Research Paper International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) : 64-86, January-June 2017 ISSN No.: 0976-4534 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala: An Endangered Orchid Subtribe with High Economic and Horticultural Potentials EDGAR MÓ1, WILLIAM CETZAL-IX2,*, SAIKAT KUMAR BASU3, ELIANA NOGUERA-SAVELLI4, HERMES VEGA5, FERNANDO CASANOVA-LUGO6 & JEAN-MARC PALLANDRE7 1 Orquigonia, Reserva Natural y Centro de Conservación de Orquídeas, Cobán, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala Instituto Tecnológico de Chiná, Calle 11 entre 22 y 28, Colonia Centro Chiná 24050, Campeche, México 3 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB Canada T1K 3M4 4 Catedrática CONACYT, Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Campeche. Carretera Haltunchén-Edzná Km.17 5 Sichochac, Champotón, Campeche, México 5 MAPANCE, Mancomunidad de Municipios del Parque Nacional Celaque, Bo. Mercedes Edif. de Gobernación, Gracias, Lempira, Honduras 6 Instituto Tecnológico de la Zona Maya, Quintana Roo, México 7 Vineuil-Saint-Firmin 60500, France 2 Received: 25 February 2017; Revision: 15 March 2017 Accepted: 15 May 2017 ABSTRACT The orchid flora of Guatemala includes 1,200 species; representing 10% of the total species present in the world, demonstrating rich biodiversity. Among the orchids, the subtribe with the highest number of endangered species is Pleurothallidinae; because their species lack pseudobulbs and are plants that die during the summer from dehydration. However, plants produce flowers more than once during the year for seed generation and maintain their populations. In the neotropics this subtribe comprises 4000 species and in Guatemala 211 species and four natural hybrids in 20 genera have are recorded; distributed in wet forests and subtropical lower rainforests, at an elevation of 300-3000 m. The genera and number of species are: Lepanthes (70 species and four hybrids), Stelis (47), Specklinia (22), Platystele (15), Trichosalpinx (13), Acianthera (12), Pleurothallis (11), Lankesteriana (6), Restrepia (6), Anathallis (5), Masdevallia (5), Dryadella (3), Myoxanthus (3), Octomeria (3), Dresslerella (2), Lepanthopsis (2), Barbosella (1), Draculla (1), Kraenzlinella (1), Restrepiella (1), Scaphosepalum (1). Of these taxa, 57 species are known only from a few localities of Guatemala and 29 are restricted to the southeast Mexico and Guatemala. Hence, several species are classified as Least Concern or Near Threatened by IUCN; however, they should be categorized as Endangered due to their restricted distribution and serious anthropogenic pressure impacting local populations. The ornamental and horticultural potentials of Pleurothallidinae diversity in the fragmented forests can be harnessed in establishing a model for the sustainable management. This will help in conservation of endangered local orchid species; and in the restoration of fragmented forest areas by integrating that to the judicious economic development of impoverished local communities. Key words: Orchid, Pleurothallidinae, Guatemala, conservation, anthropogenic threats. INTRODUCTION In this sense, the epiphytes that are mainly orchids become essential elements for the maintenance of the biodiversity; as well the balance of the natural forest communities. They positively influence the ecosystems to provide nutritional resources and specialized microenvironments for the canopy fauna The Pleurothallidinae subtribe is one of the largest groups of orchids with over 4000 species and is one of the main components of the neotropic epiphytic flora (Viveros & Higgins 2007, Higgins & Williams 2009). *Corresponding author: rolito22@hotmail.com 64 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., 65 plateau systems that originates in Chiapas and ranges into northern Honduras along a NW-SE general direction. These species predominantly grow in different ecosystems ranging from lowland moist forests to the dry or humid oak and pine-oak forests at higher elevations of up to 1600 m; often occurring in cloud forests (Mó et al. 2014; Cash et al. 2016). that actively participate in nutrient cycling process (Lugo & Scatena 1992; Delio Endres et al. 2014). Also, the biological importance of this group of plants is that they can be comprehensively considered as biological or ecological indicators of disturbance; since they have an unique habitat specificity and preference for specialized hosts. The density of their wild populations decreases significantly in disturbed forests (SolanoGómez et al. 2008). This area of Guatemala is considered as priority conservation for its tropical montane cloud forests and tropical rain forests. The wet forest and subtropical lower rainforest habitats, where different species of Pleurothallidinae are distributed in Guatemala are seriously threatened due to several anthropogenic factors like extensive conversion of forest to agricultural lands, rapid changes in land use due to extensive cattle ranching, unmonitored forest fires, indiscriminate removal of the plants by scraping since local coffee growers believe that the orchids are parasitic and their elimination is necessary to boost coffee production and incentives by the local forest department to replace native vegetation with Pinus maximinoi (Mó et al. 2014; Cash et al. 2016). The Pleurothallidinae species has a wide range of forms of growth (epiphytic, terrestrial, rheophyte, lithophyte etc) and occupies diverse habitats (e.g., nearly all Neotropical forests, paramo, Mangroves, deserts) (Higgins & Williams 2009). These species of this group are characterized by an articulation between the ovary and the pedicel, and by the stem (ramicaul) bearing one leaf that always lacks pseudobulbs (Luer 1986; Higgins & Williams 2009). According to Higgins & Williams (2009), a typical pleurothallid is an epiphyte with a restricted distribution, frequently endemic, that lives in sympatry with other pleurothallids in extremely moist forests to elevation between 1800-2800 m. However, endemism and the restricted distribution of its species are making them more vulnerable to extinction (Viveros & Higgins 2007). Furthermore, these plants and their small flowers have niche markets for plant collectors, tourists and for commercial use in special events like birthdays and weddings among local communities. Since the sale of these plants is prohibited in the country, these are illegally traded in markets in the states of Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Chiquimula, El Progreso, Guatemala, Jalapa, Quiché and Zacapa (Mó et al. 2014; Cash et al. 2016). However, unfortunately no comprehensive study of ornamental potential and the implications associated with its conservation of Pleurothallidinae species of Guatemala till date. The species of this subtribe have wide geographic range from southern Florida, the West Indies, and extending from Mexico to as far as southern Brazil and northern Argentina (Viveros & Higgins 2007). The greatest diversity of this group is reported from South America, in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (Luer 1986). In Central America, the countries with the greatest diversity of Pleurothallidinae species are Costa Rica (459), Panama (375), Mexico (215) and Guatemala (206), while countries with lower diversity are Nicaragua (143), Honduras (124), El Salvador (79) and Belize (65) (Ossenbach et al. 2007). Despite the valuable contributions of collectors and growers, Guatemala has not yet performed a comprehensive survey and determined any reliable conservation status of the local Pleurothallidinae species. Our objective has been to explore the ornamental potential and recording of the habitats of different endangered species of Pleurothallidinae (Orchidaceae) with photographs and to identify any anthropogenic factors impacting the survival and existence of these endangered orchid species in Guatemala. Furthermore, we propose a model for the long term, sustainable management and conservation of the endangered local orchid species threatened by anthropogenic actions and help in the restoration of fragmented forest areas in the region. The largest number of the Pleurothallidinae species reported from Guatemala is distributed mostly in the central part of the country; where the diversity of the vegetation types is dominated by high mountains and 65 66 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... Botanical collections As part of our project reintegration of the knowledge of orchid flora of Guatemala and as an effort to contribute to the conservation of the diverse flora of the country, photographic collections were made between September 2010 and December 2016 in different areas JANUARY-JUNE 2017 of the Guatemala. The specimens were photographed in their natural habitat and at orchid exhibitions (Table 1, Figs. 1-8). The identification of the specimens photographed on site were made based on Icones Pleurothallidinarum (Luer 1986a, 1986b, 1991, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006). Table 1: Pleurothallidinae species in Guatemala. SA = South America, ORN = Ornamental. MED = Medicinal. IT = Illegal Trade. PIU = Prices in USA Dollars. * Endemic species. † Present in Alta Verapaz Department. MEX GUA BEL Acianthera angustifolia (Lindl.) Luer † TAXA 1 1 1 Acianthera angustisepala (Ames & Correll) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 1 Acianthera breedlovei Soto Arenas, Solano & Salazar 1 1 Acianthera circumplexa (Lindl.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase 1 1 Acianthera herrerae (Luer) Solano & Soto Arenas 1 1 Acianthera hondurensis (Ames) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 Acianthera johnsonii (Ames) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 Acianthera pubescens (Lindl.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 Acianthera tikalensis (Correll & C. Schweinf.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase 1 1 Acianthera violacea (A. Rich. & Galeotti) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase† 1 1 Anathallis lewisiae (Ames) Solano & Soto Arenas† 1 1 Anathallis minutalis (Lindl.) Pridgeon & 1 M.W. Chase 1 Anathallis sertularioides (Sw.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase† 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Acianthera javieri Archila* † Dresslerella archilae Luer & Béhar* † Dryadella greenwoodiana Soto Arenas, Salazar & R. Solano NIC CR PAN SA I 1 1 Dryadella linearifolia (Ames) Luer † 1 1 Kraenzlinella erinacea (Rchb. f.) Solano † 1 Lankesteriana abbreviata (Schltr.) Karremans† 1 1 ORN MED IT PIU I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Dryadella guatemalensis (Schltr.) Luer † Lankesteriana barbulata (Lindl.) Karremans† HON 1 Barbosella prorepens (Rchb. f.) Schltr. † Dracula pusilla (Rolfe) Luer † ELS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lankesteriana comayaguensis (Ames) Karremans† 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 10 1 15 Lankesteriana duplooyi (Luer & Sayers) 0Karremans Lankesteriana involuta (L.O. Williams) Karremans 10 Lepanthes × fonacytii Archila* † 1 1 20 Lepanthes × mendiatae Archila* † 1 1 20 66 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., 67 Lepanthes × stenosepala Luer & Béhar* † 1 1 20 Lepanthes × tuerckheimii Schltr.* † 1 1 25 1 15 1 15 1 25 Lepanthes acuminata Schltr. † 1 1 Lepanthes almolongae Luer & Béhar 1 1 Lepanthes ancylopetala Dressler 1 1 Lepanthes any Archila* 1 Lepanthes archilae Luer & Béhar* † 1 Lepanthes appendiculata Ames † 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 20 1 15 1 1 25 1 1 25 Lepanthes carvii Archila* † 1 1 15 Lepanthes chapina Luer & Béhar* † 1 1 Lepanthes cleistogama Archila* † 1 1 Lepanthes cobanensis Archila* † 1 1 10 1 1 20 1 15 1 25 Lepanthes beharii Luer* † Lepanthes breedlovei Salazar & Soto Arenas † 1 Lepanthes denticulata Luer & Béhar 1 Lepanthes disticha Garay & R.E. Schult. † 1 1 1 Lepanthes doeringii Archila † 1 Lepanthes enca-barcenae Archila † 1 Lepanthes excedens Ames & Correll 1 Lepanthes fratercula Luer & Béhar † 1 Lepanthes geniculata Luer & Béhar 1 1 1 Lepanthes gustavo-romeroi Archila 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 1 1 1 1 25 1 20 1 1 20 1 1 1 Lepanthes hondurensis Ames † 1 10 20 1 Lepanthes herrerae Luer & Béhar 1 1 1 Lepanthes gibberosa Ames † Lepanthes guatemalensis Schltr. † 1 1 1 1 1 20 1 15 1 10 1 25 Lepanthes huehuetenangensis Archila † 1 1 10 Lepanthes ibanezii Luer & Béhar † 1 1 20 Lepanthes inaequalis Schltr. † 1 Lepanthes isabelii Archila † 1 Lepanthes javieri Archila † 1 1 1 1 Lepanthes johnsonii Ames † 1 Lepanthes lenticularis Luer & Béhar 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 1 15 1 20 1 30 15 1 1 Lepanthes loboauriculatus Archila † 1 1 10 Lepanthes luisii Archila † 1 1 25 15 Lepanthes matudana Salazar & Soto Arenas † 1 1 1 Lepanthes maxima Salazar & Soto Arenas 1 1 1 30 Lepanthes migueliana Luer & Béhar † 1 1 10 Lepanthes milciadesmejiae Archila, Jiménez Rodr. & Véliz † 1 1 1 1 35 1 1 25 Lepanthes mittelstaedtii Luer & Béhar † Lepanthes motozintlensis Salazar & Soto Arenas 1 Lepanthes necae Archila Archila 1 1 20 Lepanthes noelii Luer & Béhar 1 1 10 Lepanthes ordonezii Luer & Béhar 1 1 10 1 12 Lepanthes oreocharis Schltr. 1 1 1 Lepanthes oroscoi Archila 1 1 12 Lepanthes oscarii Archila 1 1 15 Lepanthes pantomima Luer & Dressler † Lepanthes papillipetala Dressler † 1 1 Lepanthes parvula Dressler † 1 1 1 67 1 25 1 20 1 20 68 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 Lepanthes purulhaensis Archila † 1 1 20 Lepanthes quetzalensis Luer & Béhar † 1 1 25 Lepanthes rodrigogonzalesii Archila † 1 Lepanthes salazarii Archila † 1 Lepanthes samacensis Ames † 1 1 Lepanthes scopula Schltr. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 25 1 10 Lepanthes sotoi Archila † 1 Lepanthes stefaniae Archila † 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 30 Lepanthes stenophylla Schltr. † 1 Lepanthes systole Luer † Lepanthes tactiquensis Archila † 1 15 1 1 35 Lepanthes tecpanica Luer & Béhar 1 1 1 15 Lepanthes tenuiloba R.E. Schult. & G.W. Dillon 1 30 1 1 Lepanthes velifera Luer & Béhar † 1 1 35 Lepanthes verapazensis Archila † 1 1 35 Lepanthes vilchezii Archila Lepanthes williamsii Salazar & Soto Arenas 1 1 Lepanthes yunckeri Ames † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lepanthopsis floripecten (Rchb. f.) Ames † Masdevallia adamsii Luer † 1 Masdevallia chontalensis Rchb. f. † 1 1 1 Masdevallia corinnea Archila, Jiménez Rodr. & Véliz † Masdevallia floribunda Lindl. † 1 Masdevallia tubuliflora Ames † 1 1 1 Masdevallia tuerckheimii Ames † 1 1 Myoxanthus congestus (A.Rich. & Galeotti) Soto Arenas † 1 1 Platystele compacta (Ames) Ames † 1 1 Platystele jungermannioides (Schltr.) Garay † 1 1 Platystele minimiflora (Schltr.) Garay 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 10 10 1 25 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 1 1 1 15 1 1 1 1 5 1 30 1 1 Platystele pedicellaris (Schltr.) Garay † 1 1 Platystele repens (Ames) Garay † 1 Platystele oxyglossa (Schltr.) Garay † 1 1 Platystele sancristobalensis Archila † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Platystele taylorii Luer † Platystele escalerae Archila † Pleurothallis antonensis L.O. Williams † 20 1 1 1 1 Platystele stenostachya (Rchb. f.) Garay † 1 1 1 Platystele ovalifolia (H. Focke) Garay & Dunst † Platystele ovatilabia (Ames & C. Schweinf.) Garay † 25 1 1 Platystele narvalis Archila † 20 1 1 1 Platystele bernoullii Luer † 1 30 1 1 1 Pleurothallis archilarum Chiron † 1 1 1 Pleurothallis correllii Luer † 1 1 Pleurothallis crocodiliceps Rchb. f. † 1 Pleurothallis leucantha Schltr. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Pleurothallis pansamalae Schltr. † 1 1 15 15 35 1 1 1 1 68 1 5 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 35 20 1 1 1 Pleurothallis matudana C. Schweinf. † 1 1 15 1 1 30 20 1 1 Pleurothallis cardiothallis Rchb. f. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 1 8 1 8 8 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) Pleurothallis saccatilabia C. Schweinf. 1 Pleurothallis sanchoi Ames † † 1 Pleurothallopsis ujarensis (Rchb. f.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 Pleurothallis testifolia (Sw.) Lindl. Restrepia archilae Chiron & Szlach. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 69 1 1 1 Restrepia cobanensis Archila, Chiron & Szlach. † Restrepia guatemalensis Archila EDGAR MÓ et al., 1 20 1 15 1 15 1 25 1 † 1 Restrepia mayana Archila, Chiron & Szlach. Restrepia muscifera (Lindl.) Rchb. f. ex Lindl. 1 † 1 1 1 1 Restrepia valverdei Archila, Jiménez Rodr. & Véliz † Restrepiella ophiocephala (Lindl.) Garay & Dunst. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 25 1 1 12 1 1 1 5 Scaphosepalum microdactylum Rolfe † 1 15 Scaphosepalum standleyi Ames † 1 15 1 15 Specklinia acicularis (Ames & C. Schweinf.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 Specklinia alata (A. Rich. & Galeotti) Solano & Soto Arenas † Specklinia blancoi (Pupulin) Soto Arenas & Solano 1 1 1 1 1 Specklinia brighamii (S. Watson) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 25 1 Specklinia corniculata (Sw.) Steud. † 15 1 Specklinia fimbriata (Ames & C. Schweinf.) Solano † 1 1 1 Specklinia fuegii (Rchb. f.) Solano & Soto Arenas † 1 1 1 1 5 Specklinia glandulosa (Ames) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase 1 12 Specklinia grobyi (Bateman ex Lindl.) F. Barros † 1 5 1 1 20 1 1 Specklinia juddii (Archila) Archila † 1 1 1 Specklinia marginata (Lindl.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 1 1 25 1 Specklinia lanceola (Sw.) Lindl. † 1 1 1 Specklinia pisinna (Luer) Solano & Soto Arenas † Specklinia remotiflora Pupulin & Karremans † 1 1 1 5 1 15 1 15 Specklinia samacensis (Ames) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 Specklinia segregatifolia (Ames & C. Schweinf.) Solano & Soto Arenas † 1 15 Specklinia spectabilis (Ames & C. Schweinf.) Pupulin & Karremans † 1 Specklinia tribuloides (Sw.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 10 8 Specklinia yucatanensis (Ames & C. Schweinf.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † Stelis aemula Schltr. † 15 Stelis aeolica Solano & Soto Arenas † 1 10 Stelis anagraciae Archila & Szlach. † 1 1 1 15 Stelis annedamoniae Solano † 1 1 1 25 69 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... 70 Stelis argentata Lindl. JANUARY-JUNE 2017 † Stelis chiapensis Solano † Stelis chihobensis Ames † 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 Stelis ciliaris Lindl. † Stelis cleistogama Schltr. † 1 1 Stelis cobanensis (Schltr.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 Stelis emarginata (Lindl.) Soto Arenas & R. Solano † 1 1 Stelis fulva Schltr. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 2 Stelis despectans Schltr. † 10 1 5 1 10 Stelis gracilis Ames † Stelis greenwoodii Soto Arenas & Solano 0 5 1 Stelis guatemalensis Schltr. † 1 1 1 Stelis hymenantha Schltr. † 1 1 1 Stelis immersa (Linden & Rchb. f.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 Stelis jalapensis (Kraenzl.) 1 Stelis johnsonii Ames † 1 Stelis kellogi (Archila) Mó & Cetzal, comb. nov. † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 5 10 1 1 5 1 25 1 20 1 Stelis lamprophylla (Schltr.) Karremans † 1 5 Stelis microchila Schltr. † 1 10 Stelis ornata (Rchb. f.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 Stelis ovatilabia Schltr. † 1 1 Stelis oxypetala Schltr. † 1 1 Stelis pachyglossa (Lindl.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 1 1 25 1 10 1 10 1 1 10 Stelis pardipes Rchb. f. Stelis parvula Lindl. † Stelis platystylis (Schltr.) Solano & Soto Arenas † 10 1 1 1 1 1 5 Stelis punctulata (Rchb. f.) Soto Arenas † 1 Stelis purpurascens A. Rich. & Galeotti † 1 Stelis rubens Schltr. † 1 1 Stelis scariosa (Lex.) Karremans † 1 1 Stelis segoviensis (Rchb. f.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † Stelis superbiens Lindl. † 1 1 1 1 Stelis tenebrosa (Archila, Szlach. & Chiron) Karremans † 10 1 1 1 1 1 Stelis tenuissima Schltr. † 1 1 1 1 1 Stelis vestita Ames † 1 1 1 1 Stelis villosa (Knowles & Westc.) Pridgeon & M.W. Chase † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 25 1 1 1 15 10 1 1 Trichosalpinx carvii (Archila) J.M.H.Shaw † Trichosalpinx cortezii Archila † 1 1 Stelis vespertina Solano & Soto Arenas † Trichosalpinx ciliaris (Lindl.) Luer † 1 1 Stelis megachlamys (Schltr.) Pupulin † 10 1 1 Stelis tacanensis R. Solano & Soto Arenas Trichosalpinx blaisdellii (S. Watson) Luer † 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 10 70 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., 71 Trichosalpinx crucilabia (Ames & Correll) Luer † 1 1 Trichosalpinx cunorensis (Archila) J.M.H.Shaw † 1 1 Trichosalpinx dura (Lindl.) Luer † 1 Trichosalpinx franciscantha (Archila) J.M.H.Shaw † Trichosalpinx fruticosa Luer † Trichosalpinx greenwoodiana Soto Arenas † 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Trichosalpinx memor (Rchb. f.) Luer † 1 1 Trichosalpinx pringlei (Schltr.) Luer 1 1 Trichosalpinx trachystoma (Schltr.) Luer † 1 Trichosalpinx triangulipetala (Ames & Correll) Luer † 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 1 15 1 10 1 20 1 1 Data collection of species plants illegally trade in Guatemala Between September 2010 and December 2016, different markets and plant nurseries of the Guatemala (Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Chiquimula, El Progreso, Guatemala, Jalapa, Quiché and Zacapa) were visited to identify which species of Pleurothallidinae are being sold as ornamental plants; additionally their comparative prices in US$ as well as major and minor uses were consulted (Table 1). threatened due to extensive cultivation of corn (Zea mays L.), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), and chili (Capsicum annuum L.). The other factors impacting the survival of the species have been uncontrolled wildfires, incentives to replace native vegetation with Pinus maximinoi H.E.Moore by the local forest department and the rapid changes in land use patterns due to extensive cattle ranching in the locality (Fig. 11). The Pleurothallidinae species that grow on the stems and branches of the coffee plant or other trees are indiscriminately removed (scraped) from the bark, because as coffee growers believe that orchids are parasitic species and their elimination will boost coffee production. Floristic inventory and current conservation status A total of 211 species and four natural hybrids in 20 genera have been recorded in Guatemala (Table 1, Figs. 1-8). The genera and number of species are: Lepanthes (70 species and four hybrids), Stelis (47), Specklinia (22), Platystele (15), Trichosalpinx (13), Acianthera (12), Pleurothallis (11), Lankesteriana (6), Restrepia (6), Anathallis (5), Masdevallia (5), Dryadella (3), Myoxanthus (3), Octomeria (3), Dresslerella (2), Lepanthopsis (2), Barbosella (1), Draculla (1), Kraenzlinella (1), Restrepiella (1), Scaphosepalum (1) (Fig. 9). Of these taxa, 53 species and four natural hybrids are known only from a few localities and are most possibly endemic to Guatemala. Other 29 species are restricted to southeast Mexico and Guatemala. Ornamental potential and illegal trade of Pleurothallidinae species-Need for sustainable alternative The ornamental potential of this subtribe is associated with the wide diversity of habits, size and shape of the plants and flowers, the length of the inflorescence and the number of flowers, coloring patterns of the leaves of plants and flowers; and their rare floral architecture (Figs. 1-8). Of the 215 taxa recorded in Guatemala, 78% (168) are sold as ornamental plants illegally in markets and nurseries plants (Table 1); mostly in the local markets of Cobán (Alta Verapaz), Guatemala (Guatemala), San Marcos (San Marcos). In general, the Pleurothallidinae species are sold between US$ 5-35 (Table 1). The species of the Lepanthes are most commonly sold in local markets (67 sold of 70 species) (Fig. 12); because it is the genus with the highest number of species and in the pieces of moss that they give off to sell orchids, several species of Lepanthes grow of Several of these species usually grow in wet forests and in the subtropical lower montane rainforests at elevations of 1100-2600 m (Fig. 10). However, none of these recently described species from a few collections or endemic to Guatemala have been evaluated before for their conservation status, considering that habitats where it commonly grow have been seriously 71 72 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 Fig.1: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Acianthera angustifolia. B. A. angustisepala. C. A. circumplexa. D. A. herrerae. E. A. javieri. F. A. johnsonii. G. A. pubescens. H. A. tikalensis. I. A. violacea. J. Anathallis platystylis. K. Dracula pusilla. L. Dryadella greenwoodiana. M. Kraenzlinella erinacea. N. Lankesteriana abbreviata. O. Lepanthes acuminata. P. L. almolongae. 72 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., Fig 2: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Lepanthes any. B. L. appendiculata. C. L. archilae. D. L. breedlovei. E. L. denticulata. F. L. disticha. G. L. enca-barcenae. H. L. excedens. I. L. fratercula. J. L. geniculata. K. L. gibberosa. L. L. guatemalensis. M. L. gustavo-romeroi. N. L. hondurensis. O. L. ibanezii. P. L. inaequalis. 73 73 74 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 Fig 3: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Lepanthes javieri. B. L. johnsonii. C. L. lenticularis. D. L. matudana. E. L. migueliana. F. L. mittelstaedtii. G. L. motozintlensis. H. L. oreocharis. I. L. oroscoi. J. L. ordonezii. K. L. purulhaensis. L. L. quetzalensis. M. L. scopula. N. L. stenophylla. O. L. tecpanica. P. L. williamsii. 74 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., Fig 4 : Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Lepanthes yunckeri. B. L. × fonacytii. C. L. × mendietae. D. L. × stenosepala. E. Lepanthopsis floripecten. F. Masdevallia chontalensis. G. M. floribunda. H. M. tuerckheimii. I. Platystele minimiflora. J. P. minimiflora. K. P. narvalis. L. P. oxyglossa. M. P. pedicellaris. N. P. repens. O. P. sancristobalensis. P. P. stenostachya. 75 75 76 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 Fig 5: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Pleurothallis antonensis. B. P. cardiothallis. C. P. cardiothallis. D. P. correllii. E. P. correllii. F. P. leucantha. G. P. matudana. H. P. matudana. I. P. pansamalae. J. P. saccatilabia. K. P. sanchoi. L. P. sanchoi. 76 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., Fig 6: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Specklinia fuegii. B. S. glandulosa. C. S. juddii. D. S. marginata. E. S. pisinna. F. S. segregatifolia. G. S. spectabilis. H. S. tribuloides. I. Stelis aeolica. J. S. annedamoniae. K. S. ciliaris. L. S. emarginata. M. S. gracilis. N. S. hymenantha. O. S. immersa. P. S. kellogi. 77 77 78 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 Fig 7: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Stelis kellogi. B. S. lamprophylla. C. S. microchila. D. S. ornata. E. S. ovatilabia. F. S. pachyglossa. G. S. parvula. H. S. platystilis. I. S. purpurascens. J. S. quadrifida. K. S. rubens. L. S. segoviensis. M. S. segoviensis. N. S. tacanensis. O. S. tenebrosa. P. S. megachlamys. 78 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., Fig 8: Pleurothallidinae species from Guatemala. A. Trichosalpinx blaisdellii. B. T. ciliaris. C. T. cortezi. D. T. greenwoodiana. E. T. pringlei. F. T. pringlei. Fig. 9 : Number of species of Pleurothallidinae per genera. 79 79 80 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 Fig 10: Habitats of species of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala. A-B. Cloud forest in Santa María Cahabón, Alta Verapaz. C-D. Pine-oak forests burned in Caquipec, Alta Verapaz. E-F. Motagua and Chixoy-Polochic faults with cloud forest in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. 80 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., Fig 11: Anthropogenic factors and threats for the habitats of Pleurothallidinae species in Guatemala. A-B. Deforestation of vegetation in Northern Transversal Strip (part of limit between Huehuetenango, Quiché, Alta Verapaz and Izabal deparments). C. Unmonitored forest fires. D. Changes in land use due to extensive cattle ranching. E. Firewood. 81 81 82 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... Fig 12 : Number of species sold in Guatemalan markets. Fig 13 : Cultivation in vitro of species of Pleurothallidinae. 82 JANUARY-JUNE 2017 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., 83 literature, it was observed to be selling in the local markets and exchanged by different nursery growers. Unfortunately, the Pleurothallidinae biodiversity in Guatemala has been seriously jeopardized by different anthropogenic factors and threats due to their huge economic and horticultural potentials. According to Guatemalan law, one way to produce and commercialize these plants is third generation plant production. A more viable and sustainable approach will be to allow the introduction of well monitored in vitro orchid germination programs as well organic cultivation of the high value local orchid crops of Pleurothallidinae species by local inhabitants, collectors, nursery workers and remote rural communities including forest fringe residents and related communities after proper training and education. Climate change and global warming have been causing widespread impact on the survival of several plant species including orchids and their primary and secondary pollinators (Hegland et al. 2009). In addition, the excessive anthropogenic stress in the region could have severe long-term impacts on the survival and natural propagation of the orchid species of this vulnerable region (Cetzal-Ix et al. 2014; Cash et al. 2016). sympatric form with species of diverse genera. Followed by Stelis (23 of 47), Specklinia (18 of 22); the other genera registered in Guatemala have fewer species, however, almost all are commercially sold in local markets. Surprisingly, for the case of endemic species to Guatemala, 49 species are sold in the markets between US$ 10-35, considering that these were recently described (2001 and 2014) of a few populations in the department of Alta Verapaz. In this department are distributed the greater diversity of species of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala (82%, 177 of 215) (Table 1). Most species of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala are extremely vulnerable to exploitation by collectors and nurserymen. The harvesting of the species by local populations for illegal nursery trade could result in serious depletion of several species in the long term if careful attention is not paid immediately (Cetzal-Ix et al. 2014). Coupled with the lack of monitoring and increased encroachments in the forested areas over the decades by local populations; cattle and livestock grazing in sensitive habitats; collection of food, fuel, fiber, fodder and fertilizer resources from the adjacent forests are regularly building significant and detrimental anthropogenic pressures within the sensitive and extremely fragile ecosystem due to absence of any form legal restrictions, lack of any credible monitoring and surveillance by the local conservation agencies and extremely poor forest management practices (Cetzal-Ix et al. 2014; AlvarezMora et al. 2016). For all the above factors, we sincerely believe endemic species to Guatemala or those restricted to Mexico and Guatemala should be immediately considered and/or recognized as Vulnerable (VU) species under the current IUCN directives. Such a long term sustainable approach can genuinely improve the local economy, reduce their severe dependence on the highly vulnerable and scanty forest resources; and also prevent illegal and non-judicious force harvesting as well as trafficking of rare and endemic wild orchid species. This model approach as suggested by us at one hand can provide some significant economic opportunities for the impoverished local communities; and on the other reduce the anthropogenic pressures on the local forests for daily sustenance. Our proposed model if followed sincerely and with proper planning and resources can help in the conservation of the local, rare, endemic and vulnerable orchid species from detrimental anthropogenic pressures. For example, Stelis anagraciae Archila & Szlach. has been very recently described by Archila and Szlachetko (2013) from a population of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. According to the authors, it is a litophytic or epiphytic, rare species. The following year, this species was discovered by Solano-Gómez (2014) in Chiapas, Mexico and described as Stelis kaiae Solano & C. Dietz. We consider the later as a new synonym and that the distribution of this species extends approximately to about 200 km. Although this species is considered rare and is little known in scientific Cultivation in vitro of species of Pleurothallidinae There is a great diversity of conditions and means used in the in vitro cultivation of orchids. However, the culture medium (liquid or solid) depends on the species with which it is being worked (Téllez-Velasco 2011). For example, in a liquid medium the proliferation of protocorms is greater and faster; in 83 84 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... JANUARY-JUNE 2017 seeds; but too strong for preserving fragile seeds. The product must be less powerful than that of the green method or more diluted. Using hydrogen peroxide or calcium hypochlorite and a reduced soaking times approximately 10 minutes is quite useful. Next, under the hood, several successive rinses are carried out with sterile distilled water. Using sterile removable filter that are specifically adapted to the syringe; seeds should be washed using the chosen product and repeatedly rinsed with sterile distilled water, filtered and then scraped with sterile tool from surface of the filter and finally deposited in the culture medium. contrast the solid media favors differentiation. Next, when the germination process is initiated, it is advisable to try different media at total or partial concentrations. For in vitro germination a large number of plants can be grown in a relatively short period of time. In addition, the life cycle of the species should also be seriously considered. The growth in Pleurothallidinae species to reach adult phase takes about one to two years; while in orchids of other subtribes this adult phase can take between 6 to 8 years to have the final product for successful commercialization. For this reason, in vitro reproduction is a viable option for this group of plants, considering the great global demand. For example, species of the genus Masdevallia are considered as a group that requires a specific culture medium on which to develop (Téllez-Velasco 2011). Here we present an in vitro culture technique for Lepanthes species, which is one of the genera with the highest number of species in the Pleurothallidinae subtribe and best represented in Guatemala. The culture media used is the widely used commercial Phytamax P6668 at ½ concentration; and supplemented with raw sugar, agar (gelling agent) and sterile distilled water. The warm solution is poured into small bottles and sterilized for 15 minutes in the autoclave at 120°C. Overheating of the medium must be avoided to retain nutritional qualities. The seeded flasks are grown at room temperature under artificial fluorescent light set at 12H by 24H. For in vitro culture of Lepanthes, the harvested capsules should be first stored in a paper bag and correctly labelled. If a plastic tube or bag is used then it will avoid moisture loss from the capsules and lead to unfortunate rotting of the seeds. On the contrary; in a paper bag, the capsule will dry better and open entirely to release the fine seeds inside the envelope avoiding any unintended losses. It is challenging to conduct in vitro operations due to the need for stringent aseptic environment to avoid frequent contaminations. However, unlike a Cattleya pod with several million seeds; there are only few seeds in a Lepanthes pod. Either of the two methods can be used (Fig. 13): The first contamination occurs after 3-4 days, due to poor handling under the laminar hood, in improperly decontaminated seeds or due to poorly sterilized medium. Contaminations spread fast and completely infect the culture media as well as the cultured seeds. After 15 days, the seeds turn green and begin to grow and they take on the appearance of small green balls. When the first leaves and small roots appear, it is time to transplant the seedlings on to a culture medium identical and/or supplemented with mashed banana or fruit juice (30 GR/Litre). All the operations must be conducted under stringent aseptic conditions. If a contamination occurs, it is possible to save part of the plant by quickly and aseptically transplanting healthy part of the seedling into an unused sterile bottle. Finally after two years of cultivation; the adult plants are ready to be transferred into the soil from the tissue culture media. Green method: It is the simplest. The fine kernels are fragile and sensitive to common cleaning chemicals. The immature pod is harvested before opening i.e. between 60-90 days (depending on the species). The pod is washed with sodium hypochlorite, brushed with a small brush and finally rinsed under the laminar flow hood with 70 % alcohol. The dried pod is then opened in the hood with a sterilized scalpel and the seeds are spread on the surface of the sterile agar medium. CONCLUSIONS The ornamental potential and associated prices of the Pleurothallidinae species vary according to the size of the flower, number of plants and flowers, and if these are associated with orchids of other genera. The illegal sale of these species in Guatemalan in markets and Dry method: It is more delicate as it is necessary to find a good cleaning product. It must be strong enough to destroy the fungi, bacteria and their spores present in the 84 International Journal on Environmental Sciences 8 (1) EDGAR MÓ et al., 85 Archila FL, Slachetko DL (2013) Stelis anagraciae (Orchidaceae), a new pleurothallid species from Guatemala. Biodiversity: Research and Conservation 29: 31–34 nurseries also depends on whether they are species of endemic (to Guatemala) or restricted (to Guatemala and Mexico) distribution, because they become attractive for being scarce and because they are new discoveries for the country. We believe that if the local administration and the forest department do not adopt proper measures several species of Pleurothallidinae present in Guatemala will soon by threatened with extinction. Cash N, Cetzal-Ix W, Mó E, Vega H, Basu SK (2016) First record of Lepanthes appendiculata (Orchidaceae, Pleurothallidinae) from Nicaragua with comments on the morphological variations, geographical distribution and conservation status. Check List 12(4): 1–7 A sustainable approach to minimize the local anthropogenic impacts and to take advantage of ornamental/horticultural potential of this group of orchids is to obtain permits for their reproduction under controlled conditions. Hence, they should be registered in the National Council of Protected Areas to allow them to reproduce target orchid species at an industrial scale (in vitro germination program and organic cultivation); and at the same time minimize the impact on endangered wild populations. Since we consider orchids to be flagship plant species highlighting rich local biodiversity, the loss of the orchids from Guatemala will accelerate indirect loss of several other key species from this highly sensitive and fragile natural ecosystem. Hence, it is important to save the local orchid species from extinction and our proposed model could be a viable alternative for both ecology and economy; if applied judiciously and sincerely. Cetzal-Ix W, Alvarez-Mora R, Basu SK, CosmePérez J, Noguera-Savelli E (2014) Orchid fruit diversity at Puebla Mexico: A new insight into the biodiversity of a fragmented ecosystem with need for conservation and potential for horticultural exploitations in future. In: Nandwani D (ed.), Sustainable Horticultural Systems, Sustainable Development and Biodiversity 2. pp. 207–220. Springer International Publishing Switzerland. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-06904-3_9 Endres Júnior D, Hisayuki Sasamori1 M, Droste A (2014) In vitro propagation of Anathallis adenochila (Loefgr.) F. Barros (Orchidaceae), a species endemic to southern and southeastern Brazil. Acta Botanica Brasilica 28(4): 489–494 Hegland SJ, Nielsen A, Lázaro A, Bjerknes AL, Totland Ø (2009) How does climate warming affect plant-pollinator interactions? Ecology Letters 12: 184–195. DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01269.x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Higgins WE (2009) Pleurothallidinae: how many genera? In: Sauleda RP, Sandow LA (eds.) Proceedings of the 19th World Orchid Conference. American Printing Arts, Miami, Florida, pp. 425–430 The authors gratefully acknowledge the kind assistance provided by Rodolfo Hernández, José Monzón Sierra, Rodolfo Hernández, Sergio Romero, Carlos Bianchi, German Padilla, Mario Velásquez with the photographs taken in the field.​ Luer CA (2005) Icones Pleurothallidinarum XXVII. Dryadella and Acronia section MacrophyllaeFasciculatae. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 103: 1–307 REFERENCES Alvarez-Mora R, Cetzal-Ix W, Basu SK, NogueraSavelli E, González-Valdivia NA, Martínez-Puc JF, Zandi P, Możdżeń K (2017) Orchid biodiversity at Cuetzalan del Progreso, Puebla, Mexico, related anthropogenic threats and potential for organic production of orchids for conservation purposes and for establishing a sustainable ecosystem. Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Naturae 1(1): 7–23 Luer CA (2006) Icones Pleurothallidinarum XXVIII. Systematics of Specklinia and vegetatively similar taxa. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 105: 1–274 Luer CA (1986a) Icones Pleurothallidinarum I, Systematics of the Pleurothallidinae. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 15: 1–81 85 86 Diversity of Pleurothallidinae in Guatemala..... Luer CA (1986b) Icones Pleurothallidinarum III, Systematics of Pleurothallis. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 20: 1–109 JANUARY-JUNE 2017 subgenera. A second century of new species of Stelis of Ecuador. Epibator, Ophidion, Zootrophion. Addenda to Brachionidium, Dracula, Lepanthes, Platystele, Pleurothallis, Porroglossum, and Masdevallia. New genera and combinations. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 95: 1–265 Luer CA (1991) Icones Pleurothallidinarum VIII. Systematics of Lepanthopsis, Octomeria subgenus Pleurothallopsis, Restrepiella, Restrepiopsis, Salpistele, and Teagueia. Addenda to Platystele, Porroglossum, and Scaphosepalum. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 39: 1–161 Lugo AE, Scatena FN (1992) Epiphytes and climate change research in the Caribbean: a proposal. Selbyana 13: 123–130 Mó E, Cetzal-Ix W, Carnevali G, Pérez-García E, Basu SK (2014) A new natural hybrid between Prosthechea cochleata and P. radiata (Orchidaceae: Laeliinae) from Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. Turkish Journal of Botany 38: 988–998 Luer CA (1994) Icones Pleurothallidinarum XI. Systematics of Lepanthes subgenus Brachycladium and Pleurothallis subgenus Aenigma, subgenus Elongatia, subgenus Kraenzlinella. Addenda to Dracula, Lepanthopsis, Myoxanthus, Platystele, Porroglossum, and Trisetella. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 52: 1–68 Ossenbach C, Pupulin F, Dressler RL (2007) Orquídeas del Istmo Centroamericano. Catálogo y estado de conservación. Editorial 25 de Mayo, Montes Oca Solano-Gómez R (2014) Three new species of Stelis (Orchidaceae; Pleurothallidinae) from Mexico. Phytotaxa 158(3): 255–264 Luer CA (1996) Icones Pleurothallidinarum XIV. Systematics of Draconanthes, Lepanthes subgenus Marsipanthes and subgenus Lepanthes of Ecuador. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 61: 1–286 Solano-Gómez R, Alonso-Hernández N, RosadoFerrer K, Aguilar–Hernández MA, García R (2008) Diversidad, distribución y estrategias para la conservación de las Pleurothallidinae (Orchidaceae) en Oaxaca. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 82: 41-52. Luer CA (2000) Icones Pleurothallidinarum XX. Systematics of Jostia, Andinia, Barbrodia, Pleurothallis and subgenera Antilla, Effusia and Restrepioidia with Addenda to Lepanthes, Masdevallia and Pleurothallis. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 79: 1–140 Tellez-Velasco MAA (2011) Diagnóstico de la familia Orchidaceae en México. Universidad Autónoma de Chapingo, Texcoco Viveros P, Higgins W (2007) Checklist of Pleurothallidinae from Colombia. Selbyana 28(1): 13–90 Luer CA (2002) A systematic method of classification of the Pleurothallidinae versus a strictly phylogenetic method. Selbyana 23: 57–110 Luer CA (2004) Icones Pleurothallidinarum XXVI. Pleurothallis subgenus Acianthera and three allied 86