Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears)
Datasheet Types: Crop, Host plant, Invasive species, Pest
Abstract
This datasheet on Coix lacryma-jobi covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Coix lacryma-jobi
- Preferred Common Name
- Job's-tears
- Other Scientific Names
- Coix agrestis Lour.
- Coix agrestis var. maxima (Makino) Nakai
- Coix arundinacea Lam.
- Coix exaltata Jacq. ex Spreng.
- Coix lacryma L., nom. illeg.
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. maxima Makino
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom.Caill.) Stapf
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. novoguineensis Pilg.
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv.
- Coix ouwehandii Koord.
- Coix ovata Stokes, nom. illeg.
- Coix palustris Koord.
- Coix pendula Salisb., nom. illeg.
- Coix pumila Roxb.
- Coix stigmatosa K. Koch & C.D. Bouché
- Lithagrostis lacryma-jobi (L.) Gaertn.
- Sphaerium lacryma (L.) Kuntze, nom. illeg.
- International Common Names
- Englishadlayadlay millet
- Spanishlágrimas de JobLagrimas de San Pedrolágrimas de San Pedrolágrimas de señora
- Frenchcoix larme de Jobgrains de Joblarme de JobLarmes de Job
- Arabicdamu ayub
- Chineseyi miyiyi
- Portugueseerva dos rosárioslágrima-de-nossa-senhora
- Local Common Names
- Bangladeshsiba
- Beninlarmes du Joab
- Bhutanbo-hoembomaboombuma kaambumar karchucheem ho chumchungmachungmecrotokpaideokushgaray-malolhamboumbanangchung phrengmapinmarpompalingsekamtektekma
- Bolivialágrima de María
- Brazilbiuricapiacapim-de-contascapim-missangacapim-rosarioconta-de-lágrimalagrima-de-Jotsiku
- Cambodiaskuöy
- Chinayi miyi yizhai guo yi yi
- Congo Democratic Republicmashangu
- Cook Islandspoepoe
- Costa Ricaadlaycuentas de San Pedrotrigo adlay
- Cubacamándulacuentas de doña Juanalágrimas de Moisésmillo chinosanta Juanasanta maría
- Côte d'Ivoiremanquassèm
- Dominican Republiccuenta de la virgenlarmilles des Indessanta lucíasanta maría
- El Salvadorzacate de perla
- Fijisila
- Franceherbe à chapeletslarmille
- French Polynesiapoepoe
- Germanyhiobs- traenengras
- Ghanaaguahwinieakrokosebiajob n’ani nsuwaowu-amma-mankã m’asem = death makes me mute
- Guineaa-mber-kesyboncofondoforonowa-kometa
- Haitigraines chapeletgraines maldiocgraines réglisselarmilles des Indes
- Hungaryjób könnyekönnyfű
- Indiaadavi guruginjaashru bijachaninggavedhugavedhukahgurgurgurlujargadikasaikasaikasikattu kundumanikattugotampumanjuttinetpavalumran jamdhloran-makaranmakkaisamkrusankleesankrusohriu
- Indonesiaanjalaihajelihanjerehankelijalijali betuljali watujapenjelaijelai batujelai pulutjelenkenjealimenjelaiperararumput jelaisenjeali
- Italylacrima di Giobbe
- Japanhato-mugijuzudamajuzudamajuzu-damazyudu-dama
- Korea, DPRgusuljulmujulmujulmu
- Korea, Republic ofgusuljulmugusuljulmujulmu
- Laosdüay
- LiberiaZã
- Malaysiabatakbiji balibuah jaildalaijali batujali-jalijelaijelai batujelai pulutjilailanchangmelai tikusmenjelaisenjelai
- Mayotteloulou maseratasoumbihin louloutassoubi massera
- Mexicoacayacotlacayacoyothacayocoyotlarrocillobatagácollar de maizcollarcilloishlacashtajadishlacashtajatlágrimalagrimillapastosan pedrosoguillasonajillasuuk-paentzacat tapisnozacatezacate de cuentas
- Micronesiafetin umunorosario
- Myanmarka-leikkaleinkalein-thikyeik
- Nepalbhirkaunlogendurigwenchhijabejargeditaktriya
- Netherlandsjobstranen
- New Zealandtangatanga
- Nigeriaaká-ịla = corn beadngkwà etonkwà ikọ̀t
- Niuetagatagatangatanga
- Pakistansanklu
- Palaudemairushdemairuuchpa nga ruiztauiirtaviir
- Papua New Guineakarikari
- Peruperla vegetal
- PhilippinesabúkaiadláiagágaiagláialimúdiasatákaiBalantákanbarubaiókobilenbintíkaidamáukatigbíkibaoungkoldásanKudlásanlamúdiasliáspaiáspaliáspintákatidbíTigbítigbíkai
- Puerto Ricocamándulas lágrimas de Jacobo
- Réunionherbe à chapeletsjob
- Samoasagasagasagisagisanasana
- Sao Tome and Principecapim-de-nossa-senhora
- Senegalbalifõbororfororma-karamba-késéñammaketporola
- Seychellesherbe collierherbe Job
- Sierra Leoneam-poloboboni-volobohoribongkorie-perekafoloforoforonde-tasebiaforondoforondo-mesegbegbe-nagbegbe-tasabia-nagboegbologbolopkogboyejina-forondokali bagikpetehu-volokpoklo-lekpokolo-lema-polomatomperegapu-boesankalasisigyiri-foronde
- Sri Lankakirindi
- ThailandDuaimaduai
- Tongahanahana tuikahoa
- USA/Hawaii‘ohe‘ohekūkaekōleakūkaekōleapū'ohe'ohepūpū kōlea
- Vanuatubutsu wasilMwahile hilewasil
- Vietnambo bobo bo nếpcườm gạoy dĩ nhọn
- EPPO code
- COXLJ (Coix lacryma-jobi)
Pictures
Fruit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); fruits. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Fruit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); fruits. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Fruit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); fruits. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Fruit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); fruits. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); habit, with leaves and fruits. Wahinepee, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2002.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); habit, with leaves and fruits. Wahinepee, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2002.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); habit. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); habit. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); habit. Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2012.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Flowers and fruit
Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears); flowers and unripe fruits. Hana Hwy, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January 2005.
©Forest & Kim Starr/via flickr - CC BY 4.0
Morphology
Coix lacryma-jobi: 1, habit, flowering stem; 2, male inflorescence; 3, male spikelet; 4, female inflorescence with involucre partly removed.Reproduced from the series 'Plant Resources of South-East Asia', Vols 1-20 (1989-2000), by kind permission of the PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia.
©PROSEA Foundation
Summary of Invasiveness
Coix lacryma-jobi is a grass indigenous to Southern and Eastern Asia that has been introduced in tropical and warm temperate regions as a cereal, fodder and forage crop, and for its attractive grains which are used as beads for making rosaries, necklaces, and other objects. It has escaped cultivation and become naturalized in more than 90 countries, often occurring as a weed in humid and disturbed sites, along waterways and forest edges, wetlands and swamps. C. lacryma-jobi is a robust grass that grows forming dense and tall clumps that block the flow of waterways and outcompete native vegetation. It is listed as invasive in Singapore, Australia, New Caledonia, the Cook Islands, the Galapagos, Greece Hawaii, French Polynesia, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Jamaica and on many islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean. It is regarded as potentially invasive in the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Coix is the sole genus of the subtribe Coicinae in the tribe Andropogonae, comprising 4 closely related species, all native to South-East Asia and Northern Australia with a center of diversity in northeast India (Arora, 1977; Clayton and Renvoize, 1992; Soreng et al., 2015). It is considered one of the most derived genera within the Andropogonae due to its highly specialized, unusual inflorescences (Clayton and Renvoize, 1992).
The taxonomy of this genus has been ill defined and poorly understood mainly due to its extensive cultivation and the vast phenotypic variation occurring within species (Koul, 1974). As Coix lacryma-jobi has been cultivated across Asia for centuries, many cultivars have been developed, as well as varieties selected by farmers for easy husking (Arora, 1977; van den Bergh and Iamsupasit, 1996). About 30 taxa have been described within the genus (several of them varieties or forms of C. lacryma-jobi), but only a small number deserve specific rank. The Plant List (2013) lists the following four accepted names: C. aquatica Roxb., C. gasteenii B.K.Simon, C. lacryma-jobi, and C. puellarum Balansa.
Coix lacryma-jobi was described from India by Linnaeus in 1753. ‘Coix’ derives from ‘koix’, an ancient Greek name used by Theophrastus for a palm of the genus Hyphaene (Quattrocchi, 2012), because of the resemblance of the involucres (or false fruits) of Coix to the fruit of this palm (Wagner et al., 1990). ‘Lacryma’ means tear-drop, and ‘jobi’ alludes to Job, the biblical figure who endured much suffering. Apparently, the ovoid grayish or bluish false fruits of this species resemble or symbolize the tears shed by Job (Clifford and Bostock, 2007).
Three varieties of C. lacryma-jobi are commonly recognized: C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, C. lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv. and C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom. Caill.) Stapf. The variety lacryma-jobi is the most common and most widely naturalized. The variety ma-yuen is often cultivated as a food grain (Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Plant Type
Annual
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Description
The following description is adapted from Wagner et al. (1990) and Thieret (2003):
Robust annual or perennial grass; culms up to 3 m, erect, with solid internodes. Leaves mostly cauline, distichous; sheaths loose, terete, glabrous; ligule membranous, 1.5-2 mm long, with margins erose and minutely fringed; blades linear-lanceolate, 10-75 × 2-6 cm, glabrous. Inflorescences axillary, each consisting of two unisexual racemes, one pistillate, and the other staminate. Pistillate raceme completely enclosed within a globose-ovoid, bony or soft, modified leaf sheath termed involucre or utricule, this usually 8-12 mm long, white, grayish, bluish or black, lustrous; spikelets in the pistillate raceme 3, one sessile and fertile, the upper two rudimentary; lower glumes of the functional pistillate spikelet 6-10 mm long, hyaline below, 5-7 veined, with a 1-3 mm coriaceous beak; florets 2, one sterile, the upper fertile and with the two stigmas protruding from the involucre; lodicules absent. Staminate raceme flexible, borne on a long peduncle that protrudes from the mouth of the involucre, 2-5 cm long, with 3-25 pairs of imbricate spikelets; spikelets 5-9 mm long, dorsally compressed, each with 2 florets; lower glume elliptic to obovate, somewhat asymmetric, with 15 or more veins, chartaceous, margins folded inward, the apex obtuse; upper glume lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, with a keel often winged, the apex acute; lemna 5-8 mm, hyaline, elliptic to ovate, 3-veined; palea similar to lemna but 2-veined; stamens 3, anthers 3-6 mm; lodicules 2. Caryopsis ellipsoid to subglobose, ventrally furrowed, 2.5-5 mm long, enclosed within the involucre.
Based on the shape and hardness of the involucres, three varieties of C. lacryma-jobi are commonly recognized: C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, C. lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv., and C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom. Caill.) Stapf. The variety lacryma-jobi has globose to ovoid, bony and glossy involucres. The variety stenocarpa has elongate, bottle-shaped, hard involucres, while the variety ma-yuen has elliptical, striate, soft involucres (Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Distribution
Coix lacryma-jobi is generally regarded as having originated in the Eastern Himalayan region and Northern Indochina (comprising parts of Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam). It has a long history of cultivation in this and other regions of Southern and Eastern Asia mainly as a cereal crop, but also as a decorative grass (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973; Arora, 1977). At present, it is widely naturalized across Asia, Africa, Europe, America, the West Indies, Australia and on many islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean.
The variety lacryma-jobi is the most widespread and the one that occurs in most countries of America, Africa and Oceania. The variety stenocarpa is distributed in Northeast India, Myanmar, Southern China, Vietnam, Philippines, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The variety ma-yuen occurs in India, Bhutan, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, but has been also introduced in Honduras and Ecuador (Zuloaga et al., 2003; Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Coix lacryma-jobi may have been one of the earliest Asian plants brought into cultivation, perhaps even before rice (Jain and Banerjee, 1974). Starch granules of this species have been recovered from archaeological sites in China dating to the sixth millennium BC (Liu et al., 2014). The involucres have been found in sites of the Ahar culture (ca. 2500 BC) in India (Mishra, 2008), and in many other places throughout Asia, including archeological sites in East Timor as old as 14,800 BP (Vasco Oliveira, 2006), indicating that this plant was transported and spread by people since very early times.
The earliest reference of C. lacryma-jobi in Europe was made by Pliny in his ‘Natural History’ of AD 77 (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973). In Europe it was grown mainly as a garden curiosity for its peculiar bead-like involucres rather than for food (Miller, 1754). It was listed by Lamarck (1792) as cultivated in France, and by Sims (1824) and Sweet (1827) as cultivated as a garden ornamental in the UK since 1596. Sims (1824) reported this species growing spontaneously in Greece, and in Syria, although no other report of its occurrence in this country could be found.
From Europe, C. lacryma-jobi spread to other parts the West (Koul, 1974). It was reported as naturalized on St. Helena by 1875, where it was described as “wild and common in the ravines of the lowlands” (Mellis, 1875). It was likely brought there by the Portuguese, who introduced many plants to the island during the 16th century.
The earliest mention of C. lacryma-jobi in the New World is probably that of Hernández for Mexico in ‘Historia de las plantas de Nueva España’ (1571-1576), where he describes it as a medicinal plant. However, although the description seems to correspond well with this species (“llaman aqui litospermo arundináceo porque tiene hojas de caña y fruto blanco al principio y después negro, lustroso y parecido a cuentas”), the two accompanying illustrations clearly belong to two different monocot species (Canna sp. and Maranta sp.), so this report should be treated with caution (Hernández, 1943).
C. lacryma-jobi was recorded in Colombia by José C. Mutis in 1761 (Pinto-Escobar, 1985), and in French Guiana in 1775 (Aublet, 1775). It was reported for Cuba in 1850, “as cultivated in gardens and fields” (De la Sagra, 1850), and was already naturalized in the French Antilles by 1871 (Husnot and Coutance, 1871).
Coix lacryma-jobi was probably introduced into Africa from India (Stapf, 1917). It was reported only in Algeria and the Canary Islands by Durand and Schinz (1895), which seems to indicate that its spread in this continent occurred relatively recently. By 1917 it was reported for Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Angola, Kenya and Tanzania (Stapf, 1917). Now this species is naturalized in most African countries, but it is occasionally cultivated. Its main use is for making necklaces and articles of adornment that are often worn at religious occasions (Jansen, 2006).
The introduction of C. lacryma-jobi to Australia also appears to be relatively recent. The species is not mentioned by Bentham (1878), and the oldest herbarium specimens appear to be from 1915 (Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2016). At present, this species can be found naturalized along waterways in major urban centres such as Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (Weed Watch, 2010).
In Hawaii, C. lacryma-jobi was first noted around 1870, but the earliest herbarium specimen was collected in 1903 (Wagner et al., 1990).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Colombia | ca. 1760 | No | No | |||||
| Puerto Rico | 1876 | No | No | |||||
| Hawaii | ca. 1870 | No | No | |||||
Risk of Introduction
Coix lacryma-jobi is already widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, and likely present in all countries where it is able to grow.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
The floating bead-like involucres containing the fruit are carried by water, particularly during floods. They are also likely dispersed by birds and mammals (Weed Watch, 2010).
Intentional Introduction
Coix lacryma-jobi has been intentionally introduced in many tropical and subtropical countries as a cereal crop, and as a forage, medicinal, and ornamental grass.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Botanical gardens and zoos (pathway cause) | Cultivated in botanic gardens as a curiosity for its peculiar bead-like “fruits” | Yes | Yes | |
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Planted as minor cereal. Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a food grain | Yes | Yes | |
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Escaped from cultivation and naturalized in many countries. Often naturalized in areas near villages and farms | Yes | Yes | |
| Flooding and other natural disasters (pathway cause) | Floating “fruits” can disperse during floods | Yes | ||
| Forage (pathway cause) | Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a forage and fodder crop for livestock and poultry | Yes | Yes | |
| Horticulture (pathway cause) | Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a garden plant | Yes | Yes | De la Sagra (1850) |
| Internet sales (pathway cause) | Fruits are sold online | Yes | Yes | |
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used in traditional medicine in Asia, often cultivated for medicinal purposes | Yes | Yes | |
| People foraging (pathway cause) | Grains are eaten by humans and used as beads | Yes | Yes | |
| Seed trade (pathway cause) | Fruits are sold online | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Floating vegetation and debris (pathway vector) | Floating involucres are carried by water | Yes | ||
| Mail (pathway vector) | Fruits are sold online | Yes | Yes | |
| Water (pathway vector) | Seeds dispersed by waterways | Yes | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Coix lacryma-jobi is reported as a weed in rice fields in Iran, Pakistan, India, Thailand and Philippines (Moody, 1989; Ahmadpour et al., 2013) and in sugarcane fields in Costa Rica (Rojas et al., 2003).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Other |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
The genus Coix is very distinctive and unlikely to be confused with other grasses. Coix lacryma-jobi can be distinguished from other species of Coix by its relatively wider leaves, and by the ovoid (or sometimes cylindrical), 8-15 mm involucres lacking an apical leaf blade. The other three species differ in the following characteristics:
Coix puellarum, which is sometimes treated as a variety of C. lacryma-jobi, has smaller (4-5 mm), globose involucres. It occurs in Northeastern India, Myanmar, China, Thailand and Vietnam (Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Coix aquatica has decumbent, sometimes floating stems that root at the basal nodes, and much narrower (up to 2.5 cm wide), long-acuminate leaves. It occurs in Sri Lanka, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Malaysia (Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Coix gasteenii, a species endemic to Australia, also has narrower (up to 2.3 cm) leaves, and the involucres bear a distinctive apical leaf blade 5-7 cm long (Simon, 1989).
Habitat
Coix lacryma-jobi can be found growing in wet environments. It typically occurs along rivers and stream banks, in marshy valleys, wetlands, wet grasslands and pastures, edges of lakes and reservoirs; also in clearings and disturbed sites of forests, flooded cultivated fields, moist waste places, channels and roadsides ditches (van den Bergh and Iamsupasit, 1996; Más and Garcia-Molinari, 2006; Flora of China, 2017; FAO, 2017). It occurs from sea-level up to 2000 m (Jansen, 2006).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number of C. lacryma-jobi is 2n=20 (Christopher, 1978; Arago et al., 1997). Since the base number of the genus Coix is x=5, it has been suggested that this species is a tetraploid resulting from the crossing of two diploid (2n=10) ancestors (Arago et al., 1997).
Meioisis in this species has been reported as normal in accessions from India and Philippines (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973; Arago et al., 1997). Pollen fertility was found to be high (about 83%), likely due to the normal behavior of chromosomes during meioisis (Arago et al., 1997).
Autotetraploid plants (4n=40) can be obtained with colchicine treatment but, unlike diploids, these tetraploids exhibit a high frequency of meiotic irregularities (e.g. quadrivalents formation), and low pollen fertility and seed set. An experiment on inbreeding and selection for vigor and fertility in the tetraploids during four years and three generations did not produce significant results. Although there was a decrease in quadrivalent frequency by the third generation, this was not significant, suggesting that the response of these tetraploids to selection is very slow (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973; Venkateswarlu and Rao, 1976).
The largest germplasm collections of C. lacryma-jobi are in the Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (ICGR, CAAS) in Beijing and in the Institute of Plant Breeding of the University of Philippines at Los Baños (Jansen, 2006). Breeding programs in China are conducted in several institutes of Guizhou and Yunnan Provinces (Diao, 2017).
A genome assembly is available (Liu et al., 2020).
Reproductive Biology
Like most grasses, the flowers of C. lacryma-jobi are pollinated by the wind. Both self and cross pollination occur, with the latter being predominant (Schaaffhausen, 1952; Jansen, 2006).
Coix lacryma-jobi is disseminated mainly by ‘seeds’ that are actually the bead-like involucres containing the caryopsis. It can also propagate by cuttings (which is the preferred method for fodder production) and by rhizome fragmentation (Schaaffhausen, 1952). Seed propagation provides deeper rooting (Jansen, 2006).
When cultivated, the seeds are planted at the beginning of the rainy season. They are usually sown 2.5-5 cm deep (Schaaffhausen, 1952; Duke, 1983; Jansen, 2006), and germinate in about 1-2 weeks depending on the moisture content of the soil (Jansen, 2006). Schaaffhausen (1952) reports poor results when seeds are sown 15 cm deep.
Physiology and Phenology
Coix lacryma-jobi attains maturity and starts flowering at about 4 months after sowing, mainly during September-October (Arora, 1977). The grains are ripe and ready for harvesting in 4-7 months, depending on the cultivar (Jansen, 2006). When most of grains are ripe, the plants start to dry (Arora, 1977; Jansen, 2006). The whole grain can maintain its quality for long periods of time, but hulled grains deteriorate quickly if not stored in a dry place (Schaaffhausen, 1952).
Photoperiod experiments have shown that short periods of light (i.e. short days) reduce the vegetative growth and induce early flowering, but do not seem to influence the seed yield (Yao et al., 2013).
This species exhibits the C4 photosynthetic pathway (Jansen, 2006).
In China the flowering and fruiting season occurs from June to December (Flora of China, 2017). In Europe, it has been recorded flowering from July to October and fruiting from September to November (PFAF, 2017). In Australia, flowering usually commences in December, with fruit being produced until June (Technigro, 2010).
Longevity
Coix lacryma-jobi grows as an annual in subtropical and temperate regions, but behaves as a perennial in warmer climates where frost is absent or mild (Duke, 1983). When cultivated, the total crop duration is 4-6(-8) months (Jansen, 2006).
Population Size and Structure
Coix lacryma-jobi exhibits great variation in size, shape, color and hardness of the involucre. The greatest diversity of wild forms has been reported for Northeastern India and Myanmar, a region regarded as a possible center of origin of this crop (Arora, 1977). The soft-hulled forms suitable for food (var. ma-yuen) were presumably selected through cultivation over thousands of years (Jansen, 2006). Population genetic analysis found wild and cultivated accessions could be unambiguously separated, and a strong bottleneck during domestication led to a loss of half the genetic diversity present in the wild population (Liu et al., 2020)
An assessment of the genetic diversity using microsatellites revealed low genetic diversity within populations of this species from China and Korea. The accessions from China, however, exhibited greater within population polymorphism and showed to be genetically distinct from Korean accessions, suggesting that they originated from different gene pools (Ma et al., 2010). A different study using ISSR markers in wild and cultivated accessions from China also revealed low genetic diversity at the accession level and strong differentiation among all accessions (Xi et al., 2016).
Environmental Requirements
Coix lacryma-jobi requires abundant rainfall, usually exceeding 1500 mm per year (Skerman and Riveros, 1990), although it can tolerate 610 mm (Duke, 1983). It is found naturally in flooded or moist locations and is intolerant of drought. It grows best in open sunny places, on reasonably fertile soils with a pH in the range of 4.5 to 8.4 (Duke, 1983; Jansen, 2006).
In Asia, the cultivation of C. lacryma-jobi strongly depends on the monsoon rains (Arora, 1977), which are essential for the growth of seedlings and the formation of the seed. It has been reported that in the absence of enough moisture, the plants produce many hollow grains (Schaaffhausen, 1952).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 45 | 40 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 9 | 28 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | ||
| Mean annual rainfall | 610 | 4290 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil texture
Soil drainage > free
Soil drainage > impeded
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Soil drainage
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
The most serious fungal diseases in C. lacryma-jobi are: Job’s tears smut (caused by Ustilago coicis), tar leaf spot (caused by Phyllachora coicis), rust (Puccinia operta), and Adlay leaf blight (caused by Bipolaris coicis) (Jansen, 2006; Ahmadpour et al., 2013). Job’s tears smut, which infects both the ovary of flowers and leaves, is very widespread and has been reported to cause severe damage to the crops in Thailand, India and China (Titatarn et al., 1983; Zhang et al., 2013).
Non-fungal pathogens include the Southern rice black-streaked dwarf virus (Pu et al., 2012), the maize chlorotic dwarf virus (Gingery, 1988), and the bacteria Xanthomonas albilineans (leaf scald of sugarcane) and Xanthonomas axonopodis pv. vasculorum (gumming disease of sugarcane) (Hayward, 1993). C. lacryma-jobi is also susceptible to a number of insect pests including the stem borers Ostrinia furnacalis (Asian corn borer) and Chilo suppressalis (Asiatic rice borer), the rice skipper (Pelopidas mathias), the anthurium thrips (Chaetanaphothrips orchidii), the corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis), and the sugarcane woolly aphid (Ceratovacuna lanigera) (Ahmadpour et al., 2013; Kalaisekar et al., 2017). As their names suggest, many of these pathogens and pests also attack major crops such as rice, maize, sugarcane and other grass crops.
The root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita has also been reported to affect this species (Duke, 1983). Rats, birds, and sometimes grasshoppers and termites may also cause considerable crop losses (Duke, 1983; Jansen, 2006). Schaaffhausen (1952) observed in Brazil that “if seeds are not harvested before birds discover them, almost nothing is left from a small plot”.
Natural enemies
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Impact: Environmental
Impact on Habitats
Coix lacryma-jobi can spread rapidly along waterways. It is capable of forming dense clumps and large colonies which may block the flow of watercourses and outcompete native plants including mesic and riparian vegetation and native aquatic plants (MacKee, 1994; Technigro, 2010; Weed Watch, 2010; I3N-Brasil, 2017; PIER, 2017).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of hydrology
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Uses
Economic Value
The hard, glossy involucres of C. lacryma-jobi are commonly used as beads to make necklaces, bracelets, rosaries, curtains, musical shakers and many other decorative objects, which are sold in local markets and online craft stores.
The soft-shelled variety (ma-yuen) is cultivated as a food grain in several Asian countries both for animal and human consumption. The kernels can be cooked as rice or used for soups and broths. They can also be used to make alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, or can be pounded into a flour to make bread and baked goods. The whole grain and the flour are also used to feed chickens and pigs. The whole plant provides a very palatable fodder for cattle, buffaloes and horses (Schaaffhausen, 1952; Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Jansen, 2006).
Coix lacryma-jobi is a nutritious food, with a higher protein content than rice and maize. The hulled grains contains 11.6 g of water, 14.8 g of protein, 4.9 g of fat, 66.9 g of carbohydrate and 0.5 g of fiber per 100g edible portion. Minerals and vitamins include Ca (47 mg), P (254 mg), Fe (6 mg), thiamin (0.26 mg), riboflavin (0.19 mg) and niacin (4.7 mg) (Jansen, 2006).
An anticancer drug known as ‘Kanglaite’ has been developed from the seed oil. The drug is approved in China to treat several types of cancer, and is currently under study in the USA as a potential treatment for pancreatic and prostate cancer (Xi et al., 2016). The main bioactive component is coixenolide, a fatty acid ester that has been shown to possess anticancer activity (Ukita and Tanimura, 1961).
The largest producer of Coix seeds is China, with a cultivation area of approximately 73000 ha, 32000 of which are in the province of Guizhou (Diao, 2017). The grain is marketed as Chinese pearl barley, Coix seeds or adlay seeds.
Social Benefit
Coix lacryma-jobi has been cultivated for food, forage and medicinal purposes for thousands of years. It appears to have been an important crop in Southern and Eastern Asia before rice and maize became widespread (Jansen, 2006). At present, it is rather an accessory crop, but there is a growing demand due to its nutritional and medicinal qualities (Diao, 2017).
In Ayurveda, Unani and Sidha medicine, C. lacryma-jobi has been used to treat a broad range of ailments including headache, fever, inflammation, rheumatism, diabetes, dysentery, diarrhea, infections, intestinal worms and menstrual disorders. In the traditional Chinese medicine it is used to treat cancer, tumors, enteritis, edema, eczema and warts (Quattrocchi, 2012). The plant has been also used in veterinary medicine in India and Africa. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the macerated roots are used to control internal parasites in livestock (Chifundera, 1998).
The necklaces and accessories made with the involucres have long been used as ornaments, and in rituals and religious ceremonies (Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Jansen, 2006; Roder, 2006). The dry leaves have been used for thatching in India (Jain and Banerjee, 1974). The dried inflorescences are sometimes used in flower arrangements (Jansen, 2006).
Environmental Services
Coix lacryma-jobi is very efficient in removing inorganic nitrogen from polluted waters, which makes it a suitable plant for wastewater treatment in tropical regions (Jampeetong et al., 2013).
Uses List
Ornamental > Cut flower
Ornamental > garden plant
Ornamental > Potted plant
Ornamental > Seed trade
Materials > Beads
Materials > Lipids
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Beverage base
Human food and beverage > Cereal
General > Botanical garden/zoo
General > Ritual uses
General > Sociocultural value
General > Souvenirs
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Amenity
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Veterinary
Fuels > Biofuels
Human food and beverage > Emergency (famine) food
Human food and beverage > Flour/starch
Human food and beverage > Oil/fat
Human food and beverage > Seeds
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
If identified early, young plants may be removed manually, although care should be taken to remove all of the root system. For mature specimens, stalks containing floral structures or fruits can be removed manually or mechanically. Mature fruits should be carefully collected and disposed of to prevent their dispersal (Weed Watch, 2010).
Chemical Control
Drizzle foliar application of glyphosate provided complete control (100% injury) in experimental trials in Hawaii (Motooka, 1999), however, because this species often grows in areas near watercourses, the use of herbicides is not recommended.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| Grassland species profiles, FAO | http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/Default.htm | |
| Handbook of energy crops, Purdue University | https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coix_lacryma-jobi.html | |
| NAME PPlant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) | http://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Coix_lacryma-jobi_(PROSEA) | |
| Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) | http://www.hear.org/pier/species/coix_lacryma-jobi.htm | |
| Plant resources of tropical Africa (PROTA4U) | http://www.prota4u.org/protav8.asp?en=1&p=Coix+lacryma-jobi+L. | |
| US National Plant Germoplasm System | https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?11129 | |
| Useful tropical plants | http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Coix+lacryma-jobi |
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