Kurdistan Region – Iraq
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Salahaddin University – Erbil
Plant Composition and Adaptation of
Crested Wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum L.)
in Some Locations of Erbil Governorate
A Thesis
Submitted to the Council of the College of Agriculture - Salahaddin
University - Erbil in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
of Master in Forestry Science – Range Management
By
Mohanad Eyoob Mustafa B.Sc. Plant Production - College of Agriculture-Salahaddin
University - 2007
Supervised by
Asst. Prof. Salim S. Maroof
February. 2015 A.D.
Jamady Al-Ula 1436 Al-H.
Rashame 2714 K.
ك ْاَْ ْعلَى ۞ الَ ِ
س َوى ۞ َوالَ ِذي قَ َد َر فَ َه َدى
ف
ق
ل
خ
ي
ذ
َ
َ
اس َم َربِّ َ
َ
َ
) َسبِّ ِح ْ
َ
۞
ِ
َح َوى ۞(
َوالَذي أَ ْخ َر َج ال َْم ْر َعى ۞ فَ َج َعلَهُ غُثَاء أ ْ
(س ورة اْعلى:
ايه )5-1
SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATION
I certify that this thesis was prepared under my supervision at the
Department of Forestry and Horticulture, College of Agriculture, University
of Salahaddin-Erbil, as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree
of M.Sc. in Forestry (Range Management).
Signature:
Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Mr. Salim Sabir Maroof
Date: 24 / 11 / 2014
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Head of the Department of Forestry and Horticulture
In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for
debate by the Examining Committee.
Signature:
Name: Asst. Prof. Mr. Nashat Maulood Abdulrahman
Head of the Forestry and Horticulture Department
Date: 24 / 11 / 2014
I
II
Acknowledgements
By the name of Allah,
First of all, I want to express my gratitude and thanks to Almighty and Merciful allah for
providing me with the capability to compelete successfully this work, with blessing and pease upon
Prophet Mohammad.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the my supervisor Asst. Prof.Salim Sabir
Maroof for the supervision, guidance, assistance, encouragement throught complilation of this thesis.
Thanks to the Dean of the Agriculture College (Prof. Dr. Sardar Yaseen Sardari) and Head of
the Forestry and Horticulture Department (Assist Prof. Mr. Nashat Maulood) for facilities and
support that they offered to me.
I would like to express my thanks to every member, espasially to Prof. Dr. Akram O. Esmail,
Prof. Dr. Jawher S. Fatah, Dr. Sami M. Amin, Mr. Ali Hussen, Mr. Dler A. Othman, Mr.Mohammed
A. Anter, Mr.Soran S. Aziz, Mrs. Narin S. Ali, Mr. Hawar A. Sidik, Mr. Beston H. Ahmad, Mr.
Hardy. K. Awla and Mr. Arshad Yasin.
I am very gratiful to Dr. Abdullah S. Sardar (college of education) and Mr. Ali M. Galaley
for helping me during the identification and classification of plant species.
Finally, I am forever indebted to my amazing parents for their encouregment when it was
most reqiured. Further, the permanent support of my wife and family members can never be thanked
by words, I would also like to express my gratitude and thanks to the peaple who were behind my
success in both social and acadimic life.
Mohanad..
III
My Dedication to:
Our beloved country.
Honest soul of my father and mother.
My dear and so respectable wife.
My lovely triple childrens(Meryam,Marwa,Mina).
My big brother, his wife and child(Aya).
My well beloved brothers with best regards.
Finally, those who tought me.
IV
Summary
SUMMARY
The study of plant composition was carried out during April and May (2014) to
estimate plant distribution in identified points especially grasses which they were laying in
the north east of Erbil between Harir to Haji Omeran. The areas was divided to eleven
points with an interval spaced approximately (7-8) km.
List quadrate method (m2) was used randomly to estimate the individual species of
the areas. The data enable the complication of cover percentage, plant frequency and
density within their relative and forage value.
The results can be summarizing as:
1- The identified species of the area were belong to (30) families, (93) genus and
(174) species. Legume cover (14) genus and (30) species. While grasses cover (12)
genus and (39) species.
2- The average vegetation coverage in all locations was (71%). But bare soil, litter and
rock cover was (8.93%), (11.136) and (9.20%) respectively.
3- The average of high, intermediated and low forage value was (50.11%), (39.39%)
and (10.50%) respectively.
4- The average percentage of Fabaceae, Poaceae and other families in the studied area
was (18.77), (21.74) and (59.49) respectively. Highest value of Fabaceae was
(29.17)% in Choman and Poaceae was (33.33)% in Similan.
5- Hordeum murinum ssp. Glaucum and Hordeum bulbosum L. were the indicated the
highest relative density (5.02%) and (4.16%) of total species, on the other hand,
Alcea kurdica Alef, Linaria vulgaris and Colchicum autumnale L. showed the
lowest relative density (0.02%) overall species.
6- Hordeum bulbosum L. showed the highest relative frequency (2.42%) and then
followed by Notobasis syriaca (2.08%) and Lactuca serriola (1.73%). Whereas,
Erodium trichomanifolium, Galium murale, and Anemon coronaria were showed
the lowest percentage (0.0035%) overall species.
Whereas the study adaptation of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum L.) was
carried out in Choman and Soran locations in two seasons fall and spring which they are
located in forest zone of Iraq. The experiment started in November until May 2014. Shoot
and root characters and chemical analysis of the species were conducted. Random
V
Summary
complete block design (RCBD) was used for eight plots for each location four replication
for fall season and other for spring season. The study was covered germination percentage,
weed ratio and growth parameters such as shoot and root weight (fresh and dry), shoot and
root length with their ratio, and chemical analysis such as dry matter, crude protein, crude
fiber, crude lipid and nitrogen free extract (NFE).
The results can be summarized as mentioned bellow:
1- Soran location was recorded the highest germination percentage (62.23%), while
growth parameters were recorded high value in Choman and there were no
significantly effect on the length of shoots and roots.
2- Spring season of seeding showed the highest germination percentage (71.30%),
whereas, fall season was recorded the highest value in other growth characters and
there were no effect on length of plant.
3- The interaction between locations and seasons indicated that Soran's spring season
showed the highest value in germination percentage, while the highest value were
recorded in fresh and dry weight of shoots and roots, while, and the length of
shoots and roots were not affected in Choman's fall season.
4- The chemical analysis of crested wheatgrass was significantly difference in both
locations and seasons.
The highest value of dry matter was recorded in Choman's fall season (22.52%),
and the highest ash value was recorded in Soran's spring season (24.74%).
Nonetheless, the highest protein value was observed in soran's and Choman's fall
season (16.28%) and (15.97%). Crud fiber was recorded the highest value in
spring season of Choman and Soran location (17.68%) and (16.77%). On the
other hand, crud lipid recorded the highest value in Soran's fall season but NFT
recorded high value in spring season of Soran and Choman location (35.47%) and
(35.50%)respectively.
VI
Contents
Section
Title
Supervisor Certification
Examination Committee Certification
Acknowledgements
Dedication
Summery
Contents
List of tables
List of figures
List of appendix
Page
I
II
III
IV
V
VII
IX
X
X
CHAPTER ONE
1.
1-2
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER TWO
2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
2.2.5.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Plant Composition
Adaptation of Crested Wheatgrass
Botanical Description
Usage of species
Adaptation of species
Season of Seeding
Chemical Analysis of species
3-19
3
11
11
13
15
16
18
CHAPTER THREE
3.
3.1.
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.1.3.
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
3.2.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.2.2.1.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Composition
Field work
Coverage Percentage:
Forage value
Density and Relative Density
Frequency and Relative Frequncy
Adaptation of Crested Wheatgrass
3.2.2.2.
Soran
Selected specie
Locations:
Choman
20-34
20
23
23
23
24
25
26
26
26
26
26
VII
3.2.3.
Seasons:
26
3.2.3.1.
Fall Season Seeding
26
3.2.3.2.
Spring Season Seeding
26
3.2.4.
3.2.5.
3.2.6.
3.2.6.1.
3.2.6.2.
3.2.6.3.
3.2.6.4.
3.2.6.5.
3.2.6.6.
3.2.6.7.
3.2.6.8.
3.2.6.9.
3.2.6.
3.2.6.1.
3.2.6.2.
3.2.6.3.
3.2.6.4.
3.2.6.5.
3.2.6.6.
Soil Analysis
Experiment Design
Measurements:
Germination Percentage
27
28
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
34
34
Shoot and Root Fresh Weight
Shoot and Root Dry Weight
Shoot Length
Root Length
Shoot Root Ratio
Germination Speed
Shoot Elongation Speed
Root Elongation Speed
Chemical Analysis:
Dry Matter
Crud Protein
Crud Lipid
Crud Fiber
Ash Content
Nitrogen Free- Extract
CHAPTER FOUR
4.
4.1.
4.1.1.
4.1.2.
4.1.3.
4.1.4.
4.1.5.
4.2.
4.2.1.
4.2.1.1.
4.2.1.2.
4.2.1.3.
4.2.2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Plant Composition
Cover Percentage
Forage Value
Plant structure
Density and Relative Density
Frequency and Relative Frequency
Adaptation of Crested Wheatgrass
Measurements:
Effect of Location
Effect of Season
Interaction Effect
Chemical Analysis:
VIII
35-54
35
36
38
39
40
41
46
46
46
48
50
52
4.2.2.1.
4.2.2.2.
4.2.2.3.
Effect of Location
52
52
53
Effect of Season
Interaction Effect
CHAPTER FIVE
5.
5.1.
5.2.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
ARABIC SUMMARY
KURDISH SUMMARY
55-56
55
56
57
65-76
ب-أ
A-B
List of Tables
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Titles
Location, Elevation, Coordination and Average Raining of the studied
area.
Metrological data at Choman and Soran locations during the period
(2013/2014).
Soil analysis of studied area.
List of weeds germinated at plots of Choman and Soran locations.
Coverage percentage overall studied area.
Forage value of species overall loc ations.
Percentage of Fabaceae, Poaceae and Other Families in studied area.
Relative Frequency and Density of plant species.
Interaction Effect of locations and seasons on germination percentage and
other growth characters on Crested Wheatgrass.
Germination and length elongation speed.
Effect of location on chemical analysis (%) of Crested Wheatgrass.
Effect of season on chemical analysis (%) of Crested Wheatgrass.
Interaction Effects of location and season on Chemical analysis (%) of
Crested Wheatgrass.
IX
Page
21
27
27
30
36
38
40
41
51
51
52
53
54
List of Figures
No.
Titles
Page
1
2
3
4
Map of Iraq/Erbil, locations of studied area.
Field Design of Crested Wheatgrass.
Effect of Location on germination percentage.
Effect of Locations on Shoot and Root weight at Fresh and Dry
Conditions.
Effect of locations on shoot and root length.
Effect of seasons on germination percentage.
Effect of seasons on shoot and root length.
Effect of seasons on shoot and root weights in fresh and dry condition.
22
25
47
5
6
7
8
47
47
49
49
49
Appendices
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Titles
All plant species of studied area with their Life cycle, Plant density and
Forage value.
Parts of Crested Wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum L.)
General Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) of Iraq.
Plant distribution of studied area.
Seeding of Crested Wheatgrass in Soran.
Growth of Crested Wheatgrass in Choman.
Spring season germination of Crested Wheatgrass in Soran.
Growing of Crested Wheatgrass in fall season.
Samples of Crested Wheatgrass.
Chemical analysis of Crested Wheatgrass.
X
Page
65
71
71
73
74
74
75
75
76
76
Chapter One
Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
Rangeland defined as a „‟uncultivated land that will provide the
necessities of life for grazing and browsing animals and the herders families
that depend on them‟‟. Therefore it includes deserts, forests, natural grassland
and shrublands. Rangeland has a key role as grazing lands in pastoral use, as
wildlife habitat and as biosphere reserves. Appropriates management is
essential for all this uses if we are too prevent degradation of the resources
that provides the base for all the activities that occur now on rangelands or
may occur in the futures (Squires, 2009).
Currently, in the rangeland management science and determination of
range capacity, accurate and true information about range production is
crucial. In fact, range production is considered as a basis for range
management (Pourbabaei et al., 2012).
Importance of forest and natural Pasture are protection, biodiversity
conservation and impact on livestock development as a first source which
supports animals feed. Rangeland Provides a large possibilities to increase the
number of animals and animal products such as meat, wool and skins. Grasses
could distinguish from other crops by which they are not harvested by hand
but returned by churning of the animal(Williams et al., 1968).
Four vegetation zones are recognized in Iraq: the desert, the steppe, the
mountain forest, and the Alpine regions (Omer, 2011).
Natural pasture in Iraq consists 46% of country‟s total areas (Rathwan
and Fahri, 1975). Generally natural pasture in the Kurdistan distributed in
different region including lowland, scrubland and higher mountain.
Rangeland of Kurdistan region was estimated to be (4,762,609 dunam) in
2013 and is approximately (140,399 dunam) in Erbil (Ministry of Agriculture
and Water Resource, 2013).
1
Chapter One
Introduction
Kurdistan is a rich region with rangeland if it is exploited scientifically
and it is also significant economically in livestock development and animal
production which play fundamental role in increasing national economy,
much of the cropland is losing its inherent productivity due to poor
agricultural practices and over exploitation(Omer, 2011).
In last two decades, rangeland misused and exposed to degradation and
damage due to several factors including internal and external. These are
involved natural and others human entered factors. Natural factors including
drought which lead to land deterioration, level of groundwater and vegetation
coverage. The humans entered factors such as fire, overgrazing and
continuous indiscriminate cutting trees and shrubs for fuel, exploiting grazing
areas to Agricultural/Horticulture purposes (Gebril and Saeid, 2012).
To improve and maintain the degraded rangeland new forage species must
interred to country such as crested wheatgrass which have been interred to
various region of the world because it a perennial monocot grass that belong
to Poaceae family, the plant can be grown in the cool season, drought tolerant,
can stand extreme condition and high forage value (Kirk et al., 1934)
Because of above problems the following studies have been studied:
1. Plant composition from areas between Harir to Haji Omeran
The overall aim of this part is to identify the distribution of natural
vegetation and all other basic information about rangeland resources in
the area. Particularly, botanical composition and productivity of natural
rangeland are also studied.
2. Adaptation of an exported species crested wheatgrass (Agropyron
cristatum (L).Gaertn)
The purpose of this part is to find out the potentiality of adapting
the crested wheatgrass in two different environments of the Erbil
governorate (Choman and Soran) and under two different seasons (Fall
andSpring).
2
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Plant Composition
The study of plant composition is conducted on natural range, it is
desirable to determine herbage species, their frequency and forage quality.
Such information furnishes a basic research for many studies on palatability,
stoking rate, utilization and duration of grazing, improvement or degeneration
of range, effect on climate and watershed management (Maroof, 1978).
Several survey studies have been conducted in Iraq, involving evaluation
and estimation of the rangeland productivity and nutrient value of some
important species, while other studies focused on factors affecting nutrient
value and productivity of range (Besefky, 2011).
The extensive works of Gillett (1948), Springfield (1954), Guest and AlRawi (1966) constitute valuable contribution to the vegetation survey, in these
complete descriptions of grass species found in Iraq which are the most
important studies in the 20th century.
Buringh (1960) mentioned that as a consequence of the arid and semiarid climate, vegetation is scarce in large parts of Iraq. Forest vegetation
mostly occurs in the Kurdish mountains due to geographical position. The
flora of Iraq is of a heterogeneous phyto-geographical character and according
to Zohary (1950) three principal plant geographical regions are represented in
this country which are; Mediterranean region, Irano-Turanian region and
Saharo-Sindian region.
Holm et al., (2002) identified general Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) of
Iraq in to three regions and each with a characteristic farming system
(Appendix, 3)
3
Chapter Two
Literature Review
1. Lowland AEZ: in the southern part of the region. Annual rainfall is
between 250-600mm and topography is relatively flat between 300-600 m
above sea level.
2. Upland AEZ: in the inter-mountain areas of the central part of the region,
where annual rainfall varies between 500 and 900 mm.
3. Hill and Mountain AEZ: in the northern border areas with Turkey and Iran
that characterized by steep landscapes and an annual rainfall between 800
and 1200 mm.
Gillett (1948) has mentioned that oak forest of Kurdistan Mountains is a
big source of valuable. Pasturage comprising of Avena sterilis, Poa bulbosa,
Hordeum sp., Lolium rigidum, Bromus macrostachys and Phalaris paradoxa.
Schwan (1954) during travelling to the Mountains of the Kurdistan
region noted that the region had good vegetation in the spring season but it is
often misleading in determining the value of vegetation.
Springfield (1954) has cited that the forest zone of the Kurdistan region
is rich with grazing species which is most of them belong to Poacea, Fabacea,
Brassicaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae and others famillies. Such as; Poa
bulbosa, Chysopogon gryllus, Phalaris paradoxa, Hordeum bulbosum,
Lolium rigidum, Vicia sativa, Trifolium procumbens, Vicia tenufolia, Vicia
narbonensis, Rigidula medicago, Lathyrus cicera, Brassica arvensis, those
species indicate to a certain extent of zone for grazing.
Guest (1966) revealed that forest zone of Irano-Anatolian sub-region had
extra ordinarily richness in endemics, more active from other region in the
formation and germination of variety species.
Townsend and guest (1968) have recorded habited and introduced
grasses in Iraq which was found in mountain region with useful fodder
comprising of Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata, Poa bulbosa.
Al-Tikriti and Abdullah (1969) mentioned that the forest zone contain
suitable forages like Agropyron elongatum, Avena clauda, Hordume bulbosa.
4
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Yousif (1971) have concluded that protecting from grazing for 3 years
led to improve speacies and appear some high forage plants as Stipa barbata.
FAO (1975) classified existing grass species into three groups according
to their forage values:(I)-High forage value includes Lolium rigidum, Bromus arvensis.
(II)-Intermediate forage value includes Daucus carota Gallium aparine,
Ranunculus asiaticus and Senecio vulgaris.
(III)-Low forage value includes Echinops ritro and Colchicum autumnale.
Maroof (1978) studied forage value of grasses in the Dohuk governorate
and recorded (17) families, (43) genus and (49) species in which the grasses
compressing most of them as; Agropyron panormitanum, phalaris paradoxa,
Hordeum marinum, Lolium loliaceum, Lathyrus
gorgoni, Trifoluim
campestre, Trigonella stellata, Anthemis hyaline and Centaurea solstitialis.
Al-Kittany et al., (1978) have investigated the effect of fires on oak
forest and vegetation covers of Zawita. As a result the fires have negative
effect on grass family rather than legume family.
Salihi (1980) studied vascular plants in Pira Macron mountain, as a
result (543) species which are related to (68) families were found and most of
them were grasses.
Qassim (1981) made a study in the Kurdistan region in the Atrush region
(33) families, (95) genus (107) species, but in the Zawita region (28) families,
(77) genus and (86) species. While in the Sinjar region (24) families, (53)
genus and (60) species from grasses and herbs have been found.
Toma (1983) has adverted on the plants of Maklub Mountain as a result
forage crop type of the Maklup mountain is favorable than the Gali bandaw
mountain, that‟s because of environment difference especially in temperature
and precipitation.
Aani and Hadad (1986) have cited the ecology of plant biodiversity in
Tikrit, (58) species have found and the vegetation of this region exposed to
5
Chapter Two
Literature Review
cruel environmental con ditions including turbidity and human interred
factors.
Ali (1988) studied vegetation composition in the Namrud and east and
west region of Mosul boundary. The Namrud region recorded few families
(25), (95) genus and (142) species. While east region of the Mosul boundary
recorded high families (29), (108) genus and (164) species but in Western
region of the Mosul boundary recorded high genus and species (28) families,
(120) genus and (184) species.
Tilman et al., (1996) prepared an experiment on the biodiversity effect
on productivity and sustainability of grassland ecosystem. The result showed
that ecosystem productivity increased significantly with increasing plant
biodiversity. In nearby native grassland, plant productivity and soil nitrogen
utilization increased with increasing plant species richness.
Aziz (1999) inscribed on structure of plant biodiversity in the north east
of Erbil governorate at Hanara area and verified (29) genus. In addition, some
rare distributed plants in Iraq have been recorded. Such as Typha minima,
Equisetum romossisimum and Agilopis columnaris.
Bishay (2003) point out that Natural Forestry of Iraq reported to the Near
East Forestry Commission in 1998, according to the report natural forests
composed mainly with Quercus aegylops, Quercus infectoria and Quercus
libani with some Acer sp., Ulmus sp., Juglans sp., Prunus sp., Crataegus
azarolus, Pistacia vera, Juniperus sp., Pinus sp., and Populus sp. and riverine
forests with Populus euphratica and Salix sp. Iraq wetlands are important
region for many birds that migrated from northern and eastern Europe.
Saeed (2003) studied flowering plants in the Kurdistan mountains in the
Revanduz region and found that the region was rich with flowering plant
especially herbs. (43) Families, (140) genus and (175) species has been
recorded.
6
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Al-Obadee (2004) has concluded on four rangeland locations that
ecologically different. The investigation was carried out to evaluate range
plants qualitatively and quantitatively and preparing maps for rangeland of the
Ninevah province by using satellite images and aerial photographs. The result
indicated that the best month to delineation range sites in Badyet Al-jazeera
and Sinjar Mountain were in April and May. Such speices are Avena sp.,
Hordium sp., Cynodon dactylon, Polypogon monspeliensis, Lolium rigidum,
Poa sp., Filago spathulata, Lathyrus sp., Medicago sp., Onobrychis crist-gali,
Trifolium sp., Vicia sp., Brassica arrvensis, Centaurea sp., Malva sp., Pisum
sativa, Ranunculus asliaticus, Trigonella sp., and plantago sp.
Al Pierson (2006) has concluded that major grasses present at upland and
mountain are Agropyron sp., and Poa sp. Forbs observed include dandelion,
thistles, and composites. Undoubtedly many other species appear as the spring
green up occurs and new growth becomes more apparent. Most upland areas
are extremely rocky and many areas are covered 40% or more by rocks.
Gintzburger et al., (2006) have stated that the dominant vegetation of the
rangelands of West Asia and the Near East are Poaceae are mainly
represented by Bromus, Poa, Stipa, Agropyron, Aegylops, Hordeum, Avena,
Lolium, Orysopsis, Hyparrehnia. Compositae with the common Artemisia
herba-alba cover very large tracts of the Near Eastern steppe from Iraq, Iran
and further East towards Middle Asia. Artemisia sp. is an essential summerautumn feed throughout the region. Other taxonomically complex genera
Achillea, Cousinia, Echinops, Anthemis, Centaurea, Carthamus, Helichrisum,
Inula, Senecio, Scorozonera, Gymnarhena, Gundelia, Koelpinia. Those are
well represented on post-cultural areas. Fabaceae are mostly Mediterranean
(Trifolium, 120 sp.; Trigonella, Annual Medicago, Vicia, Lotus, Lathyrus,
Onobrychis, Hedysarum, Cicer, Lens). They are largely exploited and
selected for feed and food production in Mediterranean agricultural systems
and crop rotations. Some Astragalus sp. has been identified in the region. The
7
Chapter Two
Literature Review
richness of this genus may be related to its poor palatability and toxic record.
Cruciferae are known mostly as annuals and common weeds but make little
contribution to the forage calendar.
Mahmoud (2007) studied the area from Erbil to Harir, the result showed
that (22) families, (61) genus and (28) species has founded, Poaceae was the
most founded families among others by (15) genus and (28) species like
Aegilops triuncialis, Agropyron cristatum, Echinaria capitata, Lolium
loliaceum, Lotus corniculatus, Alyssum meniocoides, Galium setaceum,
Medicago rigidula, Pisum sativum, Centuarea solstitialis, Malva rotundifolia
Galium setaceum, Bromus lancelatus. This guides that the region is rich with
vegetation although there were more overgrazing and deterioration appeared
in the area and it could be improved and developed.
Ganjo (2008) has noted on land section of Deraluk region in the Dohuk
governorate. Typha sp. and Salix alba shrubs with grass lands are features of
this landscape which forms a distinct bioregion. Rural and cattle grazing are
the predominant settlement land uses there. No industrial, mining and
commercial activities detected there and the stratification of plant community
structure on the area which composed by grasses (55%), herbs (20%), shrubs
(15%) and trees (10%). Such as Prunus amygdalis, Lolium sp., Avena sp.,
Bromus sp., Aegilops sp., Vicia sp., Lathyrus sp., Trifolium sp., Madicago sp.
and Phalaris sp.
Ates and Tekeli (2011) have mentioned that aspect, slop and altitude are
three basic topographic factors that control the distribution and botanic
composition of rangelands and other vegetation‟s types.
Lahony et al., (2013) stated on the Hawraman lowest zone and found
that the area shows unique since it characterizes the Irano-Tranian and Alpine
zone extension reaching the Iraqi territories with rather rich fauna and flora.
Such as Papaver rhoeas, Iris sp., Vicia villosa, Vicia variabillis, Trifolium
8
Chapter Two
Literature Review
purpurcum, Trifolium fragiferum, Geranim tuberosum, Alcea kurdic,
Hordeum sp., Vulpia sp., and Bromus sp.
Saeed (2013) made a survey for the species of Centaurium Hill
(Gentianaceae) in the Kurdistan region to identify the samples preserved in
some Iraqi herbaria and to add a small part to the Flora of Iraq. The study
dealt with the ecology and geographical distribution of the species. As a result
two species Centaurium erythraea subsp. turcicum and Centaurium
pulchellum were found.
Saeed (2013) made a systematic study of gross morphology of plants –
which collected during field trips and dry ones for most specimen preserved
with Iraqi herbaria which is the genus Ferulago Koch belong to the
Umbelliferae family. The genus in Kurdistan region of Iraq was specified in
two species Ferulago angulata and Ferulago stellate. Characteristics of a
taxonomic value, ecology and soil quality that the genus grows were
specified.
Abdulhasan et al., (2009) citied on vegetation survey in some region of
Kurdistan as:
1- In the Bahrka which located on the Greater Zab River, approximately 33
km to the northwest of Erbil city. The area is composed of steppes and
highlands. The land is mostly used for agriculture. During the surveys
(55) plant species was recorded such plants Portulaca oleracea, Datura
stramonium (herbs) and Phragmites australis (grass) and the nonvegetated cover was about 40-50%.
2- In the Haji Omran on northeast of Erbil city about 2 km from the Iranian
border. The area is characterized by hills, streams and meadows. This site
contains about (160) plant species. The dominant plants were Astragalus
spp, Geranium tuberosum, Rumex hastatula.
3- In the Sakran mountain northeast of Erbil city near the Choman town. The
mountain peaks are covered with snow. This region includes high number
9
Chapter Two
Literature Review
of plant species about (146). Pistacia eurycarpa, Crataegus azorolus,
Pyrus syriaca, Prunus microcarpa, Anagyris foetida, Galium sp., Populus
alba and Salix sp. in Mountain Forest zone and Cousinia sp., Prangos
pabularia, Rumex ribes, Daphne mucronata, Alkanna kotschyana,
Ferulago angulata and Biebersteinia multifida in sub alpine area .This
area has been locally proposed for consideration as a National Park.
4- In Sari Hassan Bag that located in northeast of the Soran town. (20)
species were identified in this area. One waypoint was surveyed in the
area which is characterized by Astragalus sp., Acantholimon sp. and
Hyoscyamus reticulatus. Ferulago angulata is also characteristic of this
habitat type.
5- In the Halgurd Mountain which located in North West of Haji Omran
town. The surveys identified (50) plant species Astragalus helgurdensis,
Ferulago angulate, Cousinia sp., Rumex hastatula, and Smyrnium
cordifolium in Mountain Forest Vegetation zone and Arabis caucasica
and Ornithogalum lushanii in Alpine Vegetation zone.
6- In the Doli Smaquli & Ashab that located in northeast of the city of Erbil
near Shaqlawa District. This site includes a high number of plant species
about (120). Such as Aegilops spp., Poa bulbosa, Lolium temulentum,
Scabiosa palaestina, Cousinia sp., Salvia palaestina, Astragalus sp. The
site is located in the Zagros mountain range. The non-vegetated area
covered about (5%). Livestock production/grazing, tourism and changes
to degradation land as a result of agricultural expansion and housing
construction remain high threats. High vegetation cover and many
important plant species make this region one of the most important plant
areas in the Kurdistan region.
10
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.2. Adaptation of crested wheatgrass
Selection of a certain grass for planting in a specific area is one of the
major considerations in re-seeding rangeland artificially (Maroof, 1978).
2.2.1. Botanical Description
Wolfe and Kipps (1953) have concluded that crested wheatgrass is hardy
perennial bunch grasses that produces abundance of both basal and stem
leaves and has a wide-spreading, deep root system. The stems are fine and
develop dense tufts. The dense spikes are 2 to 3 inches long; the spikelets are
closely crowded and tend to form comb like crescents.
Crested wheatgrass thought to be one of the largest genuses in the tribe
Triticeae Dumortier, they are more than 100 species (Dewey, 1983).
Regnum – Plantae
Divisio - Tracheophyta
Subdivisio - Spermatophytina
Class - Magnoliopsida
Superordo - Lilianae
Ordo - Poales
Familia - Poaceae
Tribus - Triticeae Dumort.
Genus - Agropyron Gaertn.
Species - Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.
Johnson (1986) has mentioned that crested wheatgrass is composed of
several cool-seasons, taxonomically identified as Agropyron cristatum. It was
successfully introduced into North America in 1906 from Eurasia.
11
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Crested wheatgrass is a deep-rooted bunch grass which is tolerant of the
moisture stress and the low winter temperatures common in the brown and
dark brown soil zone. It adapted to the most soil textures, the standard type is
more tolerant of drought, but the Fairway type is better adapted to moist
conditions. Crested wheatgrass is not well adapted to saline soils and spring
flooding. Seed yields are more consistent in regions receiving 350-500 mm
of annual precipitation. Under dry conditions, seed head formation may be
inadequate to justify harvest of the seed (Kruger and Council,1998).
USDA (2004) repored that Crested wheatgrass is a perennial bunchgrass,
without rhizomes, resistant to fire, drought, cold temperatures, and heavy
grazing, growing to a height of 45.72 to 76.2 centimeter. It's a dense spikelet,
with a conspicuously flattened head, 3.81 to 7.62 centimeter long, tapering
toward the tip; spikelet numerous, overlapping and placed flat-wise on the
rachis, contain 4 to 8 florets per spikelet; glumes about half the length of the
spikelet; both the glumes and lemmas usually taper to a point or into a short
awn. Leaf blades flat, vary in fineness with the vigor of the plant, usually
glabrous; sheaths glabrous or pubescent on lower leaves; leaves rolled in the
bud; ligules short and membranous; auricles short, pointed and clasping the
stem. Due to commonly being planted in monocultures (single species) stands
in the past, some feel crested wheatgrasses are not ecologically appropriate. It
is important to consider multiple species mixes to avoid this conception
(Appendix, 2).
12
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.2.2. Usage of species
Wolfe and Kipps (1953) have stated that crested wheatgrass is used both
as pasture and hay. Its forage is very palatable and of good quality, it should
be cut for hay soon after it comes into head and before it blooms. Early-cut
hay is higher in protein and more palatable than late-cut hay it produces good
seed crops, except during the drought period.
Crested wheatgrass is highly palatable and a nutritious spring forage. It
can be especially useful to ranchers, where spring forage shortages are
common (Johnson, 1986). Crested wheatgrass tends to become fibrous at
maturity, and therefore palatability and nutritional quality of the plant decline
after June (Mayland et al., 1992). Crested wheatgrass provides little summer
grazing, in some habitat types with sufficient soil moisture; it can continue to
grow in fall after summer dormancy (Bakker et al., 1997).
Sheet and Page (2001) have noted that crested wheat grass is commonly
recommended for forage production. It is palatable to all classes for livestock
and wildlife and it is desirable feed in spring and fall if it re-grows enough. It
can withstand very heavy grazing pressure (65%) use and greater (Cook et al.,
1958) (Caldwell et al., 1981). The best forage types in order are Hycrest.
Crested wheat grasses are beneficial for soil stabilization. They have potential
to compete with other aggressive introduced grasses. Although, they are not
compatible, while, it mixes with native species.
Moreover, for reducing competition by using only livestock may be
insufficient to permit establishment of desirable seeded species. In general,
high levels of utilization by livestock during the growing season reduces the
vigor of crested wheatgrass and may leads to mortality of some, but not all
13
Chapter Two
Literature Review
plants (Wilson and Pärtel, 2003). Early summer grazing may be detrimental to
crested wheat grass due to lower carbohydrate (Pellant et al., 2005).
Conner (2008) has mentioned that scientist have carried out an
agricultural experiment on the crested wheat grass. They realized the plant
was useful for grazing and particular valuable because it could grows in
drought conditions with little or no care and would continue to produce high
quality feed even after several years of heavy use.
USDA (2012) has cited that crested wheatgrass provides some of the
earliest spring grazing, starting its growth in early April. It is used quite
extensively as a drought-tolerant in the early-season of grass pasture. Crested
wheat grass is usually seeded alone to provide early spring and late fall
grazing. It is used widely in drier climates which can be used for hay
production and will make nutritious feed, but is more suited to pasture use.
Light, infrequent applications of nitrogen (4.6 kg/ha) and appropriate
irrigation will increase total biomass production and lengthen the green
period.
Grant-Hoffman et al., (2012) has concluded that areas planted with
crested wheatgrass can be less favorable for native plants. While crested
wheatgrass does not spread as readily as some other expansive species. One
reason for the continued use of crested wheat grass in the western U.S. is the
ability of crested wheatgrass to compete with other more detrimental invasive
plants, most notably Bromus tectorum. In addition, there have been reports of
early success with planting native species into areas with crested wheatgrass
present, a process known as „assisted succession‟.
14
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.2.3. Adaptation of species
Wolf and Kipps (1950) have revealed that crested wheatgrass was
introduced into the United States in 1898 from Russian Turkistan and Second
introduction was made from the same place in 1906. It‟s a good grass-more
valuable perhaps than all other range-forage species.
Al-Rawi (1964) has revealed that crested wheatgrass arises at the forest
zone of Kurdistan mountains exactly in Rawanduz district.
Guest (1966) as mentioned in flora of Iraq that crested wheatgrass is
occurs in Iraq over the frontier and should be looked in the mountains; in
another place on stony slopes, often on calcareous soil. Turkey, Caucasus,
Iran etc. Introduced in to North America (Canada, USA) and other part of
Europa like; Britain, Spain.
Dewey and Asay (1975) have reported that crested wheatgrass is
indigenous to central Asia, including parts of the USSR, China, Afghanistan,
Turkey and Iran. These grasses have come into wide usage arid rangland in
the United States and Canada. Most crested wheatgrass introduction have
come from the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). USDA plant
inventory recorded from 1898 to 1971 showed 175 introductions from the
USSR, 50 from China and Manchuria, 29 from turkey and 17 from Iran
virtually all plants breeding has been centered on USSR-derived collection.
Latitudes where crested wheatgrass grows in Iran, 35 to 40 are equivalent to
northern Arizona and come from latitudes north of 40, and crested wheatgrass
has found its greatest adaptation in North American.
Gokkus et al., (1997) has carried out a study on the effect of climate on
the morphological, agronomical and chemical properties of crested
15
Chapter Two
Literature Review
wheatgrass, and has reported that crested wheatgrass is one of the most
adaptive forage crops in eastern Anatolian region and it has an excessive
ability to re-form the degraded land.
USAD (2004) stated that crested wheatgrass is adapted to areas where
annual precipitation averages 10 inches and where the frost free period is
generally less than 140 days, It does well up to 9,000 feet elevation. Crested
wheatgrass grows on shallow to deep, moderately course to fine textured,
moderately well to well drained and weakly acidic to moderately alkaline
soils. Under saline conditions, vigor and production are reduced. It is not well
adapted to salty soils. All crested wheatgrasses are cold tolerant, can
withstand moderate periodic flooding in the spring, and are very tolerant of
fire. They will not tolerate long periods of inundation, poorly drained soils or
excessive irrigation.
USDA (2008) reported that Crested wheatgrass is well adapted to
stabilization of disturbed soils. Their drought tolerance, fibrous root systems,
and good seedling vigor make these species ideal for reclamation in areas
receiving 8 to 16 inches annual precipitation.
2.2.4. Season of seeding
Crested wheatgrass usually starts growth in the early spring. It stops
growing during long, hot, dry period of summer, but it again makes growth
when the weather becomes moist and cools (Wolfe and Kipps, 1953).
Currie and Peterson (1966) have declared that forage available for use by
livestock varies with the season in which ranges are used. Rainfall in April
determined forage yields of ranges grazed in the spring; May and July rainfall
16
Chapter Two
Literature Review
determined forage yields for fall-grazed ranges. Expected forage yields and
stocking rates can therefore be predicted from precipitation measurements.
Holl et al., (1988) cited that crested wheatgrass is an important dry land
grass. It germinates under a wide range of conditions, has strong seedling
vigor and successfully establishes under challenging conditions. It is best
adapted to heavier soils of good fertility, with early growth in spring ahead of
most other native or introduced grasses. It becomes dormant during hot and
dry summer months, but growth resumes when moisture is sufficient. It is
completely winter hardy across the plains and is long-lived, persistent and
easily endures adverse management and heavy grazing pressure. The ability
to germinate and grow rapidly during the early spring season is critical if a
seedling is to successfully compete with annual weeds. Crested Wheatgrass is
a highly competitive species and where it is well adapted, may become the
dominant species of the re-vegetated area.
Sheet and Page (2001) have reported that crested wheatgrass start to
growth in early spring and flower in late spring. It reproduces from seeds and
tillers. It may regrow in the fall if moisture is sufficient. Crested wheat grass
germinates earlier and grows more rapidly at colder temperatures. This is an
important competitive advantage when dealing with winter annual species
such as cheatgrass. The best seeding results are obtained from seeding in very
early spring on heavy to medium textured soils and in late fall on medium to
light textured soils. Late summer (August to mid-September) seeding is not
recommended unless irrigation is available. It is not very tolerant of spring
flooding.
17
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.2.5. Chemical Analysis of species
Cook (1959) has studied on the effect of site on the palatability and
nutritive content of seeded wheatgrasses (Crested wheatgrass, Intermediate
wheatgrass and Tall wheatgrass). It has been reported that all wheatgrass
suffered about the same loss on unfavorable site and the palatability of all
wheatgrass was significantly greater on all unfavorable sites when compared
to favorable sites.
Buman et al., (1988) investigated a study on seedling competition
between mountain rye, crested wheatgrass, and downy brome. Soil moisture
depletion was monitored gravimetrically. Dry root and shoot weight, shoot
area and root length of mountain rye was greater than that of both Downy
Brome and Hycrest crested wheatgrass at every sampling period over the 6week. The results indicated that mountain rye provide vigorous competition
as seedling.
Gökkuş and Ali (1996) investigate the effect of seasonal (fall and spring)
of nitrogen application on the growth of crested wheatgrass. Nitrogen
application in both fall and spring increased shoot and root weight but
decreased the root/shoot ratio. The fall application of nitrogen did not affect
stem and leaf rates but the spring application decreased the stem rate and
increased the leaf rate.
Taghizadeh et al., (2009) carried out a study on investigation of genetic
diversity in crested wheatgrass. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
(RAPD) markers have been used to characterize the genetic diversity of 10
Iranian populations of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum). RAPD
marker data proved to be a good method of assessing genetic variation among
populations of crested wheatgrass.
18
Chapter Two
Literature Review
USDA (2012) has reported that the quality and quantity of the crested
wheatgrass forage is usually increased when planted with a legume, such as
alfalfa. Forage quality is very good in early growing season with crude
protein levels approximately 18 percent age. Crude protein levels fall to
around 4 percentages during the summer when plants are dormant. It provides
excellent feed for cattle, sheep, and horses in the spring. Elk, deer, and
antelope utilize the forage early and late in the growing season. The seed is
used by birds and rodents, and stands provide nesting cover for upland birds.
19
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Plant Composition
The study of plant composition was carried out during spring 2014
from 15th April to 7th May between Harir and Haji Omeran areas figure (1)
with approximately distance of 100 km which located among 11 sites (table,
1) to identify and count the type of species in the area.
The study area was mountainous natural rangeland and contains forests
which are rich with many species. Random sampling methods were used for
vegetation analysis (Rathwan and fahri, 1975) (Sorrells and Glenn, 1991).
General visual survey method was used for identification the quantitative
characters of vegetation sample that depends on individual‟s theoretical
estimation (Sankri, 1996).
The climate of area related to Sub-humid upland and mountain region
which have an average annual rainfall (400mm -1100 mm) and the
temperatures are slightly milder in summer and lower in winter than in Erbil
(Omer, 2011).
20
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
Table (1): Location, Elevation, Coordination and Average Rainfall of the
studied area (Razvanchy, 2014).
No
Location Distance
from Erbil
Elevation
(m)
Coordination
Latitude (N)
Longitude (E)
(km)
Average
Rainfall
(mm)
1
Harir
75
700
36°33' 9.61" N
44°22'45.96"E
600
2
Spilk
84
843
36°36'58.18"N
44°19'18.47"E
610
3
Kalakin
93
846
36°36'59.86"N
44°20'27.83"E
628
4
Zargaly
99
839
36°23'55.29"N
44°58'20.81"E
650
5
Soran
115
680
36°39'16.96"N
44°32'15.87"E
<650
6
Smilan
125
731
36°31'26.99"N
43°53'51.29"E
700
7
Omerawa
134
877
36°35'24.26"N
44°48'3.60"E
< 700
8
Choman
150.5
1110
36°38'15.87"N
44°53'21.12"E
778
9
Derband
159
1340
36°41'12.23"N
44°55'28.68"E
823
10
Azadi
166
1693
36°44'32.82"N
44°28'9.68"E
930
175
1988
36°40'30.15"N
45° 2'43.25"E
<1000
Haji11
Omeran
21
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
Figure (1): Map of Iraq/ Erbil, locations of studied area.
22
Chapter Three
3.1.
Materials and Methods
Field work
A quadrate which is comprised from (m2) is thrown randomly in
each location according to FAO (1975). Data of the variables were recorded.
3.1.1.
Coverage Percentage:
A. Vegetation Coverage: total species were estimated in the sample.
B. Bare Soil.
C. Rock: when the rock percentage of a unit area ≥ (15 %) it means the
area is suffering from degradation (Fahri, 2009).
D. Litter: is the area of ground covered by the vertical projection of the
outermost perimeter of the natural spread of plant foliage (Sheley et al.,
2008).
Plant samples were collected manually by sickle. Each sample wrapped by a
paper and placed between wood panels in order to maintain the quality of
samples. Afterwards, the samples placed on a paper board in the laboratory
for:
1- Segregate each species of the sample according to their units
2- Notation individuals of each species for calculating total individual.
3- Specimens of species were made for identification the species according
to their families, genus and species in biological herbaceous of
Education College/ Salahaddin University. In addition to help of other
experience lecturers in this field.
3.1.2. Forage Value
Forage value is the classification of plants depending on their
grazing intensity and palatability (Al-Obade, 2004). The plants were
classified as follows:
I-
High forage value: it includes the species that all parts can be grazed
in all seasons such as Trifollum sp., Medicago sp., Bromus sp.
23
Chapter Three
II-
Materials and Methods
Intermediate forage value: this includes the species which is partially
grazed in a season. Such as Notobasis syriaca, Brassica nigra,
Plantago lanceolata.
III-
Low forage value: includes the species which is not used by animals
in any season. Such as Euphorbia cheiradenia, Marrubium vulgare
and Papaver hybridum.
3.1.3.
Density and Relative Density
Total density is the number of individuals per unit area (m2). All
species and their individuals were recorded in order to calculate the density of
each species in the area (Besefky, 2011).
.
Number of individuals of specific species in all samples
Species density =
Total number of samples
Relative density = density of specific species / sum of all species' density X100.
According to (FAO, 1975) plant density degree arranged as follows:
Plant individuals per (m2)
1
Density degree
Very Rare
Symbols
VR
2-4
Rare
R
5-14
Infrequent
I
15-29
Frequent
F
30-99
Abundant
A
More than 100
Very Abundant
VA
24
Chapter Three
3.1.4.
Materials and Methods
Frequency and Relative Frequency
Number of sample containing specific species divided by total
number of samples observed (Besefky, 2011).
25
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
3.2. Adaptation of Crested Wheatgrass
3.2.1. Selected species
A certified seed crested wheatgrass (Agropyron critatum (L.)
Gaert) imported from USA during fall 2013.
3.2.2.
Locations:
3.2.2.1. Choman
It is located in the northeast of Erbil governorate about (160) km
figure (1). The majority of lands is severe ruggedness mountain and bordered
to the north east by Hasaarost Mountain. It‟s geographical coordinate
(36°39'33") north and (44°42'11") east. Its elevation is (1110m) above sea
level with average precipitations in last ten years is (512 mm), and the
temperatures (4.570C).
3.2.2.2. Soran
It is located in the northeast of Erbil governorate about (115 km)
with latitude (36°36'23.18"N) and longitude (44°39'2.56"E), and its elevation
is (680 m) above sea level. The other name of Soran is Diana. Average
precipitations is (476mm) and temperatures is (7.320C) in last ten years.
3.2.3.
Seasons:
3.2.3.1. Fall Season Seeding
The study season was started in 16th November, 2013 by depending
on first raining at fall season.
3.2.3.1. Spring Season Seeding
The study season was started in 21st March, 2014.
26
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
Table (2): Metrological data at Soran and Choman locations during the
period 2013/2014 (Agro Meteorological Center, 2014).
Soran
Choman
Months
Raining
Snow
Average
Raining
Snow
Average
volume
volume
temperature
volume
volume
temperature
(mm)
(cm)
(0C)
(mm)
(cm)
(0C)
November
73.9
0
14.4
117.1
0
6.1
December
106.9
0
5.3
116.4
0
0.4
January
105.8
15
4.2
92.7
27
-3.5
February
13.3
0
8.2
12.5
0
-1.5
March
135.8
0
11.3
182.4
0
4.5
April
25.1
0
16.7
43.1
0
10.5
May
13.9
0
21.5
17
0
15.5
TOTAL
474.7
15
581.2
27
*
Humidity data was necessary for experiment but it was not available.
3.2.4. Soil analysis
Soil sample of both locations were taken randomly from (30cm)
depth to analyse some mechanical and chemical characteristics of soil.
Analyses have been done according to Rowell (1996), in Agriculture
Research Center/Ministry of Agriculture –Erbil (table, 7).
Table (3): Soil analysis of studied area.
EC
PH
N
P
K
ds/m
1:1
%
ppm
ppm
Soran
0.3
7.85
0.1
3.4
Choman
0.1
7.8
0.04
3
Location
SOIL TEXTURE
USDA
SOIL
TEXTURE
clay
silt
Sand
120
36.7
38.8
24.5
Clay Loam
80
39.2
48.3
12.5
Silty Clay Lom
27
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
3.2.5. Experiment design
The study was designed as Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) and each location were consists of 8 plots (4 plots for fall and 4 plots
for spring season). The size of plot was 2m long and 1.5m wide with a guard
stripe of 0.25m between the plots. Every plot were contains seven rows, each
of 2m length with 0.25m spacing between the consecutive rows(Figure, 2).
The data were submitted to analyse of variance, means were compared by
Duncan multiple range test (1955) at probability level of 0.05 for field and
0.01 for chemical analyse by using (SAS, 2005).
The soil was ploughed precisely and leveled by plough tractor, after the
design finished (7g) (El-Tekriti and Mohammad, 1982) of seeds were sown
for each row then covered with fine soil. During the growth period of study,
weeds were controlled by hand to provide more valuable condition for
preserving soil‟s nutrient and moisture (table, 4). The seeding emergence was
recorded after germination. In addition, other characters value were recorded
for the plant such as fresh and dry weight of shoot and root and length of
shoot and root within shoot root ratio.
28
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
Figure (2): Field design of Crested Wheatgrass.
29
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
Table (4): List of weeds which germinated at plots of Choman and Soran
location.
Weed Species
Season
Family
Life Cycle
Cyperus sp.
Fall&Spring
Cyperaceae
Perennial
Cynodon dactylon L.
Fall
Poaceae
Perennial
Hordeum bolbosum L.
Spring
Poaceae
Perennial
Convolvus arvensis L.
Fall&Spring
Convolvulaceae
Perennial
Bromus sp.
Fall&Spring
Poaceae
Perennial
Linum sp.
Fall
Linaceae.
Perennial
Pecris sp.
Spring
Zygophyllaceae
Annual
Tribulus terrestris L.
Spring
Zygophyllaceae
Annual
Heliotropium europiran L. Spring
Boraginaceae
Annual
Xanthium strumarium L.
Spring
Asteraceae
Annual
Polygonum aviculare L.
Fall&Spring
Polygonaceae
Annual
Cardaria draba L.
Spring
Brassicaceae
Annual
Amaranthus deflexus L.
Spring
Amaranthaceae
Annual
Atriplex sp.
Spring
Amaranthaceae
Annual
Lactuca serriola L.
Fall
Asteraceae
Biennial
Portulaca oleracea L.
Spring
Portulacaceae
Annual
Plantago lanceolata L.
Fall
Plantaginaceae
Annual
Senecio sp.
Fall
Asteraceae
Annual
Brassica nigra L.
Fall
Brassicaceae
Annual
Echinops sp.
Fall
Asteraceae
Annual
30
Chapter Three
3.2.6.
Materials and Methods
Measurements:
3.2.6.1. Germination percentage (%)
The germination percentage was estimated in field according to
(Ismail and Kardoush, 2011) as follows:
3.2.6.2. Shoot and Root fresh weight (g)
The shoot and root fresh weight was measured by sensitive balance.
3.2.6.3. Shoot and Root dry weight (g)
Shoot and root system was dried by oven until reach the constant
weight at 70˚C (Baninasab and Mobli, 2008).
3.2.6.4. Shoot length (cm)
Shoot length was measured from the contact point between the
stem and the soil surface to the tip of the main stem (Shekhany, 2014).
3.2.6.5. Root Length(cm)
Root length was measured from the contact point between the
stem to the growing tip of the root (Shekhany, 2014).
3.2.6.6. Shoot Root Ratio
Shoot Root Ratio was measured by dividing total shoot dry
weight on Total root dry weight (Sadeghipour and Aghaei, 2013).
3.2.6.7. Germination speed (seeding/day)
The germination speed was estimated according to (Ismail and
Kardoush, 2011).
Germination speed
umber of germinated
umber of germinated
seeds at the first count seeds at the second count
umber of days for the
umber of days for the
second count
first count
umber of germinated
umber of germinated
seeds at the third count seeds at the fourth count
umber of days for the
umber of days for the
third count
fourth count
31
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
3.2.6.8. Root elongation speed (cm/day)
Root elongation speed was calculated as follows (Shekhany, 2014):
3.2.6.9. Shoot elongation speed (cm/day)
Shoot elongation speed was calculated as follows (Shekhany, 2014):
3.2.7.
Chemical Analysis
Four means replicates samples have been taken from each plot of
Choman and Soran in fall and spring season. Samples dried in oven with 700C
until reach the constant weight. Then it digested by Rotel digesters and well
mixed for making chemical analysis on it (A.O.A.C, 2000).
3.2.7.1. Dry Matter
That part of feed, which is not water. Percent DM = 100% moisture%. Feed values and nutrient requirements for ruminants are
expressed on a dry matter or moisture-free basis to compensate for the large
variation in moisture content of feeds commonly fed to cattle.
Calculation:
Dry Matter % =100 (C-A)/ (B-A)
Where:
A = weight of clean, dry scale pan (g)
B = weight of scale pan + wet sample (g)
C = weight of scale pan + dry sample (g)
32
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
3.2.7.2. Crude Protein
Because of its cost, protein is the most important dietary nutrient
in a commercial operation .Analysis is done by Kjeldahl's method, which
evaluates the total nitrogen content of the sample after it has been digested in
sulphuric acid with a mercury or selenium catalyst.
Crude protein (%) = nitrogen in sample × 6.25
3.2.7.3. Crude Lipid (Ether extract)
The crude lipid is content of a feedstuff. Fat is an energy source
with 2.25 times the energy density of carbohydrates. In this method, the fats
are extracted from the sample with diethyl ether and evaluated as a percentage
of the weight before the solvent is evaporated.
Calculations
Crud lipid % = 100 B-A/C
Where:
A = weight of clean dry flask (g)
B = weight of flask with fat (g)
C = weight of sample (g)
3.2.7.4. Crude Fiber
Crude fiber is a traditional measure of fiber content in feeds. This
method gives the crude fiber content of the sample after it has been digested
in sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions. The difference in weight
after burning indicates the quantity of fiber present.
Calculations
Crud fiber % = 100 B-A/C
Where:
33
Chapter Three
Materials and Methods
A = weight of crucible with dry residue (g)
B = weight of crucible with ash (g)
C = weight of sample (g)
3.2.7.5. Ash Content
Is the measure of the total amount of minerals present within
food. This method is used to determine ash content in feedstuffs by burning.
Ash is considered as the total mineral or inorganic content of the sample.
Calculations
Ash content % = 100 B-(A-C)/C
Where:
A = weight of crucible with sample (g)
B = weight of crucible with ash (g)
C = weight of sample (g)
3.2.7.6. Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE)
The result is obtained by subtracting the percentages calculated
for each nutrient from 100 based on dry matter, any errors in evaluation will
be reflected in the final calculation.
Calculations based on dry matter:
Nitrogen-free extract (%) = 100 - (A + B + C + D)
Where:
A = ash content (%)
B = crud protein content (%)
C = crude lipid content (%)
D = crude fiber content (%)
34
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Plant Composition
Appendix (1) shows all plants of studied area (Harir to Haji Omeran).
During the survey period (30) families, (93) genus and (174) species were
recorded. Recorded legumes had the highest value of genus (14) then
followed by grasses (12) genus which approximately equal to (15.05%) and
(12.90%) of total plant percentage. However, grasses were recorded the
highest value in species which were (39), while the legume record (30)
species which equıvalent to (22.28%) and (17.14%) of total species.
The results indicated that the area is rich with natural vegetation resource
and has a high potentiality to produce numerous plant species. This was due
to favorable climatic conditions prevalent in the forest zone such as annual
precipitation and suitable temperature which enhance the growth of plants
during the growing season Guest (1966). North east of Kurdistan region is not
only rich with a high number of genus and species but it is also one of the
most active areas in the formation of species(Omer, 2011). The most
dominant species in the studied area are Centaurea Solstitialis, Lactuca
serriola, Notobasis syriaca, Onobrychis crista-galli, and Hordeum bulbosum.
The result is corresponded to Besefky (2011) that there is more grazing
pressure and low amount of moisture in lowest elevation causing removal of
grasses and exciting herbs as compared to slight grazing in mid and higher
altitudes.
35
Chapter Four
4.1.1.
Results and Discussions
Cover Percentage:
This could be considered as a criterion to measure the changes in
vegetation (Table, 5).
Table (5): Coverage percentage overall studied area.
Location
Vegetation
Bare Soil
Litter
Rock
Harir
72
8.25
7
12.75
Spilk
75
5
8.25
11.75
Kalakin
70
12.5
12
5.5
Zargaly
45
11.8
10.7
32.5
Soran
75
7.25
10.75
7
Smilan
61
10.5
18.5
10
Omerawa
64
12
20.75
3.25
Choman
73
9.5
10.25
7.25
Derband
79
6.5
13
1.5
Azadi
80
7.25
8.25
4.5
Haji-Omeran
85
6.5
3
5.5
70.45
8.82
11.13
9.59
Average
A. Vegetation Coverage
The average of plant covering in the studied area was (70.45%). It
varied in Zargaly and Haji Omeran places which were (45%) and (85%)
respectively (table, 5). The reason of occurring low vegetation percentage in
Zargaly area is due to the present of mountains and high amount of rock
36
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
percentage with the comparison to other studied areas because topography is
the principle limiting factors in vegetation growth(Jin et al., 2008).
B. Bare Soil
Average bar soil percentage over all locations was (8.82%), the highest
value was shown in Kalakin (12.5%) and the lowest value was in Spilk (5%).
This is because of land being sloppy and heavy precipitation in Kalakin which
leads to soil erosion and/or water runoff (table, 5).
C. Litter
Average litter percentage in all locations was (11.13%). Highest value of
litter recorded at Omerawa (20.75%) and lowest value observed at Haji
Omeran (3%). This is due to more water runoff in Omerawa (table, 5).
D. Rock
Average rock percentage in studied areas was (9.59%), it was (32.5%) in
Zargaly and (3.25%) in Omerawa (table, 5).
Generally the results corresponded to Aziz (1999) and Mahmoud (2007)
in which the vegetation coverage percentage increases as the plant
biodiversity distribution directed toward mountainous region and higher
elevation as compared to lowland area which is exploded unwell and due to
poor management and inadequate planning and allocation of trained human
resources; agricultural extension services and agricultural vocational
education, in particular, are in need of major improvements(Jaradat, 2003).
37
Chapter Four
4.1.2.
Results and Discussions
Forage Value
While the purpose of classification is to understand rangeland
condition and palatability usage, the forage value has more importance than
soil protection and erosion (table, 6).
Table (6): Forage value of species overall locations.
Forage Value
Location
I
II
III
Harir
38.71%
58.06%
3.23%
Spilk
60.00%
20 %
20%
Kalakin
38.46%
53.85%
7.69%
Zargaly
55.56%
38.89%
5.56%
Soran
68.42%
26.32%
5.26%
Smilan
64.29%
28.57%
7.14%
Omerawa
36.84%
42.11%
21.05%
Choman
62.96%
29.63%
7.41%
Derband
41.67%
33.33%
25%
Azadi
39.39%
51.52%
9.09%
Haji-Omeran
44.90%
51.02%
4.08%
50.11%
39.39%
10.50%
Average
The results of classification recorded that the average high forage value
was (50.11%), which vary between Soran (68.42%) and Omeran (36.84%).
However, the average of intermediate forage value was (39.39%) which was
fluctuated between 58.06% (Harir) and 20% (Spilk). On the other hand, the
average of low forage value was (10.5%) changing from (25%) in Darbend to
(3.23%) in Harir. High forage value is dominant, followed by intermediate
forage value then low forage value. Both high and intermediated forage value
comprised (89.5%) of total forage value of the studied area because of the
38
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
appropriate climate during growth and spring season and/or difference of
grazing intensity in some areas.
The result was corresponded to Maroof (1978) concluded that plants of
high forage value increase and low forage value decrease whenever the
direction of grazing point toward the forest and forest zone. In addition to
Gillett (1948) stated that Kurdistan forest is substantially rich for fodder and
natural pasture.
4.1.3. Plant Structure
Generally, species of studied area mostly consist of Fabaceae,
Poaceae and some other families (table, 7). Average percentage of Fabaceae
was (18.77) % while Poaceae was (21.74) % and of other 28 families were
(59.49) %. Fabaceae recorded its highest value in Choman (29.17) % while
the lowest value recorded in Omerawa (5.88) %. Maximum percentage of
Poaceae recorded in Smilan (33.33) % however, least density was recorded in
Choman (4.17) %. Other families including Asteraceae, Brasicaceae,
Malvaceae, Liliaceae and other families (Appendix, 1) are comprised the
remaining percentage. These families recorded their highest value in Darband
(73.91) % while the lowest value was recorded in Smilan (41.67) %.
As it is seen in table (4) the plant density increased generally from
Harir to Haji Omeran. This may possibly due to increase elevation and
climatic condition that subjected to higher precipitation and suitable
temperature during spring season as compared to the other lowlands locations
(Omer, 2011).
39
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
Table (7): Percentage of Fabaceae, Poaceae and Other Families in
studied area.
Location
Harir
Spilk
Kalakin
Zargaly
Soran
Smilan
Omerawa
Choman
Derband
Azadi
Haji-Omeran
Average
Fabaceae %
Poaceae %
Other Families %
11.55
20
15.38
23.25
26.08
25
5.88
29.17
17.39
25
18.43
15.38
20
30.78
30.77
21.73
33.33
29.42
4.17
8.7
18.75
13.15
73.07
60
53.84
45.98
52.19
41.67
64.70
66.66
73.91
56.25
68.42
18.77
21.74
59.49
4.1.4. Density and Relative Density
Density could measure as numbers of individual per unit area.
Table (8) shows that the highest species density in the studied area was
Hordeum murinum ssp. Glaucum (280) individuals and Hordeum bulbosum
(232) individuals with a relative density (5.02%) and (4.16%) respectively,
while Alcea kurdica Alef, Linaria vulgaris, Colchicum autumnale were
recorded the lowest relative density (0.02%) among overall species.
The result corresponded to Mahmoud (2007) that the area is rare grazed
or ungrazed because of inability of liverstook to reach or existence of snow in
some area during grazing which cover the vegetation and lead to presence of
species under snow in larger density. Whereas in some other area soil fertility
of region may also lead to excess high plant density as a result of residual of
plants and animals .
40
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
4.1.5. Frequency and Relative Frequency
Frequency is the percent of the number of samples containing a
given species to the total number of the samples observed. This method is
equivalent to principle this study and to assess of biodiversity compassion and
distributions. It also can regard as a distributions degree for species in specific
plant ecology.
Table (8) shows the most relative frequency species among all other
plants overall area was from Poaceae Hordeum Bulbosum which has a density
(15.9%) and relative frequency (0.0025) then followed by Notobasis syriaca
(13.6%) and relative frequency (0.021) while the lowest frequency (0.0035)
were recorded in Erodium trichomanifolium, Galium murale, Anemon
coronaria. This may despite to habit of the area which the species are
growing (Jaradat, 2003) that concluded the grasses are an interesting genetic
resource in Iraq.
Table (8): Relative Frequency and Density of studied Plant Species.
Family
Apiaceae
Asteraceae
F
%
RF
D
%
RD
%
Ainsworthia trachycarpa Boiss.
4.55
0.007
0.98
0.77
Daucus carota L.
6.82
0.011
0.59
0.47
Lagoicia cuminnoides L.
2.27
0.004
1.39
1.1
Scandix pecten-veneris L.
6.82
0.011
0.36
0.29
Torilis arvensis L.
2.27
0.004
1.27
1.01
Achillea tomentosa L.
2.27
0.004
0.57
0.45
Achillea millefolium L.
6.82
0.011
0.86
0.68
Anthemis arvensis L.
6.82
0.011
0.45
0.36
Anthemis austriaca Jacq.
4.55
0.007
0.84
0.67
Anthemis punctata Vahl.
4.55
0.007
0.41
0.32
Carduus pycnocephalus L.
11.4
0.018
2.2
1.74
Centaurea Solstitialis L. Barnaby's Thistle 9.09
0.014
1.64
1.3
4.55
0.007
0.25
0.2
6.82
0.011
0.5
0.4
Species
Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Spreng.
Chardinia orientalis (L) KUNTZE
41
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
Asteraceae
Cichorium intybus L.
Cirsium acarna (L.) Moench
Cirsium tuberosum (L.) All.
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist
Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr.
Crupina crupinastrum (Moris) Vis.
Filago arvensis L.
Lactuca serriola L.
Notobasis syriaca (L.) Cass.
Rhagadiolus stellatus (L.) Gaertn.
Senecio sp.
Senecio gallicus Vill.
Senecio vulgaris L.
Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L.
Tragopogon sp.
Tragopogon pratensis L.
Tragopogon pterocarpus DC.
Boraginaceae
Anchusa azurea L.
Anchusa sp.
Echium italica L.
Alyssum dasycarpum Stephan ex Willd.
Biscutella didyma L.
Brassica elongata Ehrh.
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.
Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.
Cardaria draba (L.) Desv.
Coluteocarpus vesicaria (L.) Holmboe
Cyperus asper (Liebm.) O'Neill
Isatis glauca Aucher ex Boiss.
Lepidium draba L.
Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv.
Thlaspi perfoliatum L.
Cactaceae
Echinops ritro L.
Caprifoliaceae
Cephalaria syriacum L.
Caryophyllaceae Vaccaria pyramidata Medik.
Cistaceae
Helianthemum salicifolium (L.) Mill.
Colchicaceae
Colchicum sp.
Colchicum autumnale L.
Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis L.
Convolvulus stachydifolius Choisy
Cyperaceae
Cyperus rotundus L.
Dipsacaceae
Scabiosa arvensis L.
42
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
9.09
2.27
11.4
13.6
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
6.82
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
11.4
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
4.55
2.27
2.27
4.55
6.82
2.27
2.27
2.27
9.09
2.27
2.27
4.55
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.014
0.004
0.018
0.021
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.011
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.018
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.011
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.014
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.95
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.23
1.05
0.61
1.18
2.16
0.89
0.41
0.05
1.14
1.68
0.02
0.05
0.07
0.43
0.02
0.02
0.64
0.77
1.05
0.82
4.34
0.25
0.59
0.55
0.05
0.23
1.02
0.09
0.02
0.02
1.52
0.93
0.34
0.11
0.02
0.91
0.05
0.45
0.27
0.76
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.18
0.83
0.49
0.94
1.71
0.7
0.32
0.04
0.9
1.33
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.34
0.02
0.02
0.5
0.61
0.83
0.65
3.44
0.2
0.47
0.43
0.04
0.18
0.81
0.07
0.02
0.02
1.21
0.74
0.27
0.09
0.02
0.72
0.04
0.36
0.22
Chapter Four
Dipsacaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae
Results and Discussions
Scabiosa palaestina L.
Euphorbia cheiradenia Boiss. & Hohen.
Euphorbia cuspidata Bertol.
Euphorbia helioscopia L.
Euphorbia microsphaera Boiss.
Euphorbia peplus L.
Astragalus sp.
Coronilla scorpioides L.
Hymenocarpos circinnatus (L.) Savi.
Lathyrus ochrus (L.) DC.
Lathyrus sativa L.
Lotus corniculatus L.
Marrubium vulgare L.
Medicago minima (L.) L.
Medicago orbicularis (L.) Bartal.
Medicago polymorpha L.
Medicago sativa L.
Medicago truncatula Gaertn.
Mellilotus indica L.
Mellilotus officinalis L.
Onobrychis crista-galli (L.) Lam.
Onobrychis aequidentata (Sm.) d'Urv.
Scorpiurus muricatus L.
Trifolium campestre Schreb.
Trifolium pratense L.
Trifolium sp.
Trifolium alexandrium L.
Trifolium angustifolium L.
Trifolium dubium Sibth.
Trifolium fragiferum L.
Trifolium pilulare Boiss.
Trifolium repens L.
Trifolium stellatum L.
Trifollium purpureum L.
Triticum dicoccum L.
Triticum sp.
Vicia narbonensis L.
Vicia sp.
Vicia villosa L.
Vicia articulata Hornem.
Vicia hybrida L.
Vicia michauxii Spreng.
Vicia sativa L.
43
4.55
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
9.09
2.27
2.27
6.82
2.27
2.27
2.27
6.82
2.27
2.27
2.27
6.82
4.55
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
4.55
4.55
2.27
0.007
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.014
0.004
0.004
0.011
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.011
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.011
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.007
0.004
0.82
0.82
0.05
0.43
0.48
0.14
0.23
0.25
0.11
0.14
0.52
0.23
0.45
1
1.39
0.5
0.09
0.27
0.98
0.84
2.93
0.77
0.98
1.59
0.25
0.07
0.07
1.39
0.23
0.34
0.3
1.02
0.82
1.34
0.77
0.59
0.61
0.34
0.73
0.36
0.57
0.75
0.23
0.65
0.65
0.04
0.34
0.38
0.11
0.18
0.2
0.09
0.11
0.41
0.18
0.36
0.79
1.1
0.4
0.07
0.22
0.77
0.67
2.32
0.61
0.77
1.26
0.2
0.05
0.05
1.1
0.18
0.27
0.23
0.81
0.65
1.06
0.61
0.47
0.49
0.27
0.58
0.29
0.45
0.59
0.18
Chapter Four
Geraniaceae
Iridaceae
Ixioliriaceae
Lamiaceae
Liliaceae
Malvaceae
Onagraceae
Papaveraceae
Plantaginaceae
Poaceae
Results and Discussions
Erodium cicutarium (L)l'her
Erodium trichomanifolium L.
Geranium rotandifolum L.
Gladiolus atropurpureus L.
Gladiolus italicus L.
Ixiolirion tataricu L.
Mentha sp.
Mentha longifolia (L.) L.
Phlomis kurdica RECH. FIL.
Stachys annua (L.) L.
Muscari neglectum Guss. ex Ten.
Alcea sp.
Alcea kurdica Alef.
Malva nicaeensis All.
Malva parviflora L.
Epilobium sp.
Papaver glaucum L.
Papaver rhoes L.
Papaver argemone L.
Papaver hybridum L.
Linaria vulgaris L.
Plantago bellardii All.
Plantago lanceolata L.
Veronica spicata L.
Aegilops crasa L.
Aegilops triuncialis L.
Aleuropas sp.
Avena ludoviciana L.
Avena sterrilis L.
Avena fatua L.
Bromus arvensis(L)
Bromus scoparius L.
Bromus sterilis L.
Bromus tectorum L.
Bromus danthoniae Trin.
Bromus erectus Huds.
Bromus repens Borbás ex Nyman
Dactylis glomerata L.
Echinaria capitata L.
Hordeum glaucum L.
Hordeum murinum ssp. Glaucum.
Hordeum bulbosum L.
Hordeum marinum Huds.
44
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
9.09
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
6.82
2.27
2.27
11.4
2.27
2.27
4.55
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
6.82
6.82
4.55
2.27
2.27
11.4
15.9
2.27
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.014
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.011
0.004
0.004
0.018
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.011
0.011
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.018
0.025
0.004
1.18
0.11
0.25
0.34
2.27
0.05
1.11
1.57
0.07
0.25
0.32
0.02
0.02
0.89
0.59
0.14
0.05
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.68
2.7
0.52
1.3
3.27
1.02
0.64
0.95
1.39
0.39
0.5
0.32
1.59
0.5
1.64
1.11
0.82
1.45
2.27
6.36
5.27
0.45
0.94
0.09
0.2
0.27
1.8
0.04
0.88
1.24
0.05
0.2
0.25
0.02
0.02
0.7
0.47
0.11
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.54
2.14
0.41
1.03
2.59
0.81
0.5
0.76
1.1
0.31
0.4
0.25
1.26
0.4
1.3
0.88
0.65
1.15
1.8
5.04
4.17
0.36
Chapter Four
Poacea
Polygonaceae
Primulaceae
Ranunculaceae
Rosaceae
Rubiaceae
Verbenaceae
Results and Discussions
Hordeum spontaneum K.Koch
Hordeum sp.
Lolium Perenne L.
Lolium temulentum L.
Lolium rigidum Gaudin.
Phalaris aquatica L.
Phalaris minor Retz.
Poa bulbillifera L. Chrtek& Hadac
Poa bulbosa L. Chrtek& Hadac
Setaria glauca (L.) P.Beauv.
vulpia myuros L.
Polygonum aviculare L.
Polygonum maritimum L.
Anagallis arvensis L.
Androsace maxiama L.
Anemon coronaria L.
Ranunculus kochii L.
Ranunculus arvensis L.
Ranunculus asiaticus L.
Ranunculus aucheri Boiss.
Ranunculus lanuginosus L.
Ranunculus millefolius Banks & Sol.
Poterium sanguisorba L.
Galium aparine L.
Galium murale (L.) All.
Galium tricornutum Dandy
Sherardia arvensis L.
Verbena officinalis L.
*F=Frequency, RF=Relative Frequency, D=Density, RD=Relative Density.
45
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
6.82
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
4.55
4.55
2.27
2.27
2.27
2.27
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.011
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.007
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.004
1.23
0.11
1
0.43
0.3
0.7
1.14
0.45
0.05
0.14
0.75
0.59
1.16
0.82
0.34
0.5
0.11
1
0.23
0.14
0.11
0.3
1.07
0.48
0.09
0.7
0.55
0.27
0.97
0.09
0.79
0.34
0.23
0.56
0.9
0.36
0.04
0.11
0.59
0.47
0.92
0.65
0.27
0.4
0.09
0.79
0.18
0.11
0.09
0.23
0.85
0.38
0.07
0.56
0.43
0.22
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
4.2.
Adaptation of crested wheatgrass
4.2.1.
Measurements:
4.2.1.1. Effect of Location
The results were showed that locations have effected on the
germination percentage and other growth characters of crested wheatgrass.
Figure (3, 4 and 5) referred to differences between locations. Choman‟s
location has affected all studied characters of crested wheatgrass in compare
with Soran‟s location except in germination percentage. The result showed
that there is no significant effect in root weight (fresh, dry) and in length of
shoot and root figure (5). Although, location has affected in germination
percentage, fresh shoot weight and dry shoot weight. In addition, the highest
mean value of germination percentage was recorded (62.225%) in Soran
while the lowest mean value (46.050%) was recorded in Choman. It may refer
to differences in environmental condition (Ates and Tekeli, 2011) has
mentioned that topography is the principal controlling factor in vegetation
growth and the amount of rainfall and the type of soil play secondary roles.
Shoot weight in both conditions (fresh and dry) has also affected by
location which has recorded its high mean value (0.754 g) and (0.4 g) in
Choman location while the lowest value was recorded (0.318 g) and (0.188 g)
in Soran location. These results may refer to difference of soil and site
limitation (Vallentine, 2000) (figure, 4).
46
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
70
a
60
b
Percentage
50
40
Choman
30
Soran
20
10
0
Germination Percentage
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Figure (3): Effect of location on germination percentage.
a
0.8
0.7
0.6
Weight(g)
a
0.5
a
0.4
Choman
b
Soran
0.3
b
b
a
0.2
b
0.1
0
Fresh Shoot Weight Dry Shoot Weight Fresh Root Weight Dry Root Weight
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Figure (4): Effect of locations on shoot and root weight at fresh and dry
conditions.
20
a
a
Length(cm)
15
a
10
Choman
a
Soran
5
a
a
0
Shoot Length
Root Length
Shoot Root Ratio
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Figure (5): Effect of locations on shoot and root length.
47
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
4.2.1.2. Effect of Season
The effect of season has observed on the germination percentage
and other growth characters of crested wheatgrass except shoot and root
length and shoot root ratio. Figure (6, 7 and 8) indicates that there is
significant difference at germination percentage, fresh shoot weight, dry shoot
weight, fresh root weight and dry root weight. Fall seeding were more
significant performance in all characters than sprig, it may refer to higher
precipitation ratio in fall season than in spring season. Germination
percentage recorded higher mean value in spring (71.3%) while it recorded
lower mean value (36.9%) in fall season (figure, 6). Thus; spring seems to be
more favorable for grass germination as it had ability to germinate in early
spring season (Holl et al., 1988). Season had significant effect in fresh shoot
weight ,dry shoot weight, fresh root weight and dry root weight with a high
mean value (0.921, 0.600, 0.525 and 0.255 g) in fall season while it recorded
low mean value (0.151, 0.069, 0.073 and 0.056 g) in spring season
respectively. It may refer to environmental factors such as temperature and
precipitation (figure, 7).
48
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
80
a
70
Percentage
60
50
b
40
Fall
Spring
30
20
10
0
Germination Percentage
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Figure (6): Effect of seasons on germination percentage.
1
a
0.9
0.8
weight (g)
0.7
a
0.6
a
Fall
0.5
0.4
Spring
a
0.3
b
0.2
b
b
0.1
b
0
Fresh Shoot Weight Fresh Root Weight Dry Shoot Weight
Dry Root Weight
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Figure (7): Effect of seasons on shoot and root weights in fresh and dry
condition.
20
a
Length (cm)
a
15
a
Fall
10
a
5
Spring
a
a
0
Shoot Length
Root Length
Shoot Root Ratio
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Figure (8): Effect of seasons on shoot and root length.
49
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
4.2.1.3. Interaction Effect
Table (9) showed that there are significant effects on germination
percentage, fresh and dry shoot and root weight at interaction of locations and
seasons without effect on length of root and shoot and their ratio. Germination
percentage recorded its high mean value at spring season in Soran and
Choman (80.95%) (61.65%) while it recorded low mean value (30.45%) at
fall season in Choman. It may refer to climatic condition of Choman‟s fall
which is not enough suitable as in Soran‟s spring.
Fall season of Choman recorded the highest mean value in shoot fresh
weight, root fresh weight, shoot dry weight and root dry weight (1.27, 0.875,
0.72 and 0.29 g) whereas the lowest mean value was recorded in Soran‟s
spring season (0.065, 0.030, 0.0480 and 0.043 g) respectively. These results
showed that Choman‟s fall season has favorable effect on all growth
characters except germination percentage because it recorded the lowest value
during seeding in Choman‟s fall season. it is agreement with (Svejcar, 1990)
stated that the more roots the better shoot growth.
50
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
Table (9): Interaction Effect of locations and seasons on germination
percentage and other growth characters on Crested Wheatgrass .
Locations
Seasons Germination Fresh
percentage
%
Fall
Choman
Sprıng
Fall
Soran
Sprıng
shoot
Fresh
Dry
Dry
Shoot
Root
root
shoot
root
length
length root
weight weight weight weight (cm)
Shoot
(cm)
ratio
(g)
(g)
(g)
(g)
30.45
1.270
0.875
0.720
0.29
19.530
12.53
2.813
d
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
61.65
0.238
0.108
0.098
0.070
15.853
6.828
1.46
b
bc
b
bc
b
a
a
a
43.5
0.573
0.342
0.330
0.220
18.138
8.315
2.295
c
b
ab
b
ab
a
a
a
80.95
0.065
0.03
0.048
0.043
15.605
5.855
1.425
a
c
b
c
b
a
a
a
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.05
Table (10): Germination and length elongation speed.
Location
Season
Germination Germination Shoot
percentage
speed
(%)
Shoot
Root
length
elongation
length elongation
(cm)
speed
(cm)
(cm)
Choman Fall
Soran
Root
speed
(cm)
30.45
0.17
19.53
0.12
8.32
0.1
Spring
61.65
1.02
15.85
0.2
6.83
0.09
Fall
43.5
0.24
18.13
0.23
12.53
0.16
Spring
80.95
1.34
15.6
0.2
5.86
0.07
Table (10) shows that germination speed of spring season of Soran is
higher among others because the highest mean value of seed germination is
recorded. But elongation speed of (shoot and root) length is higher in Soran‟s
fall seasons because they are recorded the highest value in length elongation
speed.
51
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
4.2.2. Chemical Analysis:
4.2.2.1. Location
Locations were significantly effected on chemical analyses of crested
wheatgrass. Soran location table (11) was showed significant effect for dry
matter, ash, crud protein, crud lipid and NFE with a higher percentage value
(20.585, 15.750, 16.005, 7.978, and 52.816) in Soran location while Choman
location recorded lower percentage value (11.395, 8.661, 14.375, 6.755 and
45.966%) respectively. These differences may refer to the differences in
altitude of locations as in table (7) (Botani, 2014) has concluded that forage
value generally affected by altitude. While there were no significant
differences in crude fiber.
Table (11): Effect of location on chemical analysis (%) of Crested
Wheatgrass.
Location
Dry
Ash
Matter
Soran
Choman
Crud
Crud
Crud
Protein
Fiber
Lipid
NFE
20.585
15.750 16.005
14.920
7.978
52.816
a
a
a
a
a
a
11.395
8.661
14.375
14.808
6.755
45.966
b
b
b
a
b
b
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.01
4.2.2.2. Effect of Season
The effect of seasons was significantly observed on chemical
analysis of crested wheatgrass as in (table, 12). Spring season was more
effective than fall season because the dry matter of created wheatgrass is
related to rate of growth, which is dependent upon soil and climate parameters
(Mayland, 1986).
52
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
Table (12): Effect of season on chemical analysis (%) of Crested
Wheatgrass.
Season
Dry
Ash
Matter
Spring
18.395
a
Fall
13.585
b
13.686
a
10.725
b
Crud
Crud
Crud
Protein
Fiber
Lipid
NFE
15.850
17.227
7.620
51.433
a
a
a
a
14.530
12.500
7.113
47.350
b
b
b
b
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.01
4.2.2.3. Interaction Effect
The interactions of locations and seasons were also affected the
chemical analysis of crested wheatgrass. The results (table,13) were showed
that fall season of Choman and Soran provided the highest means value of dry
matter (22.52%) and (18.65%) as compared to spring season of Choman and
Soran, while there were observed lowest means value (14.27%) and (8.5%)
respectively. That is because winds and high temperatures during the growing
season result in high evaporation rates which reduce the moisture available
and increase dry matter on plants. (Willard and Schuster, 1973).
Spring season of Soran recorded higher mean value in ash percentage (18.1%)
than that recorded in Choman‟s fall and spring season (9.273%) and (8.05%)
since highest ash contents occurred just before new growth began in the
spring and Ash content was reduced with advanced stage of maturity (Teka et
al., 2012).
Fall season of Soran and Choman's spring season were recorded the highest
means value in protein (16.28%) and (15.97%) while the lowest means value
(12.78%) were recorded only in spring season of Soran because the
environmental conditions caused considerable accrual of plant size, which
53
Chapter Four
Results and Discussions
causing reduction of crude protein content by uncommonly low reserve of soil
nitrogen before planting (Bártová et al., 2009).
Spring season of Choman recorded the highest mean value of crud fiber
(17.68%) while the lowest means value was recorded in fall season of
Choman (11.93%) because increasing in altitude lead to decrease in crud fiber
(McCreary, 1927). Soran‟s fall season recorded high mean value in crud lipid
(8.68%) whereas, the lowest mean value (6.56%) among others interaction
have recorded in Soran‟s spring season. There were no significant difference
in spring season of Choman and Soran.
Spring season of Soran showed highest mean value in NFE (54.210%) due to
increasing in altitude which leads to increase in NFE (McCreary, 1927) while
lowest mean value in fall season of Choman was (44.205%).
Table (13): Interaction Effects of Locations and Seasons on Chemical
analysis (%) of Crested Wheatgrass.
Season
Location Dry
Ash
Crud
Crud
Crude NFE
Protein
Fiber
Lipid
9.273
15.73
11.93
7.275
44.205
a
c
a
b
b
c
18.65
13.4
16.28
13.07
8.68
51.430
b
b
a
b
a
ab
14.27
18.1
12.78
16.77
6.56
54.210
c
a
b
a
c
a
8.05
15.97
17.68
6.95
48.633
c
a
a
bc
b
Matter
Choman 22.52
Fall
Soran
Soran
Spring
Choman 8.5
d
*
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at probability level. 0.01
54
Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusion
Results conclude that mountainous region of the Kurdistan is rich
with natural rangeland it may refers to climatic condition and topography of
the region but the areas misused and not managed well.
1- Presence of more variance species in the area that have differ forage value.
Half of individuals were from high forage value.
2- Presence of high plant density in the studied areas.
3- Poaceae and Fabaceae have predominant the area and they can be regarded
as a most current families which adapted in the area.
4- The studied area has favorable humidity and temperature for plant
distribution which have positive effect on presentation of being high plant
density.
5- Crested wheatgrass has ability to resist hard climate conditions and
environments including low temperature, heavy precipitation and weed
competitions.
6- Soran was the best adapted location for germination of crested wheatgrass
but growth character was less favorable than Choman location. Spring was
the best season for germinating seeds, while fall season seeding was more
favorable for growth characters.
7- It appeared that chemical analysis of crested wheatgrass was more
significant in Soran location than Choman location and spring season
showed better result than fall season.
8- Soil moisture is one of the most necessary requirements during seeding of
crested wheatgrass.
55
Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.2. Recommendation
1- Using modern survey methods such as remote sensing because it was not
available for current study.
2- Collecting of seeds in dense areas with plants and replanting pastures in
damage areas, taking into the environmental conditions of region.
3- Establishing of terraces to pasture areas to maintain and protect from soil
erosion especially at slope area.
4- Establishing of stone dams to reduce the effects of erosion.
5- Cleaning of mountains from mines boom as it is dangerous.
6- Implementing of Artificial projects for the owners of cattle and sheep by
alfalfa crop cultivation and multiple sizes for avoiding overgrazing during
growing seasons of species.
7- More studies are required about the other species.
8- Conducting further studies on other uses of crested wheatgrass including
grazing system.
9- Carrying out more research for chemical analyzing of seeds of crested
wheatgrass.
10- Undertaking investigations on other growth stages of crested wheatgrass
including; flowering, fruit and seed stages.
56
Refrence
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65
Appendix
Appendix (1): All species of studied area with their Life Cycle, Plant
Density and Forage Value.
Family
Poaceae
Genus
Aegilops
L. P.
F.
C D
V
Aegilops crasa L.
A A
III
Aegilops triuncialis L.
P F
III
Species
Aleuropas
Aleuropas sp.
Avena
Avena ludoviciana L.
A I
I
Avena sterrilis L.
A F
I
Avena fatua L.
A F
I
Bromus arvensis (L).
P F
I
Bromus scoparius L.
A F
I
Bromus sterilis L.
A A
I
Bromus tectorum L.
A A
I
Bromus danthoniae Trin.
P F
I
Bromus erectus Huds.
A A
I
Bromus repens Borbás ex Nyman
A F
I
Dactylis
Dactylis glomerata L.
P A
I
Echinaria
Echinaria capitata L.
A VR
II
Hordeum
Hordeum glaucum L.
A VR
II
Hordeum murinum
A VA
II
Hordeum bulbosum L.
A F
II
Hordeum marinum Huds.
A F
II
Hordeum spontaneum K.Koch.
A A
II
Hordeum sp.
A I
II
Lolium Perenne L.
A F
I
Lolium temulentum L.
P F
I
Lolium rigidum Gaudin.
A A
I
Phalaris aquatica L.
A I
II
Phalaris minor Retz.
A F
II
Poa bulbillifera L.Chrtek& Hadac A F
II
A R
II
Bromus
VR
I
ssp.Glaucum.
Lolium
Phalaris
Poa
Poa bulbosa L. Chrtek& Hadac.
65
Appendix
Poaceae
Fabaceae
Vulpia
Vulpia myuros L.
A VR
II
Setaria
Setaria glauca (L.) P.Beauv.
A I
III
Astragalus
Astragalus sp.
Coronilla
Coronilla scorpioides L.
A I
I
Hymenocarpos
Hymenocarpos circinnatus (L.)
A I
I
Lathyrus ochrus (L.) DC.
A I
I
Lathyrus sativas L.
A F
I
Lotus
Lotus corniculatus L.
P I
I
Medicago
Medicago orbicularis L.
A A
I
Medicago minima (L.) L.
P A
I
Medicago orbicularis (L.) Bartal.
P A
I
Medicago polymorpha L.
A A
I
Medicago sativa L.
A R
I
Medicago truncatula Gaertn.
A I
I
Mellilotus indica L.
A A
I
Mellilotus officinalis L.
A A
I
Onobrychis crista-galli (L.) Lam.
P A
I
Onobrychis aequidentata
B R
I
I
II
Savi.
Lathyrus
Mellilotus
Onobrychis
(Sm.) d'Urv.
Scorpiurus
Scorpiurus muricatus L.
A A
I
Trifolium
Trifolium campestre Schreb.
P F
I
Trifolium pratense L.
A A
I
R
I
Trifolium alexandrium L.
A R
I
Trifolium angustifolium L.
P I
I
Trifolium dubium Sibth.
A I
I
Trifolium fragiferum L.
P F
I
Trifolium pilulare Boiss.
A I
I
Trifolium repens L.
A F
I
Trifolium stellatum L.
P I
I
Trifollium purpureum L.
A A
I
Trifolium sp.
66
Appendix
Fabaceae
A A
I
F
I
Vicia narbonensis L.
A F
I
Vicia sp.
A F
I
Vicia villosa L.
A A
I
Vicia articulata Hornem.
A I
I
Vicia hybrida L.
A I
I
Vicia michauxii Spreng.
A I
I
Vicia sativa L.
A I
I
Achillea tomentosa L.
A F
I
Achillea millefolium L.
P VR
II
Anthemis arvensis.
A R
I
Anthemis austriaca Jacq.
A F
II
Anthemis punctata Vahl.
P F
II
Carduus
Carduus pycnocephalus L.
A A
II
Centaurea
Centaurea Solstitialis L.
A F
II
P VR
II
Triticum
Triticum dicoccum L.
Triticum sp.
Vicia
Asteraceae
Achillea
Anthemis
Barnaby's Thistle
Centaurea iberica Trevir.ex
Spreng.
Chardinia
Chardinia orientalis (L.) Kuntze.
A R
I
Cichorium
Cichorium intybus L.
A A
I
Cirsium
Cirsium acarna (L.) Moench.
P I
II
Cirsium tuberosum (L.) All.
P I
II
Conyza bonariensis (L.)
A I
III
Conyza
Cronquist.
Crepis
Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr.
A I
II
Crupina
Crupina crupinastrum (Moris)
A R
II
Vis.
Filago
Filago arvensis L.
P F
I
Lactuca
Lactuca serriola L.
A VR
I
Notobasis
Notobasis syriaca (L.) Cass.
B I
II
Rhagadiolus
Rhagadiolus stellatus (L.) Gaertn.
A A
I
Senecio
Senecio sp.
67
F
II
Appendix
Asteraceae
Brassicaceae
Senecio gallicus Vill.
B VR
II
Senecio vulgaris L.
P A
II
Sonchus
Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L.
P A
I
Tragopogon
Tragopogon pratensis L.
A VR
I
Tragopogon
Tragopogon pterocarpus DC.
A R
I
Echium
Echium italica L.
A VR
I
Alyssum
Alyssum dasycarpum Stephan ex
P F
II
Senecio
Willd.
Biscutella
Biscutella didyma L.
A A
I
Brassica
Brassica elongata Ehrh.
P A
I
Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch.
P A
II
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)
A I
I
Capsella
Medik.
Cardaria
Cardaria draba (L.) Desv.
A F
II
Coluteocarpus
Coluteocarpus vesicaria (L.)
P F
II
Holmboe.
Apiaceae
Boraginaceae
Isatis
Isatis glauca Aucher ex Boiss.
A I
I
Lepidium
Lepidium draba L.
P I
II
Lobularia
Lobularia maritime (L.) Desv.
B R
II
Thlaspi
Thlaspi perfoliatum L.
P VR
II
Cyperus
Cyperus asper (Liebm.) O'Neill.
A R
II
Ainsworthia
Ainsworthia trachycarpa Boiss.
A F
II
Daucus
Daucus carota L.
A F
II
Lagoicia
Lagoicia cuminnoides L.
A A
II
Scandix
Scandix pecten-veneris L.
A VR
I
Torilis
Torilis arvensis L.
A A
I
Anchusa
Anchusa azurea L.
P F
II
Anchusa sp.
P VR
II
Cactaceae
Echinops
Echinops ritro L.
A VR
III
Caprifoliaceae
Cephalaria
Cephalaria syriacum L.
P A
I
Caryophyllaceae
Vaccaria
Vaccaria pyramidata Medik.
A VR
II
Cistaceae
Helianthemum
Helianthemum salicifolium
A F
II
(L.)Mill.
68
Appendix
Colchicaceae
Convolvulacea
Colchicum
Convolvulus
Colchicum autumnale L.
P VR
III
Colchicum sp
P I
III
Convolvulus arvensis L.
P I
I
Convolvulus stachydifolius Choisy. A R
II
Cyperaceae
Cyperus
Cyperus rotundus L.
A F
II
Dipsacaceae
Scabiosa
Scabiosa arvensis L.
P I
I
Scabiosa palaestina L.
A F
I
Euphorbia cheiradenia
A F
III
Euphorbia cuspidata Bertol.
A R
III
Euphorbia helioscopia L.
P F
III
Euphorbia microsphaera Boiss.
P I
III
Euphorbia peplus L.
P I
III
Marrubium
Marrubium vulgare L.
B I
III
Mentha
Mentha sp.
P A
II
Mentha longifolia (L.) L.
A F
II
Phlomis
Phlomis kurdica RECH. FIL.
P R
I
Stachys
Stachys annua (L.) L.
A I
III
Teucrium
Teucrium polium L.
A R
I
Liliaceae
Muscari
Muscari neglectum Guss.
A I
III
Malvaceae
Alcea
Alcea sp.
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia
Boiss.& Hohen.
Lamiaceae
Malva
VR
II
Alcea kurdica Alef.
A VR
II
Malva nicaeensis All.
A A
I
Malva parviflora L.
A A
I
Onagraceae
Epilobium
Epilobium sp.
P I
II
Papaveraceae
Papaver
Papaver glaucum L.
A VR
III
Papaver rhoes L.
A VR
III
Papaver argemone L.
A R
III
Papaver hybridum L.
A VR
III
Plantago bellardii All.
A A
II
Plantago lanceolata L.
P F
II
Veronica
Veronica spicata L.
A I
II
Linaria
Linaria vulgaris L.
A VR
II
Plantaginaceae
Plantago
69
Appendix
Polygonaceae
Primulaceae
Ranunculaceae
Polygonum aviculare L.
P I
I
Polygonum maritimum L.
A A
II
Anagallis
Anagallis arvensis L.
P I
I
Androsace
Androsace maxiama L.
A F
I
Anemon
Anemon coronaria L.
P F
I
Ranunculus
Ranunculus kochii L.
B I
II
Ranunculus arvensis L.
A F
I
Ranunculus asiaticus L.
A I
II
Ranunculus aucheri Boiss.
B I
II
Ranunculus lanuginosus L.
P I
II
Ranunculus millefolius Banks & Sol. P I
II
Polygonum
Rosaceae
Poterium
Poterium sanguisorba L.
A A
I
Rubiaceae
Galium
Galium aparine L.
A F
II
Galium murale (L.) All.
A R
II
Galium tricornutum Dandy.
P F
II
Sherardia
Sherardia arvensis L.
A F
I
Verbenaceae
Verbena
Verbena officinalis L.
P F
I
Geraniaceae
Geranium
Geranium rotandifolum L.
A R
III
Erodium
Erodium trichomanifolium L.
P I
II
Erodium cicutarium (L.)l'her.
P A
II
Eladiolus atropurpureus L.
P F
III
Gladiolus italicus L.
P VA
III
Ixiolirion tataricum L.
A VR
III
Iridaceae
Ixioliriaceae
Gladiolus
Ixiolirion
*
NOTE: P.D=Plant density, F.V= Forage Value, L.C=Life Cycle, A=Annual, B=Biannual, P=Perennial.
70
Appendix
Appendix (2): Parts of Crested Wheatgrass
Appendix (3): General Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) of Iraq (Holm et al., 2002).
1. Lowland AEZ: in the southern part of the region. Annual rainfall is
between 250-600mm and topography is relatively flat between 300-600 m
above sea level. The region supports a mixed dry-land farming system.
There are strong interactions with pastoral systems. Livestock graze the
stubble of the harvested crops and may graze the growing crops of barley in
dry years. Barley grain is fed as a supplement and straw is collected and
stored for feeding during winter. Otherwise, animals graze, nearly treeless
areas of natural pastures (range), based mainly on annual legumes, grasses
and some perennial grasses.
71
Appendix
2. Upland AEZ: in the inter-mountain areas of the central part of the region,
where annual rainfall varies between 500 and 900 mm. Mixed farming
systems occupy wide upland valleys. Cropping patterns are similar to the
lowland system. Sheep, goats and cattle are an important component of
this mixed farming system. Livestock normally graze natural pasture and
waste areas within the farm during winter and then graze crop residues
during summer. Animals are fed barley grain when feed resources are
limited. Natural grazing land consists of mostly treeless areas on slopes
with southern aspects and degraded forest coppice or forest understory on
slopes with northern aspects.
3. Hill and Mountain AEZ: in the northern border areas with Turkey and
Iran that characterized by steep landscapes and an annual rainfall between
800 and 1200 mm. The farming system is described as an „upland pastoral
farming system‟. Two sub-systems exist, sedentary pastoral system and
the nomadic pastoral system. The nomadic pastoral system is based on
travel herders who seasonally move their livestock between lowland and
higher mountain areas. Natural grazing land consists of restricted treeless
alpine pastures 2000 m above sea level and forest understory in lower
altitudes. The steeper slopes are often inaccessible to all livestock except
goat. Perennial grasses are common. Some leguminous herbs are
presented. Quercus sp. dominates the wooded areas. These and less
dominant tree species for example Pistacia sp. and Prunus sp. provide
feed for livestock during winter through ancient practices of sheaving
(cutting branches for fodder).
72
Appendix
Appendix (4): Plant distribution of studied area
73
Appendix
Appendix (5): Seeding of Crested Wheatgrass in Soran.
Appendix (6): Growth of Crested Wheatgrass in Choman.
74
Appendix
Appendix (7): Spring season germination of Crested Wheatgrass in Soran.
Appendix (8): Growing of Crested Wheatgrass in fall season.
75
Appendix
Appendix (9): Samples of Crested Wheatgrass.
Appendix (10): Chemical analysis of Crested Wheatgrass.
76
ا ēĥĒĉكğردستÀن – العراć
ğزارة التع ēĥĒالعÀلğ Ĥالبحث العĒمĤ
جÀمع Æصاح الدĥن – اربĥل
الترك ÁĥالنبÀتğ Ĥتكĥĥف نب ÇÀحشĥش Æكرĥستد
)(Agropyron cristatum L.
ف Ĥبعض منÀط ĈمحÀفظ Æأربĥل
رسÀلÆ
مĊدم Æال ĢمجĒس ك ÆĥĒالزراع – ÆجÀمع Æصاح الدĥن – اربĥل ğه Ĥجزء من متطĒب ÇÀدرجÆ
مÀجستĥر ع ēğĒزراع - ÆĥالغÀب -ÇÀأدارة المراعĤ
مĞند ا ÁğĥمصطĢĆ
من ĉبل
بكÀلğرğĥس – اانتÀج النبÀت – Ĥك ÆĥĒالزراع -ÆجÀمع Æصاح الدĥن0222 -
بÀشراف
أ .ē .سÀل ēصÀبر معرğف
0223كğردى
جمÀد ģااğل 2341 Ģهجرģ
شبÀط 0225مĥادģ
الخاصÆ
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اجر Çĥالدراس Æالترك ÁĥالنبÀت Ĥخال نĥسÀن -اÀĥر 0223/لمعرف Æتğزĥع النبÀت ÇÀف Ĥالمğاĉع المختÀرة خÀصÆ
الحشÀئش ف ĤشمÀل شر ćاربĥل بĥن منط ÆĊحرĥر-حÀج Ĥعمران .ت ēتحدĥد ) (22مĉğعً ÀبمسÀف Æبĥن ÆĥمĊدارهÀ
حğال( 3-2ك .)ēاستعم ÇĒطر )List Quadrate( ÆĊĥذا ÇمسÀح 0ē Æبصğة عشğائ Æĥلتحدĥد اانğاع فĤ
المğاĉعğ .تتضمن البÀĥن ÇÀنسب Æالتغط ğ Æĥالتكرار النبÀتğ ÇÀالكثÀف Æمع الĥĊم Æالع. ÆĥĆĒ
ĥğمكن تĒخĥص اه ēالنتÀئج كم-: ĤĒĥ À
.تتبع النبÀت ÇÀالتğ Ĥجد Çف Ĥالمنط ÆĊالمدرğس Æال )42( ĢعÀئ )44(ğ ÆĒجنس )223(ğنğع .تضمن البğĊلÇÀĥ
()23جنس )42(ğ ً Àنğع ,َÀبĥنم Àتتبع الحشÀئش ( )20جنس )44(ğ ً Àنğع.َÀ
.تبĒغ معدل نسب Æĥتغط ÆĥالنبÀت ÇÀاارض ( )%22.35ف Ĥالمنط ÆĊكم ÀتبĒغ هذة النسب ÆلĒترب ÆالعÀرğ ÆĥالنثÀر
ğالصخğر ( )%4.54( ğ )%22.24( ğ )%3.30ع ĢĒالتğال.Ĥ
.كÀن Çنسب ÆالنبÀت ÇÀذا ÇالĥĊم Æالع ÆĥĆĒالعÀلğ Æĥالمتğسطğ Æالğاطئ )%22.52(ğ )%44.44(ğ )%52.22( ÆعĢĒ
التğال.Ĥ
.بĒغ Çمعدل العÀئ ÆĒالبğĊلğ Æĥالنجğ ÆĥĒĥب ÆĥĊالعğائل كم .)%54.34( ğ )%02.23( ğ )%23.22 ( ĤĒĥ ÀاعĢĒ
النسب ÆكÀن ÇلĒعÀئ ÆĒبğĊل )% 04.22( Æĥف ĤجğمÀن ğالعÀئ ÆĒنج )% 44.44( ÆĥĒĥف Ĥسمĥان.
.كÀن ÇالكثÀف Æالنسب Æĥاع )%5.02( ĢĒف Ĥنب )%3(ğ Hordeum murinum spp.Gloucum ÇÀفĤ
ğ Hordeum bulbosumكÀن Çاĉل ĥĉمت )%2.20( ÀĞفLinaria vulgaris, Alceae kurdica Ĥ
.بĒغ Çاع ĢĒنسب Æالتكرار ( )%25.4ف Ĥنب Hordeum bulbosum. ÇÀثĥĒĥ ēه نبNotobasis syrica ÇÀ
Erodium trichomanifolium,
( )%24.1بĥنم ÀكÀن Çاĉل نسب Æالتكرار ( )%2.2245ف ĤالنبÇÀ
.Galium murale, Anemon coronaria.
ام Àبنسب Æلدراس Æتكĥĥف نب ÇÀحشĥش Æكرĥستد فĊد اجر Çĥهذه الدراس Æف ĤجğمÀن ğسğران الğاĉعتÀن فĤ
منط ÆĊالغÀبğ ÇÀف Ĥمğسمĥن الخرĥف ğالربĥع .تم Çدراس Æف Ĥتشرĥن الثÀن Ĥحت ĢاÀĥر 0223ع ĢĒبعض صÇÀĆ
الجزء الخضرğ ģالجذر ģلĒنب ÇÀكذل ċبعض التحĥĒا ÇكĥمÀĥئ Æĥله .طب Ĉتصم ēĥالĊطÀع ÇÀالعشğائ ÆĥالكÀمÆĒ
) (RCBDف ĤثمÀن Æĥلğح Æلكل مĉğع بÀربع مكررا .Çضمن Çالدراس Æنسب Æاانب ğ ÇÀاادغÀل ğبعض ص ÇÀĆالنمğ
مثل ğزن الخضرğ ģالجذر( ģالطرğ ģالجÀف) ğطğل الخضر ģالجذرğ ģنسبت.ÀĞكذل ċغط Çالدراس ÆالتحĥĒل
الكĥم ģğÀĥكتĊدĥر مÀدة الجÀفğ Æنسب ÆاالÀĥف ğبرğتĥن ğمستخĒص الدهğن ğالنĥÀترğجĥن حرة.
ğادنÀه مĒح Ĉأه ēالنتÀئج-:
سج ÇĒمĉğع سğران اع ĢĒنسب Æاانب ,)%10.04(ÇÀبĥنم ÀكÀنĥĉ Çم Æص ÇÀĆالنم ğاع ĢĒف Ĥمĉğع جğمÀن ğلēتسجل فر ÇÀĉğمعن Æĥğف Ĥطğل الخضر ğ ģالجذر.ģ
بĒغ Çاع ĢĒنسب Æاانب ÇÀف Ĥالزراع Æالربĥع )%22.42( Æĥبĥنم Àاد Çالزراع Æالخر ÆĥĆĥال Ģتسجĥل اع ĢĒنسبÆالص ÇÀĆالنÀمğ Æĥلĥ ēظĞر هذا التÀثĥر ف Ĥطğل النب.ÇÀ
ĥبĥن معÀم ÆĒالتداخل بĥن المĉğع ğالمğس ēبÀن الزراع Æالربĥع Æĥف Ĥمĉğع سğران ل ÀĞاع ĢĒنسبÆاانب )% 32.45(ÇÀبĥنم Àاد Çالزراع Æالخر ÆĥĆĥال Ģاعĥĉ ĢĒم Æف Ĥالğزن الطر ğ ģالجÀف لĒجزء الخضرğ ģ
الجذرğ ģل ēتظĞر الĆر ÇÀĉğالمعن Æĥğف Ĥطğل الخضر ģالجذرģ
أ
الخاصÆ
اظĞر التحĥĒل الكم ģğÀĥاختافأ معنĥğأ ف Ĥالمĉğعĥن ğالمğسمĥن. سج ÇĒمÀدة الجÀف Æف Ĥالنب ÇÀالحشĥش Æالحنط Æاعĥĉ ĢĒم Æف Ĥالزراع Æالخر ÆĥĆĥف ĤجğمÀن ( ,)%00.50بĥنمÀف Ĥالزراع Æالربĥع Æĥف Ĥسğران سج ÇĒاع ĢĒنسب ÆالرمÀد (.)%23.2اعĥĉ ĢĒم ÆلĒبرğتĥن كÀن Çف ĤالزراعÆ
الخر ÆĥĆĥف Ĥسğران ( ğ )%21.03جğمÀن ( .)%25.42بĥنم Àسج ÇÀاالÀĥف الخÀم Æاع ĢĒالĥĊم Æف ĤالزراعÆ
الربĥع Æĥف Ĥسğران ğجğمÀن ( )%21.22(ğ)%22.13حĥثم Àسج ÇĒمستخĒص ااĥثر اعĥĉ ĢĒمت ÀĞف ĤالزراعÆ
الخر ÆĥĆĥف Ĥسğران فĊط ğاعĥĉ ĢĒم ÆلĒنÀترğجĥن الحرة سجل ف Ĥالزراع Æالربĥعğ Æĥالخر ÆĥĆĥلمĉğع سğران
(.)%52.34( ğ )%53.02
Á
(Agropyron cristatum L.)
ĢĆ مصطÁğĥند اĞم
سالم صابر معروف
List Quadrate
.
.
.
Hordeum murinum spp.Gloucum
Linaria vulgaris, Alceae Kurdica
Hordeum bulbosum
Erodium
Notobasis
syrica
trichomanifolium,Galium Murale, Anemom Coronaria
RCBD
A
B
Muhanned E . Mustafa