Phytochem Rev
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-023-09864-1
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Current knowledge on genus Bassia All.: a comprehensive
review on traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacological
activity, and nonmedical applications
Karolina Grabowska . Weronika Buzdygan . Agnieszka Galanty .
Dagmara Wróbel-Biedrawa . Danuta Sobolewska . Irma Podolak
Received: 1 July 2022 / Accepted: 7 March 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract Bassia All. is a genus from the Amaranthaceae family, which was created by merging
selected species belonging to the former Bassia and
Kochia genera with those classified to Chenolea,
Londesia, Kirilowia and Panderia. The reorganised
Bassia genus currently comprises around 20 species,
which are annual herbs or perennial subshrubs native
to Eurasia and Africa. Bassia plants are well known
for their therapeutic applications in folk medicine and
traditional medical systems, and they are also used
for nonmedical purposes. Some members of this
genus, such as Bassia scoparia (syn. Kochia scoparia) is of great medical importance and economic
value. The plant is cultivated in some regions of Asia
as a crop to collect Kochiae fructus, which is used for
both curative and food purposes. Phytochemical
studies carried out on Bassia species indicate that
these plants synthesize metabolites belonging to
different groups of compounds (e.g., triterpene
saponins, sterols, flavonoids, fatty acids, lignanamides, alkaloids, organic acids). Some of the
Supplementary Information The online version
contains supplementary material available at
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-023-09864-1.
K. Grabowska · W. Buzdygan · A. Galanty ·
D. Wróbel-Biedrawa · D. Sobolewska · I. Podolak (&)
Department of Pharmacognosy, Medical College,
Jagiellonian University, 9 Medyczna Street, Kraków,
Poland
e-mail: irma.podolak@uj.edu.pl
structures are rarely found in the plant kingdom.
Biological activity studies carried out on Bassia
plants revealed various effects exerted by extracts
and isolated compounds, including anti-inflammatory,
cytotoxic,
antioxidant,
antimicrobial,
hypoglycemic, anti-obesity, etc. Modern research
explained some of the mechanisms of action. This
review covers literature from 1935 to 2022, and
assembles and discusses data on phytochemistry,
biological activity, as well as medical and nonmedical use of the representatives of the genus Bassia. In
this review we present the current state of knowledge
about the plants of the genus.
Keywords Bassia · Kochia · Phytochemistry ·
Activity · Medical plant · Saponins
Abbreviations
AAPH
2,2′-Azobis-(2-amidinopropane)
ABTS
2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6sulphonic acid) diammonium salt
AKT
Protein kinase B
ALI
Acute lung injury
ALS
Acetolactate synthase
ALT
Serum alanine transaminase
ANP
Atrial natriuretic peptide
AST
Aspartate transaminase
BACE-1 β-Site amyloid precursor protein cleaving
enzyme 1
Bax
Bcl-2-associated X protein
BDE
Bond dissociation enthalpy
123
Phytochem Rev
BHT
CG
COX-2
CREB
DCM
DNCB
DNFB
DPAR
DPPH
dw
ERK
FA
FoxO
FRAP
GAE
HIF-1α
HNE
HO
i.p.
ICAM-1
IL-1β
IL-4,
IL-5
IL-6
IL-10
INF-γ
iNOS
i.v.
JNK
LC50
LDH
LPS
MAE
MAO-B
MAPK
MCP-1
MIC
MPO
MMP-9
mTOR
NETDNA
NF-κB
NOS
OVA
PCA
p.o.
p38
123
Butylated hydroxytoluene
Cathepsin
Cyclooxygenase-2
CAMP response element-binding protein
Dilated cardiomyopathy
2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene
1-Fluoro-2,4,-dinitrofluorobenzene
Direct passive arthus reaction
2,2′-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
Dry weight
Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase
Fatty acid
Forkhead family of transcription factors O
Ferric reducing antioxidant power
Gallic acid equivalents
Hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α
Human neutrophil elastase
Heme oxygenase
Intraperitoneally
Intercellular adhesion molecule-1
Interleukin-1β
Interleukin-4
Interleukin-5
Interleukin-6
Interleukin-10
Interferon-gamma
Inducible NO synthase
Intravenous
C-Jun N-terminal kinases
Lethal dose 50%
Lactic dehydrogenase
Lipopolisaccharide
Microwave-assisted extraction
Monoamine oxidase-B
Mitogen-activated protein kinases,
Monocyte chemotactic protein-1
Minimal inhibitory concentration
Myeloperoxidase
Matrix metalloproteinase-9
Mechanistic target of rapamycin
Net-like structures of nuclear DNA
Nuclear factor kappa B
Nitric oxide synthase
Ovalbumin
Passive cutaneous anaphylaxis
Per os
P38-mitogen activated protein kinase
PARP
PGC-1α
PGE2
PI3K
PPAR
RCA
ROS
SAR
SENP
SUMO
TAC
TFC
TLR
TPC
TBARS
TCM
TEAC
Th
TNF-α
TrkA
VCAM1
VLCFA
VEGF
VEGFR
Poly (ADP) ribose polymerase
Peroxisome
proliferator-activated
receptor-γ coactivator
Prostaglandin E
Phosphoinositide 3-kinase
Peroxisome
proliferator-activated
receptors
Reversed cutaneous anaphylaxis
Reactive oxygen species
Structure activity-relationship
SUMO-specific proteases
Small ubiquitin-like modifier protease
Total antioxidant capacity
Total flavonoid content
Toll-like receptor
Total phenolic content
Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
Traditional Chinese Medicine
Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity
Helper T cells
Tumor necrosis factor α
Tropomyosin receptor kinase A
Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
Very-long-chain fatty acids
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Vascular endothelial growth factor
receptor
Introduction
The genus Bassia All. is one of the genera found in
the Amaranthaceae family. The taxonomy of these
plants is problematic, but according to a new
reclassification, the genus Bassia comprises circa 20
species (Kaderit and Freitag 2011). Bassia plants are
annual herbs or perennial subshrubs native to Eurasia
and Africa. As members of the Amaranthaceae
family, these species operate C4 photosynthesis,
which evolved in dicots to facilitate their growth in
arid ecosystems. Therefore, Bassia plants can be
found in semideserts or dry steps, and, as halophytes,
can exist also in habitats characterized by high
salinity. Due to adaptation to different environmental
conditions, Bassia species have attracted attention as
plants that can be cultivated in regions where other
Phytochem Rev
Fig. 1 The distribution range of plants in the genus Bassia
plant species cannot be planted (Al-Ahmadi et al.
2007; Kaderit and Freitag 2011; Orlovsky et al. 2011;
Shelef et al. 2012; Abideen et al. 2015). Today, as
can be seen in Fig. 1, Bassia plants are distributed
from the Mediterranean region (Europe and North
Africa) up to Japan (B. scoparia, B. prostrata, B.
hyssopifolia). Several species are characteristic of the
arid regions of the Middle East, India, and steps of
Central Asia (B. odontoptera, B. indica, B. eriophora,
B. stellaris). Some grow in North Africa, in the
Sahara region (B. arabica, B. muricata) and South
Africa (B. salsoloides, B. dinteri) (Kaderit and Freitag
2011; GBIF 2022). Plants of the Bassia genus, such
as B. scoparia, B. prostrata and B. hyssopifolia, have
been introduced to North America as high-yielding
forage plants with nutritional value or for ornamental
purposes. They spread quickly and are currently
naturalized in both North and South America (Lauriault et al. 2020; Torbiak et al. 2021; Brignone et al.
2021; Ravet et al. 2021). B. scoparia and B.
hyssopifolia have also been introduced to Australia.
However, due to the high invasive potential of B.
scoparia, a year after introduction, work on the
eradication of this plant species began. The elimination process proved successful, and no B. scoparia
have been observed in Australia since 2000. In turn,
there are some records that B. hyssopifolia still occurs
in southeastern Australia, but only in a small area of
north-western Victoria state (POWO 2022; Panetta
2015).
In Asia, B. scoparia (syn. Kochia scoparia) has
great medical importance and economic value. At
present, it is cultivated in China and Japan as a crop
for both curative and food purposes (Tashiro et al.
2019; Chen et al. 2021; Zou et al. 2021). B. scoparia
is a plant recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopeia
(Chen et al. 2021), which provides dried fruits
(Kochiae fructus, Di-Fu-Zi) which is a TCM product
very popular in different parts of Asia. Currently, due
to globalization, Kochiae fructus is commercially
available worldwide. Given that B. scoparia has welldocumented pro-health effects and is also used as a
food, some authors suggest that its fruit should be
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Phytochem Rev
considered for the development of functional foods
(Chen et al 2017).
Apart from B. scoparia, other Bassia species have
also been recommended in traditional medical systems, especially in regions where they grow as wild
plants (Hammiche and Maiza 2006; Khare 2007;
Altundag and Ozturk 2011; Youssef 2013; Moein
et al. 2015; Umair et al. 2017). In addition to the
therapeutic value of these plants, they have also been
used for nonmedical purposes. For example, some
plants of the genus Bassia are being appreciated as
human food and livestock feed because of their
nutritional value. (Nadelcheva et al. 2007; El Shaer
2010; Khan et al. 2013; Youssef 2013; Akhtar et al.
2018).
In recent years, several studies have provided new
data on the chemistry and biological activity of
Bassia species (Xiae et al. 2018; Houlihan et al. 2019;
Abd-ElGawad et al. 2020; Gancheva et al. 2020;
Othman et al. 2021a; 2021b; Othman et al. 2022; Said
et al. 2021; Petruk et al. 2021). It is noteworthy that
not only B. scoparia but also other hitherto unexplored Bassia species attracted scientific attention.
Modern research also investigated the potential for
new applications of plants from this genus (Abideen
et al. 2015; Athinarayanan et al. 2018; Aihemaiti
et al. 2018; El-Katori and Al-Mhyawi 2019; Song
et al. 2021; Shi et al. 2022; Hozhabralsadat et al.
2022).
To the best of our knowledge, there are no papers
reviewing available scientific data on the Bassia
genus. Although there are some reviews devoted to B.
scoparia, they focused exclusively on one part of this
plant, namely Kochiae fructus (Al-Sanafi et al. 2018;
Zou et al. 2021). Therefore, the main objective of the
current review is to provide the first comprehensive
overview of the Bassia genus, including the latest
information on its phytochemistry, biological activity, as well as its medical and nonmedical use.
Methods
The search of scientific literature was carried out in
various databases including PubMed, Scopus, Google
Scholar, Science Direct, and Embase, and covered the
period up to 2022 June 17. The key words (as
individuals and their different combinations) used to
search were: Bassia, Kochia, “phytochemistry”,
123
“phytochemical”, “taxonomic”, “distribution”, “saponins”, “phenolics”, “triterpenes”, “fatty acids”,
“flavonoids”, “quantification”, “sterol”, “alkaloid”,
“terpenes”, “compound”, “nitrates”, “organic acid”,
“oil”, “essential oil”, “monosaccharides”, “carotenoids”, “activity”, “pharmacological”, “extract”,
“anti-inflammatory”, “inflammatory”, “oedema”,
“anti-allergic”, “psoriasis”, “eczema”, “wound healing”, “traditional medicine”, “food”, “ethnobotany”,
“TCM”, “animal model”, “antibacterial”, “antifungal”, “antiparasitic”, “phytoremediation”, “gastric”,
“hypoglycemic”, “antioxidant”, “toxicity”, “cytotoxicity”, “cancer cell”, “mechanism”. As key words, the
full Latin name of representatives of the genus Bassia
(according to the new classification proposed by
Kaderit and Freitag (2011), as well as their synonyms
and former Latin name (according to the previous
taxonomic classification) (as individual or in combination with the above-mentioned keywords) were
used. According to the rules of the specific databases,
Boolean operators were also used. No filters or time
restrictions were applied for publications during the
search. Furthermore, the reference lists of all selected
reports were searched to identify potentially eligible
publications. Only publications that had available full
texts were included. Conference communications,
posters, and the thesis were excluded. The available
information on Bassia species has been divided into
several sections, i.e. taxonomy, distribution, phytochemistry, biological activity, medical use,
nonmedical use, and toxicology. Publications outside
the scope of these thematic sections were rejected.
Moreover, publications on the phytochemistry of
Bassia species were thoroughly checked, and articles
that contained information on preliminary phytochemical analyses of extracts, based only on
characteristic reactions of groups of compounds (e.
g. foam test), which are not specific, were excluded
from the phytochemistry section.
ChemDraw 19.0 software was used to draw the
chemical structures of compounds. The graphs were
performed using Excel 365 software (Microsoft
Office) software. The illustrations were made with
CorelDraw 2021.5 software.
Phytochem Rev
Taxonomy
Species of the genus Bassia were previously classified to the Chenopodiaceae family. However, the
Chenopodiaceae family is currently included in the
Amaranthaceae family, which is taxonomically complicated. According to a new classification, proposed
by Kadereit and Freitag (2011) based on molecular
phylogeny and morphological studies, species
belonging to the Bassia and Kochia genera were
combined in a subclade renamed Bassia All., which is
part of the Bassia/Camphorosma clade. The reorganized genus Bassia All. comprises currently circa 20
species: B. aegyptiaca Turki, El Shayeb & F. Shehata,
Bassia angustifolia (Turcz.) Freitag & G. Kadereit,
Bassia arabica (Boiss.) Maire & Weiller, Bassia
dinteri (Botsch.) A.J. Scott, Bassia eriophora
(Schrad.) Asch., Bassia hyssopifolia (Pall.) Kuntze,
Bassia indica (Wight) A.J. Scott, Bassia laniflora (S.
G. Gmel.) A.J. Scott, Bassia lasiantha Freitag & G.
Kadereit, Bassia littorea (Makino) Freitag & G.
Kadereit, Bassia muricata (L.) Asch., Bassia odontoptera (Schrenk) Freitag & G. Kadereit, Bassia
pilosa (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Freitag & G. Kadereit,
Bassia prostrata (L.) A.J. Scott, Bassia salsoloides
(Fenzl) A.J. Scott, Bassia scoparia (L.) A.J. Scott,
Bassia stellaris (Moq.) Bornm., Bassia tianschanica
(Pavlov) Freitag & G. Kadereit, Bassia tomentosa
(Lowe) Maire & Weiller, Bassia villosissima (Bong.
& C.A. Mey.) (Kadereit and Freitag 2011; Hernández-Ledesma et al. 2015). Although some authors
indicate ambiguities in the proposed classification,
and distinguish more species, for example Bassia
eriantha and Kochia monticola, nevertheless these
species are denoted in the current classification B.
eriophora and B. pilosa, respectively (Akhani and
Khoshravesh 2013; Sukhorukov and Kushunina
2020). Apart from Kochia/Bassia species, plants
from Chenolea, Londesia, as well as Kirilowia and
Panderia have also been transferred into Bassia
taxonomic group and renamed Bassia. On the other
hand, after taxonomic reorganisation, some formerly
known Bassia or Kochia species were excluded from
Bassia subclade and grouped in new genera;
Eokochia (K. saxicola), Spirobassia (B. hirsuta),
Sedobassia (K. sedoides) and Grubovia (B. dasyphylla, K. melanoptera, K. krylovii). Additionally,
two perennial species native to the United States,
formerly known as Kochia americana S. Watson and
Kochia californica S. Watson are now included in the
genus Neokochia as Neokochia americana (S. Watson) G.L. Chu & S.C. Sand and N. californica (S.
Watson) G.L. Chu & S.C. Sand (Kaderit and Freitag
2011; Kadereit et al. 2014; Hernández-Ledesma et al.
2015).
Despite the new classification and nomenclature
proposed by Kaderit and Freitag, both new names and
their synonyms coexist in the scientific literature.
Interestingly, for some species, such as Bassia
scoparia, the term Kochia scoparia is used even
more frequently. This may be related to the fact that
K. scoparia is a plant commonly used in TCM, and
according to Flora of China records, Kochia and
Bassia were not merged but are still treated as
separate genera (Chen et al. 2021).
Therefore, in order to avoid any confusion, in the
current review, the new terminology according to
Kadereit and Freitag (2011) is used for all species of
the genus Bassia.
The importance of plants of the genus Bassia
Numerous ethnobotanical surveys carried out in
different regions of Asia and Europe, records found
in herbal books referring to traditional medicinal
systems, and scientific literature reports, all underline
that Bassia plants have been intensively used by
humans for therapeutic purposes and as nonmedical
products (Hammiche and Maiza 2006; Khare 2007;
Nadelcheva et al. 2007; Altundag and Ozturk 2011;
Umair et al. 2017; Lin et al. 2021) (see Table 1). It
should be mentioned that modern research revealed
some new potential applications of Bassia plants,
which are currently being investigated.
Medical uses of Bassia species
Representatives of the genus Bassia have been used
in traditional medicine to treat various aliments (see
Table 1). One of the most important species from the
therapeutic point of view is B. scoparia. The dried
fructus of B. scoparia, known as Di-Fu-Zi, has been
valued in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Its
application is based on ethnopharmacological data,
and modern scientific research (Zou et al. 2021).
Today, Kochiae fructus is recommended for urinary
system disorders, such as frequent urination or
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Phytochem Rev
Table 1 The ethnobotanical importance of Bassia plants and their use in medical systems, including TCM
Plant name
Usage
Plant part/Form
Country (Region)
References
B. scoparia (syn.
K. scoparia)
Cardiac tonic
Fruits, leaves/ oral
China
Kirtikar and Basu (1935),
Khare (2007),
Armenia, Uzbekistan
Akopian et al. (2020)
Tonic, hypotensive and breath stimulating agent Undef
Undef
Diuretic
Fruits, leaves/oral
China
Kirtikar and Basu (1935),
Khare (2007),
Urinary system disorders (frequent urination,
urinary incontinence) Gonorrhea
Fruit
China
Zou et al. (2021)
Fruit/seed/ decoction
China (Gaomi)
Lin et al. (2021)
Fruit
Korea
Im et al. (2016), Whang
and Hahn (1991)
China
Skin diseases (itching, eczema, sores), swelling, Fruit
urticaria
Taiwan
Chien et al. (2013), Chen
et al. (2015)
Dermatitis
Fruit
Korea
Whang and Hahn (1991)
Atopic dermatitis
Fruit
Taiwan
Chen et al. (2016)
Psoriasis
Fruit
Taiwan
Weng et al. (2016)
Male impotence, vaginal discharge, vaginal
fungal infections, leucorrhea
Fruit
China
Liu et al. (2012), Zou
et al. (2021)
Improvement of eyesight, hearing, pain in head, Fruit
eyes, ears
China
Zou et al. (2021)
Food/vegetable
China (Inner
Mongolia)
Sachula et al. (2020)
Aerial parts/ fried/
steamed with flour
Shoots and tender leaves Myanmar
Shin et al. (2018)
Aerial parts
China (Heihe valley)
Kang et al. (2012)
Food (Tonburi)
Fresh fruits
Japan
Tashiro et al. (2019)
Medicinal use household items,
Undef
South Korea
Lee et al. (2017)
Chung et al. (2016)
Brooms
Fodder
B. eriophora
Aerial parts
Bulgaria, Romania,
Macedonia, Italy
Nedelcheva et al. (2007)
Aerial parts
Spain
Gras et al. (2020)
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (GilgitBaltistan)
Khan et al. (2013)
Khan and Qaiser (2006)
Ornamental, fibres (mats, baskets)
–
Pakistan
Antirheumatic, snake bite, vermifugal
Whole plant, seed oil
Saudi Arabia (Onaizah Youssef (2013)
province)
Food/vegetables and fodder
Leaves, stem
Pakistan (Karak
district)
Akhtar et al. (2018)
Alzheimer, gingivitis, hair loss
Leaf, twig/ infusion
Iran (Darab region)
Moein et al. (2015)
Kidney diseases, antirheumatic, ulcers
Seeds, leaves, flowers,
seed oil/gargle
Saudi Arabia (Onaizah Youssef (2013)
province)
Analgesic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory
Undef
Algiers (Sahara, Oued
Righ)
Lakhdari et al. (2016)
Skin diseases
Leaf/cataplasm aerial
parts/infusion/oral
Morocco (Tata
Province)
Abouri et al. (2012)
Skin diseases: boils, dermatosis, pustules,
infected wounds
Leaf/poultice
Algeria (Tassili
N’Ajjer’s)
Hammiche and Maiza
(2006)
Diarrhoea
Aerial parts/infusion/
internal
Algeria (Tassili
N’Ajjer’s)
Hammiche and Maiza
(2006)
Birds appetizer agent
Seeds and fruits
Saudi Arabia (Riyadh) Sher and Aldosari (2013)
B. muricata
hypoglycaemic
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Phytochem Rev
Table 1 The ethnobotanical importance of Bassia plants and their use in medical systems, including TCM
Plant
name
B. indica
Usage
Plant part/Form
Country (Region)
References
Skin diseases: sores
Seed oil
Saudi Arabia (Tabuk)
Al-Harbi (2017)
Fodder
Seeds, leaves, flowers, seed oil,
gargle
Saudi Arabia (Onaizah)
Youssef (2013)
Whole plant
Libya (Mediterranean
Coast)
Louhaichi et al. (2011)
Saudi Arabia (Onaizah)
Youssef (2013)
Sand fixation
Whole plant
Fuel
Seeds, leaves, flowers, seed oil,
gargle
Heart tonic, cardiac stimulant (weak and
irregular heart)
Whole plant/ decoction, oil, gargle Saudi Arabia (Onaizah)
Youssef (2013)
Undef
India
Khare (2007)
Undef
India
Kirtikar and Basu
(1935)
Undef
India (Rajasthan)
Tripathi et al. (1996)
Roots, whole plant/ extract
Pakistan (Faisalabad)
Ahmad et al. (2015)
Diuretic
Fruits, leaves/ decoction, oil; oral,
gargle
Pakistan (Hafizabad)
Umair et al. (2017)
Toothache
Fruits, leaves/ decoction, oil; oral,
gargle
Pakistan (Faisalabad)
Ahmad et al. (2015)
Blood pressure, constipation, vomiting, internal Whole plant/decoction
worms
Pakistan (Karak)
Khan et al. (2018)
Fodder
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (Karak)
Rashid and Marwat
(2006)
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (Tank)
Badshah et al. (2012)
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (GilgitBaltistan)
Khan et al. (2013)
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (Charsadda)
Khan and Badshah
(2019)
Whole plant
Libya (Mediterranean
Coast)
Louhaichi et al. (2011)
Fresh/ dry aerial parts fresh
Roots, whole plant/ tooth brushes,
extract
Fresh/ dry aerial parts fresh
Pakistan (Muzaffar
Garh)
Ajaib et al. (2015)
Ornamental
Fuel
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (Karak)
Rashid and Marwat
(2006)
Fresh/ dry aerial parts
Pakistan (Tank)
Badshah et al. (2012)
Whole plant
Libya (Mediterranean
Coast)
Louhaichi et al. (2011)
Sand fixation
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Phytochem Rev
Table 1 continued7
Plant name
Usage
Plant part/Form
Country (Region) References
B. prostrata
Urinary system disorders
Aerial parts/ decoction/
internal
Turkey, (Anatolia)
Altundag and Ozturk
(2011)
Anthelminthic
Undef.
Armenia,
Uzbekistan
Akopian et al. (2020)
Soap for washing utensils
Undef.
Pakistan (Karak)
Khan et al. (2011)
Fodder
Aerial parts
Kazakhstan
Ryabushkina et al. (2008)
Whole plant
Pakistan (Gilgit)
Khan and Khatoon
(2008)
Aerial parts
Bulgaria
Nedelcheva, et al. (2007)
Branches
Pakistan (Baltistan) Abbas et al. (2019)
Toothache
Brooms
B.odontoptera (former name: K.
iranica)
Roots/tooth brush, whole
plant
Fuel
Branches
Fodder, fuel wood
Undef.
Pakistan
(Balochistan)
Durrani et al. (2010)
Ornamental, fibres (mats,
baskets)
Undef.
Pakistan
Khan and Qaiser (2006)
undef. The plant part and the form of application were not specified
urinary incontinence, and as a remedy in vaginal
discharge. Kochiae fructus is also applied in skin,
eyes, and ear diseases (Im et al. 2016; Lin et al. 2021;
Zou et al. 2021). Recent studies have shown that DiFu-Zi is one of the most prescribed single herbal
preparations in traditional Chinese medicine to treat
dermatological problems such as eczema, urticaria,
psoriasis, and pediatric atopic dermatitis (Chien et al.
2013; Chen et al. 2015, 2016; Weng et al. 2016). The
fruit is also used as a key ingredient in herbal
formulas to reduce itching, swelling, and sores (Chien
et al. 2013; Chen et al. 2015; Weng et al. 2016). In
China, the fruits and leaves of B. scoparia have been
known as cardiac tonics (Kirtikar and Basu 1935).
People in Armenia and Uzbekistan have also used B.
scoparia as a breath stimulator and hypotensive agent
(Akopian et al. 2020). In addition to B. scoparia,
other species of the genus have also been valued as
medicinal plants. In the Middle East, as well as in
India, the decoction of the entire plant of B. indica
has been recommended as a cardiac stimulant (Khare
2007; Youssef 2013; Umair et al. 2017). Ethnobotanical surveys revealed that aerial parts of B.
muricata, and B. prostrata have been used by
inhabitants of Saudi Arabia and Turkey to treat
kidney diseases and as antirheumatic agents
123
(Altundag and Ozturk 2011; Youssef 2013). Furthermore, B. muricata leaves poultices have been applied
to the skin as a remedy for boils, ulcers, dermatosis,
pustules, and infected wounds in folk medicine of
different regions of North Africa and Saudi Arabia
(Hammiche and Maiza 2006; Abouri et al. 2012; AlHarbi 2017). B. eriophora has traditionally been used
in Iran as an infusion of leaves or twigs in the
treatment of gingivitis, hair loss, and the symptoms of
Alzheimer’s disease (Moein et al. 2015). Furthermore, recent research has revealed some new
applications for Bassia species. B. eriophora was
studied as a natural material to obtain cellulose
nanofibers. Such structures can be used in various
sectors of industry and medicine. Because the
produced nanofibers along with their very good
mechanical properties were also biocompatible and
biodegradable, the possibility of using them in
regenerative medicine and tissue engineering should
be considered (Athinarayanan et al. 2018).
Nonmedical applications of Bassia species
In addition to medical applications, Bassia species
are also valued as nonmedical products. Fresh fruits
of B. scoparia are very popular in Asian cuisine as a
Phytochem Rev
Fig. 2 Chemical structures of new compounds (at the time of publication) isolated from the genus Bassia
123
Phytochem Rev
Fig. 3 Chemical structures of compounds isolated from the
genus Bassia: characteristic compound (A), rarely found
compounds in the plant kingdom (B)
123
food garnish called Tomburi or ‘plant caviar’
(Tashiro et al. 2019). Some authors also highlight
the potential of Kochiae fruits in the development of
functional foods (Chen et al. 2017). The shots and
tender leaves of B. scoparia are eaten as a vegetable by people from Myanmar and inhabitants of
the Heihe valley in China (Kang et al. 2012; Shin
et al. 2018). In the inner Mongolian region, aerial
parts of the plant are consumed fried or steamed with
flour (Sachula et al. 2020). Bassia plants, including B.
prostrata, B. scoparia, B. muricata, B. eriophora and
B. indica, are also valued as feed for livestock in
various districts of Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and
Kazakhstan due to the nutritional values of aerial
parts, but equally important to the possibility of their
cultivation under unfavourable climatic conditions,
even in arid areas (see Table 1) (Khan and Khatoon
2008; Khan et al. 2013; Youssef 2013; Akhtar et al.
2018). In the western United States and the Near
East, B. prostrata and B. indica are gaining increasing
importance as high-yielding forage plants for grazing
(Waldron et al. 2010; El Shaer 2010).
Furthermore, ethnobotanical surveys revealed that
B. muricata and B. indica have been used by
inhabitants of Pakistan and some regions of Saudi
Arabia as fuel and firewood (Badshah et al. 2012;
Youssef 2013). On the other hand, there are some
reports from the USA that another Bassia species, B.
prostrata, may be used as a green firebreak, a
management tool for wildfires (Harrison et al.
2002). Some reports indicate that aerial parts of B.
scoparia have been used in different countries of
Europe to produce household items, such as brooms
(Nadelcheva et al. 2007; Gras et al. 2020). In turn, the
people of Karak district in Pakistan produced a soaplike product from B. prostrata (Khan et al. 2011). B.
scoparia, commonly called summer-cypress, is also
cultivated as an ornamental plant. Currently, research
is being carried out on the possibility of using various
species of Bassia (B. indica, B. scoparia) in the
phytoremediation of salt- and metal-contaminated
soils (Shelef et al. 2012; Moubasher et al. 2015;
Aihemaiti et al. 2018; Shi et al. 2022). The possibility
of using B. scoparia and its associated rhizosphere
microflora is also being considered in the degradation
of aromatic hydrocarbons in soils contaminated with
crude oil (Moubasher et al. 2015; Song et al. 2021).
Furthermore, new potential applications such as the
Phytochem Rev
Table 2 Saponins isolated from plants of the genus Bassia
Aglycone
Sugar part
Common name of saponin*
Species (plant part)
References
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-GlcA
Momordin Ic
B. scoparia (FR)
Wen et al. (1995), Yoshikawa
et al. (1997a, b), Han et al.
(2006), Lu et al. (2012b)
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-[Glc
(1→2)]-β-D-GlcA
2′-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl
momordin Ic
B. scoparia (FR)
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-6-MeGlcA
Momordin Ic methyl ester
B. scoparia (FR)
Wen et al. (1995), Yoshikawa
et al. (1997a, b), Han et al.
(2006)
Wen et al. (1995), Yoshikawa
et al. (1997a), Han et al.
(2006), Lu et al. (2012b)
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-EtGlcA
Momordin Ic ethyl ester
B. scoparia (FR)
Han et al. (2006)
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-GlcA
C-28: Glc
Momordin IIc
B. scoparia (FR)
Whang and Hahn (1991), Wen
et al. (1995), Yoshikawa
et al. (1997a), Han et al.
(2006), Lu et al. (2012b)
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-6-MeGlcA
Momordin IIc methyl ester
B. scoparia (FR)
Han et al. (2006)
2′-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl
momordin IIc
B. scoparia (FR)
Wen et al. (1995), Yoshikawa
et al. (1997a), Han et al.
(2006), Lu et al. (2012b)
Oleanolic acid 3-O-β-Dribopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-Dglucuronopyranoside
B. scoparia (FR)
Whang and Hahn (1991)
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-[Glc
(1→2)]-β-D-GlcA
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: Rib-(1→2)-GlcA
OA
C-3: Ara-(1→3)-GlcA
Momordin I
B. scoparia (FR)
Yoshikawa et al. (1997a)
OA
C-3: Ara (1→3)-GlcA
Momordin IIaa
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
Oleanolic acid-3-Oglucuronide (Calenduloside
E)
Oleanolic acid-3-O-βglucopyranoside
B. scoparia (FR)
Yoshikawa et al. (1997a), Lu
et al. (2012b)
B. muricata (WP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: GlcA
OA
C-3: Glc
OA
C-3: GlcA
OA
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: Glc-(1→2)-GlcA
Chikusetsusaponin IVa
B. muricata (WP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
B. scoparia (FR)
Lu et al. (2012b)
Chikusetsusaponin V
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
Chikusetsusaponin IVa methyl
ester
B. muricata (AP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
Oleanolic acid-3,28-βdiglucopyranoside
B. muricata (AP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: 6‘-Me-GlcA
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: Glc
OA
C-3: [3-R1]-6-GlcA
C-28: Glc
Betavulgaroside IIIa
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
OA
C-3: [3-R2]-GlcA
(2′R,3′S)-3-O-[2′-hydroxy-3′(2-O-glycolyl)-oxopropionic acid-β-Dglucuronopyranosyl]-28-Oβ-D-glucopyranosyl-olean12-en-3β-ol-28-oic acid
B. indica (AP)
Othman et al. (2021b)
C-28: Glc
C-28: Glc
123
Phytochem Rev
Table 2 continued
Aglycone
Sugar part
Common name of saponin*
Species (plant part)
References
OA
C-3: [3-R2]-6-GlcA
3-O-[2′-(2-O-glycolyl)glyoxylyl-β-Dglucuronopyranosyl]-28-Oβ-D-glucopyranosyl-olean12-en-3β-ol-28-oic acida
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
Betavulgaroside IVa
Betavulgaroside V
B. indica (AP)
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
Othman et al. (2021b)
Betavulgaroside Va
B. indica (AP)
Mohamed et al. (1998)
Oleanolic acid-28-O-β-Dglucopyranosyl ester
B. prostrata (WP)
Seitimova et al. (2018)
C-28: Glc
OA
OA
C-3: [3-R1]-6-GlcA
C-3: [Glc(1→2)]- [3R1]-GlcA
OA
C-3: [Glc(1→2)]- [3R1]-6-GlcA
OA
C-28: Glc
OA
C-3: sugar part (Glc)
Undef.
B. muricata (WP)
El-Sayed (1993)
OA
C-3: sugar part (Glc,
Ara)
Undef.
B. muricata (WP)
El-Sayed (1993)
OA
C-3: sugar part (Glc,
Ara, Rha)
Undef.
B. muricata (WP)
El-Sayed (1993)
HE
C-3: sugar part (nd)
Undef.
B. muricata (WP)
El-Sayed (1993)
22α-
hydroxyoleanolic acid
Yoshikawa et al.
(1997a)
C-3: GlcA
Kochianoside I
B. scoparia (FR)
C-3: Xyl(1→3)GlcA
Scoparianoside A
B. scoparia (FR)
Yoshikawa et al.
(1997b)
Morolic
acid
C-3: Glc-(1→2)-Xyl
(1→3)-GlcA
Kochianoside II
B. scoparia (FR)
C-28: Glc
C-28: Glc
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-GlcA
3β,12α-
Betulinic
acid
3β-
dihydroxyolean28,13α-olide
Yoshikawa et al.
(1997a)
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-GlcA
hydroxyolean-13(18)en-28-oic acid
Yoshikawa et al. (1997a)
Scoparianoside B
B. scoparia (FR)
Yoshikawa et al. (1997b)
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-GlcA
Kochianoside III
B. scoparia (FR)
Kochianoside IV
B. scoparia (FR)
Yoshikawa et al. (1997a)
C-3: Xyl-(1→3)-GlcA
Scoparianoside C
B. scoparia (FR)
Yoshikawa et al.
(1997b)
*In the absence of a common name, a chemical term was used
a
Saponins obtained by Mohamed et al. (1998) as their methyl esters after methylation using ethereal diazomethane; Undef.–
undefined—the identity of the saponin cannot be determined due to the lack of a precise compound structure
OA Oleanolic acid, HE Hederagenin, FR Fruit, AP Aerial parts, WP Whole plant, Glc β-D-glucoopyranose, GlcA β-Dglucuronopyranose, Ara α-L-arabinopyranose, Xyl β-D-xylopyranose, Rib β-D-ribopyranose, Et Ethyl moiety, Me Methyl moiety, R1
2′-hydroxy-3′-(2-O-glycolyl)-oxo-propionic acid, R2 2′-(2-O-glycolyl)-glyoxylyl
use of ethanol extract from fresh parts of the B.
muricata as an eco-friendly and effective inhibitor of
123
the corrosion process of the aluminium alloy are also
investigated (El-Katori and Al-Mhyawi 2019).
Phytochem Rev
Phytochemistry
The phytochemical studies of representatives of the
genus Bassia have been conducted for many years.
Notwithstanding, the chemical compositions of only
few species of the genus have been investigated so
far. Initially, the analyses focused mainly on B.
scoparia, but in recent years there has been an
increased research interest in phytochemistry of other
species of the genus. Until now, more than 300
compounds have been identified in the genus, and
some of them were new compounds at the time of
publication (Fig. 2). Moreover, several rarely occurring phytochemicals have been detected, including
some saponins, flavonoids, steroidal glycosides, or
fatty acids. Examples of compounds characteristic of
the genus Bassia and at the same time rarely found in
the plant kingdom are shown in Fig. 3.
Triterpene saponins and triterpenes
From a pharmacological point of view, triterpenoid
saponins are one of the most important groups of
metabolites found in Bassia plants. However, until
now, saponins have been isolated solely from three
species, B. scoparia, B. indica, and B. muricata. So
far, phytochemical studies of Bassia species have led
to the isolation of thirty-three different saponins,
while twenty-eight of them have been fully characterized by structural studies. These saponins are listed
in Table 2. Interestingly, twelve saponins were novel
compounds at the time of publication (see Fig. 2).
Among saponins, structures with an oleanane
skeleton dominated. Within this group, the highest
number of saponins represented oleanolic acid glycosides, while compounds with rearranged double
bond positions, such as morolic acid and 3β-hydroxyolean-13(18)-en-28-oic acid were less common
(Fig. 4). Interestingly, lupane-type saponin was also
detected, as well as a fairly rare type of 13,28epoxyoleanane saponins. Sapogenins found in Bassia
species are presented in Fig. 4. Almost half of Bassia
saponins (42.4%) are bidesmosides, the remaining
57.6% are classified as monodesmosides, usually
bearing a sugar chain at C-3 of sapogenin. The sugar
part is composed of β-D-glucuronic acid (GlcA), β-D-
xylopyranose (Xyl), β-L-arabinofuranose (Ara) and
β-D-glucopyranose (Glc). It should be noted that the
vast majority (81.8%) of saponins have β-D-glucuronic acid units in the sugar chain attached to C-3
of the aglycone. Among them, 34.4% can be classified as the GOTCAB group (glucuronide oleananetype triterpenoid carboxylic acid 3, 28-O-bidesmosides). It is also worth mentioning that one new
saponin (Fig. 2) and five rarely occurring secoglycosidic oleanane saponins, containing acidic constituents at C-3 of glucuronic acid, have been isolated
so far exclusively from the aerial parts of B. indica
(Mohamed et al. 1998; Othman et al. 2021b).
Quantitative research on the content of saponins in
Bassia species is limited to Kochiae fructus. Analysis
of fruit from various regions of China using the
HPLC-ELSD method showed that the saponin level
ranges from 3.0 to 5.8% (Xia et al. 2002a; Wang et al.
2014a). In another study, qualitative gas–liquid
chromatographic analysis (GLC) of methyl esters of
triterpene sapogenins (methyl oleanolate) demonstrated that the sapogenin content ranges from 0.95 to
2.09% in a single seed of B. scoparia, reflecting the
content of oleanolic acid-type saponins in plant
material (Kernan et al. 1973).
Although various saponin compounds have been
found in plants of the genus Bassia, the quantitative
determination focused on momordin Ic, which is the
main saponin of Kochiae fructus (Fig. 3A). Various
reports indicate that momordin Ic content in plant
material ranges from 0.85 to 3.5% (Xia et al. 2002a;
b; Belsevich et al. 2009). According to Hong Kong
Chinese Materia Medica Standards, the content of
momordin Ic in Kochiae fructus should not be less
than 2.3% (HKCMMS 2012).
In addition to qualitative studies of the plant
material, which reflect the quality of the product,
investigations on momordin Ic content were also
carried out on various extracts of Kochiae fructus. It
can be seen that the amount of momordin Ic in the
extract varies greatly depending on the extraction
method (Choi et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2014a; Yoo
et al. 2017). For example, Wang et al. (2014a), using
the HPLC-ELSD method, found that the momordin
content in the water extract (under infusion condition
for 4 h at room temperature) was 2.88%, while in the
123
Phytochem Rev
types of pentacyclic triterpenes, including oleanolic
acid, gypsogenin, hederagenin (Setimova et al. 2018;
Imran et al. 2017), betulin, betulinic acid and ursolic
acid (Imran et al. 2017) were detected in B. prostrata.
Oleanolic acid, (Lu et al. 2012b; Zhang et al. 2013) βamyrin and lupeol were also found in B. scoparia,
along with some tetracyclic triterpenes such as
cycloartenol, 31-norcykloartenol and cycloeucalenol
that were detected in Kochiae fructus (Narumi et al.
2001).
Sterols, steroidal glucosides
and phytoecdysteroids
Fig. 4 Types of sapogenins and their share (%) in saponins
found in the genus Bassia (graph A), the share (%) of Bassia
saponins depending on amount of sugar chains (graph B), the
share (%) of Bassia saponins with a specific sugar moiety
(graph C)
50% ethanol extract prepared under reflux conditions
(4 h) it reached a higher value of 5.75%.
In addition to triterpene saponins, free triterpenes
have also been reported in Bassia plants. Various
123
Some species of Bassia were analysed for the
presence of sterols, and to date, more than 25 sterols
have been identified in representatives of the genus
(see Table 3). Reports indicate that the most abundant
group of sterols were 4-desmethylsterols, but 4αmonomethylsterols were also detected (Narumi et al.
2001). In most of studied species, among
4-desmethylsterols, both Δ5-sterols and Δ7-sterols
coexist. The exception was B. indica where exclusively Δ5-sterols were found (Othman et al. 2021b;
Javed et al. 2018a, b). Sitosterol and stigmasterol
were the main sterol components in all species
studied. GC–MS-identification of sterols revealed
that fruits of B. scoparia were also abundant in
24-ethyllathosterol (Narumi et al. 2001). In turn,
Javed et al. (2018a) underlined that γ-sitosterol was
present in considerable amounts in the stem of B.
indica. In addition to free sterols, their glycosides
have also been reported in some of the Bassia
species, including three novel kochiosides A,B,C,
belonging to the class of 14α-methylated steroidal
glucosides, which are rarely encountered in nature
(Fig. 3B) (Imran et al. 2007). It is interesting that
some structures containing the 14α-methyl group
were found in sea cucumbers (Cordeiro and Djerassi
1990). To date, kochiosides have been isolated solely
from B. prostrata (Imran et al. 2007; 2017).
Phytoecdysteroids are polyhydroxylated plant
sterols that occur in several species from the
Amaranthaceae family (Dinan et al. 1998; Das
et al. 2021). In the genus Bassia, they were found
exclusively in B. scoparia (Dinan et al. 1994). The
species was reported to contain 20-hydroxyecdysone
and polypodine B (5β,20-dihydroxyecdysone) but the
level of phytoecdysteroids varied considerably
Phytochem Rev
Table 3 Sterols detected in the genus Bassia
Species
Compound
References
B. prostrata
Sterols:
Imran et al. (2007, 2017), Seitimova et al. (2018)
β-sitosterol (AP), stigmasterol (AP), spinasterol (AP)
Steroidal glucosides:
stigmasterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (AP), β-sitosterol
3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (AP); kochioside A, kochioside
B, kochioside C (WP)
B. indica
Sterols:
Othman et al. (2021b), Javed et al. (2018a, b)
β-sitosterol (AP, L, S), γ-sitosterol (S), stigmasterol (S)
B. scoparia
Sterols:
stigmasterol (L,FR), β-sitosterol (L, FR), 24αmethylcholesterol (L), cholesterol (FR), lathosterol (FR),
campesterol (FR), 24-methyllathosterol (FR), isofucosterol
(FR), 24-ethyllathosterol (FR), avenasterol (FR);
31-norlanosterol (FR), lophenol (FR), obtusifoliol (FR), 4αmethylfecosterol (FR), gramisterol (FR), 4α-methyl-5αcholest-8-en-3β-ol (FR), citrostadienol (FR)
Salt and Adler (1985), Narumi et al. (2001), Lu et al.
(2012b), Zhang et al. (2013)
Steroidal glucosides:
daucosterol, (L,FR);
Phytoecdysteroids:
Dinan et al. (1994)
20-hydroxyecdysone (FR, R, L, S, FL)
polypodine B (5β,20-dihydroxyecdysone) (FR, R, F, S, FL)
unidentified ecdysteroid (WP)
AP Aerial parts, FR Fruit, L Leaves, S Stem, R Root, FL Flos, WP Whole plant
between the different morphotic parts of B. scoparia.
The radioimmunoassay using DBL-1 antiserum
revealed that the highest content of ecdysteroids
was found in the roots (143 µg ecdysone equivalents/
g dw). Lower levels were observed in leaves, flowers,
stems, and seeds (44–112, 56, 26–37 and 30 µg
ecdysone equivalents/g dw, respectively) (Dinan
et al. 1994).
Phenolics
Phenolics, including flavonoids and phenolic acids,
are one of the most widely distributed metabolites in
the plant kingdom. So far, phytochemical studies of
Bassia species have led to the detection of nearly 60
flavonoids. Thirty-one of them were unambiguously
identified following structure elucidation of isolated
compounds (Lu et al. 2012b; Shaker et al. 2013;
Musa et al. 2016; Kamel et al. 2001; Xu et al. 2014;
Othman et al. 2021b). The identification of the
remaining flavonoids was performed directly in
Bassia plant extracts using HPLC with UV detection
(Rakhmankulova et al. 2015; Xiao et al. 2018; Petruk
et al. 2021) and by combination of chromatographic
technique coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.
Said et al. (2021) have recently evaluated the
flavonoid profile in aerial parts of B. eriophora using
LC–ESI–MS/MS in negative-ion mode, which led to
tentative detection of 28 compounds (Said et al.
2021). In turn, Xiao et al. (2016) analyzed flavonoids
in B. scoparia pollen using atmospheric solid analysis
probe mass spectrometry (ASAP-MS) (Xiao et al.
2016).
As shown in Table 4 various flavonoids, including
flavonols, flavones, and a flavanone, were detected in
the Bassia genus. It is interesting to note that free
sugar isoflavones have also been found, but so far
only in B. scoparia (Zhang et al. 2013).
Most of the flavonoids identified in the Bassia
genus are glycosidic (75%). Flavonol glycosides,
including mainly derivatives of quercetin (35%),
kaempferol (15%) and isorhamnetin (15%), are
definitely the most abundant. It should be noted that
acylated compounds account for 30% of flavonoid
glycosides. Their presence was found exclusively in
the aerial parts of Bassia species. Kamel et al. (2001)
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Phytochem Rev
Table 4 Flavonoids of the genus Bassia
Compound
Species (plant part)
References
Flavonols and dihydroflavonols:
Quercetin
B. scoparia (FR)
Lu et al. (2012b)
B. eriophora (AP)
Xiao et al. (2018)
Musa et al. (2016)
3′-methylquercetin
B. muricata (AP)
Shaker et al. (2013)
Isorhamnetin
B. scoparia (FR)
Lu et al. (2012b)
Morin
B. prostrata (AP)
Rakhmankulova et al. (2015)
Fisetin
B. prostrata (AP)
Rakhmankulova et al. (2015)
Dihydroquercitin
B. prostrata (AP)
Rakhmankulova et al. (2015)
B. prostrata (AP)
Petruk et al. (2021)
Flavones:
Luteolin
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2021)
5, 7, 4′-trihydroxy-6,3’-dimethoxyflavone
B. scoparia (FR)
Lu et al. (2012b)
4′,5, 7-trihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone (Hispidulin)
B. scoparia (FR)
Lu et al. (2012b)
Isoflavones
Tectorigenin
B. scoparia
Zhang et al. (2013)
Pratensein
B. scoparia
Zhang et al. (2013)
Iriflogenin
B. scoparia
Zhang et al. (2013)
5,2′-dihydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone
(Irisone B)
B. scoparia
Zhang et al. (2013)
5-hydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone
(Cochliophilin A)
B. scoparia
Zhang et al. (2013)
Quercetin glycosides:
Quercetin-3-O-galactoside
B. scoparia (FR)
Xu et al. (2012)
Quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucoside (Isoquercitrin)
B. prostrata (AP)
Petruk et al. (2021)
Quercetin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside
B. scoparia
Xu et al. (2014)
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2016)
Quercetin-3,7-O-β-diglucopyranoside
Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (Rutin)
B. muricata (AP)
B. scoparia (FR)
Kamel et al. (2001)
Lu et al. (2012b)
Wang et. al. (2018)
Xiao et al. (2018)
B. prostrata (AP)
Quercetin-7-O-β-D-sophoroside
Rakhmankulova et al. (2015)
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2021)
B. scoparia (FR)
Xu et al. (2014)
Quercetin-3-O-sophoroside
B. muricata (AP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
Quercetin-3-O-(6″-caffeoyl)-sophoroside
B. muricata (AP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
Quercetin-3-O-(6″-feruloyl)-sophoroside
B. muricata (AP)
Kamel et al. (2001)
Said et al. (2021)
Quercetin-3-O-(feruloyl)-O-sophoroside
B. eriophora (AP)
Quercetin-3-O-(sinapoyl)-sophoroside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Quercetin-3-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→2)-β-Dgalactopyranoside
B.scoparia (FR)
Xu et al. (2014)
Quercetin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-7-O-β-Dglucopyranoside
B. scoparia (FR)
Xu et al. (2014)
Quercetin 3-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→2)-β-Dgalactopyranosyl-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside
B. scoparia (FR)
Xu et al. (2014)
123
Phytochem Rev
Table 4 continued
Compound
Species (plant part)
References
Quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-Dgalactopyranosyl-7-O-β-D-sophoroside
B. scoparia (FR)
Xu et al. (2014)
3′-methylquercetin 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1→2)-L-α-arabinopyranoside
B. muricata (AP)
Shaker et al. (2013)
Quercetin-3-O-sophoroside-7-O-hexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Quercetin-3-O-sophoroside-7-O-dihexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Quercetin-3,7-di-O-glycopyranoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Quercetin-3-O-(feruloyl)-O-trihexosides
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Other glycosides:
Isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside
Isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-rutinoside
Isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-β-Dglucopyranoside
B. scoparia (FR)
Lu et al. (2012b)
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2016), Said et al. (2021)
B. indica (AP)
B. prostrata (AP)
Othman et al. (2021b)
Petruk et al. (2021)
B. indica (AP)
Othman et al. (2021b)
Isorhamnetin-3-O-sophoroside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Isorhamntin-3-O-(feruloyl)-sophoroside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Isorhamnetin-3-O-(feruloyl)-O-hexuronide-Ohexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Isorhamntin-3-O-sophoroside-7-O-hexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Isorhamnetin-3-O-(feruloyl)-trihexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Isorhamnetin-3-O-(feruloyl)-O-tetrahexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (Populin)
B. prostrata (AP)
Petruk et al. (2021)
Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside
B. indica (AP)
Othman et al. (2021b)
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2021)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-[βD-galactopyranosyl-(1→3)-2-O-trans-feruloyl-αL-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside
B. indica (AP)
Othman et al. (2021b)
Kaempferol-3-O-dihexoside-7-O-dihexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferol-3-O-(caffeoyl)-O-trihexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferol 3-O-(feruloyl)-O-trihexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferol-3-O-(caffeoyl)-sophoroside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferol-7-O-hexoside-3-O-dihexosides
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Kaempferide-3-O-trihexoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Rakhmankulova et al. (2015)
Naringenin 7-O-neohesperidoside (Naringin)
B. prostrata (AP)
Acacetin-7-O-β-D-glucoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2021)
Diosmetin 7-rutinoside
B. eriophora (AP)
Musa et al. (2021)
Apigenin 6,8-di-C-hexosides
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Apigenin 6-C-pentoside-8-C-hexoside or
B. eriophora (AP)
Said et al. (2021)
Apigenin 8-C-pentoside-6-C-hexoside
FR Fruit; AP Aerial parts
123
Phytochem Rev
established the structure of quercetin sophorosides
that contained the feruloyl and caffeoyl moiety that
were isolated from B. muricata. Furthermore, Said
et al. (2021) detected several acylated flavonol
glycosides in B. eriophora using the LC–ESI–MS/
MS method. Recently, a novel flavonol tetraglycoside
with feruloyl moiety (kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-[β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→3)-2O-trans-feruloyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-β-Dglucopyranoside) (Fig. 2) were isolated from the
aqueous methanol extract of the aerial parts of B.
indica (Othman et al. 2021b).
Although the research on flavonoids of the Bassia
genus has been carried out intensively for several
years, most quantitative studies focused on determining the total flavonoid content (TFC) or even the total
phenolic content (TPC) (see Table S1, Supplementary information). Only a few reports on the
quantitative determination of individual compounds
have been published (Xiao et al. 2018; Rakhmankulova et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2018; Petruk et al. 2021).
Wang et al (2018) measured the content of rutin
(0.115 mg/g dw) in B. scoparia fruits by capillary
electrophoresis. Rakhmankulova et al. (2015)
revealed that naringin (5.03–13.53 mg/g dw) and
rutin (1.71–8.13 mg/g dw) were dominant flavonoids
in aerial parts of B. prostrata, while free-sugar
flavonols, such as isorhamnetin, fisetin, and morin,
were found in a lower content (0.11–0.75 mg/g dw,
0.01–0.76 mg/g dw, 0.01–0.03 dw, respectively)
(Rakhmankulova et al. 2015). Petruk et al. (2021)
also highlighted the high content of rutin (4.96–
8.13 mg/g dw) and the presence of luteolin (0.1–
3.0 mg/g), populin (0.1–6.4 mg/g), and isoquercitrin
(0.1–3.4 mg/g) in the aerial parts of B. prostrata
(Petruk et al. 2021). The authors suggest that cytotype
and habitat can influence the content of flavonoids in
plant species (Rakhmankulova et al. 2015; Petruk
et al. 2021).
Although phenolic acids appear to be widely
distributed in plants, data on their occurrence in the
genus Bassia are limited. So far, several phenolic
acids from both hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic groups have been detected only in the aerial
parts of the species. Chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid,
and ferulic acid were determined in shoots of B.
scoparia (Lodhi 1979). Seitimova et al. (2016)
detected protocatechuic, vanillic, isovanillic, and pcoumaric acids in aerial parts of B. prostrata. The
123
latest report indicates that vanillic acid, o-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid,
and methyl caffeate are present in B. indica (Othman
et al. 2021b). Some phenolic acids may occur not as a
free form, but as part of more complex structures. As
mentioned above, flavonoid glycosides bearing feruloyl and caffeoyl moiety have been reported in B.
muricata, B. indica and B. eriophora (Kamel et al.
2001; Said et al. 2021; Othman et al. 2021b).
Recently, five lignanamides containing the feruloyl
moiety were isolated from aerial parts of B. indica
(Othman et al. 2021a).
Other phenolics reported in the Bassia genus
include 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin and tachioside,
which were detected in aerial parts of B. indica
(Othman et al. 2021b).
Fatty acids
Some Bassia species were analysed for the presence
of oil and fatty acids. The percentage content of oil in
the seeds of B. scoparia ranges from 9.7 to 16%
(Hegnauer 1964; Weber et al. 2001; Abideen et al.
2015). Due to the fact that seeds are abundant in
lipids, most of the studies focused on the identification and quantification of FA in various Bassia seed
oils (Kleiman et al. 1972; Escudero et al. 1999;
Weber et al. 2001). Data on the analysis of other
morphotic parts are scarce and limited to the aerial
parts of B. prostrata, B. indica, and B. muricata
(Seitimova et al. 2016; Imran et al. 2017; Bibi et al.
2021; Abu Ziada et al. 2015). The reports indicate
that Bassia species are the source of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids, especially FA with chain
lengths of 16 to 18 carbons. GC–MS analysis
revealed that Bassia seed oil contained 54% to 89%
linoleic acid (Kleiman et al. 1972; Escudero et al.
1999; Weber et al. 2001; Abideen et al. 2015).
Significant amounts of palmitic acid (9%–68%) and
oleic acid (4%–17%) were also observed (Kleiman
et al. 1972; Weber et al. 2001; Abideen et al. 2015).
Similarly, oleic acid (64.9%) and linoleic acid
(22.0%) are reported to be the main FA in aerial
parts of B. prostrata (Seitimova et al. 2016). It is
interesting that very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA–
FA with more than 22C), have been identified in B.
scoparia seeds and aerial parts of B. prostrata
(Table 6) (Imran et al. 2017; Weber et al. 2001;
Abideen et al. 2015). Furthermore, reports revealed
Phytochem Rev
that members of the Bassia genus accumulate Δ5
unsaturated fatty acids, such as 16:1Δ5, 18:1Δ5,
18:2Δ5,9, 18:3Δ5,9,12, 20:4Δ5,8,11,14 (Kleiman et al.
1972; Escudero et al. 1999; Olagbemiro et al. 1999;
Whitney et al. 2004). (Z)-5-hexadecenoic acid
(16:1Δ5) (Fig. 3B) is an unusual monounsaturated
FA that is considered a potentially useful substance in
the control of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus, a
vector of filariasis in humans. This is since 16:1Δ5
can serve as an intermediate in the production of an
insect oviposition pheromone (Olagbemiro et al.
1999; Whitney et al. 2004). (Z)-5-hexadecenoic acid
was reported to constitute 12% of the seed oil of B.
prostrata and around 5% of the oils of the seeds of B.
scoparia as well as B. hyssopifolia (Kleiman et al.
1972). Fatty acids detected in Bassia species are
listed in Table 5.
Nitrogen-containing compounds
Phytochemical analyzes conducted in the 1960s
suggested that some Bassia species contain alkaloids.
Borkowski and Drost (1965) showed the presence of
four compounds in the herb of B. scoparia and B.
laniflora (formerly classified as B. arenaria) (Borkowski and Drost 1965). B. indica was also reported
to contain three alkaloids, which accumulate in seeds
(512 mg/100 g dw), pericarp (387 mg/100 g dw),
shoot (up to 294 mg/100 g dw) and roots (85 mg/
100 g dw) (Zahran et al. 1982). The research carried
out at that time was mainly based on the reaction of
the isolated substances with Dragendorff’s reagent
and did not lead to the determination of the structure
of alkaloids (Zahran and Wahid 1982). Only DrostKarbowska (1978) on the basis of spectroscopic
techniques (UV, MS, NMR) showed that compounds
found in aerial parts of B. scoparia are harman and
harmine, belonging to the indole alkaloids with βcarboline skeleton (Drost-Karbowska et al. 1978). It
is interesting that the most recent studies revealed the
presence of a novel alkaloid named bassiamide A (N[(3-(3-methyl-1-oxo-butyl)amino)propyl]-3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)prop-2-enamide in aerial parts of B.
indica (Fig. 2) (Othman et al. 2021a).
Other constituents reported in the Bassia genus
include lignanamides. The presence of N-trans-feruloylmethoxytyramine and N-trans-feruloyltyramine
were investigated in B. scoparia (Zhang et al. 2013)
and B. indica (Othman et al. 2021a, 2022). N-trans-
feruloyltyramine derivative was also tentatively
detected by LC–ESI–MS/MS in B. eriophora (Said
et al. 2021). Recently, several lignanamides including
S-(-)-N-trans-feruloyl nor-metanephrine, S-(-)-Ntrans-feruloyl octopamine, and rarely occurring R-(
+)-N-trans-feruloyl octopamine were isolated from
aerial parts of B. indica (Fig. 3B) (Othman et al.
2021a, 2022).
Species of Bassia genus have been reported to
contain proteins and multiple amino acids, and
several studies have considered their potential nutritional and feeding value (Davis 1979; Riasi et al.
2008; Waldron et al. 2006, 2020; Seitimova et al.
2016; Houlihan et al. 2019; Nair et al. 2021). For
example, Waldron et al. (2006) showed that the crude
protein content in B. prostrata ranges from 44.6 to
116.5 g/kg of aerial parts. A similarly high protein
content was found in aerial parts of B. scoparia
(117 g/kg) (Riasi et al. 2008). El-Adawy et al. (2020)
reported a crude protein concentration in aerial parts
of B. indica at 12.6%. Some reports underlined that
protein content depended on the maturity stage of the
plant (Knipfel et al. 1989; Waldron et al. 2006; Nair
et al. 2021). Differences in protein level were also
observed between various parts of the plant. Seeds,
leaves, and stems of B. prostrata were reported to
contain 190.6 g, 123.2 g and 55.1 g of protein per kg,
respectively (Waldron et al. 2006). Waldron et al.
(2020) also observed that protein levels decrease with
increasing salinity in the soil (Waldron et al. 2020).
Seitimova et al. (2016) revealed that the main amino
acids in aerial parts of B. prostrata were glutamic
acid (23.46%), alanine (5.82%), proline (3.35%),
arginine (3.32), leucine (3.20%) and isoleucine
(3.03%) (Seitimova et al. 2016). Houlihan et al.
(2019) identified 18 amino acids in water-soluble
exudates from B. scoparia seeds with tyrosine and
glutamic acid as predominant compounds. It should
be noted that some of the Bassia (Kochia) biotypes
are resistant to sulfonylurea herbicides (ALS-inhibiting herbicides) (Kumar et al. 2019). Because the
acetolactate synthase enzyme (ALS) is the key step in
the biosynthesis of branched chain amino acids, some
differences in the valine and leucine content were
observed between biotypes resistant and susceptible
to herbicides. The level of free valine and leucine was
elevated in seeds and aerial parts of the resistant
Bassia biotype compared to susceptible plants (Dyer
et al. 1993; Chodová and Mikulka 2000).
123
Phytochem Rev
Table 5 Fatty acids in Bassia sp
Fatty acid
Abb
Species
Trivial name
B. scoparia
B. prostrata
B. indica
FR/SE
SE
SE
AP
AP
B. muricata
B. hyssopifolia
AP
SE
z
11:0
Undecylic
+
12:0
Lauric acid
+z
14:0
Myristic acid
15:0
+s,i
Pentadecanoic acid
16:0
Palmitic acid
5
16:1Δ
9
(Z)-5-hexadecenoic acid
++
k,o,
++
k,
k
+
17:0
Margaric acid
+w
Stearic acid
++k,l,w,an
18:1Δ
9
+
k
++
Palmitoleic acid
5
+
±
k,
++
k
18:2Δ9,12
Linoleic acid
+ ++k,e,an
+ ++k
18:3 Δ
α-linolenic acid
+
+
k,e
arachidic acid
+
20:1Δ11
11-eicosenoic acid
+w,
20:4Δ5,8,11,14
Arachidonic acid
+e
Bohenic acid
+
22:1Δ13
13-docosenoic acid
+w,
Lignoceric acid
15
+
k
+ +k
+k
+b
+a
b
a
+k
++s
+*
s
+
+
+j
+a
+
z
+z
s
++k
+k
+ ++k
+k
+
+
z
+k
a
an
+a
+z
w, an
22:0
24:0
+
k
+ ++
w,an
20:0
+z
+k
k
++
±k
9,12,15
+
s
+s
++
+k
18:3Δ
a
k
Oleic acid
k
+*
+++
j,b
+k
+k
+
k,e
s
18:1Δ
18:2Δ5,9
5,9,12
+z
+
k,w,e,an
16:1Δ
18:0
+z
s
an
+
w
w, an
+i
24:1Δ
15-tetracosenoic acid
+
26:0
Cerotic acid
+w,
28:0
Montanic acid
+i
32:0
Lacceroic acid
+i
+z
an
FA Fatty acid;+ + +dominant FA;+ +main (relevant) FA;+present FA;±traces of FA;+* the location of the double bonds have
not been determined; a Abeer et al. (2015); z Abu Ziada et al. (2015), an Abideen et al. (2015); b Bibi et al. (2021); e Escudero et al.
(1999); i Imran et al. (2017); j Javed et al. (2018a); k Kleiman et al. (1972); l Lu et al. (2012b); o Olagbemiro et al. (1999);
s Seitimova et al. (2016); w Weber et al. (2001)
Furthermore, the concentration of these amino acids
decreased in the susceptible Bassia population after
herbicide treatment (Chodová and Mikulka 2000).
It is well known that plants of the Amaranthaceae
family can accumulate nitrates (Salehi et al. 2019;
Liubertas et al.2020; Munekata et al. 2021). Several
works have been devoted to quantification of nitrates
in Bassia species, especially in B. scoparia (Finley
and Sherrod 1971; Steppuhn et al. 1994; Escudero
et al. 1999; López-Aguilar et al. 2013). The studies
revealed that the content of nitrates in the aerial parts
of B. scoparia decreases during the growing season
123
(Finley and Sherrod 1971; López-Aguilar et al.
2013). Steppuhn et al. (1994) also observed that the
amount of nitrates can increase from 0.01 to 0.04 g/
kg to 0.5 g/kg after the addition of nitrogen fertilizer.
Among other members of the Bassia genus, nitrates
were detected also in B. hyssopifolia but only in
traces (James et al. 1976). It is interesting that the
accumulation of nitrates was not observed in B.
prostrata, which is a perennial plant (Waldron et al.
2010; Acar et al. 2016).
Phytochem Rev
Other compounds
Representatives of the genus Bassia can also accumulate organic acids. Among carboxylic acids, oxalic
acid was the most common compound. Other compounds such as tartaric acid, malic acids, citric acid,
succinic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, and
L-ascorbic acid were also detected (Hong et al. 2006;
Ma et al. 2011, 2016; López-Aguilar et al. 2013).
A low glycolic acid content was found in the root
of B. scoparia (Ma et al. 2011). Gluconic acid, citric
acid, and oxalic acid were the major organic acids
detected in the water-soluble exudates from the seeds
of the species. Other acids identified in small amounts
in seed exudates included: threonic acid, malic acid,
malonic acid, glucaric acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid,
ribonic acid, galacturonic acid, 2-ketogluconic acid,
glucuronic acid and glucuronic acid 1,5-lactone
(Houlihan et al. 2019).
It is noteworthy that the level of carboxylic acids
varies between the species, its morphotic parts, and
maturity stage and depends on environmental factors.
B. prostrata is considered a species with a low level
of oxalic acid accumulation. The content of oxalates
in aerial parts of the species averaged 1.2% (Davis
1979). In turn, studies on organic acid content in
aerial parts of B. scoparia provide diverse data, which
may result from differences in habitat conditions of
the analyzed plants. B. scoparia is an alkali resistant
forage plant and is able to survive in extremely
unfavourable environments with a pH greater than
10. Several studies indicate that the accumulation of
organic acids in the aboveground parts is probably the
way to adapt to ecological conditions (Yang et al.
2007; Ma et al. 2011, 2016). The oxalate concentration in B. scoparia shoots (1.4–2.6% of dry weight)
can be defined as moderate (Cohen et al. 1989;
López-Aguilar et al. 2013). In other studies, the
oxalic acid content was much higher and was
estimated to be in the range of 12%–17.8% of the
dry weight of aerial parts (Yang et al. 2007; Ma et al.
2011, 2016).
Hong et al. (2006) revealed that the roots of B.
scoparia accumulate higher amounts of oxalic acid
(26.76 µmol/g) than the shoots (4.305 µmol/g). A
similar relationship was found for other acids, such as
malic acid (6.60 µmol/g roots; 1.93 µmol/g shoots),
tartaric acid (15.04 µmol/g roots; 1.29 µmol/g shoots)
and succinic acid (4.70 µmol/g roots; 2.03 µmol/g
shoots) (Hong et al. 2006). It is interesting that, in
contrast to control conditions, the concentrations of
oxalic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, and tartaric
acid were higher in shoots (71.99 µmol/g,
66.73 µmol/g, 45.99 µmol/g, 44.60 µmol/g, respectively) under alkaline stress than in roots of the plant
(67.39 µmol/g, 64.0 µmol/g, 26.89 µmol/g,
40.99 µmol/g, respectively) (Hong et al. 2006).
Contrary to research reported by Hong et al. (2006),
Ma et al. (2011) observed that under control conditions mature leaves contain the highest amount of
oxalic acid (8% dry weight), followed by young
leaves, old stem, and roots (1% of dry weight), while
under salt and alkali stress, the concentration of
oxalic acids in mature leaves reached 10% and 12%
of their weight, respectively (Ma et al. 2011).
Although members of the Bassia genus are not
considered aromatic plants, several studies indicate
that some of them can produce essential oils (ElShamy et al. 2012; Kianinodeh et al. 2017; AbdElGawad et al. 2020). Recently, thirty-four compounds were identified by the GC–MS method in the
essential oil of the aerial parts of B. muricata. The
study revealed that the essential oil is rich in terpenes,
including sesquiterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes
and diterpenes, which constitute 58.21%, 9.77%, and
1.19% of the oil, respectively. Aromatic compounds
(21.92%) and hydrocarbons (8.91%) were also
detected. Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (47.34%) was
the main compound of the essential oil of B.
muricata, followed by 6-methoxy-1-acetonaphthone
(19.92%), n-dotriacontane (3.58%) and endo-borneol
(3.24%) and methyl-ionone (3.04%). The other
volatile compounds constituted less than 3% of the
essential oil (Abd-ElGawad et al. 2020). Thirty-one
volatile components were also identified in essential
oil from shoots of B. scoparia growing in Egypt. GC–
MS analysis revealed that terpenes represented the
dominant class of compounds (58.54%), but aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons were also present
(29.18%). The main compounds were α-thujaplicin
(22.91%), phytone (8.66%), dictamnol (7.98%),
butylated hydroxytoluene (7.49%), phytol (6.57%)
and camphenolone (3.84%) (El-Shamy et al. 2012).
Kianinodeh et al. (2017) observed a similar qualitative composition of the essential oil of B. scoparia.
However, the essential oil obtained from the fruits of
the plant that grows in Iran differed in its quantitative
composition because it contained alkanes (n-
123
123
Table 6 Anti-inflammatory activity of extracts and isolated substances of Bassia sp
Species; extract
Tested doses; Model or assay
Administration
B. scoparia
50, 200,
500 mg/kg;
70% ethanol extract from fruits
Acetic acid- induced vascular permeability in ddY mice
positive control: indomethacin (10 mg/kg; p.o.)
p.o
Carrageenan-induced paw edema in Male Wistar rats
positive control: indomethacin (10 mg/kg; p.o.)
Compound 40/80 induced edema in ddY mice
positive control: diphenhydramine (50 mg/kg; po)
Effect
References
(-) ↑ of vascular permeability induced by acetic Matsuda
acid (effect at 200, 500 mg/kg comparable to
et al.
positive control)
(1997a)
Prevention ↑ of paw edema (at 200, 500 mg/
kg–significant effect)
Prevention ↑ of paw edema (at 500 mg/kg–
weak effect)
Histamine/serotonin/bradykinin -induced edema in ddY mice Prevention ↑ of paw edema
positive control: diphenhydramine (50 mg/kg; po)
induced by histamine (significant effect) and
serotonin or bradykinin (weak effect)
Arachidonic acid-induced ear swelling in ddY mice
Prevention ↑ of paw edema
positive control: phenidone 20 mg/kg (i.v.)
(dose-dependent, significant effect, at 500 mg/
kg comparable to positive control)
10—300 μg/
mL
Histamine-induced contraction in isolated guinea pig ileum
(ex vivo)
(-) of contraction of isolated ileum with IC50
value of 220 μg/mL
10—300 μg/
mL
Prekallikrein enzyme activity assay (in vitro)
Not active in concentration 100—500 μg/mL
B. scoparia
ad libidum;
aqueous infusion of seeds
p.o
Carrageenan-induced paw edema in an experimental model of Prevention ↑ of paw edema
metabolic syndrome in male Wistar rats
(short-lived effect)
B. scoparia
150, 250 mg/
kg; p.o
methanol extract, fractionated:→
chloroform extract, ethyl acetate
extract, butanol extract,
Carrageenan-induced paw edema Sprague–Dawley male rats
Prevention ↑ of paw edema
positive control: indomethacin (100 mg/kg; p.o.)
Freud’s complete adjuvant-induced arthritis in Sprague–
Dawley male rats
Abtulov
et al.
(2020)
Choi et al.
(2002)
Anti-edema effect
(exception: chloroform fraction – not active)
positive control: methotrexate (10 mg/kg; i.p.)
B. scoparia
1% water extract from fructus
Topical
application
2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene
(DNCB)-induced contact dermatitis in female BALB/mouse
model;
Histopathological analysis, Western blot analysis
B. scoparia
30, 100 or
300 μg/ear
Extract ↓ contact dermatitis (via inhibition of
the production of inflammatory mediators)
1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced contact
dermatitis mice in BALB/mouse model;
Prevents histopathological changes;
Histopathological analysis
at 300 μg/ear effect similar to dexamethasone
positive control: dexamethasone (75 μg/ear)
Choi et al.
(2014)
↓ ear swelling;↓ production of IL-6, IFN-γ;
Jo et al.
(2016)
Phytochem Rev
methanol extracts from fruit
↓ hyperplasia of dermis and epidermis vs.
DNCB group;
Species; extract
Tested doses; Model or assay
Administration
Effect
B. scoparia
100, 200 mg/
kg; (p.o.)
↓ levels of IL-4 and IL-5 in a dose-dependent Lee et al.
manner
(2011)
ethanol extract from fruits
B. scoparia
methanol extract from fruits
OVA induced mouse asthma model;
biochemical assay—ELISA
7.5, 13, 30 μg/ LPS-induced raw 264.7 cells in vitro
mL
References
(-) of NO production; ↓ PGE2 and TNF-α
release (via blocking NF-kB activation)
Shin et al.
(2004)
Chen et al.
(2017)
B. scoparia
Serine proteases inhibitory assay in vitro;
Cathepsin G (CG) (-): IC50 [300 μg/mL;
water extract from fruits
positive control: elaspol; CG inhibitor
CG inhibitor: IC50 =0.29 μM
proteinase 3 (-): IC50 [300 μg/mL
elaspol: IC50 =0.63 μM
Human neutrophil elastase (HNE) inhibition assay
positive control: elaspol
Selective inhibitory activity: IC50 =79.53 μg/
mL
elaspol: IC50 =0.04 μM
B. scoparia
70% ethanol extract from fruits
50, 200,
500 mg/kg;
p.o
Type I allergic model:
- forty-eight-h homologus Passive Cutaneous Anaphylaxis
(PCA) in Wistar rats
at 200, 500 mg/kg: significant ↓ of dye leakage Matsuda
caused by PCA
et al.
(1997b)
positive control: DSCG (5 mg/kg, i.v.)
one and a half-h heterologous PCA in ddY mice;
prednisolone (20 mg/kg; p.o)
Type II allergic model:
Not active
- reversed cutaneous anaphylaxis (RCA) in JW rabbits;
positive control: dexamethasone (10 mg/kg)
Type III allergic model:
At 500 mg/kg: ↓ of paw swelling
- direct passive arthrus reaction (DPAR) in JW rabbits
positive control: prednisolone (25 mg/kg; p.o.)
Type IV allergic model:
- sheep red blood cell- induced delayed hypersensivity in ICR
mice (SRBC-DTH model)
positive control: prednisolone (10 mg/kg; p.o.)
- picryl chloride-induced contact dermatitis in ICR mice (PCDT model)
positive control: prednisolone (20 mg/kg; p.o.)
At 500 mg/kg: ↓ of paw swelling (SRBC-DTH
model) and ear swelling (PC-DT model)
Phytochem Rev
Table 6 continued
123
123
Table 6 continued
Species; extract
Tested doses; Model or assay
Administration
B. scoparia
200, 500 mg/
kg;
70% ethanol extract from fruits
B. scoparia
water extract
Compound 48/80-induced pruritogenic model in male ddY
mice
Effect
References
(-) of scratching behaviour by 50% vs. control Kubo et al.
(1997)
group
p.o
positive control: diphenhydramine (50 mg/kg; p.o.)
positive control: inhibition by 74—90%
0.15 g/mL,
0.3 g/mL,
0.6 g/mL;
Itching guinea pig model caused by histamine;
(-) of scratching behaviour
Zou et al.
(2021)
Carrageenan-induced paw edema in Male Wistar rats
Prevention ↑ of paw edema;
control: diclophenac 10 mg/mL; i.p
significant ↓ of the edema thickness
Musa et al.
(2016)
Itching mice model
topical
application
B. eriophora
ethanol extract from aerial parts
250, 500,
750 mg/kg;
(i.p.)
(1.92±0.067, 1.69±0.112 and 1.58±0.096,
respectively) compared to carrageenan injected
group with value of 2.404±0.14
Fractions and compounds from Bassia species:
Polysaccharide fraction isolated
from water extract from
Kochiae fructus
(molecular weight[300 kDa)
125, 250 mg/
kg;
(through
gavage)
LPS-induced ALI model in male ICR mice
(post tests: measurement of MPO activity; neutrophil tissue
elastase activity in tissue; protein and pro-inflammatory
cytokines in BALF; quantification of NET-DNA)
positive control: dexamethasone (10 mg/kg; i.p.)
Protective activity against acute lung injury
(ALI);
Chen et al.
(2017)
↓ levels of TNF-α and IL-6
↓ MPO activity
↓ neutrophil infiltration
↓ HNE activity: IC50 =3. 74 μg/mL
↓ NET-DNA formation
Serine proteases inhibitory assay in vitro;
Cathepsin G (CG) (-): IC50 [300 μg/mL;
positive control: elaspol; CG inhibitor
CG inhibitor: IC50 =0.29 μM
proteinase 3 (-): IC50 [300 μg/mL
elaspol: IC50 =0.63 μM
Human neutrophil elastase (HNE) inhibition assay
positive control: elaspol
Selective inhibitory activity: IC50 =79.53 μg/
mL
100, 200 mg/
kg
2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene- (DNCB)-induced ACD Sprague–
Dawley rats;
↓ ear swelling (no significant differences vs.
positive control group; significant effect)
Topical
application
(2x/24 h)
Histopathological analysis; biochemical assay—ELISA;
Western blot; paraffin section immunohistochemical method
positive control: prednisolone acetate (2.5 mg/kg)
↓ levels TNF-α and IL-6, IL-18, INF-γ
elaspol: IC50 =0.04 μM
Flavonoid fraction isolated from
↑ levels of IL-10
↓ levels of pERK1/2, TLR4, NFκB
Xiao et al.
(2018)
Phytochem Rev
80% ethanol extract of Kochiae
fructus
Species; extract
Tested doses; Model or assay
Administration
Effect
Momordin Ic
6.25, 12.5,
25 μg/mL
LPS-induced raw 264.7 cells in vitro
Momordin Ic: ↓ production of TNF-α, IL-6,
Yoo et al.
(2017)
PGE2; OA, 20-hydroxyecdysone -not active
Momordin Ic
5, 10 mg/kg;
oleanolic acid (OA)
i.p
Freund’s adjuvant-induced arthritis in Sprague–Dawley male Anti-edema effect
rats
oleanolic acid (OA)
20-hydroxyecdysone
References
Choi et al.
(2002)
positive control: aminopyrine (100 mg/kg; p.o.)
Momordin Ic
20, 50,
100 mg/kg;
p.o
Type I allergic model:
Significant ↓ of dye leakage caused by PCA
- forty-eight-h homologus Passive Cutaneous Anaphylaxis
(PCA) in Wistar rats
Matsuda
et al.
(1997b)
positive control: DSCG (5 mg/kg, i.v.)
- one and a half-h heterologous PCA in ddY mice;
prednisolone (20 mg/kg; p.o.)
Significant ↓ of dye leakage caused by PCA (at
100 mg/kg effect comparable to positive
control)
Type IV allergic model:
At 50, 100 mg/kg: ↓ of ear swelling
- picryl chloride-induced contact dermatitis in ICR mice (PCDT model)
Momordin
20,50
100 mg/kg;
p.o
positive control: prednisolone (20 mg/kg; p.o.)
Carrageenan-induced paw edema in Male Wistar rats
positive control: indomethacin (10 mg/kg; p.o.)
20, 50,100 mg/ Compound 48/80-induced pruritogenic model in male ddY
mice
kg;
p.o
Prevention ↑ of paw edema (significant effect); Matsuda
et al.
at 50 and 100 mg/kg, after 1 h, the effect
(1997a)
comparable to positive control
At 50 mg/kg (-) of scratching behaviour by
50% vs. control group
Kubo et al.
(1997)
positive control: diphenhydramine (50 mg/kg; p.o.)
(–) inhibition; ↑ the increase; ↓ reduction/descrease; ALI Acute lung injury; CG Cathepsin; DNCB 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene; DNFB 1-fluoro-2,4,-dinitrofluorobenzene; DPAR
Direct passive arthus reaction; DSCG sodium cromoglicate; ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ERK Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase; HNE Human neutrophil
elastase; i.v. Intravenous; IL-10 Interleukin-10; IL-4 Interleukin-4; IL-5 Interleukin-5; IL-6 Interleukin-6; INF-γ Interferon-gamma; MPO Myeloperoxidase; NET-DNA Net-like
structures of nuclear DNA; NF-κB Nuclear factor kappa B; p.o. Per os; PCA Passive cutaneous anaphylaxis; PCA Passive cutaneous anaphylaxis; PGE2 Prostaglandin; RCA
Reversed cutaneous anaphylaxis; TLR Toll-like receptor; TNF-α Tumor necrosis factor α
Phytochem Rev
Table 6 continued
123
Phytochem Rev
tetracosane, n-tricosane, n-docosane, n-henicosane,
n-eicosane) as the main constituents (Kianinodeh
et al. 2017). Hydrocarbons such as heptacosane,
pentacosane, hexacosane, tetracosane, tricosane, and
9-tricosene were also detected in aerial parts of B.
indica. In addition, phytol, verbenone, heptanone,
p-methoxy acetophenone, phenyl benzene, 2-pentanoyl thiophene and β-ionone were identified as the
main volatile compounds (Abou Zeid and El-Khayat
2000).
Recently, the polysaccharide rich fraction
(KSWP), consisting of carbohydrates (81.82%),
uronic acid (6.63%), and protein (8.71%), was
isolated from the water extract of the B. scoparia
fruit. HPLC analysis revealed that among the
monosaccharides in KSWP mannose, rhamnose,
glucuronic acid, glucose, galactose, and arabinose
were present. Glucose was found to be the predominant sugar in the polysaccharide fraction (Chen et al.
2017). In turn, Houlihan et al. (2019) detected free
monosaccharides in water-soluble exudates from
seeds of B. scoparia. Among them, fructose, galactose, glucose, and sorbitol were the main compounds.
Other sugars, identified in a low amount, included:
trehalose, scyllo-inositol, sucrose, mannitol, mannose, rhamnose, melibiose, maltitol, ribitol,
xylulose, erythritol, and glucosamine (Houlihan
et al. 2019).
Other constituents reported in the Bassia genus
include macroelements (Na, K, Mg, Ca, P) and
microelements (Fe, Cu, Se). These plant species are
able to accumulate ions, but the amount depends on
various factors, such as soil composition or environmental contamination (Karimi et al. 2005; Yang et al.
2007; Riasi et al. 2008; Ma et al. 2011; Endo et al.
2014; Yamada et al. 2016). Environmental factors,
such as salinity and cadmium stress, also affected the
content of carotenoids in the Bassia genus. Seasonal
variations in the level of carotenoids were also
observed (Davis 1979). The published reports indicate that the carotenoids content ranged from 0.13
to1.06 mg/g of fresh aerial parts of the analysed
species: B. scoparia, B. prostrata, and B. indica
(Karimi et al. 2005; Abeer et al. 2015; Hashem et al.
2019; Ghaffarian et al. 2020).
In addition to the phytoconstituents mentioned
above, syringaresinol, a compound of the lignan
group, was recently isolated from aerial parts of B.
indica (Othman et al. 2021a).
123
Biological activity
The biological activity studies conducted on the
representatives of the genus Bassia focused on
several plant species, including B. scoparia, B.
eriophora, B. muricata, B. indica, and B. prostrata.
It is interesting that most of the studies on B. scoparia
were carried out on fruits or seeds of the plant, while
the investigations of the other species were mainly
focused on the other aerial parts. The various
activities of extracts of Bassia species were evaluated, including anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic,
hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antimicrobic and tissueprotective potential. However, it should be mentioned
that published data on anti-inflammatory hypoglycemic and anti-obesity activity were limited
almost completely to Kochiae fructus.
It should be noted that not only in vitro tests, but
also in vivo studies were conducted. Additionally, in
several investigations, an attempt was made to
determine which components are responsible for the
observed activity of the extract.
Anti-inflammatory activity
The dried fruit of Bassia scoparia is commonly used
in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as an antiinflammatory agent, especially in skin disorders
(Chien et al. 2013; Chen et al. 2015, 2016; Weng
et al. 2016). The anti-inflammatory activity of
Kochiae fructus has been well documented in both
in vitro studies and in various animal models (see
Table 6). In most of the studies, acute inflammation
models were performed, including those of edema.
Due to the fact that skin inflammation often manifests
itself by itching, antipruritic activity was also investigated. The water and ethanol extracts of Kochiae
fructus were found to demonstrate the ability to
inhibit scratching behavior in animal models (see
Table 6). It should be noted that the extracts
demonstrated their anti-inflammatory activity
in vivo after oral administration and external
application.
The effect of Kochiae fructus on various types of
hypersensitivity was also investigated in animal
models (see Table 6). It was found that 70% extract
exhibited inhibitory activity in models of I, III and
IV-type of allergy (Matsuda et al. 1997b). The
activity of extracts in contact allergic dermatitis,
Phytochem Rev
Fig. 5 The main pathways involved in the anti-inflammatory
activity of extracts and compounds from Kochiae fructus.
Abbreviations: ERK extracellular signal-regulated kinase;
HNE human neutrophil elastase; ICAM-1 intercellular adhesion molecule-1; IL-1β interleukin-1β; IL-6 interleukin-6; IL10 interleukin-10; INF-γ interferon-gamma; JNK c-Jun
N-terminal kinases; MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinases;
MCP-1 monocyte chemotactic protein-1;MMP-9 matrix metalloproteinase-9; NFκB nuclear factor kappa B;PGE2
prostaglandin E; PPAR peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptors; ROS reactive oxygen species; TNF-α tumor necrosis
factor α; VCAM-1 vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
which can be classified as type IV hypersensitivity,
has been one of the most intensively studied. External
application of methanol or water extracts significantly inhibited inflammation in animal contact
dermatitis models (Choi et al. 2014; Jo et al. 2016).
Choi et al. (2014), revealed that 1% water extract
significantly reduced hyperplasia and thickening of
the dermis and epidermis (by 35.6% and 39.2%,
respectively) of mice in DNCB-induced dermatitis
model compared to the animal group without treatment. Furthermore, histological examination by Jo
et al. (2016), demonstrated that repeated topical
application of methanol extract inhibited epidermal
acanthosis, spongiosis and immune cell infiltration
(Jo et al. 2016) in mice with DNFB-induced contact
dermatitis model. The observed anti-inflammatory
effect as inhibition of ear swelling was comparable to
dexamethasone (Jo et al. 2016).
Matsuda (1997b) observed that, in addition to
antiallergic activity in type IV hypersensitivity,
Kochiae fructus also influenced direct passive arthus
reaction (DPAR) in rats, which is a type III allergic
model. In another study, Choi et al (2002) demonstrated the potential of methanol extract in Freund’s
complete adjuvant-induced arthritis in Sprague–Dawley rats (Choi et al. 2002).
In addition, B. scoparia extracts also showed
antiallergic potential in IgE-mediated hypersensitivity (type I). This type of allergy is associated with
eczema and asthma (Matsuda et al. 1997b; Lee et al.
2011). Ethanol extracts from fruits reduced the level
of interleukins (IL-4, IL-5) and the migration of
inflammatory cells into the lungs in the OVA-induced
asthma model in BALB/c mice. The effect may be
the result of inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9
(MMP-9) inhibition and reduction in the expression
of adhesive molecules (VCAM-1 and ICAM-1) in
lung tissue (Lee et al. 2011).
The published research postulates that Kochiae
fructus extracts exerted anti-inflammatory effects by
influencing various factors involved in the inflammatory response. Kochiae fructus methanol extract
123
Phytochem Rev
decreased the level of INF-γ, TNFα, IL-1β and MCP1 in the mouse model with DNCB-induced contact
dermatitis (Jo et al. 2016). The methanolic extract
was also observed to be a potent inhibitor of LPSinduced TNF-α, NO and PGE2 production in LPSinduced RAW cells 264.7 in vitro. The effect was
associated with LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 gene
expression by blocking nuclear factor kappa beta
(NFκB) activation (Shin et al. 2004). Furthermore,
Choi et al. (2014) point out that the anti-inflammatory
activity of B. scoparia can be regulated via NFκB and
MAP kinase pathways, such as ERK1/2, p38 and JNK
(Choi et al. 2014). Furthermore, recently, Kochiae
fructus was found to exert peroxisome proliferator
activated receptors (PPAR) α/γ dual agonistic activity, which can alleviate the inflammation process
(Jeon et al. 2016). Furthermore, the water extract
showed the ability to inhibit human neutrophil
elastase (HNE) (IC50 =79.53 μg/mL), the hydrolytic
enzyme that can cause damage to elastase-rich tissue,
and also promote inflammatory cell migration (Chen
et al. 2017).
The search for active compounds revealed that
various phytochemicals of Kochiae fructus could be
associated with an anti-inflammatory effect. Several
studies indicated that activity is related to saponins,
mainly momordin Ic (Fig. 3B) (Matsuda et al.
1997a, b). This monodesmosidic saponin suppressed
the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-6 as well as PGE2 in RAW 264.7 cells
stimulated with LPS (Yoo et al. 2017). Furthermore,
the anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, and antiallergic
potential of the compound was demonstrated in
several animal models as well (see Table 6) (Kubo
et al. 1997; Matsuda et al. 1997a, b). Furthermore, the
antipruritic effect of Kochiae fructus was also
attributed to saponins. However, it should be noted
that the structure of a particular saponin affected the
observed activity. Monodesmosides such as momordin Ic and oleanolic acid 3-O-glucuronide were
observed to alleviate scratching behavior, while
bidesmosides such as momordin IIc (Fig. 2) were
almost ineffective against itching induced using
compound 48/80 (Kubo et al. 1997; Matsuda et al.
1998a). However, Xiao et al. (2018) underlined that
anti-inflammatory activity is related to the flavonoid
fraction which was demonstrated using an animal
model of DNCB-induced contact dermatitis. The
flavonoid fraction, isolated from Kochiae fructus,
123
containing rutin (24 mg/g) and quercetin (18 mg/g),
after topical application, was found to reduce the
level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and simultaneously increase the level of anti-inflammatory
interleukin IL-10. Additionally, a significant decrease
in tissue monocyte infiltration was observed. These
effects could be the result of NFκB suppression via
the ERK/TLR4 pathway. It should be mentioned that
the flavonoid fraction exerted an effect comparable to
a positive control (prednisolone acetate; 2.5 mg/kg)
(Xiao et al. 2018).
In turn, Chen et al. (2017) with the use of
bioactivity-guided fractionation revealed that the
effect of the water extract of Kochiae fructus should
be attributed to the polysaccharide fraction. It significantly reduced the activity of human neutrophil
elastase with an IC50 value of 3.74 μg/mL. Furthermore, the polysaccharide rich fraction was also active
in the LPS–induced acute lung injury model in mice
(Chen et al. 2017).
Summarizing the current state of art, the postulated main pathways involved in the antiinflammatory activity of the extracts and compounds
from Kochiae fructus are presented in Fig. 5.
To our knowledge, in addition to anti-inflammatory investigations on B. scoparia, there is only one
report devoted to another species of Bassia. Musa
et al. 2016, demonstrated that the ethanol extract of
aerial parts of B. eriophora (250, 500 and 750 mg/kg;
i.p.) possessed the ability to inhibit swelling in the
carrageenan-induced model of paw edema in rats
(Musa et al. 2016).
Antinociceptive activity
The antinociceptive potential of some Bassia species
was investigated using an acetic acid-induced writing
test and a hot-plate test. The 90% ethanol extract of
aerial parts from B. eriophora (250 and 500 mg/kg, p.
o.) was found to cause an analgesic effect in both
tests. The animals were treated with the extract after
90 min. and showed an increase in reaction time,
which was comparable to indomethacin (4 mg/kg)
(8.1±0.18; 8.1±0.12; 9.18±0.22, respectively)
[control: 5.82±0.13]. In the writhing method,
extracts (250 and 500 mg/kg, p.o) also demonstrated
significant antinociceptive activity (55.14% and
68.38%) when compared to the control vehicle
group, however the effect was slightly worse than
Phytochem Rev
observed for indomethacin (86%) (Yusufoglu 2015a).
Musa et al. (2016) also confirmed the antinociceptive
activity of the ethanol extract of the aerial parts of B.
eriophora using the hot plate test, but the significant
effect was observed only at high doses (500 mg/kg
and 750 mg/kg, p.o) (Musa et al. 2016). In turn,
Matsuda et al. (1997a, b) revealed that 70% extract of
Kochiae fructus (500 mg/kg) demonstrated activity
only in the acetic acid-induced writhing model
(Matsuda et al. 1997a). Different results were
provided by Choi et al. (2002), who investigated
the activity of the ethanolic extract of Kochie fructus
and fractions (chloroform, ethyl acetate, butanol)
derived from the extract. All extracts (100 and
200 mg/kg; p.o.) revealed an analgesic effect in both
hot plate and writhing tests in male Sprague–Dawley
rats (Choi et al. 2002). Furthermore, the triterpenes
isolated from the extract, such as momordin Ic and
oleanolic acid (5, 10 mg/kg, i.p.) were also active in
both models (Choi et al. 2002). Further studies
revealed that momordin Ic (20,50,100 mg/kg, p.o.)
alleviated the pain response but only in the second
(late) phase of the formalin test, suggesting that its
antinociceptive activity is mainly associated with
anti-inflammatory activity (Matsuda et al. 1997a). On
the other hand, Bassia extracts also showed activity
in the hot plate test, which is considered to integrate
supraspinal pathways (Deuis et al. 2017). This
suggests that apart from anti-inflammatory activity,
other mechanisms may also be involved in antinociceptive effect, but this issue requires in-depth
research.
Cytotoxic activity
Most published studies on the cytotoxic activity of
the Bassia genus concern B. scoparia species, while
two articles describe the activity of B. indica (AbdelHamid et al. 2017; Aboul-Enein et al. 2012) and one
B. muricata (Al-Barri et al. 2021). Interestingly, only
two of the reviewed papers defined, at least partially,
the chemical content of the extracts studied (Cho
et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2014a) and one paper
provided a full chemical characterization of the
essential oil of B. scoparia seeds which was the
object of the study (Kianinodeh et al. 2017). Most of
the results indicate a rather weak cytotoxic potential
of Bassia extracts.
The weak cytotoxic activity of the water and
ethanol extract prepared from B. indica whole plant
against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells was observed,
with a decrease of 2.88 and 1.6% decrease in cell
viability (Abdoul-Enein et al. 2012). A similar weak
activity of the ethanolic extract of the whole plant of
B. indica was described for HepG2 cells, with IC50
120.5 μg/mL, while for the control cytostatic 5-FU,
the IC50 value was 237.56 μg/mL. The extract was
combined with 5-FU, and the most effective ratio,
namely 5-FU/Bassia 1:2, decreased cell viability up
to 48%, with a combination index of 0.996, suggesting a synergistic effect (Abdel-Hamid et al. 2017). In
another study, a similar weak effect of Kochiae
fructus aqueous and 50% ethanol extracts was
investigated on the same HepG2 cells, after 4 and
24 h. Despite the difference in momordin Ic content,
both extracts revealed a comparable, weak cytotoxic
activity. Extracts at the dose of 1 mg/mL for 4 h or
0.1 mg/mL for 24 h decreased cell viability to
approximately 60–70%, while almost total inhibition
of cell viability was observed at doses as high as
5 mg/mL (Wang et al. 2014a). The methanolic extract
of B. scoparia seeds revealed only weak cytotoxic
activity in human lung A549 and colon Col2 cancer
cells, with an IC50 exceeding 20 µg/mL (Nam and
Lee 2000). Other studies present the cytotoxic impact
of ethanolic extract of B. scoparia seeds on human
neuroblastoma N-2A cells, with LC50 0.147 mg/mL.
Although the authors classified the effect as strong,
the value seems to indicate rather weak activity
(Mazzio et al. 2009). B. scoparia seed ethanolic
(80%) extract was evaluated for the possibility of its
use in psoriasis. The in vitro experiment was carried
out on HaCaT cells and proliferation was measured
by SRB and MTT assays. The extract revealed a
rather weak effect in decreasing keratinocyte proliferation, with IC50 185.7 and 125.0 µg/mL for the
SRB and MTT assay, respectively (Tse et al. 2006).
B. muricata whole plant was extracted with
different solvents, namely methanol, ethanol, or the
combination of methanol:chloroform:water (12:5:1),
and the cytotoxicity of the extracts was examined
against human lymphocytes and Chinese hamster
ovary CHO cells. Not only was none of the extracts
toxic to the tested cells, but an increase in cell
viability was also observed during exposure at
concentrations of up to 2 mg/mL (Al-Barri et al.
2021).
123
Phytochem Rev
Several reports provide data on the mechanism of
action of Bassia extracts. The cytotoxic potential of
the methanolic extract of B. scoparia seeds was
evaluated in a panel of prostate cancer cells, differing
in metastatic potential: LNCaP, PC-3, RC-58 T, but
also normal prostate epithelial cells RWPE-1, with
IC50 89.25, 123.41,141.62 and[250 µg/mL, respectively. The subtoxic dose of the extract (20 µg/mL)
significantly suppressed VEGF-induced migration,
invasion and formation of capillary-like structures of
human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)
and micro vessels that sprout from rat aortic rings.
The extract also downregulated the phosphorylation
of VEGFR2 and the level of PI3K/AKT/mTOR,
which resulted in decreased angiogenesis in HUVECs
(Cho et al. 2019). Similar results on the antiangiogenic effect of Kochiae fructus extract were published
by Na et al. (2006). The extract decreased the
expression of the antiangiogenic protein HIF-1α
(hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α) in HepG2 and HaCaT
cells, and also reduced the level of VEGF and iNOS
in HaCaT cells. The results indicate that the extract
may be an antiangiogenic and anti-inflammatory
agent useful in decreasing tumor progression (Na
et al. 2006).
The methanolic extract of B. scoparia mature
fruits was found to influence proliferation rate, cell
cycle arrest, the generation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) and the stimulation of apoptosis in human
breast MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. The results
showed a dose-dependent decrease in cell proliferation, with IC50 36.2 μg/mL. Furthermore, the extract
at 25 μg/mL significantly increased the sub-G1 DNA
content in cells to 44.7%, when compared to
untreated cells, and also increased pro-apoptotic
proteins such as cleaved caspase 3, cleaved caspase
8, cleaved caspase 9 and cleaved Poly (ADP-ribose)
polymerase (PARP), leading to cell apoptosis (Han
et al 2014). In their further studies, the authors
examined the effect of Bassia scoparia mature fruit
methanolic extract on human (Ca9-22 and HSC-4)
and murine (AT-84) oral squamous cell carcinoma,
and also on human HaCaT keratinocytes. The extract
arrested cancer cells in the sub-G1 phase, and also led
the cells to apoptosis, by activating caspase-3 and -9
through the p38 MAPK pathway. Importantly, normal HaCaT cells were not affected (Han et al. 2016).
To our knowledge, there is only one report devoted
to evaluating the cytotoxic potential and mechanism
123
of action of essential oil from Bassia plants. The
essential oil from mature fruits of B. scoparia,
obtained by the Clevenger apparatus, which contained alkanes as main constituents (n-tetracosane, ntricosane, n-docosane, n-henicosane, n-eicosane),
was tested in human breast cancer MCF-7 and
normal HU02 fibroblast cells after 24, 48 and 72 h
of incubation. The substance tested inhibited the
viability of MCF-7 cells, with IC50 125 μg/mL (72 h),
while normal cells were not affected. Furthermore,
incubation of MCF-7 cells with essential oil resulted
in changes in cellular morphology, manifested as
star-shaped cells, vacuolation, cytoplasmic and cellular shrinkage. Pyknotic nuclei were also observed,
suggesting stimulation of apoptosis in cells (Kianinodeh et al. 2017).
Despite the large amount of in vitro data, so far
only one animal study on Bassia extracts has been
carried out. The anticancer properties of the methanolic extract of mature B. scoparia fruits were described
in vivo, in C3H mice implanted with 3105AT-84 oral
squamous cell carcinoma. The animals in the experimental groups received low (1 mg/kg body weight),
medium (3 mg/kg body weight) or high (5 mg/kg
body weight) doses of the extract, while the control
animals were treated with a vehicle of 5% ethanol.
The extract was introduced by intratumor injection
once every two days (four times in total). The extract
significantly reduced tumor volume in a dose-dependent manner, with the highest dose being the most
effective. The authors also noted that the extract did
not induce systemic toxicity and that no loss of body
weight was also observed during treatment (Han et al.
2016).
Numerous reports indicate that momordin Ic,
(Fig. 3B) a metabolite of saponin group, may be
one of the active compounds of Kochiae fructus
extracts as it has well-documented cytotoxic activity.
Momordin Ic significantly reduced HaCaT cell viability, with IC50 of 168.70 and 76.40 μM/L for 24 and
48 h, respectively. The compound affected cell
morphology, resulting in cell shrinkage, but also
stimulated cell apoptosis and arrested the cells in
S-phase. Furthermore, momordin Ic treatment significantly decreased β-catenin, c-Myc, and VEGF
mRNA expression, compared to untreated cells, and
modified Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation by affecting β-catenin nuclear distribution. The authors
suggest that such activity of momordin Ic may be
Phytochem Rev
of interest in antipsoriasis therapy in the future (Luo
et al. 2021). In another study, the compound
promoted the formation of autophagic vacuole and
increased the expression of Beclin 1 and LC-3 in a
dose- and time-dependent manner in HepG2 cells.
The study results also revealed the crosstalk between
autophagy and apoptosis stimulation by the compound, which simultaneously induced both processes
by suppressing ROS-mediated PI3K/Akt and activating the ROS-related JNK and P38 pathways (Mi et al.
2016). Another study in the same HepG2 cellular
model indicated that the compound induced apoptosis
in cells, manifested as DNA fragmentation, caspase-3
activation, and PARP cleavage. In addition, momordin Ic stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS)
production and decreased mitochondrial membrane
potential, cytochrome c release, down-regulation of
Bcl-2 and up-regulation of Bax expression. Activation of p38 and JNK, inactivation of Erk1/2 and Akt,
and alterations in the expression of iNOS and HO-1
were also observed after treatment with the compound. These results indicated that momordin Ic
induced apoptosis through mitochondrial dysfunction
regulated by oxidative stress involving the MAPK
and PI3K-mediated iNOS and HO-1 pathways (Wang
et al. 2013). In their further studies, the authors
investigated the detailed mechanisms of momordin Ic
apoptosis stimulation in HepG2 cells. The results
demonstrated that momordin Ic activated PPARɣ and
inhibited COX-2. PGC-1α and FoxO4 expressions
were increased by the PI3K or MAPK pathways,
while inhibition of PPARɣ decreased the expression
of p-p38 and FoxO4, and restored COX-2 expression.
ROS inhibition affected mainly PGC-1α expression,
while PPARɣ, COX-2 and FoxO4 expression was
almost unaffected (Wang et al. 2014b).
In mouse fibroblast NIH 3T3 cells, momordin I
suppressed the activator protein-1 (AP-1), an important protein in cellular signaling, responsible for the
induction of several genes in response to physiological signals. Furthermore, momordin Ic also
decreased the de novo synthesis of the AP-1 protein.
The authors also suggest that the inhibitory site of
momordin Ic might be in the Jun/Fos dimer and not in
DNA, and the basic region of c-Jun is the most
probable inhibitory action site (Park et al. 2000).
Momordin Ic inhibited the proliferation of KB oral
carcinoma cells with IC50 10.4 µg/mL. Furthermore,
the compound caused chromosomal DNA
fragmentation and at a concentration of 20 µg/mL
stimulated apoptosis in cells (approximately 20%
apoptotic cells after 72 h) (Seo et al. 2007).
The small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) protease, SENP1, plays an important role in cellular
inflammation by regulating proteins in SUMOylation.
Some studies suggest that momordin Ic might be a
novel SENP1 inhibitor. In one of the studies
momordin Ic reduced LPS-induced cellular inflammation in the RAW 264.7 macrophages model by
depressing SENP1 expression. Furthermore, the
effect of SENP1 on the LPS-induced inflammatory
response was dependent on the interaction of SENP1Sp3 and the promotion of Sp3 (transcription factor
controlling the expression of genes involved in the
cell cycle and inflammation response) expression by
deSUMOylation of Sp3. Furthermore, momordin Icdepressed Sp3 expression altered the Sp3-nuclear
factor (NF)-κB interaction, which decreased cellular
inflammation (Zheng et al. 2020). SUMO-specific
protease 1 (SENP1), a member of the de-SUMOylation protease family, is elevated in prostate cancer
cells and is involved in cancer pathogenesis.
Momordin Ιc inhibited SENP1 in vitro and altered
the thermal stability of SENP1. Furthermore, the
compound increased SUMOylated protein levels,
namely hypoxia inducible factor-1α and nucleus
accumbens associated protein 1 in PC3 prostate
cancer cells, and also reduced SENP1 mRNA levels
in cells. The authors suggest that momordin Ic may
have therapeutic potential in prostate cancer (Wu
et al. 2016). Another study focused on the effect of
momordin Ic on a panel of colon cancer cells. The
compound decreased the viability of colon cancer
CT-116, HCT-8, SW480 and HT-29 cells, with IC50
values ranging from 6.40 to 12.79 µM. As HCT-116
and HCT-8 cells were most vulnerable (IC50 6.40 and
6.83 µM, respectively) they were used in subsequent
experiments. Momordin Ic stimulated apoptosis in
cells, and arrested cells in the G0/1 phase of the cell
cycle. Furthermore, the compound enhanced the
SUMOylation of c-Myc, which led to the downregulation of the c-Myc protein. The authors conclude
that momordin Ic revealed its cytotoxic effect
through the SENP1/c-Myc signaling pathway (Xianjun et al. 2021).
In addition to in vitro studies, the antitumor
activity of momordin Ic was investigated in an
animal model. Momordin Ic was administered to
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Phytochem Rev
Balb/c nude mice implanted with PC3 prostate cancer
cells, at a dose of 10 mg/kg daily for 20 days. On day
20, the xenograft tumors treated with the compound
were less than those of the control group (p\0.05).
The authors observed the accumulation of SUMO1and SUMO2/3-modified proteins in PC3 tumor
xenografts treated with momordin Ic. However, a
slight decrease in body weight was observed in the
momordin Ic-treated group compared to the control
group (Wu et al. 2016).
Although most of the research on cytotoxic
activity has focused on momordin Ic, a single report
on other compounds isolated from Bassia species has
also been published recently. Three new steroidal
glycosides, kochioside 1A1, kochioside 2A1 and
kochioside 3A1, isolated from Kochia prostrata, were
examined in a brine shrimp lethality assay, and their
potential was comparable to the standard drug
etoposide, with LD50 8.3201, 8.8205, 8.2310, and
7.4625 μg/mL, respectively (Irfan et al. 2020).
Hypoglycemic activity and anti-obesity activity
The ethanol extract of Kochiae fructus demonstrated
an anti-obesity effect in diet-induced obese mice.
Oral administration of extracts together with the
high-fat diet (1%, 3%) prevented weight gain. After
9 weeks, a reduction in fat storage was also observed
(Han et al. 2006). A similar anti-obesity effect was
found for the infusion of B. scoparia seeds prepared
from 1.5 g of seeds/100 mL; 3 g of seeds/100 mL; 6 g
of seeds/100 mL. Consumption of a high-fat diet with
infusions (ad libitum) for 12 weeks by Wistar rats
with diet-induced metabolic syndrome resulted in a
reduction in retroperitoneal fat weight and the
corresponding fat index. Furthermore, infusions
dose-dependently inhibited the elevation in cholesterol level induced by diet (Gancheva et al. 2020).
The alleviation of the increase in plasma triglyceride
levels by Kochiae fructus ethanol extract (250 mg/g)
and its total saponins (100 mg/g), after oral administration of the lipid emulsion, was also reported by
Han et al. (2006). Further investigation (in vitro)
revealed that the antiobesity effect of Kochiae fructus
could be associated with saponins, such as momordin
Ic, 2′-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl momordin Ic and 2′-Oβ-D-glucopyranosyl momordin IIc which act as
pancreatic lipase inhibitors (Han et al 2006). Furthermore, momordin can also induce an antiobesity
123
effect via PPARδ (peroxisome-proliferator activatedreceptor) mediated mechanism (Sasa et al. 2009).
PPARs play a role in the regulation of not only
lipid but also glucose homeostasis (Gawrieh et al.
2021). The methanol extract (500 mg/kg) of Kochiae
fructus and its butanol fraction (200 mg/kg) exhibited
a significant hypoglycemic effect in glucose-loaded
rats. Oral administration of extracts decreased serum
glucose level by 53–58% compared to the control
group (Yoshikawa et al. 1997b). Further research
based on bioassay-guided fractionation showed that
triterpene saponins were responsible for the hypoglycemic activity of the extracts (Yoshikawa et al.
1997b). Dai and Liu, (2002), observed that oral
administration of the total saponin fraction of
Kochiae fructus also inhibits the increase in serum
glucose in alloxan-induced hyperglycemic mice.
Structure activity-relationship (SAR) observations
on isolated Kochiae fructus saponins revealed that
the free carboxyl group at C-17 (28-COOH) in
oleanane-type saponins, as well as the presence of the
3-O-glucuronide moiety in the sugar part, is essential
for hypoglycemic activity in vivo. Monodesmosides
of oleanolic acid that have a glucoside unit in the
sugar chain attached to the C-3 of the aglycone were
slightly less effective (Yoshikawa et al. 1997b;
Matsuda et al. 1998b, 1999a). Furthermore, it was
found that the mechanism of hypoglycemic action
after oral administration of saponins is related to
inhibition of gastric emptying and therefore the
transfer of food to the small intestine (Matsuda
et al. 1998a, 1999a, 1999b). It depends on serum
glucose level and is mediated, inter alia, by capsaicinsensitive sensory nerves (Matsuda et al. 1999b). In
addition, an in vitro study revealed that momordin Ic
and oleanolic acid 3-O-glucuronide also inhibited
glucose uptake in the rat small intestine (Matsuda
et al. 1998b).
Antioxidant activity in vitro
In recent years, phytochemical research has focused
on the analysis of phenolic compounds in Bassia
species. Phenolics are substances with a well-documented antioxidant effect, therefore, the antioxidant
potential of different extracts of Bassia species were
also studied. Most articles provide data on the
different extracts prepared from aerial parts (leaves,
shoots, fruits) of Bassia plants (Wang et al. 2014a;
Phytochem Rev
Yusufoglu et al. 2015a; Mohammedi et al. 2019;
Gancheva et al. 2020) and fractions obtained by
partitioning extracts with solvents of increasing
polarity (Chemsa et al. 2016; Khalil et al. 2017; Said
et al. 2021). Among the studies, the assays based on
the DPPH method predominated. The results of
studies on the antioxidant potential of Bassia plants
are presented in Table S1 (Supplementary
information).
Khalil et al. (2017) evaluated the antioxidant
potential of different plant parts (leaves, steams,
roots) of B. eriophora. A significant DPPH radical
scavenging effect (IC50 =19.2–46 µg/mL) of the ethyl
acetate and butanol fraction of the 70% methanol
extract was observed. A slightly lower antiradical
potential was determined for the water fraction (IC50
39.9 to 73.2 μg/mL). In turn, both the chloroform and
the hexane fraction of the ethanol extract have the
lowest ability to eliminate DPPH radicals (IC50 [
100 μg/mL). It is interesting that no significant
differences in activity were found between extracts
obtained from different parts of B. eriophora. In
another study on B. eriophora, Said et al. (2021),
revealed that 40% methanolic fraction obtained by
elution of methanol (80%) extract from aerial parts of
the plant on the C-18 short column has good
antioxidant potential. The fraction had IC50 values
of 177.8 µg/mL in the DPPH test and showed
concentration-dependent total antioxidant capacity
(TAC) and reducing power (RP). The authors underline the positive correlation between TAC and RP
with total flavonoid content. It should be noted that
the fraction analysed was defined by LC–MS/MS,
which led to tentative detection of 28 flavonoids
(acetylated and non-acetylated compounds). In the
same study, further theoretical calculations on the O–
H bond dissociation enthalpy (BDE) allowed the
antioxidant activity to be linked to the location of
hydroxyl groups in the flavonoid structure. The value
of BDE decreased in structures with two adjacent
hydroxyl groups. Therefore, such structures should
have significant antioxidant potential (Said et al.
2021).
Antiradical activity was also investigated in hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts from aerial
parts of B. indica. The results showed that the most
potent effect was observed in methanol and water
extracts with IC50 values of 1.30 µg/mL and 1.39 µg/
mL as well as TEAC values of 1.44 mM and
3.60 mM in the DPPH and ABTS assays, respectively. The ABTS-free radical elimination effect of
the water extract was higher than observed for the
reference BHT (TEAC=1.80 mM) and slightly lower
than the anti-DPPH potential (IC50 =0.91 µg/mL in
DPPH). Compared to those extracts, the scavenging
effect of hexane extract was much lower with IC50
values of 2.18 µg/mL in the DPPH test and 0.17 mM
Trolox in the ABTS assay. It can be associated with a
lower phenolic content in the hexane extract (5 mg
PyE/100 g of extract) compared to the methanol and
water extract (146 and 72 mg PyE/100 g of extract,
respectively) (Bouaziz et al. 2009).
Several studies were also conducted to establish
the antiradical activity of extracts of B. muricata.
Mohammedi et al. (2019) revealed that methanol
extracts from the aerial parts had stronger DPPH
radical scavenging activity (EC50 =5–5.03 mg/L) than
aqueous (EC50 =5.86–5.90 mg/L), ethanol (EC50 =
6.12–6.40 mg/L), acetone (EC50 =6.70–7.14 mg/L)
and hexane extracts (EC50 =7.42–8.03 mg/L). However, water extracts were the most potent in the ferric
reducing capacity assay (EC50 =1.39–2.60 mg/L) and
β-carotene bleaching (EC50 =5.31-6.0 mg/L). The
authors noted that the high antioxidant activity of
methanol and water extracts is strictly associated with
a high polyphenol content (TPC=122.15–144.82 mg
of GAE / g of methanol extract and 98–100.12 mg of
GAE / g of water extract). Furthermore, in the same
study it was observed that the type of extraction
technique used (MAE, Soxhlet, maceration) had no
significant effect on the measured values of antioxidant activity (Mohammedi et al. 2019).
Recently, the essential oil of the B. muricata
shoots, extracted by hydrodistillation by Abd-ElGawad et al. (2020), was tested for its DPPH and ABTS
radical scavenging activity. To our knowledge, this
was the only study on the antioxidant potential of
essential oil of any Bassia species. The study
revealed that the essential oil eliminated DPPH
radicals with an IC50 value of 20.70 µL/mL and
acted as anti-ABTS (IC50 =16.32 µL/mL). The
authors suggested that considerable antioxidant
potential may be associated with a large amount of
oxygenated sesquiterpenes (53.18%), detected by the
GC–MS method in the oil, including hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (47.34%) (Abd-ElGawad et al. 2020).
Unlike other Bassia species, the analysis of the
antioxidant potential of B. scoparia focuses on the
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Phytochem Rev
study of dried fruits, which are a valued medicinal
agent in traditional Chinese medicine. Wang et al.
(2014a) revealed that the water and ethanol (50%)
extract of Kochiae fructus possess the ability to
reduce the ferricyanide complex (Fe3+) to the ferrous
form (Fe2+) in the FRAP assay. Furthermore, extracts
not only demonstrated the potential to eliminate
DPPH (IC50 =0.24–0.31 mg/mL) and ATBS radicals
(IC50 =0.35–0.43 mg/mL) but also showed superoxide anion (IC50 =5.42–6.64 mg/mL) and hydroxyl
radical scavenger properties (IC50 =0.23 mg/mL and
IC50 =2.25 mg/mL, ethanol extract and water extract,
respectively) (Wang et al. 2014a). Reactive hydroxyl
radicals, superoxide anion, and their by-products may
cause oxidative damage to biomolecules. Wang et al.
(2014a) confirmed that water and ethanol (50%)
extracts of Kochiae fructus (0.1–7 mg/mL) were able
to dose-dependently inhibit the free radical-induced
destruction of biomolecules. Extracts (0.1–7 mg/mL)
inhibited lipid peroxidation in the range of 3–80%
(compared to the control group). The ethanol extract
was found to almost completely suppress lipid
peroxidation (at 7 mg/mL). Furthermore, at a much
lower concentration, 50% ethanol extract (0.1 mg/
mL) significantly suppressed protein oxidative damage by 73%, while water extract exerted similar
activity with a dose of 10 mg/mL. It should be noted
that both the ethanol and water extracts (at 0.1–7 mg/
mL) effectively protected DNA from oxidative
damage by 19–70% and 4–40%, respectively. The
authors indicated that the observed effect, especially
observed in the ethanol extract, may be related to the
presence of momordin Ic. It is interesting that this
triterpene saponin was able to protect free radicalinduced protein oxidation in a dose-dependent manner (Wang et al. 2014a). Momordin Ic (at 1 µM=
0.76 µg/mL) showed significant activity in the model
of AAPH- as well as Cu2+/H2O2 -mediated oxidative
damage ([80% intact proteins) (Wang et al. 2014a).
Published reports indicate that some of the extracts
of Bassia plants, especially those rich in polyphenols,
show significant antioxidant potential. As a result of
the different methods of processing the plant material, it is very difficult to compare these results with
each other. It should be noted that to date no analyses
have been published that compare the antioxidant
activity of several species of Bassia under the same
conditions. To the best of our knowledge, only one
analysis has been performed to date comparing the
123
activity of two species: B. indica and B. muricata
(Bouaziz et al. 2009). The study showed significant
differences in the content of phenolic compounds and
the antioxidant activity of the extracts depending on
the type of extractant used (see Table S1, Supplementary information). The water extracts of aerial
parts of B. indica showed the strongest antioxidant
activity in the ABTS assay, even higher than the
reference substance (BHT) (Bouaziz et al. 2009).
Although in vitro models may provide preliminary
information on the activity of the extracts, they do not
always reflect in vivo conditions. Recently, the
antioxidant potential of B. scoparia and B. eriophora
was investigated using animal models. The studies
were related to the hepatoprotective and nephroprotective potential of the extracts (see next section).
Hepato-, nephro-, gastro- and neuroprotective
activity
Kim et al. (2005a), revealed that Kochiae fructus had
a hepatoprotective effect against CCl4-induced liver
damage in Wistar rats. Pre-treatment with methanol
and the butanol fraction derived from the extract
(200 mg/kg body weight; p.o.; once a day for 14 days)
resulted in a significant reduction in serum levels of
aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase
(ALT), lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) and liver concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
(TBARS) in the CCl4 treated rats. Furthermore, both
extracts significantly inhibited the reduction in glutathione, glutathione-S-transferase, and glutathione
reductase activity produced by CCl4. The study
demonstrated that the hepatoprotective effect of B.
scoparia was closely related to the antioxidant
activity of the extracts and increased the hepatic
antioxidant potential (Kim 2005a). Gancheva et al.
(2020) came to similar conclusions by examining the
protective potential of the infusion of B. scoparia
seeds in Wistar rats with diet-induced metabolic
syndrome. The animals received a high-calorie
diet along with infusions (ad libitum) prepared with
the use of 100 mL of boiling water and 1.5 g, 3 g and
6 g of seeds, respectively. After 12 weeks of
treatment, all infusions demonstrated antioxidant
activity in vivo in a dose-dependent manner. In the
group of animals with metabolic syndrome, which
were administered infusion made from 6 g of seeds,
the most potent decrease in thiobarbituric acid
Phytochem Rev
reactive substances (TBARS) in serum, comparable
to healthy rats on a regular rat chow diet was
observed. Furthermore, the histopathological study
demonstrated that pre-treatment with infusion prevents the appearance of liver lesions (Gancheva et al.
2020). Although no bioassay-guided fractionations
were performed in the investigation, the authors
assumed that oleanolic acid and momordin Ic are the
hepatoprotective substances in Kochia fructus as they
are known to exert the effect (30 mg/g body weight;
p.o.; once a day for 14 days) in the CCl4-induced
liver damage model in rats (Kim et al. 2005b). It is
interesting that in the scientific literature there are
also some reports on the gastroprotective potential of
momordin Ic, oleanolic acid 3-O-glucuronide against
ethanol- and indomethacin-induced gastric mucosal
lesions in rats (Matsuda et al. 1998c, 1999c). However, to our knowledge, no reports on such activity of
extracts of Bassia species have been published.
Among Bassia species, B. eriophora also revealed
a preventive potential in vitro, not for liver but kidney
damage. To assess plant activity, the CCl4-induced
lipid peroxidation model (Albino Wistar rats) and
post-test measurement of the level of malondialdehyde in nephritic tissues, as well as histopathological
investigation, were used. The study revealed that pretreatment with 90% alcoholic extract from aerial
parts of the plant (250 mg/kg body weight, p.o. and
500 mg/kg body weight p.o./six days) influenced
kidney functions as a reduction in serum creatinine
and urea levels was observed in animals intoxicated
with CCl4. Furthermore, the amount of total proteins,
which represents the level of damage, was maintained
as in normal rats. The extract of B. eriophora also
significantly prevented the elevation of malondialdehyde, a marker of oxidative stress, in the kidney
tissue of rats intoxicated with CCl4. Finally,
histopathological studies confirmed that pre-treatment of animals with B. eriophora extract
significantly and dose-dependently reduced injuries
such as vacuolization of the cytoplasm of the
epithelial lining of renal tubules induced by CCl4
intoxication. The authors emphasize that kidney
protective activity results from the antioxidant and
free radical scavenging potential and may be related
to polyphenol compounds in the extract of B.
eriophora (Yusufoglu et al. 2015a).
Recently, Othman et al. (2022) demonstrated the
neuroprotective effect of methanol extract of aerial
parts or B. indica. To our knowledge, this was the
only study on such activity of any Bassia species. The
study revealed that the extract showed inhibitory
activity against MAO-B (IC50 =8.7; selegiline: IC50 =
0.55 μg/mL), BACE-1 (IC50 =28.9 μg/mL;
LY2811376: IC50 =0.8 μg/mL) and neurotoxic Aβ142 aggregation (IC50 =40.6 μg/mL; tecrine: IC50 =
1.93 μg/mL) in vitro. Furthermore, B. indica extract
reduced the concentration of phosphorylated tauprotein to 6.62 pg/mL (control=10.8 pg/mL;
LY2811376: IC50 =2.09 pg/mL). The search for
active compounds revealed that phenylpropanoid
amides, such as N-trans-feruloyl-3-methoxytyramine
and S-(-)-N-trans-feruloyl octopamine, which occur
in aerial parts of B. indica, are associated with the
neuroprotective effect of the extract. N-trans-feruloyl-3-methoxytyramine (NTFT) exerted potent
inhibitory activity against MAO-B, BACE-1 and
Aβ1-42 aggregation with IC50 =0.71 μg/mL, IC50 =
5.39 μg/mL, IC50 =0.3 μg/mL, respectively. NTFT
also demonstrated a significant effect in reducing the
concentration of phosphorylated tau-protein (to
1.62 pg/mL; control=10.8 pg/mL; LY2811376:
IC50 =2.09 pg/mL) (Othman et al. 2022). Furthermore, Khan et al. (2021) noted that NTFT exerts a
stimulating effect on neurothrophins and the neurogenesis process through the TrkA/ERK /CREB
pathway (Khan et al. 2021). Thangnipon et al.
(2012) also indicated that the neuroprotective effect
of NTFT against AAβ1–42-induced neuronal death
may be associated with its antioxidant activity
(Thangnipon et al. 2012). These studies on B. indica
and isolated phenylpropanoid amides have provided
promising results and thus should be the subject of
further in-depth analyzes on neuroprotection and
prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.
Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic activity
Antibacterial activity studies in representatives of the
Bassia genus have been conducted mainly on extracts
from aerial parts of plants, including fruits of B.
scoparia, prepared with the use of different solvents.
Most of the research has been carried out using agar
diffusion methods, but studies on the determination
of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) have also
been performed. The list of antimicrobial studies is
presented in Table S2 (Supplementary information).
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Phytochem Rev
In a preliminary study on the antimicrobial
potential of B. eriophora, ethanol extract from aerial
parts of the plant was found to inhibit Escherichia
coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus vulgaris
growth (Al-Mussawi et al. 2014). Activity toward S.
aureus and E. coli was also observed for fractions
obtained by partitioning 70% ethanol extract from
different parts of B. eriophora plant (leaves, roots,
stem) with hexane, ethyl acetate, and water. All
extracts, but especially the water fraction from the
roots and stems, exhibited high activity towards S.
aureus, with inhibition zones between 27 and 40 mm
(control: oxacillin 19 mm; erythromycin 22 mm). In
turn, moderate activity towards E. coli was observed
for the water extract of the roots and stems, as well as
the ethyl acetate fraction of the stem (Khalil et al.
2017). In another study, the antibacterial activity of
95% ethanolic extract of aerial parts of B. eriophora
against not only methicillin-sensitive S. aureus
(MSSA) but also resistant (MRSA) strains were
evaluated. The extract was found to inhibit the
growth of both MSSA and MRSA strains, with MIC
values of 25–75 μg/mL and 75 μg/mL, respectively.
Interestingly, the authors also performed analyzes
that evaluated the possibility of using B. eriophora
extract to create an antibacterial layer on textiles
against S. aureus. Furthermore, they indicate that
anti-S. aureus fabrics do not lose their antibacterial
properties, even after two washing cycles (prepared
according to the test method 61(2A)-1996, the
American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists) (Alsaggaf et al. 2018). The potential of
B. scoparia for MRSA was also investigated. The nhexane fraction of the Kochiae fructus ethanol extract
exhibited significant activity (MIC=7.8–31.25 μg/
mL; ampicilin 31.25–1000 μg/mL; oxacilin 500–
1000 μg/mL), whereas the butanol, ethyl acetate and
water fraction did not inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Furthermore, synergy in antibacterial activity was
observed between the hexane fraction and antibiotics
(oxacillin or ampicillin) (Joung et al. 2012). ElShamy et al. (2012), investigated the antibacterial
effect of essential oil from B. scoparia shoots.
Although the oil significantly inhibited the growth
of E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, and S. aureus (MIC=
12.5 μg/mL, 12.5 μg/mL and 25.0 μg/mL, respectively), the effect was lower compared to
cefroperazone (MIC=0.8 μg/mL). The observed
123
effect was probably related to α-thujaplicin, which
is the major component of essential oil and has a
well-documented antimicrobial activity (Yamaguchi
et al. 1999; Morita et al. 2001; El-Shamy et al. 2012).
Among Bassia species, also alcoholic extracts of B.
muricata moderately suppressed the growth of B.
subtilis, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa., E. coli, which was
determined using the agar well diffusion method (AlBarri et al. 2021). In another study, the ethanol
extract from aerial parts of B. muricata (40 extract/
disc) showed antimicrobial activity against E. coli
and P. aeruginosa, which was comparable to amoxicilin (25/disc). Additionally, a moderate effect
against Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella enterica, and
Enterococcus faecalis was also observed (Chemsa
et al. 2016). Some reports investigating the antibacterial potential of aerial parts of B. indica can also be
found in the literature (Abdel-Hameed et al. 2008;
Bouaziz et al. 2009; Bibi et al. 2021; Ahmed et al.
2022). However, they provide contradictory information that can be associated with, among others,
different methods of processing plant material.
In addition to antibacterial activities, the antifungal potential of various extracts of Bassia plants was
also tested. Unfortunately, some of the studies are not
well documented, without a corresponding positive
control (antifungal drug) and seem not to be too
repetitive. Several reports provide preliminary data
that alcoholic extracts from aerial parts of B.
muricata, B. prostrata, and B. indica have moderate
activity towards some pathogenic fungus. B. muricata, B. indica, and B. scoparia inhibited Candida
albicans growth (Al-Barri et al. 2021; Ahmed et al.
2022) as well as B. prostrata was active toward
Candida glabrata, Microsporum canis, Aspergillus
flavus, and Trichophyton longifusus (Imran et al.
2017) (see Table S2). Most reports indicated inactivity of Bassia extracts toward Aspergillus niger or
A. fumigatus (Abdel-Hameed et al. 2008; Al-Barri
et al. 2021; Ahmed et al. 2022). Additionally, the
essential oil obtained from the B. scoparia shoots,
with α-thujaplicin as the main compound (22.91%),
did not inhibit the growth of A. niger, while it showed
moderate activity towards C. albicans (MIC=
12.5 μg/mL) (cefroperazone was used as a positive
control, MIC=5.0 μg/mL) (El-Shamy et al. 2012). In
another study, Liu et al. (2012) screened the antifungal activity of different extracts of Kochiae fructus
(0.2 g fruits/mL) towards Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Phytochem Rev
and C. albicans. The aqueous extract showed the best
fungistatic activity and suppressed growth by 52%
and 29%, respectively (control: miconazole (2 mg/
mL) inhibited growth by 89–90%). In turn, the
acetone extract exhibited a lower potential for both S.
cerevisiae and C. albicans (24% and 15%), while the
ethanol extract as well as the hexane extract showed a
poor activity (5–10%) (Liu et al. 2012). On the other
hand, ethanol extract of B. scoparia fruits (2 mg/mL)
strongly inhibited the growth of the plant necrotrophic fungus–Valsa mali (by 96.16% after 96 h).
Furthermore, the extract had a negative influence on
the functional stability of the mycelium (Xiaoyan
et al. 2019). Furthermore, Houlihan et al. (2019)
demonstrated that water exudates from B. scoparia
seeds suppress the formation of hyphae in Colletotrichum graminicola with a MIC value of
3.125 mg/L. However, it should be mentioned that
the exudates were inactive in relation to the other
fourteen fungus tested (Houlihan et al. 2019).
Significant inhibitory activity against Macrophomina phaseolina was also observed in the n-butanol
fraction of the leaf methanolic extract of Kochia
indica. At the concentrations tested (1.56–200 mg/
mL), the extract caused a reduction in the biomass of
this fungal plant pathogen in the range of 63–92%
(Javed et al. 2018b).
Unlike antimicrobial studies, data on the antiparasitic activity of Bassia species are scarce. The
methanol extract of the seeds of B. scoparia (100 μg/
mL) showed moderate activity (47% inhibition)
against the epimastigote stage of Trypanosoma cruzi
in axenic cultures (allopurinol was used as a positive
control, 67% inhibition) (Lirussi et al. 2004). In a
study on the antitoxoplasmal potential of B. eriophora, a methanol extract of aerial parts of the plant
(50 μg/mL) displayed very weak activity (5% of
inhibition) against Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites (Al
Nasr 2020). In turn, 95% methanol extract of B.
indica (100 and 200 μg/mL) was evaluated against
Schistosoma mansoni, but no activity was detected
(Abdel-Hameed et al. 2008). The reports published so
far clearly indicate a low potential of extracts from
Bassia species against analysed parasites, which
cause disease in humans.
However, there are reports that show significant
activity of B. scoparia extracts against animal and
plant pathogens. Lu et al. (2012a) examined the
antiparasitic potential of various extracts of fruits of
B. scoparia against the fish pathogen Dactylogyrus
intermedius using an in vivo anthelmintic efficacy
model in goldfish (Carassius auratus). The methanolic extract of the fruits of the plant demonstrated
potent activity with values of EC50 and EC90 of
31.28 mg/L and 52.52 mg/L (in bath), respectively.
Furthermore, the acute toxicity assay revealed that
the 48 h LC50 values (71.04 mg/L) are higher than
therapeutic concentrations. The other extracts tested
(petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetone)
exhibited a lower potential in the anthelmintic model
and caused fish mortality in the concentration range
90–130 mg/L (Lu et al. 2012a). In turn, Shi et al.
(2006) screened the acaricidal activity of extracts
from aerial parts of B. scoparia against the spider
mites Tetranychus cinnabarinus, Tetranychus urticae,
and Tetranychus viennensis, which are parasites on
many different plants and crops. All extracts showed
systemic and contact toxicity to mites. Chloroform
extract caused a strong mite mortality rate (73.3–
89.12%) and the effect was stronger than observed
for methanol extract (39.78–44.78%) and petroleum
ether extract (41.92–54.21%) (Shi et al. 2006). These
studies have provided promising results and thus
should be the subject of further in-depth analyses.
Other activities
In addition to the biological activities mentioned
above, some reports also demonstrated other effects
observed for some Bassia species. The aqueous
extract of Kochiae fructus (200 g/1500 mL) exerted
a decrease in stroke volume and pulse pressure in
beating rabbit atria. However, this inotropic activity
was not mediated by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
secretion (Lee et al. 2016). In another study, Kochiae
fructus water extract (20 mg/g, p.o.) demonstrated
improvement in heart function parameters in the
furazolidone-induced DCM model. Furthermore, the
extract showed a regulatory effect on Th1/Th2 cell
activity, which suppressed myocardial injury in
dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) (Zou et al. 2021).
Yusufoglu et al. (2015a) investigated the antipyretic potential of B. eriophora in the rat model of
yeast-induced pyrexia. The 90% ethanol extract
(250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg) from the aerial part of
the plant significantly reduced the elevated rectal
temperature (39.35 °C). 120 min after oral administration, the temperature decreased to 36.68 °C and
123
Phytochem Rev
35.83 °C, while indomethacin (4 mg/kg) reduced the
temperature to 35.45 °C. However, the mechanism of
action has not been evaluated. The ethanol extract of
aerial parts of B. eriophora (250, 500 and 750 mg/kg;
i.p.) was found to cause dose-independent skeletal
muscle relaxant activity using the rota-rot test in male
Swiss albino mice (Musa et al. 2016) as well. Recent
studies in animal models with seizures induced by
pentylentetrazol and electroshock indicate that essential oil from fresh leaves of B. scoparia (75, 150 and
300 mg/kg; p.o.) had anticonvulsant activity. Unfortunately, this study is only preliminary because no
phytochemical investigation was conducted on the
composition of essential oil. Therefore, it is not
known which phytoconstituents may be responsible
for activity (Imade et al. 2020). In turn, Othman et al.
(2021b) screened seventeen constituents isolated
from hydroalcoholic extract of aerial parts of B.
indica as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in vitro,
including a new acylated flavonol tetraglycoside
and a rare triglycoside. Among them, the most potent
were 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin and quercetin with IC50
values of 3.6 μg/mL and 18 μg/mL, respectively
(galantamine was used as a positive control, IC50 =
12.5 μg/mL). Flavonol glycosides: kaempferol-3-Oβ-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-[β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→3)-2-O-trans-feruloyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside (Fig. 2) and
isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-[αL-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside
(Fig. 3B) demonstrated weak activity (IC50 =250 μg/
mL) (Othman et al. 2021b).
Yusufoglu (2015b) investigated the wound healing
potency of gel preparations containing 1% and 2%
ethanol extract of the aerial part of B. indica. Both
formulations showed significant and dose-dependent
wound contracting ability in the excision wound
model in Albino Wistar rats. The reduction in wound
size caused by topical application (once a day for
20 days) of 2% gel was more potent than that
observed for 1% gel or Betadine (84.21%, 78.68%
and 60.25%, respectively vs. base gel 56.70%).
Safety of Bassia species
The scientific literature provides only a few data on
the toxicity of Bassia plant extracts. It is worth
noting, however, that some species have been clinically used in traditional medicinal systems, which
123
also provides information on their safety in humans.
One of such plants is B. scoparia. Toxicological
studies in mice indicated that Kochiae fructus water
extract demonstrated very low oral acute toxicity
with an LD50 value of 7.15 g/kg (Zou et al. 2021).
Furthermore, in two investigations, it was confirmed
that the ethanol extract from aerial parts of B.
eriophora also exhibited low toxicity (Yusufoglu
2015b; Musa et al. 2016) and the LD50 after oral
administration in mice was estimated at 33.4 g/kg
(Musa et al. 2016). However, it should also be noted
that the data available in the literature refer to acute
toxicity, while there is no information on the chronic
use of various Bassia plant extracts. There are only
data on the consumption of hay from certain species
as feed for livestock. Some species of the genus
Bassia can accumulate oxalates and nitrates, which
may be associated with signs of toxicosis in animals,
but only after chronic consumption of large amounts
of hay (Rankins et al. 1991a, b). However, it should
be noted that the level of these components in the
Bassia plants depended on many factors (maturity
stage, environmental factors) (Finley and Sherrod
1971; López-Aguilar et al. 2013; Steppuhn et al.
1994; Yang et al. 2007; Ma et al. 2011, 2016).
Furthermore, the observed presence of nitrates and
oxalates did not exclude the medical or even food use
of other plants from the Amaranthacae family, such
as Beta vulgaris, Amaranthus sp., Spinacia oleracea,
which also accumulate antinutritional compounds
(Jaworska et al. 2005; Gadermaier et al. 2014; Liu
et al. 2015; Corleto et al. 2018; Munekata et al. 2021;
Avila-Nava et al. 2021). Thus, this indicates that
more attention should be paid to the level of
potentially toxic compounds before clinical application of Bassia plants.
Among the side effects that can appear in contact
with plants of the genus Bassia, pollen allergy
manifested as allergic rhinitis should also be mentioned. Most allergens found in pollen from the
Amaranthaceae family belong to the profilin group
(Gadermaier et al. 2014; Elvira-Rendueles et al.
2017). In a study by Zarinhadideh et al. (2015), the
first pollen allergen of Bassia scoparia (named Koc s
2) was also characterized.
Phytochem Rev
Fig. 6 Dependency network of between phytochemical studies and data on the biological activity of extracts and compounds from
Bassia sp. (Abbreviations: “x”–not a promising direction of application)
Conclusions
The representatives of the genus Bassia have been
used by humans in different parts of the world for
medical as well as nonmedical purposes. This overview gathers and summarizes available scientific data
on phytochemistry, biological activity, and significance of plants belonging to the genus, reorganized
by Kaderit and Freitag (2011) and denoted Bassia
All.
Based on the publications covered in the review,
for many years the research on Bassia plants focused
solely on one species (B. scoparia), and actually only
one of its parts, Kochiae fructus, which is a valuable
therapeutic agent in TCM. Only in recent years has
there been growing interest in the phytochemistry and
biological activity of the other species of the genus.
Moreover, some investigations were also conducted
on other parts of the B. scoparia plant. However, it
should be noted that many species of the genus
Bassia still remain poorly investigated or unexplored.
Phytochemical studies conducted on Bassia species indicate that these plants synthesize metabolites
that belong to very different groups of compounds.
The latest studies provided information on flavonoids
in B. eriophora and B. indica, as well as lignanamides
in the latter species. It is interesting that some of the
substances found in Bassia plants are unique and
rarely found in the plant kingdom. Such structural
biodiversity may have a significant impact on the
overall biological activity of specific extracts, but this
issue requires in-depth research. So far, only some
studies on the biological activity of extracts have
attempted to answer the question of which compounds are responsible for the observed effect. Most
of them focused on bioassay-guided fractionation of
active compounds. This approach allows for the
selection of a single active compound, but ignores the
possibility of a synergistic effect between the phytoconstituents, which often occurs in plant extracts. For
example, for many years, the anti-inflammatory
activity of Kochiae fructus extracts was attributed
123
Phytochem Rev
only to saponins. However, recent studies indicate
that flavonoids and, in the case of aqueous extracts,
polysaccharides may also be responsible for the
effect. Therefore, determining the composition of the
extract is extremely important to understand the
resultant activity. Equally important are the quantitative analysis of the compounds in the extract and
the selection of active markers responsible for the
activity. Ensuring the standardization of extracts
enables the maintenance of product quality, repeatability of test results, and potential therapy in the
future. In the case of research on the activity of
extracts from plants of the genus Bassia, although
they undoubtedly indicate a multidirectional pharmacological effect of the extracts, including antiinflammatory, cytotoxic, antioxidant, antimicrobial,
glucose-lowering and several potential nontherapeutic effects, only some studies provide information on
the chemical characterization and quantification of
the main components in the extracts. Interestingly,
this also applies to in vivo studies. As a result, there is
a lack of data that would allow determining the
relationship between the phytochemistry of a
given species and the activity of its extracts. This is
an issue that requires extensive analysis, especially
considering some studies that indicate seasonal
variability in the content of individual metabolites.
However, it should be noted that many of the Bassia
species have been used without standardization in
traditional healing systems. In such a case, it would
be extremely valuable to analyze the qualitative and
quantitative profile of the form of the drug used in
traditional medicine or at least to identify the main
markers.
In this review, we try to present the current state of
knowledge and research on species of the genus
Bassia. After analyzing the published reports, we
schematically summarized the network of relationships between phytochemical studies and data on the
biological activity of extracts and compounds from
individual Bassia species (see Fig. 6).
Based on published research on biological activity,
one of the most promising directions of research on
extracts from plants of the genus Bassia are analyses
related to the therapy of inflammatory-related diseases. This aspect is in part in line with the current
use of Kochiae fructus in TMC in the treatment of
skin diseases. However, it should be mentioned that
inflammatory processes are the basis or cause of the
123
progression of many other diseases that are now
increasingly common in the developing society, such
as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. Many investigations revealed that extracts (e.g. of B. scoparia, B.
eriophora, B. indica) and some isolated compounds
(e.g. momordin Ic, flavonoids, N-trans-feruloyl-3methoxytyramine) show not only anti-inflammatory
effects, but also significant cytotoxic, glucose lowering, anti-obesity, neuroprotective, and antioxidant
effects in vivo. These results indicate a potential for
in-depth research on activity against the metabolic
syndrome and noncommunicable diseases.
The second direction related to potential further
research on the biological activity of extracts from
plants of the genus Bassia is the antimicrobial and
antiparasitic activity. Unfortunately, some of the
studies on this issue provide only preliminary information and others were conducted without
comparison of results to the corresponding positive
control. However, the studies that have been carried
out so far indicated that extracts from plants of the
genus did not have a broad and nonspecific range of
antimicrobial activity, but some of them showed
interesting activity against a specific pathogen, such
as methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA), or against
certain fungi or pests causing significant losses in
plant crops. These studies should be significantly
extended to determine which compounds present in
the extracts are responsible for the effect.
In recent years, the possibilities of various nonmedical and non-food uses of Bassia species have
been explored. Some of them did not produce the
expected good results. An example is the use of B.
prostrata for the construction of green walls near
highways, reducing air pollution (Hozhabralsadat
et al. 2022) and the possibility of using B. scoparia
oilseeds as a source for the production of biodiesel
(Abideen et al. 2015). However, it should be noted
that the latter potential application is possible, but not
profitable, because of the possibility of using other
plants that are much more abundant in the oil. In the
literature, there are some single reports on the
interesting potential of different nonmedical and
medical applications of Bassia plants, such as the
production of cellulose nanofibrils from B. eriophora
biomass or the use of B. muricata extracts as an
ecological corrosion inhibitor. These studies have
provided promising results, but require confirmation,
and thus should be subject to further in-depth
Phytochem Rev
research. Another issue is the possible use of some
species of Bassia (B. scoparia, B. indica) in soil
phytoremediation. Research in this area is very
promising from an industrial and ecological point of
view. However, these studies indicate the likelihood
of the accumulation of toxic substances in Bassia
plants, which excludes the possibility of their use for
medical purposes. Therefore, this indicates that more
attention should be paid to the environmental conditions under which the plant grows or is cultivated in
the case of plants of the genus Bassia used for
medical purposes.
Species of the genus Bassia possess significant
adaptation to unfavorable environmental conditions
and the possibility of growth and cultivation even in
arid areas. Therefore, one of the interesting potentials
of Bassia plants may be their cultivation on wasteland
and use as a source of bioactive substances. The
research conducted indicates the possibility of
obtaining (Z)-5-hexadecenoic acid from seeds of
various species of Bassia (B. prostrata, B. scoparia,
B. hyssopifolia) as an intermediate to produce insect
ovioposition pheromone. It is also interesting to
obtain momordin Ic, which is considered one of the
main compounds of the Bassia scoparia fruit with
multidirectional activity.
In summary, species of the genus Bassia are
characterized by an interesting, complex phytochemical, and pharmacological profile. In addition, some
of them, such as B. scoparia, exhibit several activities
that justify its use in the traditional medical system.
In turn, other species of Bassia, such as B. muricata
or B. indica, which also have an established position
in folk medicine, have not been subjected to research
that justifies their traditional use. However, studies
conducted in recent years have provided new data on
the phytochemistry and activity of Bassia extracts
that go beyond traditional applications. Additionally,
considering the possibility of cultivation of some
Bassia species, these plants are interesting targets for
further research. However, it should be noted that,
despite numerous reports, there are still many gaps in
the current knowledge on species of the genus Bassia
and there is a need to conduct in-depth research on
the currently studied species as well as to start the
analysis of plants that have not been investigated so
far.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
conflict of interest.
The authors declare that they have no
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