“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
Conservation and sustainable use of crop wild
relatives in Samtskhe-Javakheti
Georgian Society of Nature Explorers “Orchis”
Biological Farming Association "Elkana"
Lead Author: M. Akhalkatsi
Contributions:
N. Maxted (The University of Birmingham, UK)
M. Mosulishvili (Georgian National Museum; GSNE "Orchis")
M. Kimeridze (GTZ, GSNE "Orchis")
I. Maisaia (TBG&IB)
Prehistoric megalithic construction in Saro, Samtskhe-Javakheti
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
Table of Contents
I. Executive Summary
1. Introduction
1.1. Necessity for a guide to CWR of Georgia
1.2. CWR as resource for the new millennium
1.3. Preliminary studies
1.4. Goals and Outcomes
2. Environmental Data
2.1. Area of field surveys
2.2. Geomorphology and geology
2.3. Climate
2.4. Hydrology and major water bodies
2.5. Soils
3. Crops Traditionally Cultivated in Samtskhe-Javakheti
4. Flora and Vegetation
4.1. Main Biomes of Samtskhe-Javakheti
4.1.1. Mountain xerophyte shrublands and arid vegetation
4.1.2. Forests
4.1.2.1. Riparian forests
4.1.2.2. Oak and Hornbeam Forests
4.1.2.3 Beech-coniferous forests
4.1.2.4. Pine forests
4.1.3. Mountain Steppes
4.1.4. Subalpine vegetation
4.1.5. Alpine vegetation
4.1.6. Subnival vegetation
4.1.7. Rock – scree vegetation
4.1.8. Wetlands
4.1.9. Halophyte vegetation
4.2. Rural vegetation
4.3 Pastures
4.4. Endemic, rare and relict species
5. Protected Area Networks in Georgia
5.1. Policy-Based Action
5.2. Habitat and Site-Based Actions
5.2.1. Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park
5.2.2. Expansion of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park
5.2.3. Tetrobi Managed Reserve
5.2.4. Other protected areas
5.3. Georgian National Gene Bank
6. Methodology
6.1. Definition of CWR
6.2. Prioritizing CWR taxa / diversity
6.2.1 List of top 30 priority CWR species
6.3. Ecogeographic survey of top 30 priority CWR in Samtskhe-Javakheti
6.3.1. Data collection
6.3.2. Data analyses
6.3.3. Mapping
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
7. Inventory of CWRs in Samtskhe-Javakheti Region
7.1. Cereals
7.1.1. Aegilops
7.1.2. Avena
7.1.3. Hordeum
7.1.4. Secale
7.2. Legumes
7.2.1. Lathyrus
7.2.2. Vicia
7.3. Fiber
7.3.1. Linum
7.4. Vegetables
7.4.1. Allium
7.4.2. Asparagus
7.4.3. Brassica
7.4.4. Coriandrum
7.4.5. Lepidium
7.4.6. Satureja
7.5. Berries
7.5.1. Ribes
7.5.2. Rubus
7.6. Fruits
7.6.1. Cerasus
7.6.2. Cornus
7.6.3. Corylus
7.6.4. Malus
7.6.5. Mespilus
7.6.6.Prunus
7.6.7. Pyrus
7.6.8. Vitis
7.7. Fodders
7.7.1. Medicago
7.7.2. Onobrychis
8. Conservation and threat status
8.1. Diversity of CWR of Samtskhe-Javakheti region
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8.4. Conserved Diversity
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8.4.1. In Situ Review
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8.2.2. Ex Situ Review
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8.5. Genetic Erosion / Factors of Degradation in Georgia
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9. Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
BBG – Batumi Botanical Garden;
CBD – Convention on Biological Biodiversity
CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
CWR – Crop Wild Relatives;
ELKANA - Biological Farming Association
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization
GEF – Global Environmental Facility;
GIF – Georgian Institute of Farming;
GIS - Geographic Information System
GP - Gene Pool
GPS - Global Positioning System
GSNE "Orchis" - Georgian Society of Nature Explorers "Orchis"
GTZ – German Society of Technical cooperation;
ICARDA – International Center of Agricultural Research for Dryland Areas;
IHVO – Institute of Horticulture, Viticulture and Oenology;
IPGRI - International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
IPK – Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research
ITSCTI – Institute of Tea and Subtropical Crops and Tea Industry;
IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature;
MEPNR – Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources;
PGR – Plant Genetic Resources;
PGRFA – Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture;
RBG - Royal Botanical Garden
RDB - Red Data Book
TBG&IB - Tbilisi Botanical garden and Institute of Botany
TBI - Herbarium of the TBG&IB
TG - Taxon group
TGM - Herbarium of the Georgian National Museum
UNDP – United Nations Development Programme;
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
USDA – United States Department of Agriculture;
VIR – Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Industry;
WDPA - World Database on Protected Areas
WWF – World Wildlife Fund;
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A) Interests and values
Main idea of the proposed project was to conduct inventory and develop
recommendations and management principles of conservation and sustainable use of crop wild
relatives (CWR) in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. This work was done by GSNE “Orchis” in the
framework of the project “Conservation and sustainable use of crop wild relatives in SamtskheJavakheti”, which is part of the ELKANA agrobiodiversity program funded by GEF/UNDP.
The importance of this project is determined by ability of CWR to exchange genes with
the crops. CWR germplasm is used to improve production and food quality of cultivars
originated previously due to domestication of crop ancestor species. CWRs have already made
substantial contributions to improving food production through the useful genes that they
contribute to new crop varieties. They have provided resistance to pests and diseases in a wide
range of crops. The genes that come from CWR and other wild plants make a direct contribution
to increased human wellbeing through improving agricultural production and maintaining
sustainable agroecosystems. Therefore, the effective conservation and sustainable use of CWRs
are essential elements for increasing food security, eliminating poverty and maintaining a healthy
environment.
Preliminary study was done in this region by GSNE "Orchis" during 2006-2007 and a
short report was prepared on the distribution and origin of wild relatives of the field crops
growing in Samtskhe-Javakheti region (Akhalkatsi et al., 2006). However, detailed evaluation of
resources and threats occurred in the area needed more detailed study to be undertaken.
Therefore, we have continued exploration of this region to carry out detailed inventory and
population study, to evaluate existance and species status of CWR and to develope appropriate
recommendations and management principles to conserve genetic resources in the region and
insure their sustainable use. This work was done in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region during 20082009.
The research will contribute in conservation of biodiversity and enrichment of knowledge
on resources and current state of the populations of CWRs in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. New
knowledge about current status of populations and impacts threatening them are gained and
recommendations on sustainable utilization of resources from the wild are developed. This will
ensure conservation of biodiversity in Georgia. The idea that properly conserved and wisely used
biodiversity guarantees the effective functioning of ecosystems is disseminated. Local population
has to realize that overuse of biodiversity will cause severe impact on their livelihoods and they
will be the first to suffer when these resources are degraded or lost. On the other hand, they have
to understand that the biodiversity will offer great potential for marketing unique products, such
as CWR, many of which are extremely valuable as donors to improve genetic status of crops
enrich them by disease resistant genes and improve adaptation status of local varieties.
B) Major problems
The primary causes of plant species endangerment are habitat destruction, commercial
exploitation (such as overgrazing, plant collecting in undisturbed habitat, road and pipeline
constructions, deforestation, land degradation, urbanization, etc.), damaged caused by non-native
plants and animals introduced into an area, and pollution. The elaboration of mitigation and
compensation measures is necessary to develop in situ conservation needs of plant diversity.
The importance of this project is determined by ability of CWR to exchange genes with
the crops. CWR germplasm is used to improve production and food quality of cultivars
originated previously due to domestication of crop ancestor species. CWRs have already made
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
substantial contributions to improving food production through the useful genes that they
contribute to new crop varieties. They have provided resistance to pests and diseases in a wide
range of crops. The genes that come from CWR and other wild plants make a direct contribution
to increased human wellbeing through improving agricultural production and maintaining
sustainable agroecosystems. Therefore, the effective conservation and sustainable use of CWRs
are essential elements for increasing food security, eliminating poverty and maintaining a healthy
environment.
Preliminary study was done in this region by GSNE "Orchis" during 2006-2007 and a
short report was prepared on the distribution and origin of wild relatives of the field crops
growing in Samtskhe-Javakheti region (Akhalkatsi et al., 2006). However, detailed evaluation of
resources and threats occurred in the area needed more detailed study to be undertaken.
Therefore, we have continued exploration of this region to carry out detailed inventory and
population study, to evaluate existance and species status of CWR and to develope appropriate
recommendations and management principles to conserve genetic resources in the region and
insure their sustainable use. This work was done in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region during 20082009.
C) Goals and outcomes
The proposed project has been addressed the following objectives:
• Inventory and collection of baseline data from the literature and herbarium and compile list
of CWR distributed in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. Under CWR are considered taxa related
to species of (1) field crops traditionally cultivated in this region; (2) fruit trees; (3) vegetables
and (4) forage grasses and legumes of pastures. Distribution across the region, and density of
the populations of the selected CWRs have been studied. This work gave us possibility to
develop complete database information and evaluate abundance and threats of the CWRs
distributed in the region and enrich existing information on localities and stand of their
populations.
• Mapping has been conducted using GPS/GIS applications and virtual maps in shape format
were developed for rare and endangered species of CWRs. However, maps were not done for
species considered as weeds and occurring in ruderal habitats, as well as, for abundant species
with wide distributional area. These data are given the possibility to evaluate quantitative
criteria of threat level of plants and determine IUCN categories.
• Long-term in situ conservation management needs have been determined for habitats and
population protection of rare CWRs. The concrete recommendations have been made and will
be presented to various official bodies and societies who are responsible for nature
conservation in Georgia to mitigate influence of the stress factors and increase sustainability
of the populations in the wild: establishment of reserved areas on territories where population
of threatened species occurs.
• Recommendations on ex situ conservation measures of the rare and endangered CWRs in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region were developed.
• Public education on distribution, biology, economically important properties, on-farm
production technology and utilization of the selected CWRs had a systematic character. To
disseminate knowledge, recommendations are developed and presented to the different
conferences and published in periodicals and magazines.
• New knowledge, gained due to the proposed project concerning biology, ecology and
conservation needs of selected CWRs will be disseminated among business development
specialists to assess possibilities of on-farm production of the selected species and prepare
information for farmers and processors.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
Photo archive of all studied species and their habitats has been done during the field trips.
Publications were prepared concerning, biology, ecology, conservation needs and
sustainable use of CWRs providing necessary information to wide range of a public.
• The report is presented to ELKANA and UNDP.
•
•
D) Conclusions and Recommendations
The following results are obtained during the project realization:
1. 1. Diversity of CWR species studied in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region has revealed
many species of high conservation value. It was shown that 18 of 30 priority CWR
species represent the same species or direct ancestor of crop plants (GP-1b/TG-1b). 11
species of 18 are the same species as crops: Coriandrum sativum, Cornus mas, Corylus
avellana, Medicago sativa, Mespilus germanica, Onobrychis transcaucasica, Prunus
avium, Prunus cerasifera, Prunus spinosa, Rubus idaeus, Satureja spicigera; 7 species
are considered as synonyms or subspecies of crops by some authors: Asparagus caspius,
Hordeum spontaneum, Linum humile, Malus orientalis, Pyrus caucasica,
Satureja
laxiflora, Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris; 5 species belonging to the same section as crops
(GP2/TG2): Avena barbata, Lathyrus tuberosus, Ribes biebersteinii, Vicia johannis; 10
from target species are coenospecies (less closely related species) from which gene
transfer to the crop is possible and natural hybrids might be occurred (GP2): Aegilops
cylindrica, A. tauschii, A. triuncialis, Avena barbata, Brassica elongata, Hordeum
bulbosum, Lathyrus tuberosus, Lepidium perfoliatum, Secale anatolicum, Vitis vinifera
ssp. sylvestris;
2. Cultivation and propagation methodology is determined for every target species, which
will help to local farmers to cultivate CWRs in own grounds. This is especially important
for fodder species, such as Medicago sativa and Onobrychis transcaucasica.
3. To ensure in situ conservation of CWRs, establishment of nature reserves where CWRs
of conservation value is distributed will be important in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. We
support idea to establish managed reserve in Erusheti Mountain systems where Secale
anatolicum has two populations.
4. In situ conservation of CWR species concentrated in rural areas, close to settlements and
in agricultural fields, where soil is cultivated it is necessary to set up fenced territories
with indication of conservation status of protected species. Local government and nongovernmental organizations should be involved on this process.
5. It is necessary to create data base on ex situ collections of CWRs in Georgia and abroad
using standard computer software, so that the data will be incorporated in the
international data bases and get accessible to wide range of specialists.
6. Education of local population should be undertaken to know which plants have special
conservation value as relatives and even direct ancestors and progenitors of known and
popular crops. This is possible due to publishing illustrated publications and
dissemination of knowledge among local population.
7. Legislation should be developed to determine priority status of important wild CWR
species found in Samtskhe-Javakhwti. The plants should be protected and declared as
plants having big importance as close relatives to popular field crops and their germplasm
might be used in improvement of the quality of crop varieties.
8. Monitoring is important to conduct as further investigation of CWRs in this region and
create detailed data base including information on distribution, population status,
ethnobotany and their use in folk traditional being.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
1. Introduction
Main idea of the proposed project was to conduct inventory and develop
recommendations and management principles of conservation and sustainable use of crop wild
relatives (CWR) in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. This work was done by GSNE “Orchis” in the
framework of the project “Conservation and sustainable use of crop wild relatives in SamtskheJavakheti”, which is part of the ELKANA agrobiodiversity program “Recovery, Conservation,
and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity” funded by GEF/UNDP and its goal is
conservation and sustainable utilization of threatened local plant genetic resources important to
food and agriculture.
1.1. Necessity for a guide to CWR of Georgia
The importance of this project is determined by ability of CWR to exchange genes with
the crops. CWR germplasm is used to improve production and food quality of cultivars
originated previously due to domestication of crop ancestor species. CWRs have already made
substantial contributions to improving food production through the useful genes that they
contribute to new crop varieties. They have provided resistance to pests and diseases in a wide
range of crops. The genes that come from CWR and other wild plants make a direct contribution
to increased human wellbeing through improving agricultural production and maintaining
sustainable agroecosystems. Therefore, the effective conservation and sustainable use of CWRs
are essential elements for increasing food security, eliminating poverty and maintaining a healthy
environment.
Preliminary study was done in this region by GSNE "Orchis" during 2006-2007 and a
short report was prepared on the distribution and origin of wild relatives of the field crops
growing in Samtskhe-Javakheti region (Akhalkatsi et al., 2006). However, detailed evaluation of
resources and threats occurred in the area needed more detailed study to be undertaken.
Therefore, we have continued exploration of this region to carry out detailed inventory and
population study, to evaluate existance and species status of CWR and to develope appropriate
recommendations and management principles to conserve genetic resources in the region and
insure their sustainable use. This work was done in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region during 20082009.
The research will contribute in conservation of biodiversity and enrichment of knowledge
on resources and current state of the populations of CWRs in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. New
knowledge about current status of populations and impacts threatening them are gained and
recommendations on sustainable utilization of resources from the wild are developed. This will
ensure conservation of biodiversity in Georgia. The idea that properly conserved and wisely used
biodiversity guarantees the effective functioning of ecosystems is disseminated. Local population
has to realize that overuse of biodiversity will cause severe impact on their livelihoods and they
will be the first to suffer when these resources are degraded or lost. On the other hand, they have
to understand that the biodiversity will offer great potential for marketing unique products, such
as CWR, many of which are extremely valuable as donors to improve genetic status of crops
enrich them by disease resistant genes and improve adaptation status of local varieties.
1.2. CWR as resource for the new millennium
The crop wild relatives (CWR) are taxa related to species of direct socio-economic
importance, which includes the progenitors of crops. According to modern concept of wild
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
relatives, under CWR we should understand all species related to any cultivated plants, as well as
to wild species of ornamental, food, fodder and forage, medicinal plants, condiments, forestry
species and plants used for industrial purposes, such as oils and fibers i.e. to all plants of
economic importance (Laguna, 2004). Although, “classical” definition of CWR is restricted only
to species related to cultivated crops, including such important field crops as wheat (Triticum
aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), rye (Secale cereale), oats (Avena sativa), sorghum
(Sorghum halepense), proso (Panicum spp.), foxtail millet (Setaria spp.), grain legumes such as
Phaseolus, Vicia, Vigna, Lens, Lathyrus, Cicer and some vegetables and industrial crops.
The importance of CWR in their ability to exchange genes with the crops was first
emphasized by N.I. Vavilov (1935). It is evident that natural crosses between crops and their
wild relatives have occurred since the beginnings of agriculture. Human has used CWR
germplasm to improve production and food quality of cultivars originated previously due to
domestication of crop ancestor species. CWRs have already made substantial contributions to
improving food production through the useful genes that they contribute to new crop varieties.
They have provided resistance to pests and diseases in a wide range of crops. The genes that
come from CWR and other wild plants make a direct contribution to increased human wellbeing
through improving agricultural production and maintaining sustainable agroecosystems.
Therefore, the effective conservation and sustainable use of CWR and all wild plants are
essential elements for increasing food security, eliminating poverty and maintaining a healthy
environment.
The natural populations of many species of CWRs are increasingly at risk. The primary
causes of diversity loss of wild plant species are habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.
Many cereal CWRs, including wild wheat and millet species, occur in arid or semi-arid lands and
are severely affected by over-grazing and desertification. Climate change is having significant
impacts of species distributions and survival in a concrete habitat. One of the most important
threats to the diversity of CWRs are genetic erosion and pollution. The threat of genetic pollution
or introgression, either from genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or from conventionally
bred crops, to wild species has become an increasing risk to the in situ genetic conservation of
crop wild relatives.
Another problem is that many species of important CWR occur in centers of plant
diversity and crop diversity located mainly in developing countries, which often lack resources
to invest in the necessary conservation activities. South Caucasus and Georgia in particular is the
center of origin and diversity of many of the world’s important crop plants. There are several
international projects realized by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas (ICARDA), the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), USDA, UNEP,
etc. contributed in undertaking efforts in monitoring and conservation of plant. Although,
additional resources are urgently needed in such areas of high diversity to identify priority
species for conservation, determine the necessary conservation activities, monitor the status of
key species, improve the use of these valuable resources.
The aim of current study is to make inventory of field CWR growing in SamtskheJavakheti, the southern province of Georgia to determine species status and resources available
in this region. Determination of threats and development of conservation measures is important
task to be undertaken in this study.
1.3. Preliminary studies
The preliminary study (Akhalkatsi et al., 2006) has collected baseline data and
determined volume of this research in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. The aim of preliminary
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
survey was to determine need to undertake baseline study in region and determine number of
priority species to be evaluated during field trips.
The CWR associated activities within the Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use
of Georgia’s Agrobiodiversity Project have largely been delegated to the GSNE "Orchis" and as
such they have produced a report “Study of Field Crop Wild Relatives in Samtskhe-Javakheti”
(Akhalkatsi et al., 2006). This report details crops grown in Samtskhe-Javakheti, the distribution
of CWR in the region, an inventory of CWR in the region and then makes several
recommendations. The detail provided gives a firm basis for the study of CWR in SamtskheJavakheti, but perhaps emphasizes too much the diversity of the crops themselves and when
referring to CWR species provides rather generic information on occurrence – the creation of an
ecogeographic data of CWR of Samtskhe-Javakheti and the production of distribution maps for
each crop group would in retrospect been very helpful in planning the CWR strategy for
Samtskhe-Javakheti. The report recommendations include the establishment of a genetic reserve
for in situ CWR conservation at the Tetrobi Plateau, but it is also noted that in Georgia CWR are
often encountered as weeds in ruderal areas and therefore, ex situ conservation of seed may
prove the more effective conservation methodology. Although this point has often been made in
the context of CWR conservation (Jain, 1975; Maxted et al., 1997; Maxted et al., 2008; Iriondo
et al., 2008), it should not entirely negate the implementation of in situ conservation activities
both inside and outside of formal protected areas as discussed above. The report also establishes
a list of priority CWR in Samtskhe-Javakheti (Aegilops cylindrica, A. triuncialis, Hordeum
bulbosum, H. crinitum, H. europaeum, H. fragile, H. leporinum, H. violaceum, Avena fatua, A.
ludoviciana, A. barbata, Pisum elatius, P. arvense, Secale anatolicum, S. montanum, Vicia
ervilia, V. narbonensis, Onobrychis transcaucasica, Medicago dzhawakhetica, M. glutinosa ,
Linum hypericifolium, L. tenuifolium) and according to evaluation of N. Maxted (2008), this list
provides an excellent foundation for the development of the CWR strategy for SamtskheJavakheti.
As the next step to develop "Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia’s
Agrobiodiversity Project (00037324) crop wild relative (CWR) consultancy was undertaken by
Dr. Nigel Maxted between 20th June and 31st August 2008. The consultant visited Georgia
between the dates of the 5th July and 13th July 2008 and following initial discussion with
ELKANA and GSNE "Orchis" staff visited the target region in Samtskhe-Javakheti to local
observe field conditions as a means of formulating a CWR conservation strategy. Following
completion of the field visit the consultant provided seminars both at the ELKANA Project
Office in Akhaltsikhe for project staff and in the Ministry of Environment in Tbilisi for project
staff and an invited audience of key stakeholders. The consultant developed recommendations to
the team undertaken this project and proposed methodology and major principles, how to
organize exploration and obtain successive results of the study.
The main advice was to use further actions that were required by the project to ensure the
successful completion and implementation of the Samtskhe-Javakheti Regional and National
Strategy for CWR Conservation. Ex situ conservation measures were also recommended in
order to ensure the immediately safe guard the most vulnerable CWR species.
This report documents the findings and recommendations of the consultancy mission, the
primary recommendations are as follows:
Aide Memoire of Major Recommendations by N. Maxted (2008):
• Implement Regional CWR Strategy for Samtskhe-Javakheti according to outline
presented by N. Maxted (2008).
• Implement Generalisation of National CWR Strategy for Georgia based on experience of
implementation in Samtskhe-Javakheti as outlined above
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Although it is foreseen that the major concentration of in situ CWR conservation both in
Samtskhe-Javakheti and nationally will be in existing protected areas there is also a need
to establish a field border / roadside verge conservation programme as outlined above
The legislative basis of CWR conservation should be enhanced to promote sustainable
CWR conservation, particularly for the CWR hotspots once they have been designated as
PAs?
Make agreement with appropriate authority to regularly monitor demographic baseline
for 30-50 priority species and genetic diversity baseline for 10-15 highest priority species
as part of the project exit strategy
Review and monitor landscape management policy for deleterious changes in
management that may negatively impact on CWR diversity, such as human (e.g. rural
development, road building, terrace construction) or natural (e.g. increased or decreased
levels of fires or wild grazing animals) changes
Ensure seed from priority species is samples and stored ex situ in national and regional
genebank
Move from specific application in Samtskhe-Javakheti to write a formal Conservation
Strategy for Georgian CWR Diversity that considers the potential impact of climate
change, conservation of diversity (including CWR Action Plans) and promotion of its
utilisation, and raises public awareness of the value of CWR to Georgian agribusiness
Together with Georgian and regional plant breeders develop a CWR Utilise Strategy to
promote the valuation and use of Georgia’s wealth of CWR diversity
Produce a professional text on the CWR of Georgia, a suggested draft Table of Content is
provided
Produce a ‘glossy’ pamphlet for public consumption on the ‘Hidden Treasure’ of
Georgian CWR diversity for public consumption. This could be modelled on the
‘Forgotten Crops’ pamphlet already produced by Elkana
Establish and enact systematic CWR research priorities with key national collaborative
stakeholders
1.4. Goals and Outcomes
The following goals and objectives were determined by N. Maxted, (2008), which shuold
be undertaken by GSNE "Orchis" in this project during 2008-2009:
i.
Ecogeographic survey of priority CWR of Samtskhe-Javakheti – It is recognised that
GSNE "Orchis" have already commenced gathering much of the data on distribution of
the priority CWR species but the obtain the full benefit of the survey the data requires
systematic analysis that will permit clear identification of in situ and ex situ conservation
priorities. A presentation on ecogeographic surveys was given during the Conservation
Seminar held at the Georgian Ministry of Environment, Tbilisi and the presentation is
already available to GSNE "Orchis" and project staff.
ii.
Identification of threats to CWR diversity – It would be futile to attempt to implement a
Conservation Strategy CWR of Samtskhe-Javakheti without undertaking some form
systematic assessment of the threat to CWR within the region. There is no detailed
methodology for how this might be achieved, but as noted above it is likely to include a
review of the threat factors such as changes in cultivation practice, civil strife, habitat
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
fragmentation, over-exploitation, over-grazing, competition from exotic invasive species
and urbanization, and how these factors past, present and future are likely to impact
regional CWR populations. Further it is recommended that an IUCN Red Assessment is
made for the priority CWR species of Samtskhe-Javakheti. These results should impact
the formulation of the Conservation Strategy.
iii.
Gap analysis and establishment of CWR conservation goals – Directly following on from
the ecogeographic survey and threat assessment there is a need to complete a formal gap
analysis assessment for the priority CWR species of Samtskhe-Javakheti. A concept of
conservation gap analysis was introduced during the presentation at the Conservation
Seminar held at the Georgian Ministry of Environment, Tbilisi. In addition an
introduction to the gap analysis methodology is contained in Maxted et al., 2008.
iv.
Identification of Key In Situ CWR Priorities – The result of the ecogeographic survey and
gap analysis will not only highlight the CWR ‘hotspots’ but via the matching with
existing protected areas will indicate where genetic reserves should be established to
conserve Georgian CWR diversity. Interestingly in the past there has been some
resistance to incorporate the genetic conservation of CWR into existing protected areas
but recent experience in the broader European context has shown protected area
managers keener for such collaboration because of the addition to ecosystem services
provided by the site. However, the in situ conservation of CWR outside of protected area
will be necessary in Georgia for two reasons, first because the network of protected area
is not that systematic or extensive and those that exist are predominantly based in habitats
intrinsically poor in CWR representation, second because in general CWRs are
commonly found in disturbed, pre-climax plant communities (see further discussion of
field border and roadside verge conservation below) and as such many may be excluded
from or marginalised in established protected areas, which more often aim to conserve
pristine habitats, ecosystems or landscapes, or animal species that are now restricted to
these environments. Therefore, in designing a National CWR Conservation Strategy for
Georgia the genetic conservation of CWRs outside, as well as inside of areas
conventionally considered protected to ensure comprehensive and complementary in situ
CWR conservation.
v.
Identification of Key Ex Situ CWR Priorities – Also following on from the
ecogeographic survey and gap analysis and having ensured the systematic in situ
conservation of CWR diversity in Samtskhe-Javakheti it will be necessary to ensure that
the conserved diversity is backed-up by standard seed collection and ex situ conservation
in the National Georgian Gene Bank with a duplicate in the regional Gene Bank (at
ICARDA in Syria).
vi.
Utilization, Education and Research – It is often pointed out that conservation is not an
end in itself, there is little point expending scarce resources to systematically conserve
biodiversity unless there is a strategy for its use. As detailed above use may involve
traditional, general and professional user communities and in situ conserved diversity
provides an ideal opportunity for education of the value and beauty of biodiversity at
school, college and university levels. The Regional CWR Strategy for SamtskheJavakheti should incorporate a clear statement on how the conserve diversity is to be
exploited. As in a sense CWR bridge the gap between the gulf between the ecosystem
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
and plant genetic resources communities, they are after all wild species but also have
additional value because of their relationship to crops and their potential as trait donors,
therefore the development of an approach to exploitation is a natural component of the
overall Strategy.
vii.
Integration with international ecosystem, habitat and species conservation plans – Once
Georgian CWR are conserved both in situ and ex situ to ensure sustainability it is
important that living plants conserved in genetic reserves, field border and roadside verge
conservation areas, and the seed accessions conserved in the gene bank are fully
integrated into existing conservation networks. This integration is essential if the CWR
conservation is continue after the end of the project lifetime and should be an essential
element of the whole projects exist strategy.
The proposed project has additionally been addressed the following objectives:
• Inventory and collection of baseline data from the literature and herbarium and compile list
of CWR distributed in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. Under CWR are considered taxa related
to species of (1) field crops traditionally cultivated in this region; (2) fruit trees; (3) vegetables
and (4) forage grasses and legumes of pastures. Baseline data on the selected CWRs was
collected and verified to species identity and localities during the filed trips in different
localities of Samtskhe-Javakheti region in 2008-2009. Distribution across the region, density
of the populations and vitality and fertility of the selected CWRs has been studied. This work
gave us possibility to develop complete database information and evaluate abundance and
threats of the CWRs distributed in the region and enrich existing information on localities and
stand of their populations.
• Mapping has been conducted using GPS/GIS applications and virtual maps in shape format
were developed for rare and endangered species of CWR. However, maps were not done for
species considered as weeds and occurring in rural habitats, as well as, for abundant species
with wide distributional area. These data are given the possibility to evaluate quantitative
criteria of threat level of plants and determine IUCN categories.
• Photo archive of all studied species and their habitats has been done during the field trips.
• Publications were prepared concerning, biology, ecology, conservation needs and
sustainable use of CWR providing necessary information to wide range of a public.
• The reports are presented to ELKANA and UNDP.
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June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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2. Environmental data
2.1. Area of field surveys
Samtskhe and Javakheti regions represent provinces of Southwest Georgia (Neidze,
2003). It adjoins to Turkey and Armenia in the south, Adjara (Khulo district) and Guria
(Chokhatauri district) in the west-northwest, Imereti (Kharagauli and Bagdati districts) and
Kartli (Borjomi district) in the north and Kmevo Kartli (Tsalka and Dmanisi districts) in the east.
The territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti region is 5 200 km2 (Neidze, 2003), which represents 7,5 %
of the entire territory of Georgia - 69 700 km2.
Administratively Samtskhe is represented by three districts – Akhaltsikhe, Adigeni and
Aspindza with a total square of 2 631 km2. Javakheti contains two districts – Akhalkalaki and
Ninotsminda with a total territory of 2 590 km2 (Neidze, 2003). Currently Borjomi district is
included in Samtskhe-Javakheti administrative region. Although, this territory belongs
historically to Kartli.
Geographically Samtskhe is represented by Akhaltsikhe depression with average
elevation 800-1500 m a.s.l., mountain systems are Meskheti, Arsiani, Erusheti, Kasri, Gumbati
and Vani ranges and south-western slopes of Trialeti range (Klopotovski, 1950, Nemanishvili,
1960, Maruashvili et al. 1971). The highest peak is Gumbati (2964 m a.s.l.). Main rivers are
Mtkvari, Potskhovi, Kvabliani, Uraveli, Otskhe and Tsinubnistskali. Several lakes are in
Samtskhe – Lake Satakhve or Karageli (1940 m a.s.l.) near v. Zarzma, Lake Tsunda (1340 m
a.s.l.) near v. Tsunda in Aspindza district, as well, artificial three Jaji Lakes (2240 m a.s.l.) and
Trialeti Lake near v. Lelovani in Adigeni district.
Javakheti is located on volcanic plateau with average elevation of 1800 m a.s.l. Mountain
systems are Niala range in the south, Javakheti range in the east, southern slopes of Trialeti range
in the north, and Abul-Samsari range in the middle. There is Tetrobi-Chobareti range with the
Tetrobi Plateau in the north-west and composed of limestone. Highest peaks are Didi Abuli
(3304 m a.s.l.), Samsari (3284 m a.s.l.), Godorebi (3188 m a.s.l.), and Patara Abuli (2801 m
a.s.l.). There are 56 lakes on Javakheti Plateau. The largest are Paravani (37,5 km2), Kartsakhi,
Tabatskuri, Khanchali, Madatafa, Saghamo, etc. Main river is Paravani, with many minor
tributaries such as Abulistskali, Murjakhetistskali, Baraletistskali, Chobaretistskali, etc.
Land use of the territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti region shows following pattern:
agricultural land 68,5%, forest 20,1%, shrubland 0,9%, water bodies – 1,8%, urban territory –
5,0% and arable land – 3,7% (Neidze, 2003).
2.2. Geomorphology and geology
The Akhaltsikhe synclinal basin (see in: Kikodze, 2002) is composed of undulating hills
and valleys and forms the geomorphologic zone between the Trialeti and Erusheti ranges. The
hills are composed of Tertiary sedimentary rocks dissected by river valleys and their associated
deposits. Adjara-Trialeti mountain system in the north of Samtskhe is represented by a
volcanogenic suite with calc-alkaline basaltic composition, which in the lower part also contains
the Albian Stage. The Western Trialeti range represents a fold of the Minor Caucasus Mountains
and comprises a deeply dissected steep mountain terrain. The high peaks are composed of
Tertiary igneous rocks including pyroclastic deposits (such as tuff conglomerate, tuff breccia,
tuff sandstone and tuff mudstone) and shallow intrusive rocks for example andesite sheets.
Tertiary sedimentary rocks (such as limestone, sandstone and mudstone) and clays are noted in
the lower mountains at Tiseli and unconsolidated quaternary deposits are noted at the base of the
steep mountain valleys.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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In the south of Samtskhe and Javakheti the Artvin-Bolnisi Block and Lock-Karabach
Zone transgressive upper Cretaceous sediments are present, which are subdivided into three
parts. A cenomanian volcanogenic-carbonate series (900-1200m) overlap directly the Khrami
and Locki massifs and Jurassic rocks. In ascending section there is a basalt-andesite-daciterhyolite series (1100-3300m) of Turonian-Santonian age. The uppermost part (CampanianMaastrichtian) is represented by shallow-water limestones and marls with interlayers of acidic
tuffs (300-350 m).
The Javakheti Volcanic plateau forms the largest geomorphologic zone and comprises
steep peaks, a volcanic plain and historic lava flows (Klopotovski, 1950, Maruashvili et al.,
1971). The plateau is composed of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary igneous rocks including lavas
and shallow intrusive rocks such as andesite, basalt and dolerite. The plateau is comprised of
lava flows and by an undulating volcanic plain with quaternary lake basins such as Paravani,
Kartsakhi, Sagamo, Khozafini, Khanchali, Madatafa, etc. and their associated unconsolidated
deposits. Steeply undulating high volcanic peaks are noted in the area of Trialeti and Samsari
ranges.
The lithological types are generally Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary deposits and
Quaternary fluvial or terrigenous deposits (Oniani 2000, see in Kikodze, 2002).
2.3. Climate
The climate in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region is determined as continental. However,
more recent survey is defining it as subtropical (Oniani 2000, see in Kikodze, 2002)
characterised by moderate precipitation, pronounced seasonal variations in climatic parameters,
and a high level of solar radiation. According to these data region comprises two sub-climatic
zones, mainly owing to the differing relief and orography. They are described as follows:
• The humid-subtropical mountainous climate with cold winter (<-5°C) and cool summer (<
20°C), located in the Trialeti and Samsari Mountain ranges and Javakheti Plateau. The
altitude, approximately 2,500 metres, largely explains the lower temperatures in this region.
The high-mountain profile of the area accounts for its near extreme climatic conditions. The
estimated mean annual temperature for the area is 9.5°C, with an estimated average of –1.4°C
in January and 19.5°C in July. Generally, the region experiences cold and occasionally snowy
winters and long, but mild, summers. Precipitation increases westward with proximity to the
Trialeti range.
• A humid subtropical mountainous climate with cool winters and mild summers is
characteristically to the transient climatic zone located south-west of the Adjara-Trialeti
Mountain System and west of Samsari Mountain ranges in Meskheti up to the TurkeyGeorgia border and Arsiani ranges. Mean annual precipitation in the transitional climate
region is approximately 508 mm, and 654mm at the Georgian-Turkish border. The majority
of the precipitation falls between April and October, with May and June being considered the
months with most rainfall (82mm/month and 88mm/month, accordingly). The driest months
of the year in these parts are December (32mm/month) and January (30mm/month).
Precipitation data specific to the mountains and mountainous steppes near the Georgia-Turkey
border are scarce. However, existing data and reports suggest that heavy and frequent rainfalls
do not commonly occur in this region. Data related to snow cover in the area are poor,
although the highlands can be covered with snow for as long as 90 days per year. There is a
strong correlation between altitude and snow cover. Typically, air temperature decreases with
rising altitude, leading to increasing amounts of snowfall and duration of snow cover.
Precipitation can usually be expected in the form of snow when ground temperatures are
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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below 1-2°C, although this relationship is complicated by other meteorological influences,
such as the atmospheric temperature profile.
Wind speeds are reported with an estimated annual average of 5.4m/s, although still
predominantly northerly and north-westerly. However, speeds in excess of 12 m/s can occur for
up to 50% of the year, with maximum wind speeds reaching as high as 30m/s. The mean number
of gale days (days in which wind speeds are approximately 17-20m/s) for the Javakheti region is
relatively low, compared to the Meskheti, at 21 days per annum. The last climatic zone are
affected by both easterly and westerly winds, becoming increasingly strong in the high
mountains (greater or equal to 15m/s). Available data suggests that average wind speed recorded
near the Metering and Pressure Reduction Station (PRS) at the Georgia-Turkey border is 6.7m/s.
The maximum wind speed recorded in this area over 20 years of observation was 57m/s.
The actual atmospheric pressure, differing to sea level pressure owing to its elevated
altitude is recorded at 2,500m in the mountainous region of the Samsari range. Assuming a
winter temperature of –5°C in the mountainous range of Samsari, air pressures of 750mb could
be expected, compared to 970mb in Tbilisi.
2.4. Hydrology and major water bodies
The hydrological system of the Samtskhe includes the upper reaches of the River
Mtkvari, from the state border with Turkey to the beginning of Borjomi gorge. Within this area,
the Rivers Postkhovi and Kvabliani (left tributaries) flow into the River Mtkvari. Water-bearing
horizon of recent alluvial sediments of river bed and floodplain has a wide distribution on the
wide valley areas of the Mtkvari, Tsinubnistskali, Otskhe, Potskhovi and Kvabliani. Waterbearing complex of Upper Miocene-Lower Pliocene (lower part of Kisatibi series) lava layers is
exposed over a large area, namely south of the village Arali, between the villages Skhvlisi and
Tskaltbila and south of the village Varkhani. The lithology of the complex includes andesite,
andesite-dacitic and dacitic tuff and tuffaceous breccia lava layers. Majority of tectonic
structures in Akhaltsikhe depression and its adjacent areas are comprised of Middle Eocene
volcanogenic-sedimentary strata. These strata comprise the Tsnisi and Akhaltsikhe anticlines
complicated by the secondary disjunctive dislocations (see Kikodze, 2002).
The River Mtkvari starts at the springs on the northern-eastern slopes of Kizil Giadik
Mountain in Turkey, at an altitude of 2,720m. The total length of the river is 1,364 km; the area
of the water catchment basin is 188,000km2. The river length is 360km in Georgia while the area
of the catchment basin is 26,200km2. The river is recharged by snow melt, rain and groundwater;
contribution of glacial runoff is negligible. Highest water levels are observed during spring when
discharge is at its greatest with approximately 53% of the annual discharge occurring. Summer
discharge makes up 25% of the annual figure with low-flow conditions experienced in autumn
and winter when seasonal discharges constitute just 12% and 10% respectively of annual
discharge. The maximum recorded flow rate of the River Mtkvari was observed in April 1968.
The return period of this event ranges from 100 to 150 years, depending which observation
station is used for the estimation. The solid sediment load in the River Mtkvari is closely related
to the river’s discharge rate. Maximum average daily loads range from 470kg/sec to
32,000kg/sec at various observation stations. Water turbidity is also significant, with maximum
levels recorded to fluctuate from 2,700g/m3 to 120,000g/m3 at various monitoring stations (see
Kikodze, 2002).
The River Potskhovi starts on the eastern slopes of Arsiani ridge in Turkey, at an altitude
of 2,720m a.s.l. It flows into the River Mtkvari from the left bank at the village of Kotlakhevi.
The river is approximately 64km long; the water catchment basin occupies 1,840km2. The river
length in Georgia is approximately 35km while the catchment basin is 1,331km2. The river is
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
recharged by snow melt, rain and groundwater. It is characterised by spring floods and flash
floods owing to heavy summer-autumn precipitation rains and low-flow conditions in winter.
Spring discharge is 55% of the annual volume, summer discharge 25%, 13% in autumn and 7%
in winter. Long term average solid sediment load is estimated to be 10kg/sec. A maximum solid
sediment load of 230kg/sec was observed in May 1968 under flood conditions. Water turbidity
typically fluctuates from 670g/m3 to 9,800g/m3. Average duration of ice cover is 55 days whilst
the maximum, 90 days, was observed in 1956- 1957.
The minor rivers, streams and gorges within the region are typically mountainous rivers,
some of which are characterised by sudden flash floods of a catastrophic nature during rapid
snow melt and are highly responsive to heavy precipitation events.
Several lakes are in Samtskhe – Lake Satakhve or Karageli (1940 m a.s.l.) near v.
Zarzma, Lake Tsunda (1340 m a.s.l.) near v. Tsunda in Aspindza district, artificial Jaji Lakes
(2240 m a.s.l.) and Trialeti Lake near v. Lelovani in Adigeni district.
There are 56 lakes on Javakheti Plateau. The largest are Paravani (37,5 km2), Kartsakhi,
Tabatskuri, Khanchali, Madatafa, Saghamo, etc. Main River is Paravani, with many minor
tributaries such as Abulistskali, Murjakhetistskali, Baraletistskali, Chobaretistskali, etc.
2.5. Soils
The types of soils (Oniani 2000, see in Kikodze, 2002) present in the region are briefly
described below:
• Brown soils: Brown soils are mostly found on the southern slopes of the Trialeti Range and
east-southern slopes of Meskheti range. Typical brown soils mainly occur in beech forests.
However, they can sometimes be found in hornbeam forests or hornbeam forests with oak.
Dark brown soils are developed in spruce forests while skeletal brown soils are weakly
developed in pine forests. Humus content varies between 3 and 10%. The soils are
characterised by an acid reaction, which decreases with depth;
• Black and peat-rich mountainous-meadow soils of southern mountainous region: These
soils are mostly found in sub-alpine and alpine zones at higher elevations than the brown
soils. Since the soils support a good vegetation cover with a good diversity of plants, they
provide valuable summer pastures and hay fields. Erosion processes are ongoing in these
soils, particularly when the vegetation on these soils is grazed intensively.
• Weathered carbonate black mountainous soils. The relief in the zone of mountainous black
soils (Javakheti) is a volcanic plateau formed with layers of the Neocene Quaternary period
consisting of andesitic-basalt. Typically, the soil thickness is 100 – 120cm. The average
humus content is 3 – 15% and decreases with depth. Black soils are highly fertile.
• Peat-rich and primitive mountainous-meadow soils of Trialeti range. These soils occur in
the sub-alpine and alpine zone of Kodiana massif and are formed under humid and relatively
cold climatic conditions. They are characterised by a solid matrix, relatively low thickness,
and differentiated profile.
• Brown forest soil. This soil type occurs mainly in the Akhaltsikhe depression, at altitudes of
900–1200m, on slopes of different aspect and gradient, alluvial fans and on sloping plains.
Vegetation cover includes oak forests and oak forests with hornbeam. Carbonate-brown soils
occupy the lower zone where there are favourable conditions for calcium carbonate
accumulation. The upper horizon is characterised by granular structure. Humus content varies
from 3 to 5%. Brown soils are fertile.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
Fig. 1. Typical landscapes of Samtskhe-Javakheti: 1. Lake Khanchali; 2. Lake Sagamo; 3.
Vulcanic hills near v. Benara; 4. Vulcanic hills near v. Arali; 5. Wetland at Lake Tabatskuri; 5.
Subalpine meadow at Erusheti Mountain System - "Vaios Velebi".
1
3
5
2
4
6
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
3. Crops traditionally cultivated in Samtskhe-Javakheti
Samtskhe-Javakheti region represents today part of one of the oldest historical province
of Georgia named Tao-Klarjeti or Upper Kartli. Archeological data clearly show that Caucasus
and namely Georgia were settled from prehistoric time and agriculture was developed from early
Neolithic era in this region (Javakhishvili, 1930).
Fig. 2 Development of agriculture in the Europe, Near East and in the Caucasus. Map by J.
Terrier,
archéologue
cantonal
et
Pierre
CORBOUD,
préhistorien
NEO_002)
(www.memo.fr/en/article.aspx?ID =PRE
Georgia and, particularly, the Samtskhe-Javakheti region are considered as part of the old
world, where domestication of crops occurred. It is often considered as part of Near East where
many field crops were domesticated. N. I. Vavilov in his work (Vavilov, 1987) determines 8
centers of crop origin and diversity. Among them is the 4th center, which includes South
Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran and Turkmenistan. The main crops domesticated in this center are
wheat, rye, oats, seed and forage legumes, fruits, etc., some 83 species. Georgia and its part Samtskhe-Javakheti region, representing site of our study, belong to this center. The fundamental
work on domestication and origin of wheat and barley in this region was done by famous
Georgian botanist V. Menabde (1948). The agricultural evidences in the Samtskhe-Javakheti
region are reported by different Georgian authors (Jalabadze, 1972; Beriashvili, 1973;
Chikovani, 1979; Shubitidze, 2000; Berishvili et al., 2002; Bregvadze, 2004).
Agriculture appears in South Caucasus in the 6th millennium (Mellaart 1975). The
ancient archeological findings of cereal grains in Georgia are known from Trialeti and
Samegrelo (Dikha-Gudzuba, Zugdidi distr.) from Neolith at the end of 3rd millennium and in 2nd
millennium (Menabde, 1948). Very recent studies on einkorn wheat domestication using
amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) show that T. boeoticum was domesticated in
southeast Turkey in the Karacadag Mountains close to Diyarbakir (Heun et al. 1997). The
Samtskhe-Javakheti region is located between the Trialeti range and this place in Turkey and
might be considered as area where cultivation of cereals occurred in very early historical time.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
High diversity of cultivated plants was characteristic feature for Samtskhe-Javakheti from
ancient time. Cultivation of field crops and vegetables, as well as winemaking was main
direction of agriculture. According to literature data (Jalabadze, 1972) filed crops were
represented by wheat, barley, rye, millet and legumes – common vetch, pea, lentil, chickpea,
alfalfa, etc. Flax was cultivated here as oil plant. From crops were cultivated bread wheat and
millet in lowlands and Dika (Triticum turgidum ssp. carthlicum), emmer wheat (T. dicoccum),
barley and rye. Flax was cultivated everywhere. All these crops were used for both food and
forage production.
Nowadays there are almost none of these traditional crops cultivated in the region. They
disappeared after occupation of the Tao-Klarjeti by Turkey, when agriculture was substituted by
cattle breeding, which caused abandonment of cultivated fields and their transformation into
pastures. According to old administrative documents after occupation of Georgian part by Turks,
in former Georgian village Sviri in Gurjistan Vilayet in Turkey, local population was paying
taxes by crops, such as wheat, barley, rye, millet, chickpea, lentil, flax, alfalfa, etc. (Jalabadze,
1972). During our expedition in Gurjistan Vilayet of Turkey in 2006, we did not find any of the
old traditional field crops cultivated today in the villages. The agriculture in this region is
abandoned and substituted by cattle breeding. All vineyards are cut and remained grapes gone
wild to make thicket at roadsides and at the edges of the forests. Some vegetables were grown in
small house gardens, such as cabbage, sugar beat, carrot, cucumber, tomatoes, etc. However,
seeds are bought in markets and there was no information on origin of the seed material and
when they might be aboriginal varieties.
The following crops are known to be cultivated in historical past in Samthkhe-Javakheti
region including districts - Akhaltsikhe, Aspindza, Adigeni, Akhalkalski and Ninotsminda.
Wheat- Triticum L. (Poaceae). It was one of the main crops in the past. It was grown
from v. Atskuri (800 m a.s.l.) to vv. Agari and Okami (2000 m a.s.l.). Different wheat species
were cultivated in these fields – white and red bread wheat, Dika (T. charthlicum), Dika-Ipkli (T.
chartlicum mixed with bread wheat), Asli, emmer whaet (T. dicoccum) and barley variety called
Akhaltesli (Menabde, 1948; Shubitidze, 2000). Several species of wheat were cultivated in the
region until 30-es if the XX century. These are - T. aestivum L. – bread wheat, Dolis Puri in
Georgian, T. carthlicum Nevski – Dika in Georgian, T. dicoccum Shuebl. - Emmer wheat, Asli in
Georgian, T. durum Desf. – Durum wheat, Tavtukhi in Georgian, T. compactum Host. – Club
wheat and T. turgidum L. - poulard wheat. The first 5 species of wheat were cultivated from the
ancient time; the sixth, called English wheat in Georgian language was introduced later
(Berishvili et al., 2002).
Each species of aboriginal wheat was represented by several varieties. Most known of
them are varieties of bread wheat – “Dolis Puri”. Two varieties were known – red spiked and
white spiked (Beriashvili, 1973), one of them with red spikes called Red Bread Wheat of
Meskheti (T. aestivum var. ferrugineum), remained until now and is grown in arid conditions,
where it shows good adaptation to water shortages and is highly productive. Bread wheat (T.
aestivum var. erythrospermum) was sown in Javakheti in the past.
One local variety of Dika (T. carthlicum) cultivated almost in all villages of Meskheti is
called Makhnia Bread, which takes onto an idea that it might be derived form T. macha
(Jalabadze, 1972). Another variety of Dika was Tofbashi, which in Turkish language means
“bigspiklet wheat”. The local Meskhetian variety of Dika has straight spike with awn. The spike
of Tofbashi, however, is quadrate and round and has big grains from all sides i.e. is not flatted
(Jalabadze, 1972).
Emmer wheat (T. dicoccum) was growing in Tsalka district (Trialeti region adjoining to
Javakheti from the North), Javakheti and Meskheti untill the end of XIX and early XX centuries.
It was mainly cultivated in high mountain regions. It was spring corn. The emmer wheat
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cultivated in Meskheti has double grains and local Moslem population was called it “Kabgaja”.
The main varieties of emmer wheat dominated in the field were white spiked and a few amounts
of red spiked varieties were mixed (Beriashvili, 1973).
T. durum Desf.- durum wheat was distributed in Meskheti from ancient time. The fields
of this species were distributed from 500 to 1000 m a.s.l. T. carthlicum substituted this wheat at
higher elevations. The local name of durum wheat was “Shavfkha” and the local Moslem
population was called it “Kara Kilchig” (Beriashvili, 1973). One of the local varieties of durum
wheat is Faseni or Fasimi, which was grown in Samtskhe-Javakheti.
Nowadays, there is only bread wheat to be cultivated in the region. Mainly, there are
introduced varieties – local Georgian “Ufkho I”, American variety – Kopper, Turkish – Sultan,
Georgian breed – “Vardzia”. The traditional variety of bread wheat, Meskhetian or Javakhian
Red Bread Wheat (T. aestivum var. ferrugineum) is cultivated in Vale Breeding Station on 5,4 ha
and in several villages: Upper and Lower Enteli, Adigeni distr.; Patara Smada, in private
collection of local farmer, Aspidza distr. – v. Saro and Khizabavra, Akhalkalaki distr. v.
Misikian on 0,25 ha (Berishvili et al., 2002). The local population often has now idea on the
origin and character of variety as they are purchasing the seeds on the market without any
instructions and information. Dika fields have been found in v. Rustavi, Aspindza distr.
Javakhian Dika is cultivated in Javakheti till today. It represents mixture of bread wheat and
Ipkli (Bregadze, 2004). Ipkli is bread wheat sown in autumn i.e. winter corn (Maisaia, 2005).
Barley – Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae) It was the second important crop in SamtskheJavakheti after wheat (Jalabadze, 1972) and main crop in high-mountainous Javakheti. Until
1970-es, here was growing two varieties of barley – white and black, which differ by form, one
has flat and another round spikes. Most frequently was cultivated flat spiked barley. Big
territories were occupied by barley as well on the territory of Georgia occupied by Turkey until
the beginning of the XX century. According to old administrative documents v. Ptena located on
arid land was paying taxes by barley amounted in 1000 pitcher, while wheat was paying only as
500 pitchers from the same village. Barley was sown on both irrigated and non-irrigated lands
(Jalabadze, 1972). It was mixed with Dika and such mixed filed was called “Kerdika field” and
corn as “Kerdika”.
Nowadays, foreign varieties of barley are widely cultivated in Samtskhe-Javakheti. They
belong to spring corn, double row variety of barley - H. vulgare ssp. distichon. The names of
these varieties are unknown for the local population. The local variety of barley – Akhaltesli is
widely cultivated in the region. Another variety of barley “Kershveli” is cultivated due to efforts
of society “Dika” in Akhaltsikhe distr. v. Tkemlana by several peasants. There are some winter
corn barley fields, represented by four- and six-row barley - H. vulgare ssp. tetrastichon and H.
vulgare ssp. hexastichon (Berishvili et al., 2002).
Rye – Secale cereale L. (Poaceae) is one more grain crop distributed in SamtskheJavakheti. It was very competitive with wheat and barley in high-mountainous regions.
Nowadays, its field are found in v. Chunchkha in ground of peasant Zurab Beridze (Berishvili et
al., 2002). The name and origin of the variety is unknown. The naturalization of rye and its
occurrence in the wheat fields as weed is normal in both Meskheti and Javakheti regions. Often,
rye seeds are mixed with wheat and appear on wheat fields. In mountains, it occupied abandoned
wheat fields as weed. It is supposed that weedy form might be another species of rye – S.
segetale Zhuk., which is usually mixed with cultivated rye. At the same time the mountainous
regions of Javakheti is known as area of distribution of two wild species S. anatolicum Boiss.
and S. montanum Guss., which might be entering corn fields as weedy species. The
environmental conditions in the region are very good for distribution and cultivation of rye.
Oats – Avena sativa L. (Poaceae) was cultivated in both Meskheti and Javakheti regions
and mainly used as forage. Nowadays, it occupies very small area among crop fields in
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Samtskhe-Javakheti. It is mainly cultivated in Javakheti and Adigeni distr. in mountain areas of
cattle breeding and is used as forage plant. The origin of seed material is unknown. The local
population is purchasing the seeds in the market and receive no information or instructions on its
origin.
Millet – Panicum miliaceum L. (Poaceae) Cultivation of millet in Samtskhe-Javakheti is
confirmed by archaeological findings and ethno-botanical evidences (Beriashvili, 1973).
Pea – Pisum sativum L. (Fabaceae) It is grown in house gardens in small amounts as
food legume till today. More often it is mixed as weed in the fields with different grain crops –
barley, rye. It is used as forage and for hay, especially in Javakheti.
Chickpea – Cicer arietinum L. (Fabaceae). Tentatively, it is currently cultivated by
several peasants in v. Smada, Adigeni distr.
Lentil – Lens esculenta Moench (=Lens culinaris Medik.) (Fabaceae) It was sown in
Meskheti till 1970-es. Nowadays, it is not cultivated more. There was small grained form of
lentil in Javakheti (Lens esculenta var. microsperma Baumg.) sown in high mountainous area
(Javakhishvili, 1930).
Faba bean – Vicia faba L. (Fabaceae). Faba bean is one of the oldest cultivated plants.
In Meskheti it has special name – Kolangari (Beriashvili, 1973).
Common vetch – Vicia sativa L. (Fabaceae) It is used as forage and for hay. It was
distributed in Javakheti (Javakhishvili, 1930).
Bitter vetch – Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. (Fabaceae). It is distributed in Meskheti and
Javakheti (Javakhishvili, 1930). There are cultivated and wild forms of this species. It is used as
forage and for soil enrichment with nitrogen (Beriashvili, 1973).
Sainfoin – Onobrychis spp. (Fabaceae). Forage plant. There is widely used local variety
of Onobrychis called “Akhalkalskuri”. This plant is cultivated in Javakheti from ancient time
(Sinskaya, 1969).
Flax – Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae). Flax was one of the oldest and very
important filed crops in Meskheti. According to literature data (Chikovani, 1971) there were
three different varieties – flat, Tsitsmata and black flax. Flat flax was cultivated in bigger amount
than two others. Until recently, flax was cultivated in Javakheti, where flax seeds were used to
obtain pharmacologically pure oil used for medicinal purpose.
Traditional vegetables are represented by sugar beat, carrot, radish, onion and garlic.
Local variety of onion is aggregate onion, which has another name – Shirakula (Akhaltsikhe
distr. v. Gurkeli). Another variety is Onion from Skhvilisi, cultivated so far in vv. Skhvilisi,
Julga and Tskaltbila (Berishvili et al., 2002).
Herbs are represented by Basil (Ocimum basilicum), Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
Savory (Satureja hortensis), Parsley (Petroselinum crispum), Dill (Anethum graveolens),
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), etc.
Fruit trees and shrubs. One of the oldest cultivated plants among fruit crops is
grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). The following autochthonous varieties of grapevine are still
existing in Meskheti - Akhaltsikhuri Tetri, Aspindzura Shavi, Budeshuri Shavi, Budeshuri Tetri,
Chitikvercxa, Kharistvala Shavi, Kharistvala Tetri, Meskhuri Mtsvane, Meskhuri Safere,
Meskhuri Shavi, Safarula, Samariobo, Satsuri, Tskhenisdzudzu Shavi, Tskhenisdzua tetri,
Tskhenisdzua Sahvi, Tskhenis Dzudzu Tetri, etc.
Plum (Prunus domestica L.) was represented by following cultivars - Alibukhari,
Chanchuri Tetri,Chanchuri Tsiteli, Chatalalugi-Tkupala, Kliavi Gaipara, Kliavi Tetri, Kliavi
Tsiteli, Shavkliavi, etc.
Pear (Pyrus communis L.) cultivars are - Botla Mskhali (Uzumarmudi), Gogramsxali
(Kabakarmudi), Inzhira, Katsistava, Khechechuri, Kviristava, Meskhuri Gulabi, Mikhriki,
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Nanadziri, Nenemskhali, Sachure, Samariobo Mskhali, Santela, Sesela, Tavrezhuli, Tsitelgverda,
Zhozhila, etc.
Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars - Abilauri (Fashalma), Bostanalma,
Iaghalma-Konavashla, Iazalma Kviteli, Iazalma Tsiteli, Joritskhvira, Kalbatonis Vashli,
Karalfili, Khrustala, Machitela-Chitavashla, Makhara, Mamulovashli, Mefis Vashli, Meskhuri
Turashauli, Metsiskvilis Vashli, Rakraka, Shakara, Shaqarnabada, Soba-Msukana, SudalmaRdzevashla, Tatena, Tetri Vashli, etc.
From other fruits peasants have in ground Apricot, Blackberry, Blackcurrant,
Blueberry, Cherry, Melon, Nectarine, Peach, Pomegranate, Quince, Strawberry,
Watermelon, etc.
The introduced crops are Bean, Zea mays, Potato, Pepper, Melange, Tomato, etc.
However, the existence of aboriginal crop species in the region leads into an idea to
identify these aboriginal and autochthonous varieties, which will be connected genetically to
local wild plant species considered as crop wild ancestors or relatives. Therefore, it is of high
important to identify CWR in the region and determine priority species, which have played an
important role in crop domestication processes, or may represent valuable genetic material for
genetic engineering improving the economic quality of crops and disease resistant.
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Fig. 3. Crops in Samtskhe-Javakheti. 1. cereals - wheat, barley and wild rye (Secale segetale) in
Meskheti, v. Klde. 2. Field of Oats - Avena sativa near v. Arali; 3. Wheat with awn; 4. Wheat
without awn; 5. Six rowed barley; 6. Wild rye (Secale segetale) in the mixed cereal field in
Meskheti; 7. Cultivated flax in ELKANA's field station in Tsnisi; 8-10 Local varieties of pear
and apple in Meskheti.
1
2
3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10
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4. Flora and Vegetation
Samtskhe-Javakheti region is a distinct geomorphologic formation. Its vegetation is
characterised by peculiarity and, to a certain degree, contrasts (Sosnovski, 1933). It represents
crossroads of geographical-genetic elements characteristic to the Mediterranean, Iran-Turkish
and northern hemispheric ancient flora. This landscape-geobotanical zone comprises wetlands,
unique lakes and marshes, various modifications of mountainous steppes, mountainous
xerophyte shrublands, dry and mesophillous meadows and relict remnants of forests once
common in Javakheti upland, etc. (Sosnovski, 1933, Ketskhoveli, 1959).
There are two relief forms in the upland of southern mountainous region - plateau formed
by lava flows and volcanogenic cones (peaks). Volcanogenic and orogenic process coincided
with the glaciation (Pliocene-Pleistocene), which resulted in total destruction of the Tertiary
vegetation (Sosnovski, 1933). Recent flora was also developed as a result of complex processes glaciation was followed by xerothermal periods, which determined formation of mesophylic,
xeromesophylic and xerophytic meadows. In parallel wetland vegetation was developed.
According to the historical sources, forests used to occupy large areas on Javakheti upland
(Troizki, 1927). These were almost entirely destroyed due to human activities and survive only
in minor fragments.
There are following vegetation zones in southern mountainous region of Georgia
(Dolukhanov, 1989, Khintibidze, 1990):
1. Middle montane zone (800-1500 m a.s.l.) - largely used as arable land. The natural
vegetation survives as riparian forests, oak-hornbeam forests, mountain xerophytic
shrublands, mountain steppes;
2. Upper montane zone with beech-coniferous mixed forests (1200-2050 m a.s.l.);
3. Subalpine zone (1900-2400(2500) m a.s.l.) represented by treeline ecotone, tall
herbaceous vegetation, shrublands and polydominant subalpine grass and herb meadows.
This zone is typologically diverse;
4. Alpine zone (above 2500 – 2900 m a.s.l.) – alpine meadows and snowbed communities
are present. Vegetation is mostly used for grazing and is of considerably lower quality
than the subalpine vegetation, both by biomass volume and typological diversity.
5. Subnival zone (2900-3300 m a.s.l.) is represented only on Abul-Samsari range.
6. Azonal vegetation type is represented by fragments of wetlands rich in boreal type flora,
halophytic desert vegetation and rocky areas. It should be noted that xerophytic rock
vegetation supports high number of endemic species.
The region is divided into three floristic provinces – Euxine, Armeno-Iranian and
Caucasian (Grossheim, Sosnovski, 1928; Takhtajian, 1986). Euxine province enters in the
extreme western part of this region on Arsiani range and partly on Adjara-Imereti range.
Armeno-Iranian province comprises the southern part of Meskheti and Javakheti Plateau
characterized by xerophytic vegetation and mountain steppes. Caucasian province occupies the
most part including almost all mountain systems.
Two floristically distinct regions are distinguished for Samtskhe-Javakheti by A.
Doluchanov (1989) – Adigeni-Borjomi region and Javakheti upland. The first includes northwest slopes of Trialeti range, southern slopes of Adjara-Imereti range, Akhaltsikhe depression
and river Kvabliani gorge. R. Mtkvari above v. Khashuri divides Adjara-Trialeti mountain
system into two ranges Trialeti and Adjara-Imereti. Elevation in this section ranges from 750800 m a.s.l. to 2700 (2900) m a.s.l. Most prominent part of Mtkvari valley represents
Akhaltsikhe depression. Elevation at the base of the depression near town Akhaltsikhe is 9501000 m a.s.l. It increases considerably to the south to Turkish border.
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The following biomes are distinguished in Meskheti: Riparian forests in floodplains
(800-1150 m a.s.l.), xerophytic shrublands and semi-deserts (800-1200 m a.s.l.), Oak–Oriental
Hornbeam and Oak-Hornbeam forests (900-1200 m a.s.l.), Beech-coniferous forest (1100-2050
m a.s.l.), treeline ecotone (2050-2200 m a.s.l.), tall herbaceous vegetation and subalpine
meadows (2100-2500 m a.s.l.) in the subalpine zone; alpine meadows (2500-2900 m a.s.l.) and
snowbed communities in the alpine zone and azonal rock vegetation. The boundaries of biomes
and vegetation zones vary considerably depending on precipitation and slope exposition.
Javakheti volcanic upland supports the following biomes – pine forests, xerophytic
shrublands, high-mountain steppes characteristics for South Georgia, subalpine and alpine
meadows, rock vegetation and wetlands. Small area of subnival vegetation above 2900 m a.s.l. is
characteristic of high peaks of Abul-Samsari range (Nakhutsrishvili, 1966).
4.1. Main Biomes of Samtskhe-Javakheti
4.1.1. Mountain xerophytic shrublands and arid vegetation
Mountain xerophytic vegetation is widely distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti region from
900 up to 2200 m a.s.l. It mainly occurs in the R. Mtkvari gorge and other gorges of Meskheti.
They are characteristics of limestone Plateau Tetrobi in Javakheti. There are tragacanthic,
phryganoid, shibliak and semi-desert communities (Khintibidze, 1990). Tragacanthic community
is represented by edificator species: Astracantha microcephala, Acantholimon armenum, A.
glumaceum, and elements of shibliak: Paliurus spina-christi, Rhamnus pallasii, Cotinus
coggygria, Berberis vulgaris, Atraphaxis caucasica, Cotoneaster integerrimus, Crataegus
orientalis, Amelanchier ovalis, Lonicera iberica, etc. (Ivanishvili, 1973; Khintibidze, 1990).
Middle montane and upper montane types of tragacanthic communities are distinguished
(Khintibidze, 1990). The first with 199 species of vascular plants is spread along the Mtkvari
River (900-1300 m a.s.l,) and in gorges of rivers Uraveli, Otskhe, Potskhovi, Kvabliani and
Tsinubnistskhali. Tragacanthic vegetation enters pine forest in vicinity of v. Damala. This plant
community contains rare species Astragalus arguricus, A. raddeanus, Onobrychis sosnowskyi,
Vicia akhmaganica, Salvia compar, Scutellaria sosnowskyi, Psephellus meskheticus, etc. In some
places tragacanths enter oak forest. The following rare species occur in this community:
Dianthus calocephalus, Silene brotherana, Erysimum caucasicum, Coronilla orientalis, Satureja
spicigera, S. laxiflora, Teucrium polium, T. nuchense, T. orientale, Sideritis comosa, Bupleurum
exaltatum, Convolvulus lineatus, Campanula hohenackeri, etc.
Upper mountain type of tragacanthic community with 157 species of vascular plants is
present in Javakheti Plateau in the vicinity of v. Azavreti, Aragva, Kartsakhi and in R. Paravani
gorge. As well in south-east part of Meskheti near v. Niala, Busamreti, in the gorge of
Kazamretistskali and Mt. Ziareti. Edificatory species of this community is Astracantha
microcephala.
Phryganoid communities support species Ephedra procera and Tanacetum
argyrophyllum and are spread in eastern part of Akhaltsikhe depression. Peculiar population of
Ephedra procera occurs in the vicinity of v. Khertvisi. Other characteristic species of this
community are Cytisus caucasicus, Caragana grandiflora, Dianthus calocephalus, Hedysarum
turkewiczii, Onobrychis meskhetica, Teucrium polium, Thymus sosnowskyi, Stachys atherocalyx,
S. iberica, Festuca valesiaca, Campanula hohenackeri, C. raddeana, C. alliariifolia, Artemisia
sosnowskyi, Stipa capillata, S. pulcherrima, Koeleria cristata, Elytrigia elongatiformis, E.
trychophora, E. caespitosa, Agropyron repens var. subulatus, Valerianella plagiostephana.
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Semi-desert plant communities are present in R. Mtkvari gorge near v. Rustavi and v.
Aspindza. Outstanding species in this community is RDB species Nitraria schoberi with other
39 species of the community Reaumuria kuznetzovii, Astragalus cyri, A. kozlowskyi, Caccinia
rauwolfii var. meskhetica, Ceratocarpus arenarius, Ceratoides papposa, Gamanthus pilosus,
Kochia prostrata, Camphorosma monspeliaca, Limonium meyeri, Picnomon acarna,
Sterigmostemum torulosum, S. tomentosum, Tragopogon meskheticus, Stizolophus
coronopifolius, Callicephalus nitens, Crepis pannonica, etc. (Bobrov, 1946; Kikodze, 1967;
Khintibidze, 1990). Many species of the genus Artemisia are characteristics for this type of
vegetation.
Shibliak is widespread in middle montane zone mixed with tragacantic vegetation.
Dominant species are Cotinus coggygria, Atraphaxis caucasica, Rhamnus pallasii, Cytisus
caucasicus, Paliurus spina-christi, etc.
Yellow blue-stem grass (Bothriochloa ischaemum) community presents mainly
secondary vegetation developed in disturbed areas replacing natural vegetation. Associated
species are Veronica orientalis, Galium verum, Achillea micrantha, A. millefolium, Cleistogenes
bulgarica, Elytrigia repens, Festuca valesiaca, Koeleria macrantha, Poa pratensis, etc.
4.1.2. Forests
4.1.2.1. Riparian forests
The habitat along the rivers Mtkvari, Potskhovi, Kvabliani, Tsinubnistskali and Otskhe is
characterised by a primary riparian forest and partly by relict tugay forest (Kikodze, 2002),
which is extensively fragmented and does not constitute a continuous habitat. It is significantly
degraded and is not particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic activities given the existing level of
disturbance. In addition large areas of forest have been cleared to make room for orchard or
agricultural crops. Dominant species in riparian forest is Alnus barbata associated with Quercus
pedunculiflora, Populus hybrida, P. nigra, Crataegus monogyna, C. pentagyna, Cornus mas,
Prunus spinosa, Ligustrum vulgare, Lonicera caprifolium, etc. (Gvritishvili, Kimeridze, 2001).
In the vicinity of Tkemlana and Tiseli villages there is developed riparian forest with
Hippophaё rhamnoides. From other trees and shrub species there are: Acer campeste, Berberis
vulgaris, Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Crataegus monogyna, Prunus spinosa, Pyrus
caucasica, Rosa canina, Viburnum opulus. There is the sensitive habitat of high conservative
value populated by the RDB plant, sea-buckthorn, Hippophaё rhamnoides on the east slope of
foothill close to irrigation canal west of Vale in association with rare species, Ceratoides
papposa as well as Berberis vulgaris, Rhamnus spathulifolia, R. cathartica, Pyrus salicifolia,
Rosa canina, Ligustrum vulgare, Glycyrrhiza glabra, etc. (Gvritishvili, Kimeridze, 2001). Only
one population of wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris) has been found in R. Mtkvari
riparian forest near v. Atskuri.
4.1.2.2. Oak and Hornbeam Forests
Oak forests, dominated by Georgian oak, Quercus iberica occupy western and northern
slopes of middle montane zone (Dolukhanov, 1989; Khintibidze, 1990). It occurs in slopes of
Adjara-Imereti range, in gorges of the R. Uraveli and R. Kvabliani. Oak in some areas is mixed
with Hornbeam Carpinus betulus, in other mainly occurs with Oriental Hornbeam Carpinus
orientalis. The other characteristic species are Acer platanoides, Cornus mas, Corylus avellana,
Crataegus pentagyna, C. monogyna, Malus orientalis, Pinus kochiana, Pyrus caucasica, Swida
australis, Ulmus glabra, etc. Outstanding peculiarity of oak forests in Samtskhe is the fact that in
upper boundary of this type of forests hornbeam is substituted by European Hop hornbeam Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
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Ostrya carpinifolia, such forest occupies considerable territory in R. Uraveli and R. Kvabliani
gorges. The components of shibliak, such as Paliurus spina-christi, Rhamnus pallasii, Spiraea
hypericifolia, etc., are admixed on lower boundary of the oak forest, as a result of degradation of
this natural stand. Lonicera iberica is rarely found in the oak forest.
4.1.2.3 Beech-coniferous forests
Beech forests (Fagus orientalis) with the elements of Kolkhic flora are well developed in
the west of Meskheti in upper areas of R. Kvabliani gorge on Arsiani range and on the eastern
slopes of Adjara-Imereti range. It forms subalpine krummholz in Goderzi Pass reaching
elevation 2100 m a.s.l. (Khintibidze, 1990). Small population is found on Oshora range above v.
Damala (Mukbaniani, 1976) and in Chobareti range in Javakheti where it forms krummholz.
Western and north-western regions of Meskheti are characterized by dark coniferous forests
(Dolukhanov, 1989) in upper montane zone representing by Picea orientalis and Abies
nordmanniana mixed with beech. Almost virgin dark coniferous forest occurs in Abastumani
along the road to the observatory.
4.1.2.4. Pine forests
Pine forests (Pinus kochiana) are usually developed on southern slopes of Meskheti, AdjaraImereti and Trialeti ranges (Khintibidze, 1990). Pine forest has more limited distribution than
spruce forests. Although, pine frequently occurs in spruce forests on the northern slopes
(Khintibidze, 1990). Pine forests on Erusheti and Tetrobi-Chobareti ranges (1800-2000 m a.s.l.)
have little distinguished composition. This pine was before determined as separate endemic
species P. kochiana, while more widely distributed one was called P. sosnowskyi. Now these two
species are unified. However, Tetrobi pine forest by composition is considered as outstanding
refugee, where pine is mixed with the elements of mountain steppes (Troitski, 1927). Total 48
vascular plant species are distinguished in this community. The following herbaceous species are
associated with Pinus kochiana: Arenaria steveniana, Cerastium sosnowskyi, Minuartia
woronowii, Silene dianthoides, Sempervivum sosnowskyi, Astragalus arguricus, A.
campylosema, Medicago dzhawakhetica, Helianthemum nummularium, H. orientale, Daphne
transcaucasica, Acantholimon glumaceum, Heracleum antasiaticum, Galium grusinum,
Centaurea bella, Crepis pinnatifida, Muscari sosnowskyi etc. This community is very rich in
endemic species occurring mainly on calcareous rocks of Tetrobi Plateau. Peculiar species are
Asphodeline taurica and parasitic Diphelypaea coccinea.
4.1.3. Mountain Steppes
Mountain steppes are peculiar to South Georgia. They cover Javakheti volcanic Plateau. Steppe
vegetation is represented by different plant communities. Most characteristic species of
polydominant grass-forb steppes are: Festuca ovina, F. sulcata, Stipa tirsa, S. pulcherrima,
Bothriochloa ischaemum, Filipendula vulgaris, Falcaria vulgaris, Cruciata laevipes, Koeleria
cristata, Medicago hemicycla, Phleum phleoides, Polygala anatolica, Thymus caucasicus, etc.
Besides, there are secondary meadows developed mainly on sites once occupied by
primary forests. Like previous communities these meadows are composed by the variants of
polydominant grass-forb vegetation with participation of Agrostis planifolia, Alchemilla
erythropoda, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromopsis variegata, Calamagrostis arundinacea,
Centaurea salicifolia, Dactylis glomerata, Lotus caucasicus, Trifolium ambiguum, T. canescens,
etc. From monodominant meadows can be mentioned communities with such dominant species
as Nardus stricta (dzigviani in Georgian), Anemone fasciculata (frintiani), Agrostis planifolia
(namikrefiani), Brachypodium sylvaticum (berseliani), Bromopsis variegata (shvrieliani), etc.
(Kvachakidze, 1996).
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Natural herbaceous vegetation of Javakheti Plateau has been transformed and is
represented by various modifications of secondary steppefied meadows and mountainous
polydominants steppes. Steppefied meadows are comprised of Carex humilis, Festuca valesiaca,
F. ovina, Filipendula vulgaris, Polygala anatolica, Stipa tirsa, etc. Secondary post-forest
meadows are dominated by Agrostis planifolia, Alchemilla erythropoda, Bromopsis variegata,
Calamagrostis arundinacea, Dactylis glomerata, Geranium sylvaticum, Lotus caucasicus,
Ranunculus caucasicus, Trifolium canescens, etc. The southern slopes are occupied by
polydominant steppes mainly formed by grasses Festuca ovina, F. valesiaca, Stipa pulcherrima,
Stipa tirsa, Koeleria macrantha, Phleum phleoides. Forbs are represented by Filipendula
vulgaris, Cruciata laevipes, Medicago hemicycla, Thymus rariflorus, etc.
4.1.4. Subalpine vegetation
Subalpine zone is represented by krummholz, subalpine shrublands, tall herbaceous vegetation
and polydominant subalpine meadows. Subalpine krummholz is represented by Betula litwinowii
and B. pendula, Acer trautvetteri, Sorbus caucasigena, Salix caprea, etc. Shrubland is composed
by Caucasian Rhododendron - Rhododendron caucasicum, Vaccinium myrtillus, Empetrum
caucasicum, etc.
Subalpine birch and maple forests are found on the northern slopes while pine forests are
developed on the southern slopes at the altitudes of 1800-1900 m a.s.l..
Javakheti upland used to be covered by forests, which were entirely destroyed due to high
anthropogenic pressure in XVIII-XIX cc (Troizki, 1927). Only minor fragments of the subalpine
forests survive mostly on northern slopes of the high-mountainous areas. These fragments are
formed by species typical for the Caucasian subalpine forests, namely: Litvinov's birch (Betula
litwinowii), mountain ash (Sorbus caucasigena), goat willow (Salix caprea), Bieberstein's rock
currant (Ribes biebersteinii), alpine currant (Ribes alpinum), in some areas - European aspen
(Populus tremula), etc. Litvinov's birch and mountain ash form communities over small areas in
the rocky relief.
Tall herbaceous vegetation is composed of 3-4 m high herbs, mainly dicots
(Nakhutsrishvili, 1999). Typical species forming subalpine tall herbaceous vegeation are as
follows: Anemone fasciculata, Geranium ibericum, G. platypetalum, G. psilostemon, G.
ruprechtii, Scabiosa caucasica, Senecio rhombifolius, Stachys macrantha, Campunala latifolia,
Cephalaria gigantea, Doronicum macrophyllum, Aconitum nasutum, Gadellia lactiflora,
Delphinium flexuosum, Heracleum wilhelmsii, Grossheimia macrocephala, Lilium szovitsianum,
etc.
Subalpine grass and grass forb meadows are found in the subalpine forest complexes.
Grass meadows are formed by Festuca ovina, F. woronowii, Bromopsis variegata,
Calamagrostis arundinacea. These species form coenoses both independently and in codominance. The subalpine meadows occur above the subalpine forest zone, at the altitudes of
2100-2200 m a.s.l.
4.1.5. Alpine vegetation
The vegetation of the alpine zone is comprised of Festuca valesiaca, F. ovina, F.
woronowii, Alchemilla erythropoda, A. caucasica, Sibbaldia semiglabra, Cirsium arvense, sedge
- Carex tristis, mat nardusgrass - Nardus stricta, and various grasses. Snowbed communities
support Carex meinshauseniana, Festuca supina, F. woronowii, Minuartia circassica, Corydalis
alpestris, Senecio taraxacifolius, Matricaria caucasica, etc.
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4.1.6. Subnival vegetation
It is well represented on Mt. Didi Abuli (3304 m. a.s.l.). Besides subnival vegetation,
among graves and morens here are alpine snowbed communities dominated by Carex
meinshauseniana, Festuca supina, F. woronowii, etc. (Nakhutsrishvili, 1966; Khintibidze, 1990).
Among subnival plant communities should be mentioned fragments of Astragalus vavilovii and
Erysimum krynitzkyi associations. Total number of species in the subnival zone of Samsari range
is 62 (Khintibidze, 1990). Among them are 3 local endemics, 14 endemics of the Caucasus, and
others with wider area of distribution in Minor Caucasus and in Asia Minor.
4.1.7. Rock – scree vegetation
Rock-scree vegetation in Samtskhe-Javakheti reveals properties of xerophytic vegetation.
It is spread in Akhaltsikhe depression (900-1500 m a.s.l.) and in Tetrobi Plateau (1800-2000 m
a.s.l.). Total 80 species present in this biome. Among them are: Erysimum szowitzianum,
Campanula crispa, Veronica livanensis, Centaurea bella, Minuartia micrantha, Jurinea
carthaliniana, Matricaria rupestris, etc. Some local endemic species are presented in this biome:
Dianthus azkurensis, D. ketzkhovelii, Draba meskhetica, Sempervivum sosnowskyi and
Astragalus raddeanus. Old tertiary relic species occur on rocks in R. Mtkvari and R.
Gujaretistskali gorges - Erysimum szowitsianum, Campanula crispa, Veronica livanensis,
Jurinea cartaliniana, etc.
4.1.8. Wetlands
Wetland vegetation is of highest significance on Javakheti volcanic upland. In general,
peat bog vegetation is found in all climatic zones including tropics, deserts and the arctic zone. It
is regarded as intrazonal or azonal vegetation type due to wide range of occurrence. Wetlands of
lacustrine origin are found in the mountainous region of the Caucasus. According to K.
Kimeridze (1966), wetlands of Tsalka basin and adjacent areas have been mostly formed as a
result of tussock swamping of lakes. This swamping type is extremely rare on the main ridge of
the Caucasus. It characterizes lakes with dramatic seasonal changes in water level. Tussock
sedge (Cariceta) formation communities are found on silty or coarse-peat wet substrata, which
are frequently waterlogged. The surface water level changes considerably by seasons and years.
Peat formation process is fairly intensive in most tussock sedge formations. This process
is characterized by certain peculiarities in wetlands located in Javakheti volcanic upland, namely
- at the early stages of wetland formation of this type organic mass is mostly accumulated at the
roots of evenly distributed main coenotype (sedge - Carex), gradually forming tussocks. Tussock
height is dependent on the duration of swamping and maximum waterlogging level of the
surface. Having reached this level, tussock height does not increase and organogenic material is
mainly accumulated between the tussocks. Tussock sedge communities are characterized by
mosaic structure due to formation of microrelief. The above demonstrates the uniqueness of the
natural properties idiosyncratic to the eutrophic and oligotrophic wetlands developed on
Javakheti volcanic upland. Javakheti wetlands are unique ecosystems, therefore, particular
attention should be attached to this vegetation type.
Tussock sedge wetlands occur from the sea level up to the subalpine zone (2000-2200 m
a.s.l.). Several types of tussock sedge wetlands are located in this area. Wetland fragment located
in the vicinity of Mt. Tavkvetili is fairly large. This tufted sedge wetland is dominated by Carex
acuta and C. disticha. The associated species are as follows: Carex vesicaria, Alopecurus
arundinaceus, Ranunculus lingua, Poa palustris, etc. Mt. Tavkvetili, Narianis Veli and adjacent
areas are characterized by plant communities of scientific interest. A tufted sedge wetland
fragment is developed on peat relief at the bottom of Mt. Tavkvetili. The wetland is mainly fed
by atmospheric precipitation. Therefore, it frequently dries out. Relatively dry areas are
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characterized by mesophilous meadow elements. The dominant species is Carex vesicaria.
Associated species are as follows: Calamagrostis neglecta, Scilla rosenii, Comarum palustre,
Carex huetiana, Polygonum carneum, Eleocharis meridionalis, Carex medwedewii, Luzula
spicata, Carum carvi, Ranunculus caucasicus, Rumex acetosa, etc. Mosses Calliergonella
cuspidata, Drepanocladus aduncus and Climacium dendroides form synusium.
Peat moss (Sphagnum palustre) is developed among Rhododendron (Rhododendron
caucasicum) shrubs on Tavkvetili plateau. Mosses Drepanocladus exannulatus and D. fluitans
form synusium. Associated species are as follows: Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea,
Eleocharis meridionalis, Cardamine uliginosa, Comarum palustre, Anthoxanthum alpinum, etc.
Narianis Veli comprises a flat-bottomed catchment basin of the Ktsia upper reaches. Its
vegetation is entirely comprised of the wetland vegetation with various communities dominated
by hydrophilous plant species.
According to literature sources (Zedelmaier, 1929, 1933; Kimeridze, 1975), one of the
widely distributed wetland plant community on the volcanic upland of the southern Caucasus is
that of Carex acuta. The most widely distributed association are pure tufted sedge communities
(Caricetum acutae purum). As a rule, it is developed on lacustrine sediments and coarse-peat
deposits, waterlogged almost throughout the year. Fairly frequently aquatic plant synusium is
developed in pure tufted sedge communities, forming a distinct layer composed of Potamogeton
gramineus, Utricularia vulgaris, Lemna minor, etc. The herbaceous cover on tufts (tussocks) is
mostly formed by main coenotype (Carex acuta). Two types of herbaceous sedge wetlands Caricetum acutae comariosum palustrae and Caricetum acutae equisetosum eleocharidis - are
rare associations. The former is usually found at the maturity stage of swamping. In this case
tufted microrelief is slightly developed, the surface is not waterlogged or waterlogging depth is
minor, which facilitates development of moss synusium comprised of Climacium dendroides,
Drepanocladus vernicosus and Meesia triquetra. The herbaceous cover includes two layers with
Carex acuta being a dominant species in the upper layer while Comarum palustre is dominant in
the lower. The latter is associated with Carex diandra, C. limosa, etc. The peculiarity of this
association is absence of mosaic structure characteristic to the tufted sedge communities. This
type of sedge communities are extremely rare. They are found in the vicinity of Mt. Tavkvetili.
The second association is developed on swampy south-west shores of lake Tabatskuri and
is characterized by mosaic structure. Apart from the dominant and subdominant species, the
following are present: Carex disticha, C. vesicaria, Ranunculus lingua, Alisma plantagoaquatica, etc.
Among the tufted sedge communities of the mountainous region of Georgia Cariceta
wiluicae is of high scientific interest. Information on distribution and ecocoenotypic peculiarities
of Carex wiluica in Georgia was collected and published by K. Kimeridze (1975). According to
the author, Carex wiluica occurs only on Javakheti upland, mainly - the upper reaches of the
Ktsia, Narianis Veli and adjacent areas, north-west swampy shores of lake Tabatskuri. The upper
distribution limit is 2500 m a.s.l.. It normally occurs at the altitudes of 2000-2100 m. The species
is of fragmentary distribution in the wetlands. According to the same author, there are only three
associations of this formation on Javakheti upland:
Pure tufted sedge community (Caricetum wiluicae purum) has the widest distribution of
the three associations. The largest areas are occupied at Narianis Veli and higher altitudes. This
association is mostly developed on coarse-peat substrata within extinct bogs. Tuft height is more
or less low and rarely waterlogged. Therefore, aquatic plant synusium is never developed, which
distinguishes this association from other types of tufted sedge communities. In addition to
dominant-edificators, the following herbaceous species are present: Calamagrostis neglecta,
Ligularia sibirica, Deschampsia caespitosa, Poa palustris, Agrostis gigantea, Geranium
palustre, Aconitum nasutum. Sedges - Carex vesicaria and Carex rostrata occur in waterlogged
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places. Other herbaceous species present are as follows: Comarum palustre, Galium palustre,
Carex cinerea, Epilobium palustre, etc. Mosses are developed on tuft edges - Aulacomnium
palustre, Drepanocladus aduncus, Hypnum lindbergii. This association transforms into a
meadow over a time as tufts are subject to digression.
In summary, the tufted sedge community type formed by an extremely rare species Carex wiluica substantially differs from other types of tufted sedge wetlands, first of all, by
floristic composition. Tufted moss sedge community (Caricetum wiluicae hypnosum) is the
second association of the Cariceta wiluicae community. It occurs at Narianis Veli, left bank of
the Ktsia and former lake located between Bebera and Tavkvetili. The moss synusium is formed
by Drepanocladus sendtneri, D. aduncus, Caliergonella cuspidata and Hypnum lindbergii. In
addition, the following species are present: Aulacomnium palustre, Climacium dendroides,
Cratoneurum decipins, etc.
Coenoses dominated by Carex lasiocarpa comprise a rare type of tufted sedge wetlands.
Pure tufted sedge wetlands - Carex lasiocarpae pura are found in Narianis Veli and wetlands in
the vicinity of Mt. Tavkvetili. The main coenotype - Carex lasiocarpa is an obligate heliophyte,
which occurs on peat substrata both in eutrophic and meso-oligotrophic wetlands. This
association mainly develops in former lakes, on the waterlogged peat substrata. Some aquatic
plants could also be present, such as Utricularia vulgaris and Potamogeton gramineus. The
constant species of the association are as follows: Carex rostrata, C. vesicaria, C. acuta,
Comarum palustre, Menianthes trifoliata, Equisetum palustre, etc.
Another sedge species - Carex vesicaria is widely distributed in the high-mountainous
wetlands described above. Its distribution range extends from lowlands to the upper montane
zone, however, coenoses dominated by this species are known only for few locations. Such
coeneses occur in the lacustrine wetlands of the southern mountainous region of Georgia. Sedge
communities dominated by Carex vesicaria have a fragmentary distribution in lakes and
wetlands of Ktsia-Tabatskuri. They mainly occur in eutrophic and mesotrophic wetland
complexes. This species occurs up to 2000 m a.s.l. and mostly participates in thermophilous
vegetation communities. It is extremely rare in wetlands with cold waterlogged soils. The only
association of this species - Caricetum vesicariae purum is frequent for this area. Carex vesicaria
is an absolute dominant in the sedge communities of this type where the following species could
also be present in small numbers: Equisetum palustre, Eleocharis palustris, Sparganium
emersum, S. minimum, Carex rostrata, Comarum palustre, Menyanthes trifoliata, Alisma
plantago-aquatica. The following aquatic species are frequent: Urticularia vulgaris, Callitriche
palustris, Polygonum amphibium, Potamogeton natans. As a rule, Caricetum vesicariae purum
develops in waterlogged areas, at the initial stages of swamping. Carex vesicaria also
participates in the sedge community types described above; however, it is always of secondary
importance.
Lake Paravani is the largest among the natural reservoirs of Javakheti volcanic upland; its
banks are not almost boggy and therefore, it is less interesting from botanical point of view. The
river Paravani flows out from Lake Paravani and falls into Lake Sagamo. This lake is not almost
boggy as well. Here is developed pure tufted (tussock) sedge community, which is spread on the
shores of Lake Paravani as well. Wetland vegetation is represented near Lake Sagamo on the
place of former Lake Didi Avchala. Wetland vegetation of this area is homogeneous. Most of the
area is occupied with pure tufted sedge community, in which Carex acuta dominates. It grows
in complex with Caricetum vesicariae purum on smaller sites and with pure communities
composed by Eleocharis, Caricetum acutae purum and Sparganietum emersumae purum on the
banks. Utricularia vulgaris, Potamogeton gramineus, Elatine alsinastrum and others, are mixed
in different amounts into communities mentioned above, Ranunculus flammula, Beckmannia
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eruciformis etc. are mixed in coenoses on the shores. Such kind of homogeneous swamp on large
area is very rare in mountainous regions of Georgia.
South to the above-described wetlands is situated quite a big lake, Madatapa with flat
bed, which is at the die-off stage. It is completely covered with aquatic vegetation, among which
Potamogeton natans, P. gramineus or P. lucens are dominants. Polygonum amphibium is spread
on lesser area. Utricularia vulgaris, Lemna trisulca, Myriophyllum spicatum and some plants of
wetland vegetation are mixed with them in a quite large amount. The northwest and southeast
banks of Lake Chaobiani are boggier than other banks, where Caricetum vesicariae purum,
Caricetum acutae purum or communities of order Aquiherbosa are dominated on boggy banks.
Overgrowth of Eleocharis spp. and Sagittaria sagittifolia are also developed on the banks.
Above-mentioned aquatic vegetation is represented in all types of wetland associations. In the
northern part of lake-wetland on large areas are developed wet meadows represented with
Deschampsia caespitosa and Festuca spp. Perhaps, in the future on the area of former Lake
Madatapa will be formed the largest wetland in Javakheti.
Lakes Bugdasheni and Mrgvali, which are partly boggy, are not large; only southern part
of Bugdasheni is boggy, where pure tufted (tussock) sedge dominates. Caricetum rostratae
purum is spread on quite large area and Caricetum vesicariae purum on lesser area. This wetland
area is characterized with abundance of tall herbaceous vegetation and is very poor floristically.
On wet meadows are grown with Deschampsia caespitosa, Agrostis and Alopecurus are adjacent
to this wetland. Communities of pure tufted sedge and Eleocharis sp. are represented on northern
boggy bank of Lake Mrgvali.
The largest area of wetland vegetation occupies the banks of Lake Khanchali, which is
situated in the southern part of Javakheti. Southern and north-eastern banks of the lake are
mostly boggy. In deep water areas are spread analogous aquatic vegetation as those in Madatapa,
and in areas with less water groups of Sagittaria sagittifolia are developed in narrow stripe. It is
mainly adjacent to community of horsetail among which dominates Equisetum palustre. Some
aquatic plants are also mixed with components of wetland vegetation, and on some sites
abundant of Ranunculus lingua are observed.
Usually, there is topoecological connection between Scolochloetum festucaceae and
horse-tail communities. Transitive associations are often formed in their contact zone.
Sometimes, zone grown with Equisetum is omitted and community of Scolochloetum
festucaceae purum is adjacent to aquatic vegetation directly. In that case, aquatic plants are often
mixed to it and quite often community of Scolochloetum aquiherbosum is formed. Complex of
sedge communities, where major components are Cariceta vesicariae and Cariceta acutae, is
adjacent to the associations mentioned above. The topoecological order also makes clear
successional development of the described wetland area. On rude peat and silt substrata
Caricetum diandrae purum and Caricetum rostratae calliergonellosum are in complex with the
above-mentioned sedge communities.
Sinusium of moss, in the latter, is formed by
Calliergonella cuspidata, Hypnum lindbergii, Aulacomnium palustre, etc. It seems that these
associations are formed at the last stage of bogging and at the next stage, communities of
Deschampsia caespitosa, Festuca spp. and polydominant cereal meadows will substitute them.
Among the large lakes of Javakheti, Lake Kartsakhi (Khozapini) should be mentioned. In
the boundaries of Georgia its banks are not boggy for their verticality. But in its vicinity there is
a former lake called the Kartsakhi wetland, most part of which is covered with pure tufted sedge
and horsetail communities. In some sites of contact zones, sedge -horsetail communities are
formed, where Carex acuta and Equisetum palustre dominate. Such coenoses are mosaic. In the
community, height of grass vegetation is approximately 80 cm above water level, and cover age
reaches 90%. Carex disticha and Carex vesicaria are mixed into them in quite big amount and
Ranunculus lingua, Potamogeton gramineus and others are in less amount. Small amount of
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Typha latifolia is mixed in pure horsetail communities in some areas and there are also fragments
with horsetail and Typha communities. Communities of aquatic plants and horsetails are spread
on larger sites of rude peat surfaces with excess of water. On the banks of the wetland area, in
the neighbourhood of village Kartsakhi, on silt substrate, Hippuriteum vulgaris purum is spread.
It occupies quite large areas in some places. Described wetland site is poor floristically. In
addition to the above-mentioned plants, Calamagrosis neglecta and Comarum palustre are found
in this area, which are usually developed on sedge tussocks.
The Javakheti plateau is the richest region of Georgia with lakes and wetlands. By the
size of wetland areas it is the second region after the Kolkheti lowland. Although, rare, endemic
and relic species (except Carex wiluica, which is considered as rare species for Caucasus and is
known only from Javakheti and Bakuriani, Kartli) are not represented in the wetlands of
Javakheti plateau, wetland vegetation of the area significantly differs from those of other regions
of Georgia. Most of wetlands are young and formed on places of former lakes.
4.1.9. Halophyte vegetation
Original type of halophyte communities, which is spread on 500-1500 m a. s. l., is rare in
Georgia montane zone. Special attention should be paid to it because it is developed mainly in
the forest ecosystem, where on the corresponding ecotope montane zone xerophyte shrublands is
represented fragmentally. Halophyte complexes occur in Meskheti in the upper part of the river
Mtkvari. Halophilic communities are developed on badlands, on various slopes of nearly all
exposition, on the exhausted cortex of easy soluble, salty, gypseous basic rocks and on salty clay
soil. Such places are characterized by physical and physiologic dryness and dry microclimate.
According to the common position of ecotope vegetation is fluctuated within wide limits, which
depends on gypseous composition and salting degree in the substrata. By the structure of
vegetation and species composition it is similar to desert vegetation; it is characterized by poor
flora, inlay and complexity. The vegetation of upper parts of badland slopes and rocks is actually
undeveloped. It is caused by the intensive rain and wind erosion. Some typical desert and semidesert plants, such as Reaumuria alternifolia, and Camphorosma monspeliaca grow scatter on
such ecotopes. Open unconnected phytocoenose Reaumurioso-salsoleto-camphorosmetum are
created by these semi-bushes.
The common cover age of phytomass in such phytocoenose is not more than 5-10%.
Podospermum idae is mixed diffusely in it; on the comparatively calm surfaces sinusia of
ephemeric nature are developed like spotted fragments that are created in some places by dwarf
grasses- Eremopyrum orientale or Trachynia distachya but in some places by succulent
biomorpha Gamanthus pilosus or Bupleurum exaltatum. The last species and dwarf grasses often
fade in the second half of summer and the track of their existence in phytocoenoses is not really
seen. The spotted sinusia of the named plants are represented mainly by monodominant
microcoenoses. Most of the above-mentioned species are quite constant; from the less constant
species we can name Zygophyllum fabago, etc. It must be said that the vitality of this species in
the mentioned phytocoenoses is mostly fallen. It can be explained by the extreme severeness of
the edaphic conditions.
The halophilic vegetation cover age is about 50-60% on proluvial-deluvial deposits of the
lower parts of slopes. In such places we often meet Puccinellioso- atriplexeto- nitrarietum
community. Its flora is comparatively rich, heterogenic and complex. Except typical halophytes
some of such species takes part in phytocoenose, the ecophytocoenotic area of which is
connected with other types of vegetation. From the constant species of the mentioned
phytocoenose we can name Nitraria schoberi, Atriplex tatarica, Puccinellia distans, Kochia
prostrata, Sosnowskya amblyolepis, Amberboa moschata, Ceratoides papposa, etc. From nonconstant species, one can named Astragalus argillosus, Callicephalus nitens, a very rare species
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growing on the surface of dry ravine- Rhamnus spathulifolia, etc. The last species is considered
to be of hybrid origin and undoubtedly, more attention should be paid to it. Such phytocoenoses
are connected mostly with slopes of northern and western exposition. They are comparatively
better provided with moisture because of their close position to the surface of salty soil water.
Such type of phytocoenoses is characterized by comparatively complex sinusial and morphologic
structure.
The mentioned type of edaphogenic desert and semi-desert flora is represented by
comparatively narrower endemics and widespread species with disjuncted areas, which have a
great importance in research of geographic connections and study of Georgian flora and
vegetation formation history.
4.2. Rural vegetation
Rural vegetation is one of the most interesting in terms of CWR. Especially, field crop
wild relatives occur in these biome. Roadsides, almost on all territory of Meskheti, are
completelly covered by Aegilops cylindrica and Hordeum leporinum, more rarelly occurs in the
region - Aegilops tauschii, Avena barbata, A. fatua, Beta corolliflora, Brassica elongata,
Fragaria vesca, Linum austriacum, Medicago spp., Mentha aquatica, Raphanus rapinastrum,
Setaria viridis, Satureja spicigera, S. laxiflora, Solanum nigrum. Agricultural land area is
covered by species - Coriandrum sativum, Lathyrus spp., Onobrychis spp., Vicia spp. Many wild
fruit trees and shrubs occur on roadsides and urban areas - Cornus mas, Corylus avellana,
Cydonia oblonga, Ficus carica, Juglans regia, Malus oriantalis, Mespilus germanica, Morus
alba, Prunus cerasifera, Punica granatum, Pyrus caucasica, P. salicifolia, Rubus spp., Many
invasive, roadside and adventive cosmopolitan plant species are used in traditional and scientific
medicine world-wide. Among them are Cichorium intybus, Melilotus officinalis, Achillea
millefolium, Agrimonia eupatoria, Agropyron repens, Bryonia dioica, Capsella bursa-pastoris,
Chelidonium majus, Cuscuta europaea, Hyoscyamus niger, Lamium album, Malva sylvestris,
Mentha arvensis, Plantago major, Stellaria media, Taraxacum officinale, Tussilago farfara,
Urtica dioica, etc. These plants are distributed throughout in urban and rural areas, along
roadsides and in disturbed habitats. Many of them are pioneer plants forming primary
successions in eroded slopes resulted by construction works and other industrial activities.
4.3 Pastures
Subalpine and alpine meadows are mainly used as summer pastures for sheep and cattle
in Javakheti and in mountain areas in Meskheti (Magakian, 1933; Nakhutsrishvili, 1966). Grass,
sedge and polydominant grass-forb meadows are characteristic of this type of vegetation. Grassforb and legume dominated meadow communities are characterized by high diversity, containing
more than 30 species in one community. There are several types of grass meadows where
dominant species might be Festuca ovina, Bromopsis variegata, Poa alpina, Koeleria caucasica,
Nardus stricta or Festuca varia. Associated species in these plant communities are Ranunculus
oreophilus, Bromopsis villosula, Trifolium ambiguum, T. trichocephalum, T. alpestre, Stachys
macranthera, Anemone albana, Gentiana caucasica, Aster alpinus, Phleum alpinus, Veronica
gentianoides, etc. dominated species in sedge meadows are Carex humilis or Carex brevicollis.
Associated species are: Koeleria caucasica, Inula glandulosa, Myosotis alpestris, Carex tristis,
Poa alpina, Phleum alpinum, Pedicularis caucasica, Draba nemorosa, Scabiosa caucasica,
Cerastium purpurescens, etc. Dominant species in legume meadows is Trifolium ambiguum
associated with Carex humilis, Bromopsis villosula, Poa alpina, Arenaria steveniana, Achillea
sericea, Colpodium versicolor, Bromopsis variegata, Centaurea cheiranthifolia, Gentiana
septemfida, etc. Polydominant grass-forb meadows are composed by Sibbaldia procumbens,
Alopecurus vaginatus, Bromopsis variegata, Phleum alpinum, Trifolium ambiguum, Festuca
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ovina, Galium verum, Stachys macrantha, etc. Polydominant alpine meadows contain Festuca
ovina, Potentilla alpestris, Gentiana septemfida, Carum caucasicum, Trifolium repens, Aster
alpinus, Luzula spicata, campanula collina, Potentilla gelida, etc. Veratrum lobelianum is
indicator of pasture degradation and represents weed almost on the entire territory of pastures. It
is poisenous plant not to be grazed by domestic animals. Therefore it is widespread in subalpine
and alpine meadows.
4.4. Endemic, rare and relict species
Caucasus is characterized by high endemism and is considered to be one hot spots of
biodiversity worldwide. Flora of Georgia is very rich in endemic and unique plant species many
of which are threatened and endangered. Samtskhe-Javakheti region has a wealth of biodiversity.
The Javakheti Plateau and different mountain systems of the Minor Caucasus have been the
centers of evolution for many unique life forms and are a natural museum for rich genetic
resources, much of which has been lost due to loss of forest cover age and overexploitation of
certain species of plants for trade and local use. Resources overuse is usually associated with the
loss of biodiversity. A number of threats emanate from the overexploitation of natural resources
for fuel, fodder, manure, grazing and collecting of ornamental and medicinal plants.
Taxonomic survey of the flora of Samtskhe-Javakheti is very scarce. Most detailed study
is done of wetlands (Zedelmeier, 1929, 1933; Kimeridze, 1966, 1975) and xerophytes
(Khintibidze, 1990). Overall evaluation is done on forest species (Dolukhanov, 1989). However,
there is almost no complete study of the flora of Samtskhe-Javakheti giving overall statistic of
the species status, number, composition and distribution in the region. Number of species has
been determined only for mountain xerophyte shrubland biome (Khintibidze, 1990) as to be 284
species of vascular plants. They belong to 45 families and 156 genera. Leading position
according to the number of species has following plant families: Asteraceae (48), Fabaceae (39),
Lamiaceae (24), Apiaceae (24), Caryophyllaceae (22), Poaceae (18), Liliaceae (13),
Boraginaceae (8), Rosaceae (7). The following genera contained highest number of species–
Astragalus (24), Alyssum (7), Allium (7), Dianthus (6), Artemisia (5). Such statistical analysis is
not known for other biomes.
Samtskhe-Javakheti region is rich in endemic, rare and relict species. There are different
definitions of endemics depending on size of geographic area of distribution. Following
definitions are developed for the endemics of xerophyte shrubland ecosystems of South Georgia
(Khintibidze, 1990) – local endemics - microarealophytes (e.g. endemics of Tetrobi Plateau),
endemics of Meskheti, Meskheti-Kartli, Meskheti-Artvin, Meskheti-Javakheti, Javakheti, Minor
Caucasus, Georgia, Caucasus, Asia Minor and Asia Anterior.
Local endemics of Tetrobi Plateau are: Hypericum thethrobicum, Scorzonera
ketzkhowelii and S. kozlowskyi. High conservation value on Tetrobi Plateau has oldest
Mediterrenean community with Asphodeline taurica and Stipa pulcherrima, which is
characteristic as well for Crimea (Maleev, 1940). 6 species of them are growing on Tetrobi
Plateau - Asphodeline taurica, Hypericum thethrobicum, Scorzonera dzhawakhetica, S.
ketzkhowelii, S. kozlowskyi and Anchonium elichrysifolium.
Endemics of Meskheti: Astragalus argillosus, A. aspindzicus, A. kozlowskyi, A. leonidae,
A. meskheticus, A. raddeanus, A. vardziae, Campanulla raddeana, Cerastium sosnowskyi,
Dianthus azkurensis, Onobrychis meschetica, Podospermum idae, Salvia compar, Tragopogon
meskhetikus, etc.
Endemics of Meskheti and Kartli: Cerastium argenteum, Erysimum caucasicum, Genista
transcaucasica, Helianthemum georgicum, Nepeta iberica, Psephellus carthalinicus, Reaumuria
kuznetzovii, Scrophularia diffusa, Sempervivum sosnowskyi, Ziziphora borzhomica.
Endemics of Meskheti and Artvin: Astragalus trychocalyx, Cirsium adjaricum, Coronilla
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charadzeae, Elytrigia sinuata, Hedysarum turkewiczii, Jurinea carthaliniana, Minuartia
micrantha, Onobrychis sosnowskyi, Psephellus meskheticus, Thymus coriifolius (=T. sosnowskyi
Grossh.).
Endemics of Meskheti and Javakheti: Scorzonera dzhawakhetica.
Endemics of Javakheti: Hypericum thethrobicum (=H. hyssopifolium Chaix), Scorzonera
ketzkhowelii, S. kozlowskyi.
Endemics of the Minor Caucasus: Anthyllis irenae, Astragalus goktschaicus, A.
massalskyi, Bupleurum sosnowskyi, Centaurea gulissaschvilii, C. transcaucasica, Cephalaria
armeniaca, Cirsium caucasicum, Euphorbia armena, Gladiolus dzavakheticus, Gypsophila
stevenii, Linaria schirvanica, Minuartia akinfievii, Pimpinella aromatica, Psephellus dealbatus,
Pyrus georgica, Tragopogon serotinus, Vicia akhmaganica, etc.
Endemics of the Caucasus: Allium kunthianum, Bromopsis biebersteinii, Cytisus
caucasicus, Gagea alexeenkoana, G. chanae, Hedysarum sericeum, Sempervivum pumilum,
Senecio massagetovii, etc.
It should be noted that the oldest desert and semi-desert relicts, such as Nitraria schoberi
and Reaumuria kuznetzovii are present in this area.
Subalpine and alpine zones support numerous endemics including the following endemic
species of Georgia – Alchemilla adelodictya, A. aurata, A. bakurianica, A. erectilis, A.
grandidens, A. hypotricha, A. indurata, A. microdictya, A. pascualis, A. pycnotricha, Cerastium
sosnowskyi, Delphinium tamarae, Euphrasia grossheimii, E. sosnowskyi, Onobrychis
kemulariae, Pulsatilla georgica, etc.
The endemics of Caucasus growing here are also numerous – Aconitum nasutum,
Androsace raddeana, Aquilegia caucasica, Arenaria steveniana, Cephalaria gigantea,
Chaerophyllum humile, Dianthus subulosus, Papaver oreophilum, Potentilla caucasica, Primula
cordifolia, P. ruprechtii, Pulsatilla violacea, Scilla rosenii, Stellaria anagalloides, Symphytum
caucasicum, Teucruim nuchense, Vicia grossheimii, etc.
The rock-scree vegetation is especially rich in endemic species: Astragalus raddeanus,
Campanula raddeana, Dianthus azkurensis, Salvia compar, Scrophularia diffusa, Sempervivum
sosnowskyi, Senecio massagetovii, etc.
Relict species - Campanula crispa, Centaurea bella, Erysimum szowitzianum, Jurinea
carthaliniana, Veronica livanensis, etc. occur on rocks between Atskuri and Borjomi along R.
Mtkvari.
Wetland biome in Samtskhe-Javakheti region supports only one locally distributed
species Carex wiluica (=C. juncella (Fries) Th. Fries) occuring only in the upper reaches of r.
Ktsia. This species forms original coenoses in the wetland vegetation of Narianis Veli, vicinity
of Tabatskuri Lake and adjacent mountains. Rare coenoses of Urticularia minor and Menyanthes
trifoliata are found in this area. The southern shore of Tabatskuri Lake supports locally
distributed endemic species Gladiolus dzavakheticus and Onobrychis meschetica. In the vicinity
of this lake was found rare species Lilium kesselringianum, which we have described in
Meskiheti, Shavsheti range, Mt. Erbo. There are some endemic species of the Caucasus in the
vicinity of the Tabatskuri lake - Androsace raddeana, Corydalis alexeenkoana, Nepeta
grossheimii, Orobus ciliatidentatus, Polygala mariamae, Pulsatilla violacea, Vicia grossheimii.
Meskheti depression also supports endemic and relict species of arboreal plants, such as
Georgian pear - Pyrus georgica, Spindle tree - Euonymus leiophloea, European Hop Hornbeam Ostrya carpinifolia, Caucasian Mountain Ash – Sorbus caucasigena, which require special
protection measures.
The areas located between village Tsnisi and Georgia-Turkey border (altitudes range
from 900 to 1400 m a.s.l.) are characterised by high endemism. Akhaltsikhe (Meskheti)
depression supports fossilized Tertiary flora (referred to as "Goderdzi Flora") on the eastern
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slope of Goderdzi pass, r. Dzindze gorge. Tropical Tertiary forest comprised of palms,
magnolias, etc., was buried in volcanic ash.
The following 19 species distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti region are included in the
Red Data Book of Georgia (1982) and in the Red List of Endangered Species of Georgia (2003):
Anchonium elichrysifolium, Asphodeline taurica, Astragalus cyri, Campanula crispa, Corydalis
erdelii, Dianthus ketzkhowelii, Gladiolus dzavakheticus, Hippophaë rhamnoides, Hypericum
thethrobicum, Juglans regia, Ostrya carpinifolia, Papaver bracteautum, Quercus macranthera,
Scorzonera dzhawakhetica, S. ketzkhowelii, S. kozlowskyi, Senecio massagetovii, S. rhombifolius,
Tragopogon meskheticus.
44 species of the Samtskhe-Javakheti region are included in the list of rare species of Georgia
(Ketskhoveli, 1977): Acer trautvetteri, Amelanchier rotundifolia, Astragalus argillosus, A.
leonidae, A. meskheticus, A. trichocalyx, Atropa caucasica, Bupleurum sosnowskyi, Centaurea
adjarica, Cerastium sosnowskyi, Ceratoides papposa, Crataegus caucasica, C. orientalis,
Dactylorhiza euxina, D. unvilleana, Digitalis ferruginea, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Ephedra
procera, Fritillaria latifolia, Grossheimia macrocephala, Gymnadenia conopsea, Heracleum
wilhelmsii, Jurinea carthaliniana, Lonicera iberica, Menyanthes trifoliata, Neottia nidus-avis,
Onobrychis meskhetica, Orchis coriophora, Paeonia steveniana, Psephellus meskheticus,
Pulsatilla georgica, P. violacea, Pyrus caucasica, P. salicifolia, Rosa spinosissima, Scabiosa
columbaria, Sobolewskia clavata, Sorbus caucasigena, Stipa stenophylla, Tilia begoniifolia,
Tragopogon marginatus, Valeriana alliariifolia, V. officinalis.
Only two species from the IUCN Red List (2004) are present in Samtskhe-Javakheti region:
Galanthus alpinus and Sambucus tigranii. The first is used as medicinal plant. The second is
very rare, found only occasionally in Aspindza district.
Several plant species are included in the CITES list of Georgia (Bitsadze, Rukhadze, 2001):
Galanthus alpinus (=G. caucasicus), Cyclamen coum subsp. caucasicum, Taxus baccata,
Anacamptis pyramidali,s Cephalanthera damasonium, C. longifolia, C. rubra, Coeloglossum viride,
Corallorhiza trifida, Dactylorhiza amblyoloba, D. armeniaca, D. euxina, D. romana subsp.
georgica, D. urvilleana, Epipactis helleborine, E. persica, E. microphylla, Goodyera repens,
Gymnadenia conopsea, Neottia nidus-avis, Orchis coriophora, O. mascula subsp. longicalcarata,
O. militaris subsp. stevenii, O. morio subsp. caucasica, O. pallens, O. palustris subsp.
pseudolaxiflora, O. ustulata, Platanthera bifolia, P. montana, Traunsteinera sphaerica
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Fig. 4. Species distributed in Meskheti and Javakheti. 1. Gladiolus caucasicus; 2. Glaucium
grandiflorum; 3. Lonicera caprifolium; 4. Anemone fasciculata; 5. Iris sibirica; 6. Althaea
hirsuta; 7. Acantholimon armenum; 8. Salvia sclarea; 9. Reaumuria kuznetzovii ; 10. Viola
tricolor;11. Diphelypaea coccinea; 12. Orchis pseudolaxiflora.
1
4
7
10
2
5
8
11
3
6
9
12
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5. Protected area networks in Georgia
Human society is highly dependent on genetic resources, including those from wild and
semi-domesticated sources, for the productivity of its agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds
that modern farming is largely incompatible with wildlife conservation. Thus, policies to protect
wildlife typically rely on land use segregation, establishing protected areas from which
agriculture is officially excluded. Farmers are seen as problems by those promoting this view of
wildlife conservation. It is necessary, however, to enhance the contribution of farming systems
as essential part of any biodiversity conservation strategy, and to require new technical research,
support for local farmer innovation, and adoption of new agricultural and environmental policies
at local, national and international levels.
For conservation action to be effective, it is important to understand not just the needs of
individual species, but also the context in which conservation efforts will need to take place. A
better understanding of human demand and impact on natural resources can help inform
decisions and guide conservation efforts so that conflicts in interests between humans and
biodiversity can be minimized.
Most threats to biodiversity are the result of human actions, and human actions alone can
prevent many species from becoming extinct. This section provides an overview of the main
types of responses that can be applied to the conservation of the world's species, with a focus on
those at greatest risk of extinction. It is mostly based on information on conservation measures
required or in place for each species, collected through the Red List assessment process.
5.1. Policy-Based Action
Policy-based actions are essential for providing the institutional support, human and
financial resources, and legal framework required to ensure effective species conservation.
Frequently, such actions occur through the development and implementation of legislation at the
national or sub-national levels, or through international agreements. Legislation is sometimes
directed at the protection of particular species, such as by regulating the harvesting of
individuals, their trade (e.g., CITES;), or alterations in their habitat (e.g., Ramsar Convention).
Legislation can also promote habitat protection, most noticeably through the creation of
protected areas: 241 countries or territories are recognized by the 2004 World Database on
Protected Areas as having officially designated protected areas of some type (WDPA
Consortium 2004). Legislation may also protect habitat by regulating land use patterns at a
broader scale (e.g., Forest Code), or through the regulation of anthropogenic activities that are
frequently the least direct but most pervasive causes of species declines (e.g., pollution generated
by industry, transport leading to the introduction of invasive species, consumption of fossil fuels
leading to climate change).
The role of multilateral environmental agreements has grown during the last decade, as
human impacts intensify and span across national boundaries more often. There are now more
than 500 international treaties that concern the environment and most countries have ratified key
international treaties (although significant gaps remain). These agreements are a means to adopt
harmonized approaches and resolve trans-boundary problems with neighboring states. They
increasingly offer access to worldwide knowledge, tools and financial resources, and they can
give conservation agencies a stronger mandate domestically (Steiner et al. 2003).
Nevertheless, most conservation action takes place at the national level, and the national
legal framework remains crucial in the effective implementation of the vast majority of
conservation programmes. Naturally, legislation is only useful if adequately implemented and
such implementation is lacking in many cases. Policy-based actions are frequently implemented
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as a top-down approach, but their effectiveness is in many cases hindered by a lack of
involvement with the local communities that are the direct users of biodiversity. Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; 1975; Universal)
regulates international trade of the species listed. Convention on Biological Diversity (1992;
universal): the programmes of work developed under the CBD encourage Parties to take a wide
range of actions to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. European Union Habitats
Directive (1992; regional): the natural habitat listed must be maintained at a favourable status,
particularly through the creation of a network of protected sites. Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention; 1975;
universal): provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources, in particular through the designation
of sites under the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. Convention concerning
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention; 1972;
universal): provides for the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural
heritage (including habitats of threatened species) around the world considered to be of
outstanding value to humanity. Countries submit places for designation under the World
Heritage List. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1994; universal) and
Kyoto Protocol (adopted in 1997): caps greenhouse gas emissions in participating industrialized
nations from 2008 to 2012 and establishes an international market in emissions credits that will
allow these nations to seek out the most cost-effective means to reduce atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
Georgia’s general wild flora and fauna conservation measures are regulated by several
legislative acts adopted by the Georgian Parliament in 1994-2000 (Tab. 1).
Table 1. Main environmental laws of Georgia.
Law
Law on Protection of Flora from Harmful Organisms
The Constitution of Georgia
Law on Protected Area System
Law on Normative Acts
Law on Environmental Protection
Law on Wildlife
Law on State Ecological Expertise
Law on Environmental Permits
Law on Creation and Management of the Kolkheti Protected Areas
Law on Changes and Amendments into the Law on Protection of
Flora from Harmful Organisms
The Forest Code
National Environmental Action Plan of Georgia
Law on Melioration of Lands
Law on Special Preservation of State Forest Fund and the Plantation
within the Tbilisi City and Neighbouring Territories
Law on expansion of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park
Law on Red Data List and Red Data Book of Georgia
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Date
12.10.1994
24.08.1995
07.01.1996
29.10.1996
10.12.1996
26.12.1996
01.01.1997
01.01.1997
09.12.1998
16.04.1999
22.06.1999
19.06.2000
16.10.2000
10.11.2000
28.03.2001
06.06.2003
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Law on State Control of Nature Protection
23.06.2005
5.2. Habitat and Site-Based Actions
Retaining viable populations in their native habitats is an essential conservation response
for ensuring the long-term persistence of species. A finer-scale approach for investigating
species over age protected areas is by mapping sites known to be essential for the persistence of
each species and investigating their level of formal protection. For these species, in situ
conservation requires the establishment of networks of protected areas, adequately connected
though a matrix of favourable habitat that allows for species movement through, and persistence
in, the broader landscape.
The following protected areas occur on the territory of Samtskhe-Javakheti:
5.2.1. Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park
The Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park was designated in 1995 under Resolution No. 447
of the Cabinet of Ministers. The main purpose of the designation is the conservation of existing
ecosystems; restoration of degraded areas; facilitation and control of sustainable use of
renewable resources; awareness / educational activities and ecotourism. According to the Park
Management Plan compiled by WWF, the Park is divided into a number of zones: core zone
(strict nature protection zone); wilderness zone; traditional use zone; recuperation zone and
support zone (covering the five Districts that share a common boundary with the Park). The
National Park extends to 50,400 hectares, having been extended in 2000. It covers primary forest
and sub-alpine meadows typical of the central region of the Lesser Caucasus. The Park supports
a good variety of flora and fauna including several rare and endangered species, relic species and
species endemic to the central Caucasus region. The Support Zone covers 150,000 hectares and
consisting of various land uses including agriculture, industry, infra-structure and areas of
natural and semi-natural habitat. The rationale for the establishment of the Support Zone is to
secure the support of park neighbours for the sustainable protection of the park. This is achieved
through the economic support and assistance to Park neighbours in recognition of sacrifices
made in giving up certain user rights for areas converted to a National Park and by involving
Park neighbours in the planning and Park management process. Land and resource use in the
Support Zone should be compatible with the conservation objectives for the Park. The
development of the Support Zone should be based on a well designed, Regional Development
Plan aimed at sustainable economic development for the benefit of Support Zone Communities
and biodiversity conservation. The Support Zone does not correspond to an IUCN category and
as such is not listed on the IUCN international list of protected areas. In December 1998, the
governments of Germany and Georgia signed a bilateral agreement regarding financial cooperation for the project concerning ‘Environment and Protection of Natural Resources BorjomiKharagauli National Park’. Further details of the co-operation are provided in the Decree of the
President of Georgia (13th July 2001) on ‘Co-ordinated Planning and Implementation of
Ongoing and Prospective Programs of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park and its Support
Zone’. The German government provides funds for three programmes in the Park implementation of infrastructure; training/education and a Support Zone development
programme.
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5.2.2. Expansion of Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park
The Borjomi-Kharagauli national Park was expanded towards Samtskhe-Javakheti region,
namely Akhaltsikhe and Adigeni districts. It includes slopes of Adjara-Imereti ranges, namely,
Abastumani and Zekari Pass. Area is 10,846 ha. Legal Basis is Law of Georgia on Protected
Areas, Agreement on ‘Financial Co-operation within the Project “Protection of Environment
/Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park’ between Georgia and Germany, approved by Resolution of
Cabinet of Ministers of Georgia No. 447, dated 28/07/1995, ‘On Activities Facilitating
Formation of System of Protected Areas and Establishment of Borjomi-Kharagauli National
Park’. IUCN Category is equivalent to IUCN Category II.
5.2.3. Tetrobi Managed Reserve
Tetrobi Plateau represents refugee for many endemic and relict species. It is part of
Tetrobi-Chobareti range and is composed of limestone. Its area is 3,100 ha. Date of
Establishment is 1995. Purpose Protection and restoration of unique plant species and their
biodiversity, protection of unique Tetrobi forest Activity Protection / conservation, restoration,
monitoring, restricted tourism; Management State Department of Protected Areas, Nature
Reserves and Hunting Economies Level of Designation National IUCN Category Equivalent to
IUCN Category IV ‘Habitat / Species Management Area’.
5.2.4. Other protected areas
Erusheti mountain systems and several wetlands are proposed to receive managed reserve
status. Wetland vegetation of the area is mainly used for haymaking. Therefore, 5 managed
reserves and one area of restricted use (Ktsia-Tabatskuri managed reserve, Paravani Lake
proposed managed reserve, Khanchali Lake proposed managed reserve, Madatapa Lake
proposed managed reserve, Kartsakhi (Khozapini) Lake managed reserve, Saghamo Lake
proposed area of restricted use) on the Javakheti volcanic upland were proposed to establish,
which will play an important role for protecting of wetland vegetation of Georgia.
5.3. Georgian National Gene Bank
In many cases, habitat protection on its own is not sufficient, and direct intervention is
required to mitigate or eliminate specific threats to species. Ex situ conservation can offer
insurance against extinctions by providing a source population for future re-introductions or
reinforcement of wild populations. These can be either re-introduction into previous habitat from
where the species has been lost or begin introductions into areas of suitable habitat that have not
been previously colonized by the species. Species threatened by overexploitation typically
require conservation measures that either prevent or discourage harvesting (e.g., trade control
through CITES), or promote sustainable use. The latter may involve harvest management or
commercialization of farmed individuals to reduce pressure on wild populations.
Species based actions for conservation includes ex-situ conservation in living collections
(e.g. in botanical gardens), seed banks and other propagule and germplasm preservation. One of
the most effective conservation measures is encouragement of local population to cultivate in
home gardens and in grounds species, which are harvesting in wild populations to extreme
degree.
The purpose of the living collections is conservation of rare and endangered plants and
observations for development of on-farm cultivation technology of selected species. The territory
for living collection to be design for the current project is c. 200 m2. The bulbous plants will be
replanted from the wild; other species will be grown from seeds. From 10 to 100 plants in one
sample depending on population status and species endangerment will be planted. The plant
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material will be originated from 3 to 5 different populations of a species. Necessary spacing and
when needed flower bagging will be used to avoid intraspecific hybridization and genetic
pollution.
The gene bank of crops in Georgia is established at the Institute of Agriculture where
mainly aboriginal Georgian landraces and varieties are conserved. The Tbilisi Botanical Garden
and Institute of Botany has two collections of seeds. One is collection of rare endemic plant
seeds, which is collected in the framework of the Millennium project managed by Kew Royal
Botanical Garden, UK. The second is collection of aboriginal crop varieties collecting in
different regions of Georgia. These program works together with IPK, Gatersleben Germany,
where the analogy of the collected material is kept at the gene bank. The seeds of CWR from the
Samtskhe-Javakheti region are kept as well in the Tbilisi Botanical Garden collection. CWR
from different regions of Georgia are collected in collaboration with USDA gene bank and kept
there.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
Fig. 5. Habitat disturbances in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. 1. - Illegal wood cutting; 2. Pipeline
and road construction works; 3. Overgrazing; 4. Erosion; 5. Abandonment of cultivated fields
and invasion of weeds; 6. Burning of fields by local population.
1
2
3
4
5
6
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
6. Methodology
According to Maxted et al., (2008) assessment of conservation efficiency and
representativeness of CWRs involve the comparison of ‘total’ natural CWR diversity with the
diversity already actively conserved either in situ or ex situ. In essence it will require answers to
two fundamental questions: what level of diversity naturally exists in situ, and does the
conserved diversity adequately represent that natural diversity? This is the basis for gap analysis,
which can be divided into four consecutive steps.
Step 1: circumscription of target taxon and target area: First, the taxonomic (e.g. genus,
section or species) and geographical (e.g. global, regional, country or province) breadth of the
analysis must be established.
Step 2: Assessment of natural diversity: The level of diversity occurring within the target
taxon must be defined at the taxonomic, genetic or ecogeographical levels, i.e. how many taxa
occur in the circumscribed taxon, but also the inherent genetic diversity within those taxa.
Step 3: assessment of current conservation strategies: The diversity occurring in situ can be
compared to the diversity currently conserved in order to assess the efficiency of both in situ and
ex situ conservation techniques.
Step 4: reformulation of conservation strategy: Assessment of the effectiveness of current
conservation coverage in relation to natural in situ diversity identifies the element of diversity
that is underconserved, i.e. the ‘gaps’ in the existing conservation strategy, and helps refocus the
strategy to conserve the maximum diversity and fill these gaps. The revised priorities are likely
to require complementary in situ and ex situ conservation actions to ensure the comprehensive
conservation of the target taxon’s gene pool.
To collect necessary information to assess the current status of threats of a target species and
develop conservation strategy the following surveys should be undertaken:
1. Acquirement with the methodology and definition of major terminology to determine goals
and objectives of the study and select target species.
2. To define species taxonomic status, threat level, economic importance and distribution
character;
3. To standardize prioritization methodology to select target species and develop a list of target
species of CWRs of Samtskhe-Javakheti region;
4. To develop methodology to conduct ecogeographic diversity assessment determining species
abundance, habitat status and economic usage;
5. To collect information on ex situ and in situ conservation status of target species in Georgia.
6.1. Definition of CWR
CWR are commonly defined in terms of wild species related to agricultural and
horticultural crops. As such a broad definition of a CWR would be any wild taxon belonging to
the same genus as a crop. This definition is intuitively accurate and can be simply applied, and it
was this definition used by PGR Forum.
A working definition of a CWR was provided by Maxted et al. (2006): A crop wild relative
is a wild plant taxon that has an indirect use derived from its relatively close genetic
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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“Recovery, Conservation, and Sustainable Use of Georgia's Agricultural diversity”
GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
relationship to a crop; this relationship is defined in terms of the CWR belonging to gene
pools 1 or 2, or taxon groups 1 to 4 of the crop.
Under gene pool is considered definitions of gene pool concept by Harlan and de Wet
(1971). According to this concept, within each crop there was a potential pool of genetic
diversity available for utilisation and a gradation of that diversity dependent on the relative
crossing ability between the crop itself and the primarily non-domesticated species in the
primary, secondary or tertiary Gene Pool of the crop.
According to this concept three Gene Pools are distinguished as follows:
• Primary Gene Pool (GP-1) within which GP-1A are the cultivated forms and GP-1B are
the wild or weedy forms of the crop;
• Secondary Gene Pool (GP-2) which includes the coenospecies (less closely related
species) from which gene transfer to the crop is possible but difficult using conventional
breeding techniques;
• Tertiary Gene Pool (GP-3) which includes the species from which gene transfer to the
crop is impossible, or if possible requires sophisticated techniques, such as embryo
rescue, somatic fusion or genetic engineering.
The taxon group concept is used to establish the degree of CWR relatedness of a taxon.
Application of the taxon group concept assumes that taxonomic distance is positively related to
genetic distance. CWR rank of taxon groups according to PGR Forum (2005) is defined as
follows:
Taxon Group 1a – crop
Taxon Group 1b – same species as crop
Taxon Group 2 – same series or section as crop
Taxon Group 3 – same subgenus as crop
Taxon Group 4 – same genus
Taxon Group 5 – same tribe but different genus to crop
Thus, combined use of the gene pool and taxon group concept proposed above provide the
best pragmatic means available to determine whether a species is a CWR and how closely related
a CWR is to its crop.
6.2. Prioritizing CWR taxa / diversity
The Caucasus hotspot is home to about 6,400 plant species, more than 1,600 of which
(25%) are endemics and restricted to the region. There are 17 endemic genera of plants, nine of
which are associated with high mountain ecosystems. The flora of the Caucasus region includes
many ancient species, and many forms are still dominant or co-dominant in the hotspot's plant
communities. The region also harbors a remarkable concentration of economically important
plants, particularly wild crop relatives such as wheat, rye and barley, as well as legumes and
technical plants like Flax.
The list of economically valuable CWR occurred in Georgia is shown in Appendix 1. It
is constructed by Maxted et al. (2008) used as a starting point the CWR Catalogue for Europe
and the Mediterranean (Kell et al., 2005, 2008), the taxonomic basis of which is Euro+Med
PlantBase (http://www.emplantbase.org/home.html), a Euro-Mediterranean floristic checklist
(Euro+Med PlantBase, 2005).
These are mainly wild species, which besides crops also have considerable economic
importance providing food, fuel, timber, forage (fodder), hay, etc., and habitats for animal life.
Economically valuable plants also include large amount of taxons used in folk and scientific
medicine.
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To start inventory of CWR having high importance for the region it is necessary to know
how to determine priority species from the long list of economically valuable species, which will
play an important role in selective works and conservation measures.
To evaluate the value of a concrete CWR species it is necessary to understand the role of
CWR in origin and development of high economic values of a crop. However, application of this
broad definition results in the possible inclusion of a wide range of species that may be either
closely or more remotely related to the crop itself. Therefore there is a need to estimate the
degree of CWR relatedness to enable limited conservation resources to be focussed on priority
species, those most closely related to the crop.
Two levels are determined to prioritise CWR species, which are mainly important as
agronomically valuable species. These levels are:
• Level 1 prioritization would be based on economic value of related ‘native’ crop in
Georgia and on this basis the top 25 crop genera would be selected for further
prioritization.
• Level 2 prioritization would be based on relative threat, rarity, endemicity and genetic
relationship with the crop (based on gene pools GP1b+2). The goal of prioritization
would be a list of the top 30 priority CWR species in Georgia.
The scoring system (Tab. 2) to establish a key list of top 30 priority CWR species to be studied
in this project was developed by N. Maxted (2008) and was used to evaluate key species for field
survey. Approximately 30 species have been considered to be studied. The criteria to be scored
are threat level determined according to IUCN categories; rarity of species calculated as
frequency of 10x10km grid squares, where the species occurs; endemicity was determined
according to Key of Georgian Flora (Ketskhoveli et al., 1959) and Gene pool and Taxon groups
were evaluated according to the concepts described in the previous capital (Harlan, de Wet,
1971; Maxted et al., 2006).
Tab. 2. Scoring system to evaluate priority CWR species by N. Maxted (2008)
N
1.
2.
3.
Legends
Threat (IUCN)
Status
Score
Critically endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Near threatened
Least concern
10
7
4
2
0
Present in 1 10x10km grid square
Present in 2-5 10x10km grid square
Present in 6-20 10x10km grid square
Present in 21-50 10x10km grid square
Present in >50 10x10km grid square
10
7
4
2
0
Only in Georgia
Only in Caucasus
Only in South-east Europe
10
5
2
Rarity
Endemicity
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
Throughout Europe
4. GP1+2
Gene pool 1b / Taxon group 1b
Gene pool 2 / Taxon group 2
Taxon group 3
Taxon group 4
Gene pool 3 / Taxon group 5
0
10
6
4
2
0
This scoring system was applied to species in the list demonstrated in Appendix 2. The
species belong to the wild species of genera of most important crops traditionally cultivated in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region. The necessary request to include a species in the list was preliminary
data about occurrence of it in the region. Therefore, we have collected herbarium data from two
herbaria - TBI (Tbilisi Botanical Garden and Institute of Botany) and TGM (Georgian National
Museum) about the species, which were found in this region in the past. Simultaneously, we
used the data collected during the filed survey of GSNE "Orchis" in 2005-2009.
6.2.1. List of top 30 priority CWR species
30 species of CWR belonging to the genera of main crops traditionally cultivated in
Samtskhe-Javakheti have been chosen from the long list (Appendix 2) on the base of scoring
system by N. Maxted (2008).
The threats have been determined using two criteria - IUCN and RDB Georgia (Tab. 3):
Table 3. IUCN categories and status of protected species in the RDB of Georgia (1982, 2006)
for species selected from the long list of CWRs. Rare species (score 2) determined according to
Ketskhoveli et al., 1977 and data collected during the filed trips of "Orchis" 2005-2009 in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region
N
IUCN
Red list of
Rare
Total
Genera
Species
Category Georgia
species
1. Aegilops
1. Aegilops cylindrica
(CWR of
2. A. tauschii
Triticum)
3. A. triuncialis
2. Avena
4. Avena barbata
2
2
3. Hordeum
5. Hordeum bulbosum
6.Hordeum spontaneum
2
2
4. Secale
7. Secale anatolicum
2
2
5. Lathyrus
8. Lathyrus tuberosus
6. Vicia
9. Vicia johannis
7. Linum
10. Linum humile
2
2
8. Allium
11. Allium cardiostemon
2
2
9. Asparagus
12. Asparagus caspius
2
2
10. Brassica
13. Brassica elongata
11. Coriandrum 14. Coriandrum sativum
12. Lepidium
15. Lepidium perfoliatum
13. Satureja
16. Satureja laxiflora
17. Satureja spicigera
14. Ribes
18.Ribes alpinum
19.Ribes biebersteinii
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Rubus
Cerasus
Cornus
Corylus
Malus
Mespilus
Prunus
22. Pyrus
23. Vitis
24. Medicago
25. Onobrychis
20.Rubus idaeus
21.Cerasus avium
22.Cornus mas
23.Corylus avellana
24.Malus orientalis
25.Mespilus germanica
26. Prunus cerasifera
27. Prunus spinosa
28. Pyrus caucasica
29.Vitis vinifera ssp.
sylvestris
30.Medicago sativa
31.Onobrychis
transcaucasica
0
0
2
2
4
Rarity (Tab. 4) is calculated as frequency of 10x10km grid squares for each species. These data
were obtained from the herbarium data and preliminary investigation of GSNE "Orchis".
However, it was not possible to have these parameters for all species in a sufficient amount in
long list, but was enough for priority species:
Table 4. Rarity of priority CWR species
Number of 10x10km grid square where
Species
target species is present
1
2-5
6-20
21-50
>50
1. Aegilops cylindrica
2
2. A. tauschii
7
3. A. triuncialis
7
4. Avena barbata
7
5. Hordeum bulbosum
2
6. Hordeum spontaneum
7
7. Secale anatolicum
7
8. Lathyrus tuberosus
2
9. Vicia johannis
4
10. Linum humile
10
11. Allium cardiostemon
10
12. Asparagus caspius
4
13. Brassica elongata
2
14. Coriandrum sativum
4
15. Lepidium perfoliatum
7
16. Satureja laxiflora
4
17. Satureja spicigera
2
18.Ribes alpinum
4
19.Ribes biebersteinii
4
20.Rubus idaeus
0
21.Cerasus avium
2
22.Cornus mas
0
23.Corylus avellana
2
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
Scores
2
7
7
7
2
7
7
2
4
10
10
4
2
4
7
4
2
4
4
0
2
0
2
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24. Malus orientalis
25. Mespilus germanica
26. Prunus cerasifera
27.Prunus spinosa
28. Pyrus caucasica
29.Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris 10
30.Medicago sativa
31.Onobrychis transcaucasica
2
2
4
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
10
4
2
Table 5. Endemic species determined by Key of Georgian Vegetation (Ketskhoveli et al., 1969).
Endemics
of Georgia
Species
1. Aegilops cylindrica
2. A. tauschii
3. A. triuncialis
4. Avena barbata
5. Hordeum bulbosum
6. Hordeum spontaneum
7. Secale anatolicum
8. Lathyrus tuberosus
9. Vicia johannis
10. Linum humile
11. Allium cardiostemon
12. Asparagus caspius
13. Brassica elongata
14. Coriandrum sativum
15. Lepidium perfoliatum
16. Satureja laxiflora
17. Satureja spicigera
18.Ribes alpinum
19.Ribes biebersteinii
20.Rubus idaeus
21.Cerasus avium
22.Cornus mas
23.Corylus avellana
24. Malus orientalis
25. Mespilus germanica
26. Prunus cerasifera
27. Prunus spinosa
28. Pyrus caucasica
29.Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris
30. Medicago sativa
31.Onobrychis transcaucasica
Endemics
of the
Caucasus
Endemics
of Southeast
Europe
Throughout
Europe
Scores
X
5
X
5
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Table 6. Scoring of priority species according to gene pool (GP) and taxon group (TG) concepts.
SPECIES
GP 1B
TG/1B
1. Aegilops cylindrica
2. A. tauschii
3. A. triuncialis
4. Avena barbata
5. Hordeum bulbosum
6. Hordeum spontaneum
7. Secale anatolicum
8. Lathyrus tuberosus
9. Vicia johannis
10. Linum humile
11. Allium cardiostemon
12. Asparagus caspius
13. Brassica elongata
14. Coriandrum sativum
15. Lepidium perfoliatum
16. Satureja laxiflora
17. Satureja spicigera
18.Ribes alpinum
19.Ribes biebersteinii
20.Rubus idaeus
21.Cerasus avium
22.Cornus mas
23.Corylus avellana
24. Malus orientalis
25. Mespilus germanica
GP2
/TG2
6
6
TG3
TG4
10
10
10
10
10
10
6
6
4
6
6
10
6
4
6
10
2
6
2
10
2
10
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
4
6
6
10
6
4
6
10
2
6
2
10
2
10
6
6
6
26. Prunus cerasifera
27. Prunus spinosa
28. Pyrus caucasica
29.Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris
30. Medicago sativa
31.Onobrychis transcaucasica
SCORES
Table 7. The summarized data presenting the total score of the selected target species
N
Crop
1.
Aegilops
(CWR of
Triticum)
Avena
Hordeum
2.
3.
CWR Species
1. Aegilops cylindrica
2. A. tauschii
3. A. triuncialis
4. Avena barbata
5. Hordeum bulbosum
Threat Rarity Endemici
(IUCN)
ty
2
7
7
2
7
2
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GP/
TG
6
6
4
6
6
Total
8
13
11
15
8
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Secale
Lathyrus
Vicia
Linum
Allium
9. Asparagus
10. Brassica
11. Coriandrum
12. Lepidium
13. Satureja
14. Ribes
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Rubus
Cerasus
Cornus
Corylus
Malus
Mespilus
Prunus
22. Pyrus
23. Vitis
24. Medicago
25. Onobrychis
6.Hordeum
spontaneum
7. Secale anatolicum
8. Lathyrus tuberosus
9. Vicia johannis
10. Linum humile
11. Allium
cardiostemon
12. Asparagus caspius
13. Brassica elongata
14. Coriandrum
sativum
15. Lepidium
perfoliatum
16. Satureja laxiflora
17. Satureja spicigera
18.Ribes alpinum
19.Ribes biebersteinii
20.Rubus idaeus
21.Cerasus avium
22.Cornus mas
23.Corylus avellana
24.Malus orientalis
25.Mespilus germanica
26. Prunus cerasifera
27. Prunus spinosa
28. Pyrus caucasica
29.Vitis vinifera ssp.
sylvestris
30.Medicago sativa
31.Onobrychis
transcaucasica
2
7
10
19
2
7
2
4
10
10
6
4
6
10
2
15
6
10
22
14
6
2
10
17
4
14
7
2
9
4
2
4
4
0
2
0
2
0
0
0
2
2
10
10
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
14
8
10
10
10
12
10
12
10
10
10
12
17
24
10
10
14
12
2
2
2
0
4
4
2
4
5
5
4
2
The priority species selected according to the criteria, such as threat level, rarity,
endemicity and GP/TG concepts have revealed the tendency that the highest scores they have in
the last criteria showing their close relatedness to famous crops traditionally cultivated in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
6.3. Ecogeographic survey of top 30 priority CWRs in Samtskhe-Javakheti
Once the priority list of CWR species is identified, there is a need to collate the
ecogeographic and genetic diversity information that is available to assist in further formulation
of the CWR conservation strategy. This involves the collation and analysis of all available
ecological, geographic, genetic and taxonomic data sets obtained from the literature and from the
passport data associated with herbarium specimens and germplasm accessions, and also possibly
from novel studies. These data are ecologically and geographically predictive in that they aid the
location of the CWR taxonomic (inter-taxa) and genetic (intra-taxon) diversity that can then be
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targeted for either in situ or ex situ conservation. In terms of in situ conservation, the
culmination of the ecogeographic and genetic diversity analysis should be a set of areas with
high concentrations of the priority CWR species, possibly identified using GIS analysis of
ecological, geographic, genetic and taxonomic data sets. These areas might be considered
analogous to the broader taxonomic Important Plant Areas (Target 5 of the CBD Global Strategy
for Plant Conservation - www.biodiv.org/programmes/cross-cutting/plant/) and could be referred
to as Important CWR Areas. In terms of ex situ conservation, the culmination of the
ecogeographic and genetic diversity analysis will be populations of CWR taxa containing or
thought to contain unique genetic diversity that is not already conserved ex situ, and once
identified, this material may be collected and conserved in the appropriate gene bank.
As well as assessing threat in relation to individual CWR taxa (in order to assist
prioritization for conservation), there is also a need to assess threat in relation to conservation
planning (i.e. to identify those important CWR areas most likely to be threatened). Among the
region or country’s important CWR areas, there will be a two-fold requirement. First, there will
be a need to focus conservation efforts in areas least threatened by such factors as the changes in
cultivation practice, civil strife, habitat fragmentation, over-exploitation, over-grazing,
competition from exotic invasive species and urbanization, so that the sites selected have longerterm sustainability. Second, conservation effort should be focused where there is a real prospect
of genetic erosion or extinction of CWR taxa, to eliminate or minimize the threats and ensure the
CWR taxonomic and genetic diversity located in the area is adequately represented in ex situ
collections. This will involve some form of comparative assessment of the various putative
causative factors of genetic erosion in Important CWR Areas.
The aim of inventory is to provide an indication of the number and diversity of CWRs in
the Samtskhe-Javakheti region. Inventory will be done of the species included in existing short
list of priority species and are known to be threatened on a global level by anthropogenic stresses
and/or impacted by natural hazards in the region, on the bases of quantitative evaluation of threat
levels according to literature data.
6.3.1. Data collection
The approach suggests collection of quantitative data on species abundance, genetic
diversity and overall status (vitality and fertility). The investigation was carried out using
methods of plot recording. For this purpose three 1m2 plots were chosen within each population
of high conservation value herbaceous species. In case of shrubs, trees or other life forms
different sizes of plots were used. The sizes of plots are shown in the Table 8 according to R.
Tüxen, (1970):
Table 8. Area (m2) of Permanent Plots for Different Habitats
N
Size (m2)
Habitat type
1
1
Meadows
2
4
Wetland
3
25
Scrub
4
100
Forest
Preference is given to the square shape of the recording plots. GPS (Global Positioning
System) co-ordinates of each plot will be recorded. For the purpose of delimitation of plot
surfaces, frame and tape are used for 1m2 plots. The time of inventory will be coincided to two
phenological phases in each population at flowering and fruiting stages. For each plot, photos
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will be taken from fixed points during each visit. The following table is developed for recording
the data for each recording plot (Table 9).
Table 9. Data on species inventory for 1m2 plot
TARGET SPECIES
Plot No., Population no.
Figure(s) ref.
Map
Date of field data collection
Environmental Data
2
Population size (m )
Number of plants
Plot size (m2)
Location
GPS Coordinates (UTM)
Altitude (m a.s.l.)
Aspect
Inclination
Coverage (%)
Canopy height (cm)
Habitat
Existing habitat disturbances
Population Characteristics
Number of individuals in plot
Genetic diversity
Hybridization
During the field studies, the following data have to be collected:
1. Data for documentation of the record: target species name, plot No., population no.,
figure(s), ref. Map, and date of field data collection. Majority of plant Latin names given in this
report are in accordance with Cherepanov (1995) and II edition of Flora of Georgia;
nomenclature of representatives of family Orchidaceae follows Akhalkatsi et al. (2003).
2. Environmental data:
• Size (m2) of entire population of target species;
• Total number of individuals of target species in the plot;
• Location, exact GPS coordinates, altitude and sloping characters (inclination, exposition);
• Vegetation cover (%) and canopy height (cm);
• Habitat type and description of existing disturbances. The following grades will be used to
identify level of modification/disturbance of communities found within the plots:
1. Relatively stable or undisturbed communities. Example: old growth, ungrazed
forest.
2. Late successional or lightly disturbed communities. Example: old growth forest
that was selectively logged in recent years.
3. Mid-successional or moderately to heavily disturbed communities. Example:
young to mature secondgrowth forest.
4. Early successional or severely disturbed communities. Example: severely grazed
forest of any age.
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5. Very early successional or very severely disturbed communities. Example:
cropland.
3. Population characteristics: Numbers of individuals of target species within the plot; Number
of individuals is calculated within the frame boundary in each plot. In case of polycormel species
it is possible to calculate each shoot instead of individuals.
4. Genetic diversity: Genetic diversity will be observed as phenotipic modification of
individuals within the population and recorded;
5. Hybridization: Hybridization will be recorded in case if the individuals of target species will
reveal intermediate morphological features.
In addition, for development of long term in situ conservation management needs the
following indicators for habitats and population protection such as ecological, demographic and
genetic indicators representing in Table 10 will be recorded:
Table 10. Environmental indicators and threats.
N Indicator
1 Ecological indicators:
• Habitat degradation;
• Soil erosion;
• Herbivory;
• Pollution.
2 Demographic indicators:
• Abundance and spatial distribution of seedlings;
• Number of adult individuals;
• Number of flowering individuals;
• Spatial distribution.
3 Genetic indicators:
• Genetic diversity;
• Differentiation among populations;
• Hybridization.
Threat
Degradation of the
environment by external factors
where the population is
situated.
Decline in the survival of
regeneration of the population
due to non-genetic factors (non
heritable).
Reduction in the genetic
resilience and, therefore,
survival of the population in
the long term perspective.
The impact factors on the environment threatening population survival will be determined (Table
11):
Table 11. Impact factors and their influence on populations.
N Impact factor
1 Human-made habitat disturbances:
• Road and pipeline constructions:
¬ Physical impact – removing of the populations;
¬ Chemical impact –pollution by oil and gas releases to
air, water and land.
• Deforestation;
• Land degradation;
• Urbanization;
• Damaged caused by non-native plants and animals
introduced into an area;
• Pollution.
2 Collection of medicinal/ornamental plants in the wild
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Impact on the populations
Population disappearance and
fragmentation;
Species extinction.
Population disappearance;
Species extinction.
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Age structure;
Competition;
Genetic diversity.
3
Grazing
4
Climate change:
• Disturbance of wetland ecosystem
Threat for species distributed
in the aquatic habitats.
•
Global warming and desertification.
Threat for species distributed
in the extremely dry areas.
•
Global warming effect on alpine
Threat for species distributed
in the alpine.
6.3.2. Data analyses
The following parameters will be determined on the base of data collected during field
observations:
1. Area of distribution of target species;
2. Number of populations of target species;
3. Total number of individuals of a species in all studied populations;
4. Overall ecological state of target species;
5. Main threats impacted the species;
The data on population and habitat characteristics will be gained in data base using
program MS access. The complete data bese on species inventory will be used for mapping.
6.3.3. Mapping
Geo Information System on endangered medicinal plants in Samtskhe-Javakheti region was
created in the format of “geodatabase” of ArcGIS software. Objects of database are organized as
a thematic electronic layer.
The electronic layer of endangered medicinal plants in Samtskhe-Javakheti region meets
with following technical specifications:
• Georeferenced topographical maps at a scale 1\50 000 are used as a digital background of
the layer
• Projection - UTM
• Datum - WGS 84
• The layer is presented as a point layer
• The objects are arranged in a topologically correct way towards other geographical
objects of the system
• The layer does not include duplications
• The does not include extra, useless objects
• The attribute tables of the layer are represented in English
6.4 Gap analysis and establishment of CWR conservation goals
Conventional in situ and ex situ gap analysis for the top 30 priority CWR species in Georgia is
based on the methodology Maxted et al., 2008. This includes the following tasks:
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(1)
Development of in situ / ex situ CWR conservation strategies – the result of the
ecogeographic survey and gap analysis will not only highlight the CWR ‘hotspots’ but
via the matching with existing protected areas and ex situ conserved diversity will
indicate where genetic reserves should be established and where further seed collection is
required to conserve Georgian CWR diversity.
Identification and establishment Georgian CWR genetic reserves – Once Georgian CWR
‘hotspots’ have been identified the next phase will be to establish a demographic baseline
for 30 priority CWR species in Georgia. This means that the monitoring of some high
priority populations of CWR species have to be conducted in the future, which Georgian
governmental or non-governmental organisations will be responsible for their long-term
curation, so each site should have a clear responsible agency.
Identification and collect Georgian CWR populations for ex situ collections - On the
basis of results obtained during field survey the ‘best’ samples of studied CWR
germplasm should be determined for future conservation in situ. It will be necessary to
ensure that the conserved diversity is backed-up by standard seed collection and ex situ
conservation in the National Georgian Gene Bank with a duplicate in the regional Gene
Bank (at ICARDA in Syria).
(2)
(3)
6.5 Collection of indigenous knowledge
We have collected information from local population on diversity and use of crops and CWR
species in the region.
The questionary includes following topics:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Species distribution;
Use in human being;
Folklore;
Etymology;
Commercial use;
Threats;
Historical excurses;
Rating for local importance.
The data of the interviews are given in CWR species inventory part for each species separatelly.
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Fig.6. Gain of indigenous knowledge by local population. 1. Agronomist Germane Khvedelidze
(in the middle), v. Atskuri, cultivating different varieties of Georgian wine grape, as well as
French cultivars Aligote and Chardonnay; Maia Akhalkatsi (left), Jana Ekhvaia (right); 2. Gogi
Natenadze, v. Chachkari near Vardzia shows old Georgian grapevine cultivar (right), which is
several hundred years old and grows at 1350 m a.s.l.; 3. Gogi Natenadze in Chachkari shows
stone grapepressing construction, typical in village. 4. Murad Gogoladze (left) manages
ELAKNA's field collection in Tsnisi, where many traditional cultivars are kept in the living
collection including cereals, legumes, flax, fruits and grapevine; 5. Visit to Mother Superior
Mariam (in the middle) in nunnery Zemo Vardzia, Marine Mosulishvili (left), Maia Akhalkatsi
(right); 6. Diana Kurtanidze and Maia Akhalkatsi in v. Klde. 7. Simon Afriamashvili, v. Arali; 8.
Market in Akhaltsikhe; 9. Forester Iuri Khutsishvili, v. Atskuri and Marine Mosulishvili; 10-11.
Lela Kachkachashvili v. Arali, with local bread called "Meskhuri puri"; 12. 20 years old bull Mortoray, 18 years old dog Jeka and Afriamishvili Elia (85 years old) and Kachkachashvili
Lazare (83 years old) in v. Arali. 13. Tatulashvili Ia, MartoShvili Petre, v. Arali; 14.
Kachkachishvili Kato and AkofaSvili Nina, v. Arali; 15. Kachkachashvili Makvala (with child),
Obolashvili Sonia and Parunashvili Nino, v. Ude.
1
4
7
10
13
2
5
8
11
14
3
6
9
12
15
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7. Inventory of CWRs in Samtskhe-Javakheti Region
7.1. Cereals
7.1.1. Aegilops (Goatgrass)
In spite of high diversity of primary species of wheat in Georgia, there are no wild wheat
species. CWRs of wheat in Georgia are represented by Aegilops species, which are distributed in
many regions of Georgia includins Samtskhe-Javakheti. There are total 8 species in Georgia: A.
cylindrica Host; A. tauschii Coss. (= A. squarrosa L.); A. triuncialis L.; A. biuncialis Vis.; A.
kotschyi Boiss.; A. columnaris Zhuk.; A. ovata L. (=A. triaristata Willd.); and A. umbellulata
Zhuk. Among them is A. tauschii, which is considered to be direct ancestor of bread wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.; genomic constitution = AABBDD) and a donor of its D genome, hence
origin of bread wheat is considered to happened by hybridization of tetraploid T. turgidum and
diploid A. tauschii (Kihara 1944; McFadden and Sears 1946). According to literature (Sakhokia,
1941, 1969) and herbarium data, there are 2 species of Aegilops in Samtskhe-Javakheti. These
are A. cylindrica and A. triuncialis L.; A. cylindrica, A. umbellulata and A. ovata are described
for Meskheti and Javakheti in Berishvili et al. (2002). Persistence of A. cylindrica and A. tauschii
are indicated for Meskheti in the same work in the location Orfolo near v. Tsnisi in Akhaltsikhe
distr. and near v. Khertvisi in Aspindza distr.
Aegilops cylindrica Host (Jointed goatgrass)
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Barnh., genus Aegilops L.
A. cylindrica is a member of the Grass family, Barley tribe.
Synonyms.
Triticum cylindricum (Host) Ces., Pass. & Gibelli; T. caudatum var. cylindricum (Host) Ach. &
Graebner; Aegilops caudata subsp. cylindrica (Host) Hegi; A. cylindrica var. cylindrica (Host)
Fiori; Cylindropyrum cylindricum (Host) A. Love.
ii. Plant characteristics
It is a winter annual or biennial herbaceous plant. It grows 15 - 30 cm tall on erect stems,
which branch at the base to give the plant a tufted appearance. The root system is shallow and
fibrous. Leaves are linear, flat, 3 - 8 mm wide sparsely pubescent or smooth, but scabrous
because of minor denticles along the veins. Ears are elongated, cylindrical and gradually
converging at the top, 7-12 cm in length. Each ear consists of 6-11 spikelets and breaks off
entirely or disintegrates into segments. There are 1-2 rudimentary spikelets at the base of the ear.
The ear axis is flexible; spikelets are cylindrical, oblong in cross-section, with 3-4 flowers.
Glumes are lanceolate, 6-9 mm long, with 7-9 thin veins, denticulated along the veins. Lateral
spikelet glumes are bifurcate in the upper part, topped by a triangular denticle with a broad base
and narrow point, often stretched into an awn-shaped appendage. Bidentate from above, the
lemma is either longer than the glumes by 0.5-1.5 mm or equal to the glumes in length. Near the
apical spikelet the lemma is, like the glumes, awn-shaped with 2 denticles at the sides. Kernels
accrete to palea. Generally two flowers are present on each spikelet; however, researchers have
reported up to five florets per spikelet. At two to five spikelets per spike and one to three seeds
per spikelet, one plant, without competition, can generate more than 100 spikes and ca. 3,000
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seeds. On average though, in a wheat crop, jointed goat grass will produce about 130 seeds per
plant (Daines 1996).This is a self-pollinating plant. Pollen grains are spherical, fine, and smooth.
Blossoms in May; bears fruit in July. Autochore. Propagated by seed. The most distinguishing
characteristic is the 5 - 10 cm jointed cylindrical, seed head. 2n=28.
Fig. 7. Aegilops cylindrica - 1. habitat on dry slope of foothills; 2. A. cylindrica and Hordeum
leporinum; 3-5. A. cylindrica; 6. Hybrid of A. cylindrica and T. aestivum.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution comprises the following geographical regions - Eastern Europe
(south), Crimea, Caucasus, Middle Asia (south coastal areas of Balkhash, Dzungarian Ala Tau,
Tarbagatai, Tien Shan, Pamir-Alai, Kopet Dagh), Central Europe (south), Mediterranean region
(east), Asia Minor, Iran.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - We have found large populations covering
roadsides in Akhaltsikhe depression from Borjomi distr. up to Turkish border. The populations
are very abundant.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
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A. cylindrica is ephemeral winter-hard plant. It is drought-resistant, can grow in areas of
less than 250-500 mm of annual precipitation. Salt-resistant. Grows on open slopes with stony
and fine-grained soils, sands and gravels, near roads and on weedy sites, sometimes in weeded
meadows and mountain steppes; from the plains to the middle mountain zone, within the limits
of 100-2000 m above sea level. In Samtskhe-Javakheti occurs from 800 to 2000 m a.s.l. Seeds of
jointed goat grass usually germinate from mid-September to November. Generally jointed goat
grass seeds have an intermediate level of persistence, remaining viable in the soil for 3 to 5
years. The seeds are polymorphic, meaning that part of the seeds germinate early while the rest
of the seeds may persist for several more years. Recently harvested seeds are still dormant,
requiring a postharvest ripening before dormancy is broken. Seed dormancy is directly related to
how long the seed will survive in the soil. Field studies show that in drier areas of less than 350
mm of annual rainfall, jointed goat grass seeds will survive for a minimum of 5 years.
Contrastingly, in regions with more annual rainfall seeds do not survive in the soil for longer
than 3 or 4 years (Ogg et al., 1998).
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - No threats are detected currently and no necessity to protect this
species occurs.
Ex situ status - Seeds from different region of Georgia are present in seed banks of USDA,
ICARDA, VIR, IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from Samtskhe-Javakheti are kept at the
TBG&BI.
In situ status - Not protected.
iv. Current uses
The plant is consumed well by all kinds of livestock before the fruiting phase. Yields
high-quality hay. Owing to the similarity of A. cylindrica to the crop, Triticum aestivum. It may
be used by wheat breeders in hybridization with wheat varieties. The hybrids with cultivated
wheat are found in Meskhti near fields on road-sides. A. cylindrica is secondary genetic relative
for wheat used in molecular systematics to understand wheat phylogenetics and domestication
events. It is used as gene source for disease resistance and pest resistance.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Jointed goat grass is spread by seed dispersal only. Therefore, any method that reduces
seed spread will reduce the spread of the plant.
Population disturbances and habitat fragmentation is expected when road construction
works are undertaken.
d. Current action
Unknown
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of A. cylindrica in Samtskhe-Javakheti region to declare
it as plant of high conservation value by governmental organizations such as MEPNR.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management and
lagislative basis.
i. Policy and legislation
A. cylindrica should be declared as species of high economic value as secondary genetic
relative for wheat, which contributed to the hexaploid wheat by D genome.
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ii. Site safeguard and management
The territory where A. cylindrica is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti does not needs
special conservation measures to be undertaken.
iii.. Species management and protection
The conservation measures of this species should be directed on establishment of ex situ
seed collections and public education on importance of this plant as ancestor of the bread wheat.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection
should be informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
This species is crossed with winter wheat producing viable hybrids. The genome is used
in molecular systematic studies.
References
1. Boguslavsky, R.L. 1980. Flowering, pollination and spontaneous hybridization in the
genus Aegilops L. Synopsis of Ph.D. thesis. Leningrad, VIR, 23 pp. (in Russian).
2. Daines R, 1996. Jointed Goatgrass. Online. Jointed Goatgrass. Internet. Available:
http://www.ianr.unl.edu/jgg/
3. Donald WW and AG Ogg, 1981. Biology and control of jointed goat grass, a review.
Weed Technol. 5:3-17.
4. Eig, A. 1929. Monographisch-kritische Ubersicht der Gattung Aegilops. Feddes
Repertorium Specierum novarum regni vegetabilis Beih, 55:1-228. (in Germany)
5. Gandilyan, P.A. 1978. Toward the taxonomy of the genus Aegilops L. and the classifier
of its species. Biological Journal of Armenia, vol. 31, iss.3, pp. 223-232 (in Russian).
6. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
7. Lyon DJ, Baltensperger DD, Rush IG, 1992. Viability, germination, and emergence of
cattle-fed jointed goatgrass seed. J.Prod. Agric. 5:282-285.
8. Lyon DJ, Klein RN, Wicks GA 2003. Controlling Jointed Goatgrass. Available as
http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/Weeds/g1252.htm
9. Ogg A, Westra P, Seefeldt SS, 1998. Relative competitiveness of commonly grown
winter wheat cultivars against jointed goatgrass. Natl’. Jointed Goatgrass Research
Program. 1998 Progress Reports, Final Reports. Compiled by Alex Ogg, Jr. Copies
available: Ag Research Center, WSU, Pullman, WA. 98.
10. Slageren, M. W. van. 1994. Wild wheats: a monograph of Aegilops L. and Amblyopyrum
(Jaub. & Spach) Eig (Poaceae). Wageningen Agriculture University Papers 1994 (7). 513
pp.
11. Sorokina, O.N. 1928. Concerning chromoses in gen. Aegilops L.Works on Applied
Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, series 2, pp. 524-529 (in Russian).
12. Tsvelev, N.N. 1976. Cereal grasses of the USSR. Leningrad, Nauka, 788 pp. (in
Russian).
13. Zhukovsky, P.M. 1928. Critique and taxonomic survey of Aegilops L. species. Works on
Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol.18, iss.1, pp. 417-609 (in Russian).
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Aegilops tauschii Coss. (Tausch's goatgrass)
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Barnh. genus Aegilops L.
Synonyms
Triticum tauschii (Coss.) Schmalh., T. aegilops P. Beauv. ex Roemer & Schult., Patropyrum
tauschii (Coss.) A. Love, Aegilops squarrosa sensu Tausch non L.
ii. Plant characteristics
Annual or biennial plant, 20-40 cm high, with singular or numerous erect or geniculate
stems. Leaves are linear. The ear is elongated, cylindrical, sometimes feebly fusiform; in the
mature phase glossy, as if polished, with 5-11 spikelets. At the bottom of the ear there is 1
rudimentary or underdeveloped spikelet. The ear is brittle; when mature easily disintegrates into
spikelets, especially in the upper part. Spikelets are cylindrical, circular in cross-section; glumes
are rectangular-contoured, nearly square-shaped, 5-6 mm in length and 3-4 mm in width, with 79 (less frequently 9-11) thin, weakly denticulated veins, becoming almost smooth when the
spikelet is mature. In the upper part the glumes are always awnless, truncated, obtuse, with an
incrassate edge in a bolster-like fashion, which is more expressed in the lower spikelets. The
lemma is 1-2 mm longer than spikelet glumes, narrow-rectangular, with an incrassate upper
edge; one corner of the lemma's upper edge is extended into a denticle or a short awn. The length
of the lemma's awns ranges from 5 to 36 mm, increasing, as a rule, toward the top of the ear. The
awns at the base are grooved. Kernels accrete to palea. Wind- and self-pollinated plant.
Autochore. Propagated by seed. 2n=14.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Crimea (Sudak), Caucasus (all), Middle Asia (river valleys of
Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya in their upper and middle course, Kyzyl Kum, northern and western
Tien Shan, Gissar-Darvaz, Alai, Tarbagatai, Saur, Dzungarian Ala Tau, Kopet Dagh),
Mediterranean region, Asia Minor, Iran, Himalayas.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - This species is mixed in populations with A.
cylindrica, but the number of individuals is much fewer. Not all populations of A. cylindrica
contained individuals of A. tauschii. We have found is only in 5 sites.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Ephemeral plant. Winter-hardy. Drought-resistant. Salt-resistant. Grows in semi-deserts,
over dry loess or rubbly slopes, gravels, on light sandy or, conversely, heavy clay soils of the
plains, sometimes even slightly salinized ones, on seaside sands, dry hills and in weedy places.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - This species should be included in RDB Georgia and give a status of
NT species.
Ex situ status - Seeds of A. tauschii from different region of Georgia are present in seed
banks of USDA, ICARDA, VIR, IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from SamtskheJavakheti are kept at the TBG&BI.
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In situ status - No information available
Fig. 8. Aegilops tauschii and map of distribution in Meskheti.
iv. Current uses
The plant is consumed by animals like A. cylindrica. It is used as gene source for disease
resistance and pest resistance. Hexaploid bread wheat is originated from hybridization of
tetraploid T. turgidum L. with diploid A. tauschii Coss. (Kihara 1944; McFadden and Sears
1946). Good-quality fodder plant, consumed in spring and early summer. In the flowering phase
contains 18.9% of albumens (including 10.7% of protein), 2.1% of fats, 23.0% of cellulose; in
the fruiting phase there are 17.1% of albumens (including 11.2% of protein), 5.1% of fats, and
32.4% of cellulose.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Tausch's goat grass is spread by seed dispersal only. Therefore, any method that reduces
seed spread will reduce the spread of the plant.
Population disturbances and habitat fragmentation is expected when road construction
works are undertaken.
d. Current action
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Unknown
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of A. tauschii in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
A. tauschii should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
hexaploid bread wheat.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The territory where A. tauschii is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti does not needs
special conservation measures to be undertaken. However, Road construction works might cause
habitat disturbances and fragmentation.
iii.. Species management and protection
The conservation measures of this species should be directed on establishment of ex situ
seed collections and public education on importance of this plant as ancestor of the bread wheat.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection
should be informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
This species is crossed with winter wheat producing viable hybrids. The genome is used
in molecular systematic studies.
References:
1. Boguslavsky, R.L. 1980. Flowering, pollination and spontaneous hybridization in the
genus Aegilops L. Synopsis of Ph.D. thesis. Leningrad, VIR, 23 pp. (in Russian).
2. Eig A. 1929. Monographisch-kritische Ubersicht der Gattung Aegilops. Feddes
Repertorium Specierum novarum regni vegetabilis Beih, 55:1-228. (in German)
3. Gandilyan, P.A. 1978. Toward the taxonomy of the genus Aegilops L. and the classifier
of its species. Biological Journal of Armenia, vol. 31, iss.3, pp. 223-232 (in Russian).
4. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
5. Kihara, H. 1944. Discovery of the DD-analyser, one of the ancestors of Triticum vulgare
(Japanese). Agric. & Hort. (Tokyo) 19:13-14.
6. McFadden, E.S. and E.R. Sears. 1946. The origin of Triticum spelta and its free-theshing
hexaploid relatives. J. Hered. 37:81-89, 107-116.
7. Slageren M. W. van. 1994. Wild wheats: a monograph of Aegilops L. and Amblyopyrum
(Jaub. & Spach) Eig (Poaceae). Wageningen Agriculture University Papers 1994 (7). 513
pp.
8. Sorokina, O.N. 1928. Concerning chromoses in gen. Aegilops L.Works on Applied
Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, series 2, pp. 524-529 (in Russian).
9. Tsvelev, N.N. 1976. Cereal grasses of the USSR. Leningrad, Nauka, 788 pp. (in
Russian).
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10. Zhukovsky, P.M. 1928. Critique and taxonomic survey of Aegilops L. species. Works on
Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol.18, iss.1, pp. 417-609 (in Russian).
Aegilops triuncialis L. (Barbed Goatgrass)
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Barnh. genus Aegilops L., 2 varieteis - Aegilops triuncialis var. persica and
Aegilops triuncialis var. triuncialis
Synonyms.
Aegilops squarrosa L., A. triaristata Willd., A. ovata L. subsp. triaristata (Willd.) Jav., Triticum
triunciale (L.) Raspail
Fig. 9. Aegilops triuncialis and map of distribution in Meskheti.
ii. Plant characteristics
Annual herbaceous plant, 20-45 cm high. Stems are in most cases erect. Leaves are
linear, flat. Blades, ligules and the upper part of sheaths are ciliate. Ears are (3) 3.5-7 cm long
(not counting awns), with 4-5 (less frequently with 3 or 6) fully developed spikelets; under fruits
would break at their base and fall off entirely. At the bottom of the ear there are 2-3 rudimentary
spikelets.
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Spikelet glumes are oblong, ovate or obovate, less than twice shorter than the adjacent lemma,
cartilaginous-leathery, with 7-13 broad veins, scabrous or shortly pilose, acuminated with 2-3
awns slightly deviated from the ear axis. Glumes of the apical spikelet are 4.5-6 mm long. Ribs
of the ear axis are often covered with sharp knobs only, without longer prickles. Kernels do not
accrete to palea. Wind- and self-pollinated plant. Autochore. Propagated by seed. Blossoms in
May; bears fruit in June. 2n=28.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Crimea, Caucasus (Daghestan, Eastern and Southern
Transcaucasia, Talysh), Middle Asia (river valleys of Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya in their upper
course, western Tien Shan, Gissar-Darvaz, Kopet Dagh), Mediterranean region, Asia Minor and
Iran. Ecdemic in many other extratropical countries.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Very rare plant. Only 5 popualtions have
been found. The number of individuals is much less than of A. cylindrica.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Annual, ephemeral plant growing to 0.3 m. Drought-resistant. Grows in semi-deserts, on
stony and small-grained soils, gravels, near roads, as a weed on field edges and laylands, as well
as over foothills reaching the lower mountain zone. Dry acid grassland and stony habitats.
Argillaceous semi-deserts, dry hills and as a weed of cultivation. The plant prefers light (sandy),
medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay
soil. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil. Seed - sow March/April in situ and
only just cover the seed. Make sure the soil does not dry out before the plants germinate. Seed
can also be sown early March in a greenhouse and planted out in May.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Status is not determined for this plant. The population and individual
number is too low and it deserves obtaining the status of NT.
Ex situ status - Seeds of A. triuncialis from different region of Georgia are present in seed
banks of USDA, ICARDA, VIR, IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from SamtskheJavakheti are kept at the TBG&BI.
In situ status - No information available
iv. Current uses
Fodder plant. Consumed well by all kinds of livestock until the fruiting phase. This
species is believed to have hybridized with primitive forms of Triticum spp (Wheat) to produce
some of the more modern Triticum spp. It could, therefore, be of value in wheat breeding
programmes.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Barbed goat grass is spread by seed dispersal only. Therefore, any method that reduces
seed spread will reduce the spread of the plant.
Population disturbances and habitat fragmentation is expected when road construction
works are undertaken.
d. Current action
Unknown
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e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of A. triuncialis in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
A. triuncialis should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor
for hexaploid bread wheat.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The territory where A. triuncialis is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti does not needs
special conservation measures to be undertaken.
iii.. Species management and protection
The conservation measures of this species should be directed on establishment of ex situ
seed collections and public education on importance of this plant as ancestor of the bread wheat.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection
should be informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
The popualtions of this species will be is species is crossed with winter wheat producing
viable hybrids. The genome is used in molecular systematic studies.
References:
1. Eig A. 1929. Monographisch-kritische Ubersicht der Gattung Aegilops. Feddes
Repertorium Specierum novarum regni vegetabilis Beih, 55:1-228. (in German)
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii.
(Xerophytous floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
4. Gandilyan, P.A. 1978. Toward the taxonomy of the genus Aegilops L. and the classifier
of its species. Biological Journal of Armenia, vol. 31, iss.3, pp. 223-232 (in Russian).
5. Slageren M. W. van. 1994. Wild wheats: a monograph of Aegilops L. and Amblyopyrum
(Jaub. & Spach) Eig (Poaceae). Wageningen Agriculture University Papers 1994 (7). 513
pp.
6. Tsvelev, N.N. 1976. Cereal grasses of the USSR. Leningrad, Nauka, 788 pp. (in
Russian).
7. Zhukovsky, P.M. 1928. Critique and taxonomic survey of Aegilops L. species. Works on
Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol.18, iss.1, pp. 417-609 (in Russian).
7.1.2. Avena
Total 8 species of oats are known in Georgia - 1. Avena sterilis L.; 2. A. trichopylla C.
Koch; 3. A. ludoviciana Durieu; 4. A. meridionalis (Malz.) Roshev. (A. fatua subsp. meridionalis
Malz.); 5. A. fatua L.; 6. A. sativa L.; 7. A. barbata Pott ex Link; 8. A. eriantha Durieu. 4 wild
species – A. barbata, A. fatua; A. ludoviciana; A. meridionalis; and cultivated A. sativa, are
distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti. Wild species are growing as weeds and in natural habitats and
play big role in species formation processes. Two species of oats – A. fatua and A. ludoviciana
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are considered as close relatives of cultivated oats on the base of chromosome number and
species specific fungal disease. These species are weedy plants mixed with grain corns in the
field. A. barbata and A. sterilis form separate group and are considered as well as close relative
plants of A. sativa. They differ by chromosome number and fungal species but play a role in
formation of different varieties of oats by hybridization with cultivated species.
We have found representatives of both groups both in Meskheti and Javakheti. Population
of A. barbata occurs on dry rocky slope near v. Atskuri. Number of individuals is not high, total
12 plants have been found. They are well developed and form normal seeds. Grazing impact was
low. Although, the location is under anthropogenic pressure and might cause diminishing of
individual number. Seeds should be collected and kept in the seed banks.
A. fatua and A. ludoviciana were found on Javakheti Plateau. These plants were remained
on field margins after mowing of wheat field. There were not yet having ripe seeds and were
well developed. Populations were not threatened and were spread all along the edges of the
fields. Seeds of both species should be collected and kept in the seed bank.
Avena barbata Pott. ex Link - Slender oat
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Barnhart., genus Avena L.
Synonyms.
Avena strigosa subsp. barbata (Pott ex Link) Thell.
ii. Plant characteristics
Annual herb. Stems glabrous, (35)40-100 cm tall. Panicle diffuse, 6.0-25.0 cm long.
Spikelets 2.0-3.0 cm long, 2 flowers per spikelet. Spikelet's axis fragile, articulated under each
flower in the spikelet. Glumes are equal to each other in size and have 9-10 ribs. Lemma is hairy
(or, more rarely, glabrous) with two thin awns, 1.5-6.0 mm long, at the top and one thick,
articulate awn at the back. Self-pollinated. Blossoms in April-May; seeds ripen June-July. The
seed ripens in the latter half of summer and, when harvested and dried, can store for several
years. 2n = 24, 28, 32.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Crimea, Caucasus, Turkmenia.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Only one population have been found in
Akhaltsikhe distr., v. Atskuri.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Occurs on stony slopes, in loams, in sands, in meadows, along riversides and as a ruderal
plant in fields. Also occurs in plains and at the lower mountain level and in cultivated beds. It is
in flower from June to July, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The flowers are
hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by wind. The plant prefers
light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in
heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the
shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. Succeeds in any moderately fertile
soil in full sun. A triploid species, it is rarely cultivated for its edible seed. Oats are in general
easily grown plants but, especially when grown on a small scale, the seed is often completely
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eaten out by birds. Some sort of netting seems to be the best answer on a garden scale. Seed sow in situ in early spring or in the autumn. Only just cover the seed. Germination should take
place within 2 weeks.
Fig. 10. Avena barbata and map of distribution in Meskheti.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - No threats have been determined.
Ex situ status - The seeds are collected and kept in in seed banks of USDA, ICARDA, VIR, IPK
Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from Samtskhe-Javakheti are kept at the TBG&BI.
In situ status - No protected area are established to defence this species.
iv. Current uses
Wild relative of cultivated Avena sativa L. Used in breeding programs and can be crossed
successfully with A. sativa to produce fertile hybrids resistant to all types of downy mildew.
Seed - cooked. Rather small. The seed has a floury texture and a mild, somewhat creamy flavour.
It can be used as a staple food crop in either savoury or sweet dishes. The seed can be cooked
whole, though it is more commonly ground into flour and used as a cereal in all the ways that
oats are used, especially as porridge but also to make biscuits, sourdough bread etc. The seed can
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also be sprouted and eaten raw or cooked in salads, stews etc. The roasted seed is a coffee
substitute. The straw has a wide range of uses such as for bio-mass, fibre, mulch, paper-making
and thatching. Some caution is advised in its use as mulch since oat straw can infest strawberries
with stem and bulb eelworm.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Grazing and road construction works in Samtskhe-Javakheti represent threats to this species.
d. Current action
No actions currently are undertaken.
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
•
Maintain the current populations of A. barbata in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
A. barbata should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated oat.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Site is located along highway and represents threat to the survival of the species. The territories
near roads should be assigned with special markers indicated the importance of a species.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Future research should be done to discover new populations of this species in the region.
References
1. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1980. Wild relatives of the cultivated plants of flora of
the USSR. - L.: Kolos, 376 pp. (in Russian).
2. Fedorov A.A., ed. 1974. Flora of the European part of the USSR. - L.: Nauka, Vol. 1. 404 pp. (in Russian).
3. Grossheim A.A. 1939. Flora of Caucasus. - Baku: AzFAN,- Vol. 2. - pp. 587. (in
Russian).
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4. Huxley. A. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. MacMillan Press 1992 ISBN
0-333-47494-5
5. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
6. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii.
(Xerophytous floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
7. Nikitin V.V., Geldihanov A.M. 1988. Field Guide of Plants of Turkmenia. L.: Nauka,
680 p.
8. Rozhevitz P.U., Shishkin V.K., eds. 1937. Flora of the USSR. - M.-L.: AN USSR , Vol.
2. - 778 pp. (in Russian).
9. Schery. R. W. Plants for Man. Fairly readable but not very comprehensive. Deals with
plants from around the world.
10. Shelyag-Sosonko Y.P., ed. 1977. Grasses of Ukraine. - Kiev: Naukova Dumka,- 518 pp.
(in Russian).
11. Tzvelev N.N. 1976. Poaceae USSR. - L.: Nauka, 788 pp. (in Russian).
7.1.3. Hordeum
Wild species of barley are widespread in Georgia. In Flora of Georgia there are
mentioned total 8 species 4 of which are now relocated in other genera - (1) Hordeum asperum
(Simonk.) Degen ex Hayek [Taeniatherum asperum (Simonk.) Nevski; Cuviera caput-medusae
L. var. aspera Simonk.]; (2) H. bulbosum L.; (3) H. crinitum (Schreb.) Desf. [Taeniatherum
crinitum (Schreb.) Nevski; Elymus crinitus Schreb.]; (4) H. europaeum [Hordelymus europaeus
(L.) Harz (L.) All. ]; (5) H. fragile Boiss. (Psathyrostachys fragilis (Boiss.) Nevski); (6) H.
gussoneanum Parl. (H. geniculatum All.); (7) H. leporinum Link; (8) H. violaceum Boiss. &
Huet. 6 of these 8 species occur in Samtskhe-Javakheti - H. bulbosum, H. crinitum, H.
europaeum, H. fragile, H. leporinum, H. violaceum indicating on high diversity of this genus in
the region. In spite of the fact that the direct ancestor of barley - H. spontaneum K. Koch is not
included in the Flora of Georgia, we have found two populations of this species. Persistence of
such a high number of wild species in Samtskhe-Javakheti puts onto an idea that this region
might be considered as one of the center of origin of barley varieties. The habitats of the barley
species distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti are quite different. Some of them are growing in
ruderal places, on roadsides and near gardens – H. fragile, H. leporinum. There are species
occurring in the lower and middle montane belts, growing in shrublands, at the edges of forests
on dry stony slopes - H. bulbosum, H. crinitum, H. europaeum. H. violaceum is growing on
subalpine and alpine meadows.
We have found several populations of H. leporinum and H. fragile along road on
roadsides and in ruderal places near settlements. The populations are not numerous and form
dense canopy. All individuals are well developed form normal seeds. Some of them are grazed.
Threats are road construction works, which might damage them and pollution. It is necessary to
collect seeds from different populations and keep them in seed banks.
Hordeum spontaneum K. Koch - Wild barley
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Benth., genera Hordeum L.
ii. Plant characteristics
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Annual cereal. Stalks are 30-70 (100) cm tall, thick, direct. Leaves flat, narrowly linear,
with two crescent lobes at the base covering the stalk. Spike slightly compressed, in double rows,
5-9 cm in length without awns, with fragile, densely tomentous axis. Glumes linear-subulate,
densely pubescent, with an edge 15-17 mm in length. Lemma of the medium fertile flower are
widely elliptical, bare, with awn 7-15 cm in length. Blossoms in April-June. Anemophilous.
2n=14.
Fig. 11. Hordeum spontaneum and map of distribution in Meskheti.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs throughout the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Eastern
Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Iran, and the Himalayas.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - We have found two populations of H.
spontaneum in Meskheti for the first time.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Occurs on stony and small-grained slopes, on taluses, among pebbles, and among bushes.
Frequently occurs as a weed plant in crops of barley.
i.i.i. Conservation status
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Threat assessment - Individuals in the population were very few and it causes the threat of
disappearance of this species from the region. More abundant populations of this species have
been found in the surrounding of the capital of Georgia, Tbilisi and in South-East Georgia, near
Rustavi. In all cases it should be considered as rare species.
Ex situ status - The seeds we have collected and keep in the TBG&IB.
In situ status - The individuals in Samtskhe-Javakheti were found on roadside and were very
few, therefore it will be difficult to undertake in situ conservation measures.
iv. Current uses
This species is wild ancestor of cultivated two-rowed barley and is used in genetical
studies to determine domestication problems of the barley. So far no studies have been
undertaken on the territory of Georgia as it was not known that this species is growing in
Georgia.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Grazing, road construction and habitat fragmentation might threaten this species.
d. Current action
No actions currently are undertaken.
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of H. spontaneum in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
H. spontaneum should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated barley.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Site is located along highway and represents threat to the survival of the species. The territories
near roads should be assigned with special markers indicated the importance of a species.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Future research should be done to discover new populations of this species in the region.
References
1. Grossgeim, A.A. 1939. Flora of Caucasus. Vol. 2. Polypodiaceae-Gramineae. Baku:
Publishing house AzFaN, 587 pp.
2. Tzvelev N.N. 1976. Grasses of the USSR. Leningrad: Nauka, 788 pp.
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Hordeum bulbosum L. - Bulbous barley
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Benth., genera Hordeum L.
ii. Plant characteristics
Perennial grass. Stalks are 50-110 cm tall and, at the base, are tuberiform, thickened.
Leaves flat, 3-7 mm wide, bare or deflexedly haired. Spikes are 6-13 cm long with very fragile
axis. Glumes of medium spikelet are narrow-lanceolate, with an awn 1.2-1.8 cm long; Lemma of
medium spikelet have an awn 2-3.6 cm long; and lateral spikelet is awnless or with short awns.
Blossoms in May-June. Anemophilous. In the former USSR, there is only the tetraploid variety.
2n=28.
Fig. 12. Hordeum bulbosum.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs throughout Southern Crimea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and
the Mediterranean from the Iberian peninsula up to Afghanistan.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region -It occurs on hay meadows in upper montane belt and
is widespread in the western and southern parts of Meskheti. Especially abundant population are
found in Adigeni distr. on Adjara-Imereti range near vv. Mlashe, Mokhe, Dertseli .
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Grows in xerophylic bush communities, on stony slopes and on taluses. The plant prefers light
(sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers
acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil.
Succeeds in most soils. Easily grown in light soils. Seed - sow in situ in March or October and
only just cover the seed. Make sure the soil surface does not dry out if the weather is dry.
Germination takes place within 2 weeks.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - No threats have been detected.
Ex situ status - The seeds we have collected and keep in the TBG&IB.
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In situ status - The populations are protected by fences on hay meadows.
iv. Current uses
This species is wild relative of cultivated six-rowed barley and is used in genetical studies to
determine domestication problems of the barley. So far no studies have been undertaken on the
territory of Georgia as it was not known that this species is growing in Georgia.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Grazing, road construction and habitat fragmentation might threaten this species.
d. Current action
No actions currently are undertaken.
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of H. bulbosum in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
H. bulbosum should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated barley.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Site is located along highway and represents threat to the survival of the species. The territories
near roads should be assigned with special markers indicated the importance of a species.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Future research should be done to discover new populations of this species in the region.
References
1. Grossgeim, A.A. 1939. Flora of Caucasus. Vol. 2. Polypodiaceae-Gramineae. Baku:
Publishing house AzFaN, 587 pp.
2. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
3. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Kunkel. G. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books 1984 ISBN
3874292169
6. Tzvelev N.N. 1976. Grasses of the USSR. Leningrad: Nauka, 788 pp.
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7.1.4. Secale
There are 5 wild and naturalized species of rye in Georgia- 1. Secale anatolicum Boiss.;
2. S. cereale L.; 3. S. kuprijanovii Grossh.; S. segetale (Zhuk.) Roshev. (=S. cereale L. subsp.
segetale Zhuk.); 4. S. montanum Guss. (=Secale strictum (C. Presl) C. Presl). 5. S. sylvestre
Host. 4 of them occur in Samtskhe-Javakheti : cultivated S. cereale, weedy species S. segetale
and 2 wild species S. anatolicum and S. montanum. According to other classification systems
these two species are synonims.
Cultivated (S. cereale) and semiwild rye (S. segetale) are mixed with wheat in the fields
both in Meskheti and Javakheti. Wild species are distributed on mountain slopes in Javakheti.
We have found 3 locations of the wild S. anatolicum.
Secale anatolicum Boiss. - Mountain Rye
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Poaceae Benth. Genera Secale L.
Synonims
Secale strictum C. Presl subsp. anatolicum (Boiss.) K. Hammer
ii. Plant characteristics
Perennial cereal. The plant forms friable tussocks. Stalks strong, 60-90 cm of height.
Leaves 2-5 mm wide, greyish-green, glabrous. Spike medium, 6-8 cm of length. Spikelet 3,5-4,5
mm of length. Spikelet's axis is fragile. Glumes acuminate, 9-12 mm long. Lemma 9-12 mm
long with 9-15 mm long awn. It is in flower from June to July, and the seeds ripen from August
to September. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are
pollinated by Wind. 2n=14.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - The Lesser Caucasus, Asia minor.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - We have found tree location of this species in
Meskheti and Javakheti. 2 more locations are possibly occurred, but we did not collected
material there.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Plant grows on meadows and rural areas. It is distributed in upper montane and alpine
belts from 1300 to 2300 m a.s.l. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy
(clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline)
soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can
tolerate strong winds. Succeeds in most soils but prefers a well-drained light soil in a sunny
position. This species has an excellent potential as a perennial cereal crop in temperate zones.
Although the seed is somewhat smaller than the cultivated annual rye, it is produced abundantly,
especially from the second year onwards. The plant tillers well, especially in its second and
subsequent years, and the ears in selected varieties can be 25 cm long. Seed - sow March or
October in situ and only just cover the seed. Germination should take place within 2 weeks. If
the seed is in short supply, it can be grown in pots in the greenhouse or cold frame in early
spring. Only just cover the seed. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are
large enough to handle and plant them out in late spring or early summer. Division is possible in
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spring. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. It is best to pot
up the smaller divisions and grow them on in a lightly shaded position in a cold frame, planting
them out once they are well established in the summer.
Fig. 13. Secale anatolicum - 1. population in Zemo Vardzia; 2. population in Niala, near v.
Agara; Map of distribution of 3 populations.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - The populations are threatening by grazing and disturbances of habitat.
Ex situ status - The seeds are not yet collected. We have been in the expedition when seeds were
not ripened.
In situ status - The populations are not protected.
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iv. Current uses
Mountain rye is possibly a parent of the cultivated Rye, S. cereale. It is used as fodder plant on
mountain pastures and hay meadows.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
It grows in association with Cananbis sativa on pastures and abandoned agricultural
lands in upper montane zone. Cannabis in the wild is often removing by governmental
institutions from the field. This action causes disturbances in root system of Mountain Rye and
causes disappearance of the populations or at least decreasing in number of individuals.
Therefore, the places, where this species is growing should be protected.
d. Current action
No actions currently are undertaken.
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of S. anatolicum in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
S. anatolicum should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated rye.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites of population distribution need to be protected.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Future research should be done to discover new populations of this species in the region.
References
1. Grossheim A.A. Flora of Caucasus. V.2. Polypodiaceae - Gramineae. - Baku, Publishing
house AzFaN, 1939. - 587 pages.
2. Ketskhoveli, N. 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii.
(Xerophytous floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
4. Kunkel. G. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books 1984 ISBN
3874292169
5. Tzvelev N.N. Cereals of the USSR. - Leningrad: "Nauka", 1976. - 788 pages.
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7.2. Legumes
7.2.1. Lathyrus
Cultivated grass pea - Lathyrus sativus L. was domesticated in West Asia with a center of
diversity in the Mediterranean region. In Georgia, there are 14 species of Lathyrus. Among them
5 are distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti - L. aphaca L., L. miniatus M. Bieb. ex Steven, L.
pratensis L., L. roseus Steven, L. tuberosus L.
Lathyrus tuberosus L. Earthnut Pea
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Fam. Fabaceae, genus Lathyrus L.
ii. Plant characteristics
Perennial growing to 1.2 m. It is in flower from June to July, and the seeds ripen in August. The
flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.
Fig. 14. Lathyrus tuberosus.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Europe to West Asia.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs almost on all territory of Meskheti and
Javakheti, but the populations contain just little number of individuals, sometimes 1-2.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. The plant prefers
acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It
requires moist soil. It can fix Nitrogen. It is noted for attracting wildlife. An easily grown plant,
succeeding in any moderately good garden soil. It prefers a limestone soil in a warm position,
and likes some shade. A climbing plant, scrambling through other plants and supporting itself by
tendrils. It tends to be slightly invasive with new stems emerging at some distance from the
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parent plant. A good bee plant. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil
bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this
nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing
nearby. Pre-soak the seed for 24 hours in warm water and then sow in early spring in a cold
frame. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and
plant them out in the summer. If you have sufficient seed, then it can also be sown in situ in mid
spring. Division of the tubers when the plant is dormant in spring or autumn.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Grazing and habitat disturbances.
Ex situ status - Seeds are kept in USDA seed bank.
In situ status - not protected in the natural habitats.
iv. Current uses
Used as fodder plant is grazed by livestock animals.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Grazing
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of L. tuberosus in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
L. tuberosus should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated grass pea.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites of population distribution need to be protected.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individual in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Hedrick. U. P. Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World. Dover Publications 1972 ISBN 0486-20459-6
2. Ketskhoveli, N. 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Uphof. J. C. Th. Dictionary of Economic Plants. Weinheim 1959
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7.2.2. Vicia
There are 33 species of Vicia in Georgia. 17 of them are distributed in SamtskheJavakheti region: 1. V. antiqua Grossh. - Caucasian endemic; 2. V. balansae Boiss.; 3. V.
cassubica L.; 4. V. cordata Wulf. ex Hoppe; 5. V. ervilia (L.) Willd.; 6. V. grossheimii Ekvtim.
Caucasian endemic; 7. V. iberica Grossh.; 8. V. narbonensis L. 9. V. pannonica Cranz; 10. V.
peregrina L. 11. V. purpurea Steven; 12. V. sativa L.; 13. V. sepium L.; 14. V. truncatula Fisch.
ex M. Bieb.; 15. V. variabilis Freyn & Sint.; 16. V. variegata Sibth. & Sm. - Caucasian endemic;
17. V. villosa Roth.
One of the tentatively ancestor of cultivated V. faba is V. narbonensis distributed in
different regions of Georgia. It is found between Akhaltsikhe and Abastumani and near v.
Atskuri in the fields. V. ervilia and V. sativa are not cultivated nowadays, but is naturalized and
is represented as weed in fields.
Vicia johannis Tamamsh. –Broad Vetch
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Fam. Fabaceae – Pea family, genus Vicia L. – Vetch
Synonims
Vicia serratifolia Jacq.
This species in Flora of Georgia is determined as Vicia narbonensis L., however, last
investiagtions (Bennet, Maxted, 1997) have described it as V. johannis, which differs from V.
narbonensis by color of wings of corolla. The three varieties of V. johannis are found - V.
johannis var. johannis in south-west Turkey, Iran and Syria, V. johannis var. procumbens is
found in central southern Turkey and western Iraq, and V. johannis var. ecirrhosa is found in
Armenia, Georgia, Tadjikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
ii. Plant characteristics
Annual growing to 1m. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and
are pollinated by Insects. The plant is self-fertile. V. johannis differs from V. narbonensis where
on the basis of the colour of the wing spot during anthesis and the presence of a terminal leaflet.
The latter character separates var. ecirrhosa from the other two varieties.
Fig. 15. Vicia johannis
b. Current Status
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i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Europe. West Asia. North Africa.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in cultivated beds in Meskheti mixed with
crops in wheat and barley fields.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Grows in thickets, damp fields and ditches. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium
(loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and
basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist
soil. It can fix Nitrogen. Succeeds in any well-drained soil in a sunny position if the soil is
reliably moist throughout the growing season, otherwise it is best grown in semi-shade. This
species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the
roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but
some can also be used by other plants growing nearby. When removing plant remains at the end
of the growing season, it is best to only remove the aerial parts of the plant, leaving the roots in
the ground to decay and release their nitrogen. Pre-soak the seed for 24 hours in warm water and
then sow in situ in spring or autumn.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - No threats detected.
Ex situ status - Seeds are collected and kept in USDA and IPK gene banks.
In situ status - The habitat in cultivated beds and protection measures are not necessary to
undertake.
iv. Current uses
This species is probably the parent of the cultivated broad bean, V. faba.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Diminishing of cultivated fields in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. Proposed threat might be use of
herbicides in the field.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
V. johannis should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated broad bean.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites of population distribution need to be maintained, which is connected with development of
sustainable biofarming in the region.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
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iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Bennett S.J. Maxted N. 1997. An ecogeographic analysis of the Vicia narbonensis
complex. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 44: 411–428.
2. Hedrick. U. P. Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World. Dover Publications 1972 ISBN 0486-20459-6
3. Kunkel. G. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books 1984 ISBN
3874292169
7.3. Fiber
7.3.1. Linum
12 species of wild flax occur in Georgia - 1. L. catharticum L.; 2. L. nervosum Waldst. & Kit.;
3. L. usitatissimum L.; 4. L. austriacum L.; 5. L. angustifolium Huds.; 6. L. tenuifolium L.; 7.
L. liburnicum Scop.; 8. L. trigynum L.; 9. L. hypericifolium Salisb.; 10. L. nodiflorum L.; 11.
L. tauricum Willd.; 12. L. orientale (Boiss. & Heldr.) Boiss. (L. flavum L. var. orientale Boiss.
& Heldr.). 5 wild species - L. austriacum, L. hypericifolium, L. nervosum, L. nodiflorum, L.
tenuifolium and cultivated or naturalized L. usitatissimum are distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti.
Dyed flax fibers have been found in Georgia in a prehistoric cave that date to 34,000 BC. Wild
relative of cultivated flax is L. angustifolium distributed in Abkhaseti, Samegrelo, Imereti, Guria
and Gare Kakheti, but does not occur in Samtskhe-Javakheti. We have found L. austriacum, L.
hypericifolium and L. tenuifolium during the expedition. Most peculiar species is L.
hypericifolium growing in subalpine tallgrass vegetation and showing high decorative value. L.
tenuifolium is very rare. We have found one small population between vv. Vale and Arali
consisting of several individuals. L. austriacum is more widely spread, grows on rocky slopes,
on roadsides and dry slopes.
Linum humile Mill. - Crown flax, oil flax.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Linaceae S.F.Gray, genus Linum L.
Synonims
L. indehiscens subsp. eurasiaticum prol. brevimulticaulia Vav.et Ell., L.usitatissimum var.
humile Mill. Bondar., L.usitatissimum subsp. humile (Mill.) Czernom.
ii. Plant characteristics
Herbaceous annual plant, 30-50 (70) cm tall. This is a bushy plant with two or more
stems branching from the bottom. Leaves are 2-3 cm long and 4-5 mm wide, linear-lanceolate,
acute on top, smoky blue, with three veins, sessile, spirally and densely arranged on the stem.
Flowers are androgynous, pentamerous. Sepals are loose, persistent with fruit, 5-6 mm long,
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate; internal ones are white and scarious along the edges. Flowers are
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numerous, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, set on long pedicels that exceed sepals in length. Petals are
14-18 mm long, light or deep blue. Fruit is a pod 6-8 mm long and 5.7-7 mm in diameter,
globular, slightly depressed, yellowish; pod septa are ciliate, less frequently bare. There are 10
seeds in one pod. Seed are ovoid, very oblate, brown, smooth and glossy, 5-6.3 mm long.
Entomophilous. Blossoms in May/June; bears fruit in June/July. 2n=30.
Fig. 16. Linum humile and location of single population on the map.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Europe, the Caucasus, Western Siberia, Middle Asia, Asia
Minor, the Iranian Plateau, Kashgaria, Mediterranean, N. Africa and China.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - only one population have been found near
the boundary with Turkey in R. Photskhovi gorge.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Mesoxerophyte. Endures hot and dry climates. Grows in ruderal sites, along roadsides,
near homesteads, and as a weed. Distributed throughout forest-steppe and steppe zones of the
Cultivated as a spring crop; also grows as a feral plant where it has escaped from cultivation.
Prefers a light well-drained moderately fertile humus-rich soil in a sunny sheltered position.
Considered by most botanists to be no more than a cultivar of L. usitatissimum, it is cultivated
for its fibre and seed. Seed - sow early spring in situ.
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i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Very rare plant in the wild we have found only one population with little
number of individuals.
Ex situ status - No seed collection have been done as seeds were not yet ripe.
In situ status - The population is in boundary zone protected by Georgian military forces.
iv. Current uses
Industrial (oil-producing) and medicinal herb. Flax seeds contain 30-48% fatty drying oil,
18-33% protein, 12-26% carbohydrates, mucilage (5-12%), organic acids, enzymes, carotene,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, etc.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Not evaluated.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of L. humilis in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
L. humilis should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for
cultivated flax.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The site of the found population is protected as it is country's boundary zone.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Balter M. (2009). Clothes Make the (Hu) Man.
Science,325(5946):1329.doi:10.1126/science.325_1329a
2. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of
the USSR. Leningrad: Kolos, 309-310 pp. (In Russian)
1. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
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June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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4. Kvavadze E, Bar-Yosef O, Belfer-Cohen A, Boaretto E,Jakeli N, Matskevich Z, Meshveliani
T. (2009).30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers. Science, 325(5946):1359.
doi:10.1126/science.1175404 Supporting Online Material
7.4. Vegetables
7.4.1. Allium
The following species of Allium occur in Samtskhe-Javakheti - A. albidum Fisch. ex M. Bieb.; A.
atroviolaceum Boiss.; A. cardiostemon Fisch. & Mey. A. fuscoviolaceum Fomin; A. karsianum
Fomin; A. kunthianum Vved.; A. leucanthum K. Koch; A. moschatum L.; A. ponticum Miscz.
ex Grossh.; A. pseudoflavum Vved.; A. rotundum L.; A. victorialis L.; A. vineale L. Most of these
species are widely distributed. Only one population of A. cardiostemon occurs in the whole
Georgia and this location is in Javakheti in protected are of Tetrobi Managed Reserve.
Allium cardiostemon Fisch. & C. A. Mey.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Fam. Liliaceae, genus Allium L.
ii. Plant characteristics
This makes a 40 cm tall stem with a large, tightly-packed, large and dense umbel of
showy dark blackish-purple flowers. The colour of ripe blackcurrants. Anthers are shorter than
tepals. Flowers in summer from VI-VII.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Native to Iran, Iraq, Turkey and the Caucasus.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Only one population occurs in Georgia located
on calcareous Tetrobi Plateau in J avakheti.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
It needs a dry sum m er rest. Grows on stony meadows and slopes. Late flowering
Easily growing in a well-drained sunny site and very valuable for its late flowering and deeply
coloured flowers, which are borne with the leaves.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Threat does not occur as population is located in protected are of Tetrobi
Managed Reserve.
Ex situ status - The bulbs are preserved in living collection of TBG&IB and IPK.
In situ status - Seeds are not collected.
iv. Current uses
No uses is known.
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Fig. 17. Allium cardiostemon and location of single population on the map.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
No threat.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of A. cardiostemon in Tetrobi Managed Reserve.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
A. cardiostemon should be declared as species of high economic value as rare plant.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The site of the found population is protected area.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
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iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Davis, P. H., ed. 1965–1988. Flora of Turkey and the east Aegean islands. (F Turk)
2. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
3. Komarov, V. L. et al., eds. 1934–1964. Flora SSSR. (F USSR)
4. Rechinger, K. H., ed. 1963– Flora Iranica. (F Iran)
7.4.2. Asparagus
Asparagus is not cultivated in Georgia, however, it is collected in the wild as edible plant and
pripared food as from the cultivated species. Three species are found in Samtskhe-Javakheti
region - Caucasian endemic A. caspius Schult. & Schult. fil. A. officinalis L., A. verticillatus L.,
Asparagus caspius Schult. & Schult.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Fam. Asparagaceae, genus Asparagus L.
ii. Plant characteristics
A. caspius is a herbaceous perennial plant growing to 100–150 centimetres (39–59 in) tall, with
crimbing stems with much-branched feathery foliage. The "leaves" are in fact needle-like
cladodes (modified stems) in the axils of scale leaves; they are 6–32 millimetres (0.24–1.3 in)
long and 1 millimetre (0.039 in) broad, and clustered 4–15 together. It has triangular form on
transverse section. Its roots are tuberous .The flowers are bell-shaped, greenish-white to
yellowish, 4.5–6.5 millimetres (0.18–0.26 in) long, with six tepals partially fused together at the
base; they are produced singly or in clusters of 2-3 in the junctions of the branchlets. It is usually
dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants, but sometimes hermaphrodite
flowers are found. The fruit is a small red berry 6–10 mm diameter.
b. Current Status
Caucasian endemic.
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - It is distributed in Meskheti among shibliak
vegetation on dry slopes of foothills and river banks.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
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The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires welldrained soil. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil but is
drought tolerant. Seed - pre-soak for 12 hours in warm water and then sow in spring or as soon
as the seed is ripe in early autumn in a greenhouse. It usually germinates in 3 - 6 weeks at 25°C.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them
on in a sunny position in the greenhouse for their first winter. Plant them out into their
permanent positions in late spring or early summer. Division in early spring as the plant comes
into growth.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Habitat degradation and wood cutting are main threats for this species.
Ex situ status - No attempts are undertaken so far to preserve germplasm of this species
In situ status - The habitats, such as riparian forests and open woodlands, where this species
occurs should be preserved as priority habitats.
Fig. 18. Asparagus caspius
iv. Current uses
Asparagus has been used from early times as a vegetable and medicine, owing to its
delicate flavour and diuretic properties. There is a recipe for cooking asparagus in Meskheti Young shoots are cooked, put in whipped eggs and flour and fry in plant oil. When ready, sour
cream is added.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
No threat.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of A. caspius in Meskheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
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A. caspium and two other wild species of asparagus should be declared as species of high
economic value as edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The sites need protection but concrete locations will not be possible to conserve. It will be more
effective to declare the habitats as priority types and protect by legislation.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
4. Hedrick. U. P. Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World. Dover Publications 1972 ISBN 0486-20459-6
5. Ketskhoveli, N. 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
6. Kunkel. G. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books 1984 ISBN
3874292169
7.4.3. Brassica
4 wild species of genus Brassica are distributed in Georgia - B. napus L., B. campestris L., B.
elongata Ehrh., B. juncea (L.) Czern. (=Sinapis juncea L.). In Meskheti only one species occurs
- B. elongata, which is close relative to the cultivated B. oleracea.
Brassica elongata Ehrh. - Elongated Mustard (English)
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Brasicaceae, genus Brassica L.
Synonyms:Brassica elongata ssp. integrifolia (Boiss.) Breistr, Brassica elongata var.
pinnatifida Smal'g., Brassica subscaposa Maire & Weiller, Erucastrum armoracioides (Czern.
ex Turcz.) Cruchet
The Euro+Med Plantbase Project (2006) lists five subspecies of B. elongata: B. elongata
Ehrh. ssp. elongata, B. elongata ssp. imdrhasiana Quézel, B. elongata ssp. integrifolia (Boiss.)
Breistr., B. elongata ssp. pinnatifida (Schmalh.) Greuter & Burdet, and B. elongata ssp.
subscaposa (Maire & Weiller) Maire.
ii. Plant characteristics
B. elongata is a biennial to perennial plant with erect stems up to 1 metre tall. The basal
leaves are pinnately lobed to shallowly toothed; the stem leaves are much reduced, and do not
clasp the stem. The petals are 6-8.5mm long. The fruits are 1-4cm long, with a stalk-like base
above the sepal scars and a seedless narrow beak.
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b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Russian Federation, Ukraine, Turkey, Iran, Morocco, Afghanistan,
Georgia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbijan, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary,
Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro (USDA, ARS, 2006).
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - In Meskheti occurs in arid zone along R. Mtkvari
and R. Potskhovi gorges.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
It is distributed on salt affected soil, e.g. in semi-desert area in Aspindza distr, in
Nitrarietum, along roads and river gorges on stony dry slopes. The plant prefers light (sandy),
medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid,
neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade.
Succeeds in full sun in a well-drained fertile preferably alkaline soil. Succeeds in any reasonable
soil
Fig. 19. Brassica elongata.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - The main threat is habitat disturbances as it grows in rural areas on
roadsides and urban environment.
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Ex situ status - No data available on seed collections of this species.
In situ status - No protection measures are undertaken to protect this species in natural habitats.
iv. Current uses
In many countries edible oil is obtained from the seed but not practices in Georgia. The seed
contains up to 34% of edible oil that can also be used for lighting, making paints, etc.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
No threat.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of B. elongata in Meskheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
B. elongata should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The sites will not be protected as these are rural environment.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Larkcom. J. Salads all the Year Round. Hamlyn 1980
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
4. Kunkel. G. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books 1984 ISBN
3874292169
7.4.4. Coriandrum
Coriandrum sativum L. – Coriander
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Umbelliferae, genus Coriandrum L.
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ii. Plant characteristics
Annual plant. The whole plant is non-pubescent. Root is thin, fusiform. Stem is straight,
orbicular in section, with thin grooves, branchy from the bottom or only in the upper part, 20-70
cm tall. Leaves are light green. Root leaves wither early, set on long stalks, either whole with
incised-dentate edges, or tri-lobed, or simply pinnate with orbicular-cuneate dentate leaflets.
Lower cauline leaves are bipinnate with a few ovate leaflets, pinnately incised and wedge-shaped
at the base. Middle and upper cauline leaves are sessile on oblong sheaths with wide film along
the edge, bi- or tripinnate, with linear, almost filiform smooth-edged sharp lobules. Umbels with
3-5 bare rays are set on long peduncles. Swathe is absent or consists of one leaflet. Involucels are
one-sided, more often with 3 very narrow leaflets. Petals are white or reddish. Outer (unpaired)
petal in marginal flowers is 3-4 mm long, bilobate, with oblong lobes; 2 adjacent lateral petals
are asymmetrically obovate, bilobate, with the anterior lobe much longer than the posterior one;
2 remaining petals are small, symmetrically obcordate. Inner flowers of the main umbel have
slightly emarginate petals. Fruit is globular, 2-5 mm in diameter, brownish yellow or
stramineous. Styles are elongated, deflected from one another at an acute angle, with a stigma
incrassate at the tip. Blossoms in June-July; bears fruit in August. It is in flower from June to
July, and the seeds ripen from August to September. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both
male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects. The plant is self-fertile. It is noted for
attracting wildlife. The fresh seed has a disagreeable and nauseous smell, but when dried it
becomes fragrant, the longer it is kept the more fragrant it becomes
Fig. 20. Coriandrum sativum.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Worldwide distribution, including Central and Atlantic Europe, the
Mediterranean region, the Balkans, Asia Minor, and Iran. Occurs in North and South America as
an ecdemic plant. Within the former USSR, this species occurs in the European region (NearBaltic, Upper-Dnieper, Upper-Volga, Volga-Don, Lower-Don, Volga-Kama and Trans-Volga
regions); the Far East (Ussuri region); the Caucasus (Ante-Caucasus and Trans-Caucasus, except
the northern part); and Central Asia (Amu-Darya, Syr-Darya, Western Tien Shan and
Mountainous Turkmenistan regions).
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in Meskheti near Akhaltsikhe and in
direction to Adigeni in dry areas along roads and in cultivated fields.
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i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Occurs on dry mountainsides and meadows, more often as a weedy plant in disturbed
ecotopes. Occurs near homesteads, along roads, in orchards and in kitchen gardens. Easily grows
in the wild. Is growing as weed in cultivated beds and wheat and barley fields. Occupies waste
places and arable land, often by the sides of rivers. The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium
(loamy) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline)
soils and can grow in very alkaline soil. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade.
It requires dry or moist soil.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - The herbicides used in the field might cause diminishing of the number of
individuals and disappearance of wild populations of this species.
Ex situ status - Seeds of this species but from Gare-Kakheti is delivered to the IPK Gatersleben
gene bank. The populations in Samtskhe-Javakheti region
In situ status - The cultivated fields will be possible to protect to use herbicides, which will cause
disappearance of this species.
iv. Current uses
Leaves of cultivated C. sativum is used as raw or cooked. They are used as flavouring in
salads, soups, etc. Young shoots are edible (traditionally in the Caucasus under the name of
kindzi) as a spicy herb. Fruit contains essential coriander oil (0.68-0.9%). This oil is used in
perfumery, for synthesis of a number of fragrant substances, in the soap industry, liqueur
production, and medicine (usually to improve taste and smell of medicaments). Coriander fruit
are also utilized to spice confectionary and food products (canned meat). After essential oil
distillation, the raw stuff is used for producing fatty oil (up to 18% in fruit). This oil is utilized in
soap production and in the textile industry. The cake (meal) remaining after fatty oil production
is rich in protein and may be fed to livestock. Green parts of the plant also contain essential oils,
but their composition is different from that of the fruit.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
The use of herbicides and currently is not a big threat but in perspective it might cause
diminishing of the number of individuals in wild populations. Mineral fertilizer might lead to the
change of soil characters and disturb habitat of wild weed species including C. sativum.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of C. sativum in Meskheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
C. sativum should be declared as species of high economic value as wild edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The sites will be protected as cultivated beds by leading of bioecological agriculture.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
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iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Cherepanov, S.K., Plantae Vasculares Rossicae et Civitatum Collimitanearum (in limicis
USSR olim). St. Petersburg, "Mir I Semia", 1995, 990 p. (in Russian).
2. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
3. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
4. Grossheim, A.A. 1967. Flora of Caucasia. Leningrad, Nauka, Vol. VII, 311 p. (in Russian).
5. Shishkin B.K., ed. 1950. Flora of the USSR. Vol. XVI. M.-L.: Publishing House of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, p. 468-469. (in Russian).
6. Tsvelev, N.N. 2000. Manual of the vascular plants of Northwestern Russia (Leningrad, Pskov
and Novgorod district). St. Petersburg, Publishing House of SPHFA, 781 p. (in Russian).
7.4.5. Lepidium
Lepidium perfoliatum L. - Clasping Pepperweed
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Brassicaceae, genus Lepidium L.
ii. Plant characteristics
General: simple to freely branched annual 20-60 cm tall, usually somewhat short-hairy
below, hairless and covered with waxy coating above.
Leaves: the basal ones bi- or tripinnatifid into narrow, linear segments, the lower stem
leaves usually similar, alternate, gradually modified upward and becoming ovate, pointed, heartshaped, clasping stem with large ear-like lobes at the base, entire or sometimes with small teeth.
Flowers: numerous in dense clusters, later becoming elongate. Flower stalks slender,
spreading-ascending, about 5 mm long. The 4 sepals brownish at least toward the tip, about 1
mm long. The 4 petals about 1.5 mm long, narrowly spatulate, yellowish. Stamens usually 6.
Flowering time: April-June.
Fruits: pods, rhombic-ovate, about 4 mm long and as broad, strongly flattened, hairless or
occasionally slightly short-hairy, barely winged at the tip, slightly notched, the space about 0.2
mm deep. Style about 0.2 mm long.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - A well established and very widespread European weed, common in
much of the U.S.
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Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Only two populations have been discovered during
field trips in Meskheti. One population was known from the herbarium data another we have
found in the cultivated field on the road from Akhaltsikhe to Adigeni.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
It grows mostly on dry, waste or overgrazed land. The plant prefers light (sandy),
medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils.
It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil. Seed - sow spring
in situ. Germination should take place within 3 weeks.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Grows on road side in disturbed areas and in cultivated beds. The
disturbances of habitat
Ex situ status - The seeds in Samtskhe-Javakheti region not have been collected.
In situ status - The protection of rural habitats where the species is growing is not effective.
iv. Current uses
The plant is occasionally cultivated as a vegetable in China. The plant has been used as a
preventive of scurvy.
Fig. 21. Lepidium perfoliatum.
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c. Current factors causing loss and decline
No threat.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of L. perforatum in Meskheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
L. perforatum should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The sites will not be protected as these are rural environment.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Cherepanov S.K. 1995. Plantae Vasculares Rossicae et Civitatum Collimitanearum (in
limicis USSR olim). St. Petersburg: Mir I Semia, 990 pp. (In Russian)
2. Dorofeev V.I. 1998. Family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae) middle Zone of the European part of
the Russian Federation. Turchaninowia, Barnaul, 1(3): 94 pp. (In Russian)
3. Dorofeev V.I. 2002. Cruciferae (Brassicaceae) of European Russia. Turchaninowia, Barnaul,
5(3): 115 pp. (In Russian)
4. Grossheim, A.A. 1950. Flora of the Caucasus. Vol. 4. Moscow-Leningrad, 117 pp. (In
Russian)
5. Harkevitch S.S., ed. 1988. Vascular Plants of the Soviet Far East. Vol. 3. Leningrad: Nauka,
42 pp. (In Russian)
6. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
7. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
8. Tsvelev N.N. 2000. Vascular Plants of Russia and the Contiguous States
(Determinant)(Leningrad, Pskov and Novgorod district). St. Petersburg: Publishing House of
SPHFA, 781 pp. (In Russian)
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7.4.6. Satureja
Two species of savory are cultivated in Georgia – summer savory (Satureja hortensis)
and creeping savory (S. spicigera). The last is growing in the wild and is cultivated in Guria and
Lower Adjara. Cultivated and wild species of savory contain the essential oil determining their
aroma and are widely used in culinary as aromatic and conserving substance. The phenols in the
essential oil determine its antimicrobial activity and inhibit activity of pathogenic microbes and
protect food products from the spoilage. At the same time it represents environmentally safer
alternatives of conservatives. They are effective against phytopathogenic fungi. As a medicinal
plant, summer savory has been traditionally used against cold, as a stimulant, carminative,
expectorant, and aphrodisiac.
There are 3 native wild species of savory distributed in Georgia - (1) S. bzybica
Woronow, (2) S. laxiflora K. Koch and (3) S. spicigera (K. Koch) Boiss. In Meskheti there are
two wild species - S. laxiflora and S. spicigera distributed throughout in arid habitats of
Akhalthikhe district.
Perennial S. spicigera and wild S. laxiflora were traditionally used in Georgia as
medicinal plants.
Satureja laxiflora K. Koch - Forest savory
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Labiatae, genus Satureja L.
Synonym
Satureja hortensis L.
ii. Plant characteristics
S. laxiflora (Tkis kondari in Georg.) is 10-30 cm tall annual herb with branched stem.
Flowers are pink, flowering between June and October. Seeds ripen from August to November.
The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects.
The plant is self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife. Seed - sow April in situ and only just
cover. Germinates in about 2 weeks. The plant strongly resents root disturbance so do not
transplant it. In areas with mild winters an autumn sowing will provide an earlier supply of
leaves.
Fig. 22. Satureja hortensis.
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b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs in different regions of Georgia, in the whole Caucasus, in
Eastern Anatolia and Iran.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs on forest edges and grassed stony slopes
along roads gorges in Meskheti.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Grows in dry places, on stony slopes, in lower and middle montane belts. The plant
prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers
acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soil. It cannot grow in the
shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - No threats are detected.
Ex situ status - Seeds are not collected so far
In situ status - No data available
iv. Current uses
Local population of high-mountain region of Samegrelo, in western Georgia, especially
shepherds, used water solution of grained creeping savory and garlic against cold and fever (PC,
Givi Eliava, t. Martvili). Oncho, like summer savory, is said to be a sovereign remedy for colic,
bronchitis and a cure for flatulence (Bown, 1995). There is a famous mixture called “Tibu”
traditionally used against cold in Samegrelo. Maize flour is cooked in plenty of water and there
are added dry or fresh grained leaves of savory, garlic, hot pepper and salt. The mixture is takes
as hot and it causes intensive perspiration and the condition of the patient is improved very
rapidly (PC, Eter Solomonia, Tbilisi). Oncho is harvested in Meskheti in the nature and a tea is
prepared, which is used as blood pressure reliever (PC, Anaida Bagdasarian, t. Akhaltsikhe).
Summer savory is effective against neuroses (PC, Liana Baginashvili, v. Tsnisi, Akhaltsikhe
distr.). In should be noted that native Georgian population living currently in Turkey is using
savory for traditional medicinal treatments till today as carminative and sugar relieving remedy
at the diabetes mellitus (PC, Gunesh and Fatma Akaltun, v. Robati, Imerkhevi, Artvin Vilaiet,
Turkey).
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
No threat.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of S. spicigera in Meskheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
S. spicigera should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
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The sites can not be protected as the popualtions are very scattered and widspread along roads
and forest edges. No local distribution is characteristic for this species.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Kapeller, O. 1952. Satureja L.- Kondari (Satureja L.- Savory). In: “Sakartvelos flora”
(Flora of Georgia). 1st ed. Ed. N. Ketskhoveli. v. 7, Publish. Acad. Scien. Georg., Tbilisi,
p. 394-401. (Georg.).
2. Kapanadze, D. 1987. Satureja L.- Kondari (Satureja L.- Savory). In: “Sakartvelos flora”
(Flora of Georgia). 2nd ed. Ed. R. Gagnidze. v. 11, Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p. 183-189.
(Georg.).
3. Javakhishvili I. 1986. Sakartvelos ekonomiuri istoria (Economic history of Georgia). 2nd
ed. Works in 12 volumes, v. 5, Publish Georg. Acad. Scien. and Tbilisi State Univ.,
Tbilisi. p. 259-260. (Georg.).
4. Czerepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former
USSR). Cambridge,University Press.
Satureja spicigera (K. Koch) Boiss. - Creeping savory
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Labiatae, genus Satureja
Synonyms
Satureja repandra, Satureja reptans -Hort.
Local names
There are some geographic names originated form the Georgian name of this plant – “Oncho”
(Makashvili, 1951). E.g. “Onchevi” – a village in Oni distr.; “Oncheishi” – two different villages
in Kutaisi distr. and “Onchiketi” – as well two villages in Chokhatauri distr. Although, it is of
interest that name “Oncho”, according to A. Makashvili (1951), is in use only in Guria and local
name of this plant in other provinces of Georgia is “tkis kondari” – forest savory, which is
correct name of S. laxiflora (Makashvili, 1951).
ii. Plant characteristics
S. spicigera is perennial herb. Flowers are white or slightly pink, flowering between July and
October.
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Fig. 23. Satureja spicigera
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Outside of Georgia it occurs in the whole Caucasus, Tallish, Eastern
Anatolia and Iran. Occurs mainly in lower and middle montane belts of the western Georgia.
Especially abundant populations are found in Racha, Lechkhumi and Imereti.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - We have found S. spicigera near Borjomi and in
Meskheti on dry slopes of foothills and middle montane belt.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Grows on stony slopes. The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils and
requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow
in very alkaline soil. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate
drought. Seed - sow April in situ and only just cove. Germinates in about 2 weeks. The plant
strongly resents root disturbance so do not transplant it. In areas with mild winters an autumn
sowing will provide an earlier supply of leaves.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - No threats are detected.
Ex situ status - Seeds are not collected so far
In situ status - No data available
iv. Current uses
It is attractive for honey bees and contains essential oil. Oncho – creeping savory is used
more rarely. A. Makashvili in his work (1951) cites fragment from the first book of the trilogy of
P. Chkhikvadze – “Steps”, where the description of the Georgian dinner is given at the Prince
Sharvashidze house. Among other dishes here is mentioned “fresh cheese with “pitna” (mint),
oncho (creeping savory) and ombalo (Pennyroyal)”. Oncho is used for flavoring of fresh cheese
in Guria until today. Specific aroma and flavor of savory is determined by rich content of
essential oils. One might be expected that the local population in Guria was informed from
antiquity that in addition to spices and their derivatives being used for flavoring foods and
beverages and for medication, they have also been highly valued for their use as antimicrobials
determining food conservation.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
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No threat.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of S. spicigera in Meskheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
S. spicigera should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The sites can not be protected as the popualtions are very scattered and widspread along roads
and forest edges. No local distribution is characteristic for this species.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
5. Bown. D. 1995. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, London.
6. Czerepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former
USSR). Cambridge,University Press.
7. Javakhishvili I. 1986. Sakartvelos ekonomiuri istoria (Economic history of Georgia). 2nd
ed. Works in 12 volumes, v. 5, Publish Georg. Acad. Scien. and Tbilisi State Univ.,
Tbilisi. p. 259-260. (Georg.).
8. Kapanadze, D. 1987. Satureja L.- Kondari (Satureja L.- Savory). In: “Sakartvelos flora”
(Flora of Georgia). 2nd ed. Ed. R. Gagnidze. v. 11, Metsniereba, Tbilisi, p. 183-189.
(Georg.).
9. Kapeller, O. 1952. Satureja L.- Kondari (Satureja L.- Savory). In: “Sakartvelos flora”
(Flora of Georgia). 1st ed. Ed. N. Ketskhoveli. v. 7, Publish. Acad. Scien. Georg., Tbilisi,
p. 394-401. (Georg.).
10. Lipski, V.I. 1899. Flora Kavkaza (Flora of the Caucasus). Sankt-Peterburg, TipoLithography Gerold, p. 417. (Russ.).
11. Makashvili, A. 1951. Kolkhetis utsnobi kulturebi (Unknown cultivated plants of
Kolkheti) Works Tbilisi State Univer. 44:31-88. (Georg.).
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7.5. Berries
7.5.1. Ribes
It is edible shrub. The fruits are collected for food and prepared jam and preserves. Three species
of Ribes occurs in Georgia - R. alpinum L. R. biebersteinii Berl. ex DC., and R. orientale Desf.
R. alpinum are distributed in treeline ecotone of Samtskhe-Javakheti region, R. biebersteinii
grows only in Meskheti and and R. orientale Occurs in Javakheti. Cultivated garden species are
- Ribes nigrum L. - European black currant and Ribes rubrum L. - Red currant.
Ribes alpinum L.- Alpine Currant.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Grossulariaceae DC., genus Ribes L.
synonyms
R. lucidum Kit.ex Kanitz.ii.
Cultivars
'Aureum' - A dwarf spreading female form to about 1 metre tall, the leaves are bright yellow at
first, becoming green-yellow later. It can be grown as a ground cover when spaced about 1 metre
apart each way.
'Green Mound' - This cultivar makes a good dwarf hedge.
'Pumilum' - A dwarf spreading female form only 1 metre tall, it can be grown as a ground cover
when spaced about 1 metre apart each way. Some flowers have fertile stamens.
Plant characteristics
Shrub 0.5 to 1.5 m tall. Bud scales membranaceous. Leaves up to 4 cm wide, trilobate,
with adpressed rigid glandular bristles above, glabrous beneath, lucid. Plants dioecious.
Inflorescences not drooping, male has 15-30 flowers, female 1-5 flowers. Petals greenish-yellow,
spatulate, 4 times shorter than ovate calyx lobes. Bracteoles as long as pedicels or longer.
Pedicels with glandular bristles. Berries pink, mealy to the taste. Anemophylous. Zoo- and
ornithochore. Flowers in May-June, fruits in July-August.
Fig. 24. Ribes alpinum
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b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - General distribution: Europe from Scandinavia south and east to N.
Africa, Italy, Montenegro, Bulgaria. In the former USSR - European part of Russia, the
Caucasus.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in Trialeti range and in all mountainous parts
of Meskheti at upper montane and treeline ecotone.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
In treeline ecotone, light mixed forests, forest glades and fringes, on terraces of river
banks. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires welldrained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic
(alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil.
Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame. Stored seed requires 3
months cold stratification at 0 - 9°c and should be sown as early in the year as possible. Under
normal storage conditions the seed can remain viable for 17 years or more. Prick out the
seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them on in a cold
frame for their first winter, planting them out in late spring of the following year. Cuttings of
half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame. Cuttings of mature wood of the current year's growth,
preferably with a heel of the previous year's growth, November to February in a cold frame or
sheltered bed outdoors.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Global warming might change habitat of this species, especially changes in
precipitation and snow cover might cause damages of individuals.
Ex situ status - No information is available on seed collection of this species.
In situ status - the treeline ecotone should be declared as priority habitat of Natura2000 sites.
iv. Current uses
Food. Ornamental.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Global warming can cause habitat change at the treeline ecotone were this species grows.
Grazing effect now is low but if it grows will damage the individuals.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of R. alpinum in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
R. alpinum should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
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The treeline ecotone should be declared as priority area of the Natura2000 where Georgia
intends to join.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Dirr M. A. and Heuser. M. W. The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation.
Athens Ga. Varsity Press 1987 ISBN 0942375009Budantsev AL.,
2. Grossheim AA. 1950. Flora of Caucasus. V.4. Moscow; Leningrad. (In Russian).
Sokolov SI., Svjaseva OA., Kubli VA. 1977. Distribution ranges of trees and shrubs of
the USSR. V.1. Leningrad: Nauka. p.263. (In Russian).
3. Sokolov SI., Svjaseva OA., Kubli VA. 1980. Distribution ranges of trees and shrubs of
the USSR. V.2. Leningrad: Nauka. 107 p. Map 28A. (In Russian).
4. Tzvelev NN., ed. 2001. Flora of East Europe. V.10. St.Petersburg P.240. (In Russian).
5. Cherepanov SK. 1995. Vascular plants of Russia and adjacent states (the former USSR).
St.Petersburg. 990 p. (In Russian).
Ribes biebersteinii Berl. ex DC.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Grossulariaceae DC., genus Ribes L.
synonyms
Ribes petraeum Wulfen var. biebersteinii (Berland.) C. K. Schneid., Ribes caucasicum - Bieb.
Plant characteristics
Perennial deciduous Shrub growing to 1.5-2 m. It is in flower in May. The flowers are
hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects. Shrub has bare,
light-coloured shoots. Leaves are thin, heart-shaped, large, up to 10 cm in length and 13 cm in
width, usually 5-lobed; can be bare on both sides (f. glabrum Grossh.) or densely pilose below (f.
hirtum Grossh.), less frequently with glandular hairs on the upper surface of the leaf and along
the veins on the underside. Racemes are 4-12 cm long, horizontal, drooping under fruits, loose,
with 15-50 flowers. Pedicels are 2-3 mm long. Flowers are 5-6 mm long, dark purple, with
sepals deflected backwards. Hypanthium is bell-shaped, with notable excrescences under the
petals. Styles are wide-conical, up to 2 mm in length. Ovary is semi-inferior. Berries are small,
6-7 mm in diameter, dark red or purple-black. Blossoms in June; bears fruit beginning in late
August. Entomophilous. Zoochore.
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Fig. 25. Ribes biebersteinii
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs throughout the Caucasus and on the Pontus Ridge in Asia
Minor.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all mountainous parts of Meskheti at
upper montane and treeline ecotone.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Occurs in treeline ecotone, in the forests of the middle mountain zone and in sub-alpine
shrubbery. Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame. Stored seed
requires 3 months cold stratification at between 0 and 5°c and should be sown as early in the
year as possible. Under normal storage conditions the seed can remain viable for 17 years or
more. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow
them on in a cold frame for their first winter, planting them out in late spring of the following
year. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, 10 - 15cm with a heel, July/August in a frame. Cuttings of
mature wood of the current year's growth, preferably with a heel of the previous year's growth,
November to February in a cold frame or sheltered bed outdoors.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Global warming might change habitat of this species, especially changes in
precipitation and snow cover might cause damages of individuals.
Ex situ status - No information is available on seed collection of this species.
In situ status - the treeline ecotone should be declared as priority habitat of Natura2000 sites.
iv. Current uses
Berries are edible, having sour flavour. May be used to make jelly and drinks.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Global warming can cause habitat change at the treeline ecotone were this species grows.
Grazing effect now is low but if it grows will damage the individuals.
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d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of R. biebersteinii in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
R. biebersteinii should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The treeline ecotone should be declared as priority area of the Natura2000 where Georgia
intends to join.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Dirr. M. A. and Heuser. M. W. The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation. Athens
Ga. Varsity Press 1987 ISBN 0942375009Budantsev AL.,
2. Grossheim AA. 1950. Flora of Caucasus. V.4. Moscow; Leningrad. (In Russian).
Sokolov SI., Svjaseva OA., Kubli VA. 1977. Distribution ranges of trees and shrubs of the
USSR. V.1. Leningrad: Nauka. p.263. (In Russian).
3. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
4. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
5. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
6. Nakhutsrishvili G. (1999). The vegetation of Georgia (Caucasus). - Braun-Blanquetia 15:174.
7. Komarov V.L., ed. 1939. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 9. Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing House
Acad. Sci. USSR, p. 245-246. (in Russian).
8. Poyarkova, A.I. 1936. Critical review of wild currant and gooseberry species in the Soviet
Union. Flora and taxonomy of higher plants. Works of the Botanical Institute, USSR
Academy of Sciences, series 1, issue 2, pp. 184. (in Russian).
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7.5.2. Rubus
Rubus idaeus L. - Raspberry
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss. genus Rubus L.
synonyms
Rubus cericeus Gilib., Batidaea idaea (L.) Greene
Cultivars
'Autumn Bliss' - A large fruit with a firm flesh and a pleasant mild flavour. It bridges the gap
between late summer cultivars and the autumn bearing forms. Canes are fairly erect and can be
grown without support, they are resistant to some viruses.
'Glen Cova' , 'Leo, 'Lloyd George' , 'Malling Admiral' , 'Malling Delight', 'Malling Jewel' ,
'Malling Joy' , 'Malling Promise' , 'Zeva'
Plant characteristics
Semishrub, 0.5-1.8 m high. First-year offshoots are green, fruitless, with thin straight
aciculae and glaucousness. Second-year offshoots are somewhat lignified, yellowish, fruitbearing; branches with leaves are green. Leaves are odd-pinnate, consisting of 3-5 (7) leaflets;
stipules are thread-like; petioles are grooved from above. Leaflets have white tomentose
underside, but from above they are almost naked, rather finely and irregularly serrate. Flowers
are assembled in axillary oliganthous racemes and a terminal corymbose-paniculate
inflorescence. Petals are white. Peduncles and pedicels are covered with dispersed setae without
glandules. There are 5 sepals; they are gray-green, deflected. Stamina and carpels are plentiful.
Fruits are globular red or, less frequently, yellow polydrupes, 12-18 mm long and 10-14 mm
wide, easily detachable from their white cylindrical-conical receptacles; drupes are small
(approximately 3 mm), juicy, velvety-downy. Entomophilous, ornito- and zoochore. Propagated
by seed, root suckers or softwood cuttings. Blossoms in June, bears fruit in July/August. 2n=14.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - This plant has a disjunctive area of distribution, whose major part
engulfs the forest zone and adjacent forest-steppe areas of the European part of the ex-USSR and
Western Siberia; Crimea (infrequent in the Crimean mountains); Eastern Siberia (Central
Siberian Plateau - riverbanks of the Uda and the Artumey; vicinities of the Chekan River;
southern shore line of Baikal); Caucasus (Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Talysh); Middle Asia
(Saur, Tarbagatai, Dzungarian Ala Tau, Trans-Ili Range, etc.); Scandinavia; Central and Atlantic
Europe; Mediterranean region; Asia Minor; Mongolia; Japan; China; North America; Australia
(naturalized).
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all mountainous parts of Meskheti and
Javakheti at upper montane and treeline ecotone.
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Fig. 26. Rubus idaeus
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Mesophyte. Grows in sparse mixed forests and groves, on forest edges, glades and
clearings, over gullies and meadows, along riverbanks, as single plants or in groups, inhabiting
plains and mountains, both in the forest zone and forest mountain belt. Occurs on rich moist
soils, poorly tolerates droughts, has low winter-hardiness. Prefers a good deep well-drained
loamy soil on the acid side. Dislikes very heavy soils, light soils and alkaline soils. Prefers an
open position but tolerates some shade. Plants crop less well when grown in the shade of trees
though they do well in the open on a north-facing slope. Requires a position sheltered from
strong winds. Prefers a pH between 6 and 6.5. Raspberries are frequently cultivated in temperate
regions of the world, both in the garden and commercially, for their edible fruit. There are many
named varieties able to supply fresh fruit from mid-summer to the autumn. High costs of picking
the fruit means that little is actually sold fresh, most of the commercially cultivated crops either
being used for preserves or grown for the 'Pick Your Own' trade. All the cultivars are self-fertile.
This species has biennial stems, it produces a number of new stems each year from the perennial
rootstock, these stems fruit in their second year and then die. It is best not to grow raspberries
near blackberries or potatoes. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus.
Seed - requires stratification and is best sown in early autumn in a cold frame. Stored seed
requires one month stratification at about 3°c and is best sown as early as possible in the year.
Prick out the seedlings when they are large enough to handle and grow on in a cold frame. Plant
them out into their permanent positions in late spring of the following year. Cuttings of half-ripe
wood, July/August in a frame. Tip layering in July. Plant out in autumn. Division in early spring
or just before leaf-fall in the autumn.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Global warming might change habitat of this species, especially
changes in precipitation and snow cover might cause damages of individuals.
Ex situ status - No information is available on seed collection of this species.
In situ status - the treeline ecotone should be declared as priority habitat of Natura2000 sites.
iv. Current uses
Berries are edible, delicious when eaten out of hand, the fruit is also used in pies,
preserves etc. Root - cooked. The root, which should be neither too young nor too old, requires a
lot of boiling. Young shoots - peeled and eaten raw or cooked like asparagus. They are harvested
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as they emerge through the ground in the spring and whilst they are still tender. A herb tea is
made from the dried leaves. Another report says that a type of tea made from raspberry and
blackberry leaves is an excellent coffee substitute.
Used as medicinal plant. Antiemetic. The leaves and roots are anti-inflammatory,
astringent, decongestant, ophthalmic, oxytocic and stimulant. A tea made from them is used in
the treatment of diarrhoea, as a tonic for the uterus to strengthen pregnant women, and as an aid
in childbirth. The tea has also been shown as effective in relieving painful menstrual cramps. The
active ingredients both stimulate and relax the uterus. They can be used during the last three
months of pregnancy and during childbirth, but should not be used earlier. Externally, the leaves
and roots are used as a gargle to treat tonsillitis and mouth inflammations, as a poultice and wash
to treat sores, conjunctivitis, minor wounds, burns and varicose ulcers. The leaves are harvested
in the summer and dried for later use. The fruit is antiscorbutic and diuretic. Fresh raspberry
juice, mixed with a little honey, makes an excellent refrigerant beverage to be taken in the heat
of a fever. Made into a syrup, it is said to have a beneficial effect on the heart.
A purple to dull blue dye is obtained from the fruit. A fibre obtained from the stems is
used in making paper. The stems are harvested in the summer after the fruit has been eaten, the
leaves are removed and the stems are steamed until the fibres can be stripped. The fibres are
cooked for 2 hours with lye and then hand beaten with mallets or ball milled for 3 hours. The
paper is light brown in colour. A decongestant face-mask made from the fruit is used
cosmetically to soothe reddened skin.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Global warming can cause habitat change at the treeline ecotone were this species grows.
Grazing effect now is low but if it grows will damage the individuals.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of R. idaeus in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
R. idaeus should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The treeline ecotone should be declared as priority area of the Natura2000 where Georgia
intends to join.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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References
1. Atlas of the areas of distribution and resources of medicinal plants in the USSR.1983.
Tolmachev.s A.I. (ed.). Moscow: Principal Office of Geodesy and Cartography, p.262. (in
Russian).
2. Brezhnev, D.D., Korovina, O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos, pp.210-211. (in Russian).
3. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Sokolov, S.I., Svjaseva, O.A., Kubli, V.A. 1980. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in
the USSR. vol.2. Leningrad: Nauka, p.80 (in Russian).
7.6. Fruits
7.6.1. Cerasus
Cerasus avium (L.) Moench - Wild Cherry
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss., genus Cerasus Hill
synonyms
Prunus avium L., Cerasus nigra Mill., Cerasus sylvestris Lund., C. dulcie Gaertn.
Plant characteristics
Tree up to 23(35) m tall, producing no rootstock, with an oviform crown. Leaves are up
to 16 cm long and 8 cm wide, oblong-ovate or elliptic, abruptly tapered at the top into a sharp
point, biserrate along the edge, with denticles sharpened into a cartilaginous point, naked from
above and slightly pilose from below over the whole surface or only along the veins. Petioles
have two glandules in the upper part. Stipules are linear, adenodentate. Flowers, grouped into
oliganthous umbels, are set on naked pedicels 2.5-6 cm long. Inflorescences have no leaves at
the base. Flowers are white. Hypanthium is cup-shaped. Sepals are obtuse, usually smoothedged, deflected. Fruits of wild plants are about 1 cm in diameter, globular, ranging in color
from dark-red to almost black, having for the most part a bitter or, quite infrequently, sweet
flavor, with juicy sweet pulp. Stones are smooth, globular or ovoid. Entomophilous. Ornitochore.
Blossoms in April-May, bears fruit in June. 2n=16, sometimes 17, 18.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Moldova, Ukraine (south-western and southern parts, southern
Crimea), Caucasus, Europe (Central and Southern), Turkey (north), Iran (north), Africa (northwest).
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti
from middle montane belt up to 2000 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
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Mesophyte. Photophilous. It grows as solitary trees or in small groups, more often as a
minor admixture to broad-leaved forests (oak, hornbeam-oak, beech or beech-hornbeam) as well
as on the outskirts of glades. In the mountains occurs in the lower and middle zones. It prefers
sufficiently moistened fertile soils.
Fig. 27. Cerasus avium
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
Food (fruit), ornamental, gum-producing and nectariferous plant, quite widely cultivated. Fruit
are edible and used in the confectionary industry. This species has been utilized to breed cherry
cultivars with resistance to frost and a number of diseases. Among cultivated forms there are
very ornamental ones with double and pink flowers, motley or dissected leaves as well as with a
drooping crown.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat disturbances are major threats to the species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of C. avium in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
C. avium should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
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Sites are not protected and only individuals in Borjomi-Kharaauli National Plants occur in
protected territory. The Erusheti National reserve will include many individuals of this species
when established. The territory between State boundaries of Georgia and Turkey are as well
protected from anthropogenic impacts and many individuals are survived there.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos. 237-238 pp. (In Russian)
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Poyarkova A.I. 1939. Apple-Malus Mill. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 9. Moscow-Leningrad:
Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 362 pp. (In Russian)
6. Sokolov S.I., Svjaseva O.A., Kubli V.A. 1980. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in the
USSR. Vol. 2. Leningrad: Nauka. 60 p. (In Russian)
7.6.2. Cornus
Cornus mas L. - Cornelian cherry
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family: Cornaceae Dumort.; genus: Cornus L.
synonyms
Cornus mascula L.
Cultivars
'Jolico' - The fruits are well-flavoured and up to 3 times larger than the species. A self-sterile
clone, it requires pollination by another cultivar if fruit is to be formed.
'Macrocarpa' - This cultivar has larger fruits than the type.
'Nana' - A dwarf form, it is derived from a yellow-fruited clone.
'Pioneer' - The large, dark red, pear-shaped fruit is up to 35mm long. It is juicy, sweet and
aromatic.
'Variegata' - Smaller-growing than the species, probably reaching no more than 2 metres tall and
wide. It has considerable leaf variegation, is less tough than the species and does best in a sunny
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sheltered position. This cultivar seems to fruit well each year, producing full-sized wellflavoured fruits with less astringency than the species.
Plant characteristics
Semishrub, 0.5-1.8 m high. First-year offshoots are green, fruitless, with thin straight
aciculae and glaucousness. Second-year offshoots are somewhat lignified, yellowish, fruitbearing; branches with leaves are green. Leaves are odd-pinnate, consisting of 3-5 (7) leaflets;
stipules are thread-like; petioles are grooved from above. Leaflets have white tomentose
underside, but from above they are almost naked, rather finely and irregularly serrate. Flowers
are assembled in axillary oliganthous racemes and a terminal corymbose-paniculate
inflorescence. Petals are white. Peduncles and pedicels are covered with dispersed setae without
glandules. There are 5 sepals; they are gray-green, deflected. Stamina and carpels are plentiful.
Fruits are globular red or, less frequently, yellow polydrupes, 12-18 mm long and 10-14 mm
wide, easily detachable from their white cylindrical-conical receptacles; drupes are small
(approximately 3 mm), juicy, velvety-downy. Entomophilous, ornito- and zoochore. Propagated
by seed, root suckers or softwood cuttings. Blossoms in June, bears fruit in July/August. 2n=14.
Fig. 28. Cornus mas
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs in the southern part of Middle Europe; south-eastern part of
Atlantic Europe, Mediterranean (middle part of Italy), Balkans, Asia Minor. Within the ex-USSR
territory: Upper Dnestr, Moldova, Crimea; all Caucasus.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti from
middle montane belt up to 1500 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Grows among mountain woods of the lower and middle belt, in the Caucasus it reaches
up to 1500 m above sea level. It grows in underbrush of light woods, mainly oak and hornbeam,
on merges, on slopes, in thickets of bushes. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Prefers a moist soil
and a sunny position but also succeeds in light shade. A very ornamental plant it flowers quite
early in the year and is a valuable early food for bees. Plants in this genus are notably resistant to
honey fungus.
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Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame or in an outdoors seedbed if there is
sufficient seed. The seed must be separated from the fruit flesh since this contains germination
inhibitors. Stored seed should be cold stratified for 3 - 4 months and sown as early as possible in
the year. Scarification may also help as may a period of warm stratification before the cold
stratification. Germination, especially of stored seed, can be very slow, taking 18 months or
more. Prick out the seedlings of cold-frame sown seeds into individual pots as soon as they are
large enough to handle and grow the plants on for their first winter in a greenhouse, planting out
in the spring after the last expected frosts. Cuttings of half-ripe side shoots, July/August in a
frame. Cuttings of mature wood of the current year's growth, taken with a heel if possible,
autumn in a cold frame. High percentage. Layering of new growth in June/July. Takes 9 months.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
Fruits, rich in vitamins, acids (especially - apple acid) and sugars, are used as fresh fruits
for preparation of jam, compote, kissel, fruit candy, drinks and wine. Fruits, stones and leaves
are used for medical purposes as a fixing means. Firm and strong wood is well polished and used
for turning works, replacing boxwood. The bark, branches and leaves contain tannins of high
quality and are used for the tanning of thick leather and its colouring in yellow colours. Good
honey plant. As an ornamental plant it is used for green hedges. Medicinal use of this species is
that the bark and the fruit are astringent, febrifuge and nutritive. The astringent fruit is a good
treatment for bowel complaints and fevers, whilst it is also used in the treatment of cholera. The
flowers are used in the treatment of diarrhoea.An oil is obtained from the seed.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat degradation can cause serious problems to survival of the species. All
wild individuals in Meskheti are characterized by yellow fruits. The cultivars from different
regions of Georgia and other countries have red coloured fruits, which might lead to genetic
pollution of local populations and origin of hybrids.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of C. mas in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
C. mas should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected, only in case when the individuals are growing on the territory of
protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
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iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Cherepanov S.K. 1995. Plantae Vasculares Rossicae et Civitatum Collimitanearum (in limics
USSR olim)[List of Vascular Plants of Russia]. St. Petersburg: Mir I Semia. 990 pp. (In
Russian)
2. Grossheim, A.A. 1967. Flora of the Caucasus. V. 7. Leningrad: Publishing House of the
USSR Academy of Sciences. 151 p. (In Russian)
3. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
4. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
5. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
6. Mosel H. 1965. Comparative Chorology of the Flora of Central Europe. Jena. 583 p.
7. Shishkin, B.K., ed. 1951. Flora USSR. V. 17. Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing House of
Acad. Science. 317-319 pp. (In Russian)
8. Sokolov S.I., Svjaseva O.A., Kubli V.A. 1986. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in the
USSR. V. 3. Leningrad: Nauka. Map #53D. (In Russian)
9. Vulf E.V., Maleyeva O.F. 1969. Worldwide resources of useful plants. Reference book.
Leningrad: Nauka. 338-339 pp. (In Russian)
7.6.3. Corylus
Corylus avellana L. Hazel
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family: Betulaceae C.F.Gray; genus: Corylus L.
Cultivars
'Cosford Cob' , 'Duke of York' , 'Heterophylla' , 'Nottingham Cob' , 'Waterloo'
Plant characteristics
Common hazel is typically a shrub reaching 3-8 m tall, but can reach 15 m. The leaves
are deciduous, rounded, 6-12 cm long and across, softly hairy on both surfaces, and with a
double-serrate margin. The flowers are produced very early in spring, before the leaves, and are
monoecious with single-sex wind-pollinated catkins. Male catkins are pale yellow and 5-12 cm
long, while female catkins are very small and largely concealed in the buds with only the bright
red 1-3 mm long styles visible. The fruit is a nut, produced in clusters of one to five together,
each nut held in a short leafy involucre ('husk') which encloses about three quarters of the nut.
The nut is roughly spherical to oval, 15-20 mm long and 12-20 mm broad (larger, up to 25 mm
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long, in some cultivated selections), yellow-brown with a pale scar at the base. The nut falls out
of the involucre when ripe, about 7–8 months after pollination.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Scandinavia (except the northern part), Central Europe, Atlantic
Europe, the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Asia Minor. Within the former USSR, species
occurs in the European region (the Ladoga-Ilmen region, far southwestern areas of the DvinaPechora region, Upper- and Middle-Dnieper, Upper-Volga, Volga-Kama, Trans-Volga, VolgaDon, Near-Black-Sea and Crimean regions), and the Caucasus (Ante-Caucasus, Daghestan,
Western, Southern and Eastern Transcaucasia, and the Talysh region).
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti from
middle montane belt up to 1500 m.
Fig. 29. Corylus avellana
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Occurs in light, mixed and broad-leaved forests as brushwood, often in clearings. The
plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. It can grow in semi-shade
(light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil. The plant can tolerate strong winds but not
maritime exposure. An easily grown plant, it succeeds in most soils, but is in general more
productive of seeds when grown on soils of moderate fertility. Seed - best sown as soon as it is
harvested in autumn in a cold frame. Germinates in late winter or spring. Stored seed should be
pre-soaked in warm water for 48 hours and then given 2 weeks warm followed by 3 - 4 months
cold stratification. Germinates in 1 - 6 months at 20°c. When large enough to handle, prick the
seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in a cold frame or sheltered place outdoors
for their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early
summer. Layering in autumn. Easy, it takes about 6 months. Division of suckers in early spring.
Very easy, they can be planted out straight into their permanent positions.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
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iv. Current uses
Common Hazel is cultivated for its nuts in commercial orchards in Europe, Turkey, Iran
and Caucasus. The seed has a thin, dark brown skin which has a bitter flavour and is sometimes
removed before cooking. The top producer of hazelnuts, by a large margin, is Turkey,
specifically the Ordu Province. Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tonnes accounts for
approximately 75% of worldwide production. Hazelnuts are rich in protein and unsaturated fat.
Moreover, they contain significant amounts of thiamine and vitamin B6, as well as smaller
amounts of other B vitamins. Additionally, 1 cup (237 ml) of hazelnut flour has 20 g of
carbohydrates, 12 g of which are fibre. Oil from its fruit is one of the highest in quality among
vegetable oils. Branches are used to manufacture wicker furniture, pipe shanks, walking sticks
and hoops. Medicinal uses - the bark, leaves, catkins and fruits are sometimes used medicinally.
They are astringent, diaphoretic, febrifuge, nutritive and odontalgic. The seed is stomachic and
tonic. The oil has a very gentle but constant and effective action in cases of infection with
threadworm or pinworm in babies and young children.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat degradation can cause serious problems to survival of the species. The
introduction of cultivars from different countries might lead to genetic pollution of local
populations.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of C. avellana in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
C. avellana should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected, only in case when the individuals are growing on the territory of
protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
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1. Bush N.A., ed. 1939. Flora USSR. Vol. V. M.-L.: Publishing House of Acad. Science,
pp. 264-265. (in Russian).
2. Grossheim, A.A. 1945. Flora of Caucasus. Vol. III. Baku: Publishing House of
Azerbaijan Acad. Science, appendix.
3. Hulten E., Fries M. 1986. Atlas of north European vascular plants north of the Tropic of
Cancer. Konigstein. V. 1-3. 1172 p.
4. Mosel, H. 1965. Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropischen Flora. Jena, 583 s.
N.I. Vavilov Institute [WIR], Saint Petersburg, Russia.
5. Tsvelev, N.N. 2000. Manual of the vascular plants of Russia (Leningrad, Pskov and
Novgorod district). St. Petersburg, Publishing House of SPHFA, p. 356 (in Russian).
7.6.4. Malus
Malus orientalis Uglitzk. - Oriental wild apple.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss., genus Malus Mill.
synonyms
Malus montana Uglitzk., Malus orientalis subsp. montana (Uglitzk.) Likhonos, Malus sylvestris
subsp. orientalis (Uglitzk.) Soo.
This species is an ancestor of the Caucasian, Crimean and a number of Western European
varieties, including rosemaries, pippins, calvilles and rennets.
Plant characteristics
Tree up to 10 m tall with dark gray branches and without thorns. Young offshoots are
dark brown, slightly tomentose-pilose. Leaves are 3-8 cm long and 1.5-3.5 cm wide, varying in
shape (ovate-lanceolate, oblong, or elliptical), typically with a cuneate base and a barely
expressed or short cusp on the top, smooth-edged at the bottom, serrate-dentate further along the
edge, usually with very large or somewhat obtuse denticles in the upper part. Young leaves are
sparsely pilose above with deeply impressed lateral veins, densely white-tomentose below.
Mature leaves are pubescent only along the veins, while below the veins are usually prominent.
Petioles are 2-4 times shorter than the blades, more or less tomentose-pilose. Flowers are about 4
cm in diameter, 4-6 in an umbel, set on densely tomentose-villous pedicels 8-12 mm long. Sepals
are short, narrow, triangular, sharp, prostrate and almost bare inside, densely tomentose outside;
remain with fruit. Hypanthia are inversely conical, very densely tomentose. Corollas are white or
pale pink. Fruits are 2-3 cm in diameter, round. Entomophilous. Ornito- and zoochore. Species is
characterized by rapid growth. Propagated by seed, root and softwood cuttings; often develops
stool shoots. Blossoms in April-May; fruit ripens in August-October. Chromosome number is
unknown
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Fig. 30. Malus orientalis
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs in the Crimea (occasionally), the Caucasus, Turkey and Iran.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti from
middle montane belt up to 2000 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Mesophyte. Photophilous. Undemanding to growth environments; tolerates dry and mildly saline
soils. It grows individually or in small groups in the second story of broadleaf and coniferousbroadleaf mountain forests, on forest edges, in glades, and along riverbanks.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
Used as food (fruit) and is melliferous. It is occasionally cultivated in the Caucasus.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat disturbances are major threats to the species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of M. orientalis in Meskheti and Javakheti.
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June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
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•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
M. orientalis should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected and only individuals in Borjomi-Kharaauli National Plants occur
in protected territory. The Erusheti National reserve will include many individuals of this species
when established. The territory between State boundaries of Georgia and Turkey are as well
protected from anthropogenic impacts and many individuals are survived there.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos. 237-238 pp. (In Russian)
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Poyarkova A.I. 1939. Apple-Malus Mill. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 9. Moscow-Leningrad:
Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 362 pp. (In Russian)
6. Sokolov S.I., Svjaseva O.A., Kubli V.A. 1980. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in the
USSR. Vol. 2. Leningrad: Nauka. 60 p. (In Russian)
7.6.5. Mespilus
Mespilus germanica L. - Medlar
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss., genus Mespilus L.
synonyms
Mespilus sylvestris Mill., M. communis Gueldenst., M. vulgaris Reichenb., Crataegus mespilus
O. Katze, Pyrus germanica Hook. f.
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Fig. 31. Mespilus germanica
Plant characteristics
Thorny deciduous shrub or tree, 1.5-5 m tall, with gray branches. Young shoots are redbrown, downy. Leaves are 5-12 cm long, elliptical or oblong-lanceolate, acute or obtuse at the
top, smooth-edged or dentate, with denticles carrying a red glandule on the tip, dark green,
covered with sparse hairs above, light-colored, whitish and downy below, with longer and denser
pubescence along the main veins. Young leaves are downy on both sides. Petioles are shaggily
pubescent. Flowers are solitary, large, 3-5 cm in diameter, white, almost sessile. Sepals are
lanceolate, awl-shaped, longer than the petals. Fruits are 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, ranging in shape
from depressed globular to pear-shaped, brownish and almost bare. Entomophilous. Zoochore.
Blossoms in April-May; bears fruit in October-November. 2n=32.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs in the Crimea (south), the Caucasus, Middle Asia (Kopetdagh:
the ravine of Gyuyen on Chandyr River, the vicinity of Koyna-Kosyr Village in the valley of
Sumbar River), Europe (Bulgaria and Greece), Turkey, Iran and Iraq.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti
from middle montane belt up to 2000 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Mesophyte. Photophilous. Grows as solitary plants or as part of shrubby thickets on open
mountainsides, along forest edgesm in the underbrush of oak and oak-hornbeam groves,
frequently in carbonate soils, as well as transported sandy soils along the beach ridges of the
Caspian Sea. Medlar grows mainly in the lower mountain zone (at elevations of 800-1,000 m
above sea level in the Caucasus and 300-600 m in the Crimea) but is able to grow up to 1,800 m
above sea level, while in Talysh, it nearly reaches the tree line. Seed - best sown as soon as it is
ripe in late autumn in a cold frame. The seed has a very hard and impermeable seedcoat and will
not usually germinate until it has gone through two winters. Commercially, such seeds are
soaked for a short while in sulphuric acid to break down the seed coat and allow the seed to take
up moisture, this is a very delicate procedure and difficult to do on a small scale. A home
gardener could try soaking the seed for 24 hours in warm water then cold stratifying it for 2 - 3
months at 1 - 5°c before sowing it.
i.i.i. Conservation status
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Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
Used as food and as an ornamental plant. Fruit are widely used by local populations to
prepare thickened jam, sweet paste, candy filling and drinks. Used as a seedling stock for loquat.
The pulp of the fruit is laxative. The leaves are astringent. The seed is lithontripic. It is ground up
for use, but caution should be employed since the seeds contain the toxin hydrocyanic acid. The
bark has been used as a substitute for quinine, but with uncertain results.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat disturbances are major threats to the species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of M. germanica in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
M. germanica should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected and only individuals in Borjomi-Kharaauli National Plants occur in
protected territory. The Erusheti National reserve will include many individuals of this species
when established. The territory between State boundaries of Georgia and Turkey are as well
protected from anthropogenic impacts and many individuals are survived there.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos, pp. 232-233. (in Russian).
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
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4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Kovalev N.V. 1941. Plum - Prunus L. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 10. Leningrad/Moscow:
Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, pp. 511-512 (in Russian).
6. Sokolov S.I., Svjaseva O.A., Kubli V.A. 1980. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in the
USSR. Vol. 2. Leningrad: Nauka, pp. 104. (in Russian).
7.6.6. Prunus
Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. - Myrobalan plum, cherry plum
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss., genus Prunus L.
synonyms
Prunus domestica var. mirabolanum L., P. divaricata Ledeb., P. sogdiana Vass., P.caspica
Koval. & Ekim.
According to some botanists this plant should be named P. divaricata and P. cerasifera i.e. P. divaricata cerasifera (Ledeb.)Schneid.
Plant characteristics
Tree (often multi-stemmed) or shrub, (1.5) 4-10 (15) m tall, with broadly spreading thin
prickly branches. Bark is dark-gray on perennial branches and reddish-brown on young ones.
Winter buds are naked or, less frequently, slightly pubescent. Leaves are alternate, (1) 4.5-6 (10)
cm long and (0.5) 2-4 (6) cm wide, oval, oval-ovate or oval-lanceolate, with a gradually
acuminate tip, narrowly or broadly cuneate base and finely, obtusely or less frequently sharply
serrate edges; naked from above and varying on the underside from almost naked to densely
pubescent along the veins. Flowers, 2-3 cm in diameter, would open a little earlier than leaves
and are settled one by one on shortened twigs or last year's shoots, being supported by rather
long, up to 2 cm, naked or sparsely pilous pubescent pedicels. Petals are white, ovate or ovalovate. Fruits are (0.8) 1.8-2.8 (3.5) cm in diameter, round, oval-shaped or ovoid, varying from
yellow, light-red and pink to dark cherry-red and (very seldom) violet, set on drooping thin fruitstalks. The fruit is not divided by a groove, but only by a line, which is different in color. Fruit
pulp is yellow, light, with sour flavor. Fruits contain high amount of citric acid, being however
almost completely tannin-free. Kernels are non-detachable from pulp; they are oval or ovateoval, light-brown, acuminate at the tip, smooth or scabrous, sometimes scrobiculate and striated
near the sutures. Entomophilous. Zoo- and ornitochore. Blossoms in March/April; bears fruit in
late July/September. 2n=16.
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Fig. 32. Prunus cerasifera with yellow fruits and one indivudial with bluish-black fruits.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Caucasus, Middle Asia (western Kopet Dagh, Tien Shan - Kara Tau,
Chatkal, Fergana and Kirghiz mountain chains, Tashkent Ala Tau, Pamir-Alai - Alai, Turkestan,
Zeravshan, Gissar, Vakhsh and Darvaz mountains, the ridge of Peter the Great), Turkey and Iran.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti
from middle montane belt up to 2000 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Mesophyte. Photophilous. Grows along mountain ravines and small river valleys, most
frequently among the undergrowth of nutwood, apple-tree and mixed forests, usually on soft clay
soils, less frequently on stony mountainsides. Spread from steppes to high altitudes, 800 to 2500
m above sea level. Requires a well-drained moisture retentive soil. Succeeds in light shade but
fruits better in a sunny position. Thrives in a loamy soil, doing well on limestone. Grows well in
heavy clay soils. Prefers some chalk in the soil but apt to become chlorotic if too much is
present. Plants are hardy to about -25ºc. Most members of this genus are shallow-rooted and will
produce suckers if the roots are damaged. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey
fungus. Seed - requires 2 - 3 months cold stratification and is best sown in a cold frame as soon
as it is ripe. Sow stored seed in a cold frame as early in the year as possible. Protect the seed
from mice etc. The seed can be rather slow, sometimes taking 18 months to germinate. Prick out
the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow them on in a
greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter and plant them out in late spring or early summer
of the following year. Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame. Softwood
cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame. Layering in spring.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
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Food (fruit), melliferous and ornamental. Used to make jams, confitures and stewed fruit drinks.
Promising for breeding, because it may be easily crossed with apricot, plum, cherry and almond.
Although no specific mention has been seen for this species, all members of the genus contain
amygdalin and prunasin, substances which break down in water to form hydrocyanic acid
(cyanide or prussic acid). In small amounts this exceedingly poisonous compound stimulates
respiration, improves digestion and gives a sense of well-being
.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat disturbances are major threats to the species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of P. cerasifera in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
P. cerasifera should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected and only individuals in Borjomi-Kharaauli National Plants occur in
protected territory. The Erusheti National reserve will include many individuals of this species
when established. The territory between State boundaries of Georgia and Turkey are as well
protected from anthropogenic impacts and many individuals are survived there.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev, D.D., Korovina, O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of
the USSR. Leningrad: Kolos, pp.228-229 (in Russian).
2. Luneva, N.N. 1983. Taxonomic position of Iranian myrobalan plum. Works on Applied
Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol.77, pp.106-107 (in Russian).
3. Luneva, N.N. 1983. Concerning the correct designation of cultivated and wild myrobalan
plum. Works on Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol. 79, pp.19-24 (in
Russian).
4. Luneva, N.N. 1984. Taxonomic position of Turkmenian myrobalan plum. Works on
Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol. 83, pp.102-104 (in Russian).
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5. Luneva, N.N. 1984. The place of oriental myrobalan plum in the system of the species
Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. Works on Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol. 88,
pp.106-108.
6. Luneva, N.N. 1985. About the taxonomic position of Prunus caspica (Rosaceae).
Botanical Journal, vol. 70, n.11, pp.19-24(in Russian).
7. Luneva, N.N. 1991. Wild-growing myrobalan plum of Western Georgia. Works on
Applied Botany, Genetics and Plant Breeding, vol.139, pp.72-78 (in Russian).
Prunus spinosa L. - Slow Blackthorn.
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss., genus Prunus L.
synonyms
Fig. 33. Prunus spinosa
Plant characteristics
Abundantly branching, very prickly shrub or, less frequently, small tree, up to 4-8 m tall.
Young shoots are covered with short, pilous pubescence. Leaves are alternate, (1) 2-4 (5) cm
long, elliptically obovate, cuneate at the base and obtuse at the top, sharply or crenately serrated
along the edges. Flowers open earlier than leaves; they occur singly or, very seldom, in pairs,
1.4-1.8 cm in diameter; pedicels are 5-6 mm long, jutting upright, bare or slightly pubescent.
Petals are white or with greenish tint. Fruits are about 1 cm in diameter, round, oval or roundish
coniform, black-blue, with dense, glaucous blossom. Fruit pulp is green, sour-sweet, expressly
astringent. Kernels are ovoid or oval-ovoid, knobby and wrinkled. Entomophilous. Zoo- and
ornitochore. Blossoms in March/May; bears fruit in July/August. 2n=32.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Occurs throughout Europe (southern Scandinavia, northwestern areas
of Central Europe, central and southern areas of Eastern Europe), the Caucasus, Kazakhstan
(spurs of the common Syrt, Mugodzhary), Middle Asia (Kopet Dagh, Sumbar river gorge), Asia
Minor, Iran, and Northern Africa (Tunisia).
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Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti
from middle montane belt up to 2000 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
Xerophyte. Very photophilous. Calcephyte. Blackthorn forms shrubby thickets in foreststeppe and steppe zones along gullies and the slopes of river valleys, as well as along the edges
of oak forests. Grows well in soils with underlying limestone. Requires a well-drained moisture
retentive soil. A good bee plant. Plants are shallow-rooted and of a suckering habit, they can
form dense impenetrable thickets which are ideal for nesting birds, especially nightingales.
Flowers are often damaged by late frosts. Plants regenerate quickly after cutting or after fast
moving forest fires, producing suckers from below ground level. This species is notably resistant
to honey fungus. Seed - requires 2 - 3 months cold stratification and is best sown in a cold frame
as soon as it is ripe. Sow stored seed in a cold frame as early in the year as possible. Protect the
seed from mice etc. The seed can be rather slow, sometimes taking 18 months to germinate.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow them on
in a greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter and plant them out in late spring or early
summer of the following year. Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame.
Softwood cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame. Layering
in spring. Division of suckers during the dormant season. They can be planted out direct into
their permanent positions.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
Food (fruit), melliferous and ornamental. Used to make jams and stewed fruit drinks.
Valued in horticulture as dwarfish tree stock. Promising for hybridization. The flowers, bark,
leaves and fruits are aperient, astringent, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative and
stomachic. An infusion of the flowers is used in the treatment of diarrhoea (especially for
children), bladder and kidney disorders, stomach weakness et. Although no specific mention has
been seen for this species, all members of the genus contain amygdalin and prunasin, substances
which break down in water to form hydrocyanic acid (cyanide or prussic acid). In small amounts
this exceedingly poisonous compound stimulates respiration, improves digestion and gives a
sense of well-being.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat disturbances are major threats to the species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of P. spinosa in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
P. spinosa should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected and only individuals in Borjomi-Kharaauli National Plants occur in
protected territory. The Erusheti National reserve will include many individuals of this species
when established. The territory between State boundaries of Georgia and Turkey are as well
protected from anthropogenic impacts and many individuals are survived there.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos, pp. 232-233. (in Russian).
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Kovalev N.V. 1941. Plum - Prunus L. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 10. Leningrad/Moscow:
Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, pp. 511-512 (in Russian).
6. Sokolov S.I., Svjaseva O.A., Kubli V.A. 1980. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in the
USSR. Vol. 2. Leningrad: Nauka, pp. 104. (in Russian).
7.6.7. Pyrus
Pyrus caucasica Fed. - Caucasian pear
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Rosaceae Juss., genus Pyrus L.
synonyms
Pyrus communis L. subsp. caucasica (Fed.) Browicz
Plant characteristics
This species is a tree, 20-25 (30) m tall, with a broadly pyramidal or oval crown, having
numerous prickles when young. The bark on the stem and older branches has deep longitudinal
cracks; sometimes the bark peels in large strips or flakes. Young offshoots are greenish or dark
brown with a few small, light lenticels. Leaves are 3-5 cm long and 2.5-4.5 cm wide, orbicularovate, ovate or oval, with a short sharp tip and a broadly cuneate, rounded or slightly cordate
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base. The leaves on young plants are sharply serrated on all edges and non-pubescent; those on
adult plants are smooth-edged and pubescent only near the edges. Flowers are 2.5-3.5 cm in
diameter, assembled in inflorescences of 5-8 flowers. Petals are white or pinkish. Fruits are 1.5-3
cm in diameter, for the most part round or sometimes pyriform, yellow or green-yellow, nonrusty, with residual sepals. Pulp is white or greenish-white, sour-sweet, astringent and bitter,
with a large number of seeds, darkening at maturity, edible after seasoning. This species is
entomophilous. It is zoochore. Blossoms in April-May; fruits ripen in late July-September.
Chromosome number: 2n=34
Fig. 34. Pyrus caucasica
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - This plant grows in the Caucasus. It is endemic to the Caucasus.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti
from middle montane belt up to 1600 m.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
This species is a mesophyte. It occurs everywhere in the woodlands of the Caucasus, in
mountainous and flat areas with sufficient moisture, often along river valleys. Caucasian pear
grows up to elevations of 1,500-1,600 (1,900) m above sea level. The plant prefers light (sandy),
medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay
soil.It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. Tolerates atmospheric pollution,
excessive moisture and a range of soil types. Dislikes very exposed positions. Established plants
are drought tolerant. A very hardy plant, tolerating temperatures down to below -15°c. Plants
often sucker and can form dense thickets. A parent of the cultivated pear. There are many
varieties of cultivated pears and they are widely cultivated in the temperate zone for their edible
fruits. By selection of varieties fresh fruits can be obtained from late July to April or May of the
following year. Seed - best sown in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe in the autumn, it will then
usually germinate in mid to late winter. Stored seed requires 8 - 10 weeks cold stratification at
1°c and should be sown as early in the year as possible. Temperatures over 15 - 20°c induce a
secondary dormancy in the seed. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large
enough to handle and grow them on in light shade in a cold frame or greenhouse for their first
year. Plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following year.
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i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Wood cutting and habitat disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in Meskheti and delivered to the
fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. .
In situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park.
iv. Current uses
This plant is used as a food (fruit) and is melliferous. It is a progenitor of many local pear
varieties.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Wood cutting and habitat disturbances are major threats to the species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of P. caucasica in Meskheti and Javakheti.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
P. caucasica should be declared as species of high economic value as wild relative of edible
plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Sites are not protected and only individuals in Borjomi-Kharaauli National Plants occur in
protected territory. The Erusheti National reserve will include many individuals of this species
when established. The territory between State boundaries of Georgia and Turkey are as well
protected from anthropogenic impacts and many individuals are survived there.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants in the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos, pp. 232-233. (in Russian).
2. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
3. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation of Georgia). Publish.
Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi.
Final Report, GSNE "Orchis"
June, 2009, Tbilisi, Georgia
134
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GEF/UNDP Project # GEO/01/G41/A/1G/72- 00037324
4. Khintibidze, L. 1990. Kserofil’nye floristicheskie kompleksi iuzhnoi gruzii. (Xerophytous
floristical complexses of South Georgia). Thesis Doc. Diss. Tbilisi.
5. Kovalev N.V. 1941. Plum - Prunus L. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 10. Leningrad/Moscow:
Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, pp. 511-512 (in Russian).
6. Sokolov S.I., Svjaseva O.A., Kubli V.A. 1980. Areas of distribution of trees and shrubs in the
USSR. Vol. 2. Leningrad: Nauka, pp. 104. (in Russian).
7.6.8. Vitis
Populations of wild grapevine – Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris (C.C. Gmel.) Hegi – show
high genetic and morphological diversity in the Caucasus (Kolenati, 1846; Woronow, 1925;
Ramishvili, 1988; Grassi et al., 2006). All five haplotypes detected by using cpDNA
microsatellite markers (Grassi et al., 2006) have been found in the Caucasian ecoregion
suggesting this area as the possible centre of origin of both wild and cultivated grapevines.
Nowadays, big attention is paid to elucidate the diversity of the wild grapevine genetic
pool used for domestication and to identify the place and period of the original domestication
and whether secondary independent domestications also occurred (Grassi et al., 2003; Sefc et
al., 2003; Arroyo-Garcia et al., 2006). Special emphasis is given to determine the main events
that enabled the morphological transformation from the wild V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris to
cultivated grapevine (Aradhya et al., 2003; Vouillamoz et al., 2006; Imazio et al., 2006; This
et al., 2006). The search for ancestors of cultivated varieties has not yet brought unequivolcal
evidence for place and period of domestication. Most authors accept the opinion that a first
domestication event occurred in the South Caucasus (de Candolle, 1885; Vavilov, 1931; Negrul,
1946; Olmo, 1976; Vouillamoz et al., 2006; This et al., 2006) characterized by oldest
archaeological findings of grape pips dated from c. 6000 BC (vicinity of v. Shulaveri, South-East
Georgia; Ramishvili, 1988). Other archaeological evidences of prehistoric winemaking are found
in the near proximity of the Caucasian region such as the northern Iran at the Hajji Firuz Tepe
site in the northern Zagros mountains, dated circa 5400–5000 BC (McGovern, 2003), and in
Levant and Jericho in the Near East where archaeological findings are dated from c. 4000-3200
BC (Zohary and Spiegel-Roy, 1975; Zohary and Hopf, 1993, 2000).
Kolenati (1846) was the first studying the wild and cultivated grapevines in the Caucasus
systematically and expressing the opinion that this area might be the centre of origin of
cultivated grape. He had classified both wild and cultivated grapevines based on the pubescence
type of the leaf and had determined two forms, which he called "Spielarten" - V. vinifera ssp.
anebophylla Kolen. (glabrescent) and V. vinifera ssp. trichophylla Kolen. (pubescent).
Vasilchenko (1947) described one more species of wild grapevine distributed in Talish,
Azerbaijan and Iran, characterized by tomentose pubescence on the abaxial surface of the leaf.
This species was named V. hyrcanica Vass. revealing distinct similarity to wild grape distributed
in the Colchis, Western Georgia. According to Ramishvili (1988), the wild grape of Colchis
represents a separate taxon discriminated by morphological features from the individuals
growing in the Eastern Georgia. The west Georgian wild grape was determined as Vitis vinifera
ssp. sylvestris var. colchica Ramishvili. The species of wild grape described by Vasilchenko
(1947) in the Caucasus, Iran and Central Asia were later refuted and unified with V. vinifera L.
(Czerepanov, 1995) and not with V. sylvestris C.C. Gmel., which causes some confusion in the
taxonomic status of wild grapevines distributed in this part of the world and makes it necessary
to conduct more in detail a taxonomic survey of this genus.
At present, wild grapevine occurs mainly in riparian forests on the territory of Georgia
and reaches the upper vegetation zones such as oak-hornbeam, beach and spruce forests up to
1000 m a.s.l. (Ramishvili, 1988). The populations are not more as abundant nowadays as it was
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described by Kolenati (1846) in the middle of XIX c. The invasion of Phylloxera and
urbanization are major problems diminishing the number of individuals of the wild grapevine in
populations. These threats predominantly reduce population sizes of Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris.
Individuals of grapevine in the wild are very abundant in Georgia but they belong either to
cultivars of Vitis vinifera ssp. sativa escaped in the course of abandonment of settlements during
the quite often wars in the historical past of Georgia, or to introduced American species – V.
riparia Michx., V. rupestris Scheele, V. berlandieri Planch., used as rootstocks, and/or to the
very popular in Georgia cultivar "Isabella" of V. labrusca L. The high diversity of grapevine
species led Medvedev (1919) to speculate that all individuals of grapevine growing in the wild in
the Caucasus represent escaped cultivars and wild grapevine was completely absent in this
region. This opinion was disposed by Woronow (1925) who confirmed that there are both wild
and naturalized grapevine individuals. Moreover, Woronow considers both V. vinifera ssp. sativa
and V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris as species aggregates characterized by high diversity and
composed by many races. Due to these circumstances, it becomes more complicated to
discriminate the wild vine types to which they belong: post cultivated, sub-spontaneous or
spontaneous, and within this last group, whether they are colonials, autochthonous, or hybrids.
Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris (C.C. Gmel.) Hegi - Wood grapes
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Vitacea Juss. Genus Vitis L.
Synonim
Vitis sylvestris C.C. Gmel
ii. Plant characteristics
A perennial plant. A bark is greish-brown, with thin grooves. Leaves are 5-8 cm in length, ovare,
wide - oval or reniform, almost entire or little incised, more often 3-5-lobed, naked or pubescent,
mainly - from below. Stalks are with rare setas or naked. Flowers are dioecious. Inflorescences panicle. Seeds are small, 3,5-6 mm in length and 3-5 mm in width; there are 1-4 seeds a fruit,
ovare forms, with short rostrum. Clusters during fructification are up to 15 cm in length, friable,
branchy, the various form. Fruit stalks are 4-7 mm in length. Berries are 6-8 (10) mm in length;
black with a greish-lilac bloom, rare it is white. We have found one individual with white
berries. A thin skin is dense, pulp gentle, almost colorless. Blossoms in May, fructifies in
September. Anemophylous. Zoochore.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - The common distribution: the Atlantic and Average Europe, the
Mediterranean, Balkany-Asia Minor and Armenian-Kurdish areas, Iran. In territory of the former
USSR: the European part - Moldova, southern Crimea, Black Sea Coast (the western part);
Caucasus - Ciscaucasia, Dagestan, Transcaucasia (Western, East and Southern); Central Asia mountain Turkmenistanю
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Only one population of wild grapevine have been
found in Meskhti near v. Atskuri. Other individuals grow in Mtkvari gorge in direction to
Borjomi, which is located below 900 m and at higher elevations this species is not growing.
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Fig. 35. Wild grapevine with red and white fruits in one population. The red point on the map
shows location of the population.
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
On valleys of the rivers, up to 1000 m above sea level. In some places it enters Oak-hornbeam
and mixed conifer-broadleaved forests.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Habitat degradation and wood cutting are main threats for this species.
Ex situ status - The living collection of wild grapevine was at the Institute of Viticulture and
Oenology, Georgia, however, it disappears during last reform period.
In situ status - The habitats, such as riparian and oak-hornbeam forests, where this species occurs
should be preserved as priority habitats.
iv. Current uses
It is used for breeding of grapes varieties, resistant against a phylloxera and fungoid diseases,
possessing the greater stability to these diseases. This species possesses also high cold constancy
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and drought resistance. On Caucasus the local population uses wood grapes for wine producing
and they use unripe tinned berries as seasoning to meat dishes.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
The habitat degradation, wood cutting and climate change effect are main threats for this species.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
•
Maintain the current populations of V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris in Meskheti.
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris and two other wild species of asparagus should be declared as species
of high economic value as edible plants.
ii. Site safeguard and management
The sites need protection but concrete locations will not be possible to conserve. It will be more
effective to declare the habitats as priority types and protect by legislation.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Aradhya, M.K., Dangl, G.S., Prins, B.H., Boursiquot, J.M., Walker, M.A., Meredith,
C.P.,Simon, C.J., 2003. Genetic structure and differentiation in cultivated grape, Vitis
vinifera L. Genet. Res. Camb. 81, 179–182.
2. Arroyo-Garcia, R., Ruiz-Garcia, L., Bolling, L., Ocete, R., Lopez, M.A., Arnold, C., Ergul,
A. et al. (35 authors), 2006. Multiple origins of cultivated grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. ssp.
sativa) based on chloroplast DNA polymorphisms. Mol. Ecol. 15, 3707-3714.
3. De Candolle, A., 1885. Origine des plantes cultivées. Germer Baillière, Paris.
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4. Cherepanov, S.K., 1995. Vascular Plants of Russia and Adjacent States (the Former USSR).
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
5. Grassi, F., Labra, M., Imazio, S., Spada, A., Sgorbati, S., Scienza, A., Sala, F., 2003.
Evidence of a secondary grapevine domestication centre detected by SSR analysis. Theor.
Appl. Genet. 107, 1315-1320.
6. Grassi, F., Labra, M., Imazio, S., Ocete Rubio, R., Failla, O., Scienza, A., Sala, F., 2006.
Phylogeographical structure and conservation genetics of wild grapevine. Cons. Genet. 7,
837-845.
7. Imazio, S., Labra, M., Grassi, F., Scienza, A., Failla O., 2006. Chloroplast microsatellites to
investigate the origin of grapevine. Gen. Res. Crop Evol. 53, 1003-1011.
8. Kolenati, F., 1846. Versuch einer systematischen Anordnung der in Grusien einheimischen
Reben nebst einem oekonomisch-technischem Anhange. Bull. de Nat. de Moscow, 11.
9. McGovern, P.E., 2003. Ancient Wine. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
10. Medvedev, I.S., 1919. Derev'ia i kustarniki Kavkaza. Opisanie dikorastushchikh I
odichavshikh drevesnikh rastenii Kavkaza, s ukazaniem ikh rasprostranenia, svoistv I
primenenia. (Trees and shrubs of the Caucasus. Description of wild and naturalized woody
plants of the Caucasus with guidance of their distribution, features and use). 3rd edit. Tiflis.
11. Negrul, A.M., 1946. Semeistvo Vitaceae Linde. (Family Vitaceae Linde). In: Ampelography
of the USSR. v. I, Pish. Promish., Moscow. pp. 45-63. (Russ.).
12. Olmo, H.P., 1976. Grapes. In: Simmonds, N.W. (ed.), Evolution of Crop Plants. Longman,
London, pp. 294-298.
13. Ramishvili, R., 1988. Dikorastushchii vinograd Zakavkazia (Wild grape of the South
Caucasus). Ganatleba, Tbilisi. (Russ.).
14. Sefc, K. M., Steinkellner, H., Lefort, F., Botta, R., da Câmara Machado, A., Borrego, J.,
Maletić, E. Josef Glössl., 2003. Evaluation of the genetic contribution of local wild vines to
European grapevine cultivars. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 54, 15-21.
15. This, P., Lacombe, T., Thomas, M. R., 2006. Historical origins and genetic diversity of wine
grapes. Trends in Genetics 22, 511-519.
16. Vasilchenko, I.T., 1947. Novye dannye o proiskhozhdenii vinograda (New data about origin
of grapevine). Sov. Bot. 6, 338-343. (Russ.).
17. Vavilov, N.I., 1931. Dikie rodichi plodovykh dereviev Aziatskoi chasti SSSR i Kavkaza I
problema proiskhozhdenia plodovykh dereviev (Wild progenitors of the fruit trees of
Turkestan and the Caucasus and the problem of the origin of fruit trees). Bul. Appl. Bot.,
Genet., Plant-Breed. 26, 85-134. (Russ.).
18. Vouillamoz, J.F., McGovern, P. E., Ergul, A., Söylemezoğlu, G., Tevzadze, G., Meredith, C.
P., Stella Grando, M., 2006. Genetic characterization and relationships of traditional grape
cultivars from Transcaucasia and Anatolia. Plant Genet. Res. 4, 144-158.
19. Woronow, I.N., 1925. Dikorastushchie rodychi plodovykh derev'ev i kustarnikov
Kavkazskogo kraia i Perednoi Azii (Wild relatives of fruit trees and shrubs of the Caucasus
and Asia Minor). Bull. Appl. Bot. Plant Breed. (Leningrad) 14, 3, 44-71.
20. Zohary, D., Hopf, M., 1993. Domestication of plants in the Old world. Clarendon Press,
Oxford, pp. 143-150.
21. Zohary, D., Hopf, M., 2000. Domestication of Plants in the Old World. The origin and spread
of cultivated plants in West Asia, Europe and the Nile Valley. 3rd edit. Oxford Univ. Press,
Oxford.
22. Zohary, D., Spiegel-Roy, P., 1975. Beginnings of fruit growing in the old world. Science
187, 319-327.
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7.7. Fodders
7.7.1. Medicago
Medicago sativa L. - Lucerne, Alfalfa
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Leguminosae Endl., genus Medicago L., subgenus Falcago (Reichb.) Grossh.
Synonyms.
Medicago varia Mart., Medicago media Pers.
ii. Plant characteristics
Perennial plant with a medium-length lifespan. Alfalfa is basically a tap-rooted plant that
may penetrate the soil to a depth of 4 m or more. The stems grow erect and reach a height of 4090 cm. The leaves are arranged alternately on the stem and are pinnately trifoliate; leaflets are 30
mm long, narrowly obovate or linear, toothed in upper third with a munconate tip; stipules
linear-lanceolate, usually serrated. Inflorescences are compact racemes, 10-25 mm long, borne in
axils of upper leaves; florets range in color from yellow to blue and purple, 8 mm long, typically
papilionacious. Seed pods spirally coiled, glabrous or pubescent; pods change from green to
brown as they mature and contain 3-5 kidney-shaped, yellow or brown seeds. A proportion of the
seeds is hard. Cross-pollinated by various species of bees. Blossoms in May-July; seeds ripen in
July-September. 2n = 16, 32.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
The overall distribution - Widely distributed throughout temperate zones of the world, e.g.
Europe, China, southern Latin America, South Africa, Afghanistan, Iran, the European part of
the former USSR, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Asia Minor.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs almost on all territory of Meskheti and
Javakheti.
Fig. 36. Medicago sativa
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
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Occurs in cultivated fields, hay meadows, subalpine meadows, along the edges of forests,
among bushes, on riversides and on hillsides. Well-adapted to a wide range of climatic and soil
conditions but grows best in deep, loamy soils that are well-drained. Relatively drought tolerant
but does not grow well in highly alkaline soils. The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy)
and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The
plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. Characterized by high ecological plasticity.
Responds to irrigation and soil fertility. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil
and can tolerate drought. Alfalfa can adapt to a wide range of climatic conditions from cold
temperate to warm sub-tropical. It succeeds on a wide variety of soils. Pre-soak the seed for 12
hours in warm water and then sow in spring in situ. The seed can also be sown in situ in autumn.
Seed can be obtained that has been inoculated with Rhizobium bacteria, enabling the plant to
succeed in soils where the bacteria is not already present
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - The populations are scattered on cultivated fields and their occurrence
depends on cultivation character, which crop is cultivated in this area and so the distribution of
this species is variable depending on years.
Ex situ status - Seeds from Samtskhe-Javakheti region are not conserved, but some local farmers
use commercial seeds to saw on their ground.
In situ status - not protected in the natural habitats.
iv. Current uses
A good bee plant. Used as fodder plant is grazed by livestock animals. Introduced into
cultivation (highest yielding forage legume). Used in breeding programs as a donor of valuable
traits (salt resistance, winter hardiness, seed productivity, etc.). Characterized by high nitrogen
content due to symbiosis with Sinorhizobium medicae. Very rich in vitamins, especially A, B and
C, they are also a good source of protein. The leaves are a rich source of vitamin K. The seed is
soaked in warm water for 12 hours, then kept moist in a container in a warm place to sprout. It is
ready in about 4 - 6 days. Seed yields average around 186 - 280 kilos per hectare. An appetitestimulating tea is made from the leaves. Alfalfa leaves, either fresh or dried, have traditionally
been used as a nutritive tonic to stimulate the appetite and promote weight gain. The plant has an
oestrogenic action and could prove useful in treating problems related to menstruation and the
menopause. Some caution is advised in the use of this plant, however. It should not be prescribed
to people with auto-immune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Grazing and changing in cultures sowing in the field where the population occurs.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of M. sativa in Samtskhe-Javakheti region and introduce
the seed sowing practice to the local farmers.
•
Collect and sawn the seeds in the fields.
i. Policy and legislation
M. sativa should be declared as species of high economic value as genetic ancestor for cultivated
alfalfa.
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ii. Site safeguard and management
Cultivated fields should be managed for improvement of cultivation practice of this species.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks. The
seeds will be used for breeding programs both in Georgia and abroad.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
9. Brezhnev D.D., Korovina O.N. 1980. Wild relatives of the cultivated plants of flora of
the USSR. L.: Kolos, 376 pp. (in Russian).
10. Goncharov P.L., Lubenetc P.A. 1985. Biological Aspects of Alfalfa Cultivating.
Novosibirsk: Nauka, 253 pp. (in Russian).
11. Grossheim A.A. 1952. Genus Medicago. Flora of the Caucasus. Vol. 5. M.-L.: Academy
of Science of the USSR, p. 177-192. (in Russian).
12. Grossheim A.A. 1945. Genus Medicago. Flora of the USSR. Vol. 11. M.-L.: USSR, p.
129-176. (in Russian).
13. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
14. Sinskaya E.N. 1950. Alfalfa. Flora of cultivated plants of the USSR. Vol. 13. M.-L.:
Issue 1, p. 1-344. (in Russian).
15. Vasilchenko I.T. 1949. Alfalfa as the best fodder crop. L.: Academy of Science of the
USSR. Ser. 1, Issue 8, 248 pp.
16. Vvedenskiy A.I., ed. 1981. Plants of Asia Minor. A field guide. Vol. 6. Tashkent: Fan,
394 pp. (in Russian).
7.7.2. Onobrychis
Onobrychis transcaucasica Grossh. - Transcaucasian Sainfoin
a. Characteristics
i. Taxonomy
Family Fabaceae Lindl., genus Onobrychis Mill.
ii. Plant characteristics
Perennial herbaceous plant. Stems 40-80 cm tall, squarrosely shortly pilose. Leaflets
oblong-linear. Racemes crested before flowering. Corolla bright pink with yellow stripes. Pod
semicircular, short, densely pubescent with 3-4 narrow teeth along crest. Flowers in June - July,
fruits in July -August. Self-incompatible, cross-pollinated plant. 2n=28.
b. Current Status
i. Current distribution
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The overall distribution - Crimea, Caucasus.
Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs almost on all territory of Meskheti and
Javakheti, but the populations contain just little number of individuals, sometimes 1-2.
Fig. 37. Onobrychis transcaucasica
i.i. Ecogeographic summary
It grows on dry grassed slopes and debris sites, sometimes in shrublands. In the middle
montane zone at 1500-1800 m a.s.l. prefers a well-drained neutral to alkaline sandy loam soil
and full sun. Succeeds in poor soils and in shallow soils over chalk. Dislikes shade. Does not
succeed in wet soils. A good border plant for the vegetable garden, the deep tap root helps to
break up the sub-soil. Seed - pre-soak for 12 hours in warm water and sow in situ in the spring.
Seed can also be sown in situ in the autumn. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon
as they are large enough to handle and plant them out into their permanent positions in early
summer.
i.i.i. Conservation status
Threat assessment - Grazing and habitat disturbances.
Ex situ status - Seeds from this region are not yet collected.
In situ status - not protected in the natural habitats.
iv. Current uses
This species is one of the earliest forage crops, cultivated in the Caucasus, less often in the
European part of the former USSR, in Siberia and Central Asia. It has been cultivated more than
1,000 years. Very valuable species, high-yielding and drought-resistant. A good bee plant.
c. Current factors causing loss and decline
Grazing and cultivation of agricultural land.
d. Current action
No actions are undertaken
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e. Proposed action plan objectives and targets
•
Maintain the current populations of O. transcaucasica in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
•
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
i. Policy and legislation
O. transcaucasica should be declared as species of high economic value as cultivated fodder
plant.
ii. Site safeguard and management
Natural sites of population on dry slopes and in shibliak need to be protected.
iii. Species management and protection
Ex situ conservation of this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
iv. Advisory
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature protection should be
informed about high conservation value of this species.
v. Future research and monitoring
Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should be undertaken.
References
1. Brezhnev DD., Korovina ON. 1981. Wild relatives of cultivated plants of the flora of the
USSR. Leningrad: Kolos. 376 p. (In Russian).
2. Galushko AI. 1980. Flora of the North Caucasus: Handbook. V.2. 352 p. (In Russian).
Grossheim AA. 1952. Flora of Caucasus. 2nd ed. V.5. P.358-376. (In Russian).
3. Grossheim AA. 1948. Sainfoin - Onobrychis Adans. In: Shishkin BK., Bobrov EG., eds.
Flora URSS. V.13. P.319-367. (In Russian).
4. Ketskhoveli, N. (ed). 1969. Key of Georgian Vegetation. Tbilisi, Metsniereba.
5. Vassilyeva LI. 1987. Sainfoin - Onobrychis Mill. In: Fedorov AA., Tzvelev NN., eds.
Flora of the European part of the USSR. V.6. P.93-98. (In Russian).
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8. Conservation and threat status
8.1. Diversity of CWR of Samtskhe-Javakheti region
The results of the field work carried out in Samtskhe-Javakheti region in 2008-2009
revealed CWR species having high conservation value. First step, when prioritization of CWRs
have been done showd 24 genera and 30 species having outstanding importance for conservation
as CWRs with high scores according to methodology used in this investigation (Maxted, 2008).
The results have show that 18 of 30 priority CWR species represent the same species or direct
ancestor of crop plants (GP-1b/TG-1b).
Taxonomically the same species as crops are 11 species: Coriandrum sativum, Cornus
mas, Corylus avellana, Medicago sativa, Mespilus germanica, Onobrychis transcaucasica,
Prunus avium, Prunus cerasifera, Prunus spinosa, Rubus idaeus, Satureja spicigera;
7 species are considered as synonyms or subspecies of crops by some authors: Asparagus
caspius, Hordeum spontaneum, Linum humile, Malus orientalis, Pyrus caucasica,
Satureja
laxiflora, Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris;
Species belonging to the same section as crops (GP2/TG2) are: Avena barbata, Lathyrus
tuberosus, Ribes biebersteinii, Vicia johannis;
Species or coenospecies (less closely related species) from which gene transfer to the
crop is possible and natural hybrids might be occurred (GP2) are: Aegilops cylindrica, A.
tauschii, A. triuncialis, Avena barbata, Brassica elongata, Hordeum bulbosum, Lathyrus
tuberosus, Lepidium perfoliatum, Secale anatolicum, Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris;
Genetic diversity could be assessed for some species. Prunus cerasifera in Georgia is
characterized by two colours of fruits - yellow and red. Here in Samtskhe-Javakheti all
individuals had yellow fruits and only one accession was with bluish-black fruits. We suppose
that it might be hybrid, or ancesror of Prunus insititia. The plants with red fruits are not detected
during field trips.
Wild grapevine was represented by only one population containing 4 individuals (1 male
and 3 female). One female had fruits with white berries, which is indicator of a mutation
occurred in wild grape. The berry skin colour is determined by the variation present in the gene
VvmybA1, a transcriptional regulator of anthocyanin biosynthesis (This et al., 2006). Whitefruited phenotype is considered as a result of the insertion of a gypsy-type retroelement Gret1 in
the promoter region of a regulatory gene of the Myb family - VvmybA1, which causes the loss of
black colour in the berry skin in homozygous individuals (Kobayashi et al., 2002). Red or pink
fruited accessions are also strongly associated with polymorphisms in the VvmybA1 gene.
Differences in nucleotide diversity were observed between the white and pigmented alleles of
VvmybA1, suggesting that the white allele arose only once or a limited number of times (This et
al., 2007). It is considered that variation in one transcriptional regulator has generated an allelic
series strongly associated with fruit colour variation in cultivated grapevine. The wild ancestor,
however, should be considered as black colour grapevine, which is most common in Georgian
wild populations. Although, the mutation leading to the white fruited grapevine is found besides
our study in some other Georgian wild populations (Ramishvili, 1988, Ekhvaia, Akhalkatsi,
2010).
8.2. Ecogeographical diversity assessment
The ecogeographical data base used to assess the geographical and ecological diversity
has revealed that priority CWR species might be grouped as follows:
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1. Rare and endangered species represented by 1-5 populations in the region: Aegilops tauschii
(5), A. triuncialis (4), Allium cardiostemon (1), Avena barbata (1), Hordeum spontaneum
(2), Lepidium perfoliatum (4), Linum humile (1), Secale anatolicum (3), Vitis vinifera ssp.
sylvestris (1).
2. CWR species with more wide range of distribution in natural habitats (number of populations
>5): Aegilops cylindrica, Asparagus caspius, Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Hordeum
bulbosum, Lathyrus tuberosus, Lepidium perfoliatum, Malus orientalis, Mespilus
germanica, Prunus avium, Prunus cerasifera, Prunus spinosa, Pyrus caucasica, Ribes
biebersteinii, Rubus idaeus, Satureja laxiflora, S. spicigera, Vicia johannis;
3. CWR species with wide range of distribution in rural and urban areas mainly on cultivated
beds and road sides: Brassica elongata, Coriandrum sativum, Medicago sativa, Onobrychis
transcaucasica, Vicia johannis;
8.3 Threat assessment
Main threat in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region threatening the survival of CWR species is
deforestation took place during last decade in the region. The fact detected with the population of
wild grapevine has revealed the threat to the riparian forests in the region. This type of forest is
situated along rivers in very close proximity of settlements and local population uses the
resources of this forest in a highest degree. One tree was cut representing the support of climbing
grapevine and the individual of wild grape was lying on the earth, which will cause its drying up
and death. More great scale cuttings in dark coniferous forests lead to arising of forest openings
with high irradiation leading to drying up the underground cover of mosses and lichens, which
drastically changes habitat and determines disappearing of natural species adapted to this habitat.
Overgrazing was a problem in Soviet period, when several million head of sheep were
grazing summer pastures of mountainous regions of Georgia. However, now the number of cattle
is reduced and does not threaten much the populations in their natural habitats. In spite of this
fact, grazing affect survival of rare species such as Hordeum spontaneum, which was found on
road side and during the next visit it was grazed completely.
Such disturbances as habitat degradation due to road and pipeline construction works
threatens the populations but has temporary effect. These types of disturbances are especially
threatening the rare and endangered species of high conservation value.
The species, which are growing in rural habitats and on cultivated fields among field
crops have different assessment to threats. These species are depending in their existence to the
monitoring of cultivated fields, which crop will be sawn, how will be transformed filed crop to
pasture or hay meadow, or what kind of herbicides and mineral fertilizers will be used in the
field. The maintenance of wild populations growing as weeds in cultivated fields depends on
sustainable management of agriculture in the region. The governmental institutions should
control the processes which might bring to the genetic erosion of CWRs having high value of
conservation. In this case the legislation bases should be effective to control local farmers not
affect CWRs with ecologically unsuitable for this species actions in the field e.g. use of
fertilizers or introduction of new crops leading to changing in technology of field cultivation
methodology and leading to disturbances of wild weed species of high conservation value.
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8.4. Conserved Diversity
8.4.1. In Situ Review
In situ methods of conservation of crop wild progenitors and relatives are, understandably,
viewed skeptically by plant breeders. As long as genetic conservation and crop improvement are
directly linked, any form of conservation will be judged by its short-term benefits to breeders,
and in situ methods will attract considerable criticism (Brush 1991, 1995). On-site conservation
is more plausible if these two goals are decoupled, making biodiversity conservation an end in its
own right. Conservation should be practiced for its own sake; it keeps the landscape green,
enhances the quality of life and ensures the continuation of the ecosystem, and thereby the
wellbeing of humankind.
The best way to preserve genetic diversity of genetically valuable plants is creation of
nature reserves. Such example of successful In situ conservation of wild wheat relatives is that at
the Erebuni Nature Reserve, northeast of Yerevan in Armenia, which has met with some success.
Vavilov (1951) first recommended protection of this site because of its unique richness of the
wider Triticum genepool. Triticum urartu was discovered there in 1944 by Tumanyan and later
this species was fully described by Gandilyan (1972). Other wild wheat species, such as T.
boeoticum and T. araraticum, grow in the protected area together with Aegilops spp.,
Amblyopyrum muticum, a species considered to be taxonomically intermediate between Aegilops
and Agropyron, was also found near this nature reserve. Hence, this site in Armenia is the only
site outside Turkey where the uncommon species of the Anatolian highlands are found. The
actual size of the reserve is about 100 ha but protection of a much wider area, about 400 ha, is
needed in order to include rare populations of other species growing on the periphery of the
protected area as well as to provide a buffer zone for the protection of the core area.
The need to encourage in situ conservation of landraces in the communities in which they
occur has been advocated by several authors (Peña-Chocarro 1996). Qualset et al. (1997) caution
that it is a challenge to undertake in situ conservation of indigenously developed germplasm
without a return to or preservation of obsolete agricultural practices which may be unacceptable
or impracticable under sociopolitical systems in areas where diversity abounds. Besides,
conservation of germplasm of an economically important crop in situ would most probably also
result in the conservation of associated species occurring naturally in the same ecosystem. In situ
conservation also permits natural evolution to continue, an extremely important option for the
preservation of genes for abiotic and biotic stress resistance as species coevolve with their
pathogens and changing environment.
Genetic reserve/protected area. The only protected territory in Meskheti is expansion of the
Borjomi-Kharagauli national Park towards Samtskhe-Javakheti region, namely Akhaltsikhe and
Adigeni districts includes slopes of Adjara-Imereti ranges, namely, Abastumani and Zekari Pass.
Area is 10,846 ha. IUCN Category is equivalent to IUCN Category II. Not any rare and
endangered species included in the list of priority species of CWR occur in this area. The only
plants growing in the forested are at mountain regions of the national park are fruit and berry
trees and shrubs: Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Malus orientalis, Prunus avium, Prunus
cerasifera, Pyrus caucasica, Ribes biebersteinii and Rubus idaeus.
The Tetrobi managed reserve located at Tetrobi-Chobareti range represents refugee for
many endemic and relict species and is composed of limestone. Its area is 3,100 ha. It was
established in 1995. The single population of target species Allium cardiostemon is located in
forest opening of pine forest in this protected area. From other species of the list of priority
CWRs here is found: Corylus avellana, Lathyrus tuberosus, Malus orientalis, Pyrus caucasica,
Ribes biebersteinii, Rubus idaeus.
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The other protected areas in the region are now just proposed. No boundaries are yet
established for planed nature reserves such as Erusheti mountain systems and several wetlands in
Javakheti (Ktsia-Tabatskuri managed reserve, Paravani Lake proposed managed reserve,
Khanchali Lake proposed managed reserve, Madatapa Lake proposed managed reserve,
Kartsakhi (Khozapini) Lake managed reserve, Saghamo Lake proposed area of restricted use).
Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the target species will be included in these
managed reserves or not. For example, Secale anatolicum located in Niala is on Erusheti
mountain system, but it is not known if this location will be included in the protected territory.
One more form of protected territories in this region is State Boundary Zone, protected by
militaries since Soviet period. In Uraveli gorge this area extends to several tenth of Km and
contains virgin vegetation of forests and alpine zone containing high amount of rare species.
Linum humile was found in this protected area in Potskhovi gorge. This territory is protected by
current woodcutting and heavy grazing, although shepherds are using these territories for
livestock.
On-farm conservation: Many CWR are grown in cultivated grounds of local farmers.
However, no actions of conservation are undertaken to protect the species. The events which are
protecting them are traditional cultivation technology to which the local weeds are adapted by
their life strategy and propagation character. The treats here will be change of traditional crops to
the new plants, which will need different cultivation events. This might lead to disappearence of
the CWRs from the cultivated beds.
8.4.2. Ex Situ Review
So as, the germplasm of CWRs is very valuable material for improvement of crop quality
and their resistance against fungal and microbial disease, it will be of interest to collect their seed
material and distribute to genbanks, which will contribute to provide necessary germplasm to
research centers dealing with the genetic engineering.
Several research centres maintain ex-situ germplasm collections of Georgia, such as gene
banks and living collections. The largest collections of PGRFA have been concentrated at GIF
(Genebank), IHVO and ITSCTI (live collections). TBGIB and BBG are the largest centers of
wild plant ex situ conservation. In total, about 7,000 accessions are stored in different research
centres not including live collections of several arboretums. The accessions from SamtskheJavakheti region represent part of these collections. Detailed information on the occurrence of
the germplasm from this region in the collections in Georgia and abroad are accessible due to
field collection trips carried out in his region.
In 2002 TBG&IB and IPK have colelcted germplasm of wild Allium species in Meskheti.
The bulbs have been planted in living collections of TBG&IB and IPK. More then 50 accessions
have been collected only in Meskheti. A total 232 accessions are collected in the whole Georgia.
In 2004 the collection of legume CWR germplasm (seeds) was conducted by TBG&IB
and USDA group of scientists, more than 30 accessions have been collected in Meskheti and
total 108 samples in East Georgia, among them are species of genera - Lathyrus, Medicago,
Onobrychis, Trifolium, Vicia, etc. M. Akhalkatsi has collected Trifolium species in 2004 and the
seeds are kept in USDA gene bank.
8.5. Genetic Erosion / Factors of Degradation in Georgia
Regeneration activities promote genetic erosion and there is a need to maintain and monitor
integrity of the PGR collections. Unfortunately, there have not been any special efforts to assess
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integrity of the collections or introduce special measure to exclude genetic erosion of the
accessions. Especcially little amount is collected in Samtskhe-Javakheti region as such big
organizations as ICARDA and FAO do not carried out special colelction trip in this region.
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9. Conclusions and Recommendations
1. Diversity of CWR species studied in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region has revealed many
species of high conservation value. It was shown that 18 of 30 priority CWR species represent
the same species or direct ancestor of crop plants (GP-1b/TG-1b). 11 species of 18 are the same
species as crops: Coriandrum sativum, Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Medicago sativa,
Mespilus germanica, Onobrychis transcaucasica, Prunus avium, Prunus cerasifera, Prunus
spinosa, Rubus idaeus, Satureja spicigera; 7 species are considered as synonyms or subspecies
of crops by some authors: Asparagus caspius, Hordeum spontaneum, Linum humile, Malus
orientalis, Pyrus caucasica, Satureja laxiflora, Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris; 5 species belonging
to the same section as crops (GP2/TG2): Avena barbata, Lathyrus tuberosus, Ribes biebersteinii,
Vicia johannis; 10 from target species are coenospecies (less closely related species) from which
gene transfer to the crop is possible and natural hybrids might be occurred (GP2): Aegilops
cylindrica, A. tauschii, A. triuncialis, Avena barbata, Brassica elongata, Hordeum bulbosum,
Lathyrus tuberosus, Lepidium perfoliatum, Secale anatolicum, Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris;
2. Cultivation and propagation methodology is determined for every target species, which will
help to local farmers to cultivate CWRs in own grounds. This is especially important for fodder
species, such as Medicago sativa and Onobrychis transcaucasica.
3. To ensure in situ conservation of CWRs, establishment of nature reserves where CWRs of
conservation value is distributed will be important in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. We support
idea to establish managed reserve in Erusheti Mountain systems where Secale anatolicum has
two populations.
4. In situ conservation of CWR species concentrated in rural areas, close to settlements and in
agricultural fields, where soil is cultivated it is necessary to set up fenced territories with
indication of conservation status of protected species. Local government and non-governmental
organizations should be involved on this process.
5. It is necessary to create data base on ex situ collections of CWRs in Georgia and abroad using
standard computer software, so that the data will be incorporated in the international data bases
and get accessible to wide range of specialists.
6. Education of local population should be undertaken to know which plants have special
conservation value as relatives and even direct ancestors and progenitors of known and popular
crops. This is possible due to publishing illustrated publications and dissemination of knowledge
among local population.
7. Legislation should be developed to determine priority status of important wild CWR species
found in Samtskhe-Javakhwti. The plants should be protected and declared as plants having big
importance as close relatives to popular field crops and their germplasm might be used in
improvement of the quality of crop varieties.
8. Monitoring is important to conduct as further investigation of CWRs in this region and create
detailed data base including information on distribution, population status, ethnobotany and their
use in folk traditional being.
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Appendix 1. CWR inventory for Georgia (extracted from PGR Forum CWR
Catalogue of Europe and the Mediterranean (Kell et al., 2005, bz N. Maxted, 2008).
Abies nordmanniana
Abutilon theophrasti
Acalypha australis
Acalypha indica
Acer velutinum
Acer trautvetteri
Acer pseudoplatanus
Acer sosnowskyi
Acer hyrcanum
Acer tataricum
Acer ibericum
Acer divergens
Acer campestre
Acer platanoides
Acer platanoides subsp. platanoides
Acer laetum
Adiantum capillus-veneris
Aegilops neglecta
Aegilops umbellulata
Aegilops triuncialis subsp. triuncialis
Aegilops triuncialis
Aegilops tauschii
Aegilops cylindrica
Aegilops geniculata
Aegopodium podagraria
Aethusa cynapium
Agrimonia pilosa
Agrimonia eupatoria
Agrostemma githago
Ailanthus altissima
Aizoon hispanicum
Ajuga chamaepitys subsp. chia
Ajuga reptans
Ajuga genevensis
Ajuga comata
Ajuga orientalis
Alcea transcaucasica
Alcea sosnovskyi
Alcea abchazica
Alcea rugosa
Alchemilla epipsila
Alchemilla aurata
Alchemilla oxysepala
Alchemilla indurata
Alchemilla microdonta
Alchemilla insignis
Alchemilla chlorosericea
Alchemilla dura
Alchemilla microdictya
Alchemilla carthalinica
Alchemilla holotricha
Alchemilla depexa
Alchemilla hirtipedicellata
Alchemilla alexandri
Alchemilla hypotricha
Alchemilla diversipes
Alchemilla hypochlora
Alchemilla laeta
Alchemilla obtegens
Alchemilla erythropoda
Alchemilla capillacea
Alchemilla adelodictya
Alchemilla languida
Alchemilla erectilis
Alchemilla sericea
Alchemilla tredecimloba
Alchemilla kozlowskii
Alchemilla urceolata
Alchemilla tamarae
Alchemilla sericata
Alchemilla suberectipila
Alchemilla undecimloba
Alchemilla georgica
Alchemilla retinervis
Alchemilla venosa
Alchemilla pseudocartalinica
Alchemilla pseudomollis
Alchemilla speciosa
Alchemilla pycnotricha
Alchemilla subsplendens
Alchemilla tephroserica
Alchemilla caucasica
Alchemilla sedelmeyeriana
Alchemilla oligotricha
Alchemilla elisabethae
Alchemilla monticola
Alchemilla barbatiflora
Alchemilla debilis
Alchemilla subcrenatiformis
Alchemilla impolita
Alchemilla grandidens
Alchemilla divaricans
Alchemilla grossheimii
Alchemilla woronowii
Alchemilla glabricaulis
Alchemilla bakurianica
Alchemilla abchasica
Alchemilla valdehirsuta
Alchemilla stellulata
Alchemilla minusculiflora
Alkanna orientalis
Alkanna orientalis orientalis
Alnus barbata
Alnus incana
Althaea hirsuta
Althaea officinalis
Althaea armeniaca
Althaea cannabina
Amaracus rotundifolius
Amaranthus hybridus
Amaranthus spinosus
Amaranthus deflexus
Amaranthus blitoides
Amaranthus caudatus
Amaranthus retroflexus
Amaranthus lividus
Amelanchier ovalis
Ammi visnaga
Amorpha fruticosa
Amygdalus georgica
Anagallis arvensis
Anagallis foemina
Anchusa leptophylla
Anchusa leptophylla subsp. leptophylla
Anchusa arvensis subsp. orientalis
Anchusa azurea
Anchusa arvensis
Anchusa pusilla
Anethum graveolens
Angelica tatianae
Angelica sylvestris
Angelica adzharica
Angelica purpurascens
Anthriscus caucalis
Anthriscus sylvestris subsp. nemorosa
Anthriscus kotschyi
Anthriscus cerefolium
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Anthriscus sylvestris
Anthriscus ruprechtii
Anthriscus schmalhausenii
Anthyllis lachnophora
Anthyllis macrocephala
Anthyllis grossheimii
Anthyllis variegata
Anthyllis irenae
Antirrhinum majus
Aphanes arvensis
Apium leptophyllum
Apium graveolens
Araujia sericifera
Arbutus andrachne
Arctostaphylos caucasica
Arenaria steveniana
Arenaria serpyllifolia
Arenaria holostea
Arenaria leptoclados
Arenaria dianthoides
Arenaria rotundifolia
Arenaria lychnidea
Aristolochia steupii
Aristolochia iberica
Aristolochia clematitis
Aristolochia fimbriata
Aristolochia pontica
Arnebia decumbens
Asarum europaeum subsp. caucasicum
Asperula abchasica
Asperula prostrata
Asperula molluginoides
Asperula taurina
Asperula kemulariae
Asperula glomerata
Asperula pontica
Asperula orientalis
Asperula arvensis
Asperula ovalifolia
Asperula cristata
Asplenium lepidum subsp. haussknechtii
Asplenium scolopendrium subsp.
scolopendrium
Asplenium septentrionale
Asplenium trichomanes
Asplenium woronowii
Asplenium viride
Asplenium ceterach
Asplenium adiantum-nigrum
Asplenium pseudolanceolatum
Asplenium ruta-muraria
Astragalus brachycarpus
Astragalus hamosus
Astragalus campylosema
Astragalus incertus
Astragalus goktschaicus
Astragalus pseudoutriger
Astragalus asterias
Astragalus caucasicus
Astragalus humilis
Astragalus doluchanovii
Astragalus polygala
Astragalus aspindzicus
Astragalus schischkinii
Astragalus glycyphylloides
Astragalus oreades
Astragalus bungeanus
Astragalus hirtulus
Astragalus onobrychis
Astragalus atenicus
Astragalus aureus
Astragalus bachmarensis
Astragalus ketzkhovelii
Astragalus raddeanus
Astragalus meskheticus
Astragalus torrentum
Astragalus freynii
Astragalus sommieri
Astragalus tanae
Astragalus arguricus
Astragalus microcephalus
Astragalus kazbekii
Astragalus kozlovsky
Astragalus cyri
Astragalus vavilovii
Astragalus macrostachys
Astragalus takhtadzjanii
Astragalus striatellus
Astragalus kadschorensis
Astragalus adzharicus
Astragalus kemulariae
Astragalus argillosus
Astragalus supinus
Astragalus sphaerocephalus
Astragalus massalskyi
Astragalus cicer
Astragalus fabaceus
Astragalus lagurus
Astragalus glycyphyllos
Astragalus hyalolepis
Astragalus iljinii
Astragalus chordorrhizus
Astragalus stevenianus
Astragalus denudatus
Astragalus falcatus
Astragalus galegiformis
Astragalus brachytropis
Astragalus oxyglottis
Astragalus alpinus
Astragalus mollis
Astragalus captiosus
Astragalus magnificus
Astragalus maximus
Astragalus leonidae
Astragalus levieri
Astragalus subuliformis
Astragalus fragrans
Astragalus vardziae
Astragalus frickii
Astragalus cornutus
Astragalus trichocalyx
Astragalus xiphidium
Astragalus troitzkyi
Astrantia pontica
Astrantia trifida
Astrantia colchica
Astrantia maxima
Athyrium distentifolium
Athyrium filix-femina
Atraphaxis caucasica
Atraphaxis spinosa
Atriplex cana
Atriplex rosea
Atriplex micrantha
Atriplex tatarica
Atriplex patula
Atriplex aucheri
Atriplex nitens
Atriplex hastata
Atriplex hortensis
Atropa caucasica
Avena clauda
Ballota nigra subsp. foetida
Ballota nigra
Bassia prostrata
Bassia hyssopifolia
Bassia scoparia
Bassia sedoides
Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima
Beta corolliflora
Betula litwinowii
Betula mergelica
Betula pendula
Betula raddeana
Betula medwedewii
Bifora radians
Biota orientalis
Borago officinalis
Brunnera macrophylla
Bupleurum rotundifolium
Bupleurum wittmannii
Bupleurum tenuissimum subsp. gracile
Bupleurum affine
Bupleurum boissieri
Bupleurum gerardi
Bupleurum nordmannianum
Bupleurum polyphyllum
Bupleurum abchasicum
Bupleurum baldense subsp. gussonei
Bupleurum rischawii
Bupleurum falcatum subsp. cernuum
Bupleurum sosnowskyi
Bupleurum asperuloides
Buxus colchica
Cachrys ferulacea
Calamintha nepeta sylvatica
Calamintha debilis
Calamintha nepeta
Calamintha grandiflora
Calystegia sepium
Calystegia silvatica
Calystegia soldanella
Cannabis sativa
Cannabis sativa subsp. spontanea
Caragana grandiflora
Cardamine pectinata
Cardamine quinquefolia
Cardamine wiedemanniana
Cardamine uliginosa
Cardamine tenera
Cardamine seidlitziana
Cardamine seidlitziana
Cardamine uliginosa
Cardamine uliginosa
Cardamine impatiens
Cardamine uliginosa
Cardamine tenera
Cardamine seidlitziana
Cardamine wiedemanniana
Cardaria draba
Cardaria boissieri
Cardaria propinqua
Carpinus caucasica
Carpinus orientalis
Carum carvi
Carum caucasicum
Carum grossheimii
Carum meifolium
Carum porphyrocoleon
Castanea sativa
Caucalis platycarpos
Celtis caucasica
Celtis australis
Celtis glabrata
Centaurium pulchellum
Centaurium tenuiflorum
Centaurium spicatum
Centaurium erythraea
Centella asiatica
Cerasus incana
Cerasus microcarpa
Cerasus silvestris
Chaerophyllum confusum
Chaerophyllum rubellum
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Chaerophyllum aromaticum
Chaerophyllum roseum
Chaerophyllum humile
Chaerophyllum bulbosum
Chaerophyllum astrantiae
Chaerophyllum angelicifolium
Chaerophyllum temulum
Chaerophyllum borodinii
Chaerophyllum aureum
Chamaecytisus hirsutus
Chamaesyce hypericifolia
Chamaesyce maculata
Chamaesyce canescens
Chamaesyce forskalii
Chamaesyce nutans
Chamaesyce humifusa
Chamaesyce peplis
Chenopodium rubrum
Chenopodium vulvaria
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Chenopodium album
Chenopodium sosnowskyi
Chenopodium hybridum
Chenopodium botrys
Chenopodium urbicum
Chenopodium murale
Chenopodium glaucum
Chenopodium polyspermum
Chenopodium foliosum
Chrozophora obliqua
Chrysosplenium dubium
Chrysosplenium albovianum
Chrysosplenium alternifolium
Cicer arietinum
Cicer caucasicum
Cicuta virosa
Cistus salvifolius
Cistus incanus subsp. creticus
Clerodendrum bungei
Clinopodium umbrosum
Clinopodium vulgare
Cnidium grossheimii
Cnidium mandenovae
Cnidium pauciradiatum
Colutea cilicica
Colutea orientalis
Conium maculatum
Conringia austriaca
Conringia orientalis
Conringia planisiliqua
Conringia perfoliata
Convolvulus cantabrica
Convolvulus lineatus
Convolvulus arvensis
Convolvulus persicus
Coriandrum sativum
Cornus mas
Coronilla charadzeae
Coronilla balansae
Coronilla varia
Coronilla cretica
Coronilla orientallis
Coronilla coronata
Coronopus squamatus
Coronopus didymus
Corylus colchica
Corylus pontica
Corylus iberica
Corylus imeretica
Corylus kachethica
Corylus avellana
Cotinus coggygria
Cotoneaster morulus
Cotoneaster soczavianus
Cotoneaster suavis
Cotoneaster meyeri
Cotoneaster niger
Cotoneaster saxatilis
Cotoneaster racemiflorus
Cotoneaster integerrimus
Crambe juncea
Crambe maritima
Crambe orientalis
Crataegus meyeri
Crataegus kyrtostyla
Crataegus pseudoheterophylla
Crataegus pontica
Crataegus caucasica
Crataegus microphylla
Crataegus pentagyna
Crataegus laciniata
Crithmum maritimum
Cryptotaenia flahaultii
Cyclamen coum
Cyclamen colchicum
Cyclamen abchasicum
Cyclamen adzharicum
Cydonia oblonga
Cynanchum acutum
Cynoglossum laxiflorum
Cynoglossum officinale
Cynoglossum creticum
Cynoglossum biebersteinii
Cynoglossum glochidiatum
Cynoglossum montanum
Cynoglossum officinale subsp. officinale
Cynoglossum germanicum
Daphne mezereum
Daphne pontica
Daphne transcaucasica
Daphne caucasica
Daphne axilliflora
Daphne pseudosericea
Daphne glomerata
Daphne alboviana
Datisca cannabina
Datura stramonium
Datura innoxia
Daucus carota
Dianthus daghestanicus
Dianthus caucaseus
Dianthus imereticus
Dianthus floribundus
Dianthus transcaucasicus
Dianthus abchasicus
Dianthus atschurensis
Dianthus armeria
Dianthus subulosus
Dianthus cyri
Dianthus crinitus
Dianthus multicaulis
Dianthus ketzkhovelii
Dianthus pseudarmeria
Dianthus kusnezowii
Dianthus barbatus
Dianthus cretaceus
Dianthus calocephalus
Dianthus inamoenus
Dianthus orientalis
Dianthus ruprechtii
Dictamnus caucasicus
Dictamnus gymnostylis
Digitalis nervosa
Digitalis ciliata
Digitalis ferruginea
Digitalis schischkinii
Diospyros lotus
Diphasiastrum tristachyum
Diphasiastrum alpinum
Diplotaxis muralis
Dracocephalum ruyschiana
Dracocephalum austriacum
Dracocephalum moldavica
Dracocephalum thymiflorum
Drosera intermedia
Drosera longifolia
Drosera rotundifolia
Dryas caucasica
Dryopteris oreades
Dryopteris filix-mas
Dryopteris carthusiana
Dryopteris villarii
Dryopteris remota
Dryopteris aemula
Dryopteris dilatata
Dryopteris affinis subsp. borreri
Echium vulgare subsp. vulgare
Echium italicum
Echium vulgare
Echium italicum subsp. biebersteinii
Echium maculatum
Echium plantagineum
Elaeagnus angustifolia
Elsholtzia ciliata
Ephedra distachya
Ephedra major subsp. procera
Epigaea gaultherioides
Epilobium anagallidifolium
Epilobium ponticum
Epilobium montanum
Epilobium parviflorum
Epilobium palustre subsp. palustre
Epilobium tetragonum
Epilobium prionophyllum
Epilobium palustre
Epilobium roseum subsp. subsessile
Epilobium gemmascens
Epilobium anatolicum
Epilobium hirsutum
Epilobium minutiflorum
Epilobium confusum
Epilobium lanceolatum
Epilobium algidum
Epilobium angustifolium
Epilobium dodonaei
Epilobium tetragonum subsp. lamyi
Epilobium alpestre
Epilobium consimile
Epilobium stevenii
Equisetum arvense
Equisetum fluviatile
Equisetum telmateia
Equisetum variegatum
Equisetum sylvaticum
Equisetum palustre
Equisetum ramosissimum
Equisetum pratense
Equisetum hyemale
Erica arborea
Erodium oxyrhynchum
Erodium absinthioides
Erodium ciconium
Erodium ruthenicum
Erodium trichomanifolium
Erodium cicutarium
Eruca vesicaria
Eryngium giganteum
Eryngium coeruleum
Eryngium campestre
Eryngium maritimum
Eryngium planum
Euonymus europaeus
Euonymus leiophloea
Euonymus verrucosus
Euonymus latifolius
Euonymus latifolius subsp. latifolius
Euphorbia seguieriana
Euphorbia lathyris
Euphorbia stricta
Euphorbia coniosperma
Euphorbia palustris
Euphorbia eugeniae
Euphorbia condylocarpa
Euphorbia macroceras
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Euphorbia scripta
Euphorbia kemulariae
Euphorbia szovitsii
Euphorbia squamosa
Euphorbia peplus
Euphorbia iberica
Euphorbia nicaeensis subsp. glareosa
Euphorbia leptocaula
Euphorbia lucida
Euphorbia agraria
Euphorbia paralias
Euphorbia boissieriana
Euphorbia falcata
Euphorbia platyphyllos
Euphorbia abchasica
Euphorbia amygdaloides
Euphorbia aleppica
Euphorbia denticulata
Euphorbia hirsuta
Euphorbia pontica
Euphorbia armena
Euphorbia wittmannii
Euphorbia glaberrima
Euphorbia helioscopia subsp.
helioscopia
Euphorbia panjutinii
Euphorbia petrophila
Euphorbia illirica
Euphorbia oblongifolia
Euphorbia helioscopia
Euphrasia petiolaris
Euphrasia adenocaulon
Euphrasia svanica
Euphrasia grossheimii
Euphrasia caucasica
Euphrasia hirtella
Euphrasia woronowii
Euphrasia macrodonta
Euphrasia kemulariae
Euphrasia lebardensis
Euphrasia pectinata
Euphrasia amblyodonta
Euphrasia sosnowskyi
Fagopyrum tataricum
Fagus sylvatica subsp. orientalis
Falcaria vulgaris
Faldermannia persica
Fallopia convolvulus
Fallopia dumetorum
Festuca dmitriviae
Festuca pallidula
Ficus carica
Filipendula ulmaria
Filipendula vulgaris
Foeniculum vulgare
Fragaria moschata
Fragaria vesca
Fragaria viridis
Frangula alnus subsp. alnus
Frangula alnus
Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. oxycarpa
Fraxinus excelsior
Fraxinus excelsior subsp. coriariifolia
Galanthus platyphyllus
Galanthus platyphyllus
Galanthus krasnovii
Galanthus lagodechianus
Galanthus woronowii
Galanthus rizehensis
Galanthus woronowii
Galanthus krasnovii
Galanthus woronowii
Galanthus rizehensis
Galanthus alpinus
Galanthus alpinus
Galanthus alpinus
Galega officinalis
Galega orientalis
Galeopsis ladanum
Galeopsis bifida
Galium album
Galium tricornutum
Galium subuliferum
Galium rotundifolium
Galium uliginosum
Galium longatum
Galium rivale
Galium anfractum
Galium boreale
Galium valantioides
Galium spurium
Galium articulatum
Galium palustre
Galium ruthenicum
Galium grusinum
Galium consangineum
Galium humifusum
Galium odoratum
Galium praemontanum
Galium verum
Galium tenuissimum
Galium verticillatum
Genista humifusa
Genista kolakowskyi
Genista abchasica
Genista sachokiana
Genista adzharica
Genista transcaucasica
Genista mingrelica
Genista tinctoria
Genista suanica
Genista flagellaris
Gentiana oschtenica
Gentiana cruciata
Gentiana kolakovskyi
Gentiana aquatica
Gentiana schistocalyx
Gentiana paradoxa
Gentiana septemfida
Gentiana lagodechiana
Gentiana angulosa
Gentiana prostrata
Gentiana pneumonanthe
Gentiana gelida
Gentiana rhodocalyx
Gentiana pyrenaica
Geranium columbinum
Geranium finitimum
Geranium gracile
Geranium ibericum
Geranium dissectum
Geranium platypetalum
Geranium divaricatum
Geranium collinum
Geranium rotundifolium
Geranium gymnocaulon
Geranium sibiricum
Geranium pusillum
Geranium psilostemon
Geranium renardii
Geranium pyrenaicum
Geranium robertianum
Geranium sanguineum
Geranium tuberosum
Geranium ruprechtii
Geranium purpureum
Geranium lucidum
Geranium palustre
Geranium pyrenaicum subsp.
pyrenaicum
Geranium albanum
Geranium pallens
Geranium bohemicum
Geranium molle
Geum latilobum
Geum rivale
Geum urbanum
Glechoma hederacea
Glycyrrhiza aspera
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Glycyrrhiza echinata
Gratiola officinalis
Gypsophila glandulosa
Gypsophila stevenii
Gypsophila muralis
Gypsophila acutifolia
Gypsophila silenoides
Gypsophila elegans
Gypsophila bicolor
Gypsophila robusta
Gypsophila steupii
Gypsophila tenuifolia
Halimodendron halodendron
Haplophyllum villosum
Haplophyllum armenum
Hedera helix
Hedera colchica
Hedera pastuchovii
Hedysarum sericeum
Hedysarum formosum
Hedysarum armenum
Hedysarum elegans
Hedysarum turkeviczii
Hedysarum ibericum
Hedysarum caucasicum
Helianthemum nummularium subsp.
tomentosum
Helianthemum buschii
Helianthemum nummularium
Helianthemum nummularium subsp.
grandiflorum
Helianthemum ledifolium
Helianthemum georgicum
Helianthemum salicifolium
Helianthemum nummularium subsp.
nummularium
Helianthemum oelandicum subsp.
orientale
Heliotropium styligerum
Heliotropium ellipticum
Heliotropium dolosum
Heliotropium stevenianum
Heliotropium suaveolens
Heracleum leskovii
Heracleum ponticum
Heracleum pastinaciifolium
Heracleum roseum
Heracleum scabrum
Heracleum mandenovae
Heracleum grossheimii
Heracleum freynianum
Heracleum egrissicum
Heracleum chorodanum
Heracleum wilhelmsii
Heracleum ossethicum
Heracleum sommieri
Heracleum mantegazzianum
Heracleum antasiaticum
Heracleum asperum
Heracleum aconitifolium
Heracleum apiifolum
Heracleum calcareum
Heracleum sosnowskyi
Hibiscus ponticus
Hibiscus trionum
Hippophae rhamnoides
Hippuris vulgaris
Holosteum umbellatum subsp.
glutinosum
Holosteum umbellatum
Holosteum marginatum
Huperzia selago
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides
Hydrocotyle ramiflora
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Hydrocotyle vulgaris
Hyoscyamus pusillus
Hyoscyamus niger
Hypericum nummularioides
Hypericum xylosteifolium
Hypericum grossheimii
Hypericum caucasicum
Hypericum orientale
Hypericum perforatum
Hypericum origanifolium
Hypericum montbretii
Hypericum calycinum
Hypericum tetrapterum
Hypericum perforatum subsp. veronense
Hypericum hirsutum
Hypericum bupleuroides
Hypericum montanum
Hypericum mutilum
Hypericum hyssopifolium
Hypericum linarioides
Hypericum venustum
Hypericum androsaemum
Hyssopus officinalis subsp. officinalis
Iberis amara
Ilex colchica colchica
Ilex colchica
Ilex colchica imerethica
Impatiens noli-tangere
Jasminum officinale
Jasminum fruticans
Juglans nigra
Juglans regia
Juncus heldreichianus subsp. orientalis
Juncus alpigenus
Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus
Juniperus sabina
Juniperus sabina subsp. sabina
Juniperus communis subsp. saxatalis
Juniperus communis subsp. communis
Juniperus foetidissima
Kickxia caucasica
Kosteletzkya pentacarpos
Lallemantia canescens
Lallemantia peltata
Lamium maculatum
Lamium tomentosum
Lamium album
Lamium amplexicaule
Lamium purpureum
Laser trilobum
Laserpitium stevenii
Laserpitium affine
Laserpitium hispidum
Lathyrus aureus
Lathyrus cicera
Lathyrus pratensis
Lathyrus roseus
Lathyrus sphaericus
Lathyrus tuberosus
Lathyrus sylvestris
Lathyrus incurvus
Lathyrus vernus
Lathyrus miniatus
Lathyrus hirsutus
Lathyrus aphaca
Lathyrus nissolia
Lathyrus annuus
Lathyrus pallescens
Lathyrus sativus
Lathyrus inconspicuus
Lathyrus laxiflorus
Lavatera thuringiaca subsp. thuringiaca
Lavatera thuringiaca
Lavatera punctata
Lens nigricans
Lens culinaris
Lens ervoides
Leonurus marrubiastrum
Leonurus cardiaca
Lepidium campestre
Lepidium ruderale
Lepidium texanum
Lepidium perfoliatum
Lepidium latifolium
Lepidium graminifolium
Lepidium sativum
Ligusticum caucasicum
Ligusticum arafoe
Ligusticum alatum
Ligusticum physospermifolium
Ligustrum vulgare
Lilium monadelphum
Limonium meyeri
Limonium sinuatum
Linaria genistifolia
Linaria grandiflora
Linaria reflexa
Linaria pelisseriana
Linaria schirvanica
Linaria schelkownikowii
Linaria genistifolia subsp. genistifolia
Linaria simplex
Linaria vulgaris
Linaria meyeri
Linaria kurdica
Linaria armeniaca
Linum hypericifolium
Linum nervosum
Linum austriacum
Linum corymbulosum
Linum bienne
Linum mucronatum subsp. armenum
Linum nodiflorum
Linum catharticum
Linum trigynum
Linum usitatissimum
Linum tauricum
Linum tenuifolium
Lithospermum officinale
Lotononis genistoides
Lotus palustris
Lotus tenuis
Lotus angustissimus
Lotus corniculatus
Ludwigia palustris
Luzula stenophylla
Luzula abchasica
Luzula taurica
Luzula forsteri subsp. forsteri
Luzula forsteri subsp. caspica
Luzula abchasica
Luzula forsteri
Luzula sylvatica subsp. sylvatica
Lycium barbarum
Lycium ruthenicum
Lycopodium annotinum
Lycopodium clavatum
Lycopus europaeus
Lycopus exaltatus
Lysimachia punctata
Lysimachia japonica
Lysimachia dubia
Lysimachia fortunei
Lysimachia vulgaris
Lythrum volgense
Lythrum hyssopifolia
Lythrum salicaria subsp. salicaria
Lythrum salicaria
Lythrum virgatum
Malabaila dasyantha
Malus orientalis
Malva pusilla
Malva neglecta
Malva sylvestris
Marrubium goktschaicum
Marrubium vulgare
Marrubium catariifolium
Marsilea quadrifolia
Matteuccia struthiopteris
Medicago truncatula
Medicago arabica
Medicago caucasica
Medicago sativa subsp. caerulea
Medicago polymorpha
Medicago meyeri
Medicago marina
Medicago minima
Medicago virescens
Medicago sativa subsp. glomerata
Medicago rigidula
Medicago lupulina
Medicago hemicycla
Medicago orbicularis
Medicago grandiflora
Medicago littoralis
Medicago sativa subsp. falcata
Medicago dzhawakhetica
Medicago glandulosa
Melilotus dentata
Melilotus hirsutus
Melilotus neapolitana
Melilotus officinalis
Melilotus albus
Melissa officinalis
Mentha pulegium
Mentha arvensis
Mentha longifolia
Mentha aquatica
Menyanthes trifoliata
Mercurialis perennis
Mercurialis annua
Mespilus germanica
Miscanthus sinensis
Montia arvensis
Morus nigra
Morus alba
Mosla dianthera
Myosotis lithospermifolia
Myosotis stricta
Myosotis alpestris subsp. alpestris
Myosotis alpestris
Myosotis pseudopropinqua
Myosotis amoena
Myosotis sparsiflora
Myosotis laxa
Myosotis laxa subsp. caespitosa
Myosotis densiflora
Myosotis sylvatica
Myosotis scorpioides subsp. scorpioides
Myosotis sylvatica subsp. sylvatica
Myosotis propinqua
Myosotis scorpioides
Myosotis lazica
Myosotis heteropoda
Myosotis arvensis
Myricaria germanica
Myriophyllum verticillatum
Myriophyllum spicatum
Nepeta nuda nuda
Nepeta amoena
Nepeta komarovii
Nepeta grandiflora
Nepeta grossheimii
Nepeta biebersteiniana
Nepeta iberica
Nepeta mussinii
Nepeta schischkinii
Nepeta troitzkyi
Nepeta supina
Nepeta sulphurea
Nepeta cataria
Nicandra physalodes
Nitraria schoberi
Nymphaea candida
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Nymphoides peltata
Oenanthe aquatica
Oenanthe abchasica
Oenanthe pimpinelloides
Oenothera biennis
Oenothera odorata
Olea europaea subsp. europaea
Olea europaea
Onobrychis cyri
Onobrychis grossheimii
Onobrychis cornuta
Onobrychis angustifolia
Onobrychis transcaucasica
Onobrychis komarovii
Onobrychis iberica
Onobrychis oxytropoides
Onobrychis kachetica
Onobrychis meschetica
Onobrychis atropatana
Onobrychis inermis
Onobrychis oxyodonta
Onobrychis altissima
Onobrychis kemulariae
Onobrychis radiata
Onobrychis biebersteinii
Onobrychis petraea
Onobrychis sosnowskyi
Ononis pusilla
Ononis arvensis
Ononis spinosa subsp. antiquorum
Opopanax hispidus
Origanum vulgare
Ornithopus sativus
Ornithopus perpusillus
Ornithopus compressus
Orobus cyaneus
Orobus ciliatidentatus
Osmanthus decorus
Osmunda regalis
Ostrya carpinifolia
Oxalis acetosella
Oxalis violacea
Oxalis corniculata
Oxalis pes-caprae
Oxalis stricta
Paliurus spina-christi
Parietaria debilis
Parietaria officinalis
Parietaria littoralis
Parietaria kemulariae
Parietaria judaica
Parietaria cryptorum
Parietaria lusitanica subsp. serbica
Parnassia palustris
Pastinaca sativa
Pastinaca aurantiaca
Pastinaca pimpinellifolia
Pastinaca armena
Pastinaca sativa subsp. urens
Peganum harmala
Perilla nankinensis
Periploca graeca
Petroselinum crispum
Peucedanum paucifolium
Peucedanum adae
Peucedanum caucasicum
Peucedanum ruthenicum
Peucedanum longifolium
Peucedanum pschavicum
Phlomis herba-venti subsp. pungens
Phlomis tuberosa
Physalis peruviana
Physalis ixocarpa
Physalis peruviana
Physalis alkekengi
Physochlaina orientalis
Physospermum cornubiense
Phytolacca americana
Picea orientalis
Pimpinella tripartita
Pimpinella idae
Pimpinella schatilensis
Pimpinella saxifraga
Pimpinella rhodantha
Pimpinella affinis
Pimpinella aromatica
Pinguicula vulgaris
Pinus sylvestris subsp. hamata
Pinus brutia subsp. pityusa
Pinus brutia subsp. eldarica
Pistacia atlantica
Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica
Pisum sativum
Pisum sativum elatius
Plantago arenaria subsp. arenaria
Plantago coronopus
Plantago lanceolata
Plantago arenaria
Plantago media
Plantago major
Plantago ovata
Plantago tenuiflora
Plantago atrata
Platanus digitifolia
Plumbago europaea
Poa densa
Polemonium caucasicum
Polygala hohenackeriana
Polygala albovii
Polygala transcaucasica
Polygala alpicola
Polygala mariamae
Polygala caucasica
Polygala sosnowskyi
Polygala anatolica
Polygala amoenissima
Polygala supina
Polygala makaschwilii
Polygonum posumbu
Polygonum hydropiper
Polygonum lapathifolium
Polygonum cognatum
Polygonum perfoliatum
Polygonum carneum
Polygonum persicaria
Polygonum orientale
Polygonum arenarium
Polygonum minus
Polygonum dzhawachischwilii
Polygonum argyrocoleum
Polygonum amphibium
Polygonum aviculare
Polygonum alatum
Polygonum tiflisiense
Polygonum viviparum
Polygonum tomentosum
Polygonum robertii
Polygonum runcinatum
Polygonum thunbergii
Polygonum patulum
Polygonum panjutinii
Polypodium vulgare
Polystichum lonchitis
Polystichum setiferum
Polystichum braunii
Polystichum woronowii
Polystichum aculeatum
Populus canescens
Populus euphratica
Populus hyrcana
Populus pseudonivea
Populus alba
Populus nigra
Populus tremula
Portulaca oleracea
Potentilla svanetica
Potentilla palustris
Potentilla multifida
Potentilla topolkae
Potentilla anserina
Potentilla argaea
Potentilla argentea
Potentilla agrimonioides
Potentilla adenophylla
Potentilla camillae
Potentilla reptans
Potentilla sosnowskyi
Potentilla rupestris
Potentilla ruprechtii
Potentilla sommieri
Potentilla fruticosa
Potentilla micrantha
Potentilla adscharica
Potentilla caucasica
Potentilla chrysantha
Potentilla divina
Potentilla supina
Potentilla crantzii
Potentilla nordmanniana
Potentilla lazica
Potentilla pimpinelloides
Potentilla elatior
Potentilla kemulariae
Potentilla erecta
Potentilla brachypetala
Potentilla inclinata
Potentilla recta
Potentilla bifurca
Potentilla montenegrina
Prangos arcis-romanae
Primula pseudoelatior
Primula megaseifolia
Primula ruprechtii
Primula pallasii
Primula amoena
Primula juliae
Primula woronowii
Primula kusnetzovii
Primula vulgaris
Primula meyeri
Primula cordifolia
Primula auriculata
Primula darialica
Primula bayernii
Primula komarovii
Primula luteola
Primula farinifolia
Primula abchasica
Primula veris subsp. macrocalyx
Primula saguramica
Primula vulgaris subsp. sibthorpii
Primula algida
Prunella laciniata
Prunella vulgaris
Prunella grandiflora
Prunus persica
Prunus cerasifera
Prunus padus
Prunus dulcis
Prunus mahaleb
Prunus spinosa
Prunus armeniaca
Prunus laurocerasus
Psoralea bituminosa
Psoralea acaulis
Pteridium aquilinum subsp. brevipes
Pteris cretica
Pterocarya pterocarpa
Pueraria hirsuta
Pulmonaria dacica
Punica granatum
Pyracantha coccinea
Pyrola rotundifolia
Pyrola rotundifolia subsp. rotundifolia
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Pyrola minor
Pyrola chlorantha
Pyrola media
Pyrus eldarica
Pyrus balansae
Pyrus fedorovii
Pyrus demetrii
Pyrus ketzkhovelii
Pyrus caucasica
Pyrus takhtadzhianii
Pyrus oxyprion
Pyrus sachokiana
Pyrus salicifolia
Pyrus georgica
Quercus iberica
Quercus pontica
Quercus hartwissiana
Quercus imperetina
Quercus petraea
Quercus macranthera
Quercus pedunculiflora
Raphanus rapinastrum
Raphanus raphanistrum subsp.
maritimus
Rapistrum rugosum
Reseda lutea
Reseda globulosa
Reseda luteola
Rhamnus spathulifolia
Rhamnus cordata
Rhamnus depressa
Rhamnus pallasii
Rhamnus imeretina
Rhamnus microcarpa
Rhamnus cathartica
Rhinanthus angustifolius subsp.
grandiflorus
Rhinanthus minor
Rhinanthus colchicus
Rhinanthus schischkinii
Rhinanthus subulatus
Rhinanthus ponticus
Rhododendron caucasicum
Rhododendron sochadzeae
Rhododendron smirnowii
Rhododendron ponticum subsp.
ponticum
Rhododendron ponticum
Rhododendron luteum
Rhododendron ungernii
Rhus coriaria
Ribes uva-crispa
Ribes biebersteinii
Ribes alpinum
Ribes orientale
Robinia pseudacacia
Rosa tomentosa
Rosa tuschetica
Rosa oplisthes
Rosa buschiana
Rosa mollis
Rosa micrantha
Rosa prilipkoana
Rosa rapinii
Rosa pimpinellifolia
Rosa pulverulenta
Rosa teberdensis
Rosa woronowii
Rosa canina
Rosa ossethica
Rosa koslowskii
Rosa foetida
Rosa galushkoi
Rosa hirtissima
Rosa gallica
Rosa oxyodon
Rosa boissieri
Rosa transcaucasica
Rosa corymbifera
Rosa irysthonica
Rosa doluchanovii
Rosa marschalliana
Rosa iberica
Rosa didoensis
Rosa ermanica
Rubia transcaucasica
Rubia tinctorium
Rubus adzharicus
Rubus abchaziensis
Rubus serpens
Rubus cartalinicus
Rubus candicans
Rubus canescens
Rubus caesius
Rubus caucasigenus
Rubus cyri
Rubus charadzeae
Rubus discernendus
Rubus kacheticus
Rubus ossicus
Rubus miszczenkoi
Rubus dolichocarpus
Rubus leptostemon
Rubus caucasicus
Rubus mochus
Rubus woronowii
Rubus saxatilis
Rubus georgicus
Rubus piceetorum
Rubus platyphylloides
Rubus kudagorensis
Rubus juzepczukii
Rubus hirtus
Rubus ponticus
Rubus ibericus
Rubus ochtodes
Rubus nakeralicus
Rubus sanguineus
Rubus longipetiolatus
Rubus lepidulus
Rubus platyphyllos
Rubus idaeus
Rubus ketzkhovelii
Rumex pulcher
Rumex acetosa
Rumex scutatus
Rumex halacsyi
Rumex sanguineus
Rumex longifolius
Rumex maritimus
Rumex patientia
Rumex tuberosus
Rumex angustifolius
Rumex dentatus subsp. reticulatus
Rumex alpinus
Rumex obtusifolius
Rumex conglomeratus
Rumex aquaticus
Rumex alpestris
Rumex hydrolapathum
Rumex confertus
Rumex acetosella
Rumex crispus
Ruta graveolens
Salicornia europaea
Salix elbursensis
Salix alba subsp. micans
Salix kazbekensis
Salix caucasica
Salix kuznetzowii
Salix kikodzeae
Salix alba
Salix armeno-rossica
Salix pseudomedemii
Salix apoda
Salix triandra
Salix caprea
Salix pantosericea
Salix excelsa
Salix pentandroides
Salix wilhelmsiana
Salpichroa origanifolia
Salsola soda
Salsola nodulosa
Salsola kali subsp. tragus
Salsola dendroides
Salsola ericoides
Salsola iberica
Salvia glutinosa
Salvia garedji
Salvia limbata
Salvia compar
Salvia aethiopis
Salvia sclarea
Salvia verticillata
Salvia verbascifolia
Salvia viridis
Salvia virgata
Salvia nemorosa
Salvia ringens
Salvia armeniaca
Sanguisorba minor subsp. muricata
Sanguisorba officinalis
Sanicula europaea
Saponaria prostrata
Saponaria officinalis
Saponaria orientalis
Saponaria cerastoides
Satureja spicigera
Satureja hortensis
Satureja bzybica
Saxifraga sibirica
Saxifraga paniculata
Saxifraga tridactylites
Saxifraga adscendens
Saxifraga exarata
Saxifraga scleropoda
Saxifraga caucasica
Saxifraga rotundifolia subsp.
rotundifolia
Saxifraga trautvetteri
Saxifraga cymbalaria
Saxifraga colchica
Saxifraga sosnowskyi
Saxifraga subverticallata
Saxifraga ruprechtiana
Saxifraga pseudolaevis
Saxifraga kolenatiana
Saxifraga moschata
Saxifraga kusnezowiana
Saxifraga juniperifolia
Saxifraga flagellaris
Saxifraga abchasica
Saxifraga pontica
Scandix iberica
Scandix stellata
Scandix pecten-veneris
Scopolia carniolica
Scorpiurus muricatus
Scorpiurus minimus
Scrophularia orientalis
Scrophularia lateriflora
Scrophularia rutifolia
Scrophularia grossheimii
Scrophularia sprengerana
Scrophularia sosnowskyi
Scrophularia nodosa
Scrophularia olympica
Scrophularia scopolii
Scrophularia ilwensis
Scrophularia minima
Scrophularia peregrina
Scrophularia lunariifolia
Scrophularia kotschyana
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Scrophularia umbrosa
Scrophularia chrysantha
Scrophularia imerethica
Scrophularia ruprechtii
Scrophularia macrobotrys
Scrophularia chlorantha
Scrophularia divaricata
Scrophularia diffusa
Scrophularia rupestris
Scutellaria hastifolia
Scutellaria pontica
Scutellaria ossethica
Scutellaria raddeana
Scutellaria albida subsp. colchica
Scutellaria albida subsp. albida
Scutellaria sosnowskyi
Scutellaria karatchaica
Scutellaria helenae
Scutellaria leptostegia
Scutellaria oreophila
Scutellaria altissima
Scutellaria galericulata
Scutellaria orientalis
Scutellaria albida
Securigera securidaca
Sedum caucasicum
Sedum tenellum
Sedum involucratum
Sedum spurium
Sedum ruprechtii
Sedum subulatum
Sedum hispanicum
Sedum acre
Sedum gracile
Sedum pallidum
Sedum album
Sedum caespitosum
Sedum annuum
Sedum stoloniferum
Sedum stevenianum
Seidlitzia florida
Selaginella helvetica
Selaginella selaginoides
Sempervivum charadzeae
Sempervivum caucasicum
Sempervivum pumilum
Sempervivum armenum
Sempervivum annae
Sempervivum sosnowskyi
Sempervivum ermanicum
Sempervivum transcaucasicum
Seseli peucedanoides
Seseli saxicolum
Seseli foliossum
Seseli alpinum
Seseli grandivittatum
Seseli petraeum
Seseli rupicola
Seseli transcaucasicum
Sida spinosa
Sideritis montana
Sideritis montana subsp. montana
Silene dianthoides
Silene multifida
Silene propinqua
Silene solenantha
Silene conoidea
Silene pendula
Silene supina
Silene noctiflora
Silene physocalyx
Silene saxatilis
Silene daghestanica
Silene dioica
Silene cyri
Silene lasiantha
Silene roopiana
Silene coronaria
Silene pygmaea
Silene conica
Silene lychnidea
Silene latifolia
Silene germana
Silene alexeji
Silene brotheriana
Silene caucasica
Silene cephalantha
Silene marcowiczii
Silene linearifolia
Silene baccifera
Silene gallica
Silene lacera
Silene humilis
Silene lazica
Silene euxina
Silene compacta
Silene italica
Silene chlorifolia
Silene wallichiana
Silene iberica
Silene viscosa
Silene wolgensis
Sinapis alba
Sinapis arvensis
Sison amomum
Sium latifolium
Sium sisarum lancifolium
Smyrnium perfoliatum
Solanum cornutum
Solanum persicum
Solanum woronowii
Solanum nigrum
Solanum nigrum subsp. schultesii
Solanum capsicastrum
Solanum carolinense
Solanum transcaucasicum
Solanum tectum
Solanum aviculare
Solanum villosum
Solanum sisymbrifolium
Sophora alopecuroides
Sorbus caucasigena
Sorbus buschiana
Sorbus boissierii
Sorbus graeca
Sorbus colchica
Sorbus velutina
Sorbus migarica
Sorbus torminalis
Sorbus turcica
Sorbus caucasica
Sorbus fedorovii
Sorbus subfusca
Spartium junceum
Spergula arvensis
Spergularia marina
Spergularia rubra
Spergularia diandra
Spergularia media
Spinacia tetrandra
Spiraea hypericifolia
Spiraea crenata
Stachys atherocalyx
Stachys officinalis
Stachys balansae
Stachys palustris
Stachys maritima
Stachys annua
Stachys pubescens
Stachys lavandulifolia
Stachys sylvatica
Stachys macrophylla
Stachys germanica
Stachys odontophylla
Stachys spectabiliformis
Stachys byzantina
Stachys fruticulosa
Stachys trapezuntea
Stachys iberica
Stachys setifera
Stachys spectabilis
Stachys cretica
Staphylea pinnata
Staphylea colchica
Stellaria nemorum
Stellaria graminea
Stellaria media
Stellaria anagalloides
Stellaria neglecta
Stellaria persica
Stellaria holostea
Suaeda maritima subsp. salsa
Suaeda maritima subsp. maritima
Suaeda confusa
Suaeda altissima
Suaeda heterophylla
Suaeda dendroides
Swertia iberica
Symphytum abchasicum
Symphytum asperum
Symphytum grandiflorum
Symphytum ibericum
Symphytum caucasicum
Tamarix tetrandra
Tamarix ramosissima
Tamarix smyrnensis
Taxus baccata
Telephium imperati subsp. orientale
Tetragonolobus maritimus
Tetragonolobus purpureus
Teucrium orientale
Teucrium polium
Teucrium nuchense
Teucrium multinodum
Teucrium hircanicum
Teucrium scordium
Teucrium trapezunticum
Thelypteris palustris
Thymus caucasicus
Thymus pannonicus
Thymus coriifolius
Thymus ladjanuricus
Thymus sosnowskyi
Thymus tiflisiensis
Thymus grossheimii
Thymus nummularius
Thymus collinus
Thymus rariflorus
Thymus karjaginii
Thymus transcaucasicus
Tilia begoniifolia
Tilia cordata
Tordylium maximum
Trachomitum sarmatiense
Trapa natans
Trapa hyrcana
Trapa maleevii
Tribulus terrestris
Trifolium incarnatum
Trifolium echinatum
Trifolium diffusum
Trifolium canescens
Trifolium fragiferum
Trifolium campestre
Trifolium ambiguum
Trifolium fragiferum subsp. bonannii
Trifolium arvense
Trifolium fontanum
Trifolium aureum
Trifolium trichocephalum
Trifolium angulatum
Trifolium hirtum
Trifolium physodes
Trifolium apertum
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Trifolium resupinatum
Trifolium subterraneum
Trifolium sebastianii
Trifolium retusum
Trifolium micranthum
Trifolium tumens
Trifolium medium
Trifolium scabrum
Trifolium repens
Trifolium rytidosemium
Trifolium angustifolium
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium hybridum
Trifolium stipitatum
Trifolium spadiceum
Trifolium bordzilovskyi
Trifolium striatum
Trifolium ruprechtii
Trifolium lappaceum
Trifolium alpestre
Trifolium glomeratum
Trifolium ochroleucon
Trifolium tomentosum
Trifolium phleoides
Trigonella spicata
Trigonella gladiata
Trigonella arcuata
Trigonella fischerana
Trigonella calliceras
Trigonella caerulea
Trigonella monspeliaca
Trigonella procumbens
Trigonella orthoceras
Trigonella striata
Ulmus suberosa
Ulmus glabra
Ulmus georgica
Ulmus minor
Ulmus elliptica
Umbilicus oppositifolius
Urtica dioica
Urtica urens
Vaccaria hispanica
Vaccinium uliginosum
Vaccinium arctostaphylos
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
Vaccinium vitis-idaea subsp. vitis-idaea
Vaccinium myrtillus
Verbascum macrocarpum
Verbascum songaricum
Verbascum flavidum
Verbascum pyramidatum
Verbascum densiflorum
Verbascum sessiliflorum
Verbascum paniculatum
Verbascum orientale
Verbascum artvinense
Verbascum wilhelmsianum
Verbascum eriorrhabdon
Verbascum georgicum
Verbascum phlomoides
Verbascum oreophilum
Verbascum phoeniceum
Verbascum chaixii subsp. austriacum
Verbascum spectabile
Verbascum gnaphalodes
Verbascum adzharicum
Verbascum gossypinum
Verbascum pinnatifidum
Verbascum varians
Verbascum lychnitis
Verbascum sinuatum
Verbascum speciosum
Verbascum saccatum
Verbascum thapsus
Verbascum formosum
Verbascum alpigenum
Verbascum blattaria
Verbena officinalis
Verbena rigida
Verbena hastata
Veronica multifida
Veronica praecox
Veronica longifolia
Veronica persica
Veronica biloba
Veronica monticola
Veronica dillenii
Veronica telephiifolia
Veronica gentianoides
Veronica montana
Veronica caucasica
Veronica officinalis
Veronica colchica
Veronica nigricans
Veronica chamaedrys
Veronica orchidea
Veronica galathica
Veronica anagalloides
Veronica verna
Veronica arvensis
Veronica amoena
Veronica orientalis
Veronica triphyllos
Veronica argute-serrata
Veronica magna
Veronica schistosa
Veronica hederifolia
Veronica serpyllifolia
Veronica peduncularis
Veronica austriaca subsp. austriaca
Veronica petraea
Veronica crista-galli
Veronica scutellata
Veronica filiformis
Veronica tumadzhanovii
Veronica liwanensis
Veronica beccabunga
Veronica denudata
Veronica armena
Veronica anagallis-aquatica
Veronica reuterana
Veronica polita
Veronica ceratocarpa
Veronica imeretica
Veronica charadzeae
Vicia faba
Vicia iberica
Vicia pannonica
Vicia caucasica
Vicia purpurea
Vicia balansae
Vicia lutea
Vicia meyeri
Vicia truncatula
Vicia sativa
Vicia grandiflora
Vicia peregrina
Vicia sativa subsp. nigra
Vicia variabilis
Vicia truncatula
Vicia sosnowskyi
Vicia ciliatula
Vicia grossheimii
Vicia sativa subsp. cordata
Vicia bithynica
Vicia ervilia
Vicia cassubica
Vicia narbonensis
Vicia cinerea
Vicia hirsuta
Vicia antiqua
Vicia sepium
Vicia tetrasperma
Vicia akhmaganica
Vicia abbreviata
Vicia lathyroides
Vicia villosa
Vicia crocea
Vinca pubescens
Vinca herbacea
Vincetoxicum albovianum
Vincetoxicum funebre
Vincetoxicum amplifolium
Final Report, GSNE Orchis
June, 2009 Tbilisi, Georgia
Vincetoxicum hirundinaria
Viola vespertina
Viola hirta
Viola reichenbachiana
Viola arvensis
Viola canina
Viola rupestris
Viola ambigua
Viola odorata
Viola oreades
Viola pyrenaica
Viola parvula
Viola suavis
Viola kupfferi
Viola kitaibeliana
Viola tricolor subsp. tricolor
Viola alba
Viola mirabilis
Viola sieheana
Viola minuta
Viola canina subsp. montana
Viola ignobilis
Viola orthoceras
Viola somchetica
Viola mandshurica
Viola biflora
Viola pumila
Viola occulta
Viscum album
Vitex agnus-castus
Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris
Vitis vinifera
Vitis labrusca
Zelkova carpinifolia
Ziziphora dzhavakhishvilii
Ziziphora puschkinii
Ziziphora capitata
Ziziphora borzhomica
Ziziphora serpyllacea
Ziziphora woronowii
Ziziphus jujuba
Zygophyllum fabago
Appendix 2. The summarized data presenting the total score of the selected target species. The
genera are selected as crops traditionally cultivated in SAmtskhe-Javakhete, which have CWRs in
this region. The species of a genus are that distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. The scoring
system is highlighted in Table 2. GP - gene pool, TG - taxon group, see chapter 6.1. for definition.
Threat Rarity
Endem GP/
Total
N Crop
CWR Species
icity
1.
Triticum
2.
Hordeum
3.
Secale
4.
Avena
5.
Vicia
6.
Lathyrus
7.
Linum
8.
9.
Brassica
Allium
Aegilops cylindrica
A. tauschii
A. triuncialis
H. bulbosum
H. geniculatum
H. leporinum
H. spontaneum
H. violaceum
S. anatolicum
S. segetale
A. barbata
A. fatua
A. ludoviciana
A. meridionalis
A. sterilis
V. akhmaganica
V. angustifolia
V. balansae
V. bithynica
V. grossheimii
V. hirsuta
V. iberica
V. johannis
V. narbonensis
V. pannonica
V. peregrina
V. sativa
V. sepium
V. tetrasperma
V. truncatula
V. variabilis
L. aphaca
L. cicera
L. inconspicuus
L. miniatus
L. pratensis
L. roseus
L. tuberosus
L. austriacum
L. hypericifolium
L. humile
L. nervosum
L. nodiflorum
L. tenuifolium
B. elongata
A. albidum
2
2
2
2
2
7
7
2
0
0
7
0
7
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
10
4
10
4
2
0
5
5
TG
6
6
4
6
6
6
10
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
6
6
2
2
6
2
2
2
2
6
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
2
10
4
2
4
2
2
8
13
11
8
6
6
19
6
15
10
15
6
6
6
6
7
2
2
4
7
2
2
10
6
2
2
6
2
2
2
2
6
2
2
2
2
2
6
4
4
22
8
12
8
4
4
10. Asparagus
11. Coriandrum
12. Lepidium
13. Satureja
14. Ribes
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Rubus
Cerasus
Vitis
Malus
Pyrus
20. Prunus
21.
22.
23.
24.
Cornus
Corylus
Mespilus
Medicago
25. Onobrychis
A. atroviolaceum
A. cardiostemon
A. fuscoviolaceum
A. karsianum
A. kunthianum
A. leucanthum
A. moschatum
A. ponticum
A. pseudoflavum
A. rotundum
A. victorialis
A. vineale
A. caspius
A. officinalis
A. verticillatus
C. sativum
L. perfoliatum
L. latifolium
S. laxiflora
S. spicigera
R. alpinum
R. biebersteinii
R. orientale
R. idaeus
C. avium
V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris
M. orientalis
P. caucasica
P. demetrii
P. georgica
P. salicifolia
P. cerasifera
P. spinosa
C. mas
C. avellana
M. germanica
M. caerulea
M. caucasica
M. dzhawakhetica
M. hemicycla
M. lupulina
M. minima
M. romanica
M. sativa
M. truncatula
O. altissima
O. kemulariae
O. meschetica
O. oxytropoides
O. sosnowskyi
O. transcaucasica
2
2
4
0
0
10
2
2
2
2
4
0
0
0
2
2
4
0
2
4
7
7
4
2
4
4
4
0
2
10
0
2
4
4
0
0
2
0
2
2
4
4
7
0
0
0
4
4
0
2
2
4
2
2
2
5
10
10
5
5
10
5
10
10
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
6
10
2
2
10
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
2
2
2
10
10
10
10
10
2
2
6
2
0
0
6
10
2
2
2
2
2
2
10
2
14
4
9
4
14
6
12
2
2
4
4
17
6
8
14
9
9
14
8
10
10
10
10
12
24
10
17
16
11
2
10
12
10
12
12
6
6
13
2
0
0
10
14
2
4
14
16
4
4
12