Bothalia - African Biodiversity & Conservation
ISSN: (Online) 2311-9284, (Print) 0006-8241
Page 1 of 16
Original Research
The Gauteng Conservation Plan: Planning
for biodiversity in a rapidly urbanising province
Authors:
Michèle F. Pfab1,2
Petronella C. Compaan2
Craig A. Whittington-Jones2
Ian Engelbrecht2,3
Lihle Dumalisile2
Lorraine Mills2
Sean D. West2
Piet J. Muller2
Gavin P.R. Masterson2,4
Livhuwani S. Nevhutalu2,5
Stephen D. Holness6
David B. Hoare7
Affiliations:
1
South African National
Biodiversity Institute,
Pretoria, South Africa
Gauteng Department of
Agriculture and Rural
Development, Johannesburg,
South Africa
2
Department of Zoology and
Entomology, University of
Pretoria, South Africa
3
School of Animal, Plant and
Environmental Sciences,
University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa
4
City of Johannesburg
Metropolitan Municipality,
Braamfontein, South Africa
5
Centre for African
Conservation Ecology,
Department of Zoology,
Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan University,
South Africa
6
David Hoare Consulting cc,
Vanderbijlpark, South Africa
7
Corresponding author:
Michèle Pfab,
m.pfab@sanbi.org.za
Dates:
Received: 19 Sept. 2016
Accepted: 12 Sept. 2017
Published: 30 Nov. 2017
Read online:
Scan this QR
code with your
smart phone or
mobile device
to read online.
Background: Gauteng, the smallest of South Africa’s nine provinces, is rich in biodiversity;
yet it is also the most densely populated province and thus faces significant development
pressures.
Objective: A project was therefore initiated in 2001 to identify areas of biodiversity importance
in the province, using the systematic spatial biodiversity planning approach that has been
adopted in South Africa. This article reports on the final version of the provincial conservation
plan as completed in 2011.
Method: Vegetation types and quaternary catchments constituted the coarse filter biodiversity
features, while rare and threatened taxa constituted the fine filter features. Ecological processes
were captured by a range of landscape features, while planning for climate change primarily
involved the design of a corridor network. Planning was undertaken within the ArcView
linked C-plan decision support system, where a cost surface preferentially directed the
selection of available sites towards low-cost areas.
Results: Forty-four per cent of the province is required to achieve targets. Only 8% of features
are close to having their targets met or are adequately conserved in the current protected area
network of 23 protected areas covering 2.4% of the province, while 73% of features are absent
or poorly represented.
Conclusion: The existing protected area network is inadequate for the conservation of
biodiversity in Gauteng. The Gauteng Conservation Plan identifies a set of areas that are
required to achieve conservation targets. It is important that identified areas currently not
in the protected area network are protected either formally or through legislated land use
management processes.
Introduction
Gauteng is the smallest of South Africa’s nine provinces (Figure 1) and is generally regarded as
the economic powerhouse of South Africa. It is the most densely populated province in the
country with the highest population growth rate and the demand for urban land in this rapidly
urbanising province is therefore high. The mining sector also has a significant presence in
Gauteng, with the city of Johannesburg established over 100 years ago after the discovery of
gold on the Witwatersrand. A sustainable and healthy urban environment is dependent on
biodiversity providing ecosystem services such as air filtration, groundwater recharge, flood
attenuation, water purification, pollination services, pest control, medicinal species and
thatching grass (Davidson 2000; Folke 2006; Robinson 2006). Biodiversity has also been shown
to be important for human emotional, mental and physical well-being (Balmford & Bond 2005;
Miller 2005).
Despite its small size (approximately 18 178 km²), Gauteng is rich in biodiversity. The province is
situated within both the savanna and grassland biomes, with approximately 80% of its area
designated as Highveld Grassland, one of the two richest primary grasslands in the world, that is
also particularly poorly conserved (< 2% protected) (Low & Rebelo 1996; Mucina & Rutherford
2006). An estimated 2183 plant taxa (SANBI 2013), 125 mammal species (Low & Rebelo 1996), 488
bird species (South African Bird Atlas Project 2), 21 amphibian species (Whittington-Jones et al.
2009) and 92 reptile species (Whittington-Jones et al. 2008) occur in Gauteng. At least 11 taxa are
endemic to the province.
How to cite this article: Pfab, M.F., Compaan, P.C., Whittington-Jones, C.A., Engelbrecht, I., Dumalisile, L., Mills, L. et al., 2017, ‘The
Gauteng Conservation Plan: Planning for biodiversity in a rapidly urbanising province’, Bothalia 47(1), a2182. https://doi.org/10.4102/
abc.v47i1.2182
Copyright: © 2017. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License.
http://www.abcjournal.org
Open Access
Page 2 of 16
LIM
GT
NW
MP
FS
KZN
NC
EC
WC
Source: Authors’ own work
GT, Gauteng; MP, Mpumalanga; LIM, Limpopo; NW, North West; KZN, KwaZulu-Natal; FS,
Free State; NC, Northern Cape; EC, Eastern Cape; WC, Western Cape.
FIGURE 1: The nine provinces of South Africa.
In the first National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment
published for South Africa in 2004 (Driver et al. 2004),
Gauteng was shown to be situated wholly within two of nine
national biodiversity priority areas, the so-called BushveldBankenveld and Wet Grasslands. Most of the land area of the
province is also situated within a crisis ecoregion classified as
Critically Endangered (Hoekstra et al. 2005), indicating that
the biodiversity and ecosystem services in Gauteng are at
greatest risk when measured at a global scale.
In 2001, the former Gauteng Directorate of Nature
Conservation (of the then Gauteng Department of
Agriculture, Conservation and Environment and now the
Biodiversity Management Component of the Department of
Agriculture and Rural Development [GDARD]) embarked
on a biodiversity planning project for the province that finally
culminated in the completion of the Gauteng Conservation
Plan Version 3.3 in 2011. The project aimed to identify
and map areas important to biodiversity in Gauteng through
a spatial biodiversity planning exercise underpinned
by explicit representation and persistence goals, and to
ultimately provide recommendations and policy strategies
for the conservation and management of these areas. It
involved the collection and repeated analysis of biodiversity
data. The analysis was based on the systematic conservation
planning protocol developed by Margules and Pressey (2000)
as adapted further by the collective efforts of the South
African conservation planning community, which has
produced a number of provincial conservation plans, most
notably for Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal. The protocol
involves selecting features to be used as surrogates for overall
biodiversity, setting explicit goals and translating them into
quantitative operational targets, determining the extent to
which these conservation targets are met in existing protected
areas and identifying additional areas to complement existing
protected areas in achieving targets not met. The underlying
principles of this protocol include complementarity
(avoidance of duplication of important attributes), efficiency
http://www.abcjournal.org
Original Research
(most protection for the least cost/area), defensibility
(justification of decisions made), flexibility (in the face of
competing land uses), persistence (capturing of ecological
processes and exclusion of threats for long term viability in a
dynamic environment) and accountability (in allowing
decisions to be critically reviewed).
This article reports on the final version of the provincial
conservation plan that was completed in 2011, produced
using a statistical approach through the calculation of
irreplaceability in the C-plan decision support system
(Pressey et al. 2009), together with a multi-criterion approach
through the post hoc inclusion of landscape features as
surrogates for ecological processes.
Methods
Biodiversity is defined as the variety and variability among
living organisms and the ecological complexes in which
they occur (Scott et al. 1995). As the concept encompasses
landscapes, communities, species, populations, individual
organisms and genes, as well as ecological processes,
biodiversity surrogates representing these different levels of
biological organisation were fundamental to the biodiversity
planning exercise for Gauteng. An integrative hierarchical
approach (Pfab 2002) was adopted, in which the coarse filter
for terrestrial and aquatic species, respectively, constituted a
vegetation spatial layer (map) (Figure 2h), and maps of
quaternary catchments and endorheic pans and pan clusters
(Allan, Seaman & Kaletja 1995) (Figure 2i). Plant communities
are regarded as useful surrogates for biodiversity as they are
thought to provide a reliable representation of faunal and
floral species diversity (Lesica 1993), especially organisms
that are poorly known and difficult to survey such as
soil microfauna, bacteria and fungi that carry out critical
ecosystem functions such as decomposition and nitrogen
fixation (Franklin 1993; Noss 1996). It is estimated that a
coarse filter for biodiversity captures 85%–90% of species
(Noss 1987), predominantly the common and widespread
species. Spatial layers (maps) of rare and threatened plant,
bird, invertebrate, mammal, fish and reptile taxa constituted
the fine filter (Figure 2a–f; Table 1).
Coarse filter biodiversity surrogates mapping
and target setting
A provincial vegetation map comprising 12 vegetation types
(Figure 2h) was developed from an analysis of plant species
composition data (including all grass, woody and herbaceous
species) collected during summer season sampling of
100 m2 plots at 439 randomly stratified sample sites across
the province using the Braun-Blanquet method. Sample
stratification of 900 original plots took into account existing
vegetation types (Mucina & Rutherford 2006), 127 unique
environmental classes (obtained after intersecting temperature,
rainfall and altitude spatial layers in a geographic information
system [GIS]) and 30 putative vegetation classes (delineated
through an unsupervised classification of December 2001/
January 2002 LANDSAT 7 satellite imagery filtered to remove
all non-natural land cover). Following field surveys, 461 plots
Open Access
Page 3 of 16
Original Research
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
Source: Authors’ own work
FIGURE 2: Spatial input layers used in the biodiversity planning project for Gauteng, South Africa. Built-up areas are shaded in grey for orientation. (a) Confirmed locations
and (b) suitable habitat patches (represented as centroids) of 45 Threatened (IUCN 2001) or Orange List (Victor & Keith 2004) plant taxa (Pfab & Victor 2002; Raimondo
et al. 2009); (c) confirmed habitat for 11 bird species with global or national Threatened or Near Threatened (IUCN 2001) statuses (Barnes 2000); (d) confirmed habitat
for three butterfly (Henning, Terblanche & Ball 2009) and one beetle species qualifying for an IUCN Threatened category; (e) confirmed habitat for 10 small mammal
species (including six bat species) with a national Threatened or Near Threatened status (Bronner 2008; Skinner & Chimimba 2005); (f) confirmed habitat for three
ecologically sensitive fish species (blue polygons) and one Near Threatened snake species (brown polygons) (Bates et al. 2014); (g) primary vegetation; (h) provincial
vegetation map; (i) densely wooded areas (pink polygons), good-quality pans (20 in total with 1-km buffers) and pan clusters (dark blue polygons), respectively, located
outside of and within good condition quaternary catchments (light blue areas); (j) bioclimatic zones representing 905 out of 978 unique bioclimatic classes; (k) level 1
(dark green polygons) and level 2 (light green polygons) protected areas; (l) cost surface showing low-cost areas (green and yellow polygons) and high-cost areas (orange
and red polygons).
were discarded because they were situated within secondary
vegetation (having previously been ploughed for agriculture)
or were found to be irreversibly modified.
Within the vegetation types, only primary vegetation
(Figure 2g) was included in the biodiversity planning exercise.
All secondary vegetation in the province was delineated from
crop lands shown in old topocadastral maps and agricultural
lands mapped in available land cover data sets. Altogether,
only 40% of the vegetation in the province remains in a
primary state (Table 2). Gauteng Grassland, by far the largest
vegetation type in the province, is in a particularly poor state
with only 28% primary vegetation remaining (Table 2).
The minimum percentage area required to represent all
species within a region is highly variable and depends on the
diversity and endemism of the taxa of concern (Rodrigues &
Gaston 2001). The method developed by Desmet and
Cowling (2004) that is based on the species–area relationship
was therefore used to calculate conservation targets for the 12
vegetation types, expressed as the percentage of the original
extent of the vegetation type required to represent 80% of the
associated species. Ranging between 8% for Clay Grassland
http://www.abcjournal.org
and 27% for Norite Koppies Bushveld (Table 2), these
conservation targets compare favourably with those
recommended in the conservation literature, which range
between 12% and 75% (Cowling & Heijnis 2001).
A total of four quaternary catchments that were deemed to be
in a good condition, that is, where the rivers retain a high
proportion of their natural or remnant ecological organisation
and functions as indicated by River Health PESC scores
(Kleynhans & Louw 2008) of C or higher, were selected as
surrogates for aquatic species (Figure 2i). As these four
quaternary catchments are together representative of the
Eastern Bankenveld and Bushveld, Western Bankenveld and
Highveld Level II Ecoregions used as a basis for the River
Health Programme (Kleynhans & Louw 2008) (Table 3),
representation goals were fulfilled. A land cover analysis of
upstream or source quaternary catchments indicated that
rivers in a B or C ecological state were associated with a
minimum vegetation cover (inclusive of both primary and
secondary vegetation) of 59% and 46%, respectively. These
results informed the conservation targets for the four
quaternary catchments (Table 3); the targets aimed at
retaining the associated rivers in good ecological states.
Open Access
Page 4 of 16
Original Research
TABLE 1: Provincial conservation targets for species selected as fine filter biodiversity surrogates, developed in accordance with the method set out in Pfab et al. (2011)
and proportionally assigned to Gauteng.
Scientific name
Common name
Conservation status
Provincial conservation target and GIS translation thereof
None
Near Threateneda
Nine locations and 8000 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied by all
confirmed populations (three) plus nine habitat patches‡
Three locations and 2600 mature individuals = one habitat patch‡
Plants
Adromischus umbraticola subsp.
umbraticola
Alepidea attenuata
None
Near Threatenedb
Aloe peglerae
Red-hot poker
Endangered (A & B criteria)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (six)
Argyrolobium campicola
None
Near Threateneda
Two locations and 1800 mature individuals = two habitat patches
Argyrolobium megarrhizum
None
Near Threateneda
Three locations and 3100 mature individuals = three habitat patches
Blepharis uniflora
None
Rarea
All populations (one) = one habitat patch
Bowiea volubilis subsp. volubilis
Climbing green lily/
climbing onion/Zulu
potato
Vulnerable (A criterion)b
One location and 500 mature individuals = a combination of populations that
add up to a population size of 500
Brachycorythis conica subsp.
transvaalensis†
None
Vulnerable (B criterion)a
[Re-assessed recently as
Endangered]
All populations (six) and 10 habitat patches for metapopulation persistence =
100% of total area occupied by one confirmed population plus 15 habitat
patches
Brachystelma discoideum†
None
Endangered (B criterion)b
All populations (one) and two habitat patches for metapopulation persistence =
three habitat patches
Ceropegia decidua subsp.
pretoriensis†
None
Vulnerable (D criterion)a
All populations (20) and 34 habitat patches for metapopulation persistence =
100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (18) plus 36 habitat
patches
Ceropegia turricula†
None
Near Threateneda
Two locations and 1500 mature individuals and three habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = five habitat patches‡
Cheilanthus deltoidea subsp.
silicicola†
None
Vulnerable (B, C & D criteria)a
All populations and 17 habitat patches for metapopulation persistence = 100%
of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (10) plus 17 habitat patches
Cineraria austrotransvaalensis†
None
Near Threatened
Four locations and 3400 mature individuals and 19 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed
populations (one) plus 29 habitat patches‡
Cineraria longipes†
None
Vulnerable (D criterion)a
All populations and 39 habitat patches for metapopulation persistence = 100%
of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (23) plus 39 habitat patches
Cleome conrathii
None
Near Threateneda
Two locations and 1400 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied by all
confirmed populations‡
Cucumis humifructus†
None
Vulnerable (B criterion)b
All populations (one) and two habitat patches for metapopulation persistence =
three habitat patches
Delosperma gautengense
None
Vulnerable (D criterion)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations
(three)
Delosperma leendertziae
None
Near Threateneda
Ten locations and 8800 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied by all
confirmed populations (19) plus one habitat patch‡
a
Delosperma macellum
Rooibergpypie
Endangered (D criterion)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (one)
Delosperma purpureum
None
Endangered (B criterion)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (four)
Dioscorea sylvatica
None
Vulnerable (A criterion)b
One location and 400 mature individuals = one habitat patch
Encephalartos lanatus
Olifant river cycad
Vulnerable (B criterion)a
[Re-assessed recently as Near
Threatened]
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations
(four) plus three habitat patches
Encephalartos middelburgensis
Middelburg cycad
Critically Endangered
(A & C criteria)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations
(two)
Eulophia coddii†
None
Vulnerable (B & D criteria)a
All populations (nine) and 15 habitat patches for metapopulation persistence =
24 habitat patches
Frithia humilis
None
Vulnerable (B criterion)a
[Re-assessed recently as
Endangered]
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations
(five) plus three habitat patches
Frithia pulchra
None
Rarea
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (one)
Gladiolus pole-evansii
None
Rare-sparsea
All populations (one) = one habitat patch
Gladiolus robertsoniae
None
Near Threateneda
Two locations and 1400 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied by all
confirmed populations (one) plus three habitat patches‡
Gnaphalium nelsonii†
None
Rare-sparsea
All populations (three) and five habitat patches for metapopulation persistence
= eight habitat patches
Habenaria barbertoni†
None
Near Threateneda
Four locations and 3200 mature individuals and 10 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed
populations (one) plus 15 habitat patches‡
Habenaria bicolor†
None
Near Threatenedb
Two locations and 1500 mature individuals and 17 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 27 habitat patches‡
Habenaria kraenzliniana†
None
Near Threateneda
Two locations and 1900 mature individuals and 31 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed
populations (five) plus 44 habitat patches‡
Habenaria mossii†
None
Endangered (C & D criteria)a
All populations (eight) and 14 habitat patches for metapopulation persistence =
100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (five) and 17 habitat
patches
Holothrix micrantha†
None
Endangered (A & B criteria)a
All populations (four) and seven habitat patches for metapopulation persistence
= 11 habitat patches
Holothrix randii†
Tassel orchid
Near Threatenedb
Four locations and 3200 mature individuals and 29 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed
populations (11) plus 35 habitat patches‡
Khadia beswickii
None
Vulnerable (B criterion)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (11)
plus two habitat patches
Table 1 continues on the next page →
http://www.abcjournal.org
Open Access
Page 5 of 16
Original Research
TABLE 1 (Continues...): Provincial conservation targets for species selected as fine filter biodiversity surrogates, developed in accordance with the method set out in Pfab
et al. (2011) and proportionally assigned to Gauteng.
Scientific name
Common name
Conservation status
Provincial conservation target and GIS translation thereof
Kniphofia typhoides
None
Near Threateneda
Three locations and 2500 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied by
all confirmed populations (10) plus one habitat patch
Lithops lesliei subsp. lesliei
None
Near Threatenedb
Lithops lesliei subsp. lesliei var.
rubrobrunnea
None
Endangered (A, B & C criteria)
Melolobium subspicatum
None
Vulnerable (D criterion)a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations (11)
plus two habitat patches
Nerine gracilis
None
Near Threatened
Three locations and 2600 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied by
all confirmed populations (three)
Prunus Africana
African almond/bitter
almond/bitter almond
tree/red stinkwood/
wild almond
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)b
All populations (three) = three habitat patches
Searsia gracillima var. gracillima
None
Near Threateneda
Eleven locations and 10 000 mature individuals = 100% of total area occupied
by all confirmed populations (one) plus eight habitat patches‡
Stenostelma umbelluliferum†
None
Near Threateneda
Nine locations and 8200 mature individuals and 14 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed
populations (three) plus 19 habitat patches‡
Trachyandra erythrorrhiza†
None
Near Threateneda
Nine locations and 8600 mature individuals and 32 habitat patches for
metapopulation persistence = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed
populations (16) plus 35 habitat patches
Alcedo semitorquata
Half-collared Kingfisher
Near Threatenedc
Two hundred and forty breeding pairs = 100% of modelled suitable habitat
Anthropoides paradiseus
Blue Crane
Vulnerable (A criterion)a,c
Five breeding pairs‡; 380 ha per pair = 1900 ha plus the core over-wintering
area of the Blue Cranes in SE Gauteng
One location and 800 mature individuals = a combination of populations that
add up to a population size of 800
a
a
All populations = 100% of total area occupied by all confirmed populations
(two) plus one habitat patch
Birds
Circus ranivorus
African Marsh-harrier
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)c
Ten breeding pairs; 1000 ha per pair = 10 000 ha of modelled suitable habitat
Eupodotis caerulescens
Blue Korhaan
Near Threatenedc
One hundred breeding pairs;100 ha per pair = 10 000 ha of modelled suitable
habitat
Eupodotis senegalensis
White-bellied Korhaan
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)c
One hundred and twenty breeding pairs; 120 ha per pair = 14 400 ha of
modelled suitable habitat
Gorsachius leuconotus
White-backed Nightheron
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)
Twenty breeding pairs = 100% of modelled suitable habitat
c
Gyps coprotheres
Cape Vulture
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)a,c
One breeding population (minimum of 118 breeding pairs)
Mirafra cheniana
Melodious Lark
Near Threateneda,c
Three hundred and twenty breeding pairs; 2 ha per pair = 640 ha of modelled
suitable habitat
Podica senegalensis
African Finfoot
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)c
Twenty breeding pairs = 100% of modelled suitable habitat
Saggitarius serpentarius
Secretarybird
Near Threatenedc
Thirty breeding pairs††; 3150 ha per pair = 94 500 ha of modelled suitable
habitat
Tyto capensis
African Grass-owl
Vulnerable (A & C criteria)c
One hundred and fifty breeding pairs; 260 ha per pair = 39 000 ha of modelled
suitable habitat
Aloeides dentatis
Roodepoort Copper
butterfly
Vulnerable (B criterion)d
One hundred per cent of modelled suitable habitat at known (confirmed)
localities for the species
Chrysoritis aureus
Heidelberg Copper
butterfly
Vulnerable (B & D criteria)d
One hundred per cent of known localities plus 100% of modelled distribution
(inclusive of 70% suitable habitat and 30% of unsuitable habitat for
metapopulation persistence)
Ichnestoma stobbiai
Stobbia’s fruit chafer
beetle
Vulnerable (B criterion)d
One hundred per cent of modelled suitable habitat at all known localities
Lepidochrysops praeterita
Highveld Blue butterfly
Endangered (A & B criteria)d
One hundred per cent of known localities plus 100% of modelled distribution
(inclusive of 70% suitable habitat and 30% of unsuitable habitat for
metapopulation persistence)
Atelerix frontalis
Southern African
hedgehog
Near Threatenedc
One thousand mature individuals at an estimated density of three individuals
per hectare = 3000 ha of modelled suitable habitat
Lutra maculicollis
Spotted-necked otter
Near Threatenedc
One hundred and fifty individuals; estimated density of one otter for every 5 km
of river = 750 km of river with 100 m rural and 32 m urban buffers
Miniopterus schreibersii
Scheiber’s long-fingered Near Threatenedc
bat
Myotis tricolour
Temminck’s hairy bat
Near Threatenedc
All known cave roosting sites (three = one location) (inclusive of a 500 m buffer)
Mystromys albicaudutus
White-tailed mouse
Endangered (A criterion)c
One viable population of 1000 individuals; one individual per 2 ha = 2000 ha of
grassland
Neamblysomus julianae
Juliana’s golden mole
Vulnerable (B criterion)a
One hundred per cent of modelled suitable habitat on the Bronberg
Rhinolophus blasii
Blasius’s/Peak-saddle
horseshoe bat
Vulnerable (D criterion)c
All known cave roosting sites (six = one location) (inclusive of a 500 m buffer)
Rhinolophus clivosus
Geoffroy’s horseshoe bat Near Threatenedc
All known cave roosting sites (12 = one location) (inclusive of a 500 m buffer)
Rhinolophus darlingi
Darling’s horseshoe bat
Near Threatenedc
All known cave roosting sites (two = one location) (inclusive of a 500 m buffer)
Rhinolophus hildebrandtii
Hildebrandt’s horseshoe Near Threatenedc
bat
All known cave roosting sites (one = one location) (inclusive of a 500 m buffer)
Mountain catfish
One hundred per cent of Maloney’s Eye sub-catchment plus three associated
streams
Invertebrates
Mammals
All known cave roosting sites (10 = one location) (inclusive of a 500 m buffer)
Fish
Amphilius uranoscopus
Unique and ecologically sensitive
Table 1 continues on the next page →
http://www.abcjournal.org
Open Access
Page 6 of 16
Original Research
TABLE 1 (Continues...): Provincial conservation targets for species selected as fine filter biodiversity surrogates, developed in accordance with the method set out in Pfab
et al. (2011) and proportionally assigned to Gauteng.
Scientific name
Common name
Conservation status
Provincial conservation target and GIS translation thereof
Labeobarbus marequensis
Lowveld large-scale
yellowfish
Unique and ecologically sensitive
One hundred per cent of Maloney’s Eye sub-catchment plus three associated
streams
Labeobarbus polylepis
Bushveld small-scale
yellowfish
Unique and ecologically sensitive
One hundred per cent of Maloney’s Eye sub-catchment plus three associated
streams
Striped harlequin snake
Near Threateneda
One location/population on Suikerbosrand with an estimated size of 1200
individuals = 100% of modelled suitable habitat
Reptiles
Homoroselaps dorsalis
Source: Author’s own work
a
, Global IUCN assessment.
b
, Regional IUCN assessment.
c
, National assessment in accordance with IUCN 2001 criteria.
d
, Qualifying for global IUCN Red List status.
†, Fair dispersers.
‡, Insufficient remaining habitat known in Gauteng to map feature in accordance with target.
TABLE 2: Conservation targets for the vegetation types of Gauteng, expressed as
a percentage of the original extent of a vegetation type and based on the
species–area method for setting conservation targets (Desmet & Cowling 2004).
Vegetation type
Area of original
extent (ha)
Conservation Primary vegetation
target (%)
remaining (%)
Central Sandy Bushveld
193 187
25
58
Clay Grassland
30 604
8
42
Gauteng Grassland
1 046 365
21
28
Loskop Mountain Bushveld
39 987
23
93
Magaliesberg Mountain
Bushveld
23 822
23
83
Marikana Thornveld
89 778
21
36
Moot Plains Bushveld
48 750
22
44
Mountain Bushveld
180 225
24
78
Norite Koppies Bushveld
3021
27
77
Rand Highveld Grassland
143 674
19
35
Springbokvlakte Thornveld
18 069
18
44
350
23
99
1 817 832
-
40
Waterberg-Magaliesberg
Summit Sourveld
Total province
Source: Authors’ own work
The original extent of each vegetation type is indicated, along with the percentage that
currently remains as primary vegetation.
Clusters of endorheic pans within the good condition
quaternary catchments were mapped as a separate feature
(Figure 2i) with a 100% conservation target. These were
identified in a GIS by buffering each pan with 1 km (based on
the dispersal distance of giant bullfrogs (Yetman & Ferguson
2011)). In addition to this, good-quality pans (endorheic pans
with < 40% urban development within the pan catchment),
buffered with a distance of 1 km to represent the pan
catchment, were identified in other areas of the province, 20
in all, and mapped as an additional feature with a 100%
conservation target (Figure 2i). These endorheic pans support
a diversity of amphibians as well as diverse and abundant
populations of birds (Whittington-Jones 2007).
Fine filter biodiversity surrogates mapping and
target setting
Ongoing and extensive biodiversity surveys were initiated
for Gauteng in 2001 to generate data on the spatial occurrence
of plant and animal species. Prior to this, up-to-date
information on the biodiversity of the province was severely
lacking. The data that existed were associated with sampling
bias, were outdated or were captured at too coarse a scale
(e.g. quarter degree grids). Surveys for fauna involved
passive trapping (using a variety of baited and non-baited
http://www.abcjournal.org
traps, cages, nets, etc.), active supplementary searches of
suitable habitat and incidental observations. Species
occurrence data generated by these surveys were augmented
with data sourced from the literature, herbaria, museums,
biodiversity databases (e.g. the Coordinated Avifaunal
Roadcount [CAR], the Coordinated Waterbird Count
[CWAC], the Birds in Reserves Project [BIRP] and the
Southern African Butterfly Conservation Assessment
[SABCA]), experts and citizen scientists. Confirmed
observations of the faunal taxa selected as biodiversity
surrogates (Table 1) were used to map confirmed habitat
(Figure 2c–f) following the approach in Pfab and Witkowski
(1997) (for detailed GIS methods, see Compaan 2011), while
suitable habitat was mapped for historical occurrences.
Targeted searches were carried out for the Threatened (Pfab &
Victor 2002) and Orange List (Victor & Keith 2004) plant
species. The sizes of the located populations were estimated
and the area of occupancies mapped using a GPS device.
Located populations were buffered in a GIS with distances
between 200 m and 600 m to mitigate against deleterious
edge effects, ranging from those present within the first
200 m such as microclimate changes (Laurance et al. 2002),
trampling and resource use (Shafer 1999) and dry pollutants
(Burger, Coetzee & Enslin 2000; Conservation Biology
Institute 2000; Shafer 1999; Watkins et al. 2003) to those
present up to 600 m such as edge fauna (Carvalho &
Vasconcelos 1999; Laurance et al. 2002), air pollutants (Burger
et al. 2000; CBI 2000; Shafer 1999; Watkins et al. 2003), invasive
plants (CBI 2000; Laurance et al. 2002) and Argentine ants
(CBI 2000; Holway 2004). Patches of suitable habitat were
modelled in a GIS for plant populations that could not be
located but presumed extant (Compaan 2011; Pfab &
Witkowski 1997). Suitable habitat models were either based
on habitat descriptions in the literature or on values of
environmental parameters measured in a GIS at the exact coordinates of known populations, or a combination of both.
Conservation targets for species followed the approach
developed by Pfab, Victor and Armstrong (2011) (Table 1;
for full rationales, see Compaan 2011), where species targets
were based on the quantitative thresholds developed for the
Vulnerable category of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List system to avoid
Open Access
Page 7 of 16
Original Research
TABLE 3: Conservation targets for good condition quaternary catchments included in the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
Quaternary catchment
Level II Ecoregion
Total area (ha)
PESC score
Conservation target (%)
Area converted to non-natural land cover (%)
Elands
Eastern Bankenveld and Bushveld
68 759
B
59
4
Skeerpoort
Western Bankenveld
11 051
B
59
1
Upper Suikerbosrant
Highveld
74 905
C
46
2
Wilge
Eastern Bankenveld and Bushveld
77 256
B
59
4
Source: Authors’ own work
Level II Ecoregions (Kleynhans & Louw 2008), River Health PESC scores (Kleynhans & Louw 2008) and the percentage area converted to non-natural land cover are indicated for each quaternary
catchment.
a
b
c
d
e
f
Source: Authors’ own work
FIGURE 3: Spatial input layers used in the biodiversity planning project for Gauteng, South Africa. Built-up areas are shaded in grey for orientation. (a) Areas underlain by
dolomite; (b) perennial rivers buffered by 100 m if located outside the urban edge (dark blue) and by 32 m if located inside the urban edge (light blue); (c) wetlands and
pans (with 30 m buffers if located inside the urban edge and 50 m buffers if located outside the urban edge, and 340 m (Semlitsch & Bodie 2003) buffers for all goodquality wetlands located within good condition quaternary catchments); (d) provincial corridor network; (e) ridges created from a digital elevation model (5° slopes; 20 m
contour intervals at a scale of 1:50 000); (f) low-cost metropolitan areas under some level of development restriction through local land use planning instruments.
species qualifying for a Threatened listing in the future. This
translates to a target of 11 locations/populations/localities
and 10 000 mature individuals. For species already in a
Threatened category, targets aimed to prevent a deterioration
of their extinction risk, requiring the conservation of all
known populations of Critically Endangered, Endangered
and Vulnerable species listed under the IUCN Red List criteria
of B, C or D, or the conservation of 11 locations/populations/
localities and 10 000 mature individuals for all Threatened
species solely listed under the IUCN Red List criteria A or E
(Table 1). Targets were first set at a national level and then
subsequently proportionally assigned to Gauteng.
Mapping ecological processes
In this biodiversity planning exercise, landscape features
(also termed mesofilters (Hunter 2005)) such as perennial
http://www.abcjournal.org
and non-perennial rivers, wetlands, clusters of endorheic
pans, ridges and dolomite were mapped as surrogates for
ecological processes and used to direct the selection of areas
into the conservation plan (see data analysis). All known
cave roosting sites for the bat species included in the fine
filter (Table 1) were considered to be a surrogate for the
province’s unique cave ecosystem and associated processes.
Rivers (Figure 3b) and wetlands (Figure 3c) are important for
groundwater dynamics, hydrological processes, nutrient
cycling and wildlife dispersal. The quartzite ridges (Figure 3e)
of the province are also important for wildlife dispersal as
they form naturally existing corridors that functionally
interconnect isolated natural areas. They can also be regarded
as a surrogate for evolutionary processes as the interaction
between topography and climate promotes the evolution of
new species (Bredenkamp & Brown 2003; Wilsey, Martin &
Polley 2005). Ridges are important for regulating hydrological
Open Access
Page 8 of 16
processes as many streams originate on ridges and
they control water inputs into wetlands. They are important
for pollination as well because they provide habitat for
pollinators, and honeybee drone congregation areas are
normally close to hills and ridges. Large areas of the province
(15%) underlain by dolomite (or karst) (Figure 3a) are
considered to be important for the regulation of hydrological
processes (such as groundwater storage, purification,
discharge and recharge) and nutrient cycling.
Planning for climate change
To be resilient against climate change, a landscape that allows
species to respond to temperature changes and increased
weather perturbations and to adapt genetically to changing
environments (Opdam & Wascher 2004) is required.
Increasing the connectivity and permeability of the landscape
to allow for dispersal (Donald & Evans 2006; Midgely et al.
2003; Root & Schneider 2006; Williams et al. 2005) is crucial. A
corridor network (Figure 3d) was therefore designed for
Gauteng, which included two east–west corridors to allow
for species movement in response to rainfall gradients and
two north–south corridors to allow for species movement in
response to temperature gradients. GIS analyses mapped
least cost pathways over the landscape (Compaan 2011)
using frictional surfaces that favoured natural vegetation
(preferentially those areas identified in the previous Gauteng
Conservation Plan Version 2.1). To cater for a variety of
terrestrial and aquatic-dependent species, the least cost
analysis for each corridor was repeated twice: first to favour
ridges and then to favour rivers and wetlands. Least cost GIS
analyses (again targeting ridges as well as wetlands and
rivers) were also conducted to create a network of species
corridors to facilitate species movement between protected
areas and other priority biodiversity areas identified in
previous versions of the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
A standard width of 600 m was applied to all identified
corridors in order to include sufficient core habitat for
indigenous species (Hilty & Merenlender 2004), edge effects
being predominantly present within 200 m of an edge (Burger
et al. 2000; CBI 2000; Laurance et al. 2002; Shafer 1999;
Watkins et al. 2003; Zeng, Sui & Wu 2005).
Movement of species considered to be fair to good dispersers
(Cousins, Lavorel & Davies 2003) in response to climate
change is hampered in a fragmented landscape. Unoccupied
suitable habitat patches, sufficiently well connected to allow
for gene flow between populations (e.g. through pollen and
propagule dispersal) (Jump & Peñuelas 2005), are vital for
metapopulation persistence. Suitable habitat patches were
therefore mapped within the extent of occurrence (IUCN
2001) of those plant taxa considered to be fair dispersers
(Figure 2b). Eighteen taxa were classified as fair dispersers
(Table 1) based on their life histories (annuals are more likely
to be fair dispersers), abundance in the landscape (species
with few individuals scattered throughout the landscape are
more likely to be fair dispersers) and dispersal syndromes
(seeds dispersed through ingestion or adhesion, smallseeded species or wind-dispersed species are more likely to
http://www.abcjournal.org
Original Research
be fair dispersers). On the assumption that extant
populations are at 37% equilibrium occupancy (Lopez &
Pfister 2001), a conservation target was set for unoccupied
patches of suitable habitat in a ratio of 1.7 unoccupied
patches to every occupied patch. Conservation targets for
butterflies included 70% modelled suitable habitat to
allow for the large number of habitat patches required for
metapopulation persistence (Bulman et al. 2007; Kuussaari
et al. 2009; Schtickzelle et al. 2005) and 30% unsuitable
habitat to promote connectivity between patches of suitable
habitat (Fischer & Lindenmayer 2007).
As biases in environmental representation can exacerbate the
impacts of climate change and habitat loss (Pyke 2004; Pyke &
Fischer 2005), the Gauteng Conservation Plan was designed
to maximise bioclimatic representation, that is, the diversity
of regional environmental conditions was proportionally
represented as far as possible. By maximising habitat or
environmental heterogeneity in the landscape, genetic
diversity to allow for adaptation can also be maximised
(Graudal, Kjær & Canger 1995), while the persistence of
metapopulations can be facilitated by preserving a range of
micro-climates (Gillson & Willis 2004). Altogether 978 unique
bioclimatic classes were identified for the province by
combining altitude, slope, aspect and geology spatial layers
in a GIS and then removing all non-natural areas (Compaan 2011).
Areas in the province where 905 of these unique classes were
represented most efficiently (excluding areas isolated within
the urban environment) were identified through a separate
analysis undertaken using Marxan, a conservation planning
software developed at the University of Queensland (Ball,
Possingham & Watts 2009). The feature produced by this
exercise covered only 4.3% (78 167 ha) of the province (Figure
2j) and was found to overlap to a fair degree with other
biodiversity features as well as with the province’s ridges;
therefore, a high conservation target of 90% was set.
Carbon sequestration is considered to be important for
mitigating anticipated climate warming (Thomas et al. 2004)
and can be promoted by, for example, conserving forests and
protecting dolomite or karst (an important carbon sink) (the
latter already mapped as an ecological process). As there are
no real forests in Gauteng, densely wooded areas occurring
on steep slopes and in steep ravines (named Dinokeng Scarp
Woodland, Magaliesberg Scarp Woodland, Suikerbosrand
Mesic Woodland and Wilge Scarp Woodland) were included
as features (Figure 2i) in the biodiversity planning exercise
with 100% conservation targets. These areas also represent an
extremely rare plant community type in Gauteng, potentially
with species that are rare in the province or at the limits of
their distribution. By conserving marginal populations,
genetic diversity is maximised and this is considered
advantageous for adaptation to climate change (Hampe &
Petit 2005).
The inclusion of all wetlands into the conservation plan as an
ecological process is anticipated to mitigate the predicted
increase in rainfall intensity and extreme flood events.
Open Access
Page 9 of 16
Data analysis and building the conservation plan
Data analysis was undertaken within the ArcView linked
C-plan decision support system developed by the New South
Wales National Parks and Wildlife Services in Australia
(Pressey et al. 2009). In 2008, the continued use of C-plan for
the project was carefully considered as other conservation
practitioners started switching to Marxan (Ball et al. 2009). A
sensitivity analysis conducted for a subset of the Gauteng
data showed the C-plan and Marxan solutions to be very
similar, unless compactness was included as a design
objective in the Marxan analysis of which a less efficient
solution that failed to achieve all conservation targets was
the result, an understandable outcome considering the
fragmented nature of this urbanising province. The objective
of the provincial conservation plan was not to design a
compact reserve network, and C-plan was considered to be
a more useful tool for local-scale implementation of land
use planning, such as through the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) process. C-plan’s summed irreplaceability
function was found to be particularly useful. Zonation
(Moilanen et al. 2014), an alternative conservation planning
tool, was not assessed.
C-Plan calculates and displays the irreplaceability of each
of the sites in a planning region as a guide to their
importance for achieving the regional conservation targets.
Irreplaceability is defined as the likelihood that a given site
will need to be protected to achieve conservation targets.
High irreplaceability sites have few or no options for
achieving targets and are absolutely necessary if targets are
to be achieved. Low irreplaceability values indicate sites
with a high degree of flexibility with respect to achieving
targets and there are options as to which sites are included in
the plan.
The C-plan analysis used a 100 ha hexagonal planning unit to
maximise connectivity between adjacent sites. Sites were a
priori classified as available or excluded, or as an existing
protected area. The following land cover classes were
excluded from the analysis: degraded land, non-vegetated/
bare land, plantations and woodlots, urban trees, intensive
cattle camps, urban areas, mines, sports and recreation
grasslands, degraded land associated with smallholdings
and non-vegetated/bare/degraded lands associated with
old agricultural fields. All protected areas in the province
were ground-truthed to confirm their legislative, management
and ecological statuses. Only those ecologically intact areas
proclaimed in terms of relevant legislation (specifically for
the protection of biodiversity or for the purposes of nature
conservation) and subject to management plans with a
biodiversity focus, as well as those areas either formally
proclaimed or subject to management plans, were considered
to be part of the protected area network and designated level
1 (a total of 3) and level 2 (a total of 20) protected areas,
respectively (Figure 2k).
The first step in building the conservation plan involved the
selection of all irreplaceable available sites. A cost surface
http://www.abcjournal.org
Original Research
(Figure 2l) was created to direct the selection of available sites
required to meet the remaining conservation targets. Lowcost areas with cost values of 1 included level 3 protected
areas, that is, ecologically intact protected areas that are
neither formally proclaimed (for the purposes of biodiversity
conservation) nor have management plans (with a
biodiversity focus), conservancies and low-cost metropolitan
areas (areas to a greater or lesser extent under some level of
development restriction through local land use planning
instruments) (Figure 3f). (In Gauteng, a conservancy is a
voluntary association that consists of land users or
landowners who cooperatively manage their natural
resources in an environmentally friendly manner without
necessarily changing the land use of their properties.) Other
low-cost areas included the corridor network with a cost
value of 2 (Figure 3d) and ecological process landscape
features (i.e. dolomite [Figure 3a], perennial rivers [Figure 3b],
wetlands and pans [Figure 3c] and ridges [Figure 3e]), all
with a cost value of 3. Through the preferential selection of
available sites situated within low-cost areas, high-cost areas,
such as land important for agriculture (cost value 4), mining
(cost value 5) and urban development (cost value 6), were
avoided.
Sites required to meet the remaining conservation targets
subsequent to the selection of irreplaceable sites were added
into the conservation plan using an iterative process. The
available sites with the highest biodiversity values (top 5% as
indicated by the summed irreplaceability value calculated by
the C-plan software) were identified and those located within
the lowest cost areas (Figure 2l) were then selected into the
conservation plan. By recalculating the summed irreplaceability
values of the remaining available sites, this process was
iteratively repeated until eventually no further high-value
biodiversity sites were available in low-cost areas (cost values
1–3). To meet remaining conservation targets, available sites
with the highest irreplaceability values were iteratively
selected into the conservation plan, with the larger sites
preferentially selected in the event of a tie. A comparison of
this approach with a simple Minset algorithm involving the
iterative selection of the sites with the highest biodiversity
values without consideration of the cost values yielded a result
that was no more efficient (41.0% vs. 40.9% of the province).
The efficiency of the final output was further enhanced
(yielding a result of 31.8% of the province) by clipping all sites
selected into the conservation plan to the underlying
biodiversity features, thereby removing any extraneous land
not required to meet conservation targets, and finally removing
isolated fragments of land of less than 5 ha.
The final conservation plan consisted of levels 1 and 2
protected areas, irreplaceable areas and important areas, the
latter being those areas required to meet the conservation
targets not already achieved in the protected and irreplaceable
areas. Through examining contributions to target achievement,
the final plan enabled an assessment of the importance of
each protected area for biodiversity conservation and the
adequacy of the provincial protected area network.
Open Access
Page 10 of 16
Results
Coarse filter biodiversity surrogates
Aqua c species
Terrestrial species
→ Vegetation types → Quaternary catchments
→ Endorheic pans and pan clusters
→ Bioclimactic zones
→ Bioclimactic zones
→ Unoccupied habitat patches for
plants and invertebrates
→ Wooded areas
Climate
change
Fine filter biodiversity surrogates
Plants Birds Invertebrates Mammals Fish Reptiles
Ecological processes
→ Perennial and non-perennial rivers
→ Wetlands
→ Endorheic pan clusters
→ Ridges
→ Dolomite
Planning domain
→ Available sites
→ Excluded sites
→ Protected sites
1
2
Cost surface
C-plan
decision
→ Protected areas (Level 3)
support
→ Conservancies
system
→ Low cost metropolitan areas
→ Corridors
→ Ecological processes
→ Agriculture
→ Mining
→ Urban development
Irreplaceable sites
Corridor
network
Important sites
Final conserva on plan
→ Protected areas (Level 1 and 2)
→ Irreplaceable areas
→ Important areas
CBAs
→ Ecological processes
→ Corridors
→ Low cost metropolitans areas
ESAs
Original Research
Source: Authors’ own work
FIGURE 4: Flow diagram showing the steps involved in the development of the
Gauteng Conservation Plan as described in the methods.
To align the conservation plan with the provisions for
bioregional plans in the National Environmental Management:
Biodiversity Act No. 10 of 2004 (NEMBA), protected,
irreplaceable and important areas were together classified
as Critical Biodiversity Areas (CBAs), while all landscape
features mapped as surrogates for ecological processes
that were not already contained within a CBA were added
to the plan and designated Ecological Support Areas
(ESAs). These landscape features included wetlands and
pans (Figure 3c), perennial rivers (Figure 3b), nonperennial rivers (with 20 m buffers), ridges (Figure 3e)
situated within 1500 m (based on the typical foraging
distance of honey bees (Chacoff & Aizen 2006)) of CBAs
and dolomite (Figure 3a). Corridors (Figure 3d) and lowcost metropolitan areas (Figure 3f) were also added as
ESAs if they were not already situated within a CBA. In a
final clean-up of the plan, agricultural areas within CBAs
were reclassified into ESAs and newly irreversibly
modified areas were removed.
All steps in the development of the Gauteng Conservation
Plan are depicted in Figure 4.
http://www.abcjournal.org
Altogether the conservation plan identified 44% of the land
surface area of the province and met all conservation targets
efficiently. Critical biodiversity areas (i.e. areas that must be
maintained in a good ecological condition (natural or nearnatural state) in order to meet conservation targets), including
irreplaceable (7.1% of the province), important (16.4% of the
province) and protected (2.4% of the province) areas,
comprised 26% of the province in the final conservation plan,
while an additional 18% of the province constituted ESAs
(Figure 5). Irreplaceable areas are crucial to achieving
conservation targets and, if lost, targets cannot be achieved.
Of the 121 features included in the biodiversity planning
exercise, 48 (40%) do not occur within any protected area
(Table 4; Figure 6). Another 40 features (33%) are poorly
represented in existing protected areas, the protected area
network providing for less than 20% of each of the
conservation targets set for these features (Table 4; Figure 6).
The plant species Alepidea attenuata, Aloe peglerae, Blepharis
uniflora, Cleome conrathii, Delosperma gautengense, Delosperma
macellum, Delosperma purpureum, Frithia pulchra, Gladiolus
pole-evansii, Gladiolus robertsoniae, Khadia beswickii, Nerine
gracilis and Prunus africana, the Blue Korhaan (Eupodotis
caerulescens), the butterfly Lepidochrysops praeterita and the
bats Miniopterus schreibersii, Myotis tricolor, Rhinolophus blasii,
Rhinolophus clivosus, Rhinolophus darlingi and Rhinolophus
hildebrandtii are not conserved at all within Gauteng’s
protected area system (Table 4), and are therefore particularly
vulnerable to activities leading to habitat loss. The Cape
Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) breeding colony in the Magaliesberg
is also not protected (Table 4), although these birds
forage widely in the province, and individuals and groups
have been recorded erratically in some protected areas. The
Clay Grassland, Springbokvlakte Thornveld and WaterbergMagaliesberg Summit Sourveld vegetation types are not
represented in any protected area, while the occurrence of
Moot Plains Bushveld in protected areas is negligible (Table 4).
Other features not represented within any protected areas
include Dinokeng Scarp Woodland and the Maloney’s Eye
sub-catchment (required for the conservation of the mountain
catfish, the lowveld large-scale yellowfish and the bushveld
small-scale yellowfish). Of concern for the biodiversity that is
dependent on aquatic systems, no level 1 or 2 protected areas
occur within two out of the four good condition quaternary
catchments (Skeerpoort and Upper Suikerbosrant), while
neither pan clusters within good condition quaternary
catchments nor good-quality pans (endorheic pans with
< 40% urban development within the pan catchment) occur
within any protected areas (Table 4).
Only 10 features (8%) are adequately conserved or are
close to having their conservation targets met (> 90% of
target achieved) (Table 4; Figure 6), and only the conservation
targets for Aloeides dentatis, Dioscorea sylvatica, Mirafra
cheniana and Mystromys albicaudatus are fully met within the
current protected area network (Table 4).
Open Access
Page 11 of 16
Original Research
Irreplaceable Area
Important Area
Protected Area
Ecological Support Area
Crical Biodiversity Area
Ecological Support Area
N
20
Kilometers MAP PROJECTION & COORDINATE SYSTEM
20
0
Projecon: Geographic
Spheroid and Datum: WGS 1984
Source: Authors’ own work
Areas encircled by the dashed lines are recommended for focused conservation action towards the expansion of the provincial protected area network.
FIGURE 5: The final Gauteng Conservation Plan (Version 3.3 of 2011).
TABLE 4: Percentage of conservation target achieved for each biodiversity
feature at each stage of building the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
% conservation target achieved
Biodiversity feature
TABLE 4 (Continues...): Percentage of conservation target achieved for each
biodiversity feature at each stage of building the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
% conservation target achieved
Biodiversity feature
Existing
Plus irreplaceable Plus important
protected areas
areas
areas
Existing
Plus irreplaceable Plus important
protected areas
areas
areas
Coarse filter
Vegetation types
Central Sandy Bushveld
8
35
100
Clay Grassland
0
373
440
Gauteng Grassland
6
20
100
Loskop Mountain
Bushveld
24
130
221
Magaliesberg Mountain
Bushveld
3
186
209
Marikana Thornveld
12
31
100
Moot Plains Bushveld
<1
75
113
Mountain Bushveld
31
89
168
Norite Koppies Bushveld
98
100
148
Rand Highveld Grassland
4
37
101
Springbokvlakte Thornveld
0
45
125
Waterberg-Magaliesberg
Summit Sourveld
0
438
438
Quaternary catchments
Adromischus umbraticola
subsp. umbraticola habitat
22
156
300
Alepidea attenuata habitat
0
100
1300
Aloe peglerae conf.
0
100
100
Argyrolobium campicola
habitat
50
100
200
Argyrolobium megarrhizum
habitat
33
233
333
Blepharis uniflora habitat
0
200
300
Bowiea volubilis subsp.
volubilis conf.
53
100
100
Brachycorythis conica
subsp. transvaalensis conf.
22
100
100
Brachycorythis conica
subsp. transvaalensis
habitat
13
67
220
Brachystelma discoideum
habitat
33
100
167
Ceropegia decidua subsp.
pretoriensis conf.
6
100
100
61
181
Elands Quaternary
Catchment
5
44
107
Ceropegia decidua subsp.
pretoriensis habitat
6
Skeerpoort Quaternary
Catchment
0
75
126
Ceropegia turricula habitat
20
80
380
Upper Suikerbosrant
Quaternary Catchment
0
111
165
Cheilanthus deltoidea
subsp. silicicola conf.
0
100
100
Wilge Quaternary
Catchment
8
47
100
Cheilanthus deltoidea
subsp. silicicola habitat
6
229
565
Cineraria
austrotransvaalensis conf.
0
100
100
Cineraria
austrotransvaalensis
habitat
14
83
210
Cineraria longipes conf.
59
100
100
Cineraria longipes habitat
3
44
172
Cleome conrathii conf.
0
100
100
Cucumis humifructus
habitat
33
67
267
Endorheic pans
Pan cluster PQ catchment
0
100
100
Pan cluster Priority,
good-quality
0
100
100
Fine filter
Plants
Adromischus umbraticola
subsp. umbraticola conf.
0
100
100
Table 4 continues →
http://www.abcjournal.org
Table 4 continues →
Open Access
Page 12 of 16
TABLE 4 (Continues...): Percentage of conservation target achieved for each
biodiversity feature at each stage of building the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
% conservation target achieved
Biodiversity feature
Original Research
TABLE 4 (Continues...): Percentage of conservation target achieved for each
biodiversity feature at each stage of building the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
% conservation target achieved
Biodiversity feature
Existing
Plus irreplaceable Plus important
protected areas
areas
areas
Existing
Plus irreplaceable Plus important
protected areas
areas
areas
Delosperma gautengense
conf.
0
100
100
Trachyandra erythrorrhiza
habitat
Delosperma leendertziae
conf.
6
100
100
Birds
Delosperma leendertziae
habitat
0
100
100
Delosperma macellum
conf.
0
100
Delosperma purpureum
conf.
0
Dioscorea sylvatica habitat
17
49
320
Alcedo semitorquata
habitat
5
100
100
100
Anthropoides paradiseus
breeding area
2
9
153
100
100
Anthropoides paradiseus
overwinter area
0
100
100
400
3000
3800
Circus ranivorus conf.
27
101
209
Encephalartos lanatus conf.
19
100
100
Eupodotis caerulescens
habitat
0
98
122
Encephalartos lanatus
habitat
33
300
433
Eupodotis senegalensis
conf. habitat
57
89
129
Encephalartos
middelburgensis conf.
62
100
100
Gorsachius leuconotus
conf. habitat
2
100
100
Gyps coprotheres breeding
area
0
100
100
Eulophia coddii habitat
8
88
192
Frithia humilis conf.
14
100
100
Frithia humilis habitat
0
67
200
Frithia pulchra conf.
0
100
100
Gladiolus pole-evansii
habitat
0
400
800
Gladiolus robertsoniae
conf.
0
100
100
Gladiolus robertsoniae
habitat
0
233
333
Aloeides dentatis dentatis
conf.
Gnaphalium nelsonii
habitat
13
113
325
Habenaria barbertoni conf.
98
100
100
Habenaria barbertoni
habitat
33
133
293
Habenaria bicolor habitat
11
78
289
Habenaria kraenzliniana
conf.
0
100
Habenaria kraenzliniana
habitat
7
Habenaria mossii conf.
Mirafra cheniana conf.
1247
1488
2086
Podica senegalensis habitat
2
100
100
Sagittarius serpentarius
conf. habitat
30
74
167
Tyto capensis habitat
66
261
608
100
100
100
Chrysoritis aureus conf.
67
100
100
Chrysoritis aureus habitat
297
326
461
Ichnestoma stobbiai conf.
5
100
100
Ichnestoma stobbiai
habitat
3
100
100
100
Lepidochrysops praeterita
conf.
0
100
100
98
250
Lepidochrysops praeterita
habitat
0
12
178
44
100
100
Habenaria mossii habitat
18
106
276
Atelerix frontalis habitat
58
102
167
Holothrix micrantha
habitat
9
73
191
Lutra maculicollis habitat
12
84
185
100
100
0
100
100
Miniopterus schreibersii
conf.
0
Holothrix randii conf.
Holothrix randii habitat
14
171
263
Khadia beswickii conf.
0
100
100
Khadia beswickii habitat
0
50
350
Kniphofia typhoides habitat
0
100
2900
Kniphofia typhoides conf.
3
100
100
Lithops lesliei subsp. lesliei
conf.
4
100
100
Lithops lesliei subsp. lesliei
var. rubrobrunnea conf.
0
100
100
Lithops lesliei subsp. lesliei
var. rubrobrunnea habitat
100
100
100
Melolobium subspicatum
conf.
0
100
100
Melolobium subspicatum
habitat
50
50
150
Maloney’s Eye subcatchment
Invertebrates
Mammals
Myotis tricolor conf.
0
100
100
Mystromys albicaudatus
habitat
148
190
273
Neamblysomus julianae
habitat
2
100
100
Rhinolophus blasii habitat
0
100
100
Rhinolophus clivosus conf.
0
100
100
Rhinolophus clivosus
habitat
0
100
100
Rhinolophus darlingi
habitat
0
100
100
Rhinolophus hildebrandtii
habitat
0
100
100
0
100
100
92
100
100
Bioclimatic optimal
efficient outside urban
edge
13
37
104
Fish
Nerine gracilis conf.
0
100
100
Reptiles
Prunus africana habitat
0
300
333
Searsia gracillima var.
gracillima conf.
0
100
100
Homoroselaps dorsalis
habitat
Searsia gracillima var.
gracillima habitat
13
113
175
Stenostelma
umbelluliferum conf.
0
100
100
Dinokeng Scarp Woodland
0
100
100
Stenostelma
umbelluliferum habitat
16
79
342
Magaliesberg Scarp
Woodland
2
100
100
Trachyandra erythrorrhiza
conf.
20
100
100
Suikerbosrand Mesic
Woodland
95
100
100
Climate change features
Table 4 continues →
http://www.abcjournal.org
Table 4 continues →
Open Access
Page 13 of 16
TABLE 4 (Continues...): Percentage of conservation target achieved for each
biodiversity feature at each stage of building the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
% conservation target achieved
Biodiversity feature
Existing
Plus irreplaceable Plus important
protected areas
areas
areas
Wilge Scarp Woodland
9
100
100
% of province
2
14
41
Number of biodiversity
features with targets met
6
89
121
Summary
Source: Authors’ own work
conf., confirmed population.
0
% of biodiversity features
0–20
Original Research
TABLE 5: The number of management priorities (biodiversity features for which
> 5% of the conservation target is met by the protected area) and the number
of biodiversity features occurring within each protected area.
Protected area
Number of biodiversity
features
Management
priorities
Abe Bailey (5083 ha)
8
5
Alice Glöckner (155 ha)
10
2
De Onderstepoort (2948 ha)
10
6
Ezemvelo (2739 ha)
14
8
Faerie Glen (127 ha)
6
0
Glen Austin (10 ha)
1
0
Klipriviersberg (606 ha)
10
3
Korsman (45 ha)
1
0
Krugersdorp (1351 ha)
10
5
Leeuwfontein (2225 ha)
4
2
6
2
0
20–60
Marievale (1454 ha)
60–90
Melville Koppies (42 ha)
3
90–100
Plovers Lake (262 ha)
10
1
>=100
Rhenosterpoort (906 ha)
12
5
Rietvlei Dam (4480 ha)
18
7
Rondebult (100 ha)
2
0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Roodeplaat Dam (775 ha)
8
1
Ruimsig (13 ha)
2
0
Suikerbosrand (17 980 ha)
32
25
Tswaing (1981 ha)
4
2
Voortrekker Monument (259 ha)
5
1
Walter Sisulu (286 ha)
8
1
Wonderboom (120 ha)
10
3
Source: Authors’ own work
Exisng protected areas + Irreplaceable areas
+ Important areas
Biodiversity features
Source: Authors’ own work
FIGURE 6: Percentage of conservation target met for the 121 biodiversity
features at each successive stage of building the Gauteng Conservation Plan,
including the existing protected area network, addition of irreplaceable areas
and the final inclusion of important areas.
The addition of irreplaceable areas in the first step of
creating the conservation plan resulted in an almost 10-fold
increase in the representation of the province’s biodiversity,
such that approximately 76% of the included features
would be afforded adequate protection (Table 4; Figure 6)
in the event that converting land uses were excluded from
these areas. Still inadequately protected at this stage in
the conservation plan development were the Central Sandy
Bushveld, Gauteng Grassland, Marikana Thornveld, Rand
Highveld Grassland and the Springbokvlakte Thornveld
vegetation types, as well as the Elands and Wilge quaternary
catchments and the bioclimatic classes mapped for
climate change adaptation (Table 4). With the exception of
Springbokvlakte Thornveld, these features all require large
areas (>18 000 ha) for meeting conservation targets.
Similarly, the breeding area for the Blue Crane (Anthropoides
paradiseus) and habitat for the butterfly Lepidochrysops
praeterita still required additional area for meeting
conservation targets (Table 4). In the final stage of the
conservation plan development, all conservation targets
were met with the addition of important areas (Table 4;
Figure 6).
Of all the protected areas in the province, the Suikerbosrand
Nature Reserve (17 980 ha) and the Rietvlei Dam Nature
Reserve (4480 ha) contribute towards meeting conservation
http://www.abcjournal.org
targets for the most biodiversity features (32 and 18
biodiversity features, respectively) (Table 5). In addition to
contributing to the conservation of confirmed populations
of three Threatened and two Near Threatened plant
species, four Red Listed bird species and two Red Listed
butterfly species, Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve contributes
significantly towards the conservation of Mountain Bushveld
(meeting 27% of the conservation target for this vegetation
type) and is also important for climate change adaptation.
The De Onderstepoort, Ezemvelo, Krugersdorp and
Rhenosterpoort nature reserves are also noteworthy, with 10
or more biodiversity features and five or more clear
management priorities (Table 5).
Discussion
The Gauteng Conservation Plan is a crucial tool for the
implementation in Gauteng of the national biodiversity
mandate contained within the provisions of NEMBA. The
plan identifies areas that are required for the conservation of
a representative and sustainable sample of the province’s
biodiversity, where converting land uses should be excluded,
where land uses incompatible with biodiversity should
be avoided and where special management measures are
required to maintain and protect biodiversity. Altogether
26% of Gauteng is required for the conservation of the
province’s biodiversity, while an additional 18% of
the province is important for the continued functioning of
the ecological and evolutionary processes that maintain and
generate biodiversity – in all 44% of the land surface area.
This is well above the oft-posited arbitrary representation
targets of 10% or 12%, which may provide effective
Open Access
Page 14 of 16
protection for only half of all terrestrial species (Soulé &
Sanjayan 1998), but lower than the 52% required for
biodiversity conservation in the Cape Floristic region
(Pressey, Cowling & Rouget 2003), a global biodiversity
hotspot. Cowling et al. (2003) indicate that 60%–70% of
a planning domain is usually required for meeting
representation and process conservation targets in plans
that include multiple features, whereas Soulé and Sanjayan
(1998) indicate that 50% would be required if wide-ranging
animal species are included. The efficiency of a conservation
plan for a rapidly developing and economically active
province such as Gauteng is crucial, and reserving large
areas of the province for biodiversity conservation is
impractical and cannot be justified, especially because only
40% of the vegetation in the province remains in a primary
state. The removal of isolated fragments of land of less than
5 ha and all extraneous land within the 100 ha planning
units from the final plan without compromising conservation
targets is a notable achievement.
Within the CBAs designated for the province, irreplaceable
areas (7.1% of the province) are highly sensitive areas that are
essential for the conservation of biodiversity in Gauteng and
contribute mainly towards the conservation of Threatened,
Near Threatened, rare and other conservation-worthy species
of fauna and flora, and also to the conservation of the less
extensive (< 40 000 ha) vegetation types in the province, with
the exception of Springbokvlakte Thornveld. Irreplaceable
areas are also crucial for the conservation of aquatic species
within the Upper Suikerbosrant quaternary catchment and
the Maloney’s Eye sub-catchment, as well as for biodiversity
dependent on good-quality endorheic pans and the
pan clusters located within good condition quaternary
catchments. As densely wooded areas occurring on steep
slopes and in steep ravines are confined to the irreplaceable
areas, these areas also play an important role in climate
change adaptation.
The important areas (16.4% of the province) within the
CBAs are ecologically sensitive areas that contribute
mainly towards the conservation of the more extensive
vegetation types and species of Threatened and Near
Threatened fauna that require extensive areas for their
breeding and survival, such as the Blue Crane, Secretary
bird and the spotted-necked otter. Important areas also
contribute to the metapopulation persistence of many
Threatened and conservation-worthy plant taxa as well as
to the metapopulation persistence of the Highveld Blue
butterfly, and play an especially important role in climate
change adaptation through representation of unique
bioclimatic classes. To retain the rivers associated with the
Elands, Skeerport and Wilge quaternary catchments in good
ecological states, the maintenance of vegetative cover
through ecologically sensitive land use is required in areas
designated as important.
The existing protected area network, covering 2.4% of the
land surface area in the province, is inadequate for the
http://www.abcjournal.org
Original Research
conservation of biodiversity in Gauteng. The high level of
conversion to other land uses (irreversible habitat loss has
affected 21% of the land surface area in Gauteng) and the loss
of primary vegetation have resulted in a conservation plan
that appears somewhat fragmented in nature, although
connectivity is enhanced through the inclusion of a corridor
network. Conservation action directed towards the necessary
expansion of the current protected area network, either
through formal proclamation of protected areas or through
stewardship programmes, should focus on large contiguous
areas that are also biodiversity hotspots (Figure 5) as indicated
by the summed irreplaceability function in the C-plan
decision support system.
The C-plan decision support system can also be used to
identify biodiversity features that should be included within
a management plan for a protected area, thereby providing
the management team with clear management priorities
that ensure contribution to a broader conservation strategy.
The premier protected areas within Gauteng are clearly the
Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve southeast of Johannesburg
and the Rietvlei Dam Nature Reserve south of Pretoria. Other
important protected areas within the province include the De
Onderstepoort, Ezemvelo, Krugersdorp and Rhenosterpoort
nature reserves.
Finally, 18.3% of the province is designated as ESAs, which are
required for the maintenance and generation of biodiversity in
CBAs (i.e. irreplaceable, important and protected areas). ESAs
are a crucial part of the conservation plan as they ensure
sustainability in the long term.
The Gauteng Conservation Plan is being actively implemented
through its incorporation into a number of governmental
planning and development tools. It underpins the primary
decision support tool for biodiversity assessments in the EIA
process that is delegated to provincial government. Together
with a standardised set of decision-making guidelines, the
plan has allowed for consistent, scientifically justified and
defensible recommendations on land development and mining
applications. Within the private sector, EIA practitioners
rely heavily on the plan when assessing suitability of sites
for development. The Gauteng Conservation Plan is also
intended to serve as a basis for the gazetting of bioregional
plans for municipalities in terms of Section 40 of NEMBA. To
date, previous versions of the plan have been used to inform
strategic environmental assessments and environmental
management frameworks undertaken by GDARD and by
other provincial departments in an attempt to avoid sensitive
biodiversity areas during, for example, the delineation of the
urban edge, the identification of land for low-cost housing
and the planning of the future road network. The Gauteng
Conservation Plan has also been integrated into the spatial
products of local government (such as open space plans and
integrated development plans). Nationally, the plan has been
instrumental in identifying sensitive geographical areas in
terms of the EIA regulations and threatened ecosystems in
terms of Section 52 of NEMBA. NEMBA requires that
threatened ecosystems be integrated into urban and regional
Open Access
Page 15 of 16
planning, while regulations and biodiversity management
plans can also be promulgated for threatened ecosystems.
Environmental authorisation is required for any activities
that would result in the clearance of indigenous vegetation
(area thresholds applicable) within critically endangered
or endangered ecosystems, within CBAs in published
bioregional plans or within CBAs and ESAs in systematic
biodiversity plans such as the Gauteng Conservation Plan.
The Gauteng Conservation Plan Version 3.3 represents a
culmination of 10 years of biodiversity planning work in
Gauteng, wherein improvements and learning from the
collective efforts of the conservation planning community in
South Africa were introduced into each version. It is
important that provincial conservation efforts now focus on
implementation.
Original Research
References
Allan, D.G., Seaman, M.T. & Kaletja, B., 1995, ‘The endorheic pans of South Africa’, in
G. Cowan (ed.), Wetlands of South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs
and Tourism, Pretoria.
Ball, I.R., Possingham, H.P. & Watts, M., 2009, ‘Marxan and relatives: Software
for spatial conservation prioritisation’, in A. Moilanen, K.A. Wilson & H.P.
Possingham (eds.), Spatial conservation prioritisation: Quantitative methods and
computational tools, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Balmford, A. & Bond, W., 2005, ‘Trends in the state of nature and their implications for
human well-being’, Ecology Letters 8, 1218–1234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
1461-0248.2005.00814.x
Barnes, K.N., 2000, The Eskom red data book of birds of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland, BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg.
Bates, M.F., Branch, W.R., Bauer, A.M., Burger, M., Marais, J., Alexander, G.J. et al.
(eds.), 2014, ‘Atlas and Red List of the reptiles of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland’, Suricata 1, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Bredenkamp, G.J. & Brown, L.R., 2003, ‘A reappraisal of Acocks’ Bankenveld: Origin
and diversity of vegetation types’, South African Journal of Botany 69(1), 7–26.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30357-4
Bronner, G., 2008, ‘Neamblysomus julianae’, in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Version 2012.2, viewed 28 January 2013, from http://www.iucnredlist.org.
Bulman, C.R., Wilson, R.J., Holt, A.R., Bravo, L.G., Early, R.I., Warren, M.S. et al., 2007,
‘Minimum viable metapopulation size, extinction debt, and the conservation of a
declining species’, Ecological Applications 17, 1460–1473. https://doi.org/
10.1890/06-1032.1
Acknowledgements
This article is dedicated to Pieta Compaan. We thank her for
her unending commitment to the Gauteng Conservation
Plan project – we could not have done it without her. We
would also like to thank the numerous people who have
played a role in the success of the project: Coral Birss, Daan
Buijs, Siyabonga Buthelezi, Willem Coetzer, Dr Stephen
Cornelius, Patrick Duigan, Marianne Forsythe-Coetzee,
Andra Hennop, Quinton Joshua, Daniel Koen, Rhulani
Kubayi, Vuyokazi Mpumlwana, Sizakele Ndzhukula, Reggy
Nkosi, Helen Nonyane, Dr Dean Peinke, Deshni Pillay,
Hermien Roux, Earnest Seamark and Dr Sue Taylor. Many
thanks and special mention go to the field staff team: Richard
Koko, Jacob Makola, Aron Matabane, Wilson Molaba, Job
Motsamai and Andries Mphuti. Sandra Turck is thanked for
the graphic design of Figure 4.
Competing interests
Burger, L.W., Coetzee, L.A. & Enslin, H., 2000, Air pollution characterisation and
preliminary health risk assessment of the proposed Platinum Highway (WarmbathsPretoria-Skilpadhek), unpublished report, Environmental Management Services cc,
Wierda Park.
Carvalho, K.S. & Vasconcelos, H.L., 1999, ‘Forest fragmentation in central Amazonia
and its effects on litter-dwelling ants’, Biological Conservation 91, 151–157.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00079-8
Chacoff, N.P. & Aizen, M.A., 2006, ‘Edge effects on flower-visiting insects in grapefruit
plantations bordering premontane subtropical forest’, Journal of Applied Ecology
43, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01116.x
Compaan, P., 2011, Technical report: Gauteng conservation plan version 3.3 (C-Plan
3.3), unpublished report for the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, viewed 25 October 2017, from https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/315771900_Gauteng_Conservation_Plan_
Version_33_C-Plan_33.
Conservation Biology Institute (CBI), 2000, Review of potential edge effects on the San
Fernando Valley Spineflower (Chorizanthe parryi var. fernandina), unpublished
report prepared for Ahmanson Land Company, West Covina, California &
Beveridge & Diamond, LLP, San Francisco, CA.
Cousins, S.A.O., Lavorel, S. & Davies, I., 2003, ‘Modelling the effects of landscape
pattern and grazing regimes on the persistence of plant species with high
conservation value in grasslands in south-eastern Sweden’, Landscape Ecology 18,
315–332. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024400913488
Cowling, R.M. & Heijnis, C.E., 2001, ‘The identification of Broad Habitat Units as
biodiversity entities for systematic conservation planning in the Cape Floristic
Region’, South African Journal of Botany 67, 15–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0254-6299(15)31087-5
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them
in writing this article.
Cowling, R.M., Pressey, R.L., Rouget, M. & Lombard, A.T., 2003, ‘A conservation plan
for a global biodiversity hotspot – The Cape Floristic Region, South Africa’,
Biological Conservation 112, 191–216.
Authors contributions
Desmet, P. & Cowling, R., 2004, ‘Using the species-area relationship to set baseline
targets for conservation’, Ecology and Society 9(2), 11. https://doi.org/10.5751/
ES-01206-090211
M.F.P. was the project leader and was also responsible for
designing the spatial input layers for plants, vegetation,
bioclimatic classes, cost surface, corridor network and the
ridges, and ultimately for directing the C-plan analyses to
build the Gauteng Conservation Plan. P.C.C. was responsible
for all the GIS and C-plan analyses, including preparation of
all spatial input layers and building the C-plan database.
C.A.W.J., I.E., L.D. and G.M. were responsible for designing
the spatial input layers for birds and pans, invertebrates,
mammals, and reptiles and amphibians, respectively. L.M.
and S.D.W. led the fieldwork teams and contributed
significantly to field surveys. P.M. and L.S.N. contributed
significantly to designing and preparing the wetland and
river layers. S.D.H. conducted the Marxan analysis on the
bioclimatic layer, while D.B.H. developed the vegetation
map for the province.
http://www.abcjournal.org
Davidson, S., 2000, ‘What price biodiversity’, Ecos 102, 10–13.
Donald, P.F. & Evans, A.D., 2006, ‘Habitat connectivity and matrix restoration: The
wider implications of agri-environment schemes’, Journal of Applied Ecology 43,
209–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01146.x
Driver, A., Maze, K., Lombard, A.T., Nel, J., Rouget, M., Turpie, J.K. et al., 2004, South
African National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Summary report, South
African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Fischer, J. & Lindenmayer, D.B., 2007, ‘Landscape modification and habitat
fragmentation: A synthesis’, Global Ecology and Biogeography 16, 265–280.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x
Folke, C., 2006, ‘The economic perspective: Conservation against development versus
conservation for development’, Conservation Biology 20(3), 686–688. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00446.x
Franklin, J.F., 1993, ‘Preserving biodiversity: Species, ecosystems, or landscapes?’,
Ecological Applications 3, 202–205. https://doi.org/10.2307/1941820
Gillson, L. & Willis, K.J., 2004 ‘“As earth’s testimonies tell”: Wilderness conservation in
a changing world’, Ecology Letters 7, 990–998. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
1461-0248.2004.00658.x
Graudal, L., Kjær, E.D. & Canger, S., 1995, ‘A systematic approach to the conservation
of genetic resources of trees and shrubs in Denmark’, Forest Ecology and
Management 73, 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(94)03497-K
Hampe, A. & Petit, R.J., 2005, ‘Conserving biodiversity under climate change: The rear
edge matters’, Ecology Letters 8, 461–467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.
2005.00739.x
Open Access
Page 16 of 16
Henning, G.A., Terblanche, R.F. & Ball, J.B. (eds.), 2009, ‘South African red data book:
Butterflies’, SANBI Biodiversity Series 13, South African National Biodiversity
Institute, Pretoria.
Hilty, J.A. & Merenlender, A.M., 2004, ‘Use of riparian corridors and vineyards by
mammalian predators in northern California’, Conservation Biology 18(1), 126–
135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00225.x
Hoekstra, J.M., Boucher, T.M., Ricketts, T.H. & Roberts, C., 2005, ‘Confronting a biome
crisis: Global disparities of habitat loss and protection’, Ecology Letters 8, 23–29.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00686.x
Holway, D.A., 2004, ‘Edge effects of an invasive species across a natural ecological
boundary’, Biological Conservation 121(4), 561–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biocon.2004.06.005
Hunter, M.L., 2005, ‘A mesofilter conservation strategy to complement fine and coarse
filters’, Conservation Biology 19(4), 1025–1029. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
1523-1739.2005.00172.x
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2001, IUCN Red List categories
and criteria: Version 3.1, IUCN Species Survival Commission, IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Jump, A.S. & Peñuelas, J., 2005, ‘Running to stand still: Adaptation and the response
of plants to rapid climate change’, Ecology Letters 8, 1010–1020. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00796.x
Kleynhans, C.J. & Louw, M.D., 2008, River ecoclassification manual for ecostatus
determination (version 2). Module A: Ecoclassification and ecostatus
determination, Water Research Commission (WRC) Report no. TT 329/08, DWAF
& Water for Africa, Pretoria.
Kuussaari, M., Bommarco, R., Heikkinen, R.K., Helm, A., Krauss, J., Lindborg, R. et al.,
2009, ‘Extinction debt: A challenge for biodiversity conservation’, Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 24(10), 564–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.011
Laurance, W.F., Lovejoy, T.E., Vasconcelos, H.L., Bruna, E.M., Didham, R.K., Stouffer,
P.C. et al., 2002, ‘Ecosystem decay of Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year
investigation’, Conservation Biology 16(3), 605–618. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.
1523-1739.2002.01025.x
Lesica, P., 1993, ‘Using plant community diversity in reserve design for pothole prairie
on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, Montana, USA’, Biological Conservation 65,
69–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(93)90198-A
Lopez, J.E. & Pfister, C.A., 2001, ‘Local population dynamics in metapopulation
models: Implications for Conservation’, Conservation Biology 15(6), 1700–1709.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.00140.x
Original Research
Pressey, R.L., Cowling, R.M. & Rouget, M., 2003, ‘Formulating conservation targets for
biodiversity pattern and process in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa’,
Biological Conservation 112, 99–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)
00424-X
Pressey, R.L., Watts, M.E., Barrett, T.W. & Ridges, M., 2009, ‘The C-Plan conservation
planning system: Origins, applications and possible futures’, in A. Moilanen, K.A.
Wilson & H.P. Possingham (eds.), Spatial conservation prioritisation: Quantitative
methods and computational tools, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Pyke, C.R., 2004, ‘Habitat loss confounds climate change impacts’, Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment 2(4), 178–182. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)
002[0178:HLCCCI]2.0.CO;2
Pyke, C.R. & Fischer, D.T., 2005, ‘Selection of bioclimatically representative biological
reserve systems under climate change’, Biological Conservation 121(3), 429–441.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.05.019
Raimondo, D., Von Staden, L., Foden, W., Victor, J.E., Helme, N.A., Turner, R.C. et al.
(eds.), 2009, ‘Red List of South African Plants’, Strelitzia 25, South African National
Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Robinson, J.G., 2006, ‘Conservation biology and real-world conservation’, Conservation
Biology 20(3), 658–669. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00469.x
Rodrigues, A.S.L. & Gaston, K.J., 2001, ‘How large do reserve networks need to be?’,
Ecology Letters 4, 602–609. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00275.x
Root, T.L. & Schneider, S.H., 2006, ‘Conservation and climate change: The challenges
ahead’, Conservation Biology 20(3), 706–708. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
1523-1739.2006.00465.x
SANBI, 2013, Statistics: Red List of South African plants version 2013.1, viewed 07
January 2014, from http://redlist.sanbi.org.
Schtickzelle, N., Choutt, J., Goffart, P., Fichefet, V. & Baguette, M., 2005,
‘Metapopulation dynamics and conservation of the marsh fritillary butterfly:
Population viability analysis and management options for a critically endangered
species in Western Europe’, Biological Conservation 126(4), 569–581. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.06.030
Scott, J.M., Ables, E.D., Edwards, T.C., Eng, R.L., Gavin, T.A., Harris, L.D. et al., 1995,
‘Conservation of biological diversity: Perspectives and the future for the wildlife
profession’, Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(4), 646–657.
Semlitsch, R.D. & Bodie, J.R., 2003, ‘Biological criteria for buffer zones around
wetlands and riparian habitat for amphibians and reptiles’, Conservation Biology
17, 1219–1228. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02177.x
Low, A.B. & Rebelo, A.G., 1996, Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland,
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria, South Africa.
Shafer, C.L., 1999, ‘US National Park buffer zones: Historical, scientific, social and legal
aspects’, Environmental Management 23, 49–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s002679900167
Margules, C.R. & Pressey, R.L., 2000, ‘Systematic conservation planning’, Nature 405,
243–253. https://doi.org/10.1038/35012251
Skinner, J.D. & Chimimba, C.T., 2005, The mammals of the Southern African subregion,
3rd edn., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Midgely, G.F., Hannah, L., Millar, D., Thuiller, W. & Booth, A., 2003, ‘Developing
regional and species-level assessments of climate change impacts on biodiversity
in the Cape Floristic Region’, Biological Conservation 112, 87–97. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00414-7
Soulé, M.E. & Sanjayan, M.A., 1998, ‘Conservation targets: Do they help?’, Science
279, 2060–2061. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.279.5359.2060
Miller, J.R., 2005, ‘Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience’, Trends
in Ecology and Evolution 20(8), 430–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.
05.013
Thomas, C.D., Cameron, A., Green, R.E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L.J., Collingham,
Y.C. et al., 2004, ‘Extinction risk from climate change’, Nature 427, 145–148.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02121
Moilanen, A., Veach, V., Meller, L., Montesino Pouzols, F., Arponen, A. & Kujala, H.,
2014, Zonation spatial conservation planning framework and software v. 4.0, user
manual, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
Victor, J.E. & Keith, M., 2004, ‘The Orange List: A safety net for biodiversity in South
Africa’, South African Journal of Science 100, 139–141.
South African Bird Atlas Project 2, viewed 25 January 2016, from http://sabap2.adu.
org.za.
Mucina, L. & Rutherford, M.C. (eds.), 2006, ‘The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho
and Swaziland’, Strelitzia 19, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Watkins, R.Z., Chen, J., Pickens, J. & Brosofske, K.D., 2003, ‘Effects of forest roads on
understory plants in a managed hardwood landscape’, Conservation Biology
17(2), 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01285.x
Noss, R.F., 1987, ‘From plant communities to landscapes in conservation inventories:
A look at the nature conservancy’, Biological Conservation 41, 11–37. https://doi.
org/10.1016/0006-3207(87)90045-0
Whittington-Jones, C.A., 2007, The status and importance of ephemeral pans in
Gauteng, unpublished report, Gauteng Directorate of Nature Conservation,
Johannesburg, South Africa.
Noss, R.F., 1996, ‘Ecosystems as conservation targets’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution
11, 351. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)20058-8
Whittington-Jones, C.A., West, S., Matabane, A., Koko, R., Molaba, W., Motsamai, J. et al.,
2008, The herpetofauna of Gauteng. Volume 1: Distribution and status of reptiles,
unpublished report, Gauteng Directorate of Nature Conservation, Johannesburg,
South Africa.
Opdam, P. & Wascher, D., 2004, ‘Climate change meets habitat fragmentation: Linking
landscape and biogeographical scale levels in research and conservation’,
Biological Conservation 117, 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2003.
12.008
Pfab, M.F., 2002, ‘An integrative approach for the conservation and management of
South Africa’s floristic diversity at the provincial level’, Biodiversity and
Conservation 11, 1195–1204. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016045420951
Pfab, M.F. & Victor, J.E., 2002, ‘Threatened plants of Gauteng, South Africa’, South
African Journal of Botany 68, 374–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-6299(15)
30400-2
Pfab, M.F., Victor, J.E. & Armstrong, A.J., 2011, ‘Application of the IUCN Red Listing
system to setting species targets for conservation planning purposes’,
Biodiversity and Conservation 20, 1001–1012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531011-0009-0
Pfab, M.F. & Witkowski, E.T.F., 1997, ‘Use of geographical information systems in
the search for additional populations, or sites suitable for re-establishment, of
the endangered Northern Province endemic Euphorbia clivicola’, South African
Journal of Botany 63, 351–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-6299(15)
30785-7
http://www.abcjournal.org
Whittington-Jones, C.A., West, S., Matabane, A., Koko, R., Molaba, W., Motsamai, J. et al.,
2009, The herpetofauna of Gauteng. Volume 1: Distribution and status of
amphibians, unpublished report, Gauteng Directorate of Nature Conservation,
Johannesburg, South Africa.
Williams, P., Hannah, L., Andelman, S., Midgely, G., Araújo, M., Hughes, G. et al., 2005,
‘Planning for climate change: Identifying minimum-dispersal corridors for the
Cape Proteaceae’, Conservation Biology 19(4), 1063–1074. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00080.x
Wilsey, B.J., Martin, L.M. & Polley, H.W., 2005, ‘Predicting plant extinction based on
species-area curves in prairie fragments with high beta richness’, Conservation
Biology 19(6), 1835–1841. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00250.x
Yetman, C.A. & Ferguson, J.W.H., 2011, ‘Conservation implications of spatial habitat
use by adult giant bullfrogs (Pyxicephalus adspersus)’, Journal of Herpetology
45(1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1670/09-186.1
Zeng, H., Sui, D.Z. & Wu, X.B., 2005, ‘Human disturbances on landscapes in protected
areas: A case study of the Wolong Nature Reserve’, Ecological Research 20(4),
487–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-005-0065-6
Open Access