken
available. 268.
in traps at the same localities where they are found
Pearson, O. P., and A. K. Pearson. 1982. Ecology
in owl pellets (e.g., Reise & Venegas, 1976; Pear- and biogeography of the southern rainforests of Ar-
son Pearson, 1982; present study) suggests that
&. gentina, pp. 129-142. In Mares, M. A., and H. H.
current gaps in the distribution o^ Euneomys might Genoways, eds.. Mammalian Biology in South Amer-
ica. A Symposium Held at the Pymatuning Laboratory
be attributable to sampling error rather than to
of Ecology, May 10-14, 1981. Sf>ecial Publication Se-
truly disjunct distributions. The new records re-
ries, Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology, University
ported here fill both morphological and geograph- of Pittsburgh, 6: 1-539.

ical gaps. Pine, R. H.,J. P. Angle, AND D. Bridge. 1978. Mam-
mals from the sea, mainland, and islands at the south-
em tip of South America. Mammalia, 42: 105-1 14.
Pine, R. H., S. D. Miller, and M. L. S. Schamberger.
1979. Contributions to the mammalogy of Chile.
Mammalia, 43: 339-376.
Acknowledgments
Reise, D. 1973. Clave para la determinacion de los
craneos de marsupiales y roedores chilenos. Gayana:
We thank Angel Spotomo and Claudio Venegas Zoologia, 27: 1-20.
formaking specimens of Euneomys available to Reise, D. L., and W. Venegas. 1974. Observaciones
us.Bruce D. Patterson, Ronald H. Pine, and an sobre el comportamiento de la fauna de microma-
anonymous reviewer made valuable comments. miferos en la Region de Puerto Ibaiiez (Lago General
Mrs. Veronica Aguirre typed the manuscript, and Carrera), Aysen, Chile. Boletin Sociedad de Biologia,
Concepcion, Chile, 47: 71-85.
Luz Uribe assisted with the figure. This report is
Tamavo, M., and D. Frassinetti. 1980. Catalogo de
dedicated to P. Hershkovitz in recognition of his
los mamiferos fosiles y vivientes de Chile. Boletin
pioneering contributions to our understanding of Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Chile, 37: 323-
Neotropical mammals. 399.
YANEZ ET AL.: NEW RECORDS AND STATUS OF EUNEOMYS 287

Morphological Variation, Karyology,
and Systematic Relationships
of Heteromys gaumeri (Rodentia: Heteromyidae)
Mark D. Engstrom, Hugh H. Genoways, and Priscilla K. Tucker
ABSTRACTS
Morphological variation was assessed within and among populations of Heteromys gaumeri
using univariate and multivariate statistical analyses of external and cranial measurements.
Although patterns and amount of nongeographic variation in H. gaumeri were similar to other
heteromyines, geographic variation was relatively conservative.Mean values of most characters
were statistically homogeneous among and spatially unpattemed. Consequently, no
localities
association was found between levels of within- and among-sample variation for individual
characters (the "Kluge-Kerfoot phenomenon"). Populations of//, gaumeri were chromosomally
monomorphic. The lack of morphological and chromosomal variation in //. gaumeri contrasts
sharply with patterns in other heteromyines. Heteromys gaumeri is morphologically and chro-
mosomally distinct from the //. desmarestianus species group (to which it is currently assigned)
and appears to share some primitive characters with Liomys (the sister group of Heteromys).
We recommend that H. gaumeri be removed from the H. desmarestianus group.
La variacion morfologica intra e interpoblacional de Heteromys gaumeri fue evaluada usando
analisis estadisticos univariados y multivariados de medidas extemas y craneales. A pesar de
que los patrones y cantidad de variacion intrapoblacional en //. gaumeri fue similar a la de
otros heterominos, la variacion geografica fue relativamente conservadora. Los valores pro-
medio de la mayoria de los caracteres fueron estadisticamente homogeneos entre las localidades,
sin mostrar ningun patron de variacion espacial. En conservencia, no se encontro asociacion
alguna entre los niveles de variacion intra e interpoblacional para caracteres individuals ("fen-
omeno Kluge-Kerfoot"). Las poblaciones de //. gaumeri fueron monomorficas cromosomica-
mente. La falta de variacion tanto morfologica como cromosomica en H. gaumeri contrasta
marcadamente con los patrones encontrados anteriormente para otros heterominos. Heteromys
gaumeri es morfologica y cromosomicamente distinguible del grupo //. desmarestianus (al cual
se asigna actualmente) y aparentemente comparte algunos caracteres primitivos con Liomys (el
grupo hermano de Heteromys). Nosotros recomendamos que se remueva a H. gaumeri del

grupo //. desmarestianus.
Avalia-se a variafao morfologica intra- e interpopulacional de Heteromys gaumeri, atraves

de analises estatisticas uni- e multivariadas de medidas extemas e craniais. Apesar dos padroes,
e da quantidade de variaâo intrapopulacional em H. gaumeri serem similares aos de outros
heteromideos, a varia9ao geografica e relativamente conservadora. Os valores medios da maior

parte dos carateres examinados sao estatisticamente homogeneos entre as localidades, e nao
From Department of Biology, Angelo State Univer-

sity, San Angelo, TX76909 (Engstrom); Section of
Mammals, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 4400
Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 1 5206 (Genoways; pres-
ent address. University of Nebraska State Museum, 212
Morrill Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588); and Department of
Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX 77843 (Tucker, present address, The
Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609).
ENGSTROM ET AL.: HETEROMYS GA UMERI 289

surgiu nenhum padrao de variances locals. Consequentemente, nao foram encontradas asso-
cia96es entre os niveis de varaiafoes intra- e interpopulacionais para carateres individuals (o
"fenomeno KJuge-Kerfoot"). Populaôes de H. gaumeh mostraram-se cromossomicamente
monomorficas. A falta de varia9ao morfologica ou cromossomica em H. gaumeri e altamente
contrastante aos padroes encontrados em outros heteromideos. Heteromys gaumeri dlstingue-
se tanto morfologica quanto cromossomicamente do grupo H. desmarestianus. ao qual esta
atualmente deslgnado, e aparentemente possue carateres primitivos em comum com Liomys—
grupo irmao de Heteromys. Recomendamos que H. gaumeri seja removido do grupo H. des-
marestianus.
Introduction Specimens examined are listed in the Appendix,

and institutions housing those specimens are as
Spiny mice of the genus Heteromys (Hetero- follows (abbreviations for North American col-
myidae: Heteromyinae) are Neotropical rodents lections follow Choate &. Genoways, 1 975): Amer-
that typically occur in rainforest and cloudforest Museum of Natural History (amnh); British
ican
habitats from east-central Mexico south to north- Museum (Natural History), London (bmnh); Field
em South America. Currently, the genus is par- Museum of Natural History (fmnh); Museum of
titioned into two subgenera {Xylomys and Hetero- Natural History, University of Kansas (ku); James
mys), and two species groups {desmarestianus and Ford Bell Museum of Natural History, University
anomalus groups) are recognized in the nominate of Minnesota (mmnh); Royal Ontario Museum
subgenus (Goldman, 1911; Hall, 1981; Rogers & (ROM); Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collections,
Schmldly, 1982). Hall and Kelson (1959) and Hall Texas A«&M University (tcwc); The Museum,
(1981) noted that taxonomlc relationships within Texas Tech University (ttu); Museum of Zoology,
Heteromys and in particular the H. desmaresti- University of Michigan (ummz); Unlversidad Na-
anus species group were problematical and in need cional Autonoma de Mexico (unam); and National
of revision. Recently, Rogers and Schmldly ( 1 982) Museum of Natural History (usnm).
reviewed morphological variation among repre- Each specimen was assigned to one of five pre-
sentatives of the H. desmarestianus species group sumptive age classes (I-V, from youngest to oldest)
from northern Middle America, exclusive of H. based on pelage characteristics and state of erup-
gaumeri, and concluded that only two species (//. tion and relative wear of the maxillary toothrow,
desmarestianus and H. goldmani) were represent- following Genoways (1973). For each adult and
ed in the material they examined. selected subadult specimens, the following four
Heteromys gaumeri, the third species currently external (recorded from specimen labels) and 10
recognized in the desmarestianus group, is endem- cranial measurements (measured to the nearest 0. 1
ic to the Yucatan Peninsula. Ecologically this mm using dial calipers) were taken, as defined by
species characteristically occurs in relatively dry Genoways (1973): total length (TL); length of tail
deciduous and subdeciduous-subperennlal forest. (TV); length of hind foot (HF); length of ear (LE);
Systematic relationships of H. gaumeri are enig- greatest length of skull (GLS); zygomatic breadth
matic. In his review of the subfamily Heteromyi- (ZB); interorbital constriction (IOC); mastoid
nae, Goldman (1911) placed H. gaumeri in his breadth (MB); length of nasals (LN); length of ros-
desmarestianus group for convenience, but noted trum (LR); length of maxillary toothrow (MTR);
(p. 29) that it was "not closely related to any known depth of braincase (DBC); Interparietal width
species." In this paper, we review morphological (IW);and interparietal length (IL). Each measure-
and chromosomal variation within H. gaumeri and ment was chosen because it was examined in pre-
comment on the systematic relationships of this vious studies of variation in other heteromyine
species to the H. desmarestianus species group and rodents and was geographically variable in some
the subgenus Heteromys. taxa (Goldman, 1911; Genoways, 1973; Rogers &
Schmldly, 1982).
Initially, four qualitative cranial characters and
Materials and Methods dorsal coloration also were examined, as described
by Genoways (1973) for Liomys (the sister group
A total of 322 specimens o{ Heteromys gaumeri of Heteromys). Unlike patterns found in species
was examined in the morphological analyses. of Liomys, each of these characters was equally or

more variable within populations of H. guumeri peche, Mexico. Group 2 — 7.5 km W Escarcega,
as among populations, and the characters varied Campeche, Mexico. Group 3— Apazote,
7 km N,
in no apparent geographic pattern. Consequently, 5 1 km E
Escarcega, and La Tuxpeiia, Campeche,
qualitative cranial characters and dorsal color- Mexico. Group 4— Dzibalchen and San Jose Car-
ation were not analyzed further. pizo, Campeche, Mexico. Group 5— Esmeralda and
Nongeographic variation in the 14 mensural Santa Rosa, Yucatan, Mexico. Group 6— Chichen
characters wasexamined in one sample of 94 spec- Itza and Piste, Yucatan, Mexico. Group 7— Ti-
imens collected near Campo Experimental Fores- zimin and Tunkas, Yucatan, Mexico. Group 8 —
tal "El Tormento," 7.5 km W
Escarcega, Cam- La Vega, Pueblo Nuevo Xcan, and Puerto Mo-
peche. These specimens were collected within a relos,Quintana Roo, Mexico. Group 9— Felipe
two square kilometer area of transitional tropical Carrillo Puerto,Quintana Roo, Mexico. Group
evergreen-tropical deciduous forest and were here 10— Bacalar, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Group 1 1 —
considered to represent a single population. All Kate's Lagoon and Rockstone Pond, Belize, Be-
calculations were performed using subprograms of lize.
the Statistical Analysis System (SAS; SAS Insti- For each mensural character, we analyzed two
Standard statistics (mean, range,
tute, Inc., 1982). aspects of geographic variation: (1) statistical het-
standard deviation, standard error, coefficient of erogeneity of mean values among geographic sam-
variation, skewness, and kurtosis) were calculated ples, and (2) significant departure of means from
for each variable within each subgroup (MEANS spatial randomness (see Sokal & Oden, 1978). The
and UNIVARIATE procedures). Student's / test null hypothesis of homogeneity of means among
(or an approximation of variances were unequal) grouped localities for each character was tested
was used to test for significant differences between using a model I, one-way ANOVA (SAS:GLM).
sexes within each age class (TTEST procedure). A By ANOVA, the variance of each character was
model I, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) partitioned into among and within (error) locality
was used to test for significant differences among effects, and the percentage of variation attributable
age classes with sexes pooled (GLM procedure). to each effect was estimated from variance com-
Subsequently, a Duncan's multiple range test ponents (SAS: VARCOMP). Homogeneity among
(DUNCAN) was used to determine maximally grouped localities across all characters was ex-
nonsignificant subsets of age classes. amined using a multivariate analysis of variance
Straney (1978) criticized the use of F tests in (SAS:GLM, MANOVA).
unbalanced ANOVAs to determine patterns of The null hypothesis of no geographic pattern
nongeographic variation. To augment hypothesis among grouped locality means was examined by
testing, variance partitioning of a model II, two- testing for significant association between geo-
way ANOVA (VARCOMP procedure) was used graphic and phenetic distance matrices. For each
to estimate the relative contributions of sex, age, character, a phenetic distance matrix was con-
sex by age interaction, and error to within sample structed in which the elements were calculated as
variation. Age and sex were considered random the absolute differences between means for all pairs
factors (see discussion in Leamy, 1983) and the of localities (Sokal, 1979). Multivariate phenetic
percent contribution of each factor was estimated matrices of taxonomic distance (Sneath & Sokal,
from variance components. The main effects (sex 1973) were calculated for all 14 mensural char-
and age) in the two-way ANOVAs were not in- acters and a set restricted to those showing sig-
dependent because the data were unbalanced nificant heterogeneity, using the NT-SYS library
(Searle, 1971). Consequently, ANOVAs were run of computer programs (Rohlf et al., 1982). Ele-
with sex entered into the model first, then again ments of the geographic distance matrix were the
with age entered first. actual map distances (in km) between all pairs of
For analysis of geographic variation of mensural grouped localities (taken from the center of each
data, adult specimens were assigned to one of 1 1 grouped locality); all connections between pairs of
grouped localities to increase sample size (fig. 1). localities were maintained because there are no
In no instance did a grouped locality cross a major obvious physiographic or ecological barriers to gene
physiographic or previously recognized taxonomic flow among populations of//, gaumeri on the Yu-
boundary. The specific geographic composition of catan Peninsula. Three test statistics (Mantel's Z;
samples is as follows: Group 1— Chuntuqui and Spearman's rho, R; and a component of Kendall's
Laguna de Sotz (= Zotz), Peten, Guatemala; 103 tau, K^) were used to test for significant association
km SE Escarcega (= Francisco Escarcega), Cam- between each phenetic distance matrix and the
ENGSTROM ET AL.: HETEROMYS GAUMERI 291

90 87
"T"
21 21
18 18
KILOMETERS
50 100
I H r-"
25 50
MILES
±
90 87
Fig. 1.
Geographic distribution of Heteromys gaumeri and approximate geographic areas included in the 1 1
grouped locahties used in analyses of morphological variation. Closed circles denote specimens used in analyses of
geographic variation and open circles denote specimens examined but not included in statistical analyses.
geographic distance matrix (Dietz, 1983). Values In the chromosomal analysis, standard karyo-
of P associated with each statistic were estimated types were examined for 26 specimens oi Hetero-
from 2,000 random permutations using a FOR- mys gaumeri. Additionally, karyotypes of one
TRAN program supplied by E. J. Dietz. specimen of H. desmarestianus and 20 specimens
292 HELDIANA: ZCX)LOGY

of H. anomalus were examined for comparison. 14 measurements. Each measurement tended to
Standard karyotypes were prepared from speci- increase with age, although this pattern was not
mens sampled from natural populations using the pronounced for length of maxillary toothrow. In
in vivo bone marrow technique of Patton (1967), the a posteriori DUNCANanalysis, age class V
as modified by Lee (1969). Terminology regarding averaged significantly larger than the other age
relative chromosome arm ratios is that of Patton two characters (interorbital constriction
classes for
(1967). In the calculation of Fundamental Num- and interparietal length), whereas age classes IV-
bers (FN), relative chromosome arm ratios were V formed a homogeneous subset for the remaining
scored conservatively. Several chromosomes re- 12 characters. Patterns of variation among age
corded as acrocentric here had telomeric knobs of classes I-III were less consistent,
although age
chromatin in elongated preparations. Only chro- classes I-III differed significantly from each other
mosomes which consistently displayed second and age classes IV-V in six of 10 cranial mea-
arms of chromatin, regardless of state of contrac- surements.
tion of the preparation, were scored as biarmed. To complement hypothesis testing, the relative
The following voucher specimens are deposited in contributions of sex, age, sex by age interaction,
the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, Texas and error (residual variation) to a two-way AN-
A&M University, and the Carnegie Museum of OVA were estimated from variance components
Natural History (sample size in parentheses): Het- (table 2). Separate analyses with either sex or age
eromys gaumeri (total 26)— MEXICO. Campeche: entered into the model first generally yielded re-
7.5 km W Escarcega (8). Quintana Roo: 2 km N, sults that differed by 1% to 4%. Because of the
8 km W Bacalar (8); 8 km NNE Felipe Carrillo similarity of these estimates (and because sex most
Puerto (3); 2.5 km NNE Felipe Carrillo Puerto (1). often is analyzed before age in studies of nongeo-
Yucatan: Chichen Itza (1); Cenote Seco, 2 km E graphic variation), only the results in which sex
Chichen Itza (5). Heteromys desmarestianus (total was entered into the model first are presented.
l)-MEXICO. Chiapas: 9.4 km S Palenque (1). Most of the variation (average 97%) in the AN-
Heteromys anomalus (total 20)— VENEZUELA. OVA was
attributable to the effects of age and
Miranda: 25 km N Altagracia de Oricuto (6); 24 error.Age contributed the largest proportion of
km N Altagracia de Oricuto (1). Monagas: Cari- variance for most characters (average 53%); error
pito (4).Sucre: 40 km SW
Caripito (9). was nearly as important, contributing an average
of 44%. For length of hind foot, length of maxillary
toothrow, interparietal width, and interparietal
length, age contributed a relatively small propor-
Results tion of the variance, and variation was mostly
attributable to error. Homogeneity of estimates
Morphological Variation across characters was examined using z-transfor-
mations and a subsequent c/z/-square test (Sokal
NoNGEOGRAPHic VARIATION— The Sample of &, Rohlf, 1981). Estimates of age and error were
Heteromys gaumeri (N = 94) from 7.5 km Es- W significantly heterogeneous across characters.
carcega, Campeche, was used to estimate within- Sex and interaction were relatively unimportant
sample variation of the 1 4 mensural characters. factors in the ANOVA for most characters, con-
Two approaches were taken, hypothesis testing and tributing an average of 1% and 2% of the variance,
estimation of variance components. respectively. The only noteworthy exception to this
Initially, / tests were used to test for significant pattern was interparietal length, for which inter-
differences between sexes in each of age classes I- action accounted for 23% of the variance. Despite
IV. Males average larger than females for most this exception, estimates of the effects of sex and
characters in most age classes; however, significant interaction were statistically homogeneous across
differences between sexes were found for only one characters. Given that only a small proportion of
measurement in age class I (length of rostrum) and the variance of each character was attributable to
seven measurements in age class III (table 1). the effect of sex, the significant sexual dimorphism
Results of ANOVA among age classes with sexes found for seven of 1 4 characters in age class III in
pooled are given in Table 1 Separate analyses of
.
preliminary /
probably was due to
tests (table 1)
the age effect within each sex gave results similar trivial differences accentuated by large sample size
to those in Table 1 and are not presented. Signif- (N = 47). For most characters, the largest pro-
icant variation with age was found in each of the portion of variance was attributable to age and

Table 1. Age variation in 14 external and cranial measurements of //er^romy^âM/wer/ from 7.5 km WEscarcega,
Campeche, Mexico.
Age
Table 1. Continued.
Age
class N Mean (range) ± 2 SE CV
19 14.4 (13.4-15.2) ± 0.21 3.2
6 13.7 (13.1-14.1) ± 0.29 2.6
F= 27.94***
Length of Nasals
V 2 14.5 (14.0-15.0) ± 1.00 4.9
IV 16 14.3 (13.2-15.6) ± 0.37 5.1
III 47 13.0 (11.8-14.2) ± 0.18 4.7
II 19 11.9 (10.8-13.4) ± 0.29 5.3
I 6 10.5 (10.0-10.9) ± 0.26 3.0
F= 59.06***
Length of Rostrum
V 2 15.6 (15.1-16.0) ± 0.90 4.1
IV 16 15.2 (14.2-16.3) ± 0.27 3.6
III* 47 14.0 (12.7-15.3) ± 0.18 4.3
II 19 12.9 (11.9-13.9) ± 0.23 3.9
I* 6 11.6 (11.0-12.1) ± 0.37 3.9
F= 65.77***
Length of Maxillary Toothrow

IV 16 4.9 (4.7-5.2) ± 0.07 3.0
II 17 4.8 (4.5-5.1) ± 0.08 3.3
V 3 4.8 (4.7-4.8) ± 0.07 1.2
III 46 4.7 (4.3-5.2) ± 0.05 3.4
I 5 4.7 (4.5-4.8) ± 0.17 2.8
F= 3.72**
Depth of Braincase
V 3 9.1 (8.9-9.4) ± 0.29 2.8
IV 16 9.0 (8.5-9.5) ± 0.13 3.0
III 46 8.8 (8.3-9.7) ± 0.08 3.3
II 19 8.5 (7.9-8.8) ± 0.13 3.3
I 6 8.5 (8.3-8.8) ± 0.16 2.3
F= 12.68***
Interparietal Width
V 3 9.3 (8.9-9.8) ± 0.54 5.1
IV 15 8.8 (8.0-10.0) ± 0.31 6.8
II 19 8.6 (7.6-9.4) ± 0.21 5.3
III 45 8.5 (7.3-9.7) ± 0.17 6.7
I 6 8.0 (7.3-8.6) ± 0.36 5.6
F=4.11**
Interparietal Length
V 3 5.5 (5.1-6.1) ± 0.61 9.6
IV 15 5.1 (4.2-5.8) ± 0.21 8.0
III 45 5.0 (4.2-5.7) ± 0.10 6.8
II 19 4.9 (4.2-5.3) ± 0.14 6.3
I 6 4.7 (3.8-5.3) ± 0.45 11.9
F= 3.23*
Vertical lines alongside age classes denote nonsignificant subsets. Asterisks after F statistics indicate levels of
significance (*P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; *** P < 0.001). Males and females in age classes I-IV were used to test for
significant mean differences due to sex (/ test). Asterisks following age classes indicate significant sexual dimorphism
{P < 0.05).

Table 2. Percentage of total variation attributable to
sex age (A), sex by age interaction (S x A), and error
(S),
(E) for 14 external and cranial measurements of Hetero-

mys gaumeri from 7.5 km W Escarcega, Campeche,
Mexico.
Char-
Discussion Heteromys gaumeri might be attributable to a re-
stricted geographic distribution, to relative envi-
ronmental homogeneity on the Yucatan Penin-
Patterns of nongeographic variation in mensural sula, and/or to a lack of genetic divergence among
r
characters of Heteromys gaumeri are generally populations. Compared to wide-ranging species of
concordant with those observed in other hetero- Liomys and Heteromys, the geographic area oc-
& cupied by H. gaumeri is relatively small, with little
myine rodents (Genoways, 1973; Rogers
topographic or climatic relief Plant communities
Schmidly, 1982; see also Straney, 1978). In all
grade gradually from lowland tropical evergreen
species examined, age contributes a large propor-
forest in the south and east, to deciduous forest in
tion of within-sample variance for most charac-
the northwestern and north-central portions of the
ters; only a minor component of total variance is
attributable to sex. Male heteromyines peninsula, to a scrub zone bordering the northern
generally
coast (Paynter, 1955). For statistically heteroge-
average larger than females, however, and with
neous but spatially unpattemed characters, char-
large sample size secondary sexual dimorphism
acter distributions might be determined mainly by
often appears significant for some characters (Gen-
stochastic factors genetic drift) in the absence
(e.g.,
oways, 1973; age class III, this study).
I Relative levels of variability of individual char-
of strong migration or selective gradients (Sokal
acters among species of heteromyines were com-
&. Oden, 1978). Peromyscus yucatanicus, which
of variation of adults for has a similar geographic range and occupies sim-
pared using coefficients
ilar habitats to H. gaumeri, is geographically vari-
the 12 external and cranial measurements com-
able in color and cranial size (Lawlor, 1 965; Huck-
mon to each study of intralocality variation (total
aby, 1980), and at least color closely tracks
length, length of tail, and the 10 cranial measure-
ments included in this study; see Genoways, 1 973; vegetational changes on the peninsula. Conse-
&
Schmidly, 1982). Coefficients of varia- quently, lack of interlocality differentiation in col-
Rogers
tion (CVs) appeared congruent among species for
and mensural characters in H. gau-
or, qualitative,
f
individual characters, although CVs appeared het-
meri might not result solely from selective
among characters within species (ex- responses or stochastic processes in a homoge-

erogeneous
ternal measurements and interparietal width and neous environment.
The reduced level of geographic variation in
length consistently were more variable than other
Heteromys gaumeri also is consistent with a hy-
characters). There was no indication of a reduction
of within-sample variation for any character in H. pothesis of little among pop-
genetic divergence
ulations. If populations of H. gaumeri are genet-
gaumeri relative to other heteromyines.
ically similar, similarity probably is not a product
Although patterns and level of intralocality vari-
ation in Heteromys gaumeri appear similar to oth- of panmixia, but more likely of a reduction of
er heteromyines, geographic variation in H. gau- genetic variation through a genetically depauper-
ate founding population (see Johnston, 1976;
meri is relatively conservative. In H. gaumeri,
mean values for most characters were homoge- Johnston &. KJitz, 1977; Baker, 1980) or genetic
neous among localities and geographically unpat- bottleneck. Although we have little direct evidence
of genetic variation among populations of//, gau-
temed; only a small proportion of variance (av-
meri, individuals sampled appear chromosomally
erage 8%) was attributable to interlocality variation.
We found no positive statistical correlation be- monomorphic. In //. desmarestianus, interlocality
tween levels of within- and among-sample vari- polymorphism in fundamental number is pro-
ance (the "Kluge-Kerfoot phenomenon," KJuge & nounced (D. S. Rogers, pers. comm.). More sen-
sitive estimation of the level of interpopulational
Kerfoot, 1 973) for mensural characters in H. gau-
genetic divergence of //. gaumeri awaits study of
meri (tested using Kendall's rank correlation be-
tween the W, and A, statistics suggested by Sokal, genie variation.
1976; but see Rohlf et al., 1983). These data con-

trast with studies of geographic variation within
species of Liomys (Genoways, 1973) and other

members of the H. desmarestianus species group Systematic Relationships of H. gaumeri
(Rogers & Schmidly, 1982), in which population
samples were statistically heterogeneous and ap- MorpholcxjV— Allen and Chapman (1897) de-
peared spatially patterned. scribed Heteromys gaumeri from seven individ-
The relative lack of interlocality variance in uals from Chichen Itza, Yucatan. In his review of

Table 3. Geographic variation in six external and cranial measurements of Heteromys gaumeri.
Percentage of variation
Grouped
locality N Mean (range) ± 2 SE Locality Error
Total Length
1 3 288.7 276.0-298.0) ± 13.13 23.7 76.3 3.75*
2 16 261.7 235.0-288.0) ± 8.63
3 10 276.9 245.0-302.0) ± 10.98
4 S 272.0 262.0-286.0) ± 8.83
S 9 280.0 263.0-295.0) ± 7.51
6 17 286.8 265.0-324.0) ± 8.29
7 4 294.5 288.0-300.0) ± 4.93
8 3 281.7 275.0-290.0) ± 8.82
9 3 263.3 250.0-280.0) ± 17.64
10 2 256.5 253.0-260.0) ± 7.00
11 4 270.5 250.0-290.0) ± 18.65
Length of Tail
1
Table 3. Continued.
Grouped
XI &{ii SI M >(» 99 MM
AiS Mr A« Aît/s.
OA Af> A* OH Awn. /in Ml Aft
r%^ AA AA 4
X Y
iri B Kn .. 11 a it
9A tl DC «» ai t* It im
DA lid t\ »t tt) U M AA
OA nn 60 Oft Aft »»
X X
10 n QO AA A9 00 to A«
iâ i<( (in ft A #0 #11 ak aq

HA (fS llW 411 HA #14 jf^
X X
Fig. 2. Representative karyotypes of Heteromys: A, karyotype of a male H. gaumeri (2n = 56, FN = 76) from
7.5 km W Escarcega, Campeche, Mexico; B, karyotype of a female H. desmarestianus (2n = 60, FN = 66) from 9.4
km S Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico; C, karyotype of a female H. anomalus {2n = 60, FN = 68) from Caripito, Monagas,
Venezuela. Insert shows sex chromosomes of a male.

netic position of H. gaumeri would best be em- except H. desmarestianus, which it might contact
phasized by removing it from the H. desmaresti- at the southern edge of the Yucatan Peninsula (see
anus group, and recognizing it as a divergent species Jones et al., 1 974). Heteromys gaumeri differs from
at the same cladogenic level as the species
groups H. desmarestianus in averaging smaller in most
in thesubgenus Heteromys. Further investigation external and cranial measurements; having a broad,
of heteromyines might indicate that H. gaumeri bright ochraceous line, extending onto
lateral
warrants subgeneric recognition. cheeks and ankles narrow, pale ochraceous lat-
(a
eral line often is present in H. desmarestianus, but
seldom extends onto cheeks or ankles); having soles
Species Account of hind feet haired posteriorly (this area is naked
in H. desmarestianus and all other Heteromys);
I Heteromys gaumeri Allen and Chapman, 1897 having a relatively well-haired tail with terminal
tuft (the tail is sparsely haired in H. desmaresti-
Heteromys gaumeri Allen and Chapman, 1897, Febru- anus, without a conspicuous terminal tuft); having
ary. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 9: 9. and in having a
relatively large auditory bullae;
diploid number of 56 chromosomes (compared to
HoLOTYPE— Adult male, skin and skull, amnh 60 in H. desmarestianus). For additional com-
12028/10461; from Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mex- parisons with other heteromyines, see Goldman
ico. Type examined. and Genoways (1973).
(191 1)
Distribution— Northern Belize; Peten, Gua- Remarks— Laurie (1957, p. 387) assigned eight
temala; and Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Yu- specimens from three localities in the state of Yu-
catan, Mexico (see fig. 1); subdeciduous-subpe- catan, Mexico (Tekom, 2; X-Cala-Koop, 1; Chi-
rennial tropical rain forest, tropical deciduous chen Heteromys desmarestianus. One
Itza, 5) to
forest, and thorn scrub forest from sea level to of us (HHG) reexamined her material, which is
100 m. stored in alcohol; based on size, coloration, and a
Description— Dorsal coloration of adults ranges haired posterior sole of the hind foot, all are as-
from dark to medium gray, with heavy admixture signable to H. gaumeri. Consequently, the north-
of orange buff hairs lending an overall ochraceous ernmost locality for H. desmarestianus on the Yu-
cast to the otherwise gray dorsum (adults in worn catan Peninsula is 85 km W
Chetumal, Quintana
pelage appear more ochraceous and molting in- Roo, Mexico (Jones et al., 1974). Two other spec-
dividuals often have a 'salt and pepper' appear- imens, from Kate's Lagoon, Belize, identified by
ance); rich orange buff lateral line, usually broad Laurie (1957, p. 387) as H. desmarestianus, are
and conspicuous, extending from cheeks to base referable to H. gaumeri. These specimens, along
of tail, ochraceous hairs often extending onto dor- with additional material from Honey Camp La-
sal and ventral surfaces of ankle; margins of fore-
goon (reported by Izor &. McCarthy, 1984) and
arm orange buff, interrupted on dorsal surface by Rockstone Pond reported here, suggest that H.
white line; venter and feet white; tail well haired, gaumeri is distributed throughout northern Belize.
grayish brown above, dull white below, with con-
spicuous terminal tuft of hairs; ears dusky, lightly
edged with dull white; sole of hind foot haired, Acknowledgments
posteriorly. Subadults medium to dark gray above,
dorsum without ochraceous hairs; ochraceous lat- Permits to collect specimens in Mexico were
eral line faint and narrow. Juvenile pelage similar kindly provided by the Director General of the
to that of subadults, but spiny hairs on dorsum Departmento de Conservacion de la Fauna Sil-
absent. Tail longer than head and body; soles of vestre. Especial thanks are extended to Biol. Fran-
hind feet with six tubercules; body size medium cisco Rodriguez Gallegos, Ing.Antonio Sanchez,
for the genus. Skull size medium, with relatively and personnel of Campo Experimental Forestal
large auditory bullae; lower permanent premolar "El Tormento" for their hospitality during field-
with three lophs; upp>er and lower molars with work near Escarcega, Campeche. We also thank
three lophs, enamel island formed between meta- the many curators who permitted examination of
loph(id) and cingulum disappearing quickly with specimens in their care. E. Jaquelin Dietz provided
wear. 2n = 56, FN = 76. the computer program for testing the association
Couv\v.\so^s— Heteromys gaumeri is geo- between distance matrices. Kenneth Schoenly pre-
graphically isolated from all other heteromyines pared the final copy of Figure 1. D. S. Rogers

provided information and helpful discussion on Johnston, R. F., and W. J. Klitz. 1977. Variation
character-states within the Heteromyinae. Por- and evolution in a granivorous bird: The house spar-
row, pp. 15-51. In Pinowski, J., and S. C. Kendeigh,
tions of this study were funded by the Texas Ag-
eds., Granivorous Birds in Ecosystems, Their Evolu-
riculturalExperiment Station (project H-1977 to tion, Populations, Energetics, Adaptations, Impact and
D. Schmidly) and a Faculty Organized Research
J. Control. Cambridge University Press, London.
Grant, Angelo State University. Fieldwork in Ven- Jones, J. K., Jr., H. H. Genoways, and T. E. Lawlor.
ezuela was supported by NSF Grant DEB 79-2 1519 1974. Annotated checklist of mammals of the Yu-
catan Peninsula, Mexico II. Rodentia. Occasional Pa-
to J. W. Bickham and the Carnegie Museum of
pers, The Museum, Texas Tech University, 22: 1-24.
Natural History through the M. Graham Netting
Research Fund, established by a grant from the
Kluge, a. G., and W. C
Kerfoot. 1973. The pre-
dictability and regularity of character divergence.
Cordelia S. May Charitable Trust. American Naturalist, 107: 426-442.
Laurie, E. M. O. 1957. Rodents from British Hon-
duras, Mexico, Trinidad, Haiti, and Jamaica collected
by Mr. I. T. Sanderson. Annals of the Magazine of
Natural History, series 12, 6: 382-394.
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Goldman, E. A.
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Hall, E. R. The Mammals of North America,
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Taxonomy. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 573 pp.
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and McCarthy. reexamined. American Naturalist, 110: 1077-1091.
IzoR, R. J., T. J. 984. Heteromys 1
gaumeri (Rodentia: Heteromyidae) in the Northern 1979. Testing statistical significance of geo-
.
Plain of Belize. Mammalia, 48: 465-467. graphic variation patterns. Systematic Zoology, 28:
232-238.
Johnston, R. F. 1976. Estimating variation in bony
characters and a comment on the KJuge-Kerfoot effect. Sokal, R. R., and N. L. Oden. 1978. Spatial auto-
Occasional Papers of the Museum of Natural History, correlation in biology. 2. Some biological implications
University of Kansas, 56: 1-8. and four applications of evolutionary and ecological

interest. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 10: Chichen Itza, Cenote Seco, 5 (tcwc); 4 km E Dzi-
229-249.
tya, (mmnh); Esmeralda, Laguna de Chichan-
1
SoKAL, R. R., AND F. J. RoHLF. 1981. Biometry. W. canab, 2 (1 ku, 1 ummz); Esmeralda, 45 km S Peto,
H. Freeman, San Francisco, 859 pp.
4 (ummz); 1 km SW Casa de la Esmeralda, Laguna
Straney, D. O. 1978. Variance partitioning and non- de Chichancanab, 2 (1 ku, 1 unam); 2 km SSW
geographic variation. Journal of Mammalogy, 59: 1-
11.
Casa de la Esmeralda, Laguna de Chichancanab,
L. E., and Q. D. Wheeler. 1 98 1 The out- 3 (1 AMNH, 2 unam); La Ceiba, 2 km SE Laguna
Watrous, .
group comparison method of character analysis. Sys- de Chichancanab, 1 (unam); 66 km NE Merida,

tematic Zoology, 30: 1-11. 1 (ku); 14 km SW Muna, 1 (rru); Oxkutzcab,
Ebiztic (cave deposit), 6 (usnm); Peto, 3 (ku); 3
km N Piste, 16 (7 ku, 6 mmnh, 3 ttu); 2 km N
Piste, 2 (ku); Piste, 10 m, 2 (ku); Progreso, 1 (usnm);
Santa Rosa, 1 (ummz); Santa Rosa, 20 km S Peto,
Appendix 2 (ummz); Santa Rosa, 25 km S Peto, 1 (ummz);
1 km SSW Santa Rosa, 3 (1 ku, 1 ummz, 1 unam);
Specimens Examined Tekom, 2 (bmnh); 6 km N Tizimin, 1 (ku); Tun-
kas, 7 (usnm). Buena Vista, 1 (fmnh) and X-Cala-
MEXICO: Campeche: Apazote, near Yohaltun, Koop, 1 (bmnh) were not located exactly. GUA-
6 (usnm); Campeche, 1 (usnm); 5 km S Cham- TEMALA: Peten: Chuntuqui, 2 (usnm); Laguna
poton, 10 m, 3 (ku); Dzibalchen, 1 (ku); 7 km N, de Sotz [= Zotz], 2 (usnm). BELIZE: Belize: Kate's
5 1 km E Escarcega (= Francisco Escarcega), 4 (ku); Lagoon, 2 (bmnh); Rockstone Pond, 1 1 (rom). Or-
7.5 km W
Escarcega, 65 m, 94 (15 ku, 79 tcwc); ange Walk: Honey Camp Lagoon, 2 (fmnh).
7 km E Escarcega, 4 (ku); 103 km SE Escarcega, Additional Records (Hatt et al., 1953, p. 64,
2 (ku); La Tuxpena, Champoton, 1 2 (usnm); San unless noted otherwise)— MEXICO: Yucatan: Ac-
Jose Carpizo, 3 (fmnh); San Jose Carpizo, 45 km tun Chacaljas, 3 km SSW Calcehtok (cave de-
S Campeche, 19 (ummz); San Juan, 4 (fmnh). posit); Actun Coyok [= Coyoc], 3.5 km SSE
Quintana Roo: 2 km N, 8 km W
Bacalar, 1 1 (tcwc); Oxkutzcab (cave deposit); Actun Has, 3.5 km WSW
8 mi NNE Felipe Carrillo Puerto, 4 (tcwc); 4 km Yokat (cave deposit); Actun Lara, 3 km SW Yokat
NNE Felipe Carrillo Puerto, 30 m, 9 (ku); 2.5 mi (cave deposit); Actun Oxkintok, 3 km SW Santa
NNE Felipe Carrillo Puerto, 1 (tcwc); La Vega, 5 Cruz (cave deposit); Actun Spukil, 4.5 km SSW
(usnm); Pueblo Nuevo Xcan, 10 m, 1 (ku); 1.5 Calcehtok (cave deposit); Loltun, 5 km SW
km S, 1 km E Pueblo Nuevo Xcan, 1 (ku); Puerto Oxkutzcab (cave deposit); Xbac (Gaumer, 1917,
Morelos, 4 (usnm). Yucatan: Calcehtok, 55 km SW p. 13); Yaxcach (Gaumer, 1917, p. 13). GUA-
Merida, 2 (1 ku, 1 ummz); Chichen Itza, 10 m, 36 TEMALA: Peten: 1 1 km NE JHores, 3.2 km inland
(15 amnh, 11 bmnh, 2 fmnh, 1 ku, 7 usnm); SE shore Laguna Peten Itza, ca. 100 m (Ryan,
Chichen Itza, Cenote Xtoloc, 1 (tcwc); 2 km E 1960, p. 11).

Species Groups of Spiny Rats,
Genus Proechimys (Rodentia: Echimyidae)
James L. Patton
ABSTRACTS
Nine species groups of the spiny rat subgenus Proechimys, family Echimyidae, are defined
on the basis of bacular characters and qualitative features of the cranium. The latter include
the structure of the incisive and mesopterygoid foramina, temporal ridge and infraorbital canal
development, and counterfold pattern of the cheekteeth.
Three groups are apparently monotypic, including the decumanus -group of southwestern
Ecuador and adjacent Peru, the canicollis-group of northeastern Colombia and adjacent Ven-
ezuela, and the s i mo nsi -group of the western Amazon Basin from Colombia to northern Bolivia.
The remaining six groups are polytypic, but the number of species in each remains unclear.
The semispinosus-group ranges from Central America south to southwestern Ecuador in the
Pacific lowlands; its only Amazonian representative is P. oconnelli from east-central Colombia.
The longicaudatus-group ranges from southeastern Colombia through the western Amazon
Basin into the northern Parana Basin of Brazil and northern Paraguay. The goeldii-group ranges
throughout the Amazon Basin from eastern Peru to eastern Brazil. The guyannensis-group
occurs from the coastal Guianan region through the Rio Negro and eastern half of the Amazon
Basin in Brazil, with an isolate in Goias and Minas Gerais states. The cuvieri-group has a
similar distribution, but extends further up the Amazon into northern Peru, with one isolate
in east-central Peru. Finally, the trinitatus-gcoup is found from north-central Colombia eastward
across northern Venezuela to Trinidad.
Nueve grupos de especies de la rata espinosa subgenero Proechimys, familia Echimyidae, son
definidos primariamente en las bases de caracteres baculares que son soportados por razgos
cualitativos del craneo. El ultimo incluye la estructura del foramen incisivo y mesopterigoideo,
arista temporal y desarroUo del canal infraorbital y patron de contraplegamiento de los dientes
postcaninos.
Tres grupos son aparentemente monotipicos, incluyendo el grupo decumanus del suroccidente
del Ecuador y adyacente Peru, el grupo canicollis del nororiente de Colombia y adyacente
Venezuela, y el grupo simonsi del occidente de la cuenca amazonica desde Colombia hasta el
norte de Bolivia. Los seis grupos remanentes son politipicos, pero el numero de especies en
cada uno p>ermanece obscuro. El grupo semispinosus se extiende desde el sur de Centroamerica
hasta el suroccidente ecuatoriano en las tierras bajas del Pacifico; su solo representante de la
cuenca amazonica el P. oconnelli del centroriente colombiano. El grupo longicaudatus se dis-
tribuye desde el suroriente de Colombia a traves del occidente de la cuenca amazonica hasta
el norte de la cuenca del Parana en Brazil y norte de Paraguay. El grupo goeldii se distribuye
a traves de la cuenca amazonica desde el Peru oriental hasta el Brazil oriental. El grupo
guyannensis ocurre desde la region costera guayanesa a traves de rio Negro y la mitad oriental
de la cuenca amazonica en Brazil, con un aislamiento de poblaciones en los estados de Goias
From Museum of Vertebrate 2ôlogy, University of

California, Berkeley, CA 94720.
PATTON: SPECIES GROUPS OF PROECHIMYS 305

y Minas Gerais. El grupo cuvieri tiene una distribucion similar, pero se extiende mas arriba del
Amazonas en el interior del norte del Peru, con un aislamienlo de poblaciones en el centroriente
peruano. Finalmente, el grupo trinitatus es encontrado desde el centronorte de Colombia hacia
el oriente a traves del norte de Venezuela hasta Trinidad.
Nove grupos de especies de ratos-de-espinho, do subgenero Proechimys, familia Echimyidae,

sao definidos principalmente na base de carateres baculares que concordam tambem com
caracteres qualitativos do cranio. Estes incluem: a estrutura dos incisivos e do forame mesop-
terigoideo,o desenvolvimento das temporas e do canal infraorbital, e o padrao dos molares.
Tres grupos sao aparentemente monotipicos, incluindo o grupo decumanus do sudoeste do
Equador, o grupo canicollis do nordeste da Colombia e das areas adjacentes na Venezuela, e o
grupo simonsi da Bacia Amazonica ocidental, desde a Colombia ate o norte da Bolivia. Os seis
grupos restantes sao politipicos, mas o numero de especies em cada continua incerto. O grupo
semispinosus estende-se da America Central ao sudoeste do Equador, nas planicies do Pacifico.
Seu unico representante na Bacia Amazonica e P. oconnelli, do Centro-leste da Colombia. O
grupo longicaudatus estende-se do sudeste da Colombia, atraves da Amazonia ocidental, ate o
norte da Bacia do Parana no Brasil e no norte do Paraguai. O grupo goeldii ocorre na Bacia
Amazonica, do leste do Peru ao leste do Brasil. O grupo guyannensis ocorre da costa guianense,
ate o Rio Negro e a regiao oriental da Bacia Amazonica no Brasil, com uma especie isolada
nos estados de Goias e de Minas Gerais. A distribuifao do grupo cuvieri e parecida, mas este
ocorre tambem ate o norte do Peru, com uma especie isolada no centro-leste do Pais. Por final,
o grupo trinitatus e encontrado do centro-norte da Colombia, atraves da Venezuela, ate Trin-
idade.
Introduction highly variable geographically (Reig & Useche,

1976;Reigetal., 1 980; Gardner & Emmons, W84).
Spiny rats of the genus Proechimys represent one In this report I will challenge some of these pre-
of the most diverse groups of Neotropical rodents; cepts of character instability (see Thomas, 1928,
with the possible exception of tuco-tucos, Cteno- p. 262) by using the structure of the baculum and
mys, the number of taxa of spiny rats is unmatched specific characters of the cranium to define major
by any other caviomorph (Woods, 1984). The ge- taxonomic groups of spiny rats. Taxa can be di-
nus extends throughout lowland forests from Nic- agnosed, despite both within- and between-pop-
aragua to northern Paraguay and the coastal re- ulation variation, and the patterns of character
gions of Brazil. Despite this diversity and large variation over geography are coherent, permitting
geographic range, however, the group is taxonom- a consistent view of these taxa throughout their
ically one of the most poorly understood among range. Some of the more traditional characters that
all of the Neotropical mammals. Only a few stud- have been used to make taxonomic decisions in
ies have succeeded in recognizing the number of spiny rats (e.g., counterfold patterns on the cheek-
taxa sympatric at any single locality (e.g., Moojen, teeth) are not chaotic in their variation patterns,
1948; Patton &
Gardner, 1972), and no study has but are quite helpful in defining units.
been able to follow geographic character trends This paper will consider only members of the
within a clearly defined taxon over any but the subgenus Proechimys, excluding entirely the group
shortest distances. Diagnosis of species and hence of species found along the Atlantic highlands of
definition of natural units in Proechimys have been Brazil that compose the subgenus Trinomys.
severely hampered by the often extreme level of
variability within and between populations for
most morphological characters that have been ex-
amined (Moojen, 1948; Hershkovitz, 1948; Pat- Species Groups of Proechimys
ton &. Gardner, 1972). Even karyotypes, which
have proven useful in differentiating sympatric taxa In the section below I provide the basic species
of spiny rats (Patton & Gardner, 1972), are often groups of spiny rats, subgenus Proechimys, listing

Fig. 1 Geographic distribution of taxa of the simonsi- and guyannensis-ôvii>s. Type locaHties for each included
.
taxon are indicated by stars; dots represent other locahties hsted in the Appendix.
those named forms I consider as component parts. groups are defined by a combination of palatal
In recognizing these groups and their membership (particularly incisive foramina and mesopterygoid
I make no conclusions here as to the specific, sub- fossa) characters, counterfold patterns of the
specific, or other status of these names. Because cheekteeth, temporal ridge development, infraor-
of the plethora of names available and the con- bital notch development, and bacular characters
fusion with which each has been applied to the (see below). Ineach case, the group name is taken
genus over the past century, this synopsis is pro- from the oldest assignable name for that unit.
vided first to allow for coherent discussion; the
documentation upon which these decisions are
based follows. guyannensis-%Tou^
recognize nine species groups within the sub-
I
genus Proechimys. Five of these are widespread, Named forms in this group include:
while the remaining ones are more restricted in
their ranges.Maps of the distribution of each group, guyannensis (E. Geoffroy, 1
803)
with localities of included holotypes, are presented cherriei Thomas, 899 1
in Figures 1-4 (see Specimens Examined for lists roberti Thomas, 90 1 1
of localities). Unless otherwise stated, allocation vacillator Thomas, 1 903

of any given holotype to a specific species-group oris Thomas, 904 1
is based on my examination of that specimen. The warreni Thomas, 1 905

SNmi
(Mkm
Fig. 2. Geographic distribution of taxa of the goeldii-group (dots) and decumanus-group (triangles). Type localities
of taxa are indicated by stars.
boimensis Allen, 1916 the cuvieri-group in the Guianan region (see Petter,
arescens Osgood, 1 944 1978) and with those of both the cuvieri- and goel-
riparum Moojen, 1948 dii-groups in the central Amazon Basin.
arabupu Moo}tn, 1948
goeldii-group
Comments— On the basis of septal patterns in
the bullae, Gardner and Emmons (1984) included Included are the following named forms:
these taxa in their brevicauda-group, an all-inclu-
sive unit combining taxa that are here allocated goeldii Thomas, \ 90 5
to six separate groups. As will be apparent below, steerei Goldman, 1911
my guyannensis-group only shows close similarity kermiti M\Qn, 1915
to the taxa included in the 5/wo/J5/-group. Mem- pachita Thomas, 1923
bers of these two groups share virtually no char- hilda Thomas, 1924
acters with the remaining taxa listed by Gardner rattinus Thomas, 926
1
and Emmons (1984) in their brevicauda-group. quadruplicatus Hershkovitz, 1 948

This group is confined in its distribution to the liminalis Moojen, 1948
Guianan region and southern Venezuela through amphichoricus Moojen, 194S
the central Amazon Basin of Brazil, with an isolate hyleae Moojen, 1 948
(roberti) in Minas Gerais and Goias states in Brazil nesiotes Moojen, 1 948
(see map, fig. 1). It is sympatric with members of leioprimna Moojen, 1 948

Comments— I have not examined the holotypes of differences with sympatric taxa of the goeldii-,
of liminalis Moojen or hyleae Moojen; their in- longicaudatus-, or CMv/er/-groups is geographically
clusion here is based on the original descriptions consistent and quite sharp.
(Moojen, 1948). The simonsi-gToup is geographically restricted
This group is distributed throughout the Ama- to the western margins of the Amazon Basin from
zon Basin, from the most western margins in northern Bolivia through eastern Peru and Ecua-
northern Bolivia, eastern Peru, Ecuador, and dor to southeastern Colombia (see map, fig. 1 ). In
southeastern Colombia to southern Venezuela east this region, ranges to higher elevations than any
it
along the central Amazon to the lower Rio Tapajos other species in the genus, occurring as high as
in Para state, Brazil (see map, fig. 2). Members of 2000 m.
this group are sympatric with those of the guy-
annensis-group and CMv/er/-group in the central

and eastern Amazon Basin, and with those of the cuvten-group
cuvieri-, longicaudatus-, and 5/ mo/u/ -groups in the
western parts of the Basin. This group includes only the nominate form:
CM v/mPetter, 1978
longicaudatus-^ronp
Comments— Specimens assigned to this species
Named forms in this group include: known from
are relatively few in number and are
Guianan re-
localities scattered from the coastal
longicaudatus (Rengger, 1830) gion and along the Amazon River from near its
brevicauda (Gunther, 1877) mouth to northern Peru (see map, fig. 4). In the
boliviensis Thomas, 1 90 1 Guianas, cuvieri is sympatric with guyannensis; in
securus Thomas, 1 902 central Brazil, with guyannensis- and goeldii-gjroup
gularis Thomas, 1911 taxa; and in northern Peru, with simonsi-, longi-
leucomystax Ribeiro, 1914 caudatus-, and goeldii-group members. Despite the
elassopus Osgood, 1 944 paucity of widely scattered locality records, these
villacauda Moojen, 1 948 specimens share common bacular, palatal, coun-
ribeiroi Moojen, 1 948 terfold, and karyotypic characters, the former being
particularly divergent from other taxa in the genus
Comments— The taxa leucomystax Ribeiro, vil- Proechimys.
lacauda Moojen, and ribeiroi Moojen are included Because of similar bacular (but not karyotypic)
on the basis of descriptions given in Moojen ( 1 948); features, the form from eastern Peru referred to P.
I have not examined the holotypes. guyannensis by Patton and Gardner (1972) is in-
The longicaudatus-group is confined to the cluded here. This form is an enigma at the mo-
western and southwestern parts of the Amazon ment, and its placement must be considered pro-
Basin and northern Parana Basin, from northern visional; it is not known with certainty from any
Paraguay and adjacent Brazil west and northwest locality other than Balta, Rio Curanja, Ucayali,
through Bolivia, eastern Peru, eastern Ecuador, Peru (see map, fig. 4, and Patton & Gardner, 1 972).
and southeastern Colombia (see map, fig. 3). In Gardner and Emmons (1984) consider it closely
this region it is sympatric with members of the related to P. guyannensis, perhaps even conspe-
goeldii-, cuvieri-, and simonsi-groups. cific, but it does not share bacular or incisive fo-
raminal characters with members of that group
(see below).
stmonsi-^Toup
Included members are: trinitatus-group
simonsi Thomas, 900 1 Named forms in this group include:

hendeei Thomas, 926 1
nigrofulvus Osgood, 1 944 trinitatus (Allen and Chapman, 1893)

chrysaeolus (JhonvdiS, 1898)
Comments— This is perhaps the most readily mmca^ (Allen, 1899)
recognizable of all groups of Proechimys; the level MHc/i/ (Allen, 1899)

Fig. 3. Geographic distribution of taxa of the longicaudatus-group (dots) and trinitatus-group (triangles). Type
localities are indicated
by stars.
guairae Thomas, 1 90 1 zuela and Colombia, and including the isolated

ochraceous Osgood, 1912 northern Andean valleys of Colombia (see map,
poliopus Osgood, 1914 fig. 3). Only hoplomyoides occurs south of the Rio
hoplomyoides Tate, 1 939 Orinoco in southeastern and southern Venezuela

magdalenae Hershkovitz, 1 948 (see Gardner & Emmons, 1 984). The included taxa
are largely allopatric, or parapatric (see Reig et al.,
Comments— Gardner and Emmons (1984) in- 1980; Reig, 1981), and are separated by rivers
cluded magdalenae in their brevicauda-group and (upper llanos of Venezuela) or mountain ridges
chrysaeolus in their semispinosus-gxoup based on (northwestern Venezuela and northern Colombia).
similarities of bullar septal patterns. Bacular and Sympatric contact between members of this group
other characters, however, align these two taxa and other Proechimys occurs in several areas in
with others of the trinitati/s-groxip as here defined. northern Colombia: chrysaeolus with semispino-
This group includes all members referred to as the sus and both chrysaeolus and mincae with cani-
"guiarae complex" by Reig and co-workers, based collis.
on karyotypic data (see Benado et al., 1979; Reig

el al., 1980; Reig, 1981), or as the guairae-group
by Gardner and Emmons 984). ( 1 semtspinosus-ôup
Members of this group are distributed across
northern South America, from Trinidad through Membership in this group includes the following
the coastal mountainsand upper llanos of Vene- named forms:

Fig. 4. Geographic distribution of taxa of the CMv/er/-group (dots), semispinosus-sroup (triangles), and canicollis-
group (squares). Type localities are indicated by stars.
semispinosus (Jorrxts, 1860) component part of the semispinosus-group, but

centralis(Thomas, 1 896) place chrysaeolus in the trinitatus-group based on
rosa Thomas, 1 900 bacular, palatal, and counterfold patterns (see be-
chiriquinus Thomas, 1 900 low).
panamensis Thomas, 1 900 Members of the semispinosus-group are largely
burnis Bangs, 1 90 1 America and
restricted in distribution to Central
gorgonae ^2in%s, 1905 the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador (see
calidior Thomas, 1911 map, fig. 4). The only Amazonian representative
oconnelli Allen, 1913 is oconnelli, which is restricted to the limited area
rwfte//M5 Hollister,1914 of Villavicencio in east-central Colombia, mid-
colombianus Thomas, 1914 way between the northernmost distributional ex-
goldmani Bo\e, 1937 tensions of members of the goeldii-, simonsi-, and
ignotus Kellogg, 1 946 longicaudatus-groups and the westernmost exten-
sion of the trinitatus-gxoup.
Comments— Gardner (1983) reviewed the
membership, distribution, and taxonomic history canicoliis-group
of this species group, and I concur with him. Gard-
ner and Emmons (1984) expanded the group to This group is limited to the nominate species:
include oconnelli and chrysaeolus based on com-
mon buUar septal patterns. I treat oconnelli as a camco//w (Allen, 1899)

Comments— The species P. canicollis is one of in the genus Proechimys, as well as other echimyid
the more
readily recognizable in the entire genus genera, despite differences in overall size. This
Proechimys (see below), although on the basis of baculum is an elongated, narrow structure, with a
bullar septal patterns, Gardner and Emmons ( 1 984) rather rounded and broadened base and a shaft
included it within their brevicauda-group. It is lim- tapering distally. The distal tip shows only a weak-
ited in its distribution to the coastal forested foot- ly developed median depression, if any at all. This
hills from northern Bolivar, Colombia, to north- bacular type is characteristic of the dactylomyine
western Zulia, Venezuela (see map, fig. 4). It is genera Thrinacodus, Kannabateomys, and Dac-
sympatric with mincae and chrysaeolus of the trin- tylomys, species in the genera Echimys, Makalata,
itatus-group. Mesomys, Diplomys, and Isothrix (see Didier,
1962; Patton & Emmons, 1985), and most species
oi Proechimys. It is also characteristic of most oth-
decumanus-group er caviomorphs examined to date (e.g., Cavia,
Abrocoma, Ctenomys, Agouti, Dasyprocta [Didier,
This group includes only the nominate species: 1962; Hooper, 1961]). There are, however, both
subtle as well as more marked differences among
decumanus (Thomas, 1 899) bacula of this general form, and these will be de-
tailedbelow in the discussion of variation in Pro-
CoMMEhrrs— I consider this taxon to represent echimys.
a separate species group, although Gardner and Overall size of the baculum of Proechimys de-
Emmons (1984) placed it in their brevicauda-gxoup pends strongly on age, although age does not no-
based on bullar septal patterns and karyotypic ticeably affect shape. Hence, in the descriptions
similarities. It is, however, readily distinguishable and summarized measurements given below,
on external, palatal, and bacular grounds from oth- analyses are restricted to those individuals con-
er members of that group. sidered adults on the basis of tooth wear patterns
Proechimys decumanus is restricted to the Pa- (age classes 8 through 10 of Patton & Rogers,
cific lowland forests of extreme southwestern Ec- 1983). Bacula of each species group of Proechimys
uador and adjacent northwestern Peru (see map, are illustrated in Figures 5-11, and measurements
fig. 2), where it is sympatric with the named form for geographic representatives of each group are
rosa of the semispinosus-gcoup. summarized in Table1 .
Figure 1 2 illustrates dif-
ferences among the species groups in proportions
of length and width. It is clear from this figure that
there are two major classes of bacular variants in
Bacular Structure and Characteristics the subgenus Proechimys. Members of the guy-
annerisis-, simonsi-, trinitatus-, goeldii-, decu-
Didier (1962) described and figured bacular manus-, and canicollis-groups have long and nar-
variants of echimyid rodents, with an emphasis row bacula (despite differences in relative size and
on variation within the genus Proechimys. Bacular other characters), while taxa of the semispinosus-,
variants of Proechimys were also described by cuvieri-,and longicaudatus-groups have massively
Martin (1970) and Patton and Gardner (1972). In long and broad bacula with well-developed distal
the latter paper, bacular characters and karyotypes apical wings or extensions.
permitted the delineation of taxa sympatric at sev-
such
eral localities in eastern Peru, suggesting that
structures could be of use in distinguishing taxa guyannensis-group (Figure 5a-g)
within the genus as a whole. Didier's (1962) ma-
terial and the names he used were supplied by Despite Didier's (1962) use of the name guy-
Philip Hershkovitz, from specimens in Field Mu- annensis, no sp>ecimen he examined can be re-
seum collections. I have examined each of the ferred to this group as defined here or as recog-
bacula discussed by Didier, as well as the associ- nized by Gardner and Emmons (1984). The four
ated skulls and skins. Below, as I describe bacular bacular types Didier (1962, pp. 408-415) referred
variation in the context of the species groups rec- to Proechimys guyannensis in fact represent mem-
ognized in this report, I will emend Didier's group- bers of five different species groups, as follows:
ings according to this reexamination of materials. Type I (part semispinosus-group, part cuvieri-
A
basic bacular type characterizes most species group), Type II (longicaudatus-group). Type III (P.

n
Fig. 5. Representative bacula of members of the guyannensis-gjroup (a-g) and the simonsi-gfoup (h-k); scale
=
5 mm. bm[nh] 52.1 124— Suriname: Zanderig. b, fmnh 95726— Suriname: Brokopando; Saramacca River, Loksie
a,
Hatti. c, AMNH 75803— Venezuela: Bolivar; Arabupu, Mt. Roraima (topotype of arabupu Moojen). d, amnh 7545 1 —
Brazil: Roraima; Rio Cotingo, Limao. e, usnm 554847— Brazil: Amazonas; 72 km N Manaus. f, usnm 555653 —
Brazil: Para; Altar da Chao, Rio Tapajos. g, bm[nh] 1.11 .3.64— Brazil: Minas Gerais; Araguay, Rio Jordao (topotype
of roberti Thomas), h, amnh 71866— Peru: Loreto; Boca Rio Curaray. i, usnm 461305 — Peru: Ucayali; 59 km W
Pucallpa. j, AMNH 2 1 3487 — Peru: Pasco; Bermudas de Loma Linda, k, fmnh 8426 1 —Peru: Madre de Dios; Itahuania.
chrysaeolus of the trinitatus-group), and Type IV of the same age class from different geographic
(part goeldii-gToup and part semispinosus-group). regions (see table 1 ). The few bacula examined of
The baculum is relatively long and narrow, av- P. roberti are smaller in length and width relative
eraging in adult specimens nearly 8 mm long and to others of the group. However, roberti is a rather
approximately 2 mm wide at both the proximal small animal (see Thomas, 1901), and the pro-
and distal extremities (see fig. 5a-g; table 1). The portions of its baculum are similar to those of
shaft is rather straight, with little dorsoventral cur- other members of the group (see fig. 1
2).
vature and only slightly tapered lateral indenta-
tions near mid-shaft. The proximal end is usually
evenly rounded and paddle-shaped, although sam- simonsi-group (Figure 5h-k)
ples from every examined locality include bacula
with a basal median notch of varying depth. The Bacula of specimens referred to this group were
distal tip shows only slight development of apical described and figured by Didier (1962, pp. 416-
wings and a moderate median depression. Except 417, 419, 422) as Proechimys guyannensis brevi-
for topotypes of P. roberd from Minas Gerais, Bra- cauda and P. hendeei, and by Patton and Gardner
zil, there is no demonstrable geographic variation (1972) as P. hendeei. Didier's supposed specimen
in length and width measurements among bacula of guyannensis brevicauda (fmnh 62095) is clearly

Table 1 . Measurements of length, distal width, and proximal width of bacula (mean ± SD) of spiny rats, subgenus
Proechimys. Data are presented only for adult individuals (age classes 8 through 10 of Patton & Rogers, 1983).
Species group/
Table 1. Continued.
Species group/
Fig. 6. Representative bacula of members of the goeldii-gxoup; scale = 5 mm. a, fmnh 7 1 1 78 —Colombia: Caqueta;
—
mvz 157955 Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, c, amnh 71592— Peru: Loreto; Boca
Florencia. Mantanito. b,
Rio Curaray. d, amnh 76268— Peru: Loreto; Sarayacu. e, usnm 530931— Peru: Madre de Dios; Rio Manu. f, amnh
97017— Venezuela: Amazonas; Esmeralda, g, usnm 4151 17— Venezuela: Amazonas; Capibara, Casiquiare Canal, h,
—
AMNH 92272— Brazil: Amazonas; Rosarinho, Rio Madiera, i, amnh 96828 Brazil: Para; Ilha do Taiuno, Rio To-
cantins.
panded, with a weak median depression (fig. 8a- Type II (specimens from Caqueta, Colombia, and
b). Santa Cruz, Bolivia), and by Martin (1970, p. 8,

fig. from south-
4c,e-k), also as P. guyannensis,
eastern Peru, Bolivia,and southwestern Brazil.
canico/Zis-group (Figure 8c-d) Fatten and Gardner (1972) described and figured
the bacula of Peruvian specimens of this group as
The baculum of Proechimys canicollis was de- P. longicaudatus (now referred to P. brevicauda
scribed and figured by both Didier ( 1 962, p. 419) [see Patton & Rogers, 1983; Gardner & Emmons,
and Martin (1970, p. 8). It is most similar to that 1984]).
of the goeldii-group in both shape and size, being In general aspect, the baculum is elongate and
relatively short and stout with a rounded base, broad, with well-developed apical wings (see fig.
weakly concave sides, and a rather flat distal tip 9). The margins are concave and
the proximal and
with only weakly developed apical wings (see fig. distal ends are usually about equal in width. In
8c-d; table 1). some specimens, the proximal end bears a median
indentation of variable depth; in others, the prox-
imal base is evenly rounded. The shaft is arched
longicaudatus-group (Figure 9) dorsally from base to tip and transversely concave
along its entire ventral length. While overall length
Bacula of this group were figured by Didier (1962, varies considerably, as do width measures to a
p. 410, fig. 2, p. 412) as Proechimys guyannensis lesser extent (table 1), the uniform and character-

Fig. 7. Representative bacula of members of the trinitatus-group; scale
= 5 mm. a, P. chrysaeolus. bm[nh] 1 2.4.2.4—
Colombia: Santander; Margarita, b, P. chrysaeolus, fmnh 69109— Colombia: Bolivar; San Juan Nepomuceno. c, P.
guairae, mvz 168945— Venezuela: Portuguesa; Sto. Domingo, d, P. magdalenae, usnm 4997 19— Colombia: Antioquia;
22 km S and 22 km W
Zaragoza. e, P. trinitatus, mvz 168946— Trinidad: Chaguaramas. f, P. hoplomyoides, amnh
75827— Venezuela: Bolivar; Arabupu, Mt. Roraima.
istic shape of the baculum renders members of cifvf'm-group (Figure 10)

this group easily identifiable. Geographically,
samples allocated to P. brevicauda average larger Didier (1962, p. 411) recorded one specimen
and broader in the northern (e.g., southern Co- (fmnh 1 8 198) of Proechimys cuvieri from Guyana
lombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru) than in more in his P. guyannensis Type I bacular group. This
southern localities (e.g., southeastern Peru and ad- group is otherwise made up of specimens of P.
jacent Bolivia); samples from southeastern Bolivia semispinosus (see below), although the bacula of
and Brazil referred to P. longicaudatus approach P. cuvieri and some populations of semispinosus
the general size of northern samples of P. brevi- have of shape in common (see figs. 10-
similarities
cauda (see table 1). 11). Patton and Gardner (1972) figured and de-
FiG. 8.Representative bacula of the decumanus-group (a-b) and canicollis-group (c-d); scale
= 5 mm. a, fmnh
82023— Peru: Piura; Laguna Lamadero. b, fmnh 81199— Peru: Tumbes; Matapalo. c, usnm 2801 13— Colombia:
Magdalena; Rio Cesar, opposite El Orinoco, d, usnm 2801 14— Colombia: Magdalena; Rio Cesar, opposite El Orinoco.

Fig. 9. Representative bacula of members of the longicaudatus-group; scale
= 5 mm. a, fmnh 7 1 1 74— Colombia:
Caqueta; Florencia, Mantanita. b, mvz 155034— Peru: Amazonas; Huampami, Rio Cenepa. c, mvz 157934— Peru:
Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Samiago. d, amnh 71877 — Peru: Loreto; Boca Rio Curaray. e, mvz 157854— Peru: Madre
de Dios; Lago Sandoval, f, fmnh 1 19356— Bolivia: El Beni, San Pedro, g, bm[nh] 28.2.9.48— Bolivia: Santa Cruz;
Buenavista. h, bm[nh] 3.7.7.94 — Brazil: Malo Grosso; Serra de Chapada.
scribed bacula of specimens from eastern Peru with imens from widely scattered localities in the
2n = 40 karyotype that they referred to P. guy- Guianas and along the entire length of the Amazon
annensis, and that have this type of baculum. River, as well as the karyotypically differentiated
The baculum is massive, with a broad shaft and 2n = 40 form from Balta, Rio Curanja, Ucayali,
a thickened and expanded base (see fig. 10; table Peru (see Patton & Gardner, 1972). These latter
1). In cross section, the proximal two-thirds is specimens were considered to be conspecific with
convex dorsally and deeply concave ventrally. The P. guyannensis by Gardner and Emmons (1984)
distal end has a pair of diverging apical extensions on karyotypic grounds. In bacular characters, how-
separated by a wide median depression of varying ever, they are clearly different from guyannensis-
depth. This is the most distinctive of any of the group members and are placed here solely because
bacular types in Proechimys. It characterizes spec- of these uniquely shared bacula. The true taxo-

Fig. 10. Representative bacula of members of the CMv/m-group; scale = 5 mm. a, bm[nh] 7.6.20.5— Guyana:
Hyde Park. Demarara River, b, amnh 140540— Guyana: Kamakusa. c, amnh 96844— Brazil: Para; Ilha do Taiuno,
Rio Tocantins. d, amnh 96867 — Brazil: Para; Ilha do Taiuno, Rio Tocantins. e, mvz 157874— Peru: Amazonas; La
Poza, Rio Santiago, f, amnh 7409 — Peru:
1 Loreto; Orosa, Rio Amazonas.
nomic position of these specimens remains an erwise composed of specimens here referred to the
enigma, as material clearly assignable to this form goeldii-group. All cranial characters, as well as
has not been found elsewhere. bacular ones (see fig. 1 1 b), show that these three
In the meager samples available, there appears sp)ecimens represent P. semispinosus. Patton and
to be little geographic variation in bacular size Gardner (1972, pp. 16-17) also described and fig-
within P. cuvieri. although specimens from the ured specimens of P. semispinosus from Costa Rica.
Guianas average slightly larger than those from The additional specimens examined here do not
Brazil or Peru (table 1 ). differ importantly from the descriptions provided
in these two papers.
In general aspects, the baculum is intermediate
semispinosus-ôup (Figure 11) between the longicaudatus and cuvieri groups. The
shaft is long and massive, with deeply concave
Didier (1962, pp. 409-411) defined his Pro- margins, a broadly expanded and thickened base,
echimys guyannensisType I baculum based largely and a wide distal portion with well-developed api-
on specimens from western Colombia which rep- cal wings separated by a median depression. In
resent the semispinosus-gToup as defined herein. cross section, the proximal and distal portions are
Interestingly, three of the individuals he included convex dorsally and deeply concave ventrally. The
group (fmnh 69063, 69064, 69071) were
in this width across the distal portion of the baculum
members of his guyannensis Type
also listed as typically exceeds that of the proximal portion (ta-
IV complex (Didier, 1962, p. 415), which is oth- ble 1
), which is also characteristic of the cuvieri-

Fig. 1
Representative bacula of members of the semispinosus-group {P. semispinosus [a-e] and P. oconnelli [f-
1 .
g]); scale
=
mm. a, usnm 592694— Panama: Canal 2^ne. b, fmnh 69063— Colombia: Bolivar; Socorre, upper Rio
5
Sinu. c, FMNH 70085— Colombia: Choco; Unguia. d, fmnh 89525— Colombia: Narino; La Guayacana. e, fmnh
90150— Colombia: Cauca; La Boca, f, mvz 99680— Colombia: Meta; Villavicencio. g, fmnh 88050— Colombia: Meta;
Los Micos, San Juan de Aramas.
group. However, specimens from the northern ponent of character variation within localities that
(Costa Rica and western Panama) and southern obscures any geographic patterns and species dif-
limits (Cauca, Colombia, and southward) of the ferences (see Patton & Rogers, 1983). Use of qual-
range of P. semispinosus, as well as those of P. itative characters has proven more successful, but
oconnelli (table 1), tend to be more symmetrical, only Patton and Gardner (1972) and Gardner and
those from central Panama south through Choco, Emmons (1984) have marshalled such features as
Colombia, more expanded distally (compare fig. palatal structure, bullar septal pattern, temporal
1 la-d with 1 le-g). ridge development, and counterfold pattern on the
cheekteeth into coherent patterns that identify
geographically overlapping forms. Characters of
the palate, in particular, proved to be concordant
with bacular and karyotypic differences in delin-
Qualitative Cranial Characters eating taxa in Peru (Patton & Gardner, 1972).
Here, I focus on the qualitative description of
Theusual morphometric approach to specific five cranial features that prove useful in the dis-
and infraspecific taxonomy of small mammals has crimination of sympatric taxa and in the definition
met with little success in studies of Proechimys. of homogeneous regional units. These include (see
In part, this is due to the large age-related com- Patton & Gardner, 1972; Gardner & Emmons,

cuvieri
7-
\
semispinosus I
brevicauda
[ E
^
e
2n=40
5-
oconnelli
Ilongicaudatus
D I
O
guairoe ^trinitatus
sfeerei 1 • •__| 1 decumanus
3- T
mag \
canicollis^ dalenae^
chrysaeolus
]guyonnensis \
2- \roberfi A Ahhop lomyo ides

Simons I
T- —1- T-
8 9 10 II 12 13
Bacular Length (mm)

Fig. 1 Bivariate plot of distal bacular width and bacular length measurements for taxa of spiny rats, subgenus
2.
Proechimys. AH individuals represent age class 10 of Patton and Rogers (1983). Circles indicate means, vertical and
horizontal lines indicate standard deviations. See text for the allocation of taxa into species groups.
1984): (1) shape and structure of the incisive fo- paroccipital processes, need further examination
ramen; (2) angle and depth of mesopterygoid fossa; Patton & Gardner, 1972). My prelimi-
(see, e.g.,
(3)degree of development of a bony groove in the nary analysis of each of these features indicates
floor of the infraorbital foramen; (4) degree of de- strong concordance with those characters used here
velopment of the temporal ridges across the pa- to define taxonomic limits.
rietals; and (5) the counterfold pattern of the upper
and lower cheekteeth. These structures were used
by Moojen ( 1 948) with limited success to segregate Shape and Structure of the Incisive Foramen
sympatric taxa in Brazil, but he failed to use them
to group regional samples into consistently de- Specimens of each recognized species group were
fined morphological entities. Hence, his analysis analyzed for the following characteristics of the
appears to show that these features are much more incisive foramen: (1) general shape and size [lyre-
variable, and thus of less utility, than actually shaped, constricted posteriorly; oval; evenly ta-
proves to be the case. pered posteriorly or parallel sided]; (2) presence
Other qualitative features of the cranium, such or absence of grooves extending onto the anterior
as the size and shape of the bullae, the size and portion of the palate; (3) flanged or flat postero-
position of the hamular processes of the ptery- margins of the foramen; (4) degree of de-
lateral
goids, and the degree of lateral indentation of the velopment of the maxillary and premaxillary por-

Fig. 1 Representative incisive foramina of specimens of P. brevicauda of the longicaiddatus-group; scale
3 (top). =
5 mm. a, mvz 53596 — Peru: Amazonas; Huampami,
1 Rio Cenepa. Arrows indicate median palatal ridge and elevated
flange marking posterolateral foraminal margins, b, Same specimen as in a, emphasizing the strongly keeled maxillary
—
portion of the foraminal septum (arrow), c, mvz 153607 Peru: Amazonas; Huampami, Rio Cenepa. d, mvz 157855
—
Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago. The premaxillary (pm), vomerine (v), and maxillary (m) portions of the
foraminal septum are identified; arrows indicate sutures between these elements.
Fig. 14 (bottom). Representative incisive foramina of sf>ecimens of the CMv/er;-group {P. cuvieri [a-c] and the
2n = 40 karyotypic form from Balta, eastern Peru [d]); scale = 5 mm. a, fmnh 95720— Suriname: Brokopando;
Saramacca River, Loksie Hattie. Arrow indicates direct contact between premaxillary and maxillary portions of the
septum. Note that only a small part of the vomerine portion is visible ventrally. b, mvz 160091 —Venezuela: Bolivar;
69 km S Rio Cuyuni. An expanded vomerine portion of the septum is evident (arrows identify vomerine contact
with the premaxilla and maxilla), c, mvz 157874— Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago. The vomerine portion
of the septum is visible ventrally, widely separating the premaxillary and maxillary components (arrows), d, lsu
14425- Peru: Ucayali; Balta, Rio Curanja. Note the small size of this specimen relative to the others, and the
elongated premaxillary portion of the septum.
tions of septum; (5) whether thevomerine portion a median ridge. Descriptions of the incisive fo-
of septum is whether or not
visible ventrally; (6) ramina for representatives of each of the sp>ecies
the maxillary portion of the septum is keeled; and groups are given below and are illustrated in Fig-
(7) whether the anterior portion of the palate has ures 1 3-20; examples were chosen to express the

full range of character variation for each group, that of P. cuvieri. The maxillary portion is well
regardless of the specific localities from which developed and appears to contact directly the pre-
specimens were collected. maxillary portion.
longicaudatus-ffroup (Figure 13a-d) goeldii-group (Figure 15a-d)
The general features of this type of incisive fo- The general features of this foraminal type were
ramen were given by Patton and Gardner (1972, provided by Patton and Gardner (1972, p. 4) un-
p. 10). Figure 13 illustrates the range of form typ- der P. brevicauda. The foramen is usually only
ical for members of the group. The most diagnostic weakly lyre-shaped, or with margins tapering
features include: a lyre-shaped foramen, usually slightly posteriorly or parallel-sided. The premax-
with a strongly constricted posterior portion; the illary portion of the septum is short, usually one-
maxillary terminus of the foramen deeply grooved half or less of the length of the foramen; the max-
onto the anterior palate; the posterolateral margins illary portion varies greatly, being usually rather
of the foramen strongly flanged; an expanded, long weak and attenuate, often not in contact with the
premaxillary portion of the septum, usually ex- premaxillary portion (fig. 15d) but sometimes
tending more than one-half its length; a well-de- broadly spatulate and filling much of the foramen
veloped and strongly keeled maxillary portion of (fig. 15a). Nevertheless, the vomer is only rarely
the septum (see fig. 13b), the maxillary keel ex- exposed ventrally, being completely enclosed in
tending onto the anterior palate resulting in a well- the premaxillary sheath. The maxillary portion of
developed median ridge; and a vomerine portion the septum often exhibits a median vacuity (fig.
of the septum exposed ventrally between the pre- 1 5b); it may be slightly ridged, but is never strongly
maxillary and maxillary components. keeled, and seldom does this ridge extend onto the
This is one of the more consistently recognizable anterior palate (fig. 15b). Thus, there are only
types of incisive foramina within the genus Pro- moderately developed grooves onto the anterior
echimys, varying mostly in the degree of constric- palate,and the posterolateral margins of the fo-
tion at the posterior margins, hence in the degree ramen are only moderately flanged.
of the general lyre-shape.
semispinosus-group (Figure 16a-d)

cuvieri-group (Figure 14a-d)
Specimens of this group from Costa Rica were
The incisive foramen of Proechimys cuvieri is described by Patton and Gardner (1972, p. 15).
most similar in structure to that of the longicau- Foraminal shape varies from rather evenly tapered
datus-gToup. The general conformation is weakly margins to moderately lyre-shaped ones. The pos-
to strongly lyre-shaped with strongly developed terolateral margins are usually strongly flanged,
posterolateral flanges. The anterior palate, how- creating deep grooves extending onto the anterior
ever, is only weakly to moderately grooved re- palate despite only moderate development of a
median ridge. The premaxillary
sulting in a slight medial ridge (compare fig. 1 6b with 1 6c). The pre-
portion of the septum is strongly developed, ex- maxillary portion of the septum is dominant, usu-
tending more than one-half its length; the maxil- ally broadly filling the foramen and extending well
lary portion varies from stout to attenuate, but is over one-half its length. The maxillary portion
always short and is only weakly keeled. The vomer varies from moderately developed to attenuate,
is varyingly exposed ventrally (compare fig. 14a but is almost always in direct contact with the
with 14b-c). premaxillary portion. The vomer is completely en-
The 2n = 40 specimens from Balta which have cased within the premaxilla and thus is not visible
bacula similar to P. cuvieri share only some fo- in ventral asp>ect.
raminal characters with that taxon (fig. 4d). The
1
foramen is weakly lyre-shaped and the postero-

lateralmargins are only weakly flanged, hence the simonsi-gToup (Figure 17a-d)
anterior palate is scarcely grooved. Nevertheless,
the premaxillary portion of the septum is elon- Again, the incisive foramen of the simonsi-group
gated and broad, similar in shape and structure to was described fully by Patton and Gardner (1972,

Fig. 1 5 (top). oi ihe goeldii-groxip. All are from La Poza, Rio Santiago. Amazonas.
Incisive foramina of P. steers i
Peru; scale = 5 mm. a, mvz 157949. Note

the enlarged maxillary' portion of the septum (m) and the direct contact
(arrow) between it and the premaxillary portion (pm). b, mvz 1 57956. Note the moderately developed posterolateral
flange (arrow), c, mvz 157861. d, mvz 157869. Note the attenuate maxillary portion of the septum and the lack of
contact between it and the premaxilla portion.
Fig. 16 (bottom). Incisive foramina off. semispinosus of the semispinosus-group; scale = 5 mm. a, mvz 165794—
Panama: Panama; 0.8 km N
Paraiso. b, fmnh 90169— Colombia: Choco; Rio Baudo. Note the direct contact between
and maxillary (m) portions of the septimi. c, fmnh 90177— Colombia; Choco; Rio Baudo.
the premaxillary (pm) d,
fmnh 70080— Colombia; Choco; Unguia. Note the well-developed posterolateral flange (arrow).
This is a distinctive foramina] type, as all

p. 19). by the premaxilla or barely visible (fig. 1 7c). The
specimens examined were consistent in most fea- posterolateral margins are flat, not flanged, and no
tures despite variation in overall shape. The fo- groove extends onto the anterior palate. Rather,
ramen is oval in general shape, although often the palate is noticeably flat and smooth, without
asymmetrical in anteroposterior direction (fig. 17b). a medial ridge.
The premaxillary^ portion of the septum is rather
short, usually no more than one-half the length of
the foramen. The maxillary portion is usually weak guyannensis-group (Figure 18a-d)
and atteniiate, only rarely in contact with the pre-
maxillary portion. When the septum is complete This foraminal type is virtually indistinguish-
1 7a), the vomer is either
(fig. completely enclosed able firom that described for the simonsi-group.
324 RELDIANA: ZOOLOGY

I If 1l 11
Fig. 17 (top). Incisive foramina of P. simonsi of the simonsi-group; scale = 5 mm. a, mvz 155045 — Peru:
Amazonas; headwaters of Rio Kagka. Note lack of posterolateral flanges or palatal grooves, b, mvz 157914— Peru:
Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, c, mvz 136654— Peru: Ucayali; Balta, Rio Curanja. Note slightly exposed vomer
(y) and attenuate maxillary portion of septum, d, mvz 168955— Peru: Madre de Dios; Albergue, Rio Madre de Dios.
Fig. 18 (bottom). Incisive foramina of the guyannensis-group (a-b, arabupu; c, oris; and d, roberti); scale = 5
mm. a, amnh 139741— Venezuela: Bolivar; Auyantepui. Note lack of posterolateral flanges and anterior palatal
grooves, and the attenuate maxillary portion of the septum, b, mvz 160094— Venezuela: Bolivar; 4 km E El Pauji.
Note the lack of contact between the premaxillary and maxillary portions of the septum, c, amnh 93997 Brazil:—
Para; Faro, north bank Rio Amazon. Note weakly developed posterolateral flanges, d, amnh 134309— Brazil: Goias;
Anapolis.
The shape is oval, although often unequal (fig. maxillary portion. The vomer generally does not
18d). The anterior palate is flat, without grooves contribute to the ventral aspect of the septum.
or a median ridge, and the posterolateral margins
of the foramen are not flanged, or only weakly
flanged (fig. 18c shows maximal development of trinitatus-group (Figure 19a-d)
flanges). The premaxillary portion of the septum
is relatively short, usually less than one-half the Members of thisspecies group generally exhibit
length of the foramen, and the maxillary portion the most enlarged foramina within the subgenus
is attenuate, usually not in contact with the pre- Proechimys. Specimens referred to mincae, polio-

Fig. 19 (top).
^ r%Si= 5 mm. a, P. mincae, fmnh 13203— Colombia:
Incisive foramina of the trinitatus-group; scale
Magdalena; Minca (topotype). b, P. ochraceous, fmnh 1 8688— Venezuela: Zulia; El Panorama, Rio Aurare (topotype).
c, P. guairae. fmnh 92588— Colombia: Arauca; Rio Cobaria. d, P. chrysaeolus. fmnh 69037— Colombia: Bolivar;
San Juan Nepumoceno.
Fig. 20 (bottom). Incisive foramina of the decumanus- and canicollis-gôups; scale = 5 mm. a, P. decumanus,
fmnh 82024— Peru: Piura; Laguna Lamadero. b, P. canicollis. fmnh 691 1 1— Colombia: Bolivar; San Juan Nepu-
moceno.
pus, and ochraceous have smoother, less ridged Only specimens referred to guairae and trini-
in
palates and ovoid foramina lacking posterolateral tatus does the maxillary portion of the septum
flanges (fig. 1 9a-b); those referred to guairae, trin- show a medial ridge (fig. 1 9c).
hoplomyoides, and chrysaeolus have
itatus. urichi,
somewhat more lyre-shaped foramina with weakly
to moderately flanged posterolateral margins which </eciimaiiii5-group (Figure 20a)
define grooves extending onto the anterior palate
(fig. 1 9c-d). In all forms the premaxillary portion This foramina! type is oval in shape and large,
of the septum is enlarged, usually extending one- with poorly defined posterolateral flanges and weak
half or more of the length of the foramen, while grooves extending onto the anterior palate. The
the maxillary pKJrtion is attenuate, most often not premaxillary portion of the septum is long, but
in direct contact with the premaxillary portion. tapering posteriorly and in direct contact with a

Fig. 21. Patterns of temporal ridge development in Proechimys; scale = 5 mm. a, P. semispinosus, fmnh 90145 —
Colombia: Cauca; Rio Saija. Note extreme development of ridge across parietals continuous between the supraorbital
ledge and the lambdoidal ridge (arrows), b, P. steerei, mvz 157955
— Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago. Note
separation of temporal ridge into an anterior part distinctly ventral to a posterior section (arrows), c, P. quadruplicatus,
UMMz 80069 — Ecuador: Napo; San Francisco, Rio Napo. Note barely perceptible temporal ridge (arrow), d, P. cuvieri,
MVZ 1 6009 1 —Venezuela: Bolivar; 69 km S Rio Cuyuni. Note relatively smooth parietal with only an anterior temporal
ridge extension.
short but wide (and often perforated) maxillary 1. Ridge well developed, extending across the
portion. The vomer is not visible ventrally. parietals from the supraorbital ledge to the lamb-
doidal ridge (fig. 21a).
Ridge moderately developed, but with an an-
2.
canicollis-group (Figure 20b) terior parietal portion separated from and dis-
tinctly ventral to the posterior lambdoidal portion

The shape and structure of this foramen is sim- (fig. 21b).
ilar to that described for P. decumanus. The open- 3. Ridge continuous across parietals, but weak-
ing oval in shape, posterolateral flanges are
is lydeveloped, being a barely perceptible change in
weakly developed, and the anterior palate shows the lateral curvature of the parietals (fig. 21c).
only faint grooves. The premaxillary portion of 4. No ridge development, or only a weak ridge
the septum is broad and extends to one-half the extending from the supraorbital ledge onto the an-
length of the foramen; the maxillary portion is terior parietals (fig. 2 Id).
moderately develojied and in direct contact with
the premaxilla. Hence, the vomer does not form Representatives of each species group were
part of the ventral aspect of the septum. scored for these conditions, and the patterns are
indicated in Table 2. Only P. semispinosus of the
semispinosus-%;conx) displays complete and well-
Development of the Temporal Ridge developed ridges, a characteristic noted by Gard-
ner and Emmons (1984). P. oconnelli oixhis group,
Four conditions of temporal ridge development however, does not exhibit temporal ridges. The
were recognized, as follows: remainder of the species groups, however, show

Table 2. Frequency classes of the development of
the temporal ridge of spiny rats, subgenus Proechimys.
See text for explanation of character-states.
Species group/
Table 3. Mean scores and ranges for the develop-
ment of the infraorbital foramen canal of spiny rats,
subgenus Proechimys. See text for explanation of scoring
system.
Species group/
Fig. 22. Degrees of development of the canal or

groove on the medial floor of the infraorbital foramen
that accommodates the infraorbital nerve; see text for
description of scoring system used; scale
= 5 mm. a,
Score = 3.0, P. oconnelli, mvz 99685— Colombia: Meta;
Villavicencio. b, Score = 2.0, P. oconnelli, mvz 99684—
Colombia: Meta; Villavicencio. c. Score = 1 .0, P. quad-
ruplicatus, ummz 80069— Ecuador: NapK); San Francis-
co, Rio Napo.
Fig. 23. Angle and extent of the mesopterygoid fossa for representative taxa of Proechimys; scale = 5 mm. a, P.
brevicauda,mvz 157854— Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, b, P. steerei, mvz 157888— Peru: Amazonas; La
Poza, Rio Santiago, c, P. simonsi, mvz 157950— Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, d, P. guyannensis, amnh
75820— Venezuela: Bolivar; Arabupu, Mt. Roraima (topotype of arabupu).
tractor to the nearest degree, and the maximal for the guyannensis-group, where samples referred
penetration of the fossa into the palate was scored to P. oris (Para state, Brazil) and P. roberti (Goias
relative to the cheekteeth, as follows: and Minas Gerais states, Brazil) are quite different
from other samples examined (table 4), there is
1 . Not extending to the posterior margins of M3 little geographic variation in the expression of me-
2. Extending to the posterior one-half of M3 sopterygoid fossa characters within each species
3. Extending to anterior one-half of M3 group.
4. Extending to posterior one-half of M2
5. Extending to anterior one-half of M2
These two characters, angle and depth, are cor- Counterfold Pattern of the Cheekteeth
related in that the greater the depth usually the
more acute the angle (fig. 23). Early attempts to establish systematic relation-
Table 4 provides data for the mesopterygoid ships within Proechimys placed considerable em-
fossa characters for representatives for each rec- phasis on variation in counterfolds of the cheek-
ognized species group of Proechimys. Members of teeth, both in number and pattern (e.g.,
the longicaudatus-group consistently have the Hershkovitz, 1948; Moojen, 1948). In general,
broadest angle with the most shallow fossa (fig. these earlier studies indicated that fold number
23a); those of the simonsi-group have the most and pattern are quite variable geographically with-
acutely-angled fossa and, with members of the in taxa. As a result, counterfolds have been used
guyannensis-group, the deepest penetration into primarily to recognize taxa sympatric at given lo-
the palate (fig. 23c-d). Most other groups show calities rather than as a character complex capable
moderate angles and degree of penetration. Except of uniting distinct populations into cohesive and

Table 4. Mesopterygoid fossa (mpf) angle (in degrees) and depth scores of spiny rats, subgenus Proechimys. See
text for detailed descriptionsof character-states.
Fig. 24. Upper (left) and lower (right) toothrows of P. semispinosus of the semispinosus-gro\np of Proechimys;
scale = 5 mm. a, fmnh 90143— Colombia: Cauca: Rio Saija. b, fmnh 70072— Colombia: Choco; Unguia.
(with the exception of the decumant4s-group) are Counterfold number and, to a lesser extent, pat-
presented in Figures 24-30. As with other char- tern change with increasing age. Obviously, folds
acter complexes I examined, these examples were become obliterated in advanced age, but even in
chosen to illustrate the range of variation. Geo- moderately aged individuals smaller folds êasily
graphic variation within each group is summa- can become lost, and coalescence or isolation of
rized in Table 5. folds occurs (see Moojen, 1
948). These age-related
î^S^^
Fig. 25. Upper (left) and lower (right) toothrows of P. steerei of the goeldii-group; all specimens from La Poza,
Rio Santiago, Amazonas, Peru; scale = 5 mm. a, mvz 157871. b, mvz 157863. c, mvz 157861.

Fig. 26. Upper (left) and lower (right) toothrows of P. brevicauda (a-b) and P. longicaudatus (c) of the longicau-
datus-gxoup; scale
= 5 mm. a, mvz 157584— Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, b, mvz 157855 Peru: Ama-—
zonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, c, JRS 222— Paraguay: Chaco; 54 km E Agua Dulce (specimen to be deposited in
National Museum, Asuncion, Paraguay).
phenomena create difficulties in counting folds and 8 or 9 (as defined by Patton &Rogers, 1 983) where
clearly are partly responsible for some of the vari- folds are still mostly confluent with the sides of
observed within and between samples. To

ability each tooth.
minimize this extraneous variation, the data as- Taxa of the semispinosus-group (fig. 24; table
sembled here are based on individuals in age classes 5), followed by those of the goeldii-group (fig. 25),
Fig. 27. Upper (left) and lower (right) toothrows off. cuvieri of the CMv/er/-group; scale = 5 mm. a, mvz 1 57874—
Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, b, mvz 160091— Venezuela: Bohvar; 69 km S Rio Cuyuni.

Table 5. Counterfold patterns of the cheekteeth of spiny rats, subgenus Proechimys. Folds are given as frequencies
for each tooth, based largely on specimens of the age classes 8 and 9 (Patton & Rogers, 1983).
Table 5. Continued.
Fig. 28. Upper (left) and lower (right) toolhrows of P. simonsi of the s/mo/ts/ -group; scale = 5 mm. a, mvz
157950— Peru: Amazonas; La Poza, Rio Santiago, b, mvz 166035— Peru: Madre de Dios; Albergue, Rio Madre de
Dios.
sistent foldcount for the upper teeth throughout from north to south, as does dpm4 (tal)le 5). This
their ranges 26; table 5). The lower cheekteeth,
(fig. geographic pattern is the reverse of that seen in
however, show a decrease in fold number from both the goeldii- and longicaudatiis-groups over
north to south: samples referred to P. longicau- same part of the western Amazon Basin.
the
datus are characterized by only two folds on the Taxa of the guyannensis-group are uniform in
last molar; specimens referred to P. brevicauda number and pattern of counterfolds throughout
typically have the first and second medial folds on their range (fig. 29; table 5). They are characterized
mj displaying degrees of coalescence (see fig. 26a- by having three folds on most teeth, often with
b). The CMv/en-group shows a fold coimt similar two folds on the lower molars, and only rarely four
to that of the longicaiuiatiis-group (table 5), and folds on dpm4. Members of the trinitatus-, decu-
these two groups cannot be distinguished in pat- manus-, and canicollis-groups display the lowest
tern (compare fig. 26 with fig. 27). Taxa of the counterfold number (table 5) and, hence, the sim-
5/mo/is/-group are somewhat intermediate be- plest pattern (fig. 30). Specimens of P. canicollis
tween the goeldii- and longicaudatm-groups in fold have the least complex cheekteeth of any taxon in
number (fig. 28). The uppercheekteeth, particu- the subgenus Proechimys. with two folds on each
larly M^, show a shght increase in number of folds tooth the general rule.
Fig. 29. Upper (left) and lower (right) toothrows of P. guyannensis (a) and P. roberti (b) of the guyannensis-ffo\x'p\
scale = 5 mm. a, amnh 130737— Venezuela: Bolivar; Auyantepui. b, amnh 134309— Brazil: Goias; Anapolis.
336 HELDIANA: ZCX)LC>GY

VîlfrS-'
Fig. 30. Upper (left) and lower (right) toothrows of representatives of the trinitatus (a-c) and canicoltis (d) groups;
scale = 5 mm. a, P.
chrysaeolus, fmnh 69039— Colombia: Bolivar; San Juan Nepumoceno. b, P. mincae, fmnh 13203—
Colombia: Magdalena; Minca (topotype). c, P. guairae, fmnh 92588— Colombia: Arauca; Rio Cobaria. d, P. canicollis,
FAiNH 69109— Colombia: Bolivar; San Juan Nepumoceno.
Remarks and Prospectus like here to summarize my opinions as to the likely

number and distribution of the species contained
Nine species groups of spiny rats (subgenus within each group. It remains for future work, both
Proechimys) are defined herein, and 59 of the 67 in the field and in the museum, to verify the ac-
names which have been proposed are allocated to curacy of these hypotheses.
one or another of these groups. Although the de- The decumanus-, canicollis-, and simonsi-&o\xp&
fined groups differ from those proposed recently are considered monotypic; certainly the restricted
by Gardner and Emmons (1984), it is reassuring ranges and uniform character distributions of
that we have grouped taxa similarly, with only both Proechimys decumanus and P. canicollis sup-
minor exceptions, despite our use of different suites port this view. Despite a much broader geographic
of characters. Our common conclusions indicate range, character variation among populations as-
that characters are not hopelessly chaotic geo- signed to the simonsi-group is either negligible or
graphically (see, for example, Thomas, 1928), but clinal in nature. Indeed, this is perhaps the most
that consistent patterns are recognizable. consistently recognizable group of spiny rats be-
The preceding discussion, however, neither sug- cause of this character uniformity (see also Gard-
gests the number of species that are likely present ner &
Emmons, 1984). Even the karyotype is in-
in each of the groups defined, nor comments on variant throughout the species range, based on
the phyletic relationships among them. I would samples available from southern Colombia (Reig

& Useche, 1 976) to southern Peru (Patton & Gard- acters. There does, however, appear to be rela-
ner, 1972; Gardner & Emmons, 1984). By se- tively sharp transition of some characters,
niority, the single species in the simonsi-group particularly those of the pelage (not examined in
should be recognized as P. simonsi Thomas, with this report), in the central Amazon Basin between
the names hendeei Thomas and nigrofulvus Os- the lower Rio Negro and the Rio Tapajos. It is
good considered synonyms. probable that at least two species are present in
The guyannensis-group members are close to P. this group, a western one to which the name steerei
simonsi in most salient features described here. Goldman would apply, and an eastern one to which
Their bacula are nearly indistinguishable, as are the senior name goeldii Thomas applies.
characters of the incisive foramina and mesoptery- The character summaries provided in this paper
goid fossa. Differences exist in counterfold pattern, tend to minimize the difficulties that I had in as-
but these could represent nothing more than geo- signing individual specimens to species groups,
graphic variation. Only the analysis of samples and thus may provide a sense of false security.
from the hiatus in western Brazil between the This is particularly true for specimens of the goel-
known distributions of these taxa (see fig. 1 ) will dii and guyannensis groups from the eastern parts
permit such a determination. Certainly, of the of both ranges, primarily in Para slate, Brazil.
groups defined herein, the simonsi- and guyan- There are more individual question marks regard-
nensis-gToups are more similar in examined char- ing group assignments for specimens from this re-
acters than any of the others. Future work may gion than for any other area or group, and much
indicate that these groups should be condensed more detailed effort is necessary to corvfirm the
into one. character differences described herein.
More than one species is likely present, how- Within the longicaudatus-group there appears
ever, in my guyannensis-group. Karyotypic vari- to be at least two species, Proechimys longicau-
ation as diploid number ranges from 44
is large, datus Rengger from eastern Bolivia east through
to 30among the limited geographic samples (see adjacent Brazil into northern Paraguay; and P.
Gardner & Emmons, 1984). Moreover, there are brevicauda Gunther, which occupies the remain-
some seemingly striking geographic differences in der of the group range as depicted in Figure 3. An
some of the characters examined, although not in area of rather sharp character transition, particu-
all. For example, specimens from eastern Para, larly in pelage color and color pattern but also in
Goias, and Minas Gerais states of Brazil (referred bacular measurements, for example, occurs in the
to oris Thomas and roberti Thomas) have broader upper Rio Itenez and Rio Mamore of southern El
and shallower mesopterygoid fossae and a less de- Beni and Santa Cruz in Bolivia. The limited sam-
veloped infraorbital canal than do those from else- ples off*, longicaudatus examined show little vari-
where in the group's range. Clearly, a more refined ation throughout its Samples of P. brevi-
range.
and critical examination of detailed geographic cauda from southern Colombia to northern Bolivia
variation in these characters is needed; the view are, however, quite variable, and more than one
provided here is simply too general to judge ad- species may be represented here. Gardner and Em-
equately the significance of this variation. mons (1984) suggested that the Ecuadoran pop-
The goeldii-gvoup varies more over its geo- ulations referred to gularis are specifically distinct
graphic range than any other; nevertheless, much from northern Peruvian brevicauda based on
of the variation in counterfold pattern, for ex- karyotypic differences (2n
= 30, FN = 48 without
ample, appears clinal, and abrupt character shifts large subtelocentric autosomes, versus 2n
= 30,
which might signal species-level demarcations are FN = 48 with two pairs of large subtelocentrics).
not readily apparent in the characters I examined. They also suggested that the central and southern
Known karyotypic variation also apF>ears limited, Peruvian populations might represent a valid sub-
with samples examined from southern Venezuela of P. brevicauda, to which the name elas-
sjjecies
(2n= 26, FN = 42; Reig & Useche, 1976), Ecuador sopus would apply, based both on karyotypic (2n =
and northern Peru (2n = 28, FN = 42-44; Gardner 28, FN = 50) and color pattern differences. A thor-
& Emmons, 1984), and central and southern Peru ough analysis of geographic variation within this
(2n
= 24, FN = 42; Patton & Gardner, 1972; group is certainly warranted.
Gardner & Emmons, 1984). Specimens from the No more than two species appear to be repre-
western Amazon Basin and from the Casiquiare sented in the semispinosus-gvonp; P. semispinosus
region of southern Venezuela appear fairly ho- (Tomes) is distributed from Nicaragua south along
mogeneous in counterfold and pelage color char- the Pacific lowlands to southern Ecuador, and P.

oconnelli is restricted to the western llanos in the these animals results solely from his own infec-
vicinity of Villavicencio, Colombia. Karyotypic tious curiosity and our long-lasting friendship; I
variation occurs in P. semispinosus, but such is value both immeasurably. I am grateful to J. E.
minimal (2n = 30, FN = 50-54); P. oconnelli dif- Hill and P. D. Jenkins of the British Museum (Nat-
fers only by a single fusion/fission (Gardner & Em- G. G. Musser and S. Anderson of
ural History);
mons, 1 984). A more detailed examination of geo- theAmerican Museum of Natural History; A. L.
graphic variation in P. semispinosus is needed Gardner and C. O. Handley, Jr. of the National
before the intraspecific status of the large number Museum of Natural History; P. W. Freeman, R.
of named forms referred to this group can be prop- M. Timm, and B. D. Patterson of Field Museum
erly evaluated. of Natural History; M. S. Hafner and J. P. O'Neill
As mentioned previously, the cwv/er/-group is of the Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State Uni-
clearly divisible into two biological units. The versity; and P. Myers of the Museum of Zoology,
widespread species P. cuvieri Petter is uniform in University of Michigan for the opportunity to ex-
its characters, including karyotype, from the amine materials in their respective collections.
Guianas to northern Peru. The status of the 2n = Special appreciation is extended to A. L. Gardner
40 karyotypic form from Balta in eastern Peru, and H. Emmons for their constant willingness
L.
however, an enigma at present. It is clearly spe-

is to share information and ideas on Proechimys and
from cuvieri and is only placed in
cifically distinct thus to work toward a common understanding. In
this group because of similar bacular design. I do the same vein, I also thank O. A. Reig for coop-
not believe that it is a relative of guyannensis- erative interactions over the past decade. Aid in
group taxa, as suggested by both Patton and Gard- the field has been generously provided by C. P.
ner (1972) and Gardner and Emmons (1984). I Patton, A. L. Gardner, J. E. Cadle, M. A. Barros,
have also not been able to identify this form with M. D. Robinson, J. P. O'Neill, P. Myers, and O.
certaintyanywhere except at Balta. B. Berlin. This research has been supported by the
Finally, I have treated the various taxa assigned National Science Foundation (BNS 76- 1 7485), the
to my trinitatus-group as though they were species, National Geographic Society, and the Museum of
primarily because I have examined relatively few Vertebrate Zoology. Fieldwork has been facilitated
specimens from only scattered localities. Never- by the Direccion General Forestal y de Fauna,
theless,it is likely that a number of species exist Ministerio de Agricultura, Lima, Peru.
in this group. Karyotypic variation is extensive
(see reviews by Reig et al., 1980; Reig, 1981), and

both karyotypic and electromorphic data (Benado
et al., 1979) differentiate a guairae superspecies
(including guairae, poliopus, ochraceous, and min- Literature Cited

cae [see Gardner & Emmons, 1984]) and a trini-
tatus superspecies (composed of trinitatus and uri- Benado, M., M. Aguilera, O. A. Reig, and F. J. Ayala.
1 Biochemical genetics of chromosome forms of
979.
chi). Proechimys hoplomyoides clearly a species
is
Venezuelan spiny rats of the Proechimys guairae and
distinct from the above, as indicated by Gardner
Proechimys trinitatus superspecies. Genetica, 50: 89-
and Emmons ( 1 984). These latter authors included 97.
chrysaeolus in their semispinosus-%ro\xx) and mag- DiDiER, R. 1 962. Note sur I'os penien de quelques ron-
dalenae in their brevicauda-group, positions which geurs de I'Amerique du Sud. Mammalia, 26(3): 408-
are not supported by the bacular characters cov- 430.
ered here. If their true relationships do lie with the Gardner, A. L. 1983. Proechimys semispinosus (Ro-
dentia: Echimyidae): Distribution, type locality,and
trini tat US-group, they too are probably separate
taxonomic history. Proceedings of the Biological So-
species. Certainly, chrysaeolus is the most distinc- ciety of Washington, 96: 134-144.
tive memberof my trinitatus-group in incisive Gardner, A. L., and L. H. Emmons. 1984. Species
foraminal and counterfold characters. groups in Proechimys (Rodenlia, Echimyidae) as in-
dicated by karyology and bullar morphology. Journal
of Mammalogy, 65(1): 10-25.
Hershkovitz, P. 1948. Mammalsof northern Colom-
bia. Preliminary report no. 2: Spiny rats (Echimyidae),
Acknowledgments with supplemental notes on related forms. Proceedings
of the United States National Museum, 97: 125-140.
Alfred Gardner introduced me to Proechimys in Hooper, E. T. 1961. The glans penis in Proechimys
the field 19 years ago. My continued interest in and other caviomorph rodents. Occasional Papers of

the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, no. Reig, O. a. 1981. Modelos de especiacion cromoso-
623, 18 pp. mica en las casiraguas (genero Proechimys), pp. 149-
Martin, R. E. 1970. Cranial and bacular variation in 190. In Reig, O. A., ed.. Ecology and Genetics of An-
imal Speciation. Equinoccio, Caracas, Venezuela, 295
populations of spiny rats of the genus Proechimys (Ro-
dentia: Echimyidae) from South America. Smithson- pp.
ian Contributions to Zoology, 35: 1-19. Reig, O. A., M. Aguilera, M. A. Barros, and M.
MoojEN, J. 1 948.
Speciation in the Brazilian spiny rats
UsECHE. 1980. Chromosomal speciation in a Ras-
senkreis of Venezuelan spiny rats (genus Proechimys,
(genus Proechimys. family Echimyidae). University of
Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History, Rodentia, Echimyidae), pp. 291-312. In Vorontsov,
1(19): 301-406. N. N., and J. M. Van Brink, eds.. Animal Genetics
and Evolution. Dr. W. Junk B. V., The Hague, Neth-
Patton, J. L., AND L. H. Emmons. 1985. A review of
erlands, 383 pp.
the genus Isothrix (Rodentia, Echimyidae). American
Museum Novitates, 2817: 1-14. Reig, O. A., and M. Useche. 1976. Diversidad cari-
and A. L. Gardner. 1972. Notes on otipica y sistematica en poblaciones venezolanas de
Patton, J. L.,
the systematics of Proechimys (Rodentia: Echimyi- Proechimys (Rodentia, Echimyidae), con datos adi-
cionales sobre poblaciones de Peru y Colombia. Acta
dae), with emphasis on Peruvian forms. Occasional
Cientifica Venezolana, 27: 132-140.
Papers, Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State Univer-
44: 1-30. Thomas, O. 1901. On mammals obtained by Mr. Al-
sity,
and M. A. Rogers.
1983. Systematic phonse Robert on the Rio Jordao, S. W. Minas Geraes.
Patton, J. L.,
Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 7, 8:
implications of non-geographic variation in the spiny
526-536.
rat genus Proechimys (Echimyidae). Zeitschrifl fiir
Saugetierkunde, 48: 363-370.

. 1928. The Godman-Thomas expedition to
Peru. VII. The mammals of the Rio Ucayali. Annals
Petter, F. Epidemiologic de la leishmaniose en
1978.
and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 10, 2: 249-265.
Guyane franâise, en relation avec I'existence d'une
espdce nouvelle de Rongeurs Echimyides, Proechimys Woods, C. A. 1 Histricognath rodents, pp. 389-
984.
cuvieri sp. n. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des 446. In Anderson, S., and J. K. Jones, Jr., eds., Orders
Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, series D, Sciences and Families of Recent Mammals of the World. John
Naturelles, 287: 261-264. Wiley & Sons, New York, 686 pp.
Appendix: Specimens Examined
Repositories for specimens examined in this study are as follows: American Museum of Natural
History (amnh), British Museum (Natural History) (bm[nh]), Field Museum of Natural History (fmnh),
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology (lsu), University of California Museum of Vertebrate
Zoology (mvz), University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (ummz), and National Museum of Natural
History (usnm).
caiiiC0//i5-group cifvieri-group
COLOMBIA: Atlantico: Cienaga de Guajaro, P. CUVIERI

Sabana Larga ( 1 , usnm). Bolivar: San Juan Nepu-
moceno (9, fmnh). Magdalena: Honda (29, amnh; BRAZIL: Para: Ilha do Taiuno, Rio Tocantins
1, fmnh; 8, usnm; 2, bm[nh]); Honda, Finca Ve- (25, amnh); Vila Hela Imperatriz, Serra de Parin-
Mamatoca (11, amnh; 7, fmnh);
racruz (2, usnm); tins, Rio Amazonas (1, amnh).
Minca Road amnh); El Libano plantation (6,
(1, GUYANA: Kamakusa ( 1 amnh); Kalacoon ( 1
, ,
amnh); Santa Marta (11, amnh; 1, fmnh); Rio amnh); Kartabo (8, amnh); Minehaha Creek (1,
Guaimaral, Valledupar (1 3, usnm); Aguas Verdes, amnh); Samin Island, Mazarani River (6, amnh);
Valledupar (26, usnm); Parmarilo, Valledupar (2, Maracai Creek, Demarara River ( 1 bm[nh]); De- ,
usnm); El Orinoco, Rio Cesar, Valledupar (14, marara River (2, bm[nh]); Supinaam River (2,
usnm); Villanueva, Valledupar (33, usnm). bm[nh]).
VENEZUELA: Zulia: Perija, Rio CogoUo (7, PERU: Amazonas: La Poza, Rio Santiago (1,
fmnh); Rio Cachiri (1, mvz). mvz). Loreto: Pebas, Rio Amazonas (5, bm[nh]);

Orosa, Rio Amazonas
(14, amnh); Pto. Indiana, Amatari (1, amnh); Borba, Rio Madeira (2, amnh);
Rio Amazonas amnh); Santa Luisa, Rio Nanay
( 1 ,
Auara Igarape, Rio Madeira (15, amnh); Sao An-
(3, fmnh); Sarayacu, Rio Ucayali (3, amnh). tonio de Uayara (9, amnh); Rosarinho, Rio Ma-
SURINAME: Carolinakreek (5, fmnh); Wil- deira (11, amnh); Ipixuna, Rio Purus (1, usnm);
helmina Mts., West River (1, fmnh); Finisanti, Rio Purus, Hyutanahan (4, usnm). Mato Grosso:
Saramacca River (1, fmnh); Lelydorpplan (2, Serra da Chapada (4, bm[nh]); Utiariti, Rio Pa-
fmnh); La Poule (2, fmnh); Dirkshoop (3, fmnh). pagaio (1, amnh). Para: Cameta, Rio Tocantins
(2, bm[nh]); Manapiri Island, Rio Tocantins (2,
bm[nh]); Ilha do Taiuno, Rio Tocantins (57, amnh);

2n = 40 Mocajuba, Rio Tocantins (1, amnh); Baiao, Rio
Tocantins (3, amnh); Urucum de Corumba (1,
PERU: Ucayali: Balta, Rio Curanja (5, lsu). fmnh); Tuary, Rio Tapajos (1, fmnh; 1 1, amnh);
Aramanay, Rio Tapajos (6, amnh); Piquiatuba,
Rio Tapajos (7, amnh); Igarape Amorim, Rio Ta-
pajos (30, amnh); Igarape Brabo, Rio Tapajos (2,
decumanus-group amnh); Farinicatuba, Rio Tapajos (1, amnh);
Aquiatuba, Rio Tapajos (1, amnh); Limoal, Rio
ECUADOR: El Oro: Santa Rosa
(2, amnh). Tapajos (1, amnh); Inajatuba, Rio Tapajos (1,
Guayas: Chongon (4, bm[nh]): Chongoncito (10, amnh); Fordlandia, Rio Tapajos (5, amnh); San-
amnh); Cerro Manglar Alto (3, amnh); Cerro Baja tarem (1, bm[nh]); km 84, Santarem-Cuiaba hwy
Verde (1, amnh); Los Pozos (25, amnh). Los Rios: (27, usnm); km 212, Santarem-Cuiaba hwy (4,
Vinces, Hda. Pijigual (2, amnh). Manabi: Bahia usnm); km 216, Santarem-Cuiaba hwy (3, usnm);
de Caraques, Rio Briseno (7, amnh). Itaituba, Rio Tapacurazinho (9, usnm); Mojui Dos
PERU: Piura: Quebrada Bandarrango ( 1 fmnh); , Campos (1 5, usnm); km 19, Itaituba-Jacareacanga
Laguna Lamadero (2, fmnh). Tumbes: Matapalo hwy (12, usnm); km 25, Itaituba-Altamira hwy (4,
(6, fmnh). usnm); Itaituba (6, usnm); 54 km S, 150 km W
Altamira (3, usnm); Agrovila, km 43 Itaituba-Al-
tamira rd (2, usnm); Vila Bela Imperatriz, south
bank Rio Amazonas (3, amnh); Serra de Parintins,
goeldii-group Vila Bela Imperatriz, south bank Rio Amazonas
(7, amnh); Porto de Moz, Rio Xingu (2, amnh);
BOLIVIA: El Beni: Riberalta, Vaca Diez (13, Vilarinho do Monte, Rio Xingu (4, amnh). Ron-
usnm); 13 km WRiberalta (11, usnm); 3.5 km donia: Pista Nova, 8 km N Porto Velho (4, usnm).
NW Riberalta (2, usnm); 5 km NWRiberalta (3, COLOMBIA: Caqueta: La Tagua, Tres Tron-
usnm); Rio Mamore, 4 km below Santa Cruz (2, cos, Rio Caqueta (13, fmnh); Rio Mecaya (1,
amnh); 6 km S Buena Hora (1, amnh); Rio Ma- fmnh); Florencia, Mantanito (3, fmnh); La Mu-
more, 7 km N Lagionha (2, amnh); Rio Mamore, relia, Rio Bodoquera (2, fmnh).
5 km S Guayaramarin ( 1 amnh); Rio Mamore, 5
, ECUADOR: Napo: San Francisco, Rio Napo
km S Guayaramarin (1, amnh); Rio Mamore (2, (8, ummz); Llunchi, Rio Napo (5, ummz).
amnh); Rio Mamore, opposite Cascajal ( 1 amnh);, PERU: Amazonas: La Poza, Rio Santiago (128,
Rio Mamore, 17 km NNW
Nuevo Berlin (1, Mvz). Huanuco: San Antonio, Rio Pachitea (1,
amnh). bm[nh]); Port Leguia, Rio Pachitea (1, bm[nh]).
BRAZIL: Acre: Sena Madureira, Mandel Ur- Loreto: Yurimaguas ( 1 fmnh); Orosa, Rio Ama-
,
bano ( 1 usnm); Rio Branco, 3-4 km S Rio Branco

, zonas (14, amnh); Boca Rio Curaray (2, amnh);
(2, usnm). Amazonas: Faro, Rio Yumunda [= Pto. Indiana, Rio Amazonas (27, amnh); Rio Ma-
Nhamunda] (2, bm[nh]); Faro, Paraiso (2, amnh); zan (2, amnh); Rio Panduro (6, amnh); Pampa
Acajutuba, Rio Negro (2, bm[nh]); Mirapinima, Chica, Iquitos (1, amnh); Santa Rita, Iquitos (5,
Rio Negro (5, amnh); Cacauo Pereira Igarape, Rio fmnh); Santa Luisa, Rio Nanay (9, fmnh); Santa
Negro (9, amnh); Yucabi, Rio Negro (1, amnh); Elena, Rio Samiria (11, fmnh); Rio Samiria (10,
Tatu, Rio Uaupes (3, amnh); Itamarati, Rio Uaupes fmnh); San Lorenzo, Rio Maraiion (1, fmnh; 4,
(1, amnh); Tahuapunta, Rio Uaupes (2, amnh); bm[nh]); Boca Rio Peruate, Rio Amazonas (2,
Manacapuru, Rio Solimoes (2, bm[nh]); Maturaca fmnh); Lagunas (10, fmnh; 1, bm[nh]); Quista-
Mission, northern Amazonia (1, usnm); Humaita, cocha, Maynas (4,fmnh); Rio Tigre, 1 km above
km 886-990, Br 230 (3, usnm); Sao Antonio de Rio Tigrillo (7, fmnh); Pebas, Rio Amazonas (1,

bm[nh]); Sarayacu, Rio Ucayali (16, amnh); San Tury-Agu, Maranhao (1, bm[nh]); Abaete (8,
Jeronimo, Rio Ucayali ( 1 bm[nh]); Cantamana (3, , bm[nh]); Patagonia amnh); Capim (10, amnh);
(1 5,
bm[nh]); Lago Mirano, Rio Napo (6, bm[nh]). Igarape Amorim, Rio Tapajos (17, amnh); Ina-
Madre de Dios: La Pastora, Maldonado ( 1 fmnh); , jatuba, Rio Tapajos ( 1 amnh); Igarape Brabo, Rio
,
Tambopata, Puerto Maldonado (3, usnm); Ita- Tapajos (4, amnh); Limoal, Rio Tapajos ( 1 amnh); ,
huania ( 1 fmnh). Ucayali: Yarinacocha (6, fmnh;

, Vila Bela Imperatriz, south bank Rio Amazonas,
9, Lsu);Chicosa, upper Rio Ucayali (6, bm[nh]); Lago Andina ( 1 amnh); Vila Bela Imperatriz, south
,
59 km WPucallpa ( 1 usnm); Pucallpa (2, amnh);

, bank Rio Amazonas, Boca Rio Andina (3, amnh);
Santa Rosa, Rio Ucayali (12, amnh); Fernando Vila Bela Imperatriz, south bank Rio Amazonas,
Stahl Mission (14, amnh); Cumaria (5, bm[nh]); Serra de Parintins (3, amnh). Roraima: Uaico, Rio
Tushemo, Masisea, Rio Ucayali ( 1 bm[nh]); Balta, , Uraricoera (3, amnh); Rio Cotingo, Limao (64,
Rio Curanja ( 1 lsu). , amnh).
VENEZUELA: Amazonas: 68 km SE Esmeral- SURINAME: Brokopando: Carolinakreek (4,
da (9, usnm); Rio Orinoco, Tamatama ( 1 3, usnm); fmnh); Lawa Mission, Lawa River ( 1 amnh); Lok-
,
Casiquiare Canal, Capibara ( 1 4, usnm); 30 km SSE sie Hattie, Saramacca River (4, fmnh); Finisanti,
Puerto Ayacucho, Coromoto (8, usnm); 1 8 km SSE Saramacca River (8, fmnh).
Puerto Ayacucho (2, usnm); Mt. Duida, Rio Ca- VENEZUELA: Amazonas: 68 km SE Esmeral-
siquiare, Quemapure amnh); Mt. Duida, 8 mi
(2, da, Mavaca (2, usnm); 68 km SE Esmeralda, Boca
from Rio Orinoco (2, amnh); Mt. Duida, Esme- Masiaca (1, usnm); Rio Canucunuma, Belen (26,
ralda (11, amnh); Mt. Duida, Caiio Seco ( 1 amnh); , usnm); Casiquiare Canal, Capibara (3, usnm); San
Mt. Duida, El Merey (2, amnh); Rio Orinoco, Par- Juan, Rio Manapiari (17, usnm); Rio Orinoco (2,
ipari ( 1 amnh); Rio Orinoco, Boca del Rio Ocamo
, usnm); Rio Orinoco, Boca del Rio Ocamo (5,
(3, amnh). amnh); Rio Casiquiare, El Merey (6, amnh); Rio
Casiquiare, Buena Vista (4, amnh); Rio Casi-
quiare, Solano (2, amnh); Rio Casiquiare ( 1 amnh); ,
Rio Casiquiare, 2 mi W
Tamasu (1, amnh); Mt.
guyannensis-group Duida, foothills camp (1 amnh); Mt. Duida, mid-
,
dle camp (7, amnh); Mt. Duida, Valle de los Mon-

BRAZIL: Amapa: Serra do Navio (3, usnm); os (2, amnh); Mt. Duida, Playa del Rio Base (6,
Calicoene usnm); Capoeira (1, usnm). Ama-
(1, amnh); Mt. Duida, Cario Seco ( 1 amnh); Mt. Dui-
,
zonas: Hd. Rio Tucaro ( 1 usnm); Serra de Neblina , da, Pie del Cerro (1, amnh); Mt. Duida, La Lajo,
(1, usnm); Rio Uaupes, Tauarate (1, amnh); Rio Rio Orinoco (1, amnh).
Uaupes, Tahuapunta ( 1 0, amnh); Rio Negro, Tatu
( 1
, amnh); Rio Negro, Uacara ( 1 amnh); Rio Ne- ,
gro, Camanaos (1, amnh); Rio Negro, Pira-pocu

(1, amnh); Rio Negro, Manaus (1, amnh); Faro, longicaudatus-gôup
north bank Rio Amazonas (10, amnh); Rio Par-
atucu (2, amnh); Rio Nhamunda, Castanhal (20, BOLIVIA: El Beni: 6 km S Buena Hora (1,
amnh); Rio Nhamunda, Sao Jose (3, amnh). Goias: amnh); Rio Machupo, 1 5 km above Horquilla ( 1 ,
Fazenda Cangalha ( usnm); Anapolis (79, amnh).

1 , amnh); San Ignacio (47, usnm); 3.6 km NNE San
Minas Gerais: Rio Jordao, Araguari ( 1 fmnh; 10, , Ignacio (9, usnm); Riberalta (2, fmnh); Riberalta,
bm[nh]). Para: Providencia (1, fmnh); Cameta, Vaca Diez (4, usnm); Fortaleza (2, usnm); San
Rio Tocantins ( 1 fmnh; 1 amnh); Ilha do Taiuno,
, , Marco, 3.2 km SW San Joaquin (3, usnm; 22,
Rio Tocantins ( 1 amnh); Baiao, Rio Tocantins ( 1
, , fmnh); San Joaquin (7, usnm; 90, fmnh; 4, amnh);
amnh); Manapiri Island, Rio Tocantins ( 1 amnh); , 20 km S San Joaquin, Est. Yutiole ( 1 amnh); Caf-
,
Maranhao, Alto Pamaiba ( 1 fmnh); km 84, San- , etal, 20 km SE San Ramon (4, usnm); Rio Itenez,
tarem-Cuiaba hwy (53, usnm); km 2 1 2, Santarem- opposite Principe da Beira (3, amnh); Rio Ma-
Cuiaba hwy (1, usnm); km 217, Santarem-Cuiaba more, 5 km NE Rio Grande mouth (5, amnh); Rio
hwy (4, usnm); km 19, Itaituba-Jacareacanga hwy Mamore, 1 mi NW
Guayaramarin (5, amnh);
(2, usnm); Rio Tapacurazinho (10, usnm); Agrov- Guayaramarin (1, amnh); Rio Mamore, 5 km S
ila, Altamira (6, usnm); km 43, Itaituba-Altamira Guayaramarin (2, amnh); Rio Mamore ( 1 amnh); ,
hwy usnm); Maraba, Serra Norte (7, usnm);

(5, Rio Mamore, opposite Cascajal (2, amnh); Rio
Jatobal (11, usnm); Itupiranga (1, usnm); Belem Mamore, 2 km SE Puerto Siles (5, amnh); 10 km
(46, usnm; 1, amnh); Igarape-A9u (13, amnh); E San Antonio ( 1 amnh); Rurrenabaque ( 1 amnh);
, ,

Lago Victoria ( 1 usnm; 1 4, fmnh); La Esperanza,
, (2, bm[nh]); Rio Pastaza(2, bm[nh]); Rio Pindo
42 km NE San Joaquin (1, usnm); Est. Barran- Yacu fmnh); Rio Yana Rumi (1, fmnh); Rio
(2,
quita, 20 km S San Joaquin (3, fmnh); El Carmen Capihuara (3, fmnh); Rio Copataza (3, fmnh); Rio
(20, fmnh); Azunta (27, fmnh); Santo Dios (10, Lipuno (1, amnh); Sarayacu (4, amnh); Canelos
fmnh); San Pedro (2, fmnh); Caravana ( 1 7, fmnh); (1, amnh).
San Pablo (8, fmnh); Filadelfia (6, fmnh); Aca- PERU: Amazonas: Huampami, Rio Cenepa
pulco (1, fmnh); Buena Vista (1, fmnh); Arruda (173, mvz); La Poza, Rio Santiago (38, mvz).
(2, fmnh); Centenela ( 1 fmnh); Cinco (4, fmnh);
, Huanuco: Port Leguia, Rio Pachitea (3, bm[nh]);
Las Pavas (6, fmnh); Providencia ( 1 fmnh); Puer- , San Antonio, Rio Pachitea (1, bm[nh]); 35 km NE
to Siles ( 1 fmnh); San Andres (2, fmnh); San Juan
, Tingo Maria, Sta. Elena (2, lsu); Tingo Maria (5,
(3, fmnh); Tapera Jorillo (3, fmnh); Veintedos (1, bm[nh]; 1 lsu; 9, fmnh); Chinchavita ( 1 0, bm[nh]).
,
fmnh); Huchulu ( 1 usnm); Las Penas ( 1 usnm);

, , Loreto:Yurimaguas (2, usnm; 2, bm[nh]; 25, fmnh);
Pampitas (1, usnm). Cochabamba: El Mojon (4, Pebas, Rio Amazonas (10, bm[nh]); Boca Rio Cur-
FMNH); San Rafael, 19 km SW Villa Tunari (2, aray (32, amnh); Iquitos, Rio Amazonas (1,
usnm); 4 km SE Villa Tunari (1, usnm); 2 km E bm[nh]); Santa Luisa, Rio Nanay (1, fmnh); San
Villa Tunari (2, amnh); Todos Santos (3, fmnh; Fernando, Rio Yavari (1, fmnh); Cantamana (3,
13,amnh); Mission San Antonio, Rio Chimore (8, bm[nh]). Madre de Dios: Tambopata, Puerto Mal-
amnh); El Palmar (5, fmnh); Charuplaya, upper donado (23, usnm); Lago Sandoval, Rio Madre de
Rio Secure (5, bm[nh]). La Paz: 5 km SE Guanay, Dios (3, mvz); La Pastora, Puerto Maldonado (5,
Rio Challana (2, ummz); Caranavi (4, ummz); Ma- fmnh); Albergue, Rio Madre de Dios (8, mvz).
amnh; 3, bm[nh]); Ticunhuaya (5, amnh);
piri (4, Pasco: Nevati Mission (54, amnh); San Pablo (32,
San Ernesto (2, bm[nh]). Pando: Rio Nareuda (2, amnh). Puno: Santo Domingo [= Inca Mines] (1,
amnh). Santa Cruz: Buenavista (4, fmnh; 10, bm[nh]; 5, amnh; 6, fmnh). San Martin: Achin-
bm[nh]); Ascencion de Guarayos (12, fmnh); Rio amiza, Rio Huallaga (1, amnh). Ucayali: Yari-
Surutu (1, bm[nh]); Rio Ichilo, 54 km S Boca Rio nacocha (1, fmnh); Pucallpa (1, fmnh); 59 km W
Chapare (12, amnh); Rio Ichilo, 52 km S Boca Pucallpa (21, usnm); Fernando Stahl Mission (2,
Rio Chapare (2, amnh); Rio Ichilo, 34 km S Boca amnh); Balta, Rio Curanja (18, lsu; 10, mvz).
Rio Chapare (4, amnh); Rio Ichilo, 30 km S Boca
Rio Chapare (1, amnh); Rio Mamore, 2 km from
Boca Rio Chapare (2, amnh); Wames (2, usnm);
1 .3 km NE Wames (8, usnm); km NNW Wames 1
(9, usnm); 3 km SW Wames, Santa Rosita (6, semispinosus-group

usnm); Florida, near Floripondio (2, fmnh); Cerro
Hosana (1, fmnh). P. semispinosus
BRAZIL: Acre: Sena Madureira, Mandel Ur-
bano ( 1 amnh); Rio Branco, 3-4
,
km S Rio Branco COLOMBIA: Antioquia: Uraba, Villa Arteaga,
(2, usnm). Mato Grosso: Tapirapua, Rio Siputuba Rio Cumlao fmnh).
(23,Cauca: Rio Saija (16,
(2, amnh); Umcum (2, amnh); Serra da Chapada fmnh); El Papayo, Rio Saija (3, fmnh); La Boca,
(6, bm[nh]); Fazenda Acurizal (2, usnm); Ari- Rio Saija (3, fmnh); San Jose ( 1 fmnh; 1 1 amnh);
, ,
puana, Humboldt-Aripauna (8, usnm); Corumba Novita trail, western Andes (1, amnh). Choco:
(7, usnm); 7 km SE Commba
(1, usnm); 22 km S Condoto ( 1 bm[nh]); Rio Docampado ( 1 2, fmnh);
,
Corumba usnm); Sta. Theresa, 7 km

(2, WSW Rio Saudo ( 1 6, fmnh); Unguia (24, fmnh); Bagado
Umcum (7, usnm); Cuiaba, 10 km N Cuiaba (1, (4, amnh); Andaqueda (1, amnh). Cordoba: So-
usnm); Limao, 48 km W
Caceres, Rio Jauru (15, corre, upper Rio Sinu (4, fmnh). Nariflo: La Guay-
usnm). Rondonia: Pista Nova, 8 km N Porto Velho acana (15, fmnh); La Candelilla (4, fmnh); Isla
(6, usnm); Porto Velho ( 1 fmnh). , Gorgona (5, bm[nh]; 2, fmnh); Barbacoas (8,
COLOMBIA: Caqueta: Rio Mecaya (2, fmnh); amnh). Valle de Cauca: Sabaleta 2, fmnh).
Florencia, Mantanito (17, fmnh); Florencia (17, COSTA RICA: Alajuela: San Carios (2, fmnh).
amnh); La Murelia, Rio Bodoquera (15, amnh). Limon: Cariari (5, lsu); Finca La Lola (1 lsu); 4.6
,
ECUADOR: Napo: San Francisco, Rio Nape W

km Limon (2, mvz). Puntarenas: San Geronimo
(17, ummz); Intillama, Rio Napo (2, ummz); Llun- (2, fmnh; 2, amnh); Rincon de Osa (1, lsu); Pal-
chi, Rio Napo (2, ummz); near Rio Napo, Oriente mar Sur (2, lsu); Palmar (28, amnh). San Jose:
(4, bm[nh]); San Jose Abajo (6, amnh); Rio Suno 16.3 km SE San Isidro (2, mvz); 34.7 km SE San
Abajo (2, amnh). Pastaza: Canelos, Rio Bobonaza Isidro (2, mvz); 1 .6 km W
Villa Colon (2, mvz);

2.8 km W Villa Colon (1, Mvz); 14.5 km N Quepos, Rio Santiago (3, mvz); Yambrasbamba (1, fmnh;
Rio Damitas ( 1 , lsu); Caspirola ( 1 , lsu). 5, bm[nh]). Cajamarca: Huarandosa (1, amnh).
ECUADOR: Esmeraldas: San Javier (6, bm[nh]; Cuzco: 40 km E Quincemil above Rio Marcapata
1, fmnh); Esmeraldas (3, amnh). Manabi: Rio (2, lsu); Cosiiipata, Hda. Villa Carmen (4, fmnh);
Mongaya (2, fmnh). Pichincha: Santo Domingo Urubamba (1, bm[nh]). Junin: Rio Perene (1,
(9, bm[nh]). El Oro: Santa Rosa (3, bm[nh]; 4, bm[nh]). Loreto: Yurimaguas (3, fmnh); Santa
amnh); Pasaje (4, amnh). Los Rios: Bucay (1, Luisa, Rio fmnh); Boca Rio Curaray
Nanay (5,
amnh); Puente de Chimbo, Bucay (2, amnh); Ca- (22, amnh); Orosa, Rio Amazonas ( 1 amnh); Cer- ,
gue. El Destino (6, amnh); Limon, Balsapampa to ro Azul, Cantamana, Rio Ucayali (4, bm[nh]);
Babahoyo road (7, amnh); Ventura (1, amnh). Cantamana ( 1 bm[nh]). Madre de Dios: Itahuania
,
NICARAGUA: Rivas: Rio Grande (11, amnh). (4, fmnh); Tambopata, Puerto Maldonado (4,
Zelaya: Toro Rapids (2, amnh); Bluefields (5, mvz). usnm); Aguas Calientes, Rio Alto Madre de Dios
PANAMA: Canal Zone: Barro Colorado Island (10, mvz); Hda. Erika, Rio Alto Madre de Dios
(3, amnh); Gatun (20, amnh); Maxim Ranch (3, (3, mvz); Albergue, Rio Madre de Dios (7, mvz).
amnh); Buena Vista Peninsula (6, lsu); Rio Chagres Pasco: Mairo, Rio Palcazu (2, bm[nh]); San Juan
(2, amnh); Balboa ( 1 amnh). Chiriqui: Boqueron
, (1, usnm); Bermudas de Loma Linda (13, amnh);
(1, bm[nh]; 12, ftvinh; 56, amnh); Bugaba (6, San Pablo (3, amnh). San Martin: Puca Tambo,
bm[nh]). Darien: Cituro (4, amnh); El Real (8, 50 mi E Chachapoyas ( 1 0, bm[nh]). Ucayali: Balta,
amnh); Boca de Cupe (4, amnh); Tapaliza (3, Rio Curanja (2, mvz; 17, lsu); Yarinacocha (1,
amnh); Tacarcuna (2, amnh). Panama: Tocumen fmnh); 59 km W Pucallpa (33, usnm).
(3, bm[nh]); Gobemador Island (7, bm[nh]); Sa-
vanna near Panama (3, bm[nh]); 0.8 km N Paraiso
(4, mvz); Cebaco Island (5, bm[nh]); San Miguel
Island (3, fmnh; 5, amnh). trinitatus-group
P. chrysaeolus
P. OCONNELU
COLOMBIA: Antioquia: Puri, above Caseres
COLOMBIA: Meta: Quaicaramo (3, amnh; 1 5, fmnh); Medellin (1, bm[nh]). Bolivar: San Juan
(8,
usnm); Mambita (2, usnm); La Aguadita (1 amnh); , Nepumoceno (26, fmnh); Coloso (20, fmnh); Mar-
Barrigona amnh); Restrepo (12, amnh); Vil-
(2, garita (3, bm[nh]). Boyaca: Muzo (3, fmnh; 2,
lavicencio (26, amnh; 2, usnm; 10, ummz; 4, mvz); bm[nh]). Cauca: Rio Chili (2, bm[nh]). Cordoba:
3 km N Villavicencio (1, usnm); Los Micos, San Catival, upper Rio San Jorge (4, fmnh); Socorre,
Juan de Arama (16, fmnh). upper Rio Sinu (18, fmnh). Tolima: Santana (3,
bm[nh]).
VENEZUELA: Tachira: San Cristobal (1,
bm[nh]).
simonsi-ffoup
BOLIVIA: El Beni: Rio Mamore (1, amnh). P. GUAIRAE

Cochabamba: Yungas ( 1 , amnh). Pando: Rio Na-
reuda ( 1 , amnh). COLOMBIA: Arauca: Rio Cobaria (22, fmnh);
COLOMBIA: Caqueta: Rio Mecaya (9, fmnh); Rio Bojaba (5, fmnh); Rio Arauca (18, fmnh);
La Murelia, Rio Bodoquera (1, amnh). Fatima, Rio Cobaria ( 1 2, fmnh). Boyaca: La Ar-
ECUADOR: Napo: Intillana, Rio Napo (5, gentina, Rio Cubugon (4, fmnh); El Porvenir, Rio
ummz); near Rio Napo ( bm[nh]); San Jose Abajo
1 , Cubugon (3, fmnh).
(3, amnh); Rio Suno Abajo (1, amnh). Pastaza: VENEZUELA: Barinas: Guaquitas (1, mvz).
Rio Pindo Yacu (4, fmnh); Rio Bobonaza, Mon- Portuguesa: Sto. Domingo (1, mvz).
talvo (3, fmnh); Rio Bobonaza (2, bm[nh]); Rio
Yana Rumi (1, fmnh); Rio Capihuara (2, fmnh);
Rio Pastaza (5, bm[nh]); Rio Tigre (4, bm[nh]). P. HOPLOMYOIDES
Zamora: Gualaquiza ( 1 bm[nh]). ,
PERU: Amazonas: Huampami, Rio Cenepa (3, VENEZUELA: Bolivar: Mt. Roraima, Arabupu
mvz); headwaters Rio Kagka (2, mvz); La Poza, (1 , AMNH); Mt. Roraima, Rondon camp ( 1 amnh). ,

p. MAGDALENAE P. POLIOPUS
COLOMBIA: Antioquia: near La Providencia, VENEZUELA: Tachira: San Juan de Coldn (1,
SW Zaragoza (1, usnm); 25 km S and 22 km W fmnh). Zulia: Kasmera ( 1 , mvz).
Zaragoza (48, usnm). Bolivar: Norosi, Mompos,
Rio San Pedro (18, usnm).
P. TRINITATUS
p. MINCAE TRINIDAD: Caparo (2, fmnh); Princeslown (2,

fmnh; 1 amnh); Turure Forest (2, amnh); Cumaca
,
COLOMBIA: Magdalena: Minca (2, bm[nh]; 6, (1, amnh); Oropuche Heights (2, fmnh); Chag-
usnm; 78, amnh); Bonda (12, amnh; 2, usnm); uaramas ( 1 mvz).
,
Onaca (4, amnh); Buritaca ( 1 amnh); Don Dago

, VENEZUELA: Monagas: 2 km N and 4 km W
(1, amnh); Cuaco (1, amnh); Masinga Vieja (1, Caripe (1, usnm). Sucre: 5 km S and 25 km E
amnh); Manzanares (2, usnm); Colonia Agricola Carupano (1, usnm).
de Caracolicito (1, usnm); El Salado (5, usnm).
P. URICHI
P. ochraceous
VENEZUELA: Sucre: San Esteban (2, fmnh);
VENEZUELA: Zulia: El Panorama, Rio Au- Quebrada Seca ( 1 fmnh;,
1 amnh); Campo Alegre
,
rare (2, fmnh). (1, amnh); Los Palmales (1, amnh).

An Assessment of the Systematics and Evolution of the
Akodontini, with the Description of New Fossil
Species of Akodon (Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae)
Osvaldo A. Reig
ABSTRACTS
The taxonomy and systematics of the tribe Akodontini (Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae) are dis-
cussed and revised. Bolomys is distinguished from Akodon, and Cabreramys is considered a
synonym of Bolomys; a diagnosis of Bolomys and a Hst of its species are given. Akodon is
thought to comprise five subgenera, namely, Akodon, Abrothrix, Chroeomys, Deltamys, and
Hypsimys; Thaptomys is included within the subgenus Akodon, and Thalpomys is considered
a synonym of Bolomys. Distinctive character states of each subgenus are described, including
a detailed description of cranial and dental features of Akodon and Abrothrix. Microxus is
distinguished from Abrothrix and is retained as a genus. Blarinomys, Oxymycterus, Lenoxus,
Juscelinomys, and Podoxymys are all accorded generic status within the Akodontini. The status
of the long-clawed fossorial akodontines of southern South America is discussed; Chelemys,
Geoxus, and Notiomys each deserve generic recognition and are diagnosed. New species of
Akodon from the Plio-Pleistocene of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, are described, and their
significance for the evolution of the tribe is noted. The Pliocene Akodon {Abrothrix) kermacki
Reig, 1978 is described in detail, with the new species A. (Abrothrix) magnus and A. (Akodon)
lorenzinii from the Lower Pleistocene, and A. (Ak.) johannis from the Middle Pleistocene. Also
described are remains of A. (Ak.) cf cursor and A. (Ak.) cf iniscatus from the Middle and
Upper Pleistocene, respectively. A tentative scenario of the origin and evolutionary deployment
of the Akodontini is presented, including an origin in the Puna by Middle Miocene times and
an indication of probable dispersal corridors.
Se discute aqui y se revisa la situacion taxonomica y las relaciones sistematicas de los roedores
cricetidos sudamericanos de la tribu Akodontini (Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae). Se distingue a
Bolomys de Akodon como un genero pleno, y se considera a Cabreramys sinonimo del primero,
delque se proporciona una diagnosis y la lista de sus especies. Se reconocen dentro del genero
Akodon cinco subgeneros: Akodon, Abrothrix, Chroeomys, Deltamys e Hypsimys; a Thaptomys
se lo incluye dentro del subgenero Akodon, y a Thalpomys se lo considera como un sinonimo
de Bolomys. Se describen los estados de caracteres distintivos de cada uno de los subgeneros
de Akodon y se proporciona una descripcion detallada de los rasgos craneanos y dentarios de
Akodon y Abrothrix. Se plantea la necesidad de distinguir a Microxus de este ultimo y de
conferirle rango pleno de genero. Se reconoce tambien rango generico pleno dentro de los
Akodontini a Blarinomys, Oxymycterus, Lenoxus, Juscelinomys y Podoxymys. Se discute tam-
bien la situacion taxonomica de los akodontinos hipogeicos de uiias largas de la region austral
de America del Sur; se reconoce la distincion generica de Chelemys, Geoxus y Notiomys y se
proporcionan diagnosis de los tres. Se describen nuevas especies de Akodon del Plio-Pleistoceno
From the Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, F.C.E.

y N., Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellon 2, Ciudad
Universitaria Nunez, (1428) Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Dr. Reig is a CONICET Career Investigator.
REIG: SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION OF AKODONTINI 347

de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina, comentandose su significado para la comprension
de la evolucion de la Iribu. Se describe en detalle la especie del Plioceno Akodon (Abrothrix)
kermacki Reig, 1978, y las nuevas especies A. (Abrothrix) magnus y A. (Akodon) lorenzinii del
Pleistocene inferior, y A. (Ak.) johannis del Pleistoceno medio. Se incluye asi mismo la de-
scripcion de restos de A. (Ak) cf. cursor y A. (Ak.) cf. iniscatus del Pleistoceno medio y superior,
respectivamente. Se esboza tambien un panorama interpretativo del origen y de la historia
evolutiva de los Akodontini en su conjunto, en el que se sostiene su origen en la Puna hacia
el Mioceno medio, y se indican las posibles rutas de la dispersion de sus distintos taxones.
A taxonomia e a sistematica de tribo Akodontini (Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae) e discutida.

Justificam-se a separaâo de Bolomys do genero Akodon e a sinonomia de Cabreramys com
Bolomys. Uma diagnose do genero Bolomys e oferecida, com una lista de suas especies. O
genero politipico Akodon indue 5 subgeneros: Akodon, Abrothrix, Chroeomys, Deltamys e
Hypsimys. Thaptomys nao e reconhecido como genero ou subgenero, e sua especie linica, nigrita,
e referida a Akodon s.s. Considera-se Thalpomys como sinonimo menor de Bolomys. Provi-
denciam-se os caracteres distintos de cada subgenero, com uma descriâo detalhada do cranio
e das estruturas dentais de Akodon e de Abrothrix. Justifica-se o rango de genero a Microxus
e salientam-se as diferenâs entre ele e Akodon (Abrothrix). Blarinomys, Oxymycterus, Lenoxus,
Juscelinomys, e Podoxymys sao generos akodontinos que nao requerem agrupamento especial,
ou colocacao numa tribo separada. Discutese o rango dos akodontes fossoriais com longas unhas
que habitam a regiao sul do continente; Chelemys, Geoxus, e Notiomys sao reconhecidos como
generos validos. Novas esF>ecies de Akodon sao descritas do Plio-Pleistoceno da Provincia de
Buenos Aires na Argentina, e sua importancia na historia evolutiva e discutida. Akodon (Abro-
thrix) kermacki Reig, 1978, do Plioceno, e descrito em detalhe, e A. (Abrothrix) magnus e A.
( Ak.) johannis (do Pleistoceno medio) sao descritos como especies novas. Descreve-se tambem
OS restos de A. (Ak.) cf. cursor e A. (Ak.) cf. iniscatus do Pleistoceno medio e superior, respe-
tivamente. Um
possivel cenario da evolu9ao dos Akodontinos e apresentado. Justifica-se o
origem dos Akodontini na Puna, durante o Mioceno medio, e as possiveis rotas de dispersao
sao reconstruidas.
Introduction 1980, 1981). Reinforcing the observed

tini (Reig,
tendency for a log-normal distribution of species

In a recent paper (Reig, 1984), I advanced some diversities among South American mammals
interesting features of the frequency distribution (which seems to be a general pattern of diversity
of diversity among living South American mam- in nature; see Williams, 1964), an overwhelming
mals. One of 1 2 orders of living terrestrial mam- number of sigmodontine species (44.2%) belong
mals, the Rodentia, comprises 43.2% of the total to one tribe, the Oryzomyini. The other two tribes
extant mammalian species of this continent. Most showing high species frequencies are the Akodon-
rodent species belong either to the Myomorpha tini (24.9%) and the Phyllotini (1 8. 1%). Thus, three
(2 1 .9%) or to the Caviomorpha (19.1 %). However, of seven tribes of sigmodontine rodents include
species of the latter are distributed among 1 1 dif- 87.1% of the species.
ferent families, whereas South American living The Akodontini comprise around 63 species
species of myomorphs are all grouped within a distributed in 1 1 different genera (see later). They
single family, Cricetidae. The extant South Amer- are predominately Andean in distribution, al-
ican cricetids include about 250 species and 53 or though many species are widely distributed in
54 genera. Except for two species belonging to two temperate, subtropical, and to a lesser degree,
genera of North American affinities, all South tropical lowlands (Reig, 1984). Despite extensive
American cricetids belong to the subfamily Sig- cytogenetic studies (see particularly Bianchi et al.,
modontinae. This subfamily may itself be subdi- 1971; Bianchi & Merani, 1984; Rodriguez et al.,
vided into seven well-defined tribes, namely 1983; Vitullo et al., 1986), the systematics of Ako-
Oryzomyini, Ichthyomyini, Akodontini, Scapter- dontini is still confusing in several important re-
omyini, Phyllotini, Wiedomyini, and Sigmodon- spects, including the taxonomic status and the rank

of some supraspecific taxa; the generic allocation California (MVZ). Moreover, specimens from
of several species; and the status, distribution, and South American collections provided substantial
geographical variation of many of their species. information, especially those of the Museo Mu-
Moreover, little is known of their evolutionary nicipal de Ciencias Naturales de Mar del Plata
history and fossil record, although their present "Lorenzo Scaglia" (MMP), the Universidad Cen-
diversity and distribution and a few fossil remains tral de Venezuela in Caracas (MBUCV), the Uni-
permit a plausible explanation of their age, place versidad Austral de Chile in Valdivia (UACH),
of origin and diversification, and phylogenetic re- and the Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales
lationships (Bianchietal., 1971;Reig, 1978, 1980, of Buenos Aires University (FCM). The fossil
1981, 1984). specimens belong primarily to the rich collection
I started to revise the Akodontini at the British gathered by Galileo J. Scaglia and collaborators,
Museum about 1 5 years ago. Although the work which is deposited at the Museum of Mar del Pla-
remains uncompleted because of the pressure of ta,but also include material from the Museo de
other, more urgent duties, I gathered a consider- La Plata (MLP).
able amount of information which is relevant to Skull and molar morphology has been the main
a better understanding of the systematics of this source of information in the systematic revision
diverse tribe of sigmodontine rodents. Moreover, of the living forms, and, indeed, the only source
I have had the chance to study an important col- available in the study of the fossil forms. Skull
remains from different
lection of fossil akodontine measurements were taken from adult sp>ecimens
levels of the Argentinian Plio-Pleistocene strati- with dial calipers graduated to 0. 1 mm. The mea-
graphic column, partly described elsewhere (Reig surements of the teeth were taken through the re-
& Linares, 1969; Reig, 1978). In this paper, I pres- ticule eyepiece of a Wild M-5 stereomicroscope.
ent and briefly document the more important con- Only the greatest lengths and widths of the teeth
clusions of my revision in progress of the living are given. The names of the enameled components
Akondontini and describe all the known fossil rep- of the crown of the molar teeth follow my proposed
resentatives of the genus Akodon. I also present a unified nomenclature (Reig, 1977). Other aspects
tentative explanation of the origin and evolution- of nomenclature of tooth morphology follow
ary and biogeographic deployment of these South Hershkovitz (1962, 1967). The drawings were
American mice. The first purpose is treated un- made by me, with the aid of a drawing tube.
evenly, as some genera (i.e., Bolomys and Akodon) Although several conceptual tools of cladistic
are covered in more detail than others. This is methodology are used, I follow a syncretic evo-
intentional, as clarification of the limits between lutionary approach within which paraphyletic taxa
these two genera is considered essential for an are not rejected (Reig et al., in press). Supraspecific
assessment of the whole tribe, and as an elucida- taxa are treated as class-concepts and, as in pre-
tion of the limits Akodon and its subgenera is a vious papers (Reig, 1970, 1982), I use the logical
prerequisite to study its fossil representatives. terms "intension" and "extension" to refer to the
set of attributes that determine the taxon-concepts
and the set of subordinate taxa that are members
of them, respectively. Taxa are also considered to
be polythetic. Thus, their intension is defined by
reference to a set of character-states which are not
exclusive of the taxon, and no claim is made that
This systematic survey of the Akodontini was
membership to the taxon requires sharing all char-
primarily based on direct examination of museum
acters used in defining the taxon's intension (Sokal
specimens, including in most cases the type spec-
imens and The collection of the ifeSneath, 1963).
original series.
Museum (Natural History) in London
British
(BMNH) was the main source of information for
this study. However, specimens of other collec- Historical Shaping of the
tions have been also extensively studied, partic- Concept of Akodontini
ularly those of the American Museum of Natural
History (AMNH), the United States National Mu- Before the recognition of the Akodontini as a
seum (USNM), the Museum of Comparative Zo- formal taxon of tribal rank of South American
ology, Harvard University (MCZ), and the Mu- cricetid rodents (Vorontzov, 1959; Reig, 1980,
seum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of 1981), the assemblage of genera and subgenera

making up this tribe was usually treated informally tiomys as genera; following Osgood, the latter in-
as the akodont rodents or the akodont group. The cluded Geoxus and Chelemys. Ellerman's balanced
belief that those genera and subgenera formed a judgment and overall experience influenced the
natural group arose from the studies of Thomas, work of subsequent authors, and his concept of
but the concept of this taxonomic group long re- the akodont genera was essentially followed by
mained rather vague and controversial, both in Cabrera (1961).
intension and in extension. In 1916, Thomas wrote Vorontzov (1959) coined the name Akodontini
on the taxonomic status of a group of related for the tribe containing Akodon (sensu Ellerman),
species, which he allocated in seven different gen- Zygodontomys, Microxus, Podoxymys, Lenoxus,
era, namely Akodon (with Chalcomys as a sub- Oxymycterus, Blarinomys, and Notiomys. Hersh-
genus), Thalpomys, Thaptomys, Bolomys, kovitz (1962) later withdrew Zygodontomys from
Chroeomys. Abrothrix, and Zygodontomys. Sub- the akodonts, placing it in his phyllotine group,
sequently (Thomas, 1918), he added the genera close to Calomys.
Hypsimys and Deltamys to the same group. He Hooper and Musser (1964), in their discussion
recognized that other supraspecific taxa, such as of the bearing of phallic morphology on the in-
Blarinomys, Geoxus, Notiomys, Chelemys, Mi- terrelationships of cricetids and allied genera, con-
croxus, Oxymycterus, and Lenoxus, were also re- cluded that Oxymycterus is distinct enough in the
lated to the above group. Osgood (1925) was prob- characters of the glans penis to be recognized as a
ably the first Thomas's akodont genera,
to revise group distinct from, but allied to the akodont group.
lumping Notiomys, Chelemys, and Geoxus into a Moreover, they stated that Notiomys is as distinct
single genus, Notiomys, a contention which was from Akodon as is Oxymycterus, that Zygodon-
by Thomas (1927). The monotypic ge-
criticized tomys is annectent between akodonts and oryzo-
nus Podoxymys was later added to the group by myines (not closer to the phyllotines as claimed
Anthony (1929). by Hershkovitz), and that Calomys, and especially
Tate (1932b) presented a preliminary revision Eligmodontia, are to be placed nesiv Akodon. Many
of the whole group, which introduced the desig- of the conclusions of these authors were criticized
nation "akodont rodents." As is true of his other by Hershkovitz (1966) on methodological grounds,
revisions of South American rodents, Tate's work namely that phallic evidence coming from few taxa,
is a useful and careful historical and bibliograph- each represented by a few individuals, should not
ical review of the taxa involved rather than a re- be the basis for introducing major changes in a
vision based on actual collections, but it did not taxonomic arrangement based on a complex of
result in a clarification of the intension of the group. character states from different organ systems and
He recognized generic rank for most of Thomas's a large number of genera. Hershkovitz, however,
supraspecific groups, but followed Osgood regard- followed Hooper and Musser in splitting an oxy-
ing Notiomys; he also withdrew Zygodontomys mycterine group (including Oxymycterus, Podox-
from the akodont assemblage, placing it in the ymys, Lenoxus, and Abrothrix; he considered Mi-
oryzomyine group (Tate, 1932a). croxus to be a synonym of Abrothrix) from the
The next comprehensive study of the whole akodont group. A further basis for splitting Oxy-
group was that of Gyldenstolpe (1932), which did mycterus from the akodonts is suggested by spe-
not separate the group from other "sigmodont ro- cializations of its stomach and intestines for an
dents," equivalent to my subfamily Sigmodontin- insectivorous diet, as illustrated in the detailed
ae.Gyldenstolpe accorded generic rank to all taxa studies of Vorontzov ( 1 967; see also Tullberg, 1 899;
of akodont rodents created by Thomas, and he Echave Llanos &. Vilches, 1964; Carleton, 1973).
contributed to their definition. He also agreed with However, in view of the incomplete and scattered
Thomas in recognizing the generic status of Aô- information on the anatomy of the digestive sys-
tiomys, Geoxus, and Chelemys. tem in cricetids, it does not seem wise to put much
Ellerman (1941) made a thorough reappraisal weight on this sort of evidence. The complex stom-
of Thomas's akodont mice. He claimed that most ach of Oxymycterus may well represent an exclu-
of the genera created by Thomas in 1916, as well sive autopomorphy.
as the later Hypsimys and Deltamys, were best To complete this picture of the Akodontini,
treated as subgenera oi Akodon. He excluded Zy- Massoia and Fomes ( 967) proposed a new genus,
1
godontomys from this grouping, regarding it as a Cabreramys, for a group of species formerly re-
distinct genus related to Akodon. However, he referred to Akodon and Zygodontomys. They allege
tained Microxus. Oxymycterus, Lenoxus, and No- it to be transitional between akodontine and phyl-
3S0 FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY

lotine cricetids. Additionally, Moojen (1965) de- tribe of its own. Pending more complete evidence,
scribed a new genus, Juscelinomys, which is clearly I prefer to treat Zygodontomys as incertae sedis
and Reig (1978) created
related to Oxymycterus, within the Sigmodontinae.
Dankomys, which is related to Bolomys.
the fossil Once Oxymycterus and allied genera are includ-
The Akodontini remain one of the most obscure ed within the Akodontini, and Zygodontomys is
groups of South American rodents. There is no excluded from this tribe, it is convenient to discuss
agreement as to its extension (viz., Zygodontomys), the status of the taxa of generic and subgeneric
to the rank of its supraspecific groupings, or even rank which remain as its members.
to its unity as a taxon. This situation is obviously
due to the lack of comprehensive studies and to
the failure of authors to draw conclusions from
the partial evidence. Although we are still far from
the goal of achieving an accurate knowledge of this Status of Bolomys and Cabreramys
group, hope that recent advances in chromo-
I
somal systematics and certain conclusions about By most typical akodontine is

definition, the
several critical genera and species can serve to Akodon. It ismost polytypic, the most
also the
improve our understanding of this complex array complex, and the most problematic of the Ako-
of rodents. dontini. However, some recent conclusions help
Various chromosome studies on several ako- to understand its limits.
dontine taxa have been undertaken by various au- As I advanced and partially substantiated else-
thors in the last 15 years (Barquez et al., 1980; where (Reig, 1978), and in agreement with the
Barros & Reig, 1979; Bianchi & Contreras, 1967; independent results of Maia and Langguth (198 1),
Bianchi & Merani, 1984; Bianchi etal., 1969, 1971, I exclude from Akodon a series of species which
1973, 1979; Gallardo, 1982; Gardner & Patton, have been variously grouped under Akodon prop-
1976; Gentile de Fronza, 1970; Kiblisky et al., er,the "southern group" of species of Zygodon-
1970, 1976; Lobato et al., 1982; Maia & Lang- tomys (Hershkovitz, 1 962), or under the genus Ca-
guth, 1981; Pearson, 1984; Rodriquez et al., 1983; breramys (Massoia & Fomes, 1 967). Those species
Sbalqueiro et al., 1984; Spotomo & Fernandez, deserve separate generic status by virtue of clear-
1976; Vitullo etal., 1986; Yonenaga, 1972, 1975, cut morphological and karyological differences.
1979; Yonenaga et al., 1975). These studies dem- Comparisons of character-states of this group with
onstrate that species of Akodon, Abrothrix, Bolo- those of Akodon amoenus Thomas, 900, which 1
mys, Microxus, Chroeomys, Thaptomys, and Oxy- is the type species of Bolomys by original desig-
mycterus resemble one another in their karyotype, nation,show this species belongs to the same group,
but that Zygodontomys is distinct from this group. and therefore all these species must be grouped
The first group is characterized by karyotypes of under the genus Bolomys Thomas, 1916. How-
no more than 54, mostly telocentric chromo- ever, the matter is still confusing to some and
somes, with several species showing diploid num- deserves further substantiation.
ber reduction by Robertsonian fusions and tan- This taxonomic confusion started from the very
dem translocations. In contrast, Zygodontomys is beginning; when he erected Bolomys as a generic
exceptional among mammals, but resembles the name, Thomas (1916) selected Akodon amoenus
Oryzomyini, in having karyotypes of 2n = 84-88, as its type species, but included also within the
mostly subtelocentric chromosomes. These results same taxon Akodon albiventer and A. berlepschii,
strongly suggest the unity of the oxymycterine and two species which proved to be quite inseparable
akodontine groups. An almost indistinguishable from the typical Akodon {A. boliviensis, fig. 4A),
2n = 52 karyotype occurs in Akodon {Ak.) oliva- or other allied species, such as A. andinus (fig. 1 B).
ceus, A. (Ak.) xanthorhinus, A. {Ak.) andinus, A. Afterward, Thomas (1926b) referred lactens, ne-
{Abrothrix) sanborni, A. {Ak.) nigrita, A. {Chroeo- and orbus, which are probably conspe-
grito (sic),
mys) jelskii, Chelemys macronyx, and Geoxus val- cificbut different from amoenus, to Bolomys.
divianus. The karyotype of Oxymycterus proved However, these taxa share peculiar character-states
to be of 2n = 54 chromosomes, quite similar to with amoenus that strikingly differentiate the group
these in gross morphology. At the same time, these from any other typical species of Akodon.
results distinguish Zygodontomys quite apart from As clearly observed in the type species A.
the Akodontini. As suggested by Gardner and Pat- amoenus (figs. lA, 2C-D), Bolomys shows char-
ton (1976), it may represent a separate group or acteristic cranial and dental features which can be

B
Fig. 1 Skulls of species of Akodon and Bolomys. Left row, lateral view, right row, dorsal view. A, Bolomys
.
amoenus (Thomas); BMNH 1.1.1.12; Sanguero Puno, Peru. B, Akodon (Akodon) andinus (PhiUppi); female; type of
Akodon gossei Thomas, BMNH 98.3.21.5; Puente del Inca, Mendoza, Argentina. C, Akodon (Akodon) albiventer
Thomas; male; BMNH 21.1 1.1.51; Sierra de Zenta, Jujuy, Argentina. D, Bolomys obscurus (Waterhouse); sex un-
known; lectotype, BMNH 55.12.24.161; Maldonado, Uruguay.
used in its diagnosis: braincase broad and deep; frontals, and extending forward anterolaterally by
occipital region short; rostrum rather short and means of narrow spines penetrating between fron-
markedly tapering forward in lateral view; upper tals and temporals; interparietal noticeably re-
of skull gradually sloping forward from the
profile duced anterop>osteriorly and transversely; occiput
middle of parietals; nasals short, with anterior bor- short and truncated; interorbital area with well-
ders well posterior to the level of the anterior bor- formed, anteriorly convergent borders; posterior
der of incisors; frontals long, always longer than palate moderately long and wide, the median pos-
nasals; parietals short, less than half the length of terior border of palatines behind the posterior bor-
3S2 FIELDIANA: ZOOLOGY

B
Fig. 2. Molar teeth of Bolomys obscurus and Bolomys amoenus. Upper row, left upper molar series; lower row,
lower molar series. A, Bolomys obscurus (Waterhouse); sex unknown; lectotype,
left BMNH
55.1 2.24. 161; Maldonado,
.1
Uruguay. B, Bolomys obscurus (Waterhouse); male; holotype of Akodon bene/actus Thomas, BMNH 16.10.3.35;
Laguna Alsina (Bonifacio), Partido de Guamini, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. C, Bolomys amoenus (Thomas);
male; holotype, BMNH 0.10.1.77; Rio Colca, north of Sum bay, Peru (molars with advanced stage of wear). D,
Bolomys amoenus (Thomas); male; BMNH 22. 1 . 1 .97; Huarconda, Peru.

der of M^
zygomatic plate broad and strong, with species to Akodon and
to withdraw it from Zygo-
anterior border straight or sHghtly concave, per- dontomys. This part of their conclusions agrees
pendicular to diastema; upper incisors orthodont with the previous discussion. However, the evi-
or proodont; molars mesodont, terraced with dence from prostate morphology should not be
moderate wear, broad and robust; upper molars taken as an indication that lasiurus belongs to Ako-
with lophs almost completely transverse, and me- don. The former shares enough derived character
soloph usually completely coalesced with para- states in the skull, dentition, and chromosomes
loph; procingulum of M' simple, with anterome- with amoenus, obscurus, lactens, and bene/actus
dian flexus absent or only slightly developed; lower to make convincing its assignment to Bolomys.
molars with lingual cusps somewhat anterior to Derived prostate morphology in lasiurus and
the labial ones, with mesolophid remnants and species of Akodon found by these authors is better
mesostylids usually absent. interpreted as a suggestion that Akodon and Bo-
This combination of cranial and dental char- lomys share a synapomorphous character-state
acter-states is quite distinctive and clearly differ- which distinguishes them from the remaining gen-
entiates Bolomys amoenus and B. lactens (fig. 31) era of akodontines. ,
from species of Akodon and Zygodontomys (re- Hesperomys arviculoides Wagner also belongs to
stricted to Z. brevicauda and northern relatives) Bolomys, and it is a junior synonym of Mus la-
and from any other recognized genus of akodon- siurus Lund. The type specimen of arviculoides,
tine mice (fig. 3). Meaningfully, that set of char- illustrated by Ximenez and Langguth (1970), is
is also shared by Akodon obscurus (figs.
acter-states undoubtedly a Bolomys in all character-states vis-
1D, 2 A-B), which is the type species of Cabrera- ible in the illustration, and
additionally, it cannot
mys Massoia & Fomes, 1967 by original desig- be differentiated from the type of lasiurus illus-
nation. Akodon bene/actus (fig. 3H) and A. len- trated by Winge (1887) and in the Museum of
guarum (fig. 3J), two other nominal species referred Copenhagen. Moreover, it cannot be differentiated
to Cabreramys by Massoia and Fomes ( 1 967), also from a topotype of lasiurus (BMNH 88. 1 .9.4.) (fig.
share that set of character-states. Therefore, there 3F), which I studied in the British Museum. Thus,
isno doubt that Cabreramys Massoia & Fomes, Icannot agree with Maia and Langguth when they
1967 must be placed under the synonymy of Bo- claim, without giving reasons, that arviculoides does
lomys Thomas, 1916. Massoia and Fomes rec- not belong to Bolomys. The name arviculoides has
ognized the distinctiveness of the species they been freely applied in recent cytogenetic literature
grouped in Cabreramys but, unfortunately, failed to Brazilian akodontines with 2n = 14, 2n = 16,
to realize that A. amoenus belonged to the same and 2n = 24 chromosomes (Cestari & Imada, 1 968;
group. The latter being the type species of Bolo- Maia & Langguth, 1981; Yonenaga, 1972, 1979;
mys, was not necessary to propose a new generic
it Yonenaga et al., 1975) showing a complex system
name for this group of species. of intra- and interpopulational chromosomal vari-
It is also evident (see also Maia &
Langguth, ation, in fact, it has never been demonstrated that
1981) that the same set of character-states is also they agree phenotypically with the type of arvi-
present in Mus lasiurus Lund, Akodon fuscinus culoides, which seems inseparable from the type
Thomas (fig. 3G), Zygodontomys pixuna Moojen, of lasiurus on morphological grounds. As speci-
Zygodontomys tapirapoanus Allen, and inferen- mens of lasiurus matching the character-states of
tially, "Hesperomys" brachiurus Wagner. All these Lund's type specimen have been shown to have a
nominal taxa, together with A. lenguarum, were distinctive and different 2n = 34 karyotype, there
placed by Hershkovitz (1962), probably inspired are reasons to surmise that Brazilian forms with
by Tate (1932a), in the "southem group" of Z;^ô- low chromosome numbers must be placed else-
dontomys as subspecies of Z. lasiurus. In addition where. Thanks to the kindness of Dr. A. Langguth,
to the cogent arguments of Maia and Langguth I recently to examine speci-
had the opportunity
(1981), the fact that lasiurus does not belong to mens of so-called from Pemambuco
arviculoides
Zygodontomys (fig. 3C-D) has been recently sub- showing the 2n = 1 6 karyotype described by Maia
stantiatedby Voss and Linzey (1981) on ventral and Langguth. I concluded that they belong to
prostate morphology as well as on some dental Akodon s.s., probably to a new species related to
characters (and the chromosomal evidence dis- A. cursor. The status of the Sao Paulo and Rio de
cussed below). Similarities of lasiurus and species Janeiro forms reported by Yonenaga and associ-
of Akodon in the presence of smaller medial than ates is still unsettled, although the chromosomal
lateral prostates led Voss and Linzey to assign that evidence indicates that they may belong to the

Fig. 3. Skulls in lateral view of species ofBolomys, Akodon {Akodon), and Zygodontomys. A, Akodon {Ak.) dolores
Thomas; male; type specimen, BMNH 1 6. 1 .6.38; Villa Dolores, Cordoba,
Argentina. B, Akodon (Ak.) cursor (Winge);
female; BMNH 66.1874; Puerto Gisela, Misiones, Argentina. C, Zygodontomys thomasi Allen; female; BMNH
14.9.1.60; El Trompillo, Carabobo, Venezuela. D, Zygodontomys microtinus Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH
66.8.1 1.10; Surinam. E, Akodon {Ak.) varius Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH2.1.1.67; Cochabamba, Bolivia. F,
Bolomys lasiurus lasiurus (Lund); male; topotype, BMNH
88. 1 .9.4; Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. G, Bolomys
lasiurusfuscinus Thomas: male; holotype, BMNH 94.4.1.3; Soure, Ilha de Marajo, Para, Brazil. H, Bolomys obscurus
bene/actus Thomas; male, holotype, BMNH16.10.3.35; Laguna Alsina (Bonifacio), Partido de Guamini, Buenos
Aires Province, Argentina. I, Bolomys lactens lactens Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH 18.1.1.37; Leon, Jujuy
Province, Argentina. J, Bolomys lenguarum (Thomas); sex unknown; holotype, BMNH
98.5.14.1; Waikthlatingmay-
alwa, northern Chaco, Paraguay.

same group, and that at least the 2n = 24-25 poly- Bolomys shows karyotypic homogeneity, although
morphic form described by Yonenaga as Akodon differences in banding pattern are not unexpected
sp. from specimens captured in Sao Paulo may when more detailed comparative studies are com-
represent another, probably synmorphic new pleted. Species of Akodon are variable in karyo-
species. types, but none of them have the 2n = 34 karyo-
To make this story even more complex, Lang- type reported for obscurus, lasiurus, and allies.
guth 975)
( demonstrated
1 that Mus lasiotis Lund, However, B. obscurus was found to be more closely
1838 is based on a specimen which belongs to the related in karyotype and G-banding to some species
same species as the holotype of Mus lasiurus Lund, of Akodon (e.g., A. dolores and A. azarae) than
1837. Therefore, Langguth placed lasiotis under other species of Akodon are related to each other
the synonymy of lasiurus, which seems correct. (Bianchi & Merani, 1984). This must be inter-
However, the specimens described by Winge (1887) preted as an indication that Bolomys evolved
as Habrothrix lasiotis belong certainly to a species amidst the radiation of Akodon, which is consis-
distinct from lasiurus. One of the specimens iden- tent with the results from prostate morphology.
tified by Winge as lasiotis was sent to the British Once differentiated from Akodon, Bolomys diver-
Museum and was the basis of lasiotis Thomas, sified as a clade of its own by adaptive divergence
1916, being selected as the type species of his genus that did not involve significant chromosomal evo-
Thalpomys. Langguth proposed a new name, Ako- lution. Therefore, the karyotypic distinction and
don reinhardti, for Winge's and Thomas's lasiotis, uniformity of amoenus, lasiurus, lenguarum, ob-
but as Thalpomys was based on the species lasiotis scurus,and temchuki must be taken as additional
as described by Lund, and as lasiotis Lund is a evidence that this group of species (together with
junior synonym of lasiurus Lund, and as lasiurus lactens for which we lack chromosomal infor-
belongs to Bolomys, Thalpomys becomes a sub- mation) belongs to a separate group for which the
jective synonym of Bolomys. This nomenclatorial name Bolomys Thomas, 1 9 1 6 is available and has
issue means that, if lasiotis as conceived by Winge priority.If, as it seems most likely, Bolomys got
and Thomas is really distinctive enough from Ako- itsidentity as a genus within the cladogenesis of
don to deserve generic or subgeneric distinction, Akodon, the latter should be considered as a para-
a new name should be proposed to replace Thal- phyletic taxon, which I consciously admit.
pomys for the taxon containing reinhardti Lang- Bolomys polytypic and widespread, compris-
is
guth. However, this species is now too poorly ing several different species and subspecies dis-
known to justify this action, and I prefer to keep tributed in the Central Andes, the Chacoan and
reinhardti in Akodon s.s. Pampean regions, northeastern Argentina, eastern
Recently, Massoia (1982) described a new and southern Brazil, and Uruguay. It is not yet
species, Cabreramys temchuki from Misiones, Ar- clear how many sp)ecies must be recognized within
gentina. Later, Contreras (1982) referred temchuki this genus. The specific or subspecific status of the
to Bolomys and described two new subspecies from various nominal forms described are still prob-
northern Corrientes Province and northeastern lematical, and new forms may be recognized in
Chaco Province, Argentina: B. t. elioi and B. t. poorly explored regions, as shown by the recent
liciae. discoveries of Massoia (1982) and Contreras
The previous conclusions on Bolomys and its (1982). As a tentative arrangement, I propose the
species,based on morphological analysis, are also following:
supported by cytogenetic data. Karyotypes of 2n =
34 identical in gross morphology have been de-
scribed or recorded in Akodon amoenus (Gardner Bolomys amoenus (Thomas, 1900). Living in
& Patton, 1976; O. Pearson, pers. comm.), Ako- highlands and Altiplano of southeastern Peru.
don obscurus (Bianchi et al., 1971), Akodon ar- Bolomys bonapartei Reig, 1978. Fossil from the
viculoides (Yonenaga & Ricci, 1969), Zygodon- Pliocene Monte Hermoso Formation of south-
tomys lasiurus (Yonenaga, 1975), Zygodontomys em Buenos Aires Province.
sp. (probably B. lenguarum) (Gardner & Patton, Bolomys lactens (Thomas, 1918) (fig. 31) (includ-
1976). More recently, banding patterns have been ing Akodon orbus Thomas, 1919 and Bolomys
published for Bolomys obscurus (Bianchi et al., negrito Thomas, 1 926 as junior synonyms; Ako-
1976) and B. lasiurus (Maia & Langguth, 1981), don leucolimnaeus Cabrera 1926 may deserve
and we have recently confirmed that B. temchuki recognition as a subspecies). Living in highlands
shares the same G-banded karyotype with the lat- and Pampean mountains of Jujuy, Catamarca,
ter (VituUo et al., 1986). As with Oxymycterus. and Tucuman, Argentina.

B
Fig. 4. Skulls of typical representatives of Akodon (Akodon), Akodon {Abrothrix), Microxus, and Oxymycterus.
Left row, dorsal view; right row, lateral view. A, Akodon (Ak.) boliviensis; male; MBUCV 1.1889; 30 km N.W.
OUantaytambo, Cuzco, Peru. B, Microxus mimus Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH 1.1.1.48; Limbane, Puno, Peru.
BMNH 98.2.2.2; Valparaiso, Chile. D, Oxymycterus platensis
C, Akodon (Ab.) longipilis CWalerhouse); male; topotype,
(= Oxymycterus rufus platensis?); male; holotype, BMNH 99.10.4.1; Ensenada, Rio Santiago, La Plata, Buenos Aires
Province, Argentina.
Bolomys lasiurus (Lund, 1 838) (including Mu5 la- from the Argentinian Chaco may belong to a
siotis Lund, 1838, Hesperomys arviculoides different species.
Wagner, 1842, and Hesperomys brachyurus Bolomys obscurus (Waterhouse, 1837) (including
Wagner, 1 845, as junior synonyms; Akodon fus- Akodon bene/actus Thomas 1919 probably as a
cinus Thomas, 1 897, and Zygodontomys pixuna distinct subspecies). Living in southern Uru-
Moojen, 1943, may deserve recognition as sub- guay, northwest of Buenos Aires Province, south
species). Living in eastern and southern Brazil, of Cordoba and Santa Fe, and east of La Pampa,
including the states of Para, Ceara, Pemambuco, Argentina.
Paraiba, Sergipe, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Sao Pau- Bolomys temchuki (Massoia, 1982) (including
lo, and vicinities. Bolomys t. elioi Contreras, 1982 and B. t. liciae
Bolomys lenguarum (Thomas, 1 898) (probably in- Contreras, 1982, as subspecies). Living in Mi-
cluding Zygodontomys tapirapoanus J. A. Al- siones, north of Corrientes and northeast of
len,1916 as a junior synonym). Living in Par- Chaco, Argentina.
aguayan, Bolivian, and (probably) Argentinian Bolomys innom. sp. (reported as Akodon obscurus
Chaco, and Planalto de Mato Grosso, Brazil. and Zygodontomys obscurus). Living in south-
Contreras (pers. comm.) says that specimens em Buenos Aires Province. It is a larger and

darker form found at Partidos de General Puey- below, species referred to Microxus seem better
rredon, Balcarce, and General Juan Madariaga excluded from Akodon, Thalpomys is a subjective
and at Sierra de La Ventana, to be described in synonym of Bolomys (as explained above), and
a forthcoming paper. Chalcomys seems not to deserve recognition. I also
believe that separation of Thaptomys from Ako-
As advanced above, Akodon albi venter Thomas
don s.s. is unwarranted. Actually, I could not find
IC) and A. berlepschii Thomas, originally in-
(fig.
differences distinctly beyond the limits of varia-
cluded by Thomas (1916) in Bolomys, do not be-
tion within Akodon s.s. to keep A. nigrita Lich-
long to that genus. In a previous paper (Bianchi
tenstein, the type and single species of Thaptomys
et al.,1971), the former was considered to be a
(see Cabrera, 1 96 1 Massoia,
;
1 963a) as a separate
Bolomys by uncritical adoption of Thomas's opin-
subgenus. Cranially and dentally (figs. 10E,I), ni-
ion. The two species are probably conspecific (see
grita is a typical Akodon, and its alleged fossorial
Thomas, 1 902). As already pointed out by Osgood
adaptations are too incipient to deserve any special
(1943), albiventer shows several similarities with
taxonomic treatment. Its only distinction in male
Akodon andinus (Philippi) (fig. IB), and it does
accessory glands is the presence of a single pair of
not exhibit any of the distinctive character-states
ventral prostates in A. nigrita (Voss &
Linzey,
of Bolomys. Moreover, albiventer has a 2n = 40
1981), but the existing survey of species is still too
karyotype very similar to that of A. boliviensis
small to give much weight to this isolated dis-
and A.varius (Bianchi et al., 1 97 1), which is easily
tinctive feature.
distinguished from the 2n
= 34 karyotype of species
Thus, I tentatively recognize a central genus
of Bolomys.
Akodon subdivided into five subgenera, namely
Abrothrix, Akodon s.s., Chroeomys, Deltamys, and
Hypsimys. 1 do not deny, however, that more de-
Akodon and Its Allied Supraspecific Taxa tailed and comprehensive further studies could
eventually elevate some of these taxa to generic
Once Bolomys is excluded, the limits of Akodon level, but this action does not seem warranted by
as a genus appear more precise. However, it is still the present state of knowledge.
mostly a matter of sense and balance to decide Recently, Massoia (1981b) and Contreras and
whether Abrothrix, Akodon s.s., Chalcomys, Rosi (1981) advocated generic status for Abro-
Chroeomys, Del t a mys, Hypsimys, Microxus, thrix, whereas other modem authors accord it only
Thalpomys, and Thaptomys should be considered subgeneric status (Yanez et al., 1978; Patterson et
as separate genera, different subgenera within Ako- al.,1984). Actually, species of Abrothrix seem to
don, or simply synonyms of Akodon. be rather distinctive in skull and dental morphol-
Some time ago (Reig et al., 1971), following ogy (figs. 4-6). They differ from Akodon s.s. in the
Cabrera (1961), I included Chalcomys as a syn- more robust and elongated skulls; long nasals which
onym of Akodon. I also advocated (in Bianchi et. are clearly longer than frontals and that exceed
al., 197 1) generic rank for the names listed above, backward the frontomaxillary suture and project
excluding Chalcomys and Deltamys. Afterward also forward; long and rounded braincase; longer
(Reig, 1978, 1981), I reevaluated that view, as and more slender muzzle; slight inflation of the
further study indicated more strongly that species anterodorsal frontal sinuses; longer palate; low and
referred to most of these names represent a com- elongated mandible with a projecting incisor cap-
plex array of allied forms, more closely related to sule; broader molars, with obsolete or completely
each other than with other distinctive genera of absent anteromedian flexus in M' and antero-
akodontines, such as Bolomys and Oxymycterus. median flexid in the m,; bulging of entoconid in
This is certainly a subjective feeling which badly m, and mj; and total absence of ectolophids and
needs to be substantiated by careful quantitative rare presence of ectostylids. It also differs from
systematic analysis of morphological, chromo- typical Akodon in the woolly and longer pelage, in
somal, and allozymic evidence. However, until the relative sizes of ampullary glands and pros-
such study is accomplished, the available evidence tates, and in the presence of two pairs of preputial
suggests that they are more likely to constitute a glands (Voss & Linzey, 1 98 1). However, in overall
single unitary, although paraphyletic, taxon better resemblance, species of Abrothrix are clearly more
treated as a large central genus within which some of Akodon s.s. than species
closely related to species
distinctive species or set of species may be distin- of conventionally distinctive genera as Oxymyc-
guished as subgenera. However, as substantiated terus, Bolomys, or Blarinomys. Thus, it seems wis-

er to keep it as a subgenus of Akodon. Abrothrix which is more typical of the more primitive ory-
is polytypic, but it is not clear how many species zomyines. Needless to say, a definite conclusion
it contains. Typically, longipilis, lanosus, and san- on the relationships of the southern akodonts needs
borni and their subspecies (see Yanez et al., 1978) more detailed studies, and especially an adequate
belong to Abrothrix. All inhabit the southern An- evaluation of polarity in character-states. By over-
des and adjacent lowlands and show an identical all resemblance, however, it seems that the avail-
2n = 52 karyotype (Bianchi et al., 1971; Spotomo able evidence should advise placing xanthorhinus
& Fernandez, 1976; Gallardo, 1982; Reig, unpubl. in Abrothrix. Recently, Patterson et al. (1984)
data). Akodon illutea Thomas, 1925 (fig. 7D) is an maintained xanthorhinus in Akodon s.s., but they
Abrothrix in molar and skull morphology. How- described a new species, A. hershkovitzi, which
ever, living in the mountains of Tucuman in they claim to be closely related to xanthorhinus.
northwestern Argentina, it is isolated in distri- From the illustrations and description of these au-
bution from the former group and was reported thors, I am also inclined to place hershkovitzi in
(Bianchi et al., 1971; Dulout et al., 1976) to have Abrothrix, in keeping with the view of Patterson
a polymorphic 2n = 4 1 karyotype. However, Bar- and associates that hershkovitzi represents an is-
quez et al. (1980) claimed that the identification land derivative of xanthorhinus. In addition to the
of the specimens bearing those karyotypes was in species discussed above, Akodon {Abrothrix) man-
error, and that they may represent Akodon varius, soensis was recently described by de Santis and
which seems quite probable. Akodon xanthorhi- Justo (1980). The status of this name does not
nus has also been alleged to belong to Abrothrix seem clear to me, and from the illustrations and
(Bianchi etal., 197 1), primarily on karyotypic and description, I surmise that it may be a local form
distributional grounds. It inhabits the same gen- of ^. olivaceus, a view which is also agreed
upon
eral region of longipilis and allies, and shows a by O. Pearson comm.). However, a com-
(pers.
2n = 52 karyotype quite similar to that of longi- prehensive revision of the southern Akodon has
pilis (see Rodriguez et al., 1983). However, the not yet been conducted, and my conclusions on
same karyotype is present in A. andinus, A.jelskii, xanthorhinus, hershkovitzi, and mansoensis are
A. nigrita, A. olivaceus, Chelemys macronyx, and only tentative. Meanwhile, and in the following
Geoxus valdivianus (Yonenaga, 1975; Gardner & treatment, the concept of Abrothrix is centered
Patton, 1976; Spotomo & Fernandez, 1976; Pear- around the typical species longipilis, sanborni,
son, 984) and seems to represent a plesiomorphic
1 lanosus, and illutea.
character-state for akodontines as a group (Vitullo Chroeomys is certainly a well-differentiated off-
et al., 1986). Although the symplesiomorphy in shoot from Andean akodonts. Akodon jelskii, its
karyotypic character-states hinders inclusion of type species, can be easily distinguished from
xanthorhinus in Abrothrix, this conclusion is sug- species of Akodon s.s. by the broadened braincase;
gested by other attributes. Actually, xanthorhinus enlarged and moderately swollen bullae; shorter
shares with species of Abrothrix an elongated ros- palate; M' lacking a distinct anteromedian flexus,
trum, long nasals, rather inflated braincase, and but with a well-developed and deeply infolded an-
similar molar patterns, including obliterated anteroflexus; reduction or absence of mesoloph rem-
teromedian flexi in the upper first molars. In this nants and mesostyles; deeply infolded anterome-
connection, quite relevant to take into account
it is dian flexus of m,; absence of mesolophids,
the recent parasitological results of Dolores del C. ectostylids, and mesostylids. Chroeomys also dif-
Castro. In her studies of the lice Hoplopleura (Ano- fers from Akodon in having two pairs of
typical
plura), she erected the species H. andina, of the preputial glands instead of one pair and in the large
travassosi group (Castro, 1981). This group of size of the median prostates, which are reduced in
species are typical ectoparasites of oryzomyines, species of the subgenus Akodon (Voss & Linzey,
whereas akodontines are more typically infected 1981). Again, it is more like members of that genus
by lice of the H. aikeni species group. Hoplopleura in the sum of its characters than are members of
andina was found on Akodon olivaceus, A. andi- other akodontine genera. Following the revision
nus, and A. xanthorhinus (Castro, 1 982) and more of Sanborn (1947), the five species recognized by
recently also on A. longipilis (Castro, pers. comm.). Thomas are lumped into a single polytypic species,
Thus, xanthorhinus shares the same sp>ecies of lice A. jelskii.
with a typical Abrothrix (A. longipilis) and with Hypsimys is also a well-differentiated subgenus
other southern species of Akodon s.s. having 2n = of Akodon. Superficially, A. budini, its type species,
52 chromosomes. Besides, the hce belong to a group may be confused with a Bolomys, but the confu-
i REIG: SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION OF AKODONTINI 359

sion rapidly disappears when one examines the description of its skull and dental characters and
skull, which resembles that of Akodon in overall the present status of its species is considered be-
morphology. However, it from Ako-
differs neatly low.
don s.s. in its long, round, and broad braincase; The situation of Microxus remains to be dis-
shorter palate; more elongated incisive foramina; cussed. Described as a genus by Thomas (1909),
more slender mandible and, especially, in the it was accorded generic rank in his later synthesis
clearlymore hypsodont molars, which are also (Thomas, 1916). It was also recognized as a genus
more elongated and narrower than those in Ako- by Tate (1932b) and Ellerman (1941). However,
don, Chroeomys, or Abrothrix. My associates and Cabrera (1961) treated Microxus as a subgenus of
I have recently studied the karyotype of topotyp- Akodon, a view followed by Arata ( 1 967) and Voss
icalspecimens of ^. budini, finding that it has a and Linzey (1981). Hershkovitz (1966) included
peculiar 2n
= 38 karyotype quite distinctive in its Microxus under Abrothrix on the argument that
banding pattern (Vitullo et al., 1986). After com- M. mimus, the type species, is actually an Abro-
parison of the type specimens in the British Mu- thrix, a view echoed by Gardner and Patton ( 1 976).
seum, I agree with Cabrera (1961) in considering I studied the type specimen of M. mimus (BMNH
synonym of ^.
deceptorThovciSiS, 1921 as a junior 1.1.1 .48) and of M
bogotensis (BMNH
95. 1 0. 1 4.2)
budini Thomas, 1918. Thus, Akodon (Hypsimys) and several specimens referred to the latter from
isalso monotypic. theAndes of Venezuela, and I concluded that Mi^
Deltamys has also been recently accorded ge- croxus belongs neither to Akodon nor to Abrothrix
neric status (Massoia, 1981b; Gentile de Fronza and that it is a distinctive genus of Akodontini.
et al., 1979). The absence of a small pair of meta- Including M. mimus (fig. 4B) and M. bogotensis,
centrics in its chromosome complement was given Microxus differs from Akodon and Abrothrix as
as an argument for its separation, but this is not well as from other akodontines by its inflated short
convincing. Hypsimys also lacks this minute meta- and deep braincase; short and low zygomatic plate
centric characteristic of akodontines, and Zygo- with anterior border gradually sloping forward;
dontomys microtinus shows the character, being muzzle narrow and elongated; strongly reduced
quite different from akodontines in many other interparietal;long frontals; interorbital region
respects. Cranially and dentally, Deltamys shares rather broad; molars relatively large and broad,
many more character-states with Akodon s.s. and with a simplified enamel pattern and cusps well
other discussed subgenera than with any other ge- opposed to each other, and noticeably reduced up-
nus. It is, however, quite distinctive as a subgenus per and lower M3. Microxus bogotensis is also
in its elongatedand narrow skull, with weak and peculiar in possessing a single pair of ventral pros-
low zygomatic plate; longer narrowed braincase; tates (Voss &
Linzey, 1981). Additionally, and as
very reduced interparietal; shorter palate; low and discussed above, species of Akodon (Abrothrix)
elongated mandible with projecting incisor cap- share an identical 2n = 52 karyotype, whereas
sule; elongated and narrow, rather more hypso- specimens assigned to M. bogotensis collected at
dont molars (less so than in Hypsimys); inclined Mucubaji, Merida (Venezuela), showed polymor-
molar flexi and flexids; M' with well-developed phic karyotypes of 35-37 chromosomes (FN
= 48)
anteromedian flexus, but anteromedian flexid of (Barros & Reig, 1 979). Further differences and dis-
m, obsolete; large m,, almost as long as mj. Up tinctive character-states of Microxus in the skull
to now, only one species A. (D.) kempi is recog- and in different organ systems are provided by
nized, along with two subspecies (Massoia, 1981b). Vorontzov (1982). Thus, all lines of argument in-
Repeating the log-normal distribution of species dicate that, at the present state of knowledge, this
mentioned in the Introduction section, Akodon s.s. taxon is better kept as a genus within the Ako-
is by far the most polytypic of all Akodon. Al- dontini.
though the number of recognized species is a mat-
ter of debate, there are at least 23 species in this
subgenus. It is probably the most generalized of
the akodontines, representing the stock from which Other Genera Recognized
several episodes of akodontine diversification Within the Akodontini
started in different places and probably at different
times (see later). Both morphology and in cy-
in As discussed above, Oxymycterus is not sepa-
togenetics, it is a complex taxon, and it may prove rable from the Akodontini on chromosomal
convenient in the future to distinguish within it grounds. Moreover, it is clearly an akodont in cra-
various species groups and superspecies. A formal nial and tooth morphology and intestine and lung

anatomy (Vorontzov, 1967, 1982). While there are icalis (with boliviae as a subspecies), is just an
no grounds to separate it from the Akodontini, it is exaggerated Oxymycterus in size and skull mor-
I indeed a distinct genus within the tribe. It sharply phology. The skull, as illustrated by Vorontzov
differs from the remaining akodont genera by its (1982, fig. 1 12), is much like that oT Oxymycterus,
larger size, elongated skull with anteriorly ex- but can be distinguished by the broadened incisive
panded and trumpet-like nasals (fig. 4D), reduced foramina, larger palate, broader interorbital re-
zygomatic plate, simplified enamel pattern of mo- gion,and greater development of the interparietal.
lar teeth, diet (Kravetz, 1973), stomach morphol- The molar teethshow a less simplified enamel
ogy (Echave Llanos & Vilchez, 1 964; Vorontzov, pattern, are more brachyodont, and have more
1967, 1982; Carleton, 1973), phallic morphology sharply defined cusps; in the upper teeth, the lin-
(Hooper & Musser, 1964), and male accessory gual cusps are more displaced backward relative
glands (Voss & Linzey, 1981). to the labial ones, and the anteromedian flexus
Oxymycterus is rather polytypic, although the and much more developed and pene-
flexid are
status and nomenclature of some of its species are trating than those in species of Oxymycterus (Vo-
still dubious. Cabrera (1961) recognized eight rontzov, 1 982, p. 228, fig. 1 92). Additionally, Len-
species and 13 subspecies. Honacki et al. (1982) oxus can be distinguished from Oxymycterus in
accorded specific status to nine nominal forms. the less-developed foreclaws, the softer fur, and
The genus needs revision. I examined the type the longer tail.
specimens in the British Museum and can advance Juscelinomys, which Moojen (1965) erected for
some results. J. candango from the "cerrado" near the city of
I Following Massoia and Fomes (1969), I distin- Brasilia,and which probably also includes Oxy-
guish O. nasutus from O. rufus. At present, it is mycterus talpinus V/inge, 1888 (ê Moojen, 1965)
questionable whether O. platensis represents a from Minas Gerais, is certainly an akodontine
subspecies of O. rufus or a distinct species. I am closely related toOxymycterus and Lenoxus. From
inclined to the former alternative; in any case, its description and illustration, its generic distinc-
platensis is fully separated from nasutus (Massoia tion seems also warranted, as ensues from the di-
& Fomes, 1969). Regarding rufus, I follow Lang- agnosis, which, taken with modifications from
guth (in Honacki et al., 1982, p. 459) in using Moojen (1965, p. 283), is as follows:
Fischer's name instead of rutilans Olfers. It is at
present unsettled whether delator is different from

An akodontine cricetid close to Oxymycterus
rufus. Oxymycterus paramensis and O. akodontius
are reported to show some differences in skull and
in dental character states, body form, and fos-
sorial way of life. It differsfrom Oxymycterus
color characters, but it is unclear whether they are
in external characters in less elongated muz-
different sp)ecies or merely phenotypic variants of
a single species. Oxymycterus incae (including dor- zle; tail very thick and densely covered with
hairs that totally hide the tail scales; ventral
is, inca, iris, and juliacae as subspecies) is quite
distinct from paramensis or akodontius. As rec- region of fur, with rufous hairs whitish in their
base. Skull stronger built; bullae swollen; ros-
ognized by Massoia (1963b), iheringi is a good
trum short and broad; premaxillae not ex-
species of Oxymycterus, not a Microxus; this au-
thor is wrong, however, in allocating Akodon san- tending beyond the level of upper incisors;
nasals reaching slightly in front of the incisors,
borni to Oxymycterus. I follow Cabrera ( 1 96 1 ) in
but not trumpet-like; posterior border of in-
placing judex, misionalis, and quaestor under O.
fraorbital foramen in front of the level of first
hispidus. However, this action is tentative until
the type of hispidus is re-studied; but judex and molars; zygomatic plate more anterior; dia-
I
stema shorter; incisive foramina F>enetrating
quaestor are similar to each other and distinctive
between the first upper molars beyond their
from rufus and the other mentioned species. Oxy-
protocone. Upper incisors slightly grooved,
i> mycterus angularis and O. roberti are also ten-
with the groove closer to their lateral borders;
tatively accepted as valid species.The karyotypes
molars stronger; procingulum of first upper
of four studied species of Oxymycterus (Vitullo et
= 54), mor- molar with a deep anteromedian flexus. Four
al., 1986) are identical in number (2n
pairs of mammae.
phology, and in the known cases, in G- and
C-banding patterns of chromosomes. Thus, kar-
yology may not afford good markers to clarify the Podoxymys, erected by Anthony (1929) for the
status of the dubious species. single species P.roraimae from the tepuis of the
Lenoxus, known from the single species L. ap- Guiana region, has also been alleged to stand near

Oxymycterus (Hershkovitz, 1 966),
although Eller- Notiomys Thomas, 1 890
man ( 94 1 pointed out that, from the description,
1 )
it seems to be very close to Microxus. In fact, the Size small: head and body less than 100 mm.
description is rather vague, but doubtless it is a Tail shorter than half the length of head and body,
distinctive genus of the Akodontini. Its stomach even shorter than in Chelemys; front claws long,
is unilocular and hemiglandular (Carleton, 1973; less strong than in Geoxus; claws of the hind feet
Vorontzov, 1 982) as in most akodontines, but dif- shorter than in Geoxus; fur not molelike, brightly
fers in having a reduced area of glandular epithe- colored, with whitish underparts and with bright
lium. Its molar teeth differ from those o^ Microxus rufous nose; margins of the hind feet with a shaggy
and Oxymycterus in being much simplified, al- fringe of hairs; ears with extremely thin and small
most as much as in the otherwise quite different pinnae, hidden in the fur; nose tipped with a dark
genus Geoxus. leathery button. Skull rather heavy in shape, much
Blarinomys is an akodontine highly modified for shorter and wider than in Geoxus; muzzle shorter,
fossorial life and insectivorous diet (Vorontzov, wider and conical; incisive foramina short, not
1982): extremely reduced eyes; tail short; ear very reaching the anterior borders of M'; palate long,
small; broad hind foot with fairly strong claws; extending backward far behind the level of last
hand with long claws. The skull is characterized molars, with small posterior palatal pits; pterygoid
by the absence of the interparietal, a broad inter- region shorter than in Geoxus, with rounded an-
orbital region,and a very narrow zygomatic plate. terior border of mesopterygoid fossa; zygomatic
The molars are highly modified in enamel pattern, plate reduced, moderately slanting to almost ver-
and the mj is fairly reduced in size. tical; interparietal small and narrow; frontals not
A point of clarification is required on the status inflated, interorbital region broad, with sharply
of the fossorial southern akodonts currently re- squared supraorbital ridges; mandible not as slen-
ferred to Notiomys. Thomas advocated that the der and proodont as in Geoxus, with long coronoid
burrowing, short-tailed mice of this group inhab- process, condyloid process not bent inward, and
iting southern Chile and Argentina represented small capsular projection. Incisors slender, the up-
three genera, namely Notiomys Thomas, 1 890 (with per ones orthodont; molars brachyodont, small,
Hesperomys edwardsi Thomas, 1890, as the type fairly narrow and elongated; M' with procingulum
Geoxus Thomas, 1919 (with Notoxusfos-
species), reduced, without anteroflexus but with a very shal-
sorThomas, 1919, as the type species), and Che- low anteromedian flexus; upper molars with para-
lemys Thomas, 1903 (with Hesperomys megalo- and metaflexus moderately oriented backward;
nyx Waterhouse, 1 844, as the type species). Later, mesoflexus present, deep and narrow on Me- M '
.
Osgood (1925) proposed combining all three gen- sostyle and enterostyle missing; M' simple and
era under Notiomys, a contention which, in spite strongly reduced, less than Vz the length of M^;
of Thomas's (1927) criticisms, was accepted by procingulum of m, narrow, with a shallow an-
most later authors, including, recently, Honacki et teromedian flexid; lower molars with meso- and \
(1982). However, Gyldenstolpe (1932) accept-

al. posteroflexids not deeply infolded and lophids ori- ]
ed the generic rank of all three taxa. On the basis ented rather transversely in position; mesolophid ^.
of the study of the types and series of specimens remnants visible on mhypoflexid shallow; meso-
, ; \
in the British Museum and the American Museum stylid and ectostylid absent; m, strongly reduced,
of Natural History, I concluded that two genera rounded and simple, V2 the length of mj; cecum I
may be distinguished, namely Notiomys (including absent; stomach and male glands unknown.
Geoxus) and Chelemys (Reig, 1981). More re- Included species: edwardsi. i
cently,Pearson (1983) treated Chelemys and

Geoxus as different genera, and said that he con-
sidered it untenable to assign Geoxus to Notiomys. Geoxus Thomas 1919
In a subsequent paper (Pearson, 1984), he sup-
ported his view with evidence from ecology, food Size small: head and body length less than 100
habits,and external and craniodental morphology. mm; shorter than half the length of head and
tail !
With the new information of Pearson, and after a body, even shorter than in Chelemys; front claws J
reconsideration of the information from my for- stouter and longer than in Notiomys and Chele-
j
mer studies, I am ready to accept the Thomas- mys; hind foot with long claws, and without a
Pearson view. It is in order, therefore, to afford an shaggy fringe of hairs on the margins; fur molelike,
up-to-date definition of these three genera. uniform in color; ears small, but pinnae easily

visible;nose normal. Skull slender and rather del- backward; zygomatic plate comparatively strong
and narrower than in Notio-
icately built, longer and broad, its anterior border nearly vertical or
mys; muzzle long and narrow; incisive foramina slightly slanting forward; interparietal normally
long, surpassing backward the anterior borders of developed, not reduced, although relatively nar-
M'; palate long, extending past the level of last row; frontals not inflated, interorbital region
molars, without posterior palatal pits; pterygoid smooth and rounded, with supraorbital edges not
region long; mesopterygoid fossa squarely open in square-shaped; mandible rather strongly built; ra-
front and nearly parallel-sided; zygomatic plate mus much deeper than in Geoxus or Notiomys,
reduced, narrow and slanting; interparietal rather with long coronoid process, condyloid process bent
narrow and short, not extremely reduced; frontals inward, and a medium-sized capsular projection.
rather inflated; interorbital region smooth and Incisors thick and robust, the upper orthodont, the
rounded, the supraorbital edges not square-shaped; lower less proodont than in Notiomys and Geoxus;
mandible slender and proodont, with short coro- molars rather large and broad, relatively hypso-
noid process, condyloid process not bent inward, dont; M' with moderately reduced procingulum
and small capsular projection. Incisors rather slen- lacking any trace of anteromedian flexus and an-
der, the upper ones orthodont; molars small and teroflexus; upper molars with para- and metaflexus
narrow, simple and brachyodont; M' with reduced strongly oriented backward; mesoflexus complete-
procingulum with a shallow anteroflexus and no ly reabsorbed by complete fusion of para- and me-
anteromedian flexus; upper molars with trans- soloph; mesostyle normally absent, enterostyle to-
versely oriented para- and metaflexus, mesoflexus tally missing; M' relatively well developed, about
absent and para- and mesoloph coalesced; meso- % the length of M^; m, with short procingulum
style and anterostyle missing; M^ strongly reduced, without anteromedian flexid; lower molars with
less than % the length of M^, ring-shaped; procin- ento- and posteroflexids oblique, metaflexid more
gulum of m, narrow, without anteromedian flexid; transverse;mesoloph and paraloph coalesced,
lower molars with transverse lophids and flexids mesostylid and ectostylid missing; mj sigmoid-
little infolded; mj reduced, less than % the length shaped, not reduced, more than % the length of
of mj, and with a simplified enamel pattern. Ce- mj; cecum present; stomach and male glands un-
cum missing; stomach unilocular-hemiglandular, known.
with glandular epithelium more extended than in Included species: macronyx (including macro-
Akodon; medial ventral prostates large, and bul- nyx, alleni, fumosus, and vestitus as subspecies),
bourethral gland much larger than typical condi- megalonyx (including megalonyx and microtis as
tion. and probably, delfini, a species from
subspecies),
Included species: valdiviantis (including valdi- Punta Arenas whose status is dubious and which
vianus, fossor, chiloensis, bullocki, and bicolor as might represent a third subspecies of megalonyx.
subspecies) and, probably, tnichaelseni (see Pear- For removal ofangustus from Chelemys, see Pear-
son, 1984, p. 233). son (1984, p. 231).
Chelemys Thomas, 1 903

Defining the Tribe Akodontini
Size larger: head and body length longer than
1 20 mm; tail shorter than half the length of head As discussed in the previous sections, 1 1 extant
and body; front claws stout and long, but com- genera are recognized within the Akodontini;
paratively less developed than those in Geoxus; namely, Akodon, Blarinomys, Bolomys. Chele-
hind foot with moderately long claws, without a mys, Geoxus, Juscelinomys, Lenoxus, Microxus,
shaggy fringe of hairs on their margins; fur short Notiomys, Oxymycterus, and Podoxymys. The ex-
and dense, uniform in color; ears small, but pinnae Dankomys is also included.
tinct
visible; nose normal; skull robust and broadly built; The various genera to which the term Akodon-
muzzle broad and rather short; incisive foramina applied constitute in one sense its meaning.
tini is
long, extendingbackward beyond the anterior bor- This is the referential approach to the assessment
ders of M'; palate short, extending backward to of the meaning of a concept (Alston, 1 964). This
the level of last molars, with small posterior palatal sense of meaning is called the extensional or deno-
pits; mesopterygoid fossa deep, with rather squared tative meaning. Since defining is an operation by
front edge, and lateral borders slightly divergent which we explain the meaning of a term, assessing

in this way the meaning of the Akodontini is lar type, exceptionally of the unilocular-discoglan-
equivalent to formulating an extensional defini- dular type; large intestines short, usually less than
tion of that taxon-concept. However, this deno- 15% the length of small intestines; cecum small or
tative definition is only one meaning of the taxon absent, never enlarged; molar teeth subhypsodont
and is not convenient for further taxonomic pur- to mesodont, rarely brachyodont, and crested, ter-
poses. Although frequently the elucidation of the raced, or secondarily planed; mesoloph and me-
extension of a taxon-concept precedes the assess- solophid reduced or vestigial when present, often
ment of the properties that are shared by the mem- fully or partially coalesced with paraloph or en-
bers of the concept (the intensional or connotative tolophid, and only shown as terminal remnants
meaning of the term), a complete definition of usually united with mesostyle or mesostylid; pos-
concepts requires that the common properties or teroloph coalesced with metaloph, and postero-
attributes which qualify a given taxon for mem- flexus usually obsolete; skull with zygomatic plate
bership be defined. little to moderately developed, never very high
This definition of a taxon by its connotative or and strongly projecting before the antorbital bridge;
intensional meaning is an unavoidable aim in tax- palate broad, from short to moderately long; in-
onomy, as it enables the zoologist to grasp the cisive foramina usually large and reaching back-
basic features which characterize the taxon as a ward to or beyond the anterior plane of M'; pre-
natural product of evolution, and to decide wheth- putial gland usually single; medial ventral prostate
er as yet unknown or problematic taxa deserve usually reduced or absent; glans penis complex;
membership in the taxon. diploid karyotype never with more than 54 chro-
To arrive at this definition satisfactorily would mosomes.
require revision of the whole tribe and other re- The Akodontini are certainly more derived than
lated groups of the subfamily Sigmodontinae. the Oryzomyini in molar structure, skull, and male
However, we can agree on a definition of the term accessory glands (Voss & Linzey, 1981; Voron-
Akodontini by ascertaining from the present body tzov, 1982); they are probably direct descendants
of knowledge its conventional intension (Copi, of the latter. At the same time, they are more
1953, p. 102). primitive than the Phyllotini in molar pattern and
This definition must be polythetic (Sokal & digestive system (Vorontzov, 1982) and may have
Sneath, 1963; Bechner, 1959 called the same kind been their ancestors. The Akodontini are predom-
of definition polytypic) in that the Akodontini are inantly Andean in distribution (Reig, 1984), and
defined by reference, not to a set of attributes the most of them are inhabitants of open land, al-
common possession of all of which is both nec- though some of their representatives may dwell in
essary and sufficient for membership in its exten- forested tropical, subtropical or temperate habi-
sion, but to a set of attributes the common pos- tats, and some of their genera— especially Blari-
session of a large (but unspecified) number of which nomys, Chelemys, Geoxus, and Not iomys— ex-
is sufficient for belonging to its extension. Needless ploited the subterranean niche and might be
to say, the same approach is applicable to the def- considered the South American counterparts of
inition of genera and subgenera within the tribe, the moles. Most species studied are quite omniv-
and permits defining the intensional meaning of
it orous (Meserve, 1981; Meserve & Glanz, 1978;
various taxa by commonality of character-states, Pearson, 1983), but some became more special-
abjuring the typological claim of exclusive sharing ized for an insectivorous diet, such as Oxymyc-
of one or another of all the alternative states of terus (Kravetz, 1973), Notiomys, and Geoxus
the characters used in defining taxa of the same (Pearson, 1983, 1984). Although Chelemys eats
rank and which belong to the same taxon of im- mostly mushrooms, and species of Bolomys have
mediate higher rank. been found to be partly vegetarians (Scaglia & Ve-
The intensional meaning of the polythetic con- lazquez, pers. comm.), the remaining akodontines
cept of the Akodontini follows. did not invade especially the herbivorous niches,
which are heavily exploited by their probable de-
rivatives, the phyllotines.
Akodontini Vorontzov, 1959
Description of New Plio-Pleistocene Akodon

Sigmodontine cricetids of small to medium size,
with omnivorous to insectivorous digestive sys- The study of the fossil material described and
tem, without specializations for plant feeding; discussed in this section necessitated evaluation
stomach normally of the unilocular-hemiglandu- of the character-states of the genus Akodon and its

subgenera Abrothrix and Akodon s.s. in cranial, with anterior border vertical, straight or slightly
mandibular, and dental morphology. The full de- concave, not slanting gradually backward from its
scription of the character-states of these taxa is lower root to the upper border. Upper comer of
essential for the identification and description of the zygomatic plate rounded, not projecting for-
fossilspecimens. The following description of the ward. Incisive foramina wide and elongated, nar-
morphological attributes oi Akodon is based in the row behind, usually penetrating well beyond the
study of types and series of about 70% of the in- anterior plane of the first molars to reach or slightly
cluded species. It is intended, therefore, to apply surpass the level of the protocone of M'. Posterior
to the whole genus. Akodon is, however, rather palate long and wide, its median posterior border
varied and, as already discussed, the distinction usually slightly behind the posterior plane of the
of various subgenera seems appropriate. There- M'. Palatal surface relatively simple, without
fore, in all those cases where exceptions to the next marked ridges and with shallow grooves. Meso-
description are known, the corresponding char- pterygoid fossa narrow and less than width of
have been qualified as "usually" pres-
acter-states parapterygoid fossa. Bullae usually small, less fre-
ent.Departures from those states in included sub- quently moderately large. Mastoid not noticeably
genera are assessed in the description of inflated. Occipital region somewhat elongated, its
morphological attributes of Akodon s.s. and posterior border rounded and continuous with the
Abrothrix provided afterward. line of the braincase when viewed from the lateral
side.
Mandible somewhat slender, its height at m,
Genus Akodon Meyen, 1833 usually shorter than diastema length. Lower mas-
seteric crest present, but not strong, reaching for-
Type Sv^c\es— Akodon boliviensis Meyen, 1 833, ward to the level of the anterior half of m,. Upper
by original designation. masseteric crest rather long and usually as strong
Distribution of Living Species— Andean val- as the lower one. Coronoid process rather short,
leys, highlands, and fringes of mountain forests of with anterior border gradually slanting backward.
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Condyloid process relatively low, elongated, and
Peru, and Venezuela; temperate-zone meadows, projected backward. Articular surface of the con-
grasslands and brushlands of Argentina, Bolivia, dyle extending dorsally and slightly posteriorly.
SE Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Capsule of incisor root normally not projected as
Cranial Character-States— Skull usually a well-developed tubercle, lying on the anterior
slender, with a typically fairly narrow and rounded half of the sigmoid notch. Angular process longer
braincase, a fairly elongated occipital region, and than high.
a rostrum of regular shape, not tapering forward Dental Character-States— Upper incisors
in lateral view. Upper profile of the skull sloping usually opisthodont, less frequently orthodont,
forward and backward from the posterior part of never proodont. Molar rows parallel-sided. Mo-
Zygomata slightly expanded and not
the frontals. with moderately de-
lars relatively small, usually
markedly convergent anteriorly. Nasals usually veloped hypsodonty, with crested and with bilevel
longer than, or as long as, the frontals, their an- occlusal surface in slightly worn teeth, terraced
terior border passing forward beyond the anterior with advanced wear.
plane of the incisors, but not projected or ex- M' four-rooted. Upper molars with labial (para-
panded to form a trumpet-shaped opening. cone-metacone) main cusps only slightly posterior
Posterior borders of the nasals usually tapering to the level of the lingual ones (protocone-hypo-
backward and projecting beyond the fronto-pre- cone),and main lophs transverse in position. M'
maxillary suture. Frontals long, usually with a nar- and M^ usually trilophodont in moderately worn
row and transversely convex interorbital region teeth. Mesoloph reduced, usually only partially
with more or less sharply squared edges not de- fused with the paraloph, so that a lingual remnant
fining a supraorbital ridge. Frontoparietal suture of it is usually present, forming a bifurcated broad
angular or crescentic in shape. Parietals relatively median loph marked by a shallow mesoflexus in
long, their length, in the midline, usually more M' and M^. Metaloph united with the posteroloph
than half the length of the frontals, not extending and not reaching the hypocone, almost completely
forward through lateral processes between frontals coalesced with posteroloph, so that posteroflexus
and temporals. Interparietal moderately reduced is very narrow or completely absent in moderately
in width and length. Zygomatic plate moderately worn teeth. Paraflexus and metaflexus somewhat
developed, relatively narrow and low, but usually directed backward, hypoflexus and protoflexus

somewhat forward, the opposite flexi shghtly al- Thaptomys. Thomas, 1916, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8)18:
339.
ternating. Enterostyle and enteroloph usually
Bolomys, Thomas, 1916, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8)18:
completely absent. Mesostyle often present in M' 339 (in part).
and M^, usually united with the remnant of me-
soloph. M^ usually much longer than wide. M' Type Spejcies— Akodon boliviensis Meyen, by
much reduced, cylindriform in moderately worn
original designation.
teeth. Procingulum of M' moderately simple, Known Distribution— As for the genus.
slightlyoblique in position, usually clearly bicon- Included Species— aerosus, albiventer, andi-
ulate by the presence of a well-developed antero-
nus, azarae, boliviensis, brachiotis, cursor, dolores,
median flexus. Procingulum united to protocone
iniscatus, markhami, molinae, mollis, nucus, oli-
through an anteroposteriorly oriented anterior vaceus, orophilus, pacificus, puer, reinhardti, ser-
mure. Protoflexus absent or undivided by a pro- and two un-
rensis, surdus, tolimae, urichi, varius,
tostyle, anteroflexus usually present but not deeply named one with 2n = 14-16
from
species Brazil,
infolded. Anteroloph well defined and usually
chromosomes, the other with 2n = 24-25 chro-
united to parastyle. Protoflexus of M^ evident in
mosomes (Yonenagaetal., 1975; Yonenaga, 1979;
moderately worn teeth, absent on M' of similar
Maia & Langguth, 1981). Additionally, two fossil
stage of wear.
species which are described below. [The number
Lower molars with lingual cusps (metaconid and of living species is certainly larger, mostly because
entoconid) placed fairly anterior to the labial ones of the complex nature of A. varius. Philip Myers
(protoconid-hypoconid), with metalophid, as well
(pcTS. recognizes three distinct species in
comm.)
as entolophid and posterolophid usually oblique, what usually considered to be A. varius; namely,
is
directed slightly forward from the lingual border
A. varius, A. toba, and A. simulator. He is also
to the labial one. Mesolophid almost completely inclined to treat A. neocenus as a full species and
fused with entolophid, but a weak lingual remnant,
to recognize A. dayi as a distinct species.]
usually united with a mesostyle, is often present Characters— Skull normally built and usually
in most species. Ectolophid and ectostylid fre-
somewhat elongated behind. Nasals longer to
quently present in m,, occasionally in mj, rarely than frontals. Zygomatic plate nor-
slightly shorter
in mj. In m, and mj, hypoflexid broad and trans-
mal, with anterior border usually vertical in po-
verse, mesoflexid directed obliquely forward from sition. Braincase moderately long, usually not
outside. Posteroflexid well developed, oblique and
broadened, its breadth as large or slightly shorter
parallel to the mesoflexid, absent in mj. m, tetra- than '/2 the condylobasal length. Interorbital region
lophodont, with a somewhat complex procingu- usually fairly narrowed, without supraorbital
lum, defined by a usually well-defined, well-in-
ridges. Anterodorsal frontal sinuses not inflated.
folded metaflexid, and protoflexid; anteroflexid normal to much reduced. Bullae usu-
Interparietal
normally absent. Protostylid and anterolabial cin- ally not enlarged. Incisive foramina usually reach-
gulum usually present. Anteromedian flexid nor-
ing the protocone of M' or slightly before it. Pos-
mally well developed in moderately worn teeth, terior border of palate behind the posterior border
mj trilophodont, well longer than wide, with pro- of M'. Mandible relatively high and stout, more
toflexid usually well marked inmoderately worn slender in the smaller species, with masseteric crest
teeth, mj relatively large, but even smaller than
normally developed and reaching the middle of
m2, usually bilophodont and sigmoid-shaped in the m,. Incisor capsule usually not projected as a
outline, with protoflexus frequently present in definite tubercle.Upper incisors normally opis-
moderately worn teeth. thodont, less frequently orthodont. Molars not
markedly elongated and narrowed, with a mod-
erately developed tubercular hypsodonty. Molar
crowns usually bilevel, terraced to planate with
Subgenus Akodon, Meyen
wear, cusps neither noticeably tuberculate, nor with
Akodon Meyen, 1833, Nova Acta Leopold. noticeably inclined enamel walls. M' usually with
16, pt. 11:
599. an anteromedian flexus and an anteroflexus. Par-
Hesperomys, Wagner, 1 839, Schrebers Saugeth. Suppl. aflexus of M^ directed lingually, the anteroloph in
3: 516 (in part); Leche, 1886, Zool. Jahrb. 1: 687 normal position. Mesoloph remnants usually
(in part). united to mesostyle, typically on M' and M^. Ento-
Habrothrix. Thomas, 1 884, Proc. Zool. Soc. London:
conid wide, but not noticeably bulging laterally in
450.
Chalcomys. Thomas, 1916, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8)18: m, and m2. Mesoflexid and posteroflexid of m,
338. and m.2 normally inclined and well developed. An-
366 nELDIANA: ZOOLOGY

teromedian flexid of m, frequently present, but per masseteric crest better marked than the lower
only exceptionally deeply infolded, metaflexid masseteric crest, slightly surpassing the middle of
moderately to scarcely infolded. Mesolophid rem- the m,. Incisor capsule projected as a tubercle.
nants, ectolophids,and ecto- and mesostylids fre- Upper incisors orthodont, rather strong. Molars
quently present, mj long, but clearly shorter than comparatively broad, with a moderately well-de-
m2. veloped tubercular hypsodonty and a slight crown
hypsodonty. Molar crowns bilevel, terraced to
planate with advanced wear. Cusps not noticeably
Subgenus Abrothrix Waterhouse tuberculate, with somewhat inclined enamel walls.
Anteromedian flexus of M' completely obsolete or
Mus (Abrothrix) Waterhouse, 1837, Proc. Zool. See. barely noticeable. Anteroflexus present, but shal-
London: 21. low. Paraflexus of M^ directed lingually, antero-
Habrothrix Wagner, 1 843, Schrebers Saugeth. Suppl.
loph normal. Mesoloph remnants usually united
3 (in part).
to mesostyles in M' and M^. Mesoflexid and pos-
Acodon Thomas, 1895, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)14:
369 (in part).
teroflexid of m, and mj well developed, the former
Abrothrix Thomas, 1916, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8)18 scarcely inclined and the latter smaller and nearly
(considered as a full genus). transverse in position. In m, and mj entoconid
Akodon {Abrothrix), EUerman, 1941, The Families and
Gen. of Living Rodents. Vol. 2: 409, 416; Osgood, typically bulging lingually. m, with anteromedian
flexid obsolete or occasionally present in an incip-
1943, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zool. Ser. 30: 184-198.
and open notch, metaflexid
ient stage as a shallow
little to moderately infolded. Mesolophid rem-
Type Species— ^ôô/j {Abrothrix) longipilis
Waterhouse (by original designation). nants constant on m,-m3, but poorly developed
Distribution— Lowlands and mountain val- and projecting from the anterolateral border of the
leys of southern and central Chile; Andean slopes
entoconid, usually connected with mesostylids.
and low valleys of Argentina from Tierra del Fuego Ectolophids completely absent, ectostylids some-
to Mendoza; mountain valleys of Tucuman, Ar- times present on m,, very rarely so in m2. m, long,
but smaller than m,.
gentina.
Included SPEC\E&—hershkovitzi, illutea, lano-
sus, longipilis, sanborni, xanthorhinus. (For the
provisional assignment of xanthorhinus and Akodon (Abrothrix) kermacki Reig, 1978
hershkovitzi to Abrothrix, see above; see also Pat-
terson et al. [1984], who specifically rejected this HoLOTYPE— MMP S-32 1 almost complete right
,
assignment.) Additionally, the fossil A. kermacki and lower jaws with the entire lower dentition;
left
and a new fossil species as described below. Another portion of the left maxilla including the three up-
species referred to Abrothrix, A. mansoensis (de per molars (figs. 5A,E; 6A). Collected by G. J.
Santis &
Justo, 1980), is a dubious form. It is not Scaglia in stratum IX of the Chapadmalal For-
evident that it belongs to Abrothrix or even that mation (Kraglievich, 1952), 500 m
north of "Ba-
it isa valid sp)ecies of the genus Akodon. jada del Vivero" (Punta Loberia), Atlantic cliffs
Characters— Skull strong and elongated, with of the Partido de General Pueyrredon, SE of Bue-
a rather long and slender muzzle. Nasals well long- nos Aires Province, Argentina. Figured by Reig
er than frontals, exceeding backward the fronto- and Linares (1969) as Akodon sp.
maxillary suture and slightly projecting forward. Hypodigm— The holotype and the following:
Zygomatic plate relatively deep and short, with MMP S-222— Almost complete left mandibu-
anterior border vertical or slightly inclined back- larramus, with the entire dentition. Collected by
ward. Braincase relatively long, rounded and G. Scaglia in stratum VIII or IX (Kraglievich,
J.
slightly broadened, its breadth as large as '/z the 1952) of the Chapadmalal Formation, 650 m
north
condylobasal length. Interorbital region of median of "Bajada del Vivero" (Punta Loberia). Figured
breadth, without supraorbital ridges and with by Reig and Linares (1969) as Akodon sp.
smoothly rounded edges. Anterodorsal frontal si- MMP M- 1067— Anterior part of left lower jaw
its dorsal surface rounded.
nuses slightly inflated, with the whole dentition. Collected by G. J. Scaglia
Interparietal normally reduced. Incisive foramina and Mr. Prima in Stratum IX of Chapadmalal
elongated but scarcely reaching the protocone of Formation at "Bajada del Vivero" (Punta Lo-
M'. Posterior border of the palate well behind the beria).
posterior border of the M^. Bullae not enlarged. MMP M- 1 07 1 —Anterior part of right lower jaw
Mandible moderately low and elongated, with up- with the whole dentition. Collected by G. J. Scaglia

a
•c
o
in the lower levels of Barranca Lobos Formation astema is almost at a level with the alveolar row.
(Kraglievich, 1952) in the cliffs north of "Bajada The lower masseteric crest is smooth, but well
del Vivero" (Punta Loberia). marked, rather high in position, and better de-
MLP 62.VII.27.84-Almost complete left low- veloped than is usual in A. longipilis; it reaches to
er jaw with the whole dentition. Collected by G. a level anterior to the middle of the m,, but behind
J. Scaglia in association with the holotype. its anterior border. The upper masseteric crest is
MM? M- 1 1 54— Incomplete right lower jaw with not so well defined as the lower one, and is less
the whole dentition. Collected by G. J. Scaglia in developed than in A. longipilis. The mental fora-
association with the holotype. (For former num- men is normally developed and opens on the dor-
bers of the last two specimens, see Reig, 1978, p. solateral surface of the diastema. The anterior edge
175.) of the coronoid process originates at the level of
Known Distribution— Chapadmalalan (Up- the middle of the mj and slopes gradually upward,
per Pliocene) and Uquian (Lowermost Pleisto- with most of the mj visible in lateral view when
cene) ages, SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argen- the mandible is seen perpendicular to the plane of
tina (see Marshall et al., 1983, 1984). the symphysis. The coronoid process is relatively
Diagnosis— A species of Abrothrix close to A. short, and the condyloid process is low and elon-
longipilis; size larger than in A. I. longipilis. Incisor gated, slightly projected backward, resembling
stronger and deeper, M' with a shorter and wider, closely the situation found in A. longipilis. The
noticeably oblique procingulum, with a visible, capsular projection, which lies at the level of the
although weakly developed, anteromedian flexus. anterior part of the sigmoid notch, is stronger than
m, relatively shorter and mj larger than in A. I. is usual in Abrothrix, reaching a development sim-
longipilis. M' without any evidence of a metafos- ilar to that in Deltamys, but less developed than
setus. Lower jaw with the capsular projection for in Bolomys.
the base of the incisor more developed than usual The development of the capsule of the
greater
in the subgenus. incisor root obviously a consequence of the more
is
Description— The only known part of the skull, strongly developed lower incisor. This is unusually
a piece of left maxilla including the cheekteeth deep for Akodon sensu lato, and it is absolutely
which belongs to the type specimen, is too frag- and proportionally deeper than in the living species
mentary to afford useful information about the of Abrothrix. In the available specimens ofker-
all
structure of the palate. Moreover, it does not in- macki, the mean depth of the incisor is almost as
clude any part of the usually diagnostic zygomatic large as the length of the mj (length m,- 100/depth
plate. From the bone tissue preserved posteroin- incisor = 0.993), and in Vi of the available indi-
ternal to the M^, it can be inferred that the pos- viduals, it surpasses the m, (see table 3, fig. 9). In
terior border of the palate was behind the posterior a sample of 19 ^. /. longipilis from Valparaiso,
border of the last upper molar, as it is in Abrothrix. Chile, in the British Museum, the same index is
The mandible (fig. 5) is very well preserved in 0.927, and the length of the m, is, in all the in-
the holotype, MLP 62.VII.27.84, MMP M-1 154, dividual cases, longer than the depth of the incisor.
and MMP S-222. It is relatively slender, moder- The molar teeth agree in all respects with the
ately low and elongated, as in Abrothrix and some characters of Abrothrix as stated above in the di-
species ofAkodon s.s. (e.g., A. cursor). The diaste- agnosis. In all six known specimens, the masti-
ma has approximately the same length as the com- catory surface shows an appreciable, but not ad-
bined length of m, and mj, and the depth of the vanced, degree of wear, corresponding to wear
horizontal ramus below m, is less than the dia- stages 2-3 ofAkodon azarae as described by Pear-
stema length in all specimens except MMP son (1967). Therefore, most of the details of the
M-1 071, in which it is slightly larger. The lower enameled structures of the crown can be observed.
border of the ramus bends gently upward and The upper dentition is only known from the type
backward behind the level of the middle of the m2 specimen. The total length of the upper molar row
and descends again behind the m,, shaping a con- (4.91 mm
in crown length) places A. kermacki
cave line, as is usual in Abrothrix. The border of among the largest species ofAkodon s.s. (A. urichi,
the ramus immediately in front of the m, descends A. varius)and within the range of variation in the
rather abruptly downward, making a slightly ob- available sample of ^. longipilis from Valparai-
/.
tuse angle with the upper border of the symphysis. so, which is the largest subspecies of longipilis. In
The symphysis is relatively long and moderately molar morphology, some differences are apparent,
low, and the uppermost anterior point of the di- which might be of diagnostic value. In M' and M^

Table 1. Measurement (in mm) of the known specimens of Akodon (Abrothrix) magnus n. sp. and of Akodon
(Abrolhrix) kermacki Reig (some of the specimens of A. kermacki were reported with slightly different values for
&
some of the measurements in Reig Linares, 1 969; the new values given here result from the adoption of conventions
used in the present study).
Table 2. Length of upper molar row of difTerent
and subspecies of Akodon (Abrothrix).
species
Species and subspecies N Ref.«
Akodon (Ab.) kermacki 1
Akodon iAb) longipilis longipilis

Akodon (Ab.) longipilis castaneus
Akodon (Ab.) longipilis francei
Akodon (Ab.) longipilis suffusa
Akodon (Ab.) longipilis apta
Akodon (Ab.) longipilis nubila
Akodon (Ab.) sanborni
Akodon (Ab.) lanosus
Akodon (Ab.) mansoensis
Akodon (Ab.) hershkovitzi
tO
.. ZniM

Table 3. Statistics of the sample of Akodon (Abrothrix) kermacki Reig compared with a sample of Akodon
(Ahrothrix) longipilis longipilis from a living population at Valparaiso, Chile.
X>
I 1
M
1 1
U
1 1
4.a
< 1
*A
1
— —
1
4.«
t" I
4.1
1
».
V . V . V
A. azarae. F.zeiza . N= 94
A. cursor, Misiones. N- 20
A. uric hi vcnezuelensis, Avila- N- 39
A.urichi venezuelensis, Orinnte. N= 17
A. urichi saturatus, S. Venezuela. N«47
A. varius simulator, Tucuma'n. N« 40
A. kermacki, Chapadmalal and Bca. Lobos Ftions. N«6
A. longipilis, Valparaiso. N» 19
L E N G T H Mj.-Mg. fC R O \>' N)
Fig. 8. Dice-grams of the variation in the length of the lower molar row (coronal) in various species of medium-
and small-sized Akodon {Akodon) and Akodon (Abrothrix). The diagram shows the mean, the range, two standard
errors to each side of the mean (black squares), and one standard deviation to each side of the mean (open squares +
black squares).
greater development of the capsular projection of isolated, and other mammals presently restricted
the base of the incisor, kermacki is more highly to Chilean or Andean distributions were also pres-
modified than the living species. If this is indic- ent in the Upper Pliocene of Buenos Aires Prov-
ative of evolutionary divergence, kermacki could ince. One
is the fossil caviomorph Pithanotomys,
not be the ancestor of any living species o{ Abro- which hardly separable from the living Acon-
is
thrix.This conclusion, however, is based on frail aemys, restricted now to a few isolated populations
evidence, and more specimens and further study in southern and central Chile (Osgood, 1 943) and
of other characters are necessary to evaluate its high valleys of Mendoza and Neuquen, Argentina
evolutionary significance. (Pearson, 1984), but abundant in the fossil de-
In any case, Abrothrix in the Upper Pliocene
and lowermost Pleistocene of SE Buenos Aires
Province occurred almost 1,000 km eastward of Table 4. Student's / test for differences between
the present distribution of this subgenus. Actually, means in six selected variates o{ Akodon {Abrothrix) lon-
gipilis and Akodon (Ab.) kermacki (from data in tables
the living representatives of Abrothrix are now
1 and 3).
limited to the lowlands and low
valleys of central
and southern Chile and the eastern Andean slopes
of Mendoza and Patagonia, to Tierra del Fuego,
plus ihe isolated A. illutea of Tucuman. The dif-
ferent distributions of living and fossil Abrothrix
indicate a reduction of the range of this subgenus
from a much more extended area to its present
limits, a phenomenon which could have been
caused by the climatic changes that occurred dur-
ing the Pleistocene. The case of Abrothrix is not
L E N G T H M
M.
A. magnut
X A. loni
O
Z 2.1
A.kcrmcicki
-• 1—«
1
'
1-
1.3
WIDTH
1.4 1J 1.6
A.(Abrothrix) 1. longipilis
A.CAbrothrix) kermacki
• A.(Abrothrix) magnus
Fig. 9. Scattergrams of measurements of difTerent teeth in living and fossil species of Akodon (Abrothrix).

posits of the Pliocene and Lx)wer Pleistocene of kermacki, but more slender. The diastema is, how-
Buenos Aires Province. The marsupial subfamily ever, a little shorter, its length being less than that
Caenolestinae, which is now restricted in southern of the two first molars. The horizontral ramus is
South America to the south temperate forests of shorter, with a height less than the diastema length,
southern Chile and possibly Argentina, is also rep- and lower border bends slightly upward from
its
resented by the fossil genus Pliolestes in the Plio- the level of the anterior part of the mj. The border
cene of Buenos Aires Province (Reig, 1955). Also of the ramus immediately in front of the m, is as
the living genus Abrocoma, now restricted to the in A. kermacki, but the upper border of the dia-
Andean region, had representatives in the Pliocene stema is slightly more concave. The symphysis,
of Buenos Aires Province, and a specimen in the while shorter, is lower and more slender. The low-
collection of the Museum of Mar del Plata (MMP- er masseteric crest is somewhat higher in position
1059) from the Atlantic cliffs of the Chapadmalal than in A. kermacki. The mental foramen is as
region dates from the early Pleistocene. in kermacki. The anterior border of the coro-
noid process is only partially preserved, but it is
clear that originates further posteriorly than

it
Akodon (Abrothiix) magnus, n. sp. in kermacki, at the level of the middle of the al-
veolus of m,. The condyloid process is not pre-
HOLOTYPE-MMP M-551 (figs. 5D, G-H,; 6E): served, but the remaining parts of the ascending
left lower jaw with incisor, m, and mj, lacking mj ramus show a great deal of the sigmoid notch and
and condyloid, coronoid and angular processes; suggest that the condyle was rather low and well
right lower jaw with incisor and m,, lacking mj projected backward. The capsular projection has
and mj, coronoid and condyloid processes; left broken walls in the two rami of the holotype, and
femur broken in the middle of the shaft; right cal- it is slightly less pronounced than in kermacki,
caneum (the postcranial bones are only tentatively the root of the incisor lying further forward, be-
associated with the mandibles). Found by G. J. tween the coronoid process and the beginning of
Scaglia in Vorohue Formation (Kraglievich, 1952), the sigmoid notch.
at the Atlantic slopesof the Chapadmalal region The incisor is much weaker than in kermacki,
near Baliza San Andres, Partido de General Puey- and its proportions are as normal in normal A.
rredon, SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. longipilis. Its absolute size in depth is less than in
These sp)ecimens were found associated with MMP kermacki, even when magnus shows greater values
M-869, the holotype of Cholomys pearsoni Reig, for all the remaining measurements of the denti-
1980, and MMP M-897 and M-868, the last two tion.
belonging to a new species of the subgenus Akodon The m, and mj are very similar to those of
described below. kermacki, the main distinction being absolute size.
Hypodigm— The holotype and MMP
S-407: However, the m, clearly shows a metastylid, a
right fragmentary lower jaw of an old individual, character which has not been observed in any oth-
bearing the incisor and the three molar teeth, the er specimen of Abrothrix examined by me, and
worn. Found by G. J. Scaglia in Vo-
latter greatly which may be considered diagnostic. However, a
^ rohue Formation, at the sector of Atlantic slopes larger sample is necessary to evaluate the con-
stretching from south of Arroyo Loberia, Cha- stancy of this character-state. As is typical of ker-
padmalal region, Partido de General Pueyrredon, macki and other Abrothrix, the mesolophid rem-
SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. nant is weak and grows out from the middle of
Diagnosis— A very large species of Akodon the entolophid in the m,, and the entoconid makes
(Abrothrix), exceeding in size A. (Ab.) kermacki; a noticeable bulge on the lingual face of the tooth.
mandible slender; incisor relatively much weaker; In the mj the mesolophid remnant is rudimentary,
m, with a distinct metastylid. but the protoflexid is better marked than in spec-
Known Distribution— Vorohuean subage of imens of kermacki. The mj show that
roots of the
the Uquian age (Lower Pleistocene), SE of Buenos this tooth was large, probably relatively larger than
Aires Province, Argentina (see Marshall et al., in kermacki. This is confirmed by the very worn
1984). mj of specimen MMP S-407.
Description— The description is based on the Discussion— Although the main distinction of
holotype, as specimen MMP
S-407 is only ten- A. magnus from A. kermacki is one of size, the
tatively included in the species. slender mandible and weaker incisor confirm that
The mandible is distinctly larger than that of A. they are different species. The difference in abso-

-if

lute size is obvious at first sight (figs. 21-22), but than the other specimens referred to the same
one tempted to wonder whether this specimen
is SF)ecies. In any case, even if it were demonstrated
might not be an extremely large individual within that there is a direct phyletic link between the two
the size range of ^. kermacki (cf. fig. 21). One species, there is still enough evidence to maintain
specimen oi A. kermacki (MMP M-1067) fi'om A. magnus as a well-distinguished species; its size
the Chapadmalal Formation has a first molar near- differences from kermacki are not compatible with
ly as long as that of specimen MMP
S-407, at- theknown range of size variation in species of the
tributed to A. magnus. The Chapadmalal speci- subgenus Abrothrix (figs. 8-9).
men, however, has a much shorter mj, and agrees
with kermacki in the mandible and relative size
of the incisor (table1). Another specimen oi ker- Akodon (Akodon) johannis, n. sp.
macki from the Chapadmalal Formation (MMP
M- 1 1 54) has an mj which approaches the size of Holotype- MMP M-742 (fig. 10F,H,J): right
the m2 inspecimen MMP S-407, but its m, is lower jaw with incisor and m|-m2, lacking the cor-
much shorter and it also agrees with kermacki in onoid and angular processes and the mj; left lower
incisor and mandible characters (table 1). In any jaw with m,-m2, with incisor broken, and lacking
case, there is no overlap in absolute size, and the mj and the same processes; left maxilla with '- M
specific distinction seems to be validated by the M^; portion of right maxilla with M'-M^; the two
sum of all studied characters. tibiae, the right incomplete; incomplete right and
It could be alleged, however, that the transitions left femora; right humerus and cubitus; portions
in size between organs in sjjecimens of the two of scapula and of left pelvis; two vertebrae. Found
species might be a reflection of a real transition by G. J. Scaglia in Miramar Formation (Kragliev-
between the two taxa, and that a process of spe- ich,1952) at the Atlantic slopes south of "Bajada
ciationby gradual transformation is involved here. de San Andres," Chapadmalal region, Partido de
Such alleged cases of phyletic speciation have been General Pueyrredon, SE of Buenos Aires Province,
described in the echimyid rodent Eumysops from Argentina.
the same sequence (Kraglievich, 1965) and sur- Etymology— The species name, johannis, is
mised in the case of the didelphoids Thylatheri- given for Juan Brkljacic, a close collaborator of G.
dium (Reig, 1959) and Sparassocynus (Reig & J. Scaglia in the latter's work at the Museum of
Simpson, 1972), also from the same sediments. Mar del Plata. Brkljacic has been responsible for
Although this possible interpretation can only be a great deal of progress by that institution in the
substantiated by more material, I believe that the recent past.
greater development of the incisor in kermacki Hypodigm— The holotype is the only known
precludes the possibility that this species is the specimen.
direct ancestor of magnus. Moreover, the single Diagnosis— A small species of Akodon {Ako-
specimen of kermacki known from the interme- don) the size of A. andinus or A. nigrita; moder-
diate Barranca Lobos Formation (MMP M- 1 07 1 ), ately strong mandible with a low symphysis, a
does not show intermediate character-states, but relatively deep incisor, and a fairly well-developed
is closer to the holotype of A. kermacki in size capsular projection. Incisive foramina almost level
Opposite Page:
Fig. 10. Lower jaws, maxillae, and molar teeth of fossil and living species of small Akodon (Akodon). A, Later
view of lower jaw of living A. (Ak.) cursor montensis Thomas; female;
left BMNH 1874; Puerto Gisela, Misiones,
Argentina. B, Lateral view of left lower jaw of /I. (Ak.) cf cursor (Winge); MLP 66. VII. 27. 95 (a); Miramar Formation
(Ensenadan Stage), vicinity of Camet, Partido de Mar Chiquita, SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Middle
Pleistocene). C, Crown view of left m, of A. {Ak.) cf cursor (Winge); MLP 66. VII. 27. 95. D, Crown view of left m,
of living A. {Ak.) cursor montensis Thomas; type specimen, BMNH 4.1.5.3.36; Sapucay, Paraguay. E, Lateral view
of right lower jaw of living A. nigrita Lichtenstein; male; BMNH 3.7.1.74; Ro9a Nova, Parana, Brazil. F, Lateral
view of right lower jaw of ^4. {Ak.) johannis n. sp.; holotype, MMP M-742; Miramar Formation (Ensenadan stage),
Chapadmalal region, Partido de General Pueyrredon, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (Middle Pleistocene). G,
Crown view of right lower m, and mj of A. {Ak.) johannis n. sp.; holotype, MMPM-742. H, Lateral view of left
maxilla of ^. {Ak.) johannis n. sp.; holotype, MMP
M-742. 1, Lateral view of left maxilla of y4. {Ak.) nigrita, BMNH
3.7.1.74. J, Palatal view of left and right maxillae of A. {Ak.) johannis n. sp.; holotype, MMP
M-742. K, Crown view
of upper molar series of A. {Ak.) johannis n. sp.; holotype, MMPM-742.

Table 5. Statistics of the coronal length of m,-mj in 10 samples of 10 species and subspecies of the genus Akodon.
Statistic
Species, subspecies, and locality N Range SD SE

A. puer (Peru and Bolivia) 14 3.58-^.16 3.76 0.176 0.040
A. iniscatus (Chubut) 20 3.39-4.22 3.97 0.186 0.041
A. azarae (Ezeiza, Buenos Aires) 94 3.84-4.60 4.24 0.154 0.014
A. cursor (Misiones, Argentina) 20 4.23-4.73 4.40 0.138 0.031
A. urichi venezuelensis (Avila) 39 4.54-5.02 4.74 0.128 0.019
A. urichi venezuelensis (Oriente) 17 4.54-5.21 4.82 0.179 0.043
A. urichi saturatus (Tepuyes) 47 4.80-5.50 5.06 0.135 0.019
A. varius simulator (Tucuman) 40 4.38-5.39 5.01 0.167 0.023
A. I. longipilis (Valparaiso) 19 4.73-5.31 5.01 0.186 0.042
A. kermacki (Pliocene, Buenos Aires) 6 4.86-5.63 5.19 0.299 0.118
X= arithmetic mean; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error.
with the anterior borders of M'. Zygomatic plate the M' either exceeds the anteropKJSterior diam-
strong, wider than the length of the M', with a eter of the plate, as is the case in A. puer, A. bo-
rounded and slightly forward-projecting anterior liviensis, and A. azarae, or the two measurements
border. Molars relatively broad. M' with a wide are roughly equivalent, as is the case in A. inis-
and oblique procingulum showing a moderately catus. The anterior border of the zygomatic plate
developed anteromedian flexus, but without an- is and it slightly projects forward at
quite upright,
teroflexus. Lower molars without mesolophid itsrounded upper comer, and it is not sharply cut
remnants and mesostylids; ectolophids and ecto- off above, the upper comer being very slightly
stylids also absent. turned into the anterior border.

Known Distribution— Ensenadan age. Middle The mandible is also characterized by its low
*
Pleistocene of SE of Buenos Aires Province, Ar- symphysis and the very procumbent incisor. This
gentina. is reflected in the anterior median point of the
Description— Of the skull, only the maxilla and diastema, which is well below the level of the al-
the middle palatal region can be studied. The pal- veolar row, even more so than in A. cursor (fig.
ate is long and wide; the space between the internal lOA), a species with a particularly low symphysis.
borders of the crowns of the M' is greater than the In A. (Deltamys) kempi and in A. nigrita (fig. lOE)
length of the M'. There is no direct evidence of and A. andinus (fig. IID), the symphysis is also
the position of the posterior border of the palate, low, but less markedly so than that in A. johannis;
but the maxillary bone surroimding the M' clearly in most of the other species of Akodon s.l., the
indicates that the border was slightly behind the symphysis is more upturned and, consequently,
posterior border of those molars. The posterior the incisor is less procumbent. The mandibular
limits of the incisive foramina (fig. lOJ) are clearly ramus is relatively deep: although the depth of the
indicated in the two portions of maxillae. The fo- ramus at the m, is less than the diastema length,
ramina scarcely surpass the anterior border of the the ramus is higher than in species of similar size,
M', and they are even less expanded behind than such as A. nigrita, A. iniscatus, and A. puer, and
in Akodon nigrita, a living species with rather short it is longer than the combined mi-m, length. The
incisive foramina. In fact, the posterior position lower masseteric crest is high and moderately
of these foramina resembles that in Notiomys and marked, more clearly so than the upper masseteric
Microxus (in which they scarcely surpass the an- crest, and the two crests reach forward nearly to
terior border of the M') more than the usual con- the anterior border of the m,. The tip of the cor-
dition in Akodon s.s.. in which they usually reach onoid process is broken in the two mandibles, but
the level of the protocone of the M'. In the zy- its anterior border is partially preserved, and it
gomatic plate, however, johannis stands quite apart slopes backward somewhat abmptly. The condyle
from Notiomys and Microxus, and shows an un- is well posterior and fairly high in position, and
usually strong and wide plate, with an anteropos- the capsular projection is well develop)ed, as com-
terior length greater than the length of the M', as pared to usual Akodon s.s.
is and A. andinus. In
also the case in A. nigrita The incisor is comparatively strong, markedly
most other species of small Akodon, the length of more so than in nigrita, aruiinus, and puer, and it

Table 6. Measurements of lower jaw and lower molars of fossil and living specimens of Akodon (Akodon) cursor.
expose sediments of the Miramar Formation Discussion— Apart from Akodon cursor, only
(Kraglievich, 1952), and this geological prove- A. azarae, now living in the same locality where
nance can be ascertained for the fossils found in the fossils were found (Reig, 1 964), is a plausible
the fallen block. relative. Akodon azarae agrees with the fossil spec-
Description— The morphology and measure- imens in being a medium-sized species with a rath-
ments (table 6) of the mandibles indicate that these er elongated mandible. It is, however, significantly
represent Akodon closely allied, if not identical, to smaller than the fossil specimens (fig. 1 2) and has
the living species A. (Ak.) cursor (Winge). As in a stronger mandible. A sample of 55 A. azarae
the latter species, the mandible is elongate and from Ezeiza, close to Buenos Aires, now in the
slender relative to other species of intermediate- Museum of Mar del Plata, shows an alveolar length
sized Akodon. The symphysis is elongated and low, of the lower series significantly smaller (f < 0.001)
the anterior median point of the diastema being than the studied sample of A. cursor from Puerto
at a level below that of the alveolar row. The length Gisela (fig. 8). The alveolar molar length of the
of the diastema is as long as m, and mj, and the three fossil specimens here described have the same
depth of the ramus below m, is slightly greater mean value as the A. cursor sample. Moreover,
than the diastema length. The lower border of the azarae is characterized by narrower molar teeth,
ramus is gently concave behind the m,. The lower as it is evident for the m, in the diagram of Figure
masseteric ridge is relatively well marked and rath- 1 2. Thus, a close relationship of the fossil speci-
er high in position, the upper masseteric ridge being mens with azarae must be ruled out. The mor-
scarcely noticeable and somewhat parallel to the phological resemblance and the agreement in size
alveolar border. The coronoid process is low, and with cursor is such that the fossils from Camet
its anterior border slopes upward very gently. The represent a form probably conspecific with living
condyloid process is also low and projected well cursor.
backward. There is a fairly well-developed cap- Akodon cursor was first described by Winge
sular projection of the base of the incisor, slightly (1887) from living and subfossil specimens from
stronger than usual in living specimens of cursor Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, as a member
examined, but the difference is not really very of Habrothrix (Thomas [1884] had placed under
marked. The incisor is, as in cursor, well devel- Habrothrix, a misspelling of Abrothrix Water-*
oped, and its depth is a little greater than that of house, all Akodon-\\)/itmice from South America).
the holotype and other specimens examined of /I. Afterward Thomas (1902) placed cursor in Ako-
cursor montensis. don, and he later (1913) erected A. arviculoides
The molar teeth are too worn to show many montensis, which he compared with cursor. As
details of structure. However, the m of specimen
, already discussed (pages 354, 356) arviculoides
(a) is slightly less worn (fig. 1 OC) and shows a clear Wagner is not an Akodon, but a synonym of Bolo-
indication of an anteromedian flexid and an over- mys lasiurus (Lund); montensis Thomas is most
all shape and development of the procingulum likely a subsp)ecies of cursor Winge, as proixjsed by
which matches perfectly with the procingulum of Ximenez and Langguth (1970). Thus, two subspe-
cursor. A well-marked anteroflexid is present in cies of cursor may be recognized: A. c. cursor Winge,
the holotype of A. cursor montensis (fig. lOD) and which following Vieira (1955), extends over Minas
in each of 15 animals from Puerto Gisela, Mi- Guanabara (Rio de Janeiro),
Gerais, Espirito Santo,
siones, in the British Museum referred to at sub- Sao Paulo, and Parana; and A. c. montensis, which
species. The shape of the enamel walls at the hy- is known from Paraguay (Thomas, 1913), Misiones
poflexid suggests that an ectostylid was present. (Massoia & Fomes, 1962), and central Uruguay
This element is absent in the holotype of /I. c. (Ximenez & Langguth, 1 970). However, these sub-
montensis, but is present in 7 of 1 4 specimens of species are not well defined, and our fossil sample
the above-mentioned sample. From the enamel is too small and fragmentary to attempt a compar-
wall of the mesoflexid, no mesolophid remnant is ison with living subspecies or to place it in a sub-
evident in this specimen. This structure is

fossil species of its own. The present evidence indicates
present in of the modem sample, but it is
80% only that they represent Akodon cf cursor and that
almost completely absent in the type of /I. c. mon- this species extended its range in Middle Pleisto-
tensis. In length and width, the m, falls within the cene times at least 600 km south of the known limits
limits of variation in a sample of living cursor of its present distribution.
(table 6), and there also a complete correspon-
is Akodon cf cursor from the Miramar Formation
dence in the length of the molar series between the cannot be confused with Akodon johannis, found
fossil specimens and the living sample. also in the same strata. The latter is much smaller,

has a relatively stronger mandible and a relatively Atlantic slopes extending S of Punta Hermengo,
deeper incisor, a more upturned and higher cor- Miramar, Partido de General Alvarado, SE of Bue-
onoid process, and a much lower symphysis. Its nos Aires Province, Aiêntina.
m, is proportionally much wider, and its procin- Etymology— The species is named for Mr. Sil-
gulum lacks a well-defined anteromedian flexid. vio Lorenzini, discoverer of the type specimen and
The differences between these two species are as other remarkable fossil cricetids, and an active
great as the differences between living A. cursor collaborator of the Museum of Mar del Plata.
and A. nigrita in areas of sympatry. Diagnosis— A small species oi Akodon the size
of A. puer. Mandible relatively short and high.
Zygomatic plate moderately wide. Incisive foram-
Akodon (Akodon) lorenzinii, n. sp. ina well behind the anterior border of first molar,
but not reaching their protocones. M' with a
HoLOTYPE-MMP M-1081 (figs. 1 II, 13H): the well-marked anteromedian flexus, a shallow an-
two lower jaws with incisors and molar teeth. teroflexus, and a projecting, narrow mesoloph
Found by Mr. S. Lorenzini in the Atlantic slopes remnant united to a mesostyle. Lower molars rel-
5 km N of the city of Miramar customarily known atively narrow, without indication of mesolophid
as "Barranca Parodi," Partido de General Alvara- remnants, mesostylids, or ectolophids, and with
do, SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The somewhat oblique entolophids and posterolo-
fossils were found of San Andres For-
in strata phids. Procingulum of m, narrow, with a shallow
mation (Kraglievich, 1952; see also Marshall et anteromedian flexid and a well-marked metaflex-
al., 1 984), as confirmed in the field by G. J. Scaglia id. mj relatively small.
and the late J. Zetti. Known Distribution— Vorohuean and San
Hypodigm— The holotype; and MMP
M-867 Andresian subages. Lower Pleistocene (see Mar-
(figs. 11 G; 1 3G): incomplete right maxilla with m , , shall et al., 1984), SE of Buenos Aires Province,
broken rcvj, and m,, and partially broken zygo- Argentina.
matic plate. Found by G. J. Scaglia in the Vorohue Description— The skull fragments of speci-
Formation (Kraglievich, 1952; Marshall et al., mens MMP M-867 and MLP 52-X-4-44 (a) afford
1984) at the Atlantic slopes of the Chapadmalal only a few indications of the maxillary and palatal
region, close to "Baliza San Andres," Partido de region. They show a rather robust zygomatic plate,
General Pueyrredon, SE of Buenos Aires Province, probably wider than in A. iniscatus and as wide
Argentina. Found in association with next speci- The anterior border of the zygomatic
as in A. puer.
men and with MMP
M-551, holotype o^ Akodon plateis not preserved in either specimen, but its
magnus (see above), and MMP M-869,

(Abrothrix) lower limit can be observed in MMP
M-867, sug-
holotype of Cholomys pearsoni Reig (see Reig, gesting that it is slightly wider than the length of
1980). the M'. The incisive foramina (fig. 1 IG) are ex-
MMP M-868 (fig. 1 IJ): left lower jaw with in- panded backward far more than in johannis, and
cisor and molar teeth, partially lacking coro-
all they extend to the middle of the protoflexid of the
noid, condyloid, and angular processes. Found in M', not reaching to the protocone. In this respect,
association with MMP
M-867. M-867 and M-868 lorenzinii resembles iniscatus and andinus more
may belong to the same individual, but the lower than puer, in which the incisive foramina extend
molar teeth look more worn than the upper ones. slightly behind the protocone of the M' in all 20
Therefore, I prefer to treat them as belonging to individuals I examined from different localities.
two different individuals. The mandible (fig. 1 1 1-J) is much shorter than
MLP 52-X-4-44 (a) (fig. IIM): most of right in puer, iniscatus, andinus, or johannis. It differs
lower jaw broken in front of the middle of the markedly from the slender and elongated man-
symphysis, and at the posterior processes, with a dible oi puer (fig. 1 IC), and in proportions it is
broken incisor and all molar teeth, the second mo- closer to the mandible of iniscatus, although no-
lar partially broken; fragment of right maxilla in- ticeably smaller. The symphysis is fairly upturned,
cluding the first molar and the posterior half of as the middle anterior point of the diastema reach-
the zygomatic plate; left femur; portion of left tib- molar alveolar rows, differing
es the level of the
ia; right upper incisor. Found by the late J. Fren- from puer, and obviously from johannis, to ap-
guelli in association with MLP 52-X-4-44 (b), a proach more closely the condition found in inis-
specimen referred to Scapteromys sp., in beds of catus. The masseteric crests are located midway
San Andres Formation (= "Prebelgranense" in up the sides of the ramus, as in iniscatus, whereas
Frenguelli's stratigraphic nomenclature), in the in puer and andinus, they are placed higher. They
REIG: SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION OF AKODONTINI ^3

are less marked than in iniscatus, and the lower organ (MMP M-867), but it is evident that it was
one smooth, although stronger than the upper
is relatively narrow, as in puer and iniscatus.
one. The depth of the mandible at the m, is greater The lower molars are more distinctive in show-
than the diastema length, but it is less than the ing a little marked anteromedian flexid and a
combined length of m,-m2. In iniscatus, the depth rather narrow procingulum in the m
, without indi- ,
of the mandible is less than both the diastema cation of a protostylid. There is, however, a well-
length and the combined length of the first two developed anterolabial cingulum, but it does not
molars, whereas in puer the diastema is longer than contribute to the shape of the crown enamel pat-
the depth of the mandible. The coronoid process tern of the procingulum, as in other species. The
slopes rather abruptly backward, more or less as metaflexid is also more re-entrant than in puer and
in iniscatus, and more so than in puer. The process but as in them, there is no trace of a
iniscatus,
itself is short and low, so that the condyle is at a mesolophid remnant or a mesostylid, and the sim-
level higher than the tip of the coronoid process. ple entolophid is rather oblique in position, es-
The condyloid process is high, and it is not mark- pecially in the m,. The posterolophid is even more
edly projected backward. The capsular projection oblique, so that the posteroflexid is noticeably wide.
ismoderately developed, but it is stronger than in A protoflexid is well marked in the three lower
puer and andinus, even a little stronger than in molars, and the m,, as in puer, is relatively small
iniscatus. and has a sigmoid shape. No trace of ectolophid
The incisor iscomparatively deep, clearly more is shown in any of the three lower molars, but a
so than in puer, and it is also slightly deeper than tiny ectostylid is observed in the m2 of the type
in iniscatus. Its depth equals or exceeds the length specimen.
of the m3 (fig. 14). Discussion— /4/cot/o/i lorenzinii is a very small
The upper molars of MMP
M-867 show little species of Akodon showing a distinctive combi-
wear, while the M' of MLP 52-X-4-44 (a) is mod- nation of characters. It seems to be more closely
erately worn. They are very similar in morphology related to ^. puer and A. iniscatus than to any other
to upper molars of both puer and iniscatus. The species of the subgenus Akodon, and the balance
only significant difference lies in the mesoloph of similarities would favor a closer relationship
remnant which unites to the mesostyle in the two with iniscatus. This is also expected on biogeo-
available specimens and is projected further lat- graphic grounds. In fact, puer is a widespread
erally than in puer or iniscatus. In this respect, species, but is restricted to the Andean and pam-
lorenzinii resembles more closely A. andinus, but pean mountains from Peru to Tucuman in Argen-
differs from it procingulum of M',
in the stronger tina. Thomas ( 1 902) originally described puer from
which has a well-marked anteromedian flexus and specimens of Chaquecamata in west-central Bo-
a less projecting parastyle. The M^ is broken in its livia, and he subsequently identified as puer spec-
external half in the only specimens that show this imens I examined from south and central Peru.
I Opposite Page:
Fig. 1 1 .Lower jaws and maxillae o^ Akodon {Akodon) lorenzinii n. sp., and Akodon {Akodon) cf. iniscatus Thomas
and of related living Akodon species. A, External view of right mandible oi A. iniscatus Thomas; female; holotype,
BMNH 3.7.9.64; Valle del Lago Blanco, Chubut, Argentina. B, External view of right mandible of A. albiventer
(Thomas); male; BMNH 21.1 1.1.51; Sierra de Zenla, Jujuy, Argentina. C, External view of right mandible o^ A. puer
Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH 2.1.1.78; Choquecamate, Bolivia. D, External view of right lower mandible oi A.
andinus (Philippi); female; holotype oi A. gossei Thomas, BMNH 98.3.21.5; Puente del Inca, Mendoza, Argentina.
E, External view of fragment of left maxilla with M' of ^. lorenzinii n. sp.; MLP 52.X.4.44 (a); San Andres Formation,
Miramar, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina (San Andresian, uppermost Lower Pleistocene). F, External view of
incomplete left maxilla with molar teeth of A. lorenzinii n. sp.; MMP M-867; Vorohue Formation, Chapadmalal
region, Partido de General Pueyrredon, SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina/Vorohuean (Lower Pleistocene). G,
Reconstructed palatal view of ^. lorenzinii n. sp., based on MMP M-867 (the right half is an inverted drawing of
the original left half). H, Palatal view of the skull of A. iniscatus Thomas; male; BMNH 13. 11. 1. 5; Pampa Central,
Argentina. I, External view of left mandible of A. lorenzinii n. sp.; type specimen, MMP M-1081; San Andres
Formation, Barranca Parodi, Miramar, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina; San Andresian (Lower Pleistocene). J,
External view of left mandible of A. lorenzinii n. sp.; MMP M-868; found in association with MMP M-867. K,
External view of right mandible of A. cf iniscatus: MMP S-640; Vorohue Formation, south of Arroyo Loberia,
Chapadmalal region. L, External view of right mandible of a. iniscatus Thomas; male; BMNH 13.1 1.1.5. M, External
view of incomplete mandible of A. lorenzinii n. sp.; MLP 52.X.4.44 (a).

o
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21
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4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
I 1 I I L_ _J 1 I I
I 1 L_
N»SS A. (Akodon) azarae
N=15 A. (Akodon) cursor
li«» A. (Akodon) cf. cursor
LENGTH M1-M3 CA L V/)
• A. asaras
^^
^ A. cursor
A. cf. cursor
11-
III
U
a9 10 1.1 u
WIDTH OF M].
Fig. 12. Dice-grams and scattergram for measurements of dentition of species of Akodon (Akodon).
He later (Thomas, 1918) described caenosus from Pampa Province, believing (Thomas, 1 9 1 9, p. 205)
the mountains at Leon, Jujuy Province, in north- that extended to the south of SE of Buenos Aires
it
west Argentina, as a subspecies ofpuer. However, Province. Akodon iniscatus colli nus was described
he later (Thomas, 1 920) recorded more specimens (Thomas, 1919, p. 206) as a subspecies from
from San Salvador de Jujuy, proposing specific northwestern Patagonia, and A. nucus, described
status for caenosus. The extension of its range to as a full species (Thomas, 1 926a) from specimens
Tucuman was recorded by Thomas (1926b) and of western Neuquen and southern Mendoza, was
Barquez et al. (1980). On examination of the cor- considered as a subspecies of iniscatus by Cabrera
responding types and of all the specimens referred (1961). Examination of the holotypes and fairly
to puer and caenosus in the British Museum, I Museum shows A. nucus
large series in the British
could not find any reasonable basis to accept spe- is obviously different from the typical iniscatus. It
cific or even subspecific recognition for caenosus, is a much larger form, and I believe that it must
and I treat it as a junior synonym of puer (see also be considered as a distinct sjiecies. The subsF)ecific
Vitullo et al., 1986). distinction of collinus from typical iniscatus is not
Akodon iniscatus is based on an animal caught at all evident, and I prefer to treat the former as
in the Andean region of Patagonia, from southwest a synonym of the latter. I examined specimens in
of Chubut Province, but Thomas referred to it the collection of the British Museum from central
specimens from northern Patagonia to central La La Pampa Province (fig. 1 1 H) which match per-

fectly the type of A. iniscatus (fig. 11 A), and I ters, thisspecimen matches the states in studied
therefore agree with Thomas that iniscatus is mandibles of iniscatus, making plausible its ref-
widespread, reaching northeast to the south of erence to the living SF>ecies. The alveolar length of
Buenos Aires Province. This latter extension of its the lower molar row is, however, somewhat great-
range seems to have been recently documented, er (table 7) than in the type of iniscatus, but the
as O. A. Scagliaand C. Velazquez (p)ers. comm.) difference obviously falls within the range of geo-
reportedly found this species in a grassland field graphic variation of that species (fig. 1 2). Here
near Balcarce (Buenos Aires Province) where it again, A. azarae must be considered as a possible
occurs in sympatry with A. azarae. relative of the fossil specimen. Although a close
Therefore, the presence of a form apparently relationship with azarae could be eventually dem-
Lower Pleistocene of SE
related to iniscatus in the onstrated by new material, I believe that it is un-
Buenos Aires Province not surprising. Wheth-
is likely and unsupported by the present evidence.
er lorenzinii can be thought of as an ancestor of Akodon azarae shows a less marked capsular pro-
iniscatus or as a member of an independent, but jection, a more elongated mandibular ramus, a less
related, lineage is a matter that cannot be settled upturned symphysis, and a relatively deep incisor;
now. The second alternative is more likely, as a and in all these characters, specimen MMP S-640
form more closely related to the living A. iniscatus agrees more closely with iniscatus (fig. 1 L). Un-
1
than A. lorenzinii was contemporaneous with the fortunately, the molar teeth are too worn to show
latter, as I shall present next. details of the enamel pattern, which is quite dif-
ferent in azarae and iniscatus, as is shown by the
high frequency in the former of ectolophids and
Akodon (Akodon) cf iniscatus Thomas ectostylids, mesolophid remnants, and meso-
stylids, which are almost completely absent in the
latter. The mj of the fossil specimen, although very
Referred Specimens— MMP S-640 (fig. UK):
lower jaw with incisor and very worn m, and
worn down, shows the external border of the me-
right
soflexid fairly clearly, without trace of a mesolo-
mj; broken at the tip of the coronoid process and
phid remnant or of a mesostylid, thus confirming
lacking condyloid and angular processes. Found
a closer resemblance to iniscatus.
by G. J. Scaglia in stratum II of Vorohue For-
mation (Kraglievich, 1952; Marshall et al., 1984)
at the Atlantic slopes S of Arroyo Loberia, Cha- The Meaning of the Fossil Akodontini
padmalal region, Partido de General Pueyrredon,
SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. One of the striking features of the fossil Ako-
Description and Discussion— This specimen dontini known from the Pliocene and Lower and
cannot be included either in the coeval species A. Middle Pleistocene of Argentina is that they rep-
lorenzinii or in A. cf. cursor or A. johannis, which resent diverse species closely related to some living
immediately follow in the stratigraphic succession. ones or else advanced extinct taxa, such as Dan-
It differs from the former mostly in size and in all komys. The same conclusion emerged from the
the characters discussed in comparing lorenzinii
I study of the Pliocene Phyllotini, described in
with iniscatus. It cannot be confused wiihjohannis another paper (Reig, 1978).
because of its somewhat greater size and more Table 8 summarizes our present knowledge of
upturned symphysis. In all the observed charac- the fossil species of the tribe and their chrono-
il
Opposite Page:
Fig. 1 3. Occlusal crown views of right upper and left lower molar teeth ofliving species oi Akodon {Akodon) and
of the Lower Pleistocene Akodon {Akodon) lorenzinii n. sp. A, Upper molars and B, lower molars ofliving A. andinns
(Phil.); type oi A. gossei Thomas; female; BMNH
98.3.21.5; Puente del Inca, Mendoza, Argentina. C, Upper
molar teeth and D, lower molar teeth of /I. puer Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH
2. 1 1 .78; Choquecamata, Bolivia.
.
E, Upper molar teeth and F, lower molar teeth oi A. iniscatus Thomas; female; holotype, BMNH
3.7.9.64; Valle del
Lago Planco, Chubut, Argentina. G, Upper molar teeth of /I. lorenzinii n. sp.; MMP
M-867; Vorohue Formation,
Lower Pleistocene, Partido de General Pueyrredon, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. H, Lower molar teeth oi A.
lorenzinii n. sp.; holotype, MMP
M-1081; San Andres Formation, Barranca Parodi, Miramar, Partido de General
Alvarado, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina; Lower Pleistocene. I, Right M' of ^. lorenzinii n. sp.; MLP 52. X. 4.44
(a); San Andres Formation, south of Punta Hermengo, Miramar, SE of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina; Lower
Pleistocene. J, Lower molar teeth of A. lorenzinii n. sp., MMP
M-868; found in association with M-867. MMP

aâ 3,4
SB ae a? as a» 4ô 4^t 4â
4a
A. iniscatus N» 20
A. puer N= 14
A. lorenzinii N* 3
L E N G T H MpM3 (CROWN)
i.t
u • A. azarae
V A. iniscatus
1.1*
«
A A. puer
A. cf. iniscatus
A. lorenzinii
•.t
•.I It 1, 1.1 12
DEPTH LOWER INCISOR
Fig. 14. Dice-grams and scattergrams of measurements of molar teeth in Akodon (Akodon) azarae, Akodon
(Akodon) cursor, and a fossil sample referred to the latter.
stratigraphic distribution in the Plio-Pleistocene and Lower Pleistocene {A. magnus) species of the
column of the south of Buenos Aires Province subgenus Abrothrix cannot be considered either
(Marshall et al., 1984). Included are representa- ancestral to or more primitive than the living
tivesof Bolomys and Dankomys which are still species of the subgenus. Bolomys bonapartei from
undescribed, but which will be the subject of forth- the Lower Pliocene, far from representing primi-
coming papers. As discussed in the previous sys- tive conditions in its character-states, is better in-
tematic part, the Upper Pliocene {A. kermacki) terpreted as part of the spatiotemporal diversifi-

Table 8. Chronostratigraphic distribution of the known species of fossil Akodontini, as reported in this paper
andinReig(1978).
PHo-Pleistocene ages and subages
Uquian
Pliocene (Lower Pleistocene)
s.
Si
Species
Bolomys bonapartei
Bolomys sp.*
Bolomys sp.f
Dankomys simpsoni
Dankomys sp4
Akodon (Ab.) kermacki
Akodon {At.) magnus
Akodon (Ak.) of cursor
Akodon {Ak.) lorenzinii
Akodon {Ak.) johannis
Akodon {Ak.) of iniscatus
* From ML? 52. X. 4. 30
(a), undescribed specimen from San Andres Formation in the vicinity of Miramar, Partido
de General Alvarado, SE of Buenos Aires Province.
t From MMP M-642 (b), undescribed M^ from Miramar Formation at Sta. Helena, Partido de Mar Chiquita, SE
of Buenos Aires Province.
t From MMP M-1064, undescribed jaws, partial skull and postcranial bones found in Vorohue Formation in the
vicinity of Punta Loberia, Partido de General Pueyrredon, SE of Buenos Aires Province. This sp)ecimen is the basis
of a new species which I shall describe in a forthcoming paper, and which is also represented by several other
specimens from the Vorohue and San Andres formations.
cation of a relatively advanced akodontine genus Fossil cricetids have not been found, however,
(Reig, 1 978, p. 1 69). Dankomys simpsoni from the in the rather rich deposits of the Upper Miocene
Upper Pliocene is related to Bolomys, but shows (Chasicoan and Huayquerian) sediments of the
more advanced adaptations to an herbivorous diet; pampean region. They are also absent in Miocene
it is best thought of as a derivative of the latter. deposits elsewhere in Argentina or in South Amer-
The genus is represented in the Lower Pleistocene ica. In view of the intrinsic incompleteness of the
by another, more advanced species (table 8). Fossil fossil record, the absence of akodontines (and oth-
representatives of the subgenus Akodon from the er sigmodontines as well) in the known Miocene
Lower (A. lorenzinii) and the Middle {A. johannis) deposits maybe just a matter of sampling, and
Pleistocene are neither ancestral nor more prim- they could eventually be discovered in those de-
itive than related living species, and two extant posits after more careful collecting. It might be
species {A. cursor and A. iniscatus) were present argued that the small size of cricetid remains makes
in the Middle Pleistocene. Thus, the fossil evi- their discovery less probable than those of larger
dence from the pampean region does not indicate rodents, which have actually been found in rela-
an early stage in akodontine evolution, but rather tive abundance in Miocene beds of Patagonia, the
suggests that they had already attained a high de- pampas and west of Argentina. In this sense, it
gree of evolution and differentiation at the generic may be meaningful that fossil cricetids have been
and subgeneric level in the Pliocene. It follows that mostly found in the Plio-Pleistocene outcrops of
the Akodontini started to differentiate and to di- the Mar del Plata-Miramar region. This region has
versify in times earlier than the Lower Pliocene, been exploited continuously and with careful scru-
that is, during Miocene times. Several lines of rea- tiny during the last 40 years by a collector, Galileo
soning support the parsimonious hypothesis that J. Scaglia, who was especially well trained in hunt-
this differentiation took place in those times in ing tiny fossil remains.
South America from oryzomyine South American Although these arguments are reasonable and
ancestors (Reig, 1984). do not discount the eventual discovery of fossil

cricetids in the rich Miocene mammal-bearing for- I agree that the discovery of Miocene Andean fos-
mations of Argentina, I am inclined to the alter- sil akodontines would be a critical additional cor-
native hypothesis that the absence of cricetids in roboration to the hypothesis. Several Miocene
those formations is not a result of faulty sampling, fossil faunules from the altiplano have been
but that it represents a real absence of mice in that discovered in the last 10 years by Dr. R. Hoffstetter
time and place. This absence may reflect the bio- and collaborators (see a review in Marshall et al.,
geographic history of akodonts in particular and 1983). So far, these faunules yielded remains of
of the Sigmodontinae in general. There is sugges- large- to medium-sized mammals, but this may
tive evidence that the evolutionary history of sig- be a mere reffection of the exploratory stage of
modontines was tightly linked with the history of their study. It must also be recognized that pres-
the changing environments of the Andean region ervation of tiny rodents demands special tapho-
(Reig, 1984).As inferred from distributions of liv- nomic conditions, which may or may not be found
ing species. South American sigmodontines are in the Andean Miocene deposits.
much more frequent in Andean highlands (7 1 .6%)
than in the remaining lowlands (28.4%; Reig, 1 984).
The pattern of species occurrences and the ende-
mism of genera suggest the hypothesis that the A Tentative Scenario of the Evolutionary
Oryzomyini (which likely included the akodontine Deployment of the Akodontini
ancestors) had the northern Andes of Ecuador,
Colombia, and Venezuela as its area of original My views on the origin, antiquity, and evolu-
differentiation (aod). For the Akodontini, 71.2% tionary history of the Sigmodontinae have been
of total reported occurrences are strictly Andean, presented and discussed in previous papers (Reig,
and the south-central Andes and north-southern 1978, 1980, 1981, 1984) and are not the subject
Andes between parallels 30°S and 40°S show the comment here. Instead, I shall base this
of further
greatest diversity of genera and the greatest fre- argument on the main premises of my theory,
quency of species occurrences, as defined and dis- namely: (1) The Sigmodontinae are a separate
cussed in Reig (1984). Thus, it can be postulated subfamily of the family Cricetidae that evolved in
that the aod of the Akodontini was located in the South America from North American ancestors;
general area of the present southern altiplano. The (2) their probable ancestors are the generalized
akodont rodents may have radiated from this area cricetidsof the North American Oligocene fep-
of original differentiation, expanding gradually to resenting the subfamily Eucricetodontinae {sensu
the northern Andes, the southern Andes of Ar- Martin, 1980); (3) the more primitive living sig-
gentina and Chile, and eventually to the lowlands modontines belong to the tribe Oryzomyini, which
of Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Uru- represents the direct or indirect ancestral stock of
guay. the remaining tribes; (4) the Sigmodontinae start-
Thus, the colonization of the pampas by ako- ed its evolutionary deployment in South America
dontines may have been preceded by a p>eriod of from a proto-oryzomyine ancestor which entered
evolution in other geographic areas within South that continent by overwater dispersal by the early
America, and the same may hold for the time of Miocene or late Oligocene and which became es-
colonization of Patagonia. Therefore, the absence tablished in the northern Andes of Colombia; (5)
of cricetids in the Miocene deposits of the pam- the main episodes of the differentiation of the Sig-
pean region and Patagonia may reflect the fact that modontinae from the ancestral oryzomyine stock
they had not yet colonized those areas. This being occurred within the Andes and were followed by
the case, the earliest occurrence of fossil akodon- successive invasions to the eastern lowlands; and
tines in the Lower Pliocene deposits of Monte Her- establishment of the Panamanian land
(6) after the
moso would be interpreted as signaling the time bridge, several sigmodontine lineages that had dif-
of the first establishment of akodont rodents in the ferentiated in South America invaded Middle and
pampean plains. North America in different dispersal episodes. To
It can be argued that this explanation remains complete and update the picture, I now consider
pure speculation until fossils are found in Miocene the tylomyines as a separate subfamily of the Cri-
formations of the Andes. However, the explana- cetidae which independently evolved in Middle
tion is not mere guesswork, as it is based on strong America from eucricetodontine ancestors (see Reig,
empirical data coming from patterns of diversity 1984, commenting on Carleton, 1980).
and distribution of the living fauna. Nevertheless, Within this theory, the Akodontini are consid-

ered as a group directly descended from the Ory- north in Middle or Late Miocene times before the
zomyini, which differentiated in the area of the altiplano reached considerable heights. Elevation
present altiplano. The reasons supporting this of the altiplano began in the Middle Pliocene
conclusion are more extensively given in Reig (Ahlfeld, 1970). This ancestral form may have en-
(1984) and were alluded to in the previous sec- countered adequate conditions in the southern
tions. Let us examine the probable picture of their proto-puna, and from here local differentiation may
origin and further differentiation. have developed as a response to heterogeneous
First, of the 64 extant species of akodontines environments in the changing Andes. Compara-
recognized in this paper, 35 (54.7%) belong to a tive cytogenetics suggests that this ancestral hy-
single genus, Akodon, of the 1 1 recognized living pothetical akodontine might have possessed a
genera in the Akodon, Bolomys, and Oxy-
tribe. karyotype of 58 pairs of telocentric autosomes plus
mycterus comprise 81.3% of living species. The the sexual pair (Vitullo et al., 1986). After a first
remaining eight genera are either monotypic or branching which separated Oxymycterus and allies
comprise two or three species. Thus, although an (see later) from the remaining akodontines, the
explanation of the evolution of the latter is im- earliest main radiation may have centered around
portant, a picture of the evolutionary history of what is now the genus Akodon. Akodon is the most
the akodontines must necessarily focus on Ako- diversified and the most generalized of the ako-
don, Bolomys, and Oxymycterus. dontines, and is therefore likely the original stock
Species o^ Akodon live in the puna, the paramos, from which most of the remainder of the tribe
in montane tropical and subtropical forests, in radiated. A non-SF)ecialized member of the sub-
grassy pampas, dry montane Andean valleys, genus Akodon with 2n = 52 (autosomal FN = 58)
semidesert Patagonian tablelands, and cold south- chromosomes (which is most likely the primitive
em Andean forests. The frequency of localities karyotype of Akodon and other related genera; see
from which species of Akodon are reported shows Bianchi &. Merani, 1984; Vitullo et al., 1986; see
that 82% of the

occurrences belong to Andean en- also Gardner
Patton, 1976, and the discussion
«&.
vironments. Seventy-two percent of species oc- above), similar to A. andinus, may have been gen-
currences of the subgenus Akodon are Andean, eralized enough to live in different habitats and to
while 100% of the living Abrothrix, Chroeomys, montane forests of the eastern slopes
settle either in
and Hypsimys are so distributed. Bolomys shows of the rising Andes or in the dry high mountain
only 46% of Andean occurrences, inhabiting both valleys and open semidesertic heights. Akodon
the highest altitudes of the altiplano, and the Cha- (Chroeomys) jelskii, which retains the primitive
coan, pampean, and Brazilian lowlands. Oxymyc- 2n = 52 karyotype, may represent a well-differ-
terus also exhibits 46% Andean occurrences, rep- entiated Akodon offshoot which adapted to arid
resented there by three of the 10 tentatively heights and remained endemic to the rising alti-
recognized species.Its species live in puna local- plano. An early main branch of the diversification
subtropical mountain and lowland forests,
ities, within the subgenus Akodon acquired the derived
the Argentinian Mesopotamian region, and the karyotype of 2n = 40 (autosomal FN = 40), as
grassy pampean steppes. The habitat versatility of found in the puna in A. boliviensis and A. albi-
species of Akodon, Bolomys, and Oxymycterus venter. Akodon puer (= A. caenosus, see Vitullo et
contrasts with the stenotopic nature of other gen- al., 1 986, and above), which shows a derived 2n =
Podoxymys (restricted to the high tepuis of the
era: 34, but keeps the same autosomal FN (Barquez et
Guaianan region), Notiomys and Geoxus (fosso- al., 1980; Vitullo et al., 1986), must have origi-
rialand restricted to the south temperate forests nated in the puna from this branch and expanded
and neighboring areas), or Microxus (only inhab- to more southern Andean valleys and the lowlands
iting theAndean heights). of Tucuman. Bolomys may also have differen-
The evolutionary history of the akodonts is one tiated from the same branch early in the puna, as
of successful dispersal, which was surely fueled by indicated by the generalized features ofB. amoen-
the habitat and trophic versatility of the more spe- us and, dating the time of its origination, by the
ciose genera. In fact, they are broadly distributed occurrence of ^. bonapartei in the Lower Pliocene.
in South America despite their overwhelming pre- The derived 2n = 34, FN = 34 karyotype oi Bolo-
dominance in Andean and montane habitats. mys is more likely to have evolved from a 2n =
The ancestral akodontine may have been a gen- 40 karyotype than from a 2n = 52 karyotype
eralized Akodon-\\\ie form of North Andean origin (Bianchi & Merani, 1984). Akodon (Hypsimys)
which colonized the area of the puna from the budini, which shows a peculiar 2n = 38, FN = 42

karyotype with few ann-to-arm homologies in ized in habits and diet. Abrothrix originated cer-
banding pattern with the 2n
= 40 karyotypes (Vi- tainly in the Pliocene, as indicated by its presence
tullo et al., 1 986), may represent either an isolated in the Upper Pliocene (Chapadmalalan) of south-
offshoot of the same main branch or a direct de- em Buenos Aires Province. The presence of both
rivative of the earlier 2n = 52 branch which be- fossil Abrothrix in the Upper Pliocene and Lower
came endemic to the high Andean valleys. Oxy- Pleistocene of the pampean region, and of the ex-
mycterus is likely to be the result of the first tant A. longipilis and A. xanthorhinus) in the Pa-
dichotomy which occurred in the proto-puna from tagonian tablelands, indicates that this southern
the hypothetical early akodontine ancestor. Its 2n = Andean dispersal subsequently spread into eastern
54, FN
= 58 karyotype seems to represent an in- stepjjes. Significantly, all southern akodonts so far
dependent derivation from the hypothetical 2n = known in their chromosomes retain the primitive
60 ancestor (Vitullo et al., 1986). Oxymycterus 2n = 52 karyotype without meaningful modifi-
may have evolved in adaptation to an animal diet cations. It is unclear whether living Patagonian
and more humid Andean slojies. Some of its forms species as A. iniscatus and A. nucus, the chro-
became secondarily adapted to puna habitats (as mosomes of which having not been described yet,
represented by some subspecies of 6>. paramensis), derived from this branch or from the third dis-
but the main body of the genus eventually spread persing branch described below. In view of the
into the eastern lowlands. Lenoxus is certainly a affinityof these species with puer and azarae, as
well-differentiated Oxymycterus which is more discussed above, we are inclined to the second
likely to have evolved from the latter in the humid alternative.
Andean slopes. A dispersal to the north from the original south-
A complete picture of the evolutionary deploy- em puna differentiation area is necessary to ex-
ment of the Akodontini, however, must account plain the distribution oi A. aerosus, A. orophilus,
for their high diversity in regions and habitats oth- A. mollis, A. tolimae, and A. urichi, as well as of
er than the original center of diversification. From species of Microxus and Podoxymys. Given the
what we have already said, it must be granted that presence of most of these taxa in the northern
much of their early diversification took place in Andes and connected mountain ranges, where they
what is now the southern puna region. From there, could have originated directly from the oryzo-
however, they must have migrated in different di- myines, it is necessary to postulate that the north
rections and radiated further in other areas. Three Andean akodontines migrated there from a south-
main directions of dispersal must be assumed: one central Andean region in order to maintain the
to the north and another to the south, both fol- monophyly of the tribe. Chromosomal evidence
lowing the Andean axis, and a third to the south- ishighly suggestive of the derived condition of the
eastern lowlands. northern species of Akodon, with A. orophilus (2n =
The southern dispersal took root in the gener- 26), A. mollis (2n
= 22), and A. = 18)
urichi (2n
alized2n = 52 Akodon and reached the southern indicating a northward decrease in chromosome
Andes, which served as a secondary dispersal cen- number (chromosomal data from Bianchi & Mer-
ter. This branch may be based in Akodon andinus, ani, 1984; Gardner & Patton, 1976; Reig et al.,
which reaches south to the Andes of Mendoza and 1971). Unpublished chromosomal counts from
is now represented by species of the subgenus Â:<9- Colombian Akodon, which may represent A. to-
don (A. olivaceus, A. brachiotis, and A. markhami) limae (fTom Santander; C. Ramirez, pers. comm.),
and species of the subgenus Abrothrix (including with 2n = 24 chromosomes, and A. urichi (from
A. xanthorhinus and A. hershkovitzi). It is of in- Villavicencio; A. Gardner, pers. comm.), with 2n
=
terest to note here that xanthorhinus and longipilis 18 chromosomes, suggest that the pattern of
share the same species of the parasitic louse Ho- decrease may not be regular. The less reduced
plopleura andina with andinus and olivaceus karyotyp)e of species of Microxus (as known in the
(Castro, 1981; pers. comm.), which might be in- polymorphic 2n = 35-37, FN = 48 of Microxus
terpreted as indicating persistence of an early host- bogotensis from the Venezuelan paramos; see Bar-
parasite relation.The specialized genera Chele- ros & Reig, 1979) suggests a separate origin from
mys, Notiomys, and Geoxus. two of which are the primitive 2n = 52 Akodon stock, consistent
known to retain the 2n = 52 karyotype, the second with its generic distinction. Podoxymys is an en-
being unknown in its chromosomes (Pearson, demic genus from the tepuis that is likely to have
1984), may easily be interpreted as independent been derived from the same main branch; its
offshoots of this southern branch which special- karyotype is unknown.

The third main direction of dispersal, from the Needless to say, the above scenario is quite ten-
southern puna area of original differentiation di- tativeand must be taken only as a set of working
rectly toward the eastern lowlands, is necessary to hypotheses open to partial or overall modification
explain the present distribution of lowland rep- of more detailed morphological, pa-
after the test
resentatives ofAkodon s.s., Oxymycterus. and Bo- leontological, cytogenetical, and biochemical
lomys, as well of the exclusively lowland Akodon studies.However, I believe that in its present ver-
{Deltamys) of the genera Blarinomys, Juscelino- sion, it may represent a reasonable explanation of
mys, and fossil Dankomys. The of Bo-
itinerary the most probable biogeographic and evolutionary
lomys may be inferred from the distribution of the events connected with the radiation of the ako-
living species, starting with a B. amoenus-hke an- dontines and, therefore, a heuristic framework for
cestral form in the puna, with B. lactens in pam- further advances in the knowledge of the evolution
pean range valleys of northwestern Argentina, and of these rodents.
B. lenguarum in the lowlands of Bolivia and Par-
aguay. Two diverging lines of dispersal can be in-

ferred from the last region: one toward the pam-
pean region (represented by B. bonapartei, B. Acknowledgments
obscurus, including bene/actus, and a new unde-
scribed species), the other toward southern and I thank S. Anderson, G. Corbet, K. Kermack,
eastern Brazil (B. lasiurus), passing through the R. Pascual, G. J. Scaglia, and O. A. Scaglia for
Argentinian Chaco and the northern Mesopota- facilitating access to collections under their care.
mian region {B. temchuki). A similar disp)ersal pat- O. P. Pearson, A. Spotomo, N. O. Bianchi, and A.
tern may be postulated for Oxymycterus, which
Langguth are also acknowledged for fruitful dis-
shows a similar pattern of SF)ecies distribution in cussions. I thank Bruce Patterson and two anon-
the lowlands of Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil, and
ymous referees for suggestions and a careful read-
Uruguay, as well as in the high valleys of north- ing of the manuscript. This paper is also the
western Argentina. Dankomys may represent a lo- outcome of a John Simon Guggenheim fellowship,
cal pampean derivative of Bolomys, and Jusceli- and this Foundation is heartily acknowledged for
nomys may have been derived from a Brazilian its continuous support.
branch of Oxymycterus. Regarding the lowland
differentiation within the genus Akodon, it is in-
teresting to realize that A. {Ak.) boliviensis, a typ-
ical inhabitant of the present puna, but also rep-
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1889. Contribucion
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Biogeography of Octodontid Rodents:
An Eco-Evolutionary Hypothesis
Luis C. Contreras, Juan C. Torres-Mura, and Jose L. Yaflez
ABSTRACTS
The family Octodontidae (Rodentia, Hystricognatha) is an old group of low diversity, cur-
rently found on both sides of the Andean mountains between 16°S and 41°S. Information on
the geographic distribution of the octodontid genera is presented and discussed, and the sys-
tematic status of each species and subspecies is given.
An explanation is also proposed for the present distribution of the family, considering geo-
logical, climatic, floristic, faunistic, and ecological events that occurred after the first appearance
of octodontids in the Deseadan age (early Oligocene) in Bolivia and Patagonia. The uplift of
the Andes, the formation of Patagonian pampas, the disappearance of echimyids from the
Patagonian Subregion, and the appearance of ctenomyids seem to be the most important factors
determining the present distribution of octodontids.
La familia Octodontidae (Rodentia, Hystricognatha) es un antiguo grupo de roedores poco

diversificados que se encuentra a ambos lados de la Cordillera de los Andes entre los 1 6° y los
41°S. En este trabajo presentamos y discutimos la informacion sobre la distribucion de los
generos de octodontidos y hacemos comentarios sobre el estatus sistematico de cada especie y
subespecie.
Proponemos una explicacion para la distribucion actual de esta familia considerando eventos
que ocurrieron despues de la aparicion
geologicos, climaticos, floristicos, faunisticos y ecologicos
de los octodontidos en en el Deseadano (Oligoceno) de Bolivia y Patagonia.
el registro fosil
El levantamiento de los Andes, la formacion de las Pampas Patagonicas, la desaparicion de

los echimidos de la Subregion Patagonica y la aparicion de los ctenomidos, parecen ser los
factores mas importantes en la estructuracion de la distribucion actual de la familia Octodon-
tidae.
A familia Octodontidae (Rodentia, Hystricognatha) e um antigo grupo de pouca diversidade,

que se encontrado em ambos os lados das Cordilheiras dos Andes, entre 16° e 41°S. Apresen-
lamos informa96es sobre as distribui96es geograficas dos generos octodontinos, e discuti-se as
categorias sistematicas de cada especie ou subespecie.
Prop6e-se uma explica9ao para a atual distribuiâo desta familia, considerando-se os eventos
geologicos, climaticos, floristicos e ecologicos que ocorreram apos o aparecimento dos octo-
dontinos no registro fossil, durante a Era Deseadana (no Oligoceno inferior) da Bolivia e da
Patagonia. A eleva9ao dos Andes, a formafao dos Pampas da Patagonia, o desaparecimento
dos equimideos da Subregiao Patagonica, e o aparecimento dos ctenomideos, parecem ser os
fatores mais importantes determinando a atual distribuijao dos octodontinos.
From the Departamento de Biologia y Quimica, Fa-

cuhad de Ciencias, Universidad de Talca, Casilla 747,
Talca, Chile (Contreras and Torres-Murra); and Museo
Nacional de Historia Natural, Casilla 787, Santiago, Chile
(Yanez).
CONTRERAS ET AL: BIOGEOGRAPHY OF OCTODONTID RODENTS 40 1

Introduction lunatus Osgood, 1943. Of these, the first two can
be differentiated by external morphology and be-
The order Rodentia is represented in South havior (Osgood, 1943; Ipinza et al., 1971). Octo-
America by two main groups: the hystricognaths don lunatus was distinguished only by the absence
(sensu Woods, 1 982) and the cricetids. The former of an indentation on the inner border of the last
had an independent evolutionary history lasting upper molars, all other features being the same as
at least 35 million years while South America was those in O. bridgesi. However, intrapopulational
an island continent. About 3.5 million years before variability of this dental character is high, not only
present (MYBP), the Isthmus of Panama was within O. bridgesi but also within O. degus (pers.
formed, allowing the other main group of rodents, obs.; Simonetti, pers. comm.), rendering it useless
the cricetids, as well as other mammals, to invade for taxonomic diagnosis. Although this does not
from North America (Reig, 1981; Patterson & invalidate O. lunatus, we believe it is a species of
Wood, 1982; Webb & Marshall, 1982). South questionable status. Unfortunately, this uncertain-
American hystricognaths are characterized by a ty cannot be resolved due to scarcity of existing
relatively large body mass (80 g to 50 kg), low material.
species diversity, long gestation period, and small Octodon degus is one of the best-studied small
litter size(Rowlands & Weir, 1974). The opposite mammals of central Chile in terms of its ecology,
is characteristic of South American cricetids (Pear- behavior, and physiology (Woods &
Boraker, 1975;
son, 1958; Hershkovitz, 1962). Rosenmann, 1977; Yaiiez &
Jaksic, 1978; Con-
Octodontidae Waterhouse (excluding Cteno- treras& Rosenmann, 1982; Meserve et al., 1984;
mys) is one of 1 1 families of hystricognath rodents and references therein). The degu is thought to be
found in South America. The family has a small distributed south of Huasco Province (28°28'S)
number of lineages (Woods, 1 982; Mares & Ojeda, to Curico (35°00'S) (Mann, 1 978; Tamayo «fe Fras-
1982). distributed along the Andean moun-
It is sinetti, 1 980). However, we are not aware of any
tains from 16°S to 41°S, especially on the western specimens collected south of Santiago (fig. 1). The
slopes. As a result ofa large proportion of
this, abundant (Jaksic et al.,
distributional limits of this
the species are endemic to or found mainly in Chile 1981) and diurnal (Rosenmann et al 1981) species .
,
(seven of nine species). Despite its low phyletic seem correlated with those of the mediterranean
diversity, this family is highly diverse in forms, shrubland formation known as matorral (Mann,
ranging from the relatively generalized Octodon 1978), whose northern and southern limits are de-
degus, capable of digging and climbing shrubs, to termined by a scarcity and superabundance of
the specialized, fossorial Spalacopus cyanus (Glanz, water, respectively (Mann, 1 964). The altitudinal
1977). limits of O. degus seem to be determined by its
The octodontids are probably the least-studied poor tolerance to low oxygen partial pressure (Ro-
family of South American hystricognaths. The senmann &
Morrison, 1975) and also by altitu-
phylogenetic relations of its genera are not clear, dinal limits of its preferred habitat. This altitu-
almost all species are poorly known from an eco- dinal limit is probably lower at higher latitudes
logical standpoint, and the geographic ranges of because of temperature effects. Although O. degus
most species are uncertain (Mares & Ojeda, 1 982). can burrow, it feeds mainly on grasses and forbs
Here we analyze information published in the last (Meserve et al., 1983) above ground, which are
few years and new data concerning the distribution covered by snow much of the year at high altitudes
and systematics of this family. in the Andes. The highest capture record for this
species is 2,000 m
at 30°S. At 33°S (around San-
tiago) the altitudinal limit is probably below

1,200 m.
Geographic Distribution Octodon bridgesi is known to be distributed south
and Systematic Status from Cachapoal Province (34°15'S), along the
foothills of the Andes to Malleco Province (38°40'S)
Genus Octodon Bennett, 1832 (Greer, 1965; Tamayo «&Frassinetli, 1980) (fig. 1).
Octodon lunatus is reportedly found along the
According to Osgood (1943) three monotypic Cordillera Occidental (Cordillera de la Costa) from
species are recognized in this genus: O. degus Mo- La Dormida (33°04'S) in Quillota Province to as
lina, 1782; O. bridgesi Waterhouse, 1844; and O. far north as lllapel (31°30'S) (fig. 1). These limits

o O. degui
A Q bridgesi
• O.lunatus
Fig. 1. Localities for Octodon degus (O), O. bridgesi (A), and O. lunatus (•). The "?" symbols represent uncertain
and tentative identifications of captured specimens (see text).
clearly indicate a distributional overlap of at least la Costa), at least between 35°30'S and 37°00'S
O. degus and O. lunatus. and/or that the southernmost limit of O. lunatus
The distribution pattern of these three species extends farther south along the coastal range than
has been obscured by the uncertain identification previously recognized. A third possibility is that
oi Octodon specimens captured in Nuble and Cau- O. lunatus and O. bridgesi are but a single species
quenes provinces. These have been tentatively as- with a much larger geographic range.
signed to O. lunatus (cf. Tamayo & Frassinetti, Octodon bridgesi and O. lunatus seem not to
1 980) and O. bridgesi (Rodriquez &. Herrera, 1 983), burrow as much as O. degus (Greer, 1965; Ipinza
respectively (fig. 1). In our opinion this confusing et al., 1971), and their distributions are associated
situation reflects the lack of good diagnostic char- with denser, more humid scrub than that where
acters to separate O. lunatus from O. bridgesi. If O. degus is found. Octodon bridgesi is nocturnal,
the reported identifications prove correct, they and preliminary data indicate that it has a greater
would indicate that the distribution of O. bridgesi evaporative water loss than O. degus (F. Bozino-
includes the Cordillera Occidental (Cordillera de vic, pers. comm.). Consequently, factors related
CONTRERAS ET AL.: BIOGEOGRAPHY OF OCTODONTID RODENTS 403

to water availability may be important in deter- found in the southern extreme of the known geo-
mining the distribution of both O. bridgesi and O. graphic range of the genus
(fig. 3). Unfortunately,
lunatus. type specimens of both forms lack reliable local-

ities (Pearson, 1984). Available, geographically
reliable representatives of these forms consist
Genus Octodontomys Palmer, 1903 of two specimens of fuscus we captured at the
confluence of Rios Vergara and Nascimiento
The Octodontomys gliroides (Gervais &
soco, (35°08'S, 70°28'W) and eight specimens oi porteri
D'Orbigny, 844), is a monotypic species, found
1 reported by Pearson ( 1 984) from Ruca Malen. The
only in Andean and sub-Andean zones of south- southern form, porteri, is in part distinguished from
western Bolivia from La Paz to Potosi, in north- fuscus by its bicolored tail. A word of caution on
western Argentina from Jujuy to La Rioja (Ca- the validity of these is pertinent, because besides
brera, 1961), and in northeastern Chile only in uncertain type localities (Osgood, 1 943), the main
Tarapaca Province (Mann, 1945; Pine et al., diagnostic character has some variability not yet
1979) (fig. 2). We believe that the apparently dis- quantified. The tails of the specimens from Taica
junct distribution of this species is due only to attributed to fuscus are bicolored, to some extent
inadequate sampling. The soco has nocturnal hab- approaching the condition described for ^. / por-
its according to Ipinza et al. (197 1), but is diurnal teri (Pine et al., 1979), and the Ruca Malen spec-
according to Mann (1978). It inhabits very dry imens have moderately bicolored tails, not as the
areas characterized by cacti and rock piles where type of y4. / porteri (Pearson, 1984).
it digs short burrows connected by superficial run- Aconaemys sagei, a smaller species than A. fus-
ways. This species eats succulent plants and the cus, was recently described from Neuquen Prov-
bark of resinous shrubs (Mann, 1945). ince, Argentina (Pearson, 1984). According to this
In many characteristics, such as a silky coat, a author, some specimens from Chile, previously
plantar surface with fine granulations, and an en- listed under A. fuscus by Osgood (1943), Greer
larged rostrum, Octodontomys is similar to Abro- (1965), and Pine et al. (1979), may also belong to
coma ( Abrocomidae), perhaps indicating adaptive this species.However, after examination of 21
convergence. specimens from Curico, Nuble, and Malleco (east
and west) provinces, we concluded that none of
the specimens can certainly be assigned to A. sa-
Genus Octomys Thomas, 1920 gei. We
found considerable overlap between spec-
imens from these localities. Thus, we consider all
This is certainly the least-known octodontid ge- known Chilean specimens as belonging to one
nus. Woods (1982) included Tympanoctomys bar- species, A.fuscus,which is found along the Andes
rerae in the genus Octomys, so that the genus in- between 35°S and 41°S and in the coastal Cordi-
cludes two species: O. mimax and O. barrerae. llera de Nahuelbuta (fig. 3).
Octomys inhabits mountainous regions in Aconaemys is fossorial, although to a lesser ex-

northwest Argentina in Catamarca, La Rioja, San tent than Spalacopus cyanus. Its timnel systems
Juan, and Mendoza provinces (Cabrera, 1 96 1 ). The aremore superficial, and its runways resemble
genus resembles Octodontomys, and the distri- somewhat those of voles (Microtus) of the north-
butions of the two overlap in the northern prov- em hemisphere (Greer, 1965). This species seems
inces of Argentina. Octomys lives in desert scrub to have a wide habitat tolerance, considering that
habitats and is nocturnal, a burrower, and an her- it has been foimd in Nothofagus and Araucaria
bivore (Mares & Ojeda, 1982). forests in regions with high rainfall (Osgood, 1 943;
Greer, 1965; Mann, 1978), to above timberline in
close association with bunch grasses {Festuca and
Genus Aconaemys Ameghino, 1891 Stipa spp.) (Contreras & Torres-Mura, pers.
comm.).
According to Pearson ( 1 984) two species are rec- Competitive exclusion is thought to be common
ognized in this genus: A.fuscus Waterhouse, 1 84 1 , among fossorial mammals (Nevo, 1979). This
and A. sagei Pearson, 1 984. The former is consid- might be the case with Spalacopus and Aconaemys
ered to have two subspecies: A. f. fuscus Water- (fig.3), provided that the latter species replaces
house, 1841, found in the slopes of the south- the former to the south. However, the range of
central Andes, and A. f. porteri Thomas, 1917, Aconaemys seems to overlap that of other fossorial

Fig. 2. Range of distribution (stippled)
of Octodontomys gliroides in Bolivia, Chile,
and Argentina.
herbivorous rodents, such as Ctenomys maulinus ly. In contrast, the distinction between S. c. cyanus
and Ctenomys sp. (see Gallardo, 1979; Pearson, and S. c. poeppigii Wagler, 1832 from the Andes
1984). At present the lack of data does not permit seems to be valid. Andean populations of Spala-
assessment of the actual fine-grain distributions of copus are phenotypically distinct from coastal ones.
these two genera. They might be parapatric, but Those from the Andes are larger (Reig et al., 1 972;
if so, it could be difficult to resolve whether their Yanez & Ztilch, 1981), probably in response to
separation is caused by differences in microhabitat thermal factors and food availability (Contreras,
preferences, by competition, or by historical fac- 1983, 1986). These two forms also seem to differ
tors of colonization. in skull, tooth morphology, and color pattern (Reig
et al., 1972). Because of the small number of Spa-
lacopus in the Lx)ngitudinal Valley (Central Valley)
Genus Spalacopus Wagler, 1832 and adjacent areas (see below), we believe that
gene flow between the coastal and mountain pop-
This genus is monotypic, and the taxonomic ulations is probably low, although these rodents
validity of its subspecies is debatable (Mann, 1 978; do not show differences in G- and C-banding of
Tamayo & Frassinetti, 1 980). We agree with Mann chromosomes (Ziilch et al., 1982) or in the elec-
(1978) that the distinction between S. c. cyanus trophoretic patterns of six blood proteins (Woods
(Molina, 1 782) from the coast of central Chile and & comm.). Spalacopus tabanus
Kilpatrick, pers.
S. maulinus Osgood, 1943 from south-central
c. Thomas, 925 was treated as a subspecies of S.
1
Chile should be carefully reconsidered, because it cyanus by Osgood (1943). Because the single
is based on subtle cranial traits of a small number known specimen has a provenance of "South of
of specimens, and because individuals vary great- Chile" and is quite large, we agree with Reig et al.

• S cyanus
A A sagei
o A fuscus
Fig. 3. Localities for Aconaemys fuscus (A), A. sagei (A), and Spalacopus cyanus (•).
(1972) and Tamayo and Frassinetti ( 1 980) that the Andes from Alicahue (32°19'S, 70°39'W) to Los
animal probably represents S". c. poeppigii from Cipreses (34'^rS, 70°29'W) up to above 3,000 m.
the Andes, rather than S. c. cyanus as proposed Small populations are also found in ravines drain-
by Mann (1978). ing into the Longitudinal Valley (Central Valley)
The low Spalacopus has been
variability within from the Cordillera Occidental (Cordillera de la
attributed to the great mobility of its colonies (Reig, Costa) and the Andes. The altitudinal limit of S.
1970). However, studies of its home ranges by cyanus seems to be set by lack of food rather than
radioactive tagging indicate that these are very sta- by low oxygen critical pressure that allows it to
ble areas (Torres-Mura &
Contreras, 1983). tolerate severe hypoxic conditions resulting from
Taking the new data presented here into con- the combination of high altitude and burrowing
sideration, Spalacopus cyanus is probably the best habits (Contreras, 1983). Within its geographic
known octodontid in terms of its geographic range range, S. cyanus inhabits areas with shrub cover
(fig. 3). Its populations are found along the Pacific of no more than 60%, which allows the develop-
coast from Caldera (27°03'S) down to Quirihue ment of an herb stratum, containing the geophytes
(36°17'S) in Nuble Province and also along the and hemicryptophytes that form its main food.

The northernmost population found along the the eco-evolutionary history of South America,
coast is Quebrada Pajonales, located 22 km north especially to that of the Patagonian Subregion
of Caldera. In this locality we have found extensive (Hershkovitz, 1972).
unoccupied burrow systems, similar to those in- The earliest records of South American hystri-
dicated by Osgood (1943). Although we failed to cognaths date from the E>eseadan Oligocene (35
capture specimens, we found skull remains in bur- MYBP) of Patagonia and Bolivia (Wood & Patter-
rowing owl pellets. The northern populations of son, 1959; Patterson & Wood,
1982). The earliest
Spalacopus are mainly restricted to the coast, but forms were represented by the families Octodon-
can also be found inland in the valley of some tidae, Echimyidae, Eocardiidae, Dasyproctidae,
rivers These populations can live there
(fig. 3). Dinomyidae, Chinchillidae, and Erethizontidae.
because the extreme desert conditions of the Ata- Of these, octodontids appear to be the most prim-
cama Desert are ameliorated along the coast by itive (Patterson & Wood, 1 982). Early octodontids
the formation of fog banks (Tricart, 1 969), and and echimyids were probably similar to each oth-
also because extensive marine terraces with alti- er, at least in molar structure (Wood & Patterson,
tude lower than 300 m exist there, permitting the 1959). Since the postcranial skeleton of the early
development of suitable vegetation for Spalaco- octodontids is similar to that of the present day
pus. This condition disappears along the coast north Octodon, we infer that both octodontids and echi-
of 26°30'S where the land sharply rises from sea myids were generalized ground-dwelling forms
level to 1 ,000 m
or more. Extreme desert-like con- living in the woodland habitats that covered much
ditions may also determine the northernmost limit of southern South America. At that time the Andes
of cyanus populations along the Andes, a limit
S. had yet to rise, and the landscape was relatively
which is farther south than along the coast (fig. 3). flat and homogeneous from east to west (Webb,
This may be due to the fact that in this area (about 1978), with a small thermal gradient from north
29*S to 30°S) the desert penetrates the Andes and to south (Simpson, 1983).
crosses to Argentina. There it continues southward During the early Miocene, the Patagonian
along the eastern side of the Andes, producing Subregion still had a humid climate supporting
sharp climatic and vegetational changes along the widespread woodlands (Menendez, 1961). From
Andes (Arroyo et al., 1982; Villagran et al., 1983) the Miocene this pattern changed drastically, but
which are not suitable for Spalacopus. not suddenly, with the Andean orogeny, the for-
The southernmost distributional limit of S. cy- mation of the Humboldt Current and of the Pacific
anus may be determined by two factors: (1) an Anticyclone. The uplift of the Andes permitted
increasing scarcity of open habitats along the coastal the maintenance of the humid forest on the west-
ranges approaching the south temperate rain forest em slope, and the resulting rain shadow brought
and presence of Aconaemys fuscus on the
(2) the about the replacement of forest by savannas, grass-
southern Andes (fig. 3). Spalacopus seems absent land, and steppes to the east of the Andes, thus
from the valleys of Rios Teno and Tinguiririca in producing the present pampas. On the other hand,
the Andes, although the habitat there is not dif- the Humboldt Current brought about the desert-
ferent from that farther north. However, Aco- ification of southern Peru and northern Chile,
naemys fuscus occurs in these two valleys, there- leading to the formation of the Atacama Desert,
fore we postulate that the Andean southern limit the southern retreat of forest, and the establish-
of S. cyanus is somewhere between the basins of ment of mediterranean scrub and sclerophyllous
Rios Cachapoal and Tinguiririca, which coincides forest in central Chile. As a result of these events,
with the northernmost limit of A. fuscus. Perhaps two relatively xeric areas and two mesic areas were
competitive exclusion is occurring between these formed: (1) a desert scrub in the Atacama region,
species. (2) a steppe vegetation in Patagonia, (3) a high-
altitude steppe in the altiplano, and (4) an in-
creasingly mesic gradient south of the Atacama

Desert, with vegetation ranging from scrublands
Discussion to temperate rain forests. Since that time, except
for fluctuations due to Pleistocene glaciations, this
The distribution of living organisms is deter- pattern has remained basically the same.
mined by a combination of historical, evolution- The co-occurrence of octodontids and echi-
ary, and ecological factors. We propose that the myids in the Patagonian Subregion persisted
present distribution of octodontids is related to through the Miocene (Pascual et al., 1965). At this
CONTRERAS ET AL.: BIOGEOGRAPHY OF OCTODONTID RODENTS m

10"-
-30"
Octodontidae
Ctenomyidae
so*
90^ 50° 40» 20»
Fig. 4. Map of southern South America, showing the primarily eastern and western distributions of the Cteno-
myidae and Octodontidae, respectively.
time octodontids were still similar to the earliest cene. Subsequently, octodontid diversity in-
known forms in the family, but echimyids had creased markedly during the Pliocene in the
clearly diverged from the primitive condition and pampas region (Patterson & Pascual, 1972). The
had diversified into at least three groups (Wood reasons why echimyids disappeared, while octo-
& Patterson, 1959; Patterson & Wood, 1982). Un- dontids remained in the Patagonian Subregion, are
fortunately, echimyid fossil remains consist only unclear. It is likely that echimyids had become
of cranial fragments, with no postcranial elements. more closely associated to tropical or subtropical
However, they were probably in a morphologically forests and retreated to the north with them. This
intermediate stage between the early generalized would explain the absence of echimyids from the
condition and the more scansorial-arboreal forms temperate rain forest that became established in
of today. the south, west of the Andes. This forest developed
The record indicates that echimyids dis-
fossil from the most cold-adapted elements of the aus-
appeared from Patagonia during the early Plio- tral-antarctic flora (Van der Hammen & Cleef,

1 983). A link between echimyids and tropical hab- Pleistocene glaciations (Troncoso et al., 1980).
itats is alsosuggested by their establishment in Their restricted geographic distribution may be a
tropical North America after the Great American result of the rapid colonization of suitable habitat
Interchange, but their failure to occupy the tem- by Ctenomys.

perate zones of that continent (Patterson & Pas- In summary, the present distribution of octo-
cual. 1972). dontids seems to be the result of historical inter-
During the Upper Pliocene, fossorial octodon- actions between the Andean orogeny, the associ-
tid forms, not previously known, appear on the ated climatic and vegetational changes, and the
steppes. These fossorial forms belong to the family various evolutionary trends of the echimyids,
Ctenomyidae and were derived from octodontids ctenomyids, and the octodontids themselves.
(see Reig & Kiblisky, 1969; Reig, 1970).
The genus Ctenomys first appears in the early
Pleistocene of Argentina (Chapadmalalian), but it
more likely originated in the late Pliocene (Reig Acknowledgments
& Kiblisky, 1 969). The several Pleistocene species
of Ctenomys and the roughly 30 species at present We would like to express our appreciation to F.
denote a genus with a high rate of diversification Jaksic, M. T. Kalin-Arroyo, A. Troncoso, and C.
and expansion from its probable center of origin Villagran for valuable comments. We
especially
(Chapadmalal?). Ctenomys now extends through- thank B. D. Patterson and R. H. Pine for their
out the Patagonian Subregion and also to the constructive comments
as reviewers. Ms. V.
southern part of the Brasilian Subregion of the Aguirre and M.
Uribe provided competent tech-
L.
Neotropics. During its expansion, Ctenomys en- nical assistance. Specimens of Aconaemys were
tered Chile at theend of the Pleistocene (Tamayo made available to us by A. Spotomo, Universidad
& mainly through mesic areas
Frassinetti, 1980), de Chile; T. Cekalovic, Universidad de Concep-
of the altiplano and the low xeric areas of Pata- cion; and M. Gallardo, Universidad Austral de
gonia. They were thus able to colonize ( 1 ) the mar- Chile. Partial support was provided by Facultad
ginal and high-altitude zone of northern Chile and de Ciencias, Universidad de Talca. This work is
southern Peru (an extension of the Bolivian puna), in honor of P. Hershkovitz for his great contri-
(2) the steppes of Aysen and Magallanes, which bution to the understanding of South American
are extensions of the Argentinian pampa into Chile, mammals.
and (3) certain Andean areas in south-central Chile,
where Patagonian vegetation interdigitates with
montane forest between snow line and tree line.
The distribution of Ctenomys thus essentially en- Literature Cited
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Population Dynamics and Ecology
of Small Mammals
in the Northern Chilean Semiarid Region
I
Peter L. Meserve and Eric Le Boulenge
ABSTRACTS
Small mammal populations were studied in a northern Chilean semiarid thorn scrub com-
munity for 17 months during a period of sparse rainfall (27-76 mm annually, 1973-1975). A
permanent 1.4-ha grid was trapped for four consecutive nights bimonthly with mark-and-
recapture techniques, and standard data were taken for the estimation of population parameters.
Snap-trapping in similar habitat provided reproductive information. Seven species were cap-
tured in the field (six rodents, one marsupial), but only four of them yielded sufficient captures
for a quantitative study (three sigmodontines, one hystricomorph). Reproduction was strongly
seasonal, starting and ending earlier in Octodon degus and Akodon longipilis (July-November)
than in Phyllotis darwini and Akodon olivaceus (September-January for the former, September-
November for the latter). The latter two species may produce more than one litter per repro-
duction period. Seasonal reproduction, generally high trappability, and clear distinction between
the weight fluctuations of adults and juveniles— at least during the first two censuses after the
latter appear— allowed for a classification of individuals into a cohort of adults, one of young
of the year and a "cohort" of probable immigrants. Besides enumeration techniques which give
an overall view of population trends, we used the Modified Calendar of Captures technique to
describe the dynamics of cohorts and estimate the numbers of nontrappable juveniles from the
date of their first capture back to their birth period. Akodon olivaceus had low survival in
reproductive months and low recruitment in the second year of study; this resulted in a steady
population decline through the study period. Akodon longipilis had a high survival rate and
low recruitment in both years, and showed very constant population numbers. Phyllotis darwini
and O. degus had a generally lower survival, but showed a high potential rate of reproduction,
albeit with low juvenile survival. Dispersal is probably a crucial feature in the demography of
these two species. Despite changes in the relative numbers and proportions of the component
species, the fauna in this community was remarkably constant in overall numbers during four
years of observation. Since the principal species studied here are widely distributed, physio-
logically and morphologically unspecialized for arid environments, and represent diverse trophic
specializations, ecological adaptations and life history characteristics seem more important for
their persistence and success than are biogeographical considerations or evolutionary pread-
aptations.
Poblaciones de pequenos mamiferos fueron estudiadas en una comunidad semiarida de

matorrales espinosos enel norte de Chile por unos 17 meses durante un periodo de escasas
From the Department of Biological Sciences, North-

em Illinois University,DeKalb, IL 60115-2861 (Me-
serve), and Unite d'Ecologie, Universite Catholique de
Louvain, Place Croix du Sud, 5, 1348 Lx)uvain-la-Neuve,
Belgium (Le Boulenge).
MESERVE & LE BOULENGE: SMALL MAMMAL POPULATIONS OF CHILE 413

lluvijas (27-76 mm anuales, 1973-1975). Una red de trampas cubriendo 1.4 ha fue accionada
por cuairo noches consecutivas bimensualmente. Los datos tipo para determinar los parametros
de poblacion se obtuvieron por la tecnica de captura, marquaje y recaptura. El uso de trampas
de golpe en similar habitat proveyo informacion reproductiva. Un total de siete especies fueron
capturadas en el campo (seis roedores y un marsupial), pero solo cuatro de ellos produjeron
suficientes capturas paraun estudio cuantitativo (tres sigmodontines, un hystricomorfo). La
reproduccion fue marcadamente estacional, empezando y terminando mas temprano en Oc-
todon degus y Akodon longipilis (Julio-Noviembre) que en Phyllotis darwini y Akodon olivaceus
(Septiembre-Enero para el primero, Septiembre-Noviembre para el ultimo). Las ultimas dos
especies pueden producir mas que una camada por periodo de reproduccion. Estacionalidad
de reproduccion, generalmente alta probabilidad de captura y clara distincion entre las fluc-
tuaciones de peso de los jovenes y de los adultos durante los dos primeros censos despues de
la apariencia de los primeros, permitieron una clasificacion de individuos dentro de una cohorte
de adultos, una de los jovenes del ario y una "cohorte" de probables inmigrantes. Ademas de
las tecnicas de enumeracion, las cuales dan una vista general de las tendencias de la poblacion,
usamos el Calendario Modificado de Capturas para describir las dinamicas de cohortes y estimar
los numeros de jovenes no trampeables desde la fecha de su primera captura hacia atras al
periodo de nacimiento. Akodon olivaceus tuvo una supervivencia baja en meses reproductivos
y bajo reclutamiento en el segundo aiio de estudio, lo que result© en un decrecimiento continuo
de sus numeros. Akodon longipilis tuvo una alta tasa de supervivencia y bajo reclutamiento en
ambos aiios y mostro numeros muy constantes de poblacion. Phyllotis darwini y O. degus
mostraron una supervivencia generalmente baja, pero una alta tasa potencial de reproduccion,
sin embargo con alta tasa de mortalidad juvenil. Dispersion es probablemente una caracteristica
crucial en la demografia de estas dos especies. A pesar de los cambios en los numeros y
proporciones relativas de las especies componentes, la faima de esta comunidad fue notable-
mente constante en numeros globales durante cuatro aiios de observacion. Ya que estas especies
son ampliamente distribuidas, fisiologicamente y morfologicamente no especializadas para
ambientes aridos, y troficamente diversas, adaptaciones ecologicas y caracteristicas de historia
de vida parecen mas importantes para su persistencia y exito que consideraciones biogeograficas
o preadaptaciones evolutivas.
Populafoes de pequenos mamiferos que habitam uma comunidade semi-arida de arbustos

espinhosos no Chile, foram estudadas durante 17 meses, num periodo com pouca chuva (27-
76 mm anuais entre 1973 e 1975). Durante quatro noites consecutivas, a cada dois meses,
foram armadas armadilhas ao longo de uma grade permanente de 1 ,4 hectares. Foram usadas
as tecnicas de marca9ao e recaptura (mark and recapture), e todos dados convencionais foram
tomados. Para informa96es reprodutivas, usaram-se alâpoes (snap-traps) em um habitat se-
melhante. Um total de sete especies foram capturadas (seis roedores e um marsupial), mas
apenas quatro renderam numeros suficientemente altos para uma analise quantitativa (tres
cricetideos e um histricomorfo). A epoca reprodutiva de cada especie foi altamente relacionada
£te epocas do ano, comeândo e terminando mais cedo para Octodon degus e Akodon longipilis
(julho a novembro), e mais tarde para Phyllotis darwini e Akodon olivaceus (setembro a Janeiro
e setembro a novembro, respectivamente). As ultimas duas especies podem produzir mais de
uma cria por periodo reprodutivo. Dada a existencia de epocas reprodutivas bem-definidas, os
pesos claramente diferentes dos jovens capturados nos seus primeiros dois censos, e, em geral,
a frequente captura dos animais, foi possivel classihcar individuos em grupos de adultos, de
jovens-do-ano, e de provaveis imigrantes. Alem das tecnicas de enumeraâo dos animais, que
dao uma ideia dos padroes gerais das populagoes, usamos tambem a tecnica de Calendario
Modificado de Capturas (Modified Calendar of Captures), para descrever dinamicas entre os
grupos de idades diferentes, e para estimar o numero de jovens nao-capturaveis. Os resultados
indicam que A. olivaceus sofreu baixa sobrevivencia durante os meses reprodutivos e baixa
recruta durante o segundo ano de estudo, provocando assim um declineo constante na sua
popula(ao durante o periodo de observafao. Akodon longipilis teve alta sobrevivencia mas

baixa recruta durante os dois anos, mostrando entao um numero de popula9ao muito estavel.
Phyllotis darwini e O. degus tiveram um nivel geral de sobrevivencia mais baixo, porem mos-
traram um alto potencial reprodutivo embora com baixa sobrevivencia juvenil. Dispersao e
provavelmente um fator criticona demografia destas duas especies. Apesar das mudancas nos
numeros relativos das populaôes e nas proporôes das especies componentes, a fauna desta
comunidade semi-arida foi notavelmente estavel durante os quatro anos de observa9ao. Como
as especies principais deste estudo representam animais de vasta distribuiâo, naoespecializados
fisiologica ou morfologicamente para ambientes aridos, e de niveis troficos diversos, seu sucesso
e sua persistencia parecem ser mais ligados a adaptafoes ecologicas, e a caracteristicas biologicas
vitais (life history), do que a biogeografia, ou a preadaptaôes evolutivas.
Introduction diversity and large annual fluctuations of the fauna

there. He concluded that there was little evidence
The warm arid and semiarid regions of South for intrinsic mechanisms of population regulation
America are of relatively recent origin. The Ar- in the species studied. Fulk's study,however, was
gentine Monte desert was formed in the Miocene- conducted during a period of exceptionally high
Pliocene period and was strongly influenced by the rainfall; here, as well as elsewhere in Chile (Glanz,
rise of the Andes (Solbrig, 1976). The western Pa- 1977; Pefaur et al., 1979), high population den-
cific coastal desert and central mediterranean zone sities of many small mammal species were re-
are even more recent, having been strongly influ- corded. In addition, a ubiquitous caviomorph ro-
enced by the progressive cooling of the Pacific dent, Octodon degus (family Octodontidae),
Ocean, the maximum rise of the Andes in the late frequently reported from here and elsewhere in
Pliocene, and montane Pleistocene glaciations north-central Chile, was virtually absent from his
site.
(Axelrod, 1973; Simpson, 1975a,b; Solbrig, 1976).
The small mammal faunas of both the Monte and Here we report the results of a subsequent study
Pacific coastal deserts are typically depauperate in of the same small mammal community followed
comparison to other desert faunas, are inhabited by Fulk (1975), for the years 1973-1975. We em-
by few widely distributed species, and have few phasize the patterns of population changes ob-
autochthonous forms (Osgood, 1 943; Baker, 1967; served over some 1 7 months of both live- and
Mares, 1975a, 1976, 1980). Even more indicative snap-trapping, as well as the general implications
of a recent origin of these faunas, their component of these results for viewing population dynamics
species are relatively unspecialized morphologi- of the principal species and faunal composition of
callyand few of them have developed the capacity Chilean semiarid small mammal communities.
to exist without free water, as is typical in other
deserts (Mares, 1975a,b, 1980; Meserve, 1978).
This has not prevented the development of con-
vergence in ecologically related morphological Study Area and Methods
traits for members of the Sonoran and Monte des-
ert faunas (Mares, 1975a, 1976, 1980). The evi- The study site was located in a semiarid thorn
dence for such convergence is less convincing for scrubcommunity in Parque Nacional Fray Jorge,
small mammals of the Chilean and Califomian Coquimbo Province (IV Region), Chile (71°40'W,
semiarid and mediterranean zones, perhaps be- 30°38'S, 200 m). This area lies on the northern
cause they may be more recent in origin and have fringeof the Chilean mediterranean zone known
a more generalized morphology and broader hab- as the "Norte Chico" and on the southern edge of
itat ranges; also, there may be many alternative the Pacific coastal desert. The site is situated in
ecological strategies in newly formed ecosystems an interior valley("Quebrada de las Vacas") on

(Glanz, 1977; Glanz & Meserve, 1982). the east side of a coastal range (500 m) and about
Fulk's pioneering study (1975) of a Chilean 5 km east of the Pacific Ocean. Descriptions of the
semiarid small mammal community, involving vegetation have been given in Fulk (1975) and
qualitative comparisons with similar North Amer- Meserve (1981a); briefly, the community is char-
ican communities, emphasized the lower overall acterized by spiny drought-deciduous and ever-

green shrubs, a sparse herbaceous understory, and sexual condition (perforate or imperforate for fe-
open sandy areas between shrubs. The community males; scrotal or abdominal testes for males), evi-
has been termed the Porlieria chilensis-Proustia dence for reproduction (obviously pregnant or lac-
pungem-Adesmia bedwellii association for its most tating females), number, and trap location were
characteristic shrubs (Munoz & Pisano, 1 947). The taken during handling. Traps were closed during
flora of this region combines elements of the dry the day and reopened in the late afternoon from
western Andean slopes and a few species from the November 1973 through March 1974; thereafter,
Monte on the east side of the Andes (Sarmiento, traps were left open for at least one day each cen-
1975). The absolute cover of major plant cate- sus, with twice-daily trap checks. Beginning in
gories as determined from line transect analysis of September 1973, adjacent snap-trapping was con-
the live-trap grid conducted in November 1973 ducted during each census in similar habitat at
was 59.6% shrubs, 21.7% grasses and forbs, and least 400 m from the live-trap grid. Usually, a line
46.0% bare ground (total exceeds 100% due to of 66 Museum Specials and Victor 4-way rat traps
overlapping projections of shrub canopies on other was approximately 10

set in pairs m
apart for two
categories). A subsequent reanalysis of some sta- to four nights. Traps were checked twice daily and
tions in September 1974 showed no significant animals autopsied for presence of uterine scars and
change in total shrub cover. Fulk (1975) reported embryos, and relative testis size and position.
a total shrub cover of 44% for his site, located Stomachs were also retained for subsequent di-
approximately 500 m
away across a dirt road. etary analysis (Meserve, 1981a).
A fundamental characteristic of this region is Evidence for reproduction was based on the
the presence of moderately warm temperatures, presence of scrotal males and pregnant and/6r lac-
high insolation, and extremely variable precipi- tating females. Observations from both the live-
tationwhich falls mostly (90%) between the months trap grid and autopsy lines were utilized. Although
of May and September. Prior to 1965, the average the presence of perforate females may be consid-
annual precipitation was about 127 mm; in 1965, ered to be evidence of sexual comp>etence (as is
an exceptionally heavy rainfall of 326 was mm the presence of scrotal testes in males), we utilized
recorded (Kummerow, 1966). For the eight-year thismainly to indicate the minimum weight at
period of 1969-1976, during which continuous which females are capable of reproduction and
records have been kept in the park, precipitation hence an approximate index to developmental age.
averaged 68.9 ± 78.5 mm
(SD); in the principal For nonreproductive periods, developmental age
year of Fulk's study (1972-1973), precipitation was was assessed by comparison with the last mini-
255.3 mm. For the three subsequent years dealt mum weight at which evidence of sexual compe-
with in this study (1973-1976), precipitation was tence (i.e., perforate vagina in females, scrotal testes
75.8, 26.5, and 37.0 mm. Kummerow (1966) in males) was observed. This approach was deemed
showed that coastal fog can contribute up to ten necessary because none of the species studied have
times the amount of moisture available from pre- distinct juvenile-subadult-adult molts, and there
cipitation on higher (500 m) west-facing mountain presently exists no satisfactory method for oth-
slopes; in the interior valley(200-m elevation), the erwise aging the species studied here in live-trap-
impact of coastal fog is considerably less. Mean ping studies. Even an index developed from snap-
maximum temperature in the warmest month trapping results would still be dependent on some
(January) is 24°C, and mean minimum tempera- morphological character, such as weight taken in
ture in the coolest month (July) is 4°C (all weather the field, in order to age live-trapped individuals.
data are from the park headquarters located about Tamarin ( 1 984) and Dueser et al. ( 1 984) have dis-
5 km southeast of the study site and collected by cussed the possible errors inherent in applying body
the Oficina Meterologica de Chile, Santiago). weight criteria to live-trapped animals without in-
Between November 1973 and January 1975, a dependent verification.
1.4-ha live-trapping grid with 48 stations 20 m Live-trap capture records were codified and re-
apart (6x8 configuration) was censused at bi- corded on computer for subsequent analysis with
monthly intervals for four consecutive nights. Two the CMR
(capture-mark-recapture) package of Le
medium Sherman live traps baited with rolled oats Boulenge (1985a,b) at the University of Louvain
were placed within 1.5 m of each station and stan- computer facility, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
dard mark-and-recapture techniques employed, This package produces data summaries such as
using toe-clipping or ear-tagging. Observations of the Calendar of Captures (Petrusewicz &
Andrze-
species, body weight (to the nearest 0.5 g), sex. jewski, 1962), sex ratios, reproductive condition,

Minimum Number Known Alive (Krebs, 1966) above procedure were derived by modeling trap-
tabulations, plots of traps visited, and weights at pability and survival with the method of Clobert
first capture. In addition, higher level analyses are et al. ( 1 985). This consists of finding the minimum
available for trappability analysis, density estima- sufficient multinomial trappability/survival mod-
tions (Manly-Parr, Hayne, and Zippin methods), el which adequately fits the observed data. Good-
home range parameters (using the bivariate nor- ness-of-fit is assessed by comparing the candidate
mal method of area estimation, Mazurkiewicz, minimum model to a reference model in which
1969; Jennrich & Turner, 1969), disappearance survival and trappability parameters attached to
rates, and weight dynamics. Trappability is esti- each census are free from constraints. Comparison
mated either running "vertically" through the cap- of two models is made using a log-likelihood ratio,
ture matrix to find the proportion of marked an- distributed as a x^ variable with degrees of free-
imals that are captured in a given time period dom equal to the difference in the number of free
(usually in a census; this is the Manly-Parr [1968] parameters of the two models.
trappability estimator), or running "horizontally" The Modified Calendar of Captures method re-
through the recapture data to find the proportion lies on the ability to distinguish age cohorts and
of capture opportunities in which a given individ- to separate older cohorts from young bom in situ.
ual or group of individuals was effectively caught The major assumptions underlying the technique
("individual trappability" sensu Le Boulenge & Le are that no individuals living on the plot escape
Boulenge-Nguyen, 1981). The CMR
package is capture entirely (as is also assumed by the Cal-
available at cost from the second author upon re- endar of Captures/Minimum Number Known
quest. Alive methods) except for young ones prior to first
In small mammal studies, "classic" statistical capture, and that the mortality rate of marked and
methods very often yield unreliable estimates due unmarked animals is similar (Le Boulenge & Le
to inadequate sample sizes or failure to fulfill un- Boulenge-Nguyen, 1981). Definitions of the age
derlying assumptions. Thus, in addition to the cohorts that were utilized in this analysis are spec-
Minimum Number Known Alive method, we have ified below for each species.
calculated population sizes by the Modified Cal- The objective of the analyses was to arrive at a
endar of Captures technique whenever possible more realistic view of changes occurring in the
(Le Boulenge & Le Boulenge-Nguyen, 1981). Ba- populations. In addition, insight into the nature
sically, the Modified Calendar of Captures tech- of population dynamics may be gained. For ex-
nique is equivalent to the Calendar of Captures or ample, when the backward projection procedure
Minimum Number Known Alive method, where gave unrealistic estimates of numbers of young
an individual is counted as present from the first present before first capture (that is, far greater or
to last capture (Krebs, 1966); however, this tech- less than the potential for known resident females
nique includes two additional steps. The first con- to produce them), this could be interpreted as in-
sists of adjusting the observed residency time of dicating a major role, respectively, of immigration
each individual by adding the "mean section of or emigration.
time between successive captures" {sensu Andrze-
jewski, 1963, 1 969) before its first and after its last
capture (see details in Le Boulenge & Le Boulenge-

Nguyen, 1981). The second step consists of count- Results
ing young individuals as present since their ap-
proximate birthdate (i.e., in this case, the closest Trends of Minimum Numbers Known Alive
subsequent census) irrespective of the date of their
first capture (a procedure called Age-Projected Figure 1 presents the Minimum Numbers
Number Alive by Ford & Pitelka, 1984). This Known Alive on the grid during the study period,
backward projection of numbers of young is ad- for the four principal small mammal species as
justed by the juvenile survival rate, assuming this well as total. Numbers ofAkodon olivaceus showed
to be constant from the date of first capture back a constant decline throughout 1 5 months of ob-
to the date of birth (Le Boulenge &
Le Boulenge- servation; in contrast, those of A. longipilis were
Nguyen, 1981). Direct survival estimates between remarkably constant, from two to five individuals.
successive sessions are biased by trappability fluc- Phyllotis danvini showed fairly regular increases
tuations and are imprecise when, as often, sample during late spring-summer months and declines
sizes are small; whence survival values used in the afterwards. Lacking diurnal trapping prior to May

160-
140-
= 120 H
oiooH
80-
60-
^ 40-
20-
J
I ^J
TJ ^J rJ
r I.
r.J I-
Nov. Jan. Mar. May July Sept. Nov. Jan.

1973 1974 1975 Fig. 1. Minimum Number Known
-* Total number Alive trends for Akodon olivaceus, A. lon-
" PhyUotis darwini
PhyUotis darwini, and Octodon
gipilis,
degus and total numbers (all species in-
Octodon degus
cluding Abrocoma bennetti, Oryzomys
• Akodon olivaceus
longicaudatus, and Marmosa elegans)
O Akodon k3ngipriis during November 1973-January 1975.
1974, earlier estimates of Octodon degus numbers the degu breeding season, when intense activity
are probably considerable underestimates; never- was observed on the grid following the first winter
theless, minimum numbers of degus were consid- rains, these were likely peripheral nonresident an-
erably greater than reported by Fulk (1975). In imals (Meserve et al., 1984). Consequently, al-
May 1974, a large number of new O. degus adults though these individuals were included in Mini-
were recorded on the grid; most of these (64% of mum Numbers Known Alive figures, they have
39 individuals) were not recaptured in subsequent been excluded from the following demographic
censuses. As this occurred during the beginning of and age analysis.
Table 1 . Observed sex-ratios of four rodent species given as percentages of females among the individuals captured
in each season.
Akodon olivaceus Phyllotis darwini
11 10 31 13 18 13 9 9 98 16 13 12 8 8 3 3 6 11 6 14 8 22 10 13 16 12 5 9 5 6 4 26 10 4 4
lOOn
80
I 60-
40-
I
q! 20-
SNJMMJSNJ
1973 1974 1975 1973
SNJMMJSNJ 1974 1975
Akodon longipilis Octodon degus
100-
63 52 72 31 21 62 75 33 23
100-
3 15 7 1 7 12 6
0,
80- 80-
O)
2c 60- 2*60-
a>
o 40- §40-
0)
'^
20- Q. 20-
SNJMMJSNJ
1973 1974 1975 1973
SNJMMJSN 1974
J
1975
I scrotal (males) l-^::^V^^

pregnant/lactating (females)
nonscrotal (mates) nonpregnant and nonlactating (female)
Reproductive trends for Akodon olivaceus, A. longipilis, Phyllotis darwini, and Octodon degus during
Fig. 2.
September 1973-January 1975, based on live- and snap-trap results. Percentages of reproductively active individuals
are indicated by crosshatched areas (males) and dotted areas (females) in columns for each sample period; sample
sizes are indicated over respective columns.
Other species captured on the grid include the low sample sizes in this species. Octodon degus in
caviomorph rodent Abrocoma bennetti (one to five contrast seems to have a balanced sex-ratio.
individuals each census except in March and Sep-
tember 1 974); Oryzomys longicaudatus (one to five
individuals in five of eight censuses); and the mouse Reproduction
opossum Marmosa elegans (single individuals
during three censuses). Reproductive trends for all four species are sum-
Table 1 presents the sex-ratio for the four most marized in Figure 2. For Octodon degus only in-
common species in four seasons: late spring (No- formation on females is presented, as relative testis
vember 1973-January 1974), summer-fall (March- size and position as determined by palpation is
May 1974), winter-early spring (July-September probably an inaccurate index of reproductive ac-
1974), and late spring(November 1974-January tivity in this nonscrotal caviomorph rodent.
1975), based on the actual numbers of males and Pregnant or lactating females of Akodon oliva-
females caught in each season. Interestingly, the ceus were briefly present in September-Novem-
observed ratios are consistently biased in favor of ber, reproductively active males somewhat longer
males in the three sigmodontines, although sig- (fig. 2). A few scrotal males were present in January
nificantly so only for Akodon olivaceus and Phyl- 1974 but none in January 1975, suggesting earlier
lotis darwini in late spring of the first year and in termination of sexual competency. Embryo counts
the total sample of the former species. Nonsignifi- for 1974-1975 females (N = 11) averaged 5.6 ±
cant results for Akodon longipilis, which shows the 1.1 (SD), similar to that reported by Fulk (5.6;
most strongly biased ratio, are probably due to the 1
975) and Greer (5.5; 1 965) in southern Chile, and

somewhat higher than reported by Pearson (5.1; estingly, minimum interval for second litters fol-
1983) in the southern Argentine temperate rain lowing birth of the first was 16-18 days and
forest. The maturation time for ^. olivaceus is un- apF>eared to alternate between longer intervals of
known, but Pearson (1983) and Murua (pers. 30-60 days for continuously breeding P. darwini
comm.) have reported breeding males and females in captivity (captivity data from Le Boulenge, un-
about two months old. Field-caught male and fe- publ. data). Recently, this phenomenon was con-
male A. olivaceus reached sexual maturity at 22- firmed independently in pregnant field-caught fe-
24 g, but did not breed in the same season. One males from Fray Jorge which gave birth in captivity
female bom probably about November-Decem- to a second litter only 16 days after the first (M.
ber 1973 bred twice, in the following September H. Gallardo, pers. comm.). In the Fray Jorge pop-
and November 1974. ulation, males probably bom in August-Septem-
Data on Akodon longipilis is more limited due ber reached sexual competency by November.
to small sample size. This species appeared to ini- Octodon degus, as Akodon longipilis females,
tiate and terminate reproduction earlier than either initiatedand terminated reproduction earlier than
Akodon olivaceus or Phyllotis darwini (fig. 2). Fulk those of Phyllotis darwini and A. olivaceus. Preg-
(1975), however, reported pregnant females in nant females were found only in June and July;
February 1973 and juveniles the following May. thereafter only lactating ones were captured. With
Similar to trends for other species, reproduction a gestation of 90 days (Weir, 1970, 1974), females
ceased earlier in 1974 than in 1973. Two females probably conceived in May-June and gave birth
had six and four embryos; Greer (1965) and Pear- in August-September. There was no evidence of
son (1983) reported mean embryo counts of 3.7 a postpartum estrus or a second litter, as reported
and 3.8, respectively, for southern Chile and Ar- in Fray Jorge for 1972-1973 and in central Chile
gentina. Minimum weights for perforate females (Fulk, 1975; Rojas et al., 1977; Meserve et al.,
averaged 39.6 g, for scrotal males 47.5 g; no in- 1984). Embryo count for nine individuals was
dividual reached sexual maturity in less than five 5.7 ± 1.3, slightly greater than the 5.3 figure given
months. Pearson ( 1 983), however, reported breed- for 1974 Fray Jorge females only, or for Santiago
ing in the same season as birth, and our obser- area degus (Meserve et al., 1 984). Woods and Bor-
vations are probably biased without data prior to aker (1975) reported litter sizes of 6.8 for degus in
September 1973. laboratory colonies. Young did not breed in the
In general, Phyllotis darwini had the longest pe- same season of birth in Fray Jorge; the minimum
riod of potential and actual reproduction; scrotal weight for perforate females was 1 27.5 g, and field-
males were recorded in seven out of nine periods caught individuals did not reach this weight in less
and were only absent in May during the 1 974 sam- than 100 days of life (including a minimum esti-
ples. Fulk (1975) reported no scrotal males later mated pre-weaning time of 28 days; Weir, 1970).
than January during a wet year in Fray Jorge, but
they were present in the Santiago area in March
of the same year. Pregnant or lactating females Cohort Definition
were present between September and January;
captive females maintained in the Santiago area As live-trapped animals could not be aged di-
bred in virtually all months of the year. Embryo rectly using classic age-estimation techniques be-
count for 1 1 autopsied females was 5.1 ± 1.0 (SD), cause of poor information on these species, we
close to that reported by Fulk (5.2; 1 975) and Pear- relied on several sources of evidence, including
son (5.25; 1975) for an "outbreak" population in the seasonality of reproduction, body weight dis-
southern coastal Peru. Young bom in captivity to tributions, and sexual maturity of individuals at
field-pregnant females from Fray Jorge reached first capture. The study started at or near the end
sexual maturity in 60.0 ± 10.2 days at a weight of the 1973-1974 reproductive season for most
of 40.8 ± 6.5 g (females, = 3), and 50.3 ± 7.2
N species; thus, young of the year had already reached
days at 46.3 N
± 6.4 g (males, = 6). The lowest adult size and/or sexual maturity by November
weight for a perforate female in the field was 39.2 1973-January 1974 and could not be distin-
g, but the next lowest weight was 47.0 g. Minimum guished from older adults except in the case of
weights for nine scrotal males in the field was Akodon olivaceus. For this species, there was a
somewhat lower than in captivity (X = 44.9 ± 5.9 clear separation between sexually active, heavier
g). Minimum time to first parturition for six cap- individuals which characteristically lost weight
tive females was 112.3 ± 3.3 days; more inter- (pregnant females excluded) through January 1 974

• K74 Males
O K, ,3 Females * K 74 Females
#K^3 Males D Ko Males

It
Kj^ Females ir Kq Females
40- K
*fr
.t-%
20 it
J I L
60
D
f~->>. ,-+-+''
40-
--\
* .
Fig. 3. Body weight trends for co- 20-

horts of Akodon: top, A. olivaceus, and
bottom, A. longipilis. Meanings of sym-
bols are defined in legend; see text for
cohort definitions. Only two cohorts were
defined for A. longipilis. Vertical line in- r- ~r r
dicates interval of one standard error of N M J J
the mean. 1973 1974 1975
3) and were significantly heavier than a group

(fig. For the remaining species, only two cohorts were
of smaller, mostly sexually inactive individuals distinguished— a cohort of adults bom before the
which gained weight steadily; these were desig- beginning of the live-trapping study (K573), and a
nated the K<73 and K73 cohorts, respectively. Thus, cohort of younger, lower weight individuals ap-
K<73 individuals were considered adults probably pearing in September 1974-January 1975 (K74).
bom early in the 1973 reproductive season (about In addition, a cohort of probable immigrants (Ko)
September) and reaching weights of over 27.5 g was distinguished. Figures 3 and 4 show the weight
by November 1973-January 1974. The K73 in- trends for the remaining three species; in all cases,
dividuals were bom late in the reproductive season a clear difference in body weight existed between
and weighed less than 27.5 g then. After January K573 and K74 individuals.
1974, weights of both cohorts converged, being The Ko group deserves some additional com-
virtually identical by July (fig. 3). The third cohort ments. Single new adults of Akodon longipilis ap-
(K74) consisted of individuals bom in the 1974 peared only in November 1 974 and January 1 975.
reproductive season about September that entered On the other hand, new adults of Phyllotis darwini
the trappable population in November 1974-Jan- were captured in November 1973 and January
uary 1975. Individuals caught for the first time at 1 974 which were far heavier than the average K573
adult weights (> 27.5 g) after January 1974 were individuals (fig. 4); although these were probably
classified as unknown (Ko) individuals and prob- K573 individuals, they were classified in the Kq
able immigrants; such a procedure is conservative, cohort, as were all subsequent new adults. Finally,
and particularly justified if trappability is high (see due to inadequate sampling prior to May 1974,
next section). all Octodon degi4S individuals marked through May

150-
100
§
w 100-
2
D
ir
50
-+—-5:—
^-.-~..^=z^ZZ---.
•
Fig. 4. Body weight trends: top, co-

horts of Octodon degus, and bottom, co-
r horts ofPhyllotis darwini. Symbols are as
N M J J in Figure 3. Only two cohorts were de-
^
1973 1974 1975 fined for each of these species.
were considered K573 cohort members, and all results are presented in Table 2. Monthly or be-
subsequent new adults (recorded from September tween-session trappabilities were determined by
on) as Ko individuals and hence probable immi- the method of Manly and Parr (1968). Finally,
grants. seasonal variations in daily trappability were eval-
uated using the modeling technique of Clobert et
Trappability al. (1985).
Akodon olivaceus trappability might be consid-
Any evaluation of population dynamics in free- ered homogeneous only in the summer-fall months
living animals requires an estimate of trappability. (March-May) and in the winter months (July-Sep-
This may vary between species, sex, age group, tember; x^ = 1-26, 2 d.f., NS); otherwise, monthly
and season, and hence should be estimated when- values were significantly heterogeneous (x' = 10.9,
ever possible. Enumeration methods such as the 3 d.f., P< 0.025). Modeled daily trappability was
Minimum Number Known Alive have an inherent highest in winter (0.75) and lowest in both January
requirement of high trappability between sessions/ sessions (0.48 and 0.18, respectively). This means
censuses. Other estimation methods, such as the that the estimated percentage of animals missing
JoUy-Seber and derived models and the Modified a complete census ranged from 55% in January
Calendar of Captures, allow correction for variable 1974 to 0.4% in winter censuses. The percentage
trappabilities during the measurement period. of animals known alive and caught at least once
Here, daily trappability and seasonal trappability in each census was generally high, however (X =
during each of the four three-month periods out- 84.8 ± 14.8%, 1 SD).
lined in Meserve (1981b) were determined: late For Akodon longipilis, trappability could be
spring (November 1973-January 1974), summer- pooled for all sessions except during January 1 974
fall (March-May 1974), winter-early spring (July- when it was significantly less than in other periods
September 1 974), and late spring (November 974-1 (modeled trappability of 0.27 vs. 0.73, x^ = 3.32,
January 1975). Daily "individual trappabilities" 2 d.f., NS for this model, vs. x' = 9.4, 3 d.f, P <
(see Study Area and Methods section) were esti- 0.025 when all sessions were pooled). Converted
mated for each sex and cohort in each season; the into probability of escaping capture in any given

Table 2. Daily trappability by season for Akodon olivaceus, A. longipilis. Phyllotis darwini, and Octodon degus.
* K.„Males • K^^Males
O K.rjFemales * K, 4 Females
* K^jMales Q Kq Males
* K^jFemales it Ko Females
1.0-1
* K 74 Females
* Kj, 3 Females a Kq Males
it Kq Females
2 ft. A.I
Fig. 6. Top, Estimated number of an-

1.0-
imals by cohort for Akodon longipilis us-
ing the Modified Calendar of Captures
technique during 1973-1975; and bot-
tom, observed survival rates and recruit-
ment during the same period. Symbols
and meaning of dashed lines are as in
Figure 5. Only two cohorts were defined
for this species (see text).
of young (which is a minimum figure) and poten- The results for Octodon degus (fig. 8) indicate a
tial production of young of the two reproductive very large influx of juvenile animals occurred in
females detected in September-November 1974 November 1974, probably from a single episode
indicates a high immigration rate among younger of reproduction initiated in June with birth in early
individuals, a trend also observed in adults. In September and weaning in early October. The fact
addition, immigrant females could have contrib- that 97 young were recorded in November when
uted significantly to reproduction, and the evi- a maximum of 17 adult females were estimated
dence for multiple short-interval pregnancies in to be present on the grid (including September
captivity suggests a high potential production rate animals) indicates that the degus were reproducing
of litters by females in general. In view of the poor maximally. However, unless all of the young bom
survival rates of younger individuals, immigration on the plot survived until their first capture, im-
seems to play a major role in the ability of this migration must be invoked to account for the large
species to reach high densities rapidly. numbers of young actually observed. Survival of
30-
>20-
- 10-
Fig. 7. Number of animals by cohort

for Phyllotis darwini using the
Modified
Calendar of Captures technique during
1973-1975: top. Minimum Numbers
Known Alive figures for the K74 cohort; 1.0- 25 2
no backward projection; and bottom, ob-
served survival rates and recruitment
during the same period. Symbols and
meaning of dashed lines are as in Figure
5. Only two cohorts were defined for this
species (see text).
MESERVE &. LE BOULENGE: SMALL MAMMAL POPULATIONS OF CHILE 425

120-
2 80-
40-
0-^ H—
1.0-1
Table 3. Numbers of animals/ 100 trap-nights and relative proportions by species for small mammals trapped
during four "rainfall" years (see text) during 1972-1976 in Fray Jorge.
ter sizes. In addition, we observed stable, non- ditions, a few individuals have very high repro-
overlapping home ranges of adult females, as did ductive potential after surviving to the next breed- |
Fulk(1975). ing season. There is evidence that precipitation |
Phyllotis danvini populations showed, between directly triggers reproduction; in 1974 and 1976,
years, fairly predictable patterns of population reproduction immediately followed the first an-
changes and reproduction which differed relatively nual rains before the initiation of herbaceous
little, except in magnitude, from the results of Fulk growth (only 6.2 and 17 mm, respectively). With
(1975). As litter size observed in our study was a gestation of 90 days (Woods & Boraker, 1975),
similar to that reported by Fulk (1975) and Pear- such a strategy may be optimal in the northern \
son (1975) during an "outbreak" year, rapid in- arid zone. On

the other hand, Rojas et al. (1977) !
creases in numbers
are apparently achieved by have argued for the principal role of herbaceous
rapid maturation of young to reproduce in the growth in initiating reproduction in central Chile,
same season as birth, and by multiple short-in- paralleling the situationdocumented for hetero-
terval pregnancies. With a minimum interval of myid rodents by Beatley ( 969, 976) and Van De
1 1
only 16 days between consecutive litters, a post- GraafrandBalda(1973).

partum estrus is indicated. Survival rate of older Other species present in Fray Jorge included
adults between reproductive seasons appears to be Oryzomys longicaudatus, which appears to be spo-
zero, so that the entire breeding population in a radic and irruptive and was transient in the Fray
given year is made up of immigrant adults and of Jorge population. Interestingly, Fulk (1975) doc-
younger individuals bom in the same season. Sur- umented pregnant O. longicaudatus females in
vival rates are low, but the species appears to col- March 1973, beyond the reproductive period for
onize new habitats successfully and maintains high other sigmodontines. Populations of O. longicau-
reproductive rates. Phyllotis danvini is the most datus might respond to increased seed production
ubiquitous species in the semiarid and arid regions following unusual periods of rainfall, as this species
of northern Chile and appears to be capable of is granivorous (Meserve, 1981a; Murua & Gon-
1 98 1 ). In the southern temperate rain forest,
seasonally adjusting its resistance to desiccation zalez,
and to utilize seeds and succulents (Meserve, 1978; Gonzalez and Murua (pers. comm.) have suggest-
Meserve & Glanz, 978). Interestingly, Fulk (pers.
1 ed a relationship between the fluctuations in an-
comm.) snap-trapped a dry overgrazed habitat nual seed crops and those of O. longicaudatus pop-
dominated by Baccaris sp. and Pronstia pungens ulations. A second species, Abrocoma bennetti, was
immediately east of Fray Jorge in late May-early recorded in low numbers in most censuses but was
June 1973, simultaneously with trapping of irri- never recaptured. It is the largest rodent found in
gated bean fields near La Serena (about 100 km this community (200-280 g) and appears to be a
NE) by Pefaur et al. (1979). Whereas Fulk en- highly specialized herbivore with greatest similar-
countered 86.6% P. danvini in two nights of trap- ity toOctodon degus in various aspects of its ecol-
ping (total of 82 animals, 51.3% trap success), Pe- ogy (Meserve, 1981a; Meserve et al., 1983).
faur et al. (1979) reported 86.7% Oryzomys In conclusion then, we have documented the
longicaudatus (135 animals, 44.4% success) in two presence of a permanent and successful assem-
nights. Mares ( 1 977a,b) reported that both of these blage of small mammals living in what would be
sf)ecies were F>oor water conservers in the Argen- considered an extremely arid environment by vir-
tineMonte desert. Percentages of the catch com- tually any standard. One might predict, without
posed ofAkodon olivacens for the two Chilean sites prior knowledge of the history and zoogeography
mentioned above were 14.6 and 1.5, resp)ectively, of the area, that this community would be inhab-
at a time when this species still made up a majority ited by highly specialized, granivorous, water-in-
of the Fray Jorge live-trap grid population (Fulk, dependent forms; instead one encounters an as-
1975). semblage composed of relatively generalized,
The large numbers and relative importance of trophically diverse, and mostly water-dependent
Octodon degus in this locality during two very dry members. Such cases of "nonconvergence" F>er-
years was surprising in view of the relatively steno- haps only emphasize the importance of history,
thermic physiology and high evaporative water zoogeography, and alternative strategies for sur-
loss rates of this species (Rosenmann, 1977). While vival in harsh environments. While extrinsic en-
degus appear to have high population turnover vironmental factors related to food and water
and low juvenile survival rates under such con- availability may ultimately limit populations in

thiscommunity, there is remarkable stabihty in Clobert, J., J. D. Lebreton, M. Clobert-Gillet, and
overallnumbers from year to year; most changes M. CoQUiLLART. 1985. Estimation of Survival in bird
seem to involve relative numbers of component populations by recaptures or sightings of marked in-
also be significant that Fray Jorge dividuals, pp. 197-213. In Morgan, B. J. T., and P.
species. It may M. North, eds., Statistics in Ornithology. Springer-
represents a relatively undisturbed native shrub 418 pp.
Verlag, Berlin,
community surrounded by vast areas of badly de- Dueser, R. D., R. K. Rose, and J. H. Porter. 1984.
graded and overgrazed shrublands and marginal A body-weight criterion to identify dispersing small
cultivation. The extent to which environmental mammals. Journal of Mammalogy, 65: 727-729.
degradation elsewhere in arid Chile influences the Ford, R. G., AND F. A. PiTELKA. 1984. Resource lim-
patterns of population change, extinction, and itation in populations of the California vole. Ecology,
65: 122-136.
community instability reported in previous stud-
ies can only be speculated on. FuLK, G. W. 1975. Population ecology of rodents in
the semiarid shrublands of Chile.' Occasional Papers,
The Museum, Texas Tech University, 33: 1-40.
Glanz, W. E. Comparative ecology of small
1977.
Acknowledgments mammal communities in California and Chile. Ph.D.
diss.. University of California, Berkeley, 300 pp.
We wish to thank the
Laboratorio de Ecologia, . 1984. Ecological relationships of two species
Pontifica Universidad Catolica de Chile, for sup- of Akodon in central Chile. Journal of Mammalogy,
65:433-441.
port provided both authors during the time that
Glanz, W. E., and P. L. Meserve. 1 982. An ecological
they were conducting fieldwork. The Laboratoire
comparison of small mammal communities in Cali-
d'Ecologie Theorique et de Biometrie, Universite fornia and Chile, pp. 220-226. In Conrad, C. E., and
Catholique de Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium, pro- W. C. Oechel, eds.. Dynamics and Management of
vided computing facilities and logistical support. Mediterranean-type Ecosystems. U.S. Forest Service,
Several reviewers made valuable comments on the Pacific Southwest Forest Range Experiment Station,
General Technical Report PSW-58, 637 pp.
manuscript. Drs. Eduardo R. Fuentes and Robert
E. Martin assisted with aspects of fieldwork. Fi- Greer, J. K. 1965. Mammals of Malleco Province,
Chile. Publications of the Museum, Michigan State
nally, we thank Janet L. Meserve and Paule Le
Boulenge-Nguyen for unfailing assistance and Hershkovitz, P. 1962. Evolution of Neotropical cri-
forebearance during all aspects of the fieldwork cetine rodents (Muridae), with special reference to the
and preparation of the manuscript. Phyllotine group. Fieldiana: Zoology, 46: 1-524.
Jennrich, R. I., and F. B. Turner. 1969. Measure-
ment of non-circular home range. Journal of Theo-
retical Biology, 22: 227-237.
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Demography and Reproduction
of the Silky Desert Mouse (Eligmodontia)
in Argentina
Oliver Pearson, Susana Martin, and Javier Bellati
ABSTRACTS
Specimens of Eligmodontia typus collected in semiarid steppe habitat were assigned to age
classes according to tooth wear, and the age structure of the population was determined for
different times of the year. The reproductive season extends from October to the end of April;
average litter size is 5.9. Males and females can reach sexual maturity at approximately I'/z
months of age and rarely live longer than 9 months. Adult females were 19% heavier than adult
males and 6% longer. Abundance ranged from 0.4 per hectare in spring to 3.5 in autumn.
Although Eligmodontia is widely dispersed through many arid habitats, life history features
such as small home range, large litters, and brief life span distinguish it from highly adapted
desert rodents of other continents.
Especimenes de Eligmodontia typus colectados en habitat de estepa semiarida fueron clasi-

ficados por edad segun desgaste dentario; la estructura de edades de la poblacion fue determinada
para diferentes epocas del aiio. La estacion reproductiva se extiende desde Octubre hasta fines
de Abril y el tamaiio promedio de camada es de 5.9. Machos y hembras pueden alcanzar la
madurez sexual a los 1 '/2 meses de edad y raramente ven mas de 9 meses. Las hembras resultaron
ser de mayor tamaiio que los machos. La abundancia fluctua de 0.4 individuos por hectarea
en primavera a 3.5 en otorio.
Aunque Eligmodontia es ampliamente distribuido en varios habitats aridos, aspectos del
ciclo vital tales como pequeiios territorios, camadas numerosas y vida de corta duracion la
distinguen de roedores altamente adaptados de desiertos de otros continentes.
Especimes de Eligmodontia typus, coletados nos habitat semi-aridos da estepe, foram desig-
nados a classes de idade de acordo com o gasto de seus dentes. A estrutura de idade da popula9ao
foi assim determinada durante varias epocas do ano. A epoca reproductiva estende-se de
outrubro ao fim de abril, e a ninhada media e de 5,9 crias. Machos e femeas podem atingir
maturidade sexual por volta de 1,5 meses de idade, e raramente vivem mais do que 9 meses.
As femeas sao maiores que os machos. A densidade dos camundongos foi de 0,4 por hectare
na primavera e de 3,5/ha. no verao.
Apesar da ampla distribui9ao dos Eligmodontes em varios habitats aridos, aspectos da biolo-
From the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University

of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (Pearson); and Insti-
tuto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, Casilla de
Correo 277, 8400 Bariloche, Argentina.
PEARSON ET AL.: ELIGMODONTIA IN ARGENTINA 433

como por exemplo o seu uso de area, o seu curto periodo de vida, e o seu
gia destes animals,
grande numero de crias, distinguem estes camundongos dos roedores de outros continentes que
sao altamente adaptados k vida arida do deserto.
Introduction tures of unrelated species living in different arid

regions would suggest their adaptive significance.
The silky desert mouse is abundant in arid or
semiarid habitats from southern Argentina north
to the altiplano of southern Peru. It occupies hab-
itats that on other continents are filled by highly Materials and Methods
specialized rodents such as North American kan-
garoo rats, Asian dipodids, and African gerbils. The Argentine species of Eligmodontia is small-
Although Eligmodontia is probably as morpho- er than the species living in Peru and has a different
logically adapted for desert life as any other genus karyotype (unpubl. obs.). Even within the prov-
of mouse now living in South America, it is not ince of Rio Negro it shows considerable variation
highly specialized (Mares, 1980). Several tubercles in color, size, and proportions. An isolated pop-
on the soles of each hind foot are fused into a furry ulation 10 km west of Bariloche in an island of
pad that may aid locomotion on sandy soil; the steppe vegetation consists of very small, dark in-
hind feet are somewhat elongate (about 20% longer dividuals. Populations from the center and eastern
than those of Peromyscus maniculatus of similar parts of Rio Negro are paler and have much longer
size), and many populations have pale silky fur. tails.To minimize possible geographic variation
But, aside from these few presumed desert adap- of the demographic and reproductive features
tations,Eligmodontia is in general appearance and measured in our study, we have limited our sam-
proportions scarcely distinguishable from the wide- ples to specimens collected within 25 km of Pil-
ranging P. maniculatus of North America. It lacks caniyeu Viejo in Rio Negro. They are referred to
the large, inflated bullae, long tufted tail, and kan- the subspecies E. typus typus pending resolution
garoo-like hind limbs seen in many desert species of nomenclatural complications pointed out by
on other continents. Hershkovitz(1962).
In physiological properties as well, Eligmodon- The study area (ca. 4 1°S and 70°30'W) is located
tia does not appear to be highly adapted to desert within what has been described as the Patagonian
living. It can live in captivity for weeks on a diet Province by Cabrera (1971) or as the Western
of dry seeds without drinking water, but this is Mesetas and Sierras by Anchorena (1978). Aver-
true for mice from a variety of habitats. It will age monthly temperatures range from a low of
drink water if available, and also will utilize the 1.4°C. in July to a high of 13.6''C. in January. No
water in succulent vegetation (Mares, 1975a, 1977). period is free of frosts. The mean annual temper-
It has an unusual capability to drink salt water, ature for the area is approximately 7.4°C. Precip-
which suggests that it could utilize succulent parts itation averages 300 mm per year, almost three-
of desert plants with a high salt content (Mares, quarters of it in the winter. Relative humidity for
1 977). As measured by rate of loss of body weight the area ranges from about 20% in January to 85%
by captives without water, the physiological ca- in July. Winds are especially strong in spring, al-
pacity oi Eligmodontia to resist dehydration is in- though frequent and forceful at all seasons.
termediate to that of desert-adapted pocket mice Land use is characterized by extensive sheep and
(Perognathus) and the relatively unspecialized cattle ranching, with seasonal use of summer and
Peromyscus maniculatus (Mares, 1975b). winter grazing areas. Sheep were introduced a cen-
Because Eligmodontia is the most abundant tury ago, and overgrazing has since modified the
mammal in large areas of arid and semiarid hab- plant coverage and species composition of the area.
itat in South America and lacks a "desert" mor- The study area consists of steppe interrupted by
phology and physiology, we thought that a study small marshy areas referred to locally as mallines.
of its ecology and life history might reveal con- The vegetation has a mean height of approxi-
vergences with life history features of desert ro- mately 50 cm and is composed mainly of low
dents elsewhere. Convergence of life history fea- shrubs and a variety of grasses. The main shrubs

inguol view
onterior
iabiol view
Fig. 2. Upper toothrows of Eligmo-

dontia showing the two measurements
Tooth wear index = o +b taken for calculation of the tooth wear
index.
are neneo{Mulinum spinosum), mata torcida {Stil- Two hundred twenty Eligmodontia were col-
lingia patagonica), charcao (Senecio bracteolatus), lected in the study area between November 1981
colapiche (Nassauvia glomerulosa), mamuel choi- and January 1984 using Sherman live traps baited
que {Adesmia campestris), duraznillo (Coliguaya with rolled oats. Museum Special kill-traps baited
integerrima), and Senecio neaei. The main grasses usually with commeal or rolled oats but occasion-
are various species of bunchgrass, especially Stipa ally with other baits, or smaller kill-traps baited
speciosa var. major, Poa lanuginosa, Festuca ar- with commeal and peanut butter. On several oc-
and S. speciosa var. speciosa.
gentina, P. ligularis, casions traplines were set, alternating Sherman
The small-mammal fauna of the study area is traps baited with rolled oats and Museum Specials
dominated by Eligmodontia (nocturnal granivore- baited with commeal. The Museum Specials were
omnivore) and another mouse of about the same more effective. Almost all specimens were dis-
size, Akodon xanthorhinus (nocturnal and diurnal sected immediately. Skulls were dried for later
granivore-omnivore). Other small mammals pres- cleaning.
ent but caught much less frequently were Phyllotis The reproductive condition of males was as- \
danvini (nocturnal omnivore), Reithrodon auritus sessed from measurements of the length of one
(nocturnal herbivore), Ctenomys haigii (fossorial testis, the color and texture of the testes, and the
herbivore), Notiomys edwardsii (semi-fossorial in- length of the seminal vesicles. The seminal vesicles
sectivore-omnivore), Euneomys sp. (herbivore), are J-shaped; the length was considered to be the
Microcavia australis (diurnal herbivore), and the distance from the base of the bladder to the curve
introduced Lepus capensis (nocturnal herbivore). of the J. The measurements were used to classify
In the few patches of mesic or moist vegetation, each male into one of three categories: sexually
Akodon longipilis and Auliscomys micropus may immature, mature, or postmature. Males in breed-
be abundant. Almost all of these small mammals ing condition had pale, firm testes more than 5.5
range widely in southern Argentina. Some of them mm long and seminal vesicles more than 7.5 mm
occur in much moister habitats. long; the diameter of the epididymis was great
Readers familiar with Mares's (1983) descrip- enough so that this contorted tube could be seen
tion of desert communities will note that the Ar- easily through the sheath of the cauda epididymis.
gentine steppe community described above con- For specimens of uncertain category, the presence
tains many of the elements found in desert or absence of abundant spermatozoa was con-
communities on other continents. The guinea pig/ firmed by microscopic examination of a smear of
groundsquirrel, tuco-tuco/pocket gopher, and Eu- an epididymis. Flabby or dark-colored testes, usu-
ropean hare/jackrabbit similarities are especially ally associated with submaximal seminal vesicles,
close. The small bipedal granivores are notably were considered to be an indication of postbreed-
absent in South America. ing condition.
i
TOOTH WEAR INDEX
0.541 mm
anterior
0.346 mm
Fig. 3. View of the grinding surfaces

of upper toothrows showing the degree
0.078 mm
of wear associated with three different
tooth wear indices.
Females were placed in reproductive categories Although there was a high positive correlation
on the basis of examination of uteri, nipples, and between the two measurements for each specimen
the pubic symphysis. Thin, pale uterine horns (r
= +0.88, n = 176), we assumed that accuracy
without embryos or placental scars indicated nul- would be increased by averaging the two mea-
liparous females. Females with swellings in the surements. This average is the number presented
uteriwere considered to be pregnant. Females with as the "Tooth Wear Index" for each specimen: the
uterine scars, thick uteri, or large nipples were con- larger the number, the younger the individual.
sidered to be parous. If milk could be expressed The cusps onthe first molars are usually taller
from a nipple, a female was registered as lactating. than those on the second molar (average 0.07 mm
Nonpregnant females with an open pubic sym- taller), but in young individuals the second is
physis were considered to be parous. sometimes taller than the first. The M^ wears more
Estimation of Age— The relative age of each rapidly, however, and a regression of M '
against
individual was estimated by measuring the amount M- shows that M' may be expected to have about
of wear on the cusps of two upper molar teeth. 0.175 mm of cusp remaining at an age when the
The tall, sharp cusps of young individuals wear cusps on M^ have worn away completely.
down through life until, if the individual survives Measurement of the height of the cusps on two
long enough, the tooth surface is smooth. Amount teeth is tedious and requires a special microscope,
of wear was converted to approximate age by not- but the Tooth Wear Index is well correlated with
ing the progression of wear in successive collec- the physical appearance of the teeth. Three ex-
tions of the first cohort of young each season. Sim- amples of different ages are shown in Figure 3. It
ilar techniques have been used by Pearson (1945, ispossible that a subjective estimate of the amount
1967, 1975), Happold (1967), French etal. (1974), of wear on the surface of all three molars is more
and Feito et al. (1981). reliable than actual measurement, because the ob-
In this study of Eligmodontia, the height of the server can integrate information from all of the
middle cusp of the first upper molar was measured peaks and valleys of the entire toothrow.
from the labial side, the depth of the groove be- To determine whether males and females were
tween the two main cusps of the second molar in of equal size, it was desirable to establish a min-
the opposite toothrow from the lingual side (fig. imum age at which individuals could be consid-
2). Measurements were recorded to 0.001 mm
us- ered adult. This was done by plotting length of
ing a microscope fitted with crosshairs and an elec- head and body against tooth wear and estimating
tronic digital readout. the point at which the growth curve levels off.

Table 1 . Measurements of adult male and female Eligmodontia and of all male and female Eligmodontia from
the population studied.
Measurement
•?
FEMALES
«g^*^*
O'NULUPAROUS
••PREGNANT
O = PAROUS
9 = LACTATIN6
N M M
Age and reproductive condition of female Eligmodontia during spring, summer, and autumn. Each double-
Fig. 4.
sized symbol represents five individuals. Age is in tooth wear units, with the oldest animals at the top of the diagram.
The stippled band suggests the rate of aging of one summer-bom cohort.
during the spring and summer, during which time Longevity— The cluster of young breeding mice
the proportion of juveniles in the population in- between tooth wear of 0.40 and 0.52 in January
creases enormously (figs. 4-6). In the autumn preg- (figs. 4 and 5) must have been bom late in October
nant females were caught until the end of April, or early in November and therefore were about
but none of numerous females caught in the mid- 10 weeks old. A different cluster of young mice of
dle of May was pregnant (fig. 4). that age in May have aged to tooth wear of 0.20-
The male reproductive season coincides with 0.30 in November, 22 weeks later. This indicates
that of the females (fig. 5). Even old, sexually ma- an age of 22 + 10 = 32 weeks for mice with tooth
ture males pass out of breeding condition in May. cusps 0.20 to 0.30 high. By January, when they
Age of Sexual Maturity— Females bom late have entered the oldest age category, they are about
in October or early in November may be visibly 41 weeks old. Since there is no accumulation of
pregnant, or even lactating, with tooth wear of individuals in this old category, they must die soon
0.50 mm
in mid-January (fig. 4). They must have after reaching that age. It is doubtful that any of
been inseminated at not more than six to eight the mice in oiu" samples were as much as 1 2 months
weeks of age. Young males become sexually ma- old. The oldest females and males were capable
ture at six to eight weeks of age also (fig. 5). of breeding.
MALES
10
_j
o
1
20 r
X
^30
^40
UJ
^50 e
o
• = BREEDING
O60 0= POST -BREEDING
Oc IMMATURE
70
N D J F M A
Fig. 5. Age and reproductive condition of male Eligmodontia.

rf .
9
2 °-
|..o-
c SO-
S-JO- n
*.40-
I
I-.50-
o
O I I
'
30 20 10 10 20 30%
NOV. JAN. APR.- MAY
Fig. 6. Age pyramids and sex ratios oi Eligmodontia in spring, summer, and autumn. Age is represented in tooth
wear units.
The changes in age composition of the popu- the most 14% of the traps held
successful line,
lation can be followed easily in Figure 6. The entire Eligmodontia. In the autumn, 22 traplines adding
population is middle-aged in November. This coup to 1,339 trap-nights produced a trap success of
hort is already much reduced in January and has 13%. If trap success is directly proportional to
probably disappeared entirely by April-May. Sim- abundance, this suggests that Eligmodontia was
ilarly, the young cohorts that have entered the about six times as abundant in autumn as in spring.
population by January have almost disappeared This ratio is confirmed by the census data. As
before April-May, leaving the overwinter success many as 52% of the traps on one trapline in the
of the population to the young bom relatively late autumn caught Eligmodontia.
in the summer. Density of Eligmodontia was measured on a
In summary, the reproductive activities of the study area at the Campo Anexo Pilcaniyeu of the
population proceed as follows: In autumn (May) Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria. A
the population is made up almost entirely of an- 1 -ha- plot was measured and marked as a
grid with
imals bom during the summer. The younger fe- a stake at each 10-m intersection. A Sherman live-
males are nulliparous and the middle-aged females trap was set within 2 m
of each stake (121 traps).
parous. The young males have not matured sex- At the time of each census, trapping was carried
ually and the middle-aged and old males are no out for three or four nights; captured mice were
longer sexually competent. The overwinter sur- marked with numbered metal ear tags and then
vivors breed in October but die before the end of released. The size of the population was estimated
the summer. In fact, few individuals bom early in by Lincoln Index calculations, and the area oc-
the breeding season survive until autumn. The cupied by this population was considered to be the
young bom in November breed promptly, and 1-ha grid increased by a border strip the width of
some of their male and female offspring breed be- the three-night home range oi Eligmodontia (mea-
fore the end of the reproductive season in April. sured by recapture of marked individuals). Trap-
Number of Fetuses— Twenty females were vis- ping for supplementary animals for dissection was
ibly pregnant; each carried between three and nine carried out at thesame time a few kilometers away.
fetuses (mean 5.90, SE ± number of fe-
0.39). If The census area was chosen to represent a mod-
tuses is plotted against age of the mother, there is sample of Patagonian steppe (fig. 1 ),
erately grazed
a loose but significant positive correlation (r = but subsequent study revealed that it should prob-
-J-0.55). The wearing away of 0.10 of molar mm ably be considered to be heavily grazed. It was
cusps, which requires about six weeks, was accom- also within the hunting range of several domestic
panied by an average increase of 0.66 more fetuses. cats.The vegetation in the census area was scrub
Abut^dance— Eligmodontia is usually the most with an abundance of Poa lanuginosa and Stipa
abundant species in its habitat, although in some speciosa var. major, with a high proportion ofStil-
places Akodon xanthorhinus outnumbers it. In the lingia patagonica (Lores et al., 1983).
springtime, when populations are lowest, 1 7 trap- An assessment of the vegetation at alternate
lines composed of a total of 1,723 trap-nights stakes on the census grid is summarized in Table
caught 35 Eligmodontia. giving a trap success of 2. The dominant three species at each stake were
2%. Nine of the lines caught no Eligmodontia. In ranked as first, second, or third. The dominance

Table 2. Dominant vegetation at 6 1 evenly distrib-
ranking was based on an estimate of the biomass
uted sites on the census grid. Dominance was estimated
or of the area covered by each species growing
from the apparent biomass of each species.
within 1 m
of each stake. The percentage of ground
covered by vegetation at each stake was also es-
timated by imagining a 1 -m hoop with the stake
at its center. The lowest percentage of ground cov-
er was 10%; the highest was 100% in a dense mat
ofBerberis heterophylla. The average coverage was
43%.
Table 2 shows that Stillingia, bunchgrass (Poa
ligularisand Festuca argentina), Mulinum, and
Senecio bracteolatus, in that sequence, were the
species most frequently listed as one of the dom-
inant three species. Stillingia was dominant at 25
of the stakes, Mulinum at 17, bunchgrass at 1 1 ,
Senecio bracteolatus at four, and Nassauvia at two.

Other species that were among the dominant three
species at a few stakes were Cerastium arvense,
Adesmia campestris, and Berberis heterophylla.
The area was censused for mice on 24-26 No-
vember 1981, 8-11 April 1982, and 10-12 No-
vember 1982. On each of the spring censuses, only
a single Eligmodontia was captured, giving a pop-
ulation size of one. On the April census, eight
Eligmodontia were captured on the study grid, and
Lincoln Index calculations indicate a population
of 9.3 individuals. Seven recaptures of five of the
mice indicate an average distance moved of 3 1 m.
If a border strip of 3 1 m
is added to the four sides
of the 1-ha trapping grid to allow for the area

utilized by the population during three nights, then
the density of Eligmodontia was 3.5/ha. The av-
erage weight of these Eligmodontia was 15.9 g,
which gives a biomass of 56 g/ha.
If 3 1 mis assumed to be an appropriate width
of a border strip in spring as well as in autumn,

then the single captures in November in 1981 and
in 1982 represent a density of Eligmodontia of
0.4/ha. This is only one-ninth as abundant as in
autumn, a ratio that is in fairly good agreement
with the difference in percentage trap success in
spring and autumn.
The only other mammalian species captured on
the census grid was Akodon xanthorhinus; but feces
of Reithrodon auritus (rata conejo) were seen at
several places on the grid, armadillo burrows were
present, and a hare {Lepus capensis) was seen.
Diet— Eligmodontia is
primarily granivorous.
Stomach contents of individuals captured in two
and Los Menucos) were
different areas (Pichileufu
examined. Each sample was made up of contents
from 23 individuals captured in the month of
May. The samples consisted mainly of seeds which
were identified and separated from the remaining
sume that they are indeed adaptive traits fixed by terworth, 1964; Beatley, 1969; Van De GraafTA
the arid environment. We
shall show that Elig- Balda, 1973; Reichman & Van De Graaff, 1975).
modontia displays some of them but not others, Eligmodontia breeds during the plant growing sea-
and that it shares more traits with its relatives son and, although it is granivorous and insectiv-
living nearby in South Temperate forest (Pearson, orous, its stomach during the breeding season fre-
1983) than with desert forms elsewhere. quently contains green vegetation. It is probable,
Eligmodontia is strictly nocturnal. Its nests and therefore, that the timing and success of repro-
retreats are underground, sometimes in burrows duction of Eligmodontia also is controlled by the
made by tuco-tucos or armadillos. We know noth- response of vegetation to temperature and rainfall.
ing of the exclusiveness of its territories, but its Such a response is clearly adaptive because keying
home range, unlike the expectation, is relatively the timing and the intensity of reproduction to the
small (see table 3; compare French et al., 1975). sprouting of seeds of annual plants maximizes the
Curiously, E. puerulus in rather similar habitat in probability that there will be an adequate seed crop
Peru and measured by the same methods has a to support offspring. If rainfall should be unusually
much larger home range (table 3). abundant or should be repeated for two or more
A survey of the number of fetuses carried by years, populations of mice may increase to very
desert mice indicates that the average for Elig- high densities. This has occurred in North Amer-
modontia (5.9) is unusually large compared with ica (Soholt, 1973; Pearson, 1963), South America
the highly adapted desert rodents belonging to the (Hershkovitz, 1962; Fulk, 1975; Pearson, 1975),
Dipodidae, Heteromyidae, and Gerbillinae (table and Africa (Christian, 1977; Poulet, 1978).
3; Smith & Jorgensen, 1975; Naumov & Lobach- Populations of Eligmodontia did not reach high
ev, 1975; French etal., 1975; Conley et al., 1977). densities during the three years of this study. On
Layne (1968) listed litter sizes for 21 species and the most productive traplines, as many as 52% of
subspecies of Peromyscus, all between 2.8 and 5.0 the traps captured Eligmodontia, but other trap-
and with no obvious relationship between litter lines at the same time in similar habitat nearby
size and aridity of habitat. Eisenberg and Isaac were much less productive. It seems, therefore,
(1963) listed average litter sizes between 2.2 and that populations were very local and that we en-
4.0 for several desert species and pointed out that countered no regional outbreak of either Elig-
in arid regions small litters would conserve water modontia or Akodon xanthorhinus. Trap success
during lactation. Phyllotis gerbillns is a species re- on the grid was usually lower than on other trap-
stricted to the Sechura Desert of Peru. Ten preg- lines. This suggests that our measurements of den-
nant females of that species in the collection of the sity (table 3) are lower than would have been found
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at Berkeley, Cal- in the most favorable habitats.
ifornia, were carrying an average of only 2.8 fe- Extreme fluctuations of population densities
tuses (range 1-4). In this feature, therefore, P. ger- make it difficult to compare small mammal com-
billus conforms more to the expected, small-litter munities of different deserts. Only in studies last-
pattern of desert mice than does Eligmodontia. ing many years can one be certain whether one is
Male and female Eligmodontia typus breed in studying a sparse, an average, or an abundant pop-
thesame season in which they are bom, and fe- ulation. Nevertheless, we have listed data in Table
males are capable of producing more than one 3 that permit a crude comparison of densities and
a season, even becoming pregnant at a
litter in biomasses of Eligmodontia with those of other
postpartum estrus. These features are found also desert rodents. Extreme variation is immediately
in a variety of highly adapted desert rodents apparent. Fulk's (1975) data from Chilean deserts
(McCulloch & Inglis, 1961; Speth et al., 1968; were from very abundant populations following
French et al., 1975; Smith & Jorgensen, 1975; two rainy years. The highly adapted desert genera
Conley et al., 1977) and contribute to a popula- such as Dipodomys, Gerbillurus, Desmodillus, and
tion's potential to respond rapidly to favorable Taterillus were found at greater densities than
(but rare and unpredictable) climatic departures Eligmodontia. Of special interest is Eligmodontia
from a stressful norm. The population increase of puerulus in the high desert of Peru. This habitat
many highly adapted desert species, however, is is quite similar to the steppe of our study area,
impeded by the small size of their litters. and Eligmodontia was living in Peru at densities
Initiation of reproduction in many species of and biomasses similar to those of Eligmodontia
desert mice seems to depend upon the sprouting typus. It is also of interest that two species of the
and growth of seedlings after rains (Chew & But- North American cricetid Peromyscus, relatively

Table 3. A comparison of some characteristics of small rodents in various deserts. The studies cited were chosen
because the field data were gathered using techniques comparable with our own.
Diam. of Aver-
Ground home age
cover range Density Biomass litter
Location (%) Species (m) (no./ha) (g/ha) size Reference
Stepi>e, Argen- 43 Eligmodontia 31 (0.4-3.5) (6-56) 5.9 This study

tina typus
Tola, Peru 33 Eligmodontia 92 1.0 25 Pearson & Ralph
puerulus (1978)
Loma, Peru 37 Phyllotis 36 6.5 206 Pearson & Ralph
danvini (1978); Pearson
(1975)
Desert scrub, 1 5 Phyllotis 60 2.6 100 Pearson & Ralph
Peru danvini (1978)
Mountain 36 Phyllotis 54 2.5 95 3.7 Pearson & Ralph
scrub, Peru danvini (1978); Pearson
(1975)
Semiarid shrub. 54 77 •••
Phyllotis (3.2-4.4) (184-191) Fulk(1975)
La Rincona- danvini
da, Chile
Semiarid shrub. 54 Akodon 54 (6-16) (158-502) Fulk(1975)
La Rincona- olivaceus
da, Chile
Semiarid shrub, 44 Phyllotis (36-41) (29-46) (1,798-2,463) 5.2 Fulk(1975)
Fray Jorge, danvini
Chile
Semiarid shrub. 44 Akodon (30-45) (30-97) (992-2,707) 5.5 Fulk(1975)
Fray Jorge, olivaceus
Chile
Larrea, USA 23 Dipodomys 70 11.5 453 Chew & Chew
merriami (7.8-15.6) (370-590) (1970)
Larrea, USA 23 Onychomys 118 1.83 40.3 Chew & Chew
torridus (0.6-3.3) (15-71) (1970)
Larrea, USA 23 Perognathus 62 1.1 7.3 Chew & Chew
flavus (0-3.9) (0-25) (1970)
Larrea, USA 23 Peromyscus 87 1.1 21.9 Chew & Chew
eremicus (0.5-3.3) (4-67) (1970)
Larrea-yucca, + 27 Dipodomys 61 0.7-3.7 Chew & Butter-
USA merriami worth (1964)
Larrea-yucca, + 27 Perognathus 64 0.8-1.7 Chew & Butter-
USA longimembris worth (1964)
Larrea-cassia, 6.6 Dipodomys 41 16.2 (459-741) 2.2 Soholt(1973)
USA merriami (12.3-19.5)
Coastal sage, Dipodomys (1.2-4.8) (74-295) 2.6 MacMillen(1964)
USA agilis (2-4)
Coastal sage, Perognathus (0.2-1.3) (4.2-24.8) MacMillen(1964)
USA fallax
Coastal sage, Peromyscus (0.5-4.0) (8.5-75.6) 2.9 MacMillen(1964)
USA eremicus (2-6)
Coastal sage, Peromyscus (0-2.5) (0-51) 4.3 MacMillen(1964)
USA maniculatus (2-7)
Desert grass- Gerbillurus 27 (7-12) Christian (1977)
land. South- paeba
west Africa
Desert grass- Desmodillus 23 (12-16) Christian (1977)
land. South- auricularis
west Africa
Dry bush, Taterillus 25 3.0, 8.0 108,288 :4 Poulet(1972)
dunes, Sene- pygargus
gal

unspecialized and in general appearance similar thus. Many jerboas in the Sudan, however, survive
to Eligmodontia, were living at densities similar more than one year (Happold, 1967). Phyllotis
to those o^ Eligmodontia (table 3). Our conclusion darwini in the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile is
aftercomparing the densities oi Eligmodontia with almost as short-lived as Eligmodontia (Pearson,

those of other species in Table 3 and with the 1975; Fulk, 1975).
densities reported by French et al. (1975), Smith The fact that Eligmodontia has been able to
and Jorgensen (1975), Naumov and Lobachev colonize an enormous expanse of arid and semi-
(1975), and Conley et al. (1977) is that the highly arid habitat without having many of the anatom-
adapted desert mice on the other continents main- ical, physiological, reproductive, behavioral, and
tain higher densities than does Eligmodontia and ecological features traditionally associated with
other genera inhabiting arid zones in South Amer- desert rodents indicates either 1) that survival in
ica. No long-term studies have been carried out, deserts is not so stressful as to require extreme
however, in South America. specializations, or 2) that Eligmodontia possesses
One of the most impressive demographic dif- very effective, undetected desert adaptations. From
ferences between Eligmodontia and the North our study of Eligmodontia in the Patagonian steppe,
American genera Dipodomys and Perognathus is we conclude that the first alternative is closer to
in longevity. Our estimate of longevity for Elig- the truth. Other species of relatively unspecialized
modontia is made by comparing age pyramids of mice are able, in the absence of highly-adapted
samples trapped at different seasons of the year. competitors, to survive in much harsher deserts,
These samples indicated such a rapid turnover of such as Mus
domesticus in Peruvian and Austra-
the population that very few individuals could be lian deserts or Peromyscus maniculatus in North
expected to survive nine months after birth and American deserts. The key consideration is one of
almost none could be expected to reach one year. population density. Densities of highly adapted
All studies of Dipodomys and Perognathus show desert species are held down by even the usual or
that these genera survive much longer than this. "normal" climatic regime of the region that they
French et al. (1967) recaptured 25 Perognathus occupy. This is demonstrated by the population
longimembris that had been marked three to five increase that occurs following unusual sequences
years earlier. Chew and Butterworth (1964) recap- of rain. Relatively unadapted species respond to
tured up to 1 9% of their marked Dipodomys mer- rains also, but start their increase from lower den-
riami and 31% of their Perognathus longimembris sities and on their greater reproductive po-
rely
a year later. Chew and Chew (1970) found that at them to high densities. The highly
tential to carry
least 50% of their marked Dipodomys merriami adapted species rely on their greater longevity and
were still alive six months later, but 50% of the their other adaptations to maintain relatively high
Peromyscus eremicus haa disappeared in two densities during the "normal" unfavorable years.
months. M'Closkey (1972) reported survivals per At high densities (much higher than Eligmo-
month of 79%, 79%, and 54% for Dipodomys agil- dontia reached in our study), desert rodents eat as
is, Peromyscus eremicus, and Peromyscus manicu- &
much as 70% (Chew Chew, 1970) or 95% (So-
latus, respectively. In Soholt's (1973) study of D. holt, 1973) of the seed production of some plant
merriami, at least 42% of the marked animals re- species, yet this impact seems supportable by the
mained 50 weeks later. plant populations. Therefore, unless the mouse
It is not known how Dipodomys achieves such population increases to much higher densities than
longevity. The long survival of Perognathus is usu- we measured, Eligmodontia is not likely to be a
ally attributed to the fact that it is capable of hi- threat to the steppe vegetation.
bernation and thereby avoids both metabolic deg-
radation and above-ground dangers. We have no
evidence that Eligmodontia hibernates and doubt
that it does so because it does not accumulate Literature Cited
appreciable quantities of fat in the autumn.
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Agropecuaria, Bariloche.
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Beatley, J. 1969. Dependence of desert rodents on
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Baculum of the Lesser Andean Coati,
Nasuella olivacea (Gray), and of the Larger Grison,
Galictis vittata (Schreber)
Edgardo Mondolfi
ABSTRACTS
The bacula of Nasuella and Galictis vittata (Schreber) are described for the
olivacea (Gray)
first time. Despite its Nasuella has a larger and more robust baculum than Nasua;
smaller size,
the bifid distal tip resembles that of Procyon cancrivorus. The baculum of G. vittata is larger
and stouter than that of the smaller Galictis cuja, with a more expanded spatulate tip vaguely
resembling that seen in Eira barbara. Mustelid specimens previously described by Didier ( 1 947)
are reidentifiedon the basis of these descriptions.
Los baculos de Nasuella olivacea (Gray) y Galictis vittata (Schreber) son descritos por primera
vez. A pesar de su talla mas pequeiia, Nasuella tiene un baculo mas largo y robusto que Nasua;
la punta distal bifida se parece a la de Procyon cancrivorus. El baculo de G. vittata es mds
grande y fuerte el del pequeiio Galictis cuja, con una punta espatulada mas expandida, vagamente
similar a la observada en Eira barbara. Especimenes mustelidos previamente descritos por
Didier (1947) son reidentificados en base a estas descripciones.
Descreve-se, pela primeira vez, os bacula de Nasuella olivacea (Gray) e de Galictis vittata
(Schreber). Apesar de seu tamanho menor, Nasuella possue um baculum maior e mais robusto
do que Nasua, e a ponta distal bifida assemelha-se a de Procyon cancrivorus. O baculum de G.
vittata e maior e mais robusto do que o da especie menor, Galictis cuja, possuindo uma ponta
larga e espatulada que lembra a forma da de Eira barbara. Especimes mustelideos previamente
descritos por Didier (1947), sao aqui reidentificados, baseado nas descrifoes dos bacula.
Introduction 191 l),Pocock(1918, 1921), Chaine(1925), Didier

(1947, 1950), and Burt (1960). However, none of
The baculum or os penis of different species of these studies refers to the bacula of Nasuella oli-
Camivora has distinctive morphological charac- vacea (Gray) or Galictis vittata (Schreber).
teristics, with possible taxonomic value. However,

The purpose of this paper is to describe the bac-
as noted by Ewer (1973), the differences do not ula of these species, with comments on their tax-
always reflect taxonomic relationships in any sim- onomy.

ple way.
The bacula of several species of Procyonidae
and Mustelidae have been described by Pohl ( 1 909,
From O. Box 34477, Five bacula of the larger grison {Galictis

the Embassy of Venezuela, P. vittata)
Nairobi, Kenya. and two of the lesser Andean coati (Nasuella oli-
MONDOLH: BACULA OF COATI AND GRISON 447

vaced) were analyzed for shape and measurements. base, 3.5 mm; width at middle of shaft, 2.7 mm;
Four bacula of the South American coati, Nasua width across tipsof distal knobs, 6.1 mm.
nasua (Linnaeus), two of the crab-eating raccoon, The differences in size and massiveness of the
Procyon cancrivorus (G. Cuvier), one of the lesser two specimens may be due to age. The first bac-
grison, Galictis {Grisonella) cuja (Molina), and ulum is from an old animal, the second probably
two of the tayra, Eira barbara (Linnaeus) were belongs to a juvenile. In this respect it could be
available for comparison. All these specimens are mentioned that the figure given by Powell (1981)
in my private collection. of four bacula of fisher (Martes pennanti) shows
progressive changes with age, with bone deposi-
tion at the basal end and a more massive appear-
ance in the adult.
Results and Discussion The baculum of Nasua, as described by Pohl
(1911), Pocock (1921), Chaine (1925), Didier
Lesser Andean Coati, Nasuella olivacea (Gray) (1950), and Burt (1960) and as shown by four
specimens at hand, has an expanded, flattened,
One of the two bacula from a skeleton of an
is subspatulate, indistinctly bifid distal end (figs. 1-
old individual salvaged on 1 8 March 1 975 by Omar 2). The distal end of the baculum of Procyon can-
Linares at the Paramo de Piedras Blancas, 30 km crivorus is very similar to that of Nasuella olivacea,
NE of Merida City, state of Merida, in western that is, forked in two divergent condyle-like knobs
Venezuela. It was found in Polylepis sericea Wedd. separated by a medial notch. The largest baculum
brush at an altitude of 4200 m. This baculum is of Procyon cancrivorus at hand shows two tiny
astonishingly robust for the size of the animal, dorsal knobs at the base of the larger condyle-like
whose skull has a condylobasal length of 106 mm. ones (figs. 1-2).
larger and stouter than the baculum of Nasua
It is The monotypic genus Nasuella was erected by
nasua and about the same size as that of Procyon HoUister ( 1 9 1 5) for the little-known lesser Andean
cancrivorus, but thicker (figs. 1-2). The shaft is coati, Nasuella olivacea. HoUister designated as
nearly straight, slightly curved dorsally in the dis- genotype Nasuella olivacea meridensis (Thomas)
tal third and ventrally in the proximal third. The from the Andes of Merida, Venezuela. Nasuella
proximal end is very wide, rugose, blunt at the tip, resembles Nasua in general features, but is smaller
with a deep groove on the dorsal face. On the in size, head and body length, 420-478 mm. The
ventral face of the base, there is a wider but shal- tail is much shorter, 228-270 mm. Weight: 1 ,072-
lower groove. The shaft tapers gradually toward 1,500 g. HoUister (1915) described a series of cra-
the distal end. The dorsal surface has a prominent nial characteristics that clearly distinguishes Na-
crest, extending from the end of the groove at the suella from Nasua. He pointed out that the teeth
base to almost the distal tip. The ventral face is of Nasuella are similar in many respects to those
nearly flat on about two-thirds of the shaft, with of Bassaricyon.
a very slight indication of a urethral groove. The In regard to the postcranial skeleton of Nasuella,
shaft is compressed laterally, appearing triangular the following features could be pointed out: Nasua
in cross section. The tip is widened and bifid. It nasua is unusual among carnivores in that the
isforked in two thick blunt branches or knobs, slender fibula is fused proximally with the tibia,
one slightly longer than the other, separated by a but articulates distally by a synovial joint (Ewer,
notch. Measurements: total length, 97.2 mm; 1973). The same condition is present in Nasuella
maximum height at base, 6.5 mm; maximum width olivacea. Stains (1973) described the calcaneum of
at base, 8.7 mm; width at middle of shaft, 4. mm; 1 Nasua nasua and Nasua narica, but made no
width across tips of distal knobs, 9.0 mm; length reference to that of Nasuella olivacea. Regarding
of distal knobs, 5.4-6.5 mm. a calcaneum I sent him, he gave (in litt.) the fol-
The other baculum comes from a specimen, pre- lowing comments: "It appears much smaller than
served in formalin, found killed on the road on that of Nasua nasua. When compared to other
the Piramo de Piedras Negras, altitude 4,250 m. procyonids, it appears to be most similar to Bas-
The total length of this animal is 620 mm. It is sariscus astutus and is about the same size." In-
similar in shape, butmuch smaller than the former formation regarding this aberrant coati is very
specimen and considerably thinner. Measure- scanty.It inhabits the Paramo Life Belt of western
ments: total length, 65.5 mm; maximum width at Venezuela, throughout Colombia to Ecuador, at

Fig. 1. Left, Dorsal view of baculum
of Nasua nasua; middle, dorsal view of
baculum oiNasuella olivacea; right, ven-
tral view of baculum ofProcyon cancriv-
orus.
altitudes of 2300 to 4250 m. In the paramos of tion,and it is often seen on the ground. On the
the state of Merida,it is called "guache," and there labelof a specimen (USNM- 143658) collected in
is a small lagoon that bears the name "Laguna de the Montes de la Culata, state of Merida, by Bri-
los Guaches." The habitat preference of the lesser ceno-Gabaldon, is written "nido en tierra, pare
Andean coati seems to be paramo brush vegeta- cuatro hijos" (nest on ground, gave birth to four
MONDOLFI: BACULA OF COATI AND ORISON 449

Fig. 3. Dorsal views of bacula: left, Galictis (Gri-
sonella) cuja; right, Galictis (Galictis) vittata.
young). The stomach of the male collected at Pdr-

amo de Piedras Negras, which I examined, con-
tained insect remains.
Three weakly distinguished subspecies have been
described: Nasuella olivacea olivacea (Gray) from
Santa Fe de Bogota, Colombia; Nasuella olivacea
meridensis (Thomas) from the Andes of Merida;
and Nasuella olivacea quitensis (Lonnberg) from
"mas abajo de Lloa, ladera meridional del Pi-
chincha, Ecuador." According to the descriptions,
it seems that the separation of these subspecies on
details of pelage coloration is not justified.
MONDOLFI: BACULA OF COATI AND GRISON 451

Fig. 5. Dorsal views of bacula: left
and middle, Galictis vittata; right, Eira
barbara.
Larger Grison, Galictis (Galictis) vittata Three of these were collected in the state of Gua-
(Schreber) rico, both north and south of Calabozo, Central
Llanos of Venezuela; another comes from south
Didier (1947) described a baculum of the lesser of Ciudad Bolivar, state of Bolivar, eastern Ven-
grison, Galictis (Grisonella) cuja (Molina), under ezuela; a fifth is from a captive animal that died
the name Grison (Galictis) vittata, which corre- at the El Pinar Zoo in Caracas. For comparison,
sponds to the larger grison. Ewer (1973, p. 30, fig. I used a baculum of an adult lesser grison from
2. 1 5) reproduced Didier's drawing of the baculum. the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, as well as the
A detailed description of the baculum of the lesser descriptions given by Pocock and Didier.
grison is given by Pocock (1918) under the name The baculum of the larger grison is larger and
of Grison Jurax. much stouter than that of Galictis cuja and shows
The description that follows of the baculum of some differences in shape (figs. 3-4). The shaft is
the larger grison is based on five adult specimens. nearly straight. The proximal half is wider, thicker.

Fig. 6. Lateral views of bacula: top and middle, Galictis vittata; bottom, Eira barbara.
and compressed laterally, with a blunt end. The on. The widened distal end has the shape of an
ventral surface the dorsal prominently
is flatter, arrowhead; it is narrower than that in G. vittata;
ridged. In cross section the basal half presents a the pair of prominent excrescences pointing up-
triangular outline. The shaft tapers distally. The ward close to the neck, called "horns" by Pocock
somewhat rounded on its ventral face
distal half is (1918), are prominent. Measurements: total length,
and is slightly bent ventrally. The distal end is 36.5 mm; maximum width at base, 2.7 mm; length
depressed, much widened, and bent ventrally, re- of depressed tip, 3.4 mm; width of depressed tip,
calling a golf club. This spatulate distal end is 2.7 mm; least width of shaft just behind the horns,
shaped like a heart or an arrowhead, is flattened 1.3 mm.
on its ventral surface, and is slightly concave on The baculum of the tayra (Eira barbara) is lon-
its dorsal one. Close to the neck of the shaft, there ger (total length, 75-83 mm) than that of the larger
is a pair of erect, apically rounded excrescences or grison (figs. 5-6). It has a horseshoe-shaped distal
knobs pointing backward. There is some variation end, formed by an arched concavity in the middle
in the curvature of the shaft: in the specimen from of its dorsal surface, surrounded by a thick rim.
the state of Bolivar, the shaft is bent to the right The shaft is straight. The enlarged proximal half
at its distal third; the one from the zoo specimen is laterally forming a prominent ridge
flattened,
has a pronounced downward curvature. Extremes on its dorsal face. Burt ( 1 960) pointed out in his
and mean measurements for five bacula are: total description and figure of a baculum of Eira bar-
length, 54.6-56.9 (55.74) mm; maximum width bara that it is quite different from the one illus-
at proximal extremity, 4.3-5.2 (4.72) mm; length trated by Didier (1947, pp. 139-140). It is notice-
of depressed tip, 6.2-7.5 (6.86) mm; width of de- able that the description and the three drawings
pressed tip, 6.2-7.4 (7.05) mm; least width of shaft (Didier, 1947, fig. 1) of the baculum of a mustelid
just tip, 2.2-3.1 (2.82) mm.
behind the widened Didier called "Le Grison Taira (Galera barbara
The baculum ofG. cuja is much smaller and (L.), Bresil" matches the Venezuelan specimens of
thinner than that of G. vittata, but its shape is the larger grison, G. vittata, very closely in size
similar. The shaft is nearly straight, its distal half and shape, particularly the one with the shaft
slightlybent ventrally. The ventral and dorsal sur- curved downward on the distal half. It can be de-
faces are similar to the baculum of the larger gris- duced that the specimen studied by Didier was
MONDOLFI: BACULA OF COATI AND GRISON 453

incorrectly identified and probably belongs to a Cabrera, A. 1958. Catalogo de los mamiferos de
Amferica del Sur. Revista del Museo Argentino de
larger grison.
Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia" e Insti-
Galictis vittata is a larger animal than G. cuja.
tuto National de Investigaci6n de las Ciencias Natu-
Adult males have an average body and head length rales. Ciencias Zool6gicas, 4: i-xvi; 1-307.
of 450-626 (577.6) mm; average tail length, 150- Chaine,J. 1925. L'os p6nien, 6tude descriptive et com-
182 (168.4) mm; average weight (based on seven parative. Actes de la Soci6t6 Linneenne de Bordeaux,
adult males), 2,600-3,665 (3,076) g. According to 78: 5-195.
Walker ( 1 964), G. cuja has a head and body length DiDiER, R. 1947. Etude syst6matique de I'os p6nien
des mammiferes. Carnivores. 2. Famille des Muste-
of 400-450 mm; tail
length, 1 mm; weight,
50-1 90
lides (suite). Mammalia, 11: 139-152.
about 1 kg. Nehring (1886), Krumbiegel (1942),
. Etude systematique de I'os penien des
1950.
and Cabrera (1958) considered the presence of a mammifferes (suite). Famille de Procyonides et Ur-
metaconid on the first lower molar an important sides. Mammalia, 14: 78-94.
characteristic which distinguishes G. vittata from Ewer, R. F. 1973. The Carnivores. Weidenfeld and
G. cuja. Thomas (1912) erected the subgenus Gri- Nicolson, London.
sonella for the latter species, based on the absence HoLLisTER, N. 1915. The genera and subgenera of rac-
of the metaconid. coons and their allies. Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, 49: 143-150.
The distribution of the larger grison ranges from
Krumbiegel, I. 1942. Hyrare und Orisons (Tayra und
southeastern Mexico through Central America
Grison). Die Saiigetiere der Siidamerika— Expediti-
southward to central Peru and southeastern Brazil. onen Prof E>r. Kriegs. 1 7. 2ôologischer Anzeiger, 139:
Cabrera (1958) listed four subspecies: Galictis vit- 81-108.
tata andina Thomas from Pozuzo, Peru; G. vittata Nehring, A. 1886. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Galictis-
vittata (Schreber) from Surinam; G. vittata brasi- Arten. Zoologische Jahrbiicher Zeitschrifl fur Syste-
liensis (Thunberg) from Rio de Janeiro; and G. matik. Geographic und Biologic der Thiere, 1: 177-
221.
vittata canaster Nelson from Cercanias de Tunkas,
PococK, R. I. 1918. The baculum or os penis of some
Yucatan, Mexico. My preliminary work suggests
genera of Mustelidae. Annals and Magazine of Natural
that a thorough revision may reduce the number History, ser. 9, 1: 307-312.
of subspecies to only two: G. vittata vittata and G. .1921. The external characters and classifica-
vittata andina. tion of the Procyonidae. Proceedings of the Zoological
Society of London, 1921: 389-422.
PoHL, L. 1909. Ueber das os penis der Musteliden.
Jenaische Zeitschrifl fur Naturwissenschaft, 45: 381-
394.
Acknowledgments . 1911. Das OS penis der Camivoren einschlies-
slich der Pinnipedier. Jenaische /feitschrift fur Natur-
I am grateful to Dr. Bruce Patterson for review- wissenschaft, 47: 115-160.
ing the manuscript and to Hilary M. Airey for Powell, R. A. 1981. Martes pennanti. Mammalian
typing the manuscript. Species, 156: 1-6.
Stains, H.J. 1973. Comparative study of the calcanea
of members of the Ursidae and Procyonidae. Bulletin
Southern California Academy of Sciences, 72(3): 137-
148.
Literature Cited Thomas, O. 1912. Small mammals from South Amer-
ica. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 8,
Burt, W. H. 1960. Bacula of North American mam- 10: 44-48.

mals. Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zool- Walker, E. P. 1964. Mammals of the World, vol. IL
ogy, University of Michigan, 113: 1-76. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Md.

Origin, Diversification, and Zoogeography
of the South American Canidae
Annalisa Berta
ABSTRACTS
Members of the Canidae are known from the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene (Uquian)
through the Recent in South America. Ten genera and 28 species of wolves and foxes are
represented. Cladistic analysis supports recognition of four monophyletic groups: ( 1 ) Urocyon
(including Vulpes, Urocyon, and Otocyon; (2) Dusicyon (including Pseudalopex, Dusicyon, Pro-
tocyon, and Theriodictis); (3) Cerdocyon (including Nyctereutes, Cerdocyon, Atelocynus, and
Speothos); and (4) Chrysocyon (including Chrysocyon and Canis).
Zoogeographic implications of the cladistic hypotheses presented here are supported by the
fossil record, suggesting the origin of canids in North America and their subsequent dispersal
and extensive radiation in South America. The extinction of large canids in South America at
the end of the Pleistocene is a consequence of extinction of their specialized large herbivorous
prey. The current high diversity of South American foxes is, at least in part, the result of an
opportunistic feeding strategy that utilizes small prey as well as fruits and grains.
Miembros de los Canidae son conocidos del Plioceno tardio y Pleistoceno temprano (Uquian)
hasta el Reciente en Sudamerica. Diez generos y 28 especies de lobos y zorros estan represen-
tados. El analisis cladistico soporta el reconocimiento de cuatro grupos mayores: (1) Urocyon
(incluyendo Vulpes, Urocyon, y Otocyon); (2) Dusicyon (incluyendo Pseudalopex, Dusicyon,
Protocyon, y Theriodictis); (3) Cerdocyon (incluyendo Nyctereutes, Cerdocyon, Atelocynus, y
Speothos); y (4) Chrysocyon (incluyendo Chrysocyon y Canis).
Implicaciones zoogeograficas de la hipotesis cladistica de parentesco presentadas aqui son
soportadas por el registro fosil y ellas sugieren el origen de los canidos en Norteamerica y su
subsecuente dispersion y extensiva radiacion en Sudamerica. La extincion de canidos grandes
en el sur del continente a fines del Pleistoceno es una consecuencia de la perdida de sus presas,
los especializados herbivoros grandes. La presente alta diversidad de zorros sudamericanos es,
al menos, en parte el resultado de una estrategia oportunista de alimentacion que utiliza pequeiias
presas como tambien frutos y cereales.
Membros dos canidos sao conhecidos do Pleioceno superior, e desde o Pleistoceno inferior
(Uquiano) a epoca Recente, na America do Sul. Dez generos e 28 especies de lobos e raposas
estao representados. As analises cladisticas fundamentam o reconhecimento de quatro grupos
principals: (1) Urocyon (incluindo Vulpes, Urocyon, e Otocyon); (2) Dusicyon (incluindo Pseu-
From the Department of Biology, San Diego State

University, San Diego, CA 92182.
BERTA: SOUTH AMERICAN CANIDAE 455

dalopex, Dusicyon, Protocyon, e Theriodictis); (3) Cerdocyon (incluindo Nyctereutes, Cerdocyon,
Atelocynus, e Speothos); e (4) Chrysocyon (incluindo Chrysocyon e Canis).
Implicafoes zoogeograficas, provenientes das hipoteses cladisticas apresentadas neste tra-
balho, sao sustentadas tambem pelo registro fossil. O cenario, entao, e dos canideos terem
ohginado na America do Norte, dispersando-se, subsequentemente, a America do Sul, onde
ter-se-iam radiado amplamente. A extin9ao dos canideos grandes sulamericanos, ao final do
Pleistoceno, ocorrera devido a exlin9ao de sua especializada rapina— a dos grandes animais
herbivoros. O alto grau de diversificaâo atual das raposas sulamericanas devese, ao menos em
parte, aos seus habitos alimentares oportunistas, que utilizam tanto animais pequenos como
tambem diversos graos e fnitos.
Introduction nomenclatural and taxonomic history of living

and fossil South American canids has been con-
Although South American canids are more di- fusing and problematic.
verse than those of any other continent, they are Important contributors to the classification of
less well known. Living South American foxes or South American canids prior to 1945 include
wild dogs include seven genera and eleven species. Thomas (1914), Kraglievich (1930), Cabrera
Most are small to medium in size and predomi- (1931), and Osgood (1934). Kraglievich (1930)
nantly omnivorous. Except for the mostly North provided the first comprehensive classification of
American gray fox, Urocyon, South American fox- living and fossil taxa, basing his systematic ar-
es occur from Panama to Tierra del Fuego in a rangement on traditionally emphasized characters
wide range of habitats that include rain forests, of the skull and teeth. Since Simpson's (1945)
tree-covered steppes, grasslands, and deserts. In monograph, classification of the South American
the past, canids attained a much greater diversity canids has taken a variety of different approaches.
in South America and included wolves and wolf- Langguth (1969, 1970) proposed systematic ar-
like forms. In addition to foxes, they comprised a rangements based on morphology and ecology. He
major component of the large carnivorous adap- recognized a forest fox group {^"zorros de monte")
tive zone on that continent (Berta, 1 98 1 in press).
, which included the genus Cerdocyon and the sub-
The fossil record suggests that the origin and genera Cerdocyon, Atelocynus, and Speothos.
initial diversification of modem canids took place Characters uniting this group included dark-col-
in North America and possibly Middle America ored pelage, short, robust skull and limb propor-
during the late Miocene and early Pliocene. Sub- tions, and a short, vmcoiled cecum. A second group,
sequently they entered South America after emer- the grassland foxes {^"zorros de campo") is com-
gence of the Panamanian land bridge, approxi- prised of the genus Dusicyon, with Dusicyon and
mately 3 MYBP. Thereafter an impressive Plio- Pseudalopex as subgenera. Members of this group
Pleistocene radiation of canids is documented in were characterized by a light-colored pelage, skull
Uquian (late Pliocene and early Pleistocene) and limbs of average proportion, and a long, coiled
through Recent faunas. This paper summarizes cecum. In 1975, Langguth revised his classifica-
current knowledge of the evolution and radiation tion and gave generic rank to members of the "dif-
of South American canids. Cladistic hypotheses ferentiated group," Cerdocyon, Speothos, Lycalo-
of relationship presented provide a test of pro- pex, and Atelocynus. The genus Canis comprised
posals regarding origin, patterns of dispersal, and his "generalized group," including "dogs possess-
changes in diversity through time. ing features common to the majority of canid
species" (1975, p. 193). Within this genus he rec-
ognized the subgenus Dusicyon for the Falkland
Island Wolf, D. australis, and placed four other
Previous Systematic Studies species (culpaeus, gymnocercus, griseus, and se-
churae) in a second subgenus, Pseudalopex. Uro-
The first reference to canids in South America cyon was categorized as a "Vulpes-like" fox and
was Kerr's (1792) description of a large wild dog, its generic distinction maintained.
Canis australis, from the Falkland Islands, off the Clutton-Brock et al. (1976) used numerical tax-
eastern coast of Argentina. Since that time the onomy to assess relationships within members of

the family Canidae based on anatomical and be- 0.3 MYBP), and Lujanian (300,000-10,000 ybp),
havioral characters. They concluded that subfam- which represent the late Pliocene and early Pleis-
ilial level separations suggested by Hough ( 1 948) tocene, middle Pleistocene, and late Pleistocene,
and Thenius (1954) were not warranted. Chryso- respectively (Marshall etal., 1982, 1984). The ear-
cyon and Speothos were recognized as monotypic, liest record of canids in South America is from the
I Urocyon was synonymized with Vulpes, and Pseu- Vorohue Formation, Buenos Aires Province, Ar-
dalopex, Atelocynus, Cerdocyon, and Lycalopex gentina, which has been considered Uquian in age
were included in the polytypic genus Dusicyon. (Pascual et al., 966). Canids recovered from these
1
This taxonomic arrangement is similar to Simp- deposits include the highly derived dhole-like
son's ( 1 945) but without subgeneric designations. species, Protocyon scagliarium, and the general-
r Van Gelder (1978) proposed a classification ized fox, Pseudalopex gymnocercus (Kraglievich,
based on the nature and extent of hybridization 1952).
between taxa. He recognized the genus Canis as Large wolves and wolflike canids were especially
polytypic. Dusicyon, Pseudalopex, Lycalopex, well represented in South America during the En-
Atelocynus, and Cerdocyon were arranged as sub- senadan mammal age. Large canids that make their
genera of Canis, and Urocyon and Vulpes were firstappearance during this interval include Canis,
considered congeners. Chrysocyon and Speothos Theriodictis, and Chrysocyon from diverse local-
were identified as monotypic. Unfortunately, as ities in Argentina and the classic Tarija Basin in
acknowledged by Van Gelder (1978), too few data Bolivia (fig. 1). The foxes Pseudalopex and Cer-
from molecular, immunological, or karyological docyon are also recorded from Argentina during
studies are available to establish clear relation- the Ensenadan (table 2). Maximum diversity of
shipsamong members of this group. both large and small canids was attained during
The arrangement prescribed here is based on the succeeding mammal age, the Lujanian. The
cladistic hypotheses of relationship (see fig. 2, table best known Lujanian faunas containing canids in-
3). Seven genera of living South American canids clude those from Talara, Peru; Andean Ecuador;
are recognized: Chrysocyon (maned wolf), Speo- Lagoa Santa Caves, Brazil; and Muaco, Venezuela
thos (bush dog), Cerdocyon (crab-eating fox), (fig. 1). Two derived species of the true wolf CaAi/5
Atelocynus (small-eared dog), Dusicyon (Falkland and two species of the highly specialized large can-
Island wolf), Pseudalopex (South American fox), id Protocyon are known. The majority of living
and Urocyon (gray fox). These genera include South American foxes are also first recorded dur-
eleven species. The extinct large canids, Therio- ing this interval: Dusicyon australis, Pseudalopex
Protocyon, and Canis, and fossil species of
dictis, culpaeus, P. sechurae, P. vetulus, Cerdocyon thous,
both foxes and wolves bring the total number of and Speothos (table 2). At the end of the Pleisto-
recognized living and fossil South American can- cene the large canids except Chrysocyon became
ids to 10 genera and 28 species (table 1). extinct. The modem forms Atelocynus microtis,
Despite numerous systematic treatments, rela- Urocyon cinereoargenteus, and Pseudalopex gris-
tively little is known about the behavior and ecol- eus are unknown in the South American fossil
ogy of canids in South America (reviewed by Lang- record.
guth, 1975). The recent field studies of Brady
(1978, 1979) on Cerdocyon thous, Jaksic et al.
(1980) on Pseudalopex culpaeus and P. griseus,

Crespo ( 1 975) on P. culpaeus and P. gymnocercm, Phylogeny
and Dietz (1984) on Chrysocyon brachyurus are
notable exceptions and hopefully indicative of a Cladistic analysis yields the phylogenetic rela-
new trend. tionships presented in Figure 2. Derived charac-
ters that support this arrangement are listed in
Table 3 and were based on Tedford and Taylor's
comprehensive study of North Ameri-
(in prep.)
Fossil Record can canids. A more detailed discussion of these
characters provided in the Appendix and else-
is
Canids have been recovered from the fossil lo- where (Tedford & Taylor, North American fossil
calities shown The chronology and
in Figure 1. Canidae [Mammalia: Camivora]: Tribe Canini
usage of South American Land Mammal Ages is [Caninae], unpubl. data; Berta, in press). The po-
as follows: Uquian (2.5-1 .5 mybp), Ensenadan (1 .5- larityof characters for all South American canids,

Table 1 . Taxonomic arrangement of genera and species of South American Canidae.
Genera Stratigraphic occurrence*
Family Canidae
Atelocynus Cabrera, 1 940
A. microtis (Sclater, 1 882) Rec.
Canw Linnaeus, 1758
C. dindst Leidy, 1858 L. Pleist. (Lujanian)
C. gezif L. Kraglievich, 1928 M.-L. Pleist. (Ensenadan-Lujanian)
C nehringrt (F. Ameghino, 1902) L. Pleist. (Lujanian)
Cerdocyon Hamilton Smith, 1839

C
avins\ Torres and Ferrusquia, 1981 L. Plio. E. Pleist. (Blancan)
C. emenadensis\ {/Kmtîno, 1885) M. Pleist. (Ensenadan)
C. thous (Linnaeus, 1 766) L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
?C. new sp.t (Tedford, pers. comm.) E.-M. Plio. (L. Hemphillian)
Chrysocyon Hamilton Smith, 1839
C. brachyurus Illiger, 1815 M. Pleist.-Rec. (Ensenadan-Rec.)
C. new sp.t (Tedford, pers. comm.) M.-L. Plio. (E.-M. Blancan)
Dusicyon Hamilton Smith, 1839

D. australis\ (Kerr, 1 792) Rec.
D. avMjf (Burmeister, 1 864) L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
Protocyon G'lehcl, 1855

P. orcesi^ Hoffstetter, 1952 L. Pleist. (Lujanian)
P. scagliarumf J. Kraglievich, 1952 L. Plio. &E. Pleist. (Uquian)
P. troglodytes^ Lund, 1839b L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
PseudalopexBnrmti^XtT, 1856
P. culpaeus (Molina, 1 782) L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
P. griseids {Gray, 1837) Rec.
P. gymnocerctds (Fischer, 1814) L. Plio. & E. Pleist.-Rec. (Uquian-Rec.)
P. peruanusf (Nordenskiold, 1 908) L. Pleist. (Lujanian)
P. sechurae (Thomas, 1 900) L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
P. vetulus Lund, 1 842 L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
Speothos Lund, 1839a

S. pacivorns^ Lund, 1839a L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
S. venaticus (Lund, 1 842) L. Pleist.-Rec. (Lujanian-Rec.)
Theriodictis
T. platensist Mercerat, 1891 M.-L. Pleist. (Ensenadan-Lujanian)
T. tarijensis\ (F. Ameghino, 1902) M.-L. Pleist. (late Ensenadan and/or early Lujanian)
Urocyon
U. cinereoargenteus {Schrcher, 1775) Rec.
U. progressus^ Stevens, 1965. M.-L. Plio. (Blancan)
*
E. = early, M. = middle, L. = late, Plio.
= Pliocene, Pleist. = Pleistocene, and Rec. = Recent,
t Extinct.
with the exception of Urocyon, was assessed by Urocyon Group

outgroup comparison with ^''Canis" davisi, a prim-
itive North American canid. The bat-eared fox, This group includes the foxes Vulpes, Otocyon,
Otocyon, was the outgroup for Urocyon. With the and Urocyon and their fossil relatives. It is united
exception of the gray fox, Urocyon, and the maned by the derived characters (5, 6) listed in Table 3.
wolf, Chrysocyon, the South American canids are Urocyon is distinguished from other members of
a monophyletic group. Urocyon is a sister group this group by canines small relative to cheekteeth,
of Otocyon, and Chrysocyon is the sister taxon of and mandibular condyle above the level of the
Cants. Based on cladistic analysis, four groups of alveolar border of the cheekteeth. However, both
South American canids are recognized: (1) Uro- characters also occur in the Dusicyon group, in-
cyon, (2) Dusicyon, (3) Cerdocyon, and (4) Chry- terpreted as parallel acquisitions. The Urocyon
socyon (fig. 2). group is more primitive in lacking characters 7-9

Chrysocyon
Urocyon group Dusicyon group Cerdocyon group group
.*ô^V
o" ,A
..^'
(5,6) (24-26) (27.28) '(29-31)
(17) (18-23)
*, extinct
(12-16)
Hi 0-11)
(7-9)
Hl-4)
Fig. 2. Cladogram of proposed relationships among South American canids and related taxa.
"wolves." Monophyly of this group is supported peruanus; the Argentine chilla fox, P. griseus; the
by the derived characters 12-16 (table 3). The Sechura Desert fox, P. sechurae; Azara's fox, P.
Pseudalopex foxes include six species: the modem gymnocercus; and the hoary fox, P. vetulus. Pseu-
culpeo fox, P. culpaeus, and its fossil relative, P. dalopex culpaeus (fig. 3) and P. peruanus are coy-
Table 2. Stratigraphic ranges of South American canid genera.
Genera
Table 3. Derived characters that support phylogeny
(see fig. 3).
No. Character
1 .
m2 anterolabial cingulum enlarged.
2. m, posterior cingulum present.
3. m, metaconid enlarged, taller than protoconid.
4. Metatarsal I reduced to proximal rudiment.
5. Upper I'-- cusplets weak or absent.
incisors simple,
6. Paroccipital process broad, tip does not extend be- parcrd
low body of process.
7. Frontal sinus large, penetrating postorbital process.
8. V enlarged, extending markedly below level of I'--.
9. Humerus lacks entepicondylar foramen.
10. Strongly arched zygoma with inverted jugals.
1 1 .
Angular process large with expanded fossa for in-
ferior/superior branch of medial pterygoideus mus-
cle or expanded pterygoid fossa.
1 2. Long palatines extending to or beyond toothrow.
1 3. Coronoid process anteroposteriorly broad and dor- lesd
soventrally low.
14. m, with protostylid.
15. m|_2 with mesoconid (fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Left upper (top) and lower (bottom) dentition
16. m, with
strong paracristid (fig. 3).
17. Frontal sinus large, does not penetrate postorbital
of Pseudalopex culpaeus. illustrating dental features
characteristic of the Dusicyon lineage, parcrd = para-
process.
cristid; mesd
= mesoconid; scale = 2 cm.
18. Canines small relative to cheekteeth.
19. Angular process with pterygoid fossa greatly ex-
panded. Andes from Colombia to the southern tip of Chile,
20. External auditory meatus very short and of small
diameter.
and found throughout the Patagonian plateau.
is
2 Cecum short and straight.

1 .
A second, smaller lineage comprised of/*, sechurae
22. Ears short. and P. vetulus is also known from the late Pleis-
23. Limbs short.
tocene. The past and present distribution of P.
24. Camassials small relative to cheekteeth.
sechurae is restricted to northwestern Peru and
25. Mandibular condyle above level of alveolar border
of cheekteeth. southwestern Ecuador. Pseudalopex vetulus was
26. Subangular lobe. recorded as a
fossil in Argentina but survives today
27. Nasals short. in southeastern Brazil (Minas Gerais and Matto
28. Frontal sinus small, does not j)enetrate postorbital
Grosso states).
process.
29. Frontal sinus large, penetrating postorbital process, Members of the more derived Dusicyon
extending anteriorly and particularly posteriorly, ul- "wolves," the recently extinct Falkland Island wolf,
timately to the frontal-parietal suture. D. australis, and its fossil relative D. avus share
2
30. Angular process with large fossa for superior branch
of medial pterygoideus muscle. short, high-crowned premolars and small M-
31. P enlarged with accessory cusps and a strong pos- relative to M-. These taxa are related to the large
teromedial cingulum.
fossil canids, Theriodictis and Protocyon, in pos-
sessing the following derived characters: broad

palate, deep zygoma with wide masseteric scar, m,
ote-like in size, proportionately larger and broader metaconid reduced or absent, and mj metaconid
than other South American foxes, with a reduced relatively unreduced (Berta, 1 98 1 in press). Pro-
,
m, metaconid. Pseudalopex sechurae and P. ve- tocyon and D. australis share extreme reduction
tulus share small size, short rostrum, very small of P* protocone and have a posterior tilt to the pj
camassials relative to the cheekteeth, and M'"^ crown. Although D. australis is unknown as a fossil
very narrow for their length. and D. avus is only known from the late Pleisto-
The earliest recorded fox, Pseudalopex gym- cene, their closest relatives, Protocyon and Ther-
nocercus, presumably diflferentiated into two lin- iodictis, are known from the late Pliocene and early
eages. The large, robust, coyote-like lineage rep- Pleistocene through the late Pleistocene and pos-
resented by P. culpaeus in Ecuador and P. peruanus siby into the Recent.
in Peru is known from the Lujanian. Pseudalopex Theriodictis, a medium-sized, short-faced canid
culpaeus is now widely distributed throughout the represented by T. platensis and T. tarijensis, is

Fig. 4. Lateral (top) and occlusal (bottom) views of left mandibular ramus of Protocyon orcesi. Escuela Poli-
technica Nacional, Quito, EPN V2871. Scale = 2 cm.
recorded from Ensenadan- and Lujanian-aged de- Cerdocyon Group

posits in Argentina, Bolivia, and Ecuador. The
type species, T. platensis, with its simplification The crab-eating fox, Cerdocyon, and the Asian
of the m, talonid (metaconid lost and the ento- raccoon dog, Nyctereutes, are primitive members
conid retained as a distinct cusp), is a likely ances- of the Cerdocyon clade. They form a sister group
tor for the more derived genus Protocyon. Among defined by derived characters 24-26 (table 3). Cer-
Protocyon species these distinctive dental char- docyon is known from late Miocene-early Pliocene
actersand others are further modified: both the (6-3 MYBP) deposits in North America; Nycte-
metaconid and entoconid are lost on m,, as are reutes has been recorded from coeval deposits in
the hypocones on M'-^. Three species of this well- Europe (R. H. Tedford, pers. comm.). Cerdocyon
known canid are recognized, P. orcesi (fig. 4), P. avius is reported from the Blancan of Baja Cali-
scagliarum, and P. troglodytes (fig. 5), from Uqui- fornia, Mexico (Torres & Ferrusquia, 1981), and
an through Lujanian and possibly Recent deposits an undescribed lower jaw is questionably assigned
in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Ecuador. De- to this genus from the late Hemphillian of the
rived members of the Dusicyon group, with their Texas Panhandle (R. H. Tedford, pers. comm.).
high-crowned premolars and trenchant m, with Its South American fossil record includes two
very reduced or absent talonid cusps, show a trend sjjecies, Cerdocyon ensenadensis from the Ensena-
toward hyp)ercamivory— that is, increased spedan of Argentina, and the closely related living
cialization of the shearing mechanism. species C thous (including lydekkeri; see Berta,

Fig. 5. Lateral (top) and occlusal (bottom) views of right maxillary of Protocyon troglodytes. Universitets Zoo-
logiske Museum (Peter Wilhelm Lund Collection), Copenhagen, UZML 5697-5698. Scale = 2 cm.
1982) (fig. 6), from Lujanian to Recent deposits species, A. microtis, occurs in tropical rain forests
Today crab-eating foxes inhabit the sa-
in Brazil. in the Amazonian basin in Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
vannah and woodland areas of northeastern South and Colombia; the upper Rio Orinoco basin in
America, with a range extending from Colombia, Colombia and Venezuela; and the upper Rio Para-
northern Argentina, and Uruguay. na basin in Matto Grosso, Brazil (Hershkovitz,
Derived members of the Cerdocyon clade, the 1961).
small-eared dog, Atelocynus, and the bush dog,
Speothos, are distinguished by shared derived
characters 27-28 (table 3). Speothos, with two Chrysocyon Group
known species, is the most derived member of the
Cerdocyon c\di6e. Speothos pacivorus, from the late This group includes the maned wolf, Chryso-
Pleistocene-Recent Lagoa Santa Caves of Brazil, cyon brachyurus, and three extinct species of
is characterized by large size, presence of a meta- South American "true" wolves, Canis gezi, C.
conule and hypocone on M', and double-rooted nehringi, and C dims. Derived characters shared
m^. The living species S. venaticus, also recorded by these taxa include characters 29-3 1 (table 3).
from these cave deposits, is distinguished by its The maned wolf, Chrysocyon, is the most dis-
reduced size, loss of metaconule and hypocone on tinctive South American canid. It is distinguished
M', and absence of M- and mj (Berta, 1984). The from Canis in having small camassials relative to
current range of the bush dog extends from Pan- the cheekteeth, a short, straight cecum, and straight
ama throughout the Amazonian basin. and greatly elongate limbs. In addition to the living
No fossils of Atelocynus are known. The living C brachyurus, reported from the Ensenadan of

Fig. 6. Lateral (top) and ventral (bottom) views of skull ofCerdocyon thous thous. American Museum of Natural
History, New York, AMNH 130475. Scale = 5 cm.
Bolivia and Lujanian and possibly Recent deposits cusps on the upper and lower molars. The best-
in Brazil (Berta, 1981, in press),an undescribed represented and most derived species, C. dirus (fig.
new species is known from the early and middle 7), is distinguished from C nehringi in its larger
Blancan of Arizona and Mexico (R. H. Tedford, size, more massive proportions, and more com-
pers. comm.). The present range of the maned wolf plex construction of the lower molars (Berta, 1981,
indicates its subsequent southern dispersal into in press). Canis dirus, widely distributed in North
northern Argentina and Paraguay. America, has a more limited South American dis-
North American Pleistocene wolves (including tribution, occurring only in Bolivia, Peru, and
C. armbrusteri, C. cf. C. dints, and C. lupus) were Venezuela.
ancestors of South American species. The earliest
recorded species, Canis gezi from the Ensenadan
of Argentina, is a good structural ancestor for the Zoogeographic History: Problems of
Lujanian species, C.nehringi. Canis nehringi dif- Origin, Dispersal, and Ecology
fers from C
gezi in the continued trend toward
larger size, development of a narrow, triangular Inherent in any cladistic analysis is the hypoth-
supraoccipital shield, and greater complication of two taxa shared a closest common ances-
esis that

Fig. 7. Lateral (top) and ventral (bottom) views of skull ofCanis dints. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, ROM
4303. Scale = 2 cm.
tor. For this reason every cladistic hypothesis able information regarding patterns of distribution
entails zoogeographic implications about the tem- that can be tested.
poral and spatial distribution of the animals stud- A North American origin for the canids of
ied. Early consideration of the stratigraphic posi- South America is supported by the fossil record.
tion of the fossils can bias a cladistic analysis, The earlier record of Canis, Chrysocyon, Cerdo-
which initially should be based on morphological cyon, and Urocyon in North America suggests that
information. However, once a cladogram has been this group originated as early as the late Miocene
constructed, the stratigraphic and spatial occur- and early Pliocene (6-3 mybp, table 4). This same
rence of fossil forms can provide additional valu- phylogenetic pattern is seen among other "endem-

Table 4. First appearance of South American canid
genera in North and South America.
Fig. 8. South American canid diver-
sity through time. Genera considered as
either "fox" or "wolf" morphotypes. Uquian Ensenadan Lujanian Recent
information offer an alternative hypothesis. Cla- one carnivorous group (possibly linked with
distic analysis indicates a close sister group rela- concurrent environmental changes) with
tionship between D. australis and D. avus. Re- subsequent passive replacement by another
mains of D. avus are known from Eberhart Cave group which came to fill a similar role in a
in southern Chile. Sloth dung, hide, hair, and bone later fauna, (or whether the faunal changes
from cave have yielded '"C dates ranging from
this were the result of a combination of these
10,200 ± 200 to 13,500 ± 190 ybp (Long & Mar- possibilities or others) is unknown.
tin, 1974), suggesting a minimum time of diver-
gence for these species. However, evidence that However, it is clear that before we can understand
Dusicyon avus survived even longer is indicated interactions of competition, extinction, and/or re-
by isolated teeth recovered from the southern coast placement, the pattern must be known. Figure 8
of Argentina which were referred to this species summarizes the pattern of canid diversity through
by Tonni and Politis ( 1 98 1 ). In any event, lowered the Plio-Pleistocene. It is apparent that beginning
sea level during glacial times would have brought in the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene, when
the mainland and the Falkland Islands closer to- canids first appear in South America, both adap-
gether and facilitated dispersal of terrestrial mam- tive types are represented, the small-medium fox
mals, including D. australis (and possibly D. avus). and the large wolf By the end of the Pleistocene
The distinctiveness of the Falkland Island wolf, these two adaptive types have shifted dramatically
with its high-crowned teeth, reduced molar cusps, in diversity. The large wolves declined rapidly,
and highly modified shearing camassials, is more with only the maned wolf, Chrysocyon, surviving
likely the result of its isolation as the island's only into the present.
indigenous carnivore rather than its domestica- It should be noted that morphologically and
tion. ecologically Chrysocyon is a large omnivore. The
It has been suggested that during the Pleistocene fox morphotype with its generalized omnivorous
placental carnivores replaced the doglike marsu- habits seems to have been favored. Today, among
pial family, Borhyaenidae, which occupied the car- North American, African, and Eurasian canids,
nivorous adaptive zones during the late Tertiary foxes are the most numerous and display the great-
As Marshall (1978,
(Marshall, 1978). p. 82) noted. est diversity. It seems that animals with more flex-
ible food habits have been able to adapt more
Whether this "relay" of various carnivorous easily to environmental changes, especially those
groups through time was due to active com- at the end of the Pleistocene.
petition between the successive groups fill- Such an opportunistic feeding strategy has been
ing these roles, or to the disappearance of documented for South American foxes. Field stud-

iesof Pseudalopex culpaeus and P. griseus have and extensive knowledge of the Canidae greatly
shown that increasing amounts of fruit are eaten facilitated this study. J. David Archibald and Rog-
from spring to winter as rodent densities decrease er Carpenter are acknowledged for critically read-
towards the winter (Yariez & Jaksic, 1978; Jaksic ing the manuscript. Specimen illustrations were
et al., 1980). Brady (1979) observed that Cerdo- skillfully prepared by Nancy Halliday (fig. 6) and
cyon thous on the llanos of central Venezuela Patricia Lufkin (figs. 3-5, 7).
showed seasonal food shifts. When insects and
fruit (primary food sources during the wet season)
become scarce during the dry season, crab-eating
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gischc Zeitschrift, 5(3): 378-387.
Appendix
The following are notes on the evaluations of characters listed in Table 3.
Characters 1-4— These derived characters dis- Character 8— The increase in size of P relative
from the extinct Bo-
tinguish the living Canini to I'"- is recognized as a derived state, diagnostic
rophaghini, a Miocene-Pliocene lineage of of advanced canids.
hyaena-like dogs.
Character 9— The absence of an entepicondylar
Characters 5-6— The simple construction of the foramen on the humerus distinguishes all ad-
upper incisors lacking accessory cusps distin- vanced canids from the Urocyon group.
guishes Vulpes. Urocyon. and Otocyon from more
advanced canids. Another diagnostic feature of Character 10— Primitive canids including "Ca-
the Urocyon group is the development of a broad /2/5" davisi possess a moderately arched or near-
paroccipital process with a tip that does not ex- ly flat zygoma with an everted jugal. The derived
tend below the body of the process. state, a strongly arched zygoma with an inverted
jugal, unites advanced canids.
Character 7— The presence and expansion of a
frontal sinus is the derived condition among Character 1 1— The development of a large an-
advanced canids (Tedford & Taylor, in prep.; gular process with expansion of various fossa
Berta, in press; fig. 9). for branches of the medial pterygoideus muscle

is the derived condition among advanced canids goid fossa is recognized as continued modifi-
(Tedford & Taylor, in prep.; Berta, in press; fig. cation of the trend established with character
10). 11.
Character 12— The primitive condition, short Characters 20-23— Short extremities are de-
palatines extending to or just anterior to the rived features of the Cerdocyon clade.
toothrow, is observed in most advanced canids.
Long palatines extending to or beyond the Characters 24-26— These derived dental and
toothrow is recognized as one of two derived mandibular characters distinguish Cerdocyon
states of this character and it unites the Dusicyon and Nyctereutes from Atelocynus and Speothos.
group. Development of a subangular lobe has been cor-
related with an insectivorous diet (Ewer, 1973).
Character 1 3— The broad, low coronoid process
diagnostic of the Dusicyon and Cerdocyon groups Character 27— Short nasals which rarely extend
is a marked departure from the narrow, high beyond the maxillary-frontal suture is a derived
coronoid process of other advanced canids (e.g., character which \xn\\es Atelocynus and Speothos.
Canis and Chrysocyon).
Character 28— The marked reduction in size of
Characters 14-16— These dental features indi- the frontal sinus in Speothos, Atelocynus, and
cate a trend toward greater complication of cusps Nyctereutes is a reversal of the derived condi-
on the lower molars, characteristic of the Du- tion. See comments under character 7.
sicyon group (Berta, in press; fig. 8).
Character 29— Posterior expansion of the fron-

Character 7— The frontal sinus, although
1 large, tal sinusregarded as a further modification of
is
does not penetrate the postorbital process, rec- the trend established with characters 7 and 17.
ognized as the least derived sinus condition. This
character unites the Dusicyon group. See com- Character 30— Expansion of the fossa for the
ments under character 7. superior branch of the medial pterygoideus
muscle is regarded as a further modification of
Character 18— Canines that are proportionally the trend established with character 1 1 .
small relative to the cheekteeth is a derived

character which distinguishes the Cerdocyon Character 31— The further increase in size and
clade from the Dusicyon clade. complication of P relative to I'"- observed in
Canis and Chrysocyon is recognized as a more
Character 19— Further expansion of the ptery- derived state of character 8.

Comparative Cytogenetics of South American Deer
Angel E. Spotorno, Nadir Brum, and Mariela Di Tomaso
ABSTRACTS
Karyotypes of a male Hippocamelus bisulcus from Chile had 2n
= 70, and those of a female
Blastoceros bezoarticus from Uruguay, 2n= 68, both with NF = 74. Most chromosomes were
similar, and at least pairs 1 (also NOR-bearing), the X long arms, the small metacentric pair,
and Hippocamelus 2 and 4 with Blastoceros 32 p and q were identical in G-band patterns.
C-bands were large and paracentromeric, but absent in the small metacentric pair that is shared
with other deer. Similarity relationships based on X shapes and lengths compared in a karyo-
idiogram are {Pudu- Blastoceros, Hippocamelus-Mazama; Odocoileus) Cervinae. All the other
large metacentric chromosome (Blastoceros 32 and Mazama 1 through 9) are inferred to be
unique, favoring the hypothesis of centric and tandem fusions. Such metacentrics and the
distribution of 2n and NF suggest the occurrence of many parallel and independent fusions
throughout the three phyletic lines of living Cervidae.
Los cariotipos de un macho Hippocamelus bisulcus de Chile tienen 2n = 70 y los de una

hembra Blastoceros bezoarticus de Uruguay 2n = 68; ambos tenian un NF = 74. La mayor
parte de los cromosomas fueron similares en ambas especies, y por lo menos los pares 1 (que
es portador del sector NOR), los brazos largos de los cromosomas X. El pequeno par metacen-
trico, eHippocamelus 2 y 4 con Blastoceros 32 p y q eran identicos en sus patrones de bandas
G. Las bandas C eran grandes y paracentromericas pero estaban absentes en el pequeiio par
metacentrico que es compartido con otros ciervos. Las relaciones de similitud basadas en las
longitudes y formas comparadas del X en un cario-idiograma son (Pudu- Blastoceros, Hippo-
camelus-Mazama; Odocoileus) Cervinae. Todos los otros cromosomas metacentricos grandes
(Blastoceros 32 y Mazama 1 al 9) se inhere que son unicos, lo que favorece la hipotesis de
fusiones centricas y en tandem. Tales metacentricos y la distribucion de 2n y NF sugieren la
ocurrencia de varias fusiones paralelas e independientes en las tres lineas fileticas de Cervidae
vivientes.
Cariotipos de um macho Hippocamelus bisulcus do Chile contam com 2n

= 70, e os de uma
femea Blastoceros bezoarticus do Uruguai, com 2n = 68, ambos com NF = 74. A maior parte
dos cromossomos sao parecidos. Os pares 1 (tambem contendo NOR), os brazos longos do X,
o pequeno par metacentrico; Hippocamelus 2 e 4, e Blastoceros 32 p e q, todos possuem padroes
identicos na faixa G (G-band). As faixas C (C-band) sao grandes e paracentromericas porem
nao ocorrem no par metacentrico pequeno, comuns nas outras especies de veados. Baseando-
From the Departamento Biologia Celular y Genetica,

Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Casilla
70061, Santiago 7, Chile (Spotorno); and Divisi6n Ci-
togenetica, Instituto de Investigaciones Biol6gicas Cle-
mente Estable, Av. Italia 3318, Montevideo, Uruguay
(Brum and Di Tomaso).
SPOTORNO ET AL.: CYTOGENETICS OF SOUTH AMERICAN DEER 473

se nas formas e comprimentos dos seus cromossomos X (comparados atraves de cario-idio-
gramas) as semelhanâs sao (Pudu-Blastoceros, Hippocamelus-Mazama; Odocoileus) Cervi-
nae. Infere-se que todos outros cromossomos grandes metacentricos {Blastoceros 32 e Mazama
1-9) sao exclusivos, o que sugere ocorrencias de fusoes alinhadas (tandem) e centrals. Tais
metacentricos, junto com a distribuifao dos 2n e NF, sugerem a ocorrencia de varias fusoes
paralelas e independentes nas tres linhas fileticas dos Cervidae agora existentes.
Introduction Materials and Methods
Of the 1 1 species of deer now living in South An adult male Hippocamelus bisulcus (fig. la),
America (Cabrera, 1961), only three species are captured in Region de Aisen, Chile, and kept alive
cytologically known: Odocoileus virginianus by CONAF (Chilean National Forestry Service),
(Wurster & Benirschke, 1967), Mazama ameri- was the source of a 10-ml blood sample. Conven-
cana (Taylor et al., 1969) and Pudu puda (Kou- tional 72-hour blood cultures were done in TC-
hscher Spotomo &. Fernandez, 1975).
et al., 1972; 199 with phytohemagglutinin. Cells were then
Furthermore, no detailed chromosome analysis or treated with Colcemid, 0.075 M
KCl hypotonic
G- and C-band descriptions have been published solution, fixed in Camoy, dropped on clean slides,
yet. We
report here cytogenetic descriptions and and air-dried.
comparisons of material from Hippocamelus bisul- A female Blastoceros bezoarticus (sister of the
cus and Blastoceros bezoarticus, which complete male shown in fig. captured in Departamento
lb),
representative karyotypic descriptions of all South de Sal to, Uruguay, died by accidential injury dur-
American genera of deer recognized by most au- bone
ing the trip to Montevideo. Immediately,
thorities (Koopman, 1967).
marrow samples were obtained. Cells were incu-
Chromosomes can provide reliable taxonomic bated in TC- 1 99 with 0.04% colchicine plus 3 drops
characters when they are examined in detail, par-
of Liquemin for 4 hours and then treated as above.
ticularly the specific patterns of G- or R-bands or
Slides were Giemsa-stained. G- and C-bands
certain kinds of DNA (C-bands and NOR). More-
and NOR were induced by treating slides with the
over, mechanism of change in character-states can
methods of ChiareUi et al. (1972), Sumner (1972),
eventually be inferred. These analyses have been
rarely done on cervid chromosomes. With newly
and Rufas et al. (1982), respectively. A selected
reported data, we think there is now enough data number of metaphases were photographed with
to compare the chromosomes of American deer fine-grain high-contrast copy-film.
systematically. Measurements were made on enlargements us-
FiG. 1 .
Specimens examined: a, Hippocamelus bisulcus male in Reserva de Penuelas (photograph by A. Spotomo);
b, Blastoceros bezoarticus male in Reserva Maldonado (photograph by H. Cardoso).

ii 11 M •• ti li M
8 14
At 15
AA 21
22
M Aft •« MM MI 34 X Y
l5iiiieooAA<)n«
AO H II •• II trt ^^^
•• •• •• ••
15
Aft A*^ A* 21
•##i ##
10 urn ^32
M « 33 XX
Fig. 2. Karyotype of single cells from: top, Hippocamelus bisulcus male; and bottom, Blastoceros bezoarticus
female.

chromosome
nomenclature
(Levan et al.1964)
95% confidence limits
Hippocamelus bisulcus
O Pudu puda
Blastoceros bezoarticus
ODOCOILEINAE ^ Mazama a. temama
Fig. 3.
1 2
I'll *
^
CERVINAE *
3
Odocoileus virglnianus
Odocoileus hemionus
Platyceros
A
dama
Short arm p
^
%
Karyo-idiogram displaying relative chromosome lengths of some deer; chromosome size and shape can
be read on diagonals. Numbers and letters are from original karyotype descriptions. Some overlapping chromosomes
are not displayed.

ing the best single chromatid per pair, and values length and shape of chromosomes were immedi-
were transformed into percentages of the total hap- ately detected when both karyotypes were com-
loid plus X set. Such relative lengths are displayed pared, particularly with the aid of a karyo-idi-
in a scatter diagram called a karyo-idiogram ogram constmcted from their measurements (fig.
(Spotomo et al., 1979; Spotomo, 1985), a useful 3).Thus, 31 telocentrics, ranging from 1.6% to
device that allows eventual chromosome identi- 4.6% of haploid set, and one metacentric having
fication and comparison through two indep)endent a 3%, tended to cluster at the same positions in
variables, total chromosome size (short arm length the karyo-idiogram, indicating that they share
plus long arm length), and centromeric index ( 1 00 similar size and shape.
times short arm length divided by total chromo- In contrast, the large chromosome 32 of Blas-
some length). This procedure assumes the conser- toceros was not found inHippocamelus (fig. 3), but
vation of total nuclear material. Although this as- the latter had two additional telocentrics whose
sumption is generally true for mammals, it can be sizes corresponded to the short and long arms of
validated by C-banding techniques which detect this chromosome 32. Another difference was de-
heterochromatin-containing satellite or by DNA tected in the X chromosome. The presumptive X

marker chromosomes (Spotomo, 1977). A karyo- of Blastoceros seemed to be larger than that of
idiogram can also portray confidence intervals Hippocamelus, mainly in the short arm. This is
(Spotomo et al., 1979); we use them here to com- reflected in their statistically different centromeric
pare some centromeric indices calculated without indices, 46.49 ± 3.89 and 38.15 ± 2.60, respec-
measuring all chromosomes from a karyotype. tively (confidence intervals do not overlap in fig.
Chromosomes of other deer used in comparisons 3; N= 8 for Blastoceros, N= 1 5 for Hippoca-

were measured from the following sources: Ma- melus).
zama americana temama from Jorge and Be- G-banded karyotypes of the two species (illus-
nirschke (1 977,Odocoileus virginiana and
p. 7 1 2), trated in fig. 4) allowed a better identification of
O. hemionus from Wurster and Benirschke (1967, chromosome pairs than that displayed in Figure
p. 275), and Platyceros dama from Wurster and 2. Many gross similarities were found when band-
Benirschke, 1967, p. 277). ed chromosomes of the species were compared
side by side. This was a difficult task, because cells
with similar states of contraction and treatment
must be used. Nevertheless, approximate banding
patterns were found in Hippocamelus for the fol-
Results lowing Blastoceros chromosomes: 1, 32, 33, and
the X long arm (illustrated in fig. 5a).
The diploid number of Hippocamelns bisulcus The position of the nucleolar organizing region
was 70 in almost all of the 30
analyzed, with
cells (NOR) was detected at the largest telocentric pair.
33 telocentric pairs of decreasing size (fig. 2), a Ag-stained plates of Blastoceros exhibited clear
submetacentric (here labeled 34), and a hetero- terminal dark spots over chromosome 1 only (fig.
morphic pair of metacentrics. The latter are the 5c). The same technique was unsuccessful in Hip-
largest and the smallest elements of the karyotype, pocamelus, but in the G-banded plates the ho-
having relative sizes of 4.3% and 0.9% of the total mologous chromosomes of pair No. 1 were usually
haploid set (means from eight cells measured; see associated by faint terminal material (fig. 5b),
also fig. 4); they probably are the X and Y chro- probably nucleolar material. This suggests the
mosomes, respectively. The total number of chro- probable position of the NOR.
mosome arms per cell (FN or fundamental num- C-bands in almost all chromosomes of both
ber) was 74. species were paracentric (fig. 5d,e), and one of the
The diploid number of Blastoceros bezoarticus largestautosomes (probably the 1 ) and the X chro-
was 68 in six cells analyzed, with 31 telocentric mosomes had rather large C-bands near the cen-
pairs of decreasing size (fig. 2) and three metacen- tromere. This was also shown in the G-bands,
trics, here labeled 32, 33, and a presumptive X. where large centromeric light bands were observed
These had relative sizes of 6.9%, 3.3%, and 5.6% at the same positions. The only exception to this
of total haploid set (means from six cells). The FN pattern was the minute amount of the C-bands in
was also 74. pairs 34 of Hippocamelus and 33 of Blastoceros
Many similarities and some differences in the (fig. 5e).

II H II II II II ii
ii M il •! •• II ti 14
•• 15
M •• II tl •• •# 21
•i •• •• M •« N ••
34
I-X Y
M nil M #••#••
1 7
it ta •• il «i •• it 14
•iiii«#iii«»t«
22
10 urn
llll
^r32
^^32 33 XX
Fig. 4. G-banded karyotypes from: top, Hippocamelus bisulcus male; and bottom, Blastoceros bezoarticus female.
478 FIELDIANA: Z<X)LOGY

n 32 2 33 34
Fig. 5. Banding patterns in Hippocamelus and Blastoceros chromosomes, a, G-banded chromosomes of Blas-
toceros compared with those of Hippocamelus (right), b, G-banded metaphase of Hippocamelus showing terminal
(left)
nucleolar association (arrow), c, Ag-NOR bands (arrow) from a Blastoceros metaphase. d, C-banding in a Blastoceros
cell, e, C-bands in a Hippocamelus cell; note absence of C-bands (arrows). Numbers and letters from original karyotype
descriptions.
Discussion karyo-idiogram of Figure 3. The assumption of

conservation in the total amount of chromatin re-
Detailed banded karyotypes of only three species quired by this method is verified by the absence
of Odocoileinae are known, but conventional non- of heterochromatic arms and the small quantities
banded karyotypes can still be used in compara- of C material detected in at least three species.
tive studies, particularly when few changes have Conservation of many chromosomes is the rule
occurred. Thus, we will discuss our results, taking within these cervids. The tight clustering of most
into account the chromosomes of other related telocentric and Y chromosomes from many species
species, which have been also displayed on the at the left of Figure 3 is also exhibited by the small

Platyceros
Hydropotes
Pudu
Blastoceros
Hippocamelus
Mazama a.
-*- change M. a. temama
i = inversion
f u = fusion Odocoileus
Fig. 6. Diagram of chromosome similarities and inferred changes in South American deer, mainly based on X
chromosomes. X and Y are sex chromosomes. Small letters are from chromosome nomenclature of Figure 3.
submetacentric or metacentric autosome. In this pon (Van Tuinen et al., 1 983). In any case, uniNOR
case, we have also documented the conservation seems to be a conservative and extended condition
of its G-bands (fig. 5a) and of its characteristically among American Cervidae.
small C-bands. The metacentric 10 of Mazama The X chromosome seems to have changed the
a. temama had the same
characteristics (Jorge & most in these deer. The submetacentric X of Hip-
Benirschke, 1977, fig. 3) as the sika deer {Cervus pocamelus is very similar to the one of Mazama,
nippon; Cervinae) (Van Tuinen et al., 1983). In but these are clearly different in shape and bands
Platyceros (= Dama) dama there is also a small from those of Blastoceros- Pudu ones (see fig. 3;
metacentric element somewhat larger than the unpublished measurements for Piidu based on 1 2
above (fig. 3). If all these chromosomes have been metaphases). The X chromosomes of the two Odo-
inherited intact from a common ancestor, as it is coileus species appear to be larger than those above,
indicated by their metacentric shape, total size, but they seem similar in shape to those of Hip-
unique small C-band, and correspondence of pocamelus and Mazama. All these chromosomes
G-bands, this is a clearly documented case of chro- can be inferred to be imiquely derived in the Odo-
mosome conservation in both Cervinae and Odo- coileinae, not only because of their widespread
coileinae. condition within the group but because of the con-
The NOR-bearing chromosomes of South sistent telocentric shape of the X within Cervinae
American deer appear to be the largest telocentric (all and Muntiacinae material reported
species)
pair. It was clearly identified as No. 1 in Blasto- until now & Benirschke, 1977, and refer-
(Jorge
ceros bezoarticus, Hippocamelus bisulcus (this re- ences therein). Given that total size has been gross-
port), Pudu puda (SpotomoFernandez, 1975),
8l ly conserved despite shape changes, we conclude
and Odocoileus virginianus and Odocoileus hem- that an ancestral telocentricXprobably had a peri-
ionus (Wurster & Benirschke, 1967). This condi- centric inversion during the initial evolution of
tion is also displayed by the karyotypes of Alces the Odocoileinae. Our view of all these changes is
alces, Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus, Pla- included in Figure 6.
tyceros dama, and Cervus nippon nippon (Gus- There is a single exception to the metacentric X
tavsson & Sundt, 1968). Nevertheless, not one but condition within the Odocoileinae, namely the tel-
two chromosome pairs carrying terminal NOR ocentric X of Hydropotes inermis (karyotype not
were identified with sequential Q-banding and Ag- analyzed by present authors; data from Jorge &
NOR techniques in introduced Cervus nippon nip- Benirschke, 1977). Such observations on Hydrop-

2 6
Maza ma
a.t. ODOCOILEINAE ®®
(S)Capreolus
2 2 6 /
CERVINAE
Cervus
^ AA (§) Hydropotes
I
Axis Platyceros
60
50
Karyograph of known Cervidae species. Each symbol represents a karyotype whose position depends on
Fig. 7.
its FN
and diploid number. Karyotypes with only telocentric chromosomes fall on the line to the right. Numbers
over symbols are numbers of species having same values. Large arrows are processes of change.
otes can be explained by the following: It is not an interspecies comparisons. Asimple inspection of
Odocoileinae, it is an early offshoot of Odocoil- the karyo-idiogram in Figure 3 shows that chro-
einae, or its metacentric X has reverted to the mosomes 32 of Blastoceros and 1 through 9 of
ancestral telocentric condition. The fact that Hy- Mazama are unique elements. This is also the case
dropotes FN is also 70 (Jorge &. Benirschke, 1977), with the chromosomes of A/, muntjak, whose sizes
like all Cervinae and unlike almost all Odocoil- are too large to be included in Figure 3. A fusion
einae, favors thefirst two possibilities. of two telocentric elements is the simplest expla-
The presence of large metacentric chromosomes nation of the origin of Blastoceros 32, given that
in Blastoceros and Mazama deserves close study banding patterns of its short and long arms cor-
because those also predominate in the karyotype respond to those of two telocentric pairs from Hip-
of Muntiacus muntjak (2n = 6 and 7; FN = 12). pocamelus (fig. 5) and that arms of similar sizes
Two alternative hypotheses about their origin have are present in the telocentrics of many other Odo-
been proposed: (1) the classic fusion processes, coileinae species.
including centromeric and tandem fusions (Matth- The hypothesis about deer chromosome evo-
ey, 1973), where large and diverse metacentric examined from the distribution
lution can be also
chromosomes are final products; and (2) the fission of diploid numbers and FN of all deer karyotypes
hypothesis (Imai &
Crozier, 1980), where unal- known. This can beeasily done through the karyo-
tered metacentric elements are the remains of an graph (Imai &.
Crozier, 1980) shown in Figure 7
ancestral karyotype. In the latter case, ancestral with deer data. Most karyotypes within each
metacentric chromosomes would be identical in subfamily have mainly telocentric elements, that

is, they tend to fall to the extreme right in Figure Literature Cited
7.This suggests that such is the ancestral karyotype
not only for each subfamily, but also for the Cer- Bush, G. M. Case, A. C. Wilson, and J. L. Patton.
L., S.
vidae as a whole. Therefore, it is probably that 1977. Rapid speciation and chromosomal evolution
in mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy
many fusions throughout the Cervidae (Jorge & of Sciences, U.S.A., 74: 3942-3946.
Benirschke, 1977; Shi et al., 1980) have occurred
Cabrera, A. 1961(1958-1961). Catalogo de los Ma-
with differing degrees in parallel and independent miferos de America del Sur. Revista del Museo Ar-
ways. gentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivada-
There are two submetacentric chromosomes, via," 4: 309-732.
Mazama and 2, whose long arms are exception-

1 Chiarelli, B. a., M. Sarti-Chiarelli, and D. A. Sha-
FER. 1972. Chromosome banding with trypsin.
ally long (fig. 3). This suggests the possible occur-
Mammalian Chromosomes Newsletter, 13: 44-45.
The si-
rence of tandem fusions or translocations.
GusTAvssoN, I., AND
C. O. SuNDT. 1968. Karyotypes
multaneous appearance of two unique tiny in five species of deer. Hereditas, 60: 233-248.
telocentric pairs in Mazama with both FN = 74
Hershkovitz, p. 1972. The recent mammals of the
and 72 (chromosomes 23 and 24 of the latter in neotropical region: A zoogeographic and ecological re-
fig. 3) suggests past translocations from one to
the view, pp. 311-431. In Keast, A., F. G. Erk, and B.
other. Interstitial C-bands in Mazama 1 and 3 Glass, eds.. Evolution, Mammals and Southern Con-
tinents. State University of New York Press, Albany,
firom a heterozygous doe with a presumed trans-
543 pp.
location t (4,24) (Jorge &
Benirschke, 1 977) clearly . 1982. Neotropical deer (Cervidae). Part I. Pu-
indicates that additional translocations have oc- dus, genus Pudu Gray. Fieldiana: Zoology, n.s., 11: 1-
curred in the Mazama line. 86.
Imai, H. I., AND R. H. Crozier. 1980. Quantitative

analysis of directionality in mammalian karyotype
evolution. American Naturalist, 116: 537-569.
Conclusions Jorge, W., and K. Benirschke. 1977. Centromeric
heterochromatin and G-banding of the red brocket
Despite the conservation of many chromosomes deer, Mazama americana temama (Cervoidea, Ar-
and chromosome arms, the karyotypes of South tiodactyla) with a probable non-Robertsonian trans-
location. Cytologia, 42: 71 1-721.
American deer seem to have undergone drastic
Keast, A. 1972. Comparisons of contemporary mam-
changes in some phyletic lines. The development mal faunas of southern continents, pp. 433-501. In
of large metacentrics is a process that seems to Keast, A., F. G. Erk, and B. Glass, eds., Evolution,
have occurred at least three times in a parallel form Mammals and Southern Continents. State University
of New York Press, Albany, 543 pp.
among the three subfamilies of deer. It is possible
KooPMAN, K. F. 1967. Artiodactyls, pp. 385-406. In
that factors acting on rates of chromosomal evo-
Anderson, S., and J. K. Jones, Jr., eds.. Recent Mam-
lution in horses, for example Bush et al.,
(e.g..
mals Of the World. The Ronald Press Company, New
1977), are also acting within deer species. In the York, 453 pp.
case of South American deer, the conjunction of KOULISCHER, L., J. TySKENS, and J. MORTLEMANS. 1 972.
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kovitz, 1972, 1982) and new ecological opportu- Cervus canadensis, Elaphurus davidianus, Cervus nip-
pon (Temminck) and Pudu pudu. Acta Zoologica et
nities (Keast, 1972) might be such factors. We
Pathologia Antverpiensia, no. 56: 25-30; 3 figs.
probably will never fully understand the biology
Levan, A., K. Freoda, AND A. Sandberg. 1964. No-
of these vanishing gracile mammals. menclature for centromeric position on chromosomes.
Hereditas, 52: 201-220.
Matthey, R. 1973. The chromosome formulae of eu-
therian mammals, pp. 531-616. In Chiarelh, A. B.,
Acknowledgments and E. Capanna, eds., Cytotaxonomy and Vertebrate
Evolution. Academic I*ress, London, 783 pp.
We are grateful to the officers of the Reserva RuFAS, J. S., G. Gimenes-Martin, and p. Esponda.
Penuelas (CONAF), Chile and Reserva Salto, Uru- 1982. Presence of a chromatid core in mitotic and
meiotic chromosomes of grasshoppers. Cell Biology
guay, to Lie. J. Simonetti and Sr. Blengini, who
International Reports, 6: 261-267.
helped the accession and handling of specimens,
Shi, L. M., Y. Ye, and X. Duan. 1980. Comparative
as well as to P. Valenzuela,who typed the final
cytogenetic studies on the red muntjak, Chinese
manuscript. This work was funded in part by Pro- muntjak, and their F, hybrids. Cytogenetics and Cell
yecto B- 1979-8523, DIB, Universidad de Chile. Genetics, 26: 22-27.

Spotorno, A. 1977. El numero fundamental (NF) como Sumner, A. T. 1972. A simple technique for demon-
descriptor citotaxonomico en grupos de mamiferos, strating centromeric heterochromatin. Experimental
pp. 50-51. In Resumenes del VII Congreso Latino- Cell Research, 75: 304-306.
americano de Zoologia, Tucuman, Argentina.
Taylor, K. M., D. A. Hungerford, and R. L. Snyder.
.1985. Concepts and methods in descriptive 1969. Artiodactyl mammals: Their chromosome cy-
and comparative karyology, pp. 135-165. In Feman- tology in relation to patterns of evolution, pp. 346-
dez-Donoso, R., ed., El nucleo, los cromosomas y la 356. In Benirschke, K., ed.. Comparative Mammalian
evolucion. (In Spanish, with English summary.) Cytogenetics. Springer Verlag, New York.
Spotorno, O., AND R. Fernandez-Donoso. 1975. The Van Tuinen, P., T. J. Robinson, and G. A. Feldhamer.
chromosomes of the Chilean dwarf-deer "pudu," Pudu 1983. Chromosome banding and NOR location in
pudu (Molina). Mammalian Chromosomes Newslet- sika deer. The Journal of Heredity, 74: 473-474.
ter, 16: 17-18, 10.
fig. WuRSTER, D. H., AND K. Benirschke. 1967. Chro-
Spotorno, FernAndez-Donoso, and J. Pinchei-
A., R. mosome studies in some deer, the springbok, and the
RA. Similitud cromosomica: Un nuevo me-
1979. pronghom, with notes on placentation in deer. Cyto-
todo cuantitativo de descripcion y comparacion. Ar- logia, 32: 273-285.
chivos de Biologia y Medicina Experimen tales, 12:
223 (abstract).

Faunal Representation
inMuseum Collections of Mammals:
Osgood's Mammals of Chile
Bruce D. Patterson and Clare E. Feigl
ABSTRACTS
Possible bias in faunal representation of museum mammal collections is evaluated using
Chilean mammals and their representation in the collections of Field Museum of Natural
History. Rank correlation analyses were used to relate the number of Chilean species and the
number of specimens of these species to several independent variables: order, body size, trophic
level and habitat affinity, life zone, and current status in Chile. Results indicate significant
positive relations between specimen number and natural abundance, as this was variously
inferred. For the Chilean fauna at least, museum collections provide an adequate basis for
faunistic inference.
La posible desviacion en la representacion faunistica de colecciones en museos es evaluada

usando mamiferos chilenos y su representacion en colecciones del Field Museum of Natural
History. Analisis de ranges de correlacion fueron usados para relacionar el numero de espe-
cimenes de estas especies con diversas variables independientes: orden, talla del cuerpo, nivel
trofico y afinidad de habitat, zona de vida y estado actual en Chile. Los resultados indican
significativas relaciones positivas entre el numero de especimenes y abundancia natural, tal

como esto fue variadamente inferido. Al menos para la fauna Chilena las colecciones museo-
logicas proveen una base adecuada de inferencia faunistica.
Possiveis inexatidoes nas representa96es faunisticas em coleôes de mamiferos em Museus,

foram avaliadas atraves de uma comparagao entre a composi9ao de mamiferos no Chile e a
sua representa9ao no Field Museu de Historia Natural. Analises correlacionais de ordem foram
usadas para investigar rela96es entre o numero de especies Chilenas e o numero de representantes
destas esijecies no Museu, com variaveis indep>endentes, como ordem, tamanho, nivel trofico
e afinidade de habitat, zona de vida, e status atual no Chile. Os resultados indicam rela96es
positivas significantes entre o numero de especimes no Museu e a abundancia atual no campo
(deduzida de varias maneiras diferentes). Conclue-se assim que, pelo menos quanto a fauna
Chilena, cole9des em museus oferecem uma base adequada para dedu9des sobre a fauna de um
local.
Introduction Of course museum specimens form the basis of

nomenclature, but further they figure
scientific
Much of what is known of the biology of Neo- prominently in studies of evolution, descriptive
tropical mammals is based on museum sp>ecimens. and functional morphology, genetics, cytology, and
even ecology. Given this essential role, especially
From Division of Mammals, Field Museum of Nat- ;» ;„»:„i ^. j:„„ •» •„ •
_* . * j j *u
60605-2496 and
" '"»*»^' " ^^ '"^POânt to understand the
ural History, Chicago, IL (Patterson); ^^"^1^^'
Department of Evolutionary Biology, Northwestern limitations of museum collections. Some limita-
University, Evanston, IL 60201 (Feigl). tions are well known, as the nature of preservation
PATTERSON & FEIGL: FAUNAL REPRESENTATION IN MAMMAL COLLECTIONS 485

obviously determines the
(skulls, fluid-preserved) and habitat affinities. A given area can support
kinds of questions that can be asked. However, fewer animals of large size, other factors being
the limitation imposed by collection bias, by col- equal, because of the greater energy demands of
lections which represent only part of a native fau- larger biomass (e.g., Peters & Raelson, 1984). Sim-
na, remains unexplored. How
representative are that area supports fewer carnivores than
ilarly,
museum collections of the natural Neotropical omnivores, and fewer omnivores than herbivores,
mammal fauna? because of the lower available biomass for con-
As examples of the sort of bias we consider sumption. Finally, species having catholic habitat
here, one can point to the monotypic sigmodon- can sustain a greater number of individ-
affinities
tine genera Abrawayaomys Cunha and Cruz, 1 979, uals than species which are highly restricted in the
Scolomys Anthony, 1929, Juscelinomys Moojen, habitats that they can exploit, other factors being
1965, Podoxymys Anthony, 1929, Galenomys equal (e.g., Patterson, 1982). While many other
Thomas, 1916, and Anotomys Thomas, 1906, all factors are known to affect population density,
known from one or a few localities and represented knowledge of only these three may permit refined
in the world's museum collections by a mere hand- inference of patterns of spatial and temporal dis-
ful of specimens (Nowak & Paradiso, 1983). At a tribution(e.g.. Brown, 1971; Patterson, 1 984). Ap-
ichthyomyine genus Daptomys An-

finer level, the plying these assumptions to a faunal list, we can
thony, 1929, is comprised of three species, D. ven- hypothetically specify the relative number of in-
ezuelae, D. peruviensis, and D. oyapocki, repre- dividuals in nature expected for each species, and
sented in world collections by three, one, and one use this hypothetical expectation to independently
specimens, respectively (Nowak &
Paradiso, 1 983). assess faunal representation in museum mammal
Finally, of the 47 recognized species of the murine collections.
opossum Marmosa Gray, 1821 {sensu lato; Hon- We elected to study the representation of Field
acki et al., known only from the
1982), four are Museum's mammals of Chile for several reasons:
type localities (M. agricolai, M. andersoni. M. sca- (1) the Chilean mammal fauna is thoroughly stud-
pulata. and M. tatei) and two others from the vi- ied and is one of the best known faunas in the
cinity of their type localities (A/, handleyi and M. Neotropics (Pine, 1982); its faunal list can be con-
cracens). For this short list at least, how different sidered virtually complete; (2) this fauna was the
our understanding of these faunas might be if mu- subject of systematic and expressly faunistic stud-
seum collectors had camped at different localities, ies by FMNH curator W. H. Osgood, who led two
used different varieties of traps or baits, placed expeditions there in 1922-1923 and 1939-1940;
traps in different positions, or had delayed their as a result, Field Museum maintains the world's
travel plans by as little as a week. Fieldworkers premier Chilean mammal collection (pers. obs.;
are aware firsthand of the serendipity involved in Yaiiez, 1982); and (3) a listing of Chilean mam-
certain captures, and many have spent days and mals that are endangered, vulnerable, rare, or in-
even weeks at a locality, trying in vain to secure adequately known has
recently appeared (Miller
additional representatives of a new or poorly rep- an independent criterion for
et al., 1983), yielding
resented form. However, little attention (beyond determining natural population numbers.
the routine caveats which often accompany faunal
listings) and no systematic scrutiny have been giv-
en to the question these data raise: again, how
representative are museum mammal collections? Materials and Methods
The question is a frustrating one, for it imme-
diately leads full circle. If our knowledge of Neo- Species of mammals occurring in Chile were
tropicalmammals depends even in part on mu- assembled from the primary and secondary liter-
seum collections, how can the representation of ature. Osgood's (1943) treatise summarizes the
museum collections be independently assessed? earlier literature. Discrepancies between Osgood's
The question as posed is tautologous. However, faunal list and that presented in Table 1 reflect
introducing certain assumptions about the native additions to the fauna from more recent collecting,
fauna permits an investigation of the question of as well as taxonomic reappraisals of previously
representation. Other studies have shown that the known forms. Many additions were made shortly
population density of a species in a given area is after Osgood's work with the publication of
related to several morphological and ecological Mann's ( 1 945) mammals of Tarapaca, and records
characteristics, namely body size, trophic habits, from this region were augmented by Spotomo

(1976) and Pine et al. (1979). Several additional ly.Where Miller et al. gave different status as-
sp)ecies were added by taxonomic revisions of forms sessments to subspecies of polytypic forms, the
Osgood reported (e.g., Phyllotis xanthopygus, My- subspecies were assigned numerical codes and an
otis atacamensis). Documentation for the extend- average determined, rounding down to the nearest
ed list in Table 1 may be found in Mann (1978), integer. Species or subspecies not explicitly men-
Pine et al. (1979), Pine (1973), Spotomo (1976), tioned in the account of Miller et al. were pre-
Honacki et al. ( 1 982), Patterson et al. ( 1 984), Pear- sumed to be secure.
son (1984), Walker et al. (1984), and literature To determine specimen representation for these
cited therein. Introduced species (e.g., beaver, rab- taxa in the FMNH mammal collections, we used
bits, hares, European were excluded from the
rats) those numbers reported by Osgood ( 943) in the 1
analysis. Finally, a native species reported to occur text and "Specimens examined" sections of his
in Chile, Felis geoffroyi, was deleted from the Chil- species accounts. In a few cases, this number is
ean fauna on the authority of Honacki et al. ( 1 982). less than the number collected by Osgood and as-
For each terrestrial species occurring in Chile, sociates and currently in the collection; in these
we determined body size, trophic habits, and hab- cases we used the number of Osgood-era speci-
itat affinities. Body size, as measured by head and mens in the collection.
body lengths (most taxa) or shoulder heights (un- We used specimen numbers reported by Osgood
gulates),was taken from Osgood ( 1 943), the FMNH rather than the number currently in the collection
collection, or primary sources, using means or for two principal reasons. First, FMNH now has
midpoints of ranges. An average value was used fewer specimens of some Osgood and
taxa than
for sexually dimorphic taxa (e.g., mustelids, pin- associates collected, due to specimen exchange
nipeds). programs and attrition of material on loan. Our
We used only four categories of trophic-habitat primary goal is to assess bias in museum collecting
characteristics to reduce subjectivity and to gain techniques and collections, not the bias in cura-
suitable sample sizes for statistical analyses (cf torial exchange programs or collection users. Sec-
Eisenberg, 1981): carnivores, insectivorous car- ond, subsequent fieldwork by R. E. Martin on

nivores, sanguinivores, piscivores, and omnivores Octodon and B. D. Patterson on Akodon, Oryzo-
were grouped together as carnivores; insectivores mys, and marsupials has greatly augmented FMNH
included both insect-eating and insectivorous-fru- holdings of these taxa; inclusion of specimens ob-
givorous taxa; animals subsisting on granivorous, tained in these highly focused studies could strong-
graminivorous, or herbivorous diets were consid- ly confound the results.
ered herbivores. This category included many The data were analyzed using the Statistical
sjjecies and was further subdivided into gener- Analysis System (SAS) procedures at the Univer-
alized (marked by dietary and habitat breadth) and sity of Chicago Computation Center. Correlation
specialized (restricted in dietary and habitat procedures used variable ranks in nonparametric
breadth) components. Information on diet and analyses. Because of the lesser efficiency of non-
habitat was taken from all available sources, but parametric procedures in comparison to para-
especially Osgood (1943), Hershkovitz (1962), metric ones, and hence the greater probability of
Mann and Pearson (1983, 1984). The con-
(1978), Type II errors, we report values having probability
tinuum between generalized and specialized habits levels between 0.05 and 0. 10 as being "marginally
of herbivores was assessed relative to the distri- significant." This assumes that larger sample size
bution of resources in Chile; thus, Auliscomys bo- (i.e., a richer fauna or faunal category) would suf-
liviensis, which has broad habitat requirements in fice to generate a traditionally significant value
Peru (Pearson, 195 1) but occurs in only a minute {P < 0.05).
portion of Chile, was considered a specialized her-
bivore. The four trophic-habitat categories were
coded 1-4 as carnivores, insectivores, specialized
herbivores, and generalized herbivores, respec- Results
tively.
The current status of these species in Chile was The native Chilean mammal fauna includes six
taken directly from Miller et al. ( 1 983). Taxa were orders, 55 genera, and 93 species (table 1). The
assigned numerical codes 1-5 according to the sta- taxonomic distribution is as follows: Marsupialia
tus given by Miller et al.: endangered, vulnerable, with three genera (5%) and three species (3%); Chi-
rare, inadequately known, and secure, respective- roptera with seven genera (13%) and 10 species
PATTERSON &. FEIGL: FAUNAL REPRESENTATION IN MAMMAL COLLECTIONS 487

3 ^
X) X)
n
^
(1 1%); Edentata with three genera (5%) and three aquatic or volant groups present interesting rela-
species (3%);Camivora, including pinnipeds, with tionships, probably because both lack the diversity
1 1 genera (20%) and 19 species (20%); Artiodac- of habits, habitats, and behaviors requisite for
tyla with four genera (7%) and five species (5%); such patterns. However, patterns are evident in
and Rodentia with 27 genera (49%) and 53 species the terrestrial group that support those apparent
(57%). Four orders (80%), 34 genera (62%), and in the fauna as a whole. Trophic habits and size
56 species (60%) were represented in the 1943 are strongly correlated (r^ = -0.29; P < 0.02). As
FMNH collections, totaling 1 ,66 1 specimens. The in the fauna as a whole, current status in Chile is
taxonomic distribution of specimens is as follows: significantly related to body size (r^ = -0.56; P <
Marsupialia (3%), Chiroptera (6%), Camivora (6%), 0.001); this correlation excludes the large pin-
Artiodactyla (1%), and Rodentia (84%). nipeds of conservation concern and the small bats
Taxa missing from the 1 943 Chilean collections with presumably secure populations. As before,
at FMNH have the following distribution. No current status is not correlated with the trophic-
marsupial genus or species is missing. Two genera habitat affinities of any group (r^ = 0.14; NS).
and three of 1 species of bats are missing. All When the taxa are stratified by order, several of
three genera and species of edentates are absent. these patterns disappear. Only the Camivora and
Six of 1 1 genera of carnivores (including all 5 pin- Rodentia are considered here because of sample
nipeds) and seven of 1 9 species are unrepresented. size.Neither group shows a significant correlation
One of four artiodactyl genera and two of five between trophic habits and size (carnivores, r, =
species are lacking. Finally, nine of 27 rodent gen- 0; rodents, r,
= 0.25; P < 0.08). However, both
era and 20 of 53 species of rodents are not rep- groups exhibit significant or marginally significant
resented. Three of these groups, the edentates, pin- correlations between life zone and size (camivores,
niped carnivores, and artiodactyls, appear by these r,
=
-0.68; P < 0.002; rodents, r, = -0.24; P <
figures to be grossly underrepresented in the col- 0.09). Neither group shows a relation between sta-
lections, but whether this is due to bias in col- tus and life zone, but rodents (and not camivores)
lecting effort and efficiency or to their morpho- show a significant correlation between current sta-
logical and ecological characteristics remains to be tusand body size (r^ = -0.40; P < 0.005), larger
determined. rodents being progressively more vulnerable than
We consider the evident features of this data set smaller ones.
in greater detail below. The first section focuses
on the taxonomic, trophic-habitat, and morpho-
logicalcomposition of the Chilean mammal fauna, Collection Analyses
the second on the representation of this fauna in
the FMNH Chilean mammal collections. For the Chilean fauna as a whole, the number
of specimens in the FMNH mammal collection is
correlated with trophic-habitat affinities (r, = 0.24;
Faunal Analyses P < 0.02), there being fewer specimens of cami-
vores and insectivores than herbivores of both
Across all taxa, there is the expected correlation categories. Also, there are significantly fewer spec-
between trophic-habitat affinities and order, and imens of large taxa, as shown by the inverse rela-
a negative correlation between trophic-habitat af- tion of number and body size (r, = —0.23; P <
finities and size (r, = —0.22; P = 0.03). Current 0.03). Additionally, there is a highly significant
status in Chile is strongly correlated with body size relationship between the number of specimens and
(r^
= -0.56; P < 0.001), but not with trophic- the current status of taxa in Chile (r^ = 0.25; P <
habitat affinities (r,
= 0.1 7; NS). Contingency table
0.02).
analysis of current status by life zone character- Similar results emerge when the fauna is strat-
istics indicates a significantly larger proportion of by life zone. There is a significant relationship
ified
endangered aquatic species than would be ex- between body size and number of specimens only
pected by chance alone. Results of the contingency among aquatic forms— aquatic,r^
= —0.88 (P <
table analysis should be considered tentative, how- 0.005); terrestrial, r,
= -0.21{P < 0.08); and
ever, because of small expected numbers in certain volant, r,
= -0.36 (NS)— although the two groups
cells. showing this relationship have small sample sizes.
When the taxa are stratified by life zone and For the terrestrial group (N = 75), number of spec-
correlations made within groups, neither the imens and trophic-habitat affinities are related (r, =

300
(0
z 200-
UJ
O
tu
a 100
B
DO A
DOACAAA
OLMDDADAAA A A B
600 1800 3000 4200
BODY SIZE
Fig. 1. number of Field Museum specimens of 58 Chilean mammals against body size. Plotting symbols
Plot of
represent number of species: A = one sp)ecies; B = two species, etc. The rank correlation of these variables is -0.32
(P < 0.02). See text for discussion.
0.23; P < 0.05), and number of specimens and specimens is highly correlated with current status
current status in Chile are strongly and positively in Chile (r,
=P < 0.001) (figs. 1 and 2).
0.53;
related (r,
= 0.29; P< 0.02). Interestingly, the correlation between specimen
When orders are considered separately, nearly number and trophic-habitat affinities disappears
show
all the inverse relationship between speci- when both unrepresented and exceedingly well
men number and body size, although small sam- represented taxa (N > 100) are excluded. Basing
ples preclude significance in some cases: marsu- correlationson 54 species, this correlation equals
pials, r,
= 0.50 (NS); bats, r,
= -0.36 (NS); 0. 15 (P = However, correlations of speci-
0.27).
carnivores, r,
= -0.47 {P < 0.05); rodents, r,
= men number with body size (r^ = —0.26; P < 0.06)
-0.17 (NS); edentates, r, =
0; and artiodactyls, and with current status in Chile (r^ = 0.52; P <
r,
= -0.4 1 (NS). Only the rodents (N = 53) exhibit 0.001) still hold.
a significant range of trophic-habitat affinities, and
these are correlated with specimen numbers (r^ =
0.47; P<
0.001). Finally, in all represented orders
showing variation in current status, there is a pos- Discussion
itive correlation between status and specimen
numbers: marsupials, r^
= 0.87 (NS); carnivores, In The Mammals of Chile. Osgood (1943) de-
r,
=
0.28 (NS); rodents, r,
= 0.22 (NS); and artio- scribed the itinerary of the two FMNH Chilean
dactyls, r,
= 0.43 (NS); however, in none of these expeditions, undertaken "with the intention of
cases is the relationship significant. making a survey of the vertebrate fauna of that
It is noteworthy that these correlations remain country" (p. 9). His own appraisal of the resulting
are altogether lacking in the
if species that FMNH collection is as follows:
Chilean mammal collection are excluded. Using
the 58 species having nonzero numbers of speci- The mammals obtained by these two ex-
mens in Table 1, specimen number is positively peditions form a collection vastly larger and
correlated with trophic-habitat affinities (r^ = 0.26; more varied than anything previously ex-
P = 0.05) and negatively correlated with body size isting. . . . This collection is still deficient in
(r.
= -0.32; P < 0.02). As before, number of many respects, but it covers the principal

300
0)
z
UJ 200
o
lU
Q.
(0
100
STATUS
Fig. 2. Plot of number of Field Museum
specimens of 58 Chilean mammals against current status in Chile. Status
categories are: S
= secure; I = incompletely known; R = rare; V = vulnerable; E = endangered. Plotting symbols
represent numbers of species: A
= one species; B = two species, etc.; & = 38 species. The rank correlation of these
variables is 0.53 {P < 0.001). See text for discussion.
faunal areas of Chile and probably furnishes he reports having bought Pudu captured by native
a fairly accurate and nearly complete picture hunters with dogs and purchased Lutra from ga-
of the whole mammal fauna. This may seem teros who hunted them for their pelts. His use of
to be a rash statement, not justified by ex- commercial hunters and salvage operations to
perience in other fields but the main facts
. . .
sample marine mammals accounts for the striking
seem to be already in hand (pp. 9-10). absence of seals and sea lions in the collection.
The Chilean pinnipeds had been decimated by
Results of this analysis suggest that Osgood was sealing operations in the 1 8th and 1 9th centuries,
correct in his inferences. The two expeditions se- and now occur in highly restricted portions of their
cured most taxa that are reported from the coun- former ranges.
try, and they secured these in numbers broadly No taxonomic group presents stronger evidence
indicative of natural abundances. Well represent- of collecting bias than do the five pinnipeds miss-
ed taxa in the collections tend to represent smaller ing from the FMNH collections. These indicate
species at lower trophic levels; these species tend the insufficiency of Osgood's sampling of the lit-
also to have generalized habitat requirements and toral zone. However, even this omission from the
secure population status. In contrast, unrepre- FMNH collection pales in comparison to that in-
sented or poorly represented taxa tend to be larger, volving forms restricted to northernmost Chile.
are restricted to higher trophic levels or specialized Most of these are puna species of the central An-
habitats, and are often characterized by less secure des, occurring in southern Peru, Bolivia, and
status. northwestern Argentina, extending into Chile only
The diversity of collecting techniques and pro- in the northernmost Tarapaca region. Their ab-
cedures used by Osgood and associates was clearly sence in the 1 943 collections reflects Osgood's fail-
adequate to sample the Chilean mammal fauna as ure to devote sufficient time to sampling these
a whole. Osgood's field notes indicate that he used marginal localities, not to biases in the collecting
mouse traps, carnivore traps, shotguns, and rifles techniques themselves. Lacking such material in
in making his collections, and he employed field his collections, Osgood (1943) did not recognize
parties of as many as four coworkers. In addition, an important tropical and subtropical component

to the Chilean mammal fauna, although Hellmayr century,and much of its fauna and flora were
(1932) had earlier recognized such components to known by the end of the 1 8th century (e.g., Molina,
the Chilean avifauna. The omission enhanced the 1782). Although economic exploitation and hab-
apparent endemicity of the Chilean mammal fau- itat destruction are accelerating with population
na and did little to aid identification of relation- growth in many parts of Chile, patterns of species
ships with other regions. densities are probably broadly comparable to those
Two of the remaining species, Akodon mark- Osgood encountered.
hami and A. hershkovitzi, are island derivatives of This analysis suggests that it should be possible
mainland species (Pine, 1973; Patterson et al., to predict the species currently lacking from the
1 984) and exhibit restricted geographic ranges that Chilean mammal inventory. If unbiased collecting
FMNH collecting parties did not sample. A main- techniques sample animal populations propor-
land taxon, Aconaemys fuscus, was recently re- tional to their densities, then one could expect that
stricted by Pearson's revision (1984), so that its species of carnivores or specialized herbivores
known range in Chile is quite small. Similarly, might thus far have been overlooked. However, a
Microcavia australis is a pampas species barely critically confounding variable in making this in-
crossing the Chilean frontier in southern Chile, ference is the geographic range size of species. While
while Chelemys delfini is known only from the carnivores may exist in nature at lower densities
holotype. [We dissent with the opinion of Miller than herbivores and thus are sampled less often
et al. (1983), who considered delfini of doubtful at a given locality, they tend to have larger ranges
validity. The disjunct Geoxus taxon michaelseni (Rapoport, 1982), which means they can be sam-
is the only other long-clawed rodent occurring near pled at more localities. Averaged across an entire
Punta Arenas, and it seems only reasonable to country or across an entire fauna, the expected
believe that Cabrera could distinguish the sub- correlation between numbers of specimens and ex-
stantially different skulls of these forms (cf figures pected population density holds. But when a fauna
of Geoxus and Chelemys in accounts of '^Notio- has been largely sampled, as is certainly true for
mys" in Osgood ( 1 943).] Osgood's failure to secure Chile's mammal fauna, further additions to the
other taxa, for example Histiotius macrotus, is per- faimal list are apt to be those species with highly
plexing, given the number of localities reported restricted geographic ranges, especially those in
for these species by Mann (1978). For the bats at remote areas (e.g., Akodon hershkovitzi, Patterson
least, modem records may be attributed to the use etal., 1984).
of mist nets rather than shotguns to collect bats. What are the implications of this study for other
The use of trophic-habitat affinities and body mammal collections made in other faunas? Chile's
size to estimate naturally occurring population mammal fauna is highly peculiar, stemming from
densities seems justifiable in view of their contri- itsisolation from the remainder of South America
butions to other studies. This justification is rein- by the Atacama Desert to the north and the Andes
forced by the strong positive correlations between to the east. Excluding bats, pinnipeds, and forms
current status in Chile and the numbers of spec- that barely cross Chile's borders, fully one-third
imens Osgood and associates collected; these cor- of the genera of Chilean mammals are endemic
relations hold for the fauna as a whole, and also (Osgood, 1943, p. 36), but the fauna does share
for selected subsets (e.g., stratifications by zone
life higher-level affinities with adjacent areas. The fau-
and by order). The correlations hold in spite of na is also a comparatively depauperate one: the
uncontrolled variation in other factors known to 93 mammal species recorded from Chile stand in
affect the current status of Chilean species. For contrast to the 1 4 1 species of bats alone that are
example. Miller et al. (1983) note regional varia- thought to occur in Colombia (Koopman, 1982).
tion in endangerment; species living in central Chile Finally, the Chilean fauna occurs in habitats that
have been most severely impacted by human ac- are structurally simple by tropical standards and
tivities. The
correlation analyses assumed that, similar in many respects to those of the north tem-
during the first half of this century, Osgood and perate zone. Thus trapping procedures and expe-
associates should have collected mammals pro- riences of north temperate scientists might enable
portional to their 1983 abundances. However, the them to sample Chilean habitats more effectively
assumption seems approximated in view of the than tropical ones. For these reasons, this study
demonstrated causes of species decline, principally should be repeated in a strictly Neotropical area
exploitation through hunting and habitat deteri- {sensu Hershkovitz, 1972). Both Suriname and
oration. Chile was settled by Europeans in the 1 6th Venezuela have diverse Neotropical mammal fau-

nas that are comparatively well studied (see Hus- H. H. Genoways, eds.. Mammalian biology in South
America. Special Publication Series, Pymatuning Lab-
son, 1 978; Genoways& Williams, 1979; Handley,
oratory of Ecology, University of Pittsburgh, 6: 1-539.
1976, and continuing reports, respectively). Both
Mann F., G. 1945. Mamiferos de Tarapaca. Obser-
countries would represent prospective areas for
vaciones realizadas durante una expedicion al Alto
repetition of this study. Norte de Chile. Biologica, 2: 23-134.
1978. Los pequeiios mamiferos de Chile.
.
Gay-
ana: Zoologia, 40: 1-342.
Miller, S. D., J. Rottmann, K. J. Raedeke, and R. D.

Taber. 1983. Endangered mammals of Chile: Status
Acknowledgments and conservation. Biological Conservation, 25: 335-
352.
This study was an outgrowth of a Senior Linkage Molina, G. I. 1782. Saggio sulla storia naturale del
Seminar entitled "The biology and conservation Chili. Bologna, 368 pp.
of South American mammals" at Northwestern NowAK, R. M., and J. L. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's
we Mammals of the World, vol. II, pp. 569-1362. Johns
University (EEB C-94) during Spring 1984;
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
thank classmates for helpful discussion. The senior
author thanks Milton Gallardo for fostering his
appreciation of the mammals of Chile, and we 268.
both thank Ronald H. Pine, Guy G. Musser, and Patterson, B. D. 1982. Pleistocene vicariance, mon-
an anonymous reviewer for criticisms of the tane islands, and the evolutionary divergence of some
manuscript. chipmunks (genus Eutamias). Journal of Mammal-

ogy, 63: 387-398.
. 1984. Mammalian extinction and biogeogra-
phy in the southern Rocky Mountains, pp. 247-293.
In Nitecki, M. H., ed.. Extinctions. University of Chi-
cago Press, Chicago, 354 pp.
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Taxonomic Index
Abderitinae 104 Akodon Antrozous

Abrawayaomys 486 molinae 366, 395 pallidus 152
Abrocoma 312, 377, 404 mollis 366, 394 Aotinae 234
bennetti S5, 419, 490 nigrita 351, 358, 359, 378- Aotus 232, 253, 258
cinerea 490 381, 386, 395 azarae 31, 57, 63
Abrocomidae 404 nucus 366, 387, 394 hershkovitzi 232
Abrothrix 350, 351, 357-359, olivaceus 85, 351, 359, 366, lemurinus 232, 234
367 ff. 394, 413 ff., 443, 489 nancymai 246, 247
Aconaemys 375, 404, 409 orophilus 366, 394 nigriceps 68
fuscus 404, 406, 407, 490, 494 pacificus 366 seniculus 247
sagei 404, 406, 490 /jwfT 366, 380, 383, 385, 386, sp. 25, 47
Agouti 3 1 2 390, 393, 394 trivirgatus 54-57, 232, 234,
paca 29, 17-20, 23, 25, 29, reinhardti 356, 366, 395 236
37, 43, 50, 62, 69 sanborni 35\, 359, 361, 367, vociferans 3 1
Akodon 347 ff., 487 372-374, 489 Arctocephalus 20

aerosus 366, 394 serrensis 366, 395 australis 20, 75, 489
agreste 63 sp. 366 Argyrolagidae 100, 105-107
albiventer 351, 352, 358, 366, surdus 366 Argyrolagoidea 107, 108
384, 393, 394 tolimae 366, 394 Ariteus
andinus 351, 352, 359, 366, urichi 366, 369, 374, 375, 380, flavescens 213 ff.
380 ff., 393, 394, 489 394 Artibeus 147, 163 ff., 187 ff., 225
arviculoides 356 varius 355, 358, 359, 366, 369, amplus 164-167
azaraeSO, 356, 366, 369, 374, ,374, 375, 395 anderseni 168-170, 184, 189,
375, 380 ff., 395 xanthorhinus 83, 85,351, 359, 191, 192
berlepschii 351, 358, 489 367, 374, 394, 436, 440, aztecus 169, 170
boliviensis 69, 351, 357, 358, 441, 489 cinereus6S, 166 ff., 184, 189,
365, 366, 380, 393, 395 Akodon tini 347 ff. 191, 192,223
brachiotis 366, 394 Alces cinereus group 1 69
budini 359, 360, 394 alces 480 concolor 166, 168-170, 223
canescens 83 Alouatta 20, 46, 232, 236, 240, concolor gvonp 169
CO Iibreve 63, 80 256, 258 fratercuius 184
cursor 355, 366, 369, 375, belzebul 23, 25, 31 fuliginosus 164, 184
378, 380 ff., 395 caraya 29, 31,36, 57,63 glaucus 166 ff., 174, 184, 189,
dolores 355, 356, 366, 395 fusca 23, 29, 31,36, 77 192, 193
hershkovitzi 359, 367, 372, seniculus 18, 25, 31, 40, 43, glaucus group 1 69, 1 70
374, 394, 489, 494 46,54,55,57,68,74,89, gnomus 167 ff., 189, 192
illutea 359, 367 ff. 236, 237, 246 hartii (see also Enchisthenes)
380
iniscatus 366, 374, ff., 394 Alouattalges 256-258 166, 168-170
jelskii 351, 359, 394 corbeti 247, 253 hartii group 169
johannis 378 ff. Alouattinae 236, 237 intermedius 162
kempi 360, 380, 395 Ametrida 225 jamaicensis 153, 162, 164-
kermacki 367 ff. Amorphochilus 167, 189, 193, 213 ff.
lanosus 359, 367, 372, 374, schnablii 185, 488 lituratus 36, 64, 153, 162, 164,
489 Andinomys 184, 189,223
longipilis 85, 357, 359, 367 ff., edax 490 phaeotis 153, 162, 169-171,
413 ff., 436, 489 Anotomys 486 189, 193 ff, 207, 223
lorenzinii 383 ff. Anoura phaeotis group 1 69, 1 70
magnus 368, 370, 37 1 376 ,
ff. caudifer 36, 183 planirostris 32, 74, 164, 176,
mansoensis 359, 372, 374 cult rat a 183 184
markhami 366, 394, 489, 494 geoffroyieS, 183 pumilio 166, 171
INDICES 497
Artibeus Bradypus Carollia
rosenbergi 166 tridactylus 40, 45 brevicauda 36, 153, 162, 183
toltecus 148, 154, 162, 169, variegatus 19, 23, 25, 29, 45, castanea 176, 183
170, 189, 195 ff. 70 perspicillata 32, 36, 77, 153,
toltecus group 169, 170 Burramyidae 1 1 4 162, 176, 183,224
watsoni 153, 162, 166, 169- CaroUiinae 178, 183
171, 189, 198 ff. Cavia 20, 312
Ateles 46, 232, 243 Cabassous aperea 23, 25, 29, 37, 62
belzebuth 55, 57, 242, 243 tatouay 63 porcellus 20, 23, 50, 69, 80
paniscus 25, 40, 42, 46, 57, unicinctus 37, 45, 46, 70 tschudii 490
68 Cacajao 54, 232, 238 Cebalges 255 ff.
Atelinae 242, 258 melanocephalus 30, 31, 55- âwf// 248

Atelocynus 455 ff. 57, 238, 239 Cebalginae 245 ff.
microtis 457, 458, 463 Caenolestes 112, 122 Cebalgoides 255 ff.
Audycoptes Caenolestidae 104, 112 cebi 247, 254
greeri 249 Callicebinae 235, 236 Cebidae4, 57,231 ff., 258
lawrencei 249 Callicebus 232, 236 Cebinae 241
Audycoptidae 245 ff. amictus 23 Cebuella
Auliscomys cenerascens 3 1 pygmaea 3 1
489
boliviensis 487, cupreus 3 1 Cebus 232, 238, 240, 256, 258
micropus 83, 436, 489 donacophilus 73, 74 albifrons3\, 55, 68, 238, 241,
sublimis 490 moloch 25, 57, 236, 246 246, 247
personatus 23, 30, 31, 36, 57, apella 18, 21, 23, 29, 31, 36,
Balantiopteryx 68, 236 40,41,46,57,63,68,74,
io 140, 153, 161 torquatus 3\, 55, 57, 68, 235, 238,240,241,246,247,
Bassaricyon 448 236 249, 252
Bassariscus Callimiconidae 4 capucinus 55, 57, 68, 248
astutus 448 Callithrix 256 flavus 23
Bathyergidae 108 argentata 23, 25, 57 nigrivittatus 18, 46, 57, 238,
Bauerus humeralifer 23, 25, 57 240, 241
dubiaquercus 152-154, 162 jacchus 23, 25, 26, 29, 31, 36, Centronycteris
Blarinomys 350, 358, 362-364, 42, 57, 63, 248 maximilliani 36, 1 61
395 Callitrichidae 4, 57, 258 Centurio
breviceps 395 Calomys 350, 381 senex 149, 153, 154, 162
Blastoceros callosus 64 Cephalomyidae 108
bezoarticus 20, 23, 29, 37, 60, laucha 63, 80 Cercopithecidae 253
75,80,81,473 ff. lepidus 489 Cerdocyon 455 ff.
dichotomus 20, 37, 60, 75 Caluromys 1 1 7 ff. avius 458, 462
Bolomys 350 ff., 358, 363, 364, derbianus 1 1 9 ensenadensis 458, 462
369, 390,391, 393, 395 lanatus 60, 66, 69, 119 sp. 458
amoenus 351-354, 356, 393, philander 29, 44 thous 457 ff.
395 Caluromysiops 1 1 7 ff. Cervidae 60, 473 ff.

bonapartei 356, 390, 393, 395 irrupt a 1 1 7 ff. Cervinae473, 480,481
lactens 351, 354-356,395 Canidae 62, 455 ff. Cervus
lasiurus 354-357, 382,395 Canis 455 ff. elaphus 480
lenguarum 355-357, 395 armbrusteri 464 nippon 480
obscurus 352-357, 395 davisi 458, 460,470 Chaetomys
sp. 357, 391 dirus 458, 463-465 subspinosus 29, 37
temchuki 356, 357, 395 familiaris 18 Chaetophractus 64
Borhyaenidae 467 gezi 458, 463, 464 nationi 488
Borhyaenoidea 107 lupus 464 sp. 20
Brachyteles nehringi 458, 463, 464 villosus 45, 63, 80
arachnoides 23, 31, 36, 57 Capreolus Chalcomys 350, 358
Bradypus capreolus 480 Chelemys 350, 362-364, 394
torquatus 20, 29, 37, 70 Capromys 17 delfini 363, 489, 494

Chelemys Ctenomys Didelphis
macronyx 351, 359, 363, 489 opimus 490 marsupialis 18, 19, 25, 29, 36,
megalonyx 363, 489 robustus 490 39,40,43,44,69, 125 ff
Chinchilla sp. 405 virginiana 129, 130
brevicandata 69, 490 Cyclopes Dinomyidae 407
lanigera 490 didactylus 25, 38, 43, 45, 70 Diphylla 32
Chinchillidae 407 Cynopterus ecaudata 32, 149, 154, 162,
Chinchillula sphinx 189 185
sahamae 490 Diplomys 3 1 2
Chiroderma 147, 225 Dipodidae 442
trinitatum 184 Dactylomyinae 312 Dipodomys 442, 444
villosum 148, 162, 184 Dactylomys 3 1 2 a^///5 443, 444
Chironectes 19 ZJawa 480 merriami 443, 444
minimus 44 Dankomys 351, 363, 389, 390, Dolichotis 20
Chiropotes 54, 68, 232, 238 395 patagonum 62, 75, 81, 83
5a/ana5 23, 25, 3 1 40, 46, 54-
, simpsoni 39 1 Dromiciops
57, 238, 239 sp. 391 australis 1 1 1 488
ff.,
Chiroptera 137 ff., 173 ff., 213 Daptomys 486 Dusicyon 18, 20,455 If.
ff. oyapocki 486 australis 82, 83, 456 ff
Choeroniscus peruviensis 486 avi« 458, 461,467
intermedins 183 venezuelae 486 culpaeus 65, 82, 85, 488
minor 183 Dasypodidae 63 /M/v/pe5 85, 86, 488
Choloepus Dasyprocta 3 1 2 ^n5eM5 65, 83, 85, 488
didactylus 40 azarae 62, 75 gymnocercus 62, 74, 80
Cholomys fuliginosa 25 thous 19, 29, 37, 40, 48, 69
pearsoni 311, 383 /epor/na 21, 23, 25, 29, 37,
Chroeomys 350, 351, 358, 359, 40, 42, 43, 50, 69 Echimyidae 19, 42, 305, 407,
393 sp. 18 409
Chrotopterus variegata 66, 69 Echimys 39, 312
auritus 146, 153, 161, 182 Dasyproctidae 407 armatus 50
Chrysocyon 455 ff. Dasypus 19 chrysurus 50
brachyurus 25, 29, 37, 62, 74, hybridus 63, 80 sp. 29
457, 458, 463 novemcinctus 18, 19, 23, 25, Ectophylla
sp.458 29, 37, 42, 45, 46, 63, 70 alba 189
Coendou sabanicola 46 macconnelli (see also Meso-
bicolor 69 septemcinctus 23 phylla) 184
insidiosus 29, 37, 63 Deltamys 350, 358, 360, 369, £'/ra
prehensilis 18, 23, 25, 42, 50 380, 395 barbara 25, 29, 37, 38, 40, 47,
sp. 19 Desmodillus 442, 444 55, 62, 68, 89, 448, 452,
Conepatus 20, 64 auricularis 443 453
chinga 18,29,55,62,65,69, Desmodontidae 185 Eligmodontia 350
73, 74, 80, 89, 488 Desmodontinae 178 puerulus 442, 443, 489
humboldtii 488 Desmodus 84 typus 75, 80, 433 ff., 489
rex 488 rotundus 33, 36, 43, 64, 74, Emballonuridae 139, 178, 182
Cricetidae 3, 283, 347 ff., 402 85, 147, 149, 153, 162, Emballonurinae 139
Ctenomyidae 104, 105, 108, 175, 176, 185,488 Enchisthenes
109, 409 youngi 185 hart a (see also Artibeus) 184
Ctenomys 63, 64, 109,312,381, Diclidurinae 140 Eocardiidae 407
409 Diclidurus Epidolopinae 103, 105
boliviensis 75 albus 36, 140 Eptesicus
brasiliensis 8 1 Virgo 140, 161 andinus 185
fulvus 490 Didelphidae 60, 1 1 2, 1 1 7 ff., 1 25 brasiliensis 32, 185, 213 ff.
haigii 436 Didelphis 18 furinalis 74, 139, 150, 153,

magetlanicus 75, 83, 85, 490 albiventris 20, 21, 23, 60, 80, 162, 185
maulinus 405, 490 129 fuscus 224
INDICES 499
Eptesicus Galenomys 486 Hylonycteris
innoxius 68, 185 garleppi 490 underwoodi 153
lynniin ff. Galictis Hypsimys 350, 358-360. 393
Erethizontidae 407 cuja 62, 65, 74, 80, 448 ff,
Eucricetodontinae 392 488
Inia
Eumops vittata 25, 43, 48, 447 ff.
geoffrensis 23, 25, 29, 51, 75,

auripendulns 68, 139, 152, Geomyidae 108
76
162, 186 Geoxus 350, 362-364, 393, 394
bonariensis 152, 162 michaelseni 363, 494 Irenomys
mldivianus 35 1 359, 363, 489
tarsalis 490
glaucinus 162, 186 ,
perotis 36, 1 86 Gerbillinae 442 Ischyromyidae 105

underwoodi 153, 162 Gerbillurus 442, 444 Isolobodon 16
Isothrix 3 1 2
Eumysops 379 paeba 443
Euneomys 283 ff. Glossophaga
chinchilloides 83, 283 ff., 490 commissarisi 139, 147, 161 Jaculus
mordax 285, 287 soricina 32, 36, 68, 153, 161,
jaculus 438
noei 285 176, 179, 183, 213 ff
Juscelinomys 351, 361, 363,
sp. 436 Glossophaginae 147, 178, 183, 395, 486
Euphractus 224, 225
candango 36 1
sexcinctus 25, 29, 37, 46, 63, Graomys
488 griseoflavus 83
Euryzygomatomys Grisonella 448, 451, 452, 454 Kannabateomys 312
spinosus 62 Groeberia 105, 108 Kerodon

minoprioi 104, 105 rupestris 29, "il
Groeberiidae 100 ff
FeUdae 60, 468
Groeberioidea 100, 107, 108 Lagenorhynchus
Felis
cruciger 75
catus 126, 127
colocolo 60, 65, 73, 75, 80, 83,
Lagidium 20
488
Heterocephalus penmnum 69
86,
glaber 108 viscacia 69, 490
concolor 19, 20, 23, 25, 29,
Heteromyidae 290, 442 wolffsohni 490
37,43,49,60,65,69,70,
Heteromyinae 290 Lagothrix 243, 256, 258
75, 80, 83, 85, 468, 488
Heteromys 289 ff. flavicauda 57, 68, 246
geoffroyi 25, 60, 75, 487
anomalus 296 ff lagothricha 23, 25, 31, 55, 57,
guigna 65, 488
desmarestianus 289 ff , 68, 243, 246, 248
jacobita 488
gaumeri 289 ff Lama
onca 18-21, 23, 25, 29, 37,
goldmani 299 glama 70
43,49,60,69,70,75,80,
Hippocamelus 48 1 guanicoe 70, 80, 83, 489
468
antisensis 70, 75, 76, 489 paco5 70
pardalis 1 8, 25, 29, 37, 43, 49,
bisulcus 21, 65, 83, 85, 473 Lasiurus
60,69
ff., 489 borealis 65, 151, 162, 185,488
sp. 60
Histiotiis a>ieret«64, 185, 488
tigrina 23, 29, 49
macrotis 65, 68, 185, 488, 494 ega 151, 162
wiedii 18, 29, 33, 37, 49, 69
montanusSl, 85, 185, 488 intermedins 152, 162
yagouaroundi 19, 29, 37, 49,
velatus 64, 74 Lenoxus 350, 363, 394
69
Holochilus apicalis 36 1
Fonsecalges 255 ff
brasiliensis 80 Leontopithecus
johnjadini 248, 253, 255
Hydrochaeris rosalia 21, 23, 32, 33, 36, 57,
saimirii 248, 255
hydrochaeris 23, 37, 43, 50, 68
Furipteridae 177, 178, 185
62, 69, 80, 88 Leporidae 62
Hydropotes Leptonychotes
Galea inermis 480 weddelli 489
flavidens 75 Hydrurga Leptonycteris
mmteloides 490 leptonyx 489 sanborni 2 1 3 ff.

Lepus Mazama 18, 20, 21, 473 ff. Monodelphis 87
capensis 436, 441 americana 19, 25, 29, 37, 38, americana 23
magellaniciis 82 40, 42, 50, 60, 70, 474 ff. brevicaudis 60
Lestoros 1 1 2 gouazoubira 18, 29, 37, 50, dimidiata 80, 86, 114
Lichonycteris 60, 70, 75 Monodon
obscura 153, 183 rw^wfl 19 monoceros 40
Liomys 297, 299 sp. 20, 50 Mormoopidae 141, 177, 178,
pictus 299 Megaderma 225 182,215,224
spedabilis 299 /j^ra 215 Mormoops
Lionycteris spasma 215 megalophylla 141, 154, 161,
spurrelli 183 Mesomys 312 182
Lissodelphis Mesophylla Mormopterus
peroni 75, 83 macconnelli (see also Ec/o- kalinowskii 186, 488
Lonchophylla pM/a) 189 Muntiacus
handleyi 134, 183 Metachirus muntjak 48 1
hesperia 183 nudicaudatus 69 A/m5
roZ?M5ra 134, 183 Microbiotheriidae 112, 122 domesticus 444
thomasi 183 Af/crocav/a AfM5/e/a
Lonchorhina australis 75, 83, 436, 490, 494 frenata 18-20, 69
aurita 143, 161, 182 Mustelidae 62, 447, 468
Micronycteris
Lw/ra 18, 19,48,493 A/>cefe5
brachyotis 141, 161
annectens 19 daviesi 182 rufimanus 68
enudris 42, 48 hirsuta 182 A/3;o<:a5for
/e//>ifl 65, 69, 83, 85, 488 megalotis 142, 153, 154, 161, acouchy 50
montana 69 182 co>'pi« 29, 62, 65, 69, 83, 85,
piat ens is 74, 80 minuta 182 490
provocax 488 mce/on 142, 153, 161, 182 ex/Vw 25, 38, 40, 42, 43
Lutreolina schmidtorum 142, 153, 161 Af3ôf/5
crassicaudata 44, 48, 60, 80 albescens 36, 64, 74, 185
Microryzomys 267
Lycalopex 456, 457, 460 atacamensis 488
Microtragulidae 107
chiloensis 85, 488
Microtus 404
patagonicus 74, 488 elegans 150, 162
Microxus 350, 351, 358, 360,
A:eay5/ 162, 185
362, 363, 380, 393, 394
lucifugus 223
bogotensis 360, 394
Macrophyllum nigricans 36, 74, 176, 185
mimus 357, 360
macrophyllum 36, 161, 182 oxyorM5 185
MacrojKxiidae 100, 105 riparius 185
bennettii 144
Makalata 3 1 2 rwfter 64, 74
Marmosa 486 cozumelae 144, 153, 154 simus 185
19, 64,
486 crenulatum \ 39, 144, 161, 182
agricolai Myrmecophaga 19
andersoni 486 koepckeae 182
tridactyla 19, 23, 29, 36,43,
cinerea 36 Mirounga 44,60
cracens 486 leonina 75, 489
Myrmecophagidae 60
elegansSS, 113,419,488 Molossidae 152, 178, 186, 215,
handleyi 486 224 Aô^wa 19, 448
impavida 69 Molossops narica 448
murina 36, 44, 69 abrasus 135, 186 «a5wa 19, 21, 23, 25, 29, 37,
noctivaga 69 temminckii 186 43, 47, 62, 66, 68, 74,
pusilla 60 Afo/055M5 448^50
scapulata 486 a/er 32, 64, 68, 153, 162, 186 Nasuella
sp. 39, 40 crassicaudatus 64, 74 olivacea 447 ff.
/a/e/ 486 mo/o55M5 44, 64, 68, 153, 162, Natalidae 150
186, 213 ff. Natalus
pennanti 448 sinaloae 162 stramineus 150, 153, 162
INDICES 501
Necrolestidae 106, 107 Oryzomys Phyllostominae 141, 178, 182,
Necrolestoidea 107 mattogrossae 266, 267, 273 224, 225
Necromys megacephalus 62 Phyllostomus
conifer 38 1 melanostoma 69 discolor 68, 145, 153, 161,
Nectomys microtis 26 1 ff. 179, 182
squamipes 25, 40, 381 nigripes 63, 262 ff. elongatus6S, 182, 213 ff.
Neotomys stolzmanni 262, 264, 27 1 hastatus 33, 36, 68, 88, 182
ebriosus 490 utiaritensis 266, 273, 274 latifolius 2\3 ff.
Nesophontes 17 Otaria obscurus 36

Noctilio byronia 489 stenops 145, 161, 182
albiventris 32, 68, 74, 1 33, 1 82 flavescens 20, 69, 75 Phyllotini 364
leporinus 32, 36, 64, 68, 74, Otocyon 458, 460, 470 Phyllotis
140, 153, 161, 182 Oxymycterus 350, 351, 356, darwini 69, 85, 86, 413 ff.,
Noctilionidae 140, 178, 182 358, 360 ff., 393-395 436, 443, 444, 489
Notiomys 350, 362-364, 380, akodontius 36 1 gerbilitis 442
393, 394 angularis 36 1 magister 489
edwardsi 362, 436 delator 361 osgoodi 489
Nyctereutes 460, 462, 466, 47 1 hispidus 361 xanthopygus 83, 489
Nyctinomops iheringi 361 Pithanotomys 375
laticaudatus 153, 162, 186 />ica^ 36 1 Pithecia 46, 232, 240, 243, 256,
macrotis 186 nasutus 36 1 258
paramensis 36 1 394 ,
hirsuta 246, 249
Octodon 402, 407, 487 platensis 36 1 monachus 23, 25, 26, 31, 57,
bridgesi 402, 403, 490 roberti 36 1 249
degus 65, 69, 75, 85, 402, 403, rw/us 37, 62, 80, 357, 361 pithecia 3 1 , 40, 42, 46, 57, 88,
413 ff., 490 239, 243
lunatus 402, 403, 490 Pithecinae 239
Octodontidae 108, 401 ff., 407, Palaeothentinae 104
Plagiodontia 16
415 Parabderites
Platalina
Octodontoidea 108 bicrispatus 104
genovensium 183
Octodontomys 404 Parabderitini 104
Platyceros
gliroides 75, 404, 405, 490 Paramyidae
dama 476, 477, 480
Octomys 404 Patagonia 99 ff.
barrerae 404 Platyrrhini 63, 258
peregrina 99 ff.
mimax 404 Pliolestes 377
Patagoniidae 99 ff.
Odocoileinae 479-48 1 Patagonioidea 99 ff. Podoxymys 350, 361, 363, 393,
Odocoileus 18, 473 ff. Peramelidae 113, 114 394, 486
hemionus 476, 477, 480 Perognathus 434, 444 roraimae 361
virginianus 18, 19, 25, 42, 51, /a//ax 443 Polydolopidae 103-105
474 ff.
flavus 443 Pontoporia
Oligoryzomys 26 1 ff.
longimembris 443, 444 blainvillei 75
Onychomys Peromyscus 442 Potoroinae 105
torridus 443 eremicus 443, 444
Oryzomyini 364, 392 maniculatus 434, 443, 444
y7avM5 18, 25, 37, 47, 55, 68,
Oryzomysiex ff., 487 yucat aniens 297 74
angouya 62 Peropteryx
chacoensis 26 1 ff. Prepidolopidae 103
kappleri 161
Primates 245 ff.
chaparensis 262, 267, 274 macrotis 36, 161, 182
delicatus Idl Priodontes
ff. Petauridae 1 1 3
destructor 264, 271, 273 Philander opossum 36, 39, 40, giganteus 45, 46
flavescens 80, 262 ff. 43, 44, 69
maximus 29, 37, 42, 63
fornesi 262 ff.

Phylloderma Proargyrolagus
galapagoensis 84, 86 stenops 161 bolivianus 106
longicaudatus 69, 82, 83, 85, Phyllostomidae 141, 178, 189, Procebalges 255, 256, 258
261 ff., 419, 489 213,215,223,224 pitheciae 249

Procyon Proechimys Proechimys
cancrivoms 25, 29, 37, 40, 47, ignotus 3 1 1 urichi 309, 339, 345
62, 74, 448^50 kermiti 308 vacillator307
Procyonidae 62, 447, 468 leioprimna 308 villacauda 309
Proechimys 39, 69, 305 ff. leucomystax 309 warreni 307
amphichoricus 308 liminalis 308 Promops
arabupu 308, 313, 325, 330 longicaudatus 64, 309, 333, centralis 186
arescens 308 338 nasutus 32, 68
biomensis 308 longicandatus-group 305 ff., Protocyon 455 ff.
boliviensis 309 309, 310, 314, 316 ff., orcesi 458, 462
brevicauda 309, 322, 330, 333, 322,323, 328,329, 331, scagliarum 457, 458, 462
338 333 ff., 338, 342 ff troglodytes 458, 462, 463
burrus 3 1 1 magdalenae 310, 317, 339, Pseudalopex 455 ff.
calidior 3 1 1 345 culpaeus 457 ff.
canicollis 311, 326, 337 mincae 309, 326, 337, 339, griseus 457, 458, 460, 468
canicollis-group 305 fF., 311 345 gymnocercus 457, 458, 460,
fr., 315-317, 326-329, myosuros 37 461
331, 334 ff., 337, 340 nesiotes 308 penianus 458, 460, 461
centralis 3 1 1 nigrofulvus 309, 338 sechurae 457, 458, 460, 461
cherriei 307 ochraceouslXQ, 326, 339, 345 vetulus 457, 458, 460, 461
chiriquinm 3 1 1 oco«ne///311,320, 329, 339, Psoroptidae 245 ff.
chrysaeolus 309, 317, 326, 344 Pteronotus

337, 339, 344 oris 307, 325, 338 davyi 139, 141, 154, 161, 182
colombianus 3 1 1 pachita 308 gymnonotus 182
CMv/m 309, 322, 327, 333, panamensis 311 -^
parnellii 153, 161, 182, 213
339, 340 ff. poliopus 310, 339, 345 ff.
CMv/>r/-group 305 ff., 309, 311, quadruplicatus 308, 327, 329 personatus 141, 161, 182
314, 317 ff., 322, 323, rattinus 308 Pteronura 48
328, 329, 331, 333 ff, ribeiroi 309 brasiliensis 23, 25, 29, 37, 48,
339, 340 ff.
riparum 308 62
decumanus 312, 326, 337 roZ?em- 307, 3 1 3, 325, 336, 338 Pteropodidae 189
decumanus-group 305 ff., 308, ro5a 3 1 1
Pudu 473 ff, 493
312, 315 ff., 326 ff., 328, rubellus 3 1 1
puda 65, 474, 476, 480, 489
329, 331, 334 ff, 337, 341 securus 309
elassopus 309, 338
semispinosus 311, 320, 324,
goeldii 308, 338 Rattus
327, 332, 338, 339, 343
goeldii-gToup 305 ff., 308 ff., rattus 126, 127
ff
314-316, 323, 324, 328, Reithrodon 82
semispinosus-group 305 ff.,
329, 331, 332, 334 ff., auritus 62, 381,436,441
310ff, 314, 319ff., 323,
338, 341 ff. chinchilloides 85
324,328, 329,331, 332,
goldmani 3 1 1 physodes 80, 83, 490
334 ff., 338 ff., 343 ff.
gorgonae 3 1 1
simonsi 309, 325, 330, 336, Rhinophylla
guairae 310, 317, 326, 337, alethina 134
338
339, 344
5/moAJ5/-group 305 309, fischeri 183
gularis 309, 338
ff.,
313ff., 314, 323ff., 328, pumilio 183

guyannensis 307, 330, 336
329, 331, 334 337 ff, Rhipidomys
guyannensis-group 305 ff.,
ff.,
307 ff, 312 ff., 324 344 leucodactylus 69

ff.,
328, 329, 331, 334 sp. 29 Rhogeessa

ff.,
steerei 308, 338 tumida 153, 154, 162

338, 339, 342
hendeei 309, 338 trinitatus 309, 317, 339, 345 Rhyncholestes
hilda 308 trinitatus-gronp 305 309 ff.,
raphanurus 111 ff., 488
hoplomyoides 310, 317, 339, ff., 314, 315, 317, 325 ff.,
R hynchonycteris
344 328, 329, 331, 334 ff., naso 32, 36, 140, 153, 154,
hyleae 308 337, 339, 344 ff. 161, 182
INDICES 503
Saccopteryx Sturnira Tonatia
bilineata 140, 153, 161, 182 bogotensis 177 bidens 32, 44, 143, 161, 182,
leptura 139, 161, 182 erythromos 6S, 183 213 ff.
Saguinus 256 lilium 64, 153, 154, 162, 183, brasiliense 144
bicolor 3 1 213 ff carrikeri 182
fuscicollis 31, 57, 68 ludovici 183 evof/5l44, 148, 153, 154, 161
labiatus 23, 25, 26, 57 magna 183 w/rtM/fl 139, 144, 154, 161
midas 25, 38, 40, 42, 46, 47, /7a/7a 183 nicaraguae 144
57, 68, 89 oporophilum 68 sylvicola 74, 144, 182, 213 ff.
mystax 3 1 68 ,
f/Wae 183 Trachops
nigricollis3l,6S, 248 Stumirinae 178, 183 cirrhosus 32, 139, 145, 153,
oedipus 31, 55-57, 247 161, 182, 213 ff.
Saimiri 232, 256, 258 scrofa 42 Tremarctos

boliviensiseS, 73, 74, 232, 249 5>'/v/7a^5 ornatus 19, 20, 68, 74
oerstedi 201, 232 brasiliensis 18, 19, 21, 23, 29, Trichechus
sciureus 40-42, 46, 57, 232, 37, 62, 70 inunguis 25, 29, 51, 55
233, 246, 248, 249 Jloridanus 19 manatus 18, 37, 41-43, 54
ustus 23, 25, 26, 232 sp. 18 Tylomyinae 392
Saimirinae 233
Saimirioptes
hershkovitzi 249 fF. Tadarida Urocyon 455 ff.
paradoxus 249, 252 brasiliensis 68, 74, 80, 85, cinereoargenteus 457-459
Scapteromys 186, 213 ff., 488 progressus 458, 459
sp. 383 laticaudata 64 Uroderma 147, 187 ff.
tumidus 80 Tamandua 19, 20 bilobatum 147, 153, 154, 162,

Schizopodalges 256-258 tetradactyla 18, 20, 23, 25, 29, 184, 189, 202 ff.
lagothricola 248, 255 36,43,45,60, 61, 70 magnirostrum 184, 189, 207,

Sciurillus 208
Tapirus
pusillus 39 70
pinchaque 19,
Sciurus terrestris 19-21, 23, 29, 37,
aestuans 18, 23, 29, 37, 39,
40, 41, 43, 50, 59, 70 Vampyressa 147
42, 50, 69 villosus 7 1
bidens 184
granatensis 55, 56 442
Taterillus
melissa 184
igniventris 25 /7M5///a 139, 148, 153, 154,
pygargus 443
pyrrhinus 69 162, 184, 189
Tayassu 59
spadiceus 25, 69, 75 Vampyrodes
pecan 19, 37, 38, 42, 50, 59,
stramineus 69 caraccioli 148, 154, 162, 184
70
Scolomys 486 Vampyrops 147
tajacu 19, 23, 25, 37, 42, 50,
Sigmodontinae 347 ff., 413 brachycephalus 184
59, 70
Solenodon 17 184
£/or5a//5 176,
Thalpomys 350, 356, 358
Sotalia 54 /!c//er/ 147, 184
Thaptomys 350, 351, 358
fluviatilis 25 infuscus 184
Theriodictis 455 ff.
Spalacopus 405, 409 lineatus 64, 1 84
490 p/a/e«5/5 458, 461,462
cyanus 65, 85, 402 ff., vittatus 184
tarijensis 458, 461
Sparassocynus 379
Thrinacodus 3 1 2
Speo//io5 21,455 ff. spectrum 43, 146, 153, 161,
pacivorus 458, 463 Thylatheridium 379 182
venaticus 25, 40, 458, 463 Thyroptera 32 Vespertilionidae 150, 178, 185,
tricolor 31, 162, 185
Stenodermatinae 147, 178, 184, 215, 224
189, 213,223,225 Thyropteridae 177, 178, 185 Vespertilioninae 150
Strepsirrhini 253 Tolypeutes 64 Vicugna
Sturnira 147 matacus 63, 80 vicugna 65, 66, 70, 489
aratathomasi 134 tricinctus 23, 29 Vizcacia
fe/V/e/w 183 Tomopeas 185 vizcacia 62, 65, 81
S04 HELDIANA: ZOOLOGY

Vombatus Xylomys 290 Zygodontomys 350, 351, 354
ursinus 1 14 brevicauda 354
Vulpes 457, 458, 460, 470 Zaedyus microtinus 355
pichiy 63, 80, 488 thomasi 355
Wiedomys
pyrrhorhinos 29, 33, 37
Subject Index
Acinar cells 2 1 3 ff. 137 ff., 163 ff., 173 ff., 191 Immigration 425
Age variation 129, 131, 266, ff., 231 ff., 261 ff., 274, 283 Incisive foramen 321 ff.
293,312,448 ff., 292, 305ff., 347ff.,401 Infraorbital foramen 328
ff, 455 ff.
Bacular morphology 3 1 2 447 Karyotypic analysis 1 1 1 ff., 296,

IF.,
347 ff., 473 ff.
ff. Ectoparasites 164, 165, 245 ff.,
Behavior 187 ff., 402 ff., 442 359 Karyotypic evolution 473 ff.
Biogeographic history 108, 392, Endangered status 485 ff.

Key to identification 1 70
407 Evolutionary diversification 99
485 347 455 Life history 433 ff.
Body size ff. ff., ff, ff.
Life zone 485 ff.

Exploration and description.
C-band analysis 361, 477 Neotropical Region 21 ff.
Mandibular morphology 100
Censusing413 ff., 440 External features 1 17, 164, 165,
ff.,
Chilean mammals 485 ff. 167 267 457 ff.

347 ff.
ff., ff.,
Chronicles, Neotropical Region Extinction 468 Mesopterygoid fossa 328 ff.

14-21 Metachromism 3
Coevolutionary patterns 245 ff.

Family nov. 99 ff. Morphological adaptation 108,
Cohort definition 420 Faunal origins, dispersal 3, 87 362, 434
Collecting bias 176, 485 ff. ff., 347 ff., 402, 464
Morphological variation 293
Cranial morphology 121, 165, Faunal representation 485 ff.
167ff., 267ff., 320 ff., 347 Foraging habits 137 ff. Neotropical mammalogy, his-
ff, 457 ff tory 1 1 ff.

Fossil record 457
Nongeographic variation 216,
Demography 413 ff., 433 ff. 266, 293
G-band analysis 356, 361, 477
Dentition 00 ff., 2 1 1 65, 1 68,
1 1 ,
Genital morphology 122, 350
NOR analysis 477
267 ff., 330 ff., 347 ff., 402, Genus nov. 99 ff.
454, 457 ff. Geographic variation 1 64, 2 1 6, Osgood, W. H. 486 ff.
Desert rodents 443

287, 289 ff.
Diet 125 ff., 175, 213 ff., 362, Phylogenetic relationships 245
Glands, male accessory 358, 364
364, 402 ff., 427, 441 ff, 457
Digestive system, morphology Habitat 1 33 ff., 137 ff., 165, 167, Physiological adaptation 434
347 ff.
189, 402 ff. Population regulation 4 1 3 ff.
Discovery, Neotropical Region Hershkovitz, Philip 1 ff. Population survivorship 423
14-21 biographical sketch 1 ff. Postcranial morphology 122,
Distribution, geographic 133 ff.. bibliography 4 ff. 448, 457 ff.
INDICES 505
Precipitation 175, 426, 442 Sex ratio 419, 438 Temporal ridge 327 ff
Predation 201 Sexual variation 128, 216, 266, Tent construction 187 ff.
293, 438 Thorn scrub community 4 1 3 ff

Recruitment 423 Species nov. 99 ff, 1 64, 1 67, 249 Trophic habits 108, 173 ff ,467,
Reproduction 122, 173 ff., 419, ff , 377, 379, 383 485 ff.
433 ff. Steppe community 433 ff
Roosting behavior 187 ff. Superfamily nov. 99 ff Ultrastructure analysis, com-

Systematic relationships 105, parative 213 ff
Salivary glands 2 1 3 ff. 122, 163 ff, 191 ff, 213ff,
Secretory granules 2 1 3 ff 252, 261 ff, 283 ff, 297,
Sex-chromosome mosaicism 305ff, 347fr., 401 ff, 451,
211 ff 454, 455 ff

Other Fieldiana: Zoology Publications in Mammalogy
The Bals ol' Iran: Sv»;tpmatics. Distrihulicn. Frolom !v. V'Mî -i, i DoRlaso \^)
illus., 22 tables.
riiDUcation khi/, 5>îl.uu
1980. 579 pages, 164 illus.. 58 tables.

Publication 13U9, $31.00
A Multivariate Study ol the l-amil> Molossidac (.Mammalia, Chiroplcra): Morphology, Ecology, Evo-
lution. B\ Patricia Waring Freeman. 1981. 173 pages, 25 illus., 12 tables.
Publication 1316, $13.25
Taxonomy and Evolution of the Sinica Group of Macaques: 2. Species and Subspecies Accounts of the
|ndi;in RnnriiM \Ta(;i(iiii^ Xfin-nrn rnil'inlii R\' \:\c\ FoodiMi I OS S"* n;K'f»<s Q illuS., 15 tablCS.
1
Taxonomy and Evolution of the Sinica Group of Macaques: 3. Species and Subspecies Accounts of
"
Macacaassa- 'nek Foodcn. 1982. 52 pages, 10 illus., 11 tables.
Neotropical E>eer (Cervidae). Part I. Pudus, Genus Pudu Gray. By Philip Hershkovitz. 1982. 86 pages,
37 illus.. 10 tables.
The Effectiveness of Methods of Shape Analysis. By Cliff A. Lemen. 1983. 17 pages, 5 illus., 6 tables.
laxonomy and Evolution of the Sinica Group of Macaques: 4. Species Account of Macaca thibetana.
W\ \acV Foodcn IQS"? ""O n;iPrs '^ illns 1 !;ihlcs.
On the Phyletic Weight of Mensural Cranial Characters in Chipmunks and Their Allies (Rodentia:
'"^
By Bn
-
Sciuridae). "attcrson. 1983. 24 pages. 4 illus.. 7 tables.
Annotated Checklist of Bird and Mammal Species of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Manu National
Park, Peru. By John W. Terborgh, John W. Fitzpatrick, and Louise Emmons. 1984. 29 pages, 2 illus..
3 tables.
Systematics of Mice of the Subgenus Akodon (Rodentia: Cricetidae) in Southern South America, with
the Description of a New Specie*- R^ u^,.,,^ i^ p-.it, MtrMi vTiiK.n m r;-.iiw,i,A ->nH w.ihx r Ki-,.nc
1984. 16 pages, 6 illus.. 1 tabic
A Preliminary laxonomic Review oi mc >ouih American Bearded Saki Monkeys Genus Chiwpotes
(Cebidac, Platyrrhini), with the Description of a New Subspecies. By Philip Hershkovitz. 1985. 46
pages, 14 illus., 9 tables.
I
:
momy and Evolution of the Sinica Group of Macaques: >f Natural Hislor\. Rv Jack
I ooden. 1986. 22 pages, 2 illus., 4 tables.
' '
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m

STUDIES IN NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY

Edited by Bruce D. Patterson and Robert M. Timm

December 31, 1987

PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

iioiu suuT, research associales. and invited authors will be con-

mg. which reduces the publication time.

References should be typed in the following fo:

rado Island. Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif, 943 pp

CiKUJii. K J.. J. R. Uuvi). .\ND T.

•orest structure, physiognomy, and tloristics. Journal of Ecology, 51: 567-60!

and ink drawings may

,„^,. Or rations will be returned to Uie author upon publication

ith the Scientific Editor.

STUDIES IN NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY

Accepted for publication July 30, 1985

PUBLISHED BY FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

Studies in Neotropical Mammalogy:

© 1987 Field Museum of Natural History

A Biographical Sketch of Philip Hershkovitz, with a Complete Scientific Bibliography 1

Milton H. Gallardo and Bruce D. Patterson

Feeding Habits of the Opossum {Didelphis marsupialis) in Northern Venezuela 125

Seasonality of Reproduction in Peruvian Bats 173

Comparative Ultrastructure and Evolutionary Patterns of Acinar Secretory Product of Parotid

Morphological Variation, Karyology, and Systematic Relationships of Heteromys gaumeri (Ro-

Species Groups of Spiny Rats, Genus Proechimys (Rodentia: Echimyidae) 305

Comparative Cytogenetics of South American Deer 473

occasions Hershkovitz had lamented the lack of a R. E. Martin, T. J. McCarthy, G. G. Musser, P.

French, Spanish, and Portuguese, even though these papers.

Depression. integrated after six months' time and thereafter he

of the University of Maryland Medical School. ruvian frontier.

PATTERSON: BIOGRAPHY OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ

PATTERSON: BIOGRAPHY OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ

pattern variation of taxa arranged by metachro-

nary report no. 5: Bats (Chiroptera). Pro-

nary report no. 3: Water rats (genus Necto-

PATTERSON: BIOGRAPHY OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ

38. Comments on Galerella Gray, Herpestes II- 1958

Lutreola Wagner, Oryctogale Merriam,

15(26):467-468. 56. A critique of Professor Chester Bradley's

PATTERSON: BIOGRAPHY OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ

tologica, 4:381-395. 46(5):829-842.

23(2/3):67-69. stracts, May 1968.

90. [Review] Evolutionary and Genetic Biology

Meles montanus Richardson, 1829, and M. letin of Zoological Nomenclature, 25(6):202-

1 14. Stapedial processes in tympanic cavities of

1974 131. Comparative anatomy of platyrrhine man-

(Cebidae, Platyrrhini) with notes on post- origins. Folia Primatologica, 35:179-217.

1976 genus Pudu Gray. Fieldiana: Zoology, n.s.,

PATTERSON: BIOGRAPHY OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ

roptes (Cebidae, Platyrrhini), with the de-

La historia de mastozoolo^a neotropical empieza con el primer viaje transatlantico de Cris-

From the Division of Mammals, Department of Zo-

HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY 1 1

y romantico de expediciones cientificas fomentadas por gobiemos europeos, o por naturalistas

A historia da mastozoologia neotropical, come90u com a primeira viagem transatlantica de

Organization II. Voyages of Discovery: 1 5th and

X. Paraguay 57 time of the voyage of discovery by Christo-

HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY 13

HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY IS

HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY 17

6, p. 191), states: the Spaniards call them Badgers. The

HERSHKOVITZ: HISTORY OF NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY 19