Current Botany 2020, 11: 226-232
doi: 10.25081/cb.2020.v11.6252
https://updatepublishing.com/journal/index.php/cb
Review Article
A review on the unexplored and
underutilized Arenga species in India
Arun R. Pillai1 ⃰, C. T. Riyas1, K. K. Sabu2
ISSN: 2220-4822
1
Department of Botany, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram- 695581, Kerala, India, 2Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical
Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Trivandrum-695562, Kerala, India
ABSTRACT
Received: 21-05-2020
Revised: 23-12-2020
Accepted: 24-12-2020
Published: 29-12-2020
⃰ Corresponding Author:
Arun R. Pillai
Email: arun4apl@gmail.com
The Genus Arenga which includes some of the magnificent palms of the world, their multipurpose utility and diversity is
been reviewed to shed light on the wide potentialities of the different species. Of the 24 species reported only few of them
has been recognized as candidates for domestication from the wild. Four species namely Arenga pinnata, A. obtusifolia, A.
micranta and A. wightii have been reported from India. Their ecological aspects, utilization and conservation strategies
of the tribal communities have been discussed. Seed biology of few species has been reviewed along with the available
data generated through scientific studies. Although most of the members in this Genus have the potential to be explored
commercially, they still fall into the underutilized category. The review is mainly intended to highlight the untapped
resources from different species in this Genus which will promote more scientific studies and result in proper conservation
and sustainable utilization of these valuable palms.
Keywords: Arenga, underutilized, tropical palms, palm toddy, tribal community
INTRODUCTION
The family Arecaceace, also known as Palmae, includes six
subfamilies, about 200 genera, and the species count ranges from
2500-2700 [1]. Their geographic distribution between 44° North and
44° South indicates that they mostly prefer tropical ecosystems [2].
The highest palm diversity is reported to be in Asia and the Pacific
islands with 1385 species, followed by north and south America
with about 1,147 species. Globally palms are utilized for various
products, including its seed oil, leaves for thatching houses, and
cigarette wrappers; the fruits of some palms are edible, and some of
them are known for their sap exudates. The medicinal uses of a few
palms have been known to the tribal communities in different parts
of the world. Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), sugar palm (Arenga
pinnata), nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), kitul palm (Caryota urens),
palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera),
wild date palm (Phoenix sylvestris) oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and
raffia palms (Raphia spp.) reported being the sugar-yielding palms in
Asia and Africa (Dalibard,1999) [3]. Genus Arenga includes several
palm species native to Southeast Asia, southern China, New Guinea,
and northern Australia. [4,5]. The palms range from small to medium
in size, growing to 2–20 m tall, with pinnate leaves 2–12 m long [6].
The Genus includes 24 species- Arenga australasica, A. brevipes,
A.caudata, A. distincta, A.engleri, A.hastata, A. hookeriana, A.
listeri, A. longicarpa, A.longipes, A. micrantha, A. microcarpa,
A. mindorensis, A. obtusifolia, A. pinnata, A. plicata, A.
porphyrocarpa A.retroflorescens, A. ryukyuensis, A. talamauen,
A. tremula, A. undulatifolia, A.westerhoutii and A.wightii. Most
of the plants in the Genus are utilized locally, especially by
only some tribal communities and are an integral part of their
traditional medicinal system. The potential of these palm is yet
to be explored mainly regarding their sugar production and other
valuable medicinal properties.
Table 1 shows the available data regarding the distribution and
uses of twenty species of the genus
ARENGAS IN INDIA
The Indian subcontinent is endowed with a rich diversity of flora
and fauna, which has enriched the country’s biodiversity and has
been a vital part of the cultural traditions that exist in the country.
Arenga pinnata, A.obtusifolia, A. micrantha, and A.wightii are four
members of the Genus Arenga reported in the country.
ARENGA PINNATA –THE MOST VERSATILE PALM
SPECIES
Ecology
Arenga pinnata is the common sugar palm native to the tropical
rain and dry forest of southeast Asia. In India, the palm is
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distributed in the northeastern hilly areas of the primary rain
forest, especially in Assam, and prefers an altitude up to 400m.
The solitary palm grows up to a height of 10-12 m with an
average flowering period of 5-6 years. Due to the palm’s dense
root system, it is seen well established in the steep slopes of
the hilly areas and has a natural soil stabilizing role. Seeds of
the palm are recalcitrant and survive hardly up to 2-3 months
in the soil.
Table 1: Shows the available data regarding the distribution and uses of twenty species of the genus
No.
Plant
Distibution
Habitat
Uses
1.
Arenga
westerhoutii
East Asia - southern China,
India, Myanmar, Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam,
Malaysia
Primary rainforest, very
rarely in secondary growth
areas, at elevations up to
1,400 meters
2.
Arenga undulatifolia
Southeast Asia - Malaysia,
Indonesia, Philippines
3.
Arenga tremula
Southeast Asia - southern
China, Philippines
Primary rainforest, rarely
in secondary growth areas,
at elevations up to 1,500
meters
Lowland areas, especially
in primary rainforest, only
rarely in secondary growth
areas
Ornamental value.
Fruit used criminally.
Leaves are used for thatching and wickerworks.
The wood - to make small utensils, or is even used
in construction.
Sugar is derived from the juice by tapping the
peduncle and rachis of the male inflorescence.
The seeds serve as a good source of proteins\ and
crude fiber
Low sugar palm seed jam was developed in
Thailand
Fruit used criminally
Ornamental value
4.
5.
Arenga talamauensis
Arenga ryukyuensis
Endemic to Sumatra
Japan, Ryukyu Islands
6.
Arenga retroflorescens Borneo, Sabah
7.
Arenga porphyrocarpa Sumatra, Java
8.
9.
10.
Arenga plicata
Arenga mindorensis
Arenga microcarpa
Sumatra
native to Philippines
Indonesia to New Guinea
and northern Australia
11.
12.
Arenga longipes
Arenga longicarpa
13.
Arenga listeri
14.
Arenga hookeriana
15.
Arenga hastata
Sumatera
Endemic to the southern
part
of Guangdong province
Endemic to Christmas
Island
Thailand Peninsula, North
Malaysia Peninsula
Malaya and Borneo
16.
Arenga engleri
17.
Arenga distincta
18.
Arenga caudata
19.
Arenga brevipes
20.
Arenga australasica
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native to islands south of
Japan, including Taiwan
(Formosa) and the Ryukyu
Islands
Borneo
Cambodia, Hainan, Laos,
Malaya, South Myanmar,
Thailand, and Vietnam
Borneo and Sumatera.
Fruit used criminally
The leaves - for thatching and wickerwork
The petioles and midribs are used to make
baskets
The stems are a source of starch
primary dipterocarp forest Not reported
Lowland forest or secondary Ornamental value
forest along river margins,
or scrub forest especially
near the seashore
Lowland rainforest behind
Not reported
mangroves
Rainforests
root decoction and the palm heart are taken to
treat urinary troubles
mixed dipterocarp forest
Not reported
lowland rainforest
Not reported
Primary rainforest, seldome Sagu was made from the trunks by the native
in secondary growth areas, inhabitants.
at elevations up to 700
metres
mixed dipterocarp forest
Not reported
below 700 m elevation in
unknown
Heweishan Natural Forest
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[6,11]
[12]
[13]
[10]
[10]
[14]
[10]
[13]
Evergreen forest
unknown
[15]
Rainforest
suitable for indoor and outdoor decoration
[15]
Open forest
ornamental
[14]
slopes in dense forests
unknown
[16]
Low land mixed dipterocarp unknown
forest
unknown
Lowland rain forests or
deciduous forests
[10]
Rainforests
[14]
North Queensland
Near sea level to 250 m
the eastern coast of Arnhem
Land
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Reference
Leaves – cooked
The leaves are mainly used for thatching and
wickerwork
unknown
[14]
[17]
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Utilization
A. pinnata is popularly known as sugar palm due to the presence
and extraction of palm sugar obtained from the juice tapped from
inflorescence stalks and widely used in all kinds of dishes, sweets,
drinks, and preserves. It is also fermented to make vinegar or
palm wine. Starch extracted from the mature trunk’s pith, palm
heart, and endosperm of immature seeds boiled with sugar are
other food products obtained from the palm [18].Apart from the
palm sap, other significant products that can be produced from
sugar palm include palm neera, fresh juices, traditional sugar
blocks, toddy, crystal and brown sugar ,vinegar bio-ethanol starch
from trunk, seawater resistant fiber, edible heart fruits, leaves
for roofing, brooms, matting, baskets, cigarette papers, cattle
feeds and its starch inside the stem can be processed to make
biopolymer [19]-[23]. The palm’s importance was enhanced
mainly due to the production of bioethanol from the palm sugar by
the process of fermentation using yeast. Bioethanol has now been
used as a renewable energy source like the compound obtained
from other fuel yielding plants. The sugar palm can yield the
highest productivity of bio-ethanol (20,160 l/ha/year) compared
to other sources such as cassava (4500 l/ha/year), sugarcane (5025
l/ha/year), sago (4133 l/ha/year), and sweet sorghum (6000 l/ha/
year) [24].It was a remarkable achievement of Renewable Energy
Lab University of Sam Ratulangi Manado that the bioethanol
production with a purity of 99 percentage was successfully
obtained by manipulating the column temperature of the reflux
distillation apparatus [25]. The large-scale commercialization of
sugar palm plantations of about 4,000,000 ha is in the process of
development, especially in Indonesia, to utilize this tremendous
potential of sugar palm plants.
Apart from being the source of a renewable energy source, the
sugar palm is also known for its fiber, which shows high durability
and resistance to saltwater damage. The natural woven fiber is
wrapped around the tree from the bottom to the tree’s upper
part. The major composite of the palm fiber in the order of
their concentration present in the fiber was found to be hollow
cellulose fibers, cellulose, ash, lignin, and hemicelluloses. The
highest constituent hollow cellulose had a value of 65.55%
followed by cellulose with a value of 56.55 % in the palm fiber [26].
The palm fiber was found to be heat resistant up to 150 ᴼC with
a flash point at around 200ᴼC [27]. The palm sugar is also used
as a potential raw material for the preparation of biopolymers,
biodegradable glycerol is used as plasticizer. It was reported that
the physical properties such as density, moisture content, water
absorption and thickness swelling of the plasticized sugar palm
starch was lower with the increase of glycerol [28]. Poeloengasih
(2011) in his studies used the palm starch and combined with
chitosan to produce edible film materials. Plasticizer such as
glycerol and sorbitol were added to produce strong and flexible
film. The composite films were prepared from chitosan and sugar
palm starch in various ratios with glycerol and sorbitol [29].
Conservation Strategies
Both in vitro and in vivo seed germination studies of A.pinnata
have revealed that the seeds have a dormancy of 1-12 months.
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The main factor which contributes to dormancy was found to be
the impermeable seed coat with inhibitory substances. Isolated
embryo germinated in vitro much rapidly as compared to the
whole seed. Seed scarification was succeeded in increasing the
germination percentage [30]. Considering the wide range in
which the palm is utilized, and it can be said as a potential
candidate for future research which will further make it popular
in the commercial sector.
ARENGA OBTUSIFOLIA
Ecology
The palm A. obtusifolia is mainly distributed Arunachal Pradesh
which lies in the Eastern Himalayas and in the boarders of
Assam. The state Arunachal Pradesh is endowed with about 30%
flora of Indian subcontinent and is biodiversity hotspot [31].
The biennial state forest report 2011 shows that the state has
more than 80.5% of its total geographical area (83,743 sq km.)
under forest [32]. The palm prefers subtropical climates with
plenty of rainfall, high humidity, well-drained soil and also,
they tolerate high light intensity. They are mainly confined to
the sloping hilly terrains of the mountains especially adjacent
to streams. Fully mature trees attain a height of about 3.5 m
and have a trunk circumference of 30-60 cm. The palm seeds
germinate after one month at 28–32 ᴼC.
Utilization
The field study conducted by Ranjay K. Singh (2015) from
Central Agricultural University, Pasighat reveals several
important aspects regarding the usage and conservational
strategies of this palm adopted by the Adi community of
Arunachal Pradesh [33]. The Adi community comprises of 10
major ethnic sub-groups and they mainly reside in the subtropical and sub temperate regions of the state. The Adi men
are engaged in ploughing, digging and other physical activities
for jhum agriculture and women are involved in activities like
crop management, collecting firewood and other ethnobotanical
products from the forest. The tree is popularly known as tasat
among the Adi tribal community of Arunachal Pradesh. The
peel, leaf and stem bark of the palm tree are harvested when
it attains a maturity of about 4-5 years. The tree yields fruits
after 8-9 years with two crops per year. The economic life of the
tree is 14-15 years. The flowering starts in June and can extend
up to July followed by fruiting. The fruits ripen by the end of
September and the second fruiting starts in October and the
ripe fruits are harvested in next January.
The stem pith of the palm is been used by them as food
during drought and for the preparation of various ethnic
beverages. The ethnic beverage prepared by chopping the
palm is known by the name apong among the Adi community
and is considered as precious cultural food. The bread
prepared from the chopped stem is called by name etting
among the community and is a rich source of carbohydrates
during drought and food crisis. Apart from using the palm
as a source of food the Adi community depends on the palm
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leaves for healing wounded cattle and pigs. The chopped stem
pith is boiled and given to pigs. The palm leaves are used by
the Adi livestock owners for rearing mithun, pigs and cows
as well as for making broomsticks, ropes and for thatching
their houses [33].
Conservation Strategies
The socio-cultural significance of this endangered and
native palm among the Adi community has led them to
the establishment of plantations around their settlements.
Women of the tribal communities together with many informal
indigenous institutions played an important role in development
and conservation of the palm plantations around their
village settlements. Kebang and Reglep are two widely known
indigenous institutions of men and women, respectively which
are involved in the sustainable management and conservation
of the palm plantations.
The Reglep usually consist of elder women who supervise
harvesting and monitor the age and number of trees to be
harvested. The magnitude of the harvest depends on the
individual need of each households and the surplus harvest is
mutually shared among the members.
The Kebang consist of people who take decisions to resolve
disputes between the members of the community. They
function like the court which hears the disputes regarding the
unauthorized harvest and overexploitation of the endemic
palm species. They have the power to give punishments if the
accused is proved guilty.
Overall both these tribal indigenous institutions play an
effective and valuable role in ensuring the sustainable use of
palm and thereby conserving it for the future generation. The
advent of many commercial crops has led to the reduction
in the dependency of the community people for this
valuable palm resource. This has led to the loss of traditional
knowledge regarding the utilization and conservation of the
palm. Promoting the women and the traditional institutions
involved in conservation to develop strategies for transferring
the traditional knowledge to future generations with the help
government departments can help in sustaining the utilization
and there by conservation of this endangered and endemic palm
of our country. [33]
ARENGA WIGHTI
Ecology
The palm is endemic to Southern Western Ghats in Kerala and
it is known as ‘Kattuteng [34]. It is confined to the evergreen
forests at altitudes ranging from 300 to 1000m. The shade loving
palm grows up to a height of 10m and diameter of 30 cm and is
usually seen in valleys with suitable for its colony formation [35].
Although the palm is reported in several districts, two major
colonies can be seen in Thiruvananthapuram and Idukki
districts.
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Utilization
Local tribal communities like Mudhuvans of Idukki depend on
the palm mainly for its starch from the pith and toddy which is
collected by tapping its inflorescence [36].The inflorescence of
the palm is used for religious ceremonies and the leaves which
resemble coconut leaves are used for thatching the huts and
pandals in their settlement. Although the fruit contains irritant
needle like oxalate crystals, it is dehusked and boiled repeatedly
for making it suitable for consumption. The dried kernels are
powdered and are mixed with rice flour for the preparation of
several food items. The terminal bud also called cabbage of the
palm is edible, but nowadays it is seldom used by them.
Starch is collected from the palm stem of an age of 15-20
years by felling off the tree and removing its sclerenchymatous
hypodermis. The cylindrical cortex is chopped, and the starch
is extracted in water which is further dried and used as food
supplement as well as for the preparation of other indigenous
food items like kurukk and upuma
The palm is tapped from the unopened spadix and the toddy
is collected in a long bamboo from the month of April and is
consumed as wine without fermenting. The fresh toddy is also
given to patients suffering from jaundice [37]. Vinegar and
jaggery are the two value added products derived from the palm
wine [38]. The Malampandaram tribes of Achancovil forest
range in the Kollam District of Kerala use the white powdery
material from the leaf of the palm for wound healing [39].
The plant has gained attention among scientific community
due to its medicinal value reported in various scientific
literatures. HPLC and GC-MS analysis of the methanolic
extract of the leaves and fruit has confirmed the presence of
various antimicrobial and antioxidant phytochemicals like
gallic acid, ascorbic acid, chlorogenic acid and caffeine. The
antimicrobial activity of the leaf and fruit extracts seems to
very pronounced against Staphylococcus aureus which is the
most common infectious skin pathogen of humans [40]. The
ethanolic extract of the stem pith was administered in various
doses in carrageen induced paw oedema in Wistar rats to study
the anti-inflammatory potency.
Dosage depended inhibition of oedema was observed which was
comparable to the standard drug indomethacin. Similarly, the
analgesic activity of the ethanol stem pith extract was evaluated
in Swiss albino mice using acetyl salicylic acid as standard. The
results were comparable to the standard in a dosage dependent
manner [40].
From the available scientific literature it is evident that A.wightii
is potential palm which can be utilized commercially for
harvesting its toddy and for products which has great medicinal
value.
Promoting the non-destructive utilization of the palm among
the tribes along with its conservation should be the first step
which will lead to the sustainable utilization of this endemic
palm species. More scientific studies to validate the medicinal
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value of the palm derived products should be done which
can confirm it as a promising source of raw material for the
pharmaceutical industry.
Conservation Strategies
Currently there no efficient conservation strategies implemented
for A. wightii. Deep insight into the seed physiology of the palm
is needed for designing efficient strategies for conservation.
Ideal conditions for its seed germination should be elucidated
scientifically which can help its propagation and establishment
in a large scale. Conservation strategies as in A. obustifola
of the northeast can be implemented for A. wightii with
the involvement of tribal communities which can promote
the sustainable usage of this valuable palm among them.
Moreover, seed physiological studies can contribute to the
effective establishment of large-scale plantations of the palm
for commercial purpose.
ARENGA MICRANTHA
Ecology
The palm is commonly known as Tibetan sugar palm distributed
in the cloud forest of Tibet, Bhutan and in North East India. It is
a dioecious, hepaxanthic solitary palm that attains a maximum
height of 2 m which is observed in subtropical or tropical moist
lowland forests with an altitude range from 1400-2150 m [41].
Flowering is reported to be very rare and requires pollination
for fruiting. It is said to be the hardest species in the Genus
Arenga and currently is in the endangered category. The altitude
specificity of the plant proves that it is an ideal species of the
Genus which can be said as cold-tolerant.
Utilization
This non-woody palm is known locally as Ingkuri in the forest
regions of Papuan islands and is considered as a potential source
of forest products. The shoot extracts and fruits are used for
preparation of beverages [42]. The leaves are used as roadside
shelters in some parts of Sikkim and its borders.
Conservation Strategies
Conservation studies are yet to be done in this species in
northeastern parts of India following the strategies adopted
for Arenga obustifolia by the local and government bodies for
promoting conservation and sustainable utilization.
Seed biology of Arengas
Almost all the seeds of most of the species in this Genus
is characterized by the presence of a hard, impermeable
seed coat [43]. Impermeability of the seed coat is the result
of thickness of testa [44-46]. Seed germination in Arenga
australasica is remote-non ligular type. It is a type of germination
in which the cotyledonary petiole elongates, radicle and
plumule emerges from the cotyledonary sheath [47]. From
230
the germination studies of A. australasica it is evident that the
untreated seeds showed low germination rates when compared
with scarified or heat-treated seeds [17]. Secondary dormancy is
a phenomena observed in their seeds which refers to the ability
of the seeds to remain dormant in unfavorable conditions,
germinate and establish when conditions are favorable for its
establishment [48-51].
Seed germination studies in Arenga. westerhoutii reveals that 36
months old seeds with both ends cut has the highest efficiency
of germination as compared to hot water treated seeds. Hot
water treatment seems to harm the palm embryos which
reduced the germination percentage. Single leaf together with
two third of leaf cutting was the most ideal stage for uprooting
and transplantation of their seedlings for large scale plantation
establishment [7].
Seed germination in untreated Arenga pinnata was reported to
be 27 % [52]. Dormancy of the seeds was successfully broken
by scarification treatments after 30-365 days [53]. In another
study with different concentration of gibberellic acid on seeds
of A. pinnata, 170ppm of GA3 showed as maximum germination
rate of 83 % as compared to untreated samples. Parameters
like length of plumule, length of root and plant length were
measured to be high in 170ppm GA3 treated seeds. Similarly,
the effect of different concentrations of HCl, HNO3 and H2SO4
were studied, treatment with 0.4% of HCl resulted in 100 %
germination.[54]. Another study on scarification of A.pinnata
seeds revealed that scarification in the embryo part resulted
in best germination percentage at around 99.81% [55]. These
finding may help the farmers to synchronize germination and
growth of A.pinnata seeds for plantation establishments of this
multiutility palm. Few studies in other Arenga reported that
A. obtusifolia, A. engleri, A. pinnata, A. tremula, A. microcarpa,
A. undulatifolia and A. wightii broke dormancy after 83-126
days without any treatments [52]. Germination studies in the
seeds of A.wightii indicated that their low initial germination
percentage. Seed setting problems in this medicinal palm has
also contributed to its local endemism and vulnerable status
CONCLUSION
The members of the Genus Arenga are mostly highly ornamental
as well as are dependable candidates for its products. The local
communities which are already involved in harvesting various
products from these palms must be encouraged in conserving
the palms through their traditional communal strategies.
The local government must take active measures in large
scale planting of these palm species thereby promoting the
traditional tapping workers. Phytochemical studies will lead
to the scientific evaluation of the palm products and a hike in
its pharmacological value. The development of value-added
products from the palm wine can enhance its economic value
and can raise the income of the workers involved in the palm
establishment and harvesting. Seed physiological studies in
these endemic palm species will lead to the discovery of the
ideal conditions for large scale seedling establishment which
in turn lead to conservation of these valuable palms.
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