Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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US$34.95
Niwaki
Jake Hobson
ISBN-13: 978-0-88192-835-8
EAN
Pruning, Training
and Shaping Trees
the Japanese Way
Jake Hobson
Niwaki
25.00
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Niwaki
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Niwaki
Pruning, Training
and Shaping Trees
the Japanese Way
Jake Hobson
Timber Press
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To Keiko
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Contents
ebooksdownloadrace.blogspot.in
Preface 7
What Are Niwaki? 9
1 Garden Elements 12
2 The Roots of Niwaki 24
3 Principles and Techniques 45
4 Pines 62
5 Azaleas and Karikomi 76
6 Conifers 85
7 Broadleaved Evergreens 101
8 Deciduous Trees 108
9 Bamboo and other Plants 119
10 Behind the Scenes at Japans Nurseries 125
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Preface
for six years, has been fantastic, and the shared knowledge and
The following year I was back, this time with a job teaching
was over, but the writing of this book has rekindled her
many taken long before the idea for a book had been born.
say, and soon realized that although Japanese gardens were well
discover.
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Niwaki
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Tohoku Region
Akita
Aomori
Fukushima
Iwate
Miyagi
Yamagata
Kinki
Hyogo
Kyoto
Mie
Nara
Osaka
Shiga
Wakayama
Kanto Region
Chiba
Gumma
Ibaraki
Kanagawa
Saitama
Tochigi
Tokyo
Chugoku Region
Hiroshima
Okayama
Shimane
Tottori
Yamaguchi
Shikoku Island
Chubu Region
Aichi
Fukui
Gifu
Ishikawa
Nagano
Niigata
Shizuoka
Toyama
Yamanashi
Ehime
Kagawa
Kochi
Tokushima
Kyushu Island
Fukuoka
Kagoshima
Kumamoro
Miyazaki
Nagasaki
Oita
Saga
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O.Kuna
Wakkan
Rebun-
Abashir
RishiriAsahiga
Kushiro
Asahi
Topography of Japan
Obihiro
Sapporo
Otar
utsa
Mu
Shina
A b uku
T su
ga
r
Muroran
U chiur
a-
YarigaHakuShira Fujini-san
Sagam i-
Ibi
Biwa
-
Harim
aK ii-
Shikok
Suo
o
ng
Bu
-
Amaku
sa-
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d
en
Koshikiji
ma-
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1
Garden Elements
ments that are intrinsically linked not just to the garden, but to
sal, in that they are living, breathing things. (Water, rocks and
gravel, despite existing all over the world, carry the significant
suburban back streets of any town, or the view from any train
the sea of raked gravel and rocks beyond the walls is heavily
Garden Elements
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Cryptomeria-clad mountains
make up much of Japans
landscape.
Nature
Pacific Ocean to the east, results in well-defined weather patterns and distinct seasons. The Japanese psyche is highly
and the arts across the country. Deciduous and flowering trees
that can be seen on any train journey. All but the highest peaks
ter and later spring. In the gardens, the moss that has dried out
over the winter leaps back into life, trees put on their first flush
flower, and the tour buses full of school children have disap-
with the screech of cicadas, the rice fields heave with the noc-
scrap of land put to use. Rice fields and vegetable patches com-
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Intensively worked
countryside. Shikoku.
common sight, often resting in the shade during the heat of the
day (lunch breaks are longer in the summer). Once, when I was
working for Furukawa nursery near Osaka, it was so hot that
by eight-thirty in the morning, after just half an hour of simple
work, I had worked up such a sweat that my trousers sloshed
with every step I took, and needed to be wrung out like laundry.
Some gardens can look rather neglected in the height of
summer. Gardeners tend to visit at set times of the year, when
they carry out a major overhaul of the garden, rather than
making short, regular visits. By the autumn, when most gardens are due to be tidied up, some of the trees are starting to
lose their shape and definition, but this somehow feels appropriate in the heat.
The end of summer is announced by a brief, wet, typhoon
season, that is more intense further south. The typhoons, which
are numbered rather than named, race across the Pacific from
the Equator, causing damage from the speeding winds and heavy
rains that they bring. Despite bringing a good deal of problems,
though, they do seem to blow the summer humidity away.
Autumn is the most comfortable season in Japan. The rains
die down, the heat has gone, but the cold winter winds have
yet to arrive. Autumn colour, particularly vivid in the maple
trees, creates scenes as compelling as spring cherry blossom
and just as popular with the crowds. On television there is a
daily report on the progress of the koyo, the changing leaf
colour, just after the weather forecast. Seasonal food appears
chestnuts, pumpkins, certain fishand the kaki (Diospyros
Spring in Kyoto.
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Autumn in Yamagata
Prefecture.
the winter cold from damaging any late summer growth that
may not have ripened fully. Pine trees are treated to a rigorous,
Winter tends to be cold and dry on the east side of the country,
while heavy snow defines the west coast and central mountainous
roundings.
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today remain connected to the land, respectful of it yet thankful for its beauty and abundance.
One needs only a very basic knowledge of the landscapes of
Japan to appreciate how directly the gardens are influenced by
the countrys physical geography. Rocks, streams, riverbeds
and waterfalls appear everywhere in the mountains, and are
Big Ben, and in the United States the Statue of Liberty, Japan is
riverbeds or the ocean, and the use of native trees from sur-
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Faith as Inspiration
In the garden, references to the wider landscape only become
truly interesting when considered alongside the culture and
spirituality of the Japanese people. These more abstract elements imbue the physical world with a poetic sense of symbolism and meaning, combining to give the gardens and trees
deeper resonance and adding layers of significance that nature
alonewithout human interventiondoes not provide.
riverbank overnight to bring new life for the coming year. The
Shinto
tree was fenced off with rope, marked as a sacred area. In his
try, Ise-jingu, every twenty years. (It was last rebuilt in 1993.)
today, continuing the tradition that arose with the Ise myth.
have this rope tied around them, but the influence does not
stop there. In the garden, the art of tying, wrapping and bind-
researched by Nobuzane Tsukushi in 1964, that seems particularly relevant to the history of gardens.
where the people of Ise would bring her down from the moun-
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Ishikawa Prefecture are particularly well known for this treatment, but all trees in areas of heavy snowfall receive similar
attention, from the most mundane hedges and municipal
planting to the most impressive garden trees. Sometimes wigwam structures are built to help shed the snow, remaining in
place until all chances of snow have gone. (This winter, as I sit
writing in England, I hear from friends that Yamagata city, in
the north of the country, has 60 cm [24 in.] of snow, and the
surrounding mountains receive up to 3 m [10 ft.] during a typical winter.)
Tender plants such as the sago palm are wrapped up using a
technique called waramaki, where straw skirts are drawn up
around the trunks and foliage, then capped off with a pointed
hat. These structures remain in place all winter, and they form
remarkable sights, like communities of tall, thin, grass-roofed
huts, almost with a life of their own.
These various structures are all exquisitely made, with natural materials such as the rice fibre rope and bamboo poles.
Given that they are present in the garden for three months or
more, it is understandable that they are well made, but the
attention to detail and the resulting sculptural forms go far
beyond the call of duty, adding another level of interaction
between people and nature to the garden. The results have
much in common with the landscape-based projects of the
sculptor Christo, who wraps objects, including trees, in materials such as hessian, canvas and plastic, hiding their true exterior and instead revealing new qualities in form and surface. The
influence of Shinto, whether recognized or not, is fundamental
in this attitude towards material and technique, and should
not be underestimated. (Tying and wrapping as a practical art
is also seen in the rootballing of trees when they are sold from
Garden Elements
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Heian-jingu, Kyoto.
human hands. Parts of it are now open to the public, but the
born of that same respect; one did not necessarily give rise to
the other. Certainly from the point of view of the gardens, the
II) and this woodland is all that remains of the original shrine,
Buddhism
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was inherited from the early Shinto shrines, but used in a more
creative, abstract manner in the Zen temples.)
Buddhisms effect on niwaki is significant. The new attitudes
Temples are usually signified by the ending -ji, such as Ryoanji, while sub-temples within larger complexes have the ending in. Shinto shrines end with -jingu.
Culture as Inspiration
while earth (chi) is usually a low, flat one with a strong hori-
zontal emphasis. Man (jin), the link between heaven and earth,
is the diagonal element firmly rooted to the earth but looking
Fengshui
but also of society in general. The layouts for towns and palaces
capital in 794 ad, was laid out along these guidelines, with the
Kyoto, but wherever you are in Japan, you will never be far
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trees from hills and fields are to be planted in the hills and fields
and one that has underpinned the planting of all gardens since.
The Arts
all share one common source, one aesthetic. At the core of this
hism, combined with the respect and appreciation for the human
rather than Cercis chinensis) could serve for the pond to the
south. This seems practical advice, with the trees listed in their
tion: the raw purity of nature (its beauty living side by side
regular symmetry.)
essence. Much has been written on wabi sabi, and I direct you
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materials. The forge marks on the very best kitchen knives and
garden tools serve to remind us of the makers skills, while in
the garden the bamboo poles and scaffolding used to support
trees are not hidden, but instead turned into something of
great beauty as well as functionality. Likewise the heavy pruning and thinning of trees, seemingly at odds with nature but
also inextricably linked, is not disguised, but celebrated.
The landscape ink painting style that came from China, in
particular from the Northern Song Dynasty (9601127 ad)
was initially of great importance as inspiration to early garden
makers in Japan. It was of particular significance to the
Buddhist monks, whose designs reflected their interpretations
of the scrolls they received from the continent. These artistic
interpretations of mountainous landscapes featured great
depth and distorted perspective, and the stylized representation
of trees, especially pines, must have served as inspiration for
Japanese gardens. However, the matter of how much influence
came from the paintings, rather than from the landscape itself,
is debatable. Fine examples of Northern Song landscape painting can be seen at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York City and the British Museum in London.
Personally, as someone with a fair knowledge of Japanese cul-
ture who has travelled over much of the country, I feel that
the gardens (as is the case with all intelligent tourism) what is
to have discovered Japan and its gardens before I became interested in gardening back home in England. With fresh eyes and
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2
The Roots of Niwaki
Successful immigrants,
Trachycarpus fortunei (right)
and Cedrus deodara (below).
developed in and around Kyoto, the imperial and cultural capital (although not always the political one) from 794 ad. The
plants used in these early gardens were all natives, not just to
Japan but also to the local hills immediately surrounding
Kyoto. Although the term niwaki now encompasses all trees
used in the gardens, whether native or exotic, it previously
referred specifically to the Kyoto natives. Nowadays, gardeners in Japan simply say achi no ki, literally meaning tree over
there, to refer to exotics from abroad.
The hills around Kyoto were covered with a mixture of
conifers, evergreens and deciduous trees. Trees from outside
this fairly small area were known as zoki, and tended to come
from either the cooler north (Taxus cuspidata) or from the
warmer south (Cycas revoluta). For many years exotics from
abroad were simply not used, and even today they can appear
unusual, looking out of place among the locals. Trachycarpus
fortunei and Cedrus deodara are two of the most common
imports; they are used in gardens frequently enough not to
stand out, but it is rare to see even these species in many traditional temple gardens.
It could be argued that Japans wealth of botanical riches
explains Japanese gardeners disinclination to look elsewhere.
This is true, but it does not give the full story. The niwaki and
zoki sit comfortably in the landscape, and I believe that a deep
appreciation for this sense of belonging explains why Japans
gardeners are so devoted to their native specimens. In the
Japanese garden it is vital that the overall effect be cohesive,
and that it form part of the landscapes natural balance;
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These trees were then tidied up in the garden, and from then
desirable characteristics.
grew in the Kyoto area, the term has now broadened, and
had created the trees in the first place. This very practical
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as the demand for domestic trees grew, so too did the art of
Terminology
ner. The only term that does justice to the range of styles and
when used in this sense, the term big bonsai overlooks the
the ground, and this is the vital difference between the two.
the styles and terminology are more varied, and the gardener
at heart the two forms set out to do the same thing, and so are
vitally similar.
(nagareedashitate).
None of these terms pushes the lexical boat out too far, and
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bendy (kyokukanshitate)
ball (tamazukuri)
twins (sokanshitate)
steps (danzukuri)
lots (takanshitate)
shells (kaizukuri)
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Right: An example of
fusezukuri: Pinus densiflora
trained over a bamboo
framework. Imperial palace,
Kyoto.
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setting).
The pine is tall, larger than would normally used in such a gar-
den, but its size is intended to balance out the mass of the gate-
ferent picture.
way. One lower branch is trained out over the gravel, linking
the height of the tree with the flat expanse of the imagined land-
scape. This branch seems separated from the tree itself, and
the abstract to the literal, and can incorporate all the elements
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beside the path, unseen from the veranda. The path guides you
garden, outdoor, slip-on shoes are available. One size fits all (or
Ilex integra, which from the temple building looks more like a
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the path. The changing levels along the path reveal new relationships among the clipped azaleasand with this, new
reflections in the pond.
There is a lovely balance of clipped shapes and pruned trees,
softened with grasses, around the pond. Toji-in is well worth a
visit any time of year, and in fact was my mothers favourite
garden in Kyoto when she visited. (Beware: there is another,
more famous To-ji in Kyoto, with an interesting monthly market, but from the gardeners point of view it is less significant.
Taxi drivers, on the other hand, seem to prefer it.)
A feature many temple gardens share is the backdrop of hillside. For example, Kyoto is bordered by hills to the north, east
and west, and many of the temples are nestled into these slopes
on the edge of town. A typical design sees the garden backing
into the slope behind, heavily planted with cryptomerias,
maples or bamboo. When there is no hill, one is often manmade, or implied through planting. The level to which these
backdrops are incorporated into the garden varies; trees can be
pruned as garden trees, or raised and thinned, opening up the
woods behind, creating shadows and a sense of depth.
Regardless of the level of intervention, these hills link the gar-
in the summer; autumn colour, leaf drop and then the spring
Adachi Art Museum in Shimane Prefecture (although not temples, and both far larger than most gardens in Kyoto) are heavily planted with pines, echoing the natural planting behind.
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light, slowly turn from straggly bushes into small trees. Signs
ed, now form colossal trees, and areas of hazel coppice in dif-
ate too bold and strong a shape in the tea garden, so the new
how we might expect. Rather than being cut back into dense
of the Senke tea school, and not open to the public. Some tem-
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Byobumatsu. Ritsurin-koen,
Takamatsu.
resemble the shapes that the screen artists present. It is a fascinating example of the cycle of inspiration that involves both
and Tokyo, are all larger than most temple gardens. Typically
are given their autumn prune. From close up, it becomes clear
that these are more than just hedges, grown to a certain height
and then pruned back each year; they continue where the
you walk along the paths they flank, the dark, sinewy trunks
trees.
comes from the folding screens (byobu) that are so often deco-
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siflora was being dealt with. Nets and booms were rigged
across the pond) started life as a bonsai, grafted onto the root-
along the banks to keep the water clean from fallen needles. I
asked one of the gardeners how often they pruned the pines,
practice in bonsai. Released from its tiny pot, and given the
free rein of the ground as well as the extra energy of the root-
(every day).
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trees have a side branch that frames either a small gate or the
side world and entering the calm of the home, although in the
houses.
throughout the summer, but allow the winter sun in after leaf
on a smaller scale.
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Scheme), and there are very few books on the subject. The
rocks, valued not merely for their shape but also for their geo-
logical type and even their history, can cost a small fortune.
hundred years old or more. All this, coupled with the high cost
projects.
Having more than one or two pines clearly adds to the bill,
and by using other trees, which demand less time and effort,
costs are kept lower. The trees that have become popular tend
cially
Quercus
myrsinifolia),
hollies
(such
as
Ilex
These trees are pruned and tended to each year, but the styles
to their age. Yet there have also been definite trends among
gardens offer respite from the heat. Perimeter hedges are usual-
hedges, they are really rows of closely planted trees serving the
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gest that over the wall lies woodland (not neighbours). The
traditional niwaki are not ignored altogether, depending on the
thetics still hold sway, and the techniques, materials and pat-
involves doing very little. Tea houses, lanterns and pond lay-
outs are all well and good, but you should not for one minute
So although the underlying principles of the Japanese gardensuch as the influence of the landscape, and the stylized
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the Japanese approach and use trees native to your own coun-
West Sussex. Here, box and yew are the native evergreens (so
is holly, but not locally, on the South Downs chalk) while the
storey, these can all be trained and pruned. The spring blossom
them.
flowerssound familiar?
creative, and I find that the results are far more stimulating.
bridges, koi carp or fake herons, they are real, living places,
little things there, but in wetter, milder climates they make fan-
shape and texture of broccoli, but they are slow growing and it
ki, that character is there for the taking, lurking near the sur-
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Below: Ground-dwelling
niwaki often end up in
ornamental pots in nonJapanese nurseries, such as
here at Architectural Plants in
West Sussex, England.
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44
Niwaki
An old Cinnamomum
camphora specimen at a
nursery, after being cut back
hard.
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3
Principles and Techniques
accurate proportions.
these key points before moving on. That said, nothing beats
The final point is the most important. It was not until I was
their buds break from old wood when cut hard, how simple
trees (and other fruit trees), for example, are trained in various
When I first started thinking about niwaki, and why they look
The reasons for doing it are different, but interestingly, the way
the top of the tree in the leader. It moves down the tree, acting
many years of hard work, and the odd eureka moment, did
ing with the leader. (In this way, the hormone helps the tree to
buds, sprout from old wood for the same reason. Moreover,
strive to coax out the same thing from their trees: the
character of maturity.
gy further back up the branch. For the fruit grower, cutting the
leader and training the side branches results in more fruit, and
impression that they are larger and older than they actu-
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may be lost arts in the back gardens of the suburbs, but the
not as easy as that; technical skill is only half of it. Along with
block for the garden. The way that human beings conceive of
Natural Balance
ones (trees are rarely planted in pairs, for example, but singly
or in threes), asymmetrical balance is chosen over symmetry, and
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(a)
(b)
trees and woody shrubs grow. Many people have the miscon-
ception that trees grow from the ground up, like toothpaste
squeezed from a tube. Given more than a moments thought,
this obviously makes no sense. Think of the swing hanging
Getting Started
from the top, so a branch that is 1.5 m (5 ft.) from the ground
when one thinks about it, and understanding it makes all the
pruning you are doing, while others are a bit more unusual.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
straight (e).
3 When cutting young branches, remember that the point at
to cut too deep. Cut just above the swelling under the
branch where it meets the trunk (the bark collar) (h). The
(g)
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(h)
(j)
(k)
(i)
ber that their weight can cause the branch to split before
holly can all be used, as well as most other species that respond
branch has been removed, carefully cut off the stump (k).
much the same as Chinese juniper in Chapter 6). Phillyrea latifolia, Quercus ilex (and any of the other smaller-leaved evergreen oaks such as Q. coccifera), Euonymous japonicus, Myrtus
Fukinaoshi
enough for their size alone to restyle. The trunks of such trees
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cut the trunk just above a set of side branches (at 1.8 m [6 ft.]
When you cut back a larger tree to 3.6 m (12 ft.), instead of
trunk. If the tree is in the ground, and has a front aspect, try to
rather than to the front and back. Individual trees will have
but for this exercise, imagine it is an old 2.4-m (8-ft.) Ilex crenata
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(a)
(b)
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the spring and summer, when sap is flowing through the plant,
will force the tree to send out new buds, known as adventi-
as the sap settles and the plant enters dormancy, the branches
Using the trunk as an anchor for the string, pull down the
branch, hold it in position and tie tightly. The angle at which
you tie the branch will affect the shape of the final result.
Generally it should be 10 degrees below the horizontal, and
make the tree look older than it actually is, to imbue it with a
size of the tree, the length of branches varies, and to allow light
have. Look around you at old specimens; most trees, given the
ed). Pines are a fine example, their side branches often reaching
than the top). Typically for a small 1.8-m (6-ft.) niwaki, with
(12 in.).
Some branches are too thick to train in this way, and will
end to the branch at the trunk end. Notice how in the illustra-
tion the end of the cane sticks out beyond the trunk, to avoid
gouging the bark. Tie the branch to the cane, and then train it
twine are both fine, as this eventually rots down and does less
damage to the bark. Note that the term branch describes both
the young side branches before they are trained, and the developed branches after shaping (sometimes referred to as clouds
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(a)
(b)
(d)
(e)
(c)
spring (b) thin the new growth down to one shoot and
train down using a splint (c). This adds a touch of variation and gives an interesting effect to the tree, having one
or two branches that grow up before they are trained flat.
Look at old trees, especially pines, and you will notice
that they often have branches growing like this.
2 Alternatively, cut the branch completely, leaving a small
Small branches will set within the year, but more stubborn
ones will need longer. Every so often check the string, especially around the trunk, to make sure it is not cutting into the
bark. Re-tie if necessary. Do not be afraid to change your
mind, re-angling branches or removing them completely.
Niwaki are works in progress all their lives, and it is never too
late to make changes.
(f)
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(a)
(b)
(d)
framework (c).
all shape of the side branches. For all broadleaved trees, and
some conifers, this is the same process, but the pines receive a
different treatment, discussed in their own chapter.
the branches. Start working on the shapes of these branches. They should be wide and gently sloping, low and flat
54
Clip the bottoms so they are flat and sharp. As the tree devel-
buds, so the paddle shape is almost flat (b). It will not look
very promising at the moment, but you are laying the foun-
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summer. You will find growth at the top is more vigorous than
(b)
Step 1
right height (a) and these can be trained down to form the
head in much the same way that side branches are developed in the preceding section. Cut the trunk just above
these side branches (b) and go straight to the second step.
In other situations there might be no suitable side
branches at the point you want the head (c) and you will
have to cut the trunk to encourage new growth, which can
be trained down the following year. The point at which
you make the cut becomes the top of the neck (d) so
think carefully about how long you want this neck to be,
(c)
(d)
in relation to the rest of the tree. Over the following summer new vigorous growth will spring from the cut leader.
The next spring, thin it down to four shoots, regularly
spaced around the leader (left, right, front and back) (e).
Principles and Techniques | 55
(e)
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(g)
(f)
Step 2
Step 3
(h)
(i)
(j)
Step 4
(k)
Step 5
(l)
4 Over the next year or so, you may find areas in the head a
bit bare or patchy (i). Train down a new shoot into the
56
will notice when clipping that the twigs near the tops of
density of the head, cut back new growth to two buds all
over (h).
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(1)
(2)
(3)
(6)
(5)
(4)
(7)
(8)
4 By the following year, the branches will have set, and you
can remove the string. Most of the growth will have gone
Not everyone has a bushy old box plant they are willing to
into the top of the plant, but some will have been directed
branch.
year.)
the head. Once the final height has been decided and the top
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
has been cut, side growth will be stronger than in the previous years, diverted further down the tree. With regular
clipping the contours of the branches will quickly develop.
One advantage of starting from scratch is the flexibility of the
young trees trunks. This allows you more choice as far as the
trees overall shape is concerned, and these early stages are the
best time to start introducing bends or kinks to the trunk. They
might look contrived for the first couple of years, but as the
trunk thickens up any changes you have made soon blend in.
and then add a third, upright pole near the base of the
trunk (c).
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(a)
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(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
trunk (e) over the next year or two until the tree takes its
final shape (f).
Although it takes a while before this process yields convincing
results, it is well worth the effort, bringing about the appear-
(h)
directing growth back towards the centre of the tree (d, e).
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Interesting branch structure could perhaps be revealed by raising or thinning (a), the outline could be shaped into a bold silhouette with a pair of shears (b), or individual branches could
be accentuated using a combination of training and clipping
(c). Projects can be started in less than an hour, and then con-
tinued later in the year, defining and refining the new shape.
Over the years the effect can be made to look more intentional,
more Japanese, by thinning out superfluous branches and
training others. If it all goes wrong, or you are not happy with
the results, it will grow out pretty quickly and no one will be
any wiser. Overgrown shrubs are prime candidates for this
quick fix, and although the results might not appear entirely
Japanese, they fit comfortably in general garden styles.
Finding photos that illustrate this is notoriously difficult.
You need to have the right plant close at hand, preferably a
year before you think of it, and you must be organized enough
to take a photo before you start work, and then remember to
take another when you have finished. Even then, the results
Wading In
never look as convincing as they do in real life, and illustrations get the point across far more effectively.
As the name suggests, this is not specifically a Japanese technique, and for those of you obsessed with authenticity I suggest you move quietly on. It is, however, one of the most
rewarding quick fixes known to the sculpturally inclined gardener, transforming shrubs and small trees from nondescript
greenery to interesting, bold shapes almost instantly. It
involves a fair amount of confidence (not to be confused with
recklessness)
and
certain
vision.
Angus
White,
at
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(b)
(c)
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4
Pines
ther the flowering cherry, nor the maple, but the pine; no other
rocky coastlines and the deep mountains to the parks and gar-
they live to a great age and often appear to be older still, evok-
Japanese people.
scape painting, and poets praise the solitary pine for the emo-
the mountains.
ous lunch getting the sho rating. In one form or another, pines
into her hair as she played around a pine tree as a child. Not
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Right: An interesting
relationship between the
curved trunks of two Pinus
densiflora specimens. Adachi
Art Museum, Shimane
Prefecture.
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tell) ran 9 m (30 ft.) along one aspect before making a right
angle bend and continuing for another 3 m (10 ft.). It acted as
an extension of the wall, like a pleached hedge, and must have
taken a good fifty years to train, perhaps edging forward 30 cm
(1 ft.) per year.
The outlines of garden pines can vary immensely. Some are
stronger, with more defined space between branches and
denser foliage. Others are softer, with foliage heavily thinned
and branches overlapping, resulting in a more subtle effect.
Some trunks are straight, some bendy, and others decidedly
kinked. Side branches too can be dead straight (splinted to
bamboo canes), while others are constantly cut back throughout their lives to achieve a zigzag effect, particularly impressive
when you look through the branches to a striking view
beyond. Some trees are huge, as tall as you would expect to see
them growing naturally (such as beside the castle walls at Nijojo), while some are no more than waist height.
Pinus parviflora stands apart from its cousins. Its needles
are shorter and denser (they grow in fives, compared to twos
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for P. thunbergii and P. densiflora) and growth is slightly slower. This dense foliage is often preserved on the niwaki, with
strong, tight branches that receive little or no thinning. Two
styles are common: either rounded, flattened branches, or
straight, elongated branches normally supported on poles.
This latter style reflects more accurately the natural growth of
the tree, which typically has long side branches, often curved
up at the tips. Though less common than P. thunbergii or
P. densiflora, specimens in temple gardens are inevitably highly
impressive. There are interesting examples at Daisen-in and the
grounds of Kinkaku-ji, both in Kyoto.
Most gardens have pines of some sort growing in them.
Small private gardens might have just one, taking pride of
Above: Pinus thunbergii
planted on rocky banks
symbolizes the coasts of
Japan. Nijo-jo, Kyoto.
place, usually visible from the houses main living room. Temple
gardens often feature Pinus thunbergii in large numbers,
planted on islands or around the banks of ponds, symbolizing
the coasts of Japan. Other gardens, such as Ritsurin-koen, are
packed so full of pines that they have become famous for their
trees. The Imperial palace in Tokyo is another such example.
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Which Pine?
time team of six gardeners, full of pines and karikomi (see the
space and scale. The garden is viewed from within the muse-
fine, as will dozens more. The only species to avoid are those
they are.
especially growing somewhere cool and wet, will give you very
and thus further away. The pines scattered among the gravel in
not to use the native Japanese pines, provided your soil is suit-
pines to the back of the garden, linking in with the hills beyond.
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demonstrates how much the tree grew during the last year,
from the top set of side branches up to the tip. In late spring,
pruning pines so alien they are afraid to even try, but in reality,
the buds at the ends of all the branches, and at the tip of the
top shoot, spring into life. Typically they will produce one
intimidated.
around the stem. At the top of the tree these four side shoots
become that years branches, but further down the tree, at tips
conifers they will not re-sprout if you cut into the old wood;
you cannot treat a pine like Ilex crenata, for example, and
hack it back hard. Therefore, if you want to have a small pine
in the garden, you must start young. Likewise, to achieve a
bendy trunk, you will need to begin when the tree is still young
and malleable, and if you are after dense branches close to the
trunk, then this too must be started at an early age.
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(a)
(b)
flowers on the same tree, opening in late spring along with the
not flowers.) The male strobili, usually yellow, are the more con-
new growth has yet to open its needles and turn woody, it is
easier than using scissors. The buds are soft, and should snap
between pines and most other trees is the way in which they
easily. If left for too long, they will need cutting, by which time
conifers (Taxus species being the most obvious) shoot from old
to emerge.
prune shoots that are less than one year old. In Japan, this is
low side branches (as with most trees). This vigorous growth
taken one step further: pruning (to achieve new growth) is only
Formative Pruning
green picking).
trees, as buds start to grow they are pinched out by hand, right
70
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Step 1
Step 2
Formative Pruning
(e)
Step 3
(f)
cut, and, if they too branch further down, cut out their
leading growth (b) Then cut back the newest growth at
the ends of the side branches by half to shorten the space
between forks. (Being less than a year old, this new
growth will regenerate easily.)
2 The next spring, as new buds develop (c), thin them out
(g)
Step 4
(h)
(i)
(j)
freshest ones.
Step 5
(k)
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(a)
(b)
Maintenance Pruning
As the desired spread of each branch is reached, pinch back the
buds completely, rather than by half, to control the growth.
Remember, timing is the key. Strike at the stage when the candles have extended, but before the needles have opened.
Pruning earlier gives the second flush more time to develop,
and the needles tend to be longer. Conversely, the resulting
needles will be shorter if the tree is pruned later in the summer,
which is sometimes done on smaller trees to balance the proportions.
The autumn thinning, momiage, is crucial once the framework has been established. It opens up the structure, allowing
light in to lower branches, and prevents the growth from
becoming too dense. The results can look overly severe for
Western gardeners, and there is nothing to stop you from carrying out the tidy-up the following spring, before growth
starts, if you prefer a slightly bushier look over the winter.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
74
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(d)
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(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
(e)
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5
Azaleas and Karikomi
While the pine is the most important tree in the garden, the title
introduced from Japan over the years are well known. Gardens
[34 ft.] high) with the flower colour of your choice. A trawl
dens of the rest of the world, concentrating instead on the traditional favourites.
lowing lumps and bumps. Call them what you will; the plants
the Momoyama and Edo eras, from the end of the sixteenth
the country the leaves can turn a reddish colour over the win-
noticeable for its mixed colours (reds, whites and pinks) that
(ko means small) refers to the use of one plant, clipped into
low, rounded shapes. For the sake of this book the simple term
karikomi will describe both styles.
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Shisen-do
In the foothills to the northeast of Kyoto lies a very quiet temple, set among maples and bamboo groves. It has some of the
most incredible karikomi in Japan, viewable from within the
temple building and as you explore outside. From inside the
temple, sitting on the veranda, you look out onto a small, flat
area, of finely brushed gravel. Rather than being raked into
patterns as is normally the case, this is merely brushed clean
each morning, leaving the brush marks as a natural pattern.
Bordering this area is a mass of low, wide, interlocking Rhododendron obtusum, out of which appears a small pagoda,
giving the impression that the temple is peering out from the
clouds high up in the mountains.
This very controlled view does nothing to prepare for what
lies beyond. Making your way down a narrow path, flanked
on both sides by tall, cliff-like mounds of azaleas, you emerge
in the lower garden, looking across at a small pond, heavily
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for visitors, and the gardeners like to keep things looking their
the only sound is the regular, hollow sound of the deer scarer,
best all year round. I visited once in May, just after the tsutsuji
had flowered; the gardeners were clipping the karikomi for the
that the outlines of the azaleas are always crisp and tight.
tatami matting. It had not been there the day before, but so
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Shoden-ji
In contrast to Shisen-do, the garden at Shoden-ji is a simple
This creates the outlines and shadows that not only strengthen
with tiles. At the rear of the empty space, beneath the wall, lie
five and seven running from left to right. These numbers are
ing the garden with surreal light, adding further to the ambigu-
Nowhere else in Japan are plants used in such an uncompromisingly minimalistic, design-orientated way. In contrast to the
tactile, emotional nature of gardens like Shisen-do, this garden
Konpuku-ji
also on the middle ground that links the garden with that view,
in this case the wooded hills on either side which slope down
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Pruning Azaleas
the overall size has been established, much will depend on the
Use hedge shears, and treat the azaleas like Buxus species,
or any other plant that you clip. Azaleas sprout from old wood
so they can be cut hard, but ideally you should clip little and
mal and geometric (favouring full circles and balls over the
longer, but this allows the shoots with the flowers on them to
become too woody, resulting in bare patches later on. To avoid
Creating Karikomi
all this, cut below the flower once it has finished, which allows
a good, bushy plant right from the base. Pinch out the
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begin, once the early flush of growth has stopped. Avoid clipping in bright sunlight if possible, as the newly revealed foliage
amount the whole way round. This way, you will iron out
out instead. Cut the tips of new side growth, just enough
heavy pruning and any bare patches should fill in by the end of
the summer.
are out, and smooth, comfortable contours are in. Think inter-
the time for the final clip of the year. It is worth taking care at
this time of year, though, as scars will take until the following
summer to heal.
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Planning Karikomi
To create whole plantings of karikomi, you will need to put
thought into the design process. It is generally easier (and certainly cheaper) to start with smaller plants, set out first as separate shapes but destined to merge into larger ones. If at all
possible try to ensure that all your plants come from the same
origin; there are several different forms of even the most common kind of box, and as multiple plants will make up a single
shape it is important that growth rate, leaf shape and colour
are uniform.
The process is similar to planting a hedge. Prepare the
ground well (box responds well to manure and other fertilizers) and leave spaces of around 30 cm (12 in.) between plants.
You might envisage areas of smaller, individual shapes, tucked
in among larger forms; these individual shapes could consist of
just one plant, while larger ones could involve several plants
together.
shapes, cut them in half, and arrange them as you imagine the
reach in the future. The paths add to the sense of depth by cre-
into the garden as real paths, winding among the box like an
organic maze.
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6
Conifers
of the original, virgin trees are long gone, replaced by row upon
Cryptomeria japonica
any sort can be, but C. japonica has a certain charm to it that
many conifers lack; the foliage is a bright, fresh green and the
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This results in a very fine, flawless finish that is sought after for
the tokonoma poles.
The name daisugi refers to the base (dai) of the trunk, which
yin (if you like to think in those terms), and the youthful, fresh
around Kyoto. One solitary tree often stands alone beside the
clones that are used. One common form, C. japonica var. radi-
and the curves of the roof combine well with the vertical lines
displayed.
out from behind walls and hedges. The heads form an exten-
and Taxus species are two other examples with similar attrib-
tall enough, but never killing the tree. As these trunks grow,
their side branches are stripped away, leaving only a few feet of
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Growing Daisugi
Some of the daisugi in Kyoto gardens are hundreds of years
old. To achieve the balance of base and trunk that these trees
have takes many decades, but it does not take long to start the
process and early results are very rewarding. For a gardener
starting with a young tree, the first few stages are simple.
Choosing the right tree is important; the variety Cryptomeria
japonica var. radicans, which has shorter, denser branches
than the true form, is favoured in Japan. It is difficult to find
outside of the country, so international gardeners should look
for a plant with similar characteristics. When grown from
seed, some C. japonica can be rather loose and open, which is
fine for a free-growing tree but not suitable for this process.
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3
1
2
(a)
(b)
6
5
(c)
(d)
the final cut lower down; this prevents the weight of the
tree from splitting the trunk. Cut back the remaining side
2 Over the summer the cut stump will sprout a mass of new
88
out this new growth; the aim is to keep one or two shoots
so that the heads fit well into the overall picture. By keep-
would only compete with the new leader 3 and upset the
ing one or two new leaders each year, a natural order will
well-spaced but not too far from the centre, will make up
become too tall for the tree. This is up to you, and the
the front and back, and you might keep one or two more
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(e)
(f)
(g)
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Podocarpus macrophyllus
the yew (Taxus species) although the leaves are larger (and less
like shapes, the side branches cut back each year. In some gar-
dens the foliage is sparse, cut back and thinned hard; elsewhere
er, more solid layer, resembling more closely the wild trees of
the mountains.
very well from old wood, and is often grown in the fukinaoshi
year, the old brown foliage around the trunk picked off to
style. Old, free-growing trees are cut back hard, and the new
open up the tree. The more intensive the work on a tree, the
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Above: Podocarpus
macrophyllus is a common
sight in suburban front
gardens. Osaka Prefecture.
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Monkaburi
same effect. The process of training a branch like this is relatively simplemerely an extension of basic techniques.
if it is not quite in line with the gateway. Fix the fatter end
(a)
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(b)
(e)
(c)
across (b).
3 Any side growth from the branch (c) should be cut back
ently natural form. The main difference is that the trees are
helping to create the softer, more natural feel that these gar-
of rubber tree tie, or even old carpet, does the same job.
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is a time-consuming one, and all the old leaves need pulling off
(1020 ft.) tall, although larger ones pop up here and there.
bit like meringue might set. They have a tall, compact habit
the top of my kyatatsu tripod ladder, peering out from the top
does not grow from old wood; that is, if cut back hard, it will
of the tree. The sun was going down; it was a lovely, warm
scale. The low sun lit up the heads of individual trees, which
nitely kill Kaizuka. In fact, cutting back too hard even within
maki for.
Some Japanese gardeners are loath to use secateurs or scissors when pruning these trees, pinching out growth by hand
instead. I never fully understood their reasons, but I can think
Juniperus chinensis
in old temple grounds. It can live to a great age, and very old
in steel are bad for the foliage and should be avoided. This
use stainless steel tools when pruning junipers. That said, most
you need to prune back too hard. Think ahead and prune reg-
ularly.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
all costs.
highlighting the contrast between light and shade (c). Work
Tamazukuri
from top to bottom, giving the tree a good shake after each
pinching out any vigorous side growth for the first few years
that growth has finished. Keep in mind that the final clip of the
case you should cut out one fork leaving a single leader.
simpler outlines.
give the remaining ones more definition (a). Remove any foliage
izing the raspberry-like form that you are after (b). Depending
From here, the next two years or so will involve consolidating the shape, clipping into the crevices between branches and
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(b)
Cedrus deodara
Edasukashishitate
introduced to Japan in 1879, too late to be included in traditional temple gardens. However, it is now found throughout
the country, most commonly in private gardens and municipal
grounds such as schools. The graceful, slightly weeping habit
of its glaucous foliage distinguishes it from native Japanese trees,
but it fits into the Japanese garden comfortably. (Indeed, I suspect that it is in part due to C. deodaras aesthetic contrast to
Japanese native trees that it has been embraced by Japanese gardeners.) It also grows quickly and responds well to pruning
two endearing features which help to explain its popularity.
It is normally grown in one of two ways: the ever-popular
tamazukuri, or a style known as edasukashishitate, which
involves thinning the branches and foliage to preserve some of
the natural habit of the tree. As always, tamazukuri can vary
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
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Taxus cuspidata
The Japanese yew Taxus cuspidata and the common garden
variety T. cuspidata var. nana (kyaraboku) are seen in gardens
in the colder parts of Japan, typically in the Kanto region (the
To encourage the trees weeping habit, pruning is always
slightly from the English yew, T. baccata, in that its leaves are
slightly more ascending, rather than flat. The two species were
This brings about a light, thinned effect. Over time, the ends of
trained at a young age when still flexible and then clipped reg-
yield satisfying results just five to ten years after you begin
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Other Conifers
Grouping the remaining coniferous niwaki in a single section
might appear insulting, and one or two of them might feel they
project. Because yew is so obliging, the pruner can choose
have reason to complain, but the fact is that none of the fol-
lowing trees have quite the same presence in the garden as the
Prefecture. The natural habit of this tree is tall and thin, like the
will move along more quickly than originally thought. When the
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Chamaecyparis obtusa
Breviramea, thinned (above)
and clipped in a tamazukuri
style typically found in
Yamagata Prefecture
(above right).
One of Japans more unusual conifers is Sciadopitys verticillata, which is native to the mountains of Wakayama Prefecture
and particularly common around Mount Koya (hence its
Japanese name, koyamaki), where the tree is used in virtually
every garden, pruned only very slightly to keep the natural shape
neat and tidy. It is rarely used outside of Wakayama, which,
although not far from Kyoto, is even today an isolated, mountainous area.
Ginkgo biloba appears frequently as a free-growing tree in
shrines and temples, where enormous old specimens are as
important as the buildings themselves. Though occasionally
used as a garden tree, it is best known as a street tree. A few
others worthy of a mention are Juniperus procumbens, Abies
firma and Tsuga sieboldii, all of which make the odd appearance in gardens, but are not included frequently enough to be
considered significant.
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7
Broadleaved Evergreens
From a niwaki point of view, nowhere are Japans extraordinary botanical riches more evident than in its vast collection of
they are not in the same realm as pines when it comes to speci-
before any deciduous trees (but after the conifers), such is their
importance.
undergone the first part of its treatment (the removal of virtually all side branches) some time ago, and had had time to
resprout up the entire length of the trunk. At the time of my
Oaks
arrival most of this new growth had already been thinned out,
leaving only what was needed to retrain the new shaped tree. (I
The oaks are perhaps the most interesting of all the evergreens;
species. The Japanese name for oaks in general is kashi; for lin-
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Our job that day was to retrain these new, flexible branches,
and I was amazed at the speed and certainty with which my
mentor for the day worked. (I was never allowed to work
unassisted, apart from weeding and watering duties). The end
result looked like a mess, but all around were other trees in
various stages of the process, and the transition from tree to
carcass and back to (garden) tree again became clear to me. It
did, however, take me weeks to learn the identity of the particular tree on which we were working. Though everyone
referred to it as bame, I could find no reference to this in my
collection of books on the subject. Eventually, though, it finally clicked: bame was in fact ubamegashi. This sort of colloquialism is typical of Japanese gardeners and growers; they never
use botanical names, and rarely even seem to stick to the full
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trees rather than hedges (but heavily thinned in the summer and
autumn) the outline of the trunk is retained, preserving the treelike feel that solidly clipped hedges lack. Some trees are tall and
narrow, planted in rows; others are given space to grow, and in
time their branchesconstantly thinned and cut backdevelop
into fascinating spiderwebs of twists and zigzags. In the tsuboniwa (the back garden) these trees provide shade, and they are
encouraged to grow out overhead so that light breaks through
in dappled beams, silhouetting the branchwork.
This thinning is a particularly Japanese approach. In fact,
although it lacks the visual subtlety and attractiveness of some
styles of tree pruning, it is as essential as any other; walk
through any Japanese suburban back street, and for every
specimen pine welcoming guests at the main gate, there is sure
to be a collection of heavily thinned evergreens standing by.
Western gardeners might find the heavy thinning, especially in
the autumn, slightly self-defeating. Most people want to make
the most of evergreens over the winter months, and there is no
Thinning evergreens:
before and after
reason why this kind of pruning cannot wait until the spring.
In Japan, however, there is no shortage of evergreens, and the
heavy thinning lets in as much light as possible.
Thinning Evergreens
branches. Thin out any that appear too big, or too small, for
the balance of the tree. Also remove any that are growing at a
only a few new leaves at the end of each branch, once in sum-
of irregularity.
Broadleaved Evergreens | 103
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Hollies
In its favour, however, it is one of the most easily manipulatThe small-leaved holly inutsuge (Ilex crenata) has been in the
in Japan, there are nicer trees around that do the same job.
crenata has none of the elegance or grace of pines, nor the rich
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they are looked after that is most vital. There is no sight worse
than a poorly clipped tree that has lost its shape and sprouted
over which time it has been cut back, trained and clipped into
shape. Following that it has been dug up, and then endured a
intrinsic part.
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Apart from Ilex crenata, there are several other native hol-
variations in flower colour are used, and the plants are shaped
with the fukinaoshi process, cut back hard and trained into
but very few people actually prune them, beyond hacking them
back when they start taking over the garden. Camellia japonica
the tree. Huge old trees are grown in the hillside nurseries in
the south of Japan, where they are cut down to stumps and
youthful growth and fat trunk below. The bark of Ilex integra
is smooth and grey, and these cut stumps bear more than a
were put off by the similarity they saw between the flowers
Camellias
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gymnanthera
(mokkoku),
Myrica
rubra
(yamamomo), Ligustrum lucidum (tonezumimochi), Daphniphyllum macropodum (yuzuriha), other hollies and oaks,
and more. Furthermore there are many that do not feature in
the gardens themselves but are grown in temple grounds and
shrines; examples include trees like Cinnamomum camphora
(kusu), Machilus thunbergii (tabunoki) and Michelia compressa (ogatamanoki), as well as the smaller Cleyera japonica
habit, trees and shrubs can be cut back hard, then trained and
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8
Deciduous Trees
Acer palmatum
No tree has such natural grace and beauty in the Japanese garden as the maple (Acer palmatum). From its fresh, lime-green
growth of late spring through to its fiery glow of autumn
colour, it exists in some shape or form in virtually every garden
in mixed woodland over much of the country and are not con-
that are used. In the West, gardeners might fill their Japanese-
but all over the country there are hotspots (often marked on
maps) that are renowned for their autumn colour. Early sum-
mer, too, is a fantastic time for maples. The new growth has
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Start in the winter, after leaf drop and well before the sap starts
head is mesmerizing.
Within the garden proper, and especially in the shady courtyard and tea gardens, maples are carefully manipulated to make
the most of their natural shape. Branches are thinned and strong
vertical growth removed, to draw attention to the spreading,
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Below: Kumeda-sans
demonstration: the hand
on the left shows how a
well-pruned maple, with
well-defined, horizontal
branches, should look.
right, and the next set grow up and down. It is these upand-down buds that can ruin things by getting in the way
of branches above or below, and they should be removed.
deners remove the leaves of established trees purely to encourage a good autumnal show. Bonsai growers do similar things,
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big for its surroundings, as it is not far removed from the pollarding techniques seen on the Lagerstroemia indica later in
this chapter. The branches are never actually trained, but with
constant pruning their natural lines develop form and character. This style of maple is pruned twice in the year, once in midsummer and then again in the autumn, sacrificing some of the
glory of the autumn colour.
out in the morning to lay down blankets and reserve good
spots, to be joined in the evening by workmates. Drinking and
Flowering Cherries
karaoke are the order of the day (and night), and it is seen as
one of the few opportunities that working people have to real-
If Id the knack
Id sing like
Basho, 16441694
experience.
lay down his life at any time. April in Japan ignites a frenzy of
oped from the imperial flower viewing trips made to the hills
them apart.
around Yoshino, near Nara, more than one thousand years ago.
In the garden, cherry trees, in all their guises, are far less sig-
office parties in the park each spring; junior workers are sent
112
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with the fresh blossom. The wood is hard and brittle, and any
training is carried out while the plant is still young, or on fresh
growth from cut wood. To direct growth in a specific direction
(usually outwards), branches can be pruned back to encourage
Prunus mume
for the beauty of its blossom (white, pink or red) while all
3 Cut back all the newest shoots to three or four buds. Aim
vals take place one month earlier than cherry blossom festivals
branches.
being one of the best known. The trees here have rounded
trees are often grown near the house in private gardens so that
ing the form of the tree and the majority of the buds (g)
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(a)
(b)
(e)
(c)
(f)
Lagerstroemia indica
The crepe myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica) is a common tree in
private gardens, temples and parks across Japan, where its
name, sarusuberi, literally means monkey slips, in reference
to its smooth, shiny bark. It is a vigorous tree, and it likes the
sun. It flowers in mid-summer, usually red but occasionally
white or pink.
In the garden Lagerstroemia indica is most often seen in
pollarded form, which not only keeps the vigorous summer
growth in check, but also shows off the smooth bark well, creating a strong, sculptural form of trunk and branches that
looks particularly good in the warm winter light. For gardeners
who only know pollarding as the practical technique of street
tree pruning, the Japanese version can be a revelation. The
(d)
(g)
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Kobushishitate, pollarding
Lagerstroemia indica.
overall shape of the tree, along with its density and weight, is
considered. Branches are thinned to accentuate the sculptural
look, and each autumn all the current seasons growth is cut
off, which in time creates the characteristic bolls, or swollen
branches of a pollard. The pruned bolls resemble clenched
fists, giving rise to the Japanese name for this style of pollarding: kobushishitate, which translates literally as fist pruning.
The autumn colour of the sarusuberi is an attractive collection
of yellows, oranges and reds, but often this is sacrificed in the
annual prune, depending on when the gardeners are available.
116
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Salix babylonica
The natural habitat of the weeping willow, Salix babylonica, is
near water, and it is usually planted alongside rivers and ponds,
where it is heavily pruned to accentuate its weeping habit.
Lining canals, these trees are sometimes grown with straight,
clear trunks measuring 1.83 m (610 ft.), on top of which a
structure of branches grows. From these branches springs the
new, weeping growth that cascades down like a veil around the
trunk.
To ensure a straight trunk, train the leader of young trees up
a cane (a). Strip the lower branches, pinch out the leader at the
desired height, and cut back the top side branches to create the
framework of the head (b). Formative pruning is done over the
winter, cutting to shape and removing unwanted branches.
Once this basic pruning has been carried out, however, little
work is needed apart from rigorous thinning, towards the end
of summer (c). From each branch only one or two weeping
strands are kept on the treethose with the tidiest habit, normally new that summer, falling gracefully from the tree (d); the
remainder are removed.
Willows of all sorts tend to come into growth relatively
early in the year, and when these selected strands come into
bud, and then into leaf, with the fresh willow-green of spring,
the effect is remarkable. Over the summer, growth is vigorous,
and not always weeping (some growth inevitably grows up or
out). It is this growth, and the oldest of the weeping strands,
that are pruned out towards the end of summer. In Japan gardeners normally try to do this in August, as September brings
the threat of typhoons, which make such a mess of the delicate
foliage.
Deciduous Trees
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May, after eleven months, the wait is finally over and the long
kousa
used
more
frequently.
For
instance,
Cornus
growth is cut back to 3060 cm (12 ft.), and then over the
winter cut back again down to two or three buds from the old
framework.
and contemporary gardens, when the dappled shade of deciduous woodland is desired.
Paulownia tomentosa (kiri) is almost never seen in the garden, despite being commonly found in the countryside. This
may be because it has large leaves and is especially fast growing, making it a difficult tree to accommodate. Or perhaps its
scarcity in gardens is related to the traditional use of its timber:
when a girl was born in the family, a tree would be planted,
and it was thought that by the time she was married it would
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9
Bamboo and Other Plants
Bamboo
Dozens of bamboo species grow in Japan. They range in size
from the low Pleioblastus species to the huge Phyllostachys
edulis (mosochiku) and P. bambusoides (madake) that can be
seen in groves called takeyabu all over the country, reaching as
tall as 18 m (60 ft.). Of all the bamboo species, it is these two
giants that are most often used as raw material for horticultural and agricultural purposes.
My very first day at work with the Furukawa nursery
involved going into a grove of Phyllostachys edulis and cutting
down fifty or so canes (although the word cane hardly does
them justice at that size) to make into supports for a some
imported olive trees. My job was to prepare 6-m (20-ft.)
lengths as they were dragged into a clearing, and each cane
produced two of these lengths, with the top being too spindly
to use. This almost agricultural use of bamboo, rather like coppiced woodland in Europe, ensures the lasting survival of the
takeyabu, as they continue to serve a purpose. Of course, bamboo shoots are also eaten, and P. edulis is considered the
biggest delicacy, the new shoots being dug up before they have
sprouted from the ground.
Of all the Japanese plants to have fascinated Westerners,
perhaps none are more misunderstood than the bamboos. In the
West bamboo is seen as a symbol of Japanese gardens, even a
symbol of Japan itself, as definitive as the flowering cherry.
Gardeners embarking on a Japanese-style garden include bamboo as a matter of courseand why not? It is from Japan, it is
an interesting, attractive plant that never fails to make an
119
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Above: Phyllostachys
bambusoides being sold as
individual canes at a nursery.
Osaka Prefecture.
culms (the term for canes when they are still living) start to
appear from the ground. They shoot up, quickly, for about a
month. When they reach their full height (which, on all but the
of the old growth), branches open and leaves shoot from these
branches. You will notice that none of the old growth actually
but the plants have a new flush of leaves on old branches. You
(but no doubt farmed for food and materials). Groves that are
visible from the garden proper are often pruned in some way:
how much mess they make during the summer. New culms
things that are soon discarded. Then there are the old leaves on
older canes, which are discarded with the arrival of the new
grow new leaves; they are dead, having lived for up to eight
have dozens of dead canes, dry and brittle yet still standing.
How does all this affect pruning? The good news is that
120
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(a)
(b)
the very next year there will be new canes, which will also need
has three branches at each node, rather than the normal two,
Bamboo Pruning
dead canes, and any new ones that are growing out of place.
soft, old ones surprisingly hard. This is best done in the summer, after the flush of growth, and then it should not need
121
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Not Niwaki
By now readers should have realized that the term niwaki
refers to more than just trees. Shrubs and bamboos also qualify,
when transformed in the garden through pruning and training.
There is a limit, though; dozens of plants you might be hoping
to read about do not qualify. For instance, there has been no
mention of the traditional low-level garden plants such as
ferns, grasses like Acorus gramineus, Dutch rush (Equisetum
hymale), dragons beard (Ophiopogon japonicus) or even the
native Japanese grass (Zoysia japonica). Popular flowering
plants such as hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla), irises (Iris
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and look pretty unhappy over the winter, but the rainy season
nous life. Birds can be a problem as they peck at the moss for
2004) goes into more detail on all these, and many other
plants.
tects the moss from drying out when newly planted. Perhaps
very high water tables, where mosses of all sorts thrive. One
1339, the temple and its garden have been through countless
some gardens, the old brown needles of pine trees are collected
Tokyo, the garden was totally neglected and the moss took
really is unique.
courtyard walls.
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10
Behind the Scenes at Japans Nurseries
Never overlook the role of Japans nursery workers and gardeners. Without the nurseries there would be no niwaki, and
without the gardeners the niwaki would quickly revert back to
their free-growing habits and the whole point of the Japanese
garden would be lost. Of course, all gardens across the world
depend to some extent on the human input of gardeners and
growers, but so intense is the level of human intervention in
Japanese gardens, especially regarding the growing and pruning
of trees, that the role of the gardeners and nursery workers is
even more essential here than in other gardening cultures.
Both professions developed from labourers, known as
kawaramono, who in the earliest days of garden making
undertook the physical work of moving earth, rock and trees.
These kawaramono took their name from the riverbanks,
where they lived as a low caste in society; they were tanners,
dyers, itinerants and even actors. Yet as their skills evolved,
individuals came to specialize in garden construction, and
became known as sensui kawaramono. Nowadays the gardeners (niwashi) and nurserymen (uekiya) occupy respected roles,
and although these are two clearly defined jobs, they are so
closely related that at times the boundaries can seem blurred.
Kumeda-san.
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gardens, and they come in all shapes and sizes, dealing from
wholesale through to trade and down to retail customers.
My own experience involved working for a fairly large local
nursery, Furukawa Teijuen, selling to landscapers, developers
and councils. It was run by the Furukawa family in a very
hands-on way; staff included the father and his three sons,
assisted by a handful of extras (one of whom was Kumeda-san,
who shared his maple pruning opinions with me). A cousin ran
a spin-off garden centre, and dealt with import and export, for
as well as growing a range of traditional niwaki the nursery
also bought trees from Holland (Picea pungens) and Italy
(Olea europa), sending back in return large numbers of Ilex
crenata. Previous generations of the family had introduced
Sequoia sempervirens, the tallest of which now tower over the
surrounding nursery, adding a bizarre, Californian feel to the
neighbourhood.
Routine work at the nursery, varying through the seasons,
involved the planting, training, pruning and rootballing of
trees. Some were bought in as established specimens ready for
sale, while others were grown from seed and cuttings. They were
trained as young plants, shaped and clipped over many years
until deemed ready. At the nursery, most of the techniques I
describe could be witnessed over the course of the year, but the
one I found most fascinating was the rootballing. Virtually all
plants grown in traditional nurseries are field-produced, and
the methods for moving them safely are as important as any
training or pruning techniques.
Nemawashi, Rootballing
There are two basic reasons for digging up a tree at a nursery:
one is to sell it, and the other to prepare it for future sale. At
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lifted out of the ground and replanted in the same spot there
new roots which will tolerate the eventual move more happily.
This is true, but unless the tree is very large, or very old, this
ensure the water supply from the drains to the trees was not
is done in one go, the tree might not recover its appearance as
enjoying a break.
the following summer, for examplebut it will be busy underground making new roots, establishing itself for the future.
selling finished trees, and the time it take to grow them, means
128
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(a)
(b)
8
(c)
Rhododendron species and Buxus species), and tolerate disturbance well, but others have fewer, larger roots (pines again),
and take longer to recover. The soil type is also important.
Trees growing in shallow soil over a bed of heavy clay will
tend to have quite shallow roots, and trees growing in very
stony ground will just be hard to dig up. Some trees are notoriously reluctant transplantersEucalyptus species, for exam-
(d)
Rootballing
To move a young tree, perhaps a ten- to fifteen-year-old pine,
wait until the autumn. You will need: a strong spade, an old
though you are edging the lawn: cut half a spits depth,
way. Cut them off completely if they are not needed, and
then skim off any grass and weeds around the tree (a).
work around it. Pile up the soil on the tarpaulin or compost bags. Most of the roots you encounter can be cut
with the spade, but larger ones will need a saw or seca-
the basis for the radius of the rootball. Use the 20-cm
129
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5
2
7
(e)
3
4
6
(g)
shape (e). Always avoid cutting into the rootball. Use the
to a uniform shape.
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13
10
16
8
11
15
3
4
12
(h)
6
(i)
14
17/1
(j)
gently on the trunk, and cut the remaining soil and roots
from underneath. Lower the tree slowly to the ground,
131
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ery covers plots of land all over the village. It grows a range of
heart; he played old Japanese folk tunes on his guitar, and was
tionships with local nurseries, and their roles are often inter-
changeable.
uekiya family, and had gone to a school like that one, Futoshis
to help reorganize it. They spent a whole week with us, stand-
otherwise you cannot make good trees but most of all you
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In every team of gardeners there is always a young apprentice. He (traditionally this is a male-dominated profession)
might be embarking on a new career, or be a university graduate in landscape design who is learning the practical skills
before establishing himself. Often sons of other garden companies or nurseries are sent away for a year to learn the trade
before returning to help run their family business. These young
men learn from experience and those around themthe older
gardeners have a wealth of information to pass on, and there is
a strong hierarchy within the group. Until quite recently the
new apprentices were not allowed to work on trees in the garden; instead their work was restricted to menial chores such as
raking and clearing up, until they were ready for the next step.
This has changed, and now they are involved in all aspects of
the garden right from the start, although important trees are
tell, a moment that has stayed with them, that perhaps sums
team as they gave some pines their autumn tidy-up. They were
the others. There was no chatter, but often the younger garden-
ing his training: he realized that even while carrying out seem-
the time), one must carry oneself properly, with respect for the
stopped for lunch the old man stayed behind, looking closely
garden.
hour later they were back, and the boss took a few minutes
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respect for the garden, even in the final stages of the clean-up.
very best are normally the simplest, often without a safety stop
ing models or larger ones that hang in scabbards from the belt.
gardeners wear white work gloves, and on their feet they wear
tabi are soft and flexible, giving good grip for tree climbing
These ladders, and the creative ways in which they are put to
much larger trees, gardeners climb into the crown or are sus-
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Niwaki,
www.niwaki.com 01243 538395
While good design is of course essential for good gardens, it is
the regular upkeep that makes for fantastic gardens. It is the
work of the niwashi, and backstage that of the uekiya, that for
me defines all Japanese gardens. Their work should never be
underestimated.
135
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as a g in his notes.)
Inumaki: Podocarpus macrophyllus
icans
Daimochi (dai = base): Ilex integra
Ginmokusei (gin = silver, describing the white flowers; mokusei = osmanthus): Osmanthus fragrans
Goyomatsu (five-needled pine): Pinus parviflora
Haibyakushin: Juniperus procumbens
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sumurae
Yamamomo (mountain peach, referring to the fruit): Myrica
rubra
Daphniphyllum macropodum
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screens.
Chirashi: pruning technique, where branches and foliage are
thinned, rather than shaped.
Chokukanshitate: straight trunk.
Danzukuri: pruning style of branches resembling steps.
Edabukishitate: pruning technique of branches resembling
puffs of smoke, or clouds.
Edasukashishitate: pruning technique similar to chirashi,
involving thinning to preserve the natural habit of the
foliage.
Engawa: veranda around traditional Japanese homes and
temple buildings.
shells.
Kami: spirits of the Shinto religion.
Karesansui: dry-style garden, made using rocks and gravel.
Karikomi: the clipping of trees and shrubs, usually evergreen
azaleas.
Katanagareshitate: one-sided branch style; technique of
training one branch out sideways.
Kawaramono: riverbank people; manual labourers from
Kyoto, who lived on the riverbanks.
Kobushishitate: pruning technique similar to pollarding,
often used on Lagerstroemia indica.
Kokarikomi: individual plants clipped into small karikomi.
Ritsurin-koen.
Hakozukuri: pruning plants into square shapes, as at
Ritsurin-koen.
138 | Glossary of Japanese Terms
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Nemawashi: rootballing.
Niwashi: gardener.
shapes.
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References
140
References
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Index
A
Abies firma, 100
Acer
japonicum, 40, 109
palmatum, 38, 108,
109-112, 110, 112, 118
Dissectum, 109
var. amoenum, 109
var. matsumurae, 109
var. palmatum, 109
shirasawanum, 109
Acorus gramineus, 122
Adachi Art Museum, 32,
33, 47, 64, 67, 68, 78,
133
akagashi. See Quercus
acuta
akamatsu. See Pinus densiflora
Anraku-ji, 47
apical dominance, 55
Architectural Plants, 43,
105
ash. See Fraxinus excelsior
Asuka Noen, 132
Aucuba japonica, 33, 34
auxin, 45
azalea. See Rhododendron
B
bamboo, 119-121
Basho, 81, 112
beech. See Fagus
biwa. See Eriobotrya
japonica
black pine. See Pinus thunbergii
bonsai, 27, 36, 43, 44, 89,
111
box. See Buxus
Buddhism, 20
Buxus, 107, 128
macrophylla, 37, 82
var. japonica, 137
sempervirens, 27, 34, 50,
107
byobu, 29, 35, 63
byobumatsu, 29, 35
C
Camellia, 106
sasanqua, 106
japonica, 33, 49, 101, 106
Castanopsis, 20
cuspidata, 40, 101, 102
var. sieboldii, 102
Cedrus deodara, 25, 29,
97-98
Celtis chinensis, 118
Cercidiphyllum japonicum,
22, 118
Cercis chinensis, 22
chabohiba. See
Chamaecyparis obtusa
Breviramea
Chamaecyparis, 96
obtusa, 14, 22, 85, 93, 99
Breviramea, 99, 100
pisifera Filifera, 99
China, 23, 26
chirashi, 30, 97
Chishaku-in, 33
danzukuri, 27, 28
chokukanshitate, 27
Chrysanthemum grandiflorum, 122, 123
Cinnamomum camphora,
44, 107
Cleyera japonica, 107
Cornus
florida, 118
kousa, 40, 118
Crepe myrtle. See
Lagerstroemia indica
Cryptomeria, 20
japonica, 14, 22, 38, 43,
85-90, 99, 104, 106, 123
Elegans, 86
Globulosa Nana, 86
var. radicans, 86-90
Cupressocyparis
leylandii, 49, 96
Cupressus, 49
glabra, 43, 96
macrocarpa, 95, 96
Cycas revoluta, 24, 25
E
edabukishitate, 27
edasukashishitate, 97
egonoki. See Styrax japonica
engawa, 30, 31
enoki. See Celtis sinensis
Equisetum hymale, 79, 122
Eriobotrya japonica, 107
Eucalyptus, 29, 107, 129
Euonymous japonicus, 49
F
Fagus
crenata, 109
sylvatica, 34
Fatsia japonica, 33, 34
Index
141
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Horai san, 20
kabuki, 62
hoteichiku. See
Phyllostachys aurea
kadomatsu, 63
fengshui, 21
Honen-in, 108
Honshu, 10, 14
Hydrangea macrophylla,
14, 122
Kanagawa Prefecture, 10
karesansui, 30
kami, 18
Kanto, 10, 14
ikebana, 21, 86
Ilex, 107
ginmokusei. See
Osmanthus fragrans
goyomatsu. See Pinus parviflora
haiku, 81
hakaribasami, 54, 83, 134,
135
katanagareshitate, 27
H
haibyakushin. See
Juniperus procumbens
aquifolium, 106
pedunculosa, 40
katsura. See
Cercidiphyllum japonicum
kyokukanshitate, 27, 28
Kyoto, 10, 11, 25, 37, 65,
87, 90, 106
Kyu-Furukawa teien, 23,
99
Kyushu, 10, 14
L
Lagerstroemia indica, 38,
98, 112, 115-116
Ligustrum
lucidum, 49, 107
ovalifolium, 49, 104
Lithocarpus edulis,101
Long, Richard, 84
kawaramono, 125
Keishun-in, 34
Illustrations, 22
Kenrokuen, 18
Kinkaku-ji, 64, 66
kinmokusei. See
Osmanthus fragrans var.
aurantiacus
M
Machilus thunbergii, 107
madake. See Phyllostachys
bambusoides
Magnolia
hakomatsu, 35, 36
hakozukuri, 37
Kitayamasugi, 86
kobus, 118
Kobori, Enshu, 77
liliflora, 118
Hakusasanso, 110
hanami, 7, 112, 114
Ise-jingu, 18, 20
haru ichiban, 14
J
Japanese apricot. See
Prunus mume
Jizo-in, 29
Jomonsugi, 86
Juniperus
chinensis, 94
Kaizuka, 17, 29, 38,
78, 94-96, 98
Pyramidalis, 94
procumbens, 100
denudata, 118
grandiflora, 107
kobushishitate, 116
mame bonsai, 43
Kodai-ji, 34
kokarikomi, 77, 82
Kokedera, 123
matsuyani, 70
Komyo-ji, 30, 31
Konpuku-ji, 80, 81
Meiji Restoration, 35
mekiribasami, 134
Kosho-ji, Uchiko, 23
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mokkoku. See
Ternstroemia gymnanthera
Omotosenke, 34
Ophiopogon japonicus,
122
Osmanthus, 107
fragrans, 101, 107
var. aurantiacus, 107
heterophyllus, 101, 107
Variegatus, 107
Prunus
communis, 107
japonicum, 77
kaempferi, 77
obtusum, 77-84
Ritsurin-koen, 32, 35, 36,
75
roji, 33
rootballing. See nemawashi
Ryoan-ji, 13, 66, 87
Ryogen-in, 22, 103
Shirofugen, 112
Tai Haku, 112
jamasakura, 112
laurocerasus, 107
sabi, 22
lusitanica, 107
spinosa, 42
Sakutei-ki, 22
yedoensis, 112
Podocarpus
sarusuberi. See
Lagerstroemia indica
satozakura, 12
glauca, 33
nemaki, 130-131
Semiarundinaria fastuosum,
120, 121
namikarikomi, 77
suber, 107
Nagano, 10
nagareedashitate, 27
Nara, 114
aristata, 68, 70
contorta, 68
narihiradake. See
Semiarundinaria
fastuosum
coulteri, 68
densiflora, 29, 36, 38,
64-67, 69, 73
shakkei, 32, 80
Shibataea kumasaca, 120
Nash, David, 90
montezumae, 68
Niigata, 10
nigra, 68
pinea, 68
radiata, 42, 68
strobus, 68
rengetsutsuji. See
Rhododendron japonicum
O
ogatamanoki. See Michelia
compressa
okarikomi, 77
Okinawa, 14
Hinode Giri, 77
Hinomayo, 77
Shimane Prefecture, 10
shimenawa, 18
Index
143
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Shinto, 18
tokonoma, 86
Shinyodo Sanso, 34
Tokushima-jo, 27, 66
Yakushima, 10, 86
tonezumimochi. See
Ligustrum lucidum
sho-chiku-bai, 63
Trachycarpus fortunei, 25
Yamagata, 11
Shoden-ji, 32, 80
Shisen-do, 78, 79
sokanshitate, 27, 28
tsukubai, 38, 39
tsutsuji. See Rhododendron
obtusum
strobili, 69, 70
Styrax japonica, 40, 118
sugi. See Cryptomeria
japonica
sugigoke. See Polytrichum
commune
U
Uchiko, 121
uekibasami, 34, 134, 135
uekiya, 125-126, 132
Urasenke, 34
Tachibana no Toshitsuna,
22
Z
Zelkova serrulata, 118
takanshitate, 27, 28
takeyabu, 119
Zen, 20, 22
Zenko-ji, 9, 64
Zoen, 22
wabi, 22
Taxus, 86
baccata, 27, 34
cuspidata, 49, 98, 99
cuspidata var. nana, 98,
99
media, 98
Ternstroemia gymnanthera,
107
zoki, 25
Thuya species, 96
Todai-ji, 112
Wisteria, 129