Arceuthobium pusillum (eastern dwarf mistletoe)

In the absence of any simple direct means of control of dwarf mistletoes, and the vast areas of forest involved, cultural management is virtually the only approach for dealing with this species. The techniques vary according to the type of stand in which the problem occurs. Silvicultural treatments considered by Muir and Geils (2002) for cultural control of Arceuthobium species in general include:- Harvest, retention, and regeneration by clear-felling (even-aged silviculture), or selective harvesting to establish and maintain uneven or all-aged stand stuctures- Design and layout of harvest and treatment blocks- Site preparation and vegetation management by brushing, prescribed burning, and other methods- Planting or retaining residual and advanced regeneration- Thinning and sanitation- Pruning brooms and infected branchesSilvicultural guides with specific recommendations for control of A. pusillum in Picea mariana include Johnson (1977) and Ostry and Nicholls (1979).Detailed surveys are an essential ingredient of successful control programmes and the 6-class rating system (Hawksworth, 1977) is widely accepted as a standard. This involves a 0-6 score based on 0, 1 or 2 for each third (lower, middle, upper) of the tree; 0 for no infection, 1 for light infection (less than half branches affected) or 2 for heavy infection (more than half infected). The general aim of management is to reduce the risk of further spread of the mistletoe by removing sources of infection and/or creating barriers to its movement. In recently harvested, regenerating stands, the emphasis may be on the complete removal of any infected trees over 2 m, regardless of commercial value, both within the stand, and along borders to a distance of 18 m, before the regeneration is 1 m high.In pre-commercial stands in which surveys show less than 40% infected trees, it should be economic to do selective thinning to remove all those infected. Above 40% this is unlikely to be economic. Severely infested stands may best be harvested early and regenerated, but decisions may require use of available models to help devise the most economic option. Some of the available models are described by Muir and Geils (2002).In many cases the presence of dwarf mistletoe may pose no serious threat to productivity. Where wildlife objectives take precedence, retention of some dwarf mistletoe may even be desired. It may contribute in various ways to biodiversity - by creating openings in the forest following tree death, by providing nesting sites in the 'brooms' and by providing food for a range of vertebrates and invertebrates.

Pruning may be appropriate as a means of reducing damage to individual trees, but more generally to reduce the source of infection for surrounding trees. The practicality, however, is that it will only be feasible in particular amenity and recreation areas.Clear-felling (with or without fire) is appropriate where a stand is so severely infested that it needs to be abandoned and regenerated or re-planted.

The only chemical approved for use against dwarf mistletoes is the ethylene-releasing growth regulator, ethephon, which can cause abscission of the shoots of A. pusillum and delay fresh seeding for 2-4 years, but there is eventual re-growth from the endophyte. It is difficult to achieve good coverage in larger trees from the ground, while applications from the air fail to penetrate the canopy adequately. The treatment is therefore of interest mainly for high value amenity trees.

The use of the fungus Caliciopsis arceuthobii for biological control of A. pusillum has been considered, but potential is apparently limited by extreme variation in infection rates from one season to another.