PLANT SPECIES IN NATURA 2000
HABITATS IN GEORGIA
Maia Akhalkatsi
Tbilisi, 2019
0
PLANT SPECIES IN
NATURA 2000 HABITATS
IN GEORGIA
Maia Akhalkatsi
Editor: Guranda Gvaladze, Doctor of Biological Sciences,
Department of Plant Genetic Resources of Botany Institute, Ilia State
University;
Text editor: Levan Talmieria;
Photos Author: Prof. Doctor Maia Akhalkatsi;
Photo on the cover: the river Alazani below the village Shilda.
Grape Park and Seeds.
Publisher: Publisher of Plant Genetic Resources Division of Botany
Institute;
Address: Cholokashvili 3/5, Tbilisi, 0162, Georgia.
Tbilisi, 2019
1
Plant species of Natura 2000 Habitats in
Georgia
Maia Akhalkatsi
Published by Tbilisi
Coryright © 2019 Tbilisi
Natura 2000 habitats as conservation units are based on species composition
and plant community types including as well abiotic factors (EUR27).
Sampling is then confined within those boundaries. Ecologists based in
different countries, educated in different traditions, tend to view communities
differently: Europeans tend to see communities as distinct and discrete
entities. This book describes biodiversity of plant species for Natura 2000
habitats and the conservation opportunities of their different species of plants
in Georgia. Some species of plants are as crop wild relatives, endangereds,
endemics, edificatory, the economically potential species - recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants and other, indicators, umbrellas, invasives,
flagships and relict species. The plant species we have now as the use for
food, medical, decorative and protect these plants. The aim to develop habitat
classification in countries of European continent based on the standards of the
EUR27 version of the Interpretation Manual includes descriptions of new
habitats, which are characteristics to concrete countries. Natura 2000 - a
network of priority habitats identified in Georgia, but has not been approved
and has not developed a plan for their protection. Georgia is a country hosting
highly diverse habitat types. Georgia is a country hosting highly diverse
habitat types. Some of those are identical to the habitats, which are already
included in the Annex I of the Interpretation Manual v. EUR27. An author is
Prof. Dr. Maia Akhalkatsi, Botanical Institute, Ilia State University, Tbilisi,
Georgia.
2
Contents
1. Introduction 10
1.1.Biodiversity hot spots, rare, endemic and endangered species 14
1.2. Endangered species conservation status 15
1.3. Rare and endemic species 17
1.4. Violations of the hybrid zygote 19
1.5. Natura 2000 habitats of importance to Georgia 22
2. Coastal and halophytic habitats 24
2.1. Open sea and tidal areas 24
2.1.1. Sandbanks which are slightly covered by sea water all the
time 24
2.1.1.1. Indicator plant species, the brown algae, Cystoseira barbata
(Stackhouse) C. Agardh, Sargassaceae 25
2.1.2. Estuaries 26
2.1.2.1. Endemic plant species, Colchic water nut, Trapa colchica
Albov, Lythraceae 27
2.1.3. Coastal lagoons 29
2.1.3.1. Indicator species of plants, Sea Lettuce - Ulva rigida C.
Agardh, Ulmaceae 30
2.1.4. Large shallow inlets and bays 31
2.1.4.1. Invasive plant species red algaes - Ceramium rubrum C.
Agardh, Ceramiaceae 32
2.2. Sea cliffs and shingle or stony beaches 34
2.2.1. Code of Georgia: Vegetation of the Sea Cliffs 34
2.2.1.1. Endemic plant species: Blackberry - Rubus caucasicus
Focke, Rosaceae 34
2.3. Salt and gypsum inland steppes 36
2.3.1. Code of Georgia. Salt and gypsum inland vegetation 36
2.3.1.1. Invasive plant species in Adjara near Black Sea 37
3. Coastal sand dunes and inland dunes 39
3.1. Coastal sand dunes 39
3.1.1. Embryonic shifting dunes 39
3
3.1.1.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Blue Gel - Eryngium maritimum L., Apiaceae 40
3.1.2. Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (grey dunes)
42
3.1.2.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) plant species, Broad Vetch –
Vicia johannis Tamamsch., genus Vicia L., Fabaceae 43
3.1.3. Dunes with Hippophaë rhamnoides L. 45
3.1.3.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants,
Sea buckthorn - Hippophaë rhamnoides L., Elaeagnaceae 45
4. Freshwater habitats 49
4.1. Standing water 49
4.1.1. Code of Georgia: Natural lakes and ponds 49
4.1.1.1. Edificatory plant species, Spiraea - Spiraea hypericifolia L.,
Rosaceae 51
4.2. Running water 53
4.2.1. Alpine rivers and the herbaceous vegetation along their
banks 53
4.2.1.1. Endangered species the national and/or international
conservation status of the species Orchis coriophora L.,
Orchidaceae 53
4.2.2. Code of Georgia: Alpine rivers and their ligneous vegetation
56
4.2.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants Viola L., Violaceae 57
5. Scrubs 60
5.1. Temperate heath and scrub 60
5.1.1. Code of Georgia: Evergreen heaths of Kolkheti 60
5.1.1.1. Indicator plant species Greek Strawberry Tree - Arbutus
andrachne L., Ericaceae 61
5.1.2. Alpine and Boreal heaths 62
5.1.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Deka – Rhododendron caucasicum Pall., Ericaceae 64
5.2. Sclerophyllous scrub (Matorral) 65
5.2.1. Code of Georgia: Mountain xerophytic scrub 65
4
5.2.1.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Common barberry – Berberis vulgaris L., Berberidaceae 66
5.2.2. Code of Georgia: Scrub dominated by Paliurus spina-christi
Mill., Rhamnaceae 70
5.2.2.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) species Barbed Goatgrass Aegilops triuncialis L., Poaceae 71
5.2.3. Code of Georgia: Tragacanthic scrub 73
5.2.3.1. Edificatory plant species Allium L., Liliaceae 75
5.2.4. Code of Georgia: Phryganoidic scrub 77
5.2.4.1. Indicator plant species Ephedra L., Ephedraceae 78
5.2.5. Code of Georgia: Shibliak 79
5.2.5.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Wormwood - Artemisia L., Asteraceae 80
6. Natural and semi-natural grassland formations 83
6.1. Natural mountain grasslands 83
6.1.1. Code of Georgia: Sub-alpine tall herbaceous vegetation 83
6.1.1.1. Endangered plant species ragworts and groundsels Senecio L., Asteraceae 84
6.1.2. Code of Georgia: Subalpine meadows 85
6.1.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Colchis – Colchicum L., Colchicaceae 88
6.1.3. Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands 90
6.1.3.1. Endemic plant species Gentian - Gentiana L., Gentianaceae
92
6.1.4. Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands 94
6.1.4.1. Edificatory plant species Savin juniper - Juniperus L.,
Cupressaceae 95
6.2. Natural and semi-natural dry grasslands 100
6.2.1. Code of Georgia: semi-desert vegetation 100
6.2.1.1. Endemic plant species Yellow Star-of-Bethlehem - Gagea
Salisb., Liliaceae 102
6.2.2. Code of Georgia: Steppe Vegetation 103
6.2.2.1. Endemic and medicinal plant species Crocuses or croci Crocus L., Iridaceae 105
6.2.3. Code of Georgia: Mountain Steppe Vegetation 108
5
6.2.3.1. Endemic and medicinal plant species meadow anemone Pulsatilla Adans., Ranunculaceae 110
6.2.4. Code of Georgia: Vegetation of urban and rural areas 112
6.2.4.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) species Barley tribe - Aegilops
cylindrica Host., Poaceae 113
6.2.5. Code of Georgia: Vegetation of Pastures 117
6.2.5.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) species Oats - Avena L., Poaceae
119
7. Raised bogs and mires and fens 123
7.1. Meso-oligotrophic marshes with sphagnum - Sphagnum
palustre L. 123
7.1.1. Endemic plant species Ladies tresses - Spiranthes amoena L.,
Orchidaceae 125
7.2. Code of Georgia: Tall grass marshes 128
7.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Lesser Bulrush – Typha angustifolia L., Typhaceae 129
7.3. Code of Georgia: Low grass marshes 131
7.3.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
yellow flag – Iris pseudacorus L., Iridaceae 133
7.4. Code of Georgia: Tussock sedge wetlands 135
7.4.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
round-leaved sundew- Drosera rotundifolia L., Droseraceae
136
7.5. Code of Georgia: Short rhizome sedge marshes 138
7.5.1. Edificatory plant species yellow azalea - Rhododendron
luteum (L.) Sweet., Ericaceae 139
7.6. Code of Georgia: Long-rhizome sedge marshes 141
7.6.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
common rush - Juncus effusus L., Juncaceae 143
8. Rocky habitats and caves 145
8.1. Screes 145
8.1.1. Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels 145
8.1.1.1. Endemic and medicinal plant species Rusty Foxglove Digitalis ferruginea L., Scrophulariaceae 146
6
8.1.2. Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine
levels 147
8.1.2.1. Endemic plant species Scabious - Scabiosa L.,
Caprifoliaceae 148
8.2. Rocky vegetation 150
8.2.1. Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation 150
8.2.1.1. Endemic plant species Daphne - Daphne L., Thymelaeaceae
152
8.2.2. Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation 155
8.2.2.1. Endemic plant species Scorzonera L., Asteraceae 155
8.3. Other rocky habitats 157
8.3.1. Caves 157
8.3.1.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Helichrysum Mill., Asteraceae 157
8.3.2. Rock and true glaciers 159
8.3.2.1. Endemic plant species Whitlow- Draba L., Brassicaceae 159
9. Forests 161
9.1. Forests of temperate Europe 161
9.1.1. Code of Georgia: Luzulo-Fagetum beech forests Luzula
sylvatica (Huds.) Gaudin, Juncaceae 164
9.1.1.1. Flagship plsnt species mountain-ash - Sorbus aucuparia L.,
Rosaceae 165
9.1.2. Code of Georgia: Beech forests with Ilex and sometimes also
Taxus in the shrublayer (Fageta taxceto-ilicitosa) 169
9.1.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Briar Common - Rosa canina L., Rosaceae 170
9.1.3. Code of Georgia: Beech forests with the woodruff covers 174
9.1.3.1. Relict plant species Caucasian wild pear - Pyrus caucasica
Fed., Rosaceae 175
9.1.4. Code of Georgia: Subalpine beech forest with Acer
trautvetteri Medw. and Rumex arifolius All., Aceraceae 178
9.1.4.1. Edificatory plant species Trautvetter's Maple - Acer
trautvetteri Medw., Aceraceae 179
9.1.5. Code of Georgia: Limestone beech forests (CephalantheroFagion) 182
7
9.1.5.1. Relict plant species wild apple - Malus orientalis Uglitzk.,
Rosaceae 184
9.1.6. Code of Georgia: Beech forests with Colchic understory
(Fageta fruticosa colchica) 188
9.1.6.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Gentiana – Galanthus alpinus Sosn., Amaryllidaceae 193
9.1.7. Code of Georgia: Beech forests without understory (Fageta
sine fruticosa) 195
9.1.7.1. Endemic plant species Stone gooseberry - Ribes L.,
Grossulariaceae 199
9.2. Galio-Carpinetum oak-hornbeam forests 202
9.2.1. Code of Georgia: Oak or oak-hornbeam forests (Quercitum Carpinion betuli) 202
9.2.1.1. Flagship plant species Caucasian oak - Quercus
macranthera Fisch. & C.A.Mey. ex Hohen., Fagaceae 206
9.2.2. Code of Georgia: Hornbeam forest Carpinus L., Betulaceae
209
9.2.2.1. Relict plant species Carpinus L., Betulaceae 210
9.3. Forests of the slope, remains and the cleft 212
9.3.1. Code of Georgia: Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and
ravines 212
9.3.1.1. Endemic plant species Corylus - Corylus L., Betulaceae 215
9.3.2. Code of Georgia: Marsh forest and Bog woodland 218
9.3.2.1. Edificatory plant species Willow - Salix L., Salicaceae 219
9.3.3. Alluvial forest tree with Adler - Alnus Mill., Betulaceae 224
9.3.3.1. Edificator species and medicinal plants Sambucus L.,
Caprifoliaceae 226
9.3.4. Code of Georgia: Riparian mixed forests 230
9.3.4.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Althaea L., Malvaceae 232
9.3.5. Code of Georgia: Xero-thermophyte oak forest 235
9.3.5.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) plant species Lathyrus L.,
Fabaceae 235
9.4. Dark-coniferous forest 237
9.4.1. Code of Georgia: Dark-coniferous forest (Picea orientalis Abies nordmanniana) 237
9.4.1.1. Endemic plant species lily - Lilium L., Liliaceae 243
8
9.4.2. Code of Georgia: Caucasian Pine forest (Pinus kochiana) 245
9.4.2.1. Flagship plant species Caucasian pine - Pinus kochiana
Klotzsch ex K. Koch, Pinaceae 249
9.4.3. Code of Georgia: Bichvinta Pine Forest Pinus pithyusa
Steven, Pinaceae 253
9.4.3.1. Edificatory plant species Aspen - Populus tremula L.,
Salicaceae 255
9.4.4. Code of Georgia:Yew forest Taxus baccata L., Taxaceae 258
9.4.4.1. Flagship species: European yew - Taxus baccata L.,
Taxaceae 258
9.5. Mediterranean deciduous forests 262
9.5.1. Code of Georgia: Chestnut forest - Castanea sativa Mill.,
Fagaceae 262
9.5.1.1. Relict plant species Sweet chestnut - Castanea sativa Mill.,
Fagaceae 263
9.5.2. Code of Georgia: Zelkova forest - Zelkova carpinifolia
(Pall.) Dippal, Ulmaceae 264
9.5.2.1. Relict plant species Caucasian elm - Zelkova carpinifolia
(Pall.) Dippal, Ulmaceae 266
9.5.3. Code of Georgia: Forest with Boxwood - Buxus colchica
Pojark., Buxaceae 267
9.5.3.1. Relict plant species Boxwood - Buxus colchica Pojark.,
Buxaceae 268
9.5.4. Code of Georgia: Colchic relic broad-leaved mixed forest 269
9.5.4.1. Relict plant species Caucasian wingnut - Pterocarya
fraxinifolia (Poir.) Spach., Juglandaceae 272
9. 5.5. Code of Georgia: Arid open woodlands 274
9.5.5.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) plant species Aegilops tauschii
Coss., Poaceae 277
9.5.6. Code of Georgia: Sub-alpine birch krummholz Betula
litwinowii Doluch., Betulaceae 280
9.5.6.1. Edificatory species and madicinal plant Birch - Betula
litwinowii Doluch. - B. raddeana Trautv., Betulaceae 281
10. Habitat definition and classification 287
11. Analyses of habitat conservation strategy in Georgia 296
12. Natura 2000 network assessment in Georgia 297
References 303
9
1. INTRODUCTION
According to the Natura 2000 habitat as conservation units are
based on species composition and plant community types including as
well abiotic factors (EUR27). After determining the species
composition will be determined the dominant species or species that
determine the type of community. The dominant species name
identifies Community name. Before is using special terminology. For
example-Festucetum, etc. and Brometum etc., are now simply bring the
dominant species name Festuca supina's community.
Creation is of the national habitat list and approval of the priority
habitats. Selection of public is on interest habitats (SCI). Determination
is of specific habitats for conservation (SAC). Environmental
manipulation and management of land is in order to preserve the
species. To keep the plant species that has caused the animal species to
survive. Plant communities and plant cover change shall not affect the
food reduction. Landowner's interest is to preserve and develop natural
resources in order to maintain the environment of wild species. The
increase of plant and animal populations of wild species allows it to
extract natural resources in health care, for example. Food and
medicinal plant are collection and hunting animals. Protection of plant
and animal species for food and multiplication, for example, plants for
planting, seeding, disease protection, etc. Protection is of vegetation
cover, for example, soil erosion; reduce the influence of climate
change, vegetation replaced by those of recovery, etc.
Habitat conditions scientific study means assessment of their
diversity: Biodiversity hot spots, rare, endemic and endangered species.
Species phytosociological rate: density, frequency, percentage cover,
richness, Simpson, Shannon-Wiener indices; Evennes; Natural hazards
of habitat cause of species extinction and mutational changes. Habitat
threats cause damage of species to the reproductive and geographic
isolation. Global disasters cause species extinction to such: global
climate change is determined by the number of species sensitive to
changes in habitat. Human impact influences habitat damage. Habitat
degradation is connected to biodiversity loss factors as a result of the
reduction depends on the species. Habitat fragmentation affects
pollination between plant species and animal species restriction area.
10
Habitat loss depends on species extinction rates in the past and the
future of the likely range of speeds. Restoration of degraded habitat has
vegetational fluctuation impact on biodiversity: pioneer species
climax species.
A community is a group of populations that coexist in space and
time and interact directly or indirectly. The plant community is simply
all of the plants occupying an area which an ecologist has
circumscribed for study. Previous Terminology: Association – a
particular community type (e.g., oak hickory), found in many places
and with a specific species composition and physiognomy; Formation –
originally used to refer to a large regional climax community. In
practice, the boundaries of plant communities are usually defined
operationally (i.e., based upon the abundance of the most common
species). Sampling is then confined within those boundaries. Ecologists
based in different countries, educated in different traditions, tend to
view communities differently: Europeans tend to see communities as
distinct and discrete entities. North Americans tend to see communities
as entities that blend together continuously.
The primary issues surrounding the nature of plant communities
divide roughly into those of pattern and process. The issues of pattern
focus on how species and communities are distributed over the
landscape. Are boundaries abrupt or gradual? How predictable are the
patterns? The issues of process focus on what processes (e.g.,
competition, herbivory, history) actually function in natural
communities and which of these are most important in determining the
observed patterns. Do some processes predominate? Do processes vary
among communities? Are communities static or dynamic?
1. Communities structure is a population process;
2. Communities are sections of continuous gradients;
3. Communities show some directionality & predictability;
4. Communities are strongly influenced by historical effects;
5. Communities do not develop to a stable climax;
6. Communities are dynamic & influenced by disturbance.
It represents the natural environment in which there live organisms,
or the physical environment, which creates a species population in the
surrounding environment. Populations: Groups of similar individuals
who tend to mate with each other in a limited geographic area.
11
Habitat is an ecological or environmental area, with live plants or
other organisms of a particular species (Map 1).
Map 1. Plants are in Natura 2000 habitats in Europian areas. Georgia
has mountains with forests and alpine meadows.
This can be as simple as a field of flowers, which is separated from
another field by a hill or other area where none of these flowers occur.
Landscape comprises the visible features of the land, such as terrestrial
form, water reservoirs. Live cover is vegetation, urban elements and
types of land use, buildings and other structures. Ecotope is the most
ecologically diverse small space of the landscape classification system
and landscape mapping as it be displayed as a small stretch. It is used to
detect differences in landscape structure of the internal environmental
mapping process. It includes both biotic and abiotic factors: vegetation,
soils, hydrology, and etc. Ecoregion and the same bioregion is
ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than the
ecozone, but larger than an ecosystem. It covers the different
communities. Ecoregion is used for comparison of biodiversity with
other ecoregions (Akhalkatsi, Tarkhnishvili, 2012).
The earth contains atmosphere (air), lithosphere (earth),
hydrosphere (water), and biosphere (life). Biosphere: The sum of all
living things taken in conjunction with their environment. In essence is
12
life occurs, from the upper reaches of the atmosphere to the top few
meters of soil, to the bottoms of the oceans (Akhalkatsi, Kimeridze,
2017).
Ecosystem is with the relationships of smaller groups of organisms
with each other and their environment. Scientists often speak of the
interrelatedness of living things. Since, according to Darwin's theory,
organisms adapt to their environment, they must also adapt to other
organisms in that environment.We can discuss the flow of energy
through an ecosystem from photosynthetic autotrophs to herbivores to
carnivores. These two basic types of community contain eight smaller
units known as biomes. A biome is a large-scale category containing
many communities of a similar nature, whose distribution is largely
controlled by climate Terrestrial Biomes: tundra, grassland, desert,
taiga, temperate forest, tropical forest. The tundra and desert biomes
occupy the most extreme environments, with little or no moisture and
extremes of temperature acting as harsh selective agents on organisms
that occupy these areas. Tropical rain forests occur in regions near the
equator. The climate is always warm (between 20°C and 25°C) with
plenty of rainfall (at least 190 cm/year). The temperate forest biome
dominant plants include beech, maple, oak; and other deciduous
hardwood trees. The shrubland biome is dominated by shrubs with
small but thick evergreen leaves. Grasslands occur in temperate and
tropical areas with reduced rainfall. Deserts are characterized by dry
conditions. Aquatic Biomes: marine, freshwater. Conditions in water
are generally less harsh than those on land. Aquatic organisms are
buoyed by water support, and do not usually have to deal with
desiccation. Biotopes are a homogeneous environment of the area,
which creates a specific species of animal and plant associations. It is
synonymous with the term - "habitat", but the difference lies in the fact
that the habitat is based on the notion of the existence of the species or
populations, biological communities and biotopes, i.e. biological
creatures association (Nakhutsrishvili, 2013; Akhalkatsi, 2015a).
The classic explanation of the habitat is all the environmental
factors in one particular spot, to which the organism, species, or
community are normally adapted (Evans, 2010). According to the
Natura 2000 habitat as conservation units are based on species
composition and plant community types including as well abiotic
factors (EUR27).
13
According to EUNIS-'s habitat classification, habitat is a place
where plants and animals live in normal conditions, first of all, physical
properties, and on the other hand, according to the species composition
of plants and animals living there. EUNIS- habitats of protected areas
does not completely match determines the priority habitats.
Emerald Network of the Bern Convention for the protection of
endangered and endemic species listed in Appendices and damaged
habitat types. In 2009 made the following steps: (1) has been
determined by the method of GIS-17 ASCI's boundary data; (2) met
and agreed on a final list of 20 species of animals and plants; (3) has
been established and agreed habitats list: 1. Thorny “prigana”; 2. Tight
perennial herbaceous grassland and steppes of the middle Europe; 3.
The arctic alpine plants - Equisetum-Typha-Juncus slow moving water
of the river; 4. Salvinia-'s coverage; 5. Near the natural wetland
vegetation.
In 2010's revealed the ASCI's area - 596475.63 ha. The total of the
species of the number of species and habitats is as 15 habitats.
Specialist has to determine the conservation status of species in order to
protect them. To implement is conservation strategies for legislation to
protect habitats and species.
1.1. Biodiversity hot spots, rare, endemic and endangered species
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the date of its
adoption (1992), to carry out three main tasks: 1. Conservation of
biological diversity; 2. Sustainable use of its components; and 3. The
use of the genetic resources in a fair and equal distribution of income.
Biodiversity hotspots are defined in regions, where there is large
number of endemic species; suffer habitat degradation and the
extinction of species. The 25 biodiversity hotspots include 44% of
vascular plants, 35% of terrestrial vertebrate animals. The whole area is
1.4% of the Earth's surface.
Criteria for Plants:
1. Endangered species are the national and/or international conservation status of the species;
2. Endemic species are both Georgian and the Caucasian endemic;
3. Edificatory species are that have species a special role to
contribute in ecosystem structure;
14
4. The economically potential species are recreational, ornamental
and medicinal plants and other;
5. Indicator species are these species that respond quickly to any
changes in the environmental conditions and, therefore, their
responses indicate timely information about the state of the
ecosystem monitoring and management effectiveness evaluation;
6. Umbrella species are determines conservation of other species in
the habitat conditions where there are species communities and one
umbrella species will have a protection due to their conditions. E.
g. Pine is an umbrella species for squirrel;
7. Invasive species are most of the species in this category is
characterized by a fast "occupation" of new areas and the
development of a strong population, which often ends elimination
of local competitor species;
8. Flagship species are the concept of flagship species is a concept
with its genesis in the field of conservation biology. The flagship
species concept holds that by raising the profile of a particular
species, it can successfully leverage more support for biodiversity
conservation at large in a particular context (E. g. zelkova, yew,
oak, pistachio tree, etc.);
9. Relict species are a relict plant or animal is a taxon that persists as
a remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population.
Relictualism occurs when a widespread habitat or range changes
and a small area becomes cut off from the whole. They are of great
scientific importance of the knowledge of the history of the
establishment of vegetation.
1.2. Endangered species conservation status
The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria were first published in
1994 following six years of research and broad consultation. The 1994
IUCN Categories and Criteria were developed to improve objectivity
and transparency in assessing the conservation status of species, and
therefore to improve consistency and understanding among users. The
1994 categories and criteria were applied to a large number of species
in compiling the 1996 Red List of Threatened Animals. The assessment
of many species for the 1996 Red List drew attention to certain areas of
difficulty, which led IUCN to initiate a review of the 1994 categories
15
and criteria, which was undertaken during 1998 to 1999. This review
was completed and the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (version
3.1) was published (IUCN, 2001). The Red List Guidelines appeared in
2004 defining methods of determination of IUCN categories. In 2004
was published as "2004 IUCN”.
Red List of Threatened Species:
A Global Species Assessment:
1. Extinct (EX): A taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt
that the last individual has died;
2. Extinct in the WILD (EW): A taxon is extinct in the wild when it
is known only to survive in cultivation or as a naturalized
population well outside the past range;
3. Critically Endangered (CR): A taxon is Critically Endangered
when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the
criteria A to E for Critically Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild;
4. Endangered (EN): A taxon is endangered when the best available
evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for
Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild;
5. Vulnerable (VU): A taxon is vulnerable when the best available
evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for
vulnerable, and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild;
6. Near Threatened (NT): A taxon is Near Threatened when it has
been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to
qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the
near future;
7. Least Concern (LC): A taxon is Least Concern when it has been
evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened.
Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category;
8. Data Deficient (DD): A taxon is Data Deficient when there is
inadequate information to make a direct or indirect, assessment of
its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population
status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology
16
well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution
are lacking.
The five criteria are:
A. Declining population (past, present and/or projected);
B. Geographic range size, and fragmentation, decline or fluctuations;
C. Small population size and fragmentation, decline, or fluctuations;
D. Very small population or very restricted distribution;
E. Quantitative analysis of extinction risk (e.g., Population Viability
Analysis).
1.3. Rare and endemic species
Endemism is a special geographical location of the ecological situation,
where different environmental conditions and the type of habitat and
species endemic only in these habitats are common, where endemism
promote the physical, climatic and biological factors. Two definitions
are of endemism - palaeoendemism and neoendemism. Support stations
of paleoendemic species, which previously were widely distributed and
can be found in local small area. Neoendemic means of emerging
species, which has not spread widely and adapted only habitat of origin
(Akhalkatsi, 2002; Nakhutsrishvili, 2013).
Endemic species is growing in biologically isolated areas such as
islands, mountain valleys or water habitats, for example. Great is Lakes
environment. Endemic species are endangered or extinct where their
habitat is limited to the impact of the changes taking place not only
human, but to large-scale environmental changes (Grossheim,
Sosnovski, 1928; Takhtajian, 1986).
Geographical isolation will lead to the divergence of species, but
their meeting is allowed in case of reproductive breeding. Reproductive
isolation is expected among individuals with different genome, and the
phenological periods cause Pre-Separation of the zygote time, so the
postzygotic barriers (Sosnovski, 1933; Dolukhanov, 1989).
Endemic species that are geographically isolated from the similar
species and it might be reproduced from other endemic species which
will be introduced in the remote area of influence. Sympatric speciation
occurs when populations of a species that share the same habitat
become reproductively isolated from each other. This speciation
phenomenon most commonly occurs through polyploidy, in which an
17
offspring or group of offspring will be produced with twice the normal
number of chromosomes. Where a normal individual has two copies of
each chromosome (diploidy), these offspring may have four copies
(tetraploidy). A tetraploid individual cannot mate with a diploid
individual, creating reproductive isolation. Allopatric speciation, the
most common form of speciation, occurs when populations of a species
become geographically isolated. When populations become separated,
gene flow between them ceases. Over time, the populations may
become genetically different in response to the natural selection
imposed by their different environments. If the populations are
relatively small, they may experience a founder effect: the populations
may have contained different allelic frequencies when they were
separated. Selection and genetic drift will act differently on these two
different genetic backgrounds, creating genetic differences between the
two new species. Parapatric speciation is extremely rare. It occurs when
populations are separated not by a geographical barrier, such as a body
of water, but by an extreme change in habitat. While populations in
these areas may interbreed, they often develop distinct characteristics
and lifestyles. Reproductive isolation in these cases is not geographic
but rather temporal or behavioral. For example, plants that live on
boundaries between very distinct climates may flower at different times
in response to their different environments, making them unable to
interbreed (Solomon et al., 2013).
Self-incompatibility, a genetic barrier to inbreeding in higher
plants, represents a distinct case of cell-cell interaction that is amenable
to molecular dissection. The essence of this barrier is the abilitymediated by the S, or self-incompatibility locus to discriminate self
pollen from non-self pollen. Pollen tubes expressing S-allele recognition specificity identical to that expressed in the style cease growth in the
upper third of the style, whereas pollen tubes lacking S-alleles in common with the style grow normally and effect fertilization. According to
current models of gametophytic self-incompatibility, pollen tubes expressing (presumed) S-linked proteins are recognized as inco-mepatible
by stylar-expressed S-alleles (Akhalkatsi, Kimeridze, 2016).
Cytoplasmic male sterility is inherited from the mother plant defect
grains of dust is generated, which causes the mitochondrial DNA of
new genes involved, which leads to the dysfunction of energy occurs
and leads to male sterility. Such individuals produce offspring hybrids.
18
1.4. Violations of the hybrid zygote
Habitat degradation is the process that leads to loss of function of the
natural habitat and species adapted to cause problems for him. During
this process, organisms that lived up to experience the quantitative
reduction and habitat damage or leave the area, or their extinction,
which results in reduction of biodiversity (Akhalkatsi, 2015a).
Deforestation is as road and pipelines creation, excessive grazing,
wetland drainage, fires, air, soil and water pollution, radiation
exposure, oil production, the invasion of alien species and so forth.
Habitat is drastic change depending on the human's living environment
and agriculture. Habitat division and geographic isolation prevents the
connection between species due to isolation zone. The procedure must
be carried out in order to preserve the natural habitat of many ecosystem services:
1. Must be preserved intact habitat sites;
2. Education of natural habitats and biodiversity importance;
3. The family planning program in the fast-growing population in the
regions;
4. Agricultural products crop growing program;
5. Look for consistency and to restore habitat corridors of fragmented
habitats;
6. Determination of the settlement of the human population (urban)
places.
Vegetation change is possible, subject only to the dominance of
particular species, or vitality and, therefore, can not exert a significant
change in the overall structure of the vegetation. But when the number
of species extinction occurs and the spread of other species retrieve a
specific host, this amendment is substantial in terms of population
biology and is considered as replaced by succession process.
Succession defined as a change of species within the community, which
may be the cause of the plant (endogenous factor), or negative impacts
on the environment factors (exogenous factor).
In the first case, change the location of vegetation changes in the
community where the species will be better adapted to the environment.
In the second case, it is possible to completely change the vegetation
cover and anthropogenic impacts and occur is new types of community
disasters. Endogenous succession (phytogenic or autogenic succession)
19
is due to changes in vegetation communities in the invasion of new
species and a wide distribution. Or, on the whereabouts of the changes
is such as. The humus layer change in soil erosion, or microclimate
(Akhalkatsi, 2015a; Akhalkatsi, Kimeridze, 2016).
Endogenous succession is growing and progressive. Exogenous
succession (xenogenic or allogenic succession) is due to a natural
disaster, or as a result of anthropogenic impact factors. It is possible to
be both progressive and regressive, or declining. Endo-exogenous
succession is the mixed type of an impact on him, both endogenous and
exogenous factors. This type of climatic and natural factors considered
edaphic factors and periodic fires. Anthropogenic factors of importance
for the mixed grazing, mowing fertilization, irrigation, landscaping and
so forth (Dierschke, 1994).
Primary progressive succession of the disaster resulting is from the
empty grounds and community resettlement process plants. Secondary
succession of the rapid change is in the community, which basically
means to restore the land to its previous Seed Bank communities,
which will be caused by changes in the environment for some.
Regressive succession means a significant loss of vegetation or
negative impact in light of the disaster, when a complex community of
species richness was significantly reduced. Cyclic secondary
progressive and regressive succession of succession repeated changes
when there is a recurring disaster, for example. Periodic fires, storms,
forest clear cutting, parasites epidemic, forest extinction, and so forth.
Digressive succession occurs within the complex structure of the
vegetation, the vegetation type is not changed, but there is a
regeneration of the affected area, for example. Cut sections of forest,
ground water resulting from changes in vegetation change and so forth.
It belongs to the secondary succession (Akhalkatsi, Kimeridze, 2017).
Microsuccession, when the process is limited by the development
of the communities, for example, some on tree in the forest. Logical
succession, when there is a blank space to be filled by vegetation;
Regional succession, which occupies a large area, landscape
succession. Current succession is continued for lasts several years;
Long century’s succession includes historical periods. The first stage of
the pioneering community has begins replaced by those of the series. It
is characterized by a combination of species and the number of drastic
changes in a short time. Logical community’s vegetation type
20
resembles the pioneer communities, but the species composition of a
strong and sustained time. The dynamics of the series, the last step is
replaced by those who have a relatively stable biological equilibrium of
the environment. There are long-menopausal and communities. The
final step for menopausal community is balanced with microclimatic
region, for example. Forest is communities. It forms zonal vegetation.
The final step is in the long communities, which are more or less stable
equilibrium with its environment and adapted to any particular extreme
factors. For example are saline soils, arid climate, wet meadows and
others. Secondary recovery process is model developed by beech forest
meadow (Galio-odorati Fagetum) on the example of Central Europe
(Dierschke, 1988).
Similar changes is in the cultural landscape is associated and
artificial regeneration of the forest. The structure of the forest is in 2550 years, the achievement of the optimum phase is in 120-170 years
(Map 2).
A
B
Map 2. A - Beech forest meadow is in Georgia. In Eastern Georgia it is
found from 300-400 to 2250 meters a.s.l. B – Beech forest has mainly
one species of Fagus orientalis.
21
On the first herbal-pioneer stage (4-5 years), characteristic of the
forest, but many species have appeared and quickly grew only light
amateur. The second stage - blueberry and raspberry bushes (3-4 years)
in the form of a pea. Primary forest stages encountered 10 meters of
trees, shrubs and grasses light amateur, who dominated the forest
grasses. Georgia coniferous forests describe the change of the birch,
poplar and birch-poplar Trialeti ridge. The river is Tedzami, Tana, and
Nedzvi Algeti. Northern Exposure slopes (Nakhutsrishvili, 2013).
Similar changes are more like digressive succession, when a cover of
vegetation within the change occurs. This time there is a rise in social
progress and not vegetation or regression. You can not change and only
in species composition of vegetation changes (Ellenberg, 1979).
1.5. Natura 2000 habitats of importance to Georgia
Georgia signed the CBD in 1994. The state program to assess the
biodiversity in the country was started in 1996. The assessment was
done by the local Environmental NGO - Noah‘s Ark Centre for the
Recovery of Endangered Species ―NACRES, in partnership with the
MoE and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). NBSAP
was launched since 1998. The process was supported by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF) and coordinated by the MoE and three
national NGOs - NACRES, the Georgian Protected Areas Programme
(GPAP), and The Centre for Sustainable Use of Forest Resources
(Akhalkatsi, Tarkhnishvili, 2012).
The strategic plan to maintain and restore Georgia‘s species,
habitats and genetic diversity was based on methodology of in situ and
ex situ conservations and through sustainable use of biological
resources, which is a right way for maintenance of biodiversity.
However, the problem is ignorance of habitat type classification to be
necessary for determination of priority and sensitive habitats, which
should be protected as pilot areas. The establishment of special areas
for conservation (SAC) should be associated with sensitive habitats.
The classification and creation of the list of Georgian habitats
(Akhalkatsi, 2010; Akhalkatsi, Tarkhnishvili, 2012) based on the
directives of Natura 2000 (92/43/EEC and 79/409/EEC) and
Interpretation manual (EUR27) was made in 2010 in the framework of
the GIZ project - Sustainable Management of Biodiversity, South
22
Caucasus and revised in 2012. The description of each habitat types is
composed by sections: 1) General description of distribution area and
environmental conditions; 2) Species of plants and animals including
dominant, rare and endemic species; 3) Corresponding categories in
other countries of Europe; 4) Associated habitats, which occupy
adjacent territories; 5) Bibliography. Habitat names are presented
(Table 1).
Table 1. Natura 2000 habitat names in Georgia.
N
Natura 2000 habitats
1
2
3
4
5
6
Coastal and halophytic habitats
Coastal sand dunes and inland dunes
Freshwater habitats
Temperate heath and scrub
Sclerophyllous scrub (Matorral)
Natural and semi-natural grassland
formations
Raised bogs and mires and fens
Rocky habitats and caves
Forests
7
8
9
Number of
habitat types
10
3
5
2
5
11
6
9
27
The total number of natural, rural and urban habitats of Georgia is
65. Among them only 21 habitat types are identical to listed in Annex I
of Directive 92/43/EEC, 44 different habitat types are present in
Georgia, and 25 are priority types. The syntaxonomic list of the
vegetation units Georgia is 147 with 66 sub-types of forest habitats.
Natura 2000 habitats defined in 2012 (Akhalkatsi, Tarkhnishvili,
2012).
The priority habitats ensure the conservation of vulnerable areas
such as marine, terrestrial and freshwater habitats, wetlands,
floodplains and forests with relic and endemic umbrella species
including arid open woodlands, Colchic mixed and subalpine birch
forests, etc., which in turn helps to safeguard the animals and plants
needed these places to survive. A diverse range of priority habitats
should be protected, including as well meadows, estuaries and cave
systems and this benefits a huge variety of wildlife species throughout
23
the Georgia. It is not only natural habitat types, but also semi-natural
ones, which depend on management of humans (e.g. certain types of
grasslands, urban and rural habitats). Habitat types recorded in Georgia
is essential for the sake of vegetation mapping and nature conservation.
2. COASTAL AND HALOPHYTIC HABITATS
2.1. Open sea and tidal areas
2.1.1. Sandbanks which are slightly covered by sea water all the
time (1110; PAL. CLASS.: 11.125, 11.22, 11.31, 11.333)
Sandbanks which are slightly covered by sea water all the time are with
Palearctic Classification in Black sea areas. “Slightly covered by sea
water all the time” means that above a sandbank the water depth is
seldom more than 20 m below chart datum. Sandbanks are elevated,
elongated, rounded or irregular topographic features, permanently
submerged and predominantly surrounded by deeper water. They
consist mainly of sandy sediments, but larger grain sizes, including
boulders and cobbles, or smaller grain sizes including mud may also be
present on a sandbank. Banks where sandy sediments occur in a layer
over hard substrata are classed as sandbanks if the associated biota are
dependent on the sand rather than on the underlying hard substrata. The
Black sea coast sandy-stone strip starts from Abkhazia and ends in
Guria-Ajara. Biotic elements are mainly represented by algae,
invertebrate sea animals and plankton. Temporary visitors also include
sea mammals, such as, a dolphin, fish and sea birds.
Plant species: Phytoplankton - diatoms are more widely
represented. The following of them species are mass distributed:
Nitzschia longissima, N. seriata, Rhizosolenia alata, R. calcar-avis, and
Thalassiosira parva. Green algae: Chaetomorpha linum, C. aerea, C.
crassa, Cladophora cristallina, C. dalmatica, C. laetevirens,
Enteromorpha intestinalis, E. linza, E. prolifera, Ulva rigida, Urospora
penicilliformis, etc. Brown algae: Cystoseira barbata; Red algae:
Bangia fuscopurpurea, Ceramium rubrum and Callithamnion
corymbosum.
Plants: Bangia fuscopurpurea, Callithamnion corymbosum,
Ceramium rubrum, Chaetomorpha linum, C. aerea, C. crassa,
24
Cladophora cristallina, C. dalmatica, C. laetevirens, Cystoseira
barbata, Enteromorpha intestinalis, E. linza, E. prolifera, Nitzschia
longissima, N. seriata, Rhizosolenia alata, R. calcar-avis, Thalassiosira
parva, Ulva rigida, Urospora penicilliformis.
2.1.1.1. Indicator plant species, the brown algae, Cystoseira barbata
(Stackhouse) C. Agardh, Sargassaceae
The thallus is 15-20 cm tall-each branch ends with a conic foot
(sole) in most cases the basement branches are joined together in a
common base. The stem is narrow enough, 3-5 mm thick, cylindrical,
the final side is smooth and unequal. The main branches are
alternatively or chaotically branched from the stem, very long,
cylindrical shape, plenty of small branches whose number gradually
decreases, leaving a few singular cylindrical small branches, much
shorter than the initial ones (Milkova et al., 1997).
The receptacles are spare-shaded or cylindrical 0.2-1 cm long,
strongly stressed on the scaphidia surface and with phyliphorm sterile
tops. Gathered in dense instalments on the lateral surface of the
branches: often in the receptacles the (air) bladders are metamorphozed
and are distributed close the top branches (Bologa, 1979).
Brown algae are in World level in Black Sea Region level. It is as EN. Perennial; fond of light; the reproduction occurs at a depth of 0.5-5
m. Almost is disappeared. On the Romanian littoral, in the southern
zone Tuzla-Vama Vech, the biomass of Cystoseira has decreased from
5400 t fresh weights in 1971 to 755 t in 1973 and 120 t in 1979. The
first destructive came from the freezing of the sea water during the
1971/1972 winter when shifting floating ice destroyed about 80% of
the stock of Cystoseira reaching 900 t in 1972. Currently are only
isolated tufts (Ozdemir et al., 2006).
There are hard frosts, hydrotechnical construction, silting of the
rocky bottom by suspended matter, lowering of light energy penetration
through the water column by increased turbidity and eutrophication.
Rocky bottoms on pebbly grounds in sublittoral areas at 0.5-10 m
depths. Present also in the Azov and Mediterranean Seas. Species are
belonging to inferior northern area. Suspended particles are diminution
of light penetration. Reduce eutrophication and pollution from point
and non-point sources; declaration and protection of the southern sector
25
of the Romanian littoral (May 2-Vama Veche) as a natural submarine
park.
The small branches are uniformly distributed along the main
branches or come together as brooms nearest their tops. In winter and
spring there are many bladders on branches. Cystoseira are numerous
on the surface of the branches and bladders (Figure 1).
A
B
Figure 1. A. Black Sea in Adjara near the Turkey with the algae
species; B. Cystoseira barbata is indicator algae species in Blach Sea.
Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
2.1.2. Estuaries (1130; PAL. CLASS.: 13.2, 11.2)
Downstream part of a river valley, subject to the tide and extending
from the limit of brackish waters. River estuaries are coastal inlets
where, unlike 'large shallow inlets and bays' there is generally a
substantial freshwater influence. The mixing of freshwater and sea
water and the reduced current flows in the shelter of the estuary lead to
deposition of fine sediments, often forming extensive intertidal sand
and mud flats. Where the tidal has current end are faster as than flood
tides, most sediments deposit to form a delta at the mouth of the
estuary. River Rioni creates the largest estuary. Estuaries of rivers
Chorokhi and Enguri are outstanding as well. All other rivers join the
Black Sea in the form of a more narrow line.
There are duckweed (Lemna minor), Spirodela (Spirodela
polyrhiza), floating fern (Salvinia natans), nicely blooming frog-bit
26
(Hydrocharis morsus-ranae) in standing waters of river Khobi estuary
as well as water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), small leaf and broad
leaf water vine (Potamogeton crispus, P. natans, P. perfoliatus, P.
pusillus), water lily (Nymphaea candida), yellow water lily (Nuphar
luteum), water chestnut (Trapa colchica), vegetation of seaside sandy
dunes - Euphorbia peplis, Cakile maritima, Salsola tragus, Eringium
maritimum, etc.
Plant species: Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza, Salvinia natans,
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae, Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton
pusillus, P. natans, P. crispus, P. perfoliatus, Nymphaea candida,
Nuphar luteum, Trapa colchica, Zostera spp., Chara spp., Eleocharis
spp., Euphorbia peplis, Cakile maritima, Salsola tragus, Eringium
maritimum.
2.1.2.1. Endemic plant species, Colchic water nut, Trapa colchica
Albov, Lythraceae
Endemic species - both Georgian and the Caucasian endemic; Colchic
water-nut -Trapa colchica Albov (=Trapa natans L.) - Vulnerable
(VU), VUA1a4+B1b (i, ii) c (i, ii); Water up to 60 cm deep. It is in
flower from Jun to July. The flowers are hermaphrodite. Suitable for:
light, medium and heavy soils. Suitable pH: acid and neutral soils. It
cannot grow in the shade. It can grow in water (Figure 2).
A
B
Figure 2. A. Estuaries are in river valley near Black Sea and it has
water plants; B. Trapa colchica is endemic species Georgian and the
Caucasian. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Trapa colchica is a rare species of water chestnut recorded at four
locations on wetland areas of Abkhazeti, Samegrelo, Guria and Adjara,
27
West Georgia. The wetland habitat of the species is declining by bog
reclamation and land development on Colchis lowland leading to
continuing decline of the population not exceeding 200 mature
individuals with none of the existing subpopulations containing more
than 50 mature individuals. Therefore, the species is qualified for
Critically Endangered. The raw seed contains toxins but that these are
destroyed in the cooking process.
Seed - raw, cooked or dried and ground into a powder. A sweet
floury are agreeable flavour, similar to sweet chestnuts (Castanea spp.).
The seed contains up to 50% starch according to one report, 16%
starch, 3% protein in another report and 15% protein, 7.5% fat in a
third. One report says that the raw nut contains toxins that are destroyed
by cooking the seed. Seed - harvest in late summer and store overwinter
in a jar of water in a cold but frost-free place. The seed quickly loses its
vitality if it is allowed to become dry. Sow in spring, placing one seed
in each pot and submerging them under a few centimetres of water.
A water plant is growing in water up to 60 cm deep. Requires a
sunny position is in slightly acidic water. Dislikes calcium is rich water.
Prefers is a rich soil. Plants are hardy in all but the coldest parts of
Britain.
A perennial, but it is best grown as an annual in Britain. Some
botanists regard this species as the only genuine member of the genus,
all other species considered to be no more than a part of this one highly
polymorphic species. Occasionally cultivated for its edible seed, there
is at least one named variety. 'Suzhou' is a form with red-coloured fruit.
Right plant is as wrong place. We are currently updating this section.
Please note that a plant may be invasive in one area but may not in your
area so it’s worth checking. It is in the Red Data Book of the Georgia
(1982).
Research on population numbers, range, trends, threats and
conservation measures is needed, as well as site based actions, such as
maintenance and conservation of the sites, and species based actions,
such as creation of a genome resource bank at the Caucasian Regional
Seed Bank at Tbilisi Botanical Garden and Institute of Botany.
Increasing public awareness is also important.
28
2.1.3. Coastal lagoons (1150*; PAL. CLASS.: 21)
Lagoons are expanses of shallow coastal salt water, of varying salinity
and water volume, wholly or partially separated from the sea by sand
banks or shingle, or, less frequently, by rocks. Salinity may vary from
brackish water to hypersalinity depending on rainfall, evaporation and
through the addition of fresh seawater from storms, temporary flooding
of the sea in winter or tidal exchange. This type of habitat is near
village Grigoleti.
Species: Phytoplankton is widely represented by diatoms from
which the following species are most widely distributed: Thalassiosira
parva, Nitzschia seriata, Nitzschia longissima, Rhizosolenia alata, and
Rhizosolenia calcar-avis. Sea algaes - Green algae species are
Chaetomorpha linum, C. aerea, C. crassa, Cladophora cristallina, C.
dalmatica, C. laetevirens, Enteromorpha intestinalis, E. linza, E.
prolifera, Ulva rigida, Urospora penicilliformis, etc. Brown algae Cystoseira barbata. Red algaes - Bangia fuscopurpurea, Ceramium
rubrum and Callithamnion corymbosum. Fresh water algaes are
Cyanophyta or blue-green algaes - Anabaena flos-aquae, Anabaena
variabilia, Gloeocapsa turgida, Merismopedia glauca, Microcystis
grevillei, Microcystis pulverea, Oscillatoria brevis, Oscillatoria limosa,
Oscillatoria tenuis, and Spirulina subtilissima. Cillariophyta Siliceous algaes - diatoms: Cyclotella kuetzingiana, Cyclotella
meneghiniana, Caloneis bacillum, Cocconeis placentula, Cymbella
ventricosa, Gomphonema acuminatum, Navicula cryptocephala,
Nitzschia amphibia, Nitzschia dissipata, Pinuularia viridis, Synedra
ulna. Chlorophyta - Green algaes - Cladophora glomerata,
Oedogonium sp., Pediastrum boryanum, Scenedesmus acuminatus,
Scenedesmus obliquus, Scenedesmus quadricauda, Spirogyra sp.,
Ulotrix zonata.
Plant species:Enteromorpha intestinalis, Urospora penicilliformis,
Ulva rigida, Enteromorpha linza, E. prolifera, Cladophora laetevirens,
Chaetomorpha linum, Ch. aerea, Ch. crassa, Cladophora cristallina,
C. dalmatica, Cystoseira barbata, Bangia fuscopurpurea, Ceramium
rubrum, Callithamnion corymbosum, Thalassiosira parva, Nitzschia
seriata, Nitzschia longissima, Rhizosolenia alata, Rhizosolenia calcaravis, Euphorbia peplis, E. paralias, Cakile maritima, Salsola tragus,
Silene euxina, Digitaria ciliaris, Polygonum littorale, Calystegia
29
soldanella, Satchys maritima, Eringium maritimum, Trapa colchica,
Lemna minor, Salvinia natans, Utricularia vulgaris, Myriophyllum
spicatum, Potamogeton pectinatus, Anabaena flos-awuae, Anabaena
variabilia, Gloeocapsa turgida, Merismopedia glauca, Microcystis
grevillei, Microcystis pulverea, Oscillatoria brevis, Oscillatoria limosa,
Oscillatoria tenuis, Spirulina subtilissima, Cladophora glomerata,
Oedogonium sp., Pediastrum boryanum, Scenedesmus acuminatus,
Scenedesmus obliquus, Scenedesmus quadricauda, Spirogyra sp.,
Ulotrix zonata.
2.1.3.1. Indicator species of plants, Sea Lettuce - Ulva rigida C.
Agardh, Ulmaceae
Indicator species – Ulva rigida are species that respond quickly to any
changes in the environmental conditions Thalli thin, sheet-like, as turfs,
tufts or solitary blades, variable in shape, to 10 cm in height (Figure 3).
A
B
Figure 3. A. Coastal lagoons have algae species in River Chorokhi near
of Black Sea; B. Ulva rigida is commonly found in River Chorokhi
near Coastal lagoons with Black Sea ago. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Blades ruffled or flat, with small microscopic teeth on margins.
Blades unperforated or perforated with few to many small holes. The
blades are two cells thick; the two layers easily separate into single cell
layers. Holdfasts comprised of small, tough rhizoids. U. fasciata is
similar but has few or no rhizoids, has larger, square cells, and does not
30
separate easily into two sheets. Bright grass green is to dark green, gold
at margins when reproductive. May it be colorless when stressed?
Ulva rigida is commonly found on intertidal rocks, in tidepools,
and on reef flats. Often abundant in areas of fresh water runoff high in
nutrients such as near the mouths of streams and run-off pipes. Cells
rounded rectangular, 11-17 µm wide, 15-22 µm long, somewhat
elongated, in ordered rows or randomly arranged. Blades of two cells
are thick with clear space between cell layers (Littler, Mark, 2000).
Ulva rigida is commonly found in areas where nutrients are high,
wave forces low and herbivory reduced. It is tolerant of stressful
conditions, and its presence often indicates fresh water input or
pollution. Ulva species are early-successional algae, quickly taking
over new substrate on boulders that are cleared by storm disturbance.
Ulva and Enteromorpha species are generally the first macroalgae to
colonize newly opened substrate in intertidal areas with high nutrients.
Their opportunistic success can be attributed to their simple
morphologies and fecundity. In Ulva species, between 20 and 60
percent of their overall biomass can be allocated monthly to
reproduction (Barescut et al., 2009).
The alga’s reproductive success is partly due to the reproductive
cells’ photosynthetic ability. The zoospores’ and gametes’ ability to
photosynthesize subsidizes their motility and rapid growth once
attached to the substrate. In Hawai‘i, U. fasciata, or Limu palahalala is
a popular seaweed for consumption. Preparation methods include
chopped in salads with other limu varieties, boiled in soups, or as a
relish.
2.1.4. Large shallow inlets and bays (1160; PAL. CLASS.: 12)
The coastal areas, where fresh and sea waters do not get mixed. It is
only affected by the tide, which brings in deposit rock layer from the
sea bed and constantly changes the structure of the sea bed. This has an
impact on the benthos communities.
Species: Phytoplankton represented by diatoms, including the
widespread species Thalassiosira parva, Nitzschia seriata, Nitzschia
longissima, Rhizosolenia alata, Rhizosolenia calcar-avis;
Green sea algaes - Enteromorpha intestinalis, Urospora
penicilliformis, Ulva rigida, Enteromorpha linza, E. prolifera,
31
Cladophora laetevirens, Chaetomorpha linum, Ch. aerea, Ch. crassa,
Cladophora cristallina, C. dalmatica, etc.;
Brown algae - Cystoseira barbata; Red algaes - Bangia
fuscopurpurea, Ceramium rubrum and Callithamnion corymbosum.
Plant
species:
Enteromorpha
intestinalis,
Urospora
penicilliformis, Ulva rigida, Enteromorpha linza, E. prolifera,
Cladophora laetevirens, Chaetomorpha linum, Ch. aerea, Ch.
crassa,Cladophora cristallina, C. dalmatica, Bangia fuscopurpurea,
Ceramium rubrum, Callithamnion corymbosum, Thalassiosira parva,
Nitzschia
seriata,
Nitzschia
longissima,Rhizosolenia
alata,
Rhizosolenia calcar-avis.
2.1.4.1. Invasive plant species red algaes - Ceramium rubrum C.
Agardh, Ceramiaceae
Invasive species - Ceramium rubrum most of the species in this
category is characterized by a fast "occupation" of new areas and the
development of a strong population, which often ends elimination of
local competitor species (Figure 4).
A
B
Figure 4. A. Large shallow inlets and bays of the Black Sea in Guria
Village Ureki; B. Ceramium rubrum is invasive species in this category
of new areas and the development of a strong population. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
Australian plants were referred to C. rubrum by early authors and
by Harvey on herbarium sheets as C. rubrum australe, but were
32
separated as a distinct species, C. flagelliferum, by Kützing (1849).
These names were discussed by Womersley (1978).
While Australian specimens referred to C. rubrum are relatively
uniform, it is closely related to C. pusillum Harvey, differing in being
larger with dichotomous or irregular and often proliferous branching,
by the nodal cortical bands uniting relatively close to the apices with
the cells usually dovetailing together, by the inner cortical cells
becoming elongate in older parts with the outer cortical cells varying
from a largely complete cover to rows along the larger inner cells but
not forming distinct rosettes and except often around the periaxial cells,
by the tetrasporangia usually developing from any inner cortical cell as
well as the periaxial cells and thus on older parts appearing scattered,
and by being generally a species of calm to moderate (often deeper)
water movement.
While no one of the above features clearly distinguishes C. rubrum
from C. pusillum, overall assessment of them permits ready separation
of nearly all specimens of these taxa. The nodal cortication joins and
with numerous short proliferous branchlets with divergent apices.
Pending re-examination of the Tasmanian specimens of J. Agardh, they
are provisionally referred to C. rubrum.
Thallus medium to dark red, 5-15 (-25) cm high, branching
frequent to relatively sparse, subdichotomous (especially near apices)
or irregularly lateral, often with numerous small proliferous branchlets
below; main branches sometimes slightly moniliform due to denser cell
formation at the nodes and slightly swollen axial cells. Branches 0.5-1
mm in diameter below, 200–500 µm in diameter above, tapering only
slightly until near the apices which are slightly involute to straight.
Base usually are single, erect, attached by a tuft of rhizoids originating
from periaxial cells; epilithic or epiphytic on seagrasses or larger algae.
Structure are Axial cells L/D 0.5-1, becoming completely corticated
close to the apices, with the terminal cells of both the acropetal and
basipetal corticating filaments becoming angular and dovetailing
together to obscure the join. Periaxial cells 7 (-8), each cutting off
usually two cells acropetally and basipetally, continuing as corticating
filaments often with two divisions if space permits; these inner cortical
cells enlarge and elongate to L/D 3-5; in some plants short acropetal
filaments from the periaxial cells project outwardly. Outer cortex
present, varying from a fairly complete cover to small cells lying
33
largely over the margins of the inner cells but not usually forming
rosettes except over the rounded periaxial cells . Hairs from the outer
cortical cells often present in young parts. Rhodoplasts discoid in small
cells, ribbon like in axial cells.
Gametophytes are dioecious. Carposporophytes 200-450 µm
across, closely surrounded by 2-5 (-8) short, curved, involucral
branchlets, carposporangia ovoid, 20-30 µm in diameter. Spermatangia
covering are the surface of branches, arising first on the adaxial side.
Tetrasporangia cut off at first from the the periaxial cells or the
immediate cortical derivatives and thus in rings of 10-15 sporangia
along the branches, later from any inner cortical cell and thus scattered,
variable in size (30-60 µm in diameter), spherical to ovoid, more or less
cruciately divided, protruding slightly to moderately within the cortex
and surrounded by a rosette of outer cortical cells.
2.2. Sea cliffs and shingle or stony beaches
2.2.1. Code of Georgia: Vegetation of the Sea Cliffs (1220GE)
The coastal rock vegetation is the most common in Ajara. Perennial
vascular plants are dominating. In addition, there is a high diversity of
mosses and ferns, attached to a rock and forming green vegetation
cover of a cliff. A characteristic species is an endemic Iris Siphonostylis lazica and strong undergrowth of blackberry bush Rubus caucasicus. Fern species are Polypodium serratum, Dryopteris
palaecea, occasionally, Osmunda regalis. Dominating flowering plants
is Crithmum maritimum.
Plant species: Crithmum maritimum, Dryopteris palaecea,
Osmunda regalis, Polypodium serratum, Rubus caucasicus,
Siphonostylis lazica.
2.2.1.1. Endemic plant species: Blackberry - Rubus caucasicus
Focke, Rosaceae
Endemic species - Rubus caucasicus is both Georgia and the Caucasian
endemic; Rubus caucasicus Focke, Rosaceae. Rubus genus species is
28 endemic and Rubus caucasicus is endemic to Georgia. Rubus
caucasicus is a deciduous Shrub. The flowers are hermaphrodite and
have both male and female organs. Other is pollinated by Insects.
34
Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils and prefers well-drained
soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semishade or no shade. It prefers moist soil (Figure 5).
A
B
Figure 5. A. Vegetation of the Sea Cliffs has many shrubs near Black
Sea in Adjara and one is - Rubus caucasicus as endemic species of both
Georgia and the Caucasian; B. Rubus caucasicus is used for food
plant. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Easily grown is in a good well-drained loamy soil in sun or semishade. This species is a blackberry with biennial stems; it produces a
number of new stems each year from the perennial rootstock, these
stems fruit in their second year and then dies.
Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus. Seed
requires stratification and is best sown in early autumn in a cold frame.
Stored seed requires one month stratification at about 3°C and is best
sown as early as possible in the year.
Prick out the seedlings when they are large enough to handle and
grow on in a cold frame. Plant them out into their permanent positions
in late spring of the following year. Cuttings of half ripe is wood,
July/August in a frame.
Tip layering in July. Plant out in autumn. Division in early spring
or just before leaf - fall in the autumn. This species is the most common
in Ajara.
35
2.3. Salt and gypsum inland steppes
2.3.1. Code of Georgia. Salt and gypsum inland vegetation (15GE)
Halophyte complexes can be found in Meskheti, within the limits of the
upper basin of river Mtkvari, Inner Kartli and Iori Plateau. Halophilic
communities are developed on badlands, on various slopes of nearly all
exposition, on the exhausted cortex of easy soluble, salty, gypseous
basic rocks and on salty clay soil. Such places are characterized by
physical and physiologic dryness and dry microclimate. According to
the common position of ecotope vegetation is fluctuated within wide
limits, which depends on gypseous composition and salting degree in
the substrata. By the structure of vegetation and species composition it
is similar to desert vegetation; it is characterized by poor flora, inlay
and complexity. The vegetation of upper parts of badland slopes and
rocks is actually undeveloped. It is caused by the intensive rain and
wind erosion. Some are as typical desert and semi-desert plants. The
common coverage of phytomass in such phytocoenose is not more than
5-10%. The halophilic vegetation coverage is about 50- 60% on
proluvial-deluvial deposits of the lower parts of slopes. The mentioned
type of edaphogenic desert and semi-desert flora is represented by
comparatively narrower endemics and widespread species with
disjuncted areas, which have a great importance in research of
geographic connections and study of Georgian flora and vegetation
formation history. The following species are observed on slopes
Reaumuria alternifolia and Camphorosma monspeliaca. Open
unconnected phytocoenose Reaumurioso-salsoleto-camphorosmetum
are created by these semi-bushes. At the foot of the slope grows the
goastsbeard - Podospermum idae. In relatively quiet places ephemeral
sinusien are developed in the form of spotted fragments.
Dwarf grasses - Eremopyrum orientale or Trachynia dictachya
participate in creating them whereas in certain places this is done by
succulent biomorph Gamanthus pilosus or Bupleurum exaltatum. The
Syrian bean-caper (Zygophyllum fabago) and others can be named from
less constant species. From rare communities there are: Nitraria
schoberi, Atriplex tatarica, Puccinellia distans, Kochia prostrata,
Sosnowskya amblyolepis, Amberboa moschata, Ceratoides papposa,
etc. Non-constant species involve: Astragalus argillosus, Callicephalus
36
nitens, black buckthorn or extremely rare species growing in dry
ravines, Rhamnus spathulifolia.
Plants species: Amberboa moschata, Astragalus argillosus,
Atriplex tatarica, Bupleurum exaltatum, Callicephalus nitens,
Ceratoides papposa, Camphorosma monspeliaca, Eremopyrum
orientale, Gamanthus pilosus, Kochia prostrata, Nitraria schoberi,
Pancratium maritimum, Podospermum idae, Puccinellia distans,
Reaumuria alternifolia, Rhamnus spathulifolia, Sosnowskya
amblyolepis, Trachynia dictachya, Zygophyllum fabago.
2.3.1.1. Invasive plant species in Adjara near Black Sea
Invasive 3 plant species are in Adjara: 1. Sea daffodil - Pancratium
maritimum L., Amaryllidaceae; 2. Annual blue-eyed grass Sisyrinchium rosulatum E.P. Bicknell, Iridaceae; and, 3. Blue crown
passion flower - Passiflora caerulea L. Passifloraceae (Figure 6).
A
B
D
C
Figure 6. Black Sea in Adjara: A. B. Pancratium maritimum; C.
Sisyrinchium rosulatum in meadows of city Kobuleti; D. Passiflora
caerulea in Botanical Garden of city Batumi. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
37
Invasive species - Pancratium maritimum most of the species in
this category is characterized by a fast "occupation" of new areas and
the development of a strong population, which often ends elimination
of local competitor species. Maritime sands or just above the high tide
mark, along the Atlantic coast. Pancratium maritimum is an evergreen
Bulb growing to 0.5 m by 0.3 m. It is in leaf 12-Jan and it is in flower
in June. The flowers are hermaphrodite. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and
basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil. The
plant can tolerate maritime exposure. Seed is of Pancratium maritimum
best sown as soon as it is ripe in a greenhouse. Pre-soak is stored seed
for 1 hour in warm water and then sow in spring in a warm greenhouse
in a light sandy soil. Germination usually takes place within 1 - 3
months at 22°C. Sow the seed thinly so that the seedlings can be left
undisturbed in the pot for their first two years of growth.
Give them an occasional liquid feed in the growing season to
ensure they do not become nutrient deficient. When the plants become
dormant in late summer, pot up the small bulbs placing 2 bulbs in each
pot. Grow them on for another one or two years in the greenhouse
before planting them out when they are dormant in late summer.
Division of offsets is as the plant dies down in late summer. Requires is
a light for very well drained sandy soil in a very sunny position.
Requires is a warm sheltered position when grown outdoors in Britain.
Requires a hot dry summer in order to fully ripen its bulb, it is more
easily grown in a bulb frame in Britain.
Tolerates temperatures down to about -5°C, it is only hardy in the
milder areas of Britain, requiring protection even there in the winter.
The bulb should be planted deeply and rapid spring growth should be
encouraged. Another report says that plants are easily grown outdoors
in Britain but that the leaves are susceptible to frost damage and the
plant does not flower well in an average British summer. The flowers
have an exotic lily scent.
Sisyrinchium rosulatum is invasive species in Adjara coming from
South America by Ship. Other plant species is as well generating as
seed from shipd coming from other continents to Adjara, Batumi. There
are about 60 genera and 1500 species, distributed in temperate and
tropical regions. Among them, Iris, Freesia, Gladiolus, Watsonia, and
Tritonia are popular ornamentals. Saffron dye is obtained from Crocus,
38
and essence of violets, used in perfumes, is extracted from the rhizomes
of Iris. Passiflora caerule is a vigorous, deciduous or semi-evergreen
tendril vine growing to 10 m or more, with palmate leaves and fragrant,
blue-white flowers with a prominent fringe of coronal filaments in
bands of blue, white, and brown. The ovoid orange fruit, growing to 6
cm, is edible but bland.
3. COASTAL SAND DUNES AND INLAND DUNES
3.1. Coastal Sand Dunes
3.1.1. Embryonic shifting dunes (2110; PAL. CLASS.: 16.211)
Primary succession of dunes starts with embryonic shifting dunes
where the following species of salt-tolerant creeping and deep root
plants dominate - Convolvulus persicus, Calystegia soldanella,
Samolus valerandi, Plantago lanceolata, etc.
Several perennial herbaceous plants, such as, Eryngium maritimum,
Euphorbia paralias, Glaucium flavum, and coniferous ones, such as,
Vitex agnus-castus can also be found. The latter can be found at the
border of fixed and mobile dunes as well as bordering grassy meadows
of the land where Juncus acutus dominates.
Plants species: Aira capillaris, Anagallis arvensis, Anthemis
euxina, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Asclepias fruticosa, Calystegia
soldanella, Carex colchica, Cerastium semidecandrum, Convolvolus
persicus, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria pectiniformis, Erodium
cicutarium, Erophila verna, Eryngium maritimum, Euphorbia paralias,
Euphorbia pubescens, Geranium dissectum, Geranium molle,
Glaucium flavum, Helianthemum nummularium, Lolium rigidum,
Lysimachia fortunei, Medicago minima, Pancratium maritimum,
Petrorhagia saxifraga, Plantago lanceolata, Salsola tragus, Samolus
valerandi, Scabiosa sosnowskyi, Scleranthus annuus, Sherardia
arvensis, Silene euxina, Stachys maritima, Trifolium campestre,
Verbascum gnaphalioides, Veronica serpyllifolia, Vitex agnus-castus.
39
3.1.1.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Blue Gel - Eryngium maritimum L., Apiaceae
The economically potential species - Eryngium maritimum is as
recreational, ornamental and medicinal plants and other (Figure 7).
A
B
Figure 7. A. B. Medicinal plant - Eryngium maritimum is in medows
of city Kobuleti, Adjara. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Eryngium maritimum is an evergreen. Perennial is growing to 0.5
m by 0.4 m. It is in leaf 12-Jan. It is in flower from Jul to October. The
flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by Bees, flies, beetles.
The plant is self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife.
Suitable for: light and medium soils, prefers well-drained soil and
can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic
soils and can grow in very alkaline and saline soils. It cannot grow in
the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The
plant can tolerate maritime exposure.
Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant
medicinally:
Aphrodisiac;
Aromatic;
Diaphoretic;
Diuretic;
Expectorant; Stimulant; Tonic. Sea holly roots were collected on a
large scale in the 17th and 18th centuries in England and were candied
then used as restorative, quasi-aphrodisiac lozenges. The plant is still
used in modern herbalism where it is valued especially for its diuretic
action.
The root is to be aphrodisiac, aromatic, diaphoretic, diuretic,
expectorant, stimulant and tonic.
40
The root promotes free expectoration and is very useful in the
treatment of debility attendant on coughs of chronic standing in the
advanced stages of pulmonary consumption. It is used in the treatment
of cystitis, urethritis, as a means to alleviate kidney stones, and to treat
enlargement or inflammation of the prostate gland.
Drunk freely, it is used to treat diseases of the liver and kidneys.
Used externally as a poultice, the dried powdered root aids tissue
regeneration. The root should be harvested in the autumn from plants
that are at least 2 years old.
Young shoots - cooked. They are normally blanched by excluding
light from the growing plant, and are then used as an asparagus
substitute. They are said to be palatable and nourishing. Root is cooked.
Used as a vegetable or candied and used as a sweetmeat. Palatable and
nutritious, it is slightly sweet and smells of carrots.
The boiled or roasted roots are said to resemble parsnips or
chestnuts in flavour. Requires is a deep well-drained soil and a sunny
position. Prefers a light sandy saline soil but tolerates most soil types
including lime and poor gravels. Plants are best grown in a hot dry
position. Established plants are drought tolerant.
Plants are hardy to about -15°C. Sea holly has very long roots that
penetrate deeply in the soil and are often several feet long. These roots
are sweetly scented. The plant should be placed in its final position
whilst small since it resents root disturbance. Although a sea-shore
plant, it is amenable to garden cultivation. A good is bee plants.
Seed of Eryngium maritimum best sown as soon and it is ripe in
early autumn on the surface of well-drained compost in a cold frame.
The seed can also be sown in spring. Germination can be very slow,
although another report says that the seed usually germinates in 5-90
days at 20°C.
When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into
individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for their first
winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or
early summer, after the last expected frosts. Division is in early spring
or autumn.
Take care since the plant resents root disturbance. Root cuttings in
autumn or winter. These are sea shores, preferring sand and shingle
whilst avoiding acid soils. It is including in Black Sea and in Europe.
41
3.1.2. Fixed coastal dunes with herbaceous vegetation (grey dunes)
(2130*; PAL. CLASS.: 16.221 to 16.227, 16.22B)
Sandy dunes can be found in the south of Poty, between the sea and the
planted pine forest (Pinus spp., Eucalyptus spp., Alnus barbata). Fixed
and non-fixed dunes border with each other and represent various
successive stages. The border between them is sometimes covered with
the humus layer. Species of plants involve grasses. E.g. Microstegium
vimineum, swamp plants, such as Lycopus europaeus, Inula auriculata,
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, etc.
In the narrow littoral line existing in the north of Kulevi village
relict vegetation of ancient Meditteranean flora can be found, which is
almost completely destroyed at the Georgian section of the Black Sea
coast dunes to a heavy anthropogenic press. Sea Lilly - Pancratium
maritimum - the species of the Red Book of Georgia can be found here
which belongs to the category of high decorative plants and represents
the relict of the tertiary flora.
Species of plants of a specific ecological range, such as, spurge
(Euphorbia paralias), red-horned poppy (Glaucium flavum), sea thistle
(Eryngium maritimum), woundworth (Stachys maritima), campion
(Silene euxina), etc. are associated with the sea lilly. Spread of
mentioned taxons within the limits of protected Kolkheti territories is
extremely limited and involves only a narrow littoral line of the Black
Sea coast.
Plants species: Aira capillaris, Ajuga reptans, Arabidopsis
thaliana, Arabis hirsuta, Senecio vulgaris, Digitaria pectiniformis,
Euphorbia cyparissias, Euphorbia peplis, Geranium dissectum,
Geranium molle, Glaucium flavum, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Inula
auriculata, Juncus acutus, Juncus articulatus, Lycopus europaeus,
Lysimachia fortunei, Mentha aquatica, Microstegium vimineum,
Paspalum dilatatum, Prunella vulgaris, Rhamphicarpa medwedewii,
Rubus anatolicus, Sherardia arvensis, Silene pendula, Vicia hirsuta,
Vicia sativa.
42
3.1.2.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) plant species, Broad Vetch –
Vicia johannis Tamamsch., genus Vicia L., Fabaceae
Crop wild relatives (CWR) are determined by the exchange of gene
crops and germaplazma used agricultural crop domestication ancestor
species. There are 33 species of Vicia in Georgia. 17 of them are
distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti region: 1. V. antiqua Grossh. Caucasian endemic; 2. V. balansae Boiss.; 3. V. cassubica L.; 4. V.
cordata Wulf. ex Hoppe; 5. V. ervilia (L.) Willd.; 6. V. grossheimii
Ekvtim. Caucasian endemic; 7. V. iberica Grossh.; 8. V. narbonensis L.
9. V. pannonica Cranz; 10. V. peregrina L. 11. V. purpurea Steven; 12.
V. sativa L.; 13. V. sepium L.; 14. V. truncatula Fisch. ex M. Bieb.; 15.
V. variabilis Freyn & Sint.; 16. V. variegata Sibth. & Sm. - Caucasian
endemic; 17. V. villosa Roth.
One of the tentatively ancestor of cultivated V. faba is V.
narbonensis distributed in different regions of Georgia. It is found
between Akhaltsikhe and Abastumani and near v. Atskuri in the fields.
V. ervilia and V. sativa are not cultivated nowadays, but is naturalized
and is represented as weed in fields. Vicia serratifolia Jacq. is this
species in Flora of Georgia and it is determined as Vicia narbonensis
L., however, last investiagtions (Bennet, Maxted, 1997) have
described it as V. johannis, which differs from V. narbonensis by color
of wings of corolla (Figure 8).
Annual is growing to 1 m. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are
pollinated by Insects. The plant is self-fertile. V. johannis differs from
V. narbonensis where on the basis of the colour of the wing spot during
anthesis and the presence of a terminal leaflet. The latter character
separates Vicia johannis var. ecirrhosa (Popov) H.I.Schafer from the
other two varieties. The overall distribution is in Europe, West Asia,
and North Africa. Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - Occurs
in cultivated beds in Meskheti mixed with crops in wheat and barley
fields.
Grows is in thickets, damp fields and ditches. The plant prefers
light, medium and heavy soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant
prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no
shade. It requires moist soil. It can fix Nitrogen. Succeeds in any welldrained soil in a sunny position if the soil is reliably moist throughout
the growing season, otherwise it is best grown in semi-shade.
43
A
B
C
Figure 8. A. Vicia johannis is CWR and is in meadows of
Dedoplistskaro; B. Vicia purpurea is CWR; C. Pollen of Vicia
purpurea has length of the horizontal height as 35-40 µm and distanth
height is 50-55 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria;
these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also
be used by other plants growing nearby. When removing plant remains
at the end of the growing season, it is best to only remove the aerial
parts of the plant, leaving the roots in the ground to decay and release
their nitrogen.
Pre-soak the seed for 24 hours in warm water and then sow in situ
in spring or autumn. Threat assessment - No threats detected. Ex situ
status - Seeds are collected and kept in USDA and IPK gene banks. In
situ status - The habitat in cultivated beds and protection measures are
not necessary to undertake. This species is probably the parent of the
cultivated broad bean, V. faba. Diminishing is of cultivated fields in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region. Proposed threat might be use of herbicides
in the field.
Proposed action plan objectives and targets:
1. Maintain the current populations of in Samtskhe-Javakheti region.
2. Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat
management.
V. johannis should be declared as species of high economic value
as genetic ancestor for cultivated broad bean. Sites of population
44
distribution need to be maintained, which is connected with development of sustainable biofarming in the region. Ex situ conservation of
this species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
3.1.3. Dunes with Hippophaë rhamnoides L. (2160; PAL. CLASS.:
16.251)
Places covered with woody plants can be found near Poty on fixed
dunes, where Hippophaë rhamnoides, Berberis vulgaris, Malus
orientalis, Pyracantha coccinea, Mespilus germanica, Ruscus ponticus,
Paliurus spina-christi dominate. Thorny Scrub with climbing plants
Smilax excelsa, Clematis vitalba, Periploca graeca can be found in
Samegrelo. The coastal scrub of secondary origin is found near
Sukhumi. Paliurus spina-christi, Crataegus monogyna, Carpinus
orientalis dominate here. Existence of species of forests here speaks of
the secondary origin of this community.
Plants species: Hippophaë rhamnoides, Berberis vulgaris, Malus
orientalis, Pyracantha coccinea, Mespilus germanica, Paliurus spinachristi, Crataegus monogyna, Carpinus orientalis, Trachystemon
orientale, Anchusa sp., Polystichum lonchitis.
3.1.3.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants Sea buckthorn Hippophaë rhamnoides L. – Elaeagnaceae
The economically potential species - Hippophaё rhamnoides is as
recreational, ornamental and medicinal plants and other (Figure 9).
Coasts, banks of lakes, mountain streams and brooks; riverside pebbles,
pebbly springs, riverside shingle, tugais, willow and poplar woods on
sands, upper limit of deciduous and lower limit of coniferous trees (up
to 300-2100 m), ravines, slopes, rocks and bluffs.Grows up to middle,
sometimes subalpine belt, mostly on riverbanks and in gorges. Occurs
solitary or in small groups or forms thickets. 1.5 - 5 m high tall shrub,
rarely tree, strongly branched, with spreading crown. Snow cover is <12 m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 10°C. Sunny
edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West
Wall. Twigs greyish and spine tipped. Suitable for: light, medium and
heavy soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil.
45
A
B
C
D
Figure 9. A. Hippophaё rhamnoides is near of Terek River in Kazbegi
District; B. Hippophaё rhamnoides is medicinal plant with seeds. C.
Dust seed multiplied in April and then the seeds. D. Pollen of
Hippophaё rhamnoides has length of the horizontal height 23-28 µm.
Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It
prefers dry moist or wet soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can
tolerate maritime exposure. Leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, 2-8 cm
long, 0.2-0.8 cm broad, subobtuse, more or less narrowed at base,
subsessile, with more or less revolute margins, dark grayish-green
above, silvery-white suffused with brown or yellow beneath, clothed
with white and brown stellate scales; Staminate flowers in short minute
spikes, 5- 8 mm long and 4-6 mm broad, with 2-parted perianth, lobes
ovate-orbicular, 3-4 mm long, 3-3.5 mm broad, concave, greenishbrown, covered outside with numerous brown and sparse white stellate
scales; stamens 4, half to two-thirds as long as perianth; anthers 1.5 mm
long, oblong-linear, almost sessile anthers with very short filaments;
46
pistillate flowers 2-5 in axils of branchlets, on pedicels 0.5 mm long;
perianth of pistillate flowers tubular, oblong-obovate, 2.5-4 mm long,
1-1.5 mm broad, brown, covered outside with stellate brown and few
white scales, lobes obtuse, covered inside with rather long white hairs;
pistil in lower part of perianth-tube; ovary glabrous, globoseovaloid, 12 mm long, about half length of perianth; style 0.5 mm long; stigma
oblong, 0.5-1 mm long, 1-sided, exserted; ripe drupe globose, ovaloid,
globose -ovaloid or short-ellipsoid, 0.8-1 cm long and 0.3-0.6 cm
broad, or ellipsoid, 5-7 mm long and 3 mm broad, glabrous, orange or
reddish, succulent and aromatic; stone ovoid-oblong, 4-7 mm long and
4-5 mm broad, or oblong-ellipsoid, 4-5 mm long and 1.5-2 mm broad,
dark brown, sometimes almost black, lustrous. Flowering in April-May,
fruits are in August-October.
A handsome ornamental plant is grown in gardens and parks, either
singly or in hedges. An invaluable plant for fixing sands, landslides,
railroad embankments and protection of railway lines against snow
drifts. The wood is fine-grained yellow, with brownish -yellow
heartwood, tough, rather hard, heavy, very durable. It is suitable for
fine carpentry and turning. Used for staking grapevines. The ash has
high potash content. The fruit has a sourish, aromatic flavor; the drupes
are a favorite food of pheasants; they are considered by the local
population to be a dainty and are made into infusions, liqueurs and
jams. Young shoots and leaves produce a blackish-brown dye, and fruit
a yellow dye, with iron salts. The foliage contains 10% tannin and
provides tanning material. The plant is used in popular medicine. The
fruit is very succulent, slightly mucilaginous; it has an agreeable
sourish flavor and a pineapplelike aroma. Frozen fruit (without stones)
contains up to 3.56% sugar (glucose 1.96%, fructose 1.0%), acids
(including malic acid) 2.64%). The pulp contains 8% oil. The fruit is
eaten raw, especially after frost; it is added to flour to make a special
kind of bread; it is also made into jellies, deserts and candies. Pectin
has to be added to the fruit juice for jelly making. The fruit is also used
for making jam which resembles barberry jam in flavor. Reserves of
sea buckthorn are considerable. It is a valuable honey plant. The
vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content is as follows: in leaves 230-262
mg%, in fruit 120 mg% (according to other data 172.8-198.6 mg%)), in
fruit juice 200 mg% (according to other data 500-900 mg%). The
ascorbic acid is very stable and keeps well. Sea buckthorn deserves
47
attention as a source of vitamin C. Sea buckthorn oil was found to
contain 90 mg% carotene (provitamin A). Very tolerant of maritime
exposure, it can be used as a shelter hedge. It dislikes much trimming.
A very thorny plant, it quickly makes an impenetrable barrier. Sea
buckthorn has an extensive root system and suckers vigorously and so
has been used in soil conservation schemes, especially on sandy soils.
The fibrous and suckering root system acts to bind the sand.
Because the plant grows quickly, even in very exposed conditions, and
also adds nitrogen to the soil, it can be used as a pioneer species to help
the re-establishment of woodland in difficult areas. Because the plant is
very light-demanding it will eventually be out-competed by the
woodland trees and so will not out-stay its welcome. The seeds contain
12-13% of slow-drying oil. The vitamin-rich fruit juice is used
cosmetically in face-masks etc. A yellow dye is obtained from the fruit.
A yellow dye is obtained from the stems, root and foliage. A blackishbrown dye is obtained from the young leaves and shoots. Wood has
tough, hard, very durable, fine-grained. Used for fine carpentry, turning
etc. The wood is also used for fuel and charcoal. Landscape is Border,
Seashore, and Specimen. Succeeds is in most soils, including poor
ones, so long as they are not too dry. Grows is well by water and in
fairly wet soils. Established plants are very drought resistant. Requires
are a sunny position, seedlings failing to grow in a shady position and
mature shrubs quickly dying if overshadowed by taller plants. Does is
well in very sandy soils. Very tolerant is of maritime exposure. Plants
are fairly slow growing. Although usually found near the coast in the
wild, they thrive when grown inland and are hardy to about -25°C. A
very ornamental plant, it is occasionally cultivated, especially in N.
Europe, for its edible fruit, there are some named varieties. 'Leikora' is
a free-fruiting form, developed for its ornamental value. Members of
this genus are attracting considerable interest from breeding institutes
for their nutrient-rich fruits that can promote the general health of the
body. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil
bacteria. These bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric
nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but
some can also be used by other plants growing nearby. Plants produce
abundant suckers, especially when grown on sandy soils. Dioecious is
for male and female plants must be grown if seed is required. The sexes
of plants cannot be distinguished before flowering, but on flowering
48
plants the buds of male plants in winter are conical and conspicuous
whilst female buds are smaller and rounded. Plants in this genus are
notably resistant to honey fungus. Seed of Hippophaë rhamnoides sow
spring in a sunny position in a cold frame. Germination is usually quick
and good although 3 months cold stratification may improve the
germination rate. Alternatively the seed can be sown in a cold frame as
soon as it is ripe in the autumn. Prick out the seedlings into individual
pots when they are large enough to handle and grow on in a greenhouse
for their first winter. Plant out in late spring into their permanent
positions. Male seedlings, in spring, have very prominent axillary buds
whilst females are clear and smooth at this time. Cuttings are of halfripe wood, June/July in a frame.
This is the easiest method of vegetative propagation. Cuttings are
of mature wood in autumn. Difficult are in the cuttings should be taken
at the end of autumn or very early in the spring before the buds burst.
Store them in sand and peat until April, cut into 7- 9 cm lengths and
plant them in a plastic tent with bottom heat. Rooting should take place
within 2 months and they can be put in their permanent positions in the
autumn. Division is of suckers in the winter. They can be planted out
direct into their permanent positions and usually establish well and
quickly. Layering is in autumn. Native is to Eurasia.
4. FRESHWATER HABITATS
4.1. Standing water
4.1.1. Code of Georgia: Natural lakes and ponds (316GE)
Four sub-types of bank vegetation exist, dependent on the geographic
region where a pond, reservoir, or lake is located.
Sub-types (316GE-01): There is dense marsh vegetation around
the Lake Paliastomi, dominated by Phragmites australis, Juncus acutus
and Juncellus serotinus. Dominant species of perennial grassy
vegetation are Inula auriculata, Lythrum salicaria. Common and
widespread Kosteletzkya pentacarpa (Malvaceae) is considered to be a
Tertiary relict species. Climbing forms represented by Galium
elongatum and Calystegia sepium. The invasive bush Amorpha
49
fruticosa (originally from SE North America) is a common species of
flooded planes, banks and marshes.
Sub-types (316GE-02): Other vegetation community type of the
vicinity of Lake Paliastomi consists of graminoid vegetation with a
combination of monocotyle and dicotyle dominant herbs. Reedbed
(Phragmites) along a narrow coastal line is up to 2 meters high. A
circle of lower vegetation is comprised of Molinia spp., Cladium spp.,
Rhynchospora spp., and broadleaved species, including Centaurium
spp., Lysimachia spp. and Hypericum tetrapterum. Hydrocotyle
vulgaris and H. ranunculoides dominate in ground vegetation.
Andropogon capillipes is an invasive species (originally from North
America).
Sub-types (316GE-03): Vegetation of lakes of the Javakheti
Plateau in Southern Georgia varies among the lakes. Banks of some
(e.g. Sagamo lake) are bare. Banks of large lakes Khanchali and
Madatapa are covered with dense bank vegetation. The dominating
species are Sagittaria sagittifolia, Heleocharis palustris. Potamogeton
pectinatus, P. crispus, Myriophyllum spicatum, Polygonum amphibium
are more common than Nuphar luteum, Nymphaea alba.
Sub-types (316GE-04): In the outskirts of Tbilisi, on the banks of
lakes Udzo and Lisi, reedbed is comprised of Phragmites australis,
Scirpus tabernaemontani, Bolboschoenus maritimus, Carex vesicaria,
C. rostrata, and C. diluta. Marsh vegetation is represented by
Lysimachia dubia, Lythrum salicaria, Pulicaria uliginosa, Ranunculus
lingua and a number of other species.
Plants species: 316GE-01. Amorpha fruticosa, Apium graveolens,
Calystegia sepium, Carex vesicaria, Chenopodium sp., Cyperus badius,
Digitaria ischaemum, Erigeron canadensis, Galium elongatum,
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Inula auriculata, Juncellus serotinus, Juncus
acutus, Kosteletzkya pentacarpa, Lythrum salicaria, Phragmites
australis,Phytolacca americana, Rubus anatolicus, Rumex crispus,
Scirpus lacustris; 316GE-02. Andropogon virginicus, Centaurium
erythraea, Cladium mariscus, Erigeron crispus, Hydrocotyle
ranunculoides, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Hypericum tetrapterum, Juncus
acutus, Lycopus europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Molinia caerulea,
Phragmites australis, Potentilla erecta, Rumex sanguineus, Sagittaria
sagittifolia, Scirpus lacustris, Sparganium angustifolium; 316GE-03.
Sagittaria sagittifolia, Heleocharis palustris, Potamogeton pectinatus,
50
P. crispus, Myriophyllum spicatum, Polygonum amphibium, Nuphar
luteum, Nymphaea alba; 316GE-04. Phragmites australis, Scirpus
tabernaemontani, Bolboschoenus maritimus, Carex vesicaria, C.
rostrata, C. diluta, Lysimachia dubia, Lythrum salicaria, Pulicaria
vulgaris, Ranunculus lingua.
4.1.1.1. Edificatory plant species, Spiraea - Spiraea hypericifolia L.,
Rosaceae
Edificatory species - Spiraea hypericifolia are that have a special role
to contribute in ecosystem structure. Grows from lowland to subalpine
belts in shrublands 100-2100 m. Shrub 50-150 cm high; Snow cover is
<0.3 m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 30°C.
Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall,
and West Wall. Steppe and forest -steppe zone where, together with
other steppe shrubs, it forms thickets; also gully slopes and open, often
also stony slopes; in mountain regions of Caucasus in the shrub zone,
on open slopes, in juniper woods, and on mountain riverbanks; in the
Caucasus in shrubthickets on mountain slopes, penetrating to alpine
meadows where it grows as a small, low, much branched shrub, often
with broader leaves (Figure 10).
A
B
C
Figure 10. A. Spiraea hypericifolia is near city Tbilisi; B. Pollen of
Spiraea hypericifolia has length of the horizontal height as 15-18 µm;
C. Spiraea hypericifolia is shrub. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
51
Branches light brown, often long, virgate, with numerous, crowded
sessile umbels; young shoots glabrous or tomentose pubescent; Leaves
glabrous or short hairy when young. Leaf is obovate, oblong-elliptic or
lanceolate, obtuse or rarely acute, entire.
Leaves of sterile shoot tipped in 2-5 teeth, leaf blade narrows to a
wedge-shaped base. leaves 10-25 mm long, 1.5-8 mm broad, glabrous
or puberulent when young, oboval, oblong elliptic or lanceolate, obtuse
or acute, entire, those on sterile shoots sometimes with 2-5 teeth at the
apex, cuneately tapering to short, 1.5-5 mm petiole; Flowers white,
inflorescences 4-10 flowers clustered into umbel. pedicels glabrous or
slightly pubescent, 5-15 mm long, to 18 mm long in fruit; flowers 5-8
(9) mm in diameter, with oboval or ovate petals and triangular sepals
1.3-l.2 as long as follicles, the latter glabrous or pubescent. Fruit is
glabrous or pubescent follicle, dehiscent on one side. Flowering in
April - June, fruits from July.
Used for fastening of sands; ornamental and nectariferous. Spiraea
species are used as food plants by the larvae of many Lepidoptera
species, including the Brown-tail, the Small Emperor Moth, the Grey
Dagger, the Setaceous Hebrew character, and the moth Hypercompe
indecisa. Seeds of Spiraea hypericifolia we have no information for
this species but suggest sowing the seed as soon as it is ripe in a cold
frame if possible.
It is likely to require stratification before it germinates, so stored
seed should be sown in a cold frame as early in the year as you receive
it. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large
enough to handle, and grow them on in a cold frame for their first
winter. Plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following
year.
Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, July/August in a light sandy soil a
frame. A cutting is of mature wood of the current season’s growth, 15
cm long, October/November in an outdoor frame. Another report says
that September is a good time to do this. Division is of suckers in early
spring. They can be planted out straight into their permanent positions.
Native is to Eurasia.
52
4.2. Running water
4.2.1. Alpine rivers and the herbaceous vegetation along their
banks (3220; PAL. CLASS.: 24.221 and 24.222)
Sedge (Carex oreophila) and other such characteristic species as
Swertia iberica, Pedicularis crassirostris appear in the alpine zone on
the bank of the stream. In the places of melting snow we can encounter
Bellevalia paradoxa, Scilla rosenii, Corydalis erdelii, C. emanuelii, etc.
On the banks of those rivers that start at the glacier the following
communities can be found: Caltha polypetala, Cardamine uliginosa,
Parnasia palustris, Alchemilla tredecimloba, Heracleum apiifolium,
Primula auriculata, Cirsium simplex, Papaver oreophilum, Saxifraga
sibirica, Vicia varriegata, Chamaenerion hirsutum.
The following can be found of the moistened sandy ground of
quartz - Juncus bufonius, Sagina saxatilis. On the banks of the stream
in marshy places there are - Juncus alpigenus, J. atratus, Carex
canescens, C. stellulata, C. contigua, C. leporina, C. rigida, Eriphorum
latifolium, and Heleocharis palustris.
Plants species: Carex oreophila, Swertia iberica, Pedicularis
crassirostris, Bellevalia paradoxa, Scilla rosenii, Corydalis erdelii, C.
emanuelii, Caltha polypetala, Cardamine uliginosa, Parnasia palustris,
Alchemilla tredecimbosa, Heracleum apiifolium, Primula auriculata,
Cirsium simplex, Papaver oreophilum, Saxifraga sibirica, Vicia
varriegata, Chamaenerion hirsutum, Juncus bufonius, Sagina saxatilis,
Juncus alpigenus, J. atratus, Carex canescens, C. stellulata, C.
contigua, C. leporina, C. rigida, Eriphorum latifolium, Heleocharis
palustris.
4.2.1.1. Endangered species the national and/or international
conservation status of the species Orchis coriophora L.,
Orchidaceae
Endangered species of Orchis are the national and/or international
conservation status of the species. The following species occurs Orchis coriophora L.; Orchis mascula subsp. longicalcarata Akhalkatsi,
H. Baumann, R. Lorenz, Mosulishvili & R. Peter; Orchis morio subsp.
caucasica (K. Koch) E.G. Camus, Bergon & A.Camus; Orchis palustris
53
subsp. pseudolaxiflora (Czerniak.) H. Baumann & R. Lorenz; Orchis
ustulata L. Target species is Orchis coriophora (Figure 11).
A
B
Figure 11. A. Orchis coriophora is in meadiws of Meskheti 1000-1800
m. B. Orchis coriophora height as 15-25 cm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Bulb is growing to 0.3 m. It is in flower from June to July. The
plant prefers ligh, medium and heavy soils. The plant prefers acid,
neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires moist
soil.
Medicinal uses are demulcent and nutritive. Salep is very nutritive
and demulcent (Grieve, 1984). Used in the treatment of cancer. It has
been used as a diet of special value for children and convalescents,
being boiled with water, flavoured and prepared in the same way as
arrowroot. Rich in mucilage, it forms a soothing and demulcent jelly
that is used in the treatment of irritations of the gastro-intestinal canal.
One part of salep to fifty parts of water is sufficient to make a jelly. The
tuber is from which salep is prepared, should be harvested as the plant
dies down after flowering and setting seed.
Drink is prepared from root. Root - cooked. It is a source of 'salep',
a fine white to yellowish-white powder that is obtained by drying the
tuber and grinding it into a powder. Salep is a starch-like substance
with a sweetish taste and a faint somewhat unpleasant smell. It is said
to be very nutritious and is made into a drink or can be added to cereals
and used in making bread etc.
54
Requires has a deep rich soil. Easily is grown in full sun in a moist
sandy loam (Grey, 1938). Orchids are, in general, shallow-rooting
plants of well-drained low-fertility soils. Their symbiotic relationship
with a fungus in the soil allows them to obtain sufficient nutrients and
be able to compete successfully with other plants.
They are very sensitive to the addition of fertilizers or fungicides
since these can harm the symbiotic fungus and thus kill the orchid. This
symbiotic relationship makes them very difficult to cultivate, though
they will sometimes appear uninvited in a garden and will then thrive.
Transplanting can damage the relationship and plants might also
thrive for a few years and then disappear, suggesting that they might be
short-lived perennials. Plants can succeed in a lawn in various parts of
the country. The lawn should not be mown early in the year before or
immediately after flowering.
Plant out bulbs whilst the plant is dormant, preferably in the
autumn. Plants seem to be immune to the predations of rabbits.
Cultivated plants are very susceptible to the predation of slugs and
snails. The flowers have an abominable bug-like smell. The flowers of
the commoner sub-species, O. coriophora subsp. fragrans, however,
are sweetly scented.
Seed of Orchis coriophora are surface sows, preferably as soon as
it is ripe, in the greenhouse and do not allow the compost to dry out.
The seed of this species is extremely simple; it has a minute embryo
surrounded by a single layer of protective cells. It contains very little
food reserves and depends upon a symbiotic relationship with a species
of soil-dwelling fungus. The fungal hyphae invade the seed and enter
the cells of the embryo.
The orchid soon begins to digest the fungal tissue and these acts as
a food supply for the plant until it is able to obtain nutrients from
decaying material in the soil. It is best to use some of the soil that is
growing around established plants in order to introduce the fungus, or
to sow the seed around a plant of the same species and allow the
seedlings to grow on until they are large enough to move. Division of
the tubers as the flowers fade.
This species produces a new tuber towards the end of its growing
season. If this is removed from the plant as its flowers are fading, the
shock to the plant can stimulate new tubers to be formed. The tuber
should be treated as being dormant, whilst the remaining plant should
55
be encouraged to continue in growth in order to give it time to produce
new tubers (Cribb, Bailes, 1989).
Division can also be carried out when the plant has a fully
developed rosette of leaves but before it comes into flower. The entire
new growth is removed from the old tuber from which it has arisen and
is potted up, the cut being made towards the bottom of the stem but
leaving one or two roots still attached to the old tuber. This can often be
done without digging up the plant. The old tuber should develop one or
two new growths, whilst the new rosette should continue in growth and
flower normally.
4.2.2. Code of Georgia: Alpine rivers and their ligneous vegetation
(323 GE)
There are 4 sub-types of this habitat.
Sub-types (323GE-01): On river banks covered with silt or mud
thin scrub can be found - hawthorn (Crataegus kyrtostyla), oriental
hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), sea buckthorn (Hippophaë
rhamnoides) and Jerusalem thorn (Paliurus spina-christi).
Sub-types (323GE-02): The sandy bank of the riparian is covered
with vegetation of thick undergrowth type. Agrostis verticillata,
Calamagrostis glauca, Juncus articulatus, J. bufonius, Pulicaria
uliginosa, etc. can be found from the grasses.
Sub-types (323GE-03): Riverside rock vegetation is under the
influence of floods during which it can completely disappear and then
revive again. Mainly the following annual plants can be found: Carex
capillaris, Agrostis verticillata, Chamaenerion hirsutum, Verbascum
gnaphalodes. However, grasses and perennial dicotyledons given
below also take part in creating this community: Poa glauca, Cyperus
fuscus, Pycreus flavescens, Heleocharis palustris, Fimbristylis
bisumbellata, Juncus articulatus, J. tenageia; as for dycotyledons Pulicaria dysenterica, Mentha aquatica, Eupatorium cannabinum.
Sub-types (323GE-04): Boggy places on the banks of rivers,
streams and narrow mountain valleys are covered with triangular rush
(Juncus bufonius), which expel primary hydrophillic vegetation:
Glyceria plicata, Carex remota, Alopecurus arundinaceus. The
following are named together with triangular rush: Deschampsia
caespitosa, Iris sibirica, Filipendula ulmaria, etc. Real marshes can be
56
found in the coastal line of the lower stream of river Mtkvari. Marshes
here are covered with grasses and moor-grass - Calamagrostis
arundinacea, Beckmannia eruciformis, Typha minima, T. laxmannii,
Sparganium microcarpum, Cladium mariscus, etc. Iris carthaliniae
grows on less moist places.
Plants species: Agrostis verticillata, Alopecurus arundinaceus,
Beckmannia eruciformis, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Calamagrostis
glauca, Carex capillaris, Carex remota, Carpinus orientalis,
Chamaenerion hirsutum, Cladium mariscus, Crataegus kyrtostyla,
Cyperus fuscus, Deschampsia caespitosa, Eupatorium cannabinum,
Filipendula ulmaria, Fimbristylis bisumbellata, Glyceria plicata,
Heleocharis palustris, Hippophaë rhamnoides, Iris carthaliniae, Iris
sibirica, Juncus articulatus, J. bufonius, J. tenageia, Mentha aquatica,
Paliurus spina-christi, Poa glauca, Pulicaria dysenterica, Pulicaria
uliginosa, Pycreus flavescens, Sparganium microcarpum, Typha
minima, T. laxmannii, Verbascum gnaphalodes.
4.2.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants Viola L., Violaceae
The economically potential species are recreational, ornamental and
medicinal plants and other for Viola L. The following species occurs V. odorata L.; V. suavis M. Bieb.; V. oreades M. Bieb.; V. parvula
Tineo (V. sosnowskyi Kapell.); V. kitaibeliana Schult.; V. pyrenaica
Ramond ex DC.; V. reichenbachiana Jord. ex Boreau (V. sylvestris
Lam.); V. pumila Chaix.
Perennial are growing to 0.1 m by 0.15 m. It is in flower from
February to April, and the seeds ripen from April to June. The plant
prefers light, medium and heavy soils and requires well-drained soil.
The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semishade or no shade. It requires moist soil. V. odorata is usually used as
medicinal plant, but almost all wild species are collected instead of it
when available for local population (Figure 12). Sweet violet has a
long and proven history of folk use, especially in the treatment of
cancer and whooping cough (Grieve, 1984). It also contains salicylic
acid, which is used to make aspirin. It is therefore effective in the
treatment of headaches, migraine and insomnia.
57
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Figure 12. A. Viola odorata (LC), near v. Sakire, Borjomi distr. and
flowering in March; B. There are the pollen of V. odorata with
diameters 90 and 95 µm for grains; C. V. parvula is in arid areas; D.
The pollen of V. parvula has diameters 90 and 95 µm for grains; E. V.
suavis (LC), Zekari Pass, v. Abastumani, Adigeni distr.; F-G. Two
different flowers of species V. oreades are in one area, Goderdzi Pass,
Adigeni distr. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
58
The whole plant is anti-inflammatory, diaphoretic, diuretic,
emollient, expectorant, and laxative (Grieve, 1984). It is taken
internally in the treatment of bronchitis, respiratory catarrh, coughs,
asthma, and cancer of the breast, lungs or digestive tract (Bown, 1995).
Externally, it is used to treat mouth and throat infections. The plant can
either be used fresh, or harvested when it comes into flower and then be
dried for later use. The roots is a much stronger expectorant than other
parts of the plant but they also contain the alkaloid violine which at
higher doses is strongly emetic and purgative (Grieve, 1984).
An essential oil from the flowers is used in aromatherapy in the
treatment of bronchial complaints, exhaustion and skin complaints.
Young leaves and flower buds - raw or cooked. Usually is available all
through the winter. The leaves have a very mild flavour, though they
soon become quite tough as they grow older. They make a very good
salad, their mild flavour enabling them to be used in bulk whilst other
stronger-tasting leaves can then be added to give more flavour.
Essentials are ground cover and litmus. An essential oil from the
flowers and leaves is used in perfumery. 1000 kg of leaves produces
about 300–400 g absolute (Uphof, 1959).
The flowers are used to flavour breath fresheners. A pigment
extracted from the flowers is used as litmus to test for acids and
alkaline. Plants can be grown as a ground cover when spaced about 30
cm apart each way. They make an effective weed-excluding cover.
Succeeds in most soils but prefers a cool moist well-drained
humus-rich soil in partial or dappled shade and protection from
scorching winds. When grown in the open it prefers a moderately
heavy rich soil. Plants have done very well in a hot dry sunny position
on our Cornish trial grounds. Tolerates is sandstone and limestone
soils. Plants are hardy to about -20°C.
The plants will often self-sow freely when well-sited. They can
also spread fairly rapidly at the roots when they are growing well
Responds well to an annual replanting in rich loose leafy soils. All
members of this genus have more or less edible leaves and flower buds,
though those species with yellow flowers can cause diarrhoea if eaten
in large quantities. Seed of Viola are best sown in the autumn in a cold
frame. The seed requires a period of cold stratification and the
germination of stored seed can be erratic.
59
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large
enough to handle and plant them out in the summer. Division is in the
autumn or just after flowering. Larger divisions can be planted out
direct into their permanent positions, though we have found that it is
best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a
greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them
out in the summer or the following spring.
5. SCRUBS
5.1. Temperate heath and scrub
In general, there are three types of scrub: 1) Deciduous; 2) Evergreen
and 3) Dwarf. Dry place grove of Jerusalem thorn belongs to deciduous
scrub; “Makvisi” is evergreen scrub, which is found in Abkhazia and
consists of Mediterranean species. Dwarf scrub is found in high
mountains. E.g. grove is of evergreen Caucasian Rhododendron.
5.1.1. Code of Georgia. Evergreen heaths of Kolkheti (40GE)
Sub-types (40GE-01): “Makvisi” in Abkhazia is the type of scrub
which is widespread in the outskirts of Bichvinta and Bombori. The
Mediterranean Arbutus andrachne, Cistus creticus and Hippophaë
rhamnoides are the dominant species.
Sub-types (40GE-02): Boxwood thick undergrowth (Buxus
colchica) was initially part of evergreen understory characteristic to the
Kolkhic forest. After cutting down the forest, laurel/bay scrub
appeared. It is similar to the Colchic forest understory with the box.
Sub-types (40GE-03): The genuine planted forest of the bay
(Laurus nobilis) is preserved on the extremely limited territory near
village Kheta, on Urta Mountain in Samegrelo. It is the remnant of the
relict forest of mioscene period. At present it is almost devastated as a
result of the strong anthropogenic impact. Compatible species is
Arbutus andrachne.
Plants species: Arbutus andrachne, Cistus creticus, Hippophaë
rhamnoides, Buxus colchica, Laurus nobilis.
60
5.1.1.1. Indicator plant species Greek Strawberry Tree - Arbutus
andrachne L., Ericaceae
Indicator species – Arbutus andrachne these are species that respond
quickly to any changes in the environmental conditions and, therefore,
their responses indicate timely information about the state of the
ecosystem monitoring (Figure 13).
A
B
Figure 13. A. Arbutus andrachne is in Adjara and Abkhaseti. B.
Arbutus andrachne is tree with 5 m. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Evergreen plant and height is 5 m. Its branches are bent, smooth bark,
red. Soft red bark is sometimes removed timber and leaves the
wintering period. Young bare twig. Leaf color is green, the bottom side
molego color, 7-10 cm long, and 5-6 cm wide. Leaf has elongated,
naked and evergreen. Leaf is form or elliptical, tip obtuse, sometimes
slightly. Leaf base narrowed. Leaf edges small hands gearing. Petiole is
1.4-3 cm long. Inflorescence is glandular-fur sagvelaa. Inflorescence is
axis 2-5 mm. The flowers are small in size glandular stem, 6-10 mm in
length. Sum deeply 5 excommunicated rounded shape plots. Crown is
yellowish white color, 5-toothed, spherical or spherical-pots. Stamen is
10 mm, crown miles hidden, dusty yarn shorter. Advanced foot, fur
lining. Samtvreebi two kentseruli holes open and have 2 pkhisebri
plugs. Shepusulia kenkrisebri is fruit, mravaltesliani kurkaa, 1-1.5 cm
in diameter. Net wrinkled. Flowering from April until the end of
August, and the seeds are maturing. 2n=26. "Makvisi" Abkhazia is
called a scrub, which is common in the vicinity of Bichvinta and
61
Bombora. Dominant species is in the Mediterranean Arbutus
andrachne, Cistus creticus and Hippophaë rhamnoides. Stand clear bay
(Laurus nobilis) is preserved in a very small area of the village. Kheta
is near Mount Urta, Zugdidi. It Miocene period is relict forest waste.
Currently, a strong anthropogenic impact is almost destroyed.
Concurring species is Arbutus andrachne. Georgian oak (Quercus
iberica) monodominant forest is near the sea include Arbutus
andrachne Abkhazia and Adjara. Evergreen shrubs of Arbutus
andrachne in Colchis on the Black Sea near the mountain slope.
5.1.2. Alpine and Boreal heaths (4060; PAL. CLASS.: 31.4)
Low or dwarf sprawling scrub widespread in the alpine and subalpine
areas, with dominating genera of Ericaceae: Rhododendron, Epigaea,
Arctostaphylos, Erica, with the inclusion of Vaccinium, Dryas,
Daphne, Empetrum, Juniperus.
Sub-types (4060-01): Subalpine shrubland of Caucasian
Rhododendron (Rhododendron caucasicum): evergreen dwarf
shrubland, which creates subalpine scrub throughout the Caucasus,
from the upper forest line (1800-1900 m. a.s.l.) to the upper border of
the alpine zone (2300-2900 m).
This type of vegetation covers slopes of the northern exposition.
The life cycle of the plant is linked with the dynamics of the snow
cover, which makes this species extremely sensitive to the climate
change.
Characteristic species are: Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea,
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi subsp. caucasica, Empetrum caucasicum,
Daphne glomerata, Pyrola minor, P. rotundifolia, Anemone
fasciculata, Calamagrostis arundinacea. Occasionally Juniperus
sabina, Salix kazbegensis are also found.
In Abkhazia, grove of the Rhododendron is not found on granite
rather than limestone soils. In this area, the rowan (Sorbus boissieri,
Geranium sylvaticum, Anemone aurea, Trollius patulus) grows along
with the grove of evergreen Rhododendron.
In Svaneti, the Rhododendron is commonly associated with a fern
Athyrium alpestre. Mountain wild garlic (Allium victorialis) creates
association together with mountain blueberry and the grove of
evergreen azaleas in small and central Caucasus.
62
Sub-types (4060-02): Mountain avens (Dryas caucasica): This
type of scrub is rare and holds a small territory on rocky and stony
slopes at the northern and north-west exposition, at the height of 2000 –
2600 meters a.s.l. Typical to limestone and moistened slopes with
incline up to 20-50 degrees.
Strongly affected is by a negative impact of excessive grazing and
climatic changes. Characteristic species are: Daphne glomerata,
Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Selaginella helvatica, Deschampsia flexuosa,
Primula amoena, Polygonum viviparum, Leontodon danubialis, and
Parnassia palustris.
Sub-types (4060-03): Crowberry – blueberry (Vaccinium and
Empetrum can be found together) tickets are typical for the Alpine belt,
where there are growing on the thin-layer rocky biotope. This cocommunity belongs to the Empetrum-Vaccinium scrub type of westerneastern European high mountains.
Sub-types (4060-04): Juniper thicket (Juniperus spp.) dwarf
juniper shrubs (Juniperus hemisphaerica and J. sabina) are found
throughout the Caucasus Mountains.
In western Caucasus, juniper shrubs intrude in the grove of
evergreen Rhododendrons (Rhododendron). Woronowia speciosa
(=Geum speciosum) is a species typical to the community of juniper of
limestone habitat.
The juniper thicket community in Svaneti is dominated by
Juniperus depressa. Associated species are: Empetrum caucasicum,
Vaccinium vitis-idaea, V. myrtillus, Rosa svanetica.
Sub-types (4060-05): Azalea thicket (Rhododendron luteum)
consists of a scrub of deciduous species of azalea with yellow flowers.
Different from the grove of evergreen Rhododendrons, it does not form
a bound scrub.
Species composition varies dependent on the soil type. The habitat
is formed by admixture of the azaleas and subalpine grasses.
The following plants are common: Geranium psilostemon, Achillea
latiloba, Cirsium obvalatum, Campanula hemschinica.
Plants species: Achillea latiloba, Allium victorialis, Anemone
aurea, Anemone fasciculata, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi subsp. caucasica,
Athyrium alpestre, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Campanula
hemschinica, Cirsium obvalatum, Daphne glomerata, Deschampsia
flexuosa, Empetrum caucasicum, Geranium psilostemon, Geranium
63
sylvaticum, Juniperus hemisphaerica, J. sabina, Leontodon danubialis,
Parnassia palustris, Polygonum viviparum, Primula amoena, Pyrola
minor, P. rotundifolia, Rhododendron caucasicum, Rhododendron
luteum, Rosa svanetica, Selaginella helvatica, Sorbus boissieri, Trollius
patulus, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Woronowia speciosa.
5.1.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Deka – Rhododendron caucasicum Pall., Ericaceae
Edificatory species - Rhododendron caucasicum is that have a special
role to contribute in ecosystem structure and medicinal plants (Figure
14) and it is evergreen shrub growing to 1.5 m. It is in leaf all year, in
flower from June to July. It grows only on northern shaded slopes in
and above treeline ecotone. The plant prefers light and medium soils
and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid soils and can
grow in very acid soil. It can grow in semi-shade. It requires moist soil.
A
B
C
Figure 14. A. Rhododendron caucasicum is in treeline and alpine
2100-2900 m. B. Rhododendron caucasicum is shrub till 1-1.5 m; C.
Pollen of Rhododendron caucasicum has length of the horizontal height
as 45-46 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Medicinal use is Cardiac. Tea made from the plant is used to treat
heart and circulation malfunctions, but it should not be used without
expert supervision because of toxicity of the plant. The flowers are
analgesic, anaesthetic and sedative. They are applied externally in the
treatment of arthritis, caries, itch, maggots and traumatic injuries
(Duke, Ayensu, 1985). Edible uses are none known. Other uses are
fuels. Wood is used as fuel in high mountain areas. Succeeds is in most
64
humus-rich lime-free soils except those of a dry arid nature or those
that are heavy or clayey. Prefers is a peaty or well-drained sandy loam.
A pH between 4.5 and 5.5 is ideal. Succeeds in sun or shade, the
warmer the climate the more shade a plant requires (Huxley, 1992).
Hardy is to about -15°C. It does not compete well with surface-rooting
trees. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus
(Huxley, 1992).
Seed of Rhododendron caucasicum is best sown in a greenhouse as
soon as it is ripe in the autumn and given artificial light. Alternatively
sow the seed in a lightly shaded part of the warm greenhouse in late
winter or in a cold greenhouse in April. Surface-sow the seed and do
not allow the compost to become dry (Huxley, 1992). Pot up the
seedlings when they are large enough to handle and grow on in a
greenhouse for at least the first winter. Layering is in late July. Takes is
15-24 months. Cuttings of half-ripe wood planted in August in a frame
are difficult to cultivate.
5.2. Sclerophyllous scrub (Matorral)
5.2.1. Code of Georgia: Mountain xerophytic scrub (50GE1)
Xerophytic scrub is wide-spread in Samktske-Javakheti region at the
altitude range 900-2200 m. a.s.l. It dominates in the river Mtkvari gorge
and other gorges of Meskheti and Tetrobi limestone plateau
(Javakheti).
Edificator species include milk-vetch (Astracantha microcephala),
prickly thrift (Acantholimon armenum, A. glumaceum) and elements of
shibliak, including Jerusalem thorn (Paliurus spina-christi), black
buckthorn (Rhamnus pallasii), sumatch (Cotinus coggygria), berberis
(Berberis vulgaris), thorny manna bush (Atraphaxis caucasica),
common cotoneaster (Cotoneaster integerrimus), oriental hawthorn
(Crataegus orientalis), service berry (Amelanchier ovalis), honey
suckle (Lonicera iberica).
Sub-types (50GE1-01): Xerophyte scrub dominated by spiraea
(Spiraea hypericifolia) is found in arid regions of Meskheti and Kartli,
together with Pyrus salicifolia, Cotoneaster fontanesi, Rhamnus
palasii, Rh. cathartica.
Sub-types (50GE1-02): In the inner Kartli, on rocky and stony
slopes on the left bank of the river Mtkvari, the following plants are
65
dominating: Rhamnus palasii, Astracantha microcephala, Atraphaxis
spinosa, Astragalus fabaceus, A. bungeanus, Jurinea elegans,
Sosnowskya amblyolepis, Trigonella striata, T. glomerata, Althaea
hirsuta, Acantholimon armenum.
Sub-types (50GE1-03): In the surroundings of Tbilisi, the scrub
species composition is similar to other sub-types but the dominant
shrub species are Spiraea crenata, Cerasus incana, Cotoneaster spp.,
Crataegus spp., and dominant herbs are Crocus adamii, Iridodyctium
reticulatum, Juno caucasica, Iris pumila, Fritillaria caucasica,
Hypericum perforatum, Seseli grandivitattum, Inula cordata.
Sub-types (50GE1-04): In ruderal places, shrub of Spiraea
hypericifolia are found on erosion stricken grazed slopes (Svaneti).
Dominant herbs are Melica transsilvanica, Helianthemum
grandiflorum, Cynanchum albowianum, Thymus serpyllum, Satureja
spicigera.
Plants species: Acantholimon armenum, A. glumaceum, Althaea
hirsuta, Amelanchier ovalis, Astracantha microcephala, Astragalus
fabaceus, A. bungeanus, Atraphaxis caucasica, Atraphaxis spinosa,
Berberis vulgaris, Cerasus incana, Cotinus coggygria, Cotoneaster
fontanesi, Cotoneaster integerrimus, Crataegus orientalis, Crocus
adamii, Cynanchum albowianum, Fritillaria caucasica, Helianthemum
grandiflorum, Hypericum perforatum, Inula cordata, Iridodyctium
reticulatum, Iris pumila, Juno caucasica, Jurinea elegans, Lonicera
iberica, Melica transsilvanica, Paliurus spina-christi, Pyrus salicifolia,
Rhamnus palasii, Rh. cathartica, Satureja spicigera, Seseli
grandivitattum, Sosnowskya amblyolepis, Spiraea crenata, Spiraea
hypericifolia, Thymus serpyllum,Trigonella striata, T. glomerata.
5.2.1.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Common barberry – Berberis vulgaris L., Berberidaceae
The economically potential species - Berberis vulgaris is recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants and other. Grows is from lower up to
upper montane belt 0-2300 m, in forests, edges of the forests, in gorges.
Shrub is up to 2.5 m tall, rarelly higher tree. Snow cover is <0.3 m. The
exposition is for all directions and inclination till 30°C. Sunny edge is
normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West Wall.
Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils and can grow in heavy clay
66
and nutritionally poor soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It
can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or
moist soil (Figure 15).
A
B
Figure 15. A. Berberis vulgaris is a shrub till 2.5 m. B. The fruits are
used as medicinal plant for food. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Young branches greyish-green, at flowering become greyish or
yellowish. Second year twigs grey with 3-pronged spine, on younger
branches upper spines are single. Strongly branching, with markedly
elongated branches, yellowish or yellowish -purple when young; in the
second year turning gray; spines usually tripartite, 2 cm long; Leaves 4
cm long, thin, glabrous, both surfaces green, from elliptical to oblong
lanceolate, obtuse, rarely acute, narrows towars the base, margins
serrate, tapering into a petiole, greenish and distinctly reticular beneath;
inflorescence racemiform, 6 cm long, with 15-25 flowers; pedicels 5-12
mm long; flowers clustered in multifloral drooping racemes; sepals and
petals obovate; berries ellipsoidal or ellipsoidal- oblong, 12 mm long,
bright red. Fruit is elliptic, usually red, rarelly yellow or rose.
Flowering is in May-June. Fruits are in September-October.
Most species of Berberis are of economic importance, since the
berries of all the species are delicious raw and as preserves. The widely
cultivated B. vulgaris is particularly well known in this respect
(Akhalkatsi, 2015b). Species of Berberis are equally important as
producers of nectar and as a source of yellow dye. At the same time
they are notorious as intermediate hosts of rust fungi. The wood of this
species is hard, and has bright yellow sapwood. It is used in the
67
manufacture of cobbler's nails and tools for lathework; the berries
contain malic acid, which is used in confectionery, and also both yield
a good dye used to color hides and wools a lemon yellow. It is a fine
nectar plant and a very striking ornamental shrub, due to the variety of
its red foliage. It is notorious as the host of the aecial stage of the rust
Puccinia graminis Pers., which in turn infects wheat and other grasses
that develop in the late summer and fall. Although it is recommended
that barberry be destroyed we are against this since the most dangerous
form of rust and the yellow rust of grain Puccinia glumarum, does not
develop on barberry. Fruit is raw or cooked.
Rich in vitamin C, the fruit has a very acid flavour and is mainly
used in preserves, though children and some adults seem to like it raw
when it is fully ripe. A refreshing lemon-like drink can be made from
the fruit. The fruits are about 10 mm long. Young leaves - used as
flavouring or as an acid nibble. They can be used in much the same
way as sorrel (Rumex acetosa). The dried young leaves and shoot tips
make a refreshing tea. Barberries have long been used as herbal remedy
for the treatment of a variety of complaints. All parts of the plant can be
used though the yellow root bark is the most concentrated source of
active ingredients. The plant is mainly used nowadays as a tonic to the
gallbladder to improve the flow of bile and ameliorate conditions such
as gallbladder pain, gallstones and jaundice. The bark and root bark are
antiseptic, astringent, cholagogue, hepatic, purgative, refrigerant,
stomachic and tonic. The bark is harvested in the summer and can be
dried for storing. It is especially useful in cases of jaundice, general
debility and biliousness, but should be used with caution. The flowers
and the stem bark are antirheumatic.
The roots are astringent and antiseptic. They have been pulverized
in a little water and used to treat mouth ulcers. A team of the roots and
stems has been used to treat stomach ulcers. The root bark has also
been used as a purgative and treatment for diarrhoea and is diaphoretic.
A tincture of the root bark has been used in the treatment of
rheumatism, sciatica etc. The root bark is a rich source of the alkaloid
berberine -about 6%. Berberine, universally present in rhizomes of
Berberis species, has marked antibacterial effects. Since it is not
appreciably absorbed by the body, it is used orally in the treatment of
various enteric infections, especially bacterial dysentery. It should not
be used with Glycyrrhiza species (Liquorice) because this nullifies the
68
effects of the berberine. Berberine has also shown antitumour activity
and is also effective in the treatment of hypersensitive eyes, inflamed
lids and conjunctivitis. A tea made from the fruits is antipruritic,
antiseptic, appetizer, astringent, diuretic, expectorant and laxative. It is
also used as a febrifuge. The fruit, or freshly pressed juice, is used in
the treatment of liver and gall bladder problems, kidney stones,
menstrual pains etc. The leaves are astringent and antiscorbutic. A tea
made from the leaves is used in the treatment of coughs. The plant is
used by homeopaths as a valuable remedy for kidney and liver
insufficiency. Other uses include malaria, and opium and morphine
withdrawal.
Plants can be grown as a medium-size hedge in exposed positions
but they cannot tolerate extreme maritime exposure. They are very
tolerant of trimming but can also be left untrimmed if required. A good
quality yellow dye is obtained from the roots, bark and stem. As well as
being used on cloth, it is also used to stain wood. The unripe fruit is
dried and used as beads. Wood is soft, very hard, fine grained yellow.
Used for carving, toothpicks, mosaics etc. It is also used as a fuel.
Prefers a warm moist loamy soil but it is by no means fastidious,
succeeding in thin, dry and shallow soils. Prefers is a light rich rather
dry soil according to another report. Grows is well in heavy clay soils.
Succeeds in full sun or light shade but requires a moist soil when grown
in the shade of trees. Hardy is to about -35°C. A very ornamental plant,
the barberry was at one time cultivated for its edible fruit, there are
several named varieties. 'Dulcis' the fruit of which is sweet or slightly
sour. 'Asperma' is a seedless form that was often used in France to
make a jam. An alternate host is of 'black-stem rust' of wheat so it has
been extensively grubbed up from its habitats. Hybridizes freely with
other members of this genus, though it usually breeds fairly true to
type. Can be pruned back quite severely, it resprouts well from the
base.
Seed of Berberis vulgaris is best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold
frame, when it should germinate in late winter or early spring. Seed
from over-ripe fruit will take longer to germinate, whilst stored seed
may require cold stratification and should be sown in a cold frame as
early in the year as possible. The seedlings are subject to damping off,
so should be kept well ventilated. When the seedlings are large enough
to handle, prick them out into individual pots and grow them on in a
69
cold frame. If growth is sufficient, it can be possible to plant them out
into their permanent positions in the autumn, but generally it is best to
leave them in the cold frame for the winter and plant them out in late
spring or early summer of the following year. Germination averages out
at about 90%. Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame.
Cuttings are of mature wood of the current season's growth, preferably
with a heel, October/November in a frame. Suckers is removed in late
autumn/early winter and planted out in situ or potted up and planted out
in late spring. Native is to Central Europe, Mediterranean, Caucasus.
5.2.2. Code of Georgia: Scrub dominated by Paliurus spina-christi
Mill., Rhamnaceae (50GE2; 40C0; PAL. CLASS.: 31.8B7)
Jerusalem thorn scrub (Paliurus spina-christi) is widespread in Georgia
(Figure 16), mostly in the eastern part of the country, in valleys of
Mtkvari, Iori, and Alazani. Scrub has plants resistant to drought:
Ephedra procera, Rhamnus pallasii, Pistacia mutica, Atraphaxis
spinosa, Caragana grandiflora, Cotoneaster nummularia.
A
B
Figure 16. A. Paliurus spina-christi is a shrub in arid areas. B. The
flower is protected from water. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The dominant plant is Jerusalem thorn (Paliurus spina-christi).
Externally similar is to the deciduous Ponto-Sarmatic scrub, which can
be found in the Ponto and Sarmat regions of the Sub-Euxine province
of the Black Sea and Turkey.
Dominant plants, besides the Jerusalem thorn, are Rhamnus
pallasii, Cotinus coggygria, Cerasus incana, Lonicera iberica, Pyrus
70
salicifolia, Amygdalus georgica, Colutea orientalis, Caragana
grandiflora, Ephedra procera, Juniperus foetidissima, Punica
granatum, Rhus coriaria.
Plants species: Paliurus spina-christi, Rhamnus pallasii, Cotinus
coggygria, Cerasus incana, Lonicera iberica, Pyrus salicifolia,
Amygdalus georgica, Colutea orientalis, Caragana grandiflora,
Ephedra procera, Juniperus foetidissima, Punica granatum, Rhus
coriaria.
5.2.2.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) species Barbed Goatgrass Aegilops triuncialis L., Poaceae
Crop wild relatives (CWR) are determined by the exchange of gene
crops and germaplazma used agricultural crop domestication ancestor
species - Aegilops triuncialis (barbed Goatgrass). Family of Poaceae
Barnh. with genus Aegilops L., 2 varieteis - Aegilops triuncialis var.
persica and Aegilops triuncialis var. triuncialis (Akhalkatsi, 2015c).
Synonyms: Aegilops squarrosa L., A. triaristata Willd., A. ovata L.
subsp. triaristata (Willd.) Jav., Triticum triunciale (L.) Raspail (Figure
17).
Annual is herbaceous plant, 20-45 cm high. Stems are in most
cases erect. Leaves are linear, flat. Blades, ligules and the upper part of
sheaths are ciliate.
Ears are (3) 3.5-7 cm long (not counting awns), with 4-5 (less
frequently with 3 or 6) fully developed spikelets; under fruits would
break at their base and fall off entirely.
At the bottom of the ear there are 2-3 rudimentary spikelets.
Cartilaginous-leathery, with 7-13 broad veins, scabrous or shortly
pilose, acuminated with 2-3 awns slightly deviated from the ear axis.
Glumes of the apical spikelet are 4.5-6 mm long.
Ribs of the ear axis are often covered with sharp knobs only,
without longer prickles. Kernels do not accrete to palea. Wind- and
self-pollinated are plant.
Autochore and propagated are by seed. Blossoms in May; bears
fruit in June. 2n=28.
71
A
B
C
Figure 17. A. A. triuncialis is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti; B.
Ears are 3 pieces with 3.5-7 cm long; C. Aegilops triuncialis growing
to 20-45 cm high. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The overall distribution - Crimea, Caucasus (Daghestan, Eastern
and Southern Transcaucasia, Talysh), Middle Asia (river valleys of
Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya in their upper course, western Tien Shan,
Gissar-Darvaz, Kopet Dagh), Mediterranean region, Asia Minor and
Iran. Ecdemic is in many other extratropical countries. Distribution is
in Samtskhe-Javakheti region - very rare plant. Only 5 popualtions have
been found. The number of individuals is much less than of A.
cylindrica.
Annual, ephemeral plant is growing to 0.3 m. Drought-resistant.
Grows is in semi-deserts, on stony and small-grained soils, gravels,
near roads, as a weed on field edges and laylands, as well as over
foothills reaching the lower mountain zone. Dry acid is grassland and
stony habitats. Argillaceous are semi-deserts, dry hills and as a weed of
cultivation. The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils, requires
well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. It cannot grow in the
shade. It requires dry or moist soil. Seed - sow March/April in situ and
only just cover the seed. Make sure the soil does not dry out before the
72
plants germinate. Seed can also be sown early March in a greenhouse
and planted out in May.
Threat assessment - Status is not determined for this plant. The
population and individual number is too low and it deserves obtaining
the status of NT. Ex situ status are seeds of A. triuncialis from different
region of Georgia are present in seed banks of USDA, ICARDA, VIR,
IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from Samtskhe-Javakheti are
kept at the TBG&BI. In situ status - No information available
Fodders are plants. Consumeds are well by all kinds of livestock
until the fruiting phase. This species is believed to have hybridized with
primitive forms of Triticum spp. (Wheat) to produce some of the more
modern Triticum spp. It could, therefore, be of value in wheat breeding
programmes. Barbed goat grass is spread by seed dispersal only.
Therefore, any method that reduces seed spread will reduce the spread
of the plant. Population disturbances and habitat fragmentation is
expected when road construction works are undertaken. 1. Maintain the
current populations of A. triuncialis in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. 2.
Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat
management. A. triuncialis should be declared as species of high
economic value as genetic ancestor for hexaploid bread wheat. The
territory where A. triuncialis is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti does
not needs special conservation measures to be undertaken. The
conservation measures of this species should be directed on
establishment of ex situ seed collections and public education on
importance of this plant as ancestor of the bread wheat. The local
population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature
protection should be informed about high conservation value of this
species. The popualtions of this species will be is species is crossed
with winter wheat producing viable hybrids. The genome is used in
molecular systematic studies.
5.2.3. Code of Georgia: Tragacanthic scrub (50GE3)
At middle elevations are in the arid parts of Meskheti, Kartli, and
Kakheti, this community sub-type involves 199 species of vascular
plants. In Meskheti, the habitat is found along the river Mtkvari (9001300 m. a.s.l.) and gorges of the rivers Uraveli, Otskhe, Potskhovi,
Kvabliani and Tsinubnistskali. Tragacanthic vegetation is inclined into
73
the pine forest near village Damala. Dominating shrubs and grasses are
Astragalus arguricus, A. raddeanus, Onobrychis sosnowskyi, Vicia
akhmaganica, Salvia compar, Scutellaria sosnowskyi, and Psephellus
meskheticus. In some areas Tragacanthic communities are intruded into
the oak forest. In such areas, the following species are found together
with the dominant plants: Dianthus calocephalus, Silene brotherana,
Erysimum caucasicum, Coronilla orientalis, Satureja spicigera, S.
laxiflora, Teucrium polium, T. nuchense, T. orientale, Sideritis comosa,
Bupleurum exaltatum, Convolvulus lineatus, Campanula hohenacker,
etc. Tragacanthic communities of high mountains have 157 species of
vascular plants on the Javakheti plateau (villages Azavreti, Aragva,
Kartsakha), in the river Paravani gorge, and near villages Niali and
Busmareti in the southern-east of Meskheti region, in the river
Kazamretistskali gorge, and in Ziareti mountain. Milk-vetch –
Astracantha microcephala and A. caucasicus are the aedificator species
in these areas. In the central Greater Caucasus, (Stepantsminda district)
Tragacanthic communities with Astracantha denudata are dominating.
The scrub grows in the subalpine zone, at the altitude 1800-2000 m.
a.s.l., at the slopes of dry gorges. The following species comprise the
community: Elytrigia gracillima, Allium albidum, Allium ruprechtii,
Alopecurus vaginatus, Artemisia chamaemelifolia, A. marschalliana, A.
splenders, Asperula albovii, Astragalus kazbeki, Berberis vulgaris,
Bromopsis riparia, Campanula hohenackeri, Carex buschiorum,
Dianthus cretaceus, Ephedra procera, Festuca sulcata, Juniperus
hemisphaerica, Koeleria cristata, Melica transsilvanica, Myosotis
arvense, Onosma armeniaca, Oxytropis cyanea, Scutellaria leptostegia,
Spiraea hypericifolia, Stipa caucasica, Stipa tirsa.
Plants species: Allium albidum, A. ruprechtii, Alopecurus
vaginatis, Artemisia chamaemelifolia, A. marschalliana, A. splenders,
Asperula albovii, Astracantha microcephala. A. denudatus, A.
caucasicus, Astragalus arguricus, A. raddeanus, A. kazbeki, Berberis
vulagaris, Bromopsis riparia, Bupleurum exaltatum, Campanula
hohenackeri, Carex buschiorum, Convolvulus lineatus, Coronilla
orientalis, Dianthus calocephalus, D. cretaceus, Elytrigia gracillima,
Ephedra procera, Erysimum caucasicum, Festuca sulcata, Juniperus
hemisphaeriaca, Koeleria cristata, Melica transsilvanica, Myosotis
arvense, Onobrychis sosnowskyi, Onosma armeniaca, Oxytropis
cyanea, Psephellus meskheticus, Salvia compar, Satureja spicigera, S.
74
laxiflora, Scutellaria leptostegia, S. sosnowskyi, Sideritis omosa,
Silene brotherana, Spiraea hypericifolia, Stipa caucasica, S. tirsa,
Teucrium polium, T. nuchense, T. orientale, Vicia akhmaganica.
5.2.3.1. Edificatory plant species Allium L., Liliaceae
Edificatory species of Allium is that have a special role to contribute in
ecosystem structure: A. albidum Fisch. ex M. Bieb.; A. atroviolaceum
Boiss.; A. fuscoviolaceum Fomin; A. karsianum Fomin; A. kunthianum
Vved.; A. gramineum K. Koch; A. leucanthum K. Koch; A. moschatum
L.; A. ponticum Miscz. ex Grossh.; A. pseudoflavum Vved.; A.
rotundum L.; A. victorialis L.; A. vineale L. (Figure 18).
Allium victorialis is grown in Tabatskhuri area and in AbulSamsari range. But we did not find it on the territory of SamtskheJavakheti. One big population was found in Tskhratskaro Pass, where
local population of Javakheti is collecting A. victorialis and prepares
marinade for winter.
It grows on subalpine meadows. It is in leaf from October to
August, in flower from June to July, and the seeds ripen from August to
September. The plant prefers light and medium soils. The plant prefers
acid, neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry
or moist soil (Nadirashvili, Gvaladze, Akhalkatsi, 2006).
Almost all species of Allium have medicinal properties. Most
valuable species is A. vineale. The whole plant is antiasthmatic, blood
purifier, carminative, cathartic, diuretic, expectorant, hypotensive,
stimulant and vasodilator. A tincture is used to prevent worms and colic
in children, and also as a remedy for croup (Moerman, 1998).
The raw root can be eaten to reduce blood pressure and also to ease
shortness of breath. Although no other specific mention of medicinal
uses has been seen for this species, members of this genus are in
general very healthy additions to the diet.
They contain sulphur compounds (which give them their onion
flavour) and when added to the diet on a regular basis they help reduce
blood cholesterol levels, act as a tonic to the digestive system and also
tonify the circulatory system. Flowers, leaves and root are used raw or
cooked. Rather stringy, they are used as a garlic substitute.
75
A
B
D
E
G
H
C
F
J
I
L
M
N
Figure 18. A. Allium albidum; B. A. atroviolaceum; C. A. fuscoviolaceum; D. A. karsianum; E. A. kuntheanum; F. A. gramineum; G. A.
leucanthum; H. A. ponticum; I. A. rotundum; J. Pollen is for A. rotundum and it has length of the horizontal height is 30-32 µm and distanth
height is 40-43 µm; L. A. pseudoflavum M. A. victorialis; N. A.
vinneale. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
76
The leaves are available from late autumn until the following
summer, when used sparingly they make a nice addition to the salad
bowl. Bulb is used as flavouring. Rather small, with a very strong
flavour and odour. The bulbs are 10–30 mm in diameter. Bulbils are
raw or cooked. Rather small and fiddly, they have a strong garlic-like
flavour. Other uses are Repellent. The juice of the plant is used as a
moth repellent. The whole plant is said to repel insects and moles. The
juice of the plant can be rubbed on exposed parts of the body to repel
biting insects, scorpions etc. Prefers is a sunny position in a light welldrained soil. The bulbs should be planted fairly deeply. Grows well
with most plants, especially roses, carrots, beet and chamomile, but it
inhibits the growth of legumes. This plant is a bad companion for
alfalfa, each species negatively affecting the other. Members of this
genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer. Plants do not need
any encouragement. They are more than capable of propagating
themselves. Bulbils are produced in abundance in the summer and are
the main means by which the plant spreads.
5.2.4. Code of Georgia: Phryganoidic scrub (50GE4)
Ephedra procera and Tanacetum argyrophyllum are dominating shrub
species. In Meskheti, near the village Khertvisi, tickets of Ephedra
procera are particularly dense. Other characteristic species of this
community are Caucasian forest cypress (Cytisus caucasicus), broadleaved yellow acacia (Caragana grandiflora), clove (Dianthus
calocephalus), Italian sainfoin (Hedysarum turkewiczii), Meskheti
sainfoin (Onobrychis meskhetica), germander (Teucrium polium),
Sosnovski thyme (Thymus sosnowskyi), woundworts (Stachys
atherocalyx, S. iberica), fescue (Festuca valesiaca), Hohenaker
creeping bellflower (Campanula hohenackeri), creeping bellflower (C.
raddeana), garlic-leaved bellflower (C. alliariifolia), Sosnowski
fragrant wormwood (Artemisia sosnowskyi), feather grass (Stipa
capillata), feather grass (S. pulcherrima), crested hair-grass (Koeleria
cristata); Elytrigia elongatiformis, E. trychophora, E. caespitosa,
Agropyron repens var. subulatus, Valerianella plagiostephana.
Plants species: Tanacetum argyrophyllum, Ephedra procera
Cytisus caucasicus, Caragana grandiflora, Dianthus calocephalus,
Hedysarum turkewiczii, Onobrychis meskhetica, Teucrium polium,
77
Thymus sosnowskyi, Stachys atherocalyx, S. iberica, Festuca valesiaca,
Campanula hohenackeri, C. raddeana, C. alliariifolia, Artemisia
sosnowskyi, Stipa capillata, S. pulcherrima, Koeleria cristata Elytrigia
elongatiformis, E. trychophora, E. caespitosa, Agropyron repens var.
subulatus, Valerianella plagiostephana.
5.2.4.1. Indicator plant species Ephedra L., Ephedraceae
Indicator species of Ephedra it these are species that respond quickly to
any changes in the environmental conditions. There are only two
species of Ephedra in Georgia - E. procera Fisch. & C.A.Mey. and E.
distachya L. Only one - E. procera is distributed in Meskheti (Figure
19).
A
B
Figure 19. A. Ephedra procera is in city Tbilisi on mount Tabor; B.
Pollen of Ephedra procera has length of the horizontal height as 21-32
µm and distanth height as 45-55 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
An evergreen shrub is growing to 1.8 m. It is in leaf all year, in
flower from June to July. The flowers are dioecious and individual
flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on
any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is
required. The plant not is self-fertile. The plant prefers light and
medium soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid,
neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or
moist soil and can tolerate drought. Medicinal uses are depurative and
78
diuretic. The stems of most members of this genus contain the alkaloid
ephedrine and are valuable in the treatment of asthma and many other
complaints of the respiratory system. The stems are depurative and
diuretic (Uphof, 1959). The whole plant can be used at much lower
concentrations than the isolated constituents - unlike using the isolated
ephedrine, using the whole plant rarely gives rise to side-effects
(Chevallier, 1996).
The stems can be used fresh or dried and are usually made into a
tea, though they can also be eaten raw. The young stems are best if
eating them raw, though older stems can be used if a tea is made. The
stems can be harvested at any time of the year and are dried for later
use.
Fruit are raw. A sweet flavour, but fairly boring. The fruit is about
8 mm in diameter. Other uses have a Ground cover. Plants can be used
for ground cover, spaced about 60 cm apart each way. Local population
periodically collects big amount of green mass for private
pharmaceutical manufacturers. Requires are a well-drained loamy soil
and a sunny position. Established plants are drought resistant and are
also lime tolerant (Huxley, 1992). One report says that this species is
frost-tender, but this is not our experience. Plants do not flower
profusely or regularly in Britain. Our plants have been producing
reasonable crops since 1991. It is Dioecious. Male and female plants
must be grown if seed is required.
Seed of the Ephedra are best sown as soon as it is ripe in the
autumn in a greenhouse (Huxley, 1992). It can also be sown in spring
in a greenhouse in sandy compost. Prick out the seedlings into
individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle and grow
them on for at least their first winter in a greenhouse. Plant out in the
spring or early summer after the last expected frosts and give some
protection in their first winter. Division is in spring or autumn. It is
layering. Protection measure is cultivation, establishment of managed
reserves.
5.2.5. Code of Georgia: Shibliak (50GE5)
Widely is distributed in Georgia, most typical for Kartli and Kakheti
arid foothills. The habitat is largely degraded as a result of overgrazing.
79
Besides, it is under a strong anthropogenic pressure in the areas near
roads and industrial landscapes.
Edificator species are: Paliurus spina-christi, Berberis vulgaris,
Cotynus coggygria, Punica granatum, Spiraea hypericifolia, Crataegus
orientalis, Rhamnus palasii, Athrapaxis spinosa, Ephedra procera,
Pyrus salicifolia, Cornus mas. Plants species: Tanacetum
argyrophyllum, Ephedra procera, Cytisus caucasicus, Caragana
grandiflora, Dianthus calocephalus, Hedysarum turkewiczii,
Onobrychis meskhetica, Teucrium polium, Thymus sosnowskyi, Stachys
atherocalyx, S. iberica, Festuca valesiaca, Campanula hohenackeri, C.
raddeana, C. alliariifolia, Artemisia sosnowskyi, Stipa capillata, S.
pulcherrima, Koeleria cristata, Elytrigia elongatiformis, E.
trychophora, E. caespitosa, Agropyron repens var. subulatus,
Valerianella plagiostephana.
5.2.5.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Wormwood - Artemisia L., Asteraceae
The economically potential species - Artemisia are as recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants and other. The following species of
Artemisia are occurring: A. absinthium L.; A. scoparia Waldst. & Kit.;
A. annua L.; A. chamaemelifolia Vill.; A. armeniaca Lam.; A. vulgaris
L.; A. incana (L.) Druce; A. fragrans Willd. (Figure 20).
A
B
Figure 20. A. Artemisia vulgare is in city Kazbegi; B. Pollen of
Artemisia vulgare has length of the horizontal height as 21-23 µm.
Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
80
Artemisia absinthum is very abundant in Meskheti and as well in
Javakheti. It is growing mainly in ruderal places near settlements and in
road sides. Therefore it was not reasonable to precede population
analysis and mapping of this species.
It is grown on ruderal placed, cultivated beds and dry slopes.
Perennial is growing to 1 m by 0.6 m. It is in flower from July to
August. The plant prefers light and medium soils, requires well-drained
soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil.
The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very
alkaline soil. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It requires dry or
moist soil and can tolerate drought.
Medicinal uses are anthelmintic, antiseptic, antispasmodic,
carminative, cholagogue, emmenagogue, febrifuge, homeopathy,
hypnotic, and stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vermifuge. Wormwood is
a very bitter plant with a long history of use as a medicinal herb. It is
valued especially for its tonic effect on the liver, gallbladder and
digestive system, and for its vermicidal activity (Grieve, 1984).
It is an extremely useful medicine for those with weak and underactive digestion. It increases stomach acid and bile production,
improving digestion and the absorption of nutrients. It also eases wind
and bloating and, if taken regularly, helps the body return to full vitality
after a prolonged illness (Grieve, 1984).
The leaves and flowering shoots are anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitumor, carminative,
cholagogue, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypnotic, stimulant, stomachic,
tonic and vermifuge (Grieve, 1984).
The plant is harvested as it is coming into flower and then dried for
later use. Use with caution, the plant should be taken internally in small
doses for short-term treatment only, preferably under the supervision of
a qualified practitioner. It should not be prescribed for children or
pregnant women.
See also the notes above on toxicity. The extremely bitter leaves
are chewed to stimulate the appetite. The bitter taste on the tongue sets
off a reflex action, stimulating stomach and other digestive secretions.
The leaves have been used with some success in the treatment of
anorexia nervosa.
The plant is applied externally to bruises and bites. A warm
compress has been used to ease sprains and strained muscles.
81
A homeopathic remedy is made from the leaves. It is used to
stimulate bile and gastric juice production and to treat disorders of the
liver and gall bladder.
Condiment is in these areas. Leaves are occasionally used as
flavouring. Caution is advised, prolonged use is known to have a
detrimental effect - see the notes above on toxicity.
This herb was at one time the principal flavouring in the liqueur
'Absinthe' but its use has now been banned in most countries since
prolonged consumption can lead to chronic poisoning, epileptiform
convulsions and degeneration of the central nervous system.
Other uses are repellent and strewing. The fresh or dried shoots are
said to repel insects and mice, they have been laid amongst clothing to
repel moths and have also been used as a strewing herb.
An infusion of the plant is said to discourage slugs and insects. The
plant contains substances called sesquiterpene lactones, these are
strongly insecticidal. Succeeds in any soil but it is best in a poor dry
one with a warm aspect.
Established plants are very drought tolerant. Plants are longer lived,
hardier and more aromatic when they are grown in a poor dry soil.
Easily grown in a well-drained circumneutral or slightly alkaline loamy
soil, preferring a sunny position prefers a shady situation according to
another report (Grieve, 1984).
Tolerates is pH in the range 4.8 to 8.2. Wormwood is occasionally
grown in the herb garden, there are some named forms.
The growing plant is said to inhibit the growth of fennel, sage, caraway,
anise and most young plants, especially in wet years. Wormwood is a
good companion for carrots, however, helping to protect them from
root fly. The scent of the plant attracts dogs.
Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing deer.
Seed of the Artemisia absinthum are surface sow from late winter to
early summer in a greenhouse.
The seed usually germinates within 2 - 26 weeks at 15°C. When
they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual
pots. They can be planted out in the summer, or kept in pots in a cold
frame for the winter and then planted out in the spring.
82
6. NATURAL AND SEMI-NATURAL GRASSLAND
FORMATIONS
6.1. Natural mountain grasslands
6.1.1. Code of Georgia: Subalpine tall herbaceous vegetation
(61GE01)
Subalpine tall herbaceous vegetation is widespread in the subalpine
zone at the treeline ecotone (2350-2500 m). Characteristic climatic
conditions of the habitat are optimal temperature of air and soil, high
humidity of air and high sun radiation. Tall herbaceous vegetation
consists of plants of 3-4 meters the majority of which is dicotyledons.
They are characterized by short tap root or rhizome. The overall
number of species in this habitat is about 90 and the community itself
involves 70 species.
Sub-types: There are three plant communities: 1) Heracleum
mantegazianum, H.grossheimii, H. sosnowskyi, etc. 2) Senecio
platyphyllus, Inula grandiflora, etc. 3) Rumex alpinus, Senecio
othonae, etc.
Plants species: Aconitum nasutum, A. orientale, A. adzharica, A.
pachyptera, A. tatianae, Angelica purpurascens, Anthriscus nemorosa,
Cephalaria gigantea, C. procera, Cicerbita bourgaei, Campanula
latifolia, Chaerophyllum maculatum, Cicerbita deltoidea, C.
macrophylla, C. olgae, C. petiolata, C. prenanthoides, Cirsium
aggregatum, C. albowianum, C. buschianum, C. czerkessicum, C.
gagnidzei, C. kuznetsowianum, C. oblongifolium, C. svaneticum, C.
sychnosanthum, Delphinium bracteosum, D. dasycarpum, D.
dzavakhischvilii, D. fedorovii, D. flexuosum, D. ironorum, D.
osseticum, D. pyramidatum, D. speciosum, D. thamarae, Doronicum
macrophyllum, Euphorbia macroceras, Gadelia lactiflora, Geranium
kemulariae, Heracleum aconitifolium, H. asperum, H. cyclocarpum, H.
grossheimii, H. mantegazzianum, H. ponticum, H. sosnowskyi, H.
wilhelmsii, Inula magnifica, Knautia montana, Ligusticum alatum, L.
arafoe, L. physospermifolium, Lilium georgicum, L. kesselringianum,
L. monadelphum, L. szovitisianum, Milium effusum, M. schmidtianum,
Petasites albus, Prenanthes abietina, Pyrethrum macrophyllum,
Senecio othonnae, S. phatyphylloides, S. pojarkovae, S. propinquus, S.
83
rhombifolius, S. similiflorus, Telekia speciosa, Tephroseris cladobotrys,
T. subfloccosus, Valeriana alliariifolia, V. colchica, V. tiliifolia,
Veratrum lobelianum.
6.1.1.1. Endangered plant species ragworts and groundsels Senecio L., Asteraceae
Endangered species of Senecio are the national and/or international
conservation status of the species. The following species of Senecio
occur in Subalpine - S. viscosus L.; S. vernalis Waldst. & Kit.;
Caucasian endemic S. propinquus Schischk.; S. rhombifolius (Adams)
Sch. Bip.; S. thyrsophorus K. Koch; S. pseudoorientalis Schischk.; S.
grandidentatus Ledeb.; S. lorentii Hochst.; S. othonnae M. Bieb.; S.
taraxacifolius (M. Bieb.) DC. Target species is Senecio rhombifolius
(Adams) Sch. Bip. (Figure 21).
A
B
Figure 21. A. Senecio rhombifolius is medicinal plant on subalpine
meadows and forest high areas. B. Senecio rhombifolius is flowering in
August. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Perennial is growing to 1.8 m by 1.5 m. It is in flower from July to
August. The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils. The plant
prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very alkaline soil.
It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It requires moist or wet soil.
Groundsel is a medicinal plant that is deserving of greater attention.
It contains alkaloid platyphyllin used in pharmaceutical industry for
treatment of cardio-vascular disease. Contains is as well alkaloid
84
seneciphyllin effectively lowering blood pressure. Therefore it was
harvested in big amount for the market and exported in Russia. This
species is cultivated in parts of Russia for use in the pharmaceutical
industry.
An easily grown plant, it succeeds in a sunny position in most
moderately fertile well-drained soils. Prefers a damp to wet soil and
also succeeds in partial shade. A very ornamental plant, it is not fully
hardy in the colder areas, tolerating temperatures down to about -10°C.
Seed of the Senecio rhombifolius is sow spring in a greenhouse.
Only just cover the seed. When they are large enough to handle, prick
the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the
greenhouse for their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent
positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts.
Division is in spring. Root cuttings in early spring.
6.1.2. Code of Georgia: Subalpine meadows (61GE02)
Subalpine meadows (1800-2700 m) are distinguished by a great
floristic and phyto-sociological variety.
Sub-types (61GE02-01): Grass meadows:
1. Bromopsis variegata, Agrostis tenuis, A. planifolia community holds
both dry and moist habitats. Appropriate species of the community
are Trifolium ambiguum, Lotus caucasicus, Alchemilla sericata, etc.
It is distributed in whole Caucasus Mountain up to the altitude of
2700 meters. It is used for mowing.
2. Hordeum violaceum community holds the lower part of the subalpine
zone (2000 – 2200 m). Together with barley, tall herbaceous
vegetation elements can be found here - Heracleum asperum,
Anthriscus nemorosa, Seseli transcaucasica.
3. Calamagrostis arundinacea community holds moist slopes and is
associated with the subalpine scrub of Caucasian evergreen
Rhododendron. It can be common in places emerging as a result of
cutting down the forest. It also creates the grass cover in the high
mountain oak (Quercus macranthera) forest and is associated with
the fescue-grass (Festuca varia) communities. Festuca djimilensis
dominates in the westerns Caucasus Mountain in this community.
4. Poa longifolia community occupies the forest edges, openness and
moist slopes. The typical place is in Lagodekhi natural reserve.
85
Related species are: Calamagrostis arundinacea, Festuca varia,
Agrostis planifolia, Geranium ibericum, Stachys macrantha, etc.
5. Deschampsia caespitosa community is common on the river banks
and flooded places. Typical plants are: Equisetum arvense, Carex
canescens, C. hirta, C. irrigua, Parnassia palustris, etc.
6. Fescue-grass (Festuca varia) meadows hold the biggest part of the
subalpine zone. It is distributed on grazed northern slopes in the
mountainous part of southern Georgia where they create the first
stage of succession. Calamagrostis arundinacea communities ruined
as a result of intensive grazing are replaced by fescue-grass
meadows. Their species are large and other ones can also be
observed on placed between them: Helictotrichon adzharicum, H.
pubescens, Agrostis planifolia, Carex meinshauseniana, Stachys
macrantha, Polygonum carneum, etc.
7. Festuca ovina meadows hold the southern slope. It is low, with the
low rate of cover and limited composition of species. Characteristic
species are: Koeleria albovii, Bromopsis riparia, Agrostis tenuis,
Carex buschiorum, Pulsatilla violacea, and Thymus collinus.
Sub-types (61GE02-02): Herbal and grass-herbal meadows:
1. Trollius patulus meadows are typical in forests, thinned out planted
forests and long crevices, sub-dominant species being Ranunculus
caucasicus. As a result of strong grazing, only this species is
preserved on the meadows whereas Trollius patulus is to become
extinct.
2. Geranium spp. - 1) Geranium gymnocaulon communities can mainly
be found in the alpine zone of western Caucasus mountain. It rarely
comes to the subalpine zone. 2) Geranium platypetalum community
is widely distributed both in small and big Caucasus. It is not found
in south Kolkheti but is observed in stony and moraine places. 3)
Geranium ibericum holds the forest, slopes of average incline and
the straight place. The sub-dominant species is Calamagrostis
arundinacea, Inula orientalis, Rhododendron caucasicum.
3. Inula orientalis community is created by the pure growth. However,
this species can be found in another community as well. For
example are Geranium ibericum and Stachys macrantha. In west
Georgia Inula grandiflora community can be found.
4. Scabiosa caucasica community on small Caucasus is rich with
various species: Helictotrichon pubescens, Inula orientalis, Agrostis
86
planifolia, Stachys macrantha, etc. They are also widely distributed
on Javakheti mountain plateau.
5. Stachys macrantha community is the typical variant of the subalpine
meadow. It is represented in the central and eastern parts of great
Caucasus Mountain.
6. Anemone fasciculate community occupies the slope of optimal
moistness and a straight place. It is replaced by Hedysarum
caucasicum on sunny and dry places.
7. Subalpine meadow Veratrum lobelianum is found in the western and
central parts of Great Caucasus and small Caucasian mountians. It is
a toxic plant which can not be grazed and, therefore, is preserved in
intensively grazed places. It can be found in Trollius patulus and
Ranunculus caucasicus communities.
8. Pulsatilla violacea community is widely represented in small
Caucasus Mountains and Javakheti. It creates small fragments in
central Caucasus on slopes of Northern exposition. Here it is
associated with the following species: Festuca ovina, Koeleria
albovii, Carex buschiorum. Pulsatilla aurea and P. albana can be
found in north-western Kolkheti
9. Astragalus captiosus creates community on grazed southern slopes
in central Caucasus.
Plants species: Agrostis planifolia, A. tenuis, Alchemilla retinervis,
Alchemilla sericata, Anemone fasciculata, Anthriscus nemorosa,
Anthoxanthum odoratum, Anthyllis variegata, Astragalus captiosus,
Stachys macrantha, Bromopsis riparia, B. variegata, Bupleurum
polyphyllum, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Campanula bellidifolia,
Campanula collina, Campanula trautvetteri, Carex aequivoca, Carex
buschiorum, Carum alpinum, Carum carvi, Centaurea cheiranthifolia,
Cerastium arvense, C. cerastoides, C. purpurascens, Cirsium
obvallatum, Coeloglossum viride, Cirsium simplex, Cruciata glabra,
Draba hispida, Equisetum palustre, Euphrasia hirtella, Festuca varia,
Galium verum, Genatiana aquatica, Carex meinshauseniana, Gentiana
septemfida, Geranium ruprechtii, Helictotrichon pubescens, Hordeum
violaceum, Inula orientalis, Koeleria caucasica, K. cristata, K. gracilis,
Leontodon hispidus, Ligularia sibirica, Linum catharticum, Lotus
caucasicus, Minuartia circassica, M. imbricata, M. oreina, Myosotis
alpestris, M. sylvatica, Pastinaca armena, Pedicularis armena, Phleum
pratense, Ph. phleoides, Plantago caucasica, Poa longifolia, Poa
87
pratensis, Polygala alpicola, Polygonum alpinum, P. carneum,
Potentilla crantzii, P. recta, Primula amoena, Pulsatilla violacea,
Pyrethrum roseum, Ranunculus acutilobus, R. caucasicus, R.
oreophilus, Rhinanthus minor, Rumex acetosa, Scabiosa caucasica,
Seseli transcaucasica, Silene ruprechtii, S. vulgaris, Taraxacum
confusum, Thesium procumbens, Thymus nummularius, Tragopogon
reticulatus, Trifolium ambiguum, T. repens, Veronica gentianoides,
Vicia alpestris, V. grossheimii.
6.1.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Colchis – Colchicum L., Colchicaceae
The economically potential species of Colchicum are ornamental and
medicinal plants and other. 4 species are found distributed in Georgia
Colchicum szovitsii Fisch. & C.A.Mey., C. umbrosum Steven, C.
speciosum Steven and C. woronowii Bokeriya. C. szovitsii is flowering
in the spring; C. umbrosum and C. speciosum are flowering in autumn
(Figure 22).
It is grown in subalpine meadows on sunny sites. It is in flower
from September to October. Seeds ripen underground in a bulb. Fruit
and leaves appear next year in March and seed dispersal takes place in
June-July. The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils and requires
well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can
grow in semi-shade or no shade. It requires moist soil.
Medicinal uses are analgetic, antirheumatic, cathartic, emetic and
homeopathy. Naked Ladies was considered too poisonous to use
medicinally in the ancient time and it was not until research in the 18th
century that the plant was discovered to be of value in the treatment of
gout (Stuart, 1979). In modern herbalism it is still used to relieve the
pain and inflammation of acute gout and rheumatism, although frequent
use has been known to encourage more frequent attacks of the
complaint (Stuart, 1979). Both the corm and the seeds are analgesic,
antirheumatic, cathartic and emetic (Grieve, 1984). Leukemia has been
successfully treated with Naked Ladies, and the plant has also been
used with some success to treat Bechet's syndrome, a chronic disease
marked by recurring ulcers and leukemia (Chevallier, 1996).
88
A
B
C
D
Figure 22. A. Colchicum szovitsii in Meskheti; B. C. speciosum above
city Bakuriani; C. C. woronowii in Adjara mountains; D. C. umbrosum
in Meskheti. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The seeds are harvested in early summer, the corms in mid to late
summer when the plant has fully died down. The fresh bulb is used to
make a homeopathic remedy. Edible uses are none. Other uses have
plant breeding. The poisonous alkaloid “colchicines” is extracted from
this plant and used to alter the genetic make-up of plants in an attempt
to find new, improved varieties (Polunin, 1969). It works by doubling
the chromosome number.
Habitat degradation, collected in the wild for medicinal purpose
and for flower market. Prefers is a rich well-drained loam in a sunny
position. Tolerates partial shade but dislikes dry soils. Tolerates is a pH
in the range 4.5 to 7.5. Plants are hardy to about -20°C (Huxley, 1992).
The dormant bulbs are fairly hardy and will withstand soil temperatures
down to at least -5°C (Matthews, 1994). The Naked Ladies is easily
grown in grass and can be naturalized there. It also grows well amongst
89
shrubs and by woodland edges. Plant the corms about 7-10 cm deep in
July. The flowers are very attractive to bees and butterflies.
Seed of the Colchicum szovitsii is best sown as soon as it is ripe in
early summer in a seed bed (Matthews, 1994). Germination can be
very slow, taking up to 18 months at 15°C. It is best to sow the seed
thinly so that it is not necessary to transplant the seedlings for their first
year of growth. Apply a liquid fertilizer during their first summer,
however, to ensure they get sufficient nourishment. Prick out the
seedlings once they are dormant, putting perhaps 2 plants per pot, and
grow them on in a greenhouse or frame for at least a couple of years.
Plant them out into their permanent positions when they are dormant.
The seedlings take 4-5 years to reach flowering size. Division of the
bulbs is in June/July when the leaves have died down. Larger bulbs can
be planted out direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to
pot up the smaller bulbs and grow them on in a cold frame for a year
before planting them out. The plant can be divided every other year if a
quick increase is required.
Protection measure is cultivation, establishment of managed
reserves, insertion in the RDB Georgia.
6.1.3. Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands (6150; PAL. CLASS.:
36.11, 36.32, 36.34)
Alpine meadows are distributed between 2500-2900 m a.s.l. in the
Caucasus Mountains. Special type is of vegetation accurs on alpine
snowbeds, which is covered by snow much longer than adjacent
habitats.
Sub-types (6150-01) Alpine meadows. Alpine meadows occupy
slopes of all expositions in high mountains at the altitude of 2500-2900
meters. The following plant communities are described:
1. Fescue-grass Festuca varia (=F. woronowii) communities can be
found on inclined slopes of southern exposition. They are more
frequently found in eastern Caucasus. Fescue-grass meadows are
mainly in subalpine zones. However, they reach the alpine zone as
well if climatic and relief conditions are favourable for their
distribution.
2. Nardus stricta communities are widely distributed in the whole
Caucasus. They occur on slopes of all expositions. Secondary mat90
grass communities emerge on extensively grazed meadows where
they replace primary communities. Mat-grass - Fescue-grass mixed
community Festucetum variae can be found in central and western
Caucasus. Mat-grass is adapted to moist areas and is the indicator
of identifying moist areas on the meadow. Frequently, it follows
the deepened crevice where the level of moisture is higher than on
the even place.
3. Carex tristis community is widely distributed in the alpine zone of
Caucasus. It occupies embossed slopes where in winter there is a
significant influence of wind and the sweeping of the snow cover
takes place. It is associated with Festuca supine. Alchemilla
caucasica and Kobresia capilliformis can also be found.
4. Kobresia capilliformis community can be found in the central and
western parts of Caucasus. They are observed on limestone and
weeds in central Caucasus. In stony places Kobresieta schoenoidis
is observed.
5. Festuca djimilensis belongs to the number of shrub-like grass of
herbal-grass meadows. Mainly, they are found in the subalpine
zone. However, it reaches the alpine zone as well. It is mostly
common in the Caucasus.
6. Bromopsis variegata is distributed on the southern slopes of the
Alpine zone. In Kolkheti dry meadows are observed on limestone.
Sesleria anatolica is the species characteristic to this meadow,
which is characterized by the creeping root.
7. Geranium gymnocaulon community in western Caucasus is intruded
from the subalpine zone and reaches the upper border of vegetation
of dense cover. Sometimes, it goes into the subnival zone.
8. Sibbaldia semiglabra community is the same as the one of S.
parviflora. The composition of its species is very poor.
Sub-types (6150-02) Alpine snowbed habitats. Alpine snowbeds
can be found in straight places between large stones and moraines at
the upper border of the alpine zone, where snow melts late and
vegetation is late. It constists of the following grasses: Poa alpina,
Phleum alpinum, Festuca supina, etc. and herbal species: Campanula
biebersteiniana, Carum caucasicum, Veronica gentianoides,
Gnaphalium supinum, Pedicularis crassirostris, P. armena, Poa
alpina, Taraxacum stevenii, Sibbaldia semiglabra, etc. Growth similar
to alpine snowbeds are observed in the zone of melting snow and the
91
side of the glacier, where Carum caucasicum sometimes creates a pure
growth. Often it is associated with other species Taraxacum stevenii,
Campanula biebersteiniana, Plantago saxatilis, Minuartia aizoides,
etc. It also rarely contains Ranunculus oreophilus, R. baidarae, Primula
algida, Gentiana djimilensis (=G. pyrenaica), G. angulosa, G. nivalis,
Minuartia aizoides, Cerastium cerastoides. Pedicularis crassirostris, P.
nodrmanniana, Primula auriculata, Poa alpina, etc. can be found at the
side of the stream.
Plants species: Alchemilla caucasica, Bromopsis variegata,
Campanula biebersteiniana, Carex tristis, Carum caucasicum, Festuca
djimilensis, F. supina, F. varia, Gentiana djimilensis (=G. pyrenaica),
G. angulosa, G. nivalis, Geranium gymnocaulon, Cerastium
cerastoides, Gnaphalium supinum, Kobresia capilliformis, Minuartia
aizoides, Nardus stricta, Pedicularis crassirostris, P. armena, P.
nodrmanniana, Phleum alpinum, Plantago saxatilis, Poa alpina,
Primula algida, P. auriculata, Ranunculus oreophilus, R. baidarae,
Sibbaldia semiglabra, Taraxacum stevenii, Veronica gentianoides.
6.1.3.1. Endemic plant species Gentian - Gentiana L., Gentianaceae
Endemic species of Gentiana are both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic: Gentiana angulosa M.Bieb. (=Gentiana verna subsp. pontica
(Soltok.) Hayek), Gentiana kolakovskyi Doluch.(=Gentiana septemfida
subsp. kolakovskyi (Doluch.) Halda), Gentiana lagodechiana (Kusn.)
Grossh. (=Gentiana septemfida Pall.), Gentiana oschtenica Woronow,
Gentiana paradoxa Albov, Gentiana rhodocalyx Kolak., Gentianella
biebersteinii (Bunge) Holub. The following species are found: G.
cruciate L.; G. pyrenaica L. (=G. dschimilensis K. Koch); G. aquatica
L.; G. gelida M. Bieb.; G. septemfida Pall.; Target species is Gentiana
septemfida Pall. (Figure 23).
Indicator species are that respond quickly to any changes in the
environmental conditions and, therefore, their responses indicate timely
information about the state of the ecosystem monitoring and
management effectiveness evaluation; Umbrella species determines
conservation of other species in the habitat conditions where there are
species communities and one umbrella species will have a protection
due to their conditions.
92
A
B
Figure 23. A. Gentiana septemfida is madicinal plant and used for
cancer disease; B. Gentiana cruciata has only 4 petals. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
E.g. the pine is an umbrella species for squirrel; Species that have a
special role to contribute in ecosystem structure. The economically
potential species - recreational, ornamental and medicinal plants and
other; Perennial is growing to 0.4 m. It is in flower from July to
October. Grows is on subalpine and alpine meadows. The plant prefers
light, medium and heavy soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant
prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no
shade. It requires moist soil. It is used in folk medicine for treatment of
uterine fibroids. It is antiseptic and regulates digestive system.
Edible uses are none known. Other uses are as none known.Local
population collects in big amount for traditional use in folk medicine.
In general, gentians require a moist well-drained soil in a sheltered
position, a certain minimum of atmospheric humidity, high light
intensity but a site where temperatures are not too high. They are
therefore more difficult to grow in areas with hot summers and in such
a region they appreciate some protection from the strongest sunlight.
Plants are hardy to at least -20°C (Phillips, Rix, 1991). A moisture
loving plant, preferring to grow with full exposure to the sun but with
plenty of underground moisture in the summer, it grows better in the
north and west of Britain. Plants are intolerant of root disturbance.
Seed of the Gentiana septemfida is best sown as soon as it is ripe in
a light position in a cold frame. It can also be sown in late winter or
early spring but the seed germinates best if given a period of cold
93
stratification and quickly loses viability when stored, with older seed
germinating slowly and erratically. It is advantageous to keep the seed
at about 10°C for a few days after sowing, to enable the seed to imbibe
moisture (Phillips, Rix, 1991). Following this with a period of at least
5-6 weeks with temperatures falling to between 0 and -5°C will usually
produce reasonable germination. It is best to use clay pots, since plastic
ones do not drain so freely and the moister conditions encourage the
growth of moss, which will prevent germination of the seed (Kohlein,
1991). The seed should be surface-sown, or only covered with a very
light dressing of compost. The seed requires dark for germination, so
the pots should be covered with something like newspaper or be kept in
the dark. Pot up the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are
large enough to handle and grow on in light shade in the greenhouse for
at least their first winter. The seedlings grow on very slowly, taking 2-7
years to reach flowering size. When the plants are of sufficient size,
place them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early
summer. Protection measures are Cultivation.
6.1.4. Alpine and subalpine calcareous grasslands (6170; PAL.
CLASS.: 36.12, 36.41 to 36.43, 36.37, 36.38)
Alpine and subalpine meadows can be found on alkali soils.
Characteristic species: Dryas, Gentiana, Alchemilla, Anthyllis, Aster,
Astragalus, Draba, Globularia, Helianthemum, Phyteuma, etc. Mainly,
distributed is in the western Caucasus, on limestone mountain tracts.
Sub-types (6170-01): Meadows with the participation of Sesleria
anatolica, Brachypodium rupestre and Carex pontica and can be found
on the Bzifi gorge of Abkhazia limestone massif.
Sub-types (6170-02): Woronowia speciosa (=Geum speciosum)
community is characteristic to western Caucasus (Kolkheti limestone).
Usually, these communities cover the slopes with strong karstic relief.
Woronowia speciosa is associated with Carex pontica. This community
is extremely damaged due to grazing and its area is limited. It is
replaced by the meadows of tangled thorny undergrowth (Nardus
stricta).
Sub-types (6170-03): Geranium gymnocaulon - Woronowia
speciosa - Inula magnifica is an extremely specific community, which
consists of only these species and can be found in Kolkheti.
94
Plants species: Sesleria anatolica, Brachypodium rupestre, Carex
pontica, Woronowia speciosa, Nardus stricta, Geranium gymnocaulon,
Woronowia speciosa, Inula magnifica.
6.1.4.1. Edificatory plant species Savin juniper - Juniperus L.,
Cupressaceae
Edificatory species have a special role to contribute in ecosystem
structure Juniperus communis L. var. depressa Pursh. - Juniper, J.
sabina L. - Savin Juniper, Cupressaceae. These species growing in the
entire forest zone to the forest steppes, on forest edges, in pine groves,
moorlands, rocks and pastures. Erect, small trees or shrubs 1-5 m. J.
communis var. depressa is distributed in alpine zone of Central
Caucasus 1500-2800 m a.s.l.. Snow cover is <1 m. The exposition is for
all directions and inclination till 30°C. Sunny edge is normal; dappled
shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West Wall. Sometimes forming
extensive thickets; growing in the zone of alpine meadows and
pastures. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils, prefers welldrained soil and can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils.
Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very acid and
very alkaline soils.
It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil
and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure
(Figure 24).
J. sabina is alpine species from 1800 to 2800 m a.s.l.. Growing on
wind-blown sand, chalk, rocks, exposed southern slopes, and stony
slopes of hills and low mountains, more often in the steppe than in the
forest belt. Snow cover is <3 m.
The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 70°C. Sunny
edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West
Wall. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils and prefers welldrained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in
very alkaline soils. It cannot grow in the shade.
It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can
tolerate maritime exposure.
95
A
B
Figure 24. A. Juniperus communis var. depressa is in many areas of
Georgia; B. Pollen of Juniperus communis var. depressa has length of
the horizontal height as 115-120 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Evergreen trees or shrubs are with needle-like leaves, three each in
a whorl, or with opposite and decussate, scale-like leaves, young shrubs
sometimes with juvenile needle like leaves. Female cones (galbuluses)
maturing in two to three years, globose, with fleshy fused scales
(Adams, Pandey, 2003). Seeds are one to eight in each cone, oblongovoid, wingless. J. communis var. depressa is a prostrate shrub with
decumbent rooting branches; bark dark gray; branchlets yellowish- red;
leaves straight, short, linear- subulate, 8-10 mm long and 1.5 mm
broad, pruinose above, keeled beneath, the keel decurrent onto the bark
of the branch and forming there an inflated pyriform resiniferous gland;
male cones shorter than leaves; fruit black, pruinose, subsessile, shorter
than leaves; seeds 2 or 3, trigonous, light brown, wrinkled. 2n = 22. J.
sabina is trailing shrub, dioecious, low, procumbent shrubs, 0.5-0.8 m
high; female cones blackish-brown, 5-8 mm wide; young shoots green;
7.2, n=22. Branches partly decumbent, partly ascending; leaves
strongly odoriferous; acicular leaves lance-linear, spiny-pointed; leaves
on adult plants about 1.2 mm long, scale-like, sometimes needlelike on
low branches, 2.5-8 mm long. Imbricated leaves lustrous, rhombic to
rhombic-lanceolate, acute to subobtuse, with a keel and an oval gland
on the black; aments ovaloid, with round scales, pale yellow; fruits
solitary, profuse, small, 6-8 mm long and 5-6 mm broad, roundedovate, brownish, pruinose, of 4-6 scales; seeds mostly 2, though
96
occasionally 1, 3, 4, or 6, ovoid, prominently keeled on the abaxial
side.
Wood reddish, agreeably scented, used for lathework and sculpture,
e. g., for furniture decoration. The fruit contains sugar and essential oil,
used as diuretic and also in the liqueur industry (for export). Dry
distillation of the wood yields empyreumatic juniper oil. Oleum
cadinum is used against skin irritants. The resin gives sandarac and is
used for the production of white varnish. Suitable is for low hedges. Of
medicinal value are the green branchlets Summitates Sabinae (Herba
Sabinae, Ramuli Sabinae, Frondes Sabinae), containing 2-5 and up to
17% of volatile Savin oil, sabinol CioHi5(OH), used as emmenagogue
and abortive agent. The action is so strong that in Germany, where it is
considered to be a beautiful ornamental shrub, it is banned from
general-purpose gardens, as being toxic.
Fruit is raw or cooked. It is usually harvested in the autumn when
fully ripe and then dried for later use. There is a soft, mealy, sweet,
resinous flesh. The fruit is often used as flavouring in sauerkraut,
stuffings, vegetable pates etc, and is an essential ingredient of gin. The
aromatic fruit is used as a pepper substitute according to one report. An
essential oil is sometimes distilled from the fruit to be used as
flavouring. Average yields are around 1%. The cones are about 4-8 mm
in diameter and take 2-3 years to mature. Some caution is advised when
using the fruit; see the notes above on toxicity. The roasted seed is a
coffee substitute. A tea is made by boiling the leaves and stems. A tea
made from the berries has a spicy gin-like flavour.
Juniper fruits are commonly used in herbal medicine, as a
household remedy, and also in some commercial preparations. They are
especially useful in the treatment of digestive disorders plus kidney and
bladder problems. The fully ripe fruits are strongly antiseptic, aromatic,
carminative, diaphoretic, strongly diuretic, rubefacient, stomachic and
tonic. They are used in the treatment of cystitis, digestive problems,
chronic arthritis, gout and rheumatic conditions. They can be eaten raw
or used in a tea, but some caution is advised since large doses can
irritate the urinary passage. Externally, it is applied as a diluted
essential oil, having a slightly warming effect upon the skin and is
thought to promote the removal of waste products from underlying
tissues. It is, therefore, helpful when applied to arthritic joints etc. The
fruits should not be used internally by pregnant women since this can
97
cause an abortion. The fruits also increase menstrual bleeding so should
not be used by women with heavy periods. When made into an
ointment, they are applied to exposed wounds and prevent irritation by
flies. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is 'Toxin
elimination'.
A decoction of the branches is used as an anti-dandruff shampoo.
The essential oil distilled from the fruits is used in perfumes with spicy
fragrances. In hot countries the tree yields the resin 'Sandarac' from
incisions in the trunk. This is used in the production of a white varnish.
The stems were at one time used as a strewing herb to sweeten the
smell of rooms. The whole plant can be burnt as an incense and
fumigant. It was used during epidemics in the belief that it would purify
the air and cleanse it of infection. Fresh or dried juniper branches also
make a good insect repellent. Many forms of this species are good
ground cover plants for sunny situations. Forms to try include 'Depressa
Aurea', 'Dumosa', 'Effusa', and 'Repanda'. 'Prostrata' can also be used.
The bark is used as cordage and as tinder. Wood has strong, hard,
fragrant, very durable in contact with the soil and very close-grained,
but usually too small to be of much use. It makes an excellent fuel.
Landscape is Specimen. An easily grown plant, it succeeds in hot
dry soils and in poor soils. Succeeds in most soils so long as they are
well drained, preferring a neutral or slightly alkaline soil. Does well is
in chalky soils. Grows is well in heavy clay soils. Tolerates has pH
range from 4 to 8. Succeeds in light woodland but dislikes heavy shade.
Established plants are very tolerant of drought. Although the fully
dormant plant is cold-tolerant throughout Britain, the young growth in
spring can be damaged by late frosts. All parts of the plant are very
aromatic. Juniper is a very polymorphic species that has a long history
of culinary and medicinal use. It is frequently grown in the ornamental
and herb garden; there is a huge range of cultivars of widely diverse
habits. At least some forms tolerate maritime exposure; there is a
thriving colony in an exposed position at Land's End in Cornwall. The
fruits take 2-3 years to ripen on the plant. Plants are usually very slow
growing, often only a few centimetres a year. Resists honey fungus.
Plants are sometimes attacked by rust; this fungus has an aecidial stage
on hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) Dioecious is in areas. Male and female
plants must be grown if seed is required.
98
The seed requires a period of cold stratification. The seed has a
hard seedcoat and can be very slow to germinate, requiring a cold
period followed by a warm period and then another cold spell, each of
2-3 months duration. Soaking the seed for 3-6 seconds in boiling water
may speed up the germination process. The seed is best sown as soon
as it is ripe in a cold frame. Some might germinate in the following
spring, though most will take another year. Another possibility is to
harvest the seed 'green' (when the embryo has fully formed but before
the seed coat has hardened). The seedlings can be potted up into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow on in pots
until large enough, and then plant out in early summer. When stored
dry, the seed can remain viable for several years. Cuttings are of mature
wood, 5 – 10 cm with a heel, September/October in a cold frame. Plant
out in the following autumn. Layering is in September/October. Takes
is 12 months.
J. sabina leaves are used as an insect repellent; a decoction of them
is used against lice. An essential oil from the leaves and shoots has
strong diuretic properties and is also used in perfumery. Yields of
around 4% are obtained; this oil is also used as an insecticide. A good
dense ground cover plant, though it is slow to cover the ground. The
species type eventually forms a high ground cover, but there are many
named forms that are lower-growing. Plants should be spaced about 1.2
metres apart each way. The taller forms of this species make a good
hedge.
Landscape is Alpine garden, Erosion control, Ground cover,
Massing, Rock garden. Succeeds in most soils if they are well drained,
preferring a neutral or slightly alkaline soil. Prefers is a limestone soil.
Succeeds is in poor soils and in light shade. Established plants are
drought tolerant, succeeding in hot dry positions. Tolerates is maritime
exposure. A very ornamental plant, there are many named varieties. All
parts of the plant have a powerful pungent smell. Plants can be
dioecious or monoecious. Male and female plants must be grown if
fruit and seed are required. The plant is sometimes attacked by rust; this
is a fungus with an aecidial stage on the leaves of pear trees. Plants are
resistant to honey fungus.
The seed requires a period of cold stratification. The seed has a
hard seedcoat and can be very slow to germinate, requiring a cold
period followed by a warm period and then another cold spell, each of
99
2-3 months duration. Soaking the seed for 3-6 seconds in boiling water
may speed up the germination process. The seed is best sown as soon
as it is ripe in a cold frame. Some might germinate in the following
spring, though most will take another year. Another possibility is to
harvest the seed 'green' (when the embryo has fully formed but before
the seedcoat has hardened). The seedlings can be potted up into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow on in pots
until large enough, and then plant out in early summer. When stored
dry, the seed can remain viable for several years. Cuttings are of mature
wood, 5 – 10 cm with a heel, September/October in a cold frame. Plant
out in the following autumn. Layering is in September/October. Takes
is 12 months.
Geographic distribution is on these areas: J. communis var.
depressa in Caucasus, Bulgaria, Crimea, Turkey, Iran and Talysh
mountains. J. sabina is in Caucasus: in the mountains of the Greater
Caucasus and on Adzhar-Imeretian and Trialeti ranges, avoiding
Armenia and Talysh. Es well in Europe, Asia: Sibiria, Mongolia, Altai.
6.2. Natural and semi-natural dry grasslands
6.2.1. Code of Georgia: semi-desert vegetation (62GE01)
Semi-desert vegetation holds a great part of the arid region of eastern
and southern Georgia where scrub is less represented and herbal
vegetation is more observed. However, separate species of shrubs are
mixed to this community.
Dominant species of these communities are: Anabasis aphylla,
Salsola ericoides, S. dendroides, S. glauca, Gamanthus pilosus, Suaeda
microphylla, Petrosimonia brachiata, Aellenia glauca, Kalidium
caspicum. Existence of ephemeres and ephemeroids are characteristic
to the semi-desert: Tulipa eichleri, Allium atroviolaceum, Poa bulbosa,
Colpodium humile, Bromus japonicus, Alyssum desertorum,
Helianthemum salicifolium, etc. Scrub is represented by Nitraria
schoberi. Eroded and washed down slopes are thinly covered by
grasses and herbal plants - Festuca sulcata, Stipa szovitsiana, Artemisia
fragrans, etc.
Sub-types (62GE01-01): Community of Artemisia fragrans can be
monodominant of this species or represented by the domination of two
species of Artemisieto-Salsoletum dendroides. Eremopyrum orientale
100
and Lepidium vesicarium dominate from annual epehemers.
Stizolophus coronopifolius is commonly found.
Sub-types(62GE01-02):Artemisia fragrans-Caragana grandiflora
community is created with the participation of about 24-26 species.
Characteristic species are: Alopecurus myosuroides, Lepidium
vesicarium. Rare species are Spergularia diandra, Calendula persica,
Tetradiclis tenella, Aizoon hispanicum. Characteristic species are:
Salsola ericoides, S. dendroides, etc. On the Eldar valley this
community includes the following species: Poa bulbosa, Bromus
japonicus, Rostraria glabriflora, Medicago minima, Torularia
contortuplicata.
Sub-types (62GE01-03): Artemisia fragrans - Bothriochloa
ischaemum community is widely distributed on the Eldar valley, at
grey-brown soil and stony places. Vegetation cover is 30-50 %.
Replacement of buckle with Bluestem indicated reduction of salt in the
soil in these places, which can be caused by washing out of the eroded
soil due to excessive grazing. Characteristic species are Poa bulbosa,
Trachynia distachya, Lappula patula, Medicago minima, Velezia
rigida, etc.
Sub-types (62GE01-04): Buckle (Artemisia fragrans) community
with ephemeres: Adonis aestivalis, Astragalus hamosus, Koelpinia
linearis, Medicago minima, Queria hispanica, etc. can be found in
Gardabani region (lower Kartli).
Sub-types (62GE01-05): Buckle (Artemisia fragrans) community
on Iagluja (Lower Kartli) contains the following species: Salsola
dendroides, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Limonium meyeri, etc. Also, the
following rare species are typical: Iris iberica, Iridodychtium
reticulatum, Juno caucasica, Tulipa biebersteinii, T. eichleri, Gagea
spp.
Plants species: Adonis aestivalis, Aellenia glauca, Aizoon
hispanicum, Allium atroviolaceum, Alopecurus myosuroides, Alyssum
desertorum, Anabasis aphylla, Artemisia fragrans, Astragalus
brachyceras, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Bromus japonicus, Calendula
persica, Caragana grandiflora, Colpodium humile, Eremopyrum
orientale, Festuca sulcata, Gagea spp., Gamanthus pilosus,
Helianthemum salicifolium, Iridodychtium reticulatum, Iris iberica,
Juno caucasica, Kalidium caspicum, Koelpinia linearis, Lappula
patula, Lepidium vesicarium, Limonium meyeri, Medicago minima,
101
Petrosimonia brachiata, Poa bulbosa, Queria hispanica, Rostraria
glabriflora, Salsola dendroides, Salsola ericoides, S. glauca,
Spergularia diandra, Stipa szovitsiana, Stizolophus coronopifolius,
Suaeda microphylla, Tetradiclis tenella, Torularia contortuplicata,
Trachynia distachya, Tulipa biebersteinii, T. eichleri, Velezia rigida.
6.2.1.1. Endemic plant species Yellow Star-of-Bethlehem - Gagea
Salisb., Liliaceae
Endemic species of Gagea are as both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic: Gagea caroli-kochii Grossh., Gagea chanae Grossh., Gagea
charadzeae Davlian.,Gagea commutate K.Koch, Gagea eleonorae
Levichev, Gagea helenae Grossh., Gagea sarmentosa K.Koch, Gagea
sulfurea Miscz. Caucasian endemic species is described for Javakheti Gagea alexeenkoana Miscz. We have found another Caucasian
endemic in Meskheti - G. chanae Grossh. More widespread species G.
anisanthos K. Koch is found both in Meskheti and Javakheti.
It grows on dry slopes with arid vegetation. Bulb is growing to 0.03
m. It is in flower from March to April. The plant prefers light, medium
and heavy soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can
grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil
(Akhalkatsi, 2009; Figure 25).
A
B
Figure 25. A. Gagea chanae is endemic species in Georgia and
Caucasus; B. G. anisanthos is not endemic and it is found both in
Meskheti and Javakheti. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
102
In folk medicine is used as diuretic. Edible plant in many
countries.leaves and roots are cooked. A famine food, it is only used in
times of scarcity. Young leaves - cooked. Requires is a moist soil,
preferring one on the alkaline side of neutral, and succeeding in sun or
shade. The dormant bulbs are fairly hardy and will withstand soil
temperatures down to at least -10°C.
Seed of Gagea sow spring in a greenhouse. Sow the seed thinly so
that there is no need to transplant them, and grow the seedlings on in
the same pot in the greenhouse for their first year or two. Give an
occasional liquid feed to ensure they do not become nutrient deficient.
Pot up the small bulbs when the plants are dormant, placing 2-3 bulbs
in each pot. Grow them on for another year or two in the greenhouse
before planting them out when they are dormant. Insertion is in the
RDB Georgia.
6.2.2. Code of Georgia: Steppe Vegetation (62GE02)
Vegetation of the steppe is distributed in the zone of the front of the
mountain (300-700 meters a.s.l.) in eastern Georgia. It is the
continuation of the vegetation of the semi-desert in the arid region from
the sea level in relation with the altitude. On the other hand, it borders
with arid open woodlands. Bluestem - Bothriochloa ischaemum is the
dominant species in the steppe. It is widely distributed in both
hemispheres of the world.
Sub-types (62GE02-01): Glycyrrhizieto - Bothriochloëta is
widespread in the lowlands (500-600 m) and rich with the species. 65
species are found on 100 m2. Characteristic species are: Koeleria
cristata, Phleum phleoides, Medicago caerulea, Bromus japonicus,
Trifolium campestre, Vicia angustifolia, Crucianella angustifolia,
Arabidopsis thaliana, Androsace elongata.
Sub-types (62GE02-02): Bothriochloëta xeroherbosa can be found
on the slopes of the eastern and western exposition (600-700 meters
a.s.l.). Teucrium chamaedrys, Galium verum, Picnis strigosa,
Scorzonera biebersteinii, Inula britannica, Aster ibericus, Stachys
atherocalyx can be found from vegetation. From pulses the following
can be found: Onobrychis kachetica, 0. cyri, and Astragalus
brachycarpus. Grasses ar represented by Festuca sulcata. Species
blooming in early spring are - Arabidopsis thaliana, Anthemis
103
candidissima, Crocus adamii, Merendera trigyna, Muscari caucasium,
Gagea commutata. Endemic plants are: Polygala transcaucasica, Aster
ibericus, Cephalaria sosnowskyi, Thymus tiflisiensis, etc.
Sub-types (62GE02-03): Bothriochloëta ephemerosa can be found
on the south stony slopes. The following are to be mentioned from
ephemers: Alyssum campestre, Callipeltis cucullaria, Sideritis
montana, Meniocus linifolius, Ziziphora capitata, Trigonella spicata.
Juno caucasica, Allium atroviolaceum, etc. are geophytes.
Sub-types (62GE02-04): Festuceta-Bothriochloëta is more
localized on the slopes of hills. Festuca sulcata is associated with
Bluestem. Fragments of these communities are found in Iagluja (lower
Kartli).
Sub-types (62GE02-05): Bothriochloëta pratoherbosa is less
xerophytic community which can be found in the depression where
there are soils similar to the black earth. Besides Bluestem Agropyron
cristatum, A. pectinatum, Elytrigia repens can be found.
Sub-types (62GE02-06): Stipeto-Bothriochloëta communities are
widespread on the hill summit and northern slopes. They are mainly
found on stony slopes. The soil is grey-brown, thin and lacks salt.
Existence of certain shrubs – Paliurus spina-christi, Rhamnus pallasii,
etc. is characteristic. From grasses – vegetation species the following
can be found - Stipa tirsa, S. lessingiana, S. pulcherrima, S. capillata,
and Phleum phleoides. There are as well a lot of ephemeroids.
Plants species: Bromus japonicus, Carex bordzilowskii, Dactylis
glomerata, Festuca sulcata, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Medicago caerulea,
Phleum phleoides, Stipa capillata, Trifolium arvense, Trisetum
pratense, Stipa lessingiana, Botriochloa ischaemum, Festuca sulcata,
Stipa pulcherrima, Koeleria macrantha, Phleum phleoides,
Cleistogenes bulgarica, Medicago coerulea, Astragalus brachycarpus,
Inula germanica, Stachys iberica, Galium verum, Thalictrum minus,
Leontodon asperrimus, Filipendula vulgaris, Thymus tiflisiensis,
Potentilla recta, Picris strigosa, Veronica multifida, Pimpinella
aromatica, Bilacunaria microcarpa, Tragopogon pusillus, Seseli
grandivittatum, Campanula hohenackeri, Cephalaria media,
Crucianella angustifolia, Xeranthemum squarrosum, Trigonella
spicata, Bromus japonicus, Linus nodiflorum.
104
6.2.2.1. Endemic plant species Yellow Star-of-Bethlehem - Gagea
Salisb., Liliaceae
Endemic species of Crocus are both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic: Crocus autranii Albov, Crocus kotschyanus K. Koch, Crocus
scharojanii Rupr., Crocus suworowianus K. Koch. Only one species
was described for Meskheti in the litarature - C. speciosus M. Bieb.,
We have found two more species - C. adamii J. Gay and C. reticulatus
Steven ex Adams in Meskheti. One species of Crocus is C. vallicola
Herb. It is growing on Goderdzi pass on the boundary of Adjara and
Meskheti (Figure 26).
Endemic species of Crocus are both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic: Crocus autranii Albov, Crocus kotschyanus K. Koch,
Crocus scharojanii Rupr., Crocus suworowianus K. Koch. Only one
species was described for Meskheti in the litarature - C. speciosus M.
Bieb., We have found two more species - C. adamii J. Gay and C.
reticulatus Steven ex Adams in Meskheti.
One species of Crocus is C.vallicola Herb. It is growing on
Goderdzi pass on the boundary of Adjara and Meskheti. Crocus
speciosus M. Bieb. is growing in upepr mountai belt in Meskheti range
above v. Atskuri. However, we were not able to reach this population
and monitor it. For cultivation it is desirable to use cultivated species of
this genus C. sativus L. which is a valuable market species and easy to
cultivate. C. sativus is cultivated plant. The wild species are growing
of meadows in steep or gentle slopes covered with grasses. Corm is
growing to 0.1 m by 0.1 m. It is in leaf from October to May, in flower
in October. The plant prefers light and medium soils, requires welldrained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers
acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very alkaline soil. It can
grow in semi-shade or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil.
Medicinal uses are abortifacient, anodyne, antispasmodic,
aphrodisiac, appetizer, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue,
expectorant, narcotic, sedative and stimulant. Saffron is a famous
medicinal herb with a long history of effective use, though it is little
used at present because cheaper and more effective herbs are available
(Grieve, 1984). The flower styles and stigmas are the parts used, but
since these are very small and fiddly to harvest they are very expensive
and consequently often adulterated by lesser products.
105
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
Figure 26. A., B. - Crocus adamii, C. – Crocus biflorus; D. – Crocus
reticulatus, E. – Crocus scharojanii, F. – Crocus speciosus, G.-H. –
Crocus valicolla, I. - Crocus albiflorus. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
106
The styles and stigmas are anodyne, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
appetizer, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant,
sedative and stimulant (Grieve, 1984).
They are used as a diaphoretic for children, to treat chronic
haemorrhages in the uterus of adults, to induce menstruation, treat
period pains and calm indigestion and colic (Grieve, 1984).
A dental analgesic is obtained from the stigmas. The styles are
harvested in the autumn when the plant is in flower and are dried for
later use (Grieve, 1984), they do not store well and should be used
within 12 months. This remedy should be used with caution, large
doses can be narcotic and quantities of 10 g or more can cause an
abortion. From the flower extracts of Crocus speciosus nine flavonol
glycosides have been isolated. One of these products is a new flavonol
glycoside identified as kaempferol 3-O-alpha-(2.3-di-O-beta-Dglucopyranosyl) rhamnopyranoside (Norbaek, Kondo, 1999).
Edible uses are Colouring; Condiment; and Tea. The flower styles
are commonly used as flavouring and yellow colouring for various
foods such as bread, soups, sauces, rice and puddings (Grieve, 1984).
They are an essential ingredient of many traditional dishes such as
paella, bouillabaisse, risotto milanese and various other Italian dishes.
The styles are extremely rich in riboflavin. Water is soluble.
Yields per plant are extremely low; about 4000 stigmas yield 25 g
of saffron. Saffron is the world's most expensive spice, it takes 150,000
flowers and 400 hours work to produce 1 kilo of dried saffron. About
25 kilos of styles can be harvested from a hectare of the plant.
Fortunately, only very small quantities of the herb are required to
impart their colour and flavour to dishes. Because of the cost, saffron is
frequently adulterated with cheaper substitutes such as marigold
flowers and safflower. The flower styles are used as a tea substitute.
Root is cooked. The corms are toxic to young animalsso this report of
edibility should be treated with some caution. Other uses are Dye. The
yellow dye obtained from the stigmas has been used for many centuries
to colour cloth (Grieve, 1984). It is the favoured colouring for the cloth
of Indian swamis who have renounced the material world. A blue or
green dye is obtained from the petals.
Prefers is a well-drained sandy or loamy soil that is free from clay.
Prefers is a sunny position (Grieve, 1984). Grows is well on calcareous
soils and on hot sheltered stony banks. Plants are very frost hardy. They
107
also thrive in areas with poor summers, though they usually fail to
flower in such conditions. Plants produce less saffron when grown on
rich soils. Saffron has been cultivated for over 4000 years for the edible
dye obtained from the flower stigmas. There is at least one named
form. 'Cashmirianus' comes from Kashmir and has large high quality
corms. It yields about 27 kilos of rich orange stigmas per hectare.
When inhaled near to, the flowers have a delicate perfume. Unlike most
members of this genus, the flowers do not close of a night time or in
dull weather. The flowers are only produced after hot, dry summers.
Plants tend to move considerably from their original planting place
because of their means of vegetative reproduction, it is therefore wise
not to grow different species in close proximity. Any planting out is
best done in late spring or early summer. Plants take 4-5 years to come
into flowering from seed.
Seed of Crocus speciosus is according to some reports this species
is a sterile triploid and so does not produce fertile seed. However, if
seed is obtained then it is best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame.
Stored seed can be sown in the spring in a cold frame. Germination can
take 1-6 months at 18°C. Unless the seed has been sown too thickly, do
not transplant the seedlings in their first year of growth, but give them
regular liquid feeds to make sure they do not become deficient. Divide
the small bulbs once the plants have died down, planting 2-3 bulbs per
8 cm pot. Grow them on for another 2 years in a greenhouse or frame
and plant them out into their permanent positions when dormant in late
summer. It takes 3 years for plants to flower from seed. Division of the
clumps in late summer after the plant has died down. The bulbs can be
planted out direct into their permanent positions.
6.2.3. Code of Georgia: Mountain Steppe Vegetation (62GE03)
Mountain steppes that are specific to southern Georgia are distributed
in the Javakheti volcanic mountain plateau. Stepe vegetation is
represented by various plant communities. The most characteristic
species of grass-herbal polydominant steppes are: sheep fescue Festuca ovina, fescue - F. sulcata, feather grass - Stipa tirsa, S.
pulcherrima, bluestem - Bothriochloa ischaemum, dropwort Filipendula vulgaris, sickleweed - Falcaria vulgaris, bedstraw Galium cruciatum, crested hair-grass - Koeleria cristata, Trialeti
108
Lucerne - Medicago hemicycla, Timothy grass - Phleum phleoides,
milkworth - Polygala anatolica, Caucasian thyme - Thymus
caucasicus, etc.
Besides, secondary meadows can also be found here that are
developed in the places occupied by old primary forests. Similar to
primary communities, such meadows are created for the variants of
polydominant various grass in which the following participate:
common bent grass - Agrostis planifolia, yarrow - Alchemilla
erythropoda, false-brome - Brachypodium sylvaticum, brome Bromopsis variegata, smallreed - Calamagrostis arundinacea, red
cornflower - Centaurea salicifolia, cock’s foot - Dactylis glomerata,
bird’s foot trefoil - Lotus caucasicus, sheep clover - Trifolium
ambiguum, grey clover - T. canescens, etc. Communities consisting of
such mono-dominant species as Nardus stricta (thorny undergrowth),
Anemone fasciculata (narcissus anemone), Agrostis planifolia
(common bent growth), Brachypodium sylvaticum (false-brome),
Bromopsis variegata (brome), etc. can be mentioned from monodominant meadows.
Vegetation created as a result of transformation of natural herbal
vegetation of Javakheti plateau is represented by various modifications
of meadows turned into steppes and mountain polydominant steppes.
The following participate in creating meadows turned into steppes:
sedge - Carex humilis, multi-coloured fescue - Festuca valesiaca, sheet
fescue - F. ovina, dropworth - Filipendula vulgaris, milkwort Polygala anatolica, feathergrowth - Stipa tirsa, etc. Further secondary
meadows dominant species of the forest are: common bentgrass Agrostis planifolia, yarrow - Alchemilla erythropoda, checked brome Bromopsis variegata, small reed - Calamagrostis arundinacea, cock’s
foot - Dactylis glomerata, cranesbill - Geranium sylvaticum, bird’s foot
trefoil - Lotus caucasicus, Caucasian butter cup - Ranunculus
caucasicus, grey clover - Trifolium canescens, etc. Southern slopes are
occupied by polydominant steppes in the creation of which mainly
grasses participate: sheep’s fescue Festuca ovina, checked fescue - F.
valesiaca, feather grass - Stipa pulcherrima, S. tirsa, and crested hairgrass - Koeleria cristata, timothy grass - Phleum phleoides. The
following are represented from various herbs - dropwort - Filipendula
vulgaris, crusiate - Cruciata laevipes, Trialetian alfalfa - Medicago
hemicycla, Thyme - Thymus rariflorus, etc.
109
Plants species: Agrostis planifolia, Alchemilla erythropoda,
Anemone fasciculata, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Brachypodium
sylvaticum, Bromopsis variegata, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Carex
humilis, Centaurea salicifolia, Cruciata laevipes, Dactylis glomerata,
Falcaria vulgaris, Festuca ovina, F. sulcata, F.valesiaca, Filipendula
vulgaris, Galium cruciatum, Geranium sylvaticum, Koeleria cristata,
Lotus caucasicus, Lotus caucasicus, Medicago hemicycla, Nardus
stricta, Phleum phleoides, Polygala anatolica, Ranunculus caucasicus,
Stipa pulcherrima, S. tirsa, Thymus caucasicus, Thymus rariflorus,
Trifolium ambiguum, Trifolium canescens.
6.2.3.1. Endemic and medicinal plant species meadow anemone Pulsatilla Adans., Ranunculaceae
Endemic species of Pulsatilla is both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic. According to L. Kemularia-Natadze (1970) three species of
Pasqueflower are endemics Pulsatilla aurea (N.Busch) Juz., Pulsatilla
georgica upr., Pulsatilla violacea Rupr., Althougth, other authors
consider P. georgica as synonim of P. violacea (Cherepanov, 1995).
Target species is Pulsatilla violacea (=P. georgica Rupr., Figure 27).
A
B
C
Figure 27. A. Pulsatilla violacea is in Kazbegi district; B. Flower has
many stamens and anther has much pollen; C. Pollen of Pulsatilla
violacea has length of the horizontal height as 36-39 µm. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
110
Ornamental plant is in flower from April to May, and the seeds
ripen from May to June. Perennial is growing to 0.25 m. The plant
prefers light and medium soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant
prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very alkaline soil.
It cannot grow in the shade.
Medicinal uses are alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic,
emmenagogue, expectorant, homeopathy, nervine, ophthalmic and
sedative. Pasque flower is considered by herbalists to be of highly
valuable modern curative use as a herbal simple (Grieve, 1984). The
plant contains the glycoside ranunculin, this is converted to anemonine
when the plant is dried and is the medicinally active principle in the
plant (Stuart, 1979).
The whole plant is alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic,
emmenagogue, expectorant, nervine and sedative (Grieve, 1984). It is
taken internally in the treatment of pre-menstrual syndrome,
inflammations of the reproductive organs, tension headaches, neuralgia,
insomnia, hyperactivity, bacterial skin infections, septicaemia, and
spasmodic coughs in asthma, whooping cough and bronchitis.
Externally, it is used to treat eye conditions such as diseases of the
retina, senile cataract and glaucoma.
This remedy should be used with caution; excessive doses cause
diarrhoea and vomiting. It should not be prescribed to patients with
colds. See also the notes above on toxicity. The plant is harvested soon
after flowering; it is more poisonous when fresh and so should be
carefully preserved by drying (Stuart, 1979; Grieve, 1984). It should
not be stored for longer than 12 months before being used.
Other uses are Dye and Ground cover. It requires dry or moist soil
and can tolerate drought. A green dye is obtained from the flowers
(Brown, 1995). Plants can be grown to form a ground cover, they are
best spaced about 30 cm apart each way. Requires is a well-drained
humus rich gritty soil in a sunny position. Lime is tolerant. Prefers is
lime. Grows is best in a well-drained chalky soil in a dry warm
situation. Established plants are fairly drought tolerant (Huxley, 1992).
A very hardy plant is tolerating temperatures down to about -20°C.
A very ornamental plant, there are many named varieties. The plant has
become rare in its natural environment, due partly to over-collecting
111
and partly to habitat loss. Large plants transplant badly. A greedy plant
is inhibiting the growth of nearby plants, especially legumes.
Seed of Pulsatilla is best sown as soon as it is ripe in early summer
in a cold frame. The seed usually germinates in about 2-3 weeks. Sow
stored seed in late winter in a cold frame. Germination takes about 1-6
months at 15°C.
When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into
individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least their
first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in the spring.
Root cuttings, 4 cm long taken in early winter, potted up in a mixture of
peat and sand.
They can also be taken in July/August, planted vertically in pots in
a greenhouse or frame. Some care is needed since the plant resents root
disturbance (Huxley, 1992).
6.2.4. Code of Georgia: Vegetation of urban and rural areas
(62GE04)
Vegetation of village settlements and cultivable land is extremely
interesting from the point of view of plants of economic importance. In
this habitat there are various species of aborigine, invasive and
adventive cosmopolitan plants related to wild relatives of cultural
plants and those used in traditional (people’s) and scientific medicine,
including, Chicory - Cichorium intybus, meliot - Melilotus officinalis,
yarrow - Achillea milllefolium, agrimony – Agrimonia eupatoria,
creeping couch-grass - Agropyron repens, white briony - Bryonia
dioica, shepherd’s purse - Capsella bursa-pastoris, greater calistine Chelidonium majus, European dodder - Cuscuta europaea, henbane Hyoscyamus niger, mother of nettle - Lamium album, forest mallow Malva sylvestris, mint – Mentha arvensis, great plantain - Plantago
major, chickweed - Stellaria media, dandelion - Taraxacum officinale,
coltsfoot - Tussilago farfara, nettle -Urtica dioica, etc.
These plants are distributed on the territories of the city and village
settlements, roadsides and transformed habitats. Most of them, as
pioneer plants, create primary successions on eroded slopes as a result
of industrial activities and construction works.
Plants species: Achillea milllefolium, Aegilops tauschii, Agrimonia
eupatoria, Agropyron repens, Avena barbata, A. fatua, Beta
112
corolliflora, Brassica elongata, Bryonia dioica, Capsella bursa
pastoris, Chelidonium majus,Cichorium intybus, Coriandrum sativum,
Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Cuscuta europaea, Cydonia oblonga,
Ficus carica, Fragaria vesca, Hyoscyamus niger, Juglans regia,
Lamium album, Lathyrus spp., Onobrychis spp., Linum austriacum,
Malus oriantalis, Malva sylvestris, Medicago spp., Melilotus
officinalis, Mentha aquatica, Mentha arvensis, Mespilus germanica,
Morus alba, Plantago major, Prunus cerasifera, Punica granatum,
Pyrus caucasica, P. salicifolia, Raphanus rapinastrum, Rubus spp.,
Satureja spicigera, S. laxiflora, Setaria viridis, Solanum nigrum,
Stellaria media, Taraxacum officinale, Tussilago farfara, Urtica dioica,
Vicia spp.
6.2.4.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) species Barley tribe - Aegilops
cylindrica Host., Poaceae
Crop wild relatives (CWR) are determined by the exchange of gene
crops and germaplazma used agricultural crop domestication ancestor
species. Aegilops cylindrica is a member of the Grass family as Barley
tribe. Synonyms: Triticum cylindricum (Host) Ces., Pass. & Gibelli; T.
caudatum var. cylindricum (Host) Ach. & Graebner; Aegilops caudata
subsp. cylindrica (Host) Hegi; A. cylindrica var. cylindrica (Host)
Fiori; Cylindropyrum cylindricum (Host) A. Love (Figure 28).
CWR-'s wheat in Georgia represented Aegilops species, which are
distributed in many regions of the habitat in the dry slopes of the
foothills (Akhalkatsi, 2015c). There are a total of 8 species of the
genus Aegilops - in Georgia: Aegilops cylindrica Host; A. tauschii
Coss. (=A. squarrosa L.); A. triuncialis L.; A. biuncialis Vis.; A.
kotschyi Boiss.; A. columnaris zhuk.; A. ovata L. (=A. triaristata
Willd.); and A. umbellulata Zhuk. Among them is A. tauschii, which is
considered the ancestor of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.; Genome
constitution = AABBDD) and the D genome donor, therefore,
considered to be the origin of the wheat and the hybridization
tetraploidad T. turgidum and diploid - A. tauschii (Kihara 1944;
McFadden and Sirs 1946). According to the literature (Sakhokia,
1941, 1944) and herbarium in the type 2 - Aegilops-'s are A. cylindrica
and A. tauschii; Other CWR - those kinds of - A. triuncialis L., A.
umbellulata and A. ovata described Berishvili et. al. (2002).
113
A
B
C
D
E
Figure 28. A. B. C. D. Aegilops cylindrica with different numbers of
flowers; E. Hybrid of A. cylindrica is as CWRs and wheat variety as T.
aestivum is done from this in Meskheti. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The actual distribution of the total allocation includes the following
regions - Eastern Europe (South), Crimea, the Caucasus, Central Asia,
Central Europe (South), the Mediterranean region (east), Asia Minor,
Iran.
It is a winter annual or biennial herbaceous plant. It grows 15-30
cm tall on erect stems, which branch at the base to give the plant a
tufted appearance. The root system is shallow and fibrous. Leaves are
linear, flat, 3-8 mm wide sparsely pubescent or smooth, but scabrous
because of minor denticles along the veins. Ears are elongated,
cylindrical and gradually converging at the top, 7-12 cm in length. Each
ear consists of 6-11 spikelets and breaks off entirely or disintegrates
into segments. There are 1-2 rudimentary spikelets at the base of the
ear. The ear axis is flexible; spikelets are cylindrical, oblong in crosssection, with 3-4 flowers. Glumes are lanceolate, 6-9 mm long, with 79 thin veins, denticulated along the veins. Lateral spikelet glumes are
bifurcate in the upper part, topped by a triangular denticle with a broad
base and narrow point, often stretched into an awn-shaped appendage.
Bidentate from above, the lemma is either longer than the glumes by
0.5-1.5 mm or equal to the glumes in length. Near the apical spikelet
the lemma is, like the glumes, awn-shaped with 2 denticles at the sides.
Kernels accrete to palea. Generally two flowers are present on each
spikelet; however, researchers have reported up to five florets per
114
spikelet. At two to five spikelets per spike and one to three seeds per
spikelet, one plant, without competition, can generate more than 100
spikes and ca. 3000 seeds. On average though, in a wheat crop, jointed
goat grass will produce about 130 seeds per plant (Devillers, DevillersTeschuren, 1996).This is a self-pollinating plant. Pollen grains are
spherical, fine, and smooth. Blossoms in May; bears fruit in July.
Autochore is in areas. Propagated is by seed. The most distinguishing
characteristic is the 5-10 cm jointed cylindrical, seed head. 2n=28.
The overall distribution comprises the following geographical
regions - Eastern Europe (south), Crimea, Caucasus, Middle Asia
(south coastal areas of Balkhash, Dzungarian Ala Tau, Tarbagatai, Tien
Shan, Pamir-Alai, and Kopet Dagh), Central Europe (south),
Mediterranean region (east), and Asia Minor, Iran. Distribution in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region - We have found large populations covering
roadsides in Akhaltsikhe depression from Borjomi distr. up to Turkish
border. The populations are very abundant (Akhalkatsi, 2009).
A. cylindrica is ephemeral winter-hard plant. It is drought-resistant,
can grow in areas of less than 250-500 mm of annual precipitation. Salt
is resistant. Grows is on open slopes with stony and fine-grained soils,
sands and gravels, near roads and on weedy sites, sometimes in weeded
meadows and mountain steppes; from the plains to the middle
mountain zone, within the limits of 100-2000 m above sea level.
In Samtskhe-Javakheti occurs from 800 to 2000 m a.s.l. Seeds of
jointed goat grass usually germinate from mid-September to November.
Generally jointed goat grass seeds have an intermediate level of
persistence, remaining viable in the soil for 3 to 5 years. The seeds are
polymorphic, meaning that part of the seeds germinate early while the
rest of the seeds may persist for several more years. Recently harvested
seeds are still dormant, requiring a postharvest ripening before
dormancy is broken.
Seed dormancy is directly related to how long the seed will survive
in the soil. Field studies show that in drier areas of less than 350 mm of
annual rainfall, jointed goat grass seeds will survive for a minimum of
5 years. Contrastingly, in regions with more annual rainfall seeds do
not survive in the soil for longer than 3 or 4 years (Ogg et al., 1998).
Threat assessment is no threats are detected currently and no necessity
to protect this species occurs. Ex situ status - Seeds from different
region of Georgia are present in seed banks of USDA, ICARDA, VIR,
115
IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from Samtskhe-Javakheti are
kept at the TBG&BI. In situ status is not protected. The plant is
consumed well by all kinds of livestock before the fruiting phase.
Yields are high-quality hay. Owing is to the similarity of A. cylindrica
to the crop, Triticum aestivum. It may be used by wheat breeders in
hybridization with wheat varieties. The hybrids with cultivated wheat
are found in Meskhti near fields on road-sides.
A. cylindrica is secondary genetic relative for wheat used in
molecular systematics to understand wheat phylogenetics and
domestication events. It is used as gene source for disease resistance
and pest resistance. Jointed goat grass is spread by seed dispersal only.
Therefore, any method that reduces seed spread will reduce the spread
of the plant.
Population disturbances and habitat fragmentation is expected
when road construction works are undertaken. Maintain the current
populations of A. cylindrica in Samtskhe-Javakheti region to declare it
as plant of high conservation value by governmental organizations such
as MEPNR. Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate
habitat management and lagislative basis.
A. cylindrica should be declared as species of high economic value
as secondary genetic relative for wheat, which contributed to the
hexaploid wheat by D genome. The purpose of the plant is consumed as
well as all types of cattle earlier phase. Income is level. Because of the
similarity of A. cylindrica has Triticum aestivum- the harvest. May be
used by wheat breeders and breeding of wheat varieties. Hybrids and
cultivated with wheat fields can be found close to the Meskhetian road
side.
A. cylindrica is secondary genetic relative of wheat used in the
molecular structure and to understand, and the domestication of wheat
pilogenetikis result.
It is used as a source of genes and disease resistance is the
resistance. Current factors, the loss of which would reduce the spread
of grass seed only manage. This is why, any method that reduces the
spread of seed for sowing and reduces the spread of vegetation.
Residents have violations and habitat fragmentation, most likely, when
the road construction work is carried out. The territory where
A. cylindrica is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti does not needs
special conservation measures to be undertaken. The conservation
116
measures of this species should be directed on establishment of ex situ
seed collections and public education on importance of this plant as
ancestor of the bread wheat. The local population and governmental
bodies responsible for the nature protection should be informed about
high conservation value of this species. This species is crossed with
winter wheat producing viable hybrids. The genome is used in
molecular systematic studies. The proposed action plan goals and
objectives. The current population of the region to declare
A. cylindrica-on and make it as a plant of high conservation value
governmental organizations, such as the Ministry of Environment.
This corresponds to a reduction of habitat management and legal
basis. A. cylindrica-s policy and legislation must be declared species of
high economic value, as a secondary genetic related species of wheat,
which contributed to the wheat D genome hexaploids.
6.2.5. Code of Georgia: Vegetation of Pastures (62GE05)
Subalpine and alpine meadows are mainly used for summer pastures
for sheep and livestock. Grass, sedge and polydominant grass-herbal
meadows are characteristic to this type of vegetation. Grass-herbal
communities are characterized by a great variety. Namely, in each
community more than 30 species are presented.
We encounter grass-herbal meadows with the following dominant
species: sheep fescue - Festuca ovina, colourful brome - Bromopsis
variegata, Alpine meadow-grass - Poa alpina, crested hair-grass Koeleria caucasica, and mat-grass - Nardus stricta or colourful fescue Festuca woronowii. In this community the following are associated:
butter cup - Ranunculus oreophilus, Ajara brome - Bromopsis
adjaricus, sheep clover - Trifolium ambiguum, clover - T.
trichocephalum, T. alpestre, mountain betony - Stachys macrantha,
narcissus anemone - Anemone albana, Caucasian gentian - Gentianella
caucasea, Alpine aster - Aster alpinus, Alpine timothy grass - Phleum
alpinus, gentian-type Buxbaum’s speed well - Veronica gentianoides,
etc.
The following are dominant species in sedge meadows: sedge Carex humilis an C. brevicollis; As for associated species, they are as
follows: crested hair-grass – Koeleria caucasica, Caucasian decampane
- Inula glandulosa, Alpine forget-me-not - Myosotis alpestris, sedge 117
Carex tristis, Alpine meadow grass - Poa alpina, Alpine dropwort Phleum alpinum, lousewort - Pedicularis caucasica, whitlow-grass Draba nemorosa, mountain scabious - Scabiosa caucasica, checkweed
- Cerastium purpurescens, etc.
The following are dominant species on meadows composed of
herbs: sheep clover - Trifolium ambiguum, to which the following are
associated: sedge - Carex humilis, Ajara brome - Bromopsis adjaricus,
Alpine meadow-grass - Poa alpina, Arenaria - Arenaria steveniana,
yarrow - Achillea setacea, oats - Avena versicolor, colourful brome Bromopsis variegata, Fischer’s cornflower - Centaurea fischeri,
centaury - Gentiana septemfida. etc. Species participating in creating
the polydominant various grass meadow are: sibbaldia - Sibbaldia
procumbens, fox-tail - Alopecurus vaginatus, colourful brome Bromopsis variegata, Alpine timothy grass - Phleum alpinum, sheep
clover - Trifolium ambiguum, sheep fescue - Festuca ovina, lady-s
bedstraw - Galium verum, mountain betony - Stachys macrantha, etc.
Those represented on polydominant Alpine meadows are: sheep fescue
- Festuca ovina, Alpine creeping cinquefoil - Potentilla alpestris,
centaury - Gentiana septemfida, caraway - Carum caucasicum, hare’s
foot clover - Trifolium repens, Alpine aster – Aster alpinus, woodrush Luzula spicata, creeping bellflower - Campanula collina, creeping
cinquefoil - Potentilla gelida, etc. Indicator of degradation of pastures
weed plant agaric is distributed on almost the whole territory of
pastures. This is a poisonous plant which is not grased by domestic
animals and, therefore, it is widely distributed on subalpine and alpine
meadows.
Plants species: Achillea setacea, Alopecurus vaginatus, Anemone
albana, Arenaria steveniana, Aster alpinus, Bromopsis variegata, B.
villosula, Campanula collina, Carex brevicollis, C. humilis, C. tristis,
Carum caucasicum,Centaurea cheiranthifolia, Cerastium purpurescens
Colpodium versicolor, Draba nemorosa, Festuca ovina, F. varia,
Galium verum, Gentiana caucasica, G. septemfida, Inula glandulosa,
Koeleria caucasica, Luzula spicata, Myosotis alpestris, Nardus stricta,
Pedicularis caucasica, Phleum alpinum, Poa alpina, Potentilla
alpestris, P. gelida, Ranunculus oreophilus, Scabiosa caucasica,
Sibbaldia procumbens, Stachys macrantha, Trifolium ambiguum, T.
trichocephalum, T. alpestre, T. repens, Veratrum lobelianum, Veronica
gentianoides.
118
6.2.5.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) species Oats - Avena L., Poaceae
Crop wild relatives (CWR) are determined by the exchange of gene
crops and germaplazma used agricultural crop domestication ancestor
species. Family is Poaceae Barnh. Has genus Avena and it has total 8
species of oats are known in Georgia: 1. Avena sterilis L.; 2. A.
trichopylla C. Koch; 3. A. ludoviciana Durieu; 4. A. meridionalis
(Malz.) Roshev. (A. fatua subsp. meridionalis Malz.); 5. A. fatua L.; 6.
A. sativa L.; 7. A. barbata Pott ex Link; 8. A. eriantha Durieu.
Characteristics: Avena barbata Pott. ex Link - Slender oat; Taxonomy:
Family Poaceae Barnhart., genus Avena L.; Synonyms: Avena strigosa
subsp. barbata (Pott ex Link) Thell. (Figure 29).
A
E
C
B
F
G
D
H
Figure 29. A. Avena sterilis; B. Avena trichopylla; C. Avena
ludoviciana; D. Avena meridianalis; E. Avena barbara; F. Avena.
fatua; G. Avena sativa; H. Avena eriantha. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
119
4 wild species – A. barbata; A. fatua; A. ludoviciana; A.
meridionalis; and cultivated A. sativa, are distributed in SamtskheJavakheti. Wild species are growing as weeds and in natural habitats
and play big role in species formation processes (Akhalkatsi, 2009;
Akhalkatsi, 2015b).
Two species of oats – A. fatua and A. ludoviciana are considered as
close relatives of cultivated oats on the base of chromosome number
and species specific fungal disease. These species are weedy plants
mixed with grain corns in the field. A. barbata and A. sterilis form
separate group and are considered as well as close relative plants of A.
sativa.
They differ by chromosome number and fungal species but play a
role in formation of different varieties of oats by hybridization with
cultivated species. We have found representatives of both groups both
in Meskheti and Javakheti. Population of A. barbata occurs on dry
rocky slope near v. Atskuri. Number of individuals is not high, total 12
plants have been found.
They are well developed and form normal seeds. Grazing impact
was low. Although, the location is under anthropogenic pressure and
might cause diminishing of individual number. Seeds should be
collected and kept in the seed banks. A. fatua and A. ludoviciana were
found on Javakheti Plateau (Figure 30).
These plants were remained on field margins after mowing of
wheat field. There were not yet having ripe seeds and were well
developed. Populations were not threatened and were spread all along
the edges of the fields. Seeds of both species should be collected and
kept in the seed bank. Annual is herb and stems glabrous, (35) 40-100
cm tall. Panicle diffuse, 6.0-25.0 cm long.
Spikelets 2.0-3.0 cm long, 2 flowers per spikelet. Spikelet's axis
fragile, articulated under each flower in the spikelet. Glumes are equal
to each other in size and have 9-10 ribs.
Lemma is hairy (or, more rarely, glabrous) with two thin awns, 1.56.0 mm long, at the top and one thick, articulate awn at the back. Self is
pollinated. Blossoms in April-May; seeds ripen June-July. The seed
ripens in the latter half of summer and, when harvested and dried, can
store for several years. 2n = 24, 28, 32.
The overall distributions are in Crimea, Caucasus, and Turkmenia.
Distribution is in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. Only one population have
120
been found in Akhaltsikhe distr., v. Atskuri. Occurs is on stony slopes,
in loams, in sands, in meadows, along riversides and as a ruderal plant
in fields. Also occurs in plains and at the lower mountain level and in
cultivated beds.
A
B
C
D
Figure 30. A.B.C. Flowers of Avena fatua; D. Pollen of Avena fatua
has length of the horizontal height as 41-45 µm and distanth height as
52-55 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
It is in flower from June to July, and the seeds ripen from August to
October. The flowers are hermaphrodite and it has both male and
female organs and is pollinated by wind. The plant prefers light,
medium and heavy soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in
heavy clay soil.
The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the
shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.
Succeeds is in any moderately fertile soil in full sun. A triploid
species, it is rarely cultivated for its edible seed. Oats are in general
easily grown plants but, especially when grown on a small scale, the
seed is often completely eaten out by birds.
Some sort of netting seems to be the best answer on a garden scale.
Seed - sow in situ in early spring or in the autumn. Only just cover the
seed. Germination should take place within 2 weeks. Threat assessment
is no threats have been determined.
121
Ex situ status - The seeds are collected and kept in in seed banks of
USDA, ICARDA, VIR, IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from
Samtskhe-Javakheti are kept at the TBG&BI. In situ status - No
protected area are established to defence this species.
Wild relative of cultivated Avena sativa L. Used in breeding
programs and can be crossed successfully with A. sativa to produce
fertile hybrids resistant to all types of downy mildew. Seed - cooked.
Rather small. The seed has a floury texture and a mild, somewhat
creamy flavour. It can be used as a staple food crop in either savoury or
sweet dishes.
The seed can be cooked whole, though it is more commonly ground
into flour and used as a cereal in all the ways that oats are used,
especially as porridge but also to make biscuits, sourdough bread etc.
The seed can also be sprouted and eaten raw or cooked in salads, stews
etc.
The roasted seed is a coffee substitute. The straw has a wide range
of uses such as for bio-mass, fibre, mulch, paper-making and thatching.
Some caution is advised in its use as mulch since oat straw can
infest strawberries with stem and bulb eelworm. Grazing and road
construction works in Samtskhe-Javakheti represent threats to this
species. No actions currently are undertaken.
Proposed action plan objectives and targets:
1. Maintain the current populations of A. barbata in SamtskheJavakheti region.
2. Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat
management.
A. barbata should be declared as species of high economic value as
genetic ancestor for cultivated oat. Site is located along highway and
represents threat to the survival of the species.
The territories near roads should be assigned with special markers
indicated the importance of a species. Ex situ conservation of this
species will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks.
The local population and governmental bodies responsible for the
nature protection should be informed about high conservation value of
this species. Future research should be done to discover new
populations of this species in the region.
122
7. RAISED BOGS AND MIRES AND FENS
Vegetation of marshes is typical to Georgia. It covers approximately
200 hectares of the area. Marshes are especially typical on the Kolkheti
lowland. However, it also occupies many areas on the volcanic upland
of Javakheti and the Alpine zone in whole Caucasus. The majority of
marshes is eutrophic; meso- and oligotrophic marshes are limited in the
amount. Complexes of marsh vegetation are distributed on a large area
of Kolkheti lowland that consists of a variety of phytocoenosis of
marshy and sphagnum-herbaceous bogs. They are developed on peat
covering of various capacities the depth of which is 10-12 meters in
certain places (Kimeridze, K. 1961; 1985; Kimeridze, M. 2007;
Matchutadze et al., 2015).
7.1. Meso-oligotrophic marshes with sphagnum - Sphagnum
palustre L. (7110*)
Peaty marshes are typical on the Kolkheti lowland. However,
oligotrophic peaty marshes are found on the rocky places of the
subalpine zone. Vertical distributed of peaty marshes in west Georgia
involves all the altitudes from the sea level to the subalpine zone. Peat
marshes in the alpine zone are rare due to severe climatic conditions.
However, peaty marshes in eastern Georgia can be found only above
2000 meters due to aridity of the climate.
Peaty marshes of Kolkheti are area unique biogeographical
phenomenon on the whole Eurasian continent both with the terms and
peculiarities of developing marshes and geobotanical contents of
modern vegetation. It has a great scientific value and practical
importance.
Meso-oligotrophic peaty marshes are found only in west and South
Georgia. They are mainly found in the pine and fir forests and
moderately moist beech forest. The following obligatory halophites are
characteristic: Scheuchzeria palustris, Carex flava, Viola palustris,
Cardamine seidlitziana, Heracleum apiifolium, Sredinskya grandis,
Rhynchospora alba, Drosera rotundifolia, D. intermedia, D. anglica.
Marsh vegetation characteristic to North Eurasia is distributed in
the seaside region of Ajara. For example, in Kobuleti surroundings
123
there are Ispani I and Ispani II. Here, in the space covered with peat
moss shrubs and ferns are spread: Rhododendron ponticum, Rh. luteum,
Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Frangula alnus, Osmunda regalis, etc. The
orchid characteristic to Eurasian marshes Spiranthes amoena is found.
The following can be found from endemic species: Hibiscus ponticus,
Heracleum apiifolium, Rhynchospora caucasica, Scirpus colchicus,
Sredinskya grandis, Carex szovitsii, Cardamine seidlitziana, Primula
luteola, Siphonostylis lazica, Oenanthe abchasica, Pycreus colchicus,
and Swertia iberica.
On Ispani I and Ispani II marshes the Imeretian sedge is quite
distributed. It is created by high growing grasses - Molinia litoralis.
This formation is quite varied typologically and is frequently associated
with peat moss. It is distributed on the relatively small slopes with
dominating sedge - Carex lasiocarpa. This sedge is typologically the
same on Kobuleti marshes. In the described formation obligate
halophytes - Rhynchospora caucasica, Rhynchospora alba, several
species of peat moss, etc. participate with enough majority. On the
peaty marsh of Kobuleti Sphagnum imbricatum and Sphagnum palustre
mainly create sphagnum bogs. Some other species can be rarely found
but their cenotic importance is relatively limited. On the total cover
created by sphagnum species mainly sinusien of herbal plants are
developed. Main components of this sinusia are: Molinia litoralis,
Rhynchospora caucasica, Carex lasiocarpa, etc. Drosera rotundifolia,
Osmunda regalis, Menyanthes trifoliata, Rhynchospora alba etc.are
more rarely found.In some places there are such shrubs, as azalea
Rhododendron luteum, Pontic rhododendron Rhododendron ponticum,
Frangula alnus, and shrubbed Alnus barbata, etc.
Scrub-sphagnum bogs are represented on small area plots and
developed on embossed surfaces of peat. Community Sphagnum
(auriculatum, palustre) caricosum is situated in the peaty massive of
Churia. Sphagnum auriculatum, Sphagnum palustre, Carex
acutiformis, Carex lasiocarpa, Rhynchospora alba, Potentilla erecta,
Lycopus europaeus, Holcus lanatus, Scutellaria galericulata, Galium
palustre, Calystegia silvatica, Succisella inflexa, Eupatorium
cannabinum,
Centaurium
erythraea,
Lysimachia
vulgaris,
Stachyspalustris, Cladium mariscus, Thelypteris palustris, Hydrocotyle
vulgaris, Hypericum tetrapterum.
124
Plants species: Alnus barbata, Calystegia silvatica, Canrdamine
seidlitziana, Carex acutiformis, Carex flava, C. lasiocarpa, C. szovitsii,
Centaurium erythraea, Cladium mariscus, Drosera rotundifolia, D.
intermedia, D. anglica, Eupatorium cannabinum, Frangula alnus,
Galium palustre, Heracleum apiifolium, Hibiscus ponticus, Holcus
lanatus, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Hypericum tetrapterum, Lycopus
europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia
litoralis, Oenanthe abchasica, Osmunda regalis, Potentilla erecta,
Primula luteola, Siphonostylis lazica, Pycneus colchicus,
Rhododendron luteum, R. ponticum, Rhynchospora alba, R. caucasica,
Scheuchzeria palustris, Scirpus colchicus, Scutellaria galericulata,
Sphagnum auriculatum, S. imbricatum, S. palustre, Sredinskya grandis,
Stachys palustris, Succisella inflexa, Swertia ibenica, Thelypteris
palustris, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Viola palustris.
7.1.1. Endemic plant species Ladies tresses - Spiranthes amoena L.,
Orchidaceae
Indicator species is Spiranthes amoena that respond quickly to changes
in the environment of all. Critically endangered orchid Spiranthes
amoena is growing in the peat bog Ispani in the proximity of Kobuleti,
Adjara, Georgia (Akhalkatsi et al., 2004).
This population is located far from natural area of species
distribution. It is spread in Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, China,
Far East, Siberia, and the closest population to Georgia is located in
Carpathians. In spite of this, the first finding was done in Georgia in the
Batumi Botanical Garden among Miscanthus sinensis thickets by A.A.
Dmitrieva in 80th. She identified it as Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames.
and included in the 2nd edition of Identification Key to the Plants of
Adjara (1990). In September 2001 Georgian botanist I. Matchutadze
together with German colleagues discovered two wonderful
populations of this plant in the peat bogs Ispani I and Ispani II (Figure
31).
The collected specimen from 25 September 2001 has been
identified as Spiranthes amoena (M. Bieb.) Spreng. by R. Lorenz and
H. Bauman. Ispani peat bog is third big in Georgia after Imnati and
Nabada. It comprises 848 ha and is composed by two bogs – Ispani I
and II. Ispani II is awarded the Ramsar Site Category and is protected.
125
Ispani I is more degraded. There are some drainage canals in the
surrounding.
However, the natural vegetation is preserved quit well. The peat is
created by mosses belonging to genus Sphagnum representing by three
species in this bog - S. imbricatum, S. papillosum and S. acutifolium.
They form convex outgrowths, which are more representative in Ispani
II. Mosses are mixed with other plant species. Dominant species are
Juncus acutus, J. effusus and Molinia litoralis. Shrubs are represented
by - Frangula alnus, Rhododendron luteum, R. ponticum, Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, etc. Trees are Elm (Alnus barbata) and pine (Pinus
pinaster). There are many endemic and rare wetland species
Rhynchospora caucasica, Sisyrinchium septentrionale, Scirpus
colchicus, Hibiscus ponticus, Pycreus colchicus, etc. The most
fascinating plant occurring in Kolkhic peat bogs is insectivorous
Drosera rotundifolia.
A
B
C
D
Figure 31. A. B. C. D. Spiranthes amoena is in the Ispani I and II
marshes in Adjara. This species is quite distributed and this remains in
the Kolkheti lowland. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The fact, that Spiranthes amoena is growing in Georgia isolated by
thousands of kilometers from its natural area of distribution raises a
question on the origin of this population. There are two hypotheses
explaining their possible origin. According to one, the plants found in
Ispani bogs might be invasive originated from seeds distributed from
the introduced Spiranthes plants from the Batumi Botanical Garden.
126
The problematic here is that even this plant is firstly found on the
territory of Botanical Garden, there is no information about
introduction of this species.
The second hypothesis is considering these populations as natural.
It is noteworthy, that Ispani peat bog shows many similarities to North
Eurasian turf bogs by species composition. On the basis of this fact, it
is considered to be a refugium remained unchanged over a period of
glaciation.
Confirmation to this hypotheses might serve the occurrence of
some paleo-arctic and boreal relic species such as Osmunda regalis,
Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Drosera rotundifolia, etc.
However, independent on the character of origin of this endangered
wetland orchid the efforts should be undertaken to insure its
conservation.
The main causes of orchid species rarity in Georgia, as in many
other countries, originate from the narrowness and regression of natural
habitats. Recent changes in traditional agro-pastoral practices in
Georgia leading to an uncontrolled overgrazing of not only meadows
but also of woody and shrubbery habitats induce a severe loss of orchid
diversity.
Drainage and conversion of wetlands has also been a cause of a
dramatic regression of many wetland orchid populations, such as
Epipactis palustris, Dactylorhiza iberica, Orchis pseudolaxiflora and
Spiranthes amoena, all belonging to rare species. The climate change,
which might be considered as a global anthropogenic impact, exerts a
definite negative influence on upon the orchid wetland habitats due to
increased droughts.
The complexity in identifying threats is combined with the lack of
reliable information as to how conservation measure should be applied.
Orchids are habitat dependent organisms due to their complex relations
to fungi and insects. Therefore, habitat disturbances exert a much more
severe impact on orchids as compared to other plants.
It is noteworthy, that orchid habitats mainly have a high naturalistic
value and contain a great number of other threatened rare plants.
Orchids are often considered as indicators of the ecological health of a
biotope.
In consequence, natural orchid habitats have been given the high
priority from the conservation point of view. Special attention should
127
be paid to protect the typical habitats of endangered species such as
wetlands.
All wetland orchids should be considered as endangered because of
the high risk of its habitat disturbance due to agricultural cultivation
and urbanization. Moreover, orchid species native to Georgia are not
yet protected.
They are not included even in the Red Data Book of the Georgia
(1982). Therefore, it is necessary to take effective steps for their
conservation.
7.2. Code of Georgia: Tall grass marshes (70GE01*)
Tall grass marshes can be found on the Kolkheti valley and volcanic
upland of South Georgia. The upper margin of distribution is 2000
meters a.s.l..
Sub-types (70GE01-01): Phragmites communis - reed bed where
Phragmites australis dominates; other species are - Juncus acutus,
Typha angustifolia, Scirpus lacustris (Schoenoplectus lacustris),
Echinochloa crusgalli (on dry hard clod of earth).
Sub-types (70GE01-02): Typheta angustifoliae – The dominant
species of the marsh overgrown with reedmace are Typha latifolia, T
angustifolia or T. laxmanii. Community of Typhetum angustifoliae
Purum is found in the great peat marsh placed in the east of Paliastomi
Lake. The contents of species are - Carex acutiformis, Galium palustre,
Iris pseudacorus, Lycopus europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Phragmites
australis, Scutellaria galericulata, Sphagnum auriculatum, Typha
angustifolia. In the nearby territory of Kulevi terminal, especially, on
the banks of river Khobi the thick undergrowth (Typha latifolia, T.
angustifolia) of marsh overgrown with reedmace is distributed. They
are not of a big size and can be encountered sporadically.
Sub-types (70GE01-03): Schoenoplecteta – Schoenoplectus
lacustris or S. tabennaemontani is observed in bulrush. It is
characterized by high grass but less density. The height of the grass of
bulrush community - Schoenoplectetum lacustris purum exceeds 2
meters.
Sub-types (70GE01-04): Cladieta marisci - Cladium mariscus
dominates in Mariskusiani and can be observed in lowland places. The
upper margin of its distributed is 800 meters a.s.l.. Cladium mariscus128
Carex acutiformis community is found in big peat marshes located in
the east of the Paliastomi Lake (near the lake side). Species include Alnus barbata, Calystegia silvatica, Carex acutiformis, Carex
lasiocarpa, Hibiscus ponticus, Inula aspera, Juncus articulatus,
Lycopus europaeus, Mentha aquatica, Molinia litoralis, Phragmites
australis, Sphagnum palustre, Stachys palustris, Typha angustifolia.
Sub-types (70GE01-05): The groups with the following are rare:
Phalaroides arundinacea and Glyceria arundinacea.
Plants species: Alnus barbata, Calystegia silvatica, Carex
acutiformis, C. lasiocarpa, Cladium mariscus, Echinochloa crusgalli,
Galium palustre, Glyceria arundinacea, Hibiscus ponticus, Inula
aspera, Iris pseudacorus, Juncus acutus, J. articulatus, Lycopus
europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Mentha aquatica, Molinia litoralis,
Phalaroides arundinacea, Phragmites australis Schoenoplectus
lacustris, S. tabennaemontani, Scirpus lacustris (Schoenoplectus
lacustris), Scutellaria galericulata, Sphagnum auriculatum, S. palustre,
Stachys palustris, Typha angustifolia, T. latifolia, T. laxmanii.
7.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Lesser Bulrush – Typha angustifolia L., Typhaceae
The economically potential species of Typha angustifolia is
recreational, ornamental and medicinal plants and other. Habitats have
water up to 15 cm deep, avoiding acid conditions. Often somewhat
brackish or sub saline water or wet soil in Georgia, growing from sea
level to elevations of 1900 metres (Akhalkatsi, Tarkhnishvili, 2012;
Figure 32).
Typha angustifolia is a PERENNIAL growing to 3 m by 3 m. It is
in flower from Jun to July. The flowers are monoecious and individual
flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the
same plant and are pollinated by Wind. It is noted for attracting
wildlife. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils. Suitable pH: acid,
neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers wet soil
and can grow in water (Durnikin, Eremina, 2015).
Edible uses are as oil, flowers, leaves, oil, pollen, root, seed and
stem. Roots are raw or cooked.
129
A
B
C
Figure 32. A. Typha angustifolia is medicinal plants and habitat is tall
grass marshes in the Kolkheti valley and volcanic upland of South
Georgia; B. The leaf and flower are different and has much pollen; C.
Pollen of Typha angustifolia has length of the horizontal height as 2030 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
They can be boiled and eaten like potatoes or macerated and then
boiled to yield sweet syrup. The roots can also be dried, ground into a
powder and then used as a thickener in soups etc or added to cereal
flours. Rich in protein, this powder is used to make biscuits etc. Young
shoots in spring - raw or cooked. An asparagus substitute. Base is of
mature stem - raw or cooked. It is best to remove the outer part of the
stem. Young flowering stem - raw, cooked or made into a soup. It
tastes like sweet corn. Seed - cooked. The seed is very small and fiddly
to harvest, but it has a pleasant nutty taste when roasted. Edible oil is
obtained from the seed. Due to the small size of the seed this is
probably not a very worthwhile crop. Pollen is raw or cooked. A
protein rich additive to flour used in making bread, porridge etc. It can
also be eaten with the young flowers, which makes it considerably
easier to utilize. The pollen can be harvested by placing the flowering
stem over a wide but shallow container and then gently tapping the
stem and brushing the pollen off with a fine brush. This will help to
pollinate the plant and thereby ensure that both pollen and seeds can be
harvested.
Medicinal uses are: anticoagulant, diuretic, emmenagogue,
haemostatic, lithontripic, and miscellany. The pollen is diuretic,
emmenagogue and haemostatic. The dried pollen is said to be
130
anticoagulant, but when roasted with charcoal it becomes haemostatic.
It is used internally in the treatment of kidney stones, internal
haemorrhage of almost any kind, painful menstruation, abnormal
uterine bleeding, post-partum pains, abscesses and cancer of the
lymphatic system. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women.
Externally, it is used in the treatment of tapeworms, diarrhoea and
injuries. An infusion of the root has been used in the treatment of
gravel. The stems and leaves have many uses, they make a good thatch,
can be used in making paper, can be woven into mats, chairs, hats etc.
They are a good source of biomass, making an excellent addition to the
compost heap or used as a source of fuel etc. The hairs of the fruits are
used for stuffing pillows etc. They have good insulating and buoyancy
properties. The female flowers make excellent tinder and can be lit
from the spark of a flint. The pollen is highly inflammable and is used
in making fireworks. This plants extensive root system makes it very
good for stabilizing wet banks of rivers, lakes etc.
A very easily grown plant, it grows in boggy pond margins or in
shallow water up to 15 cm deep. It requires a rich soil if it is to do well.
Succeeds is in sun or part shade. A very invasive plant spreading freely
at the roots when in a suitable site, it is not suitable for growing in
small areas. Unless restrained by some means, such as a large
bottomless container, the plant will soon completely take over a site
and will grow into the pond, gradually filling it in. This species will
often form an almost complete monoculture in boggy soil. The dense
growth provides excellent cover for water fowl. Seed of Typha
angustifolia is surface sow in a pot and stand it in 3 cm of water. Pot up
the young seedlings as soon as possible and, as the plants develop,
increase the depth of water. Plant out in summer. Division is in spring.
Very easy, harvest the young shoots when they are about 10-30 cm tall,
making sure there is at least some root attached, and plant them out into
their permanent positions.
7.3. Code of Georgia: Low grass marshes (70GE02*)
Low grass swamps are distributed up to 2300 meters a.s.l..
Communities with the horse tail - Equisetum heleocharis, E. palustris,
E. ramosissimum dominate in the lowland and low zone of the
mountain. Hyppuris vulgaris is a rare obligatory hellophyte.
131
Sparganium erectum (S. polyedrum) or S. simplex creates the most
widely distributed community. Butomus umbellatus is rare in various
places of Georgia. On Javakheti upland there is Equisetetum palustrae
purum, which is developed around the surface flowing water. The
substrate is with silt. The composition of species is as follows Equisetum palustre, Juncus articulatus, J. inflexus, Carex acuta, C.
rostrata (=C. inflata), Ranunculus repens, Heleocharis palustris.
Sub-types (70GE02-01): Iriseta pseudacorus – iris growth is
observed in peaty massifs of Maltakva, to the west of river Gurinka.
There is water between emery stone. Fragments of pure reedbed are
developed on relatively more watery peaty places. On smaller plots
dominates reedmace Typha angustifolia. The species are - Angelica
adzharica, Calystegia silvatica, Carex acutiformis, Galium palustre,
Holcus lanatus, Iris pseudacorus, Lycopus europaeus, Molinia litoralis,
Phragmites australis, Scrophularia nodosa, Stachys palustris, Typha
angustifolia.
Sub-types (70GE02-02): Sparganieta polyedris – the bur reed
community is found in village Grigoleti surroundings. The following
species are: Butomus umbellatus, Iris pseudacorus, Lemna minor,
Potamogeton pectinatus, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Salvinia natans,
Sparganium erectum (S. polyedrum), Trapa colchica, Typha
angustifolia.
Sub-types (70GE02-03): Cypereta longus – in Kulevi
surroundings are found together with sedge groupings - Cyperus
badius, C. longus, Scirpus lacustris, S. tabaernemontani, Juncellus
serotinus.
Sub-types (70GE02-04): Bolboschoeneta maritimae – seaclubrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus) is commonly found in Kolkheti, on the
sea side. The sensus is made in the surroundings of Kulevi.
Sub-types (70GE02-05): Schoenoplecteta triqueter – low bull rush
is found in Maltakva surroundings, Kaparchina coast, and the peatsandy substrate with temporary standing water. Species areEchinochloa crusgalli (on dry hard clods of land), Juncus acutus,
Phragmites australis, Scirpus lacustris (Schoenoplectus lacustris), S.
triqueter (Schoenoplectus triqueter), Typha angustifolia
Sub-types (70GE02-06): Leersieta orizoides community dominant
species is rice-like leersia - Leersia oryzoides. It is the type of the grass.
It is distributed in Europe, Azia and America. It is a perennial plant
132
with the root with the hight of 1-1.5 meters. Leaves are of 28 cm long
with thinly dentate leaves. It is extremely rare in high-grass marshes of
Kolkheti. The species are - Bidens tripartita, Carex acuta, Echinochloa
crusgalli, Mentha arvensis, Oenanthe aquatica, Sagittaria sagittifolia,
Sium latifolium, Sparganium erectum, Trapa colchica, Xanthium
strumarium.
Plants species: Angelica adzharica, Bidens tripartita,
Bolboschoenus maritimus, Butomus umbellatus, Calystegia silvatica,
Carex acuta, C. acutiformis, C. rostrata (C. inflata), Cyperus badius,
C. longus, Echinochloa crusgalli, Equisetum heleocharis, E. palustris,
E. ramosissimum, Galium palustre, Heleocharis palustris, Holcus
lanatus, Iris pseudacorus, Juncellus serotinus, Juncus acutus, J.
inflexus, J. articulatus, Leersia oryzoides, Lemna minor, Lycopus
europaeus, Mentha arvensis, Molinia litoralis, Oenanthe aquatica,
Phragmites australis, Potamogeton pectinatus, Ranunculus repens,
Sagittaria
sagittifolia,
Salvinia
natans,
Scirpus
lacustris
(Schoenoplectus lacustris), S. triqueter (Schoenoplectus triqueter), S.
tabaernemontani, Scrophularia nodosa, Sium latifolium, Sparganium
erectum (S. polyedrum), S. simplex, Stachys palustris, Trapa colchica,
Typha angustifolia, Xanthium strumarium.
7.3.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
yellow flag –Iris pseudacorus L., Iridaceae
The economically potential species Iris pseudacorus is recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants and other. Habitats: Damp marshy
areas, swampy woods and in shallow water or wet ground on the edges
of rivers and ditches. Often found in shady places. Europe, including
Britain, from Norway south and east to N. Africa the Caucasus and W.
Asia. This species is oriented to waters (Figure 33).
Iris pseudacorus is a PERENNIAL growing to 1.5 m by 2 m at a
medium rate. It is in flower from May to July. The flowers are
hermaphrodite and it has both male and female organs and is pollinated
by Bees, hoverflies.The plant is self-fertile. Suitable for: light and
medium soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in
semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil
and can grow in water. The plant can tolerate strong winds but not
maritime exposure.
133
A
B
Figure 33. A. Iris pseudacorus is oriented to water in v. Shilda; B. Iris
pseudacorus is medicinal plants. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Medicinal uses are – astringent, cathartic, emetic, emmenagogue
and odontalgia. The fresh root is astringent, cathartic, emetic,
emmenagogue and odontalgic. A slice of the root held against an
aching tooth is said to bring immediate relief. It was at one time widely
used as a powerful cathartic but is seldom used nowadays because of its
extremely acrid nature. It can also cause violent vomiting and
diarrhoea. When dried the root loses its acridity and then only acts as
an astringent. Other uses are dye, essential, ink and tannin. A beautiful
yellow dye is obtained from the flowers.
A good black dye is obtained from the root if it is mixed with iron
sulphate. It is brown otherwise. The root is a source of tannin and has
been used in making ink. A delicately scented essential oil, obtained
from the roots, has been used to adulterate the oil of Acorus calamus.
Container and specimen are with this species. Prefers is a humus rich
soil. Succeeds is in water up to 15 cm deep. Requires is a moist soil,
especially in early summer. Prefers is a position in semi-shade. Plants
can be grown in quite coarse grass, which can be cut annually in the
autumn. A delicately scented essential oil is obtained from the dried
roots. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by browsing
deer or rabbits. Some named forms have been selected for their
ornamental value. Special Features: Attractive foliage, Not North
American native, Invasive, Naturalizing, All or parts of this plant are
poisonous, Wetlands plant, Attracts butterflies, Suitable for cut flowers.
Seed of Iris pseudacorus is best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold
134
frame. Stored seed should be sown as early in the year as possible in a
cold frame. A period of cold stratification improves germination time
and rates. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are
large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse or cold
frame for their first year (Wilson, 2001). Plant out into their permanent
positions in late spring or early summer. Division is in March or
October. Early autumn is best. Very easy, larger clumps can be
replanted direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to pot
up smaller clumps and grow them on in a cold frame until they are
rooting well. Plant them out in the spring.
7.4. Code of Georgia: Tussock sedge wetlands (70GE03*)
Tussock sedge swamps are distributed on seaside wet sandy ground,
lagoons, channels and river sides the level of water of which varies
according to the season and waters. Sedges are represented by many
communities: Cariceta dichoandrae, Cariceta acutiformis, Cariceta
elatae, Cariceta caespitosae, Cariceta wilnicae and Magnojunceta.
Cariceta elatae is very rare, as well as Cariceta caespitosae which is
found on the Javakheti high land at the height of 2000-2100 meters and
Ajara mountains. Magnojunceta is different from tussock sedge
swamps. Juncus effusus or J. inflexus dominate here. Prickly-ivy rush
Juncetum acutae purum is found in Maltakva region with the following
species - Echinochloa crusgalli (on emery stones), Juncus acutus,
Phragmites australis, Scirpus lacustris (Schoenoplectus lacustris), and
Typha angustifolia.
Sub-types (70GE03-01):Cariceta acutiformis-emery stone - sedge.
Bush-grass is mainly settled on emery stone. The mentioned sedge is
related with alder grove, which is scrubbed, on a better provided rough
peat substrate. In certain parts of the association there are the following
plants besides the mentioned ones: Carex lasiocarpa, Centaurium
erythraea, Potentilla erecta, Rhynchospora caucasica, etc. Caricetum
acutiformis varioherbosum community is in Kulevi peat massive, on
the wide coast of a lake. Composition of species - Alisma plantagoaquatica, Alnus barbata, Calamagrostis epigeios, Calystegia silvatica,
Carex acutiformis, Galium palustre, Hibiscus ponticus, Hydrocotyle
vulgaris, Hypericum tetrapterum, Inula aspera, Iris pseudacorus,
Juncus effusus, Lycopus europaeus, Mentha aquatica, Osmunda
135
regalis, Phragmites australis, Sphagnum auriculatum (on emery stone)
Stachys palustris, Typha angustifolia.
Sub-types (70GE03-02): Junceta effuses is described in the eastern
part of prickly Palistomi Lake. The species are: Alnus barbata,
Calamagrostis epigeios, Carex acutiformis, C. lasiocarpa, Drosera
rotundifolia, Holcus lanatus, Juncus effusus, Menyanthes trifoliata,
Molinia litoralis, Potentilla erecta, Sphagnum palustre, Thelypteris
palustris. In Kulevi the community of this type consists of the
following species - Juncus effusus, Scirpus lacustrum, Alnus barbata,
Hydrocotyle sp., Galium palustre, Leucojum aestivum, Polygonum
hydropiper, and Iris pseudacorus.
Sub-types (70GE03-03): Junceta acutae Prickly is rush. Juncetum
acutae purum is near Maltakva and on the bank of river Kaparchina.
The following are noteworthy from the species - Echinochloa crusgalli
(on emery stone), Juncus acutus, Phragmites australis, Scirpus
lacustris (Schoenoplectus lacustris), and Typha angustifolia.
Plants species: Alisma plantago-aquatica, Alnus barbata,
Calamagrostis epigeios, Calystegia silvatica, Carex acutiformis, C.
lasiocarpa, Centaurium erythraea, Drosera rotundifolia, Echinochloa
crusgalli, Galium palustre, Hibiscus ponticus, Holcus lanatus,
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Hypericum tetrapterum, Inula aspera, Iris
pseudacorus, Juncus acutus, J. effusus, J. inflexus, Leucojum aestivum,
Lycopus europaeus, Mentha aquatica, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia
litoralis, Osmunda regalis, Phragmites australis, Polygonum
hydropiper, Potentilla erecta, Rhynchospora caucasica, Scirpus
lacustris (Schoenoplectus lacustris), Sphagnum auriculatum,
Sphagnum palustre, Stachys palustris, Thelypteris palustris, Typha
angustifolia.
7.4.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
round-leaved sundew - Drosera rotundifolia L., Droseraceae
The economically potential species Drosera rotundifolia is
recreational, ornamental and medicinal plants and other. Habitats: Wet
and moist places in poor peaty soils, occasionally forming a floating
fringe on small ponds. Europe, including Britain but excluding he
Mediterranean, Caucasus, N. Asia, N. America. It is in the Ispani I and
II marshes in Adjara (Figure 34).
136
A
B
C
Figure 34. A.B.C. Drosera rotundifolia is in the Ispani I and II
marshes in Adjara. This species is quite distributed and this remains in
the Kolkheti lowland. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Drosera rotundifolia is an evergreen perennial growing to 0.1 m by
0.1 m at a slow rate. It is in leaf 12-Jan. It is in flower from Juli to
August. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female
organs) and are pollinated by Self.
The plant is self-fertile. Suitable for: light (sandy) and medium
(loamy) soils and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid,
neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid soils. It
cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist or wet soil. Medicinal uses
are antibacterial, antibiotic, antispasmodicm, demulcent, expectorant,
Homeopathy, hypoglycaemic and warts. The sundew has a long history
of herbal use, having been popular for its fortifying and aphrodisiac
effects. It relaxes the muscles of the respiratory tract, easing breathing
and relieving wheezing and so is of great value in the treatment of
various chest complaints (Bekesiova et al., 1999).
The plant has become quite rare and so it should not be harvested
from the wild. The flowering plant is antibacterial, antibiotic,
antispasmodic, antitussive, demulcent, expectorant and hypoglycaemic.
The plant is used with advantage in the treatment of whooping cough,
exerting a peculiar action on the respiratory organs. It is also used in
the treatment of incipient phthisis, chronic bronchitis and asthma.
Externally, it has been used to treat corns, warts and bunions.The
plant is harvested in the summer and can be dried for later use. Use
with caution. Internal use of this herb causes a harmless colouring of
the urine.
137
An extract of the plant contains plumbagin, which is antibiotic
against a wide range of pathogens. Because of their protein digesting
enzymes, the leaf juice has been used in the treatment of warts and
corns. The entire fresh plant, harvested when it is starting to flower, is
used to make a homeopathic remedy. It is used mainly in the treatment
of coughs and is specific for whooping cough.
Prefers is a sandy peaty soil, succeeding in poor soils and bogs.
Requires is a sunny position. An insectivorous plant, it can survive in
nitrogen poor soils because it gets the nutrients it needs from insects.
The upper surfaces of leaves are covered with hairs that secrete a
sweet sticky substance.This attracts insects, which become smeared
with it and unable to escape - the plant then exudes a digestive fluid
that enables it to absorb most of the insect into its system.
Seed of Drosera rotundifolia is best sown thinly as soon as it is
ripe into pots of a free-draining soil with some charcoal added and with
a layer of finely chopped sphagnum moss on top. Surface sow and keep
the compost moist.
The seed usually germinates in 1-2 months at 20°C. Grow the
plants on in the pots for their first growing season, making sure that the
soil does not become dry. Divide the plants in the autumn, grow them
on in the greenhouse for the winter and plant them out into their
permanent positions in late spring.
7.5. Code of Georgia: Short rhizome sedge marshes (70GE04*)
Vegetation of eutrophic swamps includes plants with short rhizomes
which is characteristic to the subalpine zone. Several communities
reach the alpine zone. For example, Cariceta daciae (=Cariceta
transcaucasicae). Cariceta kotschyana is typical to the alpine zone. It
can be found at the altitude of 2000-2900 meters a.s.l.. Blysmus
compressus is the dominant species which can be found on whole
Caucasus. Peat moss is not found in this community. The significant
component of peat swamps is Molinia litoralis. Its distribution is
limited to the Kolkheti lowland. Molinietum litoralis purum is found in
peaty massifs of Maltakva, to the west of river Gurinka. Composition is
of species - Angelica adzharica, Calystegia silvatica, Carex
acutiformis, Galium palustre, Holcus lanatus, Iris pseudacorus,
Lycopus europaeus, Molinia litoralis, Phragmites australis,
138
Scrophularia nodosa, Stachys palustris, and Typha angustifolia.
Community of Rhynchospora caucasica and Rhynchospora alba is
typical to the Kolkheti swamp.
Sub-types (70GE04-01): Molinieta litoralis is in Imereti sedge.
Molinietum litoralis purum is described to the west of river Gurinka, in
the peaty massive of Maltakva. The species are - Angelica adzharica,
Calystegia silvatica, Carex acutiformis, Galium palustre, Holcus
lanatus, Iris pseudacorus, Lycopus europaeus, Molinia litoralis,
Phragmites australis, Scrophularia nodosa, Stachys palustris, and
Typha angustifolia.
Sub-types (70GE04-02): Rhynchosporeta caucasici and
Rhynchosporeta albae communities are found in the peaty massive of
Imnati above the Bokveradze garden. Composition of species - Alnus
barbata (scrubbed), Athyrium filixfemina, Bidens tripartita, Carex
lasiocarpa, Erechtites valerianifolia, Eupatorium cannabinum,
Frangula alnus, Hypericum mutilum, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia
litoralis, Osmunda regalis, Rhododendron luteum, Rhynchospora alba,
Rh. caucasica, Sphagnum palustre.
Plants species: Alnus barbata (shrubbed), Angelica adzharica,
Athyrium filix-femina, Bidens tripartita, Blysmus compressus,
Calystegia silvatica, Carex acutiformis, C. lasiocarpa, Erechtites
valerianifolia, Eupatorium cannabinum, Frangula alnus, Galium
palustre, Holcus lanatus, Hypericum mutilum, Iris pseudacorus,
Lycopus europaeus, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia litoralis, Osmunda
regalis, Phragmites australis, Rhynchospora alba, Rh. caucasica,
Rhododendron luteum, Rhynchospora caucasica, Scrophularia nodosa,
Scrophularia nodosa, Sphagnum palustre, Stachys palustris, Typha
angustifolia.
7.5.1. Edificatory plant species yellow azalea - Rhododendron
luteum (L.) Sweet., Ericaceae
Edificatory species - Rhododendron luteum have a special role to
contribute in ecosystem structure (Figure 35). Habitats: Although no
specific mention of toxicity has been seen for this species, it belongs to
a genus where many members have poisonous leaves.
The pollen of many if not all species of rhododendrons is also
probably toxic, being said to cause intoxication when eaten in large
139
quantities. Mountain meadows are sometimes on limestone, beech and
open coniferous forests, to 2200 metres. Grows is from sea-level to the
subalpine zone. Europe is Austria and Poland to Caucasus and Turkey.
Occasionally are naturalized in Britain (Nakhutsrishvili, 2013).
A
B
Figure 35. A. B. Rhododendron luteum is in eutrophic swamps from
areas of Black sea and goas to the subalpine zone. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
Rhododendron luteum is a deciduous Shrub growing to 2.5 m by
2.5 m. It is in flower in May. The flowers are hermaphrodite and are
pollinated by Insects.Suitable for: light and medium soils and prefers
well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid soils and can grow in very acid
soils. It can grow in semi-shade.
It prefers moist soil and can tolerate drought. Succeeds is in a most
humus-rich lime-free soils except those of a dry arid nature or those
that are heavy or clayey. Prefers is a peaty or well-drained sandy loam.
Succeeds in sun or shade, the warmer the climate the more shade a
plant requires. A pH between 4.5 and 5.5 is idea. Hardy is to about 30°C. A very ornamental plant, the flowers are sweetly scented with a
honey-like fragrance. Plants self-sow freely when in a suitable position.
Succeeds is in woodland though, because of its surface-rooting habit, it
does not compete well with surface-rooting trees.
Plants need to be kept well weeded, they dislike other plants
growing over or into their root system in particular they grow badly
with ground cover plants, herbaceous plants and heathers. Plants form a
140
root ball and are very tolerant of being transplanted, even when quite
large, so long as the root ball is kept intact.
Plants are tolerant of drought when they are grown under trees.
Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus. Seed of
Rhododendron luteum is best sown in a greenhouse as soon as it is ripe
in the autumn and given artificial light.
Alternatively sow the seed in a lightly shaded part of the warm
greenhouse in late winter or in a cold greenhouse in April. Surface-sow
the seed and do not allow the compost to become dry.
Pot up the seedlings when they are large enough to handle and
grow on in a greenhouse for at least the first winter. Layering is in late
July. Takes are 15 - 24 months. Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, August
in a frame.
7.6. Code of Georgia: Long-rhizome sedge marshes (70GE05*)
Eumesotrophic swamp vegetation, which includes herbal and long
rhizome plants. It is also found in the subalpine zone. It plays a great
role in the accumulation process.
The typical representative of this community is Carex cinerea (=C.
canescens). From mosses Calliergon stramineum and C. giganteum are
typical. C. richardsonii and C. cordifolium are rare. The following
types of sedge are common – Carex rostrata (=C. inflata) and
holoarctic species - C. lasiocarpa.
A typical species Carex chordorrhiza is widely distributed in
Northern Eurasia and is rare, but still found, in Georgia. It is an
obligatory hellophite. Carex songorica is extremely rare in Georgia. It
is found in limestone places.
Sub-types (70GE05-01): Cariceta lasiocarpae is sedge. Caricetum
lasiocarpae purum is found in Imnati swamps. The following species
are the consisting parts - Alnus barbata, Arthraxon ciliaris var.
langsdorffii, Carex acutiformis, C. lasiocarpa, Centaurium erythraea,
Cladium mariscus, Frangula alnus, Holcus lanatus, Hypericum
tetrapterum, Lycopus europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Molinia
litoralis, Potentilla erecta, Pycreus flavescens, Stachys palustris.
Community Sphagnum-palustrae-caricoso-lasiocarpae-moliniosum is
found on the territory of the Imnati swamp.
141
Sub-types (70GE05-02): Composition of species - Alnus barbata
(shrubbed), Athyrium filixfemina, Bidens tripartita, Carex lasiocarpa,
Erechtites valerianifolia, Eupatorium cannabinum, Frangula alnus,
Hypericum mutilum, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia litoralis, Osmunda
regalis, Rhododendron luteum, Rhynchospora alba, Rh. caucasica,
Sphagnum palustre.
Sub-types (70GE05-03): The swamp is developed on the Javakheti
upland, near the side of the river Kikhr-Bulagi, Taparavani basin. From
the northern side this river joins Paravani River 2280 m. The dried-up
lake is fully covered with the sedge swampy complex - Caricetum
lasiocarpae purum. Species - Carex lasiocarpa, C. acuta, C. cinerea,
C. rostrata (=C. inflata), C. vesicaria, Comarum palustre,
Deschampsia caespitosa, Poa palustris, Festuca rubra.
Sub-types (70GE05-04): Meniantheta trifoliatae is water clover.
Menyanthes trifoliata in mountain swamps is found at up to 2250
meters of height. It is also typical at the sea side. It is described in the
large peaty swamps located at the eastern side of Paliastomi River.
Species are - Alnus barbata, Calamagrostis epigeios, Carex
acutiformis, Carex lasiocarpa, Drosera rotundifolia, Holcus lanatus,
Juncus effusus, Menyanthes trifoliata, Molinia litoralis, Potentilla
erecta, Sphagnum palustre, and Thelypteris palustris.
Plants species: Alnus barbata (shrubbed), Arthraxon ciliaris var.
langsdorffii, Athyrium filix-femina, Bidens tripartita, Calamagrostis
epigeios, Calliergon stramineum, C. giganteum. C. richardsonii, C.
cordifolium, Carex acuta, C. acutiformis, C. cinarea, Carex
chordorrhiza, C. lasiocarpa, C. rostrata (C. inflata), C. songorica, C.
vesicaria, Centaurium erythraea, Cladium mariscus, Comarum
palustre, Deschampsia caespitosa, Drosera rotundifolia, Erechtites
valerianifolia, Eupatorium cannabinum, Festuca rubra, Frangula
alnus, Holcus lanatus, Hypericum mutilum, Hypericum tetrapterum,
Juncus effusus, Lycopus europaeus, Lysimachia vulgaris, Menyanthes
trifoliata, Molinia litoralis, Osmunda regalis, Poa palustris, Potentilla
erecta, Pycreus flavescens, Rhododendron luteum, Rhynchospora alba,
Rh. caucasica, Sphagnum palustre, Stachys palustris, Thelypteris
palustris.
142
7.6.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
common rush – Juncus effusus L., Juncaceae
The economically potential species - Juncus effusus is recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants and other. Habitats: Wet pastures,
bogs, damp woods etc, usually on acid soils.
Throughout has the northern temperate zone, including Britain,
Caucasus, east and South Africa, Australasia. This is oriented to waters
(Figure 36). Juncus effusus is a PERENNIAL growing to 1.5 m by 0.5
m. It is in flower from Jun to August. The flowers are hermaphrodite
and are pollinated by Wind. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils
and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid and neutral soils. It
can grow in semi-shade or no shade.
A
B
C
D
Figure 36. A. B. C. D. - Juncus effusus is oriented to water in eastern
Caucasus Mountains below in Village Shilda, Kakheti. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
143
It prefers moist or wet soil and can grow in water. The plant can
tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure. Other uses are
basketry, lighting, paper, strewing, and string, thatching and weaving. It
is used in the treatment of sore throats, jaundice, oedema, acute urinary
tract infection and morbid crying of babies (Boughton et al., 2011).
Other uses are basketry, lighting, paper, strewing, and string,
thatching and weaving. Stems are used in basket making, thatching,
weaving mats etc. The stems can also be dried then twisted or braided
into ropes for tying or binding. Stems can be peeled and soaked in oil
then used as a candle.
A fibre obtained from the stems is used for making paper. The
stems are harvested in late summer or autumn, they are split and cut
into usable pieces and then soaked for 24 hours in clear water. They are
then cooked for 2 hours with lye and beaten in a blender.
The fibres make an off-white paper. When mixed with mulberry
fibres they can be used for making stencil paper. The whole plant was
formerly used as a strewing herb. Easily is grown in a moist soil, bog
garden or shallow water.
Prefers is a heavy soil in sun or light shade. Seed of Juncus effusus
is surface sow in pots in a cold frame in early spring and keep the
compost moist.
When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into
individual pots and plant them out in the summer if they have grown
sufficiently, otherwise in late spring of the following year.
Division is in spring. Very easy, larger clumps can be replanted
direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to pot up smaller
clumps and grow them on in a cold frame until they are rooting well.
Plant them out in the spring.
144
8. ROCKY HABITATS AND CAVES
8.1. Screes
8.1.1. Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (8110; PAL.
CLASS.: 61.1)
Vegetation is rare in alpine zone on the crushed rock ridge and creates
an open cover. Characteristic features are: Astragalus incertus,
Oxytropis lazica, Gypsophila silenoide, Coronilla balansae.
The system of deep roots is characteristic to plants developed on
the landslide, with which the total crushed rock system is criss-crossed.
Such a root system is characteristic to the following - Dentaria
bipinnata, Saxifraga laevis, Valeriana saxicola, Viola minuta, Lamium
tomentosum, Trisetum distichophyllum.
Other forms also appear on landslides and cliffs - Astragalus
incertus, Draba polytricha, and Campanula aucheri. The following
developed on landslides belong to another ecological type
chasmophytes - Saxifraga sibirica, S. flagellaris, Senecio renifollius,
Viola biflora, V. caucasica, Omphalodes rupestris, Saxifraga
cartilaginea, S. kolenatiana. Campanula hypopolia and Primula nivalis
are endemic species.
The following vegetation is developed on landslides and crushed
rock - Alopecurus sericeus, Thalictrum foetidum, Sedum opositifollium,
Sempervivum tectorum, Saxifraga kolenatiana, Genista svanetica,
Hypericum orientale, Digitalis ciliata, Thymus nummularius, and
Anthemis rudolphiana.
Only several species are common on the non-stable landslide in the
subnival zone - Cerastium kazbek, Delphinium caucasicum; on the
slightly moving remains Veronica minuta, V. telephiifolia,
Scrophularia minima, and Lamium tomentosum can be found whereas
Aetheopappus caucasicus, Symphyoloma graveolens, Jurinella
subacaulis, Minuartia inamoena are common on the hard remains.
Primula bayernii, Draba bryoides, Saxifraga moschata, S. exarata
grow on cliffs.
Plants species: Aetheopappus caucasicus, Alopecurus sericeus,
Anthemis rudolphiana, Astragalus incertus, Campanula aucheri,
Campanula hypopolia, Cerastium kazbek, Coronilla balansae,
145
Delphinium caucasicum, Dentaria bipinnata, Digitalis ciliata, Draba
bryoides, D. polytricha, Genista svanetica, Gypsophila silenoide,
Hypericum orientale, Jurinella subacaulis, Lamium tomentosum,
Minuartia inamoena, Omphalodes rupestris, Oxytropis lazica, Primula
bayernii, P. nivalis, Saxifraga cartilaginea, S. kolenatiana, S. laevis, S.
moschata, S. exarata, S. sibirica, S. flagellaris, Scrophularia minima,
Sedum opositifollium, Sempervivum tectorum, Senecio renifollius,
Symphyoloma graveolens, Thalictrum foetidum, Thymus nummularius,
Trisetum distichophyllum, Valeriana saxicola, Veronica minuta, V.
telephiifolia, Viola biflora, V. caucasica, V. minuta.
8.1.1.1. Endemic and medicinal plant species Rusty Foxglove Digitalis ferruginea L., Scrophulariaceae
Endemic species is Digitalis ciliata Trautv. and as both Georgian and
the Caucasian endemic (Scrophulariaceae). Digitalis ferruginea L. is
medicinal plant. Digitalis ferruginea subsp. schischkinii (K.V. Ivanova)
K. Werner and Digitalis nervosa Steud. & Hochst. ex Benth.are not
endemic species. Only several species are common on the non-stable
landslide in the subnival zone and only one species of Foxglove is
distributed in Meskheti and Javakheti (Figure 37).
A
B
C
D
Figure 37. A. B. C. D. Digitalis ferruginea (LC), Tetrobi Plateau in
Javakheti. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
It is grown in forest openings, under trees in forest edges.
Biennial/Perennial is growing to 1.2 m by 0.3 m. It is in flower in July,
and the seeds ripen in September. The plant prefers light, medium and
146
heavy soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow
in semi-shade or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate
drought.
Medicinal uses are cardiac, stimulant and tonic. The leaves are
cardiac, stimulant and tonic (Uphof, 1959).
They are often used in the treatment of certain heart complaints.
Edible uses are none known. Other uses are it contains digitoxin or
digoxin, which is source of cardiac stimulant medicine produced
industrially.
Threat is as Grazing, habitat degradation, collected in the wild for
medicinal purpose. Easily is grown plant, succeeding in ordinary
garden soil, especially if it is rich in organic matter. It also succeeds in
dry soils and, once established, is drought tolerant. It prefers semishade but succeeds in full sun if the soil is moist. Plants are hardy to
about -15°C. This species is a short-lived perennial and is best grown as
a biennial. Members of this genus are rarely if ever troubled by
browsing deer and rabbits. Seed of Digitalis ciliata is surface sow early
spring in a cold frame. The seed usually germinates in 2-4 weeks at
20°C. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out
into individual pots and plant them out in the summer. Another report
says that the seed is best sown in the autumn. Protection measure is
cultivation, insertion in the RDB Georgia.
8.1.2. Calcareous and calcshist screes of the montane to alpine
levels (8120; PAL. CLASS.61.2)
Vegetation of limestone rock and remains is found in the Great
Caucasus Mountains, mainly in its western part. It holds the biggest
territory in Abkhazia, Svaneti, Samegrelo and Racha-Lechkhumi.
However, it can be found in the form of small fragments in other
regions of the Caucasus as well. Abkhazian limestones are mainly
settled with endemic species. Daphne sericea is noteworthy from scrub,
olives - Olea europaea are grown in wilderness in the outskirts of
Gagra and Psirtskha. The following perennial herbs can be observed
Psephellus barbeiye, Campanula mirabilis, C. longestyla, Gentiana
paradoxa, Melilotus hirsutus.The given endemic species can be
observed in Semegrelo limestone - Geum speciosum, Carex pontica,
147
Astrantia colchica, Alboviodoxa elegans, Kelumariella colchica,
Achillea griseo-virens, Campanula dzaaku, and Scutellaria pontica.
Plants species: Achillea griseo-virens, Alboviodoxa elegans,
Astrantia colchica, Campanula dzaaku, C. mirabilis, C. longestyla,
Carex pontica, Daphne sericea, Gentiana paradoxa, Geum speciosum,
Kelumariella colchica, Melilotus hirsutus, Olea europaea, Psephellus
barbeiye, Scutellaria pontica.
8.1.2.1. Endemic plant species Scabious-Scabiosa L., Caprifoliaceae
Endemic 10 species of Scabiosa are Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic - Scabiosa adzharica Schchian; Scabiosa amoena J. Jacq.,
Scabiosa caucasica M. Bieb.; Scabiosa colchica Steven, Scabiosa
correvoniana Sommier & Levier, Scabiosa georgica Sulak., Scabiosa
imeretica Sulak., Scabiosa olgae Albov, Scabiosa owerinii
Boiss., Scabiosa sosnowskyi Sulak. Other species are in this habitats S. bipinnata K. Koch.; S. columbaria L.; S. meskhetika Schchian; S.
micrantha Desf., S. rotata M. Bieb. and S. velenovskiana Bobr. Target
species is Scabiosa caucasica M. Bieb. (Figure 38).
Perennial is growing to 1 m by 0.4 m. It is in flower from July to
September. The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils and
requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic
soils and can grow in very alkaline soil.
It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil.
Medicinal uses are - Astringent; Diuretic; Homeopathy.
The whole plant is astringent and mildly diuretic (Launert, 1981).
An infusion is used internally as a blood purifier and externally for
treating cuts, burns and bruises.
The fresh or dried flowering plant can be used, with or without the
roots. A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant. It is used as a
blood purifier and as a treatment for eczema and other skin disorders.
Edible uses are none known. Succeeds is in any well-drained
garden soil. Prefers is a neutral or alkaline dry soil. Grows is well on
chalky soils. Grows well in a dry sunny meadow A very cold-hardy
plant, tolerating temperatures down to at least -25°C (Phillips, Rix,
1991). Grows is well in the summer meadow. The plant is an important
source of nectar and pollen for bees and lepidoptera.
148
A
B
C
D
E
F
Figure 38. A. Scabiosa caucasica (LC), Mt. Abuli, eastern slope,
Akhalkalaki distr.; B. S. columbaria, roadside near v. Rustavi,
Aspindza distr.; C.-D. Scabiosa georgiaca is in mountains of
Akhalkalaki distr.; E. S. meskhetika, road to Vardzia, near v.
Nakalakevi, Aspindza distr.; F. Scabiosa bipinnata is in Tskhratskaro
Pass. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
149
The plants are sometimes dioecious; if this is the case then male
and female plants will need to be grown if seed is required. Seed of the
Scabiosa is sow spring or autumn in a cold frame.
When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into
individual pots and plant them out in the summer. If you have enough
seed it would be worthwhile trying a sowing in situ outdoors in the
spring. The seed germinates in the spring in the wild. Division is in the
spring.
Basal cuttings are in late spring. Harvest the shoots when they are
about 10–15 cm long with plenty of underground stem. Pot them up
into individual pots and keep them in light shade in a cold frame or
greenhouse until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the summer.
8.2. Rocky vegetation
8.2.1. Calcareous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation (8210;
PAL. CLASS.: 62.1)
Vegetation of limestone rock is compatible with the vegetation of
limestone remains and can be found mainly in western Caucasus from
Abkhazia including Racha. Significant rock massifs can be found in the
gorge of River Tskhenistskali on mountain massifs of Askhi and
Khvamli. Communities of the vegetation of limestone rock are very
well manifested in the gorge of river Jonoula at Askhi.
They include the following species: Symphyandra pendula var.
transcaucasica, Scabiosa imeretina, Umbilicus oppositifolius,
Asplenium ruta-muraria, etc. On mountains of Askhi, Jvari and
Migaria there are communities of endemic plants - Geum speciosum,
Scutellaria pontica, Carex pontica, Cyclamen colchica. The same
community is found on limestones of Abkhazia - Geum speciosum,
Carex pontica, Astrantia colchica, Alboviodoxa elegans, Kelumariella
colchica, Achillea griseo-virens, Campanula dzaaku, Scutellaria
pontica.
The following need to be highlighted from non-endemic species
that are found on limestone - Cyclamen europaeus, Arctostaphylos uvaursi subsp. caucasica. In the Alpine zone and below Daphne sericea
and Umbilicus oppositifolius are observed. Allium globosum grows on
the limestone rock in Racha-Lechkhumi.
150
A very interesting community of limestone rock massif is in
Javakheti, on the Chobareti mountain range, plateau of Tetrobi, which
is recognized as a protected territory. According to the composition the
Tetrobi pine forest is considered as a peculiar refugium, where pine
trees are mixed with mountain steppes. In this community only 48
species of vascular plants are represented.
The following species of herbal plants are associated with Pinus
kochiana in this community: Steven arenaria - Arenaria steveniana,
Sosnowski chickweed - Cerastium sosnowskyi, Voronov minuartsia Minuartia woronowii, campion – Silene dianthoides, Sosnowski
houseleek - Sempervivum sosnowskyi, astragalus - Astragalus
arguricus, A. campylosema, Javakheti alfalfa Medicago dzhawakhetica,
sun-rose - Helianthemum nummularium, H. orientale, Transcaucasian
Daphne - Daphne transcaucasica, prickly thrift - Acantholimon
glumaceum, hog weed - Heracleum antasiaticum, bedstraw - Galium
grusinum, cornflower - Centaurea bella, hawksbeard - Crepis
pinnatifida, grapevine hyacinth - Muscari sosnowskyi, etc.
This phytocoenosis is quite rich with endemic species that are
mainly found on the limestones of the Tetrobi plateau. The following
are especially noticeable: red heliotrope - Diphelypaea coccinea
(blooming parasite) and asphodel - Asphodeline taurica.
Plants species: Acantholimon glumaceum, Achillea griseo-virens,
Allium globosum, Alboviodoxa elegans, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi subsp.
caucasica, Arenaria steveniana, Asphodeline taurica, Asplenium rutamuraria, Astragalus arguricus, A. campylosema, Astrantia colchica,
Campanula dzaaku, Carex pontica, Centaurea bella, Cerastium
sosnowskyi, Crepis pinnatifida, Cyclamen colchica, Cyclamen
europaeus, Daphne sericea, Daphne transcaucasica, Diphelypaea
coccinea, Galium grusinum, Geum speciosum, Helianthemum
nummularium, H. orientale, Heracleum antasiaticum, Kelumariella
colchica, Medicago dzhawakhetica, Minuartia woronowii, Muscari
sosnowskyi, Pinus kochiana, Scabiosa imeretina, Scorzonera
dzhawakhetica, S. ketzkhowelii, Scutellaria abchasica, Scutellaria
pontica, Sempervivum sosnowskyi, Silene dianthoides, Symphyandra
pendula var. transcaucasica, Umbilicus oppositifolius, Umbilicus
oppositifolius.
151
8.2.1.1. Endemic plant species Daphne - Daphne L., Thymelaeaceae
Endemic species of Daphne are in both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic; Endemic species of Georgia: Daphne albowiana Woronow ex
Pobed. (=Daphne pontica subsp. haematocarpa Woronow), Daphne
axilliflora (Keissl.) Pobed., Daphne
caucasica
Pall., Daphne
glomerata Lam. and Daphne pseudosericea Pobed. (=Daphne serícea
subsp. pseudosericea (Pobed.) Halda). Georgian IUCN species are
Daphne transcaucasica Pobed. (=Daphne oleoides subsp.
transcaucasica (Pobed.) Halda). Daphne transcaucasica Pobed. is
found in Meskheti and Tetrobi Plateau in Javakheti, where we have
seen it in fruiting stage. Daphne pontica L. is found on the boundary of
Meskheti and Adjara. It is considered as synonym of such rare species
of Daphne as D. pseudosericea and D. albowiana attaned EN category
of IUCN according to recent survey.
Another Caucasian endemic is D. axilliflora found in Meskheti.
Two more species D. glomerata and D. mezereum L. are more
widespread, but these species have medicinal use in folk’s medicine.
Especially valualable features have D. mezereum. We studied 3
populations of D. glomerata, which is outstanding of high decorative
properties (Figure 39).
Grows is in treeline ecotone among Rhododendron caucasicum
bushes. An evergreen shrub is growing to 0.3 m by 0.15 m at a medium
rate. It is in flower from May to June, and the seeds ripen from July to
August. The plant prefers medium and heavy soils and can grow in
heavy clay soil. It prefers acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in
semi-shade. It requires moist soil. Medicinal use is investigated for D.
mezereum, but there is no information on use in folk medicine of D.
glomerata. D. mezereum is very effective against Cancer; Cathartic;
Diuretic; Emetic; Homeopathy; Rubefacient; Stimulant; Vesicant.
Mezereum has been used in the past for treating rheumatism and
indolent ulcers, but because of its toxic nature it is no longer considered
to be safe (Bown, 1995).
The plant contains various toxic compounds, including daphnetoxin
and mezerein, and these are currently being investigated for their antileukaemia effects (Bown, 1995). The bark is cathartic, diuretic, emetic,
rubefacient, stimulant and vesicant. The root bark is the most active
medically, but the stem bark is also used (Grieve, 1984).
152
A
B
C
D
E
F
Figure 39. A. Daphne glomerata is in Kazbegi distr. and in Tetrobi
Plateau, Akhalkalaki distr.; B. D. caucasica in Jvari Pass; C. D.
transcaucasica in Tetrobi Plateau of Akhalkalaki distr.; D. D.
mezereum in Kazbegi distr.; E. D. pontica has in high mountain of Mt.
Khvamli in Lechkhumi; F. D. pontica is in River Chorokhi near Black
Sea in Adjara; Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
153
It has been used in an ointment to induce discharge in indolent
ulcers and also has a beneficial effect upon rheumatic joints. The bark
is not usually taken internally and even when used externally this
should be done with extreme caution and not applied if the skin is
broken.
The bark is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use. The
fruits have sometimes been used as a purgative. A homeopathic remedy
is made from the plant. It is used in the treatment of various skin
complaints and inflammations. Edible uses are none known. Other uses
are Dye and Oil. A yellow to greenish-brown dye is obtained from the
leaves, fruit and bark of different species of Daphne.
The seed contains up to 31% of fatty oil. Threat is habitat
degradation, climate change. A good sandy loam suits most members
of this genus. Prefers is a good heavy soil and some shade. Prefers is a
calcareous soil and cool moist conditions.
There is no evidence to suggest it requires a calcareous soil, but all
members of this genus do well on acid soils. A very ornamental plant, it
is hardy to about -30°C. Plants tend to be short-lived in cultivation,
probably due to excessive seed bearing. Plants are resentful of root
disturbance and should be planted into their permanent positions as
soon as possible.
They also resent being cut and so should not be pruned unless it is
essential. A good is bee plant, providing a source of nectar very early in
the year. The flowers have a delicious sweet perfume. Seed of the
Daphne is best sown in a greenhouse as soon as it is ripe with the pot
sealed in a polythene bag to hold in the moisture. Remove this bag as
soon as germination takes place (Matthews, 1994).
The seed usually germinates better if it is harvested 'green' and
sown immediately. Germination should normally take place by spring,
though it sometimes takes a further year. Stored seed is more
problematic.
It should be warm stratified for 8 - 12 weeks at 20°C followed by
12-14 weeks at 3°C. Germination may still take another 12 months or
more at 15°C. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as
they are large enough to handle. Grow the plants on in the greenhouse
for their first winter and then plant out in spring after the last expected
frosts.
154
8.2.2. Siliceous rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation (8220;
PAL. CLASS.: 62.2)
Rocky areas can be found in all mountainous regions. Rocks of
volcanic origin are more common. However, there are a lor of slate
rocks as well. Rock vegetation, as a rule, is adapted to the dry
environment. However, there exist moistened cliffs where ground water
seeps. Grasses - Festuca sulcata, Helictotrichon adzharicum, and tall
herb elements - Heracleum spp., Cirsium spp., Petasites spp., and
Hesperis matronalis grow here. Anthemis macroglossa, Dianthus spp is
characteristic to the subalpine zone. On cliffs in the alpine and subnival zone grow pillow-type plants - Draba bryoides, Saxifraga
cartilagiena, Sempervivum pumilum, Sedum spp. Samtskhe-Javakheti
rock remains vegetation has the xerophytic features. It is widespread in
the boundaries of Akhaltsikhe depression (900-1500 m) and Tetrobi
plateau. 80 species overall are represented in this biome, including:
Erisimum - Erysimum szowitsianum, creeping bellflower - Campanula
crispa, Lebanese Buxbaum’s speedwell
- Veronica livanensis,
cornfklower - Centaurea bella, minuartia - Minuartia micrantha,
Iurinea - Jurinea carthaliniana,wild chamomile - Matricaria rupestris,
etc.
Plants species: Anthemis macroglossa, Campanula crispa,
Centaurea bella, Cirsium spp., Dianthus spp., Draba bryoides,
Erysimum szowitsianum, Festuca sulcata, Helictotrichon adzharicum,
Heracleum spp., Hesperis matronalis, Jurinea cartaliniana, Matricaria
rupestris, Minuartia micrantha, Petasites spp., Saxifraga cartilagiena,
Sedum spp., Sempervivum pumilum, Veronica livanensis.
8.2.2.1. Endemic plant species Scorzonera L., Asteraceae
Endemic species of Scorzonera has 8 species for both Georgian and
the Caucasian endemic - Scorzonera biebersteinii Lipsch., Scorzonera
charadzeae Papava, Scorzonera czerepanovii Kuth., Scorzonera
ketzkhowelii Sosn. ex Grossh., Scorzonera kozlowskyi Sosn. ex
Grossh., Scorzonera lanata M. Bieb., Scorzonera seidlitzii Boiss.,
Scorzonera sosnowskyi Lipsch. (=Scorzonera dzhawakhetica Sosn.
ex Grossh.). Endemic 8 species of genus Scorzonera are in Georgia
and only 3 endemic species are in Meskheti and Javakheti. One 155
Scorzonera dzhawakhetica Sosn. ex Grossh. is endemic of both
Meskheti and Javakheti, two others - S. ketzkhowelii Sosn. ex Grossh.
and S. kozlowskyi Sosn. ex Grossh. are distributed only on Tetrobi
Pateau in Javakheti (Figure 40).
A
B
C
Figure 40. A. Maia Akhalkatsi found Scorzonera dzhawakhetica in
Tetrobi Plateau, Akhalkalaki distr.; B. Flowers are medicinal; C. Leaf
is differentid and this species is Georgian endemic EN, B2, ab(iii), D,
RDB of Georgia, only two population are known for the species. We
described both, one in Meskheti, near v. Ota and main population on
Tetrobi Plateau in Javakheti. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
It is in flower from August to September, and the seeds ripen in
September-October. The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils
and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers calcareous soils. It
cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil. Edible plant is as
rich in vitamins and nitrogenous substances, rubber-bearing plant.
Coffee like beverage is prepared from the roots.
The root is rich in inulin. This is a starch that is not easily digested
by humans and so generally passes straight through the digestive
system and is excreted. Flower buds might be eaten raw. The root
contains a high concentration of good quality latex that can be used for
making rubber. The latex is extracted by maceration of the root.
Succeeds is in any soil in sun or light shade. Plants are required
calcareous soils. Plants usually regenerate from the root after they have
been cut (Nakhutsrishvili, 2013).
156
Seed of the Scorzonera is sow spring in the greenhouse. Prick out
the seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle into relatively
deep pots to accommodate the tap root. If growth is good, plant out in
early summer, otherwise grow them on in the greenhouse for their first
winter and plant them out in late spring of the following year
(Akhalkatsi et al., 2012). Division in autumn or as growth commences
in the spring. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their
permanent positions. We have found it best to pot up the smaller
divisions and grow them on in a lightly shaded position in a cold frame,
planting them out once they are well established in the summer. Root
cuttings in the autumn.
8.3. Other rocky habitats
8.3.1. Caves (8310*; PAL. CLASS.: 65)
Many karst caves are in the calcareous massif of the western Caucasus.
Most deep cave (2191 m depth) Krubera is located in Gagra range with
highest peak Mt. Arabika (2656 m). Most large cave (1.5 mill. m3) is
Akhali Atoni in Bzifi range with highest peak Napra (2684 m). Caves
contain many endemic amphibians. There are bat populations. Flora in
karst caves is representing by mossess, - Campylophyllum halleri,
Lichens and algaes.
Plants species: The cave flora is rather poor, represented by
mosses - Campylophyllum halleri, Dicranum bonjeanii, Neckera
besseri, Trichostomum crispulum, Schistostega pennata, Lichens and
algaes, only in relatively illuminated parts of the caves.
8.3.1.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Helichrysum Mill., Asteraceae
The economically potential species of Helichrysum are recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants and other. All 5 species occurring in
Georgia - Helichrysum plicatum DC.; Georgian endemic - H.
polyphyllum Ledeb.; H. graveolens (M. Bieb.) Sweet; H. armenium
DC. Caucasian endemic - H. plintocalyx (K. Koch) Sosn. Target
species are - H. plicatum DC.; Caucasian endemic-H. plintocalyx (K.
Koch) Sosn.; Georgian endemic - H. polyphyllum Ledeb. (Figure 41).
157
A
B
Figure 41. A. Helichrysum polyphyllum (NT), Zekari Pass, v.
Abastumani, Adigeni distr. B. Helichrysum plicatum (LC), Zekari
Pass, v. Abastumani, Adigeni distr. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The all three species are in leaf all year, in flower from July to
August. Perennial is growing to 0.3–0.5 m. The plant prefers light and
medium soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid,
neutral and basic soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or
moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerate strong winds.
Medicinal uses are cholagogue, diuretic, homeopathy, skin and
stomachic. The fresh or dried flowers, or the entire flowering herb, are
cholagogue, diuretic, skin and stomachic (Thomas, 1990). An infusion
is used in the treatment of gall bladder disorders and as a diuretic in
treating rheumatism, cystitis etc. A homeopathic remedy is made from
the flowering plant. It is used in the treatment of gall bladder disorders
and lumbago. Collected is in the wild for medicinal purpose.
Plants tolerate temperatures down to about -7°C. Requires a welldrained, sunny sheltered position. Often cultivated is for its flowers
which are extensively used as a decoration and in wreaths etc.
Seed of the Helichrysum is sow February/March in a greenhouse.
The seed usually germinates in 2-3 weeks at 20°C. When they are large
enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow
them on in the greenhouse for at least their first winter. Plant them out
into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the
last expected frosts. Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, 5 cm with a heel,
June/July in a frame. Roots are in 4 weeks.
158
8.3.2. Rock and true glaciers (8340*; PAL. CLASS.: 63.2 and 63.3)
Habitats adjacent to glaciers are subnival (2900-3750 m) and nival
(3700-4000 m) vegetation zones. The heighest level of vascular plant
distribution is 4000 m a.s.l. in the Central Greater Caucasus where
endemic species Cerastium kazbek is found on the Mt. Kazbegi. In the
altitudinal zone 3800-4000 m is discribed only 9 vascular plant species
from the 300 total species found in the subnival zone.
The heighest distributional level have the following species:
Saxifraga moschata, S. exarata, S. flagellaris, Tripleurospermum
subnivale, Colpodium versicolor, Alopecurus dasyanthus, Draba
supranivalis, Veronica minuta, V. telephiifoliaa, Senecio karjagini,
Cerastium pseudokasbek, Pseudovesicaria digitata.
Plants species: Aetheopappus caucasicus, Alopecurus dasyanthus,
Cerastium kazbek, C. pseudokasbek, Colpodium versicolor,
Delphinium caucasicum, Draba bryoides, D. supranivalis, Jurinella
subacaulis, Lamium tomentosum, Minuartia inamoena, M. oreina, M.
trautvetteriana, Primula bayernii, Pseudovesicaria digitata, Saxifraga
exarata, S. flagellaris, S. moschata, Scrophularia minima, Scrophularia
minima, Silene marcowiczii, Senecio karjagini, Symphyoloma
graveolens, Tripleurospermum subnivale, Vavilovia formosa, Veronica
minuta, V. telephiifolia, Mosses: Dicranum elongatum, Dicranoweisia
crispula, Pohlia elongata, Pogonatum nanum, Tortella tortuosa,
Tortula muralis. Lichens: Cetraria islandica, C.nivalis, Caloplaca
elegans, Thamnolia vermicularis, Hypogimnia encausta, Lecidea
atrobrunea, Parmelia vagans, Placolecanora melanophthalma, P.
rubina, P. murilis, Rhizocarpon geographicum, Stereocaulon alpinum,
Umbilicaria cylindrica.
8.3.2.1. Endemic plant species Whitlow- Draba L., Brassicaceae
Endemic species of the Draba is both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic; 12 endemic species in the genus Draba - Draba bryoides
DC., Draba hispida Willd., Draba imeretica (Rupr.) Rupr., Draba
meskhetica Chinth., Draba mingrelica Schischk. ex Grossh., Draba
ossetica (Rupr.) Sommier & Levier, Draba rigida Willd. (=Draba
rigida var. bryoides (DC.) Boiss.), Draba scabra C. A. Mey., Draba
159
siliquosa M.Bieb., Draba subsecunda Sommier & Levier, Draba
supranivalis Rupr., Draba terekemensis Yıld. (=Draba imeretica
(Rupr.) Rupr.). Brassicaceae. Draba nemorosa L. is not endemic and it
has much pollen (Figure 42).
A
B
Figure 42. A. Draba nemorosa is in Kazbegi distr.; B. Pollen of Draba
nemorosa has length of the horizontal height as 21-24 µm. Photo:
Maia Akhalkatsi.
Perennial is 3-18 cm tall herb. Flowering stem weak erect or
slightly curved, with 1-3 small leaves, rarely leafless. Rosette leaves
narrow, oblong lanceolate, entire or with 1-3 teeth, 7-15 mm long, 1.52,5 mm wide, pubescent with fine, simple and branched hairs, margins
with simple cilia (Erschbamer et al., 2010).
Raceme is many-flowered, tight during flowering, longer and
looser at fruiting. Pedicle is thin, glabrous, slanting ascending. Sepals
are oval, glabrous. Petals white, oblong obovate, with small incision at
the tip.
Silique glabrous is oblong lanceolate or elliptical, 5-10 mm long,
and 1.5-2.5 mm wide. It has flowering and seeds from July and August.
Grows is on rocks, screes, in alpine and subnival zones, 2000-3500 m.
Native to Caucasus, Asia Minor, Iran.
160
9. FORESTS
The forest is natural or semi-natural woody vegetation, which consists
of local species and creates a forest that involves the understories and
meets the following criteria: have rare, residual species and/or those
interesting for the community.
9.1. Forests of temperate Europe (91F-GE: Beech forests PALL.
CLASS.: 41.1)
Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) is wide-spread throughout Georgia.
Beech forests occupy 1.035.800 hectares throughout the country. They
present in the lesser and the Greater Caucasus, Crimea, NE Turkey, and
northern part of Iran. In western Georgia, the beech grows up to 22002380 meters a.s.l.
In Eastern Georgia it is found from 300-400 to 2250 meters a.s.l.
(Alasani valley). It absents from the northern slopes of the Greater
Caucasus and is relatively rare in Meskheti historical province.
Fagus orientalis Lipsky, Beech, Fagaceae: It represents one of
the main components of deciduous forests. Grows is up to between
1900 and 2200 m. It forms krumholz at treeline in 2200-2380 m a.s.l.,
20-56 m tall tree, with smooth light gray bark. Snow cover is <1 m
(Figure 43).
A
B
C
Figure 43. A. Fagus orientalis flowering from March; B. Flower has
many stamen and anthers. G. Pollen of Fagus orientalis has length of
the horizontal height as 133-135 µm and distanth height as 143-145
µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
161
The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 40°C. Sunny
edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West
Wall. Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall,
and West Wall. Suitable for: light and medium soils and prefers welldrained soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in
full shade semi-shade or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil.
Trees with smooth gray bark; leaves alternate, coriaceous, lustrous,
entire or sometimes sparingly toothed, pubescent on the margin and
along the veins beneath. Bark smooth, grey. Leaves are alternate in two
rows, 5-12 cm long, elliptic, sometimes ovate, narrows towards the
base, acuminate. Upper surface glabrous and dark green, lower more
pale, petiole and veins covered with long soft hairs. Leaves in 2 ranks,
elliptic or ovate -elliptic, acuminate, rounded or more or less cuneate at
base, (1.7) 5-15 (20) cm long, (1.3) 2.4 - 8 (11.6) cm broad, apprised
pubescent beneath especially along the veins; Perianth of staminate
flowers broadly campanulate, its lobes broad-ovate or almost round
(very rarely elongate lanceolate), (0.6) 0.8 - 3 (3.6) mm long, about as
long as or shorter than the perianth tube, this (l) 1.4-4 (4.4) mm long,
often with a black spot at apex, the margin beset with black or white
hairs; stamens to 12, (0.3) -1 -6.8 - (7.6) mm, anthers (0.8) - 1 -2 mm
long; appendages of involucre of two kinds, the lower ones leaflike,
green, many-nerved, (2.6) -4.2 - 15 -(17) mm long and 0.4-2-(4) mm
broad, the upper ones subulate, (1.2) -2 -6.8 -(8.2) mm long; stalk of
involucre (0.9) 1.4-4.5 - (9- 7) cm long, appressed-pubescent; nut
triquetrous, ( 1.2) 1.3 - 1.9 (2.2) cm long, (0.5) 0.6-1 (l . 15) broad, not
exceeding the involucres. Perianth is of the staminate flowers broadly
bell-shaped. Pistillate flowers give rise to 2-3 edging nut, enclosed
within hard bur covered with bristle-like outgrowths. It opens along 4
sutures when mature. Flowers unisexual, monoecious, with a simple
inconspicuous perianth; staminate flowers in many -flowered heads, the
perianth 5-lobed; stamens 8-12, at anthesis greatly exceeding the
perianth; anthers elongated, obtuse or pointed at base; pistillate flowers
2-4, surrounded by an involucre; perianth adnate to ovary, with a short
4- or 5-lobed limb; ovary inferior, 3 -locular; styles 3, elongated, hairy;
ovules anatropous, 2 in each locule; involucre (cupule) becoming
woody in fruit, covered outside with leaflike or subulate appendages;
nuts 2-4 in each involucre, sharp-edged; seeds 1 or rarely 2 in each nut;
162
cotyledons reniform. Flowering in April-May (with appearing of the
leaves), fruit are in September-October.
The value of beech consists chiefly in its wood. This takes one of
the first places as regards caloric value. On dry distillation it yields
alcohol and creosote. It is widely used for a variety of woodwork, such
as bent cabinet work, oars, shoe lasts, small articles for domestic use,
spoons, trays, etc. It is also employed in boat construction and carriage
construction. Beech staves are made into containers for oil. For this
purpose only so-called "white" beech is used, since "red" beech imparts
to the oil a bitter taste and a dark color. These differences in the wood
are due to the formation of so-called false heartwood as a result of
fungal infection. Such modified wood becomes permeated with tannic
substances that bring about the darkening. In recent times beech wood
has been used for the production of railroad ties, which are impregnated
with creosote or other chemical compounds. Wood with strongly
developed false heartwood impedes the penetration of chemicals, as
cellular pores become blocked by tyloses. Beech nuts contain a
considerable amount of valuable oil which is extracted by pressing.
Apart from its applications for food and burning, this oil is used as
adulterant for walnut, poppy, or olive oil. Large yields of seed are not
obtainable annually but rather in 5-10 - year cycles. The foliage
provides feed for goats and cattle. It is also used to replace straw as
bedding for livestock. The genus attained extensive development in
Tertiary formations of both hemispheres, especially in regions of
temperate forest flora.
Young leaves - raw. A very nice mild flavour, but the leaves
quickly become tough so only the youngest should be used. New
growth is usually produced for 2 periods of 3 weeks each year, one in
spring and one in mid-summer. Seed is raw or cooked. Richis is in oil.
The seed should not be eaten raw in large quantities. It can be dried and
ground into a powder and then used with cereal flours when making
bread, cakes etc. Edible semi-drying oil is obtained from the seed.
Thrives on a light or medium soil, doing well on chalk, but illadapted for heavy wet soil. Fairly tolerant of most conditions, this is the
most successful native species of Fagus orientalis in Caucasus. Young
trees are very shade tolerant, but are subject to frost damage so are best
grown in a woodland position which will protect them. Trees have
surface-feeding roots and also cast a dense shade. This greatly inhibits
163
the growth of other plants and, especially where a number of the trees
are growing together, the ground beneath them is often almost devoid
of vegetation.
The seed has a short viability and is best sown as soon as it is ripe
in the autumn in a cold frame. Protect the seed from mice. Germination
takes place in the spring. When they are large enough to handle, prick
the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the
greenhouse for at least their first winter.
Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early
summer, after the last expected frosts. The seedlings are slow growing
for the first few years and are very susceptible to damage by late frosts.
The seed can also be sown in an outdoor seedbed in the autumn.
The seedlings can be left in the open ground for three years before
transplanting, but do best if put into their final positions as soon as
possible and given some protection from spring frosts. These species is
in Native to Balkan, Crimea, Caucasus, Asia Minor, and Iran.
9.1.1. Code of Georgia: Luzulo-Fagetum beech forests Luzula
sylvatica (Huds.) Gaudin, Juncaceae (9110GE; 9110; PAL.
CLASS.: 41.11)
In Georgia, as well as in the central Europe, Luzulo-Fagetum (Fageta
luzulosa) is found at elevations 1700-2150 meters. The habitat is found
in Upper and Lower Svaneti, on Egrisi and Svaneti ranges, at the upper
part of rivers Enguri and Tskhenistkali.
On the slopes with the inclination of 20-45°C of all kinds of
exposition, communities are created by the following dominant species:
Luzula sylvatica, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Laurocerasus officinalis,
Rhododendron luteum, Viburnum orientale. Daphne pontica is a rare
species (Figure 44).
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Abies nordmanniana, Acer
trautveterii, Asperula odorata, Betula litwinowii, Gymnocarpium
dryopteris, Laurocerasus officinalis, Ligusticum physospermifolium,
Luzula sylvatica, Milium schmidtianum, Oxalis acetosella, Paeonia
wittmanniana, Paris incompleta, Prenanthes purpurea, Ranunculus
cappadocicus, Rhododendron luteum, Sorbus caucasigena, Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, V. myrtillus, Viburnum orientale, etc.
164
A
B
Figure 44. A. Luzula sylvatica is in water page of River Aragvi; B.
Pollen has length of the horizontal height as 91-93 µm and distanth
height as 125-127 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
9.1.1.1. Flagship plsnt species mountain-ash - Sorbus aucuparia L.,
Rosaceae
Flagship species of Sorbus aucuparia (Sorbus caucasigene Kom.
ex Gatsch.) is as the concept of flagship species is a concept with its
genesis in the field of conservation biology. Trees or shrubs have
mostly with deciduous stipulate leaves. Grows is in subalpine krumholz
forests at 1600-2400 m a.s.l., sometimes lower. 4-20 m is tall tree or
shrub with gray, smooth bark and pubescent young branches. Snow
cover is >1 m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination till
30°C (Figure 45).
Sunny edge not in North Slope for this species; dappled shade is in
North Wall, East Wall, and West Wall. Widespread is in the Temperate
Zone of the northern hemisphere. Forest edges, glades, undergrowth,
less often meadows, also rocky or stony sites, riverbanks bluffs, etc.;
often planted near houses and in orchards. Suitable for: light, medium
and heavy soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay
soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very
acid and very alkaline soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It
prefers moist soil. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure. It can
tolerate atmospheric pollution.
165
A
B
C
D
E
F
Figure 45. A. B. Sorbus aucuparia in Kazbegi distr., C. D. E. Sorbus
aucuparia has infected from mushrooms; F. Sorbus torminalis is in
high mountain of Goderdzi in Adjara. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Crown broad. Bark of the trunk dark brown. buds tomentose;
Leaves odd pinnate with 4-7-paired, the leaflets oblong or oblonglanceolate, entire in lower part, serrate higher, mat-green above,
glaucous or grayish below, more or less hairy. Upper surface of the
166
leaflet glabrous, dark green, lower surface glaucescent. Apical leaflet is
elliptical - lanceolate, middle - lanceolate or oval - lanceolate,
asymmetrical, lower leaflets narrow-lanceolate. All leaflets sharply
serrate either from base or above the middle of the blade.
Inflorescences pubescent have less often inflorescence branches
glabrous, 5-10 cm in diameter; Flowers in more or less many-flowered,
corymbiform inflorescences. Flowers are white or whitish-rose, in
corymb. Flowers 0.8-1.5 cm in diameter, with a rather sharp odor of
trimethylamine; Hypanthium urn-shaped; calyx more or less lanate,
later glabrescent, its teeth with glandular cilia on the margin; sepals 5,
triangular; petals orbicular or ovate, with or without short claw, white,
less often pink.
Orbicular is 4-5 mm long, the upper surface lanate, pubescent from
base; Stamens 20 is as long as petals; styles 3 (less often 2, 4, or 5),
free, hairy in lower part; Carpels 2-5, adnate by the back to the urnshaped hypanthium, each carpel with 2 ovules, one of which usually
does not reach maturity. Stigma flat, not broader than style. Fruit bright
red, subglobose, bright red at maturity, 9-10 mm in diameter narrowly
oblong, acute, reddish; seeds usually 3, globose, ovate or pear-shaped.
Seeds are oblong, triangular, and acute at both ends. Flowering is in
Mai-July, fruits are in September-October.
Wood fine-grained, reddish, lustrous, hard, polishes well, furnishes
good material for turning and furniture, etc., mainly for machine parts
such as blocks, rollers, and cogs, requiring great strength. The bark
contains 7.26% tannin compounds, the fruits malic and citric acids, 4 8% dextrose, also traces of hydrocyanic acids, (harmless); used for
infusions, vinegar, vodka, marmalade, jam, pastilles, etc. The seeds
contain 21.9% fatty oils and the glucoside amygdalin; the young
branches furnish a black dye. Reproduces is in cultivation by roots
suckers. The Caucasian Sorbus with smooth, rather firm leaves forms
"islands" among S. aucuparia, and will be separated as an independent
species if distinguishing characters can be ascertained. Fruit is raw or
cooked.
The fruit is very acid and large quantities of the raw fruit can
caused stomach upsets. It can be used to make delicious, if slightly
acidulous, jams and preserves; the fruit can also be dried and used as
flour mixed with cereals. The fruit is about 7.5 mm in diameter and is
produced in quite large bunches making harvest easy. The leaves and
167
flowers are used as a tea substitute. Young leaves are said to be a
famine food but they contain a cyanogenic glycoside so you should be
very hungry before even thinking of eating them. A coffee is substitute.
The report was referring to the fruit; it probably means the roasted seed.
The bark is astringent; it is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and as a
vaginal injection for leucorrhoea etc.
The fruit is antiscorbutic and astringent. It is normally used as a
jam or an infusion to treat diarrhoea and haemorrhoids. An infusion can
also be used as a gargle for sore throats and as a wash to treat
haemorrhoids and excessive vaginal discharge. The seeds contain
cyanogenic glycosides which, in reaction with water, produce the
extremely toxic prussic acid. In small quantities this acts as a stimulant
to the respiratory system but in larger doses can cause respiratory
failure and death. It is therefore best to remove the seeds when using
the fruit medicinally or as a food. Both the flowers and the fruit are
aperient, mildly diuretic, laxative and emmenagogue. An infusion is
used in the treatment of painful menstruation, constipation and kidney
disorders. Oil is obtained from the seed. A cosmetic face-mask is made
from the fruits and is used to combat wrinkled skin. A black dye is
obtained from the young branches. All parts of the plant contain tannin
and can be used as a black dye. Trees are very wind resistant and can be
used in shelterbelt plantings. Wood - hard, fine grained, compact and
elastic. It is highly recommended by wood turners and is also used to
make hoops for barrels, cogs and furniture.
Succeeds is in most reasonably good soils in an open sunny
position. Grows is well in heavy clay soils. Tolerates some shade,
though it fruits better in a sunny position. Prefers is a cool moist
position and a lighter neutral to slightly acid soil. Dislikes shallow soils
or drought. Succeeds is on chalk or acid peats. A very wind firm tree
tolerating very exposed and maritime positions. Tolerates is
atmospheric pollution. Some named varieties have been developed for
their improved fruits which are larger and sweeter than the type. Plants,
and especially young seedlings, are quite fast growing. The fruit is very
attractive to birds. 28 species of insects are associated with this tree.
Responds is well to coppicing. Plants are susceptible to fireblight.
Seed of the Sorbus aucuparia is as best sown as soon as it is ripe in
a cold frame. If you have sufficient seed it can be sown in an outdoor
seedbed. Stored seed germinates better if given 2 weeks warm then 14168
16 weeks cold stratification, so sow it as early in the year as possible.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough
to handle. Seedlings are very slow to put on top-growth for their first
year or two, but they are busy building up a good root system. It is best
to keep them in pots in a cold frame for their first winter and then plant
them out into their permanent positions in late spring. This species is in
Native to Caucasus, and Europe.
9.1.2. Code of Georgia: Beech forests with Ilex and sometimes also
Taxus in the shrublayer (Fageta taxceto-ilicitosa) (9120GE;
PAL. CLASS.: 41.12)
9120 Atlantic acidophilic beech forest with the sub forest (IliciFagenion) of holly (Ilex) and sometimes is as Yew (Taxus). Beech with
holly (Ilex cochica) cover, Ilici-Fagenion (=Fageta ilicitosa) is mainly
found in west Georgia, on carbonated soils in the circumstances of high
humidity. However, it is characteristic to eastern Georgia’s several
Kolketi type refugiums. Borders of its distribution are 500-2180 meters,
it is typical at the height of 1000-1800 meters a.s.l.. This type of
biotope corresponds to Colchic type forests, namely, beech with the
understories of laurel and Pontic Rhododendron. There are 4 sub-types:
Sub-types (9120GE-01): Typical beech forest with the holly
understory (Fageta ilicitosa typica) is found in west Georgian middle
mountain zone (1000-1500 meters). It is associated with laurel
(Laurocerasus officinalis) and Caucasian blueberry (Vaccinium
arctostaphylos).
Sub-types (9120GE-02): Beech forest is of the upper zone and of
the mountain with the holly understory (Fageta ilicitosa superior) is
characteristic to only west Georgia. Holly here is of the prostrate form
and associated with other understory species of Colchic forest:
Laurocerasus officinalis, Ruscus colchicus, Vaccinium arctostaphylos,
and Viburnum orientale.
Sub-types (9120GE-03): Beech forest with the holly understory
and in mountain fescue (Festuca drymeja) cover (Fageta festucosoilicitosa) and it is found in fragments in west and east Georgia (on
water dividing ranges of Saguramo, Gombori and Iori-Alazani).
Associated types are: Ruscus cochicus, Vaccinium arctostaphylos,
Rhododendron luteum.
169
Sub-types (9120GE-04): Beech forest with Yew (Taxus baccata),
holly and ivy (Hedera pastuchovii) understory (Fageta taxcetoilicitosa-hederosa) is widespread on Kakhetian Caucasus (Batsara and
Pankisi gorges), Trialeti (Nichbisi), and Aragvi gorge of Pshavi (near
Kanatia). Assocated species: Taxus baccata, Fraxinus excelsior,
Quercus iberica, Carpinus caucasica, etc.
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Taxus baccata, Fraxinus
excelsior, Quercus iberica, Carpinus caucasica, Ruscus colchicus,
Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Paris incompleta, Dentaria bulbifera,
Trachystemon orientalis, Rubus spp., Festuca drymeja, Dryopteris filixmas, Athyrium filixfemina, etc.
9.1.2.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Briar Common - Rosa canina L., Rosaceae
Grows is on roadsides, in open slopes, disturbed forests, at edges of the
forests and in fields, from lowland up to upper montane belt. 1.5-3 m
tall shrub, sometimes scrambling. Forest edges and thinned-out forests,
shrubs, open slopes, banks of mountain streams and brooks, felled
areas, pastures, roadsides, fences. Rosa canina is a deciduous shrub
growing to 3 m by 3 m at a fast rate. The flowers are hermaphrodite
(have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, flies,
beetles, lepidoptera, self, apomictic. The plant is self-fertile. It is noted
for attracting wildlife. Snow cover is <0.3 m. The exposition is for all
directions and inclination till 30°C. Sunny edge is normal; dappled
shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West Wall. Suitable for: light,
medium and heavy soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in
heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow
in semi-shade or no shade. It prefers moist or wet soil. The plant can
tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure (Figure 46).
Twigs often arching, covered with hooked prickles. High, sparse,
branching shrub with arcuate branches; bark green or red -brown,
usually without glaucous bloomj prickles often sparse or remote, on
main shoots, in pairs or whorled, with very broad base, compressed,
falcately curved, smaller on fertile shoots and usually rather abundant;
Leaves usually with 7- elliptic or ovate leaflets, simple or doube
serrate, 1.5-4 cm long and 1-2 cm wide, stipules narrow, with
infrastipular acute prickles. leaves glabrous or with few hairs on rachis
170
above, green or glaucescent; stipules narrow, only in terminal leaves
slightly broadened, with distally divergent auricles, glandular -ciliate;
leaflets of different shapes, often elliptic, 1.5-6 cm long, acuminate,
acutely serrate, with thin –acuminate teeth curving upward, simple or
with 1-2 secondary teeth terminating in a gland, smooth or at times
sparsely glandular along veins beneath.
A
B
Figure 46. A. Rosa canina is a medicinal plant in woods and degraded
areas; B. Pollen of Rosa canina has length of the horizontal height as
38-40 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Flowers solitary or clustered into many-flowered inflorescence,
rose, sometimes red or white. Hip elliptic, rarely nearly globose, mostly
red, sometimes dark grey or yellow. Flowers solitary, 3, 4 or 5(20) in
corymbiform inflorescence, on more or less long, glabrous or sparingly
pubescent pedicels, as long to twice as long as hypanthium, often as
long as fruit, 0.5-2.5 cm long, smooth; sepals medium-sized, with
lateral pinnules and terminal appendage, recurved after flowering and
usually caducous long before ripening of fruit, well separated from
disk; corolla 2-8 cm in diameter; petals usually pale pink or white,
sometimes rather bright pink; disk flat or concave, sometimes distinctly
conical; hypanthium mouth not exceeding one -fourth the diameter of
the disk; style long, sparsely hairy or glabrous, folded in a raceme; style
heads often conical; fruit globose, or elongate -ovoid, smooth, bright or
pale red. Flowering is in May-July. Fruits are in October-December.
171
This species is a widely used stock for cultivated roses. Various
parts of the plant contain tannins. Officinal plant is with astringent
properties. The ripe fruit is used in the treatment of diarrhea. In
Caucasus the fruit pulp of R. canina has been found to contain in
percent of dry weight: sugars 8.09, pectin 2.74, pentosans 2.18,
nitrogenous substances 3.58, tannins and dye stuffs 3.58, acids 1.31,
etc. Its vitamin content is low, 0.24—0.85% ascorbic acid per dry
weight of pulp.
Fruit is in raw or cooked. It can be used in making delicious jams,
syrups etc. The syrup is used as a nutritional supplement, especially for
babies. The fruit can also be dried and used as a tea. Frost softens and
sweetens the flesh. The fruit is up to 30 mm in diameter, but there is
only a thin layer of flesh surrounding the many seeds. Some care has to
be taken when eating this fruit, see the notes above on known hazards.
The seed is a good source of vitamin E, it can be ground and mixed
with flour or added to other foods as a supplement. Be sure to remove
the seed hairs. The dried leaves are used as a tea substitute. Coffee
substitute is according to another report. Petals are as raw or cooked.
The base of the petal may be bitter so is best removed. The petals are
also used to make an unusual scented jam.
The petals, hips and galls are astringent, carminative, diuretic,
laxative, ophthalmic and tonic. The hips are taken internally in the
treatment of colds, influenza, minor infectious diseases, scurvy,
diarrhoea and gastritis. Syrup made from the hips is used as a pleasant
flavouring in medicines and is added to cough mixtures. Distilled water
made from the plant is slightly astringent and is used as a lotion for
delicate skins. The seeds have been used as a vermifuge. The plant is
used in Bach flower remedies - the keywords for prescribing it are
'Resignation' and 'Apathy'. The fruit of many members of this genus is
a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A, C
and E, flavanoids and other bio-active compounds. It is also a fairly
good source of essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit.
It is being investigated as a food that is capable of reducing the
incidence of cancer and also as a means of halting or reversing the
growth of cancers. Ascorbic acid in Dog Rose shells (vitamin C, 0.2 to
2.4%). Plants make a dense and stock-proof hedge, especially when
trimmed.
172
Succeeds is in most soils. Grows is well in heavy clay soils. Prefers
is a circumneutral soil and a sunny position with its roots in the shade.
When grown in deep shade it usually fails to flower and fruit. Succeeds
in wet soils but dislikes water-logged soils or very dry sites. Tolerates
has maritime exposure. The fruit attracts many species of birds, several
gall wasps and other insects use the plant as a host-A very polymorphic
species, it is divided into a great number of closely related species by
some botanists. The leaves, when bruised, have a delicious fragrance.
The flowers are also fragrant. Grows is well with alliums, parsley,
mignonette and lupins. Garlic planted nearby can help protect the plant
from disease and insect predation. Grows is badly with boxwood.
Hybridizes freely has with other members of this genus. Plants in this
genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus.
Rose seed often takes two years to germinate. This is because it
may need a warm spell of weather after a cold spell in order to mature
the embryo and reduce the seed coat. One possible way to reduce this
time is to scarify the seed and then place it for 2-3 weeks in damp peat
at a temperature of 27°C - 32°C. It is then kept at 3°C for the next 4
months by which time it should be starting to germinate. Alternatively,
it is possible that seed harvested 'green' and sown immediately will
germinate in the late winter. This method has not as yet been fully
tested. Seed sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame sometimes
germinates in spring though it may take 18 months. Stored seed can be
sown as early in the year as possible and stratified for 6 weeks at 5°C.
It may take 2 years to germinate. Prick out the seedlings into individual
pots when they are large enough to handle. Plant out in the summer if
the plants are more than 25 cm tall, otherwise grow on in a cold frame
for the winter and plant out in late spring. Cuttings are of half-ripe
wood with a heel, July in a shaded frame. Overwinter the plants in the
frame and plant out in late spring. High is percentage. Cuttings are of
mature wood of the current season’s growth. Select pencil thick shoots
in early autumn that are about 20–25 cm long and plant them in a
sheltered position outdoors or in a cold frame. The cuttings can take 12
months to establish but a high percentage of them normally succeed.
Division is of suckers in the dormant season. Plant them out direct into
their permanent positions. Geographic is distribution are in Native to
Europe, Northern Africa, Caucasus, Asia.
173
9.1.3. Code of Georgia: Beech forests with the woodruff covers
(9130GE; PAL. CLASS.: 41.13)
Beech is distributed on the slopes of northern exposition having small
or average inclination. The altitude a.s.l. varies between 1100 and 1550
meters. It is found in moist environment, on brown soils of well
drainaged forests. It mainly consists of the beech and does not have an
understory.
The forest woodruff Asperula odorata (=Galium odoratum)
comprises 30-90% of grass cover in such types of forests. It differs
from Corresponding European communities by the floristic
composition, which is mainly expressed rarely in the existence of
separate bushes of the holly (Ilex colchica). Such cases are rarely
reported in Kolkheti and eastern Georgia, at a water division of IoriAlazani upper streams. That’s why; A. Dolukhanov et al. (1946)
differentiated it from European communities and called it Fageta
asperulosa caucasica.
Together with the beech the following species of trees are found Pyrus caucasica, Carpinus caucasica, Acer platanoides, and Tilia
begoniifolia.
Two sub-types are distinguished in the beech forest with woodruff
cover. One is common on the carbonated soils of Gombori range
whereas the second type is disseminated in local places of small
Caucasus. It is intended to include beech communities in this type of
habitat where the understory is weakly represented and grass cover is
well developed:
Sub-types (9130GE-01): Gombori beech forest with woodruff
cover. Asperula odorata holds 30-95% of grass cover in this
association. Besides, the following species dominate: Dryopteris filixmas, Epipactis helleborine, Geranium robertianum, Viola
reichenbachiana etc.
Sub-types (9130GE-02): South Caucasus beech forest with
woodruff cover contains many species that are identical to the first subtype. However, Epipactis helleborine, Mycelis muralis, Viola alba,
Primula woronowii, Geranium robertianum, etc. cannot be found here.
Although, there are no species that can’t be found in the Gombori
association - Solidago virgaurea, Pachyphragma macrophyllum,
174
Neottia nidus-avis, Daphne pontica, Symphytum grandiflorum, Paris
quadrifolia, Brachypodium sylvaticum.
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Acer platanoides, Brachypodium
sylvaticum, Carex sylvatica, Carpinus caucasica, Cephalanthera
damasonium, C. helleborine, C. longifolia, C. rubra, Daphne pontica,
Dryopteris filix-mas, Epilobium montanum, Epipactis helleborine,
Geranium robertianum, Hordelymus europaeus, Lamium album,
Mycelis muralis, Neottia nidus-avis, Poa nemoralis, Pachyphragma
macrophyllum, Paris quadrifolia, Primula woronowii, Salvia glutinosa,
Solidago virgaurea, Symphytum grandiflorum, Tamus communis, Tilia
begoniifolia, Vicia crocea, Viola alba, V. odorata, V. reichenbachiana,
etc.
9.1.3.1. Relict plant species Caucasian wild pear - Pyrus caucasica
Fed., Rosaceae
Relict species of Pyrus caucasica are as a relict plant or animal is a
taxon that persists as a remnant of what was once a diverse and
widespread population (Figure 47).
A
B
Figuse 47. A. The tree of Pyrus caucasica is planted and used for food;
B. The fruit is used for medicinal and consists of beer. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
Grows is in lower and middle montane belts, sometimes higher, mainly
in broad-leaved forest. Tree to 20-30 m high, sometimes a shrub;
Deciduous, sometimes coniferous forests and shrub thickets, in deep
175
soils; sometimes forming pure stands; in the Caucasus from 100 m to
2000 m. Snow cover is <1 m. The exposition is for all directions and
inclination till 30°C. Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North
Wall, East Wall, and West Wall. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy
soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable
pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade.
It prefers moist soil and can tolerate drought. It can tolerate
atmospheric pollution.
Crown is of pyramidal form. Branches are with or without spines;
Young branches glabrous, bark grey, thorny. Buds and shoots glabrous,
less often pubescent; Leaves glabrous or densely pubescent at the lower
surface, somewhat leathery, upper surface glossy, round or broadly
ovate, sometimes oblong, rarely rhomboid, with a long petiole, entire,
margins covered with ciliate hairs. petioles about as long as the leaf
blade, 2-5-7 cm long, initially Moj E or less pubescent, later glabrous;
leaves 2-5-7 cm long, 1.5-2.5 cm broad, suborbicular or oval, rounded
or obscurely cuneate at base, short -tapering, acuminate apex, entire or
serrulate or crenate on whole or part of margin, initially whitearachnoid-pubescent, especially below, later quite glabrous or
subglabrous, with a stronger pubescence - masking the teeth - only
along the veins and the leaf margin, lustrous green, lighter below,
drying black; pedicels 3.5 cm long, pubescent or glabrous; Flowers
white, clustered into corymbs.
Flowers 2.5-3 cm in diameter; sepals triangular -lanceolate, densely
pubescent like the ovary, erect; petals short -clawed, ca. 1.5 cm long, 1
cm broad; Fruit mostly globose pome, flattened at both poles, glabrous,
on long stalk. Fruits have pyriform or subglobose, very variable in size
and shape, to 3-4 cm long, 1.5-2 cm broad, green, sometimes
reddening, less often yellow. Flowering is in April- May, fruits are
from September-October.
The Caucasian pear is the ancestor of up to 15 cultivated forms.
The most ancient of these, which have changed little, are derived
directly from this species; most varieties, however, are the result of
hybridization with other species. Pear trees were first cultivated in
ancient Georgia, then penetrated into Greece and Italy, and later
became widespread in Europe. Wild pear fruits are usually tart,
becoming sweeter if stored. They are used in various ways depending
on their gustatory qualities: they are eaten raw or dried, stewed, or used
176
for making of drinks (kvass, cider) or as fodder for cattle. The
utilization of wild pear fruits is of great importance in Ciscaucasia,
where in the Krasnodar Territory alone, according to Trusevich, pear
forests with an admixture of apple 261 trees occupy 30,347 hectares,
and the possible yield (together with the apples) is estimated at 139
thousand tons. Wild pear fruits contain 70-85% water, 6-13% sugar,
0.1-0.2% acids (mainly citric and malic), 0.29% ash, tannins, etc. The
seeds contain 12-21% fatty oils. The wood is heavy, specific gravity
0.72, fine-grained, solid, reddish brown, an excellent imitation of ebony
when covered with black varnish; used for lathework, cabinet -making,
and musical instruments. A light brown dye is obtained from the bark.
Fruit is raw or cooked. The flavour ranges from rather harsh and
astringent through to soft, sweet and very juicy. The best dessert fruits
have an exquisite sweet flavour, usually with a very soft flesh, whilst
cooking varieties have harder less sweet flesh. A yellow-tan dye is
obtained from the leaves. Wood - heavy, tough, durable, fine grained,
hard. Used by cabinet and instrument makers. When covered with
black varnish it is an excellent ebony substitute.
Prefers are a good well-drained loam in full sun. Grows is well in
heavy clay soils. Tolerates light shade but does not fruit so well in such
a position. Tolerates atmospheric pollution, excessive moisture and a
range of soil types, if they are moderately fertile, avoiding only the
most acid soils. Dislikes very exposed positions. Established plants are
drought tolerant. A very hardy plant, tolerating temperatures down to
below -15°C. Plants often sucker and can form dense thickets. A parent
is of the cultivated pear, possibly by crossing with P. nivalis and P.
cordata. There are many hundreds of varieties of cultivated pears and
they are widely cultivated in the temperate zone for their edible fruits.
By selection of varieties fresh fruits can be obtained from late July to
April or May of the following year. Special Features: Edible,
Naturalizing, Attractive flowers or blooms.
Seed of the Pyrus caucasica is as best sown in a cold frame as soon
as it is ripe in the autumn, it will then usually germinate in mid to late
winter. Stored seed requires 8-10 weeks cold stratification at 1°C and
should be sown as early in the year as possible. Temperatures over 15 20°C induce a secondary dormancy in the seed. Prick out the seedlings
into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow
them on in light shade in a cold frame or greenhouse for their first year.
177
Plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following year.
Geographic distribution is in Caucasian endemic - Caucasus, Anatolia
and Iran.
9.1.4. Code of Georgia: Subalpine beech forest with Acer
trautvetteri Medw. and Rumex arifolius All., Aceraceae
(9140GE* PAL. CLASS.: 41.15)
Oriental beech - Fagus orientalis, creates dwarf trees in the subalpine
zone. It is associated with the following species - Acer trautveterii,
Quercus macranthera, Betula litwinowii, Sorbus caucasigena, etc. The
Colchic understory is represented by sprawling bushes - Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, Ilex colchica, Laurocerasus officinalis, Ruscus colchica
and rarely by Rhododendron ponticum.
In eastern Georgia in the circumstances of a drier climate the beech
forest in the subalpine zone is associated with the cover of the
mountain fescue (Fageta festucosa). In the grass cover the following
species dominate: Festuca drymeja, Calamagrostis arundinacea,
Milium schmidtianum, Calamintha grandiflora, Geranium sylvaticum,
etc.
The upper border of the subalpine krummholz beech forest is 2300
meters from the sea level. However, in the humid mountain places of
south Kolkheti this community is found at the altitude of 2350 - 2570
meters a.s.l.. Rumex spp. is not typical to this habitat compared to the
middle European subalpine beech forest.
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Acer trautveterii, Betula
litwinowii, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Calamintha grandiflora,
Corylus colchica, Gentiana schistocalyx, Ilex colchica, Laurocerasus
officinalis, Monotropa uniflora, Neottia nidus-avis, Oxalis acetosella,
Quercus macranthera, Rhamnus imeretina, Rhododendron luteum,
Ruscus colchica, Salix spp., Solidago virgaurea, Sorbus subfusca,
Trachystemon orientalis, Vaccinium arctostaphylos.
178
9.1.4.1. Edificatory plant species Trautvetter's Maple - Acer
trautvetteri Medw., Aceraceae
Edificatory species have a special role to contribute in ecosystem
structure of Acer trautvetteri (Figure 48).
A
B
Figure 48. A. Acer trautvetteri is in subalpine forest on mountain south
plateau; B. Flower is red and other inclined. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Trees of average size with broad crown and straight trunk covered
with smooth gray bark, but often growing as a knotty sapling or even
shrub; Subalpine zone up to 1800-2500 m, more often in community
with birch, Sorbus and high mountain shrubs; sometimes in the upper
belt of spruce-fir forests, near forest edges, extending beyond the area
of forest vegetation; occurs individually or colonial. Snow cover is <0.5
m in subalpine forest areas and Snow cover is >2 m in treeline of 2500
m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 30° C. Sunny
edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West
Wall.Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils and can grow in heavy
clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in
very alkaline soils. Juvenile shoots glabrous, brown or reddish-brown;
outer bud-scales glabrous, brown, the inner large, carmine-red; leaves
9-14 cm long, 11-16 cm wide, dark green above, glabrous, pale,
yellowish beneath, the juvenile hairy, later with tufts of rufous or rustcolored hairs only at angles of nerves at base of leaves, cordate at base,
sometimes base of leaves on short shoots rounded; dissected for into 5
lobes; lobes acuminate, the lateral nearly as long as the terminal,
179
usually declinate outwardly above, the lower small, horizontal or
recurved below, irregularly acutely dentate at margin, median lobe
nearly always with 2 pairs of large teeth above, lower teeth much larger
than the upper, lobes widest at level of teeth, cuneately tapering to base.
Inflorescence a long- pedunculate small corymbiform panicle;
rhachis and pedicels glabrous except for base beset with bundles of
rufous hairs; bracts up to 1.8 cm long, not deciduous; Flowers usually
bisexual, the staminate with or without rudimentary ovary, stamens of
pistillate flowers absent or with sterile anthers, plants monoecious or
dioecious or polygamous; samaras with elongated wing developing
from the outer side of cell; inflorescences racemiform or corymbiform
at ends of short branches; flowers ca. 1 cm in diameter, whitish-green;
sepals broadly oval; petals nearly as long as sepals, narrower, both
hairy at base inside, slightly ciliate at margin; stamens with glabrous
filaments; samaras large, 3.5-7 cm long, with vertical wings often
partly overlapping each other or slightly diverging, reddish when
young, rarely bright carminered , ripe nuts brown, broadly ovoid,
inflated, hairy when young, usually glabrous when ripe with internal
walls lined with hairs. Flowering is in June. Fruits are in September.
A cold-resistant and ornamental plant has grown very often in
parks. All the species of maple are ornamental trees or shrubs notable
for the shapes of the leaves and crowns, especially in the fall when the
leaves turn yellow, orange, bronze and red. Good nectar plants. Maple
wood possesses all the qualities of good timber: density, uniform
structure, durability, well-polished, splitting evenly, finegrained and
beautiful color. For these reasons it is widely used in carpentry and
woodwork and some species are even used in the building industry. A.
velutinum and A. pseudoplatanus are especially valued for the fine
resonant qualities of the timber which is used as sounding boards for
musical instruments. They also yield firewood and high-quality
charcoal. The sap of the trunk of all species contains sugar, some in
such abundant quantity (especially the American species A. saccharum
Marsh and A. saccharinum L. it is made into the popular favorite maple
syrup. The species rich in sugar are A. platanoides L., A.
pseudoplatanus L., A. trautveterii and A. tataricum L. Maple leaves
contain properties that yield black, brown and yellow dyes. The leaves
are also used to feed cattle. The leaves are packed around apples, root
crops etc. to help preserve them. A fast growing plant and bearing
180
clipping well, it makes an excellent clipped hedge and can also be used
as part of a native wildlife hedge where it is only trimmed every 3-4
years. It has also been used in topiary. Wood - fine-grained, tough,
elastic, hard to split, takes a high polish and is seldom attacked by
insects. Trees are seldom large enough to supply much usable timber,
but when available it is much valued by cabinet makers. It is also used
for cups bowls etc. The wood of the roots is often knotted and is valued
for small objects of cabinet work. The wood is an excellent fuel. A
charcoal made from the wood is a good fuel. Landscape is in Firewood,
Pollard, Screen, Standard, Superior hedge, Specimen, Street tree. Of
easy cultivation, it prefers a good moist well-drained soil in a sunny
position but tolerates some shade. Does it well on chalky soils,
tolerating a pH as high as 8, but becoming a shrub in such conditions?
Does it not thrive in soils with a pH much below 6? Grows is well in
heavy clay soils. Tolerates is atmospheric pollution. Growth is fast
once the trees are established, but this later slows down and trees take
about 50 years to reach maturity. Frequently found as a shrub in light
woodland, especially under oak. It is one of the first trees to colonize
chalk grassland. The field maple is a bad companion plant, inhibiting
the growth of nearby plants. Good is bee plant. This species has often
been coppiced in the past for its wood. Trees produce seed in about 10
years from sowing. Seed of the Acer trautvetteri is as best sown as soon
as it is ripe in a cold as frame; it usually germinates in the following
spring. Pre-soak stored seed for 24 hours and then stratify for 2-4
months at 1-8°C. It can be slow to germinate. The seed can be
harvested 'green' and when it has fully developed but before it has dried
and produced any germination inhibitors and sown immediately. It
should germinate in late winter. If the seed is harvested too soon it will
produce very weak plants or no plants at all. When large enough to
handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on
until they are 20 cm or more tall before planting them out in their
permanent positions. Layering, which takes about 12 months, is
successful with most species in this genus. Cuttings are of young shoots
in June or July. The cuttings should have 2-3 pairs of leaves, plus one
pair of buds at the base. Remove a very thin slice of bark at the base of
the cutting; rooting is improved if a rooting hormone is used. The
rooted cuttings must show new growth during the summer before being
181
potted up otherwise they are unlikely to survive the winter. Geographic
distribution is in Caucasus Mountains, Transcaucasus, and Daghestan.
9.1.5. Code of Georgia: Limestone beech forests (CephalantheroFagion) (9150GE*; PAL. CLASS.: 41.16)
Middle European limestone beech forest (CephalantheroFagenion): Xero-thermophyllic beech forest is widespread on calciumrich soils and can be found in the whole area of the forest at the altitude
from 600 to 1600 meters. Characteristic species are calcareous orchids Cephalanthera spp., Epipactis spp. and Neottia nidus-avis. The
following are characteristic from arboreal plants: an oak (Quercus
iberica), hornbeam (Carpinus caucasica), ash (Fraxinus excelsior;
Figure 49).
A
B
C
Figure 49. A. Flowers of Fraxinus excelsior begin in March; B. Flower
pollen grains have many pollens; C. Pollen of Vicia purpurea has
length of the horizontal height as 28-34 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
It is more characteristic to Kakhetian Caucasus. It is situated at the
slopes of the inclination of 10-25°C, on moderately moistened soils,
where grass cover and scrub understory are quite well represented. The
following are distinguished from the grass cover: sedge (Carex
sylvatica), mountain fescue (Festuca drymeja), meadow grass (Poa
nemoralis), etc. Existence of Colchic boxwood (Buxus colchica) bushes
is possible in the understory.
182
Sub-types (9150GE-01): Hemixerophillic forest of Fagus
orientalis (Fageta hemixerophylla) can be found in the middle
mountain zone of east Georgia on calcium-rich soils, normally, on
significantly stretched downhill slopes. In west Georgia it is rare and is
associated with azalea groups. The following types of arboreal plants
are mixed with the beech in small amounts: Georgain oak - Quercus
iberica, ash - Fraxinus excelsior, maple - Acer laetum, mountain ash Sorbus torminalis. The following form the understory: medlarMespilus germanica, dog rose - Rosa spp., hawthorn - Crataegus spp.,
etc. sedge - Carex sylvatica represents the grassy sward. Festuca
drymeja, Poa nemoralis, Brachypodium sylvaticum – grasses; Cephalanthera damasonium, C. longifolia, C. helleborine, C. rubra,
Epipactis leptochila subsp. leptochila, E. leptochila subsp. neglecta, E.
microphylla, E. persica, E. viridiflora subsp. kunkeleana, Neottia
nidus-avis, etc. Epipogium aphyllum is very rare.
Sub-types (9150GE-02): The beech forest without understory
(Fageta nuda) can be found on the southern slopes of the Great
Caucasus, in the lower zone of the mountain, 500-1200 meters a.s.l..
Annual precipitation does not exceed 850 mm. The understory is
scarce, contains the species of Rhododendron luteum, Ilex colchica,
Vaccinium arctostaphylos. Grassy sward is rare. The following can be
found: ivy - Hedera pastuchowii in east Georgia and H. colchica in
west Georgia.
Sub-types (9150GE-03): The beech forest with forest bastard
cabbage cover - Fageta dentariosa iberica, Common in the Alazani
river basin. Together with the beech the following can be found: lime,
sometimes chestnut and maple (Acer laetum). The understory is
represented by blackberry, ivy and ferns. Orchids - Cephalanthera
spp., Neottia nidus-avis, and Pachyphragma macrophyllum can also be
found.
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Acer laetum, Castanea sativa,
Tilia begoniifolia, Achillea biserrata, Bromopsis benekenii, Campanula
rapunculoides, Carex digitata, C. sylvatica, Festuca drymeja,
Cephalanthera damasonium, C. longifolia, C. rubra, Epipactis
helleborine, E. leptochila subsp. leptochila, E. leptochila subsp.
neglecta, E. microphylla, E. persica, E. viridiflora subsp. kuenkeleana,
Neottia nidus-avis, Orobus hirsutus, Rubus spp., Serratula
quinquefolia, Solidago virgaurea.
183
9.1.5.1. Relict plant species wild apple - Malus orientalis Uglitzk.,
Rosaceae
Relict species of Malus are as a relict plant and it is a taxon that persists
as a remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population
(Figure 50).
C
A
B
D
Figure 50. A. Malus orientalis is in forest in Meskheti; B. M. orientalis
has many fruits; C. Flowers have pollen in April; D. Pollen of M.
orientalis has length of the horizontal height as 36-39 µm. In down has
14-16 µm and distanth height as 38-41 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Grows in forests, scrubs, forest margins, in lower and middle montane
belts, sometimes reaches higher elevations 0-2000 m. Medium - sized
or more or less tall tree, to 10-11 m high; Deciduous (especially
broadleaf) mountain forests, forest edges, among shrubs, on riverbanks.
Snow cover is <1 m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination
till 30°C. Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East
Wall, and West Wall. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils,
prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH:
acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It
prefers moist soil.
184
Young branches brown, densely pubescent and twigs dark grey.
Branches usually unarmed; young shoots dark brown, somewhat
tomentose, when adult dark gray with sparse lenticels; Leaves 3-8 cm
long, 1,5-3,5 cm wide of variable shape, ovate-lanceolate, oblong
elliptical or almost round, entire at the base, the other parts of the
margin serrate. Usually cuneately tapering at base, obtuse, less often
acuminate with inconspicuous or rather short mucro, entire at base,
otherwise serratedentate, less often crenate-serrate, usually with very
large acute or subobtuse teeth in upper part, thickish; Upper surface of
young leaves scarcely pubescent, lower surface densely puberulence,
later upper surface becomes glabrous. Young leaves scattered-hairy
above, densely white-tomentose below, the adult hairy above only
along the veins, otherwise quite glabrous, with strongly impressed
lateral veins, rather densely, sometimes rather sparsely grayish
tomentose below, usually very prominently veined.
Flowers of 4-6 per inflorescence ca. 4 cm in diameter, with densely
tomentose -villous pedicels 8-12 mm long; Pedicles densely tomentose,
petioles 0.5-3 cm long, thickish or rather slender, more or less
tomentose; hypanthium obconical, very densely tomentose; sepals
rather short, narrowly triangular, acute, spreading, densely tomentose
outside, subglabrous or slightly tomentose inside; petals obovate,
narrowing to a conspicuous claw; styles about as long as stamens,
tomentose at base, otherwise glabrous; stigmas clavate, narrow; Fruit
rounded pome, flattened at both poles, globose, 2-3 cm in diameter
with short, densely tomentose pedicels 1-2.5 cm long. Flowering in
April- May, fruits from September.
The fruits of the species belonging to this group are edible, but
those of the wild-growing varieties are seldom eaten raw owing to their
high acidity; they are usually dried and for stewed fruit, etc. or for the
preparation of drinks. Nectariferous is here. The wood of some forms
finds applications in carpentry and turnery, but is less valuable than
pearwood, because it warps and splits. See also economic importance
data cited for the individual species. Fruit is raw, cooked or dried for
later use. Apples are one of the most common and widely grown fruits
of the temperate zone. There are a great many named varieties with
differing flavours ranging from sour to sweet and textures from dry and
mealy to crisp and juicy. There is also a wide range in the seasons of
ripening with the first fruits being ready in late July whilst other
185
cultivars are not picked until late autumn and will store for 12 months
or sometimes more. See individual records for more details.
The fruit of some cultivars is rich in pectin and can be used in
helping other fruits to set when making jam etc. Pectin is also said to
protect the body against radiation. Edible oil can be obtained from the
seed. It would only really be viable to use these seeds as an oil source if
the fruit was being used for some purpose such as making cider and
then the seeds could be extracted from the remaining pulp. The fruit is
astringent and laxative. The bark, and especially the root bark, is
anthelmintic, refrigerant and soporific. An infusion is used in the
treatment of intermittent, remittent and bilious fevers. The leaves
contain up to 2.4% of an antibacterial substance called 'phloretin'. This
inhibits the growth of a number of gram-positive and gram-negative
bacteria in as low a concentration as 30 ppm. A ripe raw apple is one of
the easiest foods for the stomach to deal with, the whole process of
digestion taking about 85 minutes.
The apple juice will reduce the acidity of the stomach; it becomes
changed into alkaline carbonates and thus corrects sour fermentation.
The apple is also an excellent dentifrice, the mechanical action of
eating a fruit serving to clean both the teeth and the gums. The fruit is a
source of pectin. Pectin is used as a thickener in jams etc. and as a
culture medium in laboratories. The apple is also an excellent
dentifrice, the mechanical action of eating a fruit serving to clean both
the teeth and the gums. The oil from the seed has been used as an
illuminant. Wood has hard, compact, fine-grained. Used for turnery,
tool handles canes etc. It makes an excellent fuel.
An easily grown plant, it succeeds in most fertile soils, preferring a
moisture retentive well-drained loamy soil. Grows is well in heavy clay
soils, though if these are poorly drained there could be problems with
diseases such as canker. Prefers a sunny position but succeeds in partial
shade though it fruits less well in such a situation. Tolerates is a pH
range from 6 to 7, preferring a range of 6.5 to 6.8. The apple is one of
the most commonly cultivated fruit crops in the temperate zone. The
primary climatic requirements for the production of good quality fruit
are warm summer temperatures, relative freedom from spring frosts,
reasonable protection from the wind (especially cold north and east
winds) and an evenly distributed rainfall of about 600 – 800 mm per
annum. Good apple production has been achieved as far north as 65°C,
186
whilst about 1000 hours of winter temperatures below 7°C are
necessary to initiate flower production. However good is quality apples
can still be produced in other areas with careful management and
choice of cultivars? Even in tropical latitudes, the plant has succeeded
at high elevations, producing fruit at elevations over 3000 metres in
Ecuador for example. Where space is at a premium or at the limits of
their climatic range, apples can be grown against a wall. Most cultivars
will grow well against a sunny south or west facing wall, an east facing
wall will suit many of the tougher cultivars and even a north facing
wall can be used for early culinary cultivars. A hybrid of mixed origins,
including Malus dasyphylla, M. praecox, M. pumila, M. sieversii and
M. sylvestris, this species is very commonly cultivated in temperate
areas for its edible fruit. There are very many named varieties and with
careful choice of these varieties it is possible to provide freshly
harvested fruit from July to December and stored fruit for the rest of the
year. When chives (Allium schoenoprasum) or other alliums are grown
under apple trees it can prevent or cure scab. A spray of the infused
leaves of Equisetum spp can also be used against scab. If climbing
nasturtiums (Tropaeolum majus) are grown into the tree they can repel
woolly aphis. Apples lose their flavour if they are stored with potatoes.
They will also impart a bitter flavour to carrots or potatoes if they are
stored in the same area. Growing apples near potatoes makes the
potatoes more susceptible to blight. Wrapping maple leaves (Acer spp.)
around apples in store helps to preserve the apples. Apples store better
if they are grown in a sward that contains a high percentage of clover.
Apple trees grow better and produce better quality fruit when foxgloves
(Digitalis spp.) and wallflowers (Erysimum cheiri) are growing in the
orchard. Dandelions (Taraxacum spp.) produce ethylene gas and this
can cause earlier ripening of fruit if plants are growing in an orchard.
The fruit is a good wildlife food source, especially for birds. Hybridizes
freely with other members is of this genus. Plants in this genus are
notably susceptible to honey fungus.
Seed of Malus is as this species is a hybrid and will not breed true
from seed, though some interesting new fruiting cultivars can be
produced. It is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold
frame. It usually germinates in late winter. Stored seed requires
stratification for 3 months at 1°C and should be sown in a cold frame as
soon as it is received. It might not germinate for 12 months or more.
187
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are large
enough to handle. If given rich compost they usually grow away
quickly and can be large enough to plant out in late summer, though
consider giving them some protection from the cold in their first winter.
Otherwise, keep them in pots in a cold frame and plant them out in late
spring of the following year. Cuttings are of mature wood, November
in a frame. Geographic distribution is in Native to Caucasus, Asia
Minor, Iran.
9.1.6. Code of Georgia: Beech forests with Colchic understory
(Fageta fruticosa colchica) (91FC-GE*)
The existence of the dense understory differentiates the beech forest of
Georgia from the one in the rest of Europe. The beech forest with the
Colchic understory is the composing part of the eco-region of Colchic
mixed broad leaved forest. It is widespread in west Georgia on
Northern-western slopes of Great Caucasus and the Ajara-Imereti
Ridge. The climate is moist with about 2500 mm of annual
precipitation. In South Colchic forests of this type start from the sea
coast. In the Northern part it does so at the 200 meters a.s.l. and reaches
about 2250 meters. As a result, the type of vegetation significantly
differs. There are several sub-types. Sometimes sub-types are mixed
with each other, which makes their classification difficult.
Colchic forests are extremely rich in terms of flora. They contain
relict species of the tertiary period – fern, Hymenophyllum tunbrigense,
and arboreal plants - Fagus orientalis, Castanea sativa, Zelkova
carpinifolia, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Diospyros lotus, Taxus baccata.
Species mixed with the beech tree are: Abies nordmanniana, Picea
orientalis, Pinus kochiana, Quercus imeretina, Q. hartwissiana, Acer
laetum, Carpinus caucasica, Tilia begoniifolia, Ficus carica, Pyrus
caucasica, Malus orientalis, Staphylea colchica, S. pinnata etc. The
following bushes create the understory in the beech forest Laurocerasus officinalis, Rhododendron panticum, R. ungernii, Ruscus
panticus, R. colchicus, Ilex colchica, Daphne pontica, Epigaea
gaultherioides, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Viburnum orientale da
Buxus colchica. The following lianas can be found - Hedera colchica,
Dioscorea caucasica, Tamus communis, Periploca graeca. Ferns Matteuccia struthiopteris, Athyrium filix-femina, Polypodium vulgare,
188
Phyllitis scolopendrium, Pteris cretica, etc. The following are worthmentioning from the grass cover - Asperula odorata, Calamintha
grandiflora, Festuca drymeja, Salvia glutinosa, Viola alba.
Sub-types (91FC-GE01):
Beech forest with the Pontic
rhododendron understory - Fageta rhododendrosa (Rhododendron
ponticum, R. ungernii) for the typical Colchic forest. The understory
with Rhododendron ponticum can be found in almost all forest massifs
of west Georgian forests. It is rare in east Georgia and can be found in
Baniskhevi, Kvabliani and Nedzvistskali gorges. The average annual
precipitation amount in the scope of its distribution amounts to 1400
mm. The scope of its distribution starts from the sea coast and ends at
1950 meters a.s.l.. In the mountains of high level of moisture in Guria
and Ajara it can reach the height of 2100-2200 meters. It grows both in
flat open places and heavily inclined slopes. It gives preference to
Northern exposition slopes but in the circumstances of high level of
moisture grows in the place of southern exposition. It does not like
depressed relief with high level of moisture and badly drained soil.
Two types of communities are given:
1) Typical beech with Pontic rhododendron understory (Fageta
rhododendrosa typical), which is widespread at the altitude of 4001700 meters a.s.l.. The annual amount of precipitation is 1700-2500
mm. Pontic rhododendron cover is extremely dense. Other common
plants are Trachystemon orientalis, Buxus colchica, and Rubus spp.
2) Beech forest with the understory (Fageta rhododendrosa ungernii)
of Ungern rhododendron (Rhododendron ungernii), which is a
relict and local endemic. It can be found in the conditions of high
moisture. Annual average precipitation in these places reaches
3000 mm. Small populations can be found in the Seaside
Mountains of Ajara in the upper part of the gorge – Bartskhana,
Chakvistskali, Koronistskali and Kintrishi. They are also common
at the upper stream of other rivers of Kolkheti – Bzhuzha,
Natanebi, Bakhvistskali and Supsa.
Sub-types (91FC-GE02): Beech forest with the laurel
(Laurocerasus officinalis) understory Fageta laurocerasosa similar to
Pontic rhododendron is common in the conditions of high level of
moisture, where the amount of average annual precipitation amounts to
2000 mm. The amplitude of vertical spreading varies between 700 and
2000 meters. Different from Pontic rhododendron, laurel grows well on
189
limestone and well-illuminated slopes of the south. Besides Kolkheti, it
is common in the form of small populations far from the areal. For
example, in east Georgia it is widespread in the Alazani basin and river
Ilto gorge. Existence is of such a widely disseminated areal of
distribution is related to ornithochoria, since birds feed on its fruit and
disseminate seeds on large distances. Different from Pontic
rhododendron, in the laurel understory the grassy cover - Sanicula
europaea, Asperula odorata, Viola alba, V. reichenbachiana, Dentaria
bulbifera, Calamintha grandiflora, Salvia glutinosa, Geranium gracile,
etc. ferns - Dryopteris filix-mas, D. carthusiana, D. assimilis,
Polystichum braunii. are better developed.
Three types of communities are observed:
1) Typical beech forest with laurel (Laurocerasus officinalis) subforest
(Fageta laurocerasosa typica) is widespread in the places where
annual amount of precipitation does not exceed 1700 mm.
2) Beech forest with the understory (Fageta ilicitoso-laurocerasosa) of
holly (Ilex colchica) and laurel (Laurocerasus officinalis) can be
found on Limestone Mountains in Abkhasia and Samegrelo – on
mountain massives of Kvira, Migaria and Askhi.
3) Beech forest with the mountain fescue (Festuca drymeja) cover and
laurel understory (Fageta festucoso-laurocerasosa) are described
only in two places. The first is in the tract of mountain Kvira, in the
upper part of the karstic limestone macro-slope with the inclination
of 28°C at the altitude of 1780 meters. The second one is on the
same mountain at the 1700 meters on the southern slope of 30°C
inclination. In the first place the forest is represented only by the
beech whereas in the second one, Acer trautveterii is also mixed.
Sub-types (91FC-GE03): Beech forest with the butcher’s broom
(Ruscus colchicus) understory Fageta ruscosa is quite rare. However,
the butcher’s broom itself is characteristic to quite many various
communities. But it is a small type of a plant and, therefore, is less
visible. It is common in large quantities when other species of Colchic
understory are excluded from communities due to certain
circumsrances. That’s why; the existence of the understory of only
butcher’s broom is the indicator of the reduction of those conditions
that are essential for the existence of the Colchic type understory.
Firstly, this community was described by V.A. Povarnitsin (1931) on
190
the northern-eastern border of Kolkheti, in the Basin of Kvirila River,
Jalabeti forest massif.
Sub-types (91FC-GE04): Beech forest with the typical understory
(Fageta magnovacciniosa) of Caucasian blueberry (Vaccinium
arctostaphylos). It is most widely distributed in Kolkheti. In east
Georgia it is common in the Lagodekhi region. Two types of
communities are differentiated:
1) Beech forest with the typical understory of Caucasian blackberry
(Fageta magnovacciniosa Typical. It is common in west Georgia,
distributed in the middle and upper zones of the forest at the
altitude of 900-2150 meters. In east Georgia it is common in the
Lagodekhi reserve and extends to the Zakatala reserve on the
territory of Azerbaijan. Besides Vaccinium arctostaphylos, the
understory is created by ivy - Hedera colchica (west Georgia), or
H. pastuchowii (east Georgia), Blackberry - Rubus spp., mountain
blueberry – Vaccinium myrtillus, fern - Gymnocarpium dryopteris,
grass cover – Festuca drymeja, Paris incompleta, Oxalis
acetosella, these species are rare species - Trachystemon orientalis,
Neottia nidus-avis, Monotropa uniflora.
2) Beech forest with the cover of mountain fescue (Festuca drymeja)
and Caucasian blueberry understory (Fagetum festucosomagnovacciniosa) are common on the slopes of the Southern
exposition, in the upper zone of the forest (900-1500 m). The
understory is sparse. Besides Caucasian blueberry, azalea
(Rhododendron luteum) is represented.The following dominate in
the grass cover - Solidago virgaurea, Gentiana schistocalyx,
Calamintha grandiflora, Oxalis acetosella, alamagrostis
arundinacea.
Sub-types (91FC-GE05): Beech forest with azalea (Rhododendron
luteum) understory (Fageta azaleoza) is less dependent on moisture
conditions and frequently found on dry southern slopes as well. As
usual, besides the beech forest it grows in oak-hornbeam forests.
Three communities are differentiated:
1) Beech forest with the azalea (Fageta azaleosa media) understory of
the middle zone of the forest is common in mountain massifs of
west Georgia with the average annual precipitation of 800-1500
mm. Characteristic landscape is the southern slope with the
embossed relief of average inclination. Hornbeam, Georgian oak
191
and Caucasian maples (Acer velutinum) are mixed with the beech.
Species of the lower layer are: Festuca drymeja, Rubus spp., Vicia
crocea, Trachystemon orientalis.
2) The beech forest with azalea (Fageta azaleosa superior) is maily
common at the height of 1700-1900 meters. The spruse (Picea
orientalis) is also mixed with the beech.
3) East Georgia beech forest with the azalea understory (Fageta
azaleosa iberica) is widespread in Aragvi gorge, the upper current
areal of Iori and Alazani and mountains of the left side of the
valley. It grows on slopes of different exposition having the
embossed relief, at the height from 1000-1700 meters, or even
higher in some places.
Sub-types (91FC-GE06): Beech forest with viburnum (Viburnum
orientale) understory - Fageta viburnosa is characterized by a small
synecological areal of distribution. The viburnum creates the
understory mainly in the beech forest. It rarely does so in the fir-forest
or other types of forests. From different forms of the Colchic type
understory it holds the most moistened location. It can be common
outside Kolkheti in the upper streams of rivers Aragvi and Alazani. The
area of its distributed varies between 900 and 1900 meters. It mostly
grows on the slopes of northern exposition of little hillside or flat open
space. It can not be found on the slope of more than 25°C of
inclination. Viburnum is the Colchic relict. Its close relative species
Viburnum acerifolium grows in the eastern part of the USA.
Three communities are differentiated:
1) Beech forest with the typical understory of viburnum (Fageta
viburnosa typica) grows in the middle zone of the forest of west
Georgia, 1100-1600 meters a.s.l.. It is more common on slopes of
small and middle inclination of Great Caucasus. Besides it,
Caucasian blueberry and laurel grow in the understory. From other
plants blackberry, box, Trachystemon orientalis, Dentaria
bulbifera, Paris incomplete, etc. dominate.
2) The beech forest with blackberry-viburnum understory (Fageta
ruboso-viburnosa) is common in Kokheti forests and extreme east
of the area of its distributed, Aragvi gorge. Together with the
beech, the maples (Acer platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus, A.
trautvetteri) can be found, from bushes - blackberry, Caucasian
192
blueberry, holly, nut (Corylus avellana), elder (Sambucus nigra)
and ferns - Dryopteris filix-mas, Athirium filix-femina.
3) Beech forest of the upper forest zone with the viburnum understory
(Fageta viburnosa superior) can be found only in west Georgia at
the height above 1700 meters and is rare. There are the following
species that are characteristic to the upper zone of the forest and
drier biotopes: Calamagrostis arundinacea, Gentiana schistocalyx,
Oxalis acetosella, Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Festuca drymeja,
Asperula odorata, Cardamine pectinata, Neottia nidus-avis,
Epilobium montanum, etc.
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Abies nordmanniana, Acer
laetum, A. platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus, A. trautvetteri, Asperula
odorata, Buxus colchica, Calamintha grandiflora, Carpinus caucasica,
Castanea sativa, Daphne pontica, Dentaria bulbifera, Dioscorea
caucasica, Diospyros lotus, Epigaea gaultherioides, Epilobium
montanum, Festuca drymeja, Ficus carica, Gentiana schistocalyx,
Geranium gracile, Hedera colchica, Ilex colchica, Laurocerasus
officinalis, Malus orientalis, Neottia nidus-avis, Oxalis acetosella,
Paris incompleta, Periploca graeca, Picea orientalis, Pinus kochiana,
Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Pyrus caucasica, Quercus imeretina, Q.
hartwissiana, Rhododendron panticum, R. ungernii, Ruscus colchicus,
R. panticus, Salvia glutinosa, Sanicula europaea, Staphylea colchica,
S. pinnata, Tamus communis, Taxus baccata, Tilia begoniifolia,
Trachystemon orientalis, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Viburnum
orientale, Viola alba, V. reichenbachiana, Zelkova carpinifolia, etc.
ferns - Athyrium filix-femina, Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Matteuccia
struthiopteris, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Polypodium vulgare, Pteris
cretica, etc.
9.1.6.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Gentiana – Galanthus alpinus Sosn., Amaryllidaceae
The economically potential species of Galanthus are recreational,
ornamental and medicinal plants. We have found 3 small populations of
Galanthus alpinus Sosn. Near Atskuri adjoining is to Borjomi district,
where it is abundant (Figure 51).
193
A
B
Figure 51. A. Galanthus alpinus (VU), Tsriokhistskali gorge, v.
Tsriokhi, Akhaltsikhe distr.; B. Flowers of species are others and this
is Galanthus alpinus. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The bulbs should be planted about 5 – 7 cm deep as early in the
spring as possible. A good is bee plant, providing an early source of
pollen and nectar. More abundant population of this species were found
on Zekari Pass in Adjara-Imereti Range, However, it was located in
Imereti, outside of Samtskhe-Javakheti region. According to local
population it is to found in Shavsheti range, Mt. Erbo, Persati range and
Mt. Chechla. However, we did not find these populations. Target
species is Galanthus alpinus Sosn. Georgian endemic, RDB USSR,
CITES, IUCN, ornamental. Bulb growing is to 0.2 m by 0.08 m. It is in
flower in February-March. Seeds mature in June. After this
aboveground part dries and bulb overwinters underground, where in
September-November is formed flower primordium. Leaves and
flowers appear in January almost simultaneously. The seeds ripen from
May to June. Galanthamin is used in pharmaceutical industry for
treatment of poliomyelitis and disease of the central nervous system.
Lycorin is used for bronchitis and other lung disease. Edible uses are
none known. Illegal collection in the wild and export instead of
cultivated Galanthus woronowii. Establishment is of managed reserves,
insertion in the RDB Georgia. Prefers is a moist heavy loam, growing
well in grass or amongst shrubs. Prefers is a shady position. The
dormant bulbs are fairly hardy and will withstand soil temperatures
down to at least -5°C (Matthews, 1994). A very ornamental plant, it
grows well on the woodland edge.
194
Seed of the Galanthus is as best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold
frame. Sow the seed thinly so that there is no need to thin them. The
seed usually germinates in the spring. Grow them on in the same pot in
a cold frame for the first two years, giving an occasional liquid feed to
ensure the plants do not become nutrient deficient. Pot up the small
bulbs whilst they are still in leaf in early summer of their second year's
growth, putting about 3 bulbs in each pot. Grow them on in the cold
frame for a further year before planting them out into their permanent
positions in late spring whilst they are still in growth. The plants take
about 4 years to flower from seed. Division of offsets is best done
immediately after the plants have finished flowering (and still have
green leaves) though it can also be done in late summer and early
autumn when the plants are dormant. Establishment is of managed
reserves, insertion in the RDB Georgia.
9.1.7. Code of Georgia: Beech forests without understory (Fageta
sine fruticosa) (91SF-GE)
In this type of habitat those communities of the beech are associated
where there is no understory represented by bushes and developed
significantly, which is characteristic to the beech forest with the
Colchic type understory. In this case, vegetation of the lower tier is
represented by grasss - Festuca drymeja, herbal species - Trachystemon
orientalis,
Pachyphragma
macrophyllum,
and
blackberry
runner/undergrowth - Rubus spp., ferns, etc.
Sub-types (91SF-GE 01): Beech forest with the mountain fescue
(Festuca drymeja) cover (Fageta festucosa) is the most widely
distributed community in the beech forests in east Georgia, at the
altitude of 1000-1750 meters. In east Georgia this association is more
rare and is expelled by the forests of spruce and fir or the beech forest
having the Colchic understory where Vaccinium arctostaphylos,
Rhododendron luteum and Ilex colchica dominate.The following are
common from arboreal plants: Carpinus caucasica, Acer laetum, A.
platanoides, Tilia begoniifolia, Castanea sativa, Fraxinus excelsior,
Quercus iberica, Prunus avium, etc. The grass cover in the beech forest
of the subalpine zone is associated with the mountain fescue cover
(Fageta festucosa). Festuca drymeja, Calamagrostis arundinacea,
195
Milium schmidtianum, Calamintha grandiflora, Geranium sylvaticum,
etc. dominate here.
Sub-types (91SF-GE 02): Beech forest with the phachyphragma
(Pachyphragma macrophyllum) cover Fageta pachyphragmosa is
common in more moist areas than the sub-types of the beech described
above not having the understory. In Kakheti the beech in this sub-type
of the habitat is mixed with the maple (Acer velutinum), in west
Georgia - with the mountain maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), Norway
maple - (Acer platanoides), lime, ash, hornbean, sometimes fir. The
understory is represented by the elderberry and the nut. Pachyphragma,
which is the relict plant of the monotype species, and Colchic local
endemic, mainly create the herbal cover. However, it is common as
well in east Georgia. Namely, in the Lagodekhi reserve. Pachyphragma
is the indicator species, its existence is related to the humus rich soil. It
is distributed in the areas that are moderately moist at the 500-1000
meters a.s.l.. It reaches the margin of maximum distribution, 1820
meters in Upper Svaneti. Blackberry, ivy, woodruff, as well as the
species blooming in spring - Galanthus lagodechianus, Scilla sibirica,
Anemone caucasica, Corydalis caucasica, C. marschalliana, Viola
alba, V.odorata, Dentaria bulbifera, etc. participate in forming the
lower layer.
Sub-types (91SF-GE 03): Beech forest with blackberry (Rubus
hirtus) cover (Fageta rubosa) is widely distributed in the middle zone
of the forest, on the moderately moist slopes of the southern exposition
of the Great Caucasus, at the altitude of 1100-1600 meters. It is quite
rare in small Caucasus. Rubus hirtus is characterized by great
polymorphism. Other species of blackberry include R. serpens, R.
platyphyllus, R. caucasicus, R. ponticus, R. candicans, R. cartalinicus,
R. georgicus, R. tomentosus, R. piceetorum, R. dolichocarpus, etc. The
grass cover is quite arid and is observed in small quantities
Cephalanthera longifolia, C. rubra, C. damasonium, Epipactis
helleborine, E. microphylla, Neottia nidus-avis, Dentaria bulbifera,
Arum albispathum.
Sub-types (91SF-GE04): Beech forest with borage (Trachystemon
orientalis) cover Fageta trachystemosa is characteristic to the beech
forests of west Georgia. Borage is the relict species of Kolkheti. The
amplitude of its distribution varies according to the height up to almost
the subalpine zone from the sea level. However, it is more typical in the
196
middle zone of the forest (700-1200 meters). At the low height it is
under strong anthropogenic impact, which causes decrease of its
number. At higher altitude it is expelled by the communities of
coniferous forests. In the circumstances of wet climate borage is
associated with blackberry. The understory is not developed but in
certain cases there are separate species of the nut and elder. Herb cover
is represented by the following species - Polygonatum orientale, Paris
incompleta, Dentaria bulbifera, Tamus communis, Actaea spicata,
Euphorbia macroceras, Circaea lutetiana, Vicia crocea. From ferns
dominate - Dryopteris filix-mas, Athyrium filix-femina, Matteuccia
struthiopteris, and Polystichum braunii.
Sub-types (91SF-GE 05): Beech forest with fern (Dryopteris filixmas, D. pseudomas, etc.) cover (Fageta filicosa) is the indicator of the
humid biotope, provides creation and maintenance of environment
conditions of the specific micro-habitat. Dominant species of the fern
that create a massive cover are - Dryopteris filix-mas, D. pseudomas,
Athyrium filix-femina and Matteuccia struthiopteris. In the upperborder
of the forest the following species are also observed - Dryopteris
oreades, Oreopteris limbosperma and Athyrium distentifolium. The rest
are large size ferns - Dryopteris assimilis, D. expansa, D.
alexeenkoana, D. liliana, Polystichum spp., that are common in the
form of separate species but do not create a massive cover.
There are 4 types of communities:
1) The beech forest with the black-berry-male-fern cover (Fageta
ruboso-dryopteridosa) in east Georgia is distributed at the altitude
of 1300-1700 meters. In the eastern part of Trialeti range in the
circumstances of drier climate it reaches the altitude of 1800
meters. Together with the beech Caucasian lime, mountain maple
and Norway maple are common. Caucasian elm (Ulmus elliptica)
and the hazelnut (Corylus iberica) are rare. In the understory elder,
nut, Caucasian jasmine (Phyladelphus caucasicus) and Caucasian
honeysuckle (Lonicera caucasica) are rare. Among other plants the
following are worth noting - Symphytum grandiflorum, Valeriana
alliariifolia, Geranium robertianum, Paeonia wittmanniana,
Ranunculus ampelophyllus.
2) The beech forest with large-fern cover (Fageta athyriosa) is
characterized by the domination of the mountain holly-fern
(Athyrium filix-femina) and intensive development of the fern
197
cover. 2 separate communities are differentiated. The first is in the
middle zone of the forest at the height of 1300-1500 meters and the
second one at the height of more than 1750 meters. There are
transition forms among them. From the fern species the following
can be found in the middle zone of the forest: Athyrium filixfemina, Dryopteris filix-mas, D. pseudomas, D. assimilis and
Matteuccia struthiopteris. From other species the following need to
be mentioned: Euphorbia macroceras, Paris incompleta,
Pachyphragma macrophyllum, Actaea spicata, Petasites alba. The
community of the mountain holly-fern is found in the upper zone of
the forest together with the subalpine forest species - Acer
trautveterii, Sorbus caucasigena, the beech in this case does not
create the bending forest. The following can be found in the
understory:
Ribes biebersteinii, Rubus idaeus and Daphne
mezereum.
3) The beech forest with the black fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris)
covers (Fageta struthiopteridosa. The black fern is the biggest size
fern distributed in Georgia, which is the strong edifier and expels
other ferns and herbal plants from the habitat. Single species of the
following may co-exist with it: Symphytum grandiflorum, Paris
incompleta, Rubus spp., Dryopteris filix-mas, Athyrium filixfemina, Impatiens noli-tangere, Polygonatum orientale,
Pachyphragma macrophyllum, Asperula odorata, Hedera colchica,
Euphorbia macroceras, Tamus communis, Urtica dioica, Dentaria
bulbifera, etc.
Plants species: Fagus orientalis, Acer laetum, A. platanoides, A.
pseudoplatanus, A. velutinum, Actaea spicata, Anemone caucasica,
Arum albispathum, Asperula odorata, Athyrium distentifolium,
Athyrium filix-femina, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Calamintha
grandiflora, Carpinus caucasica, Castanea sativa, Prunus avium,
Circaea lutetiana, Corydalis caucasica, C. marschalliana, Dentaria
bulbifera, Dryopteris assimilis, D. alexeenkoana, D. expansa,
Dryopteris filix-mas, D. liliana, Dryopteris oreades, D. pseudomas,
Euphorbia macroceras, Festuca drymeja, Fraxinus excelsior,
Galanthus lagodechianus, Geranium robertianum, Geranium
sylvaticum, Hedera colchica, Ilex colchica, Impatiens noli-tangere,
Lonicera caucasica, Matteuccia struthiopteris Milium schmidtianum,
Neottia nidus-avis, Oreopteris limbosperma, Pachyphragma
198
macrophyllum, Paeonia wittmanniana, Paris incompleta, Petasites
alba, Phyladelphus caucasicus, Polygonatum orientale, Polystichum
braunii, Quercus iberica, Ranunculus ampelophyllus, Rhododendron
luteum, Rubus hirtus, R. serpens, R. platyphyllus, R. caucasicus, R.
ponticus, R. candicans, R. cartalinicus, R. georgicus, R. tomentosus, R.
piceetorum, R. dolichocarpus, Scilla sibirica, Symphytum
grandiflorum, Tamus communis, Tilia begoniifolia, Ulmus elliptica,
Urtica dioica, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Valeriana alliariifolia, Vicia
crocea, Viola alba, V. odorata.
9.1.7.1. Endemic plant species Stone gooseberry - Ribes L.,
Grossulariaceae
Endemic species of Ribes is as both Georgian and the Caucasian
endemic. Endemic species are Ribes biebersteinii Berland. ex DC., R.
caucasicum M. Bieb. (Figure 52).
A
B
C
Figure 52. A. Ribes rubrum, B. Ribes uva-crispa, C. Ribes bibersteinii.
Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Grows is in forests of middle and upper montane belts, sometimes
reaches subaline zone from 900 to 2100 m a.s.l.. Ribes biebersteinii is a
deciduous shrub growing to 1.5-2 m high with light, glabrous shoots; it
is hardy to subalpine zone and is not frost tender. Snow cover is <1 m.
The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 30°C. Sunny
199
edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West
Wall. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils, prefers well-drained
soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral
and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It prefers moist
soil. Shoots densely covered with acicular spines and, in addition, with
larger spines at the nodes, 7-15 in each verticillaster; Young branches
greenish-dark grey, glossy, older twigs with dark greyish-dark brown
bark shredding into stripes.
Leaves rigid-hispid; flowers flat; berries black, glandular-hispid
berry dark red or cherry-red 12. Leaf glabrous above, pubescent
beneath, lobes acuminate, margins toothed. Leaves thin, deeply cordate,
large 10 cm long and 13 cm wide, usually 5-lobed with cordate base,
either glabrous on both sides, or densely hairy below, rarely with
scattered glandular bristles above and with hairs along the veins below
and on the petioles; racemes 4-12 cm long, horizontal, nodding in fruit,
loose, 15-50 -flowered; Flowers reddish or purple in drooping racemes
of 15-20 per inflorescence.
Hypanthium with fleshy excrescences below the petals; flowers
purple; pedicels 2-3 mm long; flowers 5-6 mm long, dark purple; sepals
recurved; hypanthium with conspicuous excrescences below petals;
styles broadly conical; berry small, 6-7 (8) mm in diameter, dark red or
black -purple. Fruit deep purple.
Fruit a succulent berry with dried perianth at the apex, at maturity
disarticulating from pedicel; seeds with interior hard endopleura and
gelatinous testa. Flowering is in June. Fruits are in July-August.
Because all Ribes species are alternative hosts of the destructive blister
rust fungus, which also attacks white pines, there are local prohibitions
to growing Ribes near any white pine plantations. The flowers are
hermaphrodite and are pollinated by Insects. Suitable for: light,
medium and heavy soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH:
acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland)
or no shade.
It prefers moist soil. Fruit is raw or cooked. A good-sized red
currant, (though it is almost black in colour), but plants only had a
small crop. The flavour is rather tart, but acceptable raw. It is probably
best as a cooked fruit, making a good jam or preserve. Its main
drawback is the large number of seeds in each fruit.
200
Plants for A future cannot take any responsibility for any adverse
effects from the use of plants. Always seek advice from a professional
before using a plant medicinally. Easily grown is in a moisture
retentive but well-drained loamy soil of at least moderate quality.
Plants are quite tolerant of shade though do not fruit so well in such a
position. Hardy to about -20°C. Plants can harbour a stage of 'white
pine blister rust', so they should not be grown in the vicinity of pine
trees. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus.
Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame.
Stored seed requires 3 months cold stratification at between 0 and 5°C
and should be sown as early in the year as possible. Under normal
storage conditions the seed can remain viable for 17 years or more.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough
to handle and grow them on in a cold frame for their first winter,
planting them out in late spring of the following year. Cuttings are of
half-ripe wood, 10-15 cm with a heel, July/August in a frame.
Cuttings are of mature wood of the current year's growth,
preferably with a heel of the previous year's growth, November to
February in a cold frame or sheltered bed outdoors. Landscape is
Erosion control, Foundation, Ground cover, Massing, Rock garden,
Seashore. Easily grown is in a moisture retentive but well-drained
loamy soil of at least moderate quality. This species succeeds on poor
soils. Does is well in shade though it does not fruit so well in such a
position.
A very hardy plant has tolerating temperatures down to about 25°C. A number of named varieties have been developed for their
ornamental value. The flowers are sweetly fragrant. Plants are
dioecious. At least one male plant must be grown in the vicinity of up
to 5 females if fruit is required. Plants can harbour a stage of white pine
blister rust, so should not be grown in the vicinity of pine trees. Plants
in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus.
Seed of the Ribes biebersteinii is as best sown as soon as it is ripe
in the autumn in a cold frame. Stored seed requires 3 months cold
stratification at 0-9°C and should be sown as early in the year as
possible. Under normal storage conditions the seed can remain viable
for 17 years or more. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when
they are large enough to handle and grow them on in a cold frame for
their first winter, planting them out in late spring of the following year.
201
Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame. Cuttings are of
mature wood of the current year's growth, preferably with a heel of the
previous year's growth, November to February in a cold frame or
sheltered bed outdoors. Geographic distribution is in Native to
Caucasus, Northern Anatolia, and North-Western Iran.
9.2. Galio-Carpinetum oak-hornbeam forests
9.2.1. Code of Georgia: Oak or oak-hornbeam forests (Quercitum Carpinion betuli) (9160GE; PAL. CLASS.: 41.24)
Oak forests in Georgia are mainly created by two species – the
Georgian oak (Quercus iberica) and high mountain oak (Q.
macranthera). Other oak species - Q. pedunculiflora, Q. hartwissiana,
Q. imeretina, Q. pontica, Q. dshorochensis, are mixed with other
species in the forests of a different type, such as, Colchic mixed forest
(Q. hartwissiana, Q. pontica, Q. dshorochensis), or the Riparian forest
(Q. pedunculiflora, Q. imeretina) (Figure 53).
The Georgian oak forest is widespread in almost all forest regions
of Georgia. It is not found in Tusheti, northern Khevsureti and Khevi. It
holds about 200 thousand hectares of the area. In eastern Georgia it is
found from 350-500 to 1000-1550 meters. In west Georgia it’s
distributed at the height of 1500-1800 m a.s.l. (Svaneti). The following
species can be found together with the oak: Carpinus caucasica, C.
orientalis, Acer laetum, Sorbus torminalis, Zelkova carpinifolia, Ostrya
carpinifolia.
High mountain oak (Quercus macranthera) is common in the
eastern part of the Great Caucasus on both southern and northern
micro slopes, small Caucasus and west Georgia, Svaneti. It holds the
middle, upper and subalpine zones of the mountain, within the limits of
1450-2400 meters. In some places the upper margin of its distribution
reaches 2600-2700 meters. The optimal height of distribution varies
between 1450 -1600 meters. 4 types of oak forests are differentiated:
Sub-types (9160GE-01): Georgian has oak monodominant forest
(Iberica-Quercetum) is characterized by the well-developed understory.
It is situated at the altitude of 1000-1550 meters a.s.l.. The following
oak forests are differentiated: hemi-xerophytic, growing in the arid
regions of eastern Georgia and xero-mesophytic, characteristic to the
rest of the places.
202
C
A
D
B
G
E
F
Figure 53. A. Quercus iberica is in Tbilisi in Nuthubidze area; B. Q.
iberica flowers has many pollen; C. Pollen Q. iberica has length of the
horizontal height as 35-37 µm; D. Ostrya carpinifolia is in Quercus
forest in Meskheti and Adjara; E. O. carpinifolia has other flowers as
Carpinus in famaly Corylaceae; F. Flowers has many pollen; G. Pollen
O. carpinifolia has length of the horizontal height as 27-31 µm. Photo:
Maia Akhalkatsi.
6 communities are differentiated:
1. Georgian oak forest with varied dry understory (Quercetum iberici
multifruticosum siccum), where Spiraea hypericifolia, Pyracantha
coccinea, Juniperus oblonga create the understory. In Abkhasia the oak
forest with Sesleria anatolica and Psoralea bituminous can be found;
2. Georgian oak forest with understory (Quercetum iberici cotinosa) of
Cotynus coggygria;
203
3. Georgian oak forest with herbal cover (Quercetum iberici herbosa),
where the following are observed from herbal species: Campanula
rapunculoides, Carex bushiorum, Clinopodium vulgare, Dactylis
glomerata, Polygonatum glaberrimum, Veronica peduncularis, etc.;
4. Georgian oak forest with barren-worth (Epimedium colchicum) cover
(Quercetum hypericoso-epimediosa), which can be found in
Abkhasia, where the following dominate: Epimedium colchicum,
Hypericum xylosteifolium and Dioscorea caucasica.Widely
distributed species are: Sesleria anatolica, Trachystemon orientalis,
Ruscus ponticus, Carex transsilvanica, Dorycnium graecum, etc.
Rare species are: Iris colchica, Dianthus imereticus, Hypochaeris
radiata, Psoralea bituminosa, Aristolochia steupii, A. iberica,
Primula sibthorpii, Veronica peduncularis, Helleborus abchasicus,
etc. Among the bushes, the following are found: Rhododendron
luteum, R. ponticum, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Erica arborea,
Lonicera caprifolium, Smilax excels grow on the rocky cape of
Bichvinta. Arbutus andrachne is at the sea side;
5. The species characteristic to the community of Iberica-Quercetumgenistosum to the east is Genista transcaucasica, to the west - G.
kolakowskyi and G. abchasica;
6. Oak forest with Colchic understory: 1. Oak forest with azalea Quercita azaleoza (Rhododendron luteum), oak forest with Pontic
rhododendron, Quercita rhododendrosa (R. ponticum), oak forest
with bladder-nut, Querceta staphyleosa (Staphylea colchica, S.
pinnata).
Sub-types (9160GE-02): Oak-oriental hornbeam (Carpinus
orientalis) forest (Iberica-Quercetum-Carpinion orientale) in east
Georgia is distributed at the height of 600- 1000 meters a.s.l.. In the
west is from 350 to 700-800 meters. It can be found in the limestone
region of Abkhasia and Samegrelo and eastern Georgia on rocky
slopes.
3 types of oak forests are differentiated:
1. With the oak-oriental hornbeam-sedge (Carex buschiorum)
xerophytic cover (Carpineto-Quercetum-xerocaricosum);
2. With the oak-oriental hornbeam-meadow grass (Poa nemoralis)
cover (Carpineto-Quercetum- poosum);
204
3. With the oak-oriental hornbeam-false brome (Brachypodium
sylvaticum) cover (Carpineto-Quercetum -brachypodiosum).
Sub-types (9160GE-03): Oak-hornbeam forest (QuercetumCarpinion betulii) is distributed at the altitude of 600-1100 meters
a.s.l.. Tree species found: Quercus iberica, Carpinus caucasica, C.
orientalis, Sorbus torminalis, Acer laetum, Picea orientalis, Abies
nordmaniana. Bushes - Cornus mas, Corylus avellana, Swida australis,
Chamaecytisus caucasica, Lonicera caucasica, Mespilus germanica.
Herbaceous plants - Festuca drymeja, Clinopodium vulgare, Veronica
peduncularis, Polygonatum glaberrimum, Campanula rapunculoides,
Dactylis glomerata. Oak-hornbeam forest with the sedge understory is
characteristic to Georgia.
Sub-types (9160GE-04): Oak- and hop-hornbeam (Ostrya
carpinifolia) forest (Quercetum-ostryosa) is in Samtskheti and the
distinguished quality in that is in the upper border of this type of this
forest (1200-1600 m) hornbeam is substituted by the hop hornbeam
forest - Ostrya carpinifolia. These forests occupy significant territory in
the gorges of Uraveli and Kvabliani. As a result of the degradation of
natural oak forests, vegetation of shibliak mixed with the oak is
represented in the lower border of their distribution with the
participation of Jerusalem thorn - Paliurus spina-christi, black
buckthorn - Rhamnus pallasii, Spiraea hypericifolia, etc. Honey
suckles - Lonicera iberica is rare in these forests.
Sub-types (9160GE-05): The oak-pine-oriental hornbeam forest
(Pineto-Quercetum-Carpinion orientale) is for widespread in eastern
Georgia (Borjomi gorge, Gombori range) at the altitude of 1000-1200
meters a.s.l. It can be found on the slopes of various inclination of the
southern-western exposition.
Sub-types (9160GE-06): High Mountain oak forest (Quercus
macranthera) creates mixed and monodominant forests. The mixed
forest is represented by the association of the following species: 1. Q.
macranthera da Betula litwinowii, 2. Q. macranthera, B. litwinowii da
Sorbus caucasigena; 3. Q. macranthera da Acer trautvetteri. Dominant
species are - Acer platanoides, A. hyrcanum, Sorbus caucasigena,
Lonicera caucasica, Ribes biebersteinii, etc.
Plants species: Quercus iberica, Q. macranthera, Abies
nordmanniana, Acer laetum, A. platanoides, A. hyrcanum, Arbutus
205
andrachne, Aristolochia steupii, A. iberica, Betula litwinowii,
Campanula rapunculoides, Carex transsilvanica, Carpinus caucasica,
C. orientalis, Chamaecytisus caucasica, Clinopodium vulgare, Cornus
mas, Corylus avellana, Cotinus coggygria, Cytisus caucasicus, Dactylis
glomerata, Dianthus imereticus, Dioscorea caucasica, Dorycnium
graecum, Epimedium colchicum, Erica arborea, Festuca drymeja,
Helleborus abchasicus, Hypericum xylosteifolium, Hypochaeris
radiata, Iris colchica, Laser trilobum, Lathyrus roseus, Ligustrum
vulgare, Lonicera caucasica, L. caprifolium, Mespilus germanica,
Orobus laxiflorus, Ostrya carpinifolia, Peucedanum caucasicum,
Physospermum cornubiense, Picea orientalis, Poa nemoralis,
Polygonatum glaberrimum, Primula sibthorpii, Psoralea bituminosa,
Rhododendron luteum, R. ponticum, Ribes biebersteinii, Rosa canina,
Ruscus ponticus, Sesleria anatolica, Smilax excelsa, Sorbus
caucasigena, Sorbus torminalis, Swida australis, Trachystemon
orientalis, Vaccinium arctostaphylos,Veronica peduncularis.
9.2.1.1. Flagship plant species Caucasian oak - Quercus
macranthera Fisch. & C.A. Mey. ex Hohen., Fagaceae
Flagship species of Quercus macranthera is as the concept of
flagship species is a concept with its genesis in the field of conservation
biology (Figure 54).
A
B
C
Figure 54. A. Quercus macranthera is in subalpine forest in village
Mitarbi; B. Leaf from above side; C. Leaf from back side; Photo:
Maia Akhalkatsi.
206
A hardy has above all, drought -resistant oak that constitutes the
only high-mountain forest-forming species in arid areas of East and
South Caucasus. Forming forests are in the mountains, on dry, mostly
southern slopes, at altitudes between 800 and 2400 m above sea level.
A tree to 20 m, but usually lower, the short stout trunk covered
with thick fissured bark. Snow cover is >2 m. The exposition is for all
directions and inclination till 60°C.
Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall,
and West Wall. The wood is used like that of other oaks. The leaves
often display very large spherical long-villous galls that need study as
to their tannin content. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and
heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid,
neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils.
Shoots densely shaggy with long yellowish -gray hairs, the 1- and 2
-year old branchlets gradually glabrescent; buds 5-6 mm long, obtuse,
ovaloid, with few heavily gray -pubescent scales; stipules to 1.5 cm
long, densely villous; leaf petioles 1-2 cm long, subcoriaceous, 6-18
cm, on the average ca. 10 cm, long and 3-12 cm broad, dark green and
at first sparingly puberulous above, becoming glabrate with pubescence
confined to the veins, yellowish -gray beneath with dense sometimes
partly disappearing pubescence, oboval or elongate, commonly cuneate
or rarelytruncate or subcordate at base, with a short obtuse terminal
lobe and 8 -12 pairs of short, obtuse entire or coarsely toothed lateral
lobes, the sinuses one-fifth to one-sixth the breadth of the blade; the
lobes sometimes longer, the sinuses thus attaining one -third to one fourth the breadth of the blade, and then they are commonly narrowed
and rather pointed; lateral veins as many as and directed only toward
the lobes, straight or arched, parallel, intermediate veins none or 1 or 2
faint ones in the lower part of the blade; Staminate flowers in long
pendulous slender – stalked aments; perianth 4-7 -parted (mostly 6parted) to the middle or almost down to base; stamens 4-12, mostly 6;
Staminate inflorescence to 10-15 cm long, with a densely pubescent
peduncle; anthers large, to 1.5 mm long; ovary 3- or sometimes 4locular, with 2 ovules in each locule, surrounded by a cup-shaped
cupule covered outside with numerous scales; styles 3; stigma large,
completely covering the upper face of the style; pistillate flowers and
fruits 1-5, sessile or borne on a stalk to 2 cm long; Cupule
hemispherical, to 1.5 cm long and 1.5-2 cm in diameter, enclosing the
207
acorn to between one-half and one-third; lower scales and those of
young fruits somewhat spreading, the middle and upper ones appressed,
narrowly lanceolate, gray -pubescent, with a brown glabrous tip; acorns
2-2.5 cm long, initially appressed-pubescent, finally glabrous. Fruit a 1celled 1-seeded acorn, with rudiments of abortive seeds in upper or
lower part; shell of the acorn thin, glabrous within, or else thick 3layered May. Flowering in May, fruit are in September-October.
Most oaks are important and widely distributed species, yielding
durable hard lumber used for a variety of purposes. The bark contains
tannin and is extensively used for leather tanning; of similar use are the
cups of certain species and galls formed by the puncture of insects. The
bark of the cork oak and of some other species is the principal source of
cork. The acorns are used as a coffee substitute and as feed for swine;
in some species they are sweet and edible in raw condition. Many oak
species are eminently suited for pleasure-ground, street and avenue
planting, etc. and are recommended for extensive ornamental use. The
drought resistance of some of the species and their modest soil
requirements enable their use for afforestation of arid regions. Fossils
of Quercus occur in the earliest Cretaceous layers which contain
remnants of dicotyledonous plants. Oaks were widely distributed
through the Upper Cretaceous and all the Tertiary floras, although the
geographical distribution of the sections was quite different than it is at
the present time. Oak fossils have also been found in Tertiary
formations. Gradual transition to European forms took place in the
course of the Tertiary period. Unidentified, reported for many
distribution areas in Tertiary and Postpliocene formations, e. g., in the
Paleocene. Deserves are attention as a valuable tree for afforestation
and ornamental planting in the dry parts of Transcaucasia.
Prefers is a good deep fertile loam which can be on the stiff side.
Dislikes has heavy clay. Young plants tolerate reasonable levels of side
shade. Found mainly on acid soils in the wild. Thrives in well drained
soils but is also tolerant of periodic flooding. Tolerates has exposure
and strong winds if these are not salt-laden. A very important timber
tree in Britain, it is also a food plant for the caterpillars of many species
of butterfly, and there are 284 insect species associated with this tree.
Trees were often coppiced or pollarded in the past for their wood,
though this is best done on a long rotation of perhaps 50 years. The tree
208
flowers on new growth produced in spring, the seed ripening in its first
year.
Older trees have a thick corky bark and this can protect them from
forest fires, young trees will often regenerate from the base if cut down
or killed back by a fire. Trees transplant badly unless moved regularly.
Hybridizes has freely with other members of the genus. Immune is to
attacks by the Tortix moth. This species is notably resistant to honey
fungus.
Seed of Quercus macranthera is as it quickly loses viability if it is
allowed to dry out. It can be stored moist and cool overwinter but is
best sown as soon as it is ripe in an outdoor seed bed, though it must be
protected from mice, squirrels etc. Small quantities of seed can be sown
in deep pots in a cold frame. Plants produce a deep taproot and need to
be planted out into their permanent positions as soon as possible, in fact
seed sown in situ will produce the best trees. Trees should not be left in
a nursery bed for more than 2 growing seasons without being moved or
they will transplant very badly. Geographic distribution is in the
Caucasus South and Eest, Armenia, Talysh, Dagestan, Iran.
9.2.2. Code of Georgia: Hornbeam forest Carpinus L., Betulaceae
(91CBGE)
Carpinus caucasica is widely distributed in Georgia. It grows on
fertile, well-drained soil. From mixed species dominate beech or the
oak in other locations. The hornbeam is the component of the
polidominant forest and is common together with other species.
Sub-types (91CB-GE01): Hornbeam forest with Colchic type
understory: Four communities are characteristic: 1. Hornbeam forest
with the understory of azalea, C. caucasica - Rhododendron luteum, is
found in both west and east Georgia. Namely are in Kakheti and Aragvi
gorges. 2. Hornbeam forest with the understory of blueberry, C.
caucasica - Vaccinium arctostaphylos, is found only in west Georgia
(Abkhazia, Upper Svaneti, Guria), at the altitude of 900-1750 meters. 3.
Hornbeam forest with the understory of Pontic rhododendron, C.
caucasica - Rhododendron ponticum, is found on the slope of the
northern exposition, in the lower zone of the forest (100-800 meters
a.s.l.) where there is no limestone layer. 4. Hornbeam forest with laurel
understory, C. caucasica - Laurocerasus officinalis. It occupies rocky,
209
stretching downhill slopes of northern exposition both on limestone and
non-limestone places 300-800 meters a.s.l..
Sub-types (91CB-GE01): Hornbeam forest without the
understory: 1. Hornbeam forest with meadow grass covers, C.
caucasica - Poa angustifalia; 2. Hornbeam forest with fescue covers,
C. caucasica - Festuca drymeja; 3. Hornbeam forest with herbal cover,
C. caucasica – multi herbosa transcaucasica group; 4. Hornbeam forest
with borage cover, C. caucasica - Trachystemon orientalis.
Plants species: Carpinus caucasica, Fagus orientalis, Festuca
drymeja, Laurocerasus officinalis, Poa angustifalia, Quercus iberica,
Rhododendron luteum, R. ponticum, Trachystemon orientalis,
Vaccinium arctostaphylos.
9.2.2.1. Relict plant species Carpinus L., Betulaceae
1. Carpinus caucasica L., Hornbeam, Heinbuche, Betulaceae: Plant
characteristics are for tree up to 30 m tall. Trunk mostly crooked and
slightly angled, sometimes bent. Bark grey and smooth or partially
ridged. Multiplication is for monoecious. Staminate flowers in
drooping catkins, pistillate flowers form straight terminal catkins.
Leaves glabrous, on short petiole, leaf blade oblong-ovate, acuminate,
margins double serrate, base rounded or slightly cordate, 5-12 cm long
(Figure 55).
A
B
C
Figure 55. A. Carpinus caucasica is in Quercus forest; B. Flowers has
much pollen; C. Pollen C. caucasica has length of the horizontal height
as 32-35 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
210
Fruit one seeded nutlet, edging along, surrounded by 3-lobed leafy
bract on one side. Middle lobe is longer than the others. Flowers are in
March and April. Fruits are in June and July. Protective measures are
grows in lower and middle montane belts, mixed with beech and oaks.
Native are to Caucasus, Asia Minor, Northern Iran.
2. Carpinus orientalis Mill. Oriental hornbeam, Orientalische
Heinbuche. Betulaceae: Plant characteristics: 4-5 m tall shrub or
tree. Stem crooked stronger than by hornbeam, angled and branched
from the base. Bark dark grey, stems densely foliated. Leaf up to 5 cm
long, on short petiole, ovate or oblong ovate, acuminate, base rounded
or slightly asymmetric, margins double serrate (Figure 56).
A
B
D
E
C
Figure 56. A. Carpinus orientalis is in degraded areas; B. Flowers has
many pollen; C. Pollen C. caucasica has length of the horizontal height
as 32-35 µm. D. Viburnum lantana L. (Caprifoliaceae) is feedback to
C. orientalis; E. Fruits of Viburnum lantana found by Maia Akhalkatsi
in Meskheti and this is as medicinal plant. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
211
Plant characteristics are for monoecious plant. Staminate and
pistillate flowers clustered in oblong tight catkins. Fruit one seeded
nutlet edging along; leafy bract surrounding the fruit is entire,
asymmetric and irregularly toothed. Flowers are in April. Fruits are in
June and July. Protective measures is grows from lower to upper
montane belts in understory of oak or oak-hornbeam forests, more
rarely forms pure stands. Native is to Eastern Mediterranean, Caucasus.
9.3. Forests of the slope, remains and the cleft
9.3.1. Code of Georgia: Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and
ravines (9180 GE* PAL. CLASS.: 41.4)
Mixed forests (Tilio-Acerion) are created by secondary species (Acer
spp., Fraxinus excelsior, Ulmus glabra, Tilia begoniifolia, T. cordata,
etc.) and are located on steep rocky slopes, mainly on limestone,
sometimes on siliceous ground material at various elevations (Figure
57).
One group is differentiated. It grows in more moist areas
(hygroscopic and shadow resistant forest, sub-alliance - LunarioAcerenion), where species of a maple dominate. In the outskirts of
Manglisi, Bedeni plateau and Aghbulaghi, among oak- and sedge
forests, mixed forests occupy large areas, where the following can be
found in a mixed form: maples (Acer laetum, A. campestre, A.
platanoides, A. hyrcanum), Caucasian elm (Ulmus elliptica), lime (Tilia
begoniifolia) and aspen (Populus spp.).
On southern slopes of the central Caucasus original mixed forests
belonged to holly places, so-called “Khati's Forests” are preserved.
Such a forest is described in Kaishauri gorge, where the following can
be found - Acer trautveterii, A. platanoides, Fagus orientalis, Ulmus
elliptica, Fraxinus excelsior, Padus avium, Betula litwinowii, B.
raddeana, Sorbus caucasigena, Rubus idaeus, Euonymus verrucosa,
Viburnum opulus,Corylus avellana, Rhododendron luteum, Poa
nemoralis, Circaea alpina, Aruncus vulgaris, Scutelalria altissima,
Veronica peduncularis, Valeriana officinalis, V. alliariifolia, V.
tiliifolia, Doronicum macrophyllum, Campanulla collina, Polemonium
caucasicum, Athyrium filix-femina, Polystichum braunii, Geranium
robertianum, etc.
212
B
A
C
E
D
G
H
F
I
Figure 57. A. Tilia begoniifolia (= T. caucasica) is endemic and relict
species in Georgia; B. Flowers has many pollen; C. Pollen of Tilia
begoniifolia has length of the horizontal height as 43-48 µm; D. Tilia
platyphyllus is invasive species and planted on the road in Tbilisi; E.
Flowers has many pollen; F. Pollen of Tilia platyphyllus has length of
the horizontal height as 43-47 µm; G. Ulmus minor is in forests of
Quearcus; H. Flowers has much pollen; I. Pollen of Ulmus minor has
length of the horizontal height as 23-25 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Forests with maple trees are found in Kolkheti at higher altitudes,
where the beech is the prevailing species mixed with the lime,
Caucasian elm, oak and maple (Acer velutinum). The following can
also be found here: Cherry - Prunus avium, maple - Acer laetum, A.
platanoides, a rarer species is Yew - Taxus baccata. From lianas there
213
is Colchis ivy - Hedera colchica, the understory is created by meddler,
sour plum, cornelian cherry, elder dog weed, guilder rose, Caucasian
jasmine, azalea and blueberry. Herbal species that are common are:
Salvia glutinosa, Stachys sylvatica, Sanicula europaea, Asperula
odorata, Pyrethrum parthenifolium, Geranium robertianum,
Aristolochia iberica, Impatiens noli-tangere, Neottia nidus-avis, etc.
The following are reported from relict species: Pachyphragma
macrophyllum, Brunnera macrophylla.
A second variety of the mixed forest is the one which is typical to
dry and warm slopes and sptread out places (xero-thermophyllic forest,
sub-alliance Tilio-Acerenion), where species of lime dominate. There is
also hornbeam, with which grow oriental hornbeam (Carpinus
orientalis), hazelnut (Corylus avellana), elm (Ulmus glabra, beech
(Fagus orientalis), lime (Tilia begoniifolia), simple Adler (Alnus
barbata), clematis (Clematis vitalba), wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera
subsp. sylvestris; Akhalkatsi, 2014), herbaceous plants blooming early
- Scilla sibirica, Primula woronowii, Helleborus caucasicus, Viola
alba, V. odorata etc. In summer the following replace them - Poa
nemoralis, Piptatherum virescens, Polygonatum glaberrimum, Tamus
communis, Laser trilobum, from fern-like plants there is Dryopteris
filix-mas, in rocky places there are - Asplenium trichomanes,
Polypodium vulgare.Beech and High Mountain oak significantly
decrease in Ajara, middle zone of the mountain and hornbeam, elm
(Ulmus glabra), lime (Tilia begoniifolia), and ash (Fraxinus excelsior
dominate. From the herbaceous cover these are common - Circaea
lutetiana, Poa nemoralis, Stachys silvatica, Salvia glutinosa and ferns.
Plants species: Lunario-Acerenion - Acer campestre, A. laetum, A.
hyrcanum, A. platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus, Acer velutinum, Actaea
spicata, Aristolochia iberica, Aruncus vulgaris, Asperula odorata,
Athyrium filix-femina, Betula litwinowii, B. raddeana, Brunnera
macrophylla, Campanulla collina, Circaea alpina, Corylus avellana,
Doronicum macrophyllum, Euonymus verrucosa, Fraxinus excelsior,
Geranium robertianum, Impatiens noli-tangere, Lunaria annua,
Neottia nidus-avis, Pachyphragma macrophyllum, Padus avium, Poa
nemoralis, Polemonium caucasicum, Polystichum braunii, Prunus
214
avium, Pyrethrum parthenifolium, Rhododendron luteum, Rubus
idaeus, Salvia glutinosa, Sanicula europaea, Scutellaria altissima,
Sorbus caucasigena, Stachys sylvatica, Taxus baccata, Ulmus elliptica,
U. glabra, Valeriana officinalis, V. alliariifolia, V. tiliifolia, Veronica
peduncularis, Viburnum opulus.
Tilio-Acerenion - Alnus barbata, Asplenium trichomanes,
Carpinus caucasica, Circaea lutetiana, Clematis vitalba, Corylus
avellana, Fagus orientalis, Helleborus caucasicus, Laser trilobum,
Piptatherum virescens, Poa nemoralis, Polygonatum glaberrimum,
Primula woronowii, Quercus iberica, Salvia glutinosa, Scilla sibirica,
Stachys sylvatica, Tamus communis, Tilia begoniifolia, T. cordata,
Ulmus elliptica, U. glabra, Viola alba, V. odorata, Vitis vinifera subsp.
sylvestris.
9.3.1.1. Endemic plant species Corylus - Corylus L., Betulaceae
Corylus (Betulaceae) are 6 endemic species as both Georgian and
the Caucasian: 1) Corylus abchasica Kem.-Nath. (= Corylus colurna
L.), 2) Corylus colchica Albov, 3) Corylus egrissiensis Kern.-Nath., 4)
Corylus iberica Wittm. ex Kem.-Nath. (= Corylus colchica Albov,); 5)
Corylus imeretica Kem.-Nath. (=Corylus avellana var. pontica (K.
Koch) H.J.P. Winkl.); 6) Corylus kachetuca Kem.-Nath.
(=Corylus colurna L.). Corylus avellana is nor endemic of Georgia and
Caucasus (Figure 58).
Common hazel is typically a shrub reaching 3-8 m tall, but can
reach 15 m. The leaves are deciduous, rounded, 6-12 cm long and
across, softly hairy on both surfaces, and with a double-serrate margin.
The flowers are produced very early in spring, before the leaves, and
are monoecious with single-sex wind-pollinated catkins. Male catkins
are pale yellow and 5-12 cm long, while female catkins are very small
and largely concealed in the buds with only the bright red 1-3 mm long
styles visible. The fruit is a nut, produced in clusters of one to five
together, each nut held in a short leafy involucre ('husk') which
encloses about three quarters of the nut. The nut is roughly spherical to
oval, 15-20 mm long and 12-20 mm broad (larger, up to 25 mm long, in
some cultivated selections), yellow-brown with a pale scar at the base.
215
A
D
G
B
E
C
F
H
Figure 58. A.Corylus avellana is in villagis of Georgia. This tree is
with Zira Sidamon in V. Shilda; B. Flowers has pollen in February; C.
Pollen has length of the horizontal height as 34-37 µm; D.C. iberica is
relict species; E. Fruits are many; F.Pollen has length of the horizontal
height as 34-37 µm; G.-H. C. kachetuca is relict species in v. Shilda,
Kakheti. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
216
The nut falls out of the involucre when ripe, about 7–8 months after
pollination. The overall distribution is in Scandinavia which is as
except the northern part Central Europe, Atlantic Europe, the
Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Asia Minor. Within the former USSR,
species occurs in the European region is in the Ladoga-Ilmen region,
far southwestern areas of the Dvina- Pechora region, Upper- and
Middle-Dnieper, Upper-Volga, Volga-Kama, Trans-Volga, VolgaDon, Near-Black-Sea and Crimean regions, and the Caucasus has AnteCaucasus, Daghestan, Western, Southern and Eastern Transcaucasia,
and the Talysh region. Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region is
occurs in all forests of Meskheti and Javakheti from middle montane
belt up to 1500 m. Threat assessment is in wood cutting and habitat
disturbances might threat this species.
Ex situ status - The seeds of this species have been collected in
Meskheti and delivered to the fruit tree collection at the TBG&BI. In
situ status - It grows in protected areas such as Borjomi-Kharagauli
National Park. Common Hazel is cultivated for its nuts in commercial
orchards in Europe, Turkey, Iran and Caucasus. The seed has a thin,
dark brown skin which has a bitter flavour and is sometimes removed
before cooking. The top producer of hazelnuts, by a large margin, is
Turkey, specifically the Ordu Province. Turkish hazelnut production of
625,000 tonnes accounts for approximately 75% of worldwide
production.
Hazelnuts are rich in protein and unsaturated fat. Moreover, they
contain significant amounts of thiamine and vitamin B6, as well as
smaller amounts of other B vitamins. Additionally, 1 cup (237 ml) of
hazelnut flour has 20 g of carbohydrates, 12 g of which are fibre. Oil
from its fruit is one of the highest in quality among vegetable oils.
Branches are used to manufacture wicker furniture, pipe shanks,
walking sticks and hoops. Medicinal uses - the bark, leaves, catkins and
fruits are sometimes used medicinally. They are astringent, diaphoretic,
febrifuge, nutritive and odontalgic. The seed is stomachic and tonic.
The oil has a very gentle but constant and effective action in cases of
infection with threadworm or pinworm in babies and young children.
Wood cutting and habitat degradation can cause serious problems to
survival of the species. The introduction of cultivars from different
countries might lead to genetic pollution of local populations.
217
Proposed action plan objectives and targets: 1. Maintain the current
populations of C. avellana in Meskheti and Javakheti. 2. Reduce the
decline of this species through appropriate habitat management. C.
avellana should be declared as species of high economic value as wild
relative of edible plants. Sites are not protected, only in case when the
individuals are growing on the territory of protected areas such as
Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park. Ex situ conservation of this species
will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks. The local
population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature
protection should be informed about high conservation value of this
species. Monitoring of the number of individuals in populations should
be undertaken.
9.3.2. Code of Georgia: Marsh forest and Bog woodland (91D0*;
PAL. CLASS.: from 44.A1 to 44.A4)
The marshy forest is mainly distributed on the lowland. It holds an
especially large area in Kolkheti. It is distributed from the sea coast to
the Rioni lowland and reaches Samtredia, Gubistskali river gorge
where it is not preserved in its original form. Also, it is found in the
form of small planted forests on the Alazani valley and great and small
Caucasus in various places of the forest zone of the mountain. On the
lowland the dominant species of the marshy forest is a common alder
Alnus barbata – whereas in higher mountainous areas there is white
Adler - A. incana.
The common alder is not evenly distributed in the forest. It creates
planted forests among which the forest sections covered with water are
developed. The level of water there goes down in summer sometimes
even drying up completely. The Colchic marsh forest, together with the
Adler trees contains 160 species of vascular plants.
However, other species of trees are rare. In Samegrelo at the sea
coast and along the lowland of river Rioni wing-nut (Pterocarya
fraxinifolia) is quite rare. In Guria, between Supsa and Natanebi as well
as the sea shore there are: Salix caprea, Frangula alnus, in high
mountaineous places Ruscus colchicus is rare. In Kakheti Adler forest
grows skirret - Sium sisaroideum, in Abkhazeti - S. latifolium. The
following large size herbs are to be noted: darewort (Sambucus ebulus),
water iris (Iris pseudacorus), Telekia speciosa, Ponto hogweed
218
(Heracleum ponticum). Herbal plants are - Leucojum aestivum,
Oenanthe abchasica, etc. In Guria, places covered with water there are
the following marsh plants - Sparganium microcarpum, Polygonum
hydropiper, Mentha aquatica, Scirpus tabernaemontani.
In high places sedge dominates - Carex contigua, C. remota. From
grasses there is Oplismenus undulatifolius. In marshy forests there are
characteristic lianas every where - Smilax excelsa, Humulus lupulus,
Periploca graeca, and blackberry - Rubus spp.
White alder communities are of another composition and frequently
develop on peaty marshes. The forest of this type is found in the
western part of Upper Imeteri, in the gorge of river Kvirila, near village
Sakara.
Plants species: Alnus barbata, A. incana, Frangula alnus,
Heracleum ponticum, Humulus lupulus, Iris pseudocorus, Leucojum
aestivum, Mentha aquatica, Oenanthe abchasica, Oplismenus
undulatifolius, Periploca graeca, Polygonum hydropiper, Pterocarya
fraxinifolia, Ruscus colchicus, Salix caprea, Sambucus ebulus, Scirpus
tabernaemontani, Sium sisaroideum, S. latifolium, Smilax excelsa,
Sparganium microcarpum, Telekia speciosa.
9.3.2.1. Edificatory plant species Willow - Salix L., Salicaceae
Edificatory species have a special role to contribute in ecosystem
structure - 1) Salix caprea L.; 2) S. kazbekensis A.K. Skvortsov 3) S.
kusnetzowii Laksch. ex Goerz., Willow, Salicaceae. These species are
in the alpine zone and mainly on north, east and western slopes and not
in southern exposition. Wood margins, coppices, and mixed woods. A
fast-growing tree of S. caprea is to 6-10 m tall and to 0.75 m in
diameter, or a fairly low arboraceous shrub. It is distributed from 900 to
2,000 m. Snow cover is >0.5-1 m. Grows at edges of the forests and
along streams, up to 2,400 m a.s.l., reaches subalpine krumholz. Snow
cover is >2-3 m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination till
70°C (Figure 59).
S. kazbekensis is more shrubs till 3 m and growing in alpine zone
from 1900 to 3300 m. It is growing on rocks, high inclined slopes, near
river and lake banks as well in birch forest coasts.Snow cover in
subnival zone 2900-3300 m is >5-6 m. The exposition is for all
directions and inclination till 70°C.
219
A
B
C
Figure 59. A. Salix caprea is in Quercus forest; B. Flower has much
pollen; C. Pollen of Salix caprea has length of the horizontal height as
41-42 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
S. kusnetzowii is endemic species, 3-5 m high in of the Caucasus
and distributed in subalpine coppices, birch and beech woods, at 18002400 m. The exposition is for all directions and inclination till 30°C.
Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall,
and West Wall. Suitable for: light), medium and heavy soils and can
grow in heavy clay soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It
can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It prefers dry moist or wet soil.
The plant can tolerate maritime exposure. It can tolerate atmospheric
pollution.
Salix caprea has bark smooth, greenish-gray, often splitting near
the base of the trunk; exposed wood smooth, without striations,
reddening; branches stout, spreading, gray -pubescent when young, at
length dark, brown or gray, knotty, brittle; buds very large (especially
the flower buds), glabrous, brown, ca. 5 mm long and 3 mm broad;
stipules reniform, 4-7 mm long, serrate and lobed, soon caducous;
petioles to 2 cm long, sturdy, dilated toward base; leaves varying in
size and shape: ovate, suborbicular, subcordate, elliptic, oblonglanceolate, obovate -oblong, or rarely lanceolate, to 11-18 cm long and 5-8
cm broad, the margin hairy, irregularly dentate, the upper surface
glabrous, rugose, dark green, the lower gray-tomentose, rarely diffusely
puberulent or glabrate, with a lurid network of veins; lateral veins 6-9,
forming wide round loops at the margin; network of veins prominent,
with large alveoles; midrib and lateral veins mostly densely hairy;
expanding leaves flat; hairs on the lower surface recurved; young
220
leaves silky-pubescent; catkins precocious, dense, large, the staminate
sessile, subtended by few small bracts, 5-6 cm long and 1.6-2 cm
broad; pistillate short-stalked, numerous, littering the soil when
shedding, in fruit to 10 cm long, the rachis pubescent; scales lanceolate,
blackish or dark brown at apex, covered with long white hairs; stamens
2, glabrous (in Electronic f. borealis England hairy), 2-3 times as long
as the scale; anthers yellow; ovary ovoid -conical, villous -tomentose,
the stipe one -half to two -thirds the length of ovary; style short or very
short, yellow as the stigma lobes; gland 1, posterior, one-third as long
as the stipe. Flowering in April; fruits in May.
S. kazbekensis is depressed or prostrate, with a short, often halfsubterranean stem; branches glabrous, lustrous, castaneous, yellowishbrown or greenish-yellow; buds glabrous, small, acute, reddish-yellow;
wood under the bark not ridged; stipules semiovate or ovate lanceolate, small, glandular -dentate, soon caducous; petioles short,
glabrous; leaf blades 2-5 cm long and to 2 cm broad, ovate to broadly
ovate or oblong to lanceolate, obtusish at apex and at base, remotely
dentate to subentire, not blackening, dark green and glossy above,
glaucescent or green with a yellow midrib beneath; lateral veins slender
and rather inconspicuous; vesture none or young leaves with long hairs,
mainly beneath; catkins with or after the leaves, the staminate
subsessile, to 2.5 cm long, the pistillate on lateral branchlets, borne on a
fairly long leafy -bracted stalk, at first 2-3 cm long, elongating to 5-7
cm, upright or spreading, dense; scales elliptic or obovate, obtuse and
dark brown at apex, light at base, covered with crisped white hairs, in
pistillate flowers covering the ovary up to the middle; stamens 2,
distinct, glabrous; anthers golden-reddish; ovary thickish, ovoidconical, silky, rarely glabrate, brownish or reddish, subsessile; style one
-third the length of ovary, commonly deeply 2-parted; stigma with
linear-lobes; gland 1, posterior, filiform or clavate, about as long as the
stipe. Flowering is in June. Fruits are in June-July.
S. kusnetzowii is a shrub, apparently fairly tall; exposed wood
without striations; branches stout, in age ranging from rich brown to
dark brown, glabrous, when young tomentose-pilose with white hairs;
buds yellowish-brown or fulvous, glabrous or more or less pubescent,
to 5 mm long and 4 mm broad, subacute; stipules only at the ends of
vigorous shoots, very small, semicordate, densely hairy, sometimes
tomentose as the midrib beneath; leaf blades oblong, obovate, or rarely
221
narrowly elliptic, 7-13 cm long and 3-4.2 cm broad, 3-3.5 times as long
as broad, the margins entire or irregularly dentate or undulate,
somewhat revolute; expanding leaves strongly involute, densely white tomentose; grown leaves dark green whitish -veined above, more or
less glaucescent and grayish-tomentose beneath with recurved hairs;
veins very prominent beneath, rather insignificant above; lateral veins
10-12 pairs; catkins after the leaves, borne on a leafy -bracted hairy
stalk to 2 cm long; staminate ovoid, to 3 cm long; pistillate cylindric, 46.5 cm long and 1.5 cm broad, in fruit to 12-14 cm long and 2.5 cm
broad, flexuous, loose, interrupted below; rachis densely hairy; scales
to 2 -3 mm long, liguliform, light brown, sometimes fulvous at apex,
more or less hairy, the staminate more heavily; stamens 2, distinct,
hairy at base; anthers oblong, yellow; ovary ca. 5 mm long, white tomentose, ovoid -conical, the stipe 3- 4 mm long; style ca. 0.5 mm
long, reddish-brown; stigma with 4 spreading lobes, ca. 0.5 mm long,
reddish-brown like the style; gland interior, oblong, ca. 0.6 mm long;
capsule valves helically twisted after dehiscence. Flowering in June;
fruits in June-July.
Family of great economic importance as a source of timber,
carpentry wood, fuel, fodder, and best is tanning agents, and medicinal
products. Many of the arboraceous species make very rapid growth and
are easily propagated by cuttings. Not fastidious as regards soil but
mostly dependent on good supply of moisture. Willows are of
outstanding importance to man, furnishing timber, fuel, and wood for
carpentry, material for basket making, tanning agents, and
medicaments. They are also of importance as ornamental plants and as
a source of fodder for domestic animals. The presence of willow
thickets is biologically associated with certain lignivorous ruminants,
such as reindeer, red deer, elk, etc., which feed upon the bark, branches,
and leaves. The bark is also eaten by hares, squirrels, beavers, and
water voles. Certain species of Lagomyidae collect and dry willow
leaves. Birds, such as rock ptarmigan, willow grouse, hazel hen,
blackcock, etc., feed in winter and spring upon willow buds and
catkins. Willow thickets provide stations for various animals and birds
of economic importance that find in them refuge and food. The kinds
yielding material for basketry are of outstanding value; they are
collected and cultivated both for home use and for export. An
outstanding is early nectariferous plant. Bark is used as tanning agent
222
(tannin content 5.24 -13.1%) and for production of a black dye.
Employed is in popular medicine as an astringent remedy for scurvy
and fever. The foliage is used as feed for sheep and goats and as an
adulterant for tea. Leaves eaten by deer and domestic stock, and buds
by arctic partridge and rock ptarmigan. The bark contains up to 8-9%
tannins. The twigs are used for charcoal making and for fuel; they are
not suitable for wickerwork. The wood is reddish or yellowish -brown,
shiny, rather firm and tough; harder, heavier, and more tensile than that
of many other European species of willow; it splinters easily. It can be
used as firewood, as a source of charcoal, as a component of
gunpowder, and as construction timber.
The willow is propagated only by seed. Cuttings are difficult to
root. The plant is frost-resistant. It consolidates the soil and is used for
planting on slopes. Its hybrids are distinguished by strong growth and
are used as rootstocks for weeping varieties. Most species are in
subarctic region; alpine and subalpine zone; moss-and-lichen tundra
and banks of mountain streams.
The stems are very flexible and are used in basket making. The
plant is usually coppiced annually when grown for basket making,
though it is possible to coppice it every two years if thick poles are
required as uprights. The bark is tough and flexible; it is used as a
substitute for leather. The bark contains around 10% tannin. The plant
is fast growing and tolerant of maritime exposure, it can be used as a
windbreak hedge and shelterbelt though it is of untidy habit. The seeds
are very light and so can travel some distance in the wind.
The plant is therefore able to find its way to areas such as cleared
woodland where the soil has been disturbed. Seedlings will grow away
quickly, even in exposed conditions and the plant will provide good
shelter for the establishment of woodland plants. Thus it makes a good
pioneer species and, except in wetter and moorland-type soils, will
eventually be largely out-competed by the other woodland trees. Its
main disadvantage as a pioneer plant is that it has an extensive root
system and is quite a greedy plant, thus it will not help as much in
enriching the soil for the other woodland plants as other pioneer species
such as the alders, Alnus species. Some cultivars can be grown as
ground cover. Wood is soft, elastic easily split. Used for baskets, rugs
etc. A good quality charcoal is made from the wood.
223
Succeeds in most soils, including wet, ill-drained or intermittently
flooded soils, but prefers a damp, heavy soil in a sunny position. Grows
is in drier soils than any other British species of Salix. Rarely thrives on
chalk. Plants are found most frequently on basic soils in the wild.
Tolerates atmospheric pollution and exposed positions, including
maritime exposure. A fast growing tree, it establishes well.
The tree has an untidy habit. A light demanding tree, it becomes
tall and drawn when grown in woodland, though it grows well along
the sunnier edges. Hybridizes freely is with other members of this
genus. Although the flowers are produced in catkins early in the year,
they are pollinated by bees and other insects rather than by the wind.
Trees are very tolerant of cutting, they coppice well. Plants in this
genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus. Dioecious is here. Male
and female plants must be grown if seed is required.
Seed is must be surface sown as soon as it is ripe in late spring. It
has a very short viability, perhaps as little as a few days. Cuttings are of
mature wood of the current year's growth, November to February in a
sheltered outdoor bed or planted straight into their permanent position
and given good weed-suppressing mulch. Cuttings of this species do
not root well. Plant has into their permanent positions in the autumn.
Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, June to August in a frame. Cuttings of
this species do not root well.
Geographic distribution of S. caprea is in Europe, Caucasus and
Central Asia on arctic and mountain areas. S. kazbekensis and S.
kusnetzowii are mainly in Great Caucasus birch forest of high mountain
areas.
9.3.3. Alluvial forest tree with Adler - Alnus Mill., Betulaceae;
(91E0*; PAL. CLASS.: 44.3, 44.2 and 44.13)
Riverside forests are developed both in the forest zone and places
without the forest, where it grows as a narrow line along the river-bed.
In the forest zone the riparian forest is less distinguished from the
structure of the bordering forest.
However, it always has a characteristic composition of species. The
wing-nut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia) always grows in the riparian forest
in Abkhazia, Kolkheti and Kakheti. Common alder forest is frequently
grown in the riparian forest but it is not as typical as in the marshy
224
forest. Holcus lanatus, Paspalum paspaloides, Briza minor, Pycreus
colchicus, Poa trivialis, Polygonum persicaria, etc. are characteristic
from herbaceous species.
In Ajara, the riparian forest is deeply intruded into the mountains.
Besides wing-put and alder trees there is an ash (Fraxinus oxycarpa),
aspen (Populus tremula); from lianas there are: smilax (Smilax excelsa)
and ivy (Hedera colchica). In the outskits of Natanebi and Vakejvari
moist sides of the narrow gorges are covered with the invasive plant Perilla nankinensis. In Rioni gorge near Kutaisi there are alders and
persimmons. Along the Kakheti Rivers wing-nut and bladder-nut
(Staphylea pinnata) are common.
Sub-types (91E0-01): Floodplain forest in Abkhazia and the wide
bed of rivers is periodically covered with water, which causes washing
away of the vegetation existing there. However, after a certain period
they will again return to the initial conditions. Mainly, such places are
covered by annual plants, such as, Aira capillaris. Epilobium palustre
is found on high places which rarely get covered by water. In Svaneti
and Lechkhumi the vegetation of riverside rock on the banks of river
Enguri and its tributary also gets covered with water during the summer
flood. Common (Alnus barbata) and white (A. incana) Adler and
species of the willow (Salix spp.) grow here (Figure 60).
A
B
Figure 60. A. Alnus barbata near the river bank; B. Pollen of Alnus
barbata has length of the horizontal height as 75 µm. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
225
Among the bushes there area lot of amounts of nut and azalea.
From ferns we can see Matteuccia struthiopteris. White Adler in these
gorges reaches the subalpine zone. In Meskheti, on the sandy-rocky
banks of rivers Mtkvari and Potskhovi scrub composed of various
species of buckthorn and willow is widely distributed. In Middle Kartli
the vegetation of the Mtkvari riverside rock is often washed away
during the flood. Here vegetation is well developed in the second part
of summer when the level of water in Mtkvari significantly decreases.
Mainly grasses and sedges participate in forming this vegetation cover.
The following are worthnoting: grasses - Calamagrostis glauca, sedges
- Cyperus fuscus, Pycreus flavescens, Eleocharis palustris, Fimbrystilis
bisumbellata, and rushes- Juncus articulatus, J. tenageia. Dicotyledons
- Pulicaria dysenterica, Mentha aquatica, Eupatorium cannabinum.
Sub-types (91E0-02): River silt vegetation: Rioni silt banks are
covered with bushes which consist of species of buckthorn and willow.
In Upper Imereti there are hawthorn and oriental hornbeam. Buckthorn
and Jerusalem thorn are rare. Willow, tamarisk, blackberry and many
herbal plants - Galium articulatum, Senecio grandidentatus grow in
Kartli, oon islands covered with silt, which is rarely covered by water.
Clematis vitalba, asparagus (Asparagus verticillatus) and madder
(Rubia tinctorum) are to be mentioned from bindweed plants.
Plants species: Aira capillaris, Alnus barbata, Asparagus
verticillatus, Calamagrostis glauca, Carpinus orientalis, Clematis
vitalba, Cyperus fuscus, Eleocharis palustris, Epilobium palustre,
Eupatorium cannabinum, Fimbrystilis bisumbellata, Fraxinus
oxycarpa, Galium articulatum, Hedera colchica, Hyppophaë
rhamnoides, Juncus articulatus, J. tenageia. Matteuccia struthiopteris,
Mentha aquatica, Paliurus spina-christi, Perilla nankinensis Populus
hybrida, P. tremula, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Pulicaria dysenterica,
Pycreus flavescens, Rubia tinctorum, Salix abla, S. excelsa, Senecio
grandidentatus, Smilax excelsa, Staphylea pinnata, Tamarix
ramosissima.
9.3.3.1. Edificator species and medicinal plants Sambucus L.,
Caprifoliaceae
So far two species of Sambucus were described for Georgia - Sambucus
ebulus L. and S. nigra L., in 1980-s was discovered in Georgia popula226
tion of S. tigranii Troitzk., which was before considered as endemic
plant of Armenia. Target species is Sambucus tigranii Troitzk. (Figure
61).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Figure 61. A. Sambucus ebulus in agrarian areas, v. Shilda for Zira
Sidamon; B. Fruits are medicinal; C. Pollen of S. ebulus has length of
the horizontal height as 18-20 µm; D. Sambucus nigra is in forests; E.
Fruits are medicinal; F. Pollen of S. nigra has length of the horizontal
height as 18.5-21 µm; G. Sambucus tigranii is endemic for Caucasus
and it is in Meskheti; H. Fruits are not used as medicinal. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
227
Although, medicinal property of this species is not yet investigated,
it is known that the other two species have high value as medicinal
plants. Therefore we decided to study the rare species - S. tigranii,
which is included in the IUCN Red Data List as vulnarable.
Deciduous shrub is growing to 4 m by 3 m at a fast rate. It is in leaf
from March to November, in flower from June to July, and the seeds
ripen from August to September. The plant prefers light, medium and
heavy soils and can grow in heavy clay soil. The plant prefers acid,
neutral and basic soils and can grow in very alkaline soil. It can grow in
semi-shade or no shade. It requires moist soil. The plant can tolerate
maritime exposure. It can tolerate atmospheric pollution.
Medicinal use has two other species of this genus S. ebulus and S.
nigra. The first is herb and the other shrub up to 6 m height. They are
antiinflammatory; Aperient; Diaphoretic; Diuretic; Emetic; Emollient;
Expectorant; Galactogogue; Haemostatic; Laxative; Ophthalmic;
Purgative; Salve; Stimulant. Elder has a very long history of household
use as a medicinal herb and is also much used by herbalists (Grieve,
1984). The flowers are the main part used in modern herbalism, though
all parts of the plant have been used at times. Stimulant is here. The
inner bark is collected from young trees in the autumn and is best sundried. It is diuretic, a strong purgative and in large doses emetic. It is
used in the treatment of constipation and arthritic conditions (Bown,
1995). The leaves can be used both fresh and dry. For drying, they are
harvested in periods of fine weather during June and July. The leaves
are purgative, but are more nauseous than the bark. They are also
diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant and haemostatic. The juice is said to
be a good treatment for inflamed eyes. An ointment made from the
leaves is emollient and is used in the treatment of bruises, sprains,
chilblains, wounds etc. A tea made from the dried berries is said to be a
good remedy for colic and diarrhea (Grieve, 1984).
The pith of young stems is used in treating burns and scalds. The
root is no longer used in herbal medicine but it formerly had a high
reputation as an emetic and purgative that was very effective against
dropsy. A homeopathic remedy is made from the fresh inner bark of
young branches. It relieves asthmatic symptoms and spurious croup in
children.
The fruit of S. ebulus and S. nigra is widely used for making wines,
preserves etc., and these are said to retain the medicinal properties of
228
the fruit. S. tigranii is too few plants in Georgia to be have importance
in human being. S. ebulus and S. nigra have many uses in himan being
as dye, wood, cosmetic etc. The dried flowering shoots are used to
repel insects, rodents etc. The flowers are used in skin lotions, oils and
ointments. S. nigra is an excellent pioneer species to use when reestablishing woodlands. The berries yield various shades of blue and
purple dyes. The pith in the stems of young branches pushes out easily
and the hollow stems thus made have been used as pipes for blowing
air into a fire. The mature wood is white and fine-grained. It is easily
cut and polishes well and valued highly by carpenters, it has many
used, for making skewers, mathematical instruments, toys etc.
A very easily grown plant, it tolerates most soils and situations,
growing well on chalk, but prefers a moist loamy soil (Huxley, 1992).
Grows is well in the heavy clay soils. Tolerates some shade but fruits
better in a sunny position. Tolerates is atmospheric pollution and
coastal situations. The elder is very occasionally cultivated for its
edible fruit. The leaves often begin to open as early as January and are
fully open in April. The leaves fall in October/November in exposed
sites, later in sheltered positions. Young stems can be killed by late
frosts but they are soon replaced from the ground level. Very tolerant of
pruning, plants can be cut back to ground level and will regrow from
the base. The flowers are very attractive to insects. The fruit is very
attractive to birds and this can draw them away from other cultivated
fruits.
Seed is as best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold
frame, when it should germinate in early spring. Stored seed can be
sown in the spring in a cold frame but will probably germinate better if
it is given 2 months warm followed by 2 months cold stratification first.
Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough
to handle. If good growth is made, the young plants can be placed in
their permanent positions during the early summer.
Otherwise, either put them in a sheltered nursery bed, or keeps
them in their pots in a sheltered position and plants them out in spring
of the following year. Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, 7–10 cm with a
heel, July/August in a frame. Cuttings are of mature wood of the
current season's growth, 15–20 cm with a heel, and late autumn in a
frame or a sheltered outdoor bed. Division is of suckers in the dormant
season.
229
9.3.4. Code of Georgia: Riparian mixed forests (91F0 GE; PAL.
CLASS.: 44.4)
The riparian forest is common on the banks of large rivers and lowland
areas. Dominant species are: Flood plane oak (Quercus
pedunculiflora=Q. longipes), wing-nut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia), white
aspen (Populus alba), oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia), tamarisk
(Tamarix ramosissima, T. hohenackeri), buckthorn (Hippophaë
rhamnoides. Trees are covered with lianas - Vitis vinifera subsp.
sylvestris, Periploca graeca, Cynanchum acutum, Solanum persicum,
etc.
In Colchic riparian forests are dominated by hornbeam and beech.
Rhododendron, Ponto and Colchic butcher’s broom, blackberry, smilax
and silk-vine create an understory in Abkhazia. In Samegrelo oak and
wild pear adds to the beech and hornbeam. Planted forests of the small
area of such a forest are common in the gorges of rivers Tekhura and
Abasha.
In Kartli, on the bank of river Mtkvari the forest dominating with
flood-plane oak and white aspen is developed. In the middle of the
Kartli elm (Ulmus minor) and mulberry (Morus alba) add to these
species with multiple scrub and lianas. In Tbilisi surroundings the flood
plane is developed in the gorges of river Mtkvari (village Kavtiskhevi)
and river Aragvi (village Natakhtari). Here the white leaf aspen
(Populus hybrida) is the dominant species. The rest are those growing
in the above-described forests – flood plane oak, mulberry, elm,
buckthorn, tamarisk, silk-vine, smilax, honey suckle, hops, clematis.
The herbal cover is rich. European dogbane (Apocynum) and
Solenanthus biebersteinii are found only in this place.
At the lower current of Mtkvari, from Gardabani to the border of
Azerbaijan a typical aluvial forest is developed. A. Grosshaim calls it
the Tugai type forest. Forests of such a type are common in Georgia in
the coast line of Iori, Alazani and Mtkvari.
The moist riparian forest at the lower stream of river Mtkvari is
composed of large size trees that are covered with lianas. From trees
the following can be found:
the flood plane oak (Quercus
pedunculiflora), black aspen (Populus nigra), the white leaf aspen
(Populus hybrida), elm (Ulmus minor), white willow (Salix alba);
From bushes: hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), cornelius (Cornus
230
mas), blackberry (Rubus spp.), privet (Ligustrum vulgare); lianas – ivy
(Hedera helix), wild vine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris), smilax
(Smilax excelsa), silk-vine (Periploca graeca), valerian (Clematis
vitalba); Herbaceous plants are: red clover (Trifolium pratense), white
clover (T. repens), cock’s foot (Dactylis glomerata).
In Kakheti riparian forests are extremely moist and frequently get
covered with water. Alazani flood planes occupy the largest area,
which is stretched along the central part of Alazani valley and its width
gradually increases towards the direction of Kiziki. The forest is
extremely dense and almost impassable. Besides the oak tree the
species that dominate are: hornbeam (Carpinus caucasica), maple
(Acer velutinum), lime (Tilia begoniifolia), ash (Fraxinus excelsior),
elm (Ulmus minor), wild pear (Pyrus caucasica), mulberry (Morus
alba), black mulberry (M. nigra). In more moist areas dominate wingnut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia), persimmon (Diospyros lotus), black
aspen (Populus nigra), white leaf aspen (Populus hybrida), species of
the willow and alder. The understory is created by hawthorn
(Crataegus pentagyna), medlar (Mespilus germanica), nut, elder
dogwood. In drier places there are species of hawthorn, cornel, sour
plum, quince, apple, wild pear, and common maple. From lianas there
are: ivy (Hedera helix), wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestis),
Clematis vitalba, smilax (Smilax excelsa). From herbaceous plants Oplismenus undulatifolium, Circaea lutetiana, Stachys sylvatica,
Asperula odorata, Pachyphragma macrophyllum, Lapsana grandiflora,
Sanicula europaea, Geranium robertianum, Salvia glutinosa. Fern and
danewort are widely distributed. Here as well Althaea cannabina, A.
officinalis, Datisca cannabina, Lysimachia dubia, L. verticillaris are
mixed. The Iori flood plane is preserved in its original form in Koruhi,
Sagarejo region and is strentxhed at the length of about 1 km. The types
common in this forest are: flood plane oak, wtite aspen and elm. Ash,
mulberry and oleaster are rare. In the understory tamarisk, hawthorn,
pomegranate and berberis are common. As for liana type plants, those
widespread here are clematis, from herbaceous plants - Cynanchum
acutum, Plantago lanceolata, Sisymbrium loeselii and sedges.
Plants species: Acer campestre, A. velutinum, Alnus barbata,
Althaea cannabina, A. officinalis, Apocynum venetum, Asperula
odorata, Berberis iberica, Carpinus caucasica, Circaea lutetiana,
Clematis vitalba, Crataegus pentagyna, Cydonia oblonga, Cynanchum
231
acutum, Dactylis glomerata, Datisca cannabina, Elaeagnus
angustifolia, Fraxinus excelsior, Geranium robertianum, Hedera helix,
Lapsana grandiflora, Lysimachia dubia, L. verticillaris, Malus
orientalis, Mespilus germanica, Morus alba, M. nigra, Oplismenus
undulatifolius, Pachyphragma macrophyllum, Periploca graeca,
Plantago lanceolata, Populus alba, P. hybrida, P. nigra, Prunus
divaricata, Punica
granatum, Pyrus
caucasica, Quercus
pedunculiflora, Salvia glutinosa, Sambucus ebulus, Sanicula europaea,
Sisymbrium loeselii, Smilax excelsa, Solenanthus biebersteinii, Stachys
sylvatica, Tamarix ramosissima, T. hohenackeri, Tilia begoniifolia,
Trifolium pratense T. repens, Ulmus minor, Vitis sylvestris.
9.3.4.1. The economically potential species and medicinal plants
Althaea L., Malvaceae
There are 3 of total 4 species of Althaea occurring in Georgia –Althaea
armeniaca Ten., A. cannabina L., A. hirsuta L., A. officinalis L., A.
rosea (L.) Cav., A. rugosa (Alef.) Litv. (=Alcea rugosa Alef.) (Figure
62).
A. armeniaca is rare ornamental plant growing in wetlands and
moist meadows. It is perennial growing to 2 m by 1.70 m. It is in
flower from July to August, seeds ripen from August to September. 3
populations have been found in Meskheti.
A. officinalis grows in cultivated beds in house gardens, rarely
naturalized. It is in flower from July to September, seeds ripen from
August to October. We have found one population naturalized. Both
species prefer light, medium and heavy soils.
The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in
saline soil. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil.
Only one naturalized population has been found in Meskheti, near
Safara. We describe only populations of A. armeniaca, however in the
database is information on A. officinalis.
The characteristics of the population were determined. The number
of individuals was determined in three plots of each population, which
is indicated in the data base and was used for determination of total
number of individuals in the entire area of the distribution of the
population.
232
A
D
C
B
E
F
G
G
Figure 62. The species of Althaea grows in arid meadows. Flowering
and used for medicinal. A. B. C. Althaea rugosa (=Alcea rugosa) is
growing near shore road; D. E. Althaea armeniaca is in near water in
meadows; F. G. Althaea cannabina is in meadows and near agrarian
areas. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
233
Medicinal uses are - Antitussive; Demulcent; Diuretic; Emollient;
Laxative. Both species, but especially A. officinalis are a very useful
household medicinal herb. It’s soothing demulcent properties make it
very effective in treating inflammations and irritations of the mucous
membranes such as the alimentary canal, the urinary and the respiratory
organs (Chevallier, 1996).
The root counters excess stomach acid, peptic ulceration and
gastritis (Chevallier, 1996). It is also applied externally to bruises,
sprains, aching muscles, insect bites, skin inflammations, splinters etc.
(Bown, 1995). An infusion of the leaves is used to treat cystitis and
frequent urination (Chevallier, 1996).
The leaves are harvested in August when the plant is just coming
into flower and can be dried for later use (Grieve, 1984). The root can
be used in an ointment for treating boils and abscesses (Chevallier,
1996). The root is best harvested in the autumn, preferably from 2 year
old plants, and is dried for later use (Bown, 1995).
Leaves and roots are used as tea. The root is used as a vegetable
(Grieve, 1984). It contains about 37% starch, 11% mucilage, 11%
pectin (Chevallier, 1996). Other uses are Adhesive; Fiber; Oil; Teeth.
The dried root is used as a toothbrush or is chewed by teething
children. It has a mechanical affect on the gums whilst also helping to
ease the pain. The root is also used as a cosmetic, helping to soften the
skin.
A fiber from the stem and roots is used in paper-making. The dried
and powdered root has been used to bind the active ingredients when
making pills for medicinal use (Stuart, 1979). Threats are habitat
degradation, climate change.
Marshmallow is often cultivated in the house garden, as a culinary
and medicinal herb as well as for ornament. Succeeds in almost any soil
and conditions (Grieve, 1984), though it prefers a rich moist soil in a
sunny position. It also tolerates fairly dry soil conditions. Plants are
hardy to about -25°C.
Seed of Althaea is as sow spring or autum n in individual pots. The
seed is best sown as soon as it is ripe in October. The germination is
often erratic (Bown, 1995). Stratification can improve germination
rates and time.
234
Prick out the seedlings when they are large enough to handle and plant
them out in the summer. It is best to put them in lightly shaded position
until plant them out into their permanent positions.
9.3.5. Code of Georgia: Xero-thermophyte oak forest (91I0*; PAL.
CLASS.:41.7A)
Xero-thermophyte oak forest can be found in the lower zone of east and
west Georgia, southern slopes, where Georgian oak (Quercus iberica)
is mixed with the oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis). It is
distributed 500-1100 meters a.s.l., grows in dry and sometimes
limestone soil. The understory usually is weakly developed and is
mainly represented by the cornel and cotynus. Hawthorn (Crataegus
monogyna,), spindle (Euonymus europaea, E. verrucosa), Swida
australis, medlar (Mespilus germanica) and oriental fleabane (Lonicera
orientalis) are rare. Herbal cover and sedge are very well developed.
Plants species: Quercus iberica, Carpinus orientalis, Acer
campestre, Buglossoides purpuro-caerulea (=Aegonichon purpurocaeruleum), Carex michelii, Cornus mas, Cotinus coggygria,
Crataegus monogyna, Dactylis glomerata, Geum urbanum, Euonymus
europaea, E. verrucosa, Lathryrus aphaca, Lonicera orientalis,
Mespilus germanica, Polygonatum multiflorum, Prunus spinosa,
Pulmonaria dacica, Pyrus salicifolia, Rhamnus cathartica, Sorbus
torminalis, Tanacetum vulgare, Ulmus minor, Vincetoxicum
hirundinaria.
9.3.5.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) plant species Lathyrus L.,
Fabaceae
Crop wild relatives (CWR) are determined by the exchange of gene
crops and germaplazma used agricultural crop domestication ancestor
species. Cultivated grass pea - Lathyrus sativus L. was domesticated in
West Asia with a center of diversity in the Mediterranean region. In
Georgia, there are 14 species of Lathyrus. Among them 5 are
distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti - L. aphaca L., L. miniatus M. Bieb.
ex Steven, L. pratensis L., L. roseus Steven, L. tuberosus L. Lathyrus
tuberosus L. - Earthnut Pea (Figure 63).
235
A
B
Figure 63. A. Lathyrus tuberosus is CWRs of cultivated grass pea Lathyrus sativus. B. Flowers will have seeds for food. Photo: Maia
Akhalkatsi.
Perennial is growing to 1.2 m. It is in flower from June to July, and the
seeds ripen in August. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male
and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees. The overall distribution
is in Europe to West Asia. Distribution in Samtskhe-Javakheti region is
in occurs almost on all territory of Meskheti and Javakheti, but the
populations contain just little number of individuals, sometimes 1-2.
The plant prefers light, medium and heavy soils. The plant prefers acid,
neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It
requires moist soil. It can fix Nitrogen. It is noted for attracting
wildlife. Easily is grown plant, succeeding in any moderately good
garden soil. It prefers a limestone soil in a warm position, and likes
some shade. A climbing plant is scrambling through other plants and
supporting itself by tendrils. It tends to be slightly invasive with new
stems emerging at some distance from the bacteria; these bacteria form
nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this
nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by
other plants growing nearby. Pre-soak the seed for 24 hours in warm
water and then sow in early spring in a cold frame. When they are large
enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant
them out in the summer. If you have sufficient seed, then it can also be
sown in situ in mid spring. Division is of the tubers when the plant is
dormant in spring or autumn. Grazing and habitat are disturbances. Ex
situ status - Seeds are kept in USDA seed bank.
236
In situ status is not protected in the natural habitats. Used as fodder
plant is grazed by livestock animals.
Proposed action plan objectives and targets: 1. Maintain the current
populations of L. tuberosus in Samtskhe-Javakheti region. 2. Reduce
the decline of this species through appropriate habitat management.
L. tuberosus should be declared as species of high economic value
as genetic ancestor for cultivated grass pea. Sites of population
distribution need to be protected. Ex situ conservation of this species
will be effective to collect seeds and keep in seed banks. The local
population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature
protection should be informed about high conservation value of this
species. Monitoring of the number of individual in populations should
be undertaken.
9.4. Dark-coniferous forest
9.4.1. Code of Georgia: Dark-coniferous forest (Picea orientalis Abies nordmanniana); (91PA-GE)
After the beech forest the spruce (Picea orientalis) and the fir (Abies
nordmanniana) forest is at the second place (Figure 64). It occupies
15.6% of the overall area of the forest. Out of this amount 5.6 % is
occupied by the spruce whereas 10% is dedicated to the fir. Beeches
and pines are most commonly mixed in these forests. Dark coniferous
forests are common in both east and west Georgia.
It does not create the united zone and holds a specific habitat from
1000 to 2000 meters of height. Separate species can be grown at the
lower altitude (200-300 meters) or even higher (2300-2350 m). On
great Caucasus in east Georgia, the spruce is widely distributed in the
gorge of river Didi Liakhvi.
To the east it is common in separate groups and reaches the most
extreme border of it’s distributed in the Aragvi gorge of river Pshavi.
On small Caucasus spruce is common in the gorge of the river
Tedzami, on the slopes of the Northern exposition. In the form of
separate groups it almost reaches Tbilisi and is found in the upper part
of the river Vere. The eastern border of the distribution of the fir on
Great Caucasus flows in the Didi Liakhvi gorge whereas the
Corresponding border on small Caucasus is in Algeti reserve.
237
A
B
D
E
C
F
Figure 64. A. Abies nordmanniana in v. Bakuriani; B. Male flowers
with pollen in April; C. Pollen of Abies nordmanniana has length of the
horizontal height as 160-163 µm and distanth height as 95-105 µm. D.
Picea orientalis is in v. Bakuriani; E. Male flowers with pollen in May;
F. Pollen of Picea orientalis has length of the horizontal height as 105108 µm and distanth height as 65-80 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Sub-types (91PA-GE-01): Dark coniferous forest without the
understory (Picea-Abies sine fruticosa). The following communities
are differentiated
1. The spruce forest with the moss cover (Picea orientalis maculatomuscosa) is distributed at the height of 1100-2100 meters. On the
soil it is characterized by the thick layer of moss. The understory is
not found. However, rarely there can be found species of Caucasian
honey-suckle (Lonicera cauacsica) and spindle (Euonymus
leiophloea). From the herbal cover the following are common:
Festuca drymeja, Campanula cordifolia, Oxalis acetosella, Vicia
crocea, Orobus hirsutus, Viola alba, Veronica officinalis. Above
1700 meters the following can be found: Calamagrostis
arundinacea, Valeriana alliariifolia, Calamintha grandiflora,
Lapsana grandiflora, Lilium szowitsianum, Gymnocarpium
dryopteris, Vaccinium myrtillus. Indicator species are: Dryopteris
238
carthusiana, Orthilia secunda, Moneses uniflora, Epipogium
aphyllum, Listera cordata da Goodyera repens. From mosses, the
following are observed - Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium
schreberi, Rhytidisdelphus triquetrus, Dicranum scoparium,
Eurhynchium striatum, Ptilium cristacastrensis, and Brachithecium
velutinum.
2. Dark coniferous forest with the cover of mountain fescue. Mountain
fescue cover is common in relatively less moist places in the fir,
beech-fir, spruce-fir and spruce forests of all regions of Georgia at
the altitude from 900 to 2100 meters. In Kolkheti fir forest the
following understory species are common - Ilex colchica, Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, Rhododendron luteum. Hedera colchica is rare.
From herbal vegetation there are - Viola reichenbachiana, Sanicula
europaea, Oxalis acetosella, Vicia crocea, Dentaria bulbifera,
Neottia nidus-avis, and Cardamine pectinata. The herbal cover
above 1850 meters changes and we can see Calamagrostis
arundinacea, Milium schmidtianum, Gentiana schistocalyx,
Hieracium prenanthoides, Polygonatum verticillatum, Valeriana
aliariifolia, etc.
3. Hemixerophyllic spruce forest. Spruce forest of dry habitat is
common on the northern slope of Trialeti range 1000-1500 meters
a.s.l.. Herbal cover is represented by the following species – Poa
nemoralis, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Festuca drymeja, Oxalis
acetosella, Polypodium vulgare, Carex buschiarum, C. digitata.
Moss is distributed in fragments in the form of spots - Hylocomium
splendens, Pleurozium schreberi, Scleropodium purum, and
Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus.
4. Fir forest with sedge (Luzula sylvatica) covers. It is distributed on
slopes of every exposition, at the altitude of 1600-2150 meters.
There is no understory but separate species of the following plants
are represented at the border of the forest - Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, Ilex colchica, Lonicera caucasica, Ribes
biebersteinii, Rubus buschii, Sorbus caucasigena, Rhododendron
caucasicum. Herbal cover is represented by: Festuca drymeja,
Oxalis acetosella, Valeriana alliariifolia, Calamintha grandiflora,
Viola reichenbachiana, Sanicula europaea, etc. Milium
schmidtianum,
Calamagrostis
arundinacea,
Polygonatum
239
verticillatum, Senecio platyphylloides, Aconitum nasutum, etc. are
distributed above 1800 meters.
5. Dark coniferous forest with low-herbal cover is predominantly found
in moist places, at the altitude of 1300-2000 meters in various
regions of Georgia. Herbal cover is mainly of two types. In the first
case Oxalis acetosella dominates whereas in the second one Sanicula europaea. Other species are represented by Galium
rotundifolium, Calamintha grandiflora, Cardamine pectinata, Paris
incompleta. A special association is found on the Ajara-Guria border
of the Meskheti Ridge, at the altitude of 1600-2050 meters where
together with low-herbal vegetation species of Colchic understory
are found - Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Daphne pontica,
Rhododendron luteum, Laurocerasus officinalis, Ruscus ponticum.
In the limestone habitat of Bzipi gorge there are Oxalis acetosella
and Galium rotundifolium. In Abkhazia, the following arboreal
plants are found in the forest of the same type - Acer
pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, and Tilia begoniifolia.
6. The dark coniferous forest with borage cover is found in Northern
Kolkheti at the altitude of 900-1900 meters both on limetome and
non-limestone rock layers. Mixed species are: Acer pseudoplatanus,
A. platanoides. Species of the understory are Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, Viburnum orientale, Ilex colchica, Rhododendron
ponticum. The herbal cover is represented by Oxalis acetosella,
Polygonatum orientale, Sanicula europaea, Paris incompleta,
Euphorbia macroceras, Actaea spicata, Circaea lutetiana. At high
altitude the following can be found: Cicerbita petiolata, Prenanthes
purpurea, Chaerophyllum aureum, Ligusticum alatum, Senecio
platyphylloides. In Abkhazia, in the surroundings of Lake Ritsa,
mountain Atsetuka, mountain fescue and borage dominate
simultaneously.
7. Beech and fir forests with fern cover are found in the total massif of
west Georgia’s fir forest in the form of fragments and they are
characterized by the large fern cover - Athyrium filix-femina,
Dryopteris filix-mas, D. oreades, Oreopteris limbosperma, and
Matteuccia struthiopteris. From the herbal cover the following are
worth mentioning - Euphorbia macroceras, Actaea spicata, Circaea
lutetiana, Impatiens noli-tangere, Pachyphragma macrophyllum,
240
Trachystemon orientalis, Paris incompleta, Dentaria bulbifera,
Polygonatum orientale, Carex sylvatica, etc.
8. Subalpine fir forest with small-reed covers. The subalpine forest of
this type is preserved only in places that are not easily accessible
where grazing almost never takes place, at the altitude of 1950-2100
meters and inclination of 25-40°C, on slopes of southern exposition
and having convex relief. Beech, spruce, rarely birches (Betula
litwinowii) and mountain ash (Sorbus caucasigena) can be found. In
the understory there are: Vaccinium arctostaphylos, rarely
Rhododendron luteum. From the herbaceous plants there are:
Festuca drymeja, F. gigantea, Poa nemoralis, Gadellia lactiflora,
Gentiana schistocalyx, Polygonatum verticillatum, Astrantia
maxima, Valeriana tiliifolia, Solidago virgaurea, Geranium
sylvaticum, Vaccinium myrtillus, Gymnocarpium dryopteris, etc.
9. Subalpine fir forest with the cover of various herbs is less studied.
The reason for this is the fact that the upper border of the mountain
in the place of forests of such a type is most cases in
lowered/dragged and replaced by the vegetation of the subalpine
meadow existing there.
10. Fir forest with thin herbal cover is described in the eastern part of
northern Kolkheti. The herbal cover here is either extremely thin or
is not found at all. The species are mainly represented by xeromesophyllic harbaceous vegetation - Poa nemoralis, Brachypodium
sylvaticum, Carex digitata, Orobus hirsutus, Lathyrus roseus,
Mycelis muralis.
Sub-types (91PA-GE-02): Dark coniferous forest with Colchic
understory (Picea-Abies-fruticosa-colchica) Combination of separate
species of the understory of Kolkheti is characteristic to this type of the
forest. These species are: Pontic rhododendron (Rhododendron
ponticum), laurel (Laurocerasus officinalis), holly (Ilex colchica), and
whortleberry (Vaccinium arctostaphylos). It is not represented in the
amount the beech forest with the understory is and holds much less
space. Several types of communities are differentiated:
1. Dark coniferous forest with the understory of pontic rhododendron,
mainly found in the beech-fir forest, at the altitude of 1600-1800
meters, rarely in the eastern Georgia. The grassy cover is rare and
represented only by vegetation resistant to the shadow:
Trachystemon orientalis, Galium rotundifolium. From ferns the
241
following can be found: Blechnum spicant, Polystichum woronowii.
These species are rare: Ruscus colchicus, Rubus hirtus, and Hedera
colchica.
2. Dark coniferous forest with the understory of laurel is common on
Great Caucasus, in the upper forest zone, at the altitude of 20502100 meters, mainly in west Georgia. It is rarely found in east
Georgia. In the understory of this type, laurel grows up to 2-3
meters. Other represented species are: holly (Ilex colchica). The rest
of the species are identical to those given in the Pontic rhododendron
forest.
3. Dark coniferous forest with the holly understory is common in the
dense forest of fir and beech trees at the height of 1200-1700 meters.
Different from the European holly (Ilex aquifolium), the Kokheti
type holly is more resistant to shadow and can only compete with
Colchic butcher’s broom (Ruscus colchicus). Therefore, in this
forest we see together both plants and sometimes there is
whortleberry (Vaccinium arctostaphylos) as well. Characteristic
ferns are - Dryopteris filix-mas, D. assimilis, Athyrium filix-femina,
Gymnocarpium dryopteris, from herbaceaous plants occur - Oxalis
acetosella, Asperula odorata, Neottia nidus-avis, Epipogium
aphyllum, Dentaria bulbifera, Galium rotundifolium, Viola
reichenbachiana, etc.
4. Dark coniferous forest with the whortleberry sub-zone is a rare
community. It can be found at the altitude of 1200-1900 meters.
Herbal cover is extremely poor. The following are found scattered as
separate species: Festuca drymeja, Oxalis acetosella, Dentaria
bulbifera, and Vaccinium myrtillus. In the basin of Tskhenistskali
river at the altitude of 1900-2050 meters there are rare communities
of firs and spruces where the forest of whortleberry co-exists with
the moss cover. Festuca drymeja, Oxalis acetosella, Goodyera
repens, Listera cordata, Prenanthes purpurea, Hieracium
prenanthoides, Calamagristis arundinacea, etc. are noteworthy from
herbaceous vegetation. As for mosses, they are represented by
Hylocomium splendens, Eurhinchium striatum, Pleurozium
schreberi, Dicranum scoparium, Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus, etc.
Plants Species: Abies nordmanniana, Picea orientalis, Aconitum
nasutum, Asperula odorata, Astrantia maxima, Athyrium filix-femina,
Blechnum spicant, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Calamagrostis
242
arundinacea, Calamintha grandiflora, Campanula cordifolia,
Cardamine pectinata, Carex buschiarum, C. digitata, Daphne pontica,
Dentaria bulbifera, Dryopteris assimilis, D. carthusiana, D. filix-mas,
Epipogium aphyllum, Euonymus leiophloea, Festuca drymeja, F.
gigantea, Gadellia lactiflora, Galium rotundifolium, Gentiana
schistocalyx, Geranium sylvaticum, Goodyera repens, Gymnocarpium
dryopteris, Hedera colchica, Hieracium prenanthoides, Ilex colchica,
Lapsana grandiflora, Laurocerasus officinalis, Lilium szowitsianum,
Listera cordata, Lonicera cauacsica, Luzula sylvatica, Milium
schmidtianum, Moneses uniflora, Neottia nidus-avis, Orobus hirsutus,
Orthilia secunda, Oxalis acetosella, Paris incompleta, Poa nemoralis,
Polygonatum verticillatum, Polypodium vulgare, Polystichum
woronowii, Prenanthes purpurea, Rhododendron caucasicum, R.
luteum, Ribes biebersteinii, Rubus buschii, R. hirtus, Ruscus colchicus,
R. ponticum, Sanicula europaea, Senecio platyphylloides, Sorbus
caucasigena, Solidago virgaurea, Trachystemon orientalis, Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, V. myrtillus, Valeriana alliariifolia, V. tiliifolia,
Veronica officinalis, Vicia crocea, Viola alba, V. reichenbachiana.
Mosses - Brachithecium velutinum, Dicranum scoparium, Eurhinchium
striatum, Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi, Ptilium cristacastrensis, Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus, Scleropodium purum.
9.4.1.1. Endemic plant species lily - Lilium L., Liliaceae
Endemic species are in both Georgian and the Caucasian endemic Lilium caucasicum (Miscz.) Grossh., Lilium kesselringianum Miscz.,
Lilium martagon subsp. caucasicum Miscz., Lilium georgicum
Mandem.(=Lilium monadelphum M.Bieb.), Lilium szovitsianum Fisch.
& Avé-Lall. Only one species was known for Meskheti and Javakheti Lilium szovitsianum Fisch. & Ave-Lall. We have found one population
of rare - L. kesselringianum Miscz. in Meskheti on Shavsheti range Mt.
Erbo. Before it was found near Tabatskuri Lake in Borjomi district.
Target species is Lilium kesselringianum Miscz. (Figure 65).
Bulb is growing to 1.5 m. It is in flower in July, and the seeds ripen
from August to September. The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium
(loamy) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally
poor soil. The plant prefers acid and neutral soils. It can grow in semishade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil.
243
A
B
C
D
Figure 65. A. Lilium szovitsianum is very high in forest in Meskheti
and this plant is the height of the Maia Akhalkatsi size 1.67 m; B.
Lilium szovitsianum is in subalpine meadows; C. Lilium georgicum is
in Kazbegi distr.; D. Lilium kesselringianum Miscz. is Meskheti and
in Samegrelo. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Medicinal uses are - Antiasthmatic; Antitussive; Expectorant;
Nutritive; Sedative; Tonic. The bulb is antiasthmatic, antitussive,
expectorant, sedative and tonic (nutritive). It is used in the treatment of
coughs, haemoptysis, insomnia and fidgetiness in the later stage of
febrile disease (Yeung, 1985).
Bulbils from the leaf axils are used in the treatment of intestinal
disorders. Edible uses are Edible Parts and Root. It contains about 18%
starch. It can be used as a vegetable in similar ways to potatoes
(Solanum tuberosum). Other uses are none known. Prefers are an open
free-draining humus-rich loamy soil with its roots in the shade and its
head in the sun (Huxley, 1992).
244
Grows is well in open woodland. Likes plenty is of moisture and
some shade. The bulbs should be planted 15 – 20 cm deep. Early to mid
autumn is the best time to plant out the bulbs in cool temperate areas, in
warmer areas they can be planted out as late as late autumn. The plant
should be protected against rabbits and slugs in early spring. If the
shoot tip is eaten out the bulb will not grow in that year and will lose
vigour.
Seed best sown as soon as ripe in a cold frame, it should germinate
in spring. Stored seed will require a warm/cold/warm cycle of
stratification, each period being about 2 months long. Grow on in cool
shady conditions. Great care should be taken in pricking out the young
seedlings, many people leave them in the seed pot until they die down
at the end of their second years growth. This necessitates sowing the
seed thinly and using a reasonably fertile sowing medium. The plants
will also require regular feeding when in growth.
Divide the young bulbs when they are dormant, putting 2-3 in each
pot, and grow them on for at least another year before planting them
out into their permanent positions when the plants are dormant.
Division with care in the autumn once the leaves have died down.
Replant immediately. Bulb scales can be removed from the bulbs in
early autumn. If they are kept in a warm dark place in a bag of moist
peat, they will produce bulblets. These bulblets can be potted up and
grown on in the greenhouse until they are large enough to plant out.
9.4.2. Code of Georgia: Caucasian Pine forest (Pinus kochiana);
(91PK-GE)
A widely distributed species of the pine in Georgia is - Pinus kochiana
(=P. hamata, P. sosnowskyi). It is the species related to the European
pine (Pinus sylvestris). The area of its common distribution is
Caucasus, Crimea and western part of small Asia, Ponto mountains. In
Georgia pine forests are mainly common in the mountains. In east
Georgia it follows the Mtkvari gorge, creates a pure stand on the
Gombori range, Mariamjvari reserve and Tusheti. In west Georgia it is
mixed with coniferous forests, the pure stand is only in rocky locations.
Vertical borders on the distribution of the pine forest are from 700 to
2400 meters a.s.l.. Optimum conditions for the distribution are at the
altitude of 1000-2200 meters. In certain places pine is found at the
245
altitude of 2500-2600 meters. The pine grows both on limestone and
volcanic layers. The pine rocky forest is especially distinguished in
terms of the great variety of species.
Sub-types (91PK-GE 01): Caucasian pine forest of dry ecotope:
1. Pine forest with tragacantha (Astaracantha microcephala) vegetation
is common in Meskheti, near village Damala. The following are
represented in the herbaceous cover: Astragalus - Astragalus
arguricus, A. raddeanus, sainfoin - Onobrychis sosnowskyi, fetch Vicia akhmaganica, sage - Salvia compare, skullcap - Scutellaria
sosnowskyi, psephelus - Psephellus meskheticus, etc. On the
northern slopes of Trialeti range there is a pine forest with
Chamaecytisus caucasicus and in Abkhazia the pine forest is
developed where the lower plant layer is composed of C.
hirsutissimus. In Ajara, in the same community another species is
found, namely, C. salvifolius.
2. The pine forest of limestone on Tetrobi-Chobareti range (1800-2000
meters) is characterized by a slightly different composition. Earlier
the pine distribution here was considered as endemic P. kochiana,
whereas a more widely distributed was called “Sosnowski pine” (P.
sosnowskyi). At the moment they are considered as one species.
However, the Tetrobi pine forest according to the composition is
considered as a peculiar refugium where pine is mixed with
mountain steppes. In this community overall 48 species of vascular
plants are represented. The following species of herbaceous plants
are associated with Pinus kochiana: Steven arenaria - Arenaria
steveniana, Sosnowski chickweed - Cerastium sosnowskyi, Voronov
minuartsia - Minuartia woronowii, caryophylaceae campion - Silene
dianthoides, Sosnowski houseleek - Sempervivum sosnowskyi,
astragalus - Astragalus arguricus, A. campylosema, Javakheti
lucerne - Medicago dzhawakhetica, sun-rose – Helianthemum
nummularium, H. orientale, Transcaucasian Daphne - Daphne
transcaucasica,prickly thrift - Acantholimon glumaceum, hogweed Heracleum antasiaticum, bedstraw - Galium grusinum, cornflower Centaurea bella, hawksbread - Crepis pinnatifida, grapevine
hyacinth - Muscari sosnowskyi, etc. This phytosenosis is quite rich
with endemic species that are mainly common on the limestones of
the tetrobi plateau. Diphelypaea coccinea (the blooming parasite)
246
and asphodelo - Asphodeline taurica need to be mentioned
especially.
3. Seaside pine forest with endemic Bichvinta pine (Pinus pithyusa)
grows on the plain place in the form of the stand (Bichvinta stand)
and is distributed on steep lime stone slopes 200 meters a.s.l.. This
species of the pine is a big type of a tree, with large cones and
needles. It grows in groups and is encountered in the form of
separate species as well. Often it is mixed with the oak-oriental
hornbeam forest. It can be found in the Gagra surroundings. Where
the Bichvinta pine does not create a strong stand, a large size wide
open forest windows are created, in which often xerophite and forest
vegetation are represented. Ever-green forest elements and a large
amount of blackberry are rare. The following are to be noted: Ruscus
ponticus, Rhus coriaria, Mespilus germanica, Hippophaë
rhamnoides, Cistus tauricus, Orobus laxiflorus, Galium mullogo,
Psoralea bituminosa.
Sub-types (91PK-GE 02): Caucasian pine tree forest of
moderately moist ecotope: It is mixed coniferous-broad leaved type of
a forest where spruce, fir, birch, beech, rowan, ash, etc. dominate. The
following communities are differentiated:
1) Pine forest with the understory of blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) Pineta myrtillosa;
2) Pine forest with cover of yellow sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) - Pineta
oxalidosa;
3) Pine forest with the understory of red blueberry (Vaccinium vitisidaea) - Pineta vacciniosa;
4) Pine forest with the understory of Pontic rhododendron
(Rhododendron ponticum) - Pineta rhododendrosa;
5) Pine forest with the mixed understory - Pineta mixtofruticosa;
6) Pine forest with the understory of azalea (Rhododendron luteum) Pinetum azaleosum;
7) Pine and lime (Tilia begoniifolia) forest - Pinetum tiliosum. First
three communities are common in Tusheti, on slopes with northern
exposition where the flora-genetic complex is closer to the boreal
taiga type. The remaining four communities are characteristic to
mountain regions of west Georgia. The following communities are
also diffrentiated in Tusheti;
8) Pine forest with dry cover, Pinetum siccum;
247
9) Pine forest with summer sypress (Cytisus caucasicus) cover,
Pinetum cytisosum;
10) Pine forest with small reed (Calamagrostis arundinacea) cover,
Pinetum calamagrostidosum, In Ajara, along the middle current of
river Ajaristskali, pine is introduced into the oak forest where
varied herbal cover is developed;
11) Pine forest with green cover, Pinetum prasinosum.
Sub-types (91PK-GE 03): Cucasian pine marsh forest: Separate
species of the pine are scattered in peat marshes, which is situated in
Ajara, near Kobuleti - Ispani I and Ispani II. This marsh is very similar
to Northern European marsh type. Some authors consider it a refugium,
which did not change as a result of the ice age. The proof of this
hypothesis is the existence of such palaearctic and boreal relict species
as: Osmunda regalis, Calluna vulgaris, Frangula alnus, Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, Drosera rotundifolia, etc. Population of the orchid
(Spiranthes amoena) was also found here, which is distributed in far
east, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Russia and the closest population
encountered is in Carpathian mountains. Similar marsh is described
near village Smekalovka, Ajara, which is created by especially endemic
moss (Sphagnum batumense). The marshy forest of this type is found in
the western part of upper Imereti, river Kvirila gorge, near village
Sakara.
Sub-types (91PK-GE 04): Caucasian pine rock-scree forest:
Caucasian pine rock-scree forest is distributed on the slopes of rocky
southern exposition dry ecotone or limestone layers. Several
communities are differentiated:
1. Rock pine forest with scattered herbal cover (Pineta rariherbosa)
grows on clear rocky slopes with a thin soil layer where herbal cover
is rare due to the washing out of the soil.
2. Rock pine forest with xerophyte herbal cover (Pineta xeroherbosa) is
characteristic to the society which is found on southern slopes of
Meskheti, Ajara-Imereti and Trialeti range. However, pine is more
common in spruce forests on northern slopes. In these forests, 1500
meters a.s.l. the second zone is created by the Georgain oak
(Quercus iberica), whereas above 1500 meters there is high
mountain oak (Q. macranthera). There are also species of maple.
The herbal cover is represented by - Carex buschiorum, Poa
nemoralis, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Sesleria anatolica, etc.
248
Plants species: Pinus kochiana, P. pithyusa, Acantholimon
glumaceum, Arenaria steveniana, Asphodeline taurica, Astaracantha
microcephala Astragalus arguricus, A. campylosema, A. raddeanus,
Brachypodium sylvaticum, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Calluna
vulgaris, Carex buschiorum, Centaurea bella, Cerastium sosnowskyi,
Chamaecytisus caucasicus, C. hirsutissimus, Cistus tauricus, Crepis
pinnatifida, Cytisus caucasicus, Daphne transcaucasica, Diphelypaea
coccinea, Drosera rotundifolia, Frangula alnus, Galium grusinum, G.
mullogo, Helianthemum nummularium, H. orientale, Heracleum
antasiaticum, Hippophaë rhamnoides, Mespilus germanica, Minuartia
woronowii, Medicago dzhawakhetica, Muscari sosnowskyi, Onobrychis
sosnowskyi, Orobus laxiflorus, Osmunda regalis, Oxalis acetosella,
Poa nemoralis, Psephellus meskheticus, Psoralea bituminosa, Quercus
iberica Q. macranthera, Rhododendron ponticum, R. luteum, Rhus
coriaria, Ruscus ponticus, Scutellaria sosnowskyi, Sempervivum
sosnowskyi, Sesleria anatolica, Silene dianthoides, Sphagnum
batumense, Spiranthes amoena, Tilia begoniifolia, Vaccinium
arctostaphylos, V. myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Vicia akhmaganica.
9.4.2.1. Flagship plant species Caucasian pine - Pinus kochiana
Klotzsch ex K. Koch, Pinaceae
Flagship species is as the concept of flagship species is a concept with
its genesis in the field of conservation biology. Caucasian pine trees
growing in slopes with all exposition and are oriented as well on high
inclination till 900C. Natural habitat of this species is oriented on rocks
and as well on other slopes with different geological rocks. The
elevation is from 0 to 2100 m a.s.l. Caucasian pine tree up to 35 m tall
and only to 15-20 m high in Kazbegi high mountain areas. Snow cover
is <0.3 m. Sunny edge is low on North Slope; dappled shade is more
not only on North Slope: North Wall, East Wall, and West Wall.
Suitable for: light and medium soils, prefers well-drained soil and can
grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic
soils and can grow in very acid and very alkaline soils. It can grow in
semi-shade or no shade. It prefers dry moist or wet soil and can tolerate
drought. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure. It can tolerate
atmospheric pollution. Other, planted pine species are migrated from
Russia in Kazbegi in 1970s and this is mainly Pinus sylvestris L. and
249
some other individuals’ P. nigra subsp. pallasiana (D. Don) Holmboe.
These planted species are in all regions, from the subarctic to the forest
steppe zone, it forms pure pine forests in the mountains, on sandy soils
of the plains and mixed forests on loamy soils and podzols.
Caucasian pine tree with whorled branches and two types of shoots:
long shoots appearing in spring and becoming woody, and dwarf shoots
growing from the axils of scale-like leaves and also bearing scale-like
and true acicular leaves, in clusters of two, three, or five. Caucasian
pine has crown wide, twigs spreading and directed upright. Bark dark
greyish-dark browns or dark browns (Figure 66).
Needles greyish-green, margins fringed, 3.5-5 or 5-8 cm long, to
two, rarely to three of tree. Leaves in clusters of two or three; Male
cone is round or oblong-cylindrical, clustered into globose or broadly
ovoid racemes. Male strobilus develops at the base of young long
shoots in the axils of scale leaves.
A
B
Figure 66. A. Pinus kochiana is relict species in Caucasus; B. Pollen of
Pinus kochiana has length of the horizontal height as 100-105 µm and
distanth height as 50-53 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Female cones woody, maturing in two to three years, bract scales
coriaceous, shorter than the broad ovuliferous scales; seeds winged,
less often nut-like, wingless. Female cones opening at seed maturity;
mature female cones 3-7 cm long, dull, light brown or gray 6 seeds
winged 4. Seed cones ovate, solitary, pink-brown or yellowish when
mature, glossy, directed horizontally or upright. Seed scales with
pyramidal and hooked apophysis. Seed is as obovate, acute, 4.5 mm
250
long, wing with brown stripes. Needles persisting for four to eight
years, yellowing in winter, 3-3.5 cm long; cones 3-3.5 cm long.
Flowering period of this species is April-May and seeds are matured in
September-October. It forms woods forests or grows as single trees on
rocks, reaches tree line.
Pine is an umbrella species for squirrel. Umbrella species
determines conservation of other species in the habitat conditions
where there are species communities and one umbrella species will
have a protection due to their conditions. It is oriented on mycorrhizas
and pH is lower 4-5. Non-wood products are seeds used as recourses in
Italian food and people can use this as resources. Pine has quite a wide
range of medicinal uses, being valued especially for its antiseptic action
and beneficial effect upon the respiratory system. It should not be used
by people who are prone to allergic skin reactions whilst the essential
oil should not be used internally unless under professional supervision.
The turpentine obtained from the resin is antirheumatic, antiseptic,
balsamic, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient and vermifuge. It is a
valuable remedy in the treatment of kidney, bladder and rheumatic
affections, and also in diseases of the mucous membranes and the
treatment of respiratory complaints. Externally it is used in the form of
liniment plasters and inhalers. The leaves and young shoots are
antiseptic, diuretic and expectorant. They are harvested in the spring
and dried for later use. They are used internally for their mildly
antiseptic effect within the chest and are also used to treat rheumatism
and arthritis. They can be added to the bath water for treating fatigue,
nervous exhaustion, sleeplessness, and skin irritations. They can also be
used as an inhalant in the treatment of various chest complaints. The
essential oil from the leaves is used in the treatment of asthma,
bronchitis and other respiratory infections, and also for digestive
disorders such as wind. An essential oil obtained from the seed has
diuretic and respiratory-stimulant properties. The seeds are used in the
treatment of bronchitis, tuberculosis and bladder infections. Decoction
of the seeds can be applied externally to help suppress excessive
vaginal discharge. The plant is used in Bach flower remedies - the
keywords for prescribing it are 'Self-reproach', 'Guilt feelings' and
'Despondency'. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is
'Invigorating'.
251
A tan or green dye is obtained from the needles. The needles
contain a substance called terpene, this is released when rain washes
over the needles and it has a negative effect on the germination of some
plants, including wheat. A reddish yellow dye is obtained from the
cones. This tree yields resin and turpentine. Oleo-resins are present in
the tissues of all species of pines, but these are often not present in
sufficient quantity to make their extraction economically worthwhile.
The resins are obtained by tapping the trunk, or by destructive
distillation of the wood. In general, trees from warmer areas of
distribution give the higher yields. Turpentine consists of an average of
20% of the oleo-resin and is separated by distillation. Turpentine has a
wide range of uses including as a solvent for waxes etc. for making
varnish, medicinal etc. Rosin is the substance left after turpentine is
removed. This is used by violinists on their bows and also in making
sealing wax, varnish etc. Pitch can also be obtained from the resin and
is used for waterproofing, as a wood preservative etc. An essential oil
obtained from the leaves is used in perfumery and medicinally. A fibre
from the inner bark is used to make ropes. The roots are very resinous
and burn well. They can be used as a candle substitute. The leaves are
used as a packing material. The fibrous material is stripped out of the
leaves and is used to fill pillows, cushions and as a packing material.
Trees are very wind resistant and quite fast growing. They can be
planted as a shelterbelt, succeeding in maritime exposure. Wood - light,
soft, not strong, elastic, durable, rich in resin. Used in construction,
furniture, paper manufacture etc. A good fuel but it is somewhat
smokey.
Thrives is in a light well-drained sandy or gravelly loam. Trees
grow well on poor dry sandy soils. Fairly shade tolerant. Prefers a light
acid soil, becoming chlorotic at a pH higher than 6.5. Trees can succeed
for many years on shallow soils over chalk.
Tolerates chalk for a while, but trees are then short-lived. Tolerates
is some water-logging. Dislikes poorly drained moorland soils.
Established plants tolerate drought. Very wind is resistant, tolerating
maritime exposure. Tolerates is atmospheric pollution. Fairly longlived, to 200 years or more and quite fast growing, but trees are very
slow growing in wet soils. Young trees can make new growth of 1
metre a year though growth slows down rapidly by the time the tree is
18 metres tall. This species is extensively used in cool temperate
252
forestry as a timber tree. Plants are strongly outbreeding, self-fertilized
seed usually grows poorly.
They hybridize freely with other members of this genus. Cones
take two seasons to ripen. Plants are easily killed by fire and cannot
regenerate from the roots. A good is food plant for the caterpillars of
several species of butterflies. This tree has over 50 species of
associated insects. Leaf secretions inhibit the germination of seeds,
thereby reducing the amount of plants that can grow under the trees.
There are several named forms selected for their ornamental value.
Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus.
It is best to sow the seed in individual pots in a cold frame as soon
as it is ripe if this is possible otherwise in late winter. A short
stratification of 6 weeks at 4°C can improve the germination of stored
seed. Plant seedlings out into their permanent positions as soon as
possible and protect them for their first winter or two.
Plants have a very sparse root system and the sooner they are
planted into their permanent positions the better they will grow. Trees
should be planted into their permanent positions when they are quite
small, between 30 and 90 cm. We actually plant them out when they
are about - 10 cm tall. So long as they are given very good weedexcluding mulch they establish very well larger trees will check badly
and hardly put on any growth for several years. This also badly affects
root development and wind resistance.
Cuttings are here. This method only works when taken from very
young trees less than 10 years old. Use single leaf fascicles with the
base of the short shoot. Disbudding the shoots some weeks before
taking the cuttings can help. Cuttings are normally slow to grow away.
Geographic distribution of the Pinus kochiana is native to
Caucasus, additionally in Chaneti of Asia Minor Turkey territory of
Caucasus ecoregion.
9.4.3. Code of Georgia:Bichvinta Pine Forest Pinus pithyusa Steven,
Pinaceae (91PP-GE*)
Bichvinta pine (Pinus pithyusa Fox-Strangw.) is distributed along
Black Sea coast on Bichvinta rock cape and on southern slopes of
253
Calcareous Mountain massive of Gagra, Abkhazia. The square of this
forest is ca. 250-300 ha (Figure 67).
A
B
Figure 67. A. Pinus pithyusa is endemic species of Georgia; B. Pollen
of Pinus pithyusa has length of the horizontal height as 90-93 µm and
distanth height as 47-50 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The following plant communities are described:
1. Pine forest with understory of Cistus creticus. The dominant species
are - Ruscus ponticus, Mespilus germanica and Hedera helix.
2. Pine forest with understory of oriental hornbeam (Carpinus
orientalis). The dominant species are - Ruscus ponticus, Ligustrum
vulgare, Lonicera caprifolium and Hedera helix.
3. Pine forest with understory of Ruscus ponticus. The dominant
species are - Brachypodium sylvaticum, Festuca drymeja.
4. Pine forest with undersory of grasses. The dominant species are Sesleria anatolica, Poa nemoralis, Psoralea bituminosa, Anthemis
euxina.
Plants species: Pinus pithyusa, Anthemis euxina, Cistus creticus,
Hedera helix, Ruscus ponticus, Ligustrum vulgare, Lonicera
caprifolium, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Festuca drymeja, Poa
nemoralis, Psoralea bituminosa, Sesleria anatolica.
254
9.4.3.1. Edificatory plant species Aspen - Populus tremula L.,
Salicaceae
Edificatory species of Populus tremula is as that has a special role to
contribute in ecosystem structure. Aspen is growing in many different
forest habitats and mainly it grows in degraded forest areas. Birch
forest as native habitat in Kazbegi contains many individuals of
Populus tremula in degraded forest successions (Figure 68).
A
B
C
Figure 68. A. Populus tremula is in Betula forest; B.- C. P. tremula is
fungus diseases. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
It grows from lower to upper mountain belts from 100 to 2300 m
a.s.l. along riverbanks, in disturbed forests and on open slopes. Aspen
tree to 25-50 m high and to 5 m in circumference. The exposition is for
all directions and inclination till 30°C. Snow cover is <0.5 m. Sunny
edge is normal; dappled shade is in North Wall, East Wall, and West
Wall. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy soils and can grow in
heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. Suitable pH: acid and neutral
soils. It can grow in semi-shade or no shade. It prefers moist or wet
soil. The plants can tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure.
A fast growing dioecious tree; terminal and lateral buds protected
by numerous scales, often profusely resinous; Bark greenish-dark grey,
smooth on young tree, later deeply furrowed; Young branches
glabrous; Leaves of short branches orbicular, minutely point-tipped,
rather coarsely dentate; Leaves of shoots large, deltoid or deltoidelliptic, slightly cordate or straight at base, distinctly apiculate, the
255
margins denticulate; expanding leaves ciliate, covered with scattered
hairs. Leaves of short shoots are round or rounded-ovate, apiculate,
margins coarsely toothed. Leaf is drooping, on long petiole and
trembling. Pale is green above, glaucous beneath. leaves of branches
glabrous or obscurely 179 rounded -deltoid or orbicular, minutely
apiculate, with clearly dentate margin; occasional specimens have
leaves cuneate at base; stipules soon caducous, whitish, linear; petiole
about as long as the leaf blade, strongly compressed in upper part;
Leaves of long and root shoots are ovate to deltoid and apiculate, blade
with cordate base, 7 cm long, 8 cm wide, catkins 4 -14 cm long and 2
cm thick, villous; Flowers clustered into pistillate and staminate
catkins. Anthers purplish-red, becoming paler; Ovary pale green,
conical, with 2 purple stigmas; Disk pale, glabrous or more or less
ciliate on the margin, pedicel very short. Nectariferous glands present
at the base of young leaf blades (extranuptial nectaries). Fruit is manyseeded capsule.
The mycorrhizas are only 4 species and this tree might be growing
in degraded soil with little number of biota. Woods of this type, most
often at wood margins, clearings, and in places where trees have been
broken by the wind, often as part of birch forests or in small pure
stands, especially on felling sites, etc., as forerunners of natural
reforestation; also gullies, shores, and swamp margins. Generally a
species requiring light, but the seedlings prefer a certain amount of
shade. This species wood is white, without heartwood, soft, easily cleft,
in dry condition rather durable; suitable for paper manufacture for
match production is in exported in blocks to Japan, for turning roof
shingles, hoops, bobbins, rural dishware, etc. The trunks are made in
some places into canoes and small boats.
The shavings provide good packing material. The bitter bark is
used in tanning and in medicine. The wood contains, in addition to
cellulose (ca. 50%) lignin, galactan, and pentosan; yields on distillation
4.17% acetic acid. The bark contains the glucosides salicin and populin,
and the enzyme salicase. Easily is propagated by seed and within
twenty years reaching mature condition at 12 m height. A tree to 20 m
high, with rather thin oval or round head; bark smooth, greenish or pale
gray, that of old trees dark gray and fissured in the lower part of the
trunk; the leaves differing from those of common aspen in the finer and
shallower dentation; they are often orbicular, terminating in a small
256
point; catkins so far not studied. The bark and the leaves are mildly
diuretic, expectorant and stimulant. The plant is seldom used
medicinally, but is sometimes included in propriety medicines for
chronic prostate and bladder disorders. Although no specific mention
has been seen for this species, the bark of most, if not all members of
the genus contain salicin, a glycoside that probably decomposes into
salicylic acid in the body. The bark is therefore anodyne, antiinflammatory and febrifuge. It is used especially in treating rheumatism
and fevers, and also to relieve the pain of menstrual cramps. The plant
is used in Bach flower remedies - the keywords for prescribing it are
'Vague fears of unknown origin', 'Anxiety' and 'Apprehension'.
A very fast growing and wind resistant tree, it can be planted to
provide a shelterbelt. Trees can also be planted to improve heavy clay
soils in neglected woodlands. Wood - very soft, elastic, easily split,
rather woolly in texture, without smell or taste, of low flammability,
not durable, very resistant to abrasion. It makes a high quality paper
and is also used to make a very good charcoa.
A very easily grown plant, it does well in a heavy cold damp soil,
preferring a neutral to acid soil, and avoiding calcareous soils. The
species generally prefers a deep rich well-drained circumneutral soil.
Growth is much less on wet soils, on poor acid soils and on thin dry
soils. This species grows well on poor soils, probably because of its
intolerance of competition.
Plants are very tolerant of exposure, doing well in cold exposed
sites so long as sufficient moisture is present. Plants dislike shade, and
are intolerant of root or branch competition. A fast growing tree but it
is short-lived. Trees produce suckers freely and can form dense
thickets.
The aspen is a very good wildlife plant; it has over 90 associated
insect species and is a food plant for the green hairstreak butterfly.
Poplars have very extensive and aggressive root systems that can
invade and damage drainage systems.
Especially when grown on clay soils, they should not be planted
within 12 metres of buildings since the root system can damage the
building's foundations by drying out the soil and it can be planted to
improve heavy clay soils in neglected woodlands. Dioecious is here.
Male and female plants must be grown if seed is required.
257
Seed - must be sown as soon as it is ripe in spring. Poplar seed has
an extremely short period of viability and needs to be sown within a
few days of ripening. Surface sow or just lightly cover the seed in trays
in a cold frame. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they
are large enough to handle and grow them on in the old frame. If
sufficient growth is made, it might be possible to plant them out in late
summer into their permanent positions, otherwise keep them in the cold
frame until the following late spring and then plant them out.
Most poplar species hybridize freely with each other, so the seed
may not come true unless it is collected from the wild in areas with no
other poplar species growing. Cuttings are of mature wood in
November/December in a sheltered outdoor bed. This species is rather
difficult from cuttings. Suckers are in early spring. Root cuttings in the
winter. Geographic distribution is in the Native to Eurasia.
9.4.4. Code of Georgia: Yew forest (Taxus baccata); (91TB-GE*)
Yew - Taxus baccata, is preserved in the form of the mono-dominant
forest in Batsara reserve, Akhmeta region, Kakheti. It grows on the
slopes of northern, northern-western exposition, moist carbonated soil,
900-1350 meters a.s.l.. Its compatible species are beech, hornbeam,
maple (Acer laetum) and very rarely, lime.
The understory and the herbal cover are not found. Vertical
distribution of Yew varies in west and east Georgia. In Kolkheti it is
found in the form of the lower floor up to 1500 meters a.s.l. in Colchic
type forests.
In eastern Georgia it is distributed above 700 meters and is found in
the form of small groups of species in beech and oak-hornbeam forests
in almost all gorges of left tributaries of Alazani River. Relatively large
stands are in Nichbisi and Pshavi Aragvi gorge, village Kanatia.
Plants species: Taxus baccata, Acer laetum, Fagus orientalis, Tilia
begoniifolia.
9.4.4.1. Flagship species: European yew - Taxus baccata L.,
Taxaceae
Taxus baccata is growing in Kolkheti, Kakheti and Borjomi area and in
Adjara. In Meskheti is known from the herbarium data in Goderdzi
258
Pass, in Meskheti range near v. Anda and in Zekari Pass. However, we
did not find any of these populations (Figure 69).
A
B
E
C
F
G
D
H
Figure 69. A. B. C. Flowers of Taxus baccata has much pollen from
December till April; D. Pollen of Taxus baccata has length of the
horizontal height as 30-32 µm E. F. G. H. The seed contained are eaten
by thrushes. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
An evergreen has tree growing to 15m by 10m at a slow rate. It is
in leaf all year, in flower from March to April, and the seeds ripen from
September to November. The flowers are dioecious is in individual
flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on
any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is
required and are pollinated by Wind. The plant prefers light, medium
and heavy soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay
soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic soils and can grow in very
acid and very alkaline soils. It can grow in full shade semi-shade or no
shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.
259
The plant can tolerate strong winds but not maritime exposure. It
can tolerate atmospheric pollution. Medicinal uses are antispasmodic,
cancer, cardiotonic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant,
homeopathy, narcotic and purgative. The yew tree is a highly toxic
plant that has occasionally been used medicinally, mainly in the
treatment of chest complaints. Modern research has shown that the
plants contain the substance 'taxol' in their shoots. Taxol has shown
exciting potential as an anti-cancer drug, particularly in the treatment of
ovarian cancers (Bown, 1995). Unfortunately, the concentrations of
taxol in this species are too low to be of much value commercially,
though it is being used for research purposes. This remedy should be
used with great caution and only under the supervision of a qualified
practitioner. See also the notes above on toxicity.
All parts of the plant, except the fleshy fruit, are antispasmodic,
cardiotonic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, narcotic and
purgative. The leaves have been used internally in the treatment of
asthma, bronchitis, hiccup, indigestion, rheumatism and epilepsy.
Externally, the leaves have been used in a steam bath as a treatment for
rheumatism. A homeopathic remedy is made from the young shoots
and the berries. It is used in the treatment of many diseases including
cystitis, eruptions, headaches, heart and kidney problems, rheumatism
etc.
Fruit is raw. Very sweet and gelatinous, most people find it
delicious though some find it sickly. A number of people who like the
flavour do not like the texture which is often described as being 'snotty'.
All other parts of this plant, including the seed, are highly
poisonous. When eating the fruit you should spit out the large seed
found in the fruit's centre. Should you swallow the whole seed it will
just pass straight through you without harm? If it is bitten into,
however, you will notice a very bitter flavour and the seed should
immediately be spat out or it could cause some problems. The fruit is a
fleshy berry about 10mm in diameter and containing a single seed.
Some reports suggest using the bark as a tea substitute; this would
probably be very unwise.
Other uses are as fuel, ground cover, hedge, incense, insecticide
and wood. Very tolerant of trimming, this plant makes an excellent
hedge. The plants are often used in topiary and even when fairly old,
the trees can be cut back into old wood and will resprout (Huxley,
260
1992). One report says that trees up to 1000 years old respond well to
trimming (Huxley, 1992).
A decoction of the leaves is used as an insecticide. Some cultivars
can be grown as a ground cover when planted about 1 metre or more
apart each way. 'Repandens' has been recommended. Wood - heavy,
hard, durable, elastic, takes a good polish but requires long seasoning.
Highly esteemed by cabinet makers, it is also used for bows, tool
handles etc. It makes good firewood. The wood is burnt as incense.
A very easy plant to grow, it is extremely tolerant of cold and heat,
sunny and shady positions, wet and dry soils, exposure and any pH
(Huxley, 1992). Thrives is in almost any soil, acid or alkaline, as long
as it is well-drained. Grows is well in heavy clay soils. Sensitive is to
soil compaction by roads etc. Very is shade tolerant. Tolerates is urban
pollution. In general they are very tolerant of exposure, though plants
are damaged by severe maritime exposure.
A very cold has hardy plant when dormant, tolerating temperatures
down to about -25°C. The fresh young shoots in spring, however, can
be damaged by frosts. Plants are dioecious, though they sometimes
change sex and monoecious trees are sometimes found. Male and
female trees must be grown if fruit and seed are required. The fruit is
produced mainly on the undersides of one-year old branches. A very
long lived tree, one report suggests that a tree in Perthshire is 1500
years old, making it the oldest plant in Britain.
Another report says that trees can be up to 4000 years old. It is,
however, slow growing and usually takes about 20 years to reach a
height of 4.5 metres. Young plants occasionally grow 30cm in a year
but this soon tails off and virtually no height increase is made after 100
years. The bark is very soft and branches or even the whole tree can be
killed if the bark is removed by constant friction such as by children
climbing the tree. Plants produce very little fibrous root and should be
planted in their final positions when still small (Huxley, 1992). The
fruit is greatly relished by thrushes.
Seed of the Taxus is can be very slow to germinate, often taking 2
or more years. It is best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn when it
should germinate 18 months later. Stored seed may take 2 years or
more to germinate. 4 months warm followed by 4 months cold
stratification may help reduce the germination time (Dirr, Heuser,
1987).
261
Harvesting the seed 'green' is when fully developed but before it
has dried on the plant and then sowing it immediately has not been
found to reduce the germination time because the inhibiting factors
develop too early. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots once they
are large enough to handle and grow them on in pots in a cold frame.
The seedlings are very slow-growing and will probably require at
least 2 years of pot cultivation before being large enough to plant out.
Any planting out is best done in late spring or early summer, after the
last expected frosts.
Cuttings of half-ripe terminal shoots, 5 – 8 cm long, July/August in
a shaded frame. Should root by late September but leave them in the
frame over winter and plant out in late spring. High percentage is
cuttings of ripe terminal shoots, taken in winter after a hard frost, in a
shaded frame.
9.5. Mediterranean deciduous forests
9.5.1. Code of Georgia: Chestnut forest - Castanea sativa Mill.,
Fagaceae (9260CS-GE*; PAL. CLASS.: 41.9)
The chestnut forest (Castanea sativa) is found both in west and east
Georgia. However, in the west is holds a larger territory. Pure stand of
the chestnut forest is rare. It is mainly mixed with beech or hornbeam.
It is typical on shaded slopes. The border of vertical distribution in west
Georgia varies between 100 and 900-1000 meters. It reaches highest
altitude at 1450 meters. In east Georgia the lower boundary of its
distribution varies between 400-500 meters and the upper boundary is
1350-1380 meters. It grows on brown soils, does not like calcium but
can be found in some limestone regions.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-01): Chestnut forest with borage cover, C.
sativa-Trachystemon orientalis; It can be found in west Georgia,
beech-chestnut forests or hornbeam- beech-chestnut forests.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-02): Chestnut forest is with fern cover, C.
sativa-Dryopteris filix-mas occupy rocky slopes. Associated species are
- Alnus barbata, Ulmus carpinifolia, Acer laetum, Fagus orientalis,
Carpinus caucasica.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-03): Chestnut forest with herbal cover, C.
sativa, Sanicula europaea, Asperula odorata, Festuca drymeja, Paris
262
incompleta, Polygonatum orientale. From liana type plants ivy (Hedera
helix) is typical in this community.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-04): Chestnut forest with azalea
understory, C. sativa - Rhododendron luteum. It is mainly distributed in
west Georgia but can be found in several place of Kakhetian Caucasus.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-05): Chestnut forest with Caucasian
blueberry understory, C. sativa - Vaccinium arctostaphylos. It is
characteristic to Abkhasia. Mixed species are: beech and more rarely
hornbeam.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-06): Chestnut forest with the understory
of Pontic Rhododendron, C. sativa - Rhododendron ponticum. It can be
found in mountain regions of west Georgia, in beech and hornbeam
forests. Its hight in the forests of such a type reaches 3-4 meters.
Sub-types (9260CS-GE-07): Chestnut forest with laurel
understory, C. sativa - Laurocerasus officinalis. It is extremely rare.
Often laurel is mixed with Pontic Rhododendron.
Plants species: Castanea sativa, Fagus orientalis, Carpinus
caucasica, Acer laetum, Alnus barbata, Asperula odorata, Dryopteris
filix-mas, Festuca drymeja, Hedera helix, Laurocerasus officinalis
Paris incompleta, Polygonatum orientale, Rhododendron luteum, R.
ponticum, Sanicula europaea, Trachystemon orientalis, Ulmus
carpinifolia, Vaccinium arctostaphylos.
9.5.1.1. Relict plant species Sweet chestnut - Castanea sativa Mill.,
Fagaceae
Tree of Castanea sativa is in up to 30 m tall. Crown open and
branched (Figure 70). Twigs covered with reddish-dark brown warts.
Leaves are petiolate, 15-25 cm long, oblong lanceolate, serrate, and
acuminate. Upper surface is dark green, pubescent when young,
glabrous at maturity. Lower surface is with dark grey hairs when
young, later either only veins are covered with star-shaped hairs or the
whole surface becomes glabrous.
Tree is monoecious. Staminate flowers are yellowish, to three or
more in clusters forming catkins. Pistillate flowers greenish, clustered
to three or more at catkins base. Fruit is nut enclosed into round bur
covered with spines. Flowers are in June. Fruits are in September and
October.
263
Grows in forests of lower and middle montane belts, from 500 to
1200-1400 m, sometimes to 1600 m. mostly occurs with beech,
hornbeam, linden and other broad-leaved trees. Chestnut sometimes
forms pure stands. It grows with fir at 1000-1200 m. Native to Europe,
Mediterranean, Balkan, Caucasus, Asia Minor, Eastern Anatolia.
A
B
C
Figure 70. A. Castanea sativa is relict species; B. Fuits are used for
medicinal; C. Pollen of C. sativa has length of the horizontal height as
29-35 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
9.5.2. Code of Georgia: Zelkova forest - Zelkova carpinifolia
(Pall.) Dippal, Ulmaceae (92ZC-GE*)
Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia) is the relict of the arctic-tertiary period
flora. Its areal of general distribution is Kolkheti and Lenkorani in
Azerbaijan. In the form of refugiums on small territories it is found in
Kakheti and Karabakh. Monodominant forest of zelkova is extremely
rare. Such a forest is preserved in Akhmeta region, Babaneuli reserve.
Zelkova stand is found in Akhmeta region in several places –
Pichkhovani, Laliskuri and Argokhi. Forests occur on foot-hills of the
mountains, slopes of various expositions at the altitude of 430-500
meters.
In west Georgia zelkova forest occupies lower places. The upper
margin of its distribution is 750 meters. However, in Karabakh and
Lenkoran it can be found at the altitude of up to 1700 meters. In
264
Kolkheti Zelkova forest is mixed with other deciduous plants - Q.
imeretina, Q. iberica, Q. hartwissiana, Carpinus caucasica, C.
orientalis.
Sub-types (92ZC-GE-01): Zelkova – hornbeam and oak forests Zelkova-Carpineto-Quercetum, are characteristic to west Georgia. The
following communities are differentiated:
1. Zelkova forest with Imereti oak, Zelkoveto-Querceta (Quercus
imeretina),
2. Zelkova forest with oak and Colchic butcher’s broom, ZelkovetoQuerceta ruscosa (Ruscus colchicus),
3. Zelkova forest with oak and false-brome cover, Zelkoveto-Querceta
brachypodiosa (Brachypodium sylvaticum),
4. Zelkova forest with oak and azalea, Zelkoveto-Querceta
rhododendrosa (Rhododendron luteum),
5. Zelkova forest with oak and sedge cover, Zelkoveto-Querceta
juncosa (Juncus effusus),
6. Zelkova forest with oak and hornbeam, Zelkoveto-Querceto
carpinosa (Carpinus caucasica).
Sub-types (92ZC-GE-02): Zelkova and oriental hornbeam forest Zelkova carpinifolia – Carpinus orientalis is characteristic to east
Georgia. The following communities are observed:
7. Zelkova and Jerusalem thorn forest, Zelkoveta Paliureto (Paliurus
spina-christi),
8. Zelkova forest with astragal, Zelkoveta astragalosa (Astragalus
brachycarpus),
9. Zelkova forest with oriental hornbeam, Zelkoveto-Carpineta
(Carpinus orientalis),
10. Zelkova forest with hawthorn and bog cranesbill, ZelkovetoCrataegeta (Crataegus pentagyna) geraniosa (Geranium
palustre),
11. Zelkova forest with nut and wild basil, Juglandeto-Zelkoveta
clinopodiosa (Clinopodium vulgare).
Plants species: Zelkova carpinifolia, Astragalus brachycarpus,
Brachypodium sylvaticum, Clinopodium vulgare, Carpinus caucasica,
C. orientalis, Crataegus pentagyna, Geranium palustre, Juglans regia,
Juncus effusus, Paliurus spina-christi, Quercus hartwissiana, Q.
iberica, Q. imeretina, Rhododendron luteum, Ruscus colchicus.
265
9.5.2.1. Relict plant species Caucasian elm - Zelkova carpinifolia
(Pall.) Dippal, Ulmaceae
Zelkova carpinifolia is a deciduous tree growing to 25-30 m by 10
m at a fast rate (Figure 71).
A
B
Figure 71. A.- B. Zelkova carpinifolia is relict species in the
Caucasus. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
It is in flower from April to May, and the seeds ripen from September
to November. The flowers are monoecious is individual flowers are
either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant.
Suitable for are light, medium and heavy soils and prefers well-drained
soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils. It can grow in semishade or no shade. It prefers moist soil. Bark thick, hard, dark greyishgreen. Leaves oblong-ovate or elliptic, acute, nearly sessile or on short
petiole, base irregularly shaped, margins serrate.
Flowers of two types has staminate and perfect. Perfect flowers
solitary, situated in leaf axils of young shoots, staminate flowers form
clusters on last year branches. Fruit irregularly shaped one seeded
samara. Pest tolerant is for aggressive surface roots possible, Specimen,
Street tree. An easily grown plant, it succeeds in almost any good soil,
acid or alkaline, preferring a deep well-drained moist loam. Prefers of a
moderately is sheltered position. Relatively shade tolerant. A fast is
growing tree. Dormant plants are very cold-tolerant, but they are
sometimes damaged by late spring frosts when they are young. Plants
are susceptible to Dutch elm disease, but the beetle that is the vector of
266
this disease rarely feeds on Zelkova so infestation is rare. Plants in this
genus are notably resistant to honey fungus. Special Features: Not
North American native is inconspicuous flowers or blooms. Flowers
are in March. Fruits are in August till September.
Seed of Zelkova is as best sown in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe.
Stored seed requires stratification and should be sown as early in the
year as possible. Germination rates are variable. When they are large
enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow
them on in the greenhouse for their first winter. Plant them out into
their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last
expected frosts. Grows in humid forests, usually along riverbanks and
gorges in lowland and lower montane belt, sometimes reaches 16001700 m. Native to Eastern Anatolia, Caucasus, Iran.
9.5.3. Code of Georgia: Forest with Boxwood - Buxus colchica
Pojark., Buxaceae (92BCGE*)
Colchic boxwood (Buxus colchica) is the related species of the
boxwood growing in Europe (B. sempervirens). It is mainly found in
west Georgia, limestone massifs, Abkhazia, Samegrelo and RachaLechkhumi. Amplitude of vertical distribution is 1300 meters a.s.l.. It
participates in the formation of hornbeam and other broad-leaved
forests. In forests of this type the following endemic species
characteristic to limestones are represented in large amounts - Ruscus
ponticus, Hedera helix, Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, Carex divulsa, C.
transsilvanica, and Veronica peduncularis, V. persica.
In east Georgia boxwood stands are in abundance in Aragvi gorge,
Saguramo, Bulachauri, and Navdaraant Kari. In Kakheti boxwood
stands are encountered in several places. The boxwood hill is common
in Kvareli surroundings, on the Bursa river bank; Devubani, Sviana
Khevi, Chontis Khevi, Saborio Khevi and Didgori. Hornbeam,
Georgian oak, lime and beech are compatible species of the mentioned
boxwood forests in R. Stori gorge. The boxwood here creates the
secondary layer. There are different opinions on the primary origin of
the boxwood in east Georgia. Some researchers consider that it is the
tertiary relict, which is preserved in refugiums (Grossheim et al.,
1928; Matikashvili, 1953; Gurgenishvili, 1967). Majority though
267
thinks that the box was planted at the surrounding of churches and it
has been naturalized into the natural habitat.
Plants species: Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, Buxus colchica,
Carex divulsa, C. transsilvanica, Carpinus caucasica, Fagus orientalis,
Hedera helix, Quercus iberica, Ruscus ponticus, Tilia begoniifolia,
Veronica peduncularis, V. persica.
9.5.3.1. Relict plant species Boxwood - Buxus colchica Pojark.,
Buxaceae
Relict species -A relict plant or animal is a taxon that persists as a
remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population. Buxus
colchica Pojark. is for Boxwood, Bochsbaum Buxaceae (Figure 72).
The shrub or tree is tall 2-12 m and rarely 15 m. Bark greyishyellow, smooth, stem erect, often branched from the base. Leaves has
simple, leathery, glabrous, opposite, oblong-ovate, lanceolate or,
lanceolate-ovate, on short petiole, dark and glossy above, light green
and pale beneath. Plant is monoecious. Flowers are greenish-yellow,
unisexual, in axillary spikes or capitate inflorescence. Fruit is capsule.
Flowers are in February till April. Fruits are in June till September.
Forms evergreen understory is in mixed deciduous, broad-leaved
and dark coniferous forests. Grows is up to 1600-1800 m. Native to
Caucasus, Asia Minor. Landscape uses are - Container, Foundation,
Hedge, Superior hedge. Succeeds is in almost any soil that is welldrained, tolerating light shade and chalky soils. Tolerates is a pH range
from 5.5 to 7.4. A very ornamental has but slow-growing plant. A
polymorphic species, there are some named varieties developed for
their ornamental value. The foliage is pungently scented, especially
when wet. Special Features: Attractive foliage, Not North American
native, all or parts of this plant are poisonous, inconspicuous flowers or
blooms.
Seed of Buxus is as stratification is not necessary but can lead to
more regular germination. The seed is best sown in a cold frame as
soon as it is ripe. Sow stored seed as early in the year as possible in a
cold frame. It usually germinates in 1-3 months at 15°C but stored seed
can take longer. When large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out
into individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least
their first winter, planting them out into their permanent positions in
268
late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. Cuttings are
of short side shoots with a heel, September in a frame. High is
percentage. Rather slow to root Nodal cuttings in spring in a frame.
Fairly is easy.
A
B
D
E
C
F
Figure 72. A. Buxus colchica is grows in the forest and it is near the
river; B. Flowering is in March; C. The fruit has a seed; D. Pollen is in
April; E. Pollen has length of the horizontal height as 38-40 µm; F.
Multiplies pollen seeds. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
9.5.4. Code of Georgia: Colchic relic broad-leaved mixed forest
(9BCGE*)
Colchic broad-leaved mixed forest is mainly distributed in west
Georgia, non-marshy lowland places and lower zone of the forest. It
holds the eastern slopes of Ajara-Imereti range and northern-western
part of Great Caucasus. The boundary of vertical distribution is from
269
200 to 1000-2000 meters a.s.l.. However, in the southern part of
Kolkheti it goes down to almost the sea level. Yellow, brown and red
soil of the forest can be found in the area of its distribution.
Characteristic climatic feature is high humidity. Annual average
precipitation in such types of a forest amounts to 2500 mm. Such a high
index of moisture is mainly characteristic to narrow gorges, where the
annual precipitation is almost always equal and the temperature is
moderate. Colchic forest differs from other broad-leaved forests by the
ever-green understory with special composition of species. It contains
many relict mesophytic species of the Caucasus (Kimeridze et al.,
2001).
It is especially represented by tertiary period relicts. Among them
the poikilohydric living relict, fern - Hymenophyllum tunbrigense is
worth noting. It grows in Southern Kolkheti. Overall in such a type of a
forest 50 coniferous/evergreen and 80 herbaceous species are
described. 6 dominant tree species are distinguished, that create
syntaxons of various composition - chestnut (Castanea sativa), beech
(Fagus orientalis), Imereti oak (Quercus imeretina), Colchic oak (Q.
hartwissiana), Alder (Alnus barbata) and hornbeam (Carpinus
caucasica).
From hard-wood plants the following are common: Zelkova
(Zelkova carpintfolia), Georgian oak (Q. iberica), elm (Ulmus glabra,
U. elliptica), maple (Acer laetum), Norway maple (Acer platanoides),
wire-but (Pterocarya fraxinifolia), lime (Tilia begoniifolia), maple
(Acer campestre), willow (Salix micans, S. pantosericea), Caucasian
wild pear (Pyrus caucasica), apple (Malus orientalis), Diospyros lotus,
ash (Fraxinus excelsior), pine (Pinus kochiana) and Yew (Taxus
baccata). From ever-green bushes the following are worth noting:
Rhododendron ponticum, Laurus nobilis, Ruscus colchicus, R.
ponticus, Daphne pontica, Ilex colchica, Rhododendron ungernii,
Epigaea gaultherioides and Buxus colchica.
From deciduous bushes the following can be encountered: relict
Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Staphylea colchica, Viburnum orientale,
Philadelphus caucasicus, Euonymus leiophloea, Hypericum
xylosteifolium, Swida australis, Corylus avellana, Frangula alnus,
Mespilus germanica, Rubus caucasicus; Crataegus microphylla, etc.
Ferns are represented by Matteuccia struthioptenis, Athyrium filixfemina, Blechnum spicant, Dryopteris affinis, etc. The epiphytic ferns
270
are represented by Polypodium serratum. On cliff grow: Phyllitis
scolopendrium, Pteris cretica, etc. Lianas are widely represented and
create an impenetrable plant cover, especially, in forests. Widely
distributed species are: Colchic ivy (Hedera colchica), Tamus (Tamus
communis) and silk-vine (Periploca graeca), hops (Humulus lupulus),
prickly ivy (Smilax excelsa) and clematis (Clematis vitalba, C.
viticella). In Abkhazia there are Caucasian Dioscorea (Dioscorea
caucasica), wild vine (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris, V. labrusca);
characteristic species also are epiphytic lichen old man’s beard (Usnea
barbata) and mosses (from Neckeraceae family).
The following representatives of herbaceous plants are common:
Brachypodium sylvaticum, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Cardamine
impatiens, Oxalis corniculata, Fragaria vesca, Lapsana intermedia,
Brunnera macrophylla, Clinopodium vulgare, Arthraxon langsdorffii,
Salvia glutinosa, Veronica officinalis, Viola alba.
Invasive species are: Northern-American Baccharis halimifolia,
Pan-tropical Paspalum paspaloides, Andropogon virginicus, etc.
Sub-types:
9BC-GE-01 Beech-chestnut forest (Fagus orientalis - Castanea sativa)
is a moist forest, widespread on slightly declined slopes, clay soil.
9BC-GE-02 Hornbeam-chestnut forest (Carpinus caucasica Castanea sativa).
9BC-GE-03 Beech-chestnut-hornbeam forest (Carpinus caucasica Fagus orientalis-Castanea sativa).
9BC-GE-04 Beech – alder -chestnut-hornbeam forest (Alnus barbata Carpinus caucasica - Fagus orientalis - Castanea sativa) can be found
in moit, slightly incluned locations of the northern slope.
9BC-GE-05 Hornbeam forest with oak (Carpinus caucasica -Quercus
harwissiana) is found in Abkhazia on the terrace up to 30 meters a.s.l.
9BC-GE-06 Imereti oak and hornbeam riparian forest (Quercus
imeretina-Carpinus caucasica) grows along moist narrow gorges.
9BC-GE-07 Colchic broad-leaved mixed forest with boxwood (Buxus
colchica) understory is found in limestone places.
9BC-GE-08 Colchic broad-leaved mixed forest with Pontic
Rhododendron (Rhododendron ponticum) understory is found in Ajara
at the altitude of 960-1060 meters in the Koronistskali river gorge.
Characteristic features are: Epigaea gaulterioides, Ilex colchica,
271
Betula medwedewii, Quercus pontica, Vaccinium arctostaphyllos,
Viburnum orientale, Rhododendron luteum, R. ponticum, R. ungernii.
Plants species: Alnus barbata, Castanea sativa, Diospyros lotus,
Fagus orientalis, Quercus imeretina, Q. hartwissiana, Q. iberica, Acer
campestre, A. laetum, A. platanoides, Andropogon virginicus,
Arthraxon langsdorffii, Athyrium filix-femina, Baccharis halimifolia,
Blechnum spicant, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Brunnera macrophylla,
Buxus colchica, Cardamine impatiens, Carpinus caucasica,
Clinopodium vulgare, Corylus avellana, Crataegus microphylla,
Daphne pontica, Dryopteris affinis, Epigaea gaultherioides, Euonymus
leiophloea, Fragaria vesca, Frangula alnus, Fraxinus excelsior,
Hymenophyllum tunbrigense, Hypericum xylosteifolium, Ilex colchica,
Lapsana intermedia, Laurus nobilis, Malus orientalis, Matteuccia
struthioptenis, Mespilus germanica, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Oxalis
corniculata, Paspalum paspaloides, Philadelphus caucasicus, Pinus
kochiana, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Pyrus caucasica, Rhododendron
ponticum, R. ungernii, Rubus caucasicus, Ruscus colchicus, R.
ponticus, Salix micans, S. pantosericea, Salvia glutinosa, Staphylea
colchica, Swida australis, Taxus baccata, Tilia begoniifolia, Ulmus
glabra, U. elliptica, Vaccinium arctostaphylos, Veronica officinalis,
Viburnum orientale, Viola alba, Zelkova carpintfolia.
9.5.4.1. Relict plant species Caucasian wingnut - Pterocarya
fraxinifolia (Poir.) Spach., Juglandaceae
Mixed woods are near rivers in boggy or inundated places. A relict
plant is a taxon that persists as a remnant of what was once a diverse
and widespread population. 30-35 m is tall tree. Bark whitish on young
trees, later, becomes dark grey and ridged. Leaf pinnately compound,
consists of 6-12 pair of sessile, ovate, oblong, acute and serrate leaflets
(Figure 73).
Both surfaces are glabrous or white hairs might occur at vein axils
on lower surface. Monoecious are here. Small flowers clustered into
long drooping catkins. Staminate flowers on short pedicle, pistillate are
sessile. Fruits are samara, with hyaline semiorbicular wings. Flowers
are in March and April. Fruits are in June and July.
Prefers is a sunny position in a rich strong loam with abundant
moisture at the roots. Grows is well by water. Succeeds in areas that do
272
not experience prolonged winter temperatures below about -12°C, but
young plants and the young shoots of older trees can be cut back by
winter frosts. A very ornamental tree, it fruits freely in Britain.
A
D
B
C
E
F
G
Figure 73. A. Pterocarya fraxinifolia is near the river; B. Male flowers
are in 3 month; C. Female flowers are in one year; D. E. F. Male
flowers has pollen; G. Pollen has length of the horizontal height as 3237 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
The leaves are sweetly resinous. The deeply furrowed bark is
aromatic. Produces is suckers profusely. Plants in this genus are
notably resistant to honey fungus. Grows in forests of lower montane
belt, along rivers and streams, forms pure stands, however, it often
occurs with alder, white poplar and willow. Native is to Caucasus, Asia
Minor, Iran.
Seed has best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame. Pre-soak
stored seed for 24 hours in warm water then cold stratify for 2-3
months. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are
large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse for their
273
first winter. Plant them out in late spring or early summer of the
following year. Cuttings are of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame.
Cuttings are of mature shoots, November in a frame. Only use vigorous
shoots. Layering is here. Division of suckers in the dormant season.
9.5.5. Code of Georgia: Arid open woodlands (9AOWGE*)
Arid open woodlands consist of xerophyte arboreal plants that do not
create a closed canopy in upper layer and has xerophytic herbal cover.
It is distributed in fragmented forms, between the steppe and semidesert vegetation in the arid zone of east Georgia. Annual precipitation
amounts to 550 mm. It is preserved in its original form in Vashlovani
reserve.
Dominant species are: mastic (Pistacia mutica), species of juniper
(Juniperus polycarpos, J. foetidisima, J. rufescens), hackberry (Celtis
caucasica, C. glabrata), species of willow-leaved pear (Pyrus
salicifolia), sumach (Cotynus coggygria), cattle-herder’s cherry
(Prunus incana), jasmine (Jasminum fruticans), black buckthorn
(Rhamnus palasii), spiraea (Spiraea crenata). Thuja (Biota orientals)
has been planted in v. Alani at the Shiraki forester's summer house and
became naturalized.
Invasive weed species in Georgia and causes strong allergy.
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.), simaroubaceae is increasing in dry rock of
arid sone. Swingle is on Ambrosia (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.,
American wormwood, Asteraceae) has allergic from 1890 years in
Georgia. It was planted in maize. It grows in ruderal habitats and
flowers from end of August to the end of September. Invasive species
are in arid woodlands and it can make allergy (Figure 74).
Sub-types (9AOW-GE 01): Dry open woodland with mastic
(Pistacia mutica). The open woodland formed by the mastic is worth
noting. It is associated with the habitat of Iori river flood plane forest.
Mastic trees are frequently at a long distance from each other and
sometimes grow big size (10.5 meters high, 0.5 diameters). Co-existing
274
species of the mastic tree are: elm (Ulmus carpinifolia), black
buckthorn (Rhamnus pallasii) and oak (Quercus iberica).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
Figure 74. A. Pistacia mutica has the fruits and it is not for medicinal;
B. Flowers has pollen in April; C. Pollen has length of the horizontal
height as 35-37 µm. D. Ailanthus altissima is invasive and allergy
species in Tbilisi; E. Flowers from end of June to the end of August. F.
Pollen of Ailanthus altissima has length of the horizontal height as 3235 µm; G. Ambrosia artemisiifolia is invasive and allergy species and
it is in agrarian medows to maize; H. Flowers from end of August to
the end of September; I. Pollen of Ambrosia artemisiifolia has length of
the horizontal height as 33-35 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
In the second type of the forest there are mastic, hackberry (Celtis
australis), berberis (Berberis vulgaris), black buckthorn, oleaster
(Elaeagnus angustifolia), willow-leaved pear (Pyrus salicifolia),
Jerusalem thorn (Paliurus spina-christi) and sumach (Cotinus
275
coggygria). From shrubs there are Atraphaxis spinosa, Reaumuria
alternifolia. The mastic open woodland is also found in Kvemo Kartli,
gorge of the river Khrami, on slopes between Asureti and sadakhlo.
Here the following species dominate Pistacia mutica, Acer ibericum,
Celtis caucasica.
Sub-types (9AOW-GE 02): Dry open woodland with juniper
species (Juniperus spp.). The juniper is distributed in Southern Kiziki
in the form of small stands, on slopes of northern exposition of
Vashlovani reserve, on Zilchi Mountain, southern slopes of Palantuki
range. It can also be found in Mtskheta surroundings, near ShioMgvime, Karsani, etc. Species that form juniper communities are Juniperus foetidissima, J. oblonga, J. polycarpos, J. rufescens, Ephedra
procera, Rhamnus palasii, Colutea orientalis, Jasminum fruticans,
Prunus microcarpa, Atraphaxis spinosa, Cynosurus cristatus, Silene
cyri, Teucreum polium, Campanula hohenackeri, Centaurea ovina,
Stachys fruticulosa.
Sub-types (9AOW-GE 03): Dry open woodland with willowleaved pear species (Pyrus spp.). Dominant species are: Pyrus
salicifolia, P. georgica and P. demetrii. From other species Paliurus
spina-christi, Berberis vulgaris, Rosa canina, etc. are worth noting.
Endemic P. eldarica is found by A. Grossheim only in Azerbaijan,
Samukhi region (Eliar-ougli). P. fedorovii is the endeme found in the
surroundings of village Gldani and village Mukhrani. P. oxyprion can
be found in Dedoplistskaro region in the Lekistskali ravine. Celtis
caucasica, Punica granatum, Rosa spp., Tamarix ramosissima also
grow in this place. Rare endemic species P. sakhokiana is found only in
Dedoplistskaro region, on the black mountain. Here are formations a
denser stand than P. salicifolia, on the northern slope, in the depression.
The understory made of Jerusalem-thorn and oriental hirn-beam is
developed here. In Ateni village surroundings, on mountain Unagira
grow P. salicifolia var. angustifolia.
Sub-types (9AOW-GE 04): Dry open woodland with willowleaved pear species (Pyrus spp.). Dominant species are: Pyrus
salicifolia, P. georgica and P. demetrii. From other species Paliurus
spina-christi, Berberis vulgaris, Rosa canina, etc. are worth noting.
Endemic P. eldarica is found by A. Grossheim only in Azerbaijan,
Samukhi region (Eliar-ougli). P. fedorovii is the endeme found in the
surroundings of village Gldani and village Mukhrani. P. oxyprion can
276
be found in Dedoplistskaro region in the Lekistskali ravine. Celtis
caucasica, Punica granatum, Rosa spp., Tamarix ramosissima also
grow in this place. Rare endemic species P. sakhokiana is found only in
Dedoplistskaro region, on the black mountain. Here are formations a
denser stand than P. salicifolia, on the northern slope, in the depression.
The understory made of Jerusalem-thorn and oriental hirn-beam is
developed here. In Ateni village surroundings, on mountain Unagira
grow P. salicifolia var. angustifolia.
Plants species: Pistacia mutica, Juniperus polycarpos, J.
foetidisima, J. rufescens, J. oblonga, Celtis australis, C. caucasica, C.
glabrata, Pyrus salicifolia, P. ketzkhovelii, P. demetrii, P. takhtadziani,
P. georgica, P. fedorovii, P. oxyprion, P. sakhokiana, P. salicifolia var.
angustifolia, Acer ibericum, Cynosurus cristatus,, Amygdalus
georgica,, Atraphaxis spinosa, Atraphaxis spinosa, Berberis vulgaris,
Bothriochloa ischaemum, Campanula hohenackeri, Caragana
grandiflora, Prunus incana, Centaurea ovina, Colutea orientalis,
Cotinus coggygria, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Ephedra procera, Festuca
sulcata, Jasminum fruticans, Lonicera iberica, Paliurus spina-christi,
Prunus microcarpa, Punica granatum, Quercus iberica, Reaumuria
alternifolia, Rhamnus pallasii, Rhus coriaria, Rosa canina, Silene cyri,
Spiraea crenata, Stachys fruticulosa, Tamarix ramosissima, Teucreum
polium, Ulmus carpinifolia.
9.5.5.1. Crop wild relatives (CWR) plant species Aegilops tauschii
Coss., Poaceae
Crop wild relatives (CWR) are determined by the exchange of gene
crops and germaplazma used agricultural crop domestication ancestor
species.
Synonyms: Triticum tauschii (Coss.) Schmalh., T. aegilops P.
Beauv. ex Roemer & Schult., Patropyrum tauschii (Coss.) A. Love,
Aegilops squarrosa sensu Tausch non L. The species in Georgia are A. tauschii Coss. subsp. tauschii, C. A. tauschii Coss. subsp.
strangulata (Eig) Tzvelev; A. tauschii Coss. var. meyerii (Griseb.)
Tzvelev; A. biuncialis Vis.; A. columnaris Zhuk.; A. comosa Sm., A.
cylindrica Host; A. geniculata Roth, A. neglecta Req. ex Bertol.; A.
triuncialis L.; and A. umbellulata Zhuk. (Akhalkatsi, 2015c; Figure
75).
277
A
B
C
D
Figure 75. A. Aegilops tauschii is distribution in Meskheti and in south
Kartli; B. A. tauschii subsp. tauschii; C. A. tauschii subsp. strangulata;
D. A. tauschii var. meyerii. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Annual or biennial plant has 20-40 cm high, with singular or
numerous erect or geniculate stems. Leaves are linear. The ear is
elongated, cylindrical, and sometimes feebly fusiform; in the mature
phase glossy, as if polished, with 5-11 spikelets. At the bottom of the
ear there is 1 rudimentary or underdeveloped spikelet. The ear is brittle;
when mature easily disintegrates into spikelets, especially in the upper
part. Spikelets are cylindrical, circular in cross-section; glumes are
rectangular-contoured, nearly square-shaped, 5-6 mm in length and 3-4
mm in width, with 7- 9 thin, weakly denticulated veins, becoming
almost smooth when the spikelet is mature. In the upper part the glumes
are always awnless, truncated, and obtuse, with an incrassate edge in a
bolster-like fashion, which is more expressed in the lower spikelets.
The lemma is 1-2 mm longer than spikelet glumes, narrow-rectangular,
with an incrassate upper edge; one corner of the lemma's upper edge is
extended into a denticle or a short awn. The length of the lemma's awns
ranges from 5 to 36 mm, increasing, as a rule, toward the top of the ear.
The awns at the base are grooved. Kernels accrete to palea. Wind is and
self-pollinated plant. Autochore and propagated are by seed. 2n=14.
The overall distribution - Crimea is Sudak, Caucasus as all, Middle
Asia has river valleys of Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya in their upper and
middle course, Kyzyl Kum, northern and western Tien Shan, GissarDarvaz, Alai, Tarbagatai, Saur, Dzungarian Ala Tau, Kopet Dagh,
278
Mediterranean region, Asia Minor, Iran, Himalayas. Distribution in
Samtskhe-Javakheti region - This species is mixed in populations with
A. cylindrica, but the number of individuals is much fewer. Not all
populations of A. cylindrical contained individuals of A. tauschii. We
have found is only in 5 sites.
Ephemeral is plant. Winter is hardy. Drought is resistant. Salt is
resistant. Grows in semi-deserts, over dry loess or rubbly slopes,
gravels, on light sandy or, conversely, heavy clay soils of the plains,
sometimes even slightly salinized ones, on seaside sands, dry hills and
in weedy places.
Threat assessment - This species should be included in RDB
Georgia and give a status of NT species. Ex situ status - Seeds of A.
tauschii from different region of Georgia are present in seed banks of
USDA, ICARDA, VIR, IPK Gatersleben and Kew RBG. Seeds from
Samtskhe-Javakheti are kept at the TBG&BI.
The plant is consumed by animals like A. cylindrica. It is used as
gene source for disease resistance and pest resistance. Hexaploid bread
wheat is originated from hybridization of tetraploid T. turgidum L. with
diploid A. tauschii Coss. (Kihara 1944; McFadden and Sears 1946).
Good-quality fodder plant, consumed in spring and early summer. In
the flowering phase contains 18.9% of albumens (including 10.7% of
protein), 2.1% of fats, 23.0% of cellulose; in the fruiting phase there are
17.1% of albumens (including 11.2% of protein), 5.1% of fats, and
32.4% of cellulose.
Tausch's goat grass is spread by seed dispersal only. Therefore, any
method that reduces seed spread will reduce the spread of the plant.
Population disturbances and habitat fragmentation is expected when
road construction works are undertaken.
Proposed action plan objectives and targets:
1. Maintain the current populations of A. tauschii in SamtskheJavakheti region.
2. Reduce the decline of this species through appropriate habitat
management.
A. tauschii should be declared as species of high economic value as
genetic ancestor for hexaploid bread wheat. The territory where A.
tauschii is distributed in Samtskhe-Javakheti does not needs special
conservation measures to be undertaken. However, Road construction
works might cause habitat disturbances and fragmentation. The
279
conservation measures of this species should be directed on
establishment of ex situ seed collections and public education on
importance of this plant as ancestor of the bread wheat. The local
population and governmental bodies responsible for the nature
protection should be informed about high conservation value of this
species. This species is crossed with winter wheat producing viable
hybrids. The genome is used in molecular systematic studies.
9.5.6. Code of Georgia: Sub-alpine birch krummholz Betula
litwinowii Doluch., Betulaceae (9BFGE*)
The treeline on moist slopes of the northern exposition of the Great and
Minor Caucasus is formed by the subalpine forest of birch elfin trees at
the altitude of 2400-2500 meters. However, separate trees are common
at the altitude of up to 2550 meters. Inclination of slopes does not
exceed 10-25°C that determines stable cover of snow during winter.
The mountain brown soil is characteristic, mainly on volcanic rock
layers with the humus layer of 10-20 cm thick. The forest of this type is
found in the Central Caucasus. Namely are in Kazbegi region as well as
in the Minor Caucasus. For example, on Tskhratskaro pass above
Bakuriani. It is as well common on northern slopes of Shavsheti and
Erusheti ranges. In this type of habitat the border of the forest is
lowered by 200-400 meters as a result of anthropogenic impact, which
is caused by excessive grazing and cutting of trees. However, as a
result of recent global warming and decrease of grazing, the slopes
where the birch grove had to be present earlier were repeatedly
reforested. Those forests on the Great Caucasus that are considered to
be the so-called “forests of the church” and where grazing and cutting
has not taken place for ages, are well preserved.
Above 1800 meters up to 2300 meters tall birch trees with closed
canopy form forest occupied the slopes of northern exposition. The
timberline is situated at the altitude of 2400-2500 meters where 2-3
meter tall elfin birch and mountain ashes are found and Caucasian
evergreen rhododendron (Rhododendron caucasicum) and other
evergreen shrubs are introduced as a understory. The treeline reaches
2550 meters where only dwarf trees of the birch grow among
Caucasian evergreen rhododendron shrubs. Characteristic species are:
Betula litwinowii, B. radeana, B. pendula, Sorbus caucasigena, Salix
280
caprea, S. kazbegensis, Rhododendron caucasicum, Vaccinium
myrtillus, V. uliginosum, V. vitis-idaea, Daphne glomerata, D.
mezereum, Anemone fasciculata, Polygonatum verticillatum, Swertia
iberica, Festuca drymeja, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Dolichorrhiza
renifolia, D. caucasica, Cicerbita racemosa.
Plants species: Betula litwinowii, B. radeana, B. pendula, Salix
caprea, S. kazbegensis, Sorbus caucasigena, Rhododendron
caucasicum, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. uliginosum, V. vitisidaea,
Aconitum nasutum, A. orientale, Anemone fasciculata, Aquilegia
caucasica, Calamagrostis arundinacea, Campanula latifolia,
Caphalanthera longifolia, Cicerbita racemosa, Daphne glomerata, D.
mezereum, Dolichorrhiza caucasica, D. renifolia, Festuca drymeja,
Geranium sylvaticum, Heracleum roseum, Lathyrus roseus,
Polygonatum verticillatum, Senecio propinquus, Swertia iberica, Vicia
balansae, Gymnadenia conopsea, Platanthera montana.
9.5.6.1. Edificatory species and madicinal plant Birch - Betula
litwinowii Doluch. - B. raddeana Trautv., Betulaceae
These birch species are growing in Upper Mountain and subalpine belts
at 1900-2500 m a.s.l. as subalpine birch groves. 15-18 m is tall tree.
Snow cover is <0.5 m. The exposition is for all directions and
inclination till 40°C. Sunny edge is normal; dappled shade is in North
Wall, East Wall, and West Wall.
Sometimes is on rocky or stony slopes. On treeline is forms
peculiar subalpine krumholz. Suitable for: light, medium and heavy
soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay and
nutritionally poor soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic soils and
can grow in very acid soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry
or moist soil. The plant can tolerate strong winds but not maritime
exposure (Figure 76).
B. litwinowii has stemmed mostly crooked, crown loose, bark
whitish, often slightly roseate. Leaf thin, ovate or ovate-rhomboid,
narrows at the base to a wedge-shaped petiole, acute, margins double
serrate. leaves ovate or rarely rhombic -ovate, at base rounded or rarely
cordate, acuminate, rather sharply toothed on the margin, firm, lustrous
above, paler beneath, 4-6 cm long, 2.5-5 cm broad; young leaves and
shoot leaves glutinous, rather heavily pubescent, finally pubescent only
281
beneath, with warts in the axils of veins; petiole pubescent, one-fourth
to one-half the length of the blade; Petiole 3-4-times shorter than the
blade, mostly slightly pubescent.
A
D
C
B
E
F
G
Figure 76. A. Betula litwinowii is in subalpine forest and in treeline to
2600 m. B. Tree trunk suffering from lichen; C. Tree trunk suffering
from fungi; D. Leaf is of this species; E. Female fruits are the one year;
F. Male fruits have pollen in May; G. Pollen has length of the
horizontal height as 25-27 µm. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Monoecious is here. Inflorescence catkin, flowers clustered like
cylindrical spike. staminate aments 2 or 3 together at the ends of
branches, pendulous, 5-6 cm long; fruiting aments solitary on short 2or 3 -leaved lateral branchlets, 2.5-3 cm long and 9 -10 mm thick,
borne on a pubescent peduncle; bracts 3- 5 mm broad, covered in upper
part with short hairs, ciliate on the margin; median lobe elongate oblong; lateral lobes spreading, broad, round-tipped or obtuse to
subtruncate; nutlet oblong-ellipsoid, ca. 2 mm long, the wings 1.5 times
as broad as the nutlet and reaching tips of stigmas. Pistillate catkins are
drooping, on 8-12 mm long peduncle. Fruit is very small, one seeded
samara with lateral wings.
282
B. raddeana is a small tree, with pinkish, white, or brownish bark;
Young is catkins (Figure 77). No more details are given. A tea is made
from the leaves and another tea is made from the essential oil in the
inner bark.
A
B
C
D
Figure 77. A. Betula raddeana is in subalpine forest to 2300 m. B.
Female fruits are the one year; C. Leaf is of this species on the top side;
D. Leaf is of this species on the bottom side. Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
Photo: Maia Akhalkatsi.
283
The bark of branches dark brownish, with lenticels; annotinous
branchlets yellowish-brown, velutinous, with scattered glands; leaves
petiolate, ovate to ovate-oblong, cuneate or rounded at base, acuminate,
unequally sharp-toothed on the margin, with 6 or 7 pairs of veins, green
and glabrous above, paler and pubescent in the axils of veins beneath,
3-4.5 cm long, 2 -3.5 cm broad, the densely puberulous petiole 10 -15
cm long; staminate aments 2 or 3 together, slender, elongate -cylindric,
2-2.5 cm long and 10 - 14 mm in diameter, the pubescent peduncle 5-6
mm long or rarely longer; bracts caducous, long-cuneate, ca. 8 mm
long, puberulous on the margin, the straight oblong or ovate median
lobe narrowed toward base, the lateral lobes half to two-thirds as long,
oval, acutish to obtusish, slightly divergent; nutlet obovoid, ca. 3 mm
long, pubescent at apex, often pointed at base, the wings about as broad
as the nutlet. Both species flowering in April-May, fruits are in JulyAugust.
Owing to its quality, the wood provides valuable material for
various jobs, especially in carriage construction. The wood of Betula
differs little in quality from that of B. litwinowii and is similarly used in
cart construction, etc. Valuable carving material is furnished by the
"birch burls," excrescences formed about the root or more rarely on the
trunk or on sucker growth. The wood represents a variant of normal
birch wood in having irregular twisted annual rings and medullary rays.
This wood is highly valued for carpentry and turning jobs and also for
veneers. Considerable use is also made of birch bark, especially in the
North, sometimes stitching together two or three layers, use it as
waterproof cover for their tents, etc.; to increase its flexibility they
sometimes scour it with fat. It is also used for canoes and for tar
production. Inner bark - cooked or dried and ground into a meal. It can
be added as a thickener to soups etc. or can be mixed with flour for
making bread, biscuits etc. Inner bark is generally only seen as a
famine food, used when other forms of starch are not available or are in
short supply. Sap is raw or cooked. A sweet is flavour. It is harvested in
early spring, before the leaves unfurl, by tapping the trunk. It makes a
pleasant drink. It is often concentrated into syrup by boiling off the
water. Between 4 and 7 litres can be drawn off a mature tree in a day
and this will not kill the tree as long as the tap hole is filled up
afterwards. However, prolonged or heavy tapping will kill the tree. The
flow is best on sunny days following a frost. The sap can be fermented
284
into a beer. Young leaves - raw or cooked. Anti-inflammatory is
cholagogue, diaphoretic. The bark is diuretic and laxative. Oil obtained
from the inner bark is astringent and is used in the treatment of various
skin afflictions, especially eczema and psoriasis. The bark is usually
obtained from trees that have been felled for timber and can be distilled
at any time of the year. The inner bark is bitter and astringent; it is used
in treating intermittent fevers. The vernal sap is diuretic. The buds are
balsamic. The young shoots and leaves secrete a resinous substance
which has acid properties, when combined with alkalis it is a tonic
laxative. The leaves are anticholesterolemic and diuretic. They also
contain phytosides, which are effective germicides. An infusion of the
leaves is used in the treatment of gout, dropsy and rheumatism, and is
recommended as a reliable solvent of kidney stones. The young leaves
and leaf buds are harvested in the spring and dried for later use. A
decoction of the leaves and bark is used for bathing skin eruptions.
Moxa is made from the yellow fungous excrescences of the wood,
which sometimes swell out of the fissures. The German Commission E
Monographs, a therapeutic guide to herbal medicine, approve Betula
species for infections of the urinary tract, kidney and bladder stones,
rheumatism. The bark is used to make drinking vessels, canoe skins,
roofing tiles etc. It is waterproof, durable, tough and resinous. Only the
outer bark is removed, this does not kill the tree. It is most easily
removed in late spring to early summer. A pioneer species, it readily
invades old fields, cleared or burnt-over land and creates conditions
suitable for other woodland trees to become established. Since it is
relatively short-lived and intolerant of shade, it is eventually outcompeted by these trees. A tar-oil is obtained from the white bark in
spring. It has fungicidal properties and is also used as an insect
repellent. It makes a good shoe polish. Another report says that an
essential oil is obtained from the bark and this, called 'Russian Leather'
has been used as a perfume. A decoction of the inner bark is used to
preserve cordage, it contains up to 16% tannin. Oil similar to
Wintergreen oil is obtained from Gaultheria procumbens and it is
obtained from the inner bark. It is used medicinally and also makes a
refreshing tea. The resin glands has the report does not say where these
glands are foundand it are used to make a hair lotion. A brown dye is
obtained from the inner bark A glue is made from the sap. Cordage can
be made from the fibres of the inner bark. This inner bark can also be
285
separated into thin layers and used as a substitute for oiled paper. The
young branches are very flexible and are used to make whisks, besoms
etc. They are also used in thatching and to make wattles. The leaves are
a good addition to the compost heap, improving fermentation. Wood soft, light, durable. It is used for a wide range of purposes including
furniture, tool handles, toys and carving. A high quality charcoal is
obtained from the bark. It is used by artists, painters etc. The wood is
also pulped and used for making paper. A very easily grown plant, it
tolerates most soils including poor ones, sandy soils and heavy clays. It
prefers a well-drained loamy soil in a sunny position. It is occasionally
found on calcareous soils in the wild but it generally prefers a pH
below 6.5, doing well on acid soils. Fairly wind tolerant though it
becomes wind shaped when exposed to strong winds. The silver birch
is a very ornamental tree with many named varieties. It also has a very
wide range of economic uses. It is a fast growing tree, increasing by up
to 1 metre a year, but is short-lived. It is often one of the first trees to
colonize open land and it creates a suitable environment for other
woodland trees to follow. These trees eventually out-compete and
shade out the birch trees. It makes an excellent nurse tree for seedling
trees, though its fine branches can cause damage to nearby trees when
blown into them by the wind. Trees take about 15 years from seed to
produce their own seed. A superb tree for encouraging wildlife, it has
229 associated insect species. A good plant is to grow near the compost
heap, aiding the fermentation process. It is also a good companion
plant, its root action working to improve the soil. Trees are notably
susceptible to honey fungus. Seed is as best sown as soon as it is ripe in
a light position in a cold frame. Only just cover the seed and place the
pot in a sunny position. Spring sown seed should be surface sown in a
sunny position in a cold frame. If the germination is poor, raising the
temperature by covering the seed with glass can help. When they are
large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and
grow them on in a cold frame for at least their first winter. Plant them
out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after
the last expected frosts. If you have sufficient seed, it can be sown in an
outdoor seedbed, either as soon as it is ripe or in the early spring - do
not cover the spring sown seed. Grow the plants on in the seedbed for 2
years before planting them out into their permanent positions in the
winter.
286
10. HABITAT DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Georgia is located in the Caucasus region, which is among the planet’s
25 most diverse and endangered hotspots designated as conservation
priorities because the Caucasus is a region of remarkably rich
vegetation with a very high level of endemism (Myers et al., 2000).
Georgia has an extremely varied topography and climate that produce a
mosaic of habitat types ranging from see level up to alpine vegetation
near the snowline; and, from warm, humid lowlands at the Black See to
dry, continental areas in the Eastern Georgia covered by forests of
different kinds, steppes, and semi-deserts. 4400 species of vascular
plants, including 380 endemic species, occur in Georgia’s 69700
kilometres 2 (Nakhutsrishvili, 2013).
The Caucasian mountain region is made up of three Separate
Mountain systems are the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and Talysh
mountains and the lowlands of the Transcaucasian depression located
between Black and Caspian Sees (Neidze, 2003). Georgian territory
covers parts of the Greater Caucasus mountain range, Transcaucasian
depression and the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to
the greater range, at a distance averaging about 100 kilometres south,
between 40°C and 47°C latitude east, and 42°C and 44°C longitude
north. Two thirds of the country is mountainous with an average height
of 1200 m.a.s.l., with highest peaks of Mount Shkhara (5184 m.a.s.l.) at
the Western Greater Caucasus and Mount Didi Abuli (3301 m.a.s.l.) in
the Lesser Caucasus.
The core of the Great Caucasus mountain range is composed of
Precambrian and Paleozoic crystalline rocks, mostly granites and
gneiss. The mountains of the southern macroslope are made of Jurassic
and Triassic slates, sandstones, allevrolites, argellites, massive
limestone and tuffs (Romanika, 1977). The Lesser Caucasus at
Javakheti Plateau is composed of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary
igneous rocks including lavas and shallow intrusive rocks such as
andesite, basalt and dolerite (Klopotovski, 1950). The soils of the
southern macroslope of the Great Caucasus mountain range belong to
the Western Transcaucasian Mountain Province (Ivanova et al, 1963).
Within the lower vertical zone (up to 300-500 m above sea level),
either mountain zheltozems or gray forest soils predominate. Higher, up
287
to 1800-2000 m, the soils belong to the brown mountain-forests acid
non-podzolized type. Most soils within the forest belt correspond to
either Inceptisols or Ultisols. The Lesser Caucasus including Javakheti,
Tsalka-Dmanisi and Erusheti uplands is covered with the mountain
chernozems which are formed at altitudes from 1200-2200 m and
meadow chernozem-like soils. In highlands they are replaced by
mountain-meadow soils. Besides, the alluvial soils, redzinas, brown as
well as the meadow-brown soils occur here, with the predominance of
brown forest type of soil in the mountain forest belt (Neidze, 2003).
Climate is temperate but fluctuates by elevation, that varies from 0 to
5184 m and air temperature is changed on the average of 0.65°C per
100 m altitude; and by regions from humid western Georgia to arid
zones in the Eastern Iori Plateau and annual precipitation varies from
1500-2000 and up to 4500 millimetres in the western, Kolkhic part to
600-1000 mm in drier parts of eastern and southern regions (Neidze,
2003). One third of the Georgian territory is covered by forests, 70% of
which are mountain forests spread from lower montane belt up to the
treeline ecotone. The Caucasus forests have one of the highest levels of
endemism in the temperate world (Nakhutsrishvili, 2013). 23 percent
of vascular plants are endemic to the region. According to A.
Dolukhanov (2010) the Caucasus forest belt can be subdivided into
three major elevation zones: broad-leaved forests (50-900 m),
coniferous forests (900-1700 m), and high mountain krummholz forests
(1700-2000 m). The overstory is frequently dominated by beech,
hornbeam, chestnut, oak, and fir.
Georgian vegetation is well studied by Georgian botanists
(Grossheim et al., 1928; Ketskhoveli, 1959; Dolukhanov, 1989,
2010; Nakhutsrishvili, 2013). The classification of forest plant
communities was done by A. Dolukhanov (1989). However, the
different methodology used by European and Soviet schools caused
differences in nomenclature. Natura 2000 habitat directives based on
CORINE biotope classification system developed legislative basis for
conservation of natural habitats in EU. To join this system it was
necessary to conduct inventory and develop new schema of habitat
types according to Natura 2000 standards in Georgia. We have
undertaken an attempt to classify Georgian forest area to the habitat
types.The aim to develop habitat classification in countries of European
288
continent based on the standards of the EUR27 version of the
Interpretation Manual includes descriptions of new habitats, which are
characteristics to concrete countries. These new habitat types should be
accepted by the Commission and to be added to Annex I. Georgia is a
country with very diverse habitat types. The habitat classification was
done recently (Akhalkatsi, 2009). Many forest habitat types are
identical to the habitats, which are already included in the Annex I of
the Interpretation Manual v. EUR27. However, some habitat types are
candidates to be included in the Annex I as new habitat types. The new
habitats, which to our opinion should be included in Annex I are: 1)
Beech forests with Kolkhic understory (Fageta fruticosa colchica); 2)
Kolhketi broad-leaved mixed forest; 3) Zelkova forest (Zelkova
carpinifolia); 4) Arid open woodlands; and, 5) Subalpine birch
krummholz. There are habitats, which are identical to related European
habitats by species composition on generic level, but species are
different. The similarity between European and Caucasian plant species
is mainly congeneric and not conspecific. Therefore, some habitats,
which are similar to the European habitat types, should be considered
as sub-types: 1) Beech forests without understory (Fageta sine
fruticosa); 2) Dark-coniferous forest (Picea orientalis - Abies
nordmanniana); 3) Pine forest (Pinus kochiana); 4) Yew forest (Taxus
baccata); 5) Hornbeam forest (Carpinus caucasica); 6) Boxwood
Forest (Buxus colchica). As sensitive habitats might be considered 1)
Beech forests with Kolkhic understory (Fageta fruticosa colchica); 2)
Kolhketi broad-leaved mixed forest; 3) Bog woodland Tilio-Acerion
forests of slopes, screes and ravines; 4) Alluvial forests; 5) Alluvial
forest with Adler trees - Alnus glutinosa and ash tree - Fraxinus
excelsior (Alno-Pandion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae); 6) Riparian
mixed forests; 7) Yew forest (Taxus baccata); 8) Zelkova forest
(Zelkova carpinifolia); 9) Boxwood Forest (Buxus colchica); 10)
Subalpine birch krummholz.
Forests occupy 32-35% of the territory of Georgia
(Nakhutsrishvili, 2013). The riparian and marsh forests occur in all
regions of Georgia. Mountain forests are represented by lower, middle
and upper belts. Oak, beech (Fagus orientalis) and beech-chestnut
forests grow in the lower and middle belts changing higher in the
mountains into the Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana) and Oriental
289
spruce (Picea orientalis) forests. Pinus kochiana, Acer trautvetteri or
Quercus macranthera grow at tree line ecotone in different regions.
There are also well-developed crooked-stem birch forests (Betula
litwinowii) at the tree line, usually occupying the steepest northern
slopes. Dry open woodlands-relict forests are to be found in semi-arid
regions of the eastern Georgia and are composed by Pistacia mutica,
Juniperus spp., Pyrus spp., etc. Forested land in Georgia occupies
2.773.400 ha. About 2.2 million ha are classified as state forest under
the responsibility of the Department of Forest Management (DFM), and
the remaining consists of former "Kolkhoz lands" part of which are
now in the process of being transferred to the DFM.
Forests in Georgia are mostly heavily damaged due to over cutting,
forest fires, tree disease etc. The degradation of qualitative consistence
and productivity of the forest fund lead to reduction and sometimes
even loss in the functionality of forests. As a result, avalanches and
landslides are happening quite often in the mountainous regions. Virgin
forests occupy about 500.000 - 600.000 ha (Ketskhoveli, 1959). They
are mainly located on steep slopes of the Great and Minor Caucasus
where access is restricted. The loss of diversity and changes in species
composition in forests is mainly a result of anthropogenic influence.
The last few years were characterized by the activation of natural
disaster processes in certain mountainous areas of the country (Adjara,
Svaneti, and Racha) which also affected the state of natural forests.
Recent intensive deforestation activities were unprecedented in the
history of the country. This is mainly due to the almost complete
reduction of timber imports from Russia after declaration of
independence.
Besides, uncontrolled illegal forest cutting have been initiated.
Especially vulnerable to cutting activities are former kolkhoz owned
forests: their structure is destroyed, the modification of species is
speeded up, erosion processes are accelerating, the forest forming plant
species are substituted by satellite plant species and scrubs. Or even
worse the soil on slopes is simply washed away. Therefore in many
places oak groves are replaced by oriental hornbeam, hornbeam, or
evergreen scrubs, shiblyak. Much of the State Forest also could not
escape. The natural forest provides goods and services such as food,
fiber, clean air, recreation and wildlife. Sustaining these lands and their
ecological functions for future generations requires in-depth knowledge
290
of vegetation ecology and management systems; the effects of
disturbances such as fire, invasive species, insects and diseases;
processes and production systems; and how forests interact with global
environmental changes and social systems. One of the main issues is
forest genetic resources management. Steps to conserve genetic
resources are research on an improved genetic base of native tree
species (together with increased economic utilization of its wood),
evaluation of the gene base relict and endangered species, development
of improved silvicultural techniques, and revised costing standards for
plantation establishment.
Conservation and sustainable use of forest resources in Georgia
needs development of the following priority objectives: implementation
of the Forest Code; reform of silviculture and forest management
systems, restoration of tree nurseries, establishment of seed banks,
inventory and conservation of forest genetic resources, maintenance of
forest health and vitality, involvement of the public in forest resources
conservation and sustainable use, research activation in the fields of
genetic diversity studies and tree breeding. The Caucasus is
characterized by high endemism and considered to be one of the 25 hot
spots of biodiversity worldwide. The scientific, material and cultural
value of biological diversity for present and future generations is an
important reason for its conservation today. It is important to preserve
natural diversity by way of conservation of native species in every
country of the world. While conservation has made great strides in
some areas, there are entire regions where still a lot of efforts should be
undertaken for fostering the conservation of endangered species.
Among these countries is Georgia as well. Endangered species are
described as “plant and animal species that are in danger of extinction,
the dying off of all individual species” (IUCN, 2001). One out of the
eight of the worlds’ plant species is threatened by extinction. Scientists
put more than 34 000 plant species, out of an estimated total of 270 000
species, at a risk.
Maintaining biodiversity is a fundamental environmental planning
objective as the loss of species has an immediate impact in terms of
depletion of non-renewable resources. It also affects the balance of
ecosystems producing secondary impacts in terms of proliferation or
reduction of linked species. Strategic criteria for maintaining
291
biodiversity include: protection of key habitat areas and protection of
ecological links that will allow species to migrate as conditions change.
It should be mentioned, that the occurrence of endangered species
in the protected territory alone fails to ensure the maintenance of their
population stability without applying appropriate management systems.
Much more difficult will be the protection of rare species located
outside the protected territories. Concrete recommendations should be
given to various official bodies and organizations responsible for nature
conservation in Georgia to introduce managed regime at sites where the
populations of threatened species occur. Especially urgent is the
protection of known localities of species classified as Critically
Endangered and Endangered. Special attention should be paid to
protect the typical habitats of endangered species.
The Georgian legislation regulating tending, protection and use of
the Georgian Forest Funds is based on the Constitution of Georgia and
on some laws addressing environmental issues ratified by the Georgian
Parliament. The main document is the "Forest Code of Georgia". In
accordance with the Constitution, Georgia assumed quite serious
commitments in the field of environmental protection and started the
development of new environmental legislation in order to comply with
the constitution, international agreements, laws and regulations
Preparation of the first National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)
commenced in 1996 and was completed in 2000. At present, NEAP has
the authority of a regulation. As regards the forest sector, NEAP is
rather general. It is more a description of the existing situation of the
country's forests rather than a program of activities. NEAP calls for
reforms with the following priority objectives: preservation of the
diversity of the forest ecosystems; stable regeneration of forest
resources; improvement of the relevant legal base; training of personnel
in sustainable management; improvement of social and economic
conditions of the staff; reform of the forestry system by making it
independent from entrepreneurial activity; establishment of conditions
which attract private investments in the forestry sector.
The main document is the Forest Code of Georgia dealing with the
following issues: Management of the State forest fund; Forest
protection; Forest use; Forest restoration and tending; State monitoring,
supervision of forest protection and enforcement of the forest
legislation; Settlement of disputes on tending, protection, restoration,
292
afforestation and forest use and liability for infringement of the forest
legislation. According to this law, forest can be in ownership of the
State, the Patriarchy of Georgia, and physical or legal entities.
This article will come into force only after the enactment of the
Law on Privatization of Forests owned by the State. Legal and physical
persons using forests and forest resources or engaged in forestry
activities, as well as the Patriarchy of Georgia are deemed to be
subjects of relationships along with the State. Forests are divided into
the following categories according their institutional management: a)
protected areas of State forests covering territories specified by the Law
on the Protected Area System; b) State forestry (managed by the
Department of Forest Management) which includes local forests.
Protected areas of State Forests are regulated by the Department of
Protected Areas, Nature reserves and Hunting Farms; the State forestry,
except local forests, by the DFM, and the local forests by local
authorities through the relevant services.
Main goals of the "Forest Code of Georgia" are: protecting human
rights and law enforcement in the field of forest relations; conducting
forest tending, protection and restoration with the purpose of
conserving and improving climate-regulating, and recreational, and
other useful natural and cultural environment and its specific
components - flora and fauna, biodiversity, landscape, cultural and
natural monuments located in forests, rare and endangered plant
species; regulating of harmonized interrelations between these
components; setting rights and obligations of forest users in the field of
forest relations, meeting environmental, economic, social, and cultural
needs of population through providing access to forest resources as
compatible with scientifically defined allowable norms principles of
sustainable forest management.
Georgia accepts some international agreements and treaties
concerning environmental protection. Among them is the Declaration
on Forest Principles of Sustainable Development adopted at the United
Nations Environmental Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 1992, which is
supported by the Georgian Law on Environmental Protection.
Other International Agreements related to environment are
indicated. As stated in “Harmonization of the National Program of
Georgian Legislation with EU Legislation” the Georgian legislation in
environmental protection needs harmonization with international
293
conventions and agreements. Georgia is a member of four conventions
concerning Biodiversity and is in preparation to join the “Convention
on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats”.
To assure conformity of Georgian environmental legislation with
EU legislation this convention will allow an integrated approach on the
regional level for biodiversity conservation. The EU directives
mentioned in “Harmonization of National Program of Georgian
Legislation with EU Legislation” will help us to solve the following
problems in particular: fulfillment of conservation of wildlife and
natural (floral) habitats, improvement of forest protection and
conservation quality, propagation and restoration of endangered
species. However, generally speaking, the legislative base for forest
management and protection, as well as for biodiversity conservation is
not yet sufficient in Georgia and needs further improvement.
The main problem in habitat conservation strategy was absence on
any information on habitat classification and prioritization in Georgia
up to recent time. The classical definition of a habitat is a sum of all
environmental conditions at a particular place to which an organism,
species, or community are normally adapted (Evans, 2010). However,
the habitat as a conservation unit used by European network programs
is based on species composition and plant community types besides the
abiotic features. The problem in this case is that there is a serious
difference in plant species and community type‘s taxonomic
nomenclature in different countries. This is caused by differences
between International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature
(Weber et al., 2000) based on two Finland and Swiss schools of
phytosociology used in Soviet Union and European countries,
respectively. The Georgian geobotanists were using Finland
classification systems of plant communities called as associations and
phytocenoses (Grossheim et al., 1928; Kimeridze, 1965;
Dolukhanov, 2010; Nakhutsrishvili, 2013).
Therefore, both plant species and community definitions were
different in most countries in the past period and some scientific
experts did not have a positive opinion about the suitability for
phytosociology to be the main geobotanical approach for managing
vegetation systems. The solution of the habitat classification problem
was introduced by Natura 2000 habitat directive (Council Directive
92/43/EEC) based on CORINE biotope classification (Devillers et al.,
294
1991) and its successor the Palaearctic habitat classification (Devillers,
Devillers, 1996), using the phytosociological nomenclature of
European syntaxa, which are syntaxonomic or heterotypical synonyms
of species names based on different nomenclatural types and are
considered to belong to the same syntaxon. This is a way to solve the
problem in different nomenclatural systems. To support the
development of the EU Natura 2000 network for extension to new east
European countries as they have joined the EU in 1996 the Emerald
network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCI‘s) under the
Berne Convention was adopted. The list of habitat types was taken
from the Palaearctic classification in 1996 (Devilliers, Devilliers
1996).
However, later was developed new European Nature Information
System (EUNIS) habitat classification (T-PVS/PA (2010)10 revE 09),
where the habitats are considered as 'a place where plants or animals
normally live, characterized primarily by its physical features
(topography, plant or animal physiognomy, soil characteristics, climate,
water quality etc.) and secondarily by the species composition of plants
and animals that live there‘(Davies et al., 2004). EUNIS habitats are
based not on plant communities but on a 10 hierarchy levels where
terrestrial and freshwater habitats are the highest level. In the marine
sector it is based on the JNCC Marine Habitat Classification for Britain
and Ireland (Connor et al, 2004) and habitat types developed by the
Barcelona and HELCOM marine conventions (Barcelona Convention,
1998; Helsinki Commission, 1998). Although, EUNIS habitats are restructured and re-defined to Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive, they
are cross-referenced in the internet databases (http://www.biodiversitya-z.org). The ASCI‘s of the Emerald network contains several
habitat types of Natura 2000 and represents not a habitat but their
combination, which will not correspond to the priority areas in each
country (Moss, 2008). Therefore, it is much easier to identify priority
areas by habitats based on plant community type and not on
combination of many different habitats. Therefore, all EU countries
have developed a classification system where EUNIS units coincide to
Natura 2000 habitats (Evans, 2010). Thus, the habitat classification
becomes the core issue for GIZ project on Caucasus Biodiversity in
order to define priority habitat types for the country.
295
11. ANALYSES OF HABITAT CONSERVATION
STRATEGY IN GEORGIA
Georgia signed the CBD in 1994. The state program to assess the
biodiversity in the country was started in 1996. This document contains
species and habitat diversity and conservation strategy. However, there
is no description of the habitats identified with the international
classification systems. The vegetation description is presented by major
biomes of Georgia. However, the biomes do not coincides with general
biome types, but is described as vegetation zones of Georgia.
Therefore, the habitat types of Georgia are not presented in this
document (NBSAP, 2005).
The second issue was evaluation of the habitat disturbances. The
major impact on habitat degradation is considered anthropogenic
impacts such as forest cutting, wetland drainage and transformation of
natural habitats into artificial or semi-natural landscapes. No
information is done on climate change effect on habitats. The strategic
plan to maintain and restore Georgia‘s species, habitats and genetic
diversity was based on methodology of in-situ and ex-situ
conservations and through sustainable use of biological resources,
which is a right way for maintenance of biodiversity. However, the
problem is ignorance of habitat type classification to be necessary for
determination of priority and sensitive habitats, which should be
protected as pilot areas. The establishment of special areas for
conservation (SAC) should be associated with sensitive habitats.
National legislation relating to biodiversity conservation is considered
as one of the keystone action for further improvement of nature
conservation strategy of the country in this document (NBSAP, 2005).
The legislation should be ensuring harmonization to international
conventions and laws. Currently, most actual amendments of laws and
regulations having contact with habitat conservation include Law of
Georgia on Red List and Forest Code. The action plan for maintenance
of habitat diversity is considered as identification of threatened plant
communities (rare, relic, primary and near primary, globally important,
and sensitive communities). This action plan do not coincides with
international convention guidelines where plant communities are
considered as basis for habitat determination and the priority and
296
sensitivity of habitats should be considered as a major indicator for
determination of threats. The hot spots outside legal protected areas and
vegetation types are indicated as conservation targets instead of habitats
in this document. As threatened areas are considered in NBSAP (2005)
Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Georgia (including complete
identification of transboundary IBAs), wetland ecosystems, flood plain
forests, overgrazed pastures, semiarid ecosystems and biological
corridors (Surami and Gombori ranges). Javakheti Wetlands
Conservation Management Plan is considered as approved agreement
between the neighboring countries (Armenia, Georgia, Turkey) on a
large-scale transboundary project achieved.
The main shortcoming of this document concerning evaluation of
habitat conservation strategy is a gap with international conventions
and networks such as Natura 2000 and Emerald. Therefore, it is
necessary to conduct analyses of these network guidelines and
implement them in Georgian NBSAP action plan.
12. NATURA 2000 NETWORK ASSESSMENT IN
GEORGIA
The classification and creation of the list of Georgian habitats (Habitats
of Georgia, Akhalkatsi, 2010, Akhalkatsi, Tarkhnishvili, 2012)
based on the directives of Natura 2000 (92/43/EEC and 79/409/EEC)
and Interpretation manual (EUR27) was made in 2010 in the
framework of the GIZ project ―Sustainable Management of
Biodiversity, South Caucasus and revised in 2012. The description of
each habitat types is composed by sections: 1) General description of
distribution area and environmental conditions; 2) Species of plants and
animals including dominant, rare and endemic species; 3)
Corresponding categories in other countries of Europe; 4) Associated
habitats, which occupy adjacent territories; 5) Bibliography. The total
number of natural, rural and urban habitats of Georgia is 65. Among
them only 21 habitat types are identical to listed in Annex I of Directive
92/43/EEC, 44 different habitat types are present in Georgia, and 25 are
priority type.
The syntaxonomic list of the vegetation units Georgia (up to
alliance level) is 147 with 66 sub-types of forest habitats. The priority
297
habitats ensure the conservation of vulnerable areas such as marine,
terrestrial and freshwater habitats, wetlands, floodplains and forests
with relic and endemic umbrella species including arid open
woodlands, Colchic mixed and subalpine birch forests, etc., which in
turn helps to safeguard the animals and plants needed these places to
survive.
A diverse range of priority habitats should be protected, including
as well meadows, estuaries and cave systems and this benefits a huge
variety of wildlife species throughout the Georgia. It is not only natural
habitat types, but also semi-natural ones, which depend on management
of humans (e.g. certain types of grasslands, urban and rural habitats).
Habitat types recorded in Georgia is essential for the sake of vegetation
mapping and nature conservation. The Emerald Network aims to
identify and conserve areas of a great ecological value for both the
threatened and endemic species listed in the Appendices of the Bern
Convention and for the endangered habitat types. The project
―Development of the Emerald Network in Central and Eastern Europe
and the South Caucasus was started in 2008 in 7 target countries Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, the Russian
Federation and Ukraine.
Since 2009 was started the Joint Programme entitled ―Support for
the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity Program
of Work on Protected Areas in the EU Neighbourhood Policy East Area
and Russia : Extension of the implementation of the EU‘s Natura 2000
principles through the Emerald Network (DCI-ENV/2008/149-825),
which aimed the implementation of an action to identify species and
habitats to protect and in selecting the potential sites suitable for
ensuring the long-term survival of the species protected by the Bern
Convention. Emerald Network Joint Program in Georgia was done by
the local NGO NACRES.
Steps undertaken in April-December 2009 are: (1) GIS boundary
data for 17 sites were identified; (2) Final list of 20 species of animals
and plants identified/agreed; (3) List of habitats identified/agreed (FPR,
2010). List of habitats: 1. Phrygana; 2. Dense perennial grasslands and
middle European steppes; 3. Arctoalpine riverine swards; 4. Salvinia
covers; 5. Near-natural raised bogs. In December 2010 were identified
17 potential Emerald sites, covering an area of 596475,63 ha.
298
Total number of species or habitats within the annexes and
resolutions are 161 species and 15 habitats. The list of habitats was not
presented (TPVS/ PA (2010)10 revE 09). These areas are EUNIS
habitats, but these units contain several habitats of Natura 2000 and are
cross-referenced to Natura 2000 habitat types in the internet databases.
They do not correspond to the concrete plant community types, but
contain several habitat combinations. The Emerald network (beyond
the EU) is still in its initial phase and needs further implementation.
The Georgia‘s strategic plan to protect priority habitats in the
coming NBSAP phase have to take into account the following
approaches: Natura 2000 is a basic program in EU nature protection
policy which includes a network of protected areas important for
conservation of priority habitat types and endangered species (EUR27).
This program contains classification of the European mainland,
extending east to the Ural Mountains, including Anatolian Turkey and
the Caucasus (Sundseth, Creed, 2008).
This program is best to use for conservation of priority habitats in
each country. Integration in Natura 2000 network proceeds in three
basic phases for each country: making of national lists of habitats,
selecting Site of Community Interest (SCI) and designation of SAC.
The Georgian Natura 2000 habitat classification and prioritization is
already done. However, the next steps should be implemented in the
future.
The Emerald Network ASCIs within EU member states are the
same as the Natura 2000 habitats (EIB, 2009). This network in EU
non-member countries seeks to positively influence the conditions for
the survival of habitats and species in the fragmented natural areas and
human dominated landscapes, through creation of ‘core areas‘,
‘corridors‘ and ‘buffer zones‘. These ASCIs are based on EUNIS
habitat classification.
However, the data bases in the internet (http://www.bio-diversityaz.org) presenting the areas for protection in all EU member countries
contains both EEA‘s/EUNIS and Natura 2000 habitats databases. The
data from EU non-member countries are included in these data bases in
a few amounts. This is the one of the main approach for involving in a
strategic plan of NBSAP of Georgia to introduce the data on Georgia‘s
habitats and ASCI‘s in these data bases.
299
The European Landscape Convention (Florence Convention)
promotes the protection, management and planning of landscapes and
organizes European co-operation on landscape issues with non-member
states.
The Convention was signed by Georgia in 12.05.2010. The main
approach of this program is to identify each landscape forms and
structures in the country: types of territories, social perceptions and
ever-changing natural, social and economic forces. Once this
identification work has been completed and the landscape quality
objectives set, the landscape can be protected, managed or developed.
The main aim of this convention is to reveal and sustain the great
diversity of the interactions between humans and their environment, to
protect living traditional cultures and preserve the traces of those which
have disappeared, these sites, called cultural landscapes, have been
inscribed on the UNESCO‘s World Heritage List. WWF of Georgia
started project on natural heritage area determination in 2012.
Urban environment protection actual when intervention of some
functions of habitat takes place in an urban area. The protection of rural
areas is not implemented so far. The problem remains for the species,
which are growing in rural habitats and on arable lands mixed with
field crops have different assessment to threats (Akhalkatsi et al.
2012). These species are depending in their existence to the monitoring
of arable lands, which crop will be sown, how will be transformed field
crop to pasture or hay meadow, or what kind of herbicides and mineral
fertilizers will be used in the field. The governmental institutions
should control the processes which might bring to the genetic erosion
of CWRs having high value of conservation. In this case the legislation
bases should be effective to control local farmers not affect CWRs with
ecologically unsuitable for this species actions in the field leading to
changing in technology of field cultivation methodology and leading to
disturbances of wild weed species of high conservation value.
Climate change impacts are forecasted to lose 52%±12.1 of
European vertebrates and plants within existing terrestrial protected
areas by 2080 (T-PVS/Inf (2009)10 rev). Effective biodiversity
conservation requires the identification and management of stationary
refugia, or range retention areas (where species are most likely to
survive despite climate changes), displaced refugia (where species are
able to find suitable conditions after being displaced by climate
300
change), and areas of high connectivity (allowing species to track
climate changes through dispersal; Araújo 2009). From the habitat
types flatland areas are more reflected by climate change. High altitude
habitats may gain species at the expense of the loss of cold-adapted
species, some of which are narrow endemics. The safeguarding of new
conservation lands freshwater and marine habitats as well as refugia
and corridors to upland habitats would allow the establishment of
migrating species in the long-term. An integrated policy for mitigation
of climate change impacts on biodiversity requires that current
approaches for the management of protected areas should be revised.
Transboundary Protected Areas (TBPAs) are recognised by IUCN
World Commission on Protected ‘Areas‘(WCPA) as conservation
initiatives for National Parks, Conservation and Development Areas,
and Transboundary Migratory Corridors. TBPAs are managed
cooperatively between two or more countries or the national sub-units.
TBPAs are of significant biodiversity importance as large protected
areas, which are effective for allowing greater migration of species,
especially fauna, maintenance of landscape connections, where
animals, plants, and ecological processes, including the human being,
can move freely from one habitat to another. TBPAs are also important
for adapting to climate change by linking landscapes and allowing
ecological processes to take place in fragmented ecosystems. TBPAs
allow for greater control of pest species or alien invasive species,
poaching and illegal trade across boundaries, reintroduction of large
species. The south boundary of Georgia with Turkey was protected
long time by military and the territories are actuals for creation of
TBPAs in Javakheti, Meskheti and Adjara.
Action Plan:
1. The following actions should be considered as agenda for
conservation of habitats in Georgia: (1) to harmonize habitat and
species lists through co-ordinate interpretation of the habitat types
included in the lists; (2) to create relevant data for areas of special
conservation interest and make available to the public, including
mapping of designated areas on a Pan-European scale, compatible
with geographical information systems and available on the
Internet; (3) strengthen the legal status for recognition and
protection of the areas by national government; (4) incorporate
development of the Natura 2000/Emerald networks into European
301
Union development assistance programs, namely through European
Union accession and neighborhood policies; (5) strengthen existing
guidance and mechanisms for reporting and implementation with a
view to being able to react to non-compliance with infringement
procedures, similar to the European Union procedures.
2. As a next step will be done acceptance of Natura 2000 priority
habitats by government and the creation of designating SCI by
scientific assessment of threat status and distribution of mentioned
habitats at national level. While doing this, it is necessary to take
into cons ideration ecological quality of habitats, degree of
representatively, size and density of the population of threatened
species, degree of isolation, determine umbrella species, etc. After
the site has been designates as SCI, member state has six years to
declare it as SAC. The most endangered sites have to be protected
first. During this six year period member state has to gradually
implement different measures for the protection of these areas.
Additionally, connectivity between Natura 2000 sites and other
areas of conservation need to be further improved, namely thought
wider countryside measures;
3. The Emerald Network projects should conduct following activities:
(1) Draw up and implement management plans which will identify
both short- and long-term objectives; (2) Clearly mark the
boundaries of ASCIs on maps; and, as far as possible, on the
ground; (3) Conduct training of national multidisciplinary Emerald
teams; (4) Provide the evaluation of threats in the chosen 17 ASCIs
of the Emerald Network; (5) Do description of selected areas of
special conservation interest using the Standard data form of the
Emerald/Natura 2000 software which are fully compatible with
each other.
4. Each planned possibly threatening activity in the Natura
2000/Emerald sites has to be assessed from the nature protection
point of view. Also, the public has to be involved in this
assessment. It is necessary to avoid any activity that can negatively
influence on the ecologically important area, except in the cases of
prevailing public interest. In those cases, activities are approved,
but with determination of compensatory measures that are
primarily concerning the designation of substitute protected area at
the other location.
302
5. Sometimes certain activities have to be restricted or stopped where
they are a significant threat to the species or habitat types for which
the site is being designated as a Natura 2000 site. Keeping species
and habitats in good condition is not necessarily incompatible with
human activities; in fact many areas are dependent upon certain
human activities for their management and survival, such as
agriculture. The European Commission invites partnership with
small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) at the local level to
support Natura 2000 sites in activities such as eco-tourism. The EU
member states are responsible for ensuring that all Natura 2000
sites are appropriately managed by conservation authorities in each
country. It will be future perspective to provide guidelines to
support SAC areas as conservation units for eco-tourism activities
in different regions of Georgia.
REFERENCES
1. Adams R. P., Pandey, R. N. 2003. Analysis of Juniperus
communis and its varieties based on DNA fingerprinting.
Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 31: 1271–1278.
2. Akhalkatsi, M., Kimeridze, M. 2017. Diversity of Georgian flora
relationship of the Earth's climate. Clean Environment Our choice,
The Union of Nature Explorers “orchids": periodicals 4: 3-25.
(Georg.).
3. Akhalkatsi, M., Kimeridze, M. 2016. The effect of climate change
on rare plant multiplication and diversity in the semi-arid regions.
Clean Environment Our choice, The Union of Nature Explorers
"orchids": periodicals 2: 3-30. (Georg.).
4. Akhalkatsi, M. 2015a. Forest Habitat Restoration in Georgia,
Caucasus Ecoregion. Mtsignobari, Tbilisi. pp.115. (Georg.).
5. Akhalkatsi, M. 2015b. Crop wild related species in Georgia. Agro
Coordination Center, Tbilisi. (Georg.).
6. Akhalkatsi, M. 2015c. Erosion and Prevention of Crop Genetic
Diversity Landraces of Georgia (South Caucasus). Genetic
Diversity and Erosion in Plants, Springer International Publishing;
12/2015; pp.159-187.
303
7. Akhalkatsi, M. 2014. Traditional viticulture and grapevine diversity
in Georgia. In: Parolly G., Grotz K., Walter H. (eds). Caucasus.
Plant Diversity between the Black and Caspian Seas. ISBN: 978-3921800-90-4. BGBM Press, Berlin-Dahlem.
8. Akhalkatsi, M., Ekhvaia, J., Asanidze, Z. 2012. Diversity and
Genetic Erosion of Ancient Crops and Wild Relatives of
Agricultural Cultivars for Food: Implications for Nature
Conservation in Georgia (Caucasus). In: John Tiefenbacher (Ed.),
Perspectives on Nature Conservation, ISBN: 978-953-51-0033-1,
InTech, Croatia. pp. 51-92.
9. Akhalkatsi, M., Tarkhnishvili, D. 2012. Habitats of Georgia, GTZ,
Tbilisi. (Georg.).
10. Akhalaktsi, M. 2010. Habitats of Georgia. GTZ, Tbilisi. (Georg.).
11. Akhalkatsi M. 2009. Conservation and sustainable use of crop wild
relatives in Samtskhe - Javakheti.
12. Akhalkatsi, M., Lorenz, R., Matchutadze, I., Mosulishvili M. 2004.
Spiranthes amoena–a new species for flora of Georgia. Journal
Europäischer Orchideen 36 (3): 745-754.
13. Akhalkatsi, M. 2002. Country report on national activities on gene
conservation of Conifers Network. Conifers Network 3.
EUFORGEN.
14. Araújo M. B. 2009. Climate change and spatial conservation
planning. In Spatial conservation prioritization: quantitative
methods and computational tools (eds Moilanen A., Possingham H.,
Wilson K.), pp. 172–184. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
15. Barcelona Convention. 1998. Revised draft classification of benthic
marine habitat types for the Mediterranean Region.
UNEP(OCA)/MED WG.149/5, Annex III.
16. Barescut, J., Tereshchenko N. N., Polikarpov, G. G., Lazorenko,
G. E. 2009. Doses with α-particles of plutonium anthropogenic
radioisotopes to the Black Sea hydrobionts. Radioecology and
Environmental Radioactivity 44, 5: 305-309.
17. Bekesiova, I., Nap, J-P, Mlynarova, L. 1999. Isolation of High
Quality DNA and RNA from Leaves of the Carnivorous Plant
Drosera rotundifolia. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter 17 (3):
269–277.
304
18. Bennett S. J. Maxted N. 1997. An ecogeographic analysis of the
Vicia narbonensis complex. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 44: 411–
428.
19. Berishvili T, Nadareishvili Z., Chkheidze F. 2002. Mindvris
kulturebi (Field Crops). In: Agrobiodiversity report 2. ELKANA,
Tbilisi. (Georg.).
20. Bologa, A. S. 1979 - Present state of seaweed production along the
Romanian Black Sea shore. Vie Milieu, 39, 2, pp. 105-109.
21. Boughton E. H., Quintana-Ascencio P. F., Bohlen P. J. 2011.
Refuge effects of Juncus effusus in grazed, subtropical wetland
plant communities. Plant Ecology 212 (3): 451–460
22. Bown, D. 1995. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dorling
Kindersley, London.
23. Chevallier. A. 1996. The Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants
Dorling Kindersley. London.
24. Cherepanov, S. K. 1995. Vascular Plants of Russia and Adjacent
States (the Former USSR). Cambridge.
25. Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N., Howell K.L., Lieberknecht,
L.M. Northen, K.O., Reker J.B. 2004. Marine Habitat Classification
for Britain and Ireland Version 04.05. JNCC, Peterborough.
26. CORINE Biotopes - Technical Handbook, 1989, volume 1, p. 73109, Corine/Biotopes/89-2.2, 19 May 1988.
27. CORINE Biotopes manual, Habitats of the European Community.
EUR 12587/3, Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities, 1991.
28. Cribb, P., Bailes. C. 1989. Hardy Orchids. Orchids for the Garden
and Frost-free Greenhouse. Christopher Helm. London.
29. Davies, C.E., Moss, D. Hill, M.O. 2004. EUNIS Habitat
Classification Revised 2004. Report to the European Topic Centre
on Nature Protection and Biodiversity. European Environment
Agency
(available
online
at
http://eunis.eea.eu.int/eunis/habitats.jsp).
30. Devillers, P., Devillers-Terschuren, J., Ledant J.P., 1991. CORINE
biotopes manual. Habitats of the European Community. Data
specifications part 2. Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities, Luxembourg, EUR 12587.
305
31. Devillers, P., Devillers-Teschuren, J. 1996. A classification of
Palaearctic habitats. Council of Europe, Strasbourg: Nature and
environment, No 78.
32. Dierschke, H. 1994. Pflanzensoziologie. Ulmer, Stuttgart.
33. Dierschke, H. 1988. Planzensoziologische und ökologische
Untersuchungen
in
Wäldern
Süd-Niedersachsens.
IV:
Vegetationsentwicklung auf langfristigen Dauerflächen von
Buchenwald-Kahlschlägen. Tuexenia 8: 307-326.
34. Dirr, M. A., Heuser. M. W. 1987. The Reference Manual of Woody
Plant Propagation. Athens Ga. Varsity Press.
35. Dolukhanov, A. 2010. Forest Vegetation of Georgia. Universal,
Tbilisi. (Russ.).
36. Dolukhanov, A. 1989. Vegetation of Georgia. v. 1. Metsniereba,
Tbilisi. (Russ.).
37. Dolukhanovi, A. Sakhokia, M., Kharadze, A. 1946. Upper Svaneti
main signs of vegetation. Proceedings of the Institute of Botany. 9:
79-130. (Georg.).
38. Duke, J. A., Ayensu, E. S. 1985. Medicinal Plants of China
Reference Publications, Inc.
39. Durnikin, D. A., Eremina A. S. 2015. Species composition of
Western Siberia waterbodies paleoflora during the Pleistocene. Life
Science Journal 12: 53-55.
40. EIB, 2009. Statement of Environmental and Social Principles and
Standards. European Investment Bank, Luxembourg.
41. Ellenberg, H. 1979.
Man's influence on tropical mountain
ecosystems in South America. Journal of Ecology 67 (2): 401-416.
42. Erschbamer, B., Mallaun, M., Unterluggauer, P., Abdaladze, O.,
Akhalkatsi, M., Nakhutsrishvili, G. 2010. Plant diversity along
altitudinal gradients in the Central Alps (South Tyrol, Italy) and in
the Central Greater Caucasus (Kazbegi region, Georgia). Tuexenia
30: 11–29.
43. Evans, D. 2010. Interpreting the habitats of Annex I: past, present
and future. Acta Botanica Gallica 157 (4): 677-686.
44. EUR27. 2007. The Interpretation Manual of European Union
Habitats. European Commission DG Environment.
45. FPR-First Progress Report; NACRES', 15Nov, 2010.
46. Georgian National Report Black Sea Biological Diversity Georgia,
United National Publications, New York, 1998, p.101-106
306
47. Grey, C. H. 1938. Hardy Bulbs. Williams & Norgate.
48. Grieve A. 1984. Modern Herbal. Penguin.
49. Grossheim, A.A., Sosnovski, D.I. 1928. Botanical-gaographic
classification of the Caucasus region. Proceed. Polytechnic Univ.
Tbilissi, V. 3. (Russ.).
50. Grossheim, A.A., Sosnovski, D.I., Troytski, N.A. 1928. Vegetation
of Georgia. Tbilisi, Publishhouse Georg. SSR Planing Commision.
(Georg.).
51. Gurgenishvili, V. 1967. Upper Alazani irrigation system. Ministry
of Agriculture. 6: 10-12. (Georg.).
52. Helsinki Commission. 1998. Red List of marine and Coastal
Biotopes and Biotopes Complexes of the Baltic Sea, Belt Sea and
Kattegat Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings. No. 75 Baltic
Marine Environment Protection Commission, Helsinki.
53. Huxley, A. 1992. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening.
54. IUCN. 2001. 2001 Categories &Criteria (Version 3.1).http://www.iucn.org/.
55. Ivanova, E.N., Letunov, P.A., Rozov, N.N., Fridland, V.M,
Shashko, D.I., Shuvalov, S.A. 1963. Soil-geographical zoning of
the USSR, pp. 337-338, Daniel Davey and Co, Inc., N.Y.
56. Kemularia-Natadze, L. 1970. Taxa of flowering plants tibi bicacias
names and issues of class division. Plant Systematic and Geography
Studies, 28: 83-88. (Georg.).
57. Ketskhoveli, N. 1959. Sakartvelos mtsenareuli safari. (Vegetation
of Georgia). Publish. Acad. Scien. Georgia, Tbilisi. (Georg.).
(Georg.).
58. Ketskhoveli, N. (Ed.) 1969. On Identification of plants. H. 1.2.
Science, Tbilisi. (Georg.).
59. Kihara, H. 1944. Discovery of the DD-analyser, one of the
ancestors of Triticum vulgare (Japanese). Agric. & Hort. (Tokyo)
19: 13-14.
60. Kimeridze, K. 1961. Peat-swamp vegetation in the history of the
Caucasus. Acts. Geogr. Cook. Three. Session abstracts, 1. (Georg.).
61. Kimeridze, K. 1985. Ministry of wetland vegetation. Science,
Tbilisi. (Georg.).
62. Kimeridze, M. 2007. The southern mountainous volcanic upland
moors. Report. Tbilisi.
307
63. Kimeridze, M., Chelidze, D., Kikodze, D. 2001. Kolkheti Protected
Areas preliminary study on the flora and vegetation. Tbilisi.
(Georg.).
64. Klopotovski, B.A. 1950.Geomorphology of Meskheti.Works
Vakhushti Inst.Geograph.1:3-41.
65. Kohlein, F. 1991. Gentians. Christopher Helm. London.
66. Kützing, F.T. 1849. Species Algarum. (Leipzig.)
67. Launert, E. 1981. Edible and Medicinal Plants. Hamlyn.
68. Littler, D.S., Mark M. 2000. Caribbean Reef Plants. OffShore
Graphics, Washington, D.C.
69. Matchutadze, I., Bakuradze, T., Tcheishvil T., Bolkvadze B. 2015.
Vegetation of Colchis Mires. Earth Sciences 4 (5-1): 73-78.
70. Matikashvili, V. 1953. The box-groove region in Kakheti. Warm.
Bot. Institute. Works, 15: 206-209. (Georg.).
71. Matthews, T.J. 1994. Dilemma of neutralization resistance of HIV1 field isolates and vaccine development. AIDS Res. Hum.
Retroviruses, 10 (6): 631–632.
72. McFadden, E.S., Sears, E.R. 1946. The origin of Triticum spelta
and its free-theshing hexaploid relatives. J. Hered. 37: 81-89, 107116.
73. Milkova, T., Talev, G., Christov, R., Dimitrova-Konaklieva, S.,
Popov, S.
1997. Sterols and volatiles in Cystoseira
barbata and Cystoseira crinita from the black sea. Phytochemistry
45: 93-95.
74. Moerman, D. 1998. Native American Ethnobotany Timber Press.
Oregon.
75. Moss, D. 2008. EUNIS habitat classification – a guide for users.
European topic centre on biological diversity.
76. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca G.
A. B., Jennifer K. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation
priorities. Nature 403: 853-858.
77. Nadirashvili N., Gvaladze G., Akhalkatsi, M. 2006. Structure and
function of the hypertrophic synergid in some species of genus
Allium L. Proc. Georg. Acad. Sci. Biol. Ser. B 4 (2): 53-60.
78. Nakhustrishvili, G. 2013. The Vegetation of Georgia. (South
Caucasus). Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
79. NBSAP. 2005. National Biodiversity Action Plan – Georgia.
http://moe.gov.ge/files/ licenzia/bsap_en.pdf.
308
80. Neidze, V. 2003. Sakartvelos sotsialur-ekonomikuri geografia
(Social-economic geography of Georgia). Metsniereba, Tbilisi.
(Georg.).
81. Norbaek, R., Kondo, T. 1999. Flavonol glycosides from flowers of
Crocus speciosus and C. antalyensis. Phytochemistry. 51 (8): 11139.
82. Ogg, A., Westra, P., Seefeldt, S. S., 1998. Relative competitiveness
of commonly grown winter wheat cultivars against jointed
goatgrass. Natl’. Jointed Goatgrass Research Program. 1998
Progress Reports, Final Reports. Compiled by Alex Ogg, Jr. Copies
available: Ag Research Center, WSU, Pullman, WA. 98.
83. Ozdemir, G., Horzum, Z., Sukatar, A., Karabay-Yavasoglu, N.U.
2006. Antimicrobial activities of volatile components and various
extracts of Dictyopteris membranaceae and Cystoseira barbata from
the Coast of Izmir, Turkey. Pharm. Biol. 44: 183-188.
84. Persson, K. 2007. Nomenclatural synopsis of the genus Colchicum
(Colchicaceae), with some new species and combinations.
Botanische Jahrbücher, 127 (2): 165-242(78).
85. Phillips, R., Rix, M. 1991. Perennials Volumes 1 and 2. Pan Books.
86. Polunin, O. 1969. Flowers of Europe - A Field Guide. Oxford
University Press.
87. Red Data Book of the Georgia. (1982). – Sabchota Sakartvelo,
Tbilisi.
88. Relation between the Directive 92/43/EEC Annex I habitats and the
CORINE habitat list 1991 (EUR 12587/3).
89. Romanika, L. I. 1977. Toward the characteristic of the major
abiotic components of the Caucasus Reserve. Proc. Caucasus State
Reserve, XI, 34-41.
90. Sakhokia, M. 1969. Aegilops. In: Ketskhoveli, N., (Ed.), Key of
Georgian Vegetation. Metsniereba, Tbilisi.
91. Sakhokia, M. 1941. Aegilops. In: Makashvili A., Sosnovski D.,
(eds). Flora of Georgia. 1st ed. Publsh. Acad. Scien. Georg., Tbilisi,
:321-325.
92. Solomon, J., Shulkina, T., Schatz, G.E. (eds.) 2013. Red list of the
endemic plants of the Caucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia,
Iran, Russia, and Turkey. Saint Louis, Missouri Botanical Garden
Press, V. 125.
309
93. Sosnovski, D. I. 1933. On the question of the floristic character of
Javakhetia. ZakGIZ, Tbilisi. pp. 227-235. (Russ.).
94. Stuart, M. (Ed) 1979. The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Herbalism
Orbis Publishing. London.
95. Sundseth, K., Creed, P. 2008. Natura2000: protecting Europe's
biodiversity. European Commission, Directorate General for the
Environment.
96. Takhtajian, A. 1986. Floristic regions of the world. Univ. Calif.
Press. Berkley.
97. Thomas, G. S. 1990. Perennial Garden Plants J. M. Dent & Sons,
London.
98. Troizki, N. 1927. Forest remnants in Akhalkalaki District. Bull.
Tbilisi Bot. Garden, v. 3-4. (Russ.).
99. Uphof, J. C. Th. 1959. Dictionary of Economic Plants. Weinheim.
100.
Weber, H. E., Moravec, J., Theurillat J.-P. 2000. International
Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature. 3rd ed. – J. Veg. Sci. 11
(5): 739–768.
101.
Wilson, C. A. 2001. Floral stages, ovule development, and
ovule and fruit success in Iris tenax, focusing on var. gormanii, a
taxon with low seed set. American Journal of Botany 88 (12):
2221–2231.
102.
Womersley, H.B.S. 1978. Southern Australian species
of Ceramium Roth (Rhodophyta). Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 29:
205–257.
103.
Yavasoglu, N.U. 2006. Antimicrobial Activities of Volatile
Components and Various Extracts of Dictyopteris membranaceae
and Cystoseira barbata from the Coast of Izmir, Turkey.
Pharmaceutical Biology 44 (3): 183-188.
104.
Yeung, Him-Che. 1985. Handbook of Chinese Herbs and
Formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los Angeles.
310
311
View publication stats