Human Ecology, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1982 Biotope Gradient in a Diversified New Guinea Subsistence System D a v i d C. H y n d m a n t The Wopkaimin are a population of hunter-horticulturalists who five near the Upper Fly River in Papua New Guinea. In this paper, ecosystem heterogeneity is related to diversity of strategies in the Wopkaimin subsistence system. Subsistence subsystems of shifting cultivation, silviculture, gathering, pig raising, hunting, fishing, and collecting are associated with 11 biotopes. Biotopes are useful descriptive categories for subsistence ecological research and they are recognized Wopkaimin emic categories, having cognitive and behavioral consequences. The relationship of the Wopkaimin population to other biota in the ecosystem is shown to be related to a very steep biotope gradient. KEYWORDS:NewGuineasubsistenceecology;biotopes. THE WOPKAIMIN The Wopkaimin are hunter-horticulturalists living near the Fly River headwaters in Papua New Guinea (Fig. 1). They are one of several small groups of Mountain Ok-speaking peoples occupying the center of the island adjacent to the headwaters of the Fly and Sepik Rivers. Mountain Ok people are part of the ecologically and culturally distinctive region known as the Highland Fringe (Brown, 1978: 272-274), which is the inhabited interior mountain zone surrounding the Central Highlands. The Wopkaimin obtain their subsistence from cultivating taro, Colocasia esculenta, and from procuring numerous wild resources, which ~Anthropology and Sociology Department, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, 4067, Queensland,Australia. 219 0300-7839/82/06004~219503.00/0 9 1982Plenum Publishing Corporation 220 Hyndman takes them to a great variety of resource areas and several residential sites within a large territory of over 1,000 kmL Low-intensity agriculture based on taro, spatial diversity of resources, and exceedingly complex male initiation ceremonies involving game animals are commonly shared features among the Mountain Ok. Ethnographic studies of the Mountain Ok began in the late 1960s and still continue. My own research with the Wopkaimin began in 1973. I have spent over a year and a half in the field investigating subsistence ecology, folk biology, and nutrition. This paper is a biotope case study unique in its detailed treatment of varying utilization paralleling varying microenvironments. VEGETATION ZONATION There is tremendous ecological diversity within Wopkaimin territory. Biophysical patterns from an elevation of 500 m at the confluence of the Ok Maani and Ok Tedi rivers in the south to 3,000 m on Mt. Fugilil in the Hindenburg Mountains in the north (Fig. 1) present exceedingly different environmental zones in which the Wopkaimin must work out their subsistence strategies. Botanical surveys (Hyndman, 1979: 77-96) through the unbroken rain forest in Wopkaimin territory indicate that the region is composed of four distinct floral communities: 1) foothill rain forest, from 500 to 1000 m, (2) mid-mountain rain forest, from 1,000 to 1,750 m, (3) moss forest, from 1,750 to 2,200 m, and (4) upper montane rain forest, from 2,200 to 3,000 m. The Wopkaimin are divided into five relatively self-sufficient parish groups with between 100 and 250 members each. Men from the parishes cooperate in major rituals and regularly engage in trading with the Ningerum and Tifalmin (see Fig. 1). Iralim is located around the headwaters of the Ok Tedi and is the largest parish, with a territory of over 160 km 2 and a membership of 250. Figure 2 shows the distribution of vegetation zones. Elevational differences in vegetational zones are emically recognized by the Wopkaimin and other Mountain Ok groups (Barth, 1975: 29). These divide the territory into four vegetation zones according to biological community and cultural activity. They are termed (1) gip, (2) fakkam, (3) ilein, and (4) atinaang. BIOTOPE GRADIENT IN IRALIM PARISH The physical and biotic features found within the vicinity of the Ok Tedi headwaters constitute a human ecosystem in which material and .=. ::2" ,..~ ' r: e~ --. .... LOCATION ~,~ ~~ ~3 ?/ .,.,j OKBAP~ilN:- ,, ' ~.. s163 i i. Yoliptigi~E f 141~ SCALE I : I IO L~,J 0 IO I OOO OO0 20 30 t I KILOMETRES 40 50 I I FORNLINES IN METRES, DATUM SEA LEVEL Bosemop extrected from FLY RIVER I:I000000 World Aeronouticol Chort ICAO Ad~pted from, B~arth 1971, Cmi91967, Morren 1974, Pouwer 1964~ Wheofcroff 1975. THE 6ASE~Ap IS CROWN CO/:'yR~GHT AND HAS BEEN MADE AVAILABLE BY COURTESY OF THE DIRECTOR, ~VISlON OF NATIONAL MAPPING, OEPT OF NATIONAL RESOURCES CANBERRA Fig. 1. Major territories of the Mountain Ok. ~PMIN g ba SCALE ~'HOtOC,m a ~ T R e aOT ItV LEGEND t~ e~ Fig, 2. Generalized vegetation zones o f the Iralim parish. Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 223 energy exchanges are made between the Wopkaimin and their environment. Ecosystem heterogeneity is closely related to diversity of strategies in the Wopkaimin subsistence system. Environmental diversity promotes diversification of subsistence patterns throughout the New Guinea Highland Fringe (see Dornstreich, 1973: 67). There are seven components of Wopkaimin subsistence: shifting cultivation, silviculture, gathering, pig raising, hunting, fishing, and collecting. Each subsistence subsystem is associated with selected microenvironments. The relationship of a human population to other biota in an ecosystem can be systematically studied with the concept variously termed biotope or microenvironment (Hardesty, 1977: 109, 111-112). Biotopes are common etic descriptive categories utilized by human ecologists, and among indigenous peoples they are common emic categories having cognitive and behavioral consequences (Barth, 1956; Driver, 1957; Sahlins, 1957; Suttles, 1962; Watanabe, 1964; Denevan, 1966; Coe and Flannery, 1967; Bowers, 1968; Clarke, 1971; Dornstreich, 1973; Nietschmann, 1973). The schematic cross section shown in Fig. 3 indicates the very steep biotope gradient found in Iralim parish. Figure 3 indicates that the closest spacing of biotopes occurs in the mid-mountain rain forest zone within the Kam Basin. The Kam Basin contains more anthropogenically induced biotopes because of the greater intensity of settlement and cultivation. Biotopes outside the Kam Basin are significant in Wopkaimin subsistence ecology because they are reservoirs of raw materials and wild foods. Biotope 1, Ok Tedi River Fish is the important food source obtained from the Ok Tedi River. The six species taken by the Wopkaimin are shown in Table I. The larger catfish Neosilurus equinus and Neosilurus gjellerupi occur at elevations of up to 1,000 m, where the Ok Tedi becomes too shallow and the current too rapid. The number and size of fish species are related to conditions in the Ok Tedi and its tributaries. Catfish are taken from deep pools when the river's flow and particulate load are at a minimum. Successful fishing for Glossogobius is also dependent upon the water's clarity. Riverbank frogs and reptiles are additional food resources in Biotope 1 (Table I). Biotope 2, Sago Groves The most important food resource of Biotope 2 is the sago palm, Metroxylon. Major resources occurring in a sago grove are shown in .9: ; : . : : . . ~ ; . ..*,... ~ . . ,.. ~. ~, ~ ~- ~ig. 3. Zonation of major biotopes in the lralim parish. , !,~. ,..,, . ,:,.,. : 9~ . . , . . . j - , , '.'.~ ..~, , , , , Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 225 Table I. Biotope 1: Ok Tedi River Scientific name Fish Glossogobius brunnoides Glossogobius celebius Melanotaenia vanheurni Neosilurus equinus Neosilurus gjellerupi Thorapon sp. Frogs Lechriodus melanopyga Asterophrys turpicula Rana sp. Litoria eucnemis Reptiles Goniocephalus rnodestus Common name Wopkaimin name Dusky Mountain Gobie Spotted Mountain Gobie Rainbow Fish Catfish Catfish Grunter Perch kuulim sabborn gas dol baiang kinfoorn Lept odactylid frog Microhylid frog Ranid frog Hylid frog bukfun kurarapkan moon kil Dragon Lizard tamerirn T a b l e II. T h e W o p k a i m i n p l a n t s m a l l groves o f 10 to 12 M e t r o x y l o n in the f o o t h i l l rain f o r e s t b e t w e e n 700 a n d 1,000 m, which is the u p p e r a l t i t u d i n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s a g o in N e w G u i n e a . A r t o c a r p u s , c u l t i v a t e d for its seeds, a n d the f r u i t - b e a r i n g P a n d a n u s a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y p l a n t e d as well. A t h y r i u m a n d C y a t h e a g r o w s p o n t a n e o u s l y in s a g o groves. Q u a n t i t i e s o f frogs a n d w o o d - b o r i n g l a r v a e a r e also t a k e n f r o m B i o t o p e 2 ( T a b l e II). W o m e n a n d girls r e g u l a r l y collect L i t o r i a eucnemis f r o m u n d e r s a g o f r o n d litter. T h e w o o d - b o r i n g l a r v a e o f the E u p a t o r u s a n d Scapanes beetles a r e Table II. Biotope 2: Sago Orchards Scientific name Cultivated plants A rtocarpus altilis Metroxylon sp. Pandanus eonoideus Spontaneous plants A thyrium sp. Cyathea sp. Cyathea sp. Frogs Litoria eucnemis Wood-boring larvae Eupatorus becarii Scapanes australis Common name Wopkaimin name Breadfruit Sago Marita (tok pisin) sakkon worn kaiep Fern Tree fern Tree fern gipguubil giptablein seek Hylid frog yanop Brown Scarab Beetle Black Scarab Beetle wol (generic) wol (generic) Hyndman 226 found in sago palms felled for processing into starch and in old, previously worked palms. Biotope 3, Foothill Rain Forest The foothill rain forest is the most ecologically complex biotope used by the Wopkaimin. A significant number of food and raw material plants are found here (Table IIIa). Avian fauna is important in Wopkaimin subsistence. Of the major game birds (Table IIIb), the largest are Aeeros plicatus, Cacatua galerita, Caliechthrus leucolophus, Geoffroyus geoffroyi, Probosciger aterrimus, and Psittrichas fulgidus, and they are only numerous in lowland and foothill rain forests in New Guinea (Bulmer, 1968: 305). Relatively small doves, honey-eaters, and lorikeets account for most of the game birds taken. The Wopkaimin are skillful bird hunters. They do not range haphazardly through the foothill rain forest in search of game birds but concentrate their efforts on certain feeding plants (see Table IIIb). By stalking between feeding plants and using decoy calls, a prospective ambush site is chosen. The combined strategy of stalking and ambush is a birdhunting pattern common in the Highland Fringe (Bulmer, 1968: 309; Majnep and Bulmer, 1977: 41-44). Of the terrestrial fauna, only the cassowary, Casuarius unappendiculatus, and the wild pig, Sus scrofa pauensis, grow as large as humans (Table IIIb). They are the only animals capable of maiming or killing a Wopkaimin hunter. Stalking, ambushing, trapping, besetting, and chasing are strategies used in hunting terrestrial fauna. Hunters use detailed knowledge of animal behavior to locate and constrain the animals' opportunity to escape, but frequently there is a chase after an escaped or wounded quarry, often with the aid of dogs. Wallabies, Thylogale bruijni, are often hunted by means of the ambush-drive. Canopy layers of the foothill rain forest are densely intertwined with epiphytes and lianas, which produce complex ecological niches for arboreal animals (Harrison, 1962; Richards, 1966). Arboreal game animals in Biotope 3 are presented in Table IIIb. Fruit bats, Pteropus and Dobsonia, are taken by stalking and ambush. Ground-nesting Phalanger gymnotis and Pseudocheirus cupreus are occasionally flushed by dogs, then chased and caught. Most arboreal fauna are hunted by stalking, ambush, besetting, and trapping. Successful arboreal game animal hunting requires expert skill in interpreting tracks, droppings, and food remnants. Reptiles are also taken from Biotope 3 (Table IIIb). Hunting and trapping are male activities, whereas females collect small mammals, frogs, reptiles, and insects. Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 227 Table Ilia. Biotope 3: Foothill Rain Forest: Food and Raw Material Plants Common name Wopkaimin name Comments Fern Palm Palm Wild taro Tree fern Wild yam Tree Tree Tree Tree Palm gipguubil taris biar darok giptablien lakas bukel yet be kamkom dil Leaves Shoots Shoots Leaves Leaves Root Leaves Fruit Nut Fruit Shoots Acriopsisjavaniea Aphanamixis sp. Begonia sp. Calamus sp. Canarium sp. Canthium sp. Casuarina sp. Carpodetus sp. Duckera taitensis Eugenia sp. Tree Liana Tree Forb Rattan Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree bitankas irangim tangfiter fawukook taawap kwal yatot ula galim tabak blipawok Elaeocarpus sp. Ficus arfakensis Ficuspungens Ficus variegata GIochidion sp. Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree agit m ulgalim taiup asskan ansim Harpullia sp. Horsfieldia subtilis Lepidopetalum subdiehotomum Litsea sp. Linociera sp. Maearanga sp. Medinilla sp. Neomarica longifolia Nengella sp. Octomeles sumatrana Pandanu& eoneavus Piper sp. Piper sp. Pipturus Pometia pinata Psychotria sp. Seaevola oppositifolia Sloanea sp. Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Liana Grass Palm Tree Tree Liana Tree Tree Tree Tree Liana Tree tangtungim mong wokmagrum fang aamil grol aiepwaalim sabbram tuuma muntuul kulom boa kameon taminak aabol kanaug galkeit waabi Tobacco wrapper Hat (daffaluum) Firewood Ritual Fish basket (warap) Firewood Construction Construction Firewood Sap used as glue Construction, firewood Dog collar Tobacco wrapper Rain cloak Rain cloak Sap cures d r u m skins Firewood Firewood Firewood Firewood Construction Tobacco wrapper Sap used as glue Ritual Projectile points Medicine Construction Sap used as glue Medicine Tobacco wrapper Firewood Facial paint Medicine Firewood Scientific name Food plants A thyrium sp. Calamus sp. Caryota sp. Colocasia sp. Cyathea sp. Dioscorea sp. Endospermum sp. Ficus copiosa Finchia sp. Garcinia sp. Hydiastele sp. Raw material plants A ealyphaze sp. Table l l l b . Biotope 3: Foothill Rain Forest: A n i m a l s No. Scientific n a m e a n d common name Wopkaimin name G a m e birds I. A ceros plicatus /ca werr P a p u a n Hornbill 2. Cacatua galerita nama White Cockatoo 3. Caliechthrus teucolophus mirip W h i t e - C r o w n e d Koel 4. Charmosyna papou Charmosyna pulchella sikan Diphyllodes magnificus gun Geoffroyus geoffroyi fariak Geoffroyus simplex mongom Gymnophaps albertisii M o u n t a i n Pigeon derkon 21 tangfiter 2,19 Breynia sp. balem I, 10 Callicarpa longifolia konkimis 3 Canarium sp. kwal 3,6 Canthium sp. yatot 6 komeng 19 walap 20 tree aariakal Blue-Collared parrot 9. 19,20 tree Red-Cheeked Parrot 8. kulip tree Magnificent Bird o f Paradise 7. Aphanamixis sp. G a m e birds hunted tree Little Red Lory 6. Feeding plants A glaia sp. tree A lpinia sp. ginger Wopkaimin name tree Fairy Lory 5. Scientific n a m e and common name Cryptocarya sp, tree abim Elmerrillia papuana tree e~ 10. Larius roratus sarinimnim 11. Myzomela cruentata kawatokin 12. Myzomela nigrita 13. Black Myzomela Myzomela rosenbergii Black and Red Honeyeater kawatokin Opopsitta gulielmi kuulkuulbagel ulipsek Paradisaea raggiana karal Raggiana Bird of Paradise 16, Probosciger aterrimus aiyonkim Palm Cockatoo 17. Pseudeos fuscata 18. Psittrichas fulgidus 20. Ptilinopus rivoli Slanty-chinned Longbill tree Ficus sp. tree Finchta sp. tree Gloehidion sp. gawar Horsfieldia subtilis balein 7,10 mulgalim 3,8 kaul 7, i0 f arim 1,19 sarak 16 aneim 7,1 O, 17 tangtungim 2,3 mong 2 wokden 3,6 wokmagrum 1,2,18 takin 9 P~ N , e,, tree tree mainun Leea indica kik Lepidopetalum subdichotomum tree White-Breasted Fruit Dove Toxorhampus poliopterus Ficus Cl~ sublirlTbata Harpullia sp. Ornate Fruit Dove 21. Ficus arfakensis gila Vulturine Parrot Ptilinopus ornatus Ficus adenosperma tree Dusk Orange Lory 19. 22 tree William's Fig Parrot 15. koplein tree Red Myzomela 14. Erycibe sp. liana Red-Sided Eclectus Parrot tree flanok Litsea tree C~ r Table l l l b . Continued No. Scientific n a m e and common name Wopkaimin name G a m e birds 22. Xanthotis chrysotis Brown Xanthotis duulam Scientific n a m e and common name Feeding plants Macaranga sp. tree Mussaenda sp. tree Podocarpus sp. liana Poikilosperrnum sp. Wopkaimin name G a m e birds hunted groll 4 wolkitkat 22 dang 14 damlaplein 11,21 galkeit 7, I 0 kongwolgim 19 u wilkatep uwilyonterr 12,13,20, 21,22 5,7,10 uwilyonfilit 19 uwilbakankip 7,10 gipfagrlfagri 4,7,10,19 gipu wil 15 u wilgarona 7,19 gubalbor 15 liana Scaevola oppositifolia liana Schefflera chaetorrhachis epiphyte Schefflera elliptica climber Schefflera sp. aff. forbesii epiphyte Schefflera megalantha epiphyte Schefflera sp. aff. rudolfii shrub Schefflera sp. aff. tanylricha epiphyte Schefflera versteegii epiphyte Schefflera sp. aff. versteegii epiphyte Sehefflera sp. epiphyte m_ Syzygium sp. tree Trema canabina tree Veronia arborea tree 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Terrestrial and arboreal game animals Casuarius unappendiculatus Single-Wattled Cassowary Echymipera clara White-Lipped Bandicoot Hyomys goliath Rough-Tailed Giant Rat Mallornys rothschildii Smooth-Tailed Giant Rat Phalanger atrimaculatus Black-Spotted Phalanger Phalanger gyrnnotis Grey Phalanger Phalanger orientalis Common Phalanger Pteropus sp. Flying Fox Sus scrofa papuensis Feral Pig Talegalla fuscirostris Black-Billed Bush Turkey inermok 4,11,17 baiyum 5 mitik 22 = =. Feeding plants bia lu wen somkan frim sarip kwiam daiop yawum samin lawin Cryptocarya sp. tree Dioscorea sp. wild yam Duabanga rnofuccana tree Duekera taitensis tree Elaeocarpus sp. tree Elaeocarpas rnultisectus tree Elmerrillia papuana tree Eugenia sp. tree Ficus adenosperma tree Ficus copiosa tree komeng 6 lakas 10 be 1 tabak 9 kern 1 guup 6,7 walap 5,6,7 blip 8 baleim 8 yet 1,5,6,7,9 g. g- Table lllb. Continued No. Scientific name and c o m m o n name Wopkaimin name Thylogale bruijni Dusky Wallaby Wopkaimin name Game birds hunted Feeding plants Terrestrial and arboreal game animals 11. Scientific name and c o m m o n name wat om Ficus iodotricha konloat 6 taiuup 2 kauul 6 dabang 11 sarak 7 kamkon 1 tangtungim 5,6 wokmagruum 1 aarnil 1 fruk 1,6,9 groll 5,6,7 mutuul 8 kulom 1 aabol 1 tabal 3,4,6 tree Ficus pungens tree Ficus c.f. sublimbata tree Ficus virgata tree Finschia sp. tree Garcinia sp. tree Harpullia sp. tree Lepidopetalum subdichotomum tree Linociera sp. tree Litsea sp. tree Macaranga sp. tree Octomelas sumatrana tree Pandanus concavus pandan Pometia pinata tree Prunus sp. tree -i Sloanea sp. waabi 1 bliplongoyok 6,7 .m. tree Syzygium sp. tree 1. Reptiles Amphiesma rnai(ii kikruumkas Colubrid snake 2. Cancloia asper 3. Chondropython viridis z- bimkan Tree Snake li Green P y t h o n 4. Eyrtodactylus Ioriae gunkan Gecko 5. Cyrtodactylus mimicanus gunkan Gecko 6. Emoia baudini biri Skink 7. 8. Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus Banded Skink Sphenomorphus nigriventris wokleiup tablam Skink 9. 10. 11. Sphenomorphus stickeii Skink Sphenomorphus sp. Skink Stegonotus cucullatus dakiok samarok gurn warn Colubrid snake 12. Toxicolalam us preussi Elapid snake annonguuim ~~ Hyndman 234 There is an important functional relationship between Biotopes 1, 2, and 3. Basically, the diversified hunting, fishing, and collecting activities described for Biotopes 1 and 3 are contingent upon processing sago in Biotope 2. The key to sustained and successful resource utilization below an elevation of 1,000 m is sago starch, which is used as an alternative carbohydrate staple to taro. Biotope 4, Streams and Streambanks As shown in Table IV, only small Rough-Scaled Loters, Oxyeleotris fimbriatus, occur in the streams of the Kam Basin. Seven species of Hylid tree frogs are also an important food resource in Biotope 4. Biotope 4 is the only food resource zone used exclusively by women. Fish and streambank frogs are typically collected on overnight trips. From their temporary shelters (kuulam) women fish in the late afternoon by probing under sodden logs and boulders in shallow stream waters. After nightfall, torches of splintered Pandanus prop roots are lit and the streambanks are combed for frogs. The frogs and fish are steamed together in leaf bundles. Biotope 5, Mid-Mountain Rain Forest Food and raw material plants from Biotope 5 are listed in Table V. Plants ranging from such giants as Castanopsis to palms, gingers, and lianas contribute to the varied Wopkaimin diet. Castanopsis nuts are Table IV. Biotope 4: Streams and Streambanks Scientific name Fish Oxyeleotris fimbriatus Frogs Litoria angiana Litoria dorsinena Litoria modica Litoria nigropunctata Litoria sp. Nyctimystes humeralis N. pulchra Lechriodus aganoposis Cophixalus sp. Phrynomantis eurydactyla Phrynornantis slateri Common name Wopkaimin name Rough-Scaled Loter born Hylid frog Hylid frog Hylid frog Hylid frog Hylid frog Hylid frog Hylid frog Leptodactylid frog Microhylid frog Microhylid frog Microhylid frog warn nawhe binbin grandongdong gireit daghan kang bukfun kunkun kruurn lalakan Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 235 Table Va. Biotope 5: Mid-mountain Rain Forest: Food and Raw Material Plants Common name Wopkaimin name Comments Fern Fern Liana Fern Ginger Liana Palm Mushrooms Ginger Tree Liana Epiphyte Tree aanang fiam yawalein sarin sungabol yoll yalol weil (generic) gutgut mop molop kut yakim Tender leaf tops Tender leaf tops Drink Tender leaf tops Tender leaf tops Burnt for salt Tender stem base Whole plant Tender leaf tops Fruit Nut Leaves Nut Pittosporum pullifolium Euodia sp. Glochidion sp. Casuarina sp. Garcinia sp. Flagellaria indica Pandanus galorei Pandan Angostemma bryophilum Sphagnum sp. Fieus augusta Sabia pauciflora Erythroxylum ecarinatum Stephania sp. Holochlamys guineensis Cycas sp. Rubus moluccana Liana Epiphyte Tree Tree Tree Tree Liana Screw pine Herb Moss Tree Liana Tree Liana Aroid Palm Liana dikan buul suukuup aneim sola baa areing gol bitiwok nangtomok falom fuulsok ulit montenimsok keipkon dakup gakarom Asschynanthus sp. Homalomena sp. Phaleria sp. Urophyllum sp. Procris gruningii Medinilla sp. Caldcluvia sp. Conandrium polyanthum Perrottetia alpestris Cyathocalyx osmanthus Talauma areadum Liana Aroid Tree Tree Liana Liana Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree sireimgukon aawan mant maparek folkaloyok tuket kitop dakun Cordage Black pulp Medicine Squeezed juice Construction Sticky sap binder Braided belt Construction Medicine Medicine Bark rain cloak Cordage Construction Cordage Leaf food wrapper Braided belt Leaf tobacco wrapper Magical Water gourd plug Cordage Construction Medicine Sticky sap binder Firewood Construction Firewood Construction Axe handles Taxonomic identification Food plants Dennstaedtia sp. Diplazium esculentum Uncaria sterrophylla Dicksonia sp. Alpina sp. Asplenium sp. Heterospathe humilis Fungus sp. A Ipinia sp. Baccaurea papuana Cissus sp. Peperonia sp. Castanopsis acuminatissima Raw material plants Calamus sp. kwil kilfel Hyndman 236 consumed raw or cooked, and they may have been an important subsistence resource in preagricultural New Guinea (Bulmer and Bulmer, 1964: 147). Baccaurea fruits are seasonally a great favorite. Asplenium, a spontaneously occurring epiphyte, is burned to produce an ash which is used as a salt for pork. Other raw material plants are listed in Table V. Pandanus is a very versatile plant used in construction. Hamlet houses are constructed mostly of Pandanus: prop roots are split for walls, and floors are made from the flattened outer rind of the palm. Bark raincloaks, yuusuum, are fashioned from Ficus augusta and worn by women and girls. They are used as protection from heavy rains and they are regularly traded to the Tifalmin for tobacco. Table V shows the principal game birds and some of the feeding plants in Biotope 5. Caeatua galerita is the only large bird to cross biotope boundaries; it feeds on Castanopsis nuts in Biotope 5. Casuarius unappendiculatus and Sus scrofa papuensis are essentially terrestrial game animals of the foothill rain forest, but they do range into the lower elevations of the Kam Basin. When Fagraea is fruiting it becomes one of the principal feeding plants for cassowaries. Phalanger maculatus and Phalanger atrimaculatus are foothill rain forest animals and do not range into the Kam Basin. Phalanger orientalis is found only in Biotope 3 and is replaced by Phalanger interpositus in Biotope 5. Phalanger vestitus is primarily a montane species and is the most frequently killed game animal in the Kam Basin. Table Vb also shows the principal animals collected by women in Biotope 5. Here frogs, reptiles, and insects are not as concentrated a resource as they are in Biotope 4, so they are only casually collected by women en route through the rain forest for other purposes. Biotope 6, Gardens in Use Gardens are the most anthropogenically induced biotope in the Kam Basin. Between 1974 and 1975, 7.5 hectares (ha) were under cultivation in the Kam Basin. As is common in the Highland Fringe (Powell, 1976: 121), the Wopkaimin have taro, Colocasia esculenta, as their staple crop. Other crops grown in the polycultural, extensive form of shifting cultivation practiced by the Wopkaimin are shown in Table VI. The importance of Colocasia to the Wopkaimin, and to other Mountain Ok, is seen in the role it plays in ritual (Barth, 1975; Wheatcroft, 1975). The phases of shifting cultivation are recognized with the term yon for maturing and harvesting stages and the term binop for the Meliosma, Cyathea, Alphitonia woodland fallow stage. Table Vb. Biotope 5: Mid-Mountain Rain Forest: Animals No. Scientific name and common name Wopkaimin name Game birds 1. Amblyorn& macgregoriae fuunfuun MacGregor's Bowerbird 2. Cacatua galerita 3. Caliechthrus leucolophus nama White Cockatoo mirip White-Crowned Koel 4. Charmosyna papou 5. Charmosyna pulchella Castanopsis acuminatissima gun Conandrium polyanthum Diphyllodes magnificus titinim Epimachus fastosus fariak 10. Geoffroyus geoffroyi Red-Cheeked Parrot Geoffro yus simplex 11. Gymnophaps albertisii 16,28 duwinduwaiok 16,28 butbut 1,8,21 yakim 2 dakuun 13,15,21 Cryptocarya xylophylla deran 8,26 Cyathocalyx osmanthus kwil 8 balkes tree yonyonnin Dimorphanthera anchorifera Ficus augusta falom 4, 5,13,14, 15,16 1,13,21 wananglein 1,9,13 aariakal tree Ficus sp. tree abim Freycinetia sp. kitkot 1,9,20 muiop 9,13,21 buk 8 tuke t 14 wopgrom 20 Black Sickle-Billed Bird of Paradise 9. awonkumak tree Magnificent Bird of Paradise 8. Game birds hunted tree Josefine's Lory 7. Wopkaimin name liana mongam Blue-Collared Parrot Mountain Pigeon 12. Larius roratus creeper sarinimnim Red-Sided Eclectus Parrot 13. Lophorina superba Melidectes rufocrissalis kirang Melipotes fumigatus Common Melipotes Litsea sp. tree kalkol Reichenow's Melidectes 15. GlochMion sp. tree Superb Bird of Paradise 14. =, 2. tree Little Red Lory Charmosynajosefinae Feeding plants Alpinia sp. ginger Alpinia sp. ginger Canarium sp. tree sikan Fairy Lory 6. Scientific name and common name Medin illa s p. liana kasuup Pandanus foveolatus pandan e~ Table Vb. Continued No. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 1. Scientific name and common name Game birds Micropsitta bruijni Red-Breasted Pygmy Parrot Myzomela cruentata Red Myzomela Myzomela nigrita Black Mysomela Myzomela rosenbergii Black and Red Honeyeater Paradisaea raggiana Raggiana Bird of Paradise Parotia eoralae Queen Carola's Parotia Philemon meyeri Meyer's Friar Bird Pseudeos fuscata Dusk-Orange Lory Psittrichas fulgidus Vulturine Parrot Ptilinopus ornatus Ornate Fruit Dove Ptilinopus rivoli White-Breasted Fruit Dove Pycnopygius stictocephalus Streak-Capped Honeyeater Toxorhampus poliopterus Slanty-Chinned Longbill Xanthotis chrysotis Brown Xanthotis Terrestrial and arboreal game animals Casuarius bennetti Dwarf Cassowary Wopkaimin name wapterr kawatok ulipsek kawatokin karal baklom krosol gila ga war maiuun kik wapkai flanok duulam Scientific name and common name Feeding plants Piper macropiper liana Perrottetia alpestris tree Polyscias sp. tree Schefflera eriocephala epiphyte Schefflera sp. aff. forbesii epiphyte Schefflera sp. a f f . inophylloides epiphyte Schefflera sp. a f f . morobeana epiphyte Schefflera sp. a f f . papuana epiphytic climber Schefflera setulosa epiphyte Schefflera sp. shrub Symplocos sp. tree Tirnonius balensis tree Urophyllum rostraturn tree Vaccinium sp. liana b~ Wopkaimin name Game birds hunted kuulkor 14 wangil 9,13,20, kinkin 15 uwilaok gaunsaabret 9,13,16, 21,25 5,9,13,15, 16 9,13,15, eimal 14,15 uwil 6,18,28 u wilyonbull warn 5,9,13,15, 16,20 6,16,18, 28,29 9,13,15 mukon 1,8,9,15 kinkinsofet 1,13,15,21 feram 1,4,5 u wilyon terr tuuwen e~ kubomeno Aceratium archboldianum tree moopyang 2 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 7. 8. 9. Casuarius unappendiculatus Single-Wattled Cassowary Echymipera kalubu Spiny Bandicoot Peroryctes longicuada Striped Bandicoot Phalanger gymnotis Grey Phalanger Phalanger interpositus Phalanger Phalanger vestitus Silky Phalanger Pseudocheirus cupreus Coppery Ringtail Sus scrofa papuensis Feral pig bia Baccaucea papuana mop 5,6,7 tibop 7,8 molap 2 worrkitkat 2 WOrE 2 kongmatek 9 gaabrum 2 kirnuyum 2 gumanrnong 3,8 maiam 5,6,7 tirein 2 guman 7,8 tik 6 clang 2 fakal 1 bliptongoyok 5,7 kilfel 5,7 tree kaial sanok nareim kitam kaian samin Cissus sp. tree Cryptocarya laevigata liana Cryptocarya laevigata tree Fagreae sp. tree Fungus sp. mushroom Garcinia warrenii tree Hornstedtia sp. ginger Hornsfieldia sp. tree Lithocarpus nufovillosus tree Mackinlaya sch lech teri tree Myristica subalutata tree Pavetta platyclada tree Podocarpus sp. liana Palmae sp. palm Syzygium sp. tree Taluama areadum tree r e~ C/3 c~ No, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Scientific name and common name Frogs Litoria angiana Hylid frog Litoria arfakiana Hylid frog Litoria iris Hylid frog Litoria modica Hylid frog Ncytimystes zweifeli Hylid frog Ncytirnystes sp. Hylid frog Cophixalus rostellifer Microhylid frog Hylophorbus sp, Microhylid frog Wopkaimin name No. geimkot 1. talin 2. sawip 3. dabong 4. itul 5. akemin 6. dei 7. daghum 8. Scientific name and common name Reptiles A mphiesma mairii Colubrid snake Candoia asper tree snake Chondropython viridis Green Python Stegonotus eucullatus Colubrid snake Emoia sp. Ant skink Emoia eyanogaster Skink Ernoia pallidiceps Skink Emoia sp. Skink Wopkaimin name guungfeimkan bimkan li gurn warn biri faiirn sabom gunong 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Oreophryne sp. Microhylid frog Oreophyrne sp. Microhylid frog Oreophrflne sp. Microhylid frog Sphenophryne eornuta Microhylid frog Sphenophryne maerorhyncha Microhylid frog Xenobatrachus mehelyi Microhylid frog Rana grisea Ranid frog Rana sp. Ranid frog amiang 9. demlak 10. giregire 1 I. barenal 12. bagok 13. moiyokan 14. sa wflt2 ketkan 1. 2. 3. 4. Lobulia lezana Skink Sphenomorphus cinereus Skink Sphenomorphusjobrinsis Bush Skink Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus Banded Skink Sphenomorphus nigriventris Skink Sphenomorphus sp. Skink Insects Eupatorus becarii Brown Scarab Beetle Selenocosmia crassipes Spider Sewognathus arfakianis Black-Horned Beetle Scapanes austral& Black Scarab Beetle sasirok 2 gauuun luup " wokleiup = tablam ~" samarok g" kwin (generic) ~ suwin kwin (generic) kwin (generic) Hyndman 242 Table VI. Biotope 6: Gardens: Useful Plants Scientific name Common name Carica payaya Colocasia esculenta Cucumis sativas Cucurbita moschata Dioscorea sp. Eleocharis dulcis Hibiscus manihot Ipomoea batatas Lagenaria siceraria Lagenaria siceraria Manihot utilissima Musa sp. Nicotiana tabacurn Oenanthe javanica Phaseolus lunatus Phaseolus vulgar& R ungia klossii Saccharum edule Saccharum officinarum Sechium edule Setariapalmifolia Xanthosoma sp. Zea rnays Papaw Taro Cucumber Pumpkin Yam Swamp grass Abikai (tok pisin) Sweet potato Gourd Gourd Cassava Banana Tobacco Forb Lima bean Bean Shrub Pitpit (tok pisin) Sugar cane Chayote (choko) Pitpit (tok pisin) New World Taro Corn Wopkaimin name asskim yaman kemit wakap bukta wanam amul won wok kamen sinom sum sauk kogeip fatkruk mil manawok assop kaiit sofi kasin miriwang dagagok The Wopkaimin system of paleotechnic extensive shifting cultivation closely approximates "low-intensity swidden agricultfire" as described by Brookfield with Hart (1971: 81). However, it is not technically a swiden system because forest is not cleared with the use of fire. Low-intensity slash and mulch is a better description of Wopkaimin shifting cultivation. The only ecosystem modification in Colocasia gardening is weeding the plot and excluding livestock; the latter by isolating pig husbandry from gardens and hamlets rather than by fencing. Colocasia gardens are a complete mixture of all crops (Table VI) grown in a single undifferentiated plot. In the Kam Basin Colocasia spatially occurs over 50% of the time in random plant frequency tests of gardens in all stages of maturity. In descending order of frequency, the other major crops are (1) Hibiscus manihot and Setaria palmifolia, about 8o70 each; (2) Ipomoea batatas, Musa, and Xanthosoma, about 4% each; (3) Cucumis sativas, Cucurbita moscha, and Sechium edule, about 3% each; and (4) Saccharum officinarum, Rungia klossii, and Oenanthe javanica, about 2% each. The remaining food plants listed in Table VI each occur less than 1~ of the time. Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 243 Biotope 7, Hamlets in Use Three hamlets were used in the Kam Basin between 1974 and 1975. Hamlet residence figures taken nightly for 3 consecutive months in 1975 in the study hamlet of Bakonabip ranged from 10 to 78, with an average of 40. People are continually dispersing to other living sites, such as frog-collecting shelters (kuulam), and garden, hunting, fishing, and sago-processing shelters (nukam). All of the Mountain Ok, including the Wopkaimin, organize their houses around a central plaza. Barth (1975: 20-22) presents an accurate description of Mountain Ok hamlets. Houses are always elevated on posts and include women's houses and menstrual huts, a larger men's house, and a men's cult house. Hamlets represent substantial time investments, since each house requires between 600 and 900 man-hours to build (Morren, 1974: 151-152). Stilts, posts, ridgepole and rafters are constructed from mid-mountain rain forest trees (Table Va). Split Panclanus prop roots are used as lathing on the roof. Wider lathes of Pandanus are tied with cordage to support poles for walls. Floors and walls are lined in the flattened outer rind of Pandanus. Thatching is always Metroxylon fronds (Biotope 2). Houses always have floor-level clay hearths that are suspended in a cradle framework below the floor. Firewood is dried in storage racks above the hearth. Little cooking is done outdoors because of the heavy rain. Taro contributes 66% of all calories consumed. Tubers are baked in the ashes of the clay hearths. Other vegetables are steamed in tight leaf bundles. By weight, 8~ of all foods come from animals, particularly feral pig, cassowary, Pseudocheirus cupreus and Phalanger vest#us. Results of a 3-month diet study (Hyndman, 1979: 236-282) indicate that about 2,000 calories and 50 g of protein per person per day are available. Domesticated foods provide 93~ of calories and 70O7o of proteins; nondomesticated foods provide the remainder. Bakonabip occupies a 30-m by 250-m ridge crest clearance surrounded by secondary forest. In 1975 Bakonabip contained an anthropologist's house; three menstrual huts (uukam), about 3.5 m 2 each; three women's houses (wananam), two with a single hearth about I0 m 2 each and one with a double hearth about 25 m2; one double-hearthed men's house (kaweeram), about 27 m2; and a cult house (amokam) about 3 m 2. The central plaza was leached down to a limestone gravel hardpan surface. Elsewhere, ground cover consisted of light-demanding Axonophus compressus. Heavy rains kept everyone indoors in the afternoon. Inside the men's and women's houses, taro was baked in the suspended hearths and smoke floated through glistening pitch black Metroxylon thatching. Every dawn and dusk suspended layers of house smoke imperceptibly merged into thick layers of low-hanging stratus cloud. 244 Hyndman Table VII. Biotope 7: Hamlets: Useful Plants and Animals Scientific name Plants Axonophus compressus Bambusa sp. Carica papaya Cordyline terminalis Dioscorepa spp. Ipomoea batatas Iresine herbstii Musa sp. Nicotiana tabacum Pandanus conoideus Pandanusjulianettii Phaseolus lunatus Phrynium sp. Saccarum officinarum Xanthosoma sp, Animals Rattus ruber Canisfamiliaris hallstromi Common name Grass Bamboo Papaw Tanket (tok pisin) Yam Sweet potato Shrub Banana Tobacco Marita (tok pisin) Karuka (tok pisin) Lima bean Shrub Sugar cane New World Taro House rat Hunting dog Wopkaimin name tekon gemi asskim bet bukta won bulbul sum sauk kaiep sal fatkruk yarnandet kaiit miriwang boiem maian The Wopkaimin devote considerable attention to dooryard plantings (see Table VII). Food crops are never fenced because domestic pigs are not allowed in the hamlets. Dooryard plantings are a source Of emergency rations. Bananas and Xanthosoma are quite common, but Colocasia is never planted around a hamlet. Cordyline terminatis is always present around hamlets, both as a ritual and as decoration plant. Clumps of sugar cane and bamboo are scattered about. Men's houses are bordered with tobacco plants. Pandanus conoideus are planted around lower elevation hamlets and Pandanus julianettii are planted around higher elevation hamlets. An animal persistently associated with hamlets is the house rat, Rattus ruber (Table VII). The house-rat population provides acceptable food for women and children, except in hamlets with cult houses. Domestic pigs are not domiciled in hamlets but they are butchered, cooked, and consumed there. The common practice among the Mountain Ok is to foster their pigs communally in bush houses, with the person who fosters the pig providing all its food and care (Barth, 1975: 35). In the Kam Basin the domestic pig population is around 25 + 10; the Wopkaimin outnumber their pigs by 2:1. Dogs, Canis familiaris hallstromi, are owned by, and constantly associated with, men in the hamlets. Some of the dogs are so small, scruffy, emaciated, and weak that they serve more as pets than as economic assets. 245 Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System Of the total of five dogs in the Kam Basin, only one was an outstanding hunting dog. Since Mountain Ok dogs breed in captivity and give birth in the presence of their owners (Barth, 1975: 37), it is common for a half-starved mother to bring prey back to her pup, whereupon the women of the household capture her catch (Morren, 1974: 289). Such captured prey is termed maiangam and is classified as an edible food for females. Domestic dog flesh is not consumed by the Wopkaimin but wild dog is considered edible for senior initiated men. In male initiation rites, a domestic dog is killed and its penis and intestines fed to the initiated boys (Barth, 1975: 64). B i o t o p e 8, Pandanus Orchards The Wopkaimin plant and maintain both Pandanus conoideus and Pandanus julianettii in orchards (Table VIII). Although never planted in the same orchard, both species are included in Biotope 8 because their internal environment is similar, regardless of their elevational locality in the Kam Basin. Pandanus conoideus orchards, kaiepyon, are in the same elevational range as Colocasia gardens. Pandanus julianettii orchards, salyon, have a higher elevational distribution, up to 2,000 m. Pandanus conoideus orchards are one of the most durable anthropogenically induced biotopes in the Wopkaimin ecosystem, and they occur in varying ages in a way structurally similar to Colocasia gardens and secondary regrowth. Keeping the understory vegetation slashed back promotes and maintains a ground-level plant association of gingers and Paspalum conjugatum. The single most important resource from these orchards is the seasonally (December-March) available red, oily sauce obtained from the fruit, which is a rich source of vegetable fat (Clarke, 1971: 37). The long, drooping fronds serve as roofing for temporary shelters. Uromys anak is a prized animal that eats the drupes of the fruit of Pandanus conoideus. The flesh of Uromys anak is consumed by old men and boys and the animal's incisors serve as etching tools. Table VII1. Biotope 8: Pandanus Orchards: Useful Plants and animals Scientificname Pandanus conoideus Uromys anak Pandanusjulianettff Commonname Marita (tok pisin) Black-Tailed Tree Rat Karuka(tok pisin) Wopkaimin name kaiep waiangim sal 246 Hyndman Pandanus julianettii orchards are located from 1,500 m in midmountain rain forest up to 2,000 m in moss forest along the base of the Hindenburg Wall. The Wopkaimin maintain small orchards with fewer than 10 trees, whereas the Faiwolmin, to their east, have much more extensive plantings. The chief resource from these orchards is the large nut cluster, which ripens between March and April every other year. The nuts are eaten raw, or heated and smoked in the hearth. Biotope 9, Abandoned Gardens and Hamlets Secondary and cultivated biotic communities in the Kam Basin are those in which the Wopkaimin move about daily. A spontaneously diverse habitat is created by horticulturally induced disturbance. Table IXa shows some of the plants represented i n the succession of spontaneous communities that are useful as food and raw materials. When gardening, trees are pollarded or retarded with hot coals in the knowledge that many will rejuvenate, especially Alphitonia and Ficus spp. Cucurbitaceae, tree ferns, ferns, and fleshy grasses are the main wild plants in Biotope 9 that form an integrated food-procurement subsystem (see Dornstreich, 1973: 132). Oenanthe, Rungia, Saccharum, and Setaria are planted Species that have wild or weed forms. Many "unplanned but welcome assets," such as Trichosanthes, Cyathea, Bambusa, Ficus, and Miscanthus, occur in abandoned gardens throughout the Highland Fringe (Clarke, 1971: 84). Other useful plants in Biotope 9 include Acalypha leaves for wrapping tobacco and Alphitonia bark for preparing Pandanus conoideus fruit. Biotope 9 is an excellent habitat for hunting. It has been suggested that many tropical rain forest hunter-horticulturalists plant gardens to attract game animals (Holmberg, 1969: 69; Hughes, 1970: 9; Dornstreich, 1973: 136, Morren, 1974; Linares, 1976). The Wopkaimin proscribe hunting in Colocasia gardens, but the relationship between Biotope 9 and hunting is structurally similar. The fruit and flower birds attracted to Biotope 9 are the same as those hunted in the mid-mountain rain forest. The avian fauna in Biotope 9, however, is concentrated closer to the hamlets and is hunted more frequently. Ficus, Schefflera setulosa, and Schefflera monticola are important feeding plants for birds in Biotope 9. Arboreal fauna is strongly attracted to Biotope 9, as is clear from Table IXb. The cultural recognition given by the Wopkaimin to the interrelationship between arboreal fauna and Biotope 9 is revealed in their naming of some of the spontaneous plants after local game animals, such as Cyclosorus, dubolmanawil (dubol means tree kangaroo, Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 247 Table IXa. Biotope 9: Abandoned Gardens: Food and Raw Material Plants Common name Wopkaimin name Comments Tanket (tok p&in) Tree fern Tree fern Forb Fern Fern Mushroom Fern Forb Shrub Grass Grass Liana beth tablein nuknuk buksun inan fiam weil (generic) guubil kogeip manawok moguul leip moop Tender new leaves Tender leaves Tender leaves Whole plant Tender leaves Tender leaves Whole plant Tender leaves Tender leaves Tender new leaves Immature inflorescence Stem Fruit A chyranthes bidentata Shrub Shrub bitan sung Alphitonia icana Tree dagiam Alpinia sp. Atpinia sp. A ngiopteris evecta Bambusa sp. Ginger Ginger Fern Bamboo kibikes kween faril gemi Coix lachryrnajobi Grass bogop Coleus scutellarioides Forb nirnnarn Curculigo erecta Aroid yabinkon Cyathea sp. Debregeasia sp. Desrnodiurn epandurn Dicranopteris linearis vat. altissima Elatosterna intergrifolia Eudia c.f. trichopetala Ficus congesta Fieus dammaropsis Fungus sp. Hornalanthus nervosus Laportea sp. Tree fern Tree Herb awonisan torn sapong Tobacco wrapper Traditional salt Bark marita receptacle Food wrapper Construction Medicine Knives, projectile point, jews harp Seeds strung as necklace Personal adornment Food wrapper for sago Construction Infant toilet wiper Tobacco wrapper Fern Shrub Tree Tree Tree Fungi Tree Nettles galloorn woll bin kaul kaisel slukbol bawan birngalgol Maearanga gibbilimburn Mallotus sp. Tree Tree tarol balbol Miscanthusfloridulus Mussaenda sp. Piper gibbilimbum Rubus moluccana Grass Tree Tree Liana makar galan aluk gakarorn Scientific name Food plants Cordyline terminal& Cyathea sp. Cyathea sp. Cyperus melanospermus Dennstaedtia sp. Diplazium esculentum Fungi sp. Microlepia sp. Oenanthejavanica Rungia klossii Saceharum sp. Setaria palmifolia Trichosanthes sp. Raw material plants A calypha sp. Toy arrows Medicine Firewood String for net bags Food wrapper Medicine Firewood Medicine ritual Tobacco wrapper Construction, firewood Arrow shafts Infant toilet wiper Tobacco pipe Tobacco wrapper bJ Table IXb. Biotope 9: Animals Utilized in Abandoned Gardens No. Scientific name and common name Wopkaimin name Game birds 1. Amblyornis macgregoriae Charmosyna papou Charmosyna pulchella sikan Charmosynajosefinae gun Epimachus fastosus titinim Geoffroyus geoffroyi yonyonnin 8. Larius roratus Red-Sided Eelectus Parrot Lophorina superba mongam Melidectes rufocrissalis sarinimnim Melipotes fumigatus kirang Micropsitta bruijni kalkol Myzomela nigrita Myzomela rosenbergii Paradisaea raggiana Raggiana Bird of Paradise Coleus scutellarioides nimnam 7 Crassocephalum crepidioides dubunam 7 Cypholophus latifolia galgaluk 13 Cyrtandra sp. garinok 9,13,18 Eudla c.f. trichopetala bin 2,4,16 Euodia sp. bindarom 8 Fieus c.f. gul. vas. eubractea gum 8,10,15 wapterr tree Ficus sp. tree tuuwin 1,7,8,10, 15,17 ulipsek Gloehidion sp. fitang 8,1 O, 15 bawan 7,8,10,15 fawuk 7 tree kawatokin Black and Red Honeyeater 14. 8,1 O, 15 kasuup Black Myzomela 13. luup tree Red-Breasted Pygmy Parrot 12. Calticarpa sp. tree Common Melipotes 11. 7,9 liana Reichenow's Melldectes 10. buskuli tree Superb Bird of Paradise 9. Amyema friesianum grass Red-Cbeeked Parrot 7. 4,13,18 shrub Black Sickle-Billed Bird of Paradise 6. kwin tree Josefine's Lory 5. Alpinia sp. epiphyte Little Red Lory 4. Game birds hunted ginger Fairy Lory 3. Wopkaimin name Feeding Plants: fuunfuun MacGregor's Bowerbird 2. Scientific name and common name Homolanthus nervosus tree karal' Impatieus hawkeri forb 15. 16. 17. 18. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Parotia coralae Queen Carola's Parotia Pseudeos fuscata Dusk-Orange Lory Psittrichas fulgidus Vulturine Parrot Toxorhamphus poliopterus Slanty-Chinned Longbill Terrestrial and arboreal game animals Dendrolagus sp. Tree Kangaroo Hyomys goliath Smooth-Tailed Giant Rat Mallomys rothschildii Rough-Tailed Giant Rat Phalanger gymnotis Grey Phalanger Phalanger interpositus baklom gila gawar flanok dubol somkan frim kwiam nareim Phalanger 6. 7. 8. Phalanger vestitus Silky Phalanger Pseudocheirus corinnae Eastern Ringtail Pseudocheirus cupreus Coppery Ringtail kitam Ludwigia octovalis forb Maesa sp. tree Mallotus sp. tree Mucuna liana Myrmelodia sp. burll Schefflera sp. nov. aff. monticola scrambling epiphyte Schefflera setulosa epiphyte Trichosanthes sp. liana Wendlandia paniculata tree Feeding plants Cordyline terminal& tanket (tok p&in) Curculigo erecta aroid Cyathea sp. tree fern Cyclosorus sp. fern Debregeasia sp. tree Dennstaedtia s p. kurilim 8,10 bopnin 1,7,8,10,15 balbal 7,8,10,15 damsal 2,9,16 bunong 7,16 uwilkus 6,7, I 0,13 u wilyonbull moop 3,5,6,8,10 11,14 7,8,15 kiwet 1,10 m . e~ beth 4 yabinkon 9 nuknuk 7,8 dubolmanawil 1,4,6,8 tom 4,6,8 inan 5,7,8 fiam 6,7,8 dawam kaian Diplazium esculen turn fern 4~ 0 Table IXb. Continued No. Scientific n a m e and common name Wopkaimin name Terrestrial and arboreal game animals 9. Sus scrofa papuensis Scientific n a m e and common name Wopkaimin name G a m e birds bunted gum kaul 4,5,6,8 4,8 binian 4,6 bawan 4 kulkul 6 taral 6, 7,8 guubil 6,7,8 Meliosma pinnata f ongam 4,6,7,8 Mussaenda sp. galan 4,5,8 mulgalirn 6,8 aluk 4 kwiamban 2,3,4 sluuak 7,8 Feeding plants samin Feral Pig Ficus e.f . gul var. eubractea tree Ficus congesta Reptiles 1. Carlia fusca tree bri Skink tree 2. Emoia eyanogaster 3. Skink Emoia sp. Skink gunong Sphenomorphus cinereus gauuun 4. faiim Sphenornorphus jobiensis Sphenomorphus nigriventris 7. Sphenomorphus sp. Macaranga gibbilirnbum tree luup Microlepia sp. fern tablam Skink Skink Maearanga caudata tree Bush Skink 6. Homolanthus nervosus tree Skink 5. Fieus sp. samarok tree tree Oreocnide sp. tree Piper gibbilimbum tree Piper sp. tree Soloanea anoniodes Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence Syslem 251 Dendrolagus), Piper, kwiamban (kwiam means grey phalanger, Phalanger gymnotis); and Cyathea, nuknuk (nuk is the generic term for furred game m a m m a l s ) . Cyclosorus, Cyathea, and Piper are valuable to the W o p k a i m i n for successful hunting because these feeding trees attract game animals close to the hamlets. M a n y spontaneous plants are eaten by the W o p k a i m i n as well as by wild animals (Tables IXa, IXb). Biotope 9 is not overlooked by W o p k a i m i n children. Girls and boys usually spend several hours each day playing in a b a n d o n e d gardens. Part of this playtime is devoted to collecting frogs and reptiles (Table IXb). Boys often use toy bows and arrows to hunt skinks. T w o colonizing skinks, Carlia fusca and Sphenomorphus nigriventirs, are given special attention by adult women, who create litter mounds, atim moon, as breeding colonies for the skinks and then collect them and their eggs. B i o t o p e 10, M o s s Forest Adults find that usefulness of the moss forest is limited, and children almost never spend any time there. The Pandanus antaresensis, known to the W o p k a i m i n as aian, is nearly a semicultivated plant in Biotope 10 (Table Xa). Aggregations of Pandanus antaresensis are likely to be anthropogenic everywhere in the Highland Fringe because, as Clarke (1971: 83) suggests, "the chopping and gathering associated with collecting the products o f the high elevation P a n d a n u s . . . somehow encourage the maintenance and perhaps the expansion of Pandanusdominated stands o f forest." Some of the avian f a u n a shown in Table Xb have crossed biotope boundaries f r o m lower elevations. Others, like Astrapia splendidissima, first occur in Biotope 10. Three hunting shelters in the moss forest are located at the waterfall headwaters of the main Karkil and Kam Table Xa. Biotope 10: Moss Forest: Food and Raw Material Plants Common name Wopkaimin name Comments Tree Pandan gorr aian Fruits Nuts Tree warom Pandanusantaresensis Pandan aian Pittosporum sp. Xanthomyrtus sp. Tree Tree akkis aang Firewood, construction Leaves for thatching Firewood Firewood Scientific name Food plants Eugenia sp. Pandanusantaresensis Raw material plants Garciniasp. Table Xb. Biotope 10: Moss Forest: Animals NO. Scientific name a n d common name Wopkaimin name Game birds 1. Amblyornis macgregoriae 3. Astrapia splendidissima Splendid Astrapia Charmosyna papou Charmosyna pulchella Alpinia sp. awonkumakaok 9,12,15 gaan ginger Cissus sp. gaanlap 2 sikan liana Eugenia sp. kuulip 7, t 3,14 deip 7,13,14 saafem 3,6,9,1 O, tree gun Little Red Lory 5 Epimachus fastosus Geoffroyus geoffroyi yonyonnin Gymnophaps albertisii 8. Lophorina superba 9. Melidectes rufocrissalis Schefflera brassaiella tree Schefflera sp. aff. morobeana mongam Red Cheeked Parrot 7. Pittospurum sp. tree Black Sickle-Billed Bird of Paradise 6. Game birds hunted Feeding plants Fairy Lory 4. Wopkaimin name fuunfuun MacGregor's Bowerbird 2. Scientific name and common name abim Mountain Pigeon kirang Superb Bird of Paradise kalkol uwilkonkakum shrub Schefflera setulosa uwilyonbull epiphyte Sphenostemon sp. 11,13 2,3,4,5,6, 10,11,13 2,4,6,8,10, 11 mabarak 7,13 aang 1,2,5,8,10 12 tree Xanthomyrtus sp. Reichenow's Melidectes 10. Melipotes fumigatus kasuup Common Melipote 11. Micropsitta bruijni wapterr Red Breasted Pygmy Parrot 12. Myzomela rosenbergii Black and Red Honeyeater kawatokin e~ 13. 14. 15. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1+ 2. 3. 4. Ptilinopus ornatus Ornate Fruit Dove Ptilinopus rivoli White-breasted Fruit Dove Toxorhamphus poliopterus Slanty-Chinned Longbill Terrestrial and arboreal game animals Dobsonia moluccensis Naked-Backed Bat Phalanger carmelitae Phalanger Phalanger gymnotis Grey Phalanger Phalanger vestitus Silky Phalanger Pseudocheirus corrinae Eastern Ringtail Pseudocheirus cupreus Coppery Ringtail Frogs Litoria angiana Hylid frog Litoria bulmeri Hylid frog Litoria sp. Hylid frog Oreophryne sp. Microhylid frog maiuun kik flanok ~+ sluul norim kwiam kitam dawam kaian ateem diniop kwetkwet gawolkyak Feeding plants Cryptocarya sp, tree Eugenia sp. tree Ficus sp. tree Garcinia sp. tree Maearanga sp. tree Pittospurum sp, tree Saurauia sp. tree kabongfoss 2,4,5,6 gorr 3,4 kabongteit 2,4,5,6 warom 3,4,5,6 kitamtong 2,4 akkis 2,4,5,6 gamarr 2,4,5,6 ~~ (/3 r~ Hyndman 254 streams and on the track below the Hindenburg Wall leading to the Ilam Valley of the Tifalmin. Bird ambush blinds are erected close to these hunting shelters, near Xanthomyrtus, Eugenia, Pittosporum, and Schefflera feeding trees. Schefflera spp., usually epiphytes elsewhere, are low shrubs and treelets in Biotope 10. Little grows on the trees except moss. Important game animals hunted are listed in Table Xb. Phalanger gymnotis crosses major biotope boundaries more than any other cuscus. Phalanger vestitus, prevalent in the Kam Basin, is a fringe inhabitant of the moss forest. This higher-altitude biotope is the main range of Phalanger carmelitae. The ringtail Pseudocheirus cupreus also crosses several biotope boundaries. Pseudocheirus corrinae inhabits undisturbed portions of the moss forest. When women shelter overnight for frog collecting they will occasionally extend their collecting range into Biotope 10. Table Xb lists the common frogs taken when frog-collecting expeditions begin in one of the hunting shelters located in the moss forest. Biotope 11, Upper Montane Rain Forest As.shown in Fig. 3, Biotope 11 is an undulating plateau above the Hindenburg Wall, between 2,000 and 2,500 m in elevation. Its principal food plant resource is the kaun nut, Pandanus brosimos (Table XIa). Biotope 11 is well within the elevational range of Pandanus brosimos elsewhere in New Guinea (Powell, 1976: 132). The kaun nut Pandanus ripens every other year between March and April, and is a seasonal food. Many are transported back to the Kam Basin and hunters find them a valuable food when hunting in Biotope 11. Table XIa. Biotope 11: Upper Montane Rain Forest: Food and Raw Material Plants Scientific name Common name Wopkaimin name Comments Food plants Pandanus brosimos Karuka (tok pisin) kaun Nut Tree butbutkirap Nothofagus sp. Pandanus brosimos Beech Karuka (tok pisin) kirap kaun Papuacedrus papuanus Phyllocladus hypophyllus Syzygium sp. Conifer Conifer taman iskimit Tree blipaok Firewood, construction Construction Leaves for thatching Construction Firewood, construction Firewood, construction Raw material plants Elaeocarpus sp. Biotope Gradient in a Diversified Subsistence System 255 The well-used trade route between the Wopkaimin and the Tifalmin has three main hunting shelters (nukam): Kafarom, near the rim of the Hindenburg Wall; Finimterr, near Mt. Fugilil; and Arikarikterr, near the Bahrman Mountains. Additional hunting shelters are distributed east and west of the trading route. Game bird hunting is not as seriously pursued as in the Kam Basin. Ambush blinds are occasionally erected around hunting shelters near Freycinetia and Schefflera spp. feeding plants (Table XIb). Hunters will actively seek the black plumes of the Splendid Astrapia. The Dwarf Cassowary, Casuarius bennetti, is the largest game animal in Biotope 11. Rand and Gilliard (1967: 25) have found the Dwarf Cassowary in other high-altitude mountain forests in New Guinea. In Biotope 11 it is not prevalent because edible fruits are small and scarce. Phalanger gymnotis and Pseudocheirus cupreus extend their range out of the Kam Basin into Biotope 11. The two most frequently killed game animals are Phalanger carmelitae and Mallomys rothschildii. Two species of fruit bats, Dobsonia moluccensis and Aproteles bulmerae, roost in caves. It was quite unexpected to find Aproteles roosting in Biotope 11 and being regularly hunted because they were thought to have become extinct over 9,000 years ago (Hyndman and Menzies, 1980). SUMMARY Some 210 different plants representing 165 genera and 91 families are presented in the discussion of biotope diversity in the Wopkaimin ecosystem. Of the 91 plant families distributed through the gradient of 11 biotopes, only 15 families are represented by more than 3 genera. Over 345 different animals representing 80 families have been identified for the Wopkaimin ecosystem (Hyndman, 1979: 311-323). Twenty-nine families, about one-third of the locally reported vertebrate fauna, are important in Wopkaimin subsistence ecology. The Wopkaimin recognize that they have a more diverse ecosystem than the Tifalmin to the north or the Ningerum to the south. They greatly value their complex ecosystem and their abundant sources of food and raw materials. Hamlets and gardens are situated to maximize utilization of resource diversity. The value of diversity to the Wopkaimin is seen in ecological stability and nutritional quality. Resource diversity is a protection against decimation of sources of food and raw materials. The biotope gradient of wild and domesticated plants and animals constitutes one of the most diverse ecosystems in New Guinea for providing species diversity for quality nutrition. Energy available to the Wopkaimin r Table XIb. Biotope 11: Upper Montane Rain Forest: Animals No. ][, 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. Scientific name and common name Game birds A mblyornis macgregoriae MacGregor's Bowerbird Astrapia splendidissima Splendid Astrapia Gymnophaps albertisii Mountain Pigeon Melipotes fumigatus Common Melipotes Micropsitta bruijni Red-Breasted Pygmy Parrot Myzomela rosenbergii Black and Red Honeyeater Wopkaimin name fuunfuun gaan abim kasuup wapterr kawatokin Scientific name and common name Feeding plants Eurya sp. tree Freycinetia sp. creeping pandan Gareinia sp. tree Medinilla sp. tree Planchonella sp. tree Schefflera brassaiella treelet Schefflera insculpta shrub Schefftera sp. nov. aff. montieola epiphyte Schefflera sp. a f f . oligodon epiphyte Schefflera setulosa epiphyte Schefflera stenophylla epiphyte Schefflera sp. scrambling shrub Wopkaimin name Game bird hunted murrmurr 4 bagiman 1,2 rnogonkonkakum 4 t~oaogrotaok 2 arel 3 saafem 4,5 u wilkonkip 4 uwilkus 4 uwilkaunkip 5,6 u wilyonbull 4 siwem 5 u wilsok 5 -1 e~ Terrestrial a n d arboreal g a m e animals 9 1. Aproteles bulmerae sikkam Fruit Bat 2. Casuarius bennetti kubomeno Dacrycarpus compactus sluu! Dacrycarpus embricatus D w a r f Cassowary 3. Dobson& moluccensis Mallomys rothschild# Phalanger carrnelitae funfun Z Phalanger gymnotis Grey Phalanger Pseudocheirus cupreus Coppery Ringtail tamankalkol 5,7 Dacrycarpus sp. iskonkatepkatep 5 getgatkonkimis 5,7 _~. ,,,,n deik 2 t~ butbutkirap 5,7 sini 5,7 somsom 4,5 taman 5 wakar 3,5 ganbaruk 3,5 oomang 1,3,4 buusom 1,3,4,5 blipaok 3 tree norim Phalanger 6. 2 tree Rough-Tailed Giant Rat 5. mopyang tree Naked-Backed Bat 4. Feeding p|ants Ascaria sp. tree Dissochaeta sp. tree mopdam kaian Elaeocarpus sp. tree Elaeocarpus sp. tree Eugenia sp. tree Homolanthus sp. tree Papuanus cedrus tree Quintinia sp. tree Saurauia sp. tree Syzygium sp. tree Syzygium sp. tree Syzygium sp. tree ba 258 Hyndman is insufficient for them to do damage to their supporting system. 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