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White Clover (Trifolium repens L.) Benefits in Grazed Pastures and Potential Improvements

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John R. Caradus, Marissa Roldan, Christine Voisey and Derek R. Woodfield

Submitted: 04 December 2022 Reviewed: 20 December 2022 Published: 17 February 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.109625

Production and Utilization of Legumes IntechOpen
Production and Utilization of Legumes Progress and Prospects Edited by Mirza Hasanuzzaman

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Production and Utilization of Legumes - Progress and Prospects

Edited by Mirza Hasanuzzaman

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Abstract

White clover has been, and continues to be, a valuable component of grazed pastures through improving feed quality and nutritive value, improving seasonal dry matter distribution, and providing biologically fixed nitrogen that benefits not only white clover itself but also the surrounding plants. The contribution of white clover to sustainability and environmental goals is a growing focus of breeding programs. The use of genome mapping and genotyping by sequencing to determine genetic variation and population structure in clover improvement programs needs to be expanded to improve breeding efficiencies. Seed yields also need to be improved while maintaining the selected agronomic performance traits to ensure that commercial cultivars remain cost-effective with other crops and land uses. Beneficial traits not available within the white clover genome may be provided through genetic modification and gene editing, particularly traits that contribute towards addressing challenges associated with animal nutrition and health, water quality and climate change. The inherent benefits of white clover as well as the potential for including additional beneficial traits will be described.

Keywords

  • biologically fixed nitrogen
  • breeding
  • environment
  • genetic modification
  • nutritive value

1. Introduction

White clover (Trifolium repens L.) is a critical component of grazed pastures in most temperate areas of the world [1]. The value of white clover in mixed species grazed pastures is due to its contribution towards improving feed quality and nutritive value, complementary seasonal dry matter distribution, and the provision of biologically fixed nitrogen (Figure 1). A meta-analysis demonstrated that including white clover in perennial ryegrass swards maintained or increased milk solids yield at lower stocking rates and lower N application rates [2]. This can lead to economic benefit and improved profitability of pastoral farming systems. White clover plant breeding programs have sought to increase dry matter yield, improve feed quality, improve persistence, or a combination of these. However, with changing management systems, resource constraints, environmental imperatives, and climate variability continued improvement will be required. New genomic and breeding techniques provide an opportunity to achieve new and better outcomes and will ensure that white clover continues to be a species of value and importance in grazed temperate pastures. The aim here is to describe the origin of white clover, its domestication, overview breeding objectives, describe the known advantages of white clover, and then discuss future improvements that will be required, and how they can be achieved, to ensure white clover continues to deliver benefit.

Figure 1.

White clover in a mixed sward, a highly nutritious component of multi-species grassland pastures.

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2. Origin

White clover is an allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 32), originating from hybridisation of two diploid Trifolium species [3]. As an amphidiploid, white clover has the full diploid set of chromosomes from each parent species [4]. The identity of those two ancestral species was purported to be T. nigrescens and T. uniflorum [5], or T. nigrescens and T. occidentale [6]. However, the most likely ancestral species based on DNA sequence analyses, molecular cytogenetics, interspecific hybridization are a diploid alpine species (T. pallescens) and a diploid coastal species (T. occidentale), which probably occurred during the last major glaciations 13,000–130,000 years ago [7, 8, 9]. F1 hybrids between T. pallescens and T. occidentale have been created using embryo rescue which produced a significant frequency of unreduced gametes, indicating this as the likely mode of polyploidisation, and these hybrids were themselves inter-fertile with white clover [8]. The increased genetic diversity created by allopolyploidisation can confer enhanced fitness, phenotypic plasticity, and adaptability, and has been correlated with survival in stressful environments [9].

White clover originated from multiple hybridisation events in Mediterranean glacial refugia characterised by fertile soils, good soil moisture, and the presence of grazing animals which conceivably led to its spread through Europe and into western Asia and North Africa [9, 10, 11].

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3. Domestication

White clover is a perennial stoloniferous plant which can also seed prolifically. It is the most important pasture legume in many temperate parts of the world, particularly where defoliation is through grazing. Domestication of white clover occurred at least 400 years ago in the Netherlands and spread globally with European colonisation [12]. The wide habitat tolerance of white clover has ensured its success in temperate [13], Mediterranean [14] and some subtropical regions [15].

Trait inheritance for white clover is disomic where chromosome pairing during meiosis is similar to that of nonhomologous pairs of chromosomes in diploids [16]. White clover has a strong gametophytic self-incompatibility mechanism such that only a small proportion of plants in a population are self-compatible [17]. The outcrossing and disomic inheritance of white clover results in populations that are a heterogeneous mixture of heterozygous individuals [11].

3.1 Types of white clover

White clover cultivars and ecotypes have been categorised largely on leaf size as Small, Intermediate, Large and Ladino types [1, 18]. Cyanogenesis, the production of hydrogen cyanide in damaged leaves [19], has been another trait used to classify white clover. Plants can quantitatively vary from having high levels to no expression (acyanogenic types) of hydrogen cyanide. While both Ladino and Large categories of white clover are large-leaved, Ladino types are characterised by being completely acyanogenic [18, 20]). Large leaved types generally have moderate to high cyanogenesis, and Small and Intermediate types may display low to high cyanogenesis [18].

Ladino types of white clover all originate from the Po Valley, particularly in the area of southern Lombardy close to the town of Lodi [21] in northern Italy [20]. This large leaved acyanogenic type of clover is believed to have developed during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with white clover grown under a management system involving mowing to feed an intensive dairy system supporting Parmesan cheese production [22]. Ladino types were widely adopted in North America where the strong, erect growth proved popular [10].

Significant relationships between yield of white clover populations in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) swards and shoot morphology and cyanogenesis traits have been observed [18, 23]. Of note were significant (P < 0.05) negative correlations between leaf size and stolon growing point number of −0.66 and −0.46, in years one and two respectively after planting; positive correlations between leaf size and clover percentage content of +0.73 and +0.25, in years one and two respectively after planting; and interestingly in year one, a negative correlation between stolon growing point density and clover percentage content of −0.55, but in year two a positive correlation of +0.41 [23].

3.2 Breeding objectives

Plant breeding of white clover has occurred in most countries with temperate environments. Traditionally, plant breeding has sought to improve on-farm productivity, primarily through increased DM yield, improved feed quality, improved persistence, or a combination of these [24]. This has led to successful outcomes for both yield and clover percentage content in a grass sward [25]. Breeding programs have also been undertaken seeking improvements in resistance to pests and diseases, tolerance of drought, aluminium toxic soils, and improved yield at low levels of soil phosphorus.

3.2.1 Yield and combining ability with grass

The negative association between yield potential and persistence of white clover [26] has led to breeding programs seeking to break this relationship resulting in high yielding and persistent cultivars [27].

A study comparing 20 cloned genotypes from each of 15 white clover cultivars in three different grass swards (L. perenne, Festuca arundinacea and Agrostis capillaris) that were intermittently grazed by sheep over 18 months from planting showed that, despite not detecting differences in the effect of grass species on particular white clover cultivars, there was a strong difference in the spread of genotypes within each cultivar and that there may be a differential response to grasses at an individual genotype level [28]. This provides scope for improving competitive ability and reinforces the importance of selecting white clover under grass competition rather than as spaced white clover plants growing in monoculture. Competition effects of grasses maybe stronger under grazing than cutting, and competition effects become severe when grasses shade stolons [29].

3.2.2 Persistence

Persistence can be adversely affected by grazing management, diseases and pests, competition from other species, deficiencies and toxicities of nutrients and climatic factors [26]. As a stoloniferous species white clover depends on its taproot only in its seedling stage, with the taproot lasting less than 18-months from establishment [30]. The nodal root systems then maintain the remaining plant parts. Rooting frequency of nodes is positively correlated with stolon branching frequency [31]. However, it is the combination of the timing of death of the seminal tap root and the development of stolons that determines the persistence of white clover rather than the absolute survival of the seminal taproot [32].

Selection for increased stolon development while maintaining leaf size is seen as the key to improving both yield and persistence of white clover selections [30]. In general, leaf size along with plant height, both positively related to yield at least initially [33], are negatively correlated with stolon growing point density [18] which is intuitively associated with vegetative persistence [34].

In pasture systems using nitrogen from both white clover biological nitrogen fixation and from nitrogen fertiliser, pasture management can maintain clover content and as a result, pasture nutritive quality. For example, when up to 200 kg N ha−1 yr−1 of nitrogen fertiliser is used on dairy pastures, clover content can be maintained by ensuring additional pasture is fully utilised, particularly in spring [35] so that the grass component does not shade the clover and put it at a competitive disadvantage.

3.2.3 Seed production

Monitoring seed production potential of white clover cultivars is crucial in commercial delivery of any agronomically superior cultivar. White clover seed production yield is a product of inflorescence density and yield per inflorescence [36]. However, each node is only capable of producing either a flower or a stolon branch [37] so increased yield per inflorescence is a preferred strategy for large leaved cultivars with fewer nodes per unit area [36]. Vigorous and continued flowering results in plants being less persistent vegetatively [37]. While inflorescence density and seed yield per inflorescence are under independent genetic control and can be utilised to increase seed yield of new white clover cultivars [36]. Increases in seed yield are mostly associated with increases in inflorescence density (inflorescences/m2), and to a lesser extent with increased seed yield/inflorescence [38]. However, importantly seed yield can be achieved while maintaining desirable morphological features and improving the uniformity of the cultivars.

3.2.4 Plant morphology

The success of white clover as a perennial legume in grazed swards is largely reliant on its ability to spread vegetatively through profusely branching stolons (Figure 2). Selections have been made within both a large and a small leaved cultivar of white clover for high and low proportions of nodal branches, long and short internodes, and large and small leaf size [23]. Heritability estimates were higher for leaflet size and internode length than for proportion of nodes branching, indicating that increasing shoot density and therefore persistence should focus on selection for reduced internode length rather than increased proportion of nodes branching. Indeed, developing white clover cultivars with higher stolon growing point densities at a particular leaf size should improve persistence while maintaining the greater yield potential [27, 39].

Figure 2.

White clover with a part of the canopy removed to expose the stolon network which allows the plant to persist, spread and vegetatively replicate.

3.2.5 Phenotypic plasticity

Phenotypic plasticity describes the ability, or not, of plants to respond to their environment by making changes to their morphology and physiology [40, 41]. ‘Differential phenotypic plasticity’ is the extent to which phenotypic plasticity occurs with a species [42]. White clover grows in a wide range of environments and has a high level of phenotypic plasticity, a trait common to many clonal species [43, 44]. Using soil phosphorus level as the environmental variable, all plant characters of white clover measured exhibited plasticity with yield-related characters in general being more plastic than characters associated with plant morphology [42]. Of the morphological characteristics measured internode length and leaf size were the most plastic. The large variation observed for phenotypic plasticity indicated that breeding for an increase or decrease in plasticity of plant traits in white cover is achievable. Plasticity of plant traits has been identified as important in the yield of white clover during adaptation to environmental and seasonal fluctuations [45].

3.2.6 Pest and disease resistance

In many environments high cyanogenesis is associated with greater persistence than acyanogenic clovers [26]. Cyanogenic white clover plants are avoided by slugs and/or snails [46, 47], voles (Arvicola terrestris) [48], and larvae of alfalfa weevils (Hypera postica) [49]. However, cyanogenic expression while slowing symptom expression of pepper spot caused by Stemphylium sarciniforme did not provide long term resistance [50].

Several invertebrate pests can seriously affect white clover production and concomitantly nitrogen fixation. In New Zealand pastures this includes slugs (Deroceras recticulatum), clover flea (Sminthurus viridus), grass grub (Costelytra giveni), porina (Wiseana spp.), clover weevil (Sitona obsoletus), black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus) and root nematodes such as clover cyst (Heterodera trifolii) and root-knot (Meloidogyne hapla) [51, 52, 53]. Simply removing nematode effects using nematicides has shown increases of 40% for annual white clover yield and 57% for nitrogen fixed [54, 55]. Selection for resistance to root feeding insects and nematodes has been challenging. While variation has been observed under controlled conditions for resistance/tolerance to nematodes [56, 57], and insect pests such as grass grub (Costelytra zealandica) [58], none have resulted in commercial releases due to the recessive genetic control of clover cyst and root-knot nematode resistance.

3.2.7 Abiotic tolerances

White clover plants adapted to cold environments have little to no cyanogenic expression [59, 60, 61]. Heritability for tolerance to frost in white clover is high, ranging from 0.75 to 0.93 [62], as it is for many other species such as wheat [63] and rice [64]. During hardening, prior to exposure to frost, increases occur for dry matter content, soluble carbohydrates, sucrose and proline levels in stolons [65].

Drought can have significant effects on clover persistence, with the quantum of impact associated with grazing management [66, 67]. Under set stocking with sheep, loss of stolon dry weight was much lower than for plants managed under rotational grazing, where stolon dry weight decreased by 75–90%, and white clover content in the sward reduced from 15 to 2%. Selections for improved tolerance to drought in white clover has had marginal success. White clover is a shallow rooted creeping legume where seedling taproots and nodal root size is positively correlated with leaf size [30]. Selection for specific root characteristics has improved yield and persistence in drought prone environments. For example, white clover populations developed by divergent selection for taproot diameter and for root weight ratio (proportion root weight to total plant weight), when assessed under grazing in a drought-prone environment and in a controlled-environment study, respectively, demonstrated that selection for medium leaf size and large taproot diameter gave yields 70% better in moist conditions and 35% better under dry conditions than that of the standard cultivar, Grasslands Huia [68]. Selection for increased root weight ratio was also effective in improving growth and survival in drought prone environments. Including ecotypes collected from drought-prone sites has been part of the development of cultivars in Australia, New Zealand and USA for heat and drought affected environments [69, 70, 71].

White clover is a species that requires high levels of soil phosphorus for optimal yields, particularly when grown in competition with grasses [72, 73]. Differences in response to added phosphorus among white clover genotypes has been shown in controlled environments [74, 75, 76, 77, 78], but this has not been effectively transferred to benefits in grazed pastures [79]. Selection for increased root hair length in white clover has been achieved [80] but when used in a field environment any benefit related to phosphorus uptake is negated by mycorrhizal infection in low phosphorus soils [81]. While mycorrhizal infection is important for white clover growth and survival in low phosphorus soils, selection for clovers able to develop more effective relationships with mycorrhiza has not yet been achievable [82].

Similarly for aluminium tolerance in acid soils, differences between white clover cultivars in controlled environments can be shown but these do not necessarily result in differences in field trials [83].

3.2.8 Introgression using interspecific hybridisation

To increase genetic variation in white clover concerted attempts have been made to create interspecific hybrids with 11 related Trifolium species, notably T. nigrescens, T. uniflorum, T. occidentale, T. pallescens, and T. ambiguum [84, 85]. These species range from annuals to long-lived, hardy perennials, some with adaptations to stressful environments, providing new traits for breeding more resilient cultivars of white clover for seasonally dry, infertile grassland environments. However, to date only one cultivar derived from interspecific hybridisation has been commercially released. Named Aberlasting, this cultivar was derived from crosses between T. repens and T. ambiguum. Initial results suggested enhanced persistence under grazing, possibly due to the presence of rhizomes in the hybrids [86], although other agronomic trials have not shown expected benefits [87]. Adequate seed production remains a major hurdle for successful commercialisation of Trifolium hybrids [88, 89].

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4. Benefits of white clover

White clover has been the go-to legume in grazed pastures because of its ability to withstand defoliation and compete with companion species, but also due to being able to effectively fix nitrogen, have a high nutritive value, provide complementary seasonal yield with companion grasses, and improve on-farm profitability. Combining white clover with not just grasses but also forage herbs such as chicory (Cichorum intybus) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata) can contribute additional micro- and macro-minerals to livestock diets [90]. It has been proposed, with some evidence, that for white clover to make any significant contribution to the nitrogen economy and feed quality of a pasture it should make up at least 30% total dry matter [91]. White clover is a component of most diverse pasture mixes and one that tends to dominate over time due to the loss of herbs and other shorter-lived species [90]. The inclusion of herbs such as plantain with biological nitrification inhibition may help further reduce N emissions in diverse pastures [92].

4.1 Nitrogen fixation

White clover has an affinity for Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. trifolii, and this nitrogen-fixing symbiosis can produce on average 80–100 kg N/ha/year (range 10–270 kg N/ha/year) in grazed permanent clover/grass pastures in temperate regions of the world [93, 94]. Compared with white clover monocultures, grass competition has been shown to markedly increase the proportion of clover nitrogen derived from symbiotic nitrogen fixation [95]. This phenomenon is the result of strong competitiveness by ryegrass for soil nitrogen such that white clover in the clover-ryegrass mixtures becomes more dependent on symbiotic nitrogen fixation than when grown in monoculture [96].

Severe defoliation can cause rapid degradation of leghaemoglobin in nodules resulting in decreased nitrogen fixation capacity [97]. However, less severe defoliation may preferentially influence symbiotic nitrogen fixation, as opposed to the uptake of mineral nitrogen from the soil [96]. This observation led to the conclusion that symbiotic nitrogen fixation does not limit the supply of nitrogen to clover and hence its growth. Therefore, symbiotic nitrogen fixation in white clover is regulated more by the demand for nitrogen rather than by the availability of carbohydrate reserves in the plant.

The application of nitrogen fertiliser also reduces the level of biologically fixed nitrogen from clover. In a mixed grass-clover sward grazed by sheep the application of up to 390 kg N ha−1 yr−1 (applied at 30 kg N ha−1 after each grazing) has been shown to decrease annual nitrogen fixation by nearly 60% [98]. Similarly, in a mixed grass-clover sward grazed by dairy cows the application of 400 kg N ha−1 yr−1 (applied at approximately 40 kg N ha−1 after each grazing) decreased annual nitrogen fixation from 154 kg N ha−1 yr−1 when no nitrogen was added to 39 to 53 kg N ha−1 yr−1 [99]. In a UK study, it was determined that under intensive grazing, the maximum applied N rate that optimised herbage yield while having minimal effects on white clover content and nitrogen fixation rates was 60–120 kg N ha−1 [100].

Low temperatures also have a detrimental effect on biological nitrogen fixation. In a controlled environment study higher shoot temperatures (23°C vs. 13°C day temperatures) resulted in increased nitrogen fixed irrespective of whether or not root temperature was increased in parallel [101]. Low root temperature (5°C) however did result in a lower proportion of nitrogen derived from biological nitrogen fixation.

Grass-legume swards containing white clover produce higher grass and total sward yield than mixtures containing red clover, alfalfa or birdsfoot trefoil [102]. This is potentially due to the higher N fixation and a faster release of N from roots of white clover than alfalfa. Louarn et al. [103] reported 60% less transfer of N fixed by alfalfa to the associated grasses than white clover despite the alfalfa having twice the biomass of the white clover.

4.2 Nutritive value

Forage legumes are generally considered to be of higher nutritive value than grasses due to a higher intake, a higher ratio of protein/energy absorbed [104, 105, 106, 107, 108] and higher digestibility [109]. Dry matter intake has been shown to be at its greatest when white clover is about 60% of the feed mixture consumed [110]. Increased intakes of clover with higher nutritive value are the main contributing factors leading to increased milk yields [111] and lamb growth rates [112] associated with high clover diets. Mixtures of clover and forage herbs such as chicory (Cichorium intybus) and plantain (Plantago lanceolata) resulted in higher growth rates of sheep and cattle particularly during summer and autumn compared with ryegrass/white clover pastures due to the higher nutritive value [113]. Herb and clover mixes, while having a similar crude protein content compared with ryegrass/white clover pastures, have lower fibre content and higher organic matter digestibility and metabolisable energy levels.

Compared with a concentrate diet offered ad libitum lambs fed a cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) and white clover pasture mix resulted in carcasses with less fat and more protein [114]. However, comparison of lambs fed either white clover or perennial ryegrass found that clover-fed lambs had 40% greater slaughter weights but also had higher amounts of fat resulting from the greater production of rumen-reticulum volatile fatty acids [115]. A lower stocking rate associated with lambs grazing grass/clover compared with grass fertilised with 190 kg N ha−1 was compensated for by higher live-weight gain and carcass weight without changes in fatty acid composition of carcass tissues [116]. However, polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations are often higher in white clover than alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and grasses [117]. Higher liveweight gain and earlier slaughter of lambs grazing clover-dominant swards tend to outweigh any fatness disadvantages relative to ryegrass-dominant pastures due to high feed conversion efficiency [118].

Methods to select for improved nutritive value of white clover have been developed [119]. This could allow the identification of germplasm with proteins that are relatively insoluble and resistant to rumen degradation leading to increased levels of amino acids that are available for absorption from the intestine.

4.3 Seasonal yield

Asynchronous seasonal biomass production of components in mixed species pastures has been related to increased yield [120] and yield stability [121] of sown grasslands. However, a study comparing perennial ryegrass pure stands and eight populations of white clover either in pure stands or in mixture with perennial ryegrass over three years at three sites concluded that it was doubtful if genetic variability of seasonal growth patterns within white clover can be used to increase the performance of clover-ryegrass mixtures [122].

4.4 Economic benefits

The inclusion of Trifolium species in grazed grass swards has been demonstrated to improve both productivity and profitability compared with grass-only swards for both sheep and dairy production systems [2, 123, 124]. Introduction of more persistent white clovers into south-eastern USA pastures added US$86/ha through increased cattle liveweight gain and reduced N fertiliser requirements [125]. In New Zealand the annual financial contribution of white clover through fixed nitrogen, forage yield, seed production and honey production was estimated to be NZ$3.095 billion [126]. The contribution of white cover to New Zealand’s direct and dependent industry Gross Domestic Product has been estimated to be NZ$2.35 billion in 2015/16 [127] when milk solid payout was about NZ$4.40 per kg milk solids whereas now that is closer to NZ$9 per kg milk solids [128]. The inclusion of white clover in low-fertility hill country pasture in New Zealand has been modelled to result in a 17% increase in spring and summer forage consumption generating a 32% greater cattle carcass weight production per ha and leading to a 49% improvement in farm system profit [129]. This represents a positive net present value of over NZ$360,000 for the original investment in white clover establishment into existing pastures.

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5. Future improvements

Future breeding aims need to align with increasing environmental challenges and the regulations imposed on farming operations such as limits of nitrogen fertiliser use, protection of waterways, identification of plants that will mitigate against or be adapted to predicted climate change, and the effect this will have on plant performance, species requirements, and the resulting changes that will happen in farm systems [24].

5.1 Breeding techniques

5.1.1 Genomics and trait mapping

Genome mapping and genotyping by sequencing to determine genetic variation and population structure in clover improvement programs provide the opportunity to improve breeding efficiencies [130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135]. However, there are limited examples of successes despite gene markers being identified for seed yield [136, 137], or drought tolerance using quercetin glycoside accumulation gene markers [138].

Genomic selection utilises DNA markers and trait data to estimate the breeding value and kinship of genotypes without having to phenotype them. In white clover Ehoche et al. [133] demonstrated the potential of genomic selection to be at least double the rate of genetic gain for DM yield in white clover compared with a conventional half-sib breeding scheme. Once validated in the field, this can shorten the breeding cycle and improve efficiency of breeding for many multigenic traits by enabling access to within family variation. The lack of access to within-family genetic variation has been identified as a major reason for the poor genetic gain in forages [139].

A potential setback to the implementation of genomic selection is the increase in net inbreeding per year as the reduction in generation interval decreases genetic variance faster [140]. Phenotypic selection typically takes 3 years or more to perform one cycle of selection, while two cycles per year can be completed with genomic selection. Breeding schemes for white clover aim to increase the frequency of desirable alleles in a population while maintaining heterozygosity. Consequently, breeders are faced with a dilemma of increasing genetic gain by selection whilst preserving or even increasing genetic diversity. Practically, this problem can be ameliorated by initiating selections in populations with high genetic diversity, or simultaneously running pre-breeding activities so that new genetic variability can be introduced as a plateau in the response to selection is reached [140, 141].

5.1.2 Genetic modification and gene editing

Beneficial traits not available within the white clover genome may be provided through genetic modification and gene editing. Initial genetic modification of white clover sought to improve insect resistance [142, 143] and virus resistance [144, 145]. Breeding strategies for developing genetically modified white clover cultivars have been considered [146]. However, traits that contribute towards addressing challenges associated with animal nutrition and health, water quality, drought tolerance and climate change have become increasingly important [147, 148, 149].

5.2 Environmental benefits

Pastoral agriculture has been criticised for exacerbating both air and water issues through methane production from ruminants contributing to increasing greenhouse gas levels, and through nitrogen movement to waterways [150, 151, 152, 153]. White clover as a high protein component of grazed pasture contributes to this concern but it also has the opportunity to provide solutions. One study has laid to rest the concern that biological nitrogen fixation might exacerbate N2O emissions, this appears to be more influenced by soil carbon content and surplus nitrogen levels [154].

Reducing emissions of the methane from ruminants grazing pastures is a serious research target in some countries. An example of this is the utilisation of plant secondary compounds such as condensed tannins. Condensed tannins are found in the leaves of several forage legumes, but not to any significant extent in white clover. They are known to bind proteins, protecting them from degradation in the rumen where methane producing-microbes are active [155, 156]. White clover synthesises condensed tannins, which occurs naturally in the flowers, and in trichomes on the under-surface of leaves [157]. A recent advance, using a molecular biology approach, has identified a transcription factor or master switch that can ‘turn on’ the condensed tannin pathway present in white clover leaves, and with the appropriate promoters allows biologically significant levels of condensed tannin expression in leaf tissue [148, 158, 159]. In vitro tests have demonstrated that the condensed tannins produced in white clover leaves can bind to protein at pH 6.5, as found in the rumen, and then release them at pH 2.0, the pH in the abomasum This suggests that protein protection in the rumen is possible, and that when released in the acidic abomasum, these proteins will be digested into essential amino acids for absorption in the small intestine of the animal [160, 161]. These studies also demonstrated that these condensed tannins could reduce methane production by up to 15% in the first 6 hours of incubation in rumen fluid under laboratory conditions (Figure 3). While the use of genetically modified organisms in many jurisdictions is regulated, this development has the potential to improve environmental, animal health and animal productivity outcomes from grazed pasture systems.

Figure 3.

Effect of condensed tannins in white clover leaves (WC-1 and WC-2) on methane production after 6 hours of incubation in rumen fluid in vitro, compared with untransformed control (white clover cv Mainstay). Means that do not share a letter are significantly different at p < 0.01 using Tukey’s multiple comparison test. Graph redrawn as part of data published in Roldan et al. [160].

5.3 Persistence, yield and competitive ability

Although past breeding programs have been successful in selecting for persistence and yield [25, 69], future programs will continue to focus on these traits, particularly in mixed species swards and under grazing [24]. The use of grass competition and grazing in selection trials has been important in identifying persistent and high yielding cultivars particularly when grown in stressed environments [26, 39, 162]. This has resulted in the production of cultivars such as Durana [69], Trophy [70], and Tribute [163]. The challenge for breeders is to identify effective screening and selection processes, sourcing new genetic variation and integrating genotyping by sequencing to link important traits to gene markers to improve selection efficiencies.

5.4 Microbial associations

5.4.1 Rhizobium symbiosis

The provision of effective rhizobium strains, along with novel seed-coating technology that extends shelf life, can led to increased symbiotic capacity in white clover [164]. Selecting rhizobium strains that are competitive with naturalised rhizobia strains to ensure both their persistence in the soil and superior nodule occupancy is key [165]. A better understanding of the genes associated with ensuring a competitive and effective symbiosis would be beneficial [166]. Spill-over benefits of rhizobium have been demonstrated, with the white clover Rhizobium strain TA1 conferring tolerance against Cd toxicity, an impurity in phosphate fertilisers which may have toxic effects on both plant growth and rhizobia activity [167]. Whether variation in nitrogen fixation capacity by genotypes within populations of white clover can be exploited for more effective symbiotic outcomes is yet to be determined [168].

5.4.2 Mycorrhiza

Synergistic effects between arbuscular mycorrhiza and rhizobium strains has shown increased nitrogen acquisition by white clover, as well as increased shoot and root growth, and increased amino acids levels in roots [169]. Mycorrhiza, such as Glomus mosseae, have been shown to extend the soil phosphorus depletion zone to nearly 12 cm compared with non-mycorrhizal white clover roots which may extend to 1 cm [170]. However, mycorrhizae are only effective at low soil phosphorus levels [171, 172, 173]. There is some evidence that mycorrhiza may not only aid uptake of phosphorus, but also may enhance growth and drought tolerance of white clover [174]. It is unlikely however that mycorrhiza are a route for transfer of nitrogen between white clover and grasses [175].

5.4.3 Bioprotectants

Microbial bioprotectants can enhance plant growth, improve nutrient uptake, and suppress disease and pests [176, 177, 178]. Inoculation with plant growth-promoting rhizobacter (e.g. Bacillus aryabhattai and Azotobacter vinelandii) along with effective Rhizobium strains has been shown to significantly increase nitrogenase activity plus potassium, calcium, and magnesium contents in shoots when grown in phosphorus deficient soils [179]. Use of bioprotectants, other than Rhizobium, to improve white clover growth and persistence is a research area requiring attention [179].

5.5 Use as a cover crop

Perennial legumes such as white clover have been used as cover crops for improving soil properties, increasing future crop production, and positively impacting environmental aspects of any farming operation [180]. For example, mixtures of white clover and perennial ryegrass have been successfully used as a living mulch to achieve high yields, with sufficient irrigation and additional fertilisation, while increasing the inputs of nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation into the entire cropping system [181]. Consistent yields in maize on unfertilised soil where white clover had previously been used as a living mulch, was shown to be the result of effective mycorrhizal fungus colonisation leading to improved phosphorus uptake by maize [182, 183].

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6. Conclusion and future perspectives

White clover will continue to be a crucial component of grazed pastures in the temperate world, particularly as consumer demands for improved environmental and animal welfare outcomes in agricultural production systems become more strident. Use of new molecular and genomic methodologies for more effective and efficient selection of beneficial traits will remain a priority. Reliance on legume-based swards resulting in reduced inorganic nitrogen use will become increasingly important in reducing nutrient runoff into waterways and nitrous oxide emissions. Including traits into white clover that reduce both methane emissions and nitrogen losses can be achieved through genetic modification. Traits such as leaf expression of condensed tannins in forage can simultaneously deliver to these environmental goals, plus enhance animal health by reducing bloat, and increase production of meat, milk and fibre. The challenge then will be balancing the perceived risk of using genetic modification against the benefits of improving the environmental footprint of livestock farming and animal health and productivity. In addition, enhancements in white clover performance using microbial technologies may create more sustainable farming outcomes through reduced synthetic fertiliser and pesticidal inputs.

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Conflict of interest

John Caradus and Derek Woodfield are employed by organisations that breed and own the intellectual property associated with some white clover cultivars mentioned in this review. Christine Voisey and Marissa Roldan are involved in the condensed tannin expression research outlined above.

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Written By

John R. Caradus, Marissa Roldan, Christine Voisey and Derek R. Woodfield

Submitted: 04 December 2022 Reviewed: 20 December 2022 Published: 17 February 2023

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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