Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran

Mohammad Mousaei Sanjerehei

The present book provides the importance and effectiveness of studies of plant life forms. The relationships between plant life form and the attributes such as K and r- selection, plant defenses, species interactions, plant productivity as well as succession, grazing and fire are discussed with examples. In addition, this book describes the importance of various climatic, edaphic and topographic variables influencing the distribution of different plant life forms. The life zones, floristic regions and life forms of 3064 of the most abundant plant species in Iran are presented.

Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran By: Mohammad Mousaei Sanjerehei Islamic Azad University, Yazd Branch, Yazd, Iran 2019 Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran ◼ Author: Mohammad Mousaei Sanjerehei ◼ Publisher: Tafakkor Talaei ◼ Publication date: 2019 ◼ ISBN: 978-622-96077- 4- 9 ◼ Dewey classification: 581.37 ◼ National Bibliography Number: 5871419 Copyright © 2019 Mohammad Mousaei Sanjerehei All rights are reserved by the author Printed in Iran Preface The present book provides the importance and effectiveness of studies of plant life forms. The relationships between plant life form and the attributes such as K and r- selection, plant defenses, species interactions, plant productivity as well as succession, grazing and fire are discussed with examples. In addition, this book describes the importance of various climatic, edaphic and topographic variables influencing the distribution of different plant life forms. The life zones, floristic regions and life forms of 3064 of the most abundant plant species in Iran are presented. Mohammad Mousaei Sanjerehei Contents 1. Plant Life Forms Life form.............................................................................................................. 1 Raunkiaer’s classification system of life forms ................................................... 3 Phanerophytes...................................................................................................... 3 Chamaephytes...................................................................................................... 5 Hemicryptophytes................................................................................................ 5 Cryptophytes........................................................................................................ 5 Therophytes ......................................................................................................... 6 Phytoclimates ...................................................................................................... 6 2. Importance of Life Forms Importance of studies of life forms...................................................................... 7 Ecosystem services by plants of different life forms ........................................... 8 Influence of climate on plant life forms .............................................................. 9 Relations between soil and plant life forms....................................................... 10 Influence of elevation on plant life forms ......................................................... 11 K and r- selected life forms ............................................................................... 12 Defenses and apparency of plants of different life forms .................................. 13 Interactions between plant life form and livestock grazing ............................... 14 Response of life forms to fire ............................................................................ 15 Shifts in life forms through succession.............................................................. 16 Relationship between plant life form and plant interactions ............................. 17 Productivity of plants of different life forms ..................................................... 19 3. Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran Life Zones.......................................................................................................... 23 The Holdridge Life zones .................................................................................. 23 The life zones of Iran ......................................................................................... 25 Climate of Iran................................................................................................... 29 Floristic regions of Iran ..................................................................................... 30 Hyrcanian region ............................................................................................... 30 Irano-Touranian region ...................................................................................... 30 Zagross region ................................................................................................... 31 Khalijo-Omanian region .................................................................................... 32 Arasbaran region ............................................................................................... 32 4. Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran Life forms of plant species and floristic regions in Iran .................................... 33 References ....................................................................................................... 139 Plant Life Forms 1. 1 Plant Life Forms Life form Life form of a plant indicates adaptation of the plant to the environment. In fact, environment is the primary driver of life form evolution. For example, a deciduous tree is a plant life form that responses to an unfavorable season by shedding its leaves, or a geophyte is a plant that survives in a form of underground root or stem in response to unfavorable environment. Plant life form can also be defined as the structural form of a plant under the condition of its habitat indicating function of the plant in the habitat and its response to climate, soil, topography, disturbances such as grazing and fire as well as interactions between plants (Arnold, 1955). In fact, life form is a result of long term morphological adjustments to the environment that have an evolutionary basis and have become fixed in the heredity of the kind (Cain, 1950). Sometimes, a species may belong to one life form type in one region and to another type in a region with different climatic conditions. Ricinus communis, for example is a perennial in tropical and subtropical climates and an annual in temperate climates. A species may have more than one life form according to its age. All phanerophytes (e.g., trees) show gradual change of life form as they grow in size (Morey 1936). Plant species that are phylogenetically close, may have different life forms. For example Calendula officinalis and Artemisia sieberi are from the same family, but the former is a small herbaceous plant and the latter is a woody shrub. Conversely, species of unrelated families such as Acantholimon scorpius and Acanthophyllum squarrosum may share a similar life form through convergent evolution. Similar stem-succulents evolved in the families of Cactaceae and Euphorbiaceae are good examples of this case (Cain, 1950). Thus, life forms are not entirely the results of climatic conditions alone, but are dependent on the flora available and on its history (Adamson, 1939). Although there is a significant correlation between life form and climate, no climatic zone or large scale environmental type is characterized by a single life form. Thus, large climatic regions and principal associated soils contain plant communities composed of several life forms. 2 Ecological dominance is largely determined by the combinations of life form characteristics. Trees and shrubs exert dominance over all other species in forest communities due to their superiority in life span and structure. Grasses dominate in meadows and bunchgrass openings and are therefore superior life forms in these ecosystems. However, disturbances such as overgrazing, fire and heavy logging can reduce the dominance of superior life forms over inferior life forms (Arnold, 1955). Terrestrial biomes including tropical forests, temperate forests, grasslands, deserts, taiga (coniferous forests) and tundra are differentiated on the basis of dominant plant life forms. Several studies have shown a strong correlation between life forms and various life history traits such as reproductive rate, length of life and body size. For example therophytes (annuals) have a higher reproductive rate and a smaller body size than phanerophytes (e.g., trees). In forests, trees have significantly higher seed, fruit and flower weight and ratio of fruit to flower mass than other life forms (Ramirez, 1993). Since a plant’s life form represents fundamental adaptation to the environment, community life form composition has a greater potential value than community species composition for use as an indicator of microenvironmental conditions (Cooper, 1961). The variations in community life form composition can be quantified by estimating vegetative attributes such as cover, density, biomass and frequency. Changes in life forms may alter the structure of food web in an ecosystem. Loss of red-flowered herbs for example, can probably result in loss of hummingbirds, which in turn may lead to the loss of snakes that feed on hummingbirds (Ewel and Bigelow, 1996). Life form of a plant can determine the ability of the plant to capture resources (Golluscio et al., 2005). Plants of the same life form have approximately similar structure and similar manner for utilization of environmental resources. Growth form is another characteristic of vegetation which is sometimes used as a synonym for life form. However, there is a distinction between life form which is determined by the general physiognomy and growth form which can be regarded as a subdivision based on the architecture of the shoots (Du Rietz, 1931). A simple classification of plant life forms that has been extensively used is trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs and annuals. A variety of criteria have been used by researchers for classification of plant life forms. These include physiognomy (Von Humboldt, 1807; Grisebach, 1884), height of the lignified stem and plant longevity (de Candolle 1818), power of vegetative propagation, duration of tillers, hypogeous or epigeous type of shoot, mode of wintering, degree and mode of branching of rhizomes, evergreen and deciduous habit, heterotrophic and autotrophic types (Warming, 1884, 1895, 1909), position of perennial buds Plant Life Forms 3 during unfavorable season (Raunkiaer, 1904, 1905,1934), form, size, duration and structure of leaves (Raunkiaer, 1916), morphology (Kerner von Marilaun, 1863; Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974), biological-functional types (Drude, 1890) and physiological-adaptational traits (Schimper, 1898). These life form criteria have been used individually or combined into more diverse and complex schemes for classification of life forms. There is no universal agreement on one system of life form classification and each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Raunkiaer’s classification system of life forms Among all life form classification schemes, Raunkiaer’s system of life form classification has received much attention and applied to any variety of vegetation types. In addition, it can serve as an ecological classification of plant communities (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). Raunkiaer’s system is based on the adaptation of plants to survive unfavorable season. Raunkiaer characterized life form types based on the kind and the degree of protection afforded to the perennating buds and shoot-apices, and classified life forms based on the location of perennating buds during unfavorable season. Unfavorable season may be due to drought, cold or both, and they may be short or long. The life form types presented by Raunkiaer include phanerophytes, chamaephytes, hemicryptophytes, cryptophytes and therophytes which are arranged from least to most protection of buds. Phanerophytes The surviving buds or shoot-apices in these plants are located more than 25 cm above soil surface and borne on the shoots which project into the air (Fig. 1). Phanerophytes are mainly woody perennials such as trees and large shrubs and are subdivided based on plant height: Megaphanerophytes; with over 30 meters tall, Mesophanerophytes; between 8-30 m tall, Microphanerophytes; with 2-8 m tall, Nanophanerophytes; under 2 m and over 25 cm tall. In addition to height-based classification, Raunkiaer presented life form subclasses based on bud covering and evergreen or deciduous attributes as; Evergreen megaphanerophytes with bud covering, Evergreen megaphanerophytes without bud covering, Evergreen mesophanerophytes with bud covering, Evergreen mesophanerophytes without bud covering, Evergreen microphanerophytes with bud covering, Evergreen microphanerophytes without bud covering, 4 Evergreen nanophanerophytes with bud covering, Evergreen nanophanerophytes without bud covering, Deciduous megaphanerophytes with bud covering, Deciduous mesophanerophytes with bud covering, Deciduous microphanerophytes with bud covering, Deciduous nanophanerophytes with bud covering Phanerophytes exhibit the least amount of protection from the unfavorable conditions. These plants decrease in dominance with increasing climatic severity (e.g., extremes of temperature). Some species such as Quercus stellata show a mesophanerophytic life form under favorable conditions and nano-or microphanerophytic life form under less favorable environment (e.g., drier climate). The tallest trees occur in the most favorable climates in the warm and humid tropical rainforests, temperate deciduous and coniferous forests, and for any of these life forms, the plant stature is reduced when soil is less favorable and climate is worse (Cain, 1950). Figure 1- Diagram of the types of life-forms: Phanerophytes (1), Chamaephytes (2-3), Hemicryptophytes (4), and Cryptophytes (5-9). The parts of the plant which die in the unfavorable season are unshaded. The persistent axes with the surviving buds are black. Proceeding from Phanerophytes (left) to cryptophytes (right), the plants enjoy progressively better protection during the unfavorable season, and the surviving buds being located lower and lower. In Chamaephytes the buds are on the surface of the ground (2 and 3), in Hemicryptophytes they are in the soil-surface (4), and in Cryptophytes (5 and 6) the buds are actually in the soil, or at the bottom of the water in Helophytes (7) and Hydrophytes (8-9). From Raunkiaer (1934), The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Plant Life Forms 5 Chamaephytes Chamaephytes are the plants having their perennating buds or shoot-apices on the soil surface or above it not exceeding 25 cm (Fig. 1). Chamaephytes include woody plants and are often protected in the unfavorable season by fallen leaves and snow or by the dense growth of the plant itself and thus buds are better protected than in phanerophytes (Cain, 1950). Chamaephytes are subdivided into four groups as; a) Suffruticose chamaephytes; the aerial shoots are erect. At the beginning of the unfavorable season, they die back to the portion, of varying length, that bears the surviving buds. In fact they are the plants in which the perennating buds remain on the soil surface after the herbaceous parts have died away on the approach of the critical season, like many Mediterranean species of Labiateae and Papilionaceae (Smith, 1913). b) Passive chamaephytes; the shoots are negatively geotropic but they are not furnished with sufficient strengthening tissue to keep them erect. Thus they are the plants with weak stems which often lie on the ground. c) Active chamaephytes: the shoots are persistent and transversely geotropic in light. d) Cushion plants. Raunkiaer noted that there is a positive correlation of the percentage of plants in this class with increasingly latitude and altitude. There is sometimes difficult to draw a sharp line to distinguish between phanerophytes, chamaephytes and hemicryptophytes. Hemicryptophytes In this life form class, the surviving buds or shoot-apices are located in the soil surface and are therefore more protected than the chamaephytes (Fig. 1). Hemicryptophytes are numerous in humid temperate regions and often constitute a high percentage of the total species of an area particularly in deciduous forests and grasslands (Cain, 1950). Raunkiaer recognized three main subdivisions for hemicryptophytes as follows; a) Protohemicryptophytes or non-rosette: the plants are without leaf rosettes, b) Partial rosette: these plants have both basal leaf rosette and leafy stem, c) Rosette plants; they have all or nearly all of their leaves in a basal rosette and, the elongated aerial shoot bears only flowers. Cryptophytes Buds or shoot-apices of these plants are buried in the soil, in water or in the soil under the water at a distance from the surface. They are much more protected than the plants whose perennating buds are on the soil surface or elevated into 6 the air (Cain, 1950). Three main subdivisions of this life form were presented by Raunkiaer; a) Geophytes; These plants have tuberous subterranean organs including rhizomes, bulbs and tubers which enable them to make a quick vegetative development with the return of favorable season. These include; rhizome geophytes, bulb geophytes, stem tuber geophytes and root tuber geophytes (Fig. 1). Geophytes are common in the Mediterranean type of climate, in some steppes and in the vernal flora under deciduous temperate forests where they expand rapidly before the full leaf canopy is displayed (Cain, 1950). b) Helophytes; or marsh plants are mostly emergent plants. Their perennating buds are rooted in the soil beneath the water (Fig. 1). c) Hydrophytes; these are the plants which include free floating forms and those which may be rooted but not emergent during the unfavorable season (Fig. 1). Therophytes Therophytes or annuals are the plants that survive the unfavorable seasons in the form of seeds. Annuals are abundant in deserts and in weed communities and where native vegetation is disturbed (Cain, 1950). Phytoclimates Raunkiaer presented four major phytoclimates based on the relationship between climate and the life forms; a) phanerophytic climate of the warm humid tropics, b) hemicryptophytic climate of the midlatitudes, including both the coniferous and deciduous forests as well as the moister steppes (temperate zones), c) therophytic climate of tropical and subtropical deserts (arid and warm deserts) and d) chameophytic climate of high latitudes and altitudes (cold zones). It should be noted that more than one life form may occur in an area with a climate type and that no single life form is limited to a climate type. Local conditions such as microclimate, edaphic conditions, plant interactions as well as disturbances such as fire and grazing may result in an appearance of a variety of life forms in a given climate. However, the dominant life form may be a good indicator of the prevailing climate type. Importance of Life Forms 7 2. Importance of Life Forms Importance of studies of life forms Plant life form is closely related to a variety of vegetation attributes and ecological processes such as structure of community, succession, ecosystem services and functions, intensity of grazing, fire extent and frequency, plant interactions, life history features, fauna of herbivores and carnivores, plant species richness and adaptation of plants. The study of plant life form is important for; • Determination of the environmental and anthropogenic variables shaping and altering the structure of plant communities, • Comparison of vegetation among different habitats and quantifying the ecological similarity of different communities, • Evaluating succession through shifts in plant life forms (i.e., from grass to shrub), • Understanding the changes in ecosystem services and functions as a result of changes in life form types, • Detecting changes in fauna of herbivores, carnivores and microorganisms according to the changes in plant life forms, • Investigation of forage quality and quantity for livestock, • Assessing and predicting fire frequency and extent, • Analysis of community resilience following environmental disturbances, • Detection and interpretation of the type and significance of interactions between plant species, • Ecologically interpreting vegetation, • Making an effective and efficient measure of vegetation for remote sensing studies, • Predicting the survival of plants under fire and grazing, • Studying soil organic matter, carbon dynamics and storage as well as patterns of other nutrient concentrations, • Assessing and comparing life history features such as population size, ability to disperse, reproductive strategy, length of life and reproductive age among different plant species, 8 • Evaluating vertical patterns of ecosystem processes due to differences in root distribution pattern and aboveground plant structure among different life forms, • Determining the compositional response of vegetation communities to climate changes and disturbances and, planning for effective management practices which will help to maintain a high level of plant productivity and richness in different terrestrial ecosystems. Ecosystem services by plants of different life forms Plants provide a variety of ecological services and functions which are environmentally, economically and socially beneficial and necessary for human (Costanza et al., 1997). Plant life forms differ in the amount and the extent of services and functions they provide. For example, importance and role of trees in climate regulation and soil formation is much more than that of herbaceous plants, whereas herbaceous plants are more important than trees in biological control and livestock grazing. Plants of similar life forms provide approximately equivalent functions. Therefore, in a community with frequent and diverse plant species of similar life forms, the loss of a species or substitution of one species for another is likely to have small consequences for ecosystem services and functions. But shifts and changes in life forms can strikingly alter ecosystem functions due to the different structure and architecture among different life forms (Ewel and Bigelow 1996). The services and functions which are provided by plants and are largely different among plants of different life forms include but not limited to: • Regulation of atmospheric gasses: O2/CO2 balance, O3 for UVB protection, • Climate regulation: regulation of temperature, precipitation and greenhouse gasses as well as vegetation cooling, • Disturbance regulation: storm protection, flood control, drought recover, • Water regulation: regulation of water cycle through transpiration, water absorption and infiltration by plants, • Erosion control: prevention of soil loss by wind and water, • Soil formation: role of decomposed litters in chemical weathering of stones and role of plant roots in physical weathering of stones, • Nutrient cycling: role of nitrogen-fixing legumes and decomposition of plant organic materials, • Waste treatment and pollution control: role of vegetation in removal or breakdown of xenic nutrients and compounds, • Refugia: provision of habitat for animals, • Food production: production of crops, nuts, fruits, etc, Importance of Life Forms 9 • Raw materials: production of lumber, fuel and fodder, • Forage production for livestock, • Pharmaceutical uses: medicinal plants and medicinal compounds extracted from plants, • Recreation: providing opportunities for recreational activities (such as forests), • Biological control: role of companion plants in repelling and deterring pests. For example, asparagus can deter the root-knot nematode of tomato, and tomato can repel asparagus beetle, when they are planted together. Influence of climate on plant life forms Climatic variables such as temperature and precipitation have been long recognized as the most important drivers of life form types. In fact, the relation of physiognomy to climate has often been made the basis of the classification of life forms by many scientists (Raunkiaer, 1934; Adamson, 1939). In deserts with low precipitation and high temperature, life forms such as annuals, succulents (e.g., cacti species) and desert shrubs (e.g., Haloxylon) are adapted. Grasses are dominated in the prairie (temperate grasslands) and Savanna (tropical grasslands).Tallest trees with large, oval and waxy leaves prevail in tropical regions with annual precipitation of more than 2400 mm and annual mean temperature of more than 17° C. Epiphytes are also abundant plants in tropical climates. Temperate climates with annual precipitation of 750- 2000 mm are characterized by deciduous trees with abundant hemicryptophytes and geophytes (Cain, 1950, Stiling, 1996). In these regions, many herbaceous plants flower in spring before the expansion of tree canopies. In Taiga (coniferous forests) with long and cold winters, most of trees are evergreens or conifers with needle-leaves such as pines and spruces. There are also some small-leaved deciduous trees like birch and alder, mostly in some parts of Taiga escaping the most extreme winter cold. In Tundra, with an annual precipitation of less than 250 mm, often as snow, summer temperature of 5° C and winter temperature of -32° C, most plants occur in the form of lichens, mosses and grasses (Stiling, 1996). Woody cushion is a characteristic of damp and cold climate with a short growing season (Adamson 1939). Shrubby species such as Sagebrush (Artemisia sieberi and Artemisi aucheri) and milk vetch (Astragalus sp.) are important indicators of arid and semiarid climates of Iran covering a large area of this country. Based on the physiognomic types of Holdridge, trees dominate mainly in the areas with a precipitation of more than 500 mm. Grasses prevail where 10 precipitation is around 250-500 mm, and scrubs prevail in the regions with precipitation of less than 250 mm. Although there is a significant correlation between climate and plant life forms, there is no climate zone characterized by a single life form. This is because microclimate conditions, soil attributes, plant interactions and topographic variables (e.g., slope, aspect and elevation) may result in the appearance of a verity of life forms in a plant community. However the occurrence of dominant life form in an area is likely to be highly dependent on the macroclimate of the area. Plants of the same species (e.g., Tribulus terrestris) may have different life forms in accordance with different climatic conditions. The ability of a species to grow in different life forms enables the existence of the species under extreme climatic conditions. For example mat-like, stem shrub, prostrate, multistemmed and single stemmed ecomorphs have been distinguished in the Larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) along an altitudinal gradient in the polar Urals. Development of vertical stems in prostrate and stem-shrub ecomorphs of Siberian larch occurs mainly in favorable climatic periods (Mazepa and Devi, 2007). Plants of different life forms respond differently to climatic changes. For example, evergreen dwarf-shrubs and cushion plants in Tundra communities generally respond very little to higher temperature. Deciduous dwarf-shrubs, graminoides and herbs, in contrast tend to increase their growth rate and standing crop and respond more quickly to environmental cues (Michelsen et al., 1996; Molau, 1997). Relationships between soil and plant life forms Soil chemical properties such as salinity, pH and nutrient content and soil physical properties like texture, structure, density, porosity and water content can significantly affect on life form type and vegetation structure. In the semiarid valley of Zapotitlan Mexico, nitrogen proved to be significant for columnar cacti, succulents and chamaephytes. pH, EC and nitrogen were significant for globose cacti, and pH was the important driver of therophytes distribution (Pavon et al., 2000). In a shortgrass steppe community in northeastern Colorado, diversity of life forms has been found to be a function of the spatial partitioning of soil water resources and their differential use by trees, shrubs and grasses (Dodd et al., 1998). Two different life forms (e.g., shrubs and grasses) may occur in one habitat where their different root distributions coincide with the vertical separation of soil water resources (Walter, 1979). In Sahelian, Burkina Faso, chamaephytes have shown a more pronounced preference of dunes over pediplain than other life forms, whereas diversity of Importance of Life Forms 11 geophytes has been found to be higher near water courses (Schmidt et al., 2008). Seeds of different plant life forms have different germinability, germination time and speed of germination in relation to different values of soil water potential and temperature. Shrubs for example, were shown to have higher germinability than columnar succulents and shorter germination time than arborescent semi-succulents in a Mexican inter-tropical desert. In general, different plant life forms utilize different germination strategies to persist (Flores and Briones, 2001). Shifts in plant life forms can alter chemical and physical characteristics of the underlying soil. Plant life forms differ in belowground structure such as root depth and distribution and aboveground structure such as canopy cover, height and leaf shape and therefore in their influences on soil properties and soilrelated processes such as runoff and erosion. Different aboveground plant structures among life forms have different influences on ecosystem processes through airflow, albedo, water percolation and infiltration patterns (Reynolds et al., 1997). Shrubs have been shown to increase sustainability of soil surface more than other types of life forms (grasses, forbs) in semisteppe rangelands of Golestan Park, Iran (Ghodsi et al., 2012). This is due to the coarse roots and deeper root distribution of shrubs in compared to grasses and forbs. In the humid rangelands of Savadkooh, Iran, the most and the least volume of runoff occurred respectively in forb and grass communities, and sediment concentration was found to be more under shrubs than under grasses (Najafian et al., 2010). Soil carbon content, organic matter and chemistry as well as distribution and accumulation of nutrients may change following changes and shifts in dominant plant life form, because plant life forms differ in litter chemistry and patterns of detrital input (Gill and Burke, 1999). Studies have shown that soil carbon, nitrogen and micronutrient concentrations are generally higher under Savanna trees and shrubs than in the bare or grass-dominated interspaces. This is because shrub litter is generally higher in nutrient content and concentration than grass litter (Connin et al., 1997; Kieft et al., 1998; Burke et al., 1998). Different abiotic conditions such as decomposition, nutrient availability and evaporation rate between under shrub canopy and grass canopy may lead to the occurrence of different fauna under canopy of the two life forms (Gill and Burke, 1999). Influence of elevation on plant life forms Elevation is an important topographic variable that significantly influences the climatic conditions such as temperature (e.g., decrease of temperature 12 by 6°C for every 1000 m increase in elevation). Elevation has been shown to have a significant effect on plant life forms. In summer rangelands of Ramsar, Iran, life form types were found to depend on the elevation (Askarizedeh and Heshmati, 2013). Annual grasses and perennial forbs were inversely associated with elevation, whereas annual forbs, perennial grasses, shrubs and trees were positively correlated with elevation. Along a gradient of altitude in the humid rangelands of western Iran, therophytes (annuals) were found to have a higher richness at lower elevations and decrease with increasing elevation. Geophytes, hemicryptopohytes and phanerophytes showed a positive response to elevation and increased with increasing elevation (Hatami et al., 2011). In the semiarid valley of Zapotitlan Mexico, Rosette plants, microphanerophytes, nanophanerophytes and therophytes were well represented throughout the altitudinal gradient. Columnar and globose cacti were more abundant at elevations between 1600 and 2000m. Geophytes distributed at 1700 -1800 m range. The life form abundance was found to be inversely correlated with elevation, and only chamaephytes and nanophanerophytes were abundant at 2200 m (Pavon et al., 2000). In the rupestrian grasslands in south-eastern Brazil, frequency and richness of phanerophytes and chamaephytes were found to decrease with increasing elevation, while hemicryptophytes and therophytes were found to dominate at high elevations (Mota et al., 2018). Korner et al. (1986) evaluated the effects of altitudinal variation on structure and function of different plant life forms in Southern Alps of New Zealand. They concluded that with an increase in elevation, maximum leaf diffusive conductance, leaf nitrogen content and stomatal density increased whereas stomatal area and specific area of leaves decreased in trees (Nothofagus menziesii), ericaceous dwarf shrubs and herbaceous plants of the genus Ranunculus. In general, the structural and functional changes in the leaves of herbaceous plants along the altitudinal gradient were more than those of shrubs and trees. K and r- selected life forms K and r- strategies are the concepts that bring together several life history features such as reproductive strategy, population size, ability to disperse, length of life and reproductive age (Stiling, 1996). The plants living in environments imposing high density-independent mortality (r-selected plants) will be selectively favored to allocate a greater proportion of resources to reproductive activities and conversely, plants living in environments imposing high density-dependent regulation (K- selected plants) will be selectively Importance of Life Forms 13 favored to allocate a greater fraction of resources to non-reproductive activities (Gadgil and Solbrig, 1972). The concepts of K and r- selection are not absolute, but are meaningful only by comparison. For example, herbaceous plants tend to be r-strategists more than shrubs and trees. The r-selected plants such as therophytes (annuals) and weeds produce a large amount of seeds and therefore have high population growth rate. They spread quickly throughout a habitat, mature early, set seed and then disappear. The r-selected plants are more frequent in disturbed habitats, because plants from more disturbed habitats devote on the average, a greater proportion of their aboveground production to reproductive tissue than plants from less disturbed habitats (Gadgil and Solbrig, 1972). K-selected plants such as phanerophytes (e.g., trees) reach to maturity late and tend to increase more slowly to the carrying capacity of the environment. These plants devote much energy to growth and maintenance and have relatively low values of population growth (Stiling, 1996). In general, r-selected plants have a higher reproductive rate, earlier sexual maturity, shorter life span, smaller size, higher mortality of young and stronger dispersal ability than K - selected plants. Therefore, the concepts of K and r-strategies appear to be more efficient when applied for life forms rather than for plant species. Defenses and apparency of plants of different life forms Plants use various chemical and physical defenses against herbivores. Plant chemical defenses are divided into quantitative and qualitative varieties. Quantitative defenses of plants are the compounds such as tannins that are largely digested by the herbivore and prevent further digestion of food. These compounds often constitute more than 1 percent of the fresh weight of leaves. Qualitative defenses are essentially the substances that can have a poisonous effect on herbivores (especially insects and invertebrates) even when they consume very small amount of the substances. These substances such as atropine are present in leaves of plants at low concentrations, around less than 1 percent of the fresh weight of leaves. Most qualitative defenses are rich in nitrogen and therefore are more common in nutrient- rich environments (Stiling, 1996). In general, the nature and extent of investment in defense against herbivores has evolved in response to the apparency of the plant (Feeny, 1976; Rhoades and Cates, 1976). Thus, quantitative and qualitative chemical defenses of plants are correlated to the life form and apparency of the plants. Apparent plants such as trees have large size and are named because they are always apparent to herbivores (mainly insects) and easily found by them. The defensive chemical compounds of apparent plants are thought to be mainly quantitative. Unapparent plants (such as annuals) are small and ephemeral plants that are often 14 unavailable to herbivores for long periods. The defenses of unapparent plants are assumed to be largely qualitative (Stiling, 1996). Thus, nearly all phanerophytes (such as trees and large shrubs) contain digestibility reducing substances, whereas therophytes (annuals) and weeds contain toxins. In addition to plant apparency, “carbon/nutrient balance” is an important factor influencing the patterns of herbivory. According to the carbon/nutrient balance hypothesis, plants will accumulate carbon-based defenses in low-nutrient environments, whereas in low carbon environments (such as limited light conditions), plants are more likely to invest in nitrogen-based defenses (Bryant et al., 1983; Van de Waal et al., 2009). Both apparency and carbon/nutrient balance are related to plant life forms (Maclean and Jensen, 1985). In a study in Alaska arctic tundra, larvae of four generalist-feeding Lepidoptera selected for deciduous shrubs and against evergreen shrubs and graminoids, which is consistent with the carbon/nutrient hypothesis of plant defense. Deciduous shrubs growing on nutrient rich habitats had rapid growth, high leaf turnover and little investment in defense, whereas evergreen shrubs growing on nutrient poor sites had slower growth and leaf turnover and higher investment in defense (Maclean and Jensen, 1985). Interactions between plant life form and livestock grazing Influence of grazing on plant life forms mainly depends on the type of life form and the type of herbivore. In addition, life form of a plant can largely influence the pattern and intensity of grazing, because plants with different life forms differ in the quality of forage (eg., crude protein, acid-detergent fiber, digestibility of dry matter, metabolism energy) (Arzani et al., 2010). Studies in rangelands of Arak and Bojnourd, Iran with cold semiarid climates have shown that annual grasses and forbs were more preferred by sheep than other types of life forms such as perennial grasses and shrubs (Heydarian et al., 2010; Zare et al., 2012). Thus, overgrazing by sheep may result in an increase of shrubs and a decrease of forbs (Heydarian et al., 2010). In rangelands of Golestan and Kordestan, Iran with humid climate, grazing prevention has been shown to lead to an increase in the cover, production and density of hemicryptophytes, forbs and grasses (Imani et al., 2010; Salarian et al., 2013). Some studies have shown that livestock grazing can largely prevent recruitment of trees and shrubs and thus, transform woodlands into grasslands (Gibson and Kirkpatrick, 1989; Cheal, 1993). Pettit et al. (1995) reported that grazing by domestic livestock in woodlands of Australia significantly reduced the native shrubs and perennial herbs, but increased the number of exotic annual grasses and herbs. Cain (1950) pointed out that overgrazing which is so prevalent in Importance of Life Forms 15 grasslands tends to increase the percentage of annuals through the introduction and spread of weedy grasses and forbs of this life form. Type of grazing animal seems to depend more on plant life form rather than plant species. In general, sheep prefer grasses and forbs over shrubs and therefore is known as a “grass and forb feeder”, whereas goats are shrub-feeder and prefer to feed more on shrubs in contrast to sheep (Schulz, 1994; Khan et al., 1999; Fayaz et al., 2015). Camels mainly graze on trees and shrubs and are known as browsers (Schwartz et al., 1983). The study of the diet of camel in rangelands of Semnan, Iran showed that this animal prefers chamaephytes such as Alhagi psedoalhagi and Halocnemum strobilaceum and the phanerophytes such as Tamarix leptopetala rather than other life forms (Fayaz et al., 2015). Cattle mainly prefer grasses especially tall ones (Van Rees and Hutson, 1983; Dougherty et al., 1989; Gallina, 1993). Arnold (1955) stated that overgrazing by cattle reduced tall grasses in meadows and mid grasses in pine bunchgrass openings and resulted in the replacement of tall and mid-grasses by short grasses, perennial prostrate forbs, short-lived half shrubs and annuals. Resistance of plants to animal grazing varies according to the life form of plants. Annuals are more tolerant to grazing due to their fast growth rates and early seeding than perennial life forms which show a slow growing and need several years to reach reproductive maturity (Grime, 1974). Impact of grazing on woody plants is likely to be much less than that on grasses and shrubs, because large and long lived trees have a greater energy resources in their roots and can draw on large reserves of resources to buffer the impact of herbivory (Bigger and Marvier, 1998; Stiling, 1996). Geophytes can withstand grazing pressure by having above ground growth occurring in winter and spring, and dying back to an underground storage organ such as rhizomes and bulbs through summer when overgrazing usually occurs (Pate and Dixon, 1981; Pettit et al., 1995). Plants such as geophytes with the ability to resprout from an underground storage organ after grazing are more likely to be resistant of continuous grazing than the plants which are killed by grazing (e.g., therophytes) and rely on seed for regeneration. Plants with the ability of both resprouting after grazing and reproducing from seed are not significantly affected by grazing (Bell et al., 1984; Pettit et al., 1995). Response of plant life forms to fire Fire extent and frequency are important drivers of changes and shifts in plant life form types and vegetation attributes such as density, cover and frequency. Studies of fire-vegetation relationships in rangelands and forests of Iran with a wide range of climate from arid to humid have shown that fire can significantly change the production, density and cover of forbs, grasses and shrubs and lead to the decrease of perennial grasses and increase of annual grasses 16 (Siahmansour et al., 2015; Goudarzi et al., 2015; Rafiee et al., 2015; Karmi et al., 2017). Frequent fires can reduce the abundance of shrub life forms and favor herbaceous life forms. Long-lived woody species have longer juvenile periods than short-lived herbaceous species. Thus, frequent and successive fires can prevent the long-lived woody plants to mature and set seed resulting in the reduction of the abundance of these species and increase of the abundance of life forms with short juvenile periods such as herbaceous plants (Morrison et al., 1995; Burrows and Wardell-Johnson, 2003; Pekin et al., 2012). Great fire frequency can also increase species richness through decreasing the dominant life forms in forest ecosystems where dominant woody life forms competitively suppress short-lived understory plant vegetation (Specht and Morgan, 1981; Peterson and Reich, 2008). Life forms differ in their resistance to fires, and therefore can be used as efficient measures of predicting the survival of plants under fire. For example, fire will tend to damage the species with exposed perennating buds, whereas the plants with fully protected buds should be least affected. Chapman and Crow (1981) evaluated the response of different life forms to prescribed fire and showed that chamaephytes were most severely affected by fire. Hemicryptophytes varied in their response to fire depending on how well buds were protected and, geophytes best survived the prescribed burn. Bell et al. (1984) recognized three types of reproductive response after fire; resprouters, obligate seeders and facultative seeder/sprouters. Resprouters are the plants which are able to resprout from an underground storage organ following fire and as a result are more tolerant of fire than obligate seeders. Obligate seeders are the plants which are killed by fire and rely on seed for regeneration. Facultative seeders/sprouters are the least affected plants by fire because they are able both to resprout after fire and to reproduce from seed. One of the distinct biomes on the earth is chaparral, a Mediterranean scrub habitat adapted to fire. In such ecosystem, precipitation may be sufficient to support tall trees, but frequent fires prevent the trees from surviving long enough to grow tall (Stiling, 1996). Shifts in life forms through succession Succession is the process of changes in species structure and life form in a community over time. The study of life form is very important in plant succession because development of a community through succession may proceed by rearrangement of the proportions of some life form types or by preponderance of one or more species in a life form type becoming increasingly abundant (Adamson, 1931). Importance of Life Forms 17 The actual process of succession include; appearance and substitution of a verity of life forms, changes in the environment and differences in attributes of a variety of species such as establishment, growth rate, dispersal, competition, facilitation, mortality and resistance over time (Monk, 1983). The sequence of species appearance as dominants seems in part related to their rate of growth to maturity; annuals, herbaceous perennials and woody perennials. Larger and longer-lived life forms tend to replace the smaller and shorter-lived ones. For example, the stages of primary succession in a forest include pioneer plants (e.g., lichens and mosses), herbaceous plants, scrubs, shrubs and trees. With changes of life form dominance from annuals to perennials, certain species within each group may become the dominants. This may be in part because the dominant species produce allelopathic substances (Monk, 1983). Successional life form changes on coastal Lake Michigan sand dunes are a good example of primary succession. The geophyte, Ammophila breviligulata dominates the dune ridges and gradually replaced by the hemicryptophyte, Schizachyrium scoparium, the chamaephyte, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, and the phanerophyte, Juniperus communis within 100 years. A mixed forest dominated by Pinus strobus and Pinus resinosa develops between 225 and 400 years and other phanerophytes such as Quercus rubra become important component of the forest canopy after 440 years (Lichter, 2000). Relationship between plant life form and plant interactions Not only the life form of plants significantly influences on the type of association between the plants, but also the life form of plants can be strongly affected by the type of association between plants (Pate et al. 1984; Holzapfel et al., 2006; Mousaei Sanjerehei et al., 2011; Castanho et al., 2012). Species interactions are of central importance in the ecology of a species. Two species have some mutual attraction, repulsion, or no interaction in a community. Therefore the association may be positive, negative or absent. Two species are spatially positively associated if any individual of one of the species is found near members of the other species more frequently than random expectation. Two species are negatively associated (segregated) if any individual of one of the species is more likely to be found near members of its own species more frequently than random expectation. Pairs of species are termed “not associated” if the association between the two species is not significant at a chosen probability level (Pielou, 1961; Dixon, 1994). Negative interactions (competition) and positive interactions (facilitation) between species are regarded as the important drivers of community dynamics, structure and composition (Callaway and Walker, 1997; Callaway et al., 2002; Tirado and Pugnaire, 2005). Facilitation is defined as the positive effects of plants on the establishment or growth of other plants (Callaway 1995; 18 Holmgren et al., 1997). Several hypotheses suggest that the importance of facilitation among plants may increase with increasing environmental harshness (Bertness and Callaway, 1994; Callaway and Walker, 1997; Callaway et al., 2002; Bruno et al., 2003). Plants (e.g., nurse plants) may ameliorate harsh environment by providing shade and moisture, increasing water availability, enriching soil nutrients, protecting from desiccant winds as well as introducing in the ecosystem beneficial organisms such as nitrogen fixing bacteria and as a result, facilitate the recruitment and growth of other plants (Bertness and Callaway, 1994; Callaway and Walker, 1997). Competitive interactions are known to depend on water, nutrients and light as well as the type and life form of plant species (Tremmel and Bazzaz, 1993). It is believed that the importance of competition between plants tends to increase in less stressful environments, e.g., high productivity conditions (Callaway et al., 2002). In the arid and semiarid Nodushan rangelands of Yazd, Iran, interactions between the shrub species and between the grass species were found to be mainly negative. The strong competition between the shrubs and between the grasses was found to be more affected by similar life form and relatively similar root distribution of the species rather than by the climatic conditions (Mousaei Sanjerehei et al., 2011). The grass species (Stipa barbata) was found near or in contact with the shrub species (Artemisia sieberi and Artemisia aucheri) in the Nodushan rangelands indicating the positive effects of the shrub species on the grass species. Grasses (e.g., Stipa barbata) require a more humid condition for establishment than shrubs in arid and semiarid environments. Less evaporation rates below the canopy of shrubs relative to bare ground may facilitate the establishment and survival of the grass species. A reduced evaporation from subcanopy soils is likely to result in locally lower soil salinities than from soils exposed to direct solar radiation (Mousaei Sanjerehei et al., 2011). In addition, water taken up by shrub roots is released from shallow roots into upper layers during the night via hydraulic lift and can partly be used by the grass species, although the magnitude of water transferred by this way is small (Williams et al. 1993). Due to the different root distribution of the shrub and grass species, they use resources (e.g., water) from different soil layers and, as a result, the competition between them may be less than that between two shrub species or two grass species. According to a meta-analysis across different life forms and ecosystems, herbs had strong negative effects, especially on other herb species, whereas shrubs had large facilitative effects especially on trees (Gomez-Aparicio, 2009). Among herbaceous plants, grasses were found to be stronger competitors than Importance of Life Forms 19 forbs (Goldberg et al., 2001; Pywell et al., 2003; Gomez-Aparicio, 2009). The stronger competitive ability of grasses may be due to the fibrous roots and a large root:shoot ratio of grasses which enable them to compete efficiently for soil resources (Caldwell and Richards, 1986). The competitive ability of shrubs was reported to be less than early-successional grasses for belowground resources. This is due to the differences in allocation patterns (such as lower root:shoot ratio of shrubs) and in architecture (such as higher rooting depth of shrubs) between shrubs and grasses (Jackson et al., 1996; Gomez- Aparicio, 2009; Kochy and Wilson, 2000). In addition, shrubs are not as strong competitors as trees for above ground resources due to their smaller size providing a moderate shade for understory vegetation in compared to the limiting deep shade of trees in closed forests (Puerta-Pinero et al., 2007; Gomes- Aparicio, 2009). In Mediterranean post-fire shrub communities, pioneer shrubs can act as nurse plants facilitating the establishment of late successional woody species (Siles et al., 2008). In the Mojave Desert, shrubs (Ambrosia dumosa) were shown to have strong positive and weak or no negative effects on survival, biomass, production and seed production of the entire annual community, whereas annuals had strong negative and week positive effects on shrub water status, growth and reproductive output (Holzapfel and Mahall, 1999). Dohn et al. (2013) reported a shift from net competitive to net facilitative effects of trees on subcanopy grass production, with decreasing annual precipitation in Savannas. The type of tree-grass interactions was different along a rainfall gradient in tropical and temperate regions, and trees facilitated grass growth in drier regions and suppressed grass growth in wetter regions. Age and size of plants within a life form can also influence their competitive and facilitative abilities. In the Patagonian Steppe for example, when shrubs were young and small, facilitation between shrubs and tussock grasses was more than competitive interactions resulting in the formation of dense ring of grasses around a shrub. When the shrub became large and the ring of grasses completed, competition overshadowed facilitation (Aguiar and Sala, 1994). The balance between facilitation and competition appears to vary depending on the life stages of the species, indirect interactions with other neighbors as well as the benefactor size and the intensity of abiotic stress (Bertness and Callaway, 1994; Miller, 1994; Pugnaire et al., 1996; Callaway and Walker, 1997; Tewksbury and Lloyd, 2001; Mousaei Sanjerehei et al., 2011) Productivity of plants of different life forms Since one of the most important sources of carbon dioxide absorption is photosynthesis by vegetation, the study of primary production seems to be of high importance. Estimates of primary production are useful for monitoring 20 ecosystem goods, services and structure, determining resources for herbivores, evaluating the regulation of global climate through the carbon cycles, determining variation in wood production as well as studying energy flow in ecosystems and assessing ecosystem carbon sequestration (Schlapfer and Schmid 1999; Roy and Saugier 2001; Roxburgh et al. 2004; Meyerson et al. 2005). The amount of energy fixed by plants in photosynthesis is referred to as gross primary production (GPP). Annual GPP is defined as the total of all carbon annually fixed by plants in ecosystems (Ryan 1991). A portion of the carbon fixed by plants is lost through construction (growth) and maintenance respirations. Construction respiration is the amount of carbon consumed in the processes such as ATP production, transport processes and nutrient uptake which lead to a net increase in plant dry matter (Chiariello et al. 1989). Maintenance respiration provides the energy for the plant processes such as maintenance of ion gradients across membranes, protein repair and replacement and translocation-related processes which do not result in a net gain in biomass, but keep existing phytomass in a healthy state (Penning de Vries 1975). The amount of carbon allocated in plants in a certain period of time after losses due to respiration is known as net primary production (NPP). The estimates of NPP and biomass for different ecosystems, each of which are dominated by a certain plant life form, are summarized in Table 1 (Whittaker and Likens, 1975). The most important factors influencing the primary production of plants include climatic conditions, length of growing season, nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus and the dominant plant life form. The highest mean productivity (NPP) in terrestrial ecosystems is related to tropical forests with the dominance of tree life form (2200 g dry matter/ m2/year) followed by temperate forests (1200), savanna (900), boreal forests (800), woodland and shrublands (700), temperate grasslands (600) and tundra and alpine (140). The lowest productivity occurs in desert and semidesert communities with the dominance of scrub life form (90) and in extreme deserts (3). Importance of Life Forms Table 1- Net primary production and biomass of different terrestrial (Whittaker and Likens 1975) Net primary production Biomass (dry matter) (dry matter) Ecosystem type Area Normal Mean Total Normal Mean (kg/m2) (106 range (g/ (g/m2/ (109 t/ range 2 2 2 km ) m /year) year) year) (kg/ m ) 1000-3500 2200 Tropical rain 17 37.4 6-80 45 forest 1000-2500 1600 Tropical seasonal 7.5 12 6-60 35 forest Temperate 5 600-2500 1300 6.5 6-200 35 evergreen forest Temperate 7 600-2500 1200 8.4 6-60 30 deciduous forest Boreal forest 12 400-2000 800 9.6 6-40 20 Woodland and 8.5 250-1200 700 6 2-20 6 shrubland Savanna 15 200-2000 900 13.5 0.2-15 4 Temperate 9 200-1500 600 5.4 0.2-5 1.6 grassland Tundra and alpine 8 10-400 140 1.1 0.1-3 0.6 Desert and 18 10-250 90 1.6 0.1-4 0.7 semidesert scrub Extreme desert 24 0-10 3 0.07 0-0.2 0.02 21 ecosystems Total (109 t) 765 260 175 210 240 50 60 14 5 13 0.5 The following presents some examples of NPP and GPP by different life forms under a wide range of climatic conditions; The NPP (g carbon / m2/ year , carbon ~ 50% of dry matter) has been estimated to be 32 for the shrub life forms, Artemisia sieberi and 63 for Artemisia aucheri in arid and semiarid shrublands of Yazd, Iran (Mousaei Sanjerehei, 2013), 51.1 in a Bouteloua eriopoda grassland and 59.2 in a Larrea tridentata shrubland in northern chihuahuan desert, USA (Muldavin et al., 2008), 1207 and 1140 in a Miscanthus sinensis grassland in Japan over a two year period (Yazaki et al., 2004), 307 for Picea mariana in boreal forests (Ryan et al., 1997), 960 for Pinus radiata in temperate coniferous forests (Arneth et al., 1998) and 817 for Betula ermanii, B.platyphylla and Quercus mongolia in temperate deciduous forests (Saigusa et al., 2002). The annual GPP (g carbon / m2/ year) has been obtained to be 85 for Artemisia sieberi and 154 for Artemisia aucheri shrubs in arid and semiarid rangelands of Yazd, Iran (Mousaei Sanjerehei, 2013), 584 and 1112 in a semiarid grassland in 22 Hungary in a dry and wet condition, respectively (Nagy et al., 2007), 3000 in tropical forests (Chambers et al., 2000), 1100 for Picea mariana in boreal forests (Ryan et al., 1997) and 1600 for Pinus strobes and Acer rubrum in temperate mixed forests (Curtis et al., 2005). Precipitation, temperature and evapotranspiration have been recognized as the most important limiting factors in the “efficiency of primary production” that is the percentage of solar energy converted to production. For example desert shrubs are not expected to be very efficient at converting a large amount of solar energy into production due to scarcity of water. The efficiency of NPP in relation to annual solar radiation for the terrestrial ecosystems is 0.3% (Whittaker and Likens 1975). The highest efficiency of primary production occurs for trees in coniferous forests because their numerous needles present a large surface area for photosynthesis (Stiling 1996). Studies have shown that the percentage of the incoming solar energy absorbed in photosynthesis as GPP (conversion efficiency of GPP) is low by shrubs in arid and semiarid climates (e.g., 0.05% by Artemisia sieberi and 0.08% by Artemisia aucheri) (Mousaei Sanjerehei, 2013) in compared to grass communities (e.g., 1.2 %) (Golley, 1960), (e.g., 2.4% for C3 grass and 3.7% for C4 grass) (Piedade et al., 1991; Beale and Long, 1995) and forest communities (e.g., 1%) (Droste, 1979). The causes in the energy losses at the different steps of plant photosynthetic processes from interception of radiation to the formation of stored chemical energy in biomass include reflected and transmitted radiation by canopy cover, photochemical inefficiency, photorespiration and respiration which are different among different life forms and climatic conditions (Zhu et al., 2008). Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran 23 3. Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran Life Zones Life zone is defined as an ecological altitudinal or latitudinal zone characterized by specific vegetation and climatic conditions (Heyer, 1967). A life zone can be subdivided into associations based on site conditions such as edaphic and microtopographic variables (Holdridge, 1967). Life zone classification is important in mapping ecosystem and recognizing ecophysiological responses of plants, since it is based on the climatic factors influencing ecosystem processes (Lugo et al., 1999). Depending on the physiognomy of a life zone, conversion of the life zone to a lower level may result in losses to ecosystem services. For example, the conversion of forests to rangelands may lead to losses of soil organic matter, decrease of soil fertility and increase of carbon dioxide flux to the atmosphere (Garcia-Oliva et al., 1994). Classification and study of life zones are important for; • Determining the vegetation-environment relationships, • Assessing the effects of global climate change on the distribution of vegetation, • Studying species diversity, • Evaluating the changes in vegetation during successional stages, • Assessing land use/land cover changes, • Comparing the potential vegetation and actual vegetation, • Predicting the dynamics of vegetation distribution, • Understanding natural and human-driven environmental changes, • Predicting the future changes in land covers, • Sustainable management of ecosystems and biodiversity conservation. The Holdridge life zones A variety of models have been developed for classification of life zones and predicting the pattern of potential vegetation using temperature (Merriam, 1898), potential evapotranspiration, temperature and precipitation (Box, 1981; Holdridge, 1967), geography techniques (Bailey, 1980), biogeographical criteria 24 (Smith, 1974), and biogeography, biogeochemistry and fire disturbance (Daly et al., 2000). One of the most efficient and widely used methods for classification of life zones is the Holdridge life zone system (Holdridge, 1967). This method is objective and requires minimum data on annual precipitation and mean annual biotemperature. The Holdridge system strongly considers the driving forces of ecosystem structure and provides explicit rules for using information to classify ecosystems (Bailey and Hogg 1986). Based on this system, 39 classes of life zones are defined (Fig. 2). The Holdridge life zone classification is based on annual precipitation (P), biotemperature (BT) and potential evapotranspiration (PET). The mean annual BT varies from 0 to 30 °C and is calculated as; BT = T i 12 where Ti is the mean monthly temperature (0< Ti < 30°C). Potential evapotranspiration ratio (PETR) is calculated as; PETR = PET BT  58.93 = P P Figure 2- Holdridge life zone classification scheme. Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran 25 The life zones of Iran based on Holdridge system Classification of the life zones of Iran using the Holdridge system based on annual precipitation and annual mean temperature maps (Fig. 3) shows that Iran contains 26 life zones (Fig. 4) (Mousaei Sanjerehei, 2014). The area of each life zone based on latitudinal regions, humidity provinces and physiognomic types is presented in Table 2. The most extensive life zone is subtropical desert life zone which covers 22.1% (364581 km2) of the country followed by cool temperate steppe, warm temperate desert scrub and subtropical desert scrub which cover 13.5%, 12.7% and 11.4% of the country respectively. The life zone with the smallest coverage is subpolar moist tundra covering 0.004% of the area of Iran (66 km2). Based on the latitudinal regions, Iran contains one polar, three subpolar, four boreal, five cool temperate, five warm temperate, five subtropical and three tropical life zones. The largest latitudinal life zone is the subtropical life zone covering 40.4% of the country followed by warm temperate life zone covering 30.4% of the country. The smallest latitudinal life zone is polar life zone (0.09%). Based on the humidity provinces, perarid life zone is the largest humidity life zone covering 34.2 % of the country followed by arid life zone (24.8 %). The least area of the country is covered by the superhumid life zone (0.15%). According to the physiognomic types, the largest life zone is the desert type occupying 35% of the country followed by scrub (30.4%), steppe (18.7%), forest (10.2%) and woodland (5.6%) types, and the smallest life zone is tundra type (0.14%) (Fig. 5). Figure 3. A) Annual precipitation (mm) and B) mean annual temperature (°C) map of Iran. 26 Boreal dry scrub Boreal moist forest Boreal rain forest Boreal wet forest Cool temperate desert Cool temperate desert scrub Cool temperate moist forest Cool temperate steppe Cool temperate wet forest Polar desert Subpolar moist tundra Subpolar rain tundra Subpolar wet tundra Subtropical desert Subtropical desert scrub Subtropical dry forest Subtropical moist forest Subtropical thorn woodland Tropical desert Tropical desert scrub Tropical thorn woodland Warm temperate desert Warm temperate desert scrub Warm temperate dry forest Warm temperate moist forest Warm temperate thorn steppe Figure 4. Classification of the life zones of Iran using the Holdridge system (Mousaei Sanjerehei 2014). Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran Figure 5. Holdridge life zones of Iran based on physiognomic types. 27 28 Table 2. Percentage of the area of Iran life zones, latitudinal regions, humidity provinces and physiognomic types. Life zone grouping Life zone grouping Life zone Area% Physiognomic type Area% Subpolar moist tundra 0.004 Tundra 0.14 Boreal dry scrub 0.03 Woodland 5.57 Subpolar wet tundra 0.03 Forest 10.23 Boreal rain forest 0.04 Steppe 18.65 Polar desert 0.09 Scrub 30.44 Subpolar rain tundra 0.11 Desert 34.97 Subtropical moist forest 0.11 Latitudinal region Cool temperate wet forest 0.28 Polar 0.09 Tropical thorn woodland 0.3 Subpolar 0.14 Cool temperate desert 0.43 Boreal 1.51 Warm temperate moist forest 0.43 Tropical 6.36 Boreal moist forest 0.59 Cool temperate 21.25 Boreal wet forest 0.85 Warm temperate 30.38 Subtropical dry forest 1.15 Subtropical 40.38 Tropical desert scrub 2.91 Humidity province Warm temperate dry forest 2.96 Superhumid 0.15 Tropical desert 3.15 Perhumid 1.16 Cool temperate desert scrub 3.42 Superarid 3.15 Cool temperate moist forest 3.82 Humid 5.04 Warm temperate thorn steppe 5.15 Semiarid 13.84 Subtropical thorn woodland 5.27 Subhumid 17.64 Warm temperate desert 9.16 Arid 24.83 Subtropical desert scrub 11.42 Perarid 34.19 Warm temperate desert scrub 12.66 Cool temperate steppe 13.5 Subtropical desert 22.12 Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran 29 Climate of Iran Iran has a variety of climates ranging from arid to perhumid with different moisture contents. Climate of an area can be effectively classified using de Martonne aridity index (de Martonne, 1926). de Martonne aridity index is 𝑃 calculated as 𝐼 = , where P is annual precipitation (mm) and T is annual 10+𝑇 mean temperature (°C). The values of I < 5 indicate arid, 5-10 semi-arid, 10-20 semi-humid, 20-30 humid and > 30 perhumid climate. Based on the de Martonne aridity index, 39 % of the area of Iran was classified as arid, 27% as semiarid, 19 % as semihumid, 9% as humid and 6 % as perhumid (Fig. 6). Figure 6- Classification of Iran climate using de Martonne aridity index 30 Floristic regions of Iran Various climatic and geological conditions throughout Iran, Alborz and Zagros Mountains, Caspian Sea in the north and Persian Gulf and Oman Sea in the south of Iran have resulted in the appearance of different floristic regions with a variety of plant species and life forms. Iran is classified into five floristic regions including Hyrcanian, Irano- Touranian, Zagros, Khalijo-Omanian and Arasbaran regions (Tregubov and Mobayen 1970). Hyrcanian region This region is extended along the southern coasts of Caspian Sea to the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains and includes humid and perhumid forests (Fig. 7). The flora of Hyrcanian region is related to the Euro-Siberian region. Hyrcanian region is mainly covered by the beech, Fagus orientalis. The other abundant species in this region are Quercus castaneifolia, Buxus hyrcana, Carpinus betulus, Parrotia persica, Acer insigne, Zelkova carpinifolia, Albizia julibrissin, Acer cappadocicum, Alnus glutinosa, Gleditsia caspica, Populus caspica, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Ulmus glabra and Vaccinium arctostaphylos (Table 4). One of the important characteristics of this region is a low abundance of the large conifers such as Cupressus, Thuja, Juniperus and Taxus occupying small parts of this region. Hyrcanian region has a moderate climate with an annual precipitation of 1500 mm in the central and western coasts and 600-700 mm in the eastern parts and on top of the Alborz Mountains (Javanshir, 1976; Tregubov and Mobayen, 1970). Irano-Touranian region This region occupies the central parts of Iran from southern slopes of the Alborz Mountains in the north, to the Zagros Mountains in the west and south, and is extended towards the east and west of Iran (Fig. 7). Irano-Touranian region is the largest floristic region in Iran and includes mountainous xerophytic forests and plain desert vegetation. Plain parts of this region have an arid climate with annual precipitation of less than 250 mm, high rates of evapotranspiration, dry summers and cold winters. However, Juniperus forests in the mountainous parts have an annual precipitation of more than 400 mm and a lower evapotranpiration and more moderate summers than other parts of the Irano-Touranian region. The mountainous parts of Irano-Touranian region are located at the elevation of more than 1500 m and have an annual precipitation of 200- 400 mm. The vegetation in the plains is steppe and semidesert vegetation and mainly belongs to the genera; Astragalus, Acantholimon, Acanthophyllum, Cousinia, Zygophyllum, Artemisia, Haloxylon, Tamarix and Anabasis as well as Juniperus excelsa in the mountainous parts (Table 4). Dashte-Kavir is a Life Zones and Floristic Regions of Iran 31 desert area in the Irano-Touranian region and is located on saline and limestone soils and almost lacks vegetation. Dashte-Lout is a vast sandy Kavir in south eastern of Dashte-Kavir and is mainly covered with psammophytic plant species (Javanshir, 1976; Tregubov and Mobayen, 1970). Figure 7- Map of floristic regions of Iran (Javanshir, 1976) Zagross region This region includes the Zagros Mountains in the west of Iran and is covered by subxerophytic forests characterized by a variety of oak species such as Quercus persica, Quercus libani and Quercus infectoria as well as Amygdalus, Pistacia, Cercis griffithii and Acer cinerascens (Table 4). The vegetation in this region resembles the Mediterranean plant species. Zagros region has a 32 moderately arid climate with an annual precipitation of 500-600 mm (Fig. 7) (Javanshir, 1976; Tregubov and Mobayen, 1970). Khalijo-Omanian region This region consists of the southern parts of Iran between the Zagros southern slopes and coasts of Persian Gulf and Oman Sea and is divided into Khalijian zone with calcareous soils and Omanian zone with volcanic soils (Fig. 7). The Omanian zone is warmer than the Kahlidjian zone. The annual precipitation in Khalijo-Omanian region is 300 mm which decreases from west to east to 70 mm. This region has hot summers and mild winters and is covered by subtropical xerophytic vegetation. The principle vegetation in this region belongs to the subtropical Saharo-Sindian region. Ziziphus spina-christi and Prosopis stephaniana are abundant in Khalijian zone, and Avicennia officinalis, Acacia arabica, Acacia seyal and Acacia senegal are abundant species of Omanian zone. Date tree (Phoenix dactylifera) is extensively planted in Khalijo-Omanian region (Javanshir, 1976; Tregubov and Mobayen, 1970). Arasbaran region This region consists of subhygrophylic forests in the northwest of Iran (Fig. 7). It was added to the above classification as a separate region, because the plant species of this forest region is significantly different from the plant species of Hyrcanian region (Javanshir, 1976). Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 33 4. Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran Life forms of plant species and floristic regions in Iran The data on the floristic regions and life forms of 3064 of the most abundant plant species throughout Iran were collected from various resources including Colored flora of Iran (Ghahraman 1975-2005), Flora of Yazd (Mozaffarian 2000), Flora of Khuzestan (Mozaffarian 1999) and Flora of Iran, Vol. 1-85 (Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, 1989-2015). 18% of the number of the studied plant species are phanerophytes, 10% chamaephytes, 30% hemicryptophytes, 23% therophytes, 15% geophytes, 0.14% helophytes, 0.36% hydrophytes and 3.5% both therophytes and hemicryptophytes. 45% of the plant species occur in Irano-Touranian, 8.6% in Khalijo-Omanian, 7.7% in Hyrcanian, 1.5% in Zagros, 0.5% in Arasbaran, 16% in both IranoTouranian and Hyrcanian, 8.5% in both Irano-Touranian and Khalijo-Omanian, 2.2% in both Irano-Touranian and Zagross regions and 2.2% are cosmopolitan (Table 3, 4). The plant species in Khalijo-Omanian region belong to the subtropical Saharo-Sindian region and the plant species in Hyrcanian region are related to Euro-Siberian region. The life forms of the studied plant species and the floristic regions of Iran are presented in Table 4. Table 3- Percentage of the number of the plant species occurring in the floristic regions of Iran Floristic regions of Iran Irano-Touranian (IT) Khalijo-Omanian (KhO) Hyrcanian (Hyr) Zagros (Zag) Arasbaran (Ara) IT and Hyr IT and KhO IT and Zag Cosmopolitan IT, Hyr and KhO Hyr and Ara IT, KhO and Zag Percentage of the plant species 45 8.6 7.7 1.5 0.5 16 8.5 2.2 2.2 1.6 1.1 1 Floristic regions of Iran Percentage of the plant species IT, Zag and Hyr 0.95 IT, Hyr, Ara and Zag 0.8 IT, Ara and Hyr 0.47 Hyr and KhO 0.3 IT and Ara 0.3 Hyr and Zag 0.27 IT, Hyr, Zag and KhO 0.25 IT, Zag, KhO and Ara 0.2 IT, Ara and Zag 0.18 Ara and Zag 0.17 Hyr, Ara and Zag 0.11 Zag and KhO 0.1 34 Table 4- The life forms of plant species and floristic regions of Iran. Life form: Ph: Phanerophyte, Ch: Chamaephyte, He: Hemicryptophyte, Ge: Geophyte, Th: Therophyte, Hyd: Hydrophyte, Hel: Helophyte. Floristic region: Hyr: Hyrcanian region, Ara: Arasbaran region, IT: Irano-Touranian region, IT*: Mountainous parts of Irano-Touranian region, Zag: Zagross region, KhO: Khalijo-Omanian region, Cosm: Cosmopolitan, End: Endemic Abutilon muticum Life form Ch Floristic region KhO Malvaceae Abutilon theophrasti Th IT, Hyr Mimosaceae Acacia acuminata Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia aucheri Ph IT, KhO Mimosaceae Acacia coriacea Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia ehrenbergiana Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia farnesiana Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia flava Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia georginia Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia jacquemontii Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia modesta Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia nubica Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia oligophylla Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia rupestris Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia saligna Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia sclerosperma Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia senegal Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia seyal Ph KhO Mimosaceae Acacia stenophylla Ph KhO Euphorbiaceae Acalypha australis Th Hyr, IT Asteraceae Acantholepis orientalis Th IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon acmostegium Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon aspadanum Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon avenaceum Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon blakelockii Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon bromifolium Ch IT, Zag, Family Plant species Malvaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 35 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon caryophyllaceum Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon erinaceum Ch IT* Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon festucaceum Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon flexuosum Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon hohenackeri Ch IT* Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon horridum Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon incomptum Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon leucacanthum Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon nigricans Ch IT*, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon oliganthum Ch Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon olivieri Ch Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon oymosum Ch IT IT, Zag, (End) IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon pterostegium Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon rudbaricum Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon scirpinum Ch Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon scorpius Ch IT, (End) IT, KhO, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon sp. Ch Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon spinicalyx Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon talagonicum Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon tragacanthinum Ch IT, (End) Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon truncatum Ch IT Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon wendelboi Ch IT, (End) Caryophyllaceae Acanthophllum glandulosum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum adenophorum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum bracteatum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum caespitosum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum chloroltegium Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum crassifolium Ch IT 36 Acanthophyllum glandulosum Life form Ch Floristic region IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum gracile Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum heratense Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum khuzistanum Ch KhO Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum kurdicum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum laxiusculum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum lilacinum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum microcephalum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum microcephalus Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum pachystegium Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum sordidum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum sp. Ch Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum spinosum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum squarrosum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum stocksianum Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Acanthophylum speciosum Ch IT Acanthaceae Acanthus dioscoridis He IT Aceraceae Acer assyriacum Ph Zag Aceraceae Acer campestre Ph Hyr, Ara Aceraceae Acer cappadocicum Ph Hyr Aceraceae Acer cinerascens Ph IT, Zag Aceraceae Acer hyrcanum Ph Aceraceae Acer ibericum Ph Aceraceae Acer insigne Ph Hyr Ara, Hyr, IT Hyr Aceraceae Acer monspessulanum Ph IT Aceraceae Acer opalus Ph Hyr Aceraceae Acer persicum Ph IT, Zag Aceraceae Acer platanoides Ph Hyr Aceraceae Acer pseudoplatanus Ph Hyr Aceraceae Acer regelii Ph Hyr Family Plant species Caryophyllaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 37 Acer tataricum Life form Ph Floristic region Hyr Aceraceae Acer turcomanicum Ph Hyr Aceraceae Acer velutinum Ph Hyr Asteraceae Achillea biebersteinii He Asteraceae Achillea eriophora He Asteraceae Achillea filipendulina He IT IT, KhO, (End) IT Asteraceae Achillea micrantha He IT Asteraceae Achillea millefolium He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Achillea nobilis He IT Asteraceae Achillea pachycephala He Asteraceae Achillea santolina He Asteraceae Achillea tenuifolia He IT IT, KhO, Hyr IT Asteraceae Achillea vermicularis He Asteraceae Achillea wilhelmsii He Lamiaceae Acinos graveolens Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT Asteraceae Acroptilon repens He IT Adianthaceae Adianthum capillus-veneris Ge Cosm Ranunculaceae Adonis aestivalis Th Hyr, IT Ranunculaceae Adonis dentata Th IT, Hyr Ranunculaceae Adonis flammea Th IT, Hyr Ranunculaceae Adonis scrobiculata Th IT Poaceae Aegilops columnaris Th IT Poaceae Aegilops crassa Th IT Poaceae Aegilops cylindrica Th IT Poaceae Aegilops ovata Th IT Poaceae Aegilops tauschii Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Aegilops triuncialis Th IT Poaceae Aegilops umbellulata Th IT Asteraceae Aegopordon berardioides He IT, KhO Family Plant species Aceraceae 38 Aellenia aurucula Life form He Floristic region IT Chenopodiaceae Aellenia subaphylla He IT Poaceae Aeluropus lagopoides Ge IT, KhO Poaceae Aeluropus littoralis Ge IT, KhO Poaceae Aeluropus macrostachyus Ge KhO Amaranthaceae Aerva javanica Ch KhO Amaranthaceae Aerva persica Ch IT, KhO Brassicaceae Aethionema arabicum Th IT Brassicaceae Aethionema carneum Th IT Brassicaceae Aethionema grandiflorum He IT Brassicaceae Aethionema trinervium He IT Rosaceae Agrimonia eupatoria He Hyr, IT Chenopodiaceae Agriophyllum lateriflorum Th IT Chenopodiaceae Agriophyllum minus Th IT Poaceae Agropyron cristatum He IT, Hyr Poaceae Agropyron desertorum He IT Poaceae Agropyron elongatum He IT Poaceae Agropyron imbricatum Ge IT, Ara Poaceae Agropyron intermedium Ge IT Poaceae Agropyron longe-aristatum Ge IT Poaceae Agropyron pectiniforme Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Agropyron repens Ge IT Poaceae Agropyron trichophorum Ge IT Poaceae Agrostis gigantea Ge Hyr, IT Poaceae Agrostis stolonifera Ge Hyr, IT Simaroubaceae Ailanthus altissima Ph IT Simaroubaceae Ailanthus glandulosa Ph IT Aizoaceae Aizoon hispanicum Th KhO Lamiaceae Ajuga chamaecistus He IT*, Zag Lamiaceae Ajuga comata He IT, Hyr Family Plant species Chenopodiaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 39 Albizia julibrissin Life form Ph Floristic region Hyr Mimosaceae Albizia lebbeck Ph KhO, Hyr Malvaceae Alcea angulata Th, He IT Malvaceae Alcea aucheri He IT Malvaceae Alcea crassicaulis He IT Malvaceae Alcea digitata He IT Malvaceae Alcea ficifolia He IT, Hyr Malvaceae Alcea glabrata He IT, (End) Malvaceae Alcea hyrcana He Hyr Malvaceae Alcea Iaxiflora He IT, (End) Malvaceae Alcea kurdica He IT Malvaceae Alcea rhyticarpa He IT Malvaceae Alcea rugosa He IT Malvaceae Alcea sulphurea He IT Malvaceae Alcea teheranica He IT, (End) Rosaceae Alchemilla citrina He Hyr, (End) Rosaceae Alchemilla kurdica Ge IT* Rosaceae Alchemilla pectiniloba He Hyr, (End) Rosaceae Alchemilla persica Ge IT, Hyr Rosaceae Alchemilla rigida He Hyr Fabaceae Alhagi cameleruns Ch IT Fabaceae Alhagi camelorum Ch IT Fabaceae Alhagi graecorum Ch IT Fabaceae Alhagi mannifera Ch IT, KhO Fabaceae Alhagi maurorum Ch IT, KhO Fabaceae Alhagi persarum Ch IT Fabaceae Alhagi pseudoalhagi Ch IT Alismaceae Alisma plantago-aquatica Hel Cosm Boraginaceae Alkanna orientalis Ge IT, Zag Brassicaceae Alliaria petiolata He Hyr, IT Family Plant species Mimosaceae 40 Allium ampeloprasum Life form Ge Floristic region IT Liliaceae Allium atroviolaceum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium borszczowii Ge IT Liliaceae Allium bungei Ge IT Liliaceae Allium caspium Ge IT Liliaceae Allium cepa Ge IT, KhO Liliaceae Allium chloroneurum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium cristophii Ge IT Liliaceae Allium eriophyllum Ge IT, KhO Liliaceae Allium erubesces Ge Hyr, IT Liliaceae Allium giganteum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium haemanthoides Ge IT Liliaceae Allium helicophyllum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium hirtifolium Ge IT Liliaceae Allium jesdianum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium longicuspis Ge IT Liliaceae Allium minutiflorum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium monophyllum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium paniculatum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium paradoxum Ge Hyr Liliaceae Allium persica Ge IT Liliaceae Allium rotundum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium rubellum Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Allium sarawschanicum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium scabriscapum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium scabrum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium schoenoprasum Ge IT Liliaceae Allium scotostemon Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Allium sp. Ge Liliaceae Allium stamineum Ge Family Plant species Liliaceae IT Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 41 Allium umbilicatum Life form Ge Floristic region IT Liliaceae Allium xiphopetalum Ge IT Betulaceae Alnus glutinosa Ph Hyr Betulaceae Alnus subcordata Ph Hyr, (End) Poaceae Alopecurus apiatus Ge IT Poaceae Alopecurus arundinaceus Ge Poaceae Alopecurus myosuroides Th Poaceae Alopecurus pratensis Ge IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr IT Poaceae Alopecurus textilis Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Alopecurus vaginatus He IT Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis Th IT, Hyr Malvaceae Althaea armeniaca He Hyr, IT Malvaceae Althaea cannabina He IT, Hyr Malvaceae Althaea hirsuta Th IT, Hyr Malvaceae Althaea ludwigii Th, He IT, KhO Malvaceae Althaea officinalis He IT Brassicaceae Alyssum alyssoides Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum bracteatum He IT* Brassicaceae Alyssum dasycarpum Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum desertorum Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Alyssum heterotrichum Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum hirsutum Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum inflatum Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum lanigerum He IT Brassicaceae Alyssum linifolium Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Alyssum marginatum Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum maritimum Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum minus Th IT Brassicaceae Alyssum szovitsianum Th IT Amaranthaceae Amaranthus albus Th Cosm Family Plant species Liliaceae 42 Amaranthus blitoides Life form Th Floristic region Cosm Amaranthaceae Amaranthus cholorostachys Th IT, Hyr Amaranthaceae Amaranthus graecizans Th KhO, IT Amaranthaceae Amaranthus hybridus Th IT, Hyr Amaranthaceae Amaranthus retroflaxus Th Cosm Amaranthaceae Amaranthus viridis Th Cosm Asteraceae Amberboa nana Th IT Asteraceae Amberboa sosnovskyi Th IT Asteraceae Amberboa turanica Th IT Lythraceae Ammannia multiflora Th IT Umbelliferae Ammi majus Th IT, KhO Umbelliferae Ammi visnaga Th, He Cosm Fabaceae Ammodendron persicum Ph Vitaceae Ampelopsis vitifolia Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus arabica Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus carduchorum Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus communis Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus eburenea Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus elaeagnifolia Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus erioclada Ph IT Ara, Zag, Hyr IT*, KhO, Zag Zag IT*, Zag, Ara IT*, Zag, KhO, (End) IT*, Zag, (End) IT*, Zag Rosaceae Amygdalus fenzliana Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Amygdalus glauca Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus haussknechtii Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus horrida Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus keredjensis Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus kotschyi Ph Zag, (End) IT*, Zag, (End) IT*, Zag, Ara, KhO IT*, (End) Ara, Zag, IT* Family Plant species Amaranthaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 43 Amygdalus leiocarpa Life form Ph Floristic region IT*, Zag Rosaceae Amygdalus lycioides Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Amygdalus orientalis Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus podperae Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus salicifolia Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus scoparia Ph Rosaceae Amygdalus spartioides Ph Zag IT*, Zag, KhO, (End) Zag IT*, Zag, KhO IT* Rosaceae Amygdalus spinosissima Ph IT* Rosaceae Amygdalus trichamygdalus Ph IT* Rosaceae Amygdalus turcomanica Ph IT* Rosaceae Amygdalus urumiensis Ph IT*, Zag Chenopodiaceae Anabasis annua Th IT Chenopodiaceae Anabasis aphylla He IT Chenopodiaceae Anabasis brachiata He IT Chenopodiaceae Anabasis calcarea He IT, (End) Chenopodiaceae Anabasis haussknechtii Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Anabasis setifera He IT, KhO Primulaceae Anagallis arvensis Th Cosm Fabaceae Anagyris foetida Ph Zag Boraginaceae Anchusa aegyptiaca Th IT, KhO Boraginaceae Anchusa italica He IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Anchusa ovata Th IT, Zag Boraginaceae Anchusa strigosa He Euphorbiaceae Andrachne aspera He Euphorbiaceae Andrachne colchica He IT IT, KhO, Ara, Zag Hyr Euphorbiaceae Andrachne fruticulosa He IT Euphorbiaceae Andrachne rotundifolia He Euphorbiaceae Andrachne telephioides He IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Zag Family Plant species Rosaceae 44 Androsace maxima Life form Th Floristic region Hyr, IT Primulaceae Androsace villosa He Hyr Ranunculaceae Anemone biflora Th IT Ranunculaceae Anemone petiolulosa Ge IT Umbelliferae Anethum graveolens Th IT Umbelliferae Anisosciadium orientale Th KhO Asteraceae Anthemis altissima Th IT, Hyr Asteraceae Anthemis atropatana Th Asteraceae Anthemis austro-iranica Th Asteraceae Anthemis cotula Th Asteraceae Anthemis gayana Th IT IT, KhO, (End) IT, KhO, Hyr IT, (End) Asteraceae Anthemis hyalina Th IT Asteraceae Anthemis odontostephana Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Anthemis pesudocotula Th IT Asteraceae Anthemis rhodocentra Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Anthemis scariosa Th KhO Asteraceae Anthemis schizostephana Th IT Asteraceae Anthemis scoparia He KhO Asteraceae Anthemis susiana Th KhO Asteraceae Anthemis tinctoria He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Anthemis triumfettii He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Anthemis wettsteiniana Th IT Chenopodiaceae Anthochlamys multinervis Th IT, (End) Chenopodiaceae Anthochlamys polygaloides Th IT Umbelliferae Anthriscus nemorosa He Hyr Umbelliferae Anthriscus sylvestris He Hyr Asteraceae Anvillea garcinia Ch KhO Umbelliferae Aphanopleura breviseta Th IT Umbelliferae Apium graveolens Th, He IT Family Plant species Primulaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 45 Aquilegia vulgaris Life form Ge Floristic region IT Brassicaceae Arabidopsis pumila Th IT Brassicaceae Arabidopsis sp. Th Brassicaceae Arabidopsis wallichii Th Brassicaceae Arabis caucasica He Brassicaceae Arabis graellsiiformis He IT IT, Hyr, Zag IT Brassicaceae Arabis nova Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Arabis sagittata Th, He Hyr, IT Asteraceae Arctium lappa He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Arctium minus He IT Caryophyllaceae Arenaria gypsophiloides He IT Caryophyllaceae Arenaria persica He IT Caryophyllaceae Arenaria serpyllifolia Th Hyr, IT Fabaceae Argyrolobium roseum Th, He KhO Fabaceae Argyrolobium trigonelloides Th, He IT Poaceae Aristida adscensionis Th, He KhO Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia bottae He IT Rosaceae Armeniaca vulgaris Ph IT Boraginaceae Arnebia decumbens Th IT Boraginaceae Arnebia fimbriopetala Th KhO Boraginaceae Arnebia grandiflora Th IT Boraginaceae Arnebia hispidissima Th KhO Boraginaceae Arnebia linearifolia Th IT Boraginaceae Arnebia minima Th IT Poaceae Arrhenatherum kotschyi He IT Asteraceae Artemisia absinthium Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia annua Th Hyr, IT Asteraceae Artemisia aucheri Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia biennis He, Th IT Asteraceae Artemisia chamaemelifolia Ch IT, Hyr Family Plant species Ranunculaceae 46 Artemisia deserti Life form Ch Floristic region IT Asteraceae Artemisia fragrans Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia haussknechtii Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia khorassanica He IT, (End) Asteraceae Artemisia kopetdaghensis Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia oliveriana Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia persica Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia santolina He IT Asteraceae Artemisia scoparia Ch IT, Hyr Asteraceae Artemisia sieberi Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia spicigera Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia turanica Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia turcomanica Ch IT Asteraceae Artemisia vulgaris Ch IT, Hyr Araceae Arum albispathum Ge Hyr Araceae Arum conophalloides Ge IT*, Zag Araceae Arum elongatum Ge IT* Araceae Arum giganteum Ge Zag, (End) Araceae Arum kotschyi Ge IT* Araceae Arum maculatum Ge Hyr Poaceae Arundo donax Ge Hyr, KhO Asparagaceae Asparagus breslerianus He IT Asparagaceae Asparagus officinalis He Hyr, IT Asparagaceae Asparagus persicus He IT, Hyr Asparagaceae Asparagus verticillatus He IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Asperago procumbens Th IT, Hyr Rubiaceae Asperula arvensis Th IT, Hyr Rubiaceae Asperula glomerata He IT Rubiaceae Asperula odarata He Hyr, Ara Rubiaceae Asperula setosa Th IT Family Plant species Asteraceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 47 Asperula stylosa Life form He Floristic region Hyr, IT Rubiaceae Asperula taurina Ge Hyr Rubiaceae Asperula trichodes Th IT Liliaceae Asphodelus tenuifolius Th KhO Aspleniaceae Asplenium adiantum Ge Hyr Aspleniaceae Asplenium trichomanes He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Aster alpinus He IT Asteraceae Asteriscus pygmaeus Th KhO Fabaceae Astragalus adscendens Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus ajubensis He IT Fabaceae Astragalus albispinus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus alopecias Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus anacamptus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus anisacantus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus ankylotus Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus anserinifolius He IT Fabaceae Astragalus arbusculinus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus argyroides He IT Fabaceae Astragalus asciocalyx He IT Fabaceae Astragalus bakaliensis Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Astragalus bassineri He IT Fabaceae Astragalus biovulatus Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus bombycinus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus brachycalyx Ch IT, Zag Fabaceae Astragalus calliphysa Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus callystachys Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus campylanthus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus campylorrhynchus Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Astragalus candolleanus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus caprinus He KhO Family Plant species Rubiaceae 48 Family Plant species Fabaceae Astragalus carduchorum Life form Ch Fabaceae Astragalus cephalanthus Ch Fabaceae Astragalus chartaceus He Floristic region IT IT, KhO, (End) IT Fabaceae Astragalus chrysostachys Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus citrinus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus commixtus Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Astragalus coronilla Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus crenatus Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus cruciatus Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus curvipes He IT Fabaceae Astragalus dactylocarpus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus denudatum Ch IT, Hyr Fabaceae Astragalus dschuparensis Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus ecbatanus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus effuses He IT Fabaceae Astragalus eremophilus Th, He KhO Fabaceae Astragalus eriopodus He Fabaceae Astragalus fasciculifolius Ph Fabaceae Astragalus fischeri He IT IT, KhO, (End) IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus fridae He IT Fabaceae Astragalus glaucacanthus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus glaucops Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus globiflorus Ch IT, Zag Fabaceae Astragalus glycyphyllos He Hyr Fabaceae Astragalus gossypinus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus hamosus Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Astragalus heratensis He IT Fabaceae Astragalus hermannii He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus heterodoxus He IT Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 49 Astragalus hohenackeri Life form He Floristic region IT Fabaceae Astragalus hymenocalyx He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus impexus He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus ischredensis He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus ispahanicus He Fabaceae Astragalus jesdianus He Fabaceae Astragalus kahiricus He IT IT, KhO, (End) IT, KhO Fabaceae Astragalus khoshjailensis He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus kirrindicus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus kopetdaghi He IT Fabaceae Astragalus laguriformis He IT Fabaceae Astragalus ledinghamii He IT Fabaceae Astragalus macropelmatus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus magistratus He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus maymanensis Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus megalocystis Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus melanocalyx He IT Fabaceae Astragalus mercklini He IT Fabaceae Astragalus michauxianus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus microcephalus Ph IT Fabaceae Astragalus microphysa Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus mollis He IT Fabaceae Astragalus mucronifolius He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus multijugus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus murinus He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus myriacanthus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus neo-mozaffarianii Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus obtusifolius Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus ochrochlorus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus odoratus He IT Family Plant species Fabaceae 50 Astragalus ophiocarpus Life form Ch Floristic region IT Fabaceae Astragalus ovinus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus ovoideus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus oxyglottis Th IT Fabaceae Astragalus parrowianus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus pelitus He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus persicus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus pichleriana Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus pinetorum He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus podolobus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus pseudoszovitsii He IT Fabaceae Astragalus raddei He IT Fabaceae Astragalus rawlinsianus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus saetiger He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus schahrudensis Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus schistocalyx Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus scorpius Ch KhO Fabaceae Astragalus senilis He IT, Hyr Fabaceae Astragalus shirkuhicus Ge IT Fabaceae Astragalus sieberi He KhO Fabaceae Astragalus siliquosus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus siversianus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus spachianus He IT Fabaceae Astragalus spinosus Ch KhO Fabaceae Astragalus squarrosus Ch Fabaceae Astragalus susianus Ch Fabaceae Astragalus talemansurensis Ch Fabaceae Astragalus tenuiscapus He IT, KhO KhO, (End) IT, Zag, KhO IT Fabaceae Astragalus tragacantha Ch IT Family Plant species Fabaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 51 Astragalus tribuloides Life form Th Floristic region IT, KhO Fabaceae Astragalus tricholobus Ch IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus vanillae He IT, (End) Fabaceae Astragalus verus Ch IT Fabaceae Astragalus wartoensis Ch IT Umbelliferae Astrodaucus orientalis He IT Campanulaceae Asyneuma persicum He IT Athyriaceae Athyrium filix-femina Ge Cosm Asteraceae Atractylis cancellata Th Polygonaceae Atraphaxis spinosa Ph Polygonaceae Atraphaxis suaedifolia Ch IT IT, Zag, Ara IT Polygonaceae Atraphaxis tournefortii Ch IT, Zag Chenopodiaceae Atriplex aucheri Th IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Atriplex belangeri Th IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex canescens Ch, Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex dimorphostegia Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Atriplex flabellum Th IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex griffithii Ch IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Atriplex haliumus Ch IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Atriplex hortensis Th IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex lentiformis Ph IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Atriplex leucoclada He, Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Atriplex micrantha Th IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex moneta Th IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex persica Ch KhO, IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex stocksii Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex tatarica Th IT Chenopodiaceae Atriplex verrucifera Ch IT Solanaceae Atropa acuminata He Hyr Solanaceae Atropa belladonna He Hyr Family Plant species Fabaceae 52 Atropa pallidifolia Life form He Floristic region Hyr Brassicaceae Aubrietia parviflora He IT Poaceae Avena fatua Th IT Poaceae Avena ludoviciana Th IT Poaceae Avena sativa Th IT Poaceae Avena wiestii Th IT, KhO Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis Ph KhO Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Ph KhO Umbelliferae Azilia eryngioides He IT Scrophulariaceae Bacopa monnifera Hel KhO Brassicaceae Barbarea plantaginea He Hyr, IT Chenopodiaceae Bassia eriophora Th KhO Chenopodiaceae Bassia hyssopifolia Th IT Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia acuminata Ph KhO Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia purprea Ph KhO Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia veriegata Ph KhO Liliaceae Bellevalia longistyla Ge IT, Zag Liliaceae Bellevalia saiviczii Ge IT Asteraceae Bellis annua Th Berberidaceae Berberis integerrima Ph Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Ph KhO IT*, Zag, Hyr, Ara IT* Berberidaceae Berberis orientalis Ph Berberidaceae Berberis vulgaris Ph Rhamnaceae Berchemia lineata Ph Hyr IT*, Hyr, Zag, Ara KhO Betulaceae Betula pendula Ph Hyr Geraniaceae Biebersteinia multifida Ge Cosm Chenopodiaceae Bienertia cycloptera Th IT, KhO Cupressaceae Biota orientalis Ph Hyr Brassicaceae Biscutella didyma Th IT, KhO Family Plant species Solanaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 53 Blepharis edulis Life form He Floristic region IT, KhO Cyperaceae Blysmus compressus Ge Hyr, IT Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa He KhO Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia elegans He KhO Poaceae Boisseria squarrosa Th IT Cyperaceae Bolboschoenus maritimus Ge IT Malvaceae Bombax malabaricum Ph Podophylaceae Bongardia chrysogonum Ge Poaceae Bothriochloa ischaemum He KhO IT, Zag, Hyr IT Poaceae Brachypodium pinnatum Ge Poaceae Brachypodium sylvaticum He Brassicaceae Brassica deflexa Th Hyr, IT Hyr, Ara, IT IT, KhO Brassicaceae Brassica elongata He IT Brassicaceae Brassica nigra Th KhO Brassicaceae Brassica oleracea He IT Brassicaceae Brassica rapa He Brassicaceae Brassica tournefortii Th Poaceae Briza minor Th IT Hyr, IT, KhO Hyr, IT Poaceae Bromus briziformis Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Bromus danthonia Th IT Poaceae Bromus japonicus Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Bromus rechingeri Th IT Poaceae Bromus scoparius Th Cosm Poaceae Bromus sterilis Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Bromus tectorum Th Cosm Poaceae Bromus tomentellus He IT Brassicaceae Brossardia papyracea He IT Cucurbitaceae Bryonia aspera He IT Cucurbitaceae Bryonia dioica He IT, Ara Family Plant species Acanthaceae 54 Bryonia monoica Life form He Floristic region IT Brassicaceae Buchingera axillaris Th IT Scrophulariaceae Buddleja crispa Ph IT, KhO Scrophulariaceae Buddleja paniculata Ph KhO Caryophyllaceae Buffomia koelzii He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Buffonia macrocarpa He IT Caryophyllaceae Buffonia oliveriana Th IT Boraginaceae Buglossoides arvensis Th Hyr, IT Boraginaceae Buglossoides purpurocaerulea Ge Hyr Boraginaceae Buglossoides tenuifolia Th IT Capparidaceae Buhsea trinervia Ge IT Scrophulariaceae Bungea trifida Ge IT Brassicaceae Bunias oreintalis Th, He IT Umbelliferae Bunium cylindricum Ge IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Bunium elegans Ge IT Umbelliferae Bunium luristanicum Ge IT Umbelliferae Bunium paucifolium Ge IT Umbelliferae Bunium persicum Ge IT Umbelliferae Bupleurum exaltatum He IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Bupleurum falcatum He IT Umbelliferae Bupleurum gerardii Th IT Umbelliferae Bupleurum lancifolium Th IT Umbelliferae Bupleurum marschallianum Th Hyr Umbelliferae Bupleurum rotundifolium Th IT Buxaceae Buxus hyrcana Ph Hyr Boraginaceae Caccinia macranthera He IT Capparaceae Cadaba glandulosa Ph KhO Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpinia bonducella Ph KhO Caesalpiniaceae Caesalpinia gilliesii Ph KhO, IT Fabaceae Cajanus indicus Ph KhO Family Plant species Cucurbitaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 55 Calamagrostis epigejos Life form Ge Floristic region IT Poaceae Calamagrostis pseudophragmites Ge IT Lamiaceae Calamintha grandiflora He Hyr, IT Lamiaceae Calamintha officinalis He Hyr, IT Asteraceae Calendula officinalis Th, He IT Asteraceae Calendula persica Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Callicephalus nitens Th IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Calligonum amoenum Ph IT, KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum bungei Ph IT, KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum comosum Ph IT, KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum crinitum Ph IT, KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum denticulatum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum intertextum Ph KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum junceum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum laristanicum Ph KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum leucocladum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum persicum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum polygonoides Ph IT, KhO Polygonaceae Calligonum schizopterum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum stenopterum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum tetrapterum Ph IT Polygonaceae Calligonum turkestanicum Ph IT Rubiaceae Callipeltis cucullaria Th IT Myrtaceae Callistemon salignus Ph KhO Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera Ph KhO Convulvulaceae Calystegia sepium He IT, Hyr Convolvulaceae Calystegia silvatica He Hyr Brassicaceae Camelina laxa Th IT Brassicaceae Camelina rumelica Th Hyr, IT Campanulaceac Campanula cecilii Th IT, Zag Family Plant species Poaceae 56 Campanula flaccidula Life form Th Floristic region IT, Zag Campanulaceac Campanula glomerata He IT, Hyr Campanulaceac Campanula humillima He IT, (End) Campanulaceac Campanula incanescens He IT Campanulaceac Campanula involucrata He IT Campanulaceac Campanula kermanica He IT, (End) Campanulaceac Campanula latifolia He Hyr, IT Campanulaceac Campanula odontosepala He Campanulaceac Campanula perpusilla He Campanulaceac Campanula rapunculus He Hyr, IT IT, Zag, (End) Hyr, IT Campanulaceac Campanula reuteriana Th IT, Zag Bignoniaceae Campsis radicans Ph KhO Cannaceae Canna indica Ge KhO Cannabinaceae Cannabis sativa Th Cosm Capparidaceae Capparis cartinaginea Ch KhO Capparidaceae Capparis decidua Ph KhO Capparidaceae Capparis parviflora Ch IT Capparidaceae Capparis sicula Ch IT, KhO Capparidaceae Capparis spinosa Ch Brassicaceae Capsella bursa-pastoris Th, He Fabaceae Caragana ambigua Ch IT, KhO IT, Hyr, KhO KhO Fabaceae Caragana gerardiana Ph KhO Fabaceae Caragana ulicina Ch KhO Brassicaceae Cardamine hirsuta Th Hyr, IT Brassicaceae Cardamine impatiens Th, He Hyr, IT Brassicaceae Cardamine uliginosa Ge IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Cardaria draba Ge IT Asteraceae Carduus arabicus Th IT Asteraceae Carduus getulus Th KhO Family Plant species Campanulaceac Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 57 Carduus pycnocephalus Life form Th Floristic region IT Asteraceae Carduus thoermeri He IT, Ara Asteraceae Carduus transcaspicus He, Th IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Carex acuta Ge IT Cyperaceae Carex acutiformis Ge Hyr, IT Cyperaceae Carex digitata Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Carex distans Ge IT, Zag Cyperaceae Carex divisa Ge IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Carex divulsa Ge Hyr, IT Cyperaceae Carex grioletii Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Carex orbicularis Ge IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Carex oreophila Ge IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Carex pachystylis Ge IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Carex pendula Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Carex physodes Ge IT Cyperaceae Carex remota Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Carex riparia Ge Hyr, IT Cyperaceae Carex songorica Ge IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Carex sp. Ge Cyperaceae Carex stenophylla Ge IT Cyperaceae Carex strigosa Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Carex sylvatica Ge Hyr, IT Caricaceae Carica papaya Ph KhO Asteraceae Carpesium abrotanoides He Hyr Betulaceae Carpinus betulus Ph Betulaceae Carpinus orientalis Ph Betulaceae Carpinus schuschaensis Ph Hyr, Ara IT*, Hyr, Ara Hyr, Ara Aizoaceae Carpobratus edulis He IT Asteraceae Carthamus glaucus Th, He IT Asteraceae Carthamus lanatus Th, He IT, Hyr Family Plant species Asteraceae 58 Carthamus oxyacantha Life form Th Floristic region IT Asteraceae Carthamus tinctorius Th Cosm Caesalpinaceae Cassia fistula Ph KhO Caesalpinaceae Cassia italica Ch KhO Caesalpinaceae Cassia obovata Ch KhO Fagaceae Castanea sativa Ph Hyr Poaceae Catabrosa aquatica Ge Hyr, IT Poaceae Catapodium rigidum Th Hyr, IT Apocynaceae Catharanthus rosea He KhO Umbelliferae Caucalis platycarpos Th IT, Hyr Ulmaceae Celtis australis Ph Ulmaceae Celtis caucasica Ph Ulmaceae Celtis glabrata Ph Hyr, Ara IT*, Hyr, Ara, Zag Hyr, IT* Ulmaceae Celtis tournefortii Ph Hyr, Zag Poaceae Cenchrus ciliaris Ge IT, KhO Poaceae Cenchrus pennisetiformis Th, He KhO Asteraceae Centaurea aggregata He IT Asteraceae Centaurea aucheri Ge IT, Zag Asteraceae Centaurea balsamita Th IT Asteraceae Centaurea behen He IT Asteraceae Centaurea bruguieriana Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Centaurea cheiranthifolia Ge IT Asteraceae Centaurea depressa Th IT Asteraceae Centaurea gaubae He IT Asteraceae Centaurea hyalolepis Th, He IT Asteraceae Centaurea hyrcanica He Asteraceae Centaurea iberica He, Th Asteraceae Centaurea intricate He Hyr IT, Hyr, Zag IT, KhO Asteraceae Centaurea irritans Th IT Family Plant species Asteraceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 59 Centaurea ispahanica Life form He Floristic region IT Asteraceae Centaurea koeieana He IT Asteraceae Centaurea lachnopus Ge IT Asteraceae Centaurea leuzeoides He IT Asteraceae Centaurea luristanica He IT Asteraceae Centaurea ovina He Hyr Asteraceae Centaurea pabotii He IT Asteraceae Centaurea pseudosinaica Th KhO Asteraceae Centaurea pulchella Th IT Asteraceae Centaurea sintenisiana He Asteraceae Centaurea solstitialis Th Asteraceae Centaurea sosnovskyi Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, Ara IT, Hyr Asteraceae Centaurea virgata Ch Asteraceae Centaurea zuvandica Ge Gentianaceae Centaurium minus Th, He Gentianaceae Centaurium pulchellum Th Gentianaceae Centaurium spicatum Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, Ara IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO Hyr, IT Orchidaceae Cephalanthera caucasica Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Cephalanthera damasonium Ge Hyr, Ara Orchidaceae Cephalanthera rubra Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Cephalanthera sp. Ge Dipsacaceae Cephalaria dichaetophora Th IT, Zag Dipsacaceae Cephalaria kotschyi He IT Dipsacaceae Cephalaria microcephala He IT Dipsacaceae Cephalaria procera He IT Dipsacaceae Cephalaria syriaca Th IT Asteraceae Cephalorrhynchus brassicifoluis He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cephalorrhynchus kossinskyi Ge IT Caryophyllaceae Cerastium dichotomum Th IT Family Plant species Asteraceae 60 Cerastium glomeratum Life form Th Floristic region IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Cerastium inflatum Th Rosaceae Cerasus avium Ph Rosaceae Cerasus brachypetala Ph IT Hyr, IT*, Zag, Ara IT Rosaceae Cerasus chorassanica Ph IT, (End) Rosaceae Cerasus griffithii Ph Zag Rosaceae Cerasus incana Ph IT Rosaceae Cerasus mahaleb Ph IT Rosaceae Cerasus microcarpa Ph IT Rosaceae Cerasus vulgaris Ph IT*, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Ceratocarpus arenarius Th IT Ranunculaceae Ceratocephala testiculata Th IT Ranunculaceae Ceratocephalus falcatus Th IT, Hyr Caesalpinaceae Ceratonia siliqua Ph KhO Ceratophyllaceae Ceratophyllum demersum Hyd Caesalpinaceae Cercis griffithii Ph Caesalpinaceae Cercis siliquastrum Ph IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, Zag Hyr Boraginaceae Cerinthe minor He IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Chaerophyllum aureum He IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Chaerophyllum bulbosum Ge IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Chaerophyllum khorassanicum He Umbelliferae Chaerophyllum macropodum He Umbelliferae Chaerophyllum macrospermum He IT, Hyr IT, Zag, Hyr IT Brassicaceae Chalcanthus renifolius Ge IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Chamaesphacos ilicifolius Th IT Asteraceae Chardinia orientalis Th IT Papaveraceae Chelidonium majus He Hyr, IT Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album Th Cosm Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium ambrosioides Th Hyr Family Plant species Caryophyllaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 61 Chenopodium botrys Life form Th Floristic region IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium foliosum Th IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium glaucum Th IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium murale Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium novopokrovskyanum Th IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium urbicum Th IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium vulvaira Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Chesneya astragalina He Asteraceae Chondrilla juncea He, Th Brassicaceae Chorispora tenella Th IT* IT, Hyr, Zag IT Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora hierosolymitana Th IT Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora tinctoria Th Asteraceae Chrysanthemum coronarium Th Asteraceae Chrysanthemum roseum He IT Hyr, IT, KhO IT Poaceae Chrysopogon aucheri Ge KhO Fabaceae Cicer anatolicum He IT Fabaceae Cicer arietinum Th Fabaceae Cicer oxyodon He Fabaceae Cicer spiroceras He IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT, (End) Asteraceae Cichorium intybus He Cosm Asteraceae Cichorium pumilum Th KhO, Zag Onagraceae Circaea lutetiana Ge Hyr, IT Asteraceae Cirsium arvense Ge IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cirsium bornmulleri He IT Asteraceae Cirsium bracteatum Th IT Asteraceae Cirsium bracteosum He IT Asteraceae Cirsium congestum He IT Asteraceae Cirsium echinus He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cirsium haussknechtii He, Th IT Family Plant species Chenopodiaceae 62 Cirsium hygrophilum Life form He Floristic region IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cirsium lappaceum He IT Asteraceae Cirsium rhizocephalum He IT Asteraceae Cirsium spectabile Ge IT Asteraceae Cirsium strigosum He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cirsium vulgare He IT, Hyr Orbanchaceae Cistanche tubulosa Ge IT Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis He KhO, IT Cucurbitaceae Citrullus vulgaris Th IT Rutaceae Citrus sp. Ph Cyperaceae Cladium mariscus Ge Hyr, IT Ranunculaceae Clematis ispahanica Ch IT Ranunculaceae Clematis orientalis Ch IT, Zag Capparaceae Cleome chrysantha He KhO Capparaceae Cleome coluteoides He Capparaceae Cleome dolichostyla Th, He Capparaceae Cleome heratensis He,Th IT KhO, (End) IT Capparaceae Cleome iberica He, Th IT, Zag Capparaceae Cleome Khorasanica He IT Capparaceae Cleome noeana Th, He IT, KhO Capparaceae Cleome oxypetala He IT, KhO Capparaceae Cleome quinquenervia Th IT Lamiaceae Clerodendron inerme Ph KhO Amaranthaceae Climacoptera turcomanica Th IT Lamiaceae Clinopodium umbrosum He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Clinopodium vulgare He Hyr, IT Brassicaceae Clypeola aspera Th IT Brassicaceae Clypeola dichotoma Th IT Brassicaceae Clypeola jonthlaspi Th IT Cruciferae Clypeola microcarpa Th IT, Hyr Family Plant species Asteraceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 63 Cnicus benedictus Life form Th Floristic region IT Menispermaceae Cocculus pendulus Ch KhO Asteraceae Codonocephalum peacockianum He IT Colochicaceae Colchicum persicum Ge IT Colochicaceae Colchicum steveni Ge Hyr, IT Colochicaceae Colchicum szovitsii Ge IT Fabaceae Colutea arborescens Ph Ara, Hyr Fabaceae Colutea armata Ph Fabaceae Colutea buhsei Ph Fabaceae Colutea gifana Ph IT*, KhO IT*, Ara, Hyr IT* Fabaceae Colutea gracilis Ph IT Fabaceae Colutea persica Ph Zag, IT* Fabaceae Colutea porphyrogramma Ph IT* Fabaceae Colutea triphylla Ph IT*, Hyr Fabaceae Colutea uniflora Ph IT*, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Cometes surattensis Th KhO Orchidaceae Comperia comperiana Ge IT Umbelliferae Conium maculatum He Cosm Brassicaceae Conringia clavata Th IT Brassicaceae Conringia orientalis He, Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Conringia perfoliata Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Conringia persica Th IT Ranunculaceae Consolida camptocarpa Th IT Ranunculaceae Consolida orientalis Th IT Ranunculaceae Consolida rugulosa Th IT Ranunculaceae Consolida trigonelloides Th IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus acanthocladus Ch KhO, Zag Convolvulaceae Convolvulus argyracanthus Ch KhO Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis He Cosm Convolvulaceae Convolvulus buschiricus He KhO Family Plant species Asteraceae 64 Convolvulus calvertii Life form He Floristic region IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus cantabrica He IT, Hyr Convolvulaceae Convolvulus chondrillioides Ch IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus commutatus He IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus dorycnium He IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus eremophilus He IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus erinaceus Ch IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus evolvuloides He IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus fruticosus Ch IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus glomeratus Ch Convolvulaceae Convolvulus gonocladus He Convolvulaceae Convolvulus koeieanus He Convolvulaceae Convolvulus leiocalycinus Ch Convolvulaceae Convolvulus leptocladus Ch KhO IT, KhO, (End) IT, KhO, (End) IT, Zag, KhO KhO Convolvulaceae Convolvulus lineatus He IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus oxyphyllus He Convolvulaceae Convolvulus oxysepalus He Convolvulaceae Convolvulus pilosellifolius He Convolvulaceae Convolvulus pseudocantabrica He KhO KhO, IT, (End) IT, KhO, Zag IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus reticulatus He IT Convolvulaceae Convolvulus schirazianus He IT, (End) Convolvulaceae Convolvulus sericeus He KhO Convolvulaceae Convolvulus spinosus Ch IT, KhO Convolvulaceae Convolvulus stachydifolius He Convolvulaceae Convolvulus turrillianus Ch Convolvulaceae Convolvulus urosepalus He IT IT, KhO, (End) IT, KhO Convolvulaceae Convolvulus virgatus Ch KhO, IT Asteraceae Conyza bonariensis Th IT, Hyr Family Plant species Convolvulaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 65 Conyza canadensis Life form Th Floristic region IT Asteraceae Conyzanthus squamatus He Cosm Tiliaceae Corchorus depressus Ch KhO Tiliaceae Corchorus trilocularis He, Th KhO Boraginaceae Cordia crenata Ph KhO Boraginaceae Cordia myxa Ph KhO Umbelliferae Coriandrum sativum Th Cosm Chenopodiaceae Corispermum lehmannianum Th IT Chenopodiaceae Cornulaca amblyacantha Ch KhO, IT Chenopodiaceae Cornulaca aucheri Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Cornulaca laucantha Th, He IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Cornulaca monacantha Ch Cornaceae Cornus australis Ph Cornaceae Cornus mas Ph IT, KhO IT*, Hyr, Ara Ara, Hyr Cornaceae Cornus sanguinea Ph Zag Fabaceae Coronilla scorpioides Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Coronilla varia He Hyr, IT Primulaceae Cortusa matuioli He Hyr, (End) Fumariaceae Corydalis chionophila He IT Fumariaceae Corydalis rupestris He IT Betulaceae Corylus avellana Ph Hyr, Ara Betulaceae Corylus colurna Ph Hyr Asteraceae Cota altissima Th Hyr Anacardiaceae Cotinus coggygria Ph Ara Rosaceae Cotoneaster atrosanguinea Ph Ara, Zag Rosaceae Cotoneaster azarolus Ph Zag Rosaceae Cotoneaster discolor Ph IT*, Hyr Rosaceae Cotoneaster esfandiarii Ph IT*, (End) Rosaceae Cotoneaster heterophylla Ph Zag Rosaceae Cotoneaster hissarica Ph IT*, Zag, Family Plant species Asteraceae 66 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region Hyr Rosaceae Cotoneaster insignis Ph IT*, Hyr Rosaceae Cotoneaster integerrima Ph Hyr Rosaceae Cotoneaster kotschyi Ph IT* Rosaceae Cotoneaster luristanica Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Cotoneaster meyeri Ph Zag, Ara Rosaceae Cotoneaster microphylla Ph Zag, Ara Rosaceae Cotoneaster morulus Ph Zag Rosaceae Cotoneaster multiflora Ph Rosaceae Cotoneaster nummularia Ph Rosaceae Cotoneaster ovata Ph Rosaceae Cotoneaster persica Ph Rosaceae Cotoneaster racemiflora Ph Hyr IT*, Hyr, Ara IT*, Hyr IT*, Zag, (End) Ara, Hyr, Zag Rosaceae Cotoneaster sp. Ph Rosaceae Cotoneaster turcomanica Ph Hyr Rosaceae Cotoneaster tytthocarpa Ph IT*, Hyr Asteraceae Cousinia amplissima He IT Asteraceae Cousinia arida He IT Asteraceae Cousinia assyriaca He IT Asteraceae Cousinia behboudiana He IT Asteraceae Cousinia belangeri He IT Asteraceae Cousinia calcitrapa He IT Asteraceae Cousinia calolepis Ch IT Asteraceae Cousinia chrysochlora Ch IT Asteraceae Cousinia congesta Ch IT Asteraceae Cousinia cylindracea He IT Asteraceae Cousinia cymbolepis He IT Asteraceae Cousinia decipiens Ch IT Asteraceae Cousinia deserti He IT Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 67 Cousinia ecbatanensis Life form He Floristic region IT Asteraceae Cousinia elwendensis He IT* Asteraceae Cousinia eriobasis He IT Asteraceae Cousinia eryngioides He IT Asteraceae Cousinia hablitzii He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cousinia heliantha Th, He IT Asteraceae Cousinia khorramabadensis He IT Asteraceae Cousinia lachnosphaera He IT Asteraceae Cousinia lactiflora He IT Asteraceae Cousinia lasiandra He IT Asteraceae Cousinia macrocarpa He IT Asteraceae Cousinia meshhedensis He IT Asteraceae Cousinia microcarpa He IT Asteraceae Cousinia microcephala He IT Asteraceae Cousinia millefontana He IT Asteraceae Cousinia multiloba He IT Asteraceae Cousinia neurocentra He IT Asteraceae Cousinia onopordioides He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cousinia pichleriana He IT Asteraceae Cousinia piptocephala He IT Asteraceae Cousinia prolifera Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Cousinia sicigera He IT Asteraceae Cousinia smirnowii Ch IT Asteraceae Cousinia stocksii He IT, KhO Asteraceae Cousinia tenuifolia He IT Asteraceae Cousinia turcomanica He IT Asteraceae Cousinia turkmenorum He IT Asteraceae Cousinia umbrosa He IT Asteraceae Cousinia urumiensis Ch IT Brassicaceae Crambe kotschyana He IT Family Plant species Asteraceae 68 Crambe orientalis Life form He Floristic region IT Crussulaceae Crassula alata Th IT, KhO Rosaceae Crataegus ambigua Ph IT, Hyr Rosaceae Crataegus atrosanguinea Ph Rosaceae Crataegus azarolus Ph Rosaceae Crataegus caucasica Ph IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, Zag Hyr Rosaceae Crataegus elbursensis Ph Hyr Rosaceae Crataegus melanocarpa Ph Hyr, IT Rosaceae Crataegus meyeri Ph Rosaceae Crataegus microphylla Ph Rosaceae Crataegus monogyna Ph IT, Hyr Hyr, IT, Zag IT, Hyr Rosaceae Crataegus persica Ph Zag, (End) Rosaceae Crataegus pinnatifida Ph Rosaceae Crataegus pontica Ph Rosaceae Crataegus pseudoheterophylla Ph Rosaceae Crataegus pseudomelanocarpa Ph IT IT, Zag, Hyr IT, Hyr, Zag Hyr Rosaceae Crataegus sinaica Rosaceae Crataegus songarica Ph Rosaceae Crataegus sp. Ph Rosaceae Crataegus szovitsii Ph IT Rosaceae Crataegus turcomanica Ph IT Asteraceae Crepis elbursensis Ge IT Asteraceae Crepis kotschyana Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Crepis micrantha Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Crepis pulchra Th, He IT, KhO Asteraceae Crepis quercifolia Th, He Asteraceae Crepis sancta Th, He Asteraceae Crepis turcomanica He IT IT, Hyr, Zag, KhO IT Family Plant species Brassicaceae IT, Zag IT, Hyr Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 69 Cressa cretica Life form He Floristic region IT, KhO Iridaceae Crocus cancellatus Ge IT, Zag Iridaceae Crocus caspius Ge Hyr Iridaceae Crocus haussknechtii Ge IT, zag Iridaceae Crocus sativus Ge IT Fabaceae Crotalaria aegyptiaca Ch KhO Fabaceae Crotalaria burhia Ch KhO Fabaceae Crotalaria furfuracea Ch KhO Fabaceae Crotalaria persica He KhO Fabaceae Crotalaria retusa He KhO Rubiaceae Crucianella ciliata Th IT Rubiaceae Crucianella gilanica He IT Rubiaceae Crucianella sintenisii He IT Rubiaceae Cruciata laevipes Ge Hyr Asteraceae Crupina crupinastrum Th IT Poaceae Crypsis schoenoides Th IT, Hyr Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo Th KhO, Hyr Umbelliferae Cuminum cyminum Th Cupressaceae Cupressus horizontalis Ph Cupressaceae Cupressus sempervirens Ph Convolvulaceae Cuscuta approximata Th Convolvulaceae Cuscuta campestris Th IT Hyr, Zag, IT Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO Cosm Convolvulaceae Cuscuta epithymum Th IT, KhO Convolvulaceae Cuscuta monogyna Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Cutandia memphitica Th KhO, Hyr Primulaceae Cyclamen coum Ge Hyr Rosaceae Cydonia oblonga Ph IT, Hyr Rosaceae Cydonia vulgaris Ph IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Cymatocarpus pilosissimus Th IT Family Plant species Convolvulaceae 70 Cymbocarpum anethoides Life form Th Floristic region IT, Hyr Asteraceae Cymbolaena griffithii Th IT Poaceae Cymbopogon olivieri He IT, KhO Asclepiadaceae Cynanchum acutum He IT, Hyr Poaceae Cynodon dactylon Ge Cosm Boraginaceae Cynoglossum creticum He Hyr, Zag Boraginaceae Cynoglossum officinale He Hyr Cynomoriaceae Cynomorium songaricum Th IT Poaceae Cynosurus echinatus Th IT, Hyr Cyperaceae Cyperus arenarius Ge KhO Cyperaceae Cyperus conglomeratus Ge KhO Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis Th Cyperaceae Cyperus distachyos Ge Cyperaceae Cyperus eremicus Ge IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr IT, KhO Cyperaceae Cyperus fuscus Th Cyperaceae Cyperus longus Ge Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Ge IT, Hyr Hyr, IT, Zag Cosm Athyriaceae Cystopteris fragilis Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Dactylis glomerata He IT, Hyr Poaceae Dactyloctenium aegyptium Ge KhO Orchidaceae Dactylorrhiza iberica Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Dactylorrhiza umbrosa Ge IT Fabaceae Dalbergia sissoo Ph KhO Ruscaceae Danae racemosa Ph Hyr Thymelaeaceae Daphne laureola Ph Hyr Thymelaeaceae Daphne mezereum Ph Thymelaeaceae Daphne mucronata Ph Thymelaeaceae Daphne oleoides Ph Thymelaeaceae Daphne pontica Ph Hyr IT, Ara, Zag, KhO IT, Zag, KhO Hyr Family Plant species Umbelliferae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 71 Daphne rechingeri Life form Ph Floristic region Hyr Thymelaeaceae Daphne stapfii Ph IT, KhO Datiscaceae Datisca cannabina He IT, Hyr Solanaceae Datura innoxia Th KhO Solanaceae Datura stramonium Th Cosm Umbelliferae Daucus carota Th, He IT, Hyr Ranunculaceae Delphinium cyphoplectrum He IT Ranunculaceae Delphinium semibarbatum He IT Thymelaeaceae Dendrostellera lessrtii Ch IT Poaceae Deschampsia caespitosa Ge IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Descurainia Sophia Th, He IT, Hyr Poaceae Desmostachya bipinnata Ge KhO, IT Poaceae Deyeuxia parsana He Hyr Caryophyllaceae Dianthus crinitus He IT Caryophyllaceae Dianthus libunotis Th, He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Dianthus macranthoides He IT, KhO Caryophillaceae Dianthus orientalis Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Dianthus pachypetalus He IT Caryophyllaceae Dianthus szowitsianus He IT Caryophyllaceae Dianthus tabrisianus He IT Thymelaeaceae Diarthron antoniniae Ch IT Thymelaeaceae Diarthron vesiculosum Th Poaceae Dichanthium annulatum Ge Umbelliferae Dicyclophora persica Th IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr IT, KhO Brassicaceae Dielsiocharis kotschyi Ch IT Plantaginaceae Digitalis nervosa He IT, Hyr Poaceae Digitaria nodosa He IT Poaceae Digitaria sanguinalis Th IT Poaceae Dinebra retroflexa Th KhO Primulaceae Dionysia aubrietioides He IT, (End) Family Plant species Thymelaeaceae 72 Dionysia curviflora Life form He Floristic region IT, (End) Primulaceae Dionysia janthina He IT, (End) Primulaceae Dionysia khuzistanica He IT, (End) Primulaceae Dionysia rhaptodes He IT, (End) Ebenaceae Diospyros lotus Ph Hyr Brassicaceae Diplotaxis erucoides Th KhO Brassicaceae Diplotaxis harra He, Th KhO, IT Dipsacaceae Dipsacus laciniatus He IT Dipsacaceae Dipsacus pilosus He Hyr, IT Dipsacaceae Dipsacus strigosus He Hyr, Ara Asteraceae Dipterocome pusilla Th IT Asteraceae Dittrichia graveolens Th IT, KhO Scrophulariaceae Dodartia orientalis He IT Sapindaceae Dodonea viscose Ph KhO Umbelliferae Dorema ammoniacum Th, He IT Umbelliferae Dorema hyrcanum He, Th IT Brassicaceae Draba aucheri He IT Brassicaceae Draba nemorosa Th Hyr, IT Brassicaceae Drabopsis verna Th IT Lamiaceae Dracocephalum kotschyi He IT Lamiaceae Dracocephalum moldavica Th IT Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris borreri He Hyr Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris caucasica Ge Hyr Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris filix-mas Ge Hyr Umbelliferae Ducrosia anethifolia He IT, KhO Umbelliferae Ducrosia flabellifolia He Fabaceae Ebenus stellata Ch Poaceae Echinochloa crus-galli Th IT IT, KhO, Zag Hyr, IT Umbelliferae Echinophora cinerea He IT Umbelliferae Echinophora paltyloba He IT Family Plant species Primulaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 73 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region IT, KhO, (End) IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops aucheri He Asteraceae Echinops cephalotes He Asteraceae Echinops ceratophorus He Asteraceae Echinops dichorus He Asteraceae Echinops erioceras He IT, (End) KhO, (End) IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops gedrosiacus He KhO Asteraceae Echinops heteromorphus He IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops ilicifolius Ch IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops jezdianus He IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops lalesarensis Ch IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops leiopolyceroides He Asteraceae Echinops longipenicillatus He Asteraceae Echinops macrophyllus He IT, (End) KhO, (End) IT, KhO Asteraceae Echinops mosulensis He IT Asteraceae Echinops orientalis He IT Asteraceae Echinops polygamus He IT Asteraceae Echinops pungens He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Echinops ritrodes He IT Asteraceae Echinops robusta He IT, (End) Asteraceae Echinops tournefortii He IT Boraginceae Echium amoenum He Hyr Boraginaceae Echium italicum He IT Boraginaceae Echium khuzistanicum Th, He KhO Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata Th Hyr Boraginaceae Ehretia laevis Ph KhO Boraginaceae Ehretia obtusifolia Ph KhO Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus angustifolia Ph IT Cyperaceae Eleocharis acicularis Ge IT Cyperaceae Eleocharis palustris Ge IT, Hyr 74 Eleusine indica Life form Th Floristic region Hyr Poaceae Elymus hispidus Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Elymus zagricus Ge IT Polygonaceae Emex spinosa Th IT, KhO Poaceae Enneapogon persicus He IT, KhO Ephedraceae Ephedra brevifoliata Ph, Ch IT, KhO Ephedraceae Ephedra ciliata Ph, Ch IT, KhO Ephedraceae Ephedra distachya Ph, Ch IT Ephedraceae Ephedra foliata Ph, Ch IT, KhO Ephedraceae Ephedra glauca Ph, Ch IT Ephedraceae Ephedra holoptera Ph, Ch IT Ephedraceae Ephedra intermedia Ph, Ch Ephedraceae Ephedra major Ph, Ch Ephedraceae Ephedra microbracteata Ph, Ch IT, Zag IT, Hyr, KhO KhO Ephedraceae Ephedra pachyclada Ph, Ch Ephedraceae Ephedra persica Ph, Ch Ephedraceae Ephedra procera Ph, Ch Ephedraceae Ephedra sarcocarpa Ph, Ch IT, KhO IT, KhO, Zag IT, Hyr, Ara, Zag IT, Zag Ephedraceae Ephedra strobilacea Ph, Ch IT Asteraceae Epilasia hemilasia Th IT Onagraceae Epilobium dodonaei Ge Hyr Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum Ge IT, Hyr Onagraceae Epilobium minutiflorum Ge IT Onagraceae Epilobium palustre Ge IT, Hyr Podophyllaceae Epimedium pinnatum Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Epipactis helleborine Ge Hyr, IT Orchidaceae Epipactis latifolia Ge Hyr, IT Orchidaceae Epipactis microphylla Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Epipactis palustris Ge IT Family Plant species Poaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 75 Epipactis rechingeri Life form Ge Floristic region Hyr Orchidaceae Epipactis veratrifolia Ge IT, KhO Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense Ge IT, Hyr Equisetaceae Equisetum maximum Ge Hyr Equisetaceae Equisetum palustre Ge Hyr, IT Equisetaceae Equisetum ramosissimum Ge IT, Hyr Equisetaceae Equisetum sp. Ge Equisetaceae Equisetum telmateia Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Eragrostis poaeoides Th IT Brassicaceae Eremobium aegyptiacum Th KhO Umbelliferae Eremodaucus lehmannii He IT Poaceae Eremopoa persica Th IT Poaceae Eremopogon foveolatus Ge KhO Poaceae Eremopyrum bonaepartis Th IT Poaceae Eremopyrum confusum Th IT Poaceae Eremopyrum distans Th IT Lamiaceae Eremostachys labiosa Ge IT Lamiaceae Eremostachys laevigata He IT, Zag Lamiaceae Eremostachys macrophylla He IT Lamiaceae Eremostachys pulvinaris He IT Liliaceae Eremurus inderiensis Ge IT Liliaceae Eremurus kopetdaghensis Ge IT Liliaceae Eremurus olgae Ge IT Liliaceae Eremurus persicus Ge IT Liliaceae Eremurus spectabilis Ge IT Liliaceae Eremurus stenophyllus Ge IT Asteraceae Erigeron acer He IT, Hyr Rosaceae Eriobotrya japonica Ph Hyr Geraniaceae Erodium ciconium Th IT, Hyr Geraniaceae Erodium cicutarium Th Cosm Family Plant species Orchidaceae 76 Family Plant species Geraniaceae Erodium glaucophyllum Life form He Floristic region IT, KhO IT, Zag, KhO IT, KhO KhO, Zag, IT IT, KhO Geraniaceae Erodium gruinum Th, He Geraniaceae Erodium malacoides Th, He Geraniaceae Erodium moschatum Th, He Geraniaceae Erodium oxyrrhynchum Th, He Geraniaceae Erodium pulverulentum Th, He Brassicaceae Eruca sativa Th Brassicaceae Erucaria hispanica Th IT, KhO IT, Hyr, KhO KhO, IT Umbelliferae Eryngium billardieri He Cosm Umbelliferae Eryngium bungei He IT Umbelliferae Eryngium caeruleum He Hyr, IT Umbelliferae Eryngium caucasicum He IT Umbelliferae Eryngium noeanum He IT Umbelliferae Eryngium thyrsoideum He IT Brassicaceae Erysimum aitchisonii He IT Brassicaceae Erysimum crassicaule He IT Brassicaceae Erysimum griffithianum Th IT Brassicaceae Erysimum oleifolium He IT, KhO Brassicaceae Erysimum repandum Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Euclidium syriacum Th IT Myrtaceae Eugenia jambolana Ph KhO Myrtaceae Eugenia jambos Ph KhO Asteraceae Eupatorium cannabinum Ch Hyr, IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia aellenii He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia aleppica Th, He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia amygdaloides Ge Hyr Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia aucheri He IT, Hyr Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Boissieriana He IT, Hyr Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia buhsei He IT, Hyr Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 77 Euphorbia bungei Life form He Floristic region IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cheiradenia He IT, Hyr Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia connata He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia decipiens He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia densa Th IT, KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia denticolata He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia erythradenia He Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia falcata Th Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia gedrosiaca He IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT, KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia granulata Th KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia helioscopia Th Hyr, IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia heteradena He IT, Hyr Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia humilis He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia larica Ch KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia macroclada He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia macrostegia He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia microsciadia He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia neriifolia Ph KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia osyridea He KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia petiolata Th IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia sororia Th IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia splendida He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia stricta Th Hyr, IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia szovitsii Th IT, Hyr Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia teheranica He IT Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia tirucalli Ph KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia turcomanica Th IT, KhO Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia virgata He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Euphrasia juzepczukii Th IT Chenopodiaceae Eurotia ceratoides Ch IT Family Plant species Euphorbiaceae 78 Evonymus europaeus Life form Ph Floristic region Ara, Hyr Celastraceae Evonymus latifolia Ph Hyr, Ara Celastraceae Evonymus velutina Ph Hyr Celastraceae Evonymus verrucosa Ph Ara Zygophyllaceae Fagonia acerosa He KhO Zygophyllaceae Fagonia bruguieri He IT, KhO Zygophyllaceae Fagonia indica He KhO Zygophyllaceae Fagonia olivieri He KhO Zygophyllaceae Fagonia subinermis He KhO Fagaceae Fagus orientalis Ph Hyr Umbelliferae Falcaria vulgaris He IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Farsetia heliophila He IT, KhO Umbelliferae Ferula assa-foetida He IT Umbelliferae Ferula gabriellii He IT Umbelliferae Ferula galbanifua He Hyr Umbelliferae Ferula gummosa He IT Umbelliferae Ferula haussknechtii He IT, Zag Umbelliferae Ferula hirtella He IT Umbelliferae Ferula latisecta He IT Umbelliferae Ferula macrocolea He IT Umbelliferae Ferula oopoda He IT Umbelliferae Ferula orientalis He IT Umbelliferae Ferula ovina He IT Umbelliferae Ferula stenocarpa Th IT, KhO Umbelliferae Ferula szowitsiana He IT Umbelliferae Ferula tabasensis He IT Umbelliferae Ferulago angulata He IT Umbelliferae Ferulago contracta He IT Umbelliferae Ferulago macrocarpa He IT Umbelliferae Ferulago stellata He IT Family Plant species Celastraceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 79 Festuca arundinacea Life form He Floristic region IT Poaceae Festuca ovina He IT, Hyr Poaceae Festuca rubra Ge IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Fibigia macrocarpa He IT Brassicaceae Fibigia suffruticosa He IT Brassicaceae Fibigia umbellata He IT Ranunculaceae Ficaria kochii Ge IT Moraceae Ficus bengalensis Ph Moraceae Ficus carica Ph Moraceae Ficus johannis Ph KhO IT, Hyr, Ara, Zag IT, KhO Moraceae Ficus laccifera Ph KhO Moraceae Ficus palmata Ph KhO Moraceae Ficus religiosa Ph KhO Moraceae Ficus rubunigosa Ph KhO Moraceae Ficus rupestris Ph IT Asteraceae Filago hurdwarica Th IT, KhO Rosaceae Filipendula vulgaris Ge Ara Umbelliferae Foeniculum vulgare He IT, KhO Urticaceae Forsskaolea tenacissima Th, He KhO Brassicaceae Fortuynia bungei He IT, KhO Brassicaceae Fortuynia garcinii He KhO Rosaceae Fragaria sp. Ge Rosaceae Fragaria vesca Ge Hyr Asteraceae Francoeuria undulata He IT, KhO Rhamnaceae Frangula alnus Ph Hyr Frankeniaceae Frankenia hirsuta Ch Hyr, IT Frankeniaceae Frankenia pulverulenta Th, He IT, KhO Oleaceae Fraxinus coriariifolia Ph Ara, Hyr Oleaceae Fraxinus excelsior Ph Hyr Oleaceae Fraxinus persica Ph Zag, (End) Family Plant species Poaceae 80 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region IT*, Hyr, Zag, Ara Oleaceae Fraxinus rotuidfolia Ph Oleaceae Fraxinus sp. Ph Oleaceae Fraxinus syriaca Ph Zag Liliaceae Fritillaria crassifolia Ge IT Liliaceae Fritillaria gibbosa Ge IT Liliaceae Fritillaria imperialis Ge IT Liliaceae Fritillaria persica Ge IT Liliaceae Fritillaria raddeana Ge IT Liliaceae Fritillaria sp. Ge Liliaceae Fritillaria zagrica Ge IT Umbelliferae Froriepia subpinnata Th Hyr Cyperaceae Fuirena pubescens Ge IT Cistaceae Fumana procumbens Ch IT, Hyr Fumariaceae Fumaria asepala Th IT Fumariaceae Fumaria parviflora Th Cosm Fumariaceae Fumaria vaillantii Th IT, Hyr Liliaceae Gagea alexeenkoana Ge IT Liliaceae Gagea anonyma Ge Liliaceae Gagea chlorantha Ge Liliaceae Gagea chomutowae Ge IT Zag, IT, KhO IT Liliaceae Gagea gageoides Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Gagea olgae Ge IT Liliaceae Gagea reticulata Ge IT Liliaceae Gagea setifolia Ge IT Liliaceae Gagea sp. Ge IT Liliaceae Gagea stipitata Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Gagea tenera Ge IT Liliaceae Gagea vegeta Ge IT Rubiaceae Gaillonia aucheri Ch KhO Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 81 Gaillonia bruguieri Life form He Floristic region IT Asteraceae Galinsoga parviflora Th Cosm Rubiaceae Galium aparine Th Hyr, IT Rubiaceae Galium humifusum He IT Rubiaceae Galium mite Ch IT Rubiaceae Galium odaratum He Hyr Rubiaceae Galium setaceum Th IT Rubiaceae Galium spurium Th IT Rubiaceae Galium verum He IT, Zag Chenopodiaceae Gamanthus gamocarpus Th IT Asteraceae Garhadiolus angulosus Th Cosm Boraginaceae Gastrocotyle hispida Th IT Fabaceae Genista tinctoria Ch Ara Gentianaceae Gentiana olivieri He IT, KhO Geraniaceae Geranium albanum Ge Geraniaceae Geranium collinum Ge Geraniaceae Geranium columbinum Th, He Hyr, IT IT, Hyr, Zag Hyr Geraniaceae Geranium dissectum He, Th IT, Hyr Geraniaceae Geranium divaricatum Th Hyr, IT Geraniaceae Geranium kotschyi Ge IT Geraniaceae Geranium lucidum Th IT, Hyr Geraniaceae Geranium molle Th, He Hyr, IT Geraniaceae Geranium montanum Ge Geraniaceae Geranium persicum Ge Geraniaceae Geranium pyrenaicum Ge Hyr IT, Hyr, Zag Hyr, IT Geraniaceae Geranium robertianum He, Th Hyr, IT Geraniaceae Geranium rotundifolium Th Cosm Geraniaceae Geranium sylvaticum Ge Geraniaceae Geranium tuberosum Ge Ara Hyr, IT, Zag Family Plant species Rubiaceae 82 Geum heterocarpum Life form He Floristic region IT Rosaceae Geum kokanicum He IT Rosaceae Geum rivale Ge IT, Hyr Rosaceae Geum urbanum He Hyr, IT* Chenopodiaceae Girgensohnia imbricata Th IT Chenopodiaceae Girgensohnia oppositiflora Th IT Iridaceae Gladiolus atroviolaceus Ge IT Iridaceae Gladiolus halophilus Ge IT Iridaceae Gladiolus italicus Ge IT, KhO Iridaceae Gladiolus segetum Ge IT, KhO Papaveaceae Glaucium calycinum He IT Papaveaceae Glaucium elegans Th IT Papaveaceae Glaucium grandiflorum He IT Papaveaceae Glaucium oxylobum He IT Primulaceae Glaux maritima Ge IT Caesalpiniaceae Gleditsia caspica Ph Hyr Asclepiadaceae Glossonema varians He KhO Poaceae Glyceria plicata He IT, Hyr Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza echinata He Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra Ge Asteraceae Gnaphalium luteo-album Th Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr Cosm Brassicaceae Goldbachia laevigata Th IT Brassicaceae Graelsia saxifragifolia He IT Malvaceae Grewia asiatica Ph KhO Malvaceae Grewia bicolor Ph KhO Malvaceae Grewia makranica Ph KhO Malvaceae Grewia populifolia Ph KhO Asteraceae Gundelia tournefortii He IT Asteraceae Gymnarrhena micrantha Th IT, KhO Caryophyllaceae Gymnocarpos decander Ch IT, KhO Family Plant species Rosaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 83 Gynandriris sisyrinchium Life form Ge Floristic region IT Caryophyllaceae Gypsophila abconica Th KhO Caryophyllaceae Gypsophila caricifolia He IT Caryophyllaceae Gypsophila elegans Th, He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Gypsophila pilosa Th IT Caryophyllaceae Gypsophila platyphylla He IT Chenopodiaceae Halanthium rarifolium Th IT Amaranthaceae Halimione vertucifera He IT Chenopodiaceae Halimocnemis mollissima Th IT Chenopodiaceae Halimocnemis pilifera Th IT Fabaceae Halimodendron halodendron Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Halocharis hispida Th IT Chenopodiaceae Halocharis sp. Th Chenopodiaceae Halocharis sulphurea Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Halocmemum strobilaceum Ch IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Halostachys belangeriana Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Halostachys caspica Ch Hyr Chenopodiaceae Halothamnus acutifolius Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Halothamnus auriculus Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Halothamnus glaucus Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Halothamnus iranicus Ch KhO Chenopodiaceae Halothamnus kermanensis Ch IT, (End) Chenopodiaceae Halothamnus subaphyllus Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon ammodendern Ph IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon aphyllum Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon articulatum Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon multiflorum Ph IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon persicum Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon recurvum Ph IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Haloxylon salicornicum Ph IT, KhO Family Plant species Iridaceae 84 Hammada salicornia Life form Ch Floristic region IT, KhO Rutaceae Haplophyllum buhsei He Rutaceae Haplophyllum canaliculatum He Rutaceae Haplophyllum glaberrimum He IT, (End) IT, KhO, (End) IT, (End) Rutaceae Haplophyllum pedicellatum He IT Rutaceae Haplophyllum perforatum Ch IT* Rutaceae Haplophyllum pilosum He IT Rutaceae Haplophyllum robustum He IT Rutaceae Haplophyllum tuberculatum He IT, KhO Umbelliferae Haussknechtia elymaitica He IT Araliaceae Hedera colchica Ph Hyr Araliaceae Hedera helix Ph Zag Araliaceae Hedera pastuchovii Ph Hyr Asteraceae Hedypnois rhagadioloides Th Hyr, KhO Fabaceae Hedysarum criniferum He IT Fabaceae Hedysarum kopetdaghi He IT Fabaceae Hedysarum wrightianum He IT Cistaceae Helianthemum chamaecistus He Cistaceae Helianthemum ledifolium Th, He Cistaceae Helianthemum lippii Ch IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr, Zag KhO Cistaceae Helianthemum nummularium He Cistaceae Helianthemum salicifolium Th Asteraceae Helianthus annus Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO, Zag IT Asteraceae Helianthus tuberosus Ge Cosm Asteraceae Helichrysum armenium He IT Asteraceae Helichrysum davisianum He IT Asteraceae Helichrysum leucocephalum He KhO, IT Asteraceae Helichrysum oligocephalum He IT Asteraceae Helichrysum oocephalum He IT Family Plant species Chenopodiaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 85 Helichrysum psychrophilum Life form He Floristic region IT, Hyr Asteraceae Helichrysum rubicundum He IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium agdense Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium arguzioides Ge IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium aucheri He IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium bacciferum Ch IT, KhO Boraginaceae Heliotropium brevilimbe He KhO, IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium chorassanicum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium crispum He IT, KhO Boraginaceae Heliotropium dasycarpum He IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium digynum Ch KhO Boraginaceae Heliotropium dissitiflorum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium elipticum Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Heliotropium esfandiarii Th IT, (End) Boraginaceae Heliotropium europaeum Th Hyr, IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium lasiocarpum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium mesinanum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium noeanum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium ramosissimum He IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium samolifolium Th IT, (End) Boraginaceae Heliotropium supinum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium szovitsianum Th IT Boraginaceae Heliotropium transoxanum He IT Asteraceae Helminthotheca echioides Th, He IT, KhO Poaceae Henrardia persica Th IT Umbelliferae Heracleum persicum He Caryaphyllaceae Herniaria cinerea Th Caryaphyllaceae Herniaria glabra Th, He Caryaphyllaceae Herniaria hirsuta Th IT KhO, Hyr, Zag, IT IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr, Zag Family Plant species Asteraceae 86 Herniaria incana Life form He Floristic region Hyr, IT Asteraceae Hertia angustifolia Ch IT, KhO Asteraceae Hertia intermedia Ch IT, KhO Brassicaceae Hesperis hyrcana He Hyr Brassicaceae Hesperis kurdica He IT Brassicaceae Hesperis leucoclada He IT Brassicaceae Hesperis persica He IT, Hyr Poaceae Heteranthelium piliferum Th IT Boraginaceae Heterocaryum laevigatum Th IT Boraginaceae Heterocaryum macrocarpum Th IT Boraginaceae Heterocaryum subsessile Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Heterocaryum szovitsianum Th IT Asteraceae Heteroderis pusilla Th IT Asteraceae Heteropappus altaicus He IT Malvaceae Hibiscus trionum Th IT, Hyr Asteraceae Hieracium procerum He IT, Hyr Fabaceae Hippocrepis bicontorta Th KhO Fabaceae Hippocrepis bisiliqua Th IT Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides Ph IT*, Hyr Hippuridaceae Hippuris vulgaris Hel Brassicaceae Hirschfeldia incana Th, He Caryaphyllaceae Holosteum glutinosum Th IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT Caryaphyllaceae Holosteum umbellatum Th IT Chenopodiaceae Horaninovia anomala Th IT Chenopodiaceae Horaninovia ulicina Th IT, (End) Poaceae Hordeum bulbosum Ge Poaceae Hordeum glaucum Th Poaceae Hordeum murinum Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT Poaceae Hordeum spontaneum Th IT Family Plant species Caryaphyllaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 87 Hordeum violaceum Life form He Floristic region IT, Hyr Poaceae Hordeum vulgar Th IT Rosaceae Hulthemia persica Ch IT Fabaceae Hymenocarpus circinatus Th IT, KhO Lamiaceae Hymenocrater argutidens Ch IT* Lamiaceae Hymenocrater butiminosus Ch IT* Lamiaceae Hymenocrater calycinus Ch IT* Lamiaceae Hymenocrater elegans Ch IT* Lamiaceae Hymenocrater yazdianus He IT Brassicaceae Hymenolobus procumbens Th Cosm Solanaceae Hyoscyamus arachnoideus He IT Solanaceae Hyoscyamus insanus Ge KhO, IT Solanaceae Hyoscyamus kotschyanus Ge Solanaceae Hyoscyamus muticus Ge Solanaceae Hyoscyamus niger Th, He IT IT, KhO, (End) IT, Hyr Solanaceae Hyoscyamus nutans Ge IT, KhO Solanaceae Hyoscyamus orthocarpus Ge IT, KhO Solanaceae Hyoscyamus pusillus Th IT Solanaceae Hyoscyamus reticulatus He IT, Hyr Solanaceae Hyoscyamus rosularis Ge IT, KhO Solanaceae Hyoscyamus senecionis Ge IT Solanaceae Hyoscyamus squarrosus Ge IT Solanaceae Hyoscyamus tenuicaulis Ge KhO, IT Poaceae Hyparrhenia hirta He KhO Papaveraceae Hypecoum pendulum Th IT Hypericaceae Hypericum androsaemum Ph Hyr Hypericaceae Hypericum asperulum He Zag, IT* Hypericaceae Hypericum helianthemoides He IT Hypericaceae Hypericum hirsutum He Hyr Hypericaceae Hypericum hirtellum He IT Family Plant species Poaceae 88 Hypericum hyssopifolium Life form He Floristic region IT* Hypericaceae Hypericum perforatum He IT, Hyr Hypericaceae Hypericum scabrum He IT* Hypericaceae Hypericum triquetrifolium He IT Lamiaceae Hyssopus angustifolius He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Ifloga spicata Th KhO Aquilofoliaceae Ilex spinigera Ph Hyr Poaceae Imperata cylindrica Ge IT, KhO Fabaceae Indigofera argentea Ch KhO Fabaceae Indigofera intricata Ch KhO Fabaceae Indigofera paucifolia Ch KhO Asteraceae Inula beritannica He IT Asteraceae Inula oculus-christi Ge IT, Hyr Asteraceae Inula salicina Ge IT, Hyr Asteraceae Inula thapsoides Ge IT Iridaceae Iris acutiloba Ge IT Iridaceae Iris caucasica Ge IT Iridaceae Iris drepanophylla Ge IT Iridaceae Iris fosterana Ge Iridaceae Iris hymenospatha Ge Iridaceae Iris kopetdagensis Ge Iridaceae Iris persica Ge Iridaceae Iris pseudacorus Ge IT IT, KhO, (End) IT, Hyr IT, KhO, (End) Hyr Iridaceae Iris pseudocaucasica Ge Hyr, IT Iridaceae Iris reticulata Ge IT, Hyr Iridaceae Iris sisyrinchium Ge IT, KhO Iridaceae Iris songarica Ge IT Iridaceae Iris squria Ge IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Isatis buschiana He IT Family Plant species Hypericaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 89 Isatis cappadocica Life form He Floristic region IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Isatis minima Th KhO Brassicaceae Isatis raphanifolia Th IT Brassicaceae Isatis regulosa Th IT Amaryllidaceae Ixiolirion tataricum Ge Oleaceae Jasminum fruticans Ph Oleaceae Jasminum officinale Ph IT IT*, Hyr, Ara IT*, Hyr Juglandaceae Juglans fallax Ph Juglandaceae Juglans regia Ph Juncaceaea Juncus acutus Ge Juncaceaea Juncus articulatus Ge Juncaceaea Juncus bufonius Th Juncaceaea Juncus effusus Ge Cosm IT, Hyr, KhO IT, Hyr Juncaceaea Juncus fontanesii Ge IT Juncaceaea Juncus gerardi Ge IT Juncaceaea Juncus infelxus Ge IT, Hyr Juncaceaea Juncus Littoralis Ge Hyr Juncaceaea Juncus maritimus Ge IT Juncaceaea Juncus punctorius Ge IT Juncaceaea Juncus rigidus Ge IT, KhO Juncaceaea Juncus socotranus Ge KhO Cupressaceae Juniperus communis Ph Cupressaceae Juniperus excelsa Ph Cupressaceae Juniperus foetidissima Ph Cupressaceae Juniperus polycarpus Ph Cupressaceae Juniperus sabina Ph Ara, Hyr IT*, Zag, Hyr IT*, Ara IT*, Ara, Zag Hyr Asteraceae Jurinea dumolosa He IT Asteraceae Jurinea leptoloba He IT Family Plant species Brassicaceae Hyr, Ara Hyr, IT, Ara, Zag Cosm 90 Jurinea macrocephala Life form He Floristic region IT Asteraceae Jurinea radians He IT Asteraceae Jurinea ramosissima He IT Asteraceae Jurinea stenocalathia He IT Asteraceae Jurinea viciosoi He IT Chenopodiaceae Kalidium caspicum Ch Scrophulariaceae Kickxia elatine Th Chenopodiaceae Kochia prostrata He IT IT, Zag, KhO, Hyr IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Kochia scoparia Th Cosm Chenopodiaceae Kochia stellaris Th IT Poaceae Koeleria cristata He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Koelpinia linearis Th Cosm Asteraceae Koelpinia macrantha Th IT Asteraceae Koelpinia tenuissima Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Krascheninnikovia ceratoides Ch IT Brassicaceae Lachnoloma lehmannii Th IT Asteraceae Lactuca glauciifolia He IT Asteraceae Lactuca microcephala Ge Asteraceae Lactuca orientalis Ch Asteraceae Lactuca persica He IT, (End) IT, Hyr, KhO IT, KhO Asteraceae Lactuca scarioloides Th, He Asteraceae Lactuca serriola Th, He Asteraceae Lactuca tuberosa He Asteraceae Lactuca undulata Th IT Hyr, IT, KhO, Zag IT, Hyr, KhO IT Lamiaceae Lagochillus kotschyanus Ch IT Lamiaceae Lagochilus cabulicus Ch IT Umbelliferae Lagoecia cuminoides Th IT, KhO Lamiaceae Lallemantia iberica Th IT Lamiaceae Lallemantia royleana Th IT Family Plant species Asteraceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 91 Lamarckia aurea Life form Th Floristic region KhO Lamiaceae Lamium album He Hyr, IT Lamiaceae Lamium amplexicaule Th Hyr, IT Lamiaceae Lamium galeobdelon Ge Hyr Lamiaceae Lamium purpureum Th Hyr Verbenaceae Lantana camara Ph Boraginaceae Lappula barbata He, Th Boraginaceae Lappula ceratophora Th KhO IT, Hyr, Zag IT Boraginaceae Lappula drabovii Th, He Boraginaceae Lappula microcarpa Th, He Boraginaceae Lappula myosotis Th IT IT, Hyr, Zag IT Boraginaceae Lappula patula Th IT Boraginaceae Lappula semiglabra Th IT Boraginaceae Lappula sessiliflora Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Lappula sinaica Th IT Boraginaceae Lappula spinocarpos Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Lapsana communis He, Th IT, Hyr Asteraceae Lapsana intermedia He IT Umbelliferae Laser trilobum He Hyr Asteraceae Lasiopogon moscoides Th IT Fabaceae Lathyrus aphaca Th Fabaceae Lathyrus cicera Th Fabaceae Lathyrus inconspicuus Th Hyr, IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT, Hyr Fabaceae Lathyrus incurvus He IT Fabaceae Lathyrus laxiforus He Hyr, IT Fabaceae Lathyrus pratensis He Hyr, IT Fabaceae Lathyrus rotundifolius He Hyr, IT Fabaceae Lathyrus sativus Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Lathyrus vernus He Hyr Family Plant species Poaceae 92 Lathyrus vinealis Life form Th Floristic region IT Asteraceae Launaea acanthodes Ch IT Asteraceae Launaea capitata Th KhO, IT Asteraceae Launaea fallax He KhO Asteraceae Launaea glomerata Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Launaea mucronata He IT, KhO Asteraceae Launaea oligocephala He IT, KhO Asteraceae Launaea procumbens He IT, KhO Asteraceae Launaea spinosa Ch IT Rosaceae Laurocerasus officinalis Ph Hyr Lauraceae Laurus nobilis Ph IT Lythraceae Lawsonia intermis Ph KhO Campanulaceae Legousia falcata Th IT, Hyr Lemnaceae Lemna trisulca Hyd Hyr Fabaceae Lens culinaris Th IT Fabaceae Lens orientalis Th IT Podophyllaceae Leontice leontopetalum Ge IT, Zag Asteraceae Leontodon asperrimus He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Leontodon hispidus He Hyr, IT Lamiaceae Leonurus cardica Ge IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Lepidium draba Ge IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Lepidium latifolium Ge Hyr, IT Brassicaceae Lepidium perfoliatum Th, He IT , Hyr Brassicaceae Lepidium persicum He IT Brassicaceae Lepidium sativum Th Cosm Brassicaceae Lepidium vesicarium Th, He IT Asclepiadaceae Leptadenia pyrotechnica Ph KhO Brassicaceae Leptaleum filifolium Th IT Scrophulariaceae Leptorhabdos parviflora Th IT, Hyr Rubiaceae Leptunis trichoides Th IT Family Plant species Fabaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 93 Lepyrodiclis holosteoides Life form Th Floristic region IT, KhO Caryophyllaceae Lepyrodiclis stellarioides Th IT Fabaceae Leucaena glauca Ph KhO Poaceae Leucopoa pseudosclerophylla Ge IT Poaceae Leucopoa sclerophylla He IT Umbelliferae Leutea petiolaris He IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Libanotis transcaucasica He Hyr, IT Oleaceae Ligustrum vulgare Ph Ara, Hyr Orchidaceae Limodorun abortivum Ge Hyr, IT Plumbaginaceae Limonium gmelini He IT Plumbaginaceae Limonium iranicum Ch IT, KhO Plumbaginaceae Limonium meyeri He IT Plumbaginaceae Limonium reniforme He IT Scrophulariaceae Linaria dalmatica He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Linaria grandiflora He IT Scrophulariaceae Linaria kavirensis Th IT, (End) Scrophulariaceae Linaria kopetdaghensis He IT Scrophulariaceae Linaria kurdica He IT Scrophulariaceae Linaria lineolata Ch IT, (End) Scrophulariaceae Linaria michauxii He IT, (End) Scrophulariaceae Linaria pyramidata He IT Scrophulariaceae Linaria simplex Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Lindelofia kandavanensis He Hyr, (End) Linderniaceae Lindernia procumbens Th Cosm Linaceae Linum album He IT, (End) Linaceae Linum austriacum Ch IT, Hyr Linaceae Linum bienne Th, He KhO, Hyr Linaceae Linum catharticum Th IT, Hyr Linaceae Linum corymbulosum Th IT, Hyr Linaceae Linum glaucum He IT Family Plant species Caryophyllaceae 94 Linum strictum Life form Th Floristic region IT Umbelliferae Lisaea heterocarpa Th IT, Zag Orchidaceae Listera ovata Ge Hyr Boraginaceae Lithospermum arvensis Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Lithospermum officinale Ge Hyr, IT Boraginaceae Lithospermum purpureo-coeruleum Ge Hyr Poaceae Lolium perenne He IT, Hyr Poaceae Lolium persicum Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Lolium rigidum Th IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Londesia eriantha Th Caprifoliaceae Lonicera bracteolaris Ph Caprifoliaceae Lonicera caprifolium Ph IT IT*, Hyr, Ara Hyr Caprifoliaceae Lonicera caucasica Ph Hyr, Ara Caprifoliaceae Lonicera floribunda Ph IT*, Hyr Caprifoliaceae Lonicera hypoleuca Ph Caprifoliaceae Lonicera iberica Ph Caprifoliaceae Lonicera nummulariifolia Zag IT*, Hyr, Ara IT*, Zag Poaceae Lophochloa abtusiflora Th KhO Poaceae Lophochloa phleoides Th Cosm Loranthaceae Loranthus europaeus Ph Zag Loranthaceae Loranthus grewinkii Ph Zag, Hyr Fabaceae Lotus angustissimus Th Hyr, KhO Fabaceae Lotus corniculatus He IT Fabaceae Lotus gebelia He IT Fabaceae Lotus halophilus Th KhO Onagraceaea Ludwigia palustris Hyd Hyr Cucurbitaceae Luffa cylindrica Th KhO Juncaceae Luzula forsteri Ge Solanaceae Lycium depressum Ph Hyr IT, KhO, Zag, Ara Family Plant species Linaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 95 Lycium edgewortii Life form Ph Floristic region KhO Solanaceae Lycium kopetdaghi Ph IT Solanaceae Lycium makranicum Ph KhO Solanaceae Lycium ruthenicum Ph IT, Ara Solanaceae Lycium shawii Ph KhO Solanaceae Lycopersiclum esculentum Th Cosm Lamiaceae Lycopus europaeus Ge Lythraceae Lythrum hyssopifolia Th Lythraceae Lythrum salicaria He Umbelliferae Malabaila secacul He Hyr, IT IT, Hyr, KhO Hyr, IT, Zag IT Umbelliferae Malablia porphyrodiscus Ge IT Brassicaceae Malcolmia africana Th IT Brassicaceae Malcolmia behboudiana Th KhO Brassicaceae Malcolmia strigosa Th IT Brassicaceae Malcolmia turkestanica Th IT Rosaceae Malus communis Ph IT, Hyr Rosaceae Malus domestica Ph Rosaceae Malus orientalis Ph Malvaceae Malva aegyptica Th IT IT*, Hyr, Ara, Zag IT, KhO Malvaceae Malva neglecta He, Th Hyr, IT Malvaceae Malva nicaeensis Th KhO, Hyr Malvaceae Malva parviflora Th KhO, IT Malvaceae Malva sylvestris He, Th IT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Ph KhO Lamiaceae Marrubium anisodon Ge IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Marrubium astracanicum He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Marrubium crassidens He IT Lamiaceae Marrubium cuneatum He IT Lamiaceae Marrubium parviflorum Ge Hyr, IT Family Plant species Solanaceae 96 Family Plant species Lamiaceae Marrubium vulgare Life form Ge Apocynaceae Marsdenia erecta Ph Asteraceae Matricaria aurea Th Floristic region Hyr, IT IT*, Zag, KhO IT, KhO Asteraceae Matricaria recutita Th IT, KhO Brassicaceae Matthiola alyssifolia He IT Brassicaceae Matthiola chenopodiifolia Th IT Brassicaceae Matthiola flavida He IT Brassicaceae Matthiola longipetala Th IT, KhO Brassicaceae Matthiola ovatifolia He Fabaceae Medicago coronata Th Fabaceae Medicago laciniata Th, He IT IT, Hyr, KhO KhO Fabaceae Medicago lupulina He Fabaceae Medicago minima Th Fabaceae Medicago orbicularis Th Fabaceae Medicago polymorpha Th Fabaceae Medicago radiata Th IT, Hyr IT, KhO, Hyr IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT Fabaceae Medicago rigidula Th IT Fabaceae Medicago sativa He Cosm Fabaceae Medicago scutellata Th IT Meliaceae Melia azedarach Ph Hyr, KhO Poaceae Melica ciliata He IT, Hyr Poaceae Melica jacquemontii Ge IT Poaceae Melica persica Ge Poaceae Melica uniflora Ge Fabaceae Melilotus albus He IT Hyr, IT, Ara IT, Hyr Fabaceae Melilotus indicus Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Melilotus officinalis He IT Lamiaceae Mentha aquatica Ge Hyr Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 97 Mentha longifolia Life form Ge Floristic region IT Lamiaceae Mentha pulegium He Hyr Lamiaceae Mentha spicata Ge Hyr, IT Euphorbiaceae Mercurialis perennis Ge Hyr Fabaceae Meristotropis xanthioides He IT Aizoaceae Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum Th KhO Caryophyllaceae Mesostemma kotschyanum He Poaceae Mespilus germanica Ph Campanulaceae Michauxia koeiana He IT Hyr, IT*, Zag, Ara IT, (End) Campanulaceae Michauxia laevigata He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Microcephala lamellata Th IT Boraginaceae Microparacaryum bungei Th IT Boraginaceae Microparacaryum intermedium Th IT Boraginaceae Microparacaryum salsum Th IT, (End) Poaceae Microtegium vimienum Th Hyr Poaceae Milium pedicellare Th IT Poaceae Milium vernale Th Hyr, IT Mimosaceae Mimosa hamata Ph KhO Mimosaceae Mimosa pudica Ph KhO Caryophyllaceae Minuartia hamata Th IT Caryophyllaceae Minuartia hybrida Th IT Caryophyllaceae Minuartia lineata He Hyr, IT Caryophyllaceae Minuartia meyeri Th IT Caryophyllaceae Minuartia picta Th IT, KhO Caryophyllaceae Minuartia subtilis Th Scrophulariaceae Misopates orontium Th Boraginaceae Moltkia coerulea Ge IT IT, KhO, Zag IT Boraginaceae Moltkiopsis ciliata He KhO Brassicaceae Moricandia sinaica Th, He KhO Family Plant species Lamiaceae 98 Moriera spinosa Life form Ch Floristic region IT Morinaceae Morina persica He Moraceae Morus alba Ph Moraceae Morus nigra Ph IT, Zag IT, Hyr, Ara Hyr, Ara Umbelliferae Muretia amplifolia Ge KhO Liliaceae Muscari caucasicum Ge IT Liliaceae Muscari neglectum Ge IT Liliaceae Muscari tenuiflorum Ge IT Boraginaceae Myosotis asiatica He IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Myosotis koelzii Th IT, (End) Boraginaceae Myosotis olympica He IT*, (End) Boraginaceae Myosotis propinqua Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Myosotis refracta Th IT Boraginaceae Myosotis sparsiflora Th IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Myosotis stricta Th IT Boraginaceae Myosotis sylvatica Ge IT, Hyr Tamaricaceae Myricaria germanica Ph IT*, Hyr Tamaricaceae Myricaria squamosa Ph Zag Halogaraceae Myriophyllum verticillatum Hyd Myrtaceae Myrtus communis Ph Arecaceae Nannorrhops ritchiana Ge Cosm IT*, Zag, KhO KhO Amaryllidaceae Narcissus tazetta Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Nardurus subulatus Th IT Brassicaceae Nasturtium officinale Hel Hyr, IT Rubiaceae Neogaillonia eriantha Ch IT Orchidaceae Neottia nidus-avis Ge Hyr Lamiaceae Nepeta bracteata Th IT Lamiaceae Nepeta cataria He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta crassifolia He IT, Hyr Family Plant species Brassicaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 99 Nepeta fissa Life form He Floristic region IT Lamiaceae Nepeta gloeocephala He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta glomerulosa He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta heliotropifolia He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta hymenodonta Th IT Lamiaceae Nepeta ispahanica Th IT Lamiaceae Nepeta kotschyi He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta oxyodonta He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta persica He IT Lamiaceae Nepeta pungens Th IT Lamiaceae Nepeta saccharata Th IT Lamiaceae Nepeta satureioides Th IT Lamiaceae Nepeta sintenisii He Apocynaceae Nerium indicum Ph Apocynaceae Nerium oleander Ph IT, Hyr IT, Zag, KhO KhO Brassicaceae Neslia apiculata Th IT, Hyr Rosaceae Neurada procumbens Th KhO Solanaceae Nicotina tabacum Th Cosm Ranunculaceae Nigella arvensis Th IT, Hyr Ranunculaceae Nigella integrifolia Th IT Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa Th IT Asteraceae Nikitinia leptoclada Ch IT Zygophyllaceae Nitraria komarovii Ph IT Zygophyllaceae Nitraria roborowskii Ph IT Zygophyllaceae Nitraria schoberi Ph IT Zygophyllaceae Nitraria sibirica Ph IT Chenopodiaceae Noaea mucronata Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Noea tournefortii Ch IT Boraginaceae Nonnea caspica Th Hyr, IT Boraginaceae Nonnea Lutea Th Hyr Family Plant species Lamiaceae 100 Nonnea persica Life form He Floristic region IT Boraginaceae Nonnea pulla He IT, Hyr Boraginaceae Nonnea rosea Th Hyr Boraginaceae Nonnea turcomanica Th IT Asteraceae Notobasis syriaca Th IT, KhO Brassicaceae Notoceras bicorne Th KhO Resedaceae Ochradenus aucheri Ch KhO Resedaceae Ochradenus baccatus Ph KhO Resedaceae Ochradenus ochradeni Ch IT Lamiaceae Ocimum basilicum Th IT, Hyr Oleaceae Olea aucheri Ph IT, KhO Oleaceae Olea europaea Ph Hyr Oleaceae Olea ferruginea Ph KhO Asteraceae Oligochaeta divaricata Th IT, Hyr Asteraceae Oligochaeta minima Th IT Resedaceae Oligomeris linifolia Th KhO Umbelliferae Oliveria decumbens Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Onobrychis altissima He IT Fabaceae Onobrychis aucheri Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Onobrychis bungei He IT, Hyr Fabaceae Onobrychis cornuta Ch IT* Fabaceae Onobrychis crista-galli Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Onobrychis gypsicola He IT Fabaceae Onobrychis khorassanica He IT Fabaceae Onobrychis mazanderanica He Hyr Fabaceae Onobrychis melanotricha He IT Fabaceae Onobrychis micrantha Th IT Fabaceae Onobrychis plantago Ge IT Fabaceae Onobrychis ptolemaica He IT Fabaceae Onobrychis sintenisii Ch IT Family Plant species Boraginaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 101 Family Plant species Fabaceae Onobrychis transcaspica Life form Ch Fabaceae Ononis reclinata Th Fabaceae Ononis spinosa Ch Floristic region IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT Asteraceae Onopordon acanthium He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Onopordon carmanicum He IT, KhO Asteraceae Onopordon heteracanthum He IT Asteraceae Onopordon leptolepis He IT Boraginaceae Onosma bodeanum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma bulbotrichum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma dasytrichum Ch IT Boraginaceae Onosma demawendicum Ge IT, (End) Boraginaceae Onosma dichroanthum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma elwendicum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma kotschyi He IT, (End) Boraginaceae Onosma longilobum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma microcarpum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma orientale He IT, KhO Boraginaceae Onosma rostellatum He IT, KhO Boraginaceae Onosma sericeum He IT Boraginaceae Onosma stenosiphon He IT Boraginaceae Onosma trachytrichum He IT Cryptogrammaceae Onychium melanolepis Ge KhO Ophioglossaceae Ophioglossum lusitanicum Ge Hyr Ophioglossaceae Ophioglossum vulgatum Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Ophrys apifera Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Ophrys sphegodes Ge Hyr, IT Poaceae Oplismenus undulatifolius He Hyr Orchidaceae Orchis caspia Ge Hyr Orchidaceae Orchis latifolia Ge Hyr, IT Orchidaceae Orchis mascula Ge Hyr, IT 102 Orchis palustris Life form Ge Floristic region IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare He Hyr, IT Liliaceae Ornithogalum arcuatum Ge IT, Zag Liliaceae Ornithogalum brachystachys Ge IT, KhO Liliaceae Ornithogalum cuspidatum Ge IT Liliaceae Ornithogalum persicum Ge IT Liliaceae Ornithogalum sintenisii Ge Hyr Liliaceae Ornithogalum tenuifolium Ge IT, Hyr Orobanchaceae Orobanche alba Th, He Hyr, IT Orobanchaceae Orobanche hirtiflora He IT Orobanchaceae Orobanche vulgaris He IT, Hyr Poaceae Oryzopsis holciformis He IT Poaceae Oryzopsis lateralis Ge IT Poaceae Oryzopsis molinioides He IT Lamiaceae Otostegia persica Ch IT, KhO Asteraceae Outreya carduiformis He Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata Ge IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO Oxalidaceae Oxalis sp. Ge Fabaceae Oxytropis heratensis He IT Fabaceae Oxytropis hirsutiuscula He IT Brassicaceae Pachypterygium multicaule Th Rhamnaceae Paliurus spina-christi Ph Asteraceae Pallenis spinosa Th IT Hyr, Zag, Ara IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Panderia turkestanica Th IT Poaceae Panicum antidotale Ge KhO Poaceae Panicum repens Ge KhO Poaceae Panicum turgidum He KhO Papaveraceae Papaver arenarium Th IT, Hyr Papaveraceae Papaver argemone Th IT Family Plant species Orchidaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 103 Papaver decaisnei Life form Th Floristic region IT, KhO Papaveraceae Papaver dubium Th Cosm Papaveraceae Papaver fugax Th, He IT Papaveraceae Papaver macrostomum Th IT Papaveraceae Papaver orientale He IT Papaveraceae Papaver pavoninum Th IT, Hyr Papaveraceae Papaver rhoeas Th IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum crista-galli He IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum intermedium Th IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum persicum He IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum rugulosum He IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum salsum Th IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum strictum He IT Boraginaceae Paracaryum turcomanicum He IT Poaceae Parapholis incurva Th IT, KhO Urticaceae Parietaria alsinifolia Th Urticaceae Parietaria judaica Ge Urticaceae Parietaria lusitanica Th IT, KhO Hyr, IT, Zag, KhO IT Urticaceae Parietaria officicalis Ge IT Caesalpiniaceae Parkinsonia aculeata Ph KhO Caryophyllaceae Paronychia arabica He, Th Caryophyllaceae Paronychia bungei He Caryophyllaceae Paronychia caespitosa He Caryophyllaceae Paronychia kurdica He Hamamelidaceae Parrotia persica Ph KhO IT, KhO, (End) IT, Zag, (End) IT, Zag, KhO Hyr Poaceae Paspalum dilatatum Ge Hyr Poaceae paspalum paspaloides Ge KhO Scrophulariaceae Pedicularis pycnantha He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Pedicularis rechingeri He IT, (End) Family Plant species Papaveraceae 104 Pedicularis sibthorpii Life form He Floristic region Hyr, IT Scrophulariaceae Pedicularis wilhelmsiana He IT Zygophyllaceae Peganum harmala He IT, KhO Brassicaceae Peltaria angustifolia Th IT, Zag Poaceae Pennisetum divisum Ge KhO Poaceae Pennisetum orientale Ge IT Asteraceae Pentanema divaricatum Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Pentanema multicaule He IT Asteraceae Pentanema pulicariifotme He IT Asclepiadaceae Pergularia tomentosa Ch KhO Asclepiadaceae Periploca aphylla Ch KhO Asclepiadaceae Periploca graeca Ph Hyr Lamiaceae Perovskia abrotanoides Ch Hyr, IT Lamiaceae Perovskia artemisioides Ch KhO, IT Lamiaceae Perovskia atriplicifolia Ch KhO Rosaceae Persica vulgaris Ph IT, Hyr Asteraceae Petasites hybridus Ge Hyr, IT Caryophyllaceae Petrorhagia cretica Th IT Caryophyllaceae Petrorhagia saxifrage He IT, Hyr Chenopodiaceae Petroselinum crispum He IT Chenopodiaceae Petrosimonia brachiata Th IT Asteraceae Phagnalon nitidum He IT, KhO Poaceae Phalaris arundinacae Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Phalaris minor Th IT Poaceae Phalaris paradoxa Th IT Fabaceae Phaseolus vulgaris Th IT Poaceae Phleum iranicum Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Phleum paniculatum Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Phleum phleoides He Hyr, IT Poaceae Phleum pratense He IT, Hyr Family Plant species Scrophulariaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 105 Family Plant species Life form Lamiaceae Phlomis anisodonta He Lamiaceae Phlomis aucheri He Floristic region IT, KhO, Zag IT Lamiaceae Phlomis bruguieri He IT Lamiaceae Phlomis cancellata He IT Lamiaceae Phlomis herba-venti He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Phlomis olivieri He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Phlomis persica He IT Lamiaceae Phlomis tuberosa He IT Palmaceae Phoenix dactylifera Ph KhO Poaceae Phragmites australis Ge IT Rubiaceae Phuopsis stylosa He Hyr Verbenaceae Phyla nodiflora Ge IT, KhO Aspleniaceae Phylitis scolopendrium Ge IT, Hyr Solanaceae Physalis alkekengi Ge Hyr Solanaceae Physalis divaricata Th KhO, IT Chenopodiaceae Physogeton occultus Th IT, (End) Brassicaceae Physoptychis gnaphalodes He IT Brassicaceae Physorhynchus chamaerapistrum Ch KhO Umbelliferae Physospermun cornubiense He IT Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana He Cosm Asteraceae Picnomon acarna Th, He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Picris strigosa He Cosm Umbelliferae Pimpinella affinis He Hyr, IT Umbelliferae Pimpinella aurea He IT Umbelliferae Pimpinella barbata Th IT, KhO Umbelliferae Pimpinella dichotoma Ge IT Umbelliferae Pimpinella eriocarpa Th IT, KhO Umbelliferae Pimpinella tragium Ge IT, Hyr Pinaceae Pinus eldarica Ph IT Pinaceae Pinus taeda Ph Hyr 106 Family Plant species Anacardiaceae Pistacia atlantica Life form Ph Anacardiaceae Pistacia cabulica Ph Anacardiaceae Pistacia khinjuk Ph Anacardiaceae Pistacia mutica Ph Anacardiaceae Pistacia vera Ph Floristic region IT* IT*, KhO, Zag IT*, Zag, KhO IT*, Zag, KhO, Ara IT* Fabaceae Pisum formosum He Hyr, IT Plantaginaceae Plantago atrata He Hyr, IT Plantaginaceae Plantago bellardi Th IT, KhO Plantaginaceae Plantago boissieri Th KhO Plantaginaceae Plantago cilliata Th, He KhO, IT Plantaginaceae Plantago coronopus Th, He IT Plantaginaceae Plantago evacina Th IT Plantaginaceae Plantago gentianoides He Plantaginaceae Plantago indica Th Plantaginaceae Plantago lagopus He, Th Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata He Plantaginaceae Plantago major He IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO Hyr, IT Plantaginaceae Plantago maritima He Plantaginaceae Plantago ovata He Plantaginaceae Plantago psyllium Th Plantaginaceae Plantago stocksii He IT IT, KhO, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT, KhO Plantaginaceae Plantago trichophylla Th, He KhO Orchidaceae Platanthera bifolia Ge Hyr Platanaceae Platanus orientalis Ph IT*, Zag Asteraceae Platychaete aucheri He IT, KhO Asteraceae Platychaete glaucescens Ch IT, KhO Asteraceae platychaete mucronifolia Ch KhO, IT Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 107 Platycladus orientalis Life form Ph Floristic region IT Plumbaginaceae Plumbago europaea He IT, Hyr Poaceae Poa annua Th Hyr Poaceae Poa araratica Ge IT Poaceae Poa bulbosa Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Poa nemoralis Ge Hyr, IT Poaceae Poa pratensis Ge IT, Hyr Poaceae Poa sinaica Ge IT Poaceae Poa trivialis Ge Hyr, IT Asteraceae Podospermum laciniatum He Caryophyllaceae Polycarpon tetraphyllum Th Polygalaceae Polygala anatolica He IT, Hyr Hyr, KhO, Zag IT, Hyr Polygalaceae Polygala erioptera He, Th KhO Polygalaceae Polygala platyptera He Hyr, (End) Asparagaceae Polygonatum orientale Ge Hyr, IT Polygonaceae Polygonum afghanicum He IT Polygonaceae Polygonum alpestre He IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Polygonum arenastrum Th IT Polygonaceae Polygonum argyrocoleon Th IT Polygonaceae Polygonum aridum He IT Polygonaceae Polygonum aviculare He, Th Cosm Polygonaceae Polygonum convolvulus Th IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Polygonum dumosum Ch IT Polygonaceae Polygonum hydropiper Th Hyr, IT Polygonaceae Polygonum hyrcanicum He, Th Hyr, IT Polygonaceae Polygonum lapathifolium Th Hyr, IT Polygonaceae Polygonum luzuloides He IT Polygonaceae Polygonum orientale Th IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Polygonum paranchioides He IT Polygonaceae Polygonum patulum Th IT Family Plant species Cuppressaceae 108 Polygonum persicaria Life form Th Floristic region IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Polygonum polycnemoides Th IT Polygonaceae Polygonum rottboellioides Th IT Polygonaceae Polygonum spinosom He IT Polygonaceae Polygonum thymifolium He IT Polypodiaceae Polypodium interjectum Ge Hyr Polypodiaceae Polypodium vulgare Ge Cosm Poaceae Polypogon fugax Th IT, KhO Poaceae Polypogon monspeliensis Th Cosm Aspisiaceae Polystichum aculeatum Ge Cosm Aspisiaceae Polystichum woronowii Ge Hyr Salicaceae Populus afghanica Ph Zag Salicaceae Populus alba Ph Salicaceae Populus caspica Ph Salicaceae Populus deltoids Ph Salicaceae Populus euphratica Ph Salicaceae Populus nigra Ph Portulacaceae Portulaca grandiflora Th IT* IT*, Hyr, Ara Hyr IT*, KhO, Zag IT*, Hyr, Ara KhO Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea Th, He KhO Asteraceae Postia puberula Ch IT, Zag Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton nodosus Hyd IT, Hyr Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton pectinatus Hyd IT, Hyr Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton perfoliatus Hyd KhO, Hyr Rosaceae Potentilla argentea He IT Rosaceae Potentilla canescens He IT, Hyr Rosaceae Potentilla crantzii He Hyr Rosaceae Potentilla lignosa He Hyr Rosaceae Potentilla micrantha Ge Hyr Rosaceae Potentilla nuda He IT, (End) Family Plant species Polygonaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 109 Potentilla persica Life form He Floristic region Zag, (End) Rosaceae Potentilla recta He IT, Hyr Rosaceae Potentilla reptens Ge IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Prangos acaulis He IT Umbelliferae Prangos feruiacea He IT Umbelliferae Prangos latiloba He IT Umbelliferae Prangos uloptera He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Prenanthes cacaliifolia He Hyr Primulaceae Primula acaulis He Hyr Primulaceae Primula auriculata He IT, Hyr Primulaceae Primula capitellata He IT Primulaceae Primula heterochroma He IT Mimosaceae Prosopis cineraria Ph KhO Mimosaceae Prosopis farcta Ph KhO, IT Mimosaceae Prosopis juliflora Ph KhO Mimosaceae Prosopis koelziana Ph KhO Mimosaceae Prosopis spicigera Ph KhO Mimosaceae Prosopis stephaniana Ph KhO, IT Lamiaceae Prunella vulgaris He Cosm Rosaceae Prunus arminiacae Ph Cosm Rosaceae Prunus avium Ph Rosaceae Prunus brachypetala Ph Rosaceae Prunus caspica Ph Rosaceae Prunus chorassanica Ph Rosaceae Prunus diffusa Ph Rosaceae Prunus divaricata Ph Rosaceae Prunus domestica Ph Hyr IT*, Ara, Zag IT*, Ara, Hyr, (End) IT* IT*, Hyr, Zag, (End) IT*, Zag, Hyr, Ara Hyr, Zag Rosaceae Prunus incana Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Prunus lycioides Ph IT, Zag Family Plant species Rosaceae 110 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region IT*, Ara, Zag IT*, Zag, Hyr, Ara IT*, Hyr Rosaceae Prunus mahaleb Ph Rosaceae Prunus microcarpa Ph Rosaceae Prunus pseudoprostratus Ph Rosaceae Prunus sp. Ph Rosaceae Prunus spinosa Ph Hyr, Ara Rosaceae Prunus tortuosa Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Prunus turcomanica Ph IT*, Hyr Umbelliferae Psammogeton canescense Th IT, KhO Poaceae Psathyrostachys fragilis Ge IT Asteraceae Psephellus leuzeoides Ch IT Brassicaceae Pseudocamelina camelinae Th, He IT Brassicaceae Pseudocamelina glaucophylla He IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Pseudocumelina campylopoda He IT Asteraceae Pseudohandelia umbellifera He IT Crassulaceae Pseudosedum multicaule He IT Myrtaceae Psidium guajava Ph KhO Fabaceae Psoralea aucheri Ph KhO Fabaceae Psoralea drupacea Ph IT Fagaceae Psoralea plicata Ch KhO Asteraceae Psychrogeton amorphoglossus Ge IT Asteraceae Psychrogeton obovatus He Paronychiaceae Pteranthus dichotomus Th Hypoleoidaceae Pteridium aquilinum Ge IT IT, Hyr, KhO Hyr Pteridaceae Pteris cretica Ge Hyr Juglandaceae Pterocarya fraxinifolia Ph Hyr Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus brevis Th KhO Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus canus He IT Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus gedrosiacus He IT Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus kurdicus He IT* Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 111 Pterocephalus melanobasis Life form He Floristic region IT Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus persicus He IT*, (End) Dipsacaceae Pterocephalus plumosus Th IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Pteropyrum aucheri Ph Ara, IT Polygonaceae Pteropyrum noeanum Ph KhO Polygonaceae Pteropyrum olivieri Ph IT Poaceae Puccinellia grossheimiana He Hyr, IT Asteraceae Pulicaria dysenterica Ge Hyr, IT Asteraceae Pulicaria gnaphalodes He IT, KhO Asteraceae Pulicaria salviifolia He Punicaceae Punica granatum Ph Umbelliferae Pycnocycla aucherana Ch IT Hyr, IT*, Ara, Zag, KhO IT, KhO Umbelliferae Pycnocycla caespitosa He IT Umbelliferae Pycnocycla flabellifolia He KhO Umbelliferae Pycnocycla nodiflora Ch IT, KhO Umbelliferae Pycnocyla spinosa Ch IT Rosaceae Pyracantha coccinea Ph Hyr Rosaceae Pyrus amygdaliformis Ph Rosaceae Pyrus boissieriana Ph Rosaceae Pyrus communis Ph Zag IT*, Hyr, Ara, Zag Hyr, Zag Rosaceae Pyrus elaeagnifolia Ph Ara Rosaceae Pyrus glabra Ph Zag, (End) Rosaceae Pyrus grossheimii Ph Hyr Rosaceae Pyrus hyrcana Ph Rosaceae Pyrus mazanderanica Ph Rosaceae Pyrus oxyprion Ph Hyr IT*, Hyr, (End) Ara Rosaceae Pyrus salicifolia Ph IT*, Ara Rosaceae Pyrus sp. Ph Family Plant species Dipsacaceae 112 Pyrus syriaca Life form Ph Floristic region Ara, Zag Fagaceae Quercus apiculata Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus atropatana Ph Hyr Fagaceae Quercus baneica Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus brantii Ph IT Fagaceae Quercus caduchorum Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus castaneifolia Ph Hyr Fagaceae Quercus cedrorum Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus globularis Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus hedjazii Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus iberica Ph Hyr Fagaceae Quercus infectoria Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus irregularis Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus komarovii Ph Ara Fagaceae Quercus libani Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus macranthera Ph Hyr, Ara Fagaceae Quercus magnosquamata Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus ophiosquamata Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus ovicarpa Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus persica Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus polynervata Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus saii Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus scalaridentata Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus squamulosa Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus subcordata Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus tregubovii Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus ungeri Ph Zag Fagaceae Quercus vesca Ph Zag Ranunculaceae Ranunculus arvensis Th IT, Hyr Ranunculaceae Ranunculus asiaticus Ge IT Family Plant species Rosaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 113 Ranunculus aucheri Life form Ge Floristic region IT Ranunculaceae Ranunculus eriorrhizus Ge IT Ranunculaceae Ranunculus macropodioides Ge IT Ranunculaceae Ranunculus muricatus Th IT Ranunculaceae Ranunculus trichophyllus Hyd IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Raphanus raphanistrum Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Rapistrum rugosum Th Hyr, IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria alternifolia Ch IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria cistoides Ch IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Reaumuria floyeri Th, He KhO Tamaricaceae Reaumuria fruticosa Ch, Ph IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria kermanensis Ch IT, (End) Tamaricaceae Reaumuria oxiana Ch IT, (End) Tamaricaceae Reaumuria persica Ch IT, (End) Tamaricaceae Reaumuria reflexa Ch IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria sogdiana Ch IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria squarrosa Ch IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria stocksii He, Th KhO, IT Tamaricaceae Reaumuria turcestanica Ch IT, Hyr Asteraceae Reichardia orientalis Th IT, KhO Resedaceae Reseda alba He, Th KhO Resedaceae Reseda aucheri Th, He IT, KhO Resedaceae Reseda buhseana He, Th IT Resedaceae Reseda bungei He Resedaceae Reseda lutea He, Th Resedaceae Reseda luteola He IT IT, Hyr, KhO, Zag IT Resedaceae Reseda macrobotrys Th, He IT Asteraceae Rhagadiolus stellatus Th IT, Hyr Rhamnaceae Rhammus elbursensis Ph Hyr Rhamnaceae Rhammus frangula Ph Hyr Family Plant species Ranunculaceae 114 Rhammus spathuliifolia Life form Ph Floristic region Hyr Rhamnaceae Rhamnus cathartica Ph Hyr, Ara Rhamnaceae Rhamnus cornifolia Ph Hyr, Zag Rhamnaceae Rhamnus escalerae Ph Zag Rhamnaceae Rhamnus grandifolia Ph Hyr Rhamnaceae Rhamnus iranica Ph IT*, Zag Rhamnaceae Rhamnus kurdica Ph Rhamnaceae Rhamnus pallasii Ph Rhamnaceae Rhamnus persica Ph Zag IT*, Hyr, Ara, Zag IT*, Zag Rhamnaceae Rhamnus sintenissi Ph IT* Rhamnaceae Rhamnus spathuliifolia Ph IT* Apocynaceae Rhazya stricta Ch KhO Polygonaceae Rheum ribes Ge IT Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Ph Anacardiaceae Rhus coriaria Ph Scrophulariaceae Rhynchocorys elephas Th KhO IT*, Zag, Hyr, Ara IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Rhynchocorys maxima Th IT, Hyr Grossulariaceae Ribes bieberstenii Ph Ara, Hyr Grossulariaceae Ribes grossularia Ph Hyr Grossulariaceae Ribes melananthum Ph Hyr, IT* Grossulariaceae Ribes orientale Ph IT*, Hyr Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis Th, Ph KhO Boraginaceae Rindera lanata He IT Brassicaceae Robeschia schimperi Th IT Boraginaceae Rochelia bungei Th IT Boraginaceae Rochelia cardiosepala Th Boraginaceae Rochelia disperma Th Boraginaceae Rochelia macrocalyx Th IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT Boraginaceae Rochelia persica He IT Family Plant species Rhamnaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 115 Roemeria hybrida Life form Th Floristic region IT, KhO Papaveraceae Roemeria refracta Th IT Rosaceae Rosa addida Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa albicans Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa anserinifolia Ph Zag, IT* Rosaceae Rosa asperrima Ph Zag, IT* Rosaceae Rosa aucheri Ph IT*, Hyr Rosaceae Rosa baggeriana Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa banksiae Ph IT Rosaceae Rosa beggeriana Ph IT, Hyr Rosaceae Rosa canica Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa centifolia Ph Zag Rosaceae Rosa damascena Ph Rosaceae Rosa dumetorum Ph Rosaceae Rosa elymaitica Ph Cosm IT*, Zag, Ara IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa foetida Ph IT Rosaceae Rosa gallica Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa guzarica Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa hemisphaerica Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa iberica Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa kotschyana Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa lutea Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa moschata Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa orientalis Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rosa persica Ge IT Rosaceae Rosa rechingeri Ph IT* Rosaceae Rosa spinosissima Ph IT* Crassulaceae Rostraria cristata Th IT Crassulaceae Rosularia elymaitica He IT Crassulaceae Rosularia paniculata He IT Family Plant species Papaveraceae 116 Rosularia sempervivum Life form Ge Floristic region Zag, IT Rubiaceae Rubia albicaulis Ph IT Rubiaceae Rubia florida Ch IT Rubiaceae Rubia tinctorum He Rosaceae Rubus anatolicus Ph Rosaceae Rubus astrae Ph Rosaceae Rubus caesius Ph Rosaceae Rubus fruticosus Ph IT IT*, Hyr, Zag, Ara Hyr, (End) Hyr, IT*, Zag Hyr Rosaceae Rubus hirtus Ph Hyr Rosaceae Rubus hyrcanus Ph Hyr Rosaceae Rubus karakalensis Ph IT*, Zag Rosaceae Rubus lanuginosus Ph Hyr Rosaceae Rubus ochthodes Ph Hyr Rosaceae Rubus persicus Ph Hyr, (End) Rosaceae Rubus raddeanus Ph Hyr Rosaceae Rubus sanctus Ph IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Rumex acetosa He IT Polygonaceae Rumex chalepensis He IT, Hyr Polygonaceae Rumex conglomeratus He Polygonaceae Rumex crispus He Polygonaceae Rumex dentatus Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, Zag IT Polygonaceae Rumex elbursensis He IT Polygonaceae Rumex scutatus Ge Hyr, IT Polygonaceae Rumex vesicarius Th KhO, IT Asparagaceae Ruscus hyrcanus Ph Hyr Poaceae Saccharum Ravennae Ge IT, KhO Rhamnaceae Sageretia laetevirens Ph Chenopodiaceae Salicornia europea Th Salicaceae Salix acmophylla Ph KhO IT, Hyr, KhO IT*, Hyr, Family Plant species Crassulaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 117 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region Zag Salicaceae Salix aegyptica Ph Salicaceae Salix alba Ph Salicaceae Salix babylonica Ph IT*, Hyr, Zag, Ara IT*, Hyr, Zag IT*, Hyr Salicaceae Salix caprea Ph Hyr Salicaceae Salix carmanica Ph IT* Salicaceae Salix daphnoides Ph Salicaceae salix elbursensis Ph Salicaceae Salix excelsa Ph Salicaceae salix pycnostachya Ph Hyr IT*, Zag, Hyr IT*, Zag, Hyr, Ara IT* Salicaceae salix songarica Ph IT* Salicaceae Salix sp. Ph Salicaceae Salix triandra Ph Salicaceae Salix wilhelmsiana Ph Salicaceae Salix zygostemon Ph Chenopodiaceae Salsola abarghuensis Ch IT*, Zag, Ara, Hyr IT*, Zag, Ara IT*, Zag, Hyr IT, (End) Chenopodiaceae Salsola aperta Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola arbuscula Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola arbusculiformis Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola aucheri Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola canescens Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola crassa Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola dendroides Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola drummondii Ch KhO Chenopodiaceae Salsola gemmascens Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola gossypina Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola imbricata Ch KhO 118 Salsola incanescens Life form Th Floristic region IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola jordanicola Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Salsola kali Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola kerneri Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola lachnantha Ch KhO Chenopodiaceae Salsola lanta Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola nitraria Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Salsola orientalis Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola praecox Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola richteri Ph IT Chenopodiaceae salsola rigida Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola sclerantha Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola tomentosa Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola turcomanica Th IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola vermiculata Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola verrucosa Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Salsola yazdiana Ch IT, (End) Salvadoraceae Salvadora oleoides Ph KhO Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica Ph KhO Lamiaceae Salvia aethiopis He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Salvia atropatana He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Salvia ceratophylla He IT Lamiaceae Salvia chloroleuca He IT Lamiaceae Salvia compressa He IT Lamiaceae Salvia eremophila Ch IT Lamiaceae Salvia glutinosa He Hyr Lamiaceae Salvia hydrangea He IT* Lamiaceae Salvia limbata He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Salvia macrosiphon Ch KhO Lamiaceae Salvia mirzayanii He IT Family Plant species Chenopodiaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 119 Salvia multicaulis Life form He Floristic region IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Salvia nemarosa Ge IT Lamiaceae Salvia palaestina He IT, KhO Lamiaceae Salvia reuterana He IT Lamiaceae Salvia rhytidea He IT Lamiaceae Salvia sclarea He IT Lamiaceae Salvia spinosa He IT Lamiaceae Salvia syriaca Ge IT Lamiaceae Salvia verticillata He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Salvia virgata He IT Lamiaceae Salvia viridis Th IT, Hyr Caprifoliaceae Sambucus ebulus Ge Hyr, IT Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra Ph Zag Brassicaceae Sameraria armena Th IT Brassicaceae Sameraria elegans Th IT Brassicaceae Sameraria stylophora Th IT Primulaceae Samolus valerandi He Cosm Rosaceae Sanguisorba minor He Hyr, IT Umbelliferae Sanicula europae He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Saponaria bodeana Th IT Caryophyllaceae Saponaria orientalis Th IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Satuerja laxiflora Th IT Lamiaceae Satureja bachtiarica He IT Brassicaceae Savignia parviflora Th IT, KhO Dipsacaceae Scabiosa argentea He IT Dipsacaceae Scabiosa calocephala Th IT Dipsacaceae Scabiosa deserticola Th IT Dipsacaceae Scabiosa flovida Th IT, (End) Dipsacaceae Scabiosa hyrcanica He Ara Dipsacaceae Scabiosa kermanensis He IT, (End) Family Plant species Lamiaceae 120 Scabiosa leucactis Life form Th Floristic region KhO, IT Dipsacaceae Scabiosa micrantha Th IT, Hyr Dipsacaceae Scabiosa oliveri Th IT Dipsacaceae Scabiosa persica Th IT Dipsacaceae Scabiosa rotata Th IT Umbelliferae Scaligeria allioides He IT Umbelliferae Scaligeria nodosa He IT Umbelliferae Scandix iberica Th IT Umbelliferae Scandix pecten-veneris Th IT, KhO Umbelliferae Scandix stellata Th Asteraceae Scariola orientalis Ch Brassicaceae Schimpera arabica Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT, KhO Asteraceae Schischkinia albispina Th IT Brassicaceae Schismus arabicus Th KhO Cyperaceae Schoenoplectus lacustris Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Schoenus nigricans Ge IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Schumannia karelinii Ge IT Plantaginaceae Schweinfurthia papilionacea Th, He IT, KhO Liliaceae Scilla autumnalis Ge KhO Liliaceae Scilla bisotunensis Ge IT Liliaceae Scilla persica Ge IT* Liliaceae Scilla sibirica Ge Hyr Cyperaceae Scirpoides holoschoenus Ge Cosm Cypraceae Scirpus lacustris He Hyr Caryophyllaceae Scleranthus orientalis Th, He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Sclerocephalus arabicus Th KhO Asteraceae Scolymus hispanicus Th KhO Fabaceae Scorpiurus muricatus Th Asteraceae Scorzonera calyculata He KhO IT, Hyr, Zag Family Plant species Dipsacaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 121 Scorzonera cana Life form He Floristic region IT Asteraceae Scorzonera cinera He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Scorzonera intricata He Asteraceae Scorzonera laciniata He Asteraceae Scorzonera leptophylla He IT, (End) IT, Hyr, Zag IT Asteraceae Scorzonera litwinowii He IT Asteraceae Scorzonera microcalathia He Asteraceae Scorzonera mucida He Asteraceae Scorzonera paradoxa He IT, (End) IT, Zag, (End) IT, KhO Asteraceae Scorzonera parviflora He IT Asteraceae Scorzonera phaeopappa He IT, Zag Asteraceae Scorzonera pusilla He IT Asteraceae Scorzonera raddeana He IT Asteraceae Scorzonera ramossima He Asteraceae Scorzonera rupicola He Asteraceae Scorzonera tortuosissima He IT, Zag IT, Zag, (End) IT, Zag Cyperaceae Scripoides holoschoenus Ge IT Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia azerbaijanica He IT Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia deserti He IT Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia frigida He IT, (End) Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia leucoclada Ch IT Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia nervosa He IT Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia pruinosa He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia striata He IT, KhO Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia umbrosa He Hyr, IT Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia variegata He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia vernalis He, Th Hyr, IT Lamiaceae Scutellaria albida He IT Lamiaceae Scutellaria multicaulis He IT Family Plant species Asteraceae 122 Scutellaria nepetifolia Life form He Floristic region IT Lamiaceae Scutellaria orientalis He IT Lamiaceae Scutellaria pinnatifida Ch IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Scutellaria tournefortii Ge Hyr Poaceae Secale cereale Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Secale montanum He IT Crassulaceae Sedum hispanicum Th, He IT, Hyr Crassulaceae Sedum lenkoranicum He Hyr Crassulaceae Sedum obtusifolium He IT Crassulaceae Sedum pallidum He, Th Hyr Crassulaceae Sedum pentapetalum Th IT Crassulaceae Sedum pilosum He Ara, Hyr Crassulaceae Sedum rubens Th IT, Hyr Crassulaceae Sedum spurium He Hyr Crassulaceae Sedum stoloniferum He Hyr Chenopodiaceae Seidlitzia cinerea Th IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Seidlitzia florida Th IT Chenopodiaceae Seidlitzia rosmarinus Ch IT, KhO Umbelliferae Semenovia suffruticose He IT Crassulaceae Sempervivum iranicum He Hyr, (End) Asteraceae Senecio cineraria He IT Asteraceae Senecio erucifolius Ch Hyr Asteraceae Senecio flavus Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Senecio galucus Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Senecio molis Ge IT Asteraceae Senecio othonnae He Hyr Asteraceae Senecio paucilobus He IT Asteraceae Senecio paulsenii Ge IT Asteraceae Senecio vernalis Th Hyr, IT Asteraceae Senecio vulgaris Th IT, Hyr Family Plant species Lamiaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 123 Serratula cerinthifolia Life form He Floristic region IT Asteraceae Serratula grandifolia He IT Asteraceae Serratula haussknechtii Ge IT, Hyr Asteraceae Serratula khuzistanica He KhO Asteraceae Serratula latifolia He IT Asteraceae Serratula quinquefolia He Hyr Fabaceae Sesbania aculeata Ph KhO Fabaceae Sesbania sesban Ph KhO Poaceae Setaria glauca Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Setaria viridis Th IT, Hyr Rubiaceae Sherardia arvensis Th IT, Hyr Rosaceae Sibbaldia parviflora He Hyr Lamiaceae Sideritis montana Th IT, Hyr Asteraceae Siebera nana Th IT Asteraceae Siegesbeckia orientalis Th IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene arabica Th KhO, IT Caryophyllaceae Silene aucheriana He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene bupleuroides Ge IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene chlorifolia He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene commelinifolia He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene coniflora Th IT Caryophyllaceae Silene conoidea Th IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene dichotoma Th, He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene goniocaula He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene gynodioica He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene latifolia Th, He IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene linearis Th IT, KhO Caryophyllaceae Silene marschallii He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene microphylla He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene odontopetala He IT, Hyr Family Plant species Asteraceae 124 Silene schafta Life form He Floristic region Hyr Caryophyllaceae Silene spergulifolia He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene stapfii He IT Caryophyllaceae Silene viscosa He Hyr, IT Asteraceae Silybum marianum He, Th Cosm Cucurbitaceae Sinapis alba Th IT, Hyr Cucurbitaceae Sinapis arvensis Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Sisymbrium altissimum Th Brassicaceae Sisymbrium irio Th Brassicaceae Sisymbrium loeselii Th, He Hyr, IT Hyr, IT, KhO Hyr, IT Brassicaceae Sisymbrium officinale Th IT, Hyr Liliaceae Smilax excelsa Ph Hyr Fabaceae Smirnova turkestana Ph IT Umbelliferae Smyrniopsis aucheri He IT Umbelliferae Smyrnium cordifolium He IT Solanaceae Solanum asiae-mediae Ge IT* Solanaceae Solanum dulcamara Ph Hyr, Zag Solanaceae Solanum incanum Ph KhO Solanaceae Solanum kieseritzkii Ge Hyr Solanaceae Solanum melongena Th IT Solanaceae Solanum nigrum Th Cosm Solanaceae Solanum olgae Th Solanaceae Solanum persicum Ph Solanaceae Solanum pseudocapsicum Ph IT Hyr, IT, Zag Hyr Solanaceae Solanum surattense Th KhO Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum Ge Boraginaceae Solenanthus circinathus He Boraginaceae Solenanthus stamineus He Asteraceae Solidago virga-aurea Th, He Cosm IT, Hyr, Zag IT, Hyr, Zag Hyr Family Plant species Caryophyllaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 125 Family Plant species Life form Asteraceae Sonchus asper Th, He Asteraceae Sonchus maritimus He Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus Th, He Fabaceae Sophora alopecuroides Ge Floristic region IT, KhO, Hyr IT IT, KhO, Hyr IT Fabaceae Sophora mollis Ph KhO, IT Fabaceae Sophora pachycarpa He IT Rosaceae Sorbus boissieri Ph Hyr, Ara Rosaceae Sorbus caucasica Ph Rosaceae Sorbus graeca Ph Rosaceae Sorbus luristanica Ph Rosaceae Sorbus orientalis Ph Rosaceae Sorbus persica Ph Rosaceae Sorbus torminalis Ph Ara IT*, Zag, Hyr, Ara IT*, Zag, (End) Hyr IT*, Zag, Hyr Hyr, Ara Poaceae Sorghum halepense Ge IT, Hyr Thyphaceae Sparganium erectum Hel IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Spergularia bocconii Th Caryophyllaceae Spergularia diandra Th Caryophyllaceae Spergularia marina Th, He Sphenocleaceae Sphenoclea zeylanica Hel Hyr, KhO IT, KhO, Hyr Hyr, IT, KhO KhO Chenopodiaceae Spinacia oleracea Th, He IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Spinacia turkestanica Th IT Rosaceae Spiraea anatolica Ph Hyr Rosaceae Spiraea brahuica Ph Rosaceae Spiraea crenata Ph Araceae Spirodela polyrhiza Hyd KhO IT*, Hyr, Ara Hyr Brassicaceae Spirorrhynchus sabulosus Th IT Lamiaceae Stachys acerosa He IT 126 Stachys benthamiana Life form He Floristic region IT Lamiaceae Stachys byzanthina He Hyr Lamiaceae Stachys Inflata He IT Lamiaceae Stachys kurdica He IT Lamiaceae Stachys lavandulifolia He IT, Zag Lamiaceae Stachys obtusicrena He IT Lamiaceae Stachys persica He Hyr Lamiaceae Stachys pilifera He IT Lamiaceae Stachys pubescens He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Stachys setifera Ge IT Lamiaceae Stachys spectabils He Lamiaceae Stachys sylvatica He Lamiaceae Stachys tomentosa He IT Hyr, IT, Ara IT Lamiaceae Stachys turcamanica Ge IT Caryophyllaceae Stellaria alsinoides Th IT Caryophyllaceae Stellaria holostea Ge IT, Hyr Caryophyllaceae Stellaria media Th Cosm Thymelaceae Stelleropsis antoniae Ch IT Thymelaceae Stelleropsis iranica He IT Asteraceae Steptorhamphus persicus He IT, KhO Asteraceae Steptorrhamphus tuberosus Ge IT, KhO Brassicaceae Sterigmostemum acanthocarpum Th, He IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Sterigmostemum longistylum Th, He IT Brassicaceae Sterigmostemum ramosissimum Th, He IT Brassicaceae Sterigmostemum sulphureum He, Th IT, KhO Orchidaceae Steveniella satyrioides Ge Hyr Poaceae Stipa arabica He IT Poaceae Stipa barbata He IT Poaceae Stipa capensis Th IT, KhO Poaceae Stipa hohenackeriana He IT Family Plant species Lamiaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 127 Stipa parviflora Life form He Floristic region IT Poaceae Stipagrostis paradisea He IT, KhO Poaceae Stipagrostis pennata Ge IT Poaceae Stipagrostis plumosa He IT, KhO Sapindaceae Stocksia brahuica Ph KhO Chenopodiaceae Suaeda acuminata Th IT Chenopodiaceae Suaeda aegyptiaca Th, He KhO Chenopodiaceae Suaeda altissima Th IT Chenopodiaceae Suaeda arcuata Th IT Chenopodiaceae Suaeda fruticosa Ch IT, KhO Chenopodiaceae Suaeda microphylla Ch IT Chenopodiaceae Suaeda microsperma Th IT Chenopodiaceae Suaeda vermiculata Ch IT, KhO Boraginaceae Symphytum kurdicum He IT Oleaceae Syringa persica Ph IT*, Ara Poaceae Taeniatherum crinitum Th IT, KhO Caesalpiniaceae Tamarindus indica Ph KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix altemifolia Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix androssowii Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla Ph IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix aralensis Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix aravensis Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix arceuthoides Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix aucheriana Ph KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix bachtiarica Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix deserti Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix dioica Ph IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix dubia Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix florida Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix galica Ph IT IT, KhO, Zag IT, KhO, Family Plant species Poaceae 128 Family Plant species Life form Floristic region Zag Tamaricaceae Tamarix hispida Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix hohenackeri Ph IT, Zag Tamaricaceae Tamarix indica Ph IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix ispahanica Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix karakalensis Ph IT, Hyr Tamaricaceae Tamarix karelini Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix korolkowii Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix kotschyi Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix laxa Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix leptopetala Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix macrocarpa Ph IT IT, KhO, Zag IT, KhO IT, KhO, Hyr IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix mascatensis Ph IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix meyeri Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix octandra Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix passerinoides Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix ramoissima Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix rosea Ph IT, KhO IT, Hyr, Zag, Ara IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix serotina Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix sp. Ph Tamaricaceae Tamarix stricta Ph IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix szowitsiana Ph IT Tamaricaceae Tamarix tetragyna Ph IT, KhO Tamaricaceae Tamarix tetrandra Ph IT Dioscoraceae Tamus communis Ge Hyr, IT Asteraceae Tanacetum canescens He IT Asteraceae Tanacetum chiliophyllum Ge IT Asteraceae Tanacetum coccineum He Hyr Asteraceae Tanacetum fruticolosum He IT Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 129 Tanacetum lingulatum Life form He Floristic region IT, (End) Asteraceae Tanacetum paradoxum He IT, (End) Asteraceae Tanacetum parthenium Ge IT, Hyr Asteraceae Tanacetum persicum He IT Asteraceae Tanacetum Pinnatum He IT Asteraceae Tanacetum polycephalum He IT Asteraceae Tanacetum turcomanicum He IT Asteraceae Tanacetum walteri He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum azerbaijanicum He IT, (End) Asteraceae Taraxacum baltistanicum He Asteraceae Taraxacum bessarabicum He Asteraceae Taraxacum brevirostre He IT, Ara Hyr, IT, Zag IT, Hyr Asteraceae Taraxacum calliops He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum hydrophilum He IT, (End) Asteraceae Taraxacum microcephaloides He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum monochlamydeum He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum montanum He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Taraxacum officinale He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum persicum He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum pseudo calocephalum He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Taraxacum roseum He IT Asteraceae Taraxacum syriacum He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Taraxacum wallichii He IT Brassicaceae Tauscheria lasiocarpa Th IT Fabaceae Taverniera glabra Ch KhO Fabaceae Taverniera nummularia Ch KhO Fabaceae Taverniera persica Ch KhO Fabaceae Taverniera spartea Ph KhO Taxacaea Taxus baccata Ph Hyr, Ara Bignoniaceae Tecomella undulata Ph KhO Family Plant species Asteraceae 130 Telephium eriglaucum Life form He Floristic region IT, (End) Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna Ph KhO Combretaceae Terminalia catappa Ph KhO Zygophyllaceae Tetradiclis tenella Th IT Poaceae Tetrapogon villosus Ge KhO Umbelliferae Tetrataenium lasiopetalum He IT Lamiaceae Teucrium chamaedrys He IT, Hyr Lamiaceae Teucrium hyrcanicum Ge Hyr Lamiaceae Teucrium orientale Ch IT, KhO Lamiaceae Teucrium polium He Cosm Lamiaceae Teucrium scordium Ge IT Ranunculaceae Thalictrum isopyroides He IT Ranunculaceae Thalictrum minus Ge IT Umbelliferae Thecocarpus meifolius He IT Asteraceae Thevenotia persica Th IT, Hyr Apocynaceae Thevetia neriifolia Brassicaceae Thlaspi arvense Th Brassicaceae Thlaspi perfoliatum Th Lamiaceae Thuspeinantha persica Th IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT Thymelaceae Thymelaea mesopotamica Th IT, KhO Lamiaceae Thymus caramanicus Ch IT Lamiaceae Thymus daenensis Ch IT Lamiaceae Thymus fallax Ch IT Lamiaceae Thymus kotschyanus Ch IT* Lamiaceae Thymus serpyllum Ch IT* Lamiaceae Thymus transcaspicus Ch IT Tiliaceae Tilia begonifolia Ph Hyr Tiliaceae Tilia caucasica Ph Hyr Tiliaceae Tilia dasystyla Ph Hyr Tiliaceae Tillia platyphyllos Ph Hyr, Ara Family Plant species Caryophyllaceae KhO Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 131 Tordylium persicum Life form Th Floristic region IT Umbelliferae Torilis arvensis Th Hyr, IT Umbelliferae Torilis leptophylla Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Torularia aculeolata Th IT Brassicaceae Torularia torulosa Th IT, KhO Boraginaceae Trachelanthus cerinthoides He Apocynaceae Trachomitum armenum Ch Apocynaceae Trachomitum sarmatiense Ch IT* IT, Hyr, Ara, Zag Hyr Apocynaceae Trachomitum scabrum Ch IT Apocynaceae Trachomitum venetum Ph IT, Hyr Umbelliferae Trachydium depressum He IT Poaceae Trachynia distachya Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Tragopogon bornmuelleri He IT Asteraceae Tragopogon buphthalmoides He Cosm Asteraceae Tragopogon capitatus He IT Asteraceae Tragopogon caricifolium He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Tragopogon collinus He IT, Hyr Asteraceae Tragopogon gaudanicus He Asteraceae Tragopogon graminifolius He Asteraceae Tragopogon Jezdianus He Asteraceae Tragopogon longirostris He Asteraceae Tragopogon montanus He Asteraceae Tragopogon reticulatus He IT IT, Hyr, Zag IT, Hyr, KhO, (End) Hyr, Zag, IT IT, Hyr, (End) Hyr, IT Asteraceae Tragopogon vaginatus He IT Asteraceae Tragopogon vvedenskyi He Poaceae Tragus racemosus Th Onograceae Trapa natans Hyd IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO Hyr Family Plant species Umbelliferae 132 Tribulus longipetalus Life form Th, He Floristic region IT, KhO Zygophyllaceae Tribulus macropterus Th, He IT, KhO Zygophyllaceae Tribulus ochroleucus He Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris Th, He Boraginaceae Trichodesma aucheri He IT Hyr, IT, KhO IT, (End) Boraginaceae Trichodesma incanum He IT* Boraginaceae Trichodesma stocksii He KhO Poaceae Tricholaena tenerriffae He KhO Cyperaceae Trichophorum pumilum Ge IT, Hyr Fabaceae Trifolium alexandrinum Th IT Fabaceae Trifolium ambiguum Ge IT Fabaceae Trifolium angustifolium Th Hyr Fabaceae Trifolium arvense Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Trifolium campestre Th Fabaceae Trifolium clusii Th Fabaceae Trifolium dasyurum Th Fabaceae Trifolium fragiferum He IT, Hyr IT, Hyr, KhO IT, Zag, KhO IT, Hyr Fabaceae Trifolium pratense He Hyr, IT Fabaceae Trifolium purpureum Th IT Fabaceae Trifolium radicosum Ge IT Fabaceae Trifolium repens He Hyr, IT Fabaceae Trifolium resupinatum He, Th Hyr Fabaceae Trifolium tumens Ge IT, Hyr Juncaginaceae Triglochin palustris Ge IT, Hyr Fabaceae Trigonella elliptica He IT Fabaceae Trigonella monantha Th IT Fabaceae Trigonella monspeliaca Th IT Fabaceae Trigonella spruneriana Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Trigonella stellata Th KhO, IT Family Plant species Zygophyllaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 133 Trigonella teheranica Life form He Floristic region IT Fabaceae Trigonella uncata Th IT, KhO Asteraceae Tripleurospermum decipiens He, Th IT Asteraceae Tripleurospermum disciforme He, Th IT, Hyr Poaceae Trisetum flavescens He IT, Hyr Liliaceae Tulipa biflora Ge IT, KhO Liliaceae Tulipa chrysantha Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Tulipa clusiana Ge IT, KhO Liliaceae Tulipa cuspidata Ge IT Liliaceae Tulipa lehmanniana Ge IT Liliaceae Tulipa micheliana Ge IT Liliaceae Tulipa montana Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Tulipa sp. Ge Liliaceae Tulipa systola Ge IT, Hyr Liliaceae Tulipa undulatifolia Ge IT Liliaceae Tulipa wilsoniana Ge IT Umbelliferae Turgenia latifolia Th IT, Hyr Brassicaceae Turritis glabra He Hyr, IT Asteraceae Tussilago farfara Ge IT, Hyr Typhaceae Typha angustifolia Ge IT Thyphaceae Typha australis Ge Hyr, IT Thyphaceae Typha grossheimii Ge IT Typhaceae Typha latifolia Ge Ulmaceae Ulmus carpinifolia Ph Ulmaceae Ulmus densa Ph Hyr Hyr, Ara, Zag IT Ulmaceae Ulmus elliptica Ph Hyr Ulmaceae Ulmus glabra Ph Hyr Ulmaceae Ulmus laevis Ph Hyr Ulmaceae Ulmus minor Ph Hyr, IT Ulmaceae Ulmus umbraculifera Ph IT Family Plant species Fabaceae 134 Family Plant species Life form Crassulaceae Umbilicus intermedius Ge Crassulaceae Umbilicus tropaeollifolius Ge Floristic region IT, KhO, Hyr IT Urginea maritima Ge IT, KhO Asteraceae Urospermum picroides Th Urticaceae Urtica dioica Ge Urticaceae Urtica pilulifera He, Th Urticaceae Urtica urens He, Th Caryophyllaceae Vaccaria grandiflora Th Cosm IT, Hyr, Zag, KhO IT, KhO, Hyr, Zag IT, KhO, Hyr, Zag IT Caryophyllaceae Vaccaria oxydonta Th Caryophyllaceae Vaccaria pyramidata Th Ericaceae Vaccinium arctostaphylos Ph IT IT, Hyr, KhO Hyr Valerianaceae Valeriana ficariifolia He IT Valerianaceae Valeriana sisymbrifolia Ge IT, Hyr Valerianaceae Valerianella amblyotis Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella cymbicarpa Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella dactylophylla Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella dufresnia Th IT, Hyr Valerianaceae Valerianella lasiocarpa Th IT, Hyr Valerianaceae Valerianella muricata Th IT, Hyr Valerianaceae Valerianella oxyrrhyncha Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella plagiostephana Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella platycarpa Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella szovitsiana Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella triplaris Th IT Valerianaceae Valerianella vesicaria Th IT Asteraceae Varthemia persica Ch IT Caryophyllaceae Velezia rigida Th IT Scrophulariaceae Verbascum agrimoniifolium He IT, Hyr Asparagaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 135 Verbascum alceoides Life form He Floristic region IT Scrophulariaceae Verbascum carduchorum He IT Scrophulariaceae Verbascum cheiranthifolium He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Verbascum disjectum He Scrophulariaceae Verbascum farsistanicum He Scrophulariaceae Verbascum intricatum He IT, (End) IT, KhO, (End) IT, (End) Scrophulariaceae Verbascum kochiforme He KhO Scrophulariaceae Verbascum phlomoides He IT Scrophulariaceae Verbascum pseudo-digitalis He IT Scrophulariaceae Verbascum sinuatum He IT Scrophulariaceae Verbascum songaricum He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Verbascum speciosum He IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus He IT, Hyr Verbenaceae Verbena officinalis He Hyr, IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica acrotheca IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica anagallis-aquatica Scrophulariaceae Veronica anagalloides He Ge, Hel Th Scrophulariaceae Veronica argute-serrata Th IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica arvensis Th Hyr, IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica beccabunga Ge IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica biloba Th IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica campylopoda Th IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica capillipes Th IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica ceratocarpa Th, He Hyr Scrophulariaceae Veronica crista-galli Th Hyr Scrophulariaceae Veronica francispetae Th Hyr, (End) Scrophulariaceae Veronica hederifolia Th Hyr, IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica hispidula Th IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica macropoda Th IT Family Plant species Scrophulariaceae IT, Hyr Hyr, IT 136 Veronica orientalis Life form He Floristic region IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica oxycarpa He IT Scrophulariaceae Veronica persica He, Th Cosm Scrophulariaceae Veronica polita Th IT, Hyr Scrophulariaceae Veronica rubrifolia Th IT* Caprifoliaceae Viburnum cotinifolium Ph KhO Caprifoliaceae Viburnum Lantana Ph Hyr, Ara Caprifoliaceae Viburnum opulus Ph Ara Fabaceae Vicia aintabensis Th Fabaceae Vicia amphicarpa Th Fabaceae Vicia angustifolia Th IT IT, Hyr, KhO IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia assyriaca Th IT Fabaceae Vicia ciceroidea He IT Fabaceae Vicia cracca He Hyr, IT Fabaceae Vicia crocea Ch Hyr Fabaceae Vicia ervilia Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia hirsuta Th Hyr Fabaceae Vicia hybrida Th IT Fabaceae Vicia michauxii Th IT Fabaceae Vicia monantha Th IT, KhO Fabaceae Vicia narbonensis Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia peregrina Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia sativa Th IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia subvillosa Ge IT Fabaceae Vicia tetrasperma Th Hyr, IT Fabaceae Vicia truncatula He IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia variabilis He IT, Hyr Fabaceae Vicia villosa Th IT, Hyr Apocynaceae Vinca herbacea He Hyr, IT Asclepiadaceae Vincetoxicum canescens He IT Family Plant species Scrophulariaceae Life Forms of Plant Species and Floristic Regions in Iran 137 Vincetoxicum pumilum Life form He Floristic region IT Asclepiadaceae Vincetoxicum scandens He Hyr Violaceae Viola alba Ge Hyr Violaceae Viola arvensis Th Hyr, Ara Violaceae Viola behboudiana Th, He KhO Violaceae Viola caspica Ge Hyr Violaceae Viola modesta Th IT Violaceae Viola occulta Th IT, Hyr Violaceae Viola odorata Ge Hyr, IT Violaceae Viola pachyrrhiza Ge Zag, IT* Violaceae Viola reichenbachiana He Hyr, IT Violaceae Viola riviniana Ge Hyr Violaceae Viola sieheana Ge Hyr Violaceae Viola sintenisii Ge Hyr Violaceae Viola stocksii Th KhO Violaceae Viola suavis Ge Hyr Violaceae Viola sylvestris He Hyr, IT Violaceae Viola tricolor Th, He Hyr Loranthaceae Viscum album Ph Hyr Verbenaceae Vitex angus-castus Ph IT Verbenaceae Vitex negundo Ph Verbenaceae Vitex pseudo-negundo Ph Vitaceae Vitis sylvestris Ph Vitaceae Vitis vinifera Ph KhO KhO, IT, Zag Hyr, Ara, Zag Hyr, IT Poaceae Vulpia myuros Th Hyr, IT Poaceae Vulpia persica Th IT Asteraceae Willemetia tuberosa Ge IT, Hyr Solanaceae Withania coagulans Ph KhO Solanaceae Withania somnifera Ph KhO Family Plant species Asclepiadaceae 138 Xanthium spinosum Life form Th Floristic region IT Asteraceae Xanthium stramarium Th IT Potamogetonaceae Zannichellia palustris Hyd Cosm Lamiaceae Zataria multiflora Ch IT*, KhO Ulmaceae Zelkova carpinifolia Ph Hyr Ulmaceae Zelkova hyrcana Ph Hyr Poaceae Zingeria trichopoda Th IT Lamiaceae Ziziphora capitata Th IT Lamiaceae Ziziphora clinopodioides Ch IT Lamiaceae Ziziphora tenuior Th IT Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Ph IT Rhamnaceae Ziziphus lotus Ph KhO Rhamnaceae Ziziphus nammularia Ph KhO, Zag Rhamnaceae Ziziphus officinarum Ph KhO Rhamnaceae Ziziphus oxyphylla Ph KhO Rhamnaceae Ziziphus spina-Christi Ph Zag, KhO Asteraceae Zoegea leptaurea Th IT, Zag Asteraceae Zoegea purpurea Th IT, KhO Umbelliferae Zosimia absinthifolia He IT Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum atriplicoides Ph IT, KhO Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum eurypterum Ph IT, KhO Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum fabago Ch IT Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum hamiense Ch KhO Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum megacarpum Ph IT Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum propinquum Ch KhO Zygophyllaceae Zygophyllum simplex Th KhO Family Plant species Asteraceae References 139 References Adamson, R. 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