The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems ^^ ^^^H Discussion paper prepared for tlie UNEP-WCWIC Global Seagrass Workshop WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE

David S . Peterson

Seagrasses, marine flowering plants, are widely distributed along temperate and tropical coastlines of the world. Seagrasses have key ecological roles in coastal ecosystems and can form extensive meadows supporting high biodiversity. The global species diversity of seagrasses is low (< 60 species), but species can have ranges that extend for thousands of kilometers of coastline. Seagrass bioregions are defined here, based on species assemblages, species distributional ranges, and tropical and temperate influences. Six global bioregions are presented: four temperate and two tropical. The temperate bioregions include the Temperate North Atlantic, the Temperate North Pacific, the Mediterranean, and the Temperate Southern Oceans. The Temperate North Atlantic has low seagrass diversity, the major species being Zostera marina, typically occurring in estuaries and lagoons. The Temperate North Pacific has high seagrass diversity with Zostera spp. in estuaries and lagoons as well as Phyllospadix spp. in the surf zone. The Mediterranean region has clear water with vast meadows of moderate diversity of both temperate and tropical seagrasses, dominated by deep-growing Posidonia oceanica. The Temperate Southern Oceans bioregion includes the temperate southern coastlines of Australia, Africa and South America. Extensive meadows of low-to-high diversity temperate seagrasses are found in this bioregion, dominated by various species of Posidonia and Zostera. The tropical bioregions are the Tropical Atlantic and the Tropical Indo-Pacific, both supporting mega-herbivore grazers, including sea turtles and sirenia. The Tropical Atlantic bioregion has clear water with a high diversity of seagrasses on reefs and shallow banks, dominated by Thalassia testudinum. The vast Tropical Indo-Pacific has the highest seagrass diversity in the world, with as many as 14 species growing together on reef flats although seagrasses also occur in very deep waters. The global distribution of seagrass genera is remarkably consistent north and south of the equator; the northern and southern hemispheres share ten seagrass genera and only have one unique genus each. Some genera are much more speciose than others, with the genus Halophila having the most seagrass species. There are roughly the same number of temperate and tropical seagrass genera as well as species. The most widely distributed seagrass is Ruppia maritima, which occurs in tropical and temperate zones in a wide variety of habitats. Seagrass bioregions at the scale of ocean basins are identified based on species distributions which are supported by genetic patterns of diversity. Seagrass bioregions provide a useful framework for interpreting ecological, physiological and genetic results collected in specific locations or from particular species.

Threats to and loss of seagrass ecosystems globally, impact not only natural resources but also the lives of people who directly or indirectly depend on these systems. Seagrass ecosystems play a multi-functional role in human well-being, e.g. food through fisheries, control of erosion and protection against floods. Quantifying these services reveals their contributions to human well-being and helps justify seagrass conservation. There has been no comprehensive assessment as to whether seagrass ecosystem services are perceived to vary over the globe or amongst genera. Our study compiles the most complete list of ecosystem services provided by seagrasses so far, including bioregional-and genus-specific information from expert opinion and published studies. Several seagrass ecosystem services vary considerably in their (known) provision across genera and over the globe. Seagrasses gen-era are clearly not all equal with regard to the ecosystem services they provide. As sea-grass genera ...

The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems ^^ ^^^H Discussion paper prepared for UNEP-WCWIC Global Seagrass St Pete's Beach, Florida, 9 tlie Workshop November, 2001 Prepared by: Mark D. Spalding, Michelle L. Taylor, Sergio Martins, Edmund P. Green, and Mary Edwards WA.. WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2010 witii funding from UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge Iittp://www.archive.org/details/globaldistributi01spal The global distribution of seagrass and status ecosystems Discussion paper prepared for tlie UNEP-WCIVIC Global Seagrass Workshop St Pete's Beach, Florida, 9 November, 2001 Prepared by: Mark D. Spalding, Michelle L. Taylor, Sergio Martins, Edmund P. Green, and Mary Edwards With assistance from: Mark Taylor and Corinna Ravilious Table of Contents Introduction to the The 2 workshop global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems 3 3 Introduction 3 Definitions The 3 diversity of seagrasses Species distribution 4 Associated Species 6 7 Productivity and biomass The distribution and area of seagrass The value of seagrasses 8 habitat 13 Threats to seagrasses 13 Management 14 Interventions 16 Bibliography; Annex Annex 2 Annex 3 Annex 4 1 : 29 34 68 74 Seagrass Species Lists by Country - Species distribution maps - Seagrass distribution maps -Full list of MPAs by country ; /4^ ] UNEP WCMC Introduction to the The Global Seagrass Workshop of 9 November 2001 has been set workshop up with the expressed aim to develop a global synthesis on the distribution and status of seagrasses world-wide. Approximately 20 seagrass experts from 14 counu-ies, representing all of the expertise. A list major seagrass regions of the world have been invited is provided below: to share their knowledge and of the expected participants Name Country Name Bujang Sidik Japar Malaysia Kun-Seop Lee Korea Caroline Ochieng Tanzania Mark Spalding*** Chatcharee Supanwanid Thailand Michelle Taylor*** UK UK Diana Walker Australia Miguel D. Fortes Philippines Dr Jagtap Tanaji Gajanan Evamaria W. Koch India Nataliya Milchakova Ukraine Robert Coles Australia Frederick T. Short USA USA Gabriele Procacini* Italy Ronald C. Phillips Salomao Bandeira Mozambique Country USA Gilbert© Cintron** USA Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria USA Hugh Kirkman Thailand Graeme New Joel Creed Brazil Sven Beer* Keiko Aioi* Japan Inglis Zealand Israel * Providing input, but not attending ** Ramsar Convention representative *** UNEP-WCMC representatives Prior to the meeting each of the participants has prepared short summary documents resources in their region of expertise. In parallel with this work, staff at describing the seagrasses UNEP-WCMC have prepared a global assessment of seagrasses. All of these papers were circulated prior to the workshop. The structure of all of these documents has been broadly standardised, with the aim of focussing attention under the following headings: 1 - Species distribution and extent lists by country, or specific sites, Seagrass associates, notably commercially important species and threatened species. Major seagrass areas and ecosystem types, in specific regions Maps of distribution of seagrass ecosystems, or references of seagrass mapping works Species Area estimates, for individual sites or countries 2 - Uses and threats Indirect uses - coastal protection, fisheries, aquaculture etc. Pointers to specific studies. Direct uses - any uses of seagrasses for food, fodder, handicrafts, medicinal products etc. Threats - full list of threats, with locations and estimates of extent of impacts. Estimates of area loss or degradation 3 - Seagrass management and restoration Protected areas - lists of protected areas containing seagrass ecosystems Other legal and policy measures Restoration - case studies, including both successes and failures 4 - Bibliography and contacts List of all seagrass references from each region List of all agencies and individuals with an interest and working knowledge of seagrass ecosystems, including official government agencies, academic organisations, fisheries and NGOs. This workshop has been kindly supported by the UK Department For International Development, the Ramsar Convention Secretariat, the Estuarine Research Federation and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research The global distribution and status of seagrass ecosystems Introduction Seagrasses are a mixed group of flowering plants which grow submerged in shallow marine and estuarine environments world-wide. In many areas they form extensive ecosystems, often referred to as seagrass beds or seagrass meadows. They are considered to be one of the most important shallow-marine ecosystems to humans, being highly productive, and playing an important role in fisheries production as well as binding sediments and providing some protection from coastal erosion. In this discussion paper Firstly we we attempt to summarise distribution, importance and status of seagrasses world-wide. consider in more detail the definition of seagrasses, both as species and as habitats, and look geographic patterns of biodiversity and habitat distribution. Next we look at the human impacts on we at the consider their importance to humans. Finally these ecosystems, including both threats, and the and management measures for the protection or restoration of seagrass beds. Definitions Seagrasses are flowering plants which grow They are not true grasses. Although they are submerged and rooted in estuarine and marine environments. monocotyledons, they do not have a single evolutionary origin, but fully all are a polyphyletic group, defined by the particular ecological niche they inhabit. Five particular adaptations to enable survival An An 1 2 niche have been identified (Phillips and Mefiez, 1988): in this adaptation to survive in high, and in ability to grow some cases varying, salinity whilst completely submerged, which presents problems, notably of lowered gas concentrations and rates of diffusion 4 The use of an anchoring system to withstand water movements The development of submarine pollination strategies 5 An 3 ability to compete with other species in the marine environment These adaptations have led to a number of morphological characteristics which are widespread or ubiquitous amongst seagrasses, notably: flattened leaves (with the exception of Syringodium): strap-like leaves (with the exception of Halophila); and extensive system of roots and rhizomes (Phillips and Meiiez, 1988). Although arguments and McComb, provides a list still remain over the details of nomenclature and taxonomic relations of particular species (Kuo is little or no controversy over which species are, or are not seagrasses, and Table 1 1989) there of the currently accepted species. Point for discussion: is there indeed consensus on this list? Taxonomy and nomenclature? Diplantera. Potamogeton. Ruppia, Zannichellial Seagrass ecosystems are areas of estuarine or sea floor where seagrasses make up an important part of the biomass or play a key role in the ecosystem function. Typically these are areas dominated by soft substrates such as sand or mud, but some species can be found growing on more rocky substrates. In some cases seagrasses can be observed with a scattered distribution over otherwise bare substrate, or in small patches as part of a mosaic of rocky or coral only found habitats, and in these cases the delimitation of seagrass ecosystems becomes more subjective. They are shallow waters because of the rapid attenuation of light with depth, but have been recorded to 70m in clear waters (Lipkin, 1979). Although typically permanent over periods of decades, seagrass systems can be highly opportunistic, in and can form relatively transient communities in others. The diversity of seagrasses Using the definition provided there are 60 species from four families which are widely accepted as true seagrasses. group of species from the family Potomogetonaceae (notably species from the genera Ruppia and Potamogeton) are also included as seagrasses by some experts, but are not considered further in this report. A small Table 1: A of generally accepted seagrass species. list FAMILY GENUS SPECIES GENUS SPECIES Cymodoceaceae Amphibolis antarctic a Halophila stipulacea Amphibolis griffithii Halophila tricostata Cymodocea Cymodocea Cymodocea Cymodocea Cymodocea anguslata Thalassia hemprichii ciliata Thalassia testudinum Posidonia angustifolia L\a\eiJt*Co^,1t^ Hydrocharitaceae FAMILY Posidoniaceae nodosa rotundata Posidonia australis serrulata Posidonia coriacea Halodule beaudettei Posidonia denhartogii Halodule bermudensis Posidonia kirkmanii Halodule emarginata Posidonia oceanica Halodule pinifolia — Posidonia ijUo-* ostenfeldii Posidonia roberlsonae Posidonia sinuosa Heterozostera tasmanica Halodule uninervis Halodule wrightii Syringodium filiforme Syringodium isoetifolium Phyllospadix iwatensis Thalassodendron ciliatum Phyllospadix japonicus Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Phyllospadix scouleri Enhalus acoroides Phyllospadix serrulatus Halophila australis Phyllospadix torreyi Halophila baillonis Zostera asiatica Halophila beccarii Zostera caespitosa Halophila capricomi Zostera capensis Halophila decipiens Zostera capricomi Halophila engelmannii Zostera caulescens Halophila hawaiiana Zostera japonic a Halophila johnsonii Zostera marina Halophila minor Zostera mucronala Halophila oralis Zostera muelleri Halophila ovata Zostera noltii Halophila spinulosa Zostera novazelandica - Zosteraceae ^l-Hv . U.. - ^ CT ,-itev& ^<^^(^Y^vv(: i iv. X'N C ^.•V.i-i Species distribution As a part of the present work, seagrass distribution information has been compiled from bibliography). The majority of these include direct observations of species, some 500 sources and these have been used (see to generate These sources provided at least partial information for and this is provided in Annex 1. These show that the most diverse countries include Australia (31 species), the Philippines (18 species) and Japan (17 species). species lists for every country as species richness the seagrass flora in 1 statistics. 15 countries and territories world-wide, These same geographic data were added to a geographical information system (GIS) at UNEP-WCMC, developing both spatial and point data as available. Plotting the available information by species, generalised distribution maps were produced for every species, updating earlier work by den Hartog 1970) and by Phillips and Mefiez (1988). ( These maps are presented in Annex 2. would be possible, using the individual species maps for each country presented in lists for any country or region. This would allow generation of lists for smaller or unstudied areas. Would this be a valuable exercise? Feedback please: Annex 2 to it generate "predicted" or "expected" species We clearly have more work to do to get these tables complete? It would be valuable to get updates for each country, but also to try and gather information for entire countries that we are currently missing. The species The highest distribution information points clearly to the centres of diversity both at national levels of diversity are clearly located in Australia (31 spp.) and regional and the Philippines (18 spp.). point clearly to species with restricted ranges, and to species endemic to single countries (Table 2). levels. The maps Two also species of seagrasses have been listed as globally threatened: Halophila johnsonii (Vulnerable) and Phyllospadi.^Rsire) (lUCN, 1997). Table 2: list t^e^ £Z-4<-'WX^ of single country endemic species of seagrasses. Countries Species Australia Amphibolis antarctica, Amphibolis grijfithii, Cymodocea angustata. Halophila aiistralis. Halophila capricorni. Halophila tricostata, Posidonia angitstifolia. Posidonia australis, Posidonia coriacea, Posidonia denhartogii, Posidonia kirkmanii. Posidonia oslenfeldii. Posidonia robertsonae. Posidonia sinuosa. Thalassodendron paclnrhizum. Zostera mucronata Bermuda Halodule bermundensis Brazil Halodule emarginala Japan Plixilospadi.x japoiiiciis. Zostera caespitosa Madagascar Halophila stipulacea New Zostera novazelandica Zealand USA Halophila hawaiiana, Halophila johnsonii How accurate is this, are there others? Does this in any way reflect the bias of the workers? If we were to change this to restricted range species are there any in particular? Or what should range? What are thoughts about threatened species? constitute a restricted The species distribution map is the first of its maps have also been amalgamated to develop a global map of seagrass biodiversity. This it has been modelled on similar maps compiled for corals (Veron kind for seagrasses, however 2000) and for mangroves (IMEP-WCMC, 2000). =5? ' "'' ^^ ^ Map 1: ?' Contour map showing the diversity of seagrass species world-wide. map shows the clear focus of biodiversity in Southeast Asia reaching up to southern Japan, and a second focus corals of diversity in the Red Sea and East Africa. In some ways these mirror the patterns of diversity observed in and mangroves. The Southeast Asian centre of diversity is a particular feature of all marine biodiversity maps produced to date, however it is interesting to note that, for seagrasses, this extends further north and into the cold temperate waters of Japan. Furthermore, seagrasses clearly show a much wider global distribution into southern temperate waters, and show relatively high diversity in other regions, notably in the Mediterranean and This Australia. Theories for the development of Southeast Asian centre of diversity have been advanced for a number of species it has been variously suggested that this region may have been a centre for species accumulation ("the groups, and vortex model of coral reef biogeography", Jokiel and Marinelli, 1992), a location where high diversity was maintained thanks to benign climatic conditions during recent ice-ages (McCoy and Heck, 1976). or a centre for species evolution with the combination of benign conditions and changing sea levels ("eustatic diversity pump model", Rosen, 1984). The apparent radiation of species in locations outside of this region, and is in Japan, Associated Species A vast array of species can be found within seagrass ecosystems. ecosystem, and are found no-where history, using more most notably in southern and western Australia Menez, 1988). also of considerable evolutionary interest (Phillips and else. Others them as breeding or nursery may be Many are obligate members of the seagrass restricted to seagrass areas for shorter periods of their life- areas, or settling there for the adult phases of their life-history. Many are found across a broad range of marine habitats, but regularly inhabit seagrass areas. Table 3 lists regularly recorded from seagrass ecosystems, with links to which address the association with seagrasses. Species of high conservation importance have some of the major groups of species particular references also been included Table 3: The major taxonomic groups found include various chapters in Phillips and Taxonomic group in McRoy seagrass ecosystems, with brief notes. Key references for this table (1980). Notes Bacteria Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) Red algae (Rhodophyta) Brown algae (Phyaeophyta) Including calcareous species Green algae (Chlorophyta) Notably Halimeda Protozoa Includes the slime-moulds Lab\rintliula spp., Diatoms and Foraminifera Sponges Includes epiphytic hydrozoans, sea anemones, and Scleractinia such as Pavona, Cnidarians Psammacora, Pontes, Pocillopora. Siderastrea Many Polychaetes boring species Ribbon worms Sipunculid worms Flatworms Includes amphipods, and Crustaceans many decapod crustaceans including crabs, stomatopods and commercially important shrimp and lobsterBivalve molluscs Some Gastropod molluscs A broad oysters, also many t - ' ^ boring species range including nereids, Conus, Cypraea. and commercially important species of Strombus Cephalopod molluscs Squid and cuttlefish often found over seagrass areas Bryozoans Epiphytic on seagrass and rocks Echinoderms An important range of commercially important holothurian species, ophiroids are widespread, but also asteroids, and echinoids Ascideans Tunicates All groups, but including the commercially important Fish Haemulidae (grunts), Siganidae (rabbitfish), Lethrinidae (emperors), Lutjanidae (snappers), Syngnathidae (pipefishes and seahorses). Many trade, are Reptiles aquarium trade and Chinese medicine Notably the Green turtle.. Mammals Notably the sirenian species (dugong and manatee) the of the latter, which are used in considered threatened. Levels of diversity can be very high indeed. Harlin (1980) cites a study by Humm (1964) which listed 1 13 species of algal epiphytes from Thalassia testudinum beds in Florida. These lists were combined with 26 others from various publications world-wide to produce a total of underestimate. Looking at a broader faunal some 450 list, polychaetes, and 15 echinoderm species from Jervis (1991) noted 100 species of fish, algal species epiphytic Hutchings (1994) Bay New listed on seagrasses, still probably an some 248 arthropods, 197 molluscs, 171 South Wales, Australia. In Florida, Roblee et and 30 crustaceans. Such figures are lower than many coral reef biodiversity in al. statistics (for example 1500 fish on the Great Barrier Reef; 534 species from 27 phyla on a 5sq m Caribbean reef microcosm, or 220 animal species from an individual coral head, Spalding et al. 2001), however these figures are still very high, and point to an important biodiversity which is often overlooked. many of these species are broad ranging, others appear to be restricted to seagrass ecosystems, or dependant on them for a significant part of their life cycle. These seagrass dependent species include epiphytic algae (Harlin, 1980), and many of the 215 species of pipefishes and seahorses, including globally threatened species. Whilst The importance attached to endemic and unique species by conservation agencies and funders is considerable - would it be worth trying to compile a list of obligate members of seagrass ecosystems, at least for particular groups ? We are clearly still a long way from developing a concept of total species numbers within seagrass ecosystems, and even further from establishing which of these are wholly dependent on these systems. It would appear from the above statistics, however, that the totals may be very large indeed - most of the comprehensive assessments have been undertaken in temperate waters, or the relatively low diversity waters of the Caribbean. The close association of seagrass ecosystems with coral reefs and mangrove forests will greatly boost the numbers of facultative inhabitants of these ecosystems in these areas, and it seems like that the total figures will number tens, perhaps hundreds of thousands of species. and biomass Productivity Seagrasses are often cited for their high productivity, despite often having relatively low biomass. have been undertaken on seagrass ecosystems world-wide, Numerous studies illustrating the considerable variance, but often very high Comparisons of such figures are very difficult between studies. There are numerous types of measure, with biomass statistics ranging from stalk density to the dry weight of complete plant-root systems and with productivity statistics including rates of shoot extension to the dry weight of carbon produced per year. With considerable seasonal variation in growth rates and other less predictable fluctuations in growth the period and overall figures. length of sampling greatly affects such measures. In addition, the selection of sampling areas overall measures. Table 4 provides a sample of Seagrasses are described by many as being may greatly bias some measures. among the world's highly productive ecosystems. Most of much higher than the examples provided here these quote figures of 500-4000 gC/m'/year, clearly Is this a claim we can Can we still make? also develop estimates by region (Tropical SEAsia, Caribbean, Mediterranean, Temperate waters)? Table 4: Selected Type of measure Biomass examples of measures of seagrass biomass and productivity Details Species or Location Measure Sinai a statistics. Source dominant spp Standing crop to 25cm depth Thalassodendron few dozens to well over Lipkin, 1979 DWm- 100kg ciliatum of sediment Biomass Standing crop to Mixed Sinai Several hundred grams to a Lipkin, 1979 DW m" few kg 25cm depth of sediment Biomass Standing crop Halophila ovalis Sinai Biomass a few grams to a few dozen Lipkin, 1979 grams to 25cm depth and Haldide uniner\'is of sediment Standing crop Heterozostera Victoria of leaves and tasmanica Australia DW m^ 56-286 g leaves Biomass rhizomes Cymodocea nodosa Spain Cymodocea nodosa Spain Bulthius and Woelkerling, 1983 stems Biomass DW m- 64-171 gDWm- 157-269 g DW m- Terrados and Ros, 1992 Terrados and Ros, 1992 1 above and below ground Biomass Primary production Mixed Texas 172.5-235.3 g Various Australia 1 20-690 DW m" gCm2 per year Onuf, 1996 Hillmanetal, 1989 Phillips in and Durako (2000) Halodule wrightii Primary production 280gCm-yr' Tropics Phillips and Durako (2000) Primary production turtlegrass 825 gC m- yr Tropics ' Phillips and Durako (2000) eelgrass Primary production 190gCm-yr' Temperate Thome-Millar and Harlin, 1984 in Phillips and Durako (2000) regions Primary production Productivity Productivity Productivity eelgrass Temperate 400-800 gC m' Borum, 1983 and Durako (2000) Bulthius and Heterozostera Victoria tasmanica Australia leaves Cymodocea nodosa Spain Cymodocea nodosa Spain leaf rhizomes Sand-Jensen and 1 regions production Annual -1 414-645 gDW m" yr' gDW m" yr' 46-78 g DW m-"yr 160-427 1 in Phillips Woelkerling, 1983 Terrados and Ros. 1992 Terrados and Ros, 1992 The distribution and area of seagrass habitat There has never been an accurate estimation of the global area of seagrass habitat. The total area of continental shelf (coastal waters to a depth of 200m) world-wide has been estimated at almost 25 million sq km (WRI, 2000). Assuming a constant slope this would imply an area of 5-10 million sq km of water within the depth-range of most seagrasses. In reality seagrasses only occupy a small fraction of the world's nearshore waters and the total area of seagrasses is likely to be less than 10% of the shallow water area of the world's continental shelves, or 500,000 to 1,000,000 SQ km. While global estimates have not been produced, a considerable number of studies have estimated seagrasses in particular regions or in single study-sites. A number of these are presented in Table Table 5: Estimates of seagrass at local levels from around the world. Area(kni Country Region Australia 159E35S Australia Cape York 78.7 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 4,300.0 Lee Long etal 1993 Australia Queensland Cliff head lagoon 50.0 Kirkman, H. (1997) Australia Gulf of Carpentaria 906.0 Kirkman, H. (1997) Australia Gulf St 1,530.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia New South Wales 155.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia Queensland 4,000.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Australia Queensland, Cape York to 4.000.0 Lee Long etal 1993 - Moreton Bay, Vincent Hervey Bay Australia Shark Bay 3,676.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia Spencer Gulf 3,700.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia Succcess Bank 10.4 Kendrick et al 2000 Australia Succcess Bank 7.0 Kendrick et al 2000 Australia SW 2,200.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia Australia Swan-Cannign estuary 5.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia Torres Strait 17,500.0 Kirkman, H.( 1997) Australia western Australia 20,000.0 Kirkmand and Walker 1989 France 3E 43N 19.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu France Arcachon Bay 70.0 Auby 1991 France Corsica 620.0 Pasqualini etal, 1998 84.0 Chauvaud etal 2001 Guadeloupe Guatemala 88W 15N 20.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu India Kaveiratti 0.4 Jagtap and Inamdar, 1 99 the area of 5. Country Region Area(km2) Reference Italy Ligurian coasts: 71.0 Italy Sicily Italy Sicily Italy Jamaica http://estaxp.santateresa.enea.it/www/fane/faneatlas.ht ml 12E39N 13E38N 300.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 10.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Venice 15.0 Kingston Harbour 10.0 Rismondoetal(1997) Greenway, 1995 http://www.biodic.go.jp/english/kiso/fnd_f.html Japan whole country 2,012.1 Mauritania Banc D'Arguin National Park 700.0 Kelleher et Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Campeche 496.4 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Caribbean coast 40.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Tamaulipas 357.4 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Veracruz 106.2 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu New 166E20S 2,066.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 166E22S 145.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu al, 1995 Caledonia New Caledonia Saudi Arabia 2W 39N 2W 37N 4W 37N 370.0 MEPA/IUCN, 1987 15,130.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 7,529.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 796.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Spain Med. Med. Med. Turks and Caicos Bank 913.6 Green USA USA USA USA USA USA Alaska 170.0 http://www.scagrass.unh.edu California 13.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 1,800 Durako 2000 55.9 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu 160.0 http://www.seagrass.unh.edu Texas 951.4 http://www.lpwd.state.tx.us/conserve/coastal/seegrass/ USA Texas 833.0 Spain Spain et al 2000 Caicos Florida Bay Maryland Maryland & Viginia chpll.htm http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/conserve/coastal/seegrass/ chpt2.htm The global distribution of seagrass habitat: picture of seagrass distribution has been long known (den Hartog, 1970), however there are still likely to be wide areas where even the existence of seagrasses remains unknown. Generalised distribution maps (see Map 1, above) do not provide any indication of the actual location of seagrass beds on a site-specific basis. The authors are only aware of one attempt at such a map, namely Coral World (National Geographic Society, 2000) annotated by The broad den Hartog. As GIS dataset was developed, bringing together seagrass multiple sources, including published literature and unpublished sources. Broadly, the source a part of the present work, a comprehensive global distribution material fell maps from into the following categories: 1 - Direct habitat maps. Often high resolution and very accurate. Many such maps are now produced from remotely sensed data, but smaller areas have been mapped entirely from field observations. With remote sensing Some accuracy is limited by the resolution of the sensor, the clarity of the water and the degree of sampling utilised. large pixel while shoot density, high with a seagrass beds (<10m) shallow pick up only remotely sensed images will size will lead to the loss of small or highly patchy seagrass areas. 2 - Point based samples. Although not strictly maps, numerous publications provide exact point-locations of placed within a GIS and can be seagrass beds which have been the location of particular studies. Such points can be ground, they are very useful in a "buffered" out to form small polygons. Although not representative of area on the broader mapping context where no further information is available. 3 - Broad-scale, generalised interpolations have been put together for a number of areas or countries. These differ have typically compiled by local experts, and are based on interpolation of from generalised range maps variable. ground-based knowledge and observation. Their accuracy is obviously highly in that they Clearly, even with existing maps, there are differences in definition of what has been mapped, and significant differences in resolution. These will clearly influence the area of seagrass portrayed. Many mapping techniques, from remotely sensed image-processing to grab-sampling or side-scan sonar, may only pick up seagrasses at certain and the sensitivity to shoot density may be further altered by other attributes of the benthos routines or the time of day. Error also plays a part, and some mapping systems may sampling or water column, the incorporate non-seagrass species, such as Halimeda. levels of shoot density, Scale is also important: resolution maps Lower will pick In the following study resolution maps will tend to ignore up even small breaks, which, we have utilised all three types it minor breaks could be argued, are in still seagrass beds, while finer a part of the seagrass ecosystem of source material described above, and these have been Each data point is clearly labelled with a series of attributes defining source, harmonised known species composition, and the date and scale of the original map. The primary aim of this work was to prepare a global map showing, as accurately as possible, the distribution of seagrasses, however it is clear that the same data into a single data layer. layer may be used for more in interpreting the layers series of regional maps detailed analysis. on the map. Map are presented in The Annex GIS is thus of considerable importance known seagrass distribution. A more detailed linked information in the 2 presents a global map of 3. We would like to make a global estimate of seagrass area. There are two possible routes: - Map based - using our maps and estimating for missing information 1 2 - Direct estimates - using total estimates of shallow water and estimating proportion with seagrass based on selected studies (e.g. Estimates from Liguria suggest \4-227c of shallow water (above 35m) dominated by seagrass; and 11% of Caicos Bank) Can we do this? 10 -a I Cfl «1 Cj s «J ik 3 g i/ «•• 'J'' -J '^ k ^ ^n -a « 3 ° ^e E n a 5 —C ^ 3 B- r= o :g t<5 W O Cl, 1. «J a a -«- ^M & ^ >> u « aj ^ r/n f^ «) ^ •^i33 ^k ^r rt <]> E 2 O 5 ^ i ^ ^ aj j: /• ot ^"^ ,/ -n n c ^ • ^* f v\ ^ o (71 < .g ^ v». o 5 g « ^ t<i 6e 6^ a. «< tfl ^ s O. -s ? / c o C S c 5« ^U.-^"^ ••' '; :S tfl r -o 1i 1« ^ ^ 5 ^^ o 2f — •> o aa > c >% j: ou j= E n tfl Q t/J « s « c Q 5 (IJ >M Si Xi <b I. ra se •S :S C u s 1« s ^ *a 'S ^6« "— _Q C/3 E c^ n ^ a 2 §, Sb /3. « "2. Ci. b^ •« J= H 1 11 c 5 o a 1 C3 1 s hs. a a. ?g 6c ^ .a « 5 ^^ 5^ c Xi o ou o o O u. fv; o CT3 B. •a % ^ fl u M L. $ s s *^ '& S^ 1 s s %) o ^ The value of seagrasses Seagrasses are a critical ecosystem humans, providing food and other products, binding sediments and protecting for coastlines from erosion, and providing linkage to other high value coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangrove forests, and open ocean ecosystems. The many of the most important Table summary of the goods and 6: a Commerical and - role they play in fisheries tropical shelf fisheries are heavily is now widely recognised, and indeed dependant on seagrass ecosystems. services provided by seagrass ecosystems. artisanal fisheries Finfish (snappers, emperors, rabbitfish, surgeonfish) - Molluscs (conch, oysters) - Crustacea (shrimp, lobster) Food: - Seeds of Zoslera marina used to make flour by Seri Felger and Moser, 1973 Indians - Rhizomes of Enhahis used Animal fodder as food in Lamu, Kenya Crafteretal, 1992 Sudaraetal, 1994; UNEP 1986 Fabric mat weaving, Lamu, Kenya - Used - Basket making, thatch, stuffing matresses, upholstery in Crafteretal, 1992 Sudaraetal, 1994 and mulch Fertiliser Capps, 1977; Stewart Building dykes Van Katwijk, 2000 Packing material Sudara et al, & Mills, 1975; Walker, 1977 1994: Hurley 1990 Offshore fisheries (using seagrass as nursery) Coastal protection (from erosion) Water purification (from pollutants and sediments) Nutrient export to adjacent ecosystems Stabilising sediments There have been very few studies of the direct economic value of seagrasses. In 1986 the North Queensland fisheries were estimated at an estimated US$540,000 per year (Fortes, 1990). In Monroe County, Florida, the value of commercial fisheries for five species which depend on seagrasses was estimated at US$48.7 million per year, whilst recreational fisheries as well as the diving and snorkelling industry contribute equally large economy, and Costanza sums to the are also heavily dependant on seagrasses (Heck, 2001). et al. (1997) calculated a global value of annual ecosystem services for "seagrass/algae beds" of year. With an estimated total area for these combined ecosystems of 2,000,000 sq US$19,004 per hectare per they calculated a global annual value of US$3,801,000,000,000 role in "nutrient cycling", in many ways a somewhat (i.e. US$3.8 trillion), intangible role. Strangely, this km based almost entirely on their same source gives no value to seagrass/algae beds for food production. Threats to seagrasses The global have received considerable attention from a number of authors and their efforts have summary of natural and human induced threats to seagrass seems likely that seagrass areas have declined as a result of a combination of threats. threats to seagrasses not been duplicated here. Table 7 provides a short ecosystems. In many cases The decline of seagrasses example, where the it in the final decline North Atlantic in the 1930s with the "wasting disease" was probably one such the spread of the slime-net Labyrinthula zosterae. was probably hastened by Table 7: Natural threats Geological Biological Grazing by sea urchins sirenians, geese, or removal by foraging rays Meteorological Storms and wave action Human threats or widen shipping lanes and Dredgine To develop Trawling Various benthic trawling devices used 13 open new ports and harbours in the fishing industry to "clean" tourist beaches Coastal development and the building of sea defences has significant effects on the flow of currents in nearshore waters For example Deliberate clearance Erosion from alteration of hydrological regime Anchor damage Land reclamation Conversion to aquaculture ponds Higher turbidity reduces Sedimentation light levels. Very high sedimentation smothers entire seagrass beds toxic or eutrophic effects. With high levels of increased nutrients, photosynthesis can be reduced by excess epiphytic overgrowth, planktonic Can have Pollution blooms or competition from macroalgae Potential threats from rising sea levels, localised decreases in salinity, damage from UV radiation, and unpredictable impacts from changes in distribution and intensity of extreme events. Possible increases in productivity resulting from higher C02 concentrations Climate change Short and Wyllie-Echeverria They estimated 12,000sq km that 2,900sq ( 1996, 2000) provide a detailed analysis of seagrass losses from reports world-wide. of seagrass loss had been documented in the 1990s, and extrapolated up to over km world-wide during this period alone. Are we in a position to revise a global estimate? Or to produce regional estimates? Management Interventions now perceived as a rapid decline in seagrass areas world-wide, coupled with growing interests and sustainable fisheries management has led to a relatively rapid growth in the conservation in both biodiversity designation of marine protected areas world-wide (Burke et al 2001 ), particularly in nearshore areas. A large number Concern over what is of these include seagrass habitat. Other legal measures to protect seagrass habitats have been relatively limited to date, although some more general legal measure have probably been beneficial for seagrass communities. UNEP-WCMC Linked presented in Table maintains a global database on to the current 8: Annex Summary 4. work a list A summary of this information on behalf of is known and Country MPA area (sq km) Antigua and Barbuda Australia 1,069.0 Bahamas 18.1 Belize 1,188.4 Brazil 0.1 Territory Cambodia 150.0 Cayman 53.9 Islands World Commission of Protected Areas. provided in Table been prepared and 8. statistics are for the total area of the parks and terrestrial area. Total Ocean the to contain seagrass habitat has of seagrass protected areas. Note that the area reserves, including marine British Indian MPAs of these areas which are Country Total 1 France 47.4 3 French Polynesia 113.0 No. of MPA area (sq sites km) Germany, Federal Republic of 1 No. of sites 2 1 2 Guadeloupe 37.4 1 Guam 61.4 1 Honduras 893.6 1 India 10,500.0 4 Indonesia 2,145.2 5 4 1 1 2 1 China 80.0 1 Jamaica 15.3 3 Colombia 1,360.0 3 Kenya 183.3 2 Costa Rica 234.7 2 Martinique 4.2 Cuba 174.2 1 Mauritania 11,730.0 Cyprus 6.5 1 Mauritius 13.0 Mexico Mozambique 28,020.6 5 20,170.0 4 Dominica 5.3 I Dominican Republic 5,034.5 4 14 1 1 2 is Country Total MPA area (sq km) Netherlands Antilles 34.2 Nicaragua 500.0 Palau Panama No. Country Total of MPA area sites (sq 2 km) Thailand 230.9 1 Tonga 28.8 12.0 1 Trinidad and Tobago 6.5 3,200.0 1 Tunisia 126.0 2,316.8 3 Turks and Caicos Islands 4.0 Philippines 57.5 1 United Puerto Rico 77.9 6 2 Papua New Guinea Re'union Kingdom No. of sites 1 2 1 1 1 34.1 4 United States 12,167.3 18 United States Minor Outlying 128.4 1 Saint Lucia 0.3 3 Island Saudi Arabia 2,796.0 2 Venezuela 4,394.3 Seychelles 15.8 2 Vietnam 150.4 Singapore 9.8 1 Virgin Islands (British) 3.2 Slovenia 1.9 1 Virgin Islands (U.S.) 54.5 Spain 507.2 1 Tanzania, United Republic of 843.9 3 4 1 1 3 this table we can see that that there are 130 marine protected areas with seagrass communities world-wide. These are located in 57 countries and territories. This network is far smaller than the equivalent network for coral reefs and mangrove forests. While the total area of these sites appears to be very high, it should further be noted that these measures are for the total area of the sites, which may include both land and sea. They are not of the area of seagrass within this, which is likely to be only a small fraction of the total area. Figure 1 provides a model of the growth of this protected areas network over time. From At the meeting we will have a full list of over 4000 MPAs world-wide and will ask participants to highlight any which we have not captured in the list provided in the Annex. 15 160 120,000 100,000 80,000 _« 60,000 " 40,000 n Total area No. of sites 20,000 ""* 00M-OUDIMC0-^OCDCMC0";rOCDC\JiX)^O 050T-T-c\ic\im'*'*LnLntDr~~t^cDcoa)0 1-1--,--,-T--,--.--,--.--.--.-T-,--^-,--,--.-C\J growth of the protected areas network for marine protected areas including seagrass ecosystems World Database on Protected Areas Figure 1: the Source: UNEP-WCMC, number of other legal interventions which have been which protect seagrasses, either directly, or via restrictions on particular activities. For example, in Queensland waters (Australia) all seagrasses and other marine plants are specifically protected under the Fisheries Act of 1994, for the protection of commercial and recreational fishing activities. In South Australia seagrass is protected under the native vegetation Act 1992. 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R.C., Reguzzoni, J.L., Wyllie-Echeverria, S., Josselyn, Assessment of environmental USA. 39. pp353-66 suitability for M. & Alberte, R.S. 1991. Aquatic Botany. growth of Zostera marina L. eelgrass 28 in San Francisco Bay, California, Annex 1: Seagrass Species Lists by Country H O 2 ^S)M-2t;;J^ ^-e^r y- §^Era3«J=-C0003 ^ ^ccc3l5l9asaju2'CC <<<<<cDcQmQacDmQamcQcQUUCjuuuoou I Amphibolis antarctica 1 Amphibolis 1 griffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliata Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serrulata ri I = ° -S B l;i 1 1 1 1 1 I Enhalus acoroides 1 1 Halodule beaudettei 1 1 Halodule bennundensis 1 Halodule enuirginata 1 III Halodule pinifolia 11 111 1 Halodule uninervis Halodule wrighhi I 1 Halophila auslralis 1 1 I 1 1 Halophila bailhmis 1 1 Halophila beccahi 1 Halophila capricomi Halophila decipiens 11 11 1 ^ Halophila engelniannii Halophila hawaiiuna Halophila johnsonii 11 Halophila minor 11 1 Halophila ovalis Halophila ovata 1 1 Halophila spinulosa 1 1 Halophila stipulacea ^ 1 Halophila tricostata I Heterozostera tasmanica 1 1 Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri ^ Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia 1 Posidonia australis 1 Posidonia coriacea 1 Posidonia denhartogii 1 Posidonia kirkmanii Posidonia oceanica 1 1 Posidonia ostenfeldii 1 Posidonia roberxsonae 1 111 Posidonia sinuosa 1 Syringodium filiforme Syringodium isoelifolium 1 Thalassia hemprichii 1 Thalassia testudinum 1 1 Thalassodendron ciliatum 1 Thalassodendron pachyrhizum 1 111 111 111 1 111 1 Zostera asiatica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zostera capricomi 1 Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica Zostera marina 1 Zostera mucronata noltii Zostera novazelandica Grand Total 1 1 1 1 Zostera muelleri Zostera 1 1 1 3223 31 33143342431311756 29 3 o a. Sr S _ E II I I Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis Cymodocea Cymodocea Cymodocea Cymodocea Cymodocea 2 t = g^ „ O S I '^ •c CQ P-. c c3 « H c! £ o S ^ a I I ± ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ I o It '^ griffithii angustata 1111 1111 cHiata ^ nodosa 1 rolundata 1 sermlala 1 1 _ Enhalus acoroides Hahdule .. 11 1 11 ' beaudettei Haiodide benmmdensis Hahdule emarginata 11 Haiodide pinifotia Haiodide wrightii 1111 1 I Halodule uninervis 1 1 I 1 1 1 Halophita auslralis Halophila baillonis Halophda beccarii 1 Halophila capricomt 11 Hahpfula decipiens Halophda engelmannu 11 1 1 1111 11111 Halophila hawaiiana Halophila jobnsonii 11 Halophila minor Halophda Halophila ovala 1 1 Halophila spinulosa 1 Halophila stipulacea 1 Halophda 111 111 1 avails 1 1 1 trtcostata Helerozoslera tasmanica Phyllospadix iwalensis 1 Phyllospadix japonicus 1 Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus Phyllospadux torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirknumii Posidonia oceanica 1 I I Posidonia oslenfeldii Posidonia roberlsonae Posidonia sinuosa 111 Syringodium filifonne I Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii 1 Thalassia testudinum 11 11 1 Thalassodendron ciliatum 1 Thalassodendron pachyrhizum 1111 1 11 11 111 1 Zostera asiatica 1 Zostera caespitosa 1 Zostera capensis 1 Zostera capricomi Zostera caitlescens Zostera marina 1 11 Zostera japonica 1 Zostera mucronata Zostera muelleri Zostera noltii 11 1111 1 111 1 11 Zostera novazelandica Grand Total 1 5 10 1 6 4 1 1 2 30 2 3 4 1 1 1 1 2 14 13 4 5 3 17 13 § 3 fl Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis >3 :2:iijSSSSSSSSSSSzzz bX) iii i C s- O 3 J2 E O 2 z z Z O c£ griffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliata Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serntlata 1111 Enhalus acoroides 11 Halodule beaudettei 1 Halodule bermundensis Halodule emarginata 1 111 11 1 Halodule wrightii 1 Halophila australis 1 1 11 1 1111 111 111 Halodule pinifolia Halodule uninerxis 11 11 1111 1 I 11 11 1 Halophila baillonis Halophila beccarii 1 1 111 Halophila capricomi 1 Halophila decipiens 1 1 Halophila engelmannii Halophila hawaiiana 1111 Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor Halophila ovata 11 Halophila spinulosa Halophila stipulacea Halophila iricoslata 1 I I I 11 Halophila ovalis 11 1 1 1 1 1 Heterozostera tasmanica Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri 1 Phyllospadix serrulatus 1 Phyllospadix lorreyi Posidonia anguslifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denliartogii Posidonia kirkmanii Posidonia oceanica 1 1 Posidonia ostenfeldii Posidonia robertsonae 111 1111111 Posidonia sinuosa Syhngodium 111 filiforme Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassia hemprichii 111 1 Thalassia lestudinum Thalassodendron ciliatum Thalassodendron pachyrhizum * ' 11 1 ^ ^ 1 1 I Zoslera asialica Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis 1 Zostera capricomi Zostera caulescens Zoslera japonica Zostera marina ^ 1 Zostera mucronata Zostera muelieri Zostera ^ noltii 1 Zostera novazelandica GrandTotal 1 2 3 12 13 3 2 3 7 31 6 9 3 12 5 1 3 11 ^ 3 , 3 , 1 , 2 7 ,/. 10 o ^ J < ^3 ^3 n E o V5 o O Cfl C/5 ^ i 'C m a. C/3 a c 5 -T3 C/J c/u t/3 < C c/-. 3 C/5 s § c>. W 3 s s Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis ghffithii Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliata Cymodocea nodosa Cymodocea rotundata Cymodocea serntlata Enhalus acoroides ' 111 111 111 11 11 11 ^ ' I 11 1 1 1 1 Halodule beaudettei Halodule bennundensis Halodule emarginata Halodule pinifolia Halodule uninervis 1 11 1 1 11 Halodule wrighrii 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 Halophila australis Halophila baillonis 1 Halophila beccarii Halophila capricomi Halophila dectpiens ' J 1 11 111 1 1 Halophila engelmannii Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila minor 111 Halophila ovalis Halophila ovata 1 1 1 I 1 1 Halophila spinulosa 1 I Halophila stipulacea * 1 Halophila tricoslata Heterozostera lasmanica PhyUospadix iwatensis 1 PhyllospadLx japonicus Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix sernilatus Phyllospadix torreyi Posidonia angustifolia Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirhnanii Posidonia oceanica 1 1 Posidonia ostenfeldii Posidonia robertsonae Posidonia sinuosa Syringodium filifonne Syringodium isoelifolium Thalassia hemprichii Thalassia tesludinum Thalassodendron cilialum II 11 11 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 11 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 Thalassodendron pachyrhizum Zostera asiatica 1 Zoslera caespitosa Zostera capensis Zoslera capricomi Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica Zostera marina Zostera mucronata 111 111 1 1 noltii Zostera novazelandica Grand Total 1 1 14 18 11 11 11 II Zostera muelleri Zostera I I 126439 10I113S3357122215 32 11 o Amphibolis a g H C3 (U 'E c . H H H H (- c J3 V3 3 3 3 3 3 D 3 ' : 1 < ''i > < < < < < on 3 3 3 X < oil 1 AmphiboHs antarctica 1X1 c d3 =j i 1o !Z! = N 1 ra 5 .1! > E |2 -o = 5 a 3; 2 £ ^ > o > 1 grijfilhit 1 Cytnodocea anguslala 1 Cytnodocea 3 ciliata Cytnodocea nodosa 1 Cytnodocea rotundata 1 Cytnodocea serrulata 1 Etihalus acoroides 1 13 I 1 1 1 Halodule beaudettei 1 1 24 1 25 1 25 4 1 Halodule betitumdensis 1 Halodule etnarginata 1 Halodule pinifolia 1 Halodule uninetris 1 1 1 Halodule wnghtii 1 1 I I 1 1 1 15 1 1 1 Halophila australis Halophila 1 bciillonis Halophila beccarii 1 9 1 111 1 Halophila etigelnuinmi 1 1 Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii Halophila tnlnor 6 1 1 Halophila capricomi Halophila decipiens 39 27 1 1 1 11 Halophila ovata 1 1 11 33 1 4 1 1 1 3 1 1 Halophila ovalis 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 1 40 9 Halophila spinulosa 7 Halophila stipulacea 1 1 15 Halophila tricoslata 1 Helerozostera tastnanica 2 Phyllospadix iwatensis 3 1 Phyllospadix japonicus 1 Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serrulatus 1 Phyllospadix torreyi 1 2 1 3 1 2 Posidonia angustifoUa 1 Posidonia australis 1 Posidonia coriacea 1 Posidonia denhatlogU 1 Posidonia kirknianii 1 Posidonia oceanica 1 10 1 Posidonia ostenfeldii 1 Posidonia roberlsonae 1 1111 Posidonia sitiuosa Syringodiumfilifonne Syringodium isoetifolium i Thalassia hetnprichii 1 Thalassia lestudinuin Thalassodendron 1 1 1 111 1 1 22 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 36 1 32 1 24 27 1 1 cilialutn 1 Thalassodetidron pachyrhizxitn 1 Zostera asiatica 4 1 Zostera caespitosa 1 Zostera capensis 5 Zostera capricomi 4 1 Zostera caulescens Zostera japonica 11 Zostera nmrina 1 1 11 1 1 5 1 12 31 1 1 Zostera inucronata 2 Zostera tnuelleri Zostera noltii 1 Zostera novazelatidica Grand Total 12 18 ' 1 32442511744425 33 1 1 .3 5 9 4 9 60 Annex 2 - Species distribution maps Cymodoceaceae —^r ""^rr"^ vJ, \ Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis griffithii 34 Cymodocea angustata Cymodocea ciliala 35 Cymodocea nodosa 3rv^.>"" •-_-^^^P^ k ew Cymodocea rotuiidata 36 ;S^H Cymodocea serrulata Halodule beaudettei 37 Halodule bermudensis Halodule emarginala 38 Halodule pinifolia y-'^^ ^^'"' -^"^"-x-^j-^^^^r-^ ^^^^^^ts_^r~/^ ^ y^ ^^^^ )\y y^ PNi Jii^ Z' r \ 'V ^ V^-^ ttf Halodule uninenis 39 Halodule wrightii Syringodium filiforme 40 Syringodium isoetifolium Thalassodendron ciliatum 41 Thalassodeiidron pachyrhizum Hydrocharitaceae Enhalus acoroides 42 Halophila australis Halophila baillonis 43 Halophila beccarii Halophila caphcorni 44 Halophila decipiens Halophila engelmannii 45 Halophila hawaiiana Halophila johnsonii 46 Halophila minor Halophila ovalis 47 Halophila ovata (b) 48 Hatophila spinulosa (a) 49 _.^ fj\ ) i Halophila spinulosa (b) Halophila stipulacea 50 ^.^ rn ^ Halophila tricostata Thalassia hemprichii 51 Thalassia testiidinum Posidoniaceae Posidonia angustifolia 52 Posidonia australis Posidonia coriacea 53 Posidonia denhartogii Posidonia kirkmanii 54 Posidonia oceanica Posidonia ostenfeldii 55 Posidonia sinuosa 56 Zosteraceae Heterozostera tasmanicaib) 57 Phyllospadix iwatensis Phyllospadix japonicus 58 Phyllospadix scouleri Phyllospadix serndatus 59 Phyllospadix torreyi Zostera asiatica 60 Zostera caespitosa Zostera capensis 61 Zostera capricomi Zoslera caulescens 62 Zoste ra japon ica(a) Zostera japonica(h) 63 Zostera marina(h) 64 Zostera manna(c) Zostera mucronata i 65 Zostera inuelleri Zostera noltii 66 Zostera novazelandica \ 67 Annex 3 - Seagrass Map A3.1: distribution maps Caribbean y'£''v-V'' \^ : * L (\ /^ .*« ^'. P 68 k ^-J ». Map A3.2: Europe ^j I s'tn '~s; "> <>;'- ,:/ AJ^'>"^V. 0' M^ ;^^^. C-- ^/H^, Vii 69 6^ ^ . Map A3.3: Indian Ocean •r" 0^,: '^J^ \ \ •. "~ . •/ -• • H^^T^^^l- '. ^ J ^ ^ • . ^^^- « • 70 Map A3.4: Eastern Asia * * iV 'ft'r-~«>_ • • • * • s • •# • * • • •• • * ' . • » 41* • • • 71 ' Map A3.5: Australia -.» *• ^' t t "' '"*. *^ •• \ .1 Vs 72 Map A3.6: Brazil 73 riJ>^ /j-.riLC^ Annex 4 - MPAs by Ful! list of ^/ country COUNTRY AREA NAME DESIGNATION Antigua and Barbuda Cades Bay Marine Reserve Australia Corner Australia YEAR lUCN SIZE Marine and Coastal Park VI 18 1986 Hinchinbrook Island National Park II 399 1989 Australia Wilsons Promontory National Park II 49 1898 Bahamas Union Creek la 1.813 1965 Belize Half Managed Nature Reserve National Monument III 3.925 1982 Belize Hoi Chan Marine Reserve IV 411 1987 Belize Port Honduras Marine Reserve 847 2000 Belize South Water Caye Marine Reserve IV IV 298 1996 Brazil Saltinho State Forest Reserve 2 Diego Garcia Restricted Area V Cambodia Ream National Park II 15 1993 Cayman Cayman Cayman Cayman Little Environmental Zone lb 1,731 1986 Islands Sound (Grand Cayman) North Sound (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone IV 331 1986 Islands South Sound (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone IV 317 1986 Islands Spott Replenishment Zone IV 33 1986 British Indian Ocean , Inlet Moon Caye CAT (ha) 1999 1 1986 1994 Territory Islands Bay (Cayman Brae) China Shan Kou Nature Reserve V 8 1990 Colombia Corales del Rosario y de San Natural National Park II 12 1977 Colombia Bernardo Old Providence Natural National Park II 995 1996 Colombia Tayrona Natural National Park II 15 1964 Costa Rica Cahuita National Park II 1.422 1970 Costa Rica Gandoca-Manzanillo National Wildlife Refuge IV 9.449 1985 Cuba Punta Frances Parque Nacional Marino II 17.424 1985 Cyprus Lara-Toxeftra Marine Reserve IV 65 1989 Dominica Dominican Republic Cabrits National Park II 531 1986 Del Este National Park II 88 1975 Dominican Republic Jaragua National Park II 1.374 1983 Dominican Republic Los Haitises National Park II 1,543 1976 Dominican Republic Montecristi National Park II 1,395 1983 France Cote Bleue Marine Park VI 37 1982 France Scandola Nature Reserve (by IV 1,669 1975 IV 113 1992 - McBean Lagoon Punta Pederales Decree) (Manuae) Reserve French Polynesia Scilly Germany Strelasund Sound/Griefswald Wetland Zone of National lagoon/Isle Greifswald Importance Wismar Wetland Zone of National Germany Territorial bight/Salzhaff area V 1980 V 1980 Importance IV 3,736 1987 VI 6,135 1978 National Park II 78,162 1988 Punta Izopo Wildlife Refuge 112 1992 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve IV VI 15 1989 Guadeloupe Grand Cul de Sac Marin Nature Reserve Guam Guam Territorial Seashore Honduras Jeanette Honduras India Kawas Park (National) Indonesia Arakan Wowontulap Nature Reserve la 138 1986 Indonesia Bali Barat National Park II 77,727 1982 Indonesia Pulau Bokor Nature Reserve la 15 1921 Indonesia Pulau Rambut Nature Reserve la 18 1939 Indonesia Ujung Kulon National Park II 122,956 1992 Jamaica Montego Bay Marine Park II 153 1991 Jamaica Negril Marine Park 74 1998 COUNTRY AREA NAME DESIGNATION lUCN SIZE (ha) YEA Jamaica Ocho Rios Protected Area CAT V Kenya Kenya Malindi Marine National Park II 63 1968 Malindi-Watamu Marine National Reserve VI 177 1968 Martinique Caravelle Nature Reserve IV 422 1976 Mauritania Banc d'Arguin National Park II 1,173 1976 Mauritius Flacq Fishing Reserve IV 6 1983 Mauritius Trou d'Eau Douce Fishing Reserve rv 7 1983 Mexico Mexico Arrecifes de Puerto Morelos National Park n 1,828 1998 Banco Chinchorro Biosphere Reserve VI 14,436 1996 VI 254,679 1988 Fir 1966 (National) Mexico El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve (National) Mexico Mexico Mozambique Mozambique Mozambique Mozambique Netherlands Antilles Bonaire Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Ria Lagartos Other area Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano National Marine Park Bazaruto II 4,784 1979 52,239 1992 National Park II 15 1971 Faunal Reserve rv 2 1965 Marromeu Game 1969 Wildlife Utilization Area rv VI 1 Zambezi I 1981 Marine Park 26 1979 Saba Marine Park 82 1987 Marine Reserve 5 I99I Palau Cayos Miskitos Ngerukewid Islands 12 1956 Panama Comarca Kuna Yala (San 32 1938 New Papua New Papua New Papua Ilhas da Inhaca e dos Portugueses Bias) Reserve Indigenous Guinea Kamiali Wildlife Guinea Maza(I) Wildlife Guinea la m Commarc Management Area VI Management Area VI 47,413 1996 18,423 1978 Talele Islands Provincial Park IV 4 1973 Philippines St Paul Subterranean River National Park II 5,753 1971 Puerto Rico Boqueron Wildlife Refuge (Refugio rv 237 1964 IV IV 88 1980 1,133 1981 de Vida Silvestre) Puerto Rico Cayos de Puerto Rico Estuarina Nacional Bahia Jobos la Nature Reserve Cordillera Caja de Muerto Puerto Rico Isla Puerto Rico Jobos Bay Puerto Rico La Parguera Reunion lies Hunting Reserve Nature Reserve IV 188 1988 National Estuarine IV 1,168 1981 Nature Reserve IV 4,973 Nature Reserve rv IV IV Research Reserve Glorieuses Reunion Hot d'Europa Nature Reserve Saint Lucia Maria Islands Nature Reserve Saint Lucia Pigeon Island Other area Saint Lucia Soufriere Marine Reserve Saudi Arabia Dawat Ad-Dafl, Dawat AlMusallamiyah m 1979 1975 1975 12 1982 2 1978 21 Other area & Coral Islands Saudi Arabia Farasan Islands Protected Area la 696 1989 Seychelles Port Launay Marine National Park II 158 1979 Seychelles St. Anne Marine National Park II 1,423 1973 Singapore Southern Islands Marine Nature Area 98 1996 Slovenia Strunjan Landscape Park V 192 1990 Spain Donana National Park (State n 572 1969 Tanzania Chumbe Island (CHICOP) Marine Sanctuary II 3 1994 Tanzania Mafia Island Marine Park VI 822 1995 Tanzania Misali Island Conservation Area VI 2,158 1998 Thailand Hat Chao Mai National Park u 2,386 1981 Tonga Fanga'uta and Fanga Kakau Marine Reserve VI 2,835 1974 Tonga Lagoons Pangaimotu Reef Reserve IV 49 1979 Network) Coral Park 75 COUNTRY AREA NAME DESIGNATION lUCN SIZE Trinidad and Tobago Buccoo Reef Nature Reserve la 65 1973 Tunisia Ichkeul National Park II 126 1980 Turks and Caicos Islands West Caicos Marine National Park IV 397 1992 Kingdom United Kingdom Helford River Voluntary Reserve V 16 1976 United Kingdom IV 15 1990 National Nature Reserve IV 37 1959 United States Skomer Skomer Bahia Honda Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Marine Nature Reserve State Park V 212 1961 United States Biscayne National Park II 729 1980 United States Breton National Wildlife Refuge IV 3,661 1904 United States Channel Islands National Park II 1,987 1980 United States Dry Tortugas National Park II 2,623 1992 United States Everglades National Park II 66.688 1947 United States Florida Keys Wilderness (Fish and lb 258 1975 United United Kingdom Isles of Scilly (ha ) YEAl CAT 1987 Wildlife Service) United States Galveston Island State Park la 786 United States Grand Bay National Estuarine IV 7,452 1999 Research Reserve United States Gulf Islands (Florida) National Seashore V 54,928 1971 United States Hawaiian Islands (8 National Wildlife Refuge la 1,296 1945 United States Izembek National Wildlife Refuge IV 12,266 1960 United States John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park V 22,684 1959 United States Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge 55,953 1963 United States Padilla IV IV 4,455 1980 sites) Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve United States Pinellas National Wildlife Refuge IV 159 1956 United States Rookery Bay National Estuarine IV 562 1978 Research Reserve United States St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge IV 26,467 1931 United States Minor Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge la 12,843 1974 Venezuela Archipielago Los Roques National Park II 22,112 1972 Venezuela Medanos de Coro National Park II 9.128 1974 Venezuela Mochima National Park II 94,935 1973 Venezuela Morrocoy National Park II 329 1974 National Park II 1,543 1982 Marine Park III 324 1980 Virgin Islands (U.S.) Con Dao Wreck of the Rhone Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge IV 6 1977 Virgin Islands (U.S.) Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge rv 134 Virgin Islands (U.S.) Virgin Islands National Park II 538 Outlying Island Viet Nam Virgin Islands (British) 76 1956

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