Species of
1. Introduction
Mexico is a centre of origin, domestication and diversity of major crops worldwide, such as maize (
Collections at germplasm banks are usually classified as base, active, for the work, and core [5]. Core collections include the highest levels of genetic diversity of one species (from 70 to 80%) as
2. Beans in Mexico
The common bean is the second legume crop worldwide, behind soybeans [
Beans are a basic food due to being a major source of proteins, minerals, fibre, carbohydrates and vitamins in the Mexican daily diet for most people, but mainly for those with low economic resources [3]. Beans are the perfect complement to the Mexican diet based on maize as ‘tortillas’ in order to substitute animal protein for proper nutrition [4, 6]. Clinical studies showed that bean consumption prevents or improves both cholesterol and glucose levels in the blood [16]. However, the consumption of common beans has some problems, since they contain anti-nutritional compounds such as polyphenols (condensed tannins and anthocyanins), and inhibitors of proteases as trypsin, lectins and phytic acid [17, 18]. These compounds limit bean consumption and prevent them need breeding programmes and/or industry treatments such as cooking.
Economic conditions and customer preferences cause a variation in bean consumption
3. Cultivated species of Phaseolus
As has been listed before, only five
The cultivated form of
Ayocote beans,
Lima beans,
The poor surface cropped with
Finally, the less cultivated
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A. Acutifolii |
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Jalisco, Nayarit, Baja California, Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Sonora | ||
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Nayarit, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Sinaloa, Querétaro, Sonora | |||
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Colima, Jalisco, Baja California, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Colima, Durango, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Sonora. | |||
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Baja California, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Sonora | |||
B. Phaseoli |
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Chiapas, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Veracruz | ||
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In Costa Rica and Panamá, Central America | |||
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Chiapas | |||
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Jalisco, Michoacán | |||
C. Coccinei |
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Higher regions with temperate or cold climatic conditions from Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerreo, Morelos, Puebla, Veracruz, Tlaxcala, Edo de Mexico, Hidalgo, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Jalisco, Nayarit, Zacatecas, Durango, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, Sinaloa, | ||
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Idem Subsp. |
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Chiapas, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Veracruz | |||
D. Paniculati Sub-section I, Volubili. |
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Baja California, Campeche, Chiapas, Colima, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatán | ||
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Only in the United States of America | |||
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Durango, Sinaloa, Sonora | |||
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Nuevo León | |||
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Veracruz | |||
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Veracruz | |||
D. Paniculati Sub-section II, Lignosi |
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Jalisco, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Michoacán | ||
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Michoacán | |||
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Jalisco | |||
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Chihuahua | |||
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Mexico, Morelos, Puebla | |||
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Jalisco, Michoacán | |||
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Oaxaca | |||
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Guerrero, Mexico, Oaxaca | |||
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Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Sonora | |||
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Oaxaca | |||
E. Bracteati |
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Only in Guatemala and Costa Rica, Central America | ||
F. Minkelersia | P |
Distrito Federal, Durango, Mexico, Jalisco, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Sinaloa | ||
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Chiapas, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Zacatecas | |||
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Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán | |||
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Nuevo León | |||
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Durango, Michoacán, Sinaloa | |||
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Mexico, Michoacán, Zacatecas | |||
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Chihuahua, Durango, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Sonora, Zacatecas | |||
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Chihuahua, Durango | |||
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Chihuahua | |||
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Chihuahua, Distrito Federal, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Sonora, Zacatecas | |||
G. Zanthotricha |
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Chiapas | ||
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Durango, Jalisco, Mexico, Nayarit | |||
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Durango, Hidalgo, Nuevo León, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas | |||
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Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí | |||
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Durango, Jalisco | |||
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Chiapas | |||
H. Revoluti |
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Guerrero | ||
I. Digitati |
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Nuevo León, Tamaulipas | ||
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Coahuila, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas | |||
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Tamaulipas, Nuevo León | |||
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Nuevo León | |||
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Nuevo León | |||
J. Rugosi |
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Baja California, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Sonora | ||
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Sonora | |||
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Baja California | |||
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Chiapas, Guanajuato, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Puebla | |||
K. Falkati |
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Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Sonora | ||
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Chiapas, Chihuahua, Colima, Distrito Federal, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Zacatecas | |||
P |
Tamaulipas, Veracruz | |||
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Guatemala | |||
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Baja California, Colima, Guerrero, Jalisco, michoacán, Sinaloa | |||
L. Brevilegumeni |
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Chiapas | ||
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Nayarit, Jalisco | |||
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Chiapas | |||
M. Pedicellati |
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Distrito Federal, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Nuevo León, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Jalisco, Michoacán | ||
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Oaxaca | |||
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Hidalgo, Mexico, Michoacán, Puebla | |||
P |
Aguascalientes, Coahuila, Durango, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Nuevo León, | |||
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Zacatecas | |||
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San Luis Potosí | |||
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Chihuahua, Coahuila, Duarngo, San Luis Potosí, Sonora, Zacatecas | |||
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Durango, Sinaloa, Sonora | |||
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Durango, Zacatecas | |||
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Chihuahua | |||
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Hidalgo, Mexico, Veracruz | |||
N. Chiapasana |
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Chiapas, Oaxaca | ||
O. Coriacei |
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Aguascalientes, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Puebla, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Sonora, Tlaxcala, Zacatecas | ||
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Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Sonora, Zacatecas | |||
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Aguascalientes, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Jalisco, Zacatecas | |||
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Durango |
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Section |
Oaxaca, Veracruz, Chiapas | 1000-1500 |
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Section |
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Chihuahua, Coahuila | 1600-1750 |
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BCN, BCS, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango | 200-1350 |
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Most of the country | 500-2200 |
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Most of the country | 700-2000 |
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BCS, BCN, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Coahuila, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Morelos | 20-2300 |
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Jalisco, Oaxaca, Puebla, Veracruz, Guerrero, Morelos, Durango, Nayarit | 20-1600 |
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Mexican coastal states, Puebla, Morelos | 10-1200 |
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Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila | 1200-1600 |
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Medium to highlands of most of the country | 700-2900 |
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Durango, Sinaloa | 1400-1900 |
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Chihuahua, Durango, Sonora, Zacatecas, Sinaloa, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Nuevo León | 1400-2200 |
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Veracruz, Morelos | 1200-1600 |
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Oaxaca, Morelos | 1500-1800 |
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Chihuahua, Durango | 1800-2100 |
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Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Mexico | 2100-2600 |
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Chihuahua, Durango, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, SLP, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Querétaro | 1500-2800 |
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BCS, BCN, Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango | 40-1600 |
Section |
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Durango, Michoacán, Jalisco, Mexico, Oaxaca | 1700-2000 |
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Oaxaca, Mexico, Jalisco | 1900-2200 |
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Chihuahua, Durango | 2100-2500 |
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Mexico, Michoacán, Oaxaca, Jalisco | 2000-2500 |
Section |
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Hidalgo, Chiapas | 1500-1700 |
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Oaxaca, Morelos, Michoacán | 1500-1700 |
4. Why must common bean diversity be conserved?
Mexico is broadly recognized as the centre of origin, domestication and diversification of major crops including avocado, amaranth, cocoa, pumpkin, maize, beans, and others. These species have been well dispersed and cultivated worldwide and constitute a major source of economic input for many countries. One major Mexican institution advocated to the collection, study, documentation, preservation and promotion of Mexican genetic resources is the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) which created the Genetic Resources Unit, and recently a new National Bank of Germplasm (CNRG, INIFAP) located in Tepatitlán, Jalisco, where
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30 | 74 |
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1 |
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5 | 2 |
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2 |
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123 | 282 |
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8 |
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5 | 1 |
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1 |
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12 | 1 |
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2 |
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12 | 7 |
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2 |
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25 | 8 |
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1 |
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5 | 1 |
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2 |
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9 | 4 |
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2 |
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106 | 203 |
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1 |
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43 | 91 |
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4 |
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25 | 28 |
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1 |
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22 | 17 |
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1 |
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3 | 1 |
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33 |
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11 | 1 |
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2 |
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31 | 7 |
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3 |
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3 | 7 |
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1 |
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12 | 4 |
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1 |
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5 | 3 |
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1 |
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6 | 10 |
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1 |
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14 | 4 |
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10 |
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34 | 13 |
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3 |
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15 | 11 |
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1 |
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19 | 2 |
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1 |
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3 | 1 |
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1 |
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6 | 13 |
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17 |
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32 | 58 |
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30 |
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2 | 8 |
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4 |
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2 | |||
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1 | |||
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2 | |||
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1 | |||
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3 | |||
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2 | |||
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2 | |||
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3 | |||
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2 | |||
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1 | |||
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3 | |||
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3 | |||
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12 |
In this sense, traditional strategies for germplasm analysis can be improved and better understood by the use of DNA-based strategies as molecular markers. Breeding programmes underutilize the genetic diversity available because of the necessity of pre-breeding exotic germplasm. The hybridization between wild and domesticated types of Phaseolus from the same gene pools offer greater potential for enhancing crop variation due the partial reproductive isolation between Andean and Mesoamerican domesticated gene pools. Former evaluations of wild and semi-wild
5. Analysis of genetic diversity in domesticated Phaseolus species
5.1. Common beans
One of the pioneer works on the study of
In Mexico, the core collection of common beans structured by INIFAP includes 200 accessions, and this was characterized using morpho-agronomic traits and AFLP molecular markers. The data indicated a high level of genetic variability and no duplicity of accessions (non-shared haplotypes) into the core collection, becoming itself in a representative sample of
5.2. Ayocote beans
The genetic diversity of ayocote beans has been previously studied using morphological, agronomical and molecular markers, mainly using ‘European’ germplasm in order to detect high-yielding parents [49], highly tolerant germplasm to low temperatures [50], as well to characterize genetic relationships [51]. Spataro et al. [52] found clear differentiation between ayocote accessions [(wild, landraces, and
5.3. Lima beans
The genetic diversity of
Recent low gene flow at both intraregional and interregional levels into the wild-weedy-domesticated complex of
Two wild Mesoamerican (MI and MII) gene pools with contrasting geographical distributions have been found in relation to P. lunatus. While the MI gene pool occurs in central western Mexico, including the Pacific coastal range, the MII gene pool is widespread and occurs towards the Gulf of Mexico, the Yucatán Peninsula, and Central and South America. Mesoamerican landraces clustered together with wild accessions from the MI gene pool (L haplotype), suggesting a unique domestication event in central western Mexico. The most likely domestication region is an area of the states of Nayarit–Jalisco or Guerrero–Oaxaca, and not areas such as the Peninsula of Yucatán where the crop is currently widespread and diverse. A strong founder effect due to domestication has been detected, and several recently diversified haplotypes identified [57]. The analysis of 67 wild populations of P. lunatus from Mexico with ten microsatellite loci confirmed not only the presence of the two gene pools (MI and MII), but also the possible existence of two subgroups within MI (MIa and MIb). While MI and MII are mainly divergent geographically, MIa and MIb overlap in their distribution. Thus, the genetic structure of the wild lima bean in Mexico is more complex than previously thought, and the presence of three gene pools (MIa, MIb, and MII), each one possessing relatively high levels of genetic diversity, is proposed [58]. Other work, including P. lunatus populations from different areas of America and germplasm, was analysed using two intergenic spacers of chloroplast DNA: atpB-rbcL and trnL-
5.4. Tepary beans
Since few genetic tools have been developed or tested for tepary bean, Blair et al. [60] validated one set of gene-derived and non-gene simple sequence repeat or microsatellite markers from the common bean in tepary bean cultivars and wild relative accessions. They then evaluated the genetic diversity and population structure of tepary bean accessions to determine if leaf morphology variants are valid as separate subgroups of wild tepary beans; if
5.5. Acalete beans
Total seed protein variability in a sample of 163 entries of year bean (
6. Comparisons of genetic diversity among bean species
The diversity and relationships among species of
Hamann et al. [64] identified 18 species from 90 genotypes using SSR markers, where the species
In Italy, 66 genotypes representing 14 local varieties of
7. Our modest advances
7.1. About the origin, domestication and classification of Phaseolus
Hernández-López et al. [74] published a review paper that analysed classic works focused on determining and locating the centres of origin and domestication of
As has been described by Muruaga-Martínez et al. (unpublished data), recent re-collection tours have been conducted in order to clarify the real and current state of genetic resources of
7.2. About the genetic diversity analyses of Phaseolus
The analysis of Mexican common bean core collection using SSR and AFLP markers revealed that the highest genetic diversity is found in central Mexico and Chiapas, which seems to be an important diversity centre in the south. SSR analysis indicated a reduced number of shared haplotypes among accessions and core collection has no duplicated accessions [40]. Hernández-López et al. [21, 22] evaluated the diversity and genetic relations of one collection of bean populations produced after the random crossing among wild and domesticated or cultivated bean genotypes throughout Mexico to assess its usefulness for
8. Concluding remarks
In order to understand genetic variation patterns and to reinforce the richness and genetic potential of
Collection tours have demonstrated fast genetic erosion in most regions where wild types of
Genetic diversity observed in
Finally, we suggest that genetic diversity is a major challenge for botanists and taxonomists, biotechnologists and breeders, as well as to the governmental institutions of Mexico, towards maintaining natural populations both in situ and ex situ, to avoiding their loss, to increasing the strategies for their use, and to exploiting their benefits.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for financial support provided by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (project no. 1636), Fondo Mixto-Gobierno del Estado de Veracruz (project no. 94070) and Fondo CONACYT-Ciencia Básica (project no. 181756). Most of the information described here was derived from the MSc theses of V. M. Hernández-López, R. Ruiz-Salazar, V. H. Villarreal-Villagrán, and J. Martínez-Mondragón (CBG-IPN) and the PhD thesis of H. R. Gill-Langarica (CICATA-Unidad Altamira, IPN). SHD, JLChS, HRGL and NMP are S.N.I., EDI-IPN, and COFAA-IPN scholars. JMM was IPN-PIFI and CONACYT fellow.
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