<title>Tropical Palms - Non-wood forest products for rural income and sustainable forestry</title>

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Foreword

The palm family is a large group of highly variable, predominately tropical forest plants, many with significant economic value. Therefore it is altogether fitting that a document be published to draw attention to this important plant family. A number of the palms species discussed herein exemplify the multipurpose character of certain tropical trees which merit special consideration for their full range of products rather than for only a single commercial product.

Palm products discussed in this document include beverages, foods, medicines, feeds, fuel, construction materials, industrial products and a wide range of handicraft items. Products are considered at the subsistence and commercial levels, and special attention given to the potential for further development of some palm products. A geographic approach is employed to focus on palms in the different regions of the tropics. The conservation status of palms is included as an integral and essential part of the discussions.

This document was prepared by Dennis V. Johnson, previously of the USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C., who is an authority on palm utilization, conservation and development. The document benefitted from the detailed comments of John Dransfield, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (UK).

It gives us great pleasure to release this document, in the hope that it will provide essential information so that palms can be afforded their rightful place in tropical forest management planning.

Soetatwo Hadiwigeno

Assistant Director-General and Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific

David A. Harcharik

Assistant Director-General Foretry Department

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Acknowledgments

This report derives its basic information on the conservation status of palms from the plants database of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Cambridge, U.K. The assistance of Harriet Gillett of WCMC is gratefully acknowledged. The preparation of this report also draws upon data collected by the IUCN/SSC Palm Specialist Group in the course of preparing an action plan on palm conservation and sustained utilization (see Johnson, 1996).

I wish to thank the following individuals who contributed information and ideas to this report: Michael Balick, Henrik Balslev, Charles Clement, Neela De Zoysa, John Dowe, John Dransfield, Patrick Durst, Andrew Henderson, Don Hodel, Francis Kahn, Jane MacKnight, Mónica Moraes, Jean-Christophe Pintaud, C. Renuka, Natalie Uhl, Jane Villa-Lobos and Scott Zona.

Dennis V. Johnson

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Introduction

Palms are monocots, included in the section of Angiosperms characterized by bearing a single seed leaf. Scientifically, palms are classified as belonging to the family Palmae (the alternative name is Arecaceae), are perennial and distinguished by having woody stems.

According to Uhl and Dransfield (1987), the palm family consists of six subfamilies, each representing a major line of evolution. The Coryphoideae is the subfamily with the most unspecialized characters. It is followed by the Calamoideae, Nypoideae, Ceroxyloideae, Arecoideae and Phytelephantoideae subfamilies; the last exhibiting the greatest number of specialized characters. The foregoing names are based on the genus originally thought to be most characteristic of each subfamily, all of which have species of economic importance. These are: the talipot palm (Corypha), rattan palm (Calamus), nipa palm (Nypa), Andean wax palm (Ceroxylon), betel nut palm (Areca) and South American vegetable ivory palm (Phytelephas).

About 200 palm genera are currently recognized. The number of palm species is much less precise because of conflicting concepts by palm taxonomists as to what constitutes a distinct species, and the need to revise a number of large genera. In the literature, the number of palm species is often given as approximately 2,500, a figure that can be used to give an idea of the taxonomic complexity of the palm family.

Natural history information on the palm family can be found in Corner (1966). Palm anatomy and structural biology have been the subjects of studies by Tomlinson (1961; 1990). Illustrated books which provide general information on the more common palms of the world include McCurrach (1960), Langlois (1976), Blombery and Rodd (1982), Lötschert (1985), Del Cañizo, 1991, Stewart (1994) and Jones (1995).

Growth Habit

The stem or trunk is a principal means of describing and identifying palms. There are five basic stem types: solitary, clustering, aerial branching, subterranean branching and climbing. The first two types are not mutually exclusive; in some instances the same species may exhibit either a solitary or clustering habit.

Solitary palms. (Fig. 1-1,C). The single-stemmed growth habit is very common and is characteristic of many of the palms cultivated for ornamental and economic purposes. Great variability exists in both the height and diameter of solitary palms. At one extreme is the ornamental potato-chip palm (Chamaedorea tuerckheimii) which has a stem no larger than the shaft of a pencil and may reach a height of only 30 cm. At the other extreme are the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea chilensis) with a stem diameter up to 2 m and the Andean wax palm (Ceroxylon alpinum) which may reach a height of 60 m. The economic disadvantage of solitary palms is that they must be propagated by seed and are vulnerable to fatal damage to the single growing tip.

Clustering palms. (Fig. 1-1,B). Multiple-stemmed palms are also quite common. From a common root system, the palm produces suckers (basal offshoots) at or below ground level; the suckers growing to maturity and replacing the oldest stems as they die. Clustering palms may be sparse or dense; in the latter they may form thickets. Numerous examples of clustering palms are found among the popular ornamental species of the genus Chamaedorea; another is the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). However, the date palm, in formal cultivation, typically has its suckers removed giving it the appearance of a solitary palm. Many clustering palms can be propagated by separating and transplanting young suckers, making them easier to cultivate.

Aerial branching palms. (Fig. 1-1,A). Aerial branching in palms is unusual and only found naturally in species of the genera Hyphaene and Dypsis, as well as in the rattan genera Korthalsia and Laccosperma. Branching occurs by equal forking (dichotomous branching) at the growth point and, in Hyphaene compressa, may occur as many as five times. Because of sublethal damage to the growing point by insects or a physical force such as lightning, aerial branching can occur abnormally in solitary palms. Examples of this are found in the coconut (Cocos nucifera) and palmyra (Borassus flabellifer). No technique has yet been devised to induce abnormal aerial branching for economic purposes.

Subterranean branching palms. (Fig. 1-1,D). Subterranean branching occurs by at least two processes. Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) is an example of dichotomous branching; the salak palm (Salacca zalacca) is representative of lateral branching and is similar to the type of branching which takes place in dicots with branches developing from the growth of lateral meristems. Palms producing subterranean branches by either process can be vegetatively propagated by separating and transplanting individual branches.

Climbing palms. (Fig. 1-2). About 600 species of palms in 15 genera have a climbing growth habit. Most noteworthy is the genus Calamus--the largest genus in the palm family with approximately 350 described species--source of nearly all commercial rattan. The majority of climbing palms are also clumping palms, sending out new shoots from the root system.

Initially erect, the slender stems seek out trees for support and climb up into the forest canopy by means of recurved hooks and spines growing on the stem, leaves and inflorescences. In all climbing palms the leaves are pinnate and grow along the stem instead of forming a dense crown. The stems of climbing palms, more often referred to as canes, are solid in contrast to bamboo poles which are almost always hollow.

Leaves

Palm leaves are as variable as palm growth habits. In a forest setting, the leaves of palms are generally large and in many instances spectacular, making them a key aspect of identification. Palms typically bear their leaves, frequently referred to as fronds, in a crown at the top of the stem. Some exceptions to this leaf arrangement occur, such as in the ornamentally-popular lady palms (Rhapis spp.) which have leaves distributed along the upper stem. Among the acaulescent (stemless) palms, leaves may appear to be emerging from the root system but are in fact growing from the subterranean stem.

Four basic forms are characteristic of palm leaves: pinnate, palmate, bipinnate and entire

Figure 1-1. Palm Growth Habits I. A. An aerial branching palm, the doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica). B. A clustering palm, the sealing wax palm (Cyrtostachys renda). C. A solitary palm, the carnaúba wax palm (Copernicia prunifera). D. A subterranean branching palm, the nipa palm (Nypa fruticans).

Figure 1-2. Palm Growth Habits II. A climbing palm, the rattan palm (Calamus sp.). A. Bare section of old stem. B. Young shoot. C. Spiny leaf sheath. D. Flagellum. Redrawn from Jones, 1995.

Pinnate leaves. (Fig. 1-3,D) Pinnate leaves are the most common type found in the palm family. They are divided into leaflets attached to a central leaf axis (the rachis) and often resemble a feather, hence palms bearing such foliage are often referred to as being feather-leaved or simply feather palms. Pinnate leaves exhibit an extreme size-range in the Palmae, varying from (including the petiole) well under 1 m in length in species of Chamaedorea to 25 m long in Raphia regalis. The latter is reputed to be a world record for the plant kingdom. All five major economic palms have pinnate leaves: coconut (Cocos nucifera), African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), date (Phoenix dactylifera), betel nut palm (Areca catechu) and pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes).

Palmate leaves. (Fig. 1-3,A) These are also known as fan-leaved or fan palms. Palmate leaves have extended leaf parts (lamina) which are circular or semi-circular, divided into segments and radiate out from the point where they are attached to the petiole. Laminae may be slightly divided to being divided nearly to the leaf base. In size, leaves may be not much larger than a human hand in the lady palms (Rhapis spp.), to a maximum of 5 m across such as in the talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera). The most important economic palm with palmate leaves is the palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer).

Figure 1-3. Palm Leaf Types. A. A palmate leaf, as in the Mexican fan palm (Washingtonia robusta). B. An entire leaf, as in the necklace palm (Chamaedorea geonomiformis). C. A bipinnate leaf, as in the fishtail palms (Caryota spp.). D. A pinnate leaf, as in the nipa palm (Nypa fruticans).

Bipinnate leaves. (Fig. 1-3,C) Bipinnate means twice-divided and gives leaflets (pinnules) a resemblance to a fishtail. This leaf type is rare in the Palmae, apparently restricted to Caryota spp., the fishtail palms. Individual fronds are as much as 4 m long and 3 m wide, depending upon the species.

Entire leaves. (Fig. 1-3,B) Entire leaves have a basic structure that is similar to pinnate leaves except that they are simple and undivided. Only about five palm genera have species with entire leaves; the largest and most beautiful is the diamond-shaped leaf of Johannesteijsmannia magnifica.

Fruits

In the palm family as a whole, from as little as three years to 40 years or more are required before individual palm species reach maturity and begin to flower and produce fruit.

Examples of rapid sexual maturity are found among Chamaedorea spp., whereas the buri palm (Corypha utan) is one of the slowest to mature.

Figure 1-4 demonstrates the variability of fruits in the palm family. Illustrations A through F depict a representative fruit from each genus which gives its name to a palm subfamily. In terms of weight and size, palm seeds exhibit extreme differences. An individual seed of the popular ornamental parlor palm (Chamaedorea elegans) weighs only 0.23 g, as compared to the massive seed of the double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica) which weighs as much as 20 kg. The double coconut has the distinction of bearing the largest seed in the plant kingdom.

A cross-section of a palm fruit is provided in Figure 1-4,G. It serves to introduce the terminology associated with the different parts of the palm fruit to be employed in subsequent discussions.

Figure 1-4. Palm Fruit Types. A. Corypha, Coryphoideae subfamily. B. Calamus, Calamoideae subfamily. C. Nypa, Nypoideae subfamily. D. Ceroxylon, Ceroxyloideae subfamily. E. Areca, Arecoideae subfamily. F. Phytelephas, Phytelephantoideae subfamily. G. A Palm Fruit in Cross-section. A. Epicarp. B. Hilum. C. Endosperm. D. Mesocarp. E. Embryo. F. Endocarp.

Habitats

Geographically, palms can be found in habitats ranging from southern France where the European fan palm (Chamaerops humilis) naturally occurs at 44^o north latitude, to Chatham Island, New Zealand, at 44^o south latitude, where the shaving brush palm (Rhopalostylis sapida) is native. However, despite this impressive spread of latitude, the overwhelming majority of palm species are native to the tropical regions of the earth. Dowe (1992) estimated that only about 130 palm species occur naturally beyond the tropical latitudes (23.5^o N. & S.).

Detailed data do not yet exist on a global basis as to the precise habitat of each palm species, and therefore it is somewhat difficult to discuss palms in terms of common habitat types. Nevertheless, on the basis of what we do know, palm habitats can be generalized into five types: forest habitats; montane habitats; grassland and scrubland habitats; desert habitats; and unusual soil-type habitats.

Forest habitats. Included here are both closed forest and open forest. Palms are predominantly forest species, as evidenced by two recent studies in South America. According to a habitat characterization of native Peruvian palms, 90 percent of the species occur in forests (Kahn and Moussa, 1994); across the continent in the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo, part of the Atlantic Forest, Fernandes (1993) did a similar study and found that 27 of the 30 native palms (90 percent) also were forest species.

Within tropical forests, individual palm species may be tall enough to be emergent and to form a part of the canopy or they may be understory species of short stature adapted to shady conditions. From the standpoint of forest degradation or destruction, it is the understory species which seldom survive, whereas some emergent species may appear actually to thrive as a result of disturbance.

The tropical forest habitat is not homogenous. Apart from the lands of adequate drainage, there are some areas subject to poor drainage or periodic flooding. Such areas are characterized by distinct vegetation associations with palms often playing a principal role. In South America, for example, the moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa) forms extensive almost pure stands where conditions are swampy. To cite an example from Africa, the wine palm of West Africa, Raphia hookeri, is abundant in coastal freshwater swamps. And in Southeast Asia, the nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) forms dense stands in estuaries of brackish water.

Well-drained coastal areas forming a part of the tropical forest habitat likewise have some distinctive palm communities. The best example of this is the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera).

Montane habitats. Tropical montane habitats are generally defined as being above 1,000 m. Any combination of lower temperatures caused by altitude, extremely wet conditions due to clouds and complex topography creates unique ecological niches to which certain palm species have become adapted. The Andean wax palms (Ceroxylon spp.), for example, are found only in montane forests. In Africa, the Senegal date palm (Phoenix reclinata) occurs both in lowland and montane forests. The montane forests in Asia do not appear to have any palm genera unique to the habitat but do have numerous species of genera common in the lowlands, such as the rattans (Calamus spp.)

Grassland and scrubland habitats. There is less palm species diversity in grasslands and scrublands, but the palms that do occur may be present in fairly large populations. Examples are the carnaúba wax palm (Copernicia prunifera) of northeastern Brazil, the vegetable ivory palm of Africa (Hyphaene petersiana) and the palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) of Asia. In apparently all instances, palms in these habitats are found in association with some water source, e.g. stream valleys, perched water tables or the like.

Desert habitats. These dry habitats are generally defined as areas receiving less than 254 mm of annual rainfall and represent true desert. Palms in a desert habitat are often referred to as oasis palms. The occurrence of palms in such dry habitats appears, in most cases, to represent relict distributions from previous geologic periods of more favorable rainfall conditions. Examples of oasis palms are the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), California fan palm (Washingtonia filifera) and the Central Australian cabbage palm (Livistona mariae).

Unusual soil-type habitats. Soils derived primarily from limestone can produce extremely basic soils which support a distinctive flora. The same is true of very acidic soils rich in heavy metals (chromium, iron, copper or manganese), which are often referred to as being ultrabasic or serpentinic soils. Certain palm species tolerate such extreme soil conditions. A number of palms in the Caribbean region are adapted to limey soils, such as the thatch palms (Thrinax spp.). In the Pacific island of New Caledonia, to cite another example, ten of the native palm species are found only on serpentinic soils.

False Palms

The term "palm," correctly-applied, refers to plants which are members of the Palmae, but by popular usage has also been applied to plants which resemble palms in some ways. At least seven plants have a common name which includes the word "palm," but which are not palms in the scientific sense. It is useful to clear up this confusion and dispense with the false palms as being beyond the scope of this study.

Travellers palm. (Fig. 1-5,A) Ravenala madagascariensis, Strelitziaceae family, is a woody tree with a palm-like stem. It is native to Madagascar and widely cultivated as an ornamental throughout the tropics. Individual leaves bear greater resemblance to a banana plant (to which it is related) than a palm; they are arranged in two distinct ranks in the same plane forms a fan-shaped head. Flowers of the travellers palm are similar to those of the bird-of-paradise plant. The vernacular name of the travellers palm is said to derive from the fact that the cup-like leaf bases hold water which travellers could drink.

Sago palm. (Fig. 1-5,B) Major confusion is associated with this common name because it refers to the true palm Metroxylon sagu as well as to the palm-like Asian cycad Cycas revoluta, in the family Cycadaceae. Both the stem (which is sometimes branching) and the terminal crown of pinnate leaves of Cycas revoluta are similar to those of a true palm. However, Cycas revoluta leaves are stiff and borne as a rosette not singly as in palms; the male inflorescence resembles a cone, a key identifying character. Cycas revoluta is the most widely cultivated cycad. Edible starch, "sago," can be extracted from the stem of both Metroxylon sago and Cycas revoluta, which explains the shared common name.

Palm lily or ti palm. (Fig. 1-5,C) The popular ornamental plants Cordyline australis and C.terminalis of the agave family (Agavaceae) bear these common names. They are native to, respectively, New Zealand and East Asia. The branching habit gives the palm lily a resemblance to the branching palm Hyphaene, but has sword-like leaves crowded together at the end of the branches. These two species of Cordyline resemble plants in the genus Dracaena, with which they are often confused.

Screw palm. (Fig. 1-5,D) This common name is applied to Pandanus spiralis and other species in the genus of the Pandanaceae family. Native to Australia and tropical Asia, its morphology somewhat resembles the branching Hyphaene palm. The screw palms sword-like leaves form tufted crowns and the tree bears large pineapple-like fruits. Where Pandanus spp. occur, leaves are widely used for weaving mats, baskets and so on.

Palm fern. This plant is indeed a fern and not a palm. Its scientific name is Cyathea cunninghamii, originating from New Zealand and Australia, and it is a member of the tree-fern family, Cyatheaceae. This tall, slender plant has a single stem and pinnate leaves somewhat resembling those of a true palm.

Palm grass. The scientific name for this perennial Asian grass, Setaria palmifolia, is an indication that the entire leaves resemble those of certain palms. It is classified as belonging to the grass family, Gramineae/Poaceae.

Panama hat palm. This plant is a monocot like a palm but is a member of the Cyclanthaceae family and bears the binomial Carludovica palmata. With its palmate leaf, this stemless understory plant of the lowland forests of Central and South America, is often mistaken for a true palm. The common name comes from the use of the fiber of young leaves to weave high quality hats.

Objectives, Coverage and Format

The purpose of this report is to provide basic information about palms as non-timber forest products. The prospective audience includes forestry technicians, international development workers, policy makers and international conservation and development agencies. Guiding principles of this report are: 1) to identify and describe palm products; 2) to link the product to the palm species being exploited as well as to the conservation status of that species; 3) to give citations within the technical literature to more detailed sources of information if needed. Strictly ornamental use of palms is not considered in this report, except for a very few relevant references. Through the use of this report, it will be possible to assess the role palms and their products can play within integrated forestry, agriculture, conservation and natural resource management activities.

Figure 1-5. False Palms. A. The travellers palm (Ravenala madagascariensis). B. The sago palm (Cycas revoluta). C. The palm lily or ti palm (Cordyline spp.). D. The screw palm (Pandanus spiralis).

This report concentrates on the tropics where the great majority of palm species are to be found. In a few instances, where it seems practical, information is included on native palms which occur beyond the tropics. Inasmuch as this report deals with forest products and the impacts of their exploitation, the focus is on native palms as they occur in the wild. Exotic palm species are of course present throughout the tropics, being grown casually as ornamental species or on plantations as in the case of major economic species. In a few instances, exotic palms have become naturalized and are able to grow on their own in their new habitat. Domesticated palms are discussed because of the examples they represent in terms of the ways in which their products have been used and developed. To achieve full coverage of palm products, palm stem wood is included in this report, despite the "non-wood" designation.

Three distinct parts constitute this report. Part one consists of the first three chapters. This first chapter provides a general introduction to palms as the diverse group of plants they represent. It is followed by an examination of the ways in which historically human societies have made use of palm products. Case studies of indigenous palm use and short summaries of the characteristics of the major domesticated palms are included. Chapter 3 focuses on contemporary palm products and provides a means to classify products and their processing requirements.

Part two provides regional examinations of utilized native palms in Asia, the Pacific, Latin America and Africa. The same general approach is used in Chapters 4-7: to consider native utilized species on the basis of their conservation status in the wild, either "threatened" or "non-threatened." Selected local palm names are included in the tables. Chapter 8 attempts a pantropical review of palm products and addresses the issue of which species have the most development potential and how a coordinated effort could be beneficial for sustainable palm utilization and development.

The final third of the report includes a section devoted to an assemblage of tables on the technical properties of palm products. Other sections consists of a lengthy list of cited references, a compilation of other palm information sources and finally a directory of palm specialists.

1/ Genera Palmarum, is the best source of general information about the palm family to the generic level. It also defines technical terms associated with describing palms and provides illustrative line drawings and photographs. However, it contains little in the way of detailed information about individual palm species.

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Historical role of palms in human culture

Pre-industrial indigenous people of the past as well as of the present have an intimate and direct relationship with the renewable natural resources of their environment. Prior to the Industrial Age, wild and cultivated plants and wild and domesticated animals provided all of the food and most of the material needs of particular groups of people. Looking back to those past times it is apparent that a few plant families played a prominent role as a source of edible and nonedible raw materials. For the entire world, three plant families stand out in terms of their past and present utility to humankind: the grass family (Gramineae), the legume family (Leguminosae) and the palm family (Palmae). If the geographic focus is narrowed to the tropical regions, the importance of the palm family is obvious.

The following discussion sets out to provide an overview of the economic importance of palms in earlier times. No single comprehensive study has yet been made of the historical role of palms in human culture, making this effort more difficult. A considerable amount of information on the subject is scattered in the anthropological and sociological literature as part of ethnographic treatments of culture groups throughout the tropics. Moreover, historical uses of products from individual palm species can be found in studies of major economic species such as the coconut or date palms. It should also be noted that in addition to being highly utilitarian, palms have a pivotal role in myth and ritual in certain cultures.

Three different but complementary approaches are taken to elucidate the historical role of palms in human culture. An initial approach is to look at ancient and traditional palm products, which deals mostly but not exclusively with subsistence palm uses. Next, case studies of indigenous groups and their particular array of palm uses are presented. Finally, the subject of palm domestication is addressed.

Ancient and Traditional Palm Products

The assortment of products that have been derived from palms at some time or another is indeed impressive. Although now somewhat dated, one of the best and concise summaries of palm usage can be found in Dahlgren (1944). Balick and Beck (1990), in their excellent bibliography, compiled a list of 388 keywords to describe palm products. The bibliography editors broke down these many products into a dozen major classes, as follows: beverages; building materials; chemicals and industrial products; cosmetics and hygiene; feeds; fertilizers; food; fuel; handicrafts; medicines and rituals; ornamental plants; and structure and shelter. Handicrafts represent the largest class with 162 products and is divided into nine subclasses.

As a means of demonstrating some of the oldest human palm uses, the foregoing product classes are followed and one or more individual examples cited within each class, except in the instance of handicrafts where subclasses are included. It is not the intention here to describe in detail the processing of particular palm products, but instead to give a historical perspective through examples that will aid in better understanding the current situation and the potential forpalm product development, subjects to be dealt with in future chapters of this report. In choosing the examples presented below, preference was given, whenever possible, to traditional products directly used by local populations. Selected bibliographic references are provided.

Beverages. Palm wine or toddy is an ancient beverage derived from the sap of a number of different palm species, and serves as an appropriate example of a beverage. The sap is obtained by tapping and collecting the liquid in a receptacle from the inflorescence of the tree employing sophisticated techniques that must have required considerable trial-and-error experimentation. Tapping the stem or felling the tree are also means of obtaining sap that are much simpler. There is no difference in the quality of the sap obtained from the different methods. Because of the presence of naturally-occurring yeast, the sweet palm sap ferments within hours into a mild alcoholic beverage.

Palm tapping for beverage purposes is a pantropical practice, but has its greatest historical depth in Asia and Africa. In Asia, several palm species are traditional sources of palm wine; among them are the coconut (Cocos nucifera), the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer), the wild date (Phoenix sylvestris) and nipa (Nypa fruticans). Hamilton and Murphy (1988) describe tapping of nipa palm in Southeast Asia. The African continent has a long tradition of palm wine production, for example from the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), the doum palms (Hyphaene spp), the raffia palms (Raphia spp.), as well as the Senegal date palm (Phoenix reclinata). Essiamah (1992) provides a description of palm wine production in West Africa from the African oil palm; Cunningham (1990a,b) reports on the tapping of Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata in southeastern Africa. Tapping palms for the production of palm wine in Latin America and the Caribbean also has a long history, but the practice

is uncommon today. The best example of a wine palm in South America is the moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa) (Gumilla, 1963).

Building Materials. Within this class of products is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous palm product of all: thatch. Palm thatch is widely used for temporary and more permanent structures. The leaves of virtually all palms can be used for thatch, whether they are pinnate, palmate or entire in shape. This palm use is so widespread that there is almost no need to give examples of particular geographic areas or palm species. Bomhard (1964) provides a good summary of the various ways palms are utilized in building houses. An annotated bibliography of palm leaf and stem use was compiled by Killmann et al.(1989). Leaf sheath fiber may also be used for thatch. Arenga pinnata, for example, is a source of very durable thatch of this type, lasting 50 years or more (J. Dransfield, pers. com.)

Utilizing palm thatch is simple. Leaves are cut from the palm, generally selecting leaves that are younger and more flexible. Transported to the construction site, the leaves are attached individually to a roof frame in an overlapping fashion beginning at the lowest point. When a palm is exploited that has small leaves, the leaves may be attached to a stick in the form of a panel before being affixed to the roof. The small understory Amazonian palm Lepidocaryum tenue is used in this manner. A palm-thatched roof is light-weight and, if tightly made, remarkably waterproof. But at the same time it is porous, allowing air movement and the escape of cooking-fire smoke. A roof will last for a few years, the length of time depending upon the local climate and the type of palm leaf used.

Chemicals and Industrial Products. Clearly this class of products is modern. Nevertheless an original traditional palm product can be mentioned. Dragons blood is the common name for the red resinous exudation which occurs on the scales of fruits of the Southeast Asian rattans Daemonorops didymophylla, D. draco and related species. (The original source ofdragons blood was Dracaena spp. in the Agave family). This resinous substance was a dye source for coloring cloth, woven mats and the like among indigenous peoples and in the 19th Century was adopted for industrial use in Europe as both a varnish and dye. In the traditional medicine of Southeast Asia, dragons blood was used to treat stomach ailments, a use carried over into European medicine for a time (Burkill, 1966). Apparently dragons blood continues to be of industrial use as a resin and is commercially available (Merlini and Nasini, 1976).

Cosmetics and Hygiene. Palm oils in general have a wide variety of household and industrial uses (see Hodge, 1975). An example within this product class can be cited from Madagascar where mesocarp oil of the raffia palm (Raphia farinifera) has been employed as a traditional hairdressing (Sadebeck, 1899).

Feeds. Cattle can be fed fresh young palm leaves if there is a shortage of better forage, as occurs in tropical areas subject to a protracted dry season. Leaves are cut and brought to the cattle and may or may not be chopped into smaller pieces to make them easier to consume. If the palms are of low enough stature, cattle and other livestock may forage on them directly. In Paraguay, leaves of the mbocaya palm (Acrocomia totai) provide forage (Markley, 1953). Palm fruits in general are eaten by pigs.

Fertilizer. Traditional palm exploitation indirectly produces quantities of organic matter such as waste fruit parts, leaves and stalks suitable for incorporation into garden soil as fertilizer.

Food. This class of palm products represents the most important in economic terms since it includes the vegetable oils. Best known are the coconut (Cocos nucifera) and the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), both now commercially cultivated as sources of oil throughout the tropical realm. In addition, there are a number of Neotropical oil palms of lesser importance (see Balick, 1979a).

There are two types of oil derived from the palm fruit: mesocarp oil and endosperm (kernel) oil. Both types have a long history of pre-industrial utilization for culinary and other purposes throughout the tropics. The African oil palm is a good example because it is a source of both oil types; the mesocarp and the kernel each containing about 50 percent oil. In this palm, oil can be extracted from the fleshy mesocarp most easily. Fruits are fermented for a few days, pounded to remove the pulp which is boiled in water and the oil skimmed off. Mesocarp oil remains liquid at ambient temperatures in the tropics. Extraction of kernel oil requires crushing the kernels and mechanically pressing the resultant cake to express the oil.

Fuel. The simplest fuel usages of palms are exemplified by the burning of dry palm leaves, petioles, stem wood and fruit husks of some species such as the coconut. Often such fuels represent using by-products of the extraction of some other palm product. This palm use is ubiquitous.

Handicrafts. This class of palm products is exceedingly large and for that reason has been subdivided into nine subclasses.

Agricultural Implements. Climbing loops are traditional devices often made from palm leaf fiber, midribs or petioles. They are employed as an aid in climbing palms to harvest fruit, leaves or to tap the tree for sap; loops are, of course, used to climb trees other than palms for similar purposes. There are a number of different styles of climbing loops across the tropics. A type employed in West Africa is made from the petiole and leaf fiber of the African oil palm. It encircles both the tree trunk and the climber, permitting him to have his hands free to tap, in many cases, the same palm species which has provided materials for the climbing loop.

Clothing. The classic example of this palm use is a hat made from palm leaf material, a use found throughout the tropics. Young pinnate and palmate leaves of virtually any palm species serves for hat making. The weave may be coarse or fine depending upon how thin the leaflets are stripped and the amount of time invested by the artisan. Leaf fiber can also be woven into cloth and made into clothing. Raphia fiber is used extensively for this purpose in Madagascar even today (J. Dransfield, pers. com).

Furniture. Hammocks represent an article of furniture often made from fiber extracted from young palm leaves. In South America, the pinnate-leaf chambira palm (Astrocaryum chambira) is the preferred palm fiber source (Wheeler, 1970). The fiber is made into string and then woven into an open mesh hammock. The word hammock is Amerindian in origin and the weaving and use of hammocks appears to be restricted to the Neotropics as an ancient and modern practice.

Games and Toys. A variety of simple objects for children to play with in the tropics are fashioned from palm leaves and petioles. Certain games involve palm products. In Southeast Asia, for example, hollow balls made of wound rattan strips are kicked in a game played by children and adults. Historically, in Sri Lanka, a variety of coconut was cultivated with an exceptionally thick shell (endocarp) for a game called "fighting coconuts." The game involves two competitors each clutching one of these special coconuts. The contest entails striking the coconuts together until one breaks, the holder of the intact nut being the winner.

Household Items. Sieves represent examples of ubiquitous household items made from palm fiber throughout the tropical regions. Thin strips of leaflets are woven in a square or diagonal pattern to produce a rectangular or round sieve. Wood sticks are often incorporated into the edge to prevent fraying and make the sieve easier to handle.

Jewelry. Among many cultural groups in the tropics necklaces traditionally are made by stringing small palm seeds. The hard endosperm of the Caroline ivory nut palm (Metroxylon amicarum), native to the Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is carved into beads and buttons.

Musical Instruments. In addition to the use of palm fiber to make strings for musical instruments, drums can be made from hollowed-out palm stems. The palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) has reportedly been used for this latter purpose in parts of Asia.

Stationery and Books. Palm leaves were an ancient writing material in India, perhaps as old as written language itself. Segments of the palmate leaves of the talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera), as well as some other palms, were written upon with a metal stylus. Examples of these palm leaf manuscripts are preserved in museums.

Weapons and Hunting Tools. Palm wood is widely used for this purpose. For example, indigenous people in the Philippines utilize the hard outer wood of the palms in the genus Livistona to make bows and spear shafts (Brown and Merrill, 1919).

Medicines and Ritual. Throughout their range palms are sources of folk medicines and are a part of rituals. Dragons blood resin (see Item 3 above) is burned as incense in witchcraft rituals in the United States and is sold in shops specializing in products associated with magic.

An example combining medicinal and ritual use is found in the betel nut palm (Areca catechu). Large numbers of people in Asia and Polynesia have for millennia chewed betel seeds mixed with fresh betel pepper leaf and a bit of slaked lime; it is the classic Asian masticatory. The betel nut contains an alkaloid that is mildly narcotic (see Table 9-1).

Ornamental Use. Flowers are universally used as decorations for many types of rites and ceremonies. In the tropics, branches of palm inflorescences are often employed. Sprigs of coconut flowers, for example, are used in India and Sri Lanka for wedding decorations.

Structure and Shelter. This is another huge class of palm products. A couple of the less common uses are the rigging of sailing vessels with thin rattans rather than rope in Indonesia, and the use of entire stems of the caranday palm (Copernicia alba) as utility poles in Paraguay.

The product classes employed in this section portray the great variety of palm products, past and present, and cover every aspect of material culture. But that does not explain everything about palms and human culture. Apart from their value as a source of useful products, palms are also of general interest simply because of their beauty and symmetry, which may help to explain the role of palms in religion and folklore.

Case Studies: Indigenous Groups and Their Use of Palms

Shifting away from a product approach to a focus on specific indigenous groups and their utilization of palms provides another dimension to this discussion. For this purpose, accounts of palm use have been taken from studies in Asia, the Pacific, Africa and Latin America. Criteria for selection of the case studies were as follows: focus on a particular indigenous group, local as well as scientific names of the utilized palms were known and palm use was described in some detail. Moreover, an attempt was made to have the case studies represent widely separated geographic regions and a diversity of local palm species diversity. The four case studies chosen describe the Iban of Sarawak, the Shipibo of Amazonian Peru, the Kwanyama Ovambo of Namibia and the Trukese of the Caroline Islands of Micronesia in the Pacific. The grammatical present tense is used in this section to refer to both past and present palm uses.

The Iban

This first case study focuses on the Iban, an indigenous group in southwestern Sarawak, East Malaysia. The Iban inhabit an area of largely undisturbed natural forest, with heavy rainfall, varied terrain and an attitudinal range of sea level to 760 m. Kubah National Park occupies about 2,230 ha in the area. Pearce (1994) studied the palms of the park and its immediate environs and gathered excellent data on the identify of the palms as well as their utilization by the Iban people. Pearce relied on earlier systematic studies by J. Dransfield, when she did field work in 1990. Southwestern Sarawak is considered to have one of the richest palm floras in the world, as evidenced by the cataloging of 99 palms in and around the park.

The 47 native palms used by the Iban are listed in Table 2-1. The predominance of the rattan palm genera (Calamus, Daemonorops, Korthalsia, Plectocomia,Plectocomiopsis) is striking as they together account for 31 of the 47 palms.

Table 2-1: Iban Utilization of Native Palms

Scientific Name/Iban Name Uses

Arenga hastata, mudor down on stem as tinder

Calamus blumei, wi kijang baskets

Calamus caesius, sega many uses, the best split rattan

Calamus conirostris, rotan basket spars and weaving; general uses

Calamus corrugatus, wijanggut many uses, as good as Calamus caesius; smallest diameter of local cane

Calamus crassifolius, witakong binding basket edges and parangs (bush knives); sewing atap (thatch)

Calamus flabellatus, wi takung baskets; various other uses

Calamus gonospermus, sega ai baskets, split or whole

Calamus hispidulus, rotan cane can be used

Calamus javensis, wi anak baskets, split or whole

Calamus laevigatus var. laevigatus, rotan lio baskets, mats, tying

Calamus laevigatus var. mucronatus, rotan good cane

Calamus marginatus, wi matahari sold as Calamus caesius

Calamus mattanensis, rotan lemba baskets; many other uses

Calamus muricatus, rotan putch baskets, rough temporary; tying; good split or whole

Calamus nematospadix, rotan tunggal baskets; various other uses; sewing atap (split)

Calamus paspalanthus, rotan tingkas edible palm heart, sour fruit; cane

Calamus pilosellus, rotan anak binding

Caryota mitis, mudor edible palm heart; stem down for tinder

Ceratolobus discolor, danan basket spars, weaving

Ceratolobus subangulatus, rotan janggut baskets, tying, etc.

Daemonorops acamptostachys, rotan duduk fishing baskets from petiole skin

Daemonorops cristata, wi getah fruit exudate as gum; fruit eaten by children

Daemonorops didymophylla

wi getah, rotan jernang baskets, especially earth baskets; sarcotesta sweet and juicy

Daemonorops fissa

(none) basket spars, weaving; fruit slightly sweet, edible; palm heart edible, sold locally

Daemonorops periacantha, wi empunok basket edges, mats, chairs; palm heart and fruit edible

Daemonorops sabut, wi lepoh basket spars, weaving

Eugeissona insignis

pantu kejatau petiole pith for dart plugs, petiole skin for baskets; palm heart and young fruit edible

Scientific Name/Iban Name Uses

Korthalsia cheb, danan semut furniture and general utility

Korthalsia echinometra, wi seru cane used

Korthalsia ferox, danan kuning baskets, furniture, many other uses.

Korthalsia flagellaris, danan baskets, weaving, many other uses

Korthalsia rigida, danan tai manok baskets, chairs, various other uses

Korthalsia rostrata, danan wi batu baskets, chicken coops; sewing (split); tying logs

Licuala bintuluensis, biru leaflets for hats, wrapping; petiole skin for weaving winnowing baskets

Licuala orbicularis, biru bulat leaves for wrapping, making hats, umbrellas and atap

Licuala petiolulata, gerenis petiole skin for making baskets

Licuala valida, pala petiole skin for winnowing baskets; leaflets for wrapping; palm heart edible

Oncosperma horridum, nibong bark for floors and walls; palm heart edible

Pinanga cf. ligulata, pinang stem for lance shaft

Pinanga mooreana, pinang murind walking sticks; fruit eaten

Plectocomia mulleri, rotan tibu baskets, chairs, etc; good split

Plectocomiopsis nov. sp., belibih many uses; very useful because nodes are flat

Salacca affinis var. borneensis

ridan petiole for fishing rods; petiole skin for baskets; leaves for camp shelters; fruit edible

Salacca nov. sp., lekam fruit (sweet-sour) edible

Salacca vermicularis, lamayung petiole skin for weaving baskets; fruit edible

Source: Pearce, 1994.

The Shipibo

The Shipibo of Peru serve as a second case study. These Amerindian people occupy tropical lowland forest land on the central Ucayali river, a tributary of the Amazon, near the Peruvian city of Pucallpa. Bodley and Benson (1979) made a detailed study of the Shipibo which focused on the utilization of palms in everyday life. Field research was carried out in 1976-1977. In vegetation surveys, the authors found within the Shipibo reserve and adjoining areas a rich palm flora of at least 24 species. Data were collected on the contemporary utilization of palms and products identified to their species of origin. Table 2-2 lists 19 different local palms utilized by the Shipibo.

As Table 2-2 shows, considerable use is made of palms for building materials, food and handicrafts. It is interesting to note that the Shipibo have taken their tradition of making bows and arrows from palm wood and turned it into crafting souvenirs to sell to tourists visiting the area.

Table 2-2: Shipibo Utilization of Native Palms

Scientific^* and Shipibo Common Names Uses

Astrocaryum huicungo (=A. murumuru var. huicungo), páni new pinnate leaves to make womens spinning basket; stems as house posts

Astrocaryum jauari, yahuarhuanqui stems as house posts; petioles to make burden baskets; ripe fruit as fish bait

Attalea tessmannii, conta leaf pinnae to make brooms

Bactris concinna, shiní edible fruit

Bactris gasipaes, juani cultivated for edible fruit; stem wood made into bows, arrow points, lances, awls, clubs, spindles, loom parts

Bactris maraja, taná edible fruit; stems as house floor supports, rafters

Chelyocarpus ulei, bonká palmate leaves as sitting mats, umbrellas, bush meat wrapper

Euterpe precatoria, paná stems as house posts; stem slats as house walls; edible palm heart; fruit mesocarp oil as womens hair dressing

Geonoma deversa, quebón juani stems to support mosquito nets

Iriartea ventricosa (=I. deltoidea), tao stem wood for house flooring, shelving, rafters, support beams, harpoon staves, arrow points, roof ridge pins; swollen stem for temporary canoe

Jessenia bataua (=Oenocarpus bataua), isá edible fruit; leaf pinnae made into brooms

Mauritia flexuosa, vinon edible fruit; petioles for loom parts; split petioles woven into sitting mats

Maximiliana venatorum (uncertain name), canis split petioles woven into sleeping mats; spathe made into hanging storage basket

Oenocarpus multicaulis (=O. mapora), jephue isá stem wood for bows and arrows sold to tourists; edible fruits; stems as house posts

Phytelephas microcarpa (=P. macrocarpa), jephue pinnate leaves for roof thatch; petiole made into tray-like storage basket; edible immature fruit endosperm

Scheelea bassleriana (=Attalea butyracea), shebón pinnate leaves for thatch; new leaves to make sitting mats, small baskets; leaf pinnae to make brooms; edible fruit

Scheelea brachyclada (=Attalea butyracea), cansín pinnate leaves for thatch, basketry, brooms

Socratea exorrhiza, sino stem wood for flooring, bows and arrow for tourists; spiny roots as graters

Syagrus sancona, shuhui stem wood for loom parts

Note: * Synonyms indicated are in accord with Henderson et al., 1995.

Source: Bodley and Benson, 1979.

The Kwanyama Ovambo

Case study three is from Africa where palm species diversity is low; nevertheless palm utilization is high and focused on relatively few species.

The Kwanyama live in Ovamboland which lies in north-central Namibia bordering Angola to the north. The latitude is approximately 17.5^o south, elevations average about 1,000 m and annual rainfall is 520 mm. Namibia has only two native palms. The most prevalent is the African ivory nut palm, common name omulunga, Hyphaene petersiana (synonym: Hyphaene ventricosa); this species of Hyphaene is single-stemmed and does not branch. The second palm is the Senegal date palm, vernacular name omulunga wangolo, Phoenix reclinata.

Rodin (1985) published a detailed ethnobotanical study of the Kwanyama based upon field work in 1947 and 1973. More recently, Konstant et al. (1995) and Sullivan et al. (1995) studied exploitation of Hyphaene petersiana in the same general area. Table 2-3 summarizes palm utilization based on these references.

Table 2-3: Kwanyama Ovambo Utilization of Native Palms

Palm Product Classes^* Uses of African ivory nut palm, Hyphaene petersiana, except as noted

Beverages palm wine by fermenting mesocarp pulp and from sap by tapping flower bud; palm wine distilled into spirits

Building materials leaves for thatch; leaf fiber made into rope; petioles for hut construction, fencing

Chemicals and industrial products vegetable ivory (hard endosperm) carved into buttons, ornamental objects

cosmetics and hygiene shredded leaves dyed for wigs

feeds cattle, goats and donkeys rely on palms for fodder

fertilizer likely, but not specifically stated in references citedont>

food edible palm heart, raw fibrous fruit mesocarp; fruits of Phoenix reclinata eaten fresh or preserved by drying

fuel petioles, flower stalks for cooking fires

handicrafts (all types) leaves used to weave baskets, mats, hats; petioles made into hunting bows, carrying poles, stirring spoons; leaflets woven into special beer strainer; fused twin seeds as childrens dolls

medicines and ritual leaves used to shape headdresses and bridal hats; skirts, necklaces and bracelets braided from leaf blades during female puberty rites

ornamental use shade tree, but not specifically stated in references cited

structure and shelter stems hollowed out for cattle water troughs

Note: * After Balick and Beck, 1990.

Sources: Rodin, 1985; Konstant et al., 1995; Sullivan et al., 1995.

Palm use is recorded within each of 12 product classes developed by Balick and Beck (1990), and all originate from the African ivory nut palm, except for limited food use of the fruits of the Senegal date palm, a rare tree in the area. No medicinal use of this palm is reported despite its intensive exploitation and the fact that other species of Hyphaene play a role in medicine. Rodin (1985) asserts that the ivory nut palm is the most useful of all the native plants in Ovamboland; he further states that it is illegal to cut down the palm because of its exceptional value to the local people.

The Trukese

The final case study is from the Pacific Ocean region. Geographically Truk designates a group of islands which form a part of the Caroline Islands and are located about 680 miles southeast of Guam. The inhabitants, the Trukese, are Micronesians.

Despite its equatorial latitude, Truk has very poor palm species diversity. According to Moore and Fosberg (1956), only three species of palms occur naturally in the Truk Islands; namely Clinostigma carolinensis, an endemic palm under threat of extinction, the Caroline ivory nut palm, "os" in the local language, (Metroxylon amicarum) and the nipa palm (Nypa fruticans). The coconut palm, locally-called "ny," (Cocos nucifera) is naturalized and widely cultivated on Truk. Other reported introduced species in the islands are the betel nut palm (Areca catechu) and the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).

LeBar (1964) conducted a study of the material culture of Truk which revealed the extent to which the local people make use of floral resources to provide their needs. Field research was done in 1947-1948. Using the categories in LeBars study, information on palm use was excerpted and is presented in Table 2-4.

Table 2-4 documents the utilization of only the coconut and ivory nut palms, but the diversity of coconut palm use, with examples in every material culture category, is impressive. The significance of the coconut palm among the Trukese may have been enhanced during the years of Japanese control of the islands (1914-1945) when coconut growing for copra production was encouraged. The absence of hat making from palm leaves is because of the presence and use of pandanus for that purpose.

The four preceding case studies demonstrate how very important palms are, for subsistence and commercial purposes, to indigenous peoples throughout the tropics. Most revealing about the case studies is that palm utilization is equally intense in areas of high and low palm species diversity. A major difference appears to be that local people have a choice of different palms to exploit for the same end use where high palm species diversity occurs; for example, leaves for thatching or weaving.

Table 2-4: Trukese Utilization of Palms

Material Culture Category Uses of coconut (Cocos nucifera), except as noted

tools and utensils fiber cord as polisher; leaflet midrib made into needle; shell flask made with coconut fiber handle; dry husks or old palm leaf basket as cushion; leaf sheath fiber to hold grated coconut meat to be pressed; fiber cord made into tree climbing loops

Cordage coir fiber for cordage

plaiting leaflet plaited into mats: single wall mat, double wall mat, canoe mat; leaflet baskets: temporary field basket, semipermanent field basket, womans fish basket, womans weaving basket; leaflet fans; cord baskets

weaving ivory nut palm midrib to make loom parts; coconut fiber sling for loom

chemical industries coconut shell molds used for dye cake; netted fiber bag to store shell molds; coconut water base used to rinse fabrics before dyeing; grated coconut meat rubbed on dyed fabric to produce sheen; coconut oil base for perfume; spathe ash added to lime in making cement

agriculture coconut a major crop, many varieties recognized; copra provides cash income

hunting and fishing half coconut shell containing bait used in bird snare; leaflet midrib used in making crab snares; coconut cloth used to wrap fish poison; coconut leaf sweeps used to drive fish into weirs and nets; dried leaf torches used in night spear fishing and harpooning sea turtles; leaflet used to tie knots as part of divination in turtle fishing; coconut water drunk as part of ritual before bonito fishing; leaflet midribs used to make fishing kite; dried midrib leaflet made into netting needle; ivory nut palm leaf midrib used as net mesh gauge; coconut fiber lines to catch sea turtles; dry coconut meat gratings tossed in water to attract fish

food and stimulants coconut cream used extensively in cooking; coconut meat gratings burned in smudge fire to repel mosquitoes; dry husk or shredded leaf base fiber used a tinder; half coconut shells used in food preparation and as drinking cups; fresh coconut water as beverage; sweet and fermented toddy from palm sap

housing leaf matting and fronts used for walls on temporary shelters; ivory nut palm leaves made into thatch sheets for roofing; coconut frond midrib strips are used to tie ivory nut palm leaves to binding rods; fiber cord used to tie thatch sheets to rafters; fiber ropes used in pole-and-sling operation to carry large house timbers; palm fronds used to cover earthen house floors; coconut shell flask of perfume kept in storage box to impart sweet scent to clothing

canoes fiber cord used to attach and decorate end pieces and attach outrigger booms; young leaflets are strung on coconut fiber cord around outside of gunwales of large paddling canoes for decoration; shell halves used for bailing

clothing plaited coconut fiber used to make reef shoes

ornaments coconut shell made into small beads to decorate belts, bands and to make necklaces and pendants; burning spathe applied to sea turtle shell to loosen shell; turtle shell softened by boiling in mixture of coconut milk and sea water; coconut shell pieces used for ear piercing and made into ear rings; shell used in making comb handles; palm leaf midrib used to apply pigment in tattooing; glowing end of coconut leaflet midrib used in scarification

weapons coconut wood used to make spears; fiber cord to make slings

recreation objects coconut meat used to close end of nose flute

Source: LeBar, 1964.

Palm Domestication

A final perspective on the historical palm use can be realized through examination of the subject of palm domestication. Domestication of a particular palm species represents the end-point of a continuum that begins with utilization of wild palms (Clement, 1992). Over time, utilization leads to some level of management of wild populations; in turn this can result in the palm being brought into cultivation. At the point where cultivation begins, true selection also is assumed to begin for the cultivator will gather for propagation fruit or suckers from plants which have certain desirable qualities such as rapid growth, large fruit size or the like. Over many plant generations cultivated palms will come to exhibit morphological and genetic characters markedly different from their wild relatives; they are then deemed to be domesticated.

Five palm species are clearly domesticated and all are currently major economic species: betel nut palm (Areca catechu), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and pejibaye or peach palm (Bactris gasipaes).

The palm domestication process is driven by an economic interest in one key product, as is generally the case in plant domestication. The principal product is in some instances mutually exclusive to another palm use; in other instances the predominance of the key economic product may overshadow other useful products of the same palm and preclude development of the palm in a more integrated fashion. This situation can be remedied by promoting greater understanding of the inherent multipurpose character of already-domesticated palms as well as those with domestication potential. For present purposes, it is useful to review the domestication of the five major palms and their multipurpose character.

Betel Nut Palm (Areca catechu)

This palm appears to have been domesticated for its hard dried endosperm which contains the alkaloid arecoline and is chewed as a narcotic. Betel nut has a number of reported medicinal uses. The origin of the betel nut palm is unclear because of its long history of use, the fact that a definitely wild population has never been found and that it is but one of about 60 species distributed in South and Southeast Asia and the Pacific. In India it has been in cultivation for as many as 3,000 years, but is considered to have been introduced from Southeast Asia at an earlier time (Bavappa et al., 1982).

India is the leading world producer of betel nut; in 1980-1981 there were 184,500 ha under cultivation on plantations and small farms. Bavappa et al. (1982) devoted a chapter to alternative uses of betel nut. The endosperm contains tannin obtained as a by-product of preparing immature nuts for chewing and also fat comparable to coconut oil (see Table 9-1). Currently in India the husk is used as fuel or mulch although it is a source of fiber material suitable for hard board, paper board and pulp for paper. Leaf sheaths have traditional uses to make containers and represent a raw material with industrial applications to manufacture plyboard as well as disposable cups and plates. Betel nut palm leaves are used for thatch and organic manure and the stem wood made into a variety of articles such as waste paper baskets. The palm heart is the only food product from this palm.

Additional technical information on the betel nut palm can be found in a 1982 symposium proceedings (Shama Bhat and Radhakrishnan Nair, 1985). An extensive bibliography on the subject has also been published (Joshi and Ramachandra Reddy, 1982).

Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera)

This is the most ubiquitous palm of tropical coastal areas and a species with which nearly everyone is familiar. Origin of the coconut has long been a matter of debate, but recent evidence (Schuiling and Harries, 1994) strongly suggests that the coconut originated in Malesia (the region between southeast Asia and Australasia), where wild types have been found.

From its origins, the coconut was dispersed by humans and apparently by ocean currents, for the nut will float and remain viable for three months or more. The chief criterion used in selecting coconuts for cultivation appears to have been larger nuts with a greater quantity of useable endosperm (coconut meat). A secondary factor may have been more rapid germination. When the coconut was domesticated is an equally difficult question to answer. Child (1964) cites evidence that coconuts were in India some 3,000 years ago but may, like the betel nut palm, have been introduced.

The coconut is often referred to as the "tree of life" because of its multitude of subsistence and commercial uses (Persley, 1992; Ohler, 1984). Figure 2-1 attempts to capture the remarkable utility of the coconut palm. Tables 9-8 through 9-12 provide technical information on the major coconut products.

Production data for 1994 show that Indonesia, Philippines and India are the worlds leading producers of coconuts (FAO, 1994). The coconuts primary commercial product is edible oil, derived from the endosperm, which is one of the worlds most important vegetable oils. The Philippines is the largest producer of copra and coconut oil. In 1994 the Philippines exported 852,300 mt of coconut oil, which represented 56 percent of world exports of that commodity (Cocoinfo, 1995). Coconut is grown under plantation conditions but remains an important tree crop of the small farmer who often cultivates the palm in combination with other annual and perennial crops, and with livestock raising.

Numerous other studies on coconut not mentioned above have been published. A selection of technical information sources includes the proceedings of two international symposia (Nayar, 1983; Nair et al., 1993); a lengthy monograph (Menon and Pandalai, 1958); a technical guide written for small landholders (Bourgoing, 1991); and a study of the combining of cattle raising and coconut growing (Reynolds, 1988).

Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera)

This may represent the oldest domesticated palm, having originated most likely in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. The earlier time period would place the date palm among the most ancient of domesticated plants. Its history is obscured by the fact that species of Phoenix freely cross to produce hybrids thereby making it highly unlikely that wild populations of Phoenix dactylifera will ever be located.

In cultivation there exist numerous date varieties named for the fruit characteristics. Nutritional data on one of the date varieties is provided in Table 9-23. The date palm is also a multipurpose species, greatly relied upon for an array of products in its desert environments of limited vegetation resources (Dowson, 1982; Barreveld, 1993). In 1994, the three leading date-producing countries were Iran, Egypt and Iraq (FAO, 1994).

Other sources of technical information on the date palm include the following. Munier (1973) wrote a general study of the palm; there have been two international conferences on date palm (PFSODP, 1983; PSSODP, 1989); a lengthy bibliography of date palm has been compiled (Asif and Al-Ghamdi, 1986); and Dowson and Aten, 1962) describe date processing in detail.

Figure 2-1. The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera); the tree of life. Examples of end-products, clockwise. Trunk - construction, wood, timber, plywood, furniture, picture frames, charcoal. Leaf Sheath - bags, hats, caps, slippers. Sap - toddy, arrak, vinegar, yeast. Meat -oil, desiccated coconut, copra cake, candy, coconut water, coconut cheese, coconut milk, jam. Heart - fresh and pickled palm heart, animal feed. Leaves - mats, hats, slippers, midrib brooms, draperies, bags, toothpicks, roof thatch, midrib furniture, fencing, fans, fuel, fodder. Shell - trays, buttons, jewelry, trinkets, charcoal, activated charcoal, wood preservative, bowls, fuel. Coirdust - coirdust coke, plasterboard, blocks, insulation, potting mix. Husk - rope, yarn, coir mat, coir fiber, brushes, cushion and mattress stuffing, compost, fuel. Roots - dye stuff, medicine, fuel.

African Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis)

The African oil palm represents the most recently domesticated major palm. Within the past century this palm was brought into formal cultivation and developed to increase its mesocarp oil productivity through breeding of high-yielding hybrids. The oil palm is unsurpassed in yield of oil per unit area (Hartley, 1988). Unlike the three preceding examples, this palm exists in wild, semi-wild and cultivated states in West Africa where it originates, and also in Madagascar and East Africa. It is likewise cultivated extensively in Southeast Asia and to some degree in the New World tropics. Malaysia is the leading nation in production of this vegetable oil, followed by Indonesia and Nigeria (FAO, 1994).

More studies have been published on the African oil palm than any other palm. A sampling of titles includes: an economic study (Moll, 1987); a volume on research (Corley et al., 1976); a general book on the palm (Surre and Ziller, 1963); and an example of one of several conference proceedings from Malaysia (Pusparajah and Chew Poh Soon, 1982).

Apart from being an outstanding plantation crop, the oil palm remains a multipurpose tree among local populations in Africa. It is a traditional source of cooking oil, palm wine and other useful products. Nutritional data on the fruit and oil are given in Tables 9-15 and 9-16. The African oil palm has potential for multipurpose utilization in those areas where it is grown on plantations.

Pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes)

The only example of a major domesticated palm from the American tropics is the pejibaye. (Guilielma gasipaes is a synonym). Pejibaye may have originated from wild relatives, possibly as a hybrid, in the southwestern portion of the Amazon Basin and has been widely dispersed by humans in South and Central America (Clement, 1988; Mora-Urpí, 1996). The palm was domesticated for either its mesocarp starch or oil; both mesocarp and endosperm are edible after being boiled. Tables 9-2 and 9-3 provide nutritional information on the fruit. The palm produces basal suckers that can be separated for propagation, or it can be grown from seed. Pejibaye has been under cultivation since ancient times in humid tropical areas at elevations from sea level to about 1,200 m.

Pre-Columbian uses of pejibaye were documented by Patiño (1963). In addition to the food uses already mentioned, the palm heart is eaten; the mesocarp pulp is fermented into an alcoholic beverage (chicha); male flowers are used as an ingredient in flavorings; leaves are employed for thatching and basketry; spines are made into needles; stem wood is cut to fashion bows, arrows, fishing poles, harpoons as well as flooring and paneling for houses; the roots have medicinal use as a vermicide.

Pejibaye has been the object of considerable development in Central and South America focused on improving fruit quality for human and animal consumption; it is also under cultivation as a commercial source of palm hearts. An international conference on the biology, agronomy and industrialization of pejibaye was held in 1991 in Peru (Mora-Urpí et al. 1993). Costa Rica is said to be the leading country in pejibaye cultivation, but data on area and production levels were not found. To date, pejibaye has not been commercially cultivated in Asia or Africa.

An unusual example of a domesticated palm is the coco cumbé palm (Parajubaea cocoides) of South America. It is known only as an ornamental tree in Andean cities and towns of Ecuador and Colombia. Moraes and Henderson (1990) postulate that coco cumbé probably originated from the wild P. torallyi which occurs in Bolivia.

2 /Useful Palms of the World: A Synoptic Bibliography, represents the most comprehensive single source of information on palm utilization. It contains abstracts of 1,039 publications.

3/.A number of other palms could similarly be represented as "trees of life," among them are the date palm, African oil palm, palmyra palm, babassu palm and pejibaye palm.

<section>5</section>

Current palm products

The emphasis in this and subsequent chapters will be on products currently known to be derived from palms. (Examples of the array of artisanal palm products are shown in Figures 3-1, 3-2 and 3.3.)

With respect to more important economic species, some production statistics are available; however, as regards most of the minor palms no data are obtainable and anecdotal information must suffice. Focusing on present-day usage screens out exotic and outdated utilizations and permits a closer look at those palm products which have stood the test of time and remain of either subsistence or commercial value and hence have the greatest economic development potential. It needs to be stated that keeping a focus on palm products promotes re-examination of the current species as product sources as well as encourage assessment of new potential species not currently being exploited.

At this point, some observations regarding contemporary palm products are appropriate and some terminology needs to be introduced to give clarity to the discussions in this and future chapters. Obviously, not all of the possible products can be derived from a particular palm all of the time because one product typically precludes another in practical terms, or some products are mutually exclusive. All of the major domesticated palms, for example, are chiefly cultivated for products derived from their fruits; also, fruits are the most important product of a number of wild palms. Therefore, if fruit production is the prime objective, any other product extraction from the same tree that would retard or reduce fruit production should be avoided.

A clear example of a practice that will directly and adversely affect fruit production is tapping the inflorescence for sap; also, cutting leaves for basketry can impair the normal growth of the tree and reduce its resistance to pests and disease.

Palm Product Categories

In assessing and evaluating palms for the many products they can and do provide, it is instructive to consider the individual products as falling into three different general categories: primary products, secondary or by-products and salvage products.

Primary Products. These are the chief commercial, or in some cases subsistence, products derived from a palm. Generally, primary product processing occurs at a point removed from actual harvesting. Vegetable oil obtained from a palm fruit, for example; or palm stem starch. An entire plant can represent the primary product when a palm is dug up in the wild and sold as a live ornamental plant.

Secondary and By-products. As defined and used here, by-products refer to useful items directly generated by processing of the primary product. Secondary products are those which require one step of processing from the primary product to reach the desired end product. Examples of by-products are coir fiber from the coconut mesocarp and press cake remaining after extracting seed oil, which can be fed to livestock. Some by-products, however, are of little if any economic value and even pose disposal problems if unsuitable for use as fertilizer or fuel. Arrak is an example of a secondary product; palm wine, the primary product, must first be produced before it can be distilled to produce arrak.

Salvage Products. This terminology characterizes those palm products that are indirectly generated as a result of harvesting the primary product. Products in this category are typically discarded at the harvesting site and are not transported to another location as part of primary processing. Extracting a palm heart from a wild tree kills it; any products subsequently used such as stem wood or leaves, are by this definition salvage palm products.

Salvage palm products may also derive from other activities such as the cutting of palms for some land-use related reason, replacement of senescent palms in plantations or palm damage or destruction due to natural causes such as a tropical cyclone. Living ornamental palms removed from a site to be cleared to save them from being destroyed would, under such circumstances, be considered salvage products.

As revealed in the foregoing discussion, either a primary product or a by-product may be considered to be a salvage product if it was indirectly generated. Distinctions of this type are worth making because of the information they provide about the origin of the raw material and the stability of their supply.

A second group of palm product terms is proposed to characterize the extent of processing a newly-harvested raw material requires to transform it into a commercial item. From the simple to the most complex, four stages of raw material processing were chosen for use in this study: immediate use, cottage-level processing, small-scale industrial processing and large-scale industrial processing.

Immediate Use. Products in this category require little if any processing before being utilized. Examples include palm fronds cut for use in thatching, coconut water drunk from the nut, palm heart consumed fresh and entire palm stems used in construction. The only tools needed to generate immediate-use products is an ax and machete.

Cottage-level Processing. Those products requiring a modest amount of processing fall into this category, so named because the activities typically are carried out in or near the residence of the individuals involved. The physical locations where palm processing activities are carried out also function as living space or for other purposes when the processing is not actively being carried on; there is no designated processing area exclusively devoted to cottage-level processing. Traditional extraction of palm mesocarp oil, weaving of mats and other leaf products, drying of date fruits and carving of vegetable ivory into toys are examples. Very few tools are required for this level of processing.

Small-scale Industrial Processing. The use of the term "industrial" in designating this category connotes some specialized equipment, a dedicated locality or structure where processing takes place and a number of skilled or trained workers. Actual processing activities may be manual, semi-mechanized or mechanized depending upon their requirements and the level of investment. Canning of palm hearts, distillation of palm wine to produce arrak and extraction of coconut oil from copra exemplify this category.

Figure 3-1. Artisanal Palm Products I. A. Hat woven from palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) leaf fiber, Tamil Nadu, India. B. Spider figure carved from seed of South American vegetable ivory palm (Phytelephas macrocarpa), Ecuador; 7.5 cm in diameter. C. Palm climbing belt made from African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) petiole and leaf fiber, Guinea-Bissau; 108 cm long, 30 cm wide as illustrated. D. Shoulder bag with strap woven from chambira palm (Astrocaryum chambira) leaf fiber, Ecuador; 38 cm wide, 25 cm high.

Figure 3-2. Artisanal Palm Products II. A. Woven basket with attached overlapping lid, made of palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) leaf fiber, Casamance, Senegal; 20 cm high (closed), 24 cm wide. B. Head figure (a sadhu, a devotee who has renounced the world and gone to live in a remote area) made of the carved seed and mesocarp fiber of palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer), Tamil Nadu, India; 10 x 10 cm. C. Chopsticks and case, chopsticks made of palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) stem wood, case raw material undetermined, Thailand; chopsticks 23 cm long. D. Turned bowl made of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) stem wood, Philippines; 7.5 cm in diameter. E. Palm leaf writing (Buddhist Bible), made of talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera) leaflets, Thailand; 51 cm long, 4.5 cm wide.

Large-scale Industrial Processing. This category is distinguished from the preceding in terms of the greater physical size of the processing facility, a higher level of sophistication in the processing itself through more complicated mechanical devices and certain highly skilled workers to operate and maintain equipment. Examples which can be cited are African palm oil factories, the processing of export quality sago starch and integrated processing of fresh coconuts.

A number of palm products are associated with more than one of these four categories, depending upon local traditions and economic conditions. Salak fruits (Salacca spp.) are sold as fresh fruit (category 1) and preserved in tins or jars (category 3); rattan furniture making can be done on a small scale in the home (category 2) or in a small industrial facility (category 3); palm oil extraction can take place in the home (category 2) as well as in small- or large-scale factories (categories 3 and 4).

At this juncture, it is worthwhile to return to the major classes of palm products developed by Balick and Beck (1990) and discussed in Chapter 2. The authors presented a list of 388 palm products, which they broke down into 12 major classes. Selecting the leading palm products from the longer list permitted a reduction of the number to 84 principal products. Adhering to the organization into 12 major classes, they are presented in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1 lists palm products which are not far removed industrially from the original raw material and are most likely to be encountered in natural resource management and development activities. A linkage exists between the product and the palm. Many manufactured products are omitted which have in their makeup some palm raw material, but the raw material has ceased to be recognizably from a palm. Palm oils, for example, are ingredients in the manufacture of hundreds of food and industrial products. To include such a wide spectrum of products in the current discussion would diverge from the intended focus on palms themselves as providers of useful commodity, in the original sense of the latter term.

Table 3-1: Principal Palm Products

Beverages

Arrak (distilled spirit)

milk substitute

palm wine (toddy)

soft drink flavorings

sweet sap

Building Materials

Fiber

Parquet flooring

Rattan

Thatch

Timber

weaving material

wood

Chemicals/Industrial Products

activated charcoal

dye/resin

fiber (coir)

industrial oils

paper pulp

particle board

polishes

textile finishes

upholstery stuffing

vegetable ivory

wax

Cosmetics/Hygiene

hairdressing

soap

Feeds

fodder

forage

press cake

Fertilizer

biofertilizer

Food

candy

edible oil

fruit

ice cream/sherbet

inflorescence (pacaya)

kernels

palm hearts

preserves

starch/sago

sugar/jaggery

syrup

vinegar

Fuel

charcoal

fuel oil

fuel wood

Handicrafts

Agricultural Implements

nets

ropes

Clothing

clothes

hats

Furniture

hammock

lamp shades

mats

rattan wickerware

Games/Toys

balls (rattan)

chess pieces

palm leaflet balls

Household Items

bags

baskets

brooms

brushes

cigarette papers

coat hangers

cups

fans

ladles

purses

twine

walking sticks

Weapons/Hunting Tools

bows

spears

Jewelry

beads

miniature carvings

bracelets, rings and

ear rings

Medicines/Rituals

masticatory

Ornamental Use

cut foliage

houseplants

ornamental tree

seeds

shade tree

Structure/Shelter

bridges

fences

floors

nursery shade

pilings

posts

rafters

roofs

utility poles

walls

Source: after Balick and Beck, 1990.

Palm Product Matrix

A matrix of principal palm products is presented in Table 3-2. The contents of Table 3-1 were evaluated in terms of the general product categories and the processing categories to construct the matrix. Products were entered into the matrix in the same order as they appear in Table 3-1. Roman numerals across the top and letters along the left side permit shorthand reference to the products. The decision as to where within the matrix to place each product was made by taking into account the most common type of processing currently in practice; in a number of cases a product is placed in more than one box. For example, fiber is included in I-A, I-B, III-A and III-B, depending upon its source and end use; palm timber is placed in III-C and III-D since it is typically a salvage product requiring a small or large mill; edible oil appears in I-B, I-C, and I-D because it can be processed by various means depending upon the end use.

This matrix is provided with the hope it can serve to highlight the respective products in a way which conveys the relationship between product and processing levels.

Recent Related Development Trends

Beginning in the 1980s three new international development approaches arose which have fortuitously directed more attention to palm products. The three subjects are: agroforestry, non-wood (or non-timber) forest products and integrated product development. Because the future development of palm products needs to be linked to such broader issues, a brief discussion of each is appropriate.

Agroforestry

The emergence of agroforestry as a new international development approach is to help small farmers. It involves working to improve the overall productivity of mixed production systems which include various combinations of annual crops, perennial crops and livestock. Palms are common tree species in mixed small farming systems and agroforestry tends to favor such multipurpose trees; agroforestrys multidisciplinary approach has also been effective in emphasizing the broadest possible product use of palms (as with all plants and animals within the particular systems) for subsistence and commercial end uses.

Palms and their potential within agroforestry have been the focus of a number of research studies. Among them, Johnson (1983) did a general assessment of 52 multipurpose palms suitable for agroforestry systems; Liyanage (1983) studied the agroforestry role of the coconut palm in Sri Lanka; May et al. (1985) examined the babassu palms (Attalea speciosa, syn. Orbignya phalerata) potential in Brazil; Clement (1989) produced a study of the pejibaye palm (Bactris gasipaes) in agroforestry systems; and Flach and Schuiling (1989) reviewed the cultivation of the sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) as an agroforestry tree.

Table 3-2: Matrix of Principal Palm Products

General categories Processing Categories I Primary Product II. Secondary Product/

By-Product III. Salvage Product

A. Immediate Use palm wine; sweet sap; fiber; thatch; fruit; kernels; bridges-, nursery shade; pilings, posts; rafters; roofs; utility poles fodder; forage; press cake biofertilizer; fuelwood; fences fiber, thatch; fuelwood; house plants: shade trees, bridges; fences: pilings; Posts; rafters, roofs; utility Poles

B. Cottage-level Processing milk substitute ' fiber, rattan; weaving material; wood; upholstery stuffing edible oil; fruit, kernels/copranets; edible oil; nets ropes; hats; hammocks lamp shade: mats & rugs; rattail balls; chess pieces; bags; baskets; brooms; cups; fans; ladies, purses, twine, walking ; beads; miniature carvings; bows; spears: masticatory; cut foliage; seeds (ornamental); floors; walls sugar/jaggery; syrup; charcoal fiber; weaving material, wood; floors, walls

C.Small-scaleIndustrial

Processing soft drink flavor; industrial oils; upholstery stuffing; vegetable every; hairdressings; soap ' edible oil: inflorescence (pacaya); palm hearts: preserves: starch/sago, sugar/jaggery; Syrup; hammocks; lamp shades; rattan wickerware, brushes, cigarette papers; coat hangers; bracelets. rings & car rings arrak; parquet flooring; activated charcoal; sugar/jaggary; syrup; charcoal; fiber (coir); candy; ice cream & sherbet; vinegar parquet flooring: timber; pal in hearts

D.Large-scaleIndustrial

Processing dye/resin: industrial oils; paper pulp; particle board; polishes: textile finishes-, wax; soap; edible oil; starch/ sago; fuel oil fiber (coir) parquet flooring; timber

Figure 3-3. Artisanal Palm Products III. A. Rattan palm (likely Calamus sp.) shoulder bag, Sarawak, Malaysia; 36 cm high, 21 cm in diameter. B. Rattan palm (likely Calamus sp.) ball, Peninsular Malaysia; 12 cm in diameter. C. Coco bunny, made of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) husk, Guyana; 17 cm long. D. Ashtray, made of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) stem wood, Ecuador; 12 cm in diameter. E. Spear made of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) stem wood, Peru; 102 cm long. F. Rattan palm (likely Calamus sp.) coat hanger, country of origin unknown; 41 cm wide, 23 cm high.

Non-Wood Forest Products

The emergence of non-wood forest products as an international development issue derives from attempts to transform traditional high grading of tropical timber into sustainable forest management. Sustainable forest management is only feasible if wood and non-wood products are given full consideration and local needs are acknowledged to be as important as timber or lumber exports. Although the designation "non-wood" appears to exclude them, palm wood, rattans, and bamboo are typically included among non-wood forest products because they are not considered by foresters to be either traditional wood or timber.

Pantropically, non-wood forest products are of local importance as food and raw material sources. An excellent overview of the subject can be found in Nepstad and Schwartzman (1992). Palms represent one of the most important plant families of non-wood forest products. Two examples of studies containing good information on palms as forest products are by Beer and McDermott (1989), who point out the importance of rattans and edible palm products in southeast Asia; and Falconer and Koppell (1990) who document the significance of palms among the forests products in West Africa.

Integrated Product Development

Integrated product development, as used here, refers to an industrial approach which views primary products, by-products (including waste products) together in seeking ways to achieve greater overall productivity and profit.

As demonstrated in this chapter, individual palm parts are sources of one or more raw materials which can be used in various ways for commercial purposes; therefore, an integrated approach to product development and processing should follow a whole fruit processing approach and include the valorization of by-products to the greatest extent possible. To a major degree, attention has been drawn to integrated product development for practical reasons, with the agroindustries associated with the major domesticated palms taking the lead.

Processing the whole fruit of any of the cocoid palms, the oil palms, is an excellent case in point because oil extraction has the potential of generating several useful end products. Depending upon the individual species of oil palm, products include: edible oil, edible starch, mesocarp pulp, edible kernels, industrial oil, dry distillation of husks to obtain acetates, press cake for livestock and shells for conversion to activated charcoal or directly for fuel.

A model of potential applicability to certain of the other oil palms is represented by modern coconut processing technology. This technology takes a whole fruit approach and adopts a wet processing procedure for coconut endosperm which eliminates the traditional intermediary step of making copra prior to producing coconut oil (Hagenmaier, 1980).

In Malaysia, the African oil palm industry is going a step farther and considering the entire palm. Estimates are that in the late 1990s Malaysia will be replanting over 80,000 ha of oil palm per year (Jamil et al., 1987). The industry must deal with huge quantities of oil palm stems and fronds resulting from replanting, replacement of dead palms and pruning of leaves. Husin et al. (1986) estimate that in the late 1990s about 26 million metric tons of oil palm stem and leaf dry matter will be generated per annum. Under study are conversion into lumber, fuel, pulp and paper, reconstituted board and animal feed (Shaari et al., 1991; Khoo et al., 1991). Technologies developed to solve this problem of the African oil palm will have implications throughout the palm family.

Major date growing countries are also considering date palm cultivation in a broader product context. The recent book by Barreveld (1993) on the date palm devotes a major chapter to traditional palm products other than dates.

To conclude this discussion of recent development trends relative to palm products, it can be restated that numerous palm tree species already provide, or have the potential to provide, more than one subsistence or commercial product; such trees are appropriately referred to as multipurpose palms. Within the framework of natural resource management, sustainable forest management or regional development efforts, it is imperative that the full spectrum of useful palm products from any one palm tree species be taken into account. In that way commercially-valuable and subsistence products can be generated for industrial enterprises and for the benefit of local peoples.

4/.An alternative more detailed classification method has been devised by Chandrasekharan (1995) to cover forest products other than wood in general.

5/.Cocoid palms are those which, according to Uhl and Dransfield (1987), belong to the Cocoeae tribe within the Arecoideae subfamily. All of the oil-bearing palms are included, among them the coconut (Cocos nucifera), African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes).

<section>6</section>

Asian region

The Asian region is an immense area containing the greatest palm species diversity in the world along with the oldest and most assorted types of palm utilization. For the purpose of this chapter, Asia is defined geographically as stretching from Pakistan on the west to Indonesia on the east and north to include China.

Across the region, the level of knowledge about palm systematics and documented examples of particular palm products ranges from excellent to fragmentary. Malaysia represents a country in the former category, Vietnam one of the latter. A World Wide Fund for Nature Asian palm project which focused on India, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines summarized old and generated much new information on conservation and utilization (Johnson, 1991b).

Chapter 4 has been broken down into three separate but interrelated parts to simplify dealing with such a large number of palms. The first part is concerned with the palms of South Asia, i.e. India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka; and to a minor degree with Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim. Part two covers Southeast Asian palms and includes the countries from Myanmar eastward to Indonesia and the Philippines, and southern China. These two regional treatments exclude rattans which are dealt with as a group in a separate third section of this chapter.

The approach in this and the following regional chapters links together utilization and conservation because without such a linkage sustainable resource use can never be achieved. The conservation status of a utilized wild palm is a vital piece of information in any consideration of continued or expanded exploitation. For convenience, palm species are considered to be in one of three categories: threatened, non-threatened or unknown. Except for rattans in this chapter, utilized palms with an unknown conservation status are not discussed.

South Asia

The utilized native palms of this region, excluding rattans, were divided into two groups based on their conservation status.

Threatened South Asian Palms

Thirteen species of native South Asian palms were found to be both under threat in the wild and utilized by local people. Information on these palms is presented in Table 4-1. The strong relationship between sensitive island habitats and threatened palms is in evidence in Table 4-1 where half the species included occur on islands. One island endemic is also monotypic (i.e. a genus with a single species): Loxococcus rupicola in Sri Lanka.

Discussion

Perusal of the palm products in Table 4-1 shows that leaves, petioles and stems are exploited for a variety of end-uses; and fruits, sap and starch provide edible products. All these existing patterns of utilization are for subsistence purposes alone. Were the rattans included, that would not be the case.

Table 4-1: Threatened South Asian Palms with Reported uses (excluding rattans)

Scientific Names

Selected Local Names

Distribution

Products/Uses

Areca concinna

len-teri

Sri Lanka (endemic)

nuts as betel substitute

Arenga wightii

dhiudasal. alam panel

India: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu(endetnic to India)

peduncle tapped for sap

Bentinckia nicobarica

Nicobar bentinekia palm?

India: Great Nicobar Island (endemic)

leaves for thatching and steins as hut pillars

Corypha umbraculifera

condapana; tala

India: Kerala: Sri Lanka

leaves used as umbrellas: edible starch from stem; seeds to make beads; formerly, leaf blades as writing material

Hyphaene dichotoma

(syn. H. indica)

oka mundel (Indian doum palm)

India: Gujarat. Maharashtra (endemic to India)

fibrous fruit mesocarp (see Table 9-20 for composition) & unripe kernel eaten; leaves for thatching: stem wood for posts, roof beams & fuel

Licuala peltata

selai pathi, mota pathi

India: Northeast & Andaman Islands;Bangaldesh; Sikkim

leaves for thatching & as rain hats. spl i t leaf blades woven into baskets, mats, etc.; stems as pillars

Livistona jenkinsiana

toko pat, takau-araung

India: Northeast: Sikkim

fresh nuts used as masticatory; leaves for thatching & rain hats, stems for hut construction

Loxococcus rupicola(monotypic)

dotalu

Sri Lanka (endemic)

edible palm heart

Oncosperma afasciculatton

katu-kitul

Sri Lanka (endemic)

stem wood for construction ?

Phoenix rupicola

cliff date palm ?

India: Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya;Sikkim

starch extracted from stem as famine food

1. Pinanga dicksonii;

2. P. inanii

1) India: Kerala, Tamil Nadu (endemic to India); 2) India: Andaman & Nicobar Islands (endemic)

1 & 2) stems used for fencing & posts; leaves for thatching; nuts used as betel substitute

Wallichia disticha

tashe

India: Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal; Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sikkim

edible stem starch

Notes:

1. Other local names are gi ' ven in some of the sources cited.

2. Distribution is within the South Asian region as defined; some species also occur elsewhere.

Sources: Basu. 1991; Basu and Chakraverty, 1994; Blatter, 1926; De Zoysa, 1996; Mahabale, 1982; Malik. 1984; Mathew and Abraharn, 1994; Rolla and Joseph, 1962.

From a utilization standpoint, it should be possible to reduce the exploitation of these threatened palms inasmuch as there exist inexpensive alternative sources of the palm products.

A combination of utilization and habitat destruction appears to have led to the extinction in the wild of the tara palm (Corypha taliera) endemic to West Bengal, India. Leaves were formerly used for tying rafters of houses and leaf blades employed as writing material. Although no longer found in its natural habitat, the tara palm is under cultivation in botanic gardens, affording an opportunity for a reintroduction effort.

On a more positive note, recognition in Thailand of the overexploitation of the naturalized talipot palm (Corphya umbraculifera) has led to its inclusion in a list of the protected non-wood forest products. Under forest regulations, small amounts of protected NWFPs can be harvested for subsistence needs, but any commercial exploitation requires a permit (Subansenee, 1995).

Non-threatened South Asian Palms

About the same number of economic palms are not under threat in South Asia. Nypa fruticans is included as one of the dozen species in Table 4-2 despite the fact that it is threatened in Sri Lanka and should be protected there. Sri Lanka represents the western limit of the palms natural range, where it occurs only in a small estuarine area of the island.

Discussion

The small number of species in Table 4-2 should not be construed as an indication that palms are of minor significance in the region. To the contrary, palms are quite important and provide a great range of different products for subsistence and commercial purposes.

Arenga pinnata, Borassus flabellifer

and Phoenix sylvestris are all multipurpose species that individually approach the coconut palm in terms of overall utility. One product common to the three palms is sap which is consumed in the form of soft or hard beverages, fermented into vinegar or boiled down to yield palm sugar which is comparable to cane or beet sugar. Over many centuries, tapping techniques have been developed which enhance sap flow while minimizing the negative impact on the individual tree. The monotypic Nypa fruticans is also a source of sweet sap but it is not as important in South Asia as it is Southeast Asia.

With the exception of Areca triandra, all the palms in Table 4-2 are exploited for leaf products of one kind or another. Cottage industries producing hats, bags, mats and other products woven from young palm leaves are common in South Asia and the products are of the highest quality.

The importance of non-wood forest products is officially recognized in Bangladesh where Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa harvest requires permits from the Forest Department (Basit, 1995).

It is obvious that many if not most of these non-threatened palms could be brought under better management and the production of palm products increased on a sustainable basis. Research along these lines is being carried out in South India at the Kerala Forest Research Institute where a project entitled "Palm resources of Kerala, their conservation and utilization," is in progress under the direction of C. Renuka.

Table 4-2: Non-threatened South Asian Palms with Reported Uses (excluding rattans)

Scientific Names

Selected Local Names (

Distribution

Products/Uses

Areca triandra var. triandra

bon gua

India: Northeast, Andaman Islands

nuts used as betel substitute

Arenga pinnata

gomuti (sugar palm)

India: Eastern, Andaman Islands; Bangladesh; Sri Lanka

multipurpose palmi sap for sugar & other products; edible immature seed(fresh mesocarp of ripe fruit is filled with irritant needle crystals); edible starch from stem; edible palm heart; leaf base fiber for fish nets, etc., leaflets for weaving baskets, etc., stem wood for various uses

Borassus flabellifer

fall Palmyra

India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka

multipurpose palm: sap for toddy & sugar; edible mesocarp pulp; edible unripe endosperm, edible palm heart; leaves for thatching; leaflets for weaving, stem wood for construction & fuel, see Tables 9-4 and 9-5 for composition of sap & sugar

1. Caryota mitis;

2. C. urens

2) bherli mad, kittul

1. India: Andaman Islands:

2. India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka

1) edible starch from stem; leaves for thatching, weaving & decoration, ripe fruits contain irritant poison,

2) leaf-sheath fiber to make rope, etc.; edible starch from stem; sap for toddy & sugar. edible palm heart; seeds as masticatory & to make beads

Licuala spinosa

jungli selai

India: Andaman Islands

leaves for thatching & Clothing

Nypa fruticans(monotypic)

golpata

India: Orissa, West Bengal. Andaman islands; Bangladesh; Sri Lanka

leaves for thatching, sap from inflorescence for beverage or sugar; mature seeds suitable for vegetable ivory

1. Phoenix acaulis;

2. P. jorin ife. ra;

3. P. loureirii

4. P. paludosa

5. P. sylvestris;

6. P. zeylanica

1)khajur; 3)khajoor;

4) hantal;

5) thakil (sugar date palm);

6) indi

1) India: Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal; Sikkim;

2) India: Tamil Nadu; Sri Lanka;

3) India! Uttar Pradesh, Kerala Nepal; Pakistan;

4) India: Bengal, Orissa, Andaman Islands; Bangladesh;

5) Ind ia(common); Nepal,

6) Sri Lanka

1) edible fruit, heart & stern starch; leaf fiber for ropes, leaves for thatching;

2) edible fruit; leaflets woven into sleeping mats; split petiole to make baskets; edible starch from stem

3) leaves woven into mats & to make brooms; edible fruit; starch from stem-, medicinal use of palm ficait;

4) stem wood for construction; leaves for thatching & to make brooms, leaf fiber to make rope, edible fruit?;

5) multipurpose palm: sap from stem as beverage & to make sugar, edible fruit: leaves made into brooms or woven into baskets & mats; stem wood for fuel:

6) edible fruit, leaves woven into mats and baskets

Notes:

1. Other local names are given in some of the sources cited.

2. Distribution is within the South Asian region as defined; some species also Occur elsewhere.

Sources: References for Table 4-1 and in addition: Basit, 1995; Davis, 1972, 1988; Davis and Joel. 1989; Davis and Johnson, 1987; De Zoysa, 1992: Dissanayake, 1986,Francis, 1984; Ghosh and Ghose, 1995; Kovooi, 1983: Miller, 1964; Padmanablian and Sudhersan, 1988

If information were available on its conservation status, the useful mazari palm (Nannorrhops ritchiana) would probably be included in Table 4-2. This monotypic palm is native to arid portions of northwestern India, Pakistan and westward to the Arabian Peninsula, and has a variety of uses. For example: leaves are woven into mats and baskets, made into fans and brushes, and have medicinal use; stems, leaves and petioles serve as fuel; young leaves and inflorescences, as well as the heart and fruit are eaten; and seeds are made into beads.

Southeast Asia

Native palms currently reported to be exploited in Southeast Asia also have been broken down into threatened and non-threatened species lists. Considerable knowledge gaps exist about palms in this very diverse area, especially in Myanmar, Thailand, the countries of former Indochina and the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya on the island of New Guinea.

Threatened Southeast Asian Palms

A total of 24 palm species, belonging to 13 genera, are listed in Table 4-3. More than one-half of these species are endemic palms and most countries in the region are represented. They are, therefore, fairly representative of the situation.

Three genera are among the largest non-rattan palm genera in Asia: Pinanga has around 120; Licuala about 105 and Areca approximately 55 species. Each genus has numerous species for which conservation data are lacking and there is justifiable concern that when data are available the results will be alarming and show that most are also threatened. The reason for this concern is that the habitat of all three genera is the undergrowth of tropical forests, and Southeast Asian forests are under intense pressure from logging and shifting cultivation, resulting in deforestation and degradation on a massive scale.

Another aspect of the genera in Table 4-3 is that several (e.g. Areca, Arenga, Caryota, Eugeissona, Licuala, Livistona, Phoenix and Pinanga) also appear in Table 4-4 among the listing of non-threatened palms. Inasmuch as palm genera have distinctive individual habitat requirements, the linkage between threatened and non-threatened congeneric species needs to be kept in mind in promoting palm products. In other words, it is not sufficient to know that an individual species is not threatened; taking into account other species (which often yield similar products) is the safest approach to take.

Discussion

Food and non-food products are about equally represented in Table 4-3 and appear to be solely for subsistence purposes. Some palm utilizations are relatively benign, such as collecting the fruits of Pinanga spp. and other Areca spp. as a substitute for the cultivated betel nut (Areca catechu). Leaf harvest for thatching and other end uses may or may not be of concern, depending upon the intensity of the practices.

Table 4-3: Threatened Southeast Asian Palms with Reported Uses (excluding rattans)

Scientific Names

Selected Local Names

Distribution (

Product/Uses

1)Areca hutchinsoniana;

2) A, ipot,-

3) A. macrocarpa;

4) A. parens

1)bunga;

2) bungang-ipot;

3)bungang-lakihan; 4) takobtob

1) Philippines: Mindanao;

2) Luzon;

3) Zamboanga;

4) Luzon (each species is endemic)

nuts as occasional betel Substitute, edible palm heart

Arenga hastata

mudor

Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia

leaf sheath as knife sheath

Borassodendron borneense

bidang

Borneo (endemic)

edible palm heart & immature fuit endospcrm; stem sawn into boards for house construction

1) Carvota no;

2) C rumphiana

1) entibap mudol; 2) takipan

1) Borneo (endemic);

2) Philippines: Luzon; Indonesia: Moluccas, Irian Jaya

1) edible stem starch & pal m heart leaf-sheath fiber for tinder & to make fishing line, etc.

2) edible palm heart

Eugeissona brachystachys

tahan bertam

Peninsular Malaysia (endemic)

edible stem starch; leaves for thatching; edible immature endosperm; petioles to make darts etc.

Heterospathe elmeri

Philippines: Camiguin (endemic)

nuts as betel substitute; edible palm heart

1. Johannesteijsmannia altifrons;

2. J. lanceolata J. magnifica, J. perakensis

1) sal

1) Sarawak, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra. Thailand; 2) Peninsular Malaysia (all endemic)

1) leaves for thatching roots & walls: fruits in medicine,

2) seed collected for ornamental planting

1. Licuala fatua;

2. L. orbicularis

1) cay trui;

2) biru balat

1) Vietnam: Ila Nam Ninh, Tua Thien (endemic);

2) Sarawak (endemic ?)

1) stems to make tool handles,

2) leaves for wrapping, maki rig hats, umbrellas & thatching

Livistona robinsoniana

Philippines: Polillo (endemic)

leaves for thatching, stems as posts

Orania sylvicola

iwul

Indonesia: Java, Sumatra; Malaysia: Peninsular, sarawak; Thailand

stem wood for construction poisonous heart & fruit(said to apply to all Orania species)

Phoenix hanceana var philippinensis

voyavoy

Philippines: Batanes Islands (endemic)

leaves to make thatched raincoat: leaflets woven into mats

1. Pholidocarpus kingi

2. P. monocrocarpus anus;

2) serdang

1. Peninsular Malaysia (endemic);

2. Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand

1 & 2) stems for pilings & limbers; leaves for thatching

1. Pinanga cochinchinensis;

2. P. duperreana;

3. P. punicea var. punicea

1. cao cuóc cluóc;

2. sla condor

1) Vietnam (endemic);

2) Kampuchea, Laos. Vietnam;

3) Indonesia: Moluccas, Irian Jaya

1) fruit used as fish bait leaves to make mats & sails;

2) edible palm heart; nuts as betel substitute,

3) leaves to make mats & sails

Notes:

1. Other local names are given in sonic of the sources cited.

2. Distribution is within the southeast Asian region as defined; some species also occur elsewhere.

Sources: Brown and Merrill. 1919: Burkill, 1966; Davis, 1988; Fernando, 1990; Gagnepain, 1937; Guzman and Fernando,1996; Kiew 1991; Madulid, 1991a.b, Mogea, 1991,Pearce, 1991. 1994; Uhl and Dransfield. 1987; Whitmore, 1973.

The spectacular umbrella leaf palm (Johannesteijsmannia altifrons) is a case in point. Referred to as natures answer to corrugated iron, the enormous undivided leaves are up to 3 m long and 1 m wide. Highly prized for thatching roofs and walls (which last 3-4 years) the leaves are cut and sold for this purpose in Peninsular Malaysia. Providing 2-3 leaves are left on each plant, the practice may be sustainable (Kiew, 1991). However, almost nothing is known about the flowering and fruiting characteristics of palms in this genus; periodic leaf harvest could, over time, adversely affect fruit production and lead to a decline in natural regeneration. This biological factor is apart from habitat destruction; these palms require an understory forest habitat. In addition, illegal seed collection and export of these highly-desirable ornamental palms is having detrimental effects on the wild populations in Peninsular Malaysia.

The most destructive exploitation occurs in extracting edible palm hearts and edible stem starch for the trees are killed in the process. In some instances it appears that palm heart extraction is associated with felling a tree for some other purposes such as to obtain stem wood or starch; it is therefore sometimes a "salvage" product, to use the term introduced in Chapter 3.

By and large, the products derived from palms in Table 4-3 are for subsistence needs and alternative sources should be suggested where the current exploitation is having a serious negative impact on wild palm populations.

Non-threatened Southeast Asian Palms

The full range of palm utilization in Southeast Asia is represented in Table 4-4 which lists 41 species in 18 genera. Geographic coverage is complete as every country in the region is included, although with varying completeness. The table is a clear indication of the fact that Southeast Asia has both the highest palm species diversity and the greatest variety of palm utilization of anywhere in the world.

Arenga, Phoenix, Pinanga

and Salacca species account for around one-half of the entries in the table. The genera Eleiodoxa and Eugeissona occur only in Southeast Asia.

Discussion

Table 4-4 includes six major economic palm species each worthy of individual attention. They are: Arenga pinnata, Borassus flabellifer, Corypha utan, Metroxylon sagu, Nypa fruticans and Salacca zalacca.

Arenga pinnata.

The aren or sugar palm is a multipurpose species which finds its greatest utility in Southeast Asia. Miller (1964) provides an excellent summary of the economic uses of the palm. Known chiefly as a source of sap derived from tapping the inflorescence to make sugar and a provider of edible starch from the trunk, the sugar palm grows in humid forest areas and under drier conditions. The fruit of the sugar palm fruit merits special attention because although the immature endosperm is edible, the mesocarp pulp of ripe fruits contains irritating needle crystals which make them inedible.

The growth habit of the sugar palm is notable with respect to its products. The palm is hapazanthic, i.e. it flowers at about 10 years of age and dies. The harvestable quantities of sap and starch represent the trees stored nutrients for the protracted flowering and fruiting which extends over a period of around two years.

Table 4-4: Non-threatened Southeast Asian Palms with Reported Uses (excluding rattans)

Scientific Names

Selected Local Names

Distribution'

Products/Uses,

1. Areca macrocalyx;

2. Areca triandra var. triandra

2) cau rung (Viet)

1) Indonesia: Irian Jaya;

2) Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines

1) (inferred) nut as betel substitute; edible heart, leaves for thatch: 2) nut as abatel substitute

1. Arenga microcarpa;

2. A. obtusifolia

3. A. pinnata;

4. A. tremula var tremula

5. A. undulatifolia

2)langkap (Pen M all;

3) aren;

4) dumayaka (Phil);

5) aping

1) Irian Jaya;

2) Peninsular Malaysia; Indonesia: Sumatra, Java;

3) widespread;

4) Philippines: Luzon;

5) Borneo; Philippines: Sulu; Indonesia: Sulawesi

1) edible palm heart;

2) edible palm heart & endosperm;

3) multipurpose palm: sap for sugar & other products; edible immature seed (fresh mesocarp of ripe fruit is filled with irritant needle crystals) edible stem starch, palm heart leaf-base fiber for fish nets. etc.; leaflets for weaving baskets, etc.; stem wood for various uses

4) petiole split to make baskets;

5) edible stem starch (Sarawak) & other products

Borassus flabellifer

(syn. B. sundaicus)

lontar

widespread as native & cultivated species

multipurpose palm: sap for toddy & sugar. edible mesocarp pulp; edible unripe endosperm; edible palm heart; leaves for thatching; leaflets for weaving, stem wood for construction & fuel

1. Caryota mitis;

2. C rumphiana var.rumphiana

1) mudor (Sar); 2)sagu moro(Irian)

1) Brunei; Malaysia: Peninsular, Sarawak; Myanmar; Indonesia: Java, Sulawesi; Thailand; Vietnam., China: Hainan Island (where it is threatened);

2) Indonesia: Irian Jaya, Moluccas

1 & 2) edible palm heart & stem starch

1. Corypho lecomtei;

2. C utan (syn. C elata)

1) la buong (Viet);

2) gebang, hurt

1) Vietnam; Thailand; 2) Indonesia: Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Sumatra; Malaysia: Peninsular, Sabah; Philippines

1) leaves for thatching & weaving mats, sails and bags; petiole to make arrows & walking sticks; edible stem starch: fruits as fish poison,

2) stem starch as food & medicine; sap from inflorescence for wine & sugar; edible palm heart; edible fruit(see Table 9-14for nutritional composition); leaves for thatching& weaving mats, baskets & fans

Eleiodoxa conferta

kelubi

Malaysia: Peninsular, Sarawak, Sabah-, Brunei; Singapore-, Indonesia: Kalimantan, Sumatra; Thailand

fruit used to make pickles & relishes; edible palm heart; leaves for thatching & to make mats

Scientific Names

Selected Local

Names

Distribution

Product/Uses

1. Eugeissona tristis;

2. E. utilis

1) bertam;

2) nanga

1. Peninsular Malaysia: Thailand;

2. Borneo

1) leaves for thatching & to make fish traps; edible immature fruit;

2) stem starch; edible palm heart. purple flower pollen used as condiment; leaves for thatching, split petiole to make darts

Gulubia costata

limbun

Indonesia: Irian Jaya, Moluccas

stems for floor and wall boards; inflorescence used as brush - leaf sheath of cr own shaft folded to make buckets & baskets and to wrap food

1. Licuala peltata;

2. L. spinosa

1 & 2) palas (Indon)

1)Thailand; Myanmar,

2) Malaysia: Peninsular, Sarawak, Sabah; Brunei, Indonesia: lava, Sumatra; Philippines;

China, Thailand

1 & 2) leaves for thatching & to wrap food

Livistona rotundifolia

Var. rotundifolia

serdang

Indonesia: Moluccas, Sulawesi;Borneo; Philippines

leaves for thatching and to wrap food

Metroxylon sagu f

longispinum.

sagu

Indonesia: Irian Jaya, Moluccas;Philippines: Mindanao

stem starch; leaves for thatching, petioles & stem wood for construction, etc.

Nypa fruticans

(monotypic)

nipah, atap

widespread in coastal areas

leaves for thatching & weaving; sap from inflorescence for beverage, sugar or alcohol; immature seeds edible, mature seeds suitable for vegetable ivory; leaflet epidermis to make cigarette wrapper

1. Oncosperma horridum;

2. 0. tigillarium

1) bayas (Malay), bayeh(Indon),

2) nibong (Malay)

1) Malaysia: Peninsular. Sarawak, Sabah; Brunei; Indonesia: Kalimantan, Sumatra; Philippines, Thailand;

2) Malaysia: Peninsular, Sarawak, Sabah; Brunei; Indonesia Java, Kalimantan. Sumatra; Philippines; Indochina?

1 & 2) whole stems resistant to sea water used in construction; stems split into strips to make fish traps, floor & wall coverings, etc.; leaves to weave baskets; nuts as betel substitute; edible etc.; leaves to weave baskets; nuts as betel substitute; edible palm heart

Scientific Names

Selected Local

Names'

Distribution

Products/Uses

1. Phoenix acaulis;

2. P. loureirii;

3. P. paludosa;

4. P. sylvestris

2) bua cha la (Viet);

3) cay cut chut (Viet)

1) Myanmar ' Thailand; Vietnam;

2) China-Thailand;

3) Peninsular Malaysia- Indonesia: Sumatra Thailand: Vietnam;

4) Myanmar

1) edible Fruit leaf fiber for ropes leaves for thatching;

2) edible fruit; other uses likely;

3) edible fruit and palm heart; leaves for temporary fencing;

4) (inferred) multipurpose palm sap from stein as beverage & to make sugar: edible Fruit; leaves made into brooms or woven into baskets & mats; stem wood for fuel

Pigafetta filaris

wanga

Indonesia: Irian Jaya, Moluccas, Sulawesi

whole stems used in construction, split or sawn into flooring & hollowed lot water pipe

1. Pinanga, caesia;

2. P. Coronata;

3. P. crassipes;

4. P. mooreana;

5. P. schortechinii;

6. P. simplicifrons

pinarig in general

1) Indonesia: Sulawesi (endemic);

2) Indonesia: Java, Sumatra;

3) Malaysia: Sarawak, Sabah

4) Malaysia: Sarawak; Brunei

5) Malaysia: Peninsular; Thailand;

6) Malaysia: Peninsular, Sarawak; Brunei; Indonesia: Sumatra

(in general) leaves for thatching; stems as laths, nuts sometimes chewed as betel substitut

1. Salacca affinis;

2. S. glabrescens;

3. S. vermicularis;

4. S. wallichiuna;

5. S. zalacca

1) salak, ridan (Sar);

2) salak;

3) kepla; 5) salak

1) Malaysia: Peninsular. Sarawak, Sabah; Brunei; Indonesia: Kalimantan, Sumatra;

2)Peninsular Malaysia; Thailand;)

3)Borneo;

4) Peninsular Malaysia; Thailand; Vietnam ; Laos; Kampuchea,ChinaMyanmar; 5)Indonesia:Java, Sumatra

1) edible fruit & palm heart flexible end of rachis as fishing rod;

2) edible fruit;

3) edible fruit and palm heart

4)fruit used in curry; petioles for fishing rods;

5) edible fruit (see Table 9-25 for nutritional composition).leaves for fencing & ldecoration

Trachycarpus fortunei

chusan

China (endemic)

leaf-base fiber to make rope, mats, brushes; leaves for thatching& to weave fans, hats, chairs; fruit wax to make polishes, etc., seed source of hemostatic drug; roots, leaves & flowers contain medicinal compounds; stems as house pillars, edible flowers; seeds as animal fodder

Notes:

1. Other local names are given in some of the sources cited.

2. Distribution is within the Southeast Asian region as defined; some species also occur elsewhere.

Sources: References for Table 4.3 and in addition: Davis, 1988; Davis and Kuswara, 1987; Davis et al., 1990,Dransfield, 1977; Dransfield and Johnson, 1991; Essig, 1982; Essig and Dong, 1987; Fong, 1989,1991: Fox, 1977; Hay, 1984; House, 1983; Kovoor, 1983; Lubeigt, 1977; Miller, 1964; Mogea et al., 199 1,O'Brien and Kinnaird, 1996, Ruddle el al., 1978; Sastrapradja et al., 1978; Yaacob and Subhadr abandhu, 1995.

Borassus flabellifer

. The lontar palm is a multipurpose species in Southeast Asia just as it is in South Asia. However, its uses do not quite reach the diversity found in South Asia. This is documented by Fox (1977) who studied two different culture groups which make considerable use of the palm on the Indonesian islands of Roti and Madura. As a sugar source, lontar has been studied in great detail by Lubeigt (1979) in central Myanmar. The lontar is a palm of dry environments and is tolerant of poor soils. Its major drawback as an economic palm is that it is a single-stemmed species.

Corypha utan

. This palm has a very wide distribution in Asia, most often in drier more open areas. It typically is found in association with settlements, suggesting that humans may have contributed to its current geographic range. A large single-stemmed tree, the gebang palm shares with the sugar palm a terminal-flowering habit and also its main economic products of sweet sap and stem starch. The gebang has very large fan-shaped leaves with numerous uses.

Metroxylon sagu

. The sago palm is most notable in the region as a subsistence source of stem starch in areas of its occurrence in Indonesia and the Philippines. A tropical peat swamp palm, sago occupies a largely undesirable habitat as far as competing land uses are concerned. Centuries ago, sago was introduced from farther east to Borneo and Malaya, apparently by migrating peoples. Today it can be found in a semi-wild or cultivated state where suitable habitat exists. Anyone seeing the extensive sago areas in Sarawak, and the dependence of local people on it for starch and various other projects, would find it difficult to believe that the palm is not native. This hapazanthic suckering palm is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.

Nypa fruticans

. Nipa is solely a mangrove palm and its distribution is centered in Southeast Asia. Although sago and nipa occupy somewhat similar habitats, the former grows in fresh water swamps, the latter brackish water environments along the coast. Major economic products are sap for sugar or alcohol and leaves for thatching. Panels of nipa thatch are in common use wherever the palm occurs. Hamilton and Murphy (1988) studied the general use and management of nipa over its broad range and Fong (1992) has done field studies on nipa management in Peninsular Malaysia and tapping in Sarawak (Fong, 1989).

Salacca zalacca

. The salak palm is a forest undergrowth species primarily important for its edible fruit, which is obtained from wild and cultivated plants. As indicated in Table 4-4, several other species also have edible fruits, but fruit from S. zalacca is the largest and sweetest. Salak fruit is very popular in Indonesia where it is consumed fresh and is canned for domestic and export markets. According to Mogea (1991) 15 local trade names exist for salak fruits based on quality and fruit characteristics. In Thailand, clones of what is believed to be S. wallichiana are under cultivation (Yaacob and Subhadrabandu, 1995). The preceding reference provides detailed information on cultivating salak which is recommended for home gardens.

As for the remaining palms in Table 4-4 the use pattern is similar to that of Table 4-3 in that food and non-food items have about equal weight. Eugeissona utilis is what might be termed a minor multipurpose palm as indicated by the variety of uses listed in Table 4-4. However, they represent predominantly subsistence uses by indigenous peoples who sometimes (in Sarawak) plant the palm near their houses.

In addition to being used for thatching and to weave a variety of products, certain fan palm leaves provide cheap food-wrapping material. Licuala peltata, one form of which has undivided leaves, and Livistona rotundifolia, with shallowly-divided leaves, are good examples. Almost everywhere that palm leaves are cut from wild plants, for whatever end use, there is a tendency to harvest an excessive number of leaves per plant, in large part to minimize walking distances.

The effect of leaf harvest of Livistona rotundifolia was the subject of a recent study in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. The study confirms assumptions about the adverse impact of over-harvesting of leaves. Research results showed that leaves on harvested plants grew faster but reached a smaller final leaf size than on unharvested plants. A census of harvested and unharvested palm populations showed that palm density was twice as high and there were ten times as many reproductive-sized palms in unharvested areas (OBrien and Kinnaird, 1996).

Together the four members of the genus Phoenix in Table 4-4 occur widely in Southeast Asia and are common sources of food and non-food subsistence items. These palms persist in many areas because they are adapted to disturbed habitats, can grow on drier sites with poor soils and produce basal suckers which are a major factor in their natural regeneration.

The wanga palm (Pigafetta filaris) is a somewhat unusual palm in that it is a pioneer species which colonizes disturbed habitats where it is native in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Although its chief economic value is a source of stem wood for construction, P. filaris is also esteemed as an elegant ornamental palm. Davis and Kuswara (1987) studied the biology of this palm in Indonesia.

Trachycarpus fortunei

is well known as an ornamental palm grown in the middle latitudes because of its cold tolerance. The palm also turns out to be a drug source in China as well as the origin of several other products.

As more becomes known in general about the use of palms in China (and Indochina), other examples can be expected to be added to any future list of economic palms.

Asian Rattans

Rattans are first and foremost important as commercial and subsistence sources of cane, the rattan stem. The stem, after stripping off its leaf sheaths, provides the raw material for the cane furniture industry. Depending on the species, the diameter of canes is from about 3 mm to 60 mm or more. In the rattan industry, canes are graded on the basis of seven basic factors: diameter, length of cane, color, hardness, defects and blemishes, length of nodes and uniformity of thickness (UNIDO, 1983).

Another way to characterize rattans is based solely on their diameter: canes are referred to as "large" if they have a diameter above 18 mm; "small" canes are those below that diameter. Large canes are used whole to make the frames of cane furniture. Whole small canes are also used as struts in some furniture, but more often they are split and used to weave the chair back (Dransfield, 1988).

Three desirable properties characterize rattan canes. One, they are solid (unlike bamboo which are typically hollow) and hence very strong. Two, by the application of heat, most rattans can be bent into and will hold various shapes without deformation. Three, canes can be lacquered to preserve their natural light color or can also be painted.

In addition to its use in furniture making, split cane furnishes material for handicraft and cottage industries to make baskets, mats, bags, hats, fish traps and a host of other products. Rattans are also employed as cordage for tying and binding. The case study (Chapter 2) of the Iban in Sarawak, Malaysia demonstrates how very useful rattans are to indigenous people.

The rattans of Asia belong to the following ten genera: Calamus, Calospatha, Ceratolobus, Daemonorops, Korthalsia, Myrialepis, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Pogonotium and Retispatha. More than 500 rattan species have been described, with the two genera Calamus and Daemonorops representing the bulk of the species.

Nearly all rattan canes continue to come from wild plants. However, in the coming years rattan cultivation, along with some form of rattan management, will play an increasing role in providing sources of raw canes and in turn relieve some of the pressures on threatened wild populations.

Rattan canes represent the palm familys most valuable non-wood forest product. At the same time rattans, as a group, are exceedingly difficult to generalize about because of incomplete data on distribution patterns and conservation status as well as the confusion which exists between local or trade names on the one hand and scientific names on the other.

Following the general approach used for South and Southeast Asia palms, rattans were divided into two groups on the basis of whether they are known to be threatened or not threatened in the wild. An attempt was made to ascertain if canes from the two groups of candidate rattans were utilized, but it was not possible to do so with an acceptable degree of reliability. The only practical solution was to include all rattans with a known conservation status and assume that, where utilization information was absent, there was at least the possibility that the individual species had some present or future utility as a cane source. This approach seemed to be a better alternative than omitting many rattan species altogether.

A rough count shows that three out of four rattans lack information about their conservation status. Dozens of these species are known to have utility as cane sources. In order to include and consider all such rattans, a third group was formed consisting of rattans known to be utilized but with an unknown conservation status.

Information on secondary uses of the rattans dealt with here was collected and is presented separately.

Threatened Asian Rattans

As climbing palms, rattans need trees for support and hence deforestation leads to their destruction. But most rattans can and do survive in areas of timber harvesting or partial land clearing where some tree cover remains. Secondary forest supports rattan growth, but the rattans do not reach their maximum length and diameter, as they do in primary forest.

Cutting wild rattans is a destructive exploitation comparable to felling palms for stem starch, construction wood or palm heart. Exploitation of rattans for commercial and subsistence purposes appears to be a major factor which has placed so many species at risk.

At least 121 rattan species are known to be threatened in the wild and these are presented in Table 4-5.

Table 4-5: Threatened Asian Rattans

Scientific Names

Selected Local Names^1

Distribution^2

Calamus adspersus

Indonesia: Java, Sumatra

Calamus andamanicus^*

mofabet

India: Andaman Islands (endemic)

Calamus asperrimus

rotan leulues

Indonesia: Java

Calamus bacularis^*

wi tulang

Malaysia: Sarawak (endemic)

Calamus balanseanus

than-moï

Vietnam: Ha Bac, Lang Son

Calamus bicolor

lasi, rasi

Philippines: Mindanao

Calamus brandisii

vanthai

India: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (endemic)

Calamus ceratophorus

ui sông

Vietnam: Phu Khanh

Calamus ciliaris^*

hoe cacing

Indonesia: Java, Sumatra

Calamus cockburnii

Malaysia: Peninsular, Pahang (endemic)

Calamus conjugatus

wi janggut

Malaysia: Sarawak (endemic)

Calamus corneri

rotan perut ayam

Malaysia: Peninsular (endemic)

Calamus crassifolius

wi takong

Malaysia: Sarawak (endemic)

Calamus cumingianaus^*

douung-douung

Philippines: Luzon

Calamus delicatulus

nara wel

Sri Lanka (endemic)

Calamus densiflorus^*

rotan kerai

Peninsular Malaysia; Singapore; Thailand

Calamus digitatus

kukulu wel

Sri Lanka (endemic)

Calamus dilaceratus

India: Andaman Islands (endemic)

Calamus dimorphacanthus^*

lambutan, tandulang-montalban

Philippines: Luzon

Calamus dioicus

rani

Vietnam

Calamus discolor^*

halls, kumaboy

Philippines: Luzon

Calamus dongnaiensis

long-tchéou

Vietnam: south

Calamus endauensis

Malaysia: Peninsular (endemic)

Calamus filipendulus

rotan batu

Malaysia: Peninsular (endemic)

Calamus foxworthyi

Philippines: Palawan

Calamus godefroyi

phdau tuk

Vietnam

Calamus grandifolius^*

saba-ong

Philippines: Luzon

Calamus harmandii

Laos

Calamus hepburnii

Malaysia: Sabah (endemic)

Calamus holttumii

rotan perut ayam

Malaysia: Peninsular (endemic)

Calamus huegelianus

soojibetha

India: Tamil Nadu (endemic)

Scientific Names

Selected Local Names^1

Distribution^2

Calamus hypertrichosus

Malaysia: Sarawak. Indonesia: Kalimantan

Calamus inermis

rong

India: West Bengal; Bhutan; Sikkim

Calamus inops^*

rotan tohiti

Indonesia: Sulawesi

Calamus jenningsianus

lagipi

Philippines: Mindoro

Calamus karuensis

rotan penjalin rawa

Indonesia: Sumatra

Calamus kjellbergii

Indonesia: Sulawesi

Calamus koordersianus^*

rotan boga

Indonesia: Sulawesi

Calamus laevigatus var. serpentinus^*

rotan tunggal

Malaysia: Sabah (endemic)

Calamus laxissimus

Malaysia: Peninsular (endemic)

Calamus longispathus^*

rotan kunyung

Malaysia: Peninsular (endemic)

Calamus manan^#

rotan manau

Malaysia: Peninsular; Indonesia: Sumatra; Borneo; Thailand ?

Calamus megaphyllus^*

banakbo

Philippines: Leyte

Calamus melanoloma

rotan gelengdage

Indonesia: Java