diversity
Article
Fishes of the Lower Lulua River (Kasai Basin, Central Africa): A
Continental Hotspot of Ichthyofaunal Diversity under Threat
José J. Mbimbi Mayi Munene 1 , Melanie L. J. Stiassny 2,3 , Raoul J. C. Monsembula Iyaba 1
and Tobit L. D. Liyandja 1,2,3, *
1
2
3
*
Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Kinshasa,
Kinshasa 01033, Democratic Republic of the Congo; jjmbimbishambuyi@gmail.com (J.J.M.M.M.);
raoul.monsembula@greenpeace.org (R.J.C.M.I.)
Richard Gilder Graduate School, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA;
mljs@amnh.org
Department of Ichthyology, Division of Vertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History,
New York, NY 10024, USA
Correspondence: tliyandja@amnh.org or liyandja@gmail.com; Tel.: +1-212496-3667
Academic Editor: Simon Blanchet
Abstract: The ichthyofauna of the Lulua River, a large right bank tributary of the Kasai River in
central Africa, is among the most poorly documented in the Kasai ecoregion. To remedy this lack
of knowledge, sampling was carried out between 2007 and 2014 along the main channel and in
many tributaries. A total of 201 species distributed in 81 genera, 24 families, and 12 orders are
reported from the lower reaches of the Lulua. The species richness reported in this study represents
a substantially improved documentation of the Lulua ichthyofauna (historically estimated at only
79 species). Here, 129 species are recorded for the first time, bringing the total number of known
species to 208. Among these, five have recently been described: Raiamas brachyrhabdotos Katemo
Manda, Snoeks, Choca Manda, and Vreven 2018, Distichodus kasaiensis Moelants, Snoeks, and Vreven,
2018, Distichodus polli Abwe, Snoeks, Choca Manda, and Vreven 2019, Epiplatys atractus Van Der
Zee, Mbimbi, and Sonnenberg 2013, and Hypsopanchax stiassnyae Van Der Zee, Sonnenberg, and
Mbimbi 2015; numerous additional taxa are currently under investigation. Recognized here as a
continental hotspot of ichthyofaunal diversity, the Lulua is under extreme threat from exploitation of
forest products for building materials, deforestation for shifting agriculture and charcoal exploitation,
destructive fishing practices, and mining, all of which are rapidly increasing in the watershed.
The present study provides baseline documentation for use in conservation planning and future
developmental projects in the Kasai ecoregion in general and Lulua River basin in particular.
Received: 3 July 2021
Keywords: fish diversity; Congo Basin; Kasai River; biogeography; taxonomy; threatened species
Citation: Mbimbi Mayi Munene, J.J.;
Stiassny, M.L.J.; Monsembula Iyaba,
R.J.C.; Liyandja, T.L.D. Fishes of the
Lower Lulua River (Kasai Basin,
Central Africa): A Continental
Hotspot of Ichthyofaunal Diversity
under Threat. Diversity 2021, 13, 341.
https://
doi.org/10.3390/d13080341
Accepted: 22 July 2021
Published: 26 July 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
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distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1. Introduction
The Congo Basin (CB) comprises an immense hydrographic network with a wide
variety of habitats hosting an extremely diverse fish community currently estimated at
1270 species, of which over 75% are considered basin endemics [1–3]. Second only to the
Amazon in terms of volume, the CB drains an area of about 3.7 million km2 of Central
Africa [4,5], and its location on both sides of the Equator results in the Congo River (CR)
discharging an almost constant volume of 1308 km3 [6] of freshwater into the Atlantic
Ocean (AO). From its source in the savanna highlands of the Lualaba and Haut-Katanga
provinces in southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to its mouth in the
western Kongo Central province, the main channel of the CR flows through 4374 km [5]
generating a high diversity of macro- and microhabitats including falls, rapids, swamps,
pools, floodplains, flooded forests, lakes, deep rocky substrates, and a short estuarine reach.
Along its journey to the AO, in the western basin, the CR is joined by large tributaries
such as the Lulonga, Ruki, Ubangi, Sangha, Alima, Lefini, Kwa-Kasai, N’sele, and Inkisi
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that greatly increase its hydrographic and habitat complexity. The alternation of macroand microhabitats creates perfect conditions for isolation of fish populations that may
accelerate the processes of speciation even at remarkably small geographic scales [7,8].
Despite such high levels of species richness and endemism, it is recognized that several
areas of the CB remain underexplored [9], and their respective ichthyofauna are poorly
documented [10]. Therefore, the number of fish species currently reported from the CB is
certainly underestimated and fails to capture the true ichthyofaunal diversity in the basin.
Historically, ichthyological exploration of the CB dates to the late 19th century [11] but
is characterized by unequal sampling across the basin [12]. Paugy [11] reported that one of
the earliest fish collecting efforts in the CB was that of N.E. Ballay between 1882 and 1885.
Later numerous expeditions, such as those of P.S. de Brazza (1883–1886), M.A. Greshoff
and M.P. Delhez (1899), and H. Lang and J.P. Chapin (1907–1915), have contributed to large
collections of specimens housed in the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle (MNHN),
Paris, the Africa Museum (MRAC), Tervuren, the American Museum of Natural History
(AMNH), New York, and the Natural History Museum (NHMUK), London. Many of
those collections formed the basis for G.A. Boulenger’s influential work on the fish fauna
of the CB [13]. From 1929 through the early 1980s, several other studies (e.g., [14–22])
further documented the ichthyofauna of the CB. However, most collecting efforts were
undertaken in the CR main channel, some associated lakes, and a few easily accessible
tributaries, leaving several major tributaries and sub-tributaries virtually unexplored. This
situation has made it very difficult for the scientific community to estimate with precision
the true ichthyofaunal diversity of the CB. To improve this situation, the last decade has
seen increasing efforts to explore and document under-sampled affluent tributaries of the
CR (e.g., [23–31]). However, parts of the CB, particularly those of the Kasai ecoregion,
in addition to being seriously impacted by ongoing deforestation and mining activities,
remain poorly known [10].
The Kasai ecoregion [32], composed of the Kasai River (KR) and its main tributaries
(Kwango, Kwilu, Loange, Lulua, and Sankuru), is one of the largest ecoregions of the CB
and, likely due to the presence of numerous rapids and falls that restrict fish movement, is
estimated to have a high level of endemism [3]. However, as already noted, this ecoregion
remains underexplored, and the occurrence and distribution of many fish species remain
uncertain. The lack of documentation for many tributaries and sub-tributaries of the KR
constitutes a major deficit in our knowledge of fish biodiversity of CB.
An accurate accounting of species diversity is, therefore, of central importance for
data-based conservation and sustainable development efforts. As such, species discovery
and description remain fundamental tasks for advancing biodiversity studies in poorly
documented regions such as the central CB where considerable diversity remains to be
documented [33,34]. This study was carried out as part of the Congo Project initiated by
the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), in partnership with the University of
Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo) and the University of Marien Ngouabi (Republic
of Congo), to assess ichthyofaunal diversity in the middle and lower reaches of the CRiver.
Here, we provide an inventory of fish species of the lower reaches of the LR, the distributions of these species across that portion of the river and the KR, and the anthropogenic
activities that constitute the main threats to that ichthyofauna and the ecological integrity
of the basin.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
The LR catchment covers a surface area of about ca. 71,400 km2 and extends between
4.764◦ and 11.111◦ S and between 21.111◦ and 24.119◦ E. The river originates in the Lualaba
Province in the southeast of the Democratic Republic of Congo near the Angolan border
at an elevation of about 1200 m asl [35], and it gradually descends the Katanga plateau (a
northward extension of the Kalahari plateau) crossing the Central Kasai Province to merge
with the main channel of the Kasai River at about 58 km downstream of the city of Luebo
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in the Kasai Province. From its headwaters, near the boundaries of the Upper Zambezi and
Lualaba ecoregions (Figure 1), to its confluence (at about 386 m asl) with the KR, the Lulua
flows over a distance of 1256 km, characterized by high geomorphological complexity [36],
resulting in extensive habitat heterogeneity along its main channel including numerous
rapids, pools, small and large tributaries, large floodplains, and perennial and permanent
swamps [37,38]. The numerous rapids divide the main channel of the LR into several
alternating sections of low (muddy and deep) and fast current (rocky and shallow).
Figure 1. Map of the Lulua River showing the location of the Lulua catchment in the Kasai ecoregion of the Congo Basin
and neighboring ecoregions. The red rectangle indicates the part of the lower LR where this study was conducted.
The LR is under a tropical savanna climate characterized by two main seasons: a
longer wet season (from October to early May) and a shorter dry season from (mid-May
to mid-September). The basin receives an annual rainfall that varies between 1259 and
1750 mm [39].
On the basis of its elevation profile, we divided the LR into three sections: Upper,
Middle, and Lower Lulua (Figure 2). The Upper Lulua is about 260 km long, flowing from
its source near the Angolan border to Kusununu, about 160 km upstream of the city of
Sandoa (Sanduwa), where a significant expansion, from about 200 m to over 1000 m, of the
river’s floodplain is noted. Following the classification of McManamay and Derolph [40],
that section of the river has a low stream gradient with an average of 2.19 m/km (0.22%).
With a length of about 660 km, the Middle Lulua is the longest section of the river and
stretches from that first expansion of the floodplain to the Mbumba rapids (just upstream
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of Mwana Nanga at about 336 km from the Lulua outflow into the Kasai) marking the
beginning of a long series of rapids. The Middle Lulua is characterized by a very low
stream gradient with an average of 0.215 m/km (0.022%). From the Mbumba rapids, the
river flows again in a low-gradient zone, marking the beginning of the Lower Lulua, before
flowing through a very low stream gradient as it joins the Kasai. That stretch of the river
is about 336 km long and can be divided into two subsections. The first subsection is
about 200 km long starting from the Mbumba rapids to the vicinity of Muebela and has an
average stream gradient of 1.62 m/km (0.162%), with several rapids and localized braiding
of the channel. The last 136 km of the LR, which constitutes the second subsection of the
Lower Lulua and its estuary, is characterized by a flattening of stream gradient with an
average of 0.188 m/km (0.0188%). In this stretch, the LR is joined by its largest and longest
tributary, the Kaluebo or Luebo River.
Figure 2. Longitudinal profile of the Lulua River and its subdivision into three sections based on the channel slope gradient.
Notes on Collection Sites
A total of 43 sites were sampled along the lower reaches of the LR including 13 main
channel sites, 20 tributaries, and 10 sub-tributaries, as reported in Table A1 and Figure 3.
Most main channel sites are in areas of river braiding and rapids (Figure A1), except
sites 1 (Luebo), 3 (Nsanga Nyembo), and 9 (Ntumba). Typically, the sampled sites are
characterized by shallow habitats with a rocky substrate and fringing sandy beaches. The
river flow in these sections is very rapid, generating numerous cascades, rapids, and
waterfalls, and vegetal cover is predominately forest islands and woody riparian savannas.
Water pH is slightly acidic with an average of 6.65 but can drop to 5.5 (at Dijiba, Site 6).
However, a basic pH of 8 was recorded at Site 12 (Kabeya Nsaka) during the dry season.
Collecting sites located on tributaries and sub-tributaries are more diverse, ranging from
large channels of 35–63 m width (Kaluebo, Miao, and Moyo Rivers) to small creeks of less
than 5 m width (Kasonga, Nkalala, and Tukomba Creeks). The pH in these tributaries is
generally slightly acidic but varies from 5.5 (Luyenga River) to 7.1 (Kapelekese River). The
substrate is also highly diverse, alternating among rocky, muddy, sandy, and leaf covered
depending on location along channels (Figure A2).
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Figure 3. Map of the LR sampling sites: (A) green circles, main channel sites; (B) red circles, tributary and sub-tributary sites.
2.2. Ichthyofauna Sampling
A total of six field expeditions, each a month long, were undertaken between 2007 and
2014: the first, during the rainy season in December 2007; the second, at the beginning of
the dry season in June 2008; the third, during the rainy season in February 2010; the fourth,
during the dry season in July 2010; the fifth, at the end of the dry and the beginning of rainy
season in September 2011; the sixth, in September 2014. At each site, a stretch of 100 m
was defined, and standard fishing techniques were employed [41]. Depending on habitat
and conditions, these techniques included dip nets, cast nets, monofilament gill nets, seine
nets, and some local fishing gears (Figure A3). In isolated stretches of the main channel
and some tributaries, with permission, the controlled use of the isoflavone ichthyocide
rotenone, was employed to sample species not readily captured using other methods [42].
Fishes were euthanized, with MS222, prior to tissue sampling and body preservation in
accordance with recommended guidelines for the use of fishes in research [43,44].
Most voucher specimens are housed in the Department of Ichthyology at the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), and associated data are accessible at https:
//emu-prod.amnh.org/db/emuwebamnh/index.php. Additional specimens are housed
in the Department of Biology at the University of Kinshasa where they serve as teaching materials. Taxonomic nomenclature follows Fricke et al. [45]. In the absence of a
comprehensive taxonomic key for the CB ichthyofauna, identification of specimens was determined on the basis of available publications on the ichthyofauna of the Congo provinces
and surrounding regions. In addition to Boulenger’s catalog of fishes in the British Museum
(Natural History) [46], we consulted several other documents [47–60], and the following internet resources http://www.poissons-afrique.ird.fr/drupal/faunafri, http://www.mormyrids.
myspecies.info/en, and https://research.amnh.org/vz/ichthyology/congo/taxoindex.html
(all accessed on 1 June 2020).
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2.3. Anthropogenic Activities
Anthropogenic activities were surveyed along the LR during our sampling trips. We
recorded human activities, both in and outside collecting sites, that likely had direct or
indirect impacts on land cover, water quality, fish populations, and hydrology of LR and
its tributaries.
3. Results
3.1. Fish Diversity
A total of 3825 individuals were collected between 2007 and 2014. Examination of
these specimens resulted in the identification of 201 species, belonging to 24 families
and 12 orders with their distribution among the main channel and tributaries indicated
in columns 1–21 (Table A2). The distribution of species among all sites is provided in
Supplementary Table S1. The order Siluriformes, with 49 species, is the most dominant and
represents about 24% of all identified species (Figure 4). It is followed by Cypriniformes
(20%), Characiformes (19%), Osteoglossiformes (18%), and Cichliformes (6%). These five
orders together represent 87% (177 species) of the species diversity currently known from
the LR basin.
Figure 4. Relative representation of each order in the lower Lulua River.
At the family level, the ichthyofauna of the LR is predominated by Cyprinidae, which
is the most speciose family with 41 species (20%), followed by Mormyridae with 35 species
(17%), Distichodontidae with 19 species (9%), Alestidae with 18 species (8.9%), Mochokidae
with 17 species (8%), and Cichlidae with 12 species (6%). The remaining families are
less abundant, each with less than 5% (Figure 5). Overall, Cyprinidae, Mormyridae,
Distichodontidae, Alestidae, Mochokidae, and Cichlidae account for about 70% of the
ichthyofaunal diversity in the lower LR.
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Figure 5. Relative representation of each family in the lower Lulua River.
3.2. Anthropogenic Activities
Overall, the economic situation of people in the LR basin is cause for considerable
concern. Economic activity is almost entirely based on unsustainable exploitation of
natural resources and minerals, and this, along with rapid demographic growth, is placing
increasing pressure on ecosystems throughout the LR valley. During our sampling trips,
we identified four main categories of human activity with direct or indirect impact on fish
communities in LR: (1) activities affecting land cover, (2) water quality, (3) river hydrology,
and (4) fish populations (Table 1). The first three categories contribute to habitat loss
and degradation, which are the greatest threats to fish communities in central Africa [10],
whereas the last category affects fish population equilibrium and contributes to population
fragmentation and decline.
Table 1. Human activities identified in the LR valley grouped in categories following their impact on the system.
Category
(1) Land Cover
•
•
•
Activities
(3) Hydrology
(4) Fish Populations
Shifting agriculture
Settlement
Forest exploitation
for building materials
and charcoal
•
(2) Water Quality
•
•
Diamond mining
Clay mining
•
•
Large- and
small-scale damming
Diamond mining
•
•
Fisheries
Dams
Diamond mining
Shifting agriculture (Figure A7A,B) is consistently observed along the LR valley
(Figure A8) and is a primary source of income and food for numerous households in the
area. This activity is the major cause of deforestation and land-cover alteration throughout
the valley. Additionally, settlement into the region is very active and characterized by the
rapid expansion of preexisting towns and villages, as well as the creation of new villages
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and camps. In the absence of electricity, most households rely on charcoal and firewood for
cooking and lighting, further contributing to deforestation.
Artisanal alluvial diamond mining (Figure A7E,F) is widespread (Figure A8) and
remains the most lucrative activity for local populations throughout the valley. Mines are
mostly located along riverbanks, and sometimes whole tributaries are dammed or diverted
to mine their beds. Mined materials are directly sifted or washed in the river, releasing
large amounts of clay, silt, sand, and gravels. Clay mines (Figure A7C) are generally smaller
and provide clay for brick fabrication (Figure A7D) destined for local construction.
Currently, the only major hydroelectric project in the LR valley is the Grand Katende hydroelectric dam, with a planned capacity of 64 MW, which is in an advanced
planning stage.
Fishes play a central role in the regional food supply and are often the only source of
animal protein. Fishing activities in the LR are extensive and practiced by men, women,
and children primarily for subsistence. Many fishing techniques are used including netting,
trapping, damming and dewatering (Figure A7G), long lines, hook and line, and a locally
produced vegetal ichthyocide (Figure A7H). Fishing practices are generally unregulated
and often destructive, utilizing extremely small mesh-sized nets targeting small fish, as the
larger fish are becoming increasingly scarce.
4. Discussion
The dominance of Siluriformes, Cypriniformes, Characiformes, Osteoglossiformes,
and Cichliformes in the LR reflects a similar composition as found in the entire CB [12,61].
At the family level, the CB ichthyofauna is dominated by Cyprinidae, Mormyridae, Cichlidae, Mochokidae, Alestidae, Distichodontidae, Amphiliidae, and Nothobranchiidae,
accounting for 73% of basin-wide diversity [62]. A similar family composition is also found
in the LR. We note that the apparent shift in taxonomic dominance in the lower LR is likely
due to the fact that representatives of the Siluriformes are distributed among seven families,
while Cypriniformes are represented by members of a single family. When compared to
the family composition of the northeastern tributaries of the CR in the Cuvette Centrale
ecoregion [26], we noticed the dominance of the same families in both systems. However,
the most speciose family is no longer the Cyprinidae but the Mormyridae. Such a shift in
dominance suggests that a difference of dominant habitats available in these river networks
may be the cause. The rivers of the Cuvette Centrale ecoregion flow through dense tropical
forests, with numerous blackwater swamps and small forested streams, likely offering more
suitable habitats for mormyrid species than for most cyprinids. While the Mormyridae is
also predominant in another river in the Kasai ecoregion, the Kwilu [27], as well as in proximate ecoregions [28,34,63], the dominance of Cyprinidae in the lower Lulua is noteworthy
and likely reflects the influence of surrounding savannah and grasslands, and a riparian
vegetation restricted in width along its course. Additionally, historical connections between
the Upper Lulua with the headwaters of the Upper Zambezi ecoregion (see below), with its
high number of cyprinid species, may contribute to the large number of cyprinids collected
in the present study. These factors, combined with the presence of some characteristic and
endemic species, suggest that the LR basin may represent a distinctive ecoregion within the
CB; however, additional collecting within the basin is needed before definitive conclusions
can be reached.
While the family composition of the LR is similar to that of the CB as a whole, species
composition indicates some affinities with the Upper Zambezi ecoregion to the south
of the basin (Figure 1). Indeed, species such as Pollimyrus castelnaui (Boulenger 1911)
(Figure A4E), Enteromius brevidorsalis Boulenger 1915 (Figure A5D), Enteromius thamalakanensis Fowler 1935 (Figure A4B), Enteromius radiatus Peters 1853, Clypeobarbus bellcrossi
(Jubb 1965), Parauchenoglanis ngamensis (Boulenger 1911), Hypsopanchax jubbi Poll and Lambert 1965 (Figure A5H), Coptodon rendalli (Boulenger 1897) (Figure A5A), Tilapia sparrmanii
Smith 1840, Pseudocrenilabrus philander (Weber 1897) (Figure A5B), Pharyngochromis acuticeps (Steindachner 1866), and Ctenopoma multispine Peters 1844, present in the LR, have
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also been reported from the Upper Zambezi system [25,50,62]. Such affinities with the
Upper Zambezi can be explained by the existence of intermittent connections between the
headwaters of the two systems during their geological evolution and currently in times of
extreme humidity [25,64–67].
From a taxonomic point of view, the lower LR is characterized by a remarkably rich
and diversified ichthyofauna. In addition to the 201 fish species inventoried in this study,
seven species reported by [14,47,68–70], but not observed during our study, need to be
added to the list. These species are Petrocephalus simus Sauvage 1879, Brachypetersius
cadwaladeri (Fowler 1930), Clarias dumerilii Steindachner 1866, Synodontis depauwi Boulenger
1899, Tetracamphilius pectinatus Roberts 2003, Trachyglanis intermedius Pellegrin 1912, and
Lacustricola katangae (Boulenger 1912). It is likely that these species are rare, are very
localized, or occupy specialized habitats and were able to escape capture during our
campaigns. Adding these seven species, the total number of species known from the LR
basin reaches 208 species. This number will very likely be exceeded in the coming years
as we intensively sample more habitats in unexplored areas of the basin, particularly the
Middle and the Upper LR. Indeed, of the 1256 km of the main channel, only a 200 km stretch
was intensively prospected within the framework of this study. Thus, the present results
suggest that the Lulua catchment harbors an extraordinarily high number of fish species in
comparison to other CR tributaries, such as the Inkisi River basin where 61 fish species have
been reported [31], the Lefini River basin where 140 fish species have been inventoried [30],
the N’sele River with 148 fish species [28], the Kwilu River with 150 species [27], the Luilaka
and Salonga Rivers, both tributaries of the Ruki River, in the Salonga National Park where
152 species have been inventoried [29], and the Lindi River where 187 fish species have
been reported [26]. Overall, only the Itimbiri (232 species) and Aruwimi (246 species)
Rivers, in the Cuvette Centrale ecoregion, have been reported to harbor a higher number
of species [26] than that reported in the present study. These differences could, of course,
be due to many factors including the size of each river catchment, the diversity of habitats,
and their respective productivity, to which we can add sampling techniques, effort, and
gear used in different studies. Furthermore, according to Worm and Duffy [71], there
is a reciprocal influence among the productivity of an ecosystem, its stability, and its
biodiversity; thus, the most productive ecosystems would have high diversities.
It should be noted that about 14.4% (29 species) of the species reported in the lower
LR were exclusively collected in tributaries and have yet to be found in the main channel
(species in bold type in Table A2). Tributaries share an additional 83 species with the
main channel bringing the total number of species collected in tributaries to 112 (55.7%
of the lower LR fish diversity). This suggests that the LR tributaries harbor a significant
proportion of species in the system. It is likely that the real proportion of species finding
shelter in tributaries is considerably higher as our investigation was halted due to insecurity
in the Kasai provinces, and we undoubtedly did not capture the entire species richness
of certain tributaries and sub-tributaries since only a single campaign was undertaken in
localities outside of the main channel. Furthermore, several tributaries of the lower LR
were not surveyed at all. Nonetheless, the main channel harbors the highest number of
species and provides shelter to about 85% (172 species) of the basin’s ichthyofauna.
Among species reported in this study, five (Epiplatys atractus Van Der Zee, Mbimbi,
and Sonnenberg 2013 (Figure A6E), Hypsopanchax stiassnyae Van Der Zee, Sonnenberg,
and Mbimbi 2015 (Figure A6G), Distichodus kasaiensis Moelants, Snoeks, and Vreven, 2018,
Raiamas brachyrhabdotos Katemo Manda, Snoeks, Choca Manda, and Vreven 2018, and
Distichodus polli Abwe, Snoeks, Choca Manda, and Vreven 2019 (Figure A6H)) have recently
been described. The first two are endemic to the Lulua basin while the remainder are
more widely distributed. Furthermore, eight putatively new species have been identified,
namely, Chiloglanis sp. “Lulua”, Tetracamphilus sp. “Lulua”, Epiplatys sp. “pale” Van Der
Zee, Mbimbi, and Sonnenberg (in prep) (Figure A6C), Lacustriola sp., Micropanchax sp.
(Figure A6H), Enteromius sp. “purple stripe” (Figure A4C), Labeo cf. lukulae “Lulua”
Liyandja (in prep), and Labeo sp. nov. Liyandja (in prep). The descriptions of some of these
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are currently underway while others need more investigation to be confirmed as new. In
addition, some taxa, such as Chelaethiops luluae, Chrysichthys cf. duttoni, Garra cf. congoensis,
and Ctenochromis luluae (Figure A6B), require further taxonomic attention.
The species richness reported in this study represents a substantial improvement over
the documentation of the LR ¶ichthyofauna historically estimated at 79 species [14,47,68–70].
In columns 22 and 23 of Table A2, distribution data culled from published IUNC assessment
of the status and distribution of central African fishes [72], the Kwilu River [27,73], the
freshwater fishes of Angola [25,49], and FishBase [62] were used to investigate which of
the species reported in this study have previously been recorded as present in the LR basin
and/or the Kasai ecoregion as a whole. We found that 129 of the species reported here have
not previously been recorded in the LR (Table A2, column 22). Representatives of families
such as Malapteruridae, Tetraodontidae, Bagridae, Kneriidae, Clupeidae, Pantodontidae,
and Notopteridae have not previously been reported from the LR, and 32 species reported here were previously unrecorded from the Kasai ecoregion (Table A2, column 23).
Adding these species to the list of 367 species compiled from existing publications and
databases [25,27,60,62,72–75] brings the total number of species currently known from the
Kasai ecoregion to 399. On the basis of this assessment, the Kasai ecoregion occupies the
first position, in terms of species richness, in the entire CB (exclusive of Lake Tanganyika).
It is followed by the Cuvette Centrale ecoregion with 360 species [26,29], the Lower Congo
rapids and Lower Congo ecoregions with a combined 328 species [76], and Pool Malebo
estimated at 316 species [3]. However, a total of 399 species for the Kasai ecoregion needs
further investigation as some of the species in these lists, such as Labeo ansorgii, Labeo
cylindricus, and Labeo annectens, may have far more restricted distributions than currently
indicated, and it is highly likely that additional species will be documented in the Middle
and Upper Lulua (personal observation). Additionally, it has become clear that molecular
analyses are needed throughout the entire basin to ensure that species are not under-split
due to rampant cryptic speciation [77–79] or over-split due to morphological plasticity
(Liyandja, in prep.).
The highly diversified ichthyofauna of the lower LR and that of the entire basin is
threatened by a combination of exploitation of forest products for building materials,
deforestation for shifting agriculture and charcoal production, destructive fishing practices, and mining (particularly for diamonds), as presented in the results. According to
Nguimalet [80], alluvial diamond mining is responsible for regressive and lateral erosion
resulting in a complete restructuring of river geomorphology in the Central African Republic. Such changes lead to significant habitat loss and, consequently, to fish population
fragmentation and/or decline. In addition to geomorphological modifications, water
quality is impacted by clay, silt, and other materials released into the water, by sifting or
washing operations during diamond mining, which further increase turbidity and conductivity. Soil erosion caused by deforestation and increase in runoff also contribute to the
modification of water quality by carrying more materials (sediment runoff) into the water.
This excess of particulate matter in suspension affects fish physiology in numerous ways,
including suffocation by clogging their gills [81]. As human populations increase, each of
these activities will continue to intensify, and threats are expected to worsen throughout
the region. Additionally, intensification of mining and dam construction projected to
support the planned Congolese Government developmental programs is underway. A
prime example is the Grand Katende hydroelectric dam which is now in an advanced planning stage (https://www.afrik21.africa/en/drc-kinshasa-to-restart-work-on-the-katendehydroelectric-dam-64-mw; accessed on 20 June 2021). If completed, the Katende dam will
inundate the lower LR where the present study has been carried out, and it will undoubtedly lead to major habitat degradation and likely the extirpation of many fish species [82],
numerous of which are of central importance to the fisheries of the region. Subsistence
fisheries in the LR valley are not monitored, and no data on the number of fish produced
from these activities are available to allow an accurate assessment of their impact on the
fish communities. However, according to observations made on the field and the types of
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
11 of 28
fishing gear and techniques used by fishers, we can hypothesize that fish resources in the
LR valley are under very high pressure and possibly already overexploited. Some of these
techniques affect movements of migratory species (Labeo spp., Labeobarbus spp.) and have
an impact on their reproduction cycle. Additionally, the repetitive use of locally produced
organic ichthyocides, such as Tephrosia spp., have a drastic impact on fish communities.
They are already known to be responsible for the decline in species richness and abundance
in tropical streams [83].
Among identified species, only one, Teleogramma monogramma, has been evaluated as
vulnerable by the IUCN Red list of threatened species [84] in Central Africa. According to
Stiassny et al. [10], a congener, Teleogramma brichardi, is critically endangered because of
urbanization around its restricted range near Kinshasa. The populations of T. monogramma
reported here have only been collected near the City of Kananga and at the Katende site,
suggesting that this species may be at higher risk than assessed by the IUCN. Twentyseven (13.4%) species reported in this study have not been evaluated, and 18 (9%) have
been reported as data-deficient by the IUCN. Some of these species such as Hypsopanchax
stiassnyae, Amphilius maesii, Nannocharax uniocellatus, and Clypeobarbus mediosquamatus
appear to have highly localized distributions along the lower Lulua, suggesting that a
reevaluation of their conservation status is urgently needed. The remaining species (77%)
have been evaluated as of least concern in Central Africa. However, given the intensity
of human activities in the LR valley, there is clearly a strong imperative to carry out local
evaluation of the conservation status of the LR species.
5. Conclusions
The ichthyofauna of the lower Lulua River is continentally outstanding in terms of
fish diversity, and the entire Lulua basin may constitute one of the most species-rich fish
communities of the CB. Such an elevated level of fish diversity is likely a result of the
basin’s extensive habitat diversity ranging from numerous rapids, falls, pools, small and
large tributaries, large floodplains, and perennial and permanent swamps, in addition to
its location at the intersection of the Kasai and Lualaba ecoregions. Additionally, its shared
headwaters with the Upper Zambezi ecoregion have likely also contributed to the high
diversity of its ichthyofauna. The present study, which reports more than 200 fish species
in the lower LR, represents a baseline documentation that can be used in conservation and
future development projects in the Kasai ecoregion in general and in the LR in particular.
In the long term, the outcomes of this study are intended as a starting point for monitoring
and protecting the biodiversity of the entire basin. Further investigations are necessary to
capture the true fish diversity of this exceptional river catchment, and such knowledge will
also contribute to a better understanding of the specific composition and biogeographical
history of the ichthyofauna of the Kasai basin and that of the CB as a whole.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10
.3390/d13080341/s1: Table S1. Species distribution among sampling sites.
Author Contributions: J.J.M.M.M., R.J.C.M.I. and M.L.J.S. contributed to the conceptualization of the
study; J.J.M.M.M. and T.L.D.L. collected the data and conducted the investigation; M.L.J.S., J.J.M.M.M.
and T.L.D.L. identified the species; J.J.M.M.M. and T.L.D.L. prepared the original draft; R.J.C.M.I.
and M.L.J.S. edited and reviewed the draft; T.L.D.L. and J.J.M.M.M. prepared visualizations; M.L.J.S.
acquired funding; J.J.M.M.M. and R.J.C.M.I. were in charge of the project administration. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Financial support for this project was provided by the AMNH Axelrod Research Curatorship (M.L.J.S.). This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Associated data are accessible at https://emu-prod.amnh.org/db/
emuwebamnh/index.php.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
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Acknowledgments: For assistance with collection and exportation permits, as well as logistical
support, we are grateful to Julien Punga Kumanenge, Jean Mukulire Malekani, and Koffi Mulumba,
Ministère de l’Agriculture et du Développement Rural, Sécretariat Général de l’Agriculture, Pêche
et Elevage, Direction des Pêches, and the Université de Kinshasa, Cabinet du Recteur, Democratic
Republic of Congo. Our thanks also to Barbara Brown (in memoriam), Radford Arrindell, Tom
Vigliotta, and Chloe Lewis (AMNH) for their help with accessioning and cataloging specimens. We
are also grateful to BEBUC, through the Else Kroner-Fresenius-Stiftung foundation, for their financial
and moral support to T.L.D.L.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. Sampling sites: geographic and physicochemical data (* surface temperature). Geographic coordinates are given
in decimal degrees with negative latitudes indicating south and positive longitudes indicating east.
Site #
Locality
River Name
Latitude (◦ )
Longitude (◦ )
Altitude (m)
T (◦ C) *
pH
Stream Order
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Luebo
Beya
Nsanga Nyembo
Ntumba Shambuyi
Dipumu
Dijiba
Kasende
Katende
Kampaya
Tshimbadi
Ntumbu
Kabeya Nsaka
Mbumba
Kakulu
Miao
Tshilumba
Tshilumba
Tshilumba
Mikalayi
Mikalayi
Mikalayi
Tshiyoyi
Tshiyoyi
Kantumanga
−5.33881
−5.9325
−5.95317
−5.973317
−6.00328
−6.17272
−6.23509
−6.34366
−6.42721
−6.47323
−6.44484
−6.5201
−6.59545
−5.90237
−5.93972
−5.92967
−5.9254
−5.93278
−5.9537
−5.96836
−5.98746
−6.0044
−6.00841
−600,507
21.40929
22.33472
22.34541
22.37388
22.3916
22.45215
22.46443
22.45036
22.41587
22.41857
22.4197
22.43949
22.47788
21.59208
22.22158
22.34352
22.33756
22.34743
22.33714
22.34208
22.33765
22.3906
22.39838
22.52569
377
524
558
518
547
550
606
649
649
680
675
688
725
515
522
520
512
519
529
534
540
545
550
621
28
28
28
30
27
31
30
28
28
25.3
28
26.2
30.3
25
25
28.9
30.5
25.7
30.7
31
24.5
26
31.1
29
7
6
6.4
7
6.4
5.5
6
6.5
6.9
7.1
6.7
8
6.9
6.5
6.5
6.7
6.6
6.5
7.1
6.7
6.6
5.4
6.3
6
25
Kantumanga
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Lulua
Kaluebo
Miao
Kasonga
Tukomba
Nkakala
Kapelekese
Luankadi
Mikalayi
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lukumbi
Kumbi
−6.00413
22.5266
610
26.8
5.3
26
Kantumanga
Musangu
−6.00903
22.52278
621
24.7
6
27
28
Bampanya
Kamuandu
Lunyenga
Lunyenga
−6.12452
−6.06501
22.52636
22.653
609
648
29
28
5.5
5,8
29
Dijiba
Moyo
−6.18725
22.48455
562
28
6
30
Kankunku
Minkidimbua
−6.10658
22.71375
673
25.5
5
31
Kamuandu
Tshimayi
−6.19377
22.73992
702
29.3
5.4
32
Kamuandu
Tshina
−6.20182
22.73446
703
24
6
33
Tshimbulu
Mitshikiji
−650,417
22.7345
760
28
5.4
34
Kazadi
Lubondayi
−6.5259
22.66918
755
30.6
6
35
Kazadi
Mbuyi
−6.54477
22.69843
774
28.6
5.8
36
Kazadi
Kambambe
−6.54879
22.7045
753
29.2
6.2
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Bunkonde
Bunkonde
Tshimbawu
Kaloba
Ntumbu
Kaloba
Kabeya Nsaka
Tshinkelu
Kalulua
Luna
Tshimayi
Kabikonyi
Mukundulu
Munue Mayi
−6.27472
−6.27855
−6.35064
−6.43256
−6.44554
−6.45628
−6.51527
22.4909
22.48777
22.51817
22.43643
22.41882
22.44648
22.44906
678
624
722
678
674
699
906
30.5
29.7
27
30
24.3
25.9
28
6.9
6.8
6.5
6.7
6.3
6.6
5.8
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Main channel
Left bank tributary
Left bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Left bank tributary
Left bank tributary
Left bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank
sub-tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Right bank tributary
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
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Miao
Kasongo
Tukomba
Nkakala
Mikalayi
Luankudi
Kapelekese
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lunyenga
Moyo
Kalulua
Tshikelu
Luna
Tshimayi
Mukundulu
Kabikonyi
Munue Mayi
Lulua Historically
Kasai Basin
POLYPTERIFORMES (1)
Polytpteridae (1)
Polypterus ornatipinnis Boulenger 1902
OSTEOGLOSSIFORMES (37)
Pantodontidae (1)
Pantodon buchholzi Peters 1876
Notopteridae (1)
Xenomystus nigri (Günther 1868)
Mormyridae (35)
Campylomormyrus alces (Boulenger 1920)
Campylomormyrus curvirostris (Boulenger 1898)
Campylomormyrus elephas (Boulenger 1898)
Campylomormyrus mirus (Boulenger 1898)
Campylomormyrus numenius (Boulenger 1898)
Campylomormyrus rhynchophorus (Boulenger 1898)
Campylomormyrus tamandua (Günther 1868)
Campylomormyrus tshokwe (Poll 1967)
Cyphomyrus cubangoensis (Pellegrin 1936)
Cyphomyrus discorhynchus (Peters 1952)
Cyphomyrus psittacus (Boulenger 1897)
Gnathonemus petersii (Günther 1862)
Hippopotamyrus macroterops (Boulenger 1920)
Marcusenius greshoffii (Schilthuis 1891)
Marcusenius intermedius Pellegrin 1924
Marcusenius stanleyanus (Boulenger 1897)
Mormyrops anguilloides (Linneaus 1758)
Mormyrops lineolatusBoulenger 1898
Mormyrops masuianus Boulenger 1898
Mormyrops microstoma Boulenger 1898
Mormyrops sirenoides Boulenger 1898
Mormyrus caballus bumbanus Boulenger 1909
Mormyrus caballus caballus Boulenger 1898
Mormyrus ovis Boulenger 1898
Myomyrus macrops Boulenger 1914
Petrocephalus christyi Boulenger 1920
Petrocephalus cf. schoutedeni Poll 1954
Petrocephalus sauvagii Boulenger 1887
Kaluebo
TAXON
Lulua Main Channel
Table A2. List of species collected at sites in the main channel (lower Lulua) and tributaries. Sub-tributary species are listed in their respective tributaries. Species in bold type were
collected only in tributaries. Numbers in parenthesis are species numbers. In columns 22 (Kasai) and 23 (Lulua historically), distribution data culled from [25,27,60,62,72–75] were used to
indicate which Lulua species are known to occur in the Kasai ecoregion and which were not reported in the catchment prior to this study.
AMNH (Selected Representatives)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
247757, 247472, 268978
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
253358, 253060
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
252627, 253052
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
253224
268982
253131, 268985, 253131
252608
252605, 253223
268986, 251106, 268986
247525, 252609
252609, 253222
268992, 268989, 268992
247444, 253514, 253390
253157
252799, 252612, 253229
251291, 270503
247417, 247446, 243985
252800, 253315, 253319
251125
247507, 252645, 268995
251068
253338, 252821
247471, 251067, 268999
251067, 252730
251133, 251243, 269000
247502, 247405, 253134
269002, 269001, 269002
247518, 247513, 251242
247500, 252819, 253117
252727
251065, 252729, 269016
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
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Kasongo
Tukomba
Nkakala
Mikalayi
Luankudi
Kapelekese
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lunyenga
Moyo
Kalulua
Tshikelu
Luna
Tshimayi
Mukundulu
Kabikonyi
Munue Mayi
Lulua Historically
AMNH (Selected Representatives)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
253197, 253328
253350, 252822, 252614
252613
247526, 253232, 253339
253130
247436
252615
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
268979, 253383
252625
247515, 247479
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
X
251112, 243627
253217, 253305, 253505
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
253026, 253214
253025, 269220
247422, 269221
252847, 269222
252834, 253204
269226
269095, 251320
253510, 243981
257172
247483, 253189
253194, 253285
253115, 252725
253195, 269089
253125
247817, 253001
247812, 251277
253036
252753
269095, 251320
253364, 251061, 269096
247968, 253454
247971, 247855
252631
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
Kasai Basin
Miao
Pollimyrus castelnaui (Boulenger 1911)
Pollimyrus maculipinnis (Nichols and LaMonte 1934)
Pollimyrus nigripinnis (Boulenger 1899)
Pollimyrus osborni (Nichols and Griscom 1917)
Pollimyrus pulverulentus (Boulenger 1899)
Stomatorhinus kununguensis Poll 1945
Stomatorhinus patrizii Vinciguerra 1928
CLUPEIFORMES (3)
Clupeidae (3)
Microthrissa congica (Regan 1917)
Microthrissa royauxi Boulenger 1902
Potamothrissa obtusirostris (Boulenger 1909)
GONORYNCHIFORMES (2)
Kneriidae (2)
Parakneria ladigesi Poll 1967
Parakneria vilhenae Poll 1965
CYPRINIFORMES (41)
Cyprinidae (41)
Enteromius bifrenatus (Fowler 1935)
Enteromius brevidorsalis(Boulenger 1915)
Enteromius chiumbeensis (Pellegrin 1936)
Enteromius eutaenia (Boulenger 1904)
Enteromius fasciolatus (Günther 1868)
Enteromius haasianus(David 1936)
Enteromius humeralis (Boulenger 1902)
Enteromius lineomaculatus (Boulenger 1903)
Enteromius cf. luluae (Fowler 1930)
Enteromius miolepis (Boulenger 1902)
Enteromius paludinosus (Peters 1852)
Enteromius radiatus (Peters 1853)
Enteromius thamalakanensis (Fowler 1935)
Enteromius unitaeniatus (Günther 1866)
Enteromius sp “purple stripe”
Chelaethiops elongatus Boulenger 1899
Chelaethiops luluae (Nichols and Griscom 1917)
Clypeobarbus bellcrossi (Jubb 1965)
Clypeobarbus bomokandi (Myers 1924)
Clypeobarbus mediosquamatus Poll 1967
Garra cf. congoensis Poll 1959
Labeo cf. chariensis Pellegrin 1904
Labeo cf. cyclorhynchus Boulenger 1899
Labeo cyclorhynchus Boulenger 1899
Kaluebo
TAXON
Lulua Main Channel
Table A2. Cont.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
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Kasongo
Tukomba
Nkakala
Mikalayi
Luankudi
Kapelekese
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lunyenga
Moyo
Kalulua
Tshikelu
Luna
Tshimayi
Mukundulu
Kabikonyi
Munue Mayi
Lulua Historically
AMNH (Selected Representatives)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
251178
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
247989, 247995
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
253436, 243606
247850, 269097
247857, 269100
253465, 269104
253465
269111, 247862, 269106
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
269108
247858, 251173
252632
247498, 269115
247423, 269121
243660, 253039
247516, 269118
253198, 247476, 253277
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
252754, 251232, 253153
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
X
252624, 269038, 269037
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
247827, 247828
252719, 253113
252619
251196, 247835
252809, 253016, 253050
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
247825, 243646, 251289
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
253111, 252806
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
X
247831, 269041
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
269045, 252721
253161, 243649
253152, 252805
247838, 252622
243637
252784, 251091
247846, 253326
251056, 269051
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
Kasai Basin
Miao
Labeo cf. dhonti Boulenger 1919
Labeo fulakariensis Tshibwabwa, Stiassny, and
Schelly 2006
Labeo greenii Boulenger 1902
Labeo lineatus Boulenger 1898
Labeo longipinnis Boulenger 1898
Labeo cf. lukulae Boulenger 1902
Labeo lukulae Boulenger 1902
Labeo luluae Fowler, 1930
Cyprinidae (continue)
Labeo parvus Boulenger 1902
Labeo sp. nov. (Liyandja in Prep)
Labeo altivelis Boulenger 1909
Labeobarbus caudovittatus (Boulenger 1902)
Labeobarbus macrolepidotus (Pellegrin 1928)
Leptocypris weynsii (Boulenger 1899)
Opsaridium boweni (Fowler 1930)
Opsaridium ubangiense (Pellegrin 1901)
Raiamas branchrhabdotus Katemo, Snoeks, Chocha,
and Vreven 2018
CHARACIFORMES (38)
Citharinidae (1)
Citharinus gibbosus Boulenger 1899
Distichodontidae (19)
Distichodus affinis Günther 1873
Distichodus antonii Schilthuis 1891
Distichodus atroventralis Boulenger 1898
Distichodus fasciolatus Boulenger 1898
Distichodus lusosso Schilthuis 1891
Distichodus kasaiensis Moelants, Snoeks, and
Vreven 2018
Distichodus maculatus Boulenger 1899
Distichodus polli Abwe, Snoeks, Chocha, and
Vreven 2019
Distichodus sexfasciatus Boulenger 1897
Eugnathichthys eetveldii Boulenger 1898
Eugnathichthys macroterolepis Boulenger 1899
Mesoborus crocodilus Pellegrin 1900
Nannocharax brevis Boulenger 1902
Nannocharax elongatus Boulenger 1900
Nannocharax macropterus Pellegrin 1926
Nannocharax procatopus Boulenger 1920
Kaluebo
TAXON
Lulua Main Channel
Table A2. Cont.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
16 of 28
Kasongo
Tukomba
Nkakala
Mikalayi
Luankudi
Kapelekese
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lunyenga
Moyo
Kalulua
Tshikelu
Luna
Tshimayi
Mukundulu
Kabikonyi
Munue Mayi
Lulua Historically
AMNH (Selected Representatives)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
253326
252717, 252623
253048
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
247414, 243618
253147, 252817, 252740
253472
247505, 247440
252749, 253151
251080, 252644
247527, 252649
247774, 247536
252787, 251301
247771, 252823
247777, 247510
243638, 243600
247775, 247506
252594, 253359
269033, 253159
252750, 252598
251208, 248760
252593
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
252642, 247508
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
253186
253313
252801
252658, 253031
247530, 243989
247473, 253187
243628
252657, 269135
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
247495, 253183, 253314
252831
251238, 251305
243604, 269124, 253215
253185
252785
2474745, 253301, 253199
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
Kasai Basin
Miao
Nannocharax taenia Boulenger 1902
Nannocharax uniocellatus (Pellegrin 1926)
Phago boulengeri Schilthuis 1891
Alestidae (18)
Alestes liebrechtsii Boulenger 1898
Alestes macrophthalmus Günther 1867
Bathyaethiops breuseghemi (Poll 1945)
Brachypetersius altus (Boulenger 1899)
Brycinus comptus (Roberts and Stewart 1976)
Brycinus grandisquamis (Boulenger 1899)
Brycinus humilis (Boulenger 1905)
Brycinus imberi (Peters 1852)
Brycinus kingsleyae (Günther 1896)
Brycinus macrolepidotus (Valenciennes 1850)
Bryconaethiops boulengeri Pellegrin 1900
Bryconaethiops macrops Boulenger 1920
Bryconaethiops microstoma Günther 1873
Hydrocynus goliath Boulenger 1898
Hydrocynus vittatus Castelnau 1861
Micralestes acutidens (Peters 1852)
Micralestes stormsi Boulenger 1902
Phenacogrammus interruptus (Boulenger 1899)
SILURIFORMES (49)
Bagridae (1)
Bagrus ubangensis Boulenger 1902
Clariidae (8)
Channallabes apus (Günther 1873)
Clariallabes variabilis Pellegrin 1926
Clarias camerunensis Lönnberg 1895
Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822)
Clarias pachynema Boulenger 1903
Clarias platycephalus Boulenger 1902
Clarias theodorae Weber 1897
Heterobranchus longifilis Valenciennes 1840
Amphiliidae (7)
Amphilius maesii Boulenger 1919
Amphilius zairensis Skelton 1986
Belonoglanis tenuis Boulenger 1902
Congoglanis alula (Nichols and Griscom 1917)
Phractura scaphyrhynchura (Vaillant 1886)
Tetracamphilus sp. “Lulua”
Zaireichthys flavomaculatus (Pellegrin 1926)
Malapteruridae (3)
Kaluebo
TAXON
Lulua Main Channel
Table A2. Cont.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
17 of 28
Kasongo
Tukomba
Nkakala
Mikalayi
Luankudi
Kapelekese
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lunyenga
Moyo
Kalulua
Tshikelu
Luna
Tshimayi
Mukundulu
Kabikonyi
Munue Mayi
Lulua Historically
AMNH (Selected Representatives)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
247425, 269142
247497, 253122
270504
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
251288, 269144
243997, 251195
253219, 251283
251245, 253220
251079, 251244
251124
252599
247520
252600
247442, 253123
252602
252601
253345
253308
251062, 247521, 269154
269154
247521, 269158
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
269141, 247431
247765, 253254
251154
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
X
-
252634
252744
252635, 253335
247512, 247429
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
252616
247460, 269159
251107
251102, 253154, 253755
252617, 253042
253325
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
247514, 252647
X
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
Kasai Basin
Miao
Malapterurus monsembeensis Roberts 2000
Malapterurus microstoma Poll and Gosse 1969
Paradoxoglanis parvus Norris 2002
Mochokidae (17)
Atopochilus dybowskii (Vaillant 1892)
Chiloglanis micropogon Poll 1952
Chiloglanis sp.”Lulua”
Euchilichthys astatodon (Pellegrin 1928)
Euchilichthys boulengeri Nichols and La Monte 1934
Synodontis acanthomias Boulenger 1899
Synodontis alberti Schilthuis 1891
Synodontis angelicus Schilthuis 1891
Synodontis congicus Poll 1971
Synodontis greshoffi Schilthuis 1891
Synodontis nigriventris David 1936
Synodontis notatus Vaillant 1893
Synodontis ornatipinnis Boulenger 1899
Synodontis pleurops Boulenger 1897
Synodontis smiti Boulenger 1902
Synodontis soloni Boulenger 1899
Synodontis cf. smiti Boulenger 1902
Claroteidae (7)
Auchenoglanis occidentalis (Valenciennes 1840)
Chrysichthys cranchii (Leach 1818)
Chrysichthys cf. duttoni Boulenger 1905
Claroteidae (continue)
Chrysichthys duttoni Boulenger 1905
Chrysichthys longipinnis (Boulenger 1899)
Parauchenoglanis ngamensis (Boulenger 1911)
Parauchenoglanis punctatus (Boulenger 1902)
Schilbeidae (6)
Parailia congica Boulenger 1899
Pareutropius debauwi (Boulenger 1900)
Schilbe congensis (Leach 1818)
Schilbe grenfelli (Boulenger 1900)
Schilbe marmoratus Boulenger 1911
Schilbe yangambianus (Poll 1954)
SYNBRANCHIFORMES (1)
Mastacembelidae (1)
Mastacembelus congicus Boulenger 1896
ANABANTIFORMES (8)
Anabantidae (6)
Kaluebo
TAXON
Lulua Main Channel
Table A2. Cont.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
18 of 28
Kasongo
Tukomba
Nkakala
Mikalayi
Luankudi
Kapelekese
Nkombua
Ngalala
Lubi
Lunyenga
Moyo
Kalulua
Tshikelu
Luna
Tshimayi
Mukundulu
Kabikonyi
Munue Mayi
Lulua Historically
AMNH (Selected Representatives)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
25263, 253307, 253045
251312
252591, 253046, 252591
25321, 253342, 253040
253316, 269209, 253316
247474, 252804, 269221
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
252590
253306, 253041
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
247794, 253420
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
243980, 269195
269177, 269248
253310
253474, 253061
247842, 253426
253118
243677, 247805, 253182
247805, 251054, 251114
247532, 247819
253416, 253432
243679, 24367, 252639
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
253839, 253840
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
-
Kasai Basin
Miao
Ctenopoma acutirostre Pellegrin 1899
Ctenopoma gabonense Günther 1896
Ctenopoma kingsleyae Günther 1896
Ctenopoma multispine Peters 1844
Microctenopoma nanum (Günther 1896)
Microctenopoma nigricans Norris 1995
Channidae (2)
Parachanna insignis (Sauvage 1884)
Parachanna obscura (Günther 1861)
CICHLIFORMES (12)
Cichlidae (12)
Coptodon congica (Poll and Thys van den
Audenaerde 1960)
Coptodon rendalli (Boulenger 1897)
Ctenochromis luluae (Fowler 1930)
Hemichromis elongatus (Guichenot 1861)
Nanochromis nudiceps (Boulenger 1899)
Oreochromis niloticus (Linneaus 1758)
Pharyngochromis acuticeps (Steindachner 1866)
Pseudocrenilabrus philander(Weber 1897)
Steatocranus rouxi (Pellegrin 1928)
Teleogramma monogramma (Pellegrin 1927)
Tilapia sparrmanii Smith 1840
Thoracochromis stigmatogenys (Boulenger 1913)
CYPRINODONTIFORMES (8)
Nothobranchiidae (3)
Epiplatys atractus Van Der Zee, Mbimbi, and
Sonnenberg 2013
Nothobranchiidae (continued)
Epiplatys multifasciatus (Boulenger 1913)
Epiplatys sp. “pale” Van Der Zee, Mbimbi and
Sonnenberg (in prep.)
Poeciliidae (5)
Hypsopanchax jobaerti Poll and Lambert 1965
Hypsopanchax jubbi Poll and Lambert 1965
Hypsopanchax stiassnyaeVan Der Zee, Sonnenberg,
and Mbimbi 2015
Lacustriolasp.
Micropanchaxsp.
TETRAODONTIFORMES (1)
Tetraodontidae (1)
Tetraodon miurus Boulenger 1902
Kaluebo
TAXON
Lulua Main Channel
Table A2. Cont.
253038, 257173
X
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
252449, 252459
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
252845, 247914
252456
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
X
253037, 252441
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
269241, 269169
269173, 269245
-
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
252629
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
19 of 28
Appendix B
Figure A1. Google Earth projections and biotopes of the collection sites located along the main channel of the LR: (A,B) Luebo
(Site 1); (C,D) Katende (Site 8); (E,F) Dipumu (Site 5); (G,H) Beya (Site 2).
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
20 of 28
Figure A2. Biotopes of collection sites located in tributaries and sub-tributaries of the LR: (A) Lubi River (Site 24); (B) Luna
River (Site 39); (C) Luyenga River (Site 28); (D) Tshimayi River (Site 31); (E) Mikindimbua River (Site 30); (F) Mukundulu
River (Site 42); (G) Kabikonyi River (Site 41); (H) Tukomba River (Site 17).
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
21 of 28
Figure A3. Fishing techniques: (A) cast net fishing; (B) passive basket fishing (traps) used in lotic habitat; (C) passive basket fishing
(traps) in rapids and waterfalls; (D) active basket fishing in shallow stream; (E) active basket fishing in shallow ponds; (F) dip and
seine net fishing.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
22 of 28
Figure A4. Selected species reported for the first time in the Kasai ecoregion: (A) Clypeobarbus mediosquamatus; (B) Enteromius
thamalakanensis; (C) Enteromius sp. “purple stripe”; (D) Garra cf. congoensis; (E) Pollimyrus castelnaui; (F) Campylomormyrus
curvirostris; (G) Cyphomyrus cubangoensis; (H) Distichodus polli. Photographed immediately postmortem, scale = 1 cm.
Figure A5. Selected species shared with the Zambezi headwaters: (A) Coptodon rendalli (B) Pseudocrenilabus philander
(C) Enteromius brevidorsalis (D) Enteromius chiumbeensis (E) Enteromius paludinosus (F) Enteromius bifrenatus (G) Microctenopoma
nigricans (H) Hypsopanchax jubbi. Photographed immediately postmortem, scale = 1 cm.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
23 of 28
Figure A6. Selected endemic species of the LR: (A) Steatocranus rouxi (B) Ctenochromis luluae (C) Opsaridium boweni (D) Labeo
luluae (E) Epiplatys atractus (F) Epiplatys sp “pale”. (G) Hypsopanchanx stiassnyae (H) Micropanchax sp. Photographed
immediately postmortem, scale = 1 cm.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
24 of 28
Figure A7. Selected images of some human activities with direct and indirect impacts on the ichthyofauna of the LR.
(A,B) Shifting agriculture, (C,D) Brick fabrication and clay mining, (E,F) Artisanal diamond mining, (G) Dam prepared for
fishing, (H) Vegetal ichthyocide preparation just before use in fishing.
Diversity 2021, 13, 341
25 of 28
Figure A8. Map of the lower Lulua River showing locations of selected anthropogenic activities in the sampling area.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Harrison, I.J.; Brummett, R.; Stiassny, M.L.J. The Congo River Basin. In The Wetland Book; Finlayson, C.M., Milton, G.R., Prentice,
R.C., Davidson, N.C., Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2016; pp. 1–18. [CrossRef]
Winemiller, K.O.; McIntyre, P.B.; Castello, L.; Fluet-Chounard, E.; Giarrizo, T.; Nam, S.; Baird, I.G.; Darwall, W.; Lujan, N.K.;
Harrison, I.; et al. Balancing hydropower and biodiversity in the Amazon, Congo, and Mekong. Science 2016, 351, 128–129.
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