Guidelines for the Cultivation of Food Plants for Wildlife

GUIDELINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF FOOD PLANTS FOR WILDLIFE

Authors Nur Nadiah Md Yusof Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta Faezah Pardi Asmida Ismail (UiTM TechnoVenture Sdn. Bhd.) Proofreader Ahmad Tarmizi Abdul Halim Photographers Mohd Shariful Hafizal Aminuddin Fadli Abdul Razak GUIDELINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF FOOD PLANTS FOR WILDLIFE

603-90752873 Email: [email protected] Website: www.wildlife.gov.my Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Nur Nadiah Binti Md Yusof GUIDELINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF FOOD PLANTS FOR WILDLIFE / AUTHORS Nur Nadiah Binti Md Yusof, Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta, Faezah Pardi, Asmida Ismail. 1. Animals--Food--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Plants, Cultivated--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Herbivores. 4. Government publications--Malaysia. I. Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta. II. Faezah Pardi. III. Asmida Ismail. IV. Title. 591.54 ISBN: 978-967-5557-37-8 Printed in Malaysia by: Fantiction Media Agency

TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 5 INTRODUCTION 6 BACKGROUND 6 OBJECTIVE 7 CHAPTER 1: PLANT-EATING WILDLIFE IN MALAYSIA 8 MAMMALIA 11 Order Chiroptera 11 Order Rodentia 13 Order Scandentia 16 Order Insectivora 16 Order Dermoptera 17 Order Primate 17 Order Proboscidae 20 Order Perissodactyla 20 Order Artiodactyla 21 Order Carnivora 22 AVES 24 CHAPTER 2: FOOD PLANTS FOR WILDLIFE 30 FLOWERING PLANTS AS FOOD FOR WILDLIFE 33 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 33 Family Poaceae 39 Family Zingiberaceae 40 Family Musaceae 40 Family Arecaceae 41 DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 41 Rare trees 41 Status of rare tree conservation in Malaysia 50 Challenges of rare tree conservation 51 FOOD SELECTION BY WILDLIFE 52 Parts of plants eaten by wildlife 52 Factors influencing food selection by wildlife 52 Importance of wildlife to f lowering plants 54 Plants as keystone species 54 CHAPTER 3: NURSERY MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION OF SELECTED PLANTS 56 ESTABLISHMENT OF NURSERIES 58 SOWING AND PROPAGATION OF CROPS 65 Sources of plant material 65 Method of sowing 67 Maintenance of seedlings in the nursery 67 Preparation of seedlings for planting 68 NURSERY RECORD HANDLING 76 CHAPTER 4: HABITAT REENRICHMENT PROCESS AND REPLANTATION OF SELECTED PLANTS 78 PREPARATION BEFORE PLANTING IN PERMANENT PLOTS 82 PLANTING PROCESS, CARE AND MAINTENANCE AFTER PLANTING 85 Planting Time 85 Method/Type of Crop 85 Irrigation 86 Fertilisation 86 Maintenance 87 EFFECTIVENESS OF REPLANTING ACTIVITIES 92 REFERENCES 94 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Alhamdulillah, praises and thanks to Allah S.W.T the Almighty, for blessing us with physical, mental and spiritual strength in completing the Guidelines for the Cultivation of Food Plants for Wildlife. The production for this guideline is funded by United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) under the project fund of UNDP/GEF-GoM: Improving Connectivity in the Central Forest Spine Landscape (IC-CFS). The highest appreciation to the Department of Wildlife and National Park (DWNP) especially the higher managements and officers from Wildlife Conservation Division; Encik Mohd Taufik Abdul Rahman, Puan Hellen Menging, Puan Tan Cheng Cheng, Encik Abdul Hakim Zulkefli etc for the opportunity and assistance provided to our team in completing this guideline. We would also like to extend this appreciation to Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM), Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM), and State Forestry Departments which are part of the implementing agencies under the national project of Improving Connectivity in the Central Forest Spine Landscape (IC-CFS). Our sincere thanks also go to all the contributors from government and non-government agencies which directly or indirectly provided assistance during out data collection. We are particularly grateful to Ts. Muhammad Shafie Bin Md Sah (MARDI) for his kind assistance during our information gathering related to rare fruit trees and provided the shooting location in MyGeneBank Arboretum, MARDI. Finally, we would also like to express our greatest appreciation to our faculty, Faculty of Applied Sciences UiTM Shah Alam and some of our students who are very efficient in assisting us throughout the preparation of this guideline. All the contributions and kindness from everyone involved in the completion of this guideline are greatly appreciated. Sincerely, Dr. Nur Nadiah Md Yusof Dr. Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta Dr. Faezah Pardi Assoc. Prof. Dr. Asmida Ismail 4

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS A massive thank to all listed below for their contribution and assistance provided whether directly or indirectly, in completing the Guidelines for the Cultivation of Food Plants for Wildlife. En. Mohd Taufik Bin Abdul Rahman Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) Dr. Mohd Firdaus Ariff Bin Abdul Razak Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) En. Mohd Samsudin Bin Mohd Suri Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) En. Hasdi Bin Hassan @ Asang Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) Puan Hellen Menging Anak Bennett Buan Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) Puan Tan Cheng Cheng Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) En. Abdul Hakim Bin Zulkefli Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) Dr. Mohd Farid Ahmad Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) En. Mohd Afendi Bin Hussin Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) En. Mohd Shahfiz Bin Azman Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) En. Cheah Yih Horng Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) Dr. Mohd Norfaizal Bin Ghazali Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) En. Muhammad Shafie Bin Md Sah Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) Prof. Madya Dr. Nazre Saleh Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Dr. Norhisham bin Ahmad Razi Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) En. Yeap Chin Aik Malaysian Nature Society (MNS) En. Habibun Najar Bin Zainal Abidin Malaysian Nature Society (MNS) Dr. Samsudin Bin Musa Foresty Department of Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) En. Ahmad Fikri bin Mistar Foresty Department of Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) Dr. Agkillah Maniam Perak Forestry Department Dr. Zainal Zahari Zainuddin Borneo Rhino Alliance (BORA) En. Chun Xing Wong 1StopBorneo Wildlife Cik Amirah Syazliana Binti Rosidi Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cik Nur ‘Aliyaa Binti Nizam Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cik Nur Badrina Binti Mohammad Naser Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cik Nurul Zawani Zolkfilee Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cik Nurfarah Ain Limin Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) 5

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Malaysia is a country rich in biodiversity of flora and fauna. The core to this richness of biodiversity lies in the uniqueness of our country’s tropical rainforests that have evolved over more than 130 million years ago. It is estimated that there are almost 18,000 types of plants found in Malaysia, including 2,700 species of endemic plants that can only be found in Malaysia. In addition to serving as a habitat for wildlife, tropical rainforests that contain thousands of species of flora also serve as a source of food for herbivorous and omnivorous animals. Of all the plant species that are endemic in Malaysia, an estimated 500 species are of trees that produce edible fruits. Apart from the fruits, other parts of plants such as shoots, leaves, and flowers are also the main food sources for the wildlife in our country. However, development activities such as agriculture, logging, housing, and road and dam constructions have contributed to the decline of flora and fauna diversity, leading to forest fragmentation. The loss of plant species that are a source of food for wildlife brings about negative impacts on these animals. Depletion of food resources forces the wildlife to leave their natural habitats, which can trigger conflict if they enter human settlements. Forest fragmentation that is downsizing wildlife habitats has also contributed to the increase in wildlife deaths due to roadkill. In addition, forest fragmentation will also complicate the processes of biodiversity and tropical forest ecosystem conservation in Malaysia. To overcome the inadequacy of wildlife habitat, various programmes have been planned and carried out by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP). One of them is the Wildlife Habitat Management Programme under the 11th Malaysia Plan, which has planned and implemented activities to improve the quality of habitat in the areas that have been identified. The implementation of this programme has a positive impact on wildlife survival both directly and indirectly. Habitat enrichment management is an important element in holistic wildlife management. Conducive habitat will ultimately support the survival and independence of a species within the protected area. Several activities have been carried out for this wildlife habitat management programme, such as maintenance of grazing land and artificial grazing, replantation in grazing land, as well as additional programs such as the opening of new areas and reforestation. Apart from that, DWNP together with all implementing agencies of the Improving Connectivity in the Central Forest Spine Landscape (IC-CFS) National Project, namely the Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM), Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM), and State Forestry 6

Departments, have established a framework to increase the number of plants as food for wildlife, especially in areas that have been degraded or areas that have the potential to be used as wildlife corridors. However, there is still no specific reference that can be used as a guideline for the agencies involved in this programme. Therefore, on the initiative of the Wildlife Conservation Division, DWNP as the coordinator for the UNDP/GEF-GoM Project: Improving Connectivity in the Central Forest Spine Landscape (IC-CFS), an initiative has been taken to produce this guideline which contains information on wildlife that uses plants as food, species of plants that serve as food sources for wildlife as well as the cultivation method of these plants in the nursery and also in permanent plots. OBJECTIVE This guideline is intended to be used as a reference in identifying the plants that serve as food for the wildlife in Malaysia. This guideline can also be used as a reference by the DWNP, FDPM, and any related agencies, especially in the reforestation and rehabilitation processes, as well as the management of nurseries to ensure the production of good quality seedlings of the food plants. Finally, the publication of this guideline can also contribute to the government’s efforts in increasing food sources for the wildlife and their populations, which could eventually help in reducing conflict and wildlife deaths in Malaysia. Photo: Wreathed Hornbill (Rhythiceros undulatus) eating wild fruit 7

Photo: Silvered Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus) 8

Chapter 1: Plant-Eating Wildlife in Malaysia CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 9

Wildlife can be defined as animals that live freely in their natural habitat without being domesticated, controlled or owned by humans. In Malaysia, protected wildlife consists of animal species listed under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716]. Most of the wildlife in Malaysia inhabits our tropical rain forest and the various plant species in the forest serve as a food source for the wildlife. In general, plant-eating animals consist of herbivores and omnivores. Animals that use plants as a food source can be categorised into four groups, namely frugivores (fruit eaters), granivores (seed eaters), nectivores (nectar eaters), and folivores (leaf eaters). In addition to the survival of the animal species itself, plant-eating wildlife also acts as an agent of pollination and seed dispersal. Bats and birds are two animals that play an important role in the early stages of forest formation by dispersing the seeds of pioneer plants. As forests begin to form and the diversity of plant species increases, more and more small and large mammals will come to the area, bringing along fruits and seeds from other nearby areas. Therefore, the presence of plant-eating animals is important to ensure the survival of trees in our tropical rainforests as well as to maintain the genetic diversity of a plant species in a population. In this chapter, the wildlife that will be discussed is specific to vertebrate animals from the class of Mammalia and Aves (birds) that inhabit various types of forests in our country and use plants as a food source along with the IUCN (The International Union for Conservation of Nature) status of each species. The IUCN Red List has classified flora and fauna species into nine categories which are extinct (EX), extinct in the wild (EW), critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), vulnerable (VU), near threatened (NT), least concern (LC), data deficient (DD), and not evaluated (NE). Species categorised as CR, EN, and VU are generally considered to be endangered. All wildlife species listed in this chapter have been referred to the Red List of Mammals for Peninsular Malaysia Version 2.0 (PERHILITAN, 2017) and are listed in Table 1.1 – Table 1.9. The status of wildlife according to the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] is also included in all the tables. Photo: Malaysian rainforest 10

MAMMALIA Order Chiroptera The order Chiroptera encompasses all species of bats that can be found worldwide and represents one third of all mammalian species. This order can be divided into two suborders, Microchiroptera and Megachiroptera. Microchiroptera are small-sized bats that use the echolocation system, which is sound waves emitted by bats to determine the position, shape, and size of objects in their environment. In general, bats from the Microchiroptera group are insectivores and feed on various types of insects such as crickets, mosquitoes, and butterflies. Megachiroptera is a group of large bats without the ability to echolocate. Of the eight families and 110 species of bats that have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia, Megachiroptera is only represented by 18 species under one family, Pteropodidae (Lim et al., 2017). All bats in the family Pteropodidae are frugivores or nectivores that only feed on fruits or nectar. Fruit bats are among the most important pollinators and seed dispersal agents in the ecosystems. Banana, petai, durian, and guava are some of the plant species that have been identified to be pollinated by bats (Kingston, 2006; Yazid et al., 2019). Among the bat species that play a significant role in pollination are nectar-eating bats of the genus Eonycteris sp. and Macroglossus spp. where a total of 32 pollen species have been identified as food sources for Eonycteris spelaea, Macroglossus minimus, and Macroglossus sobrinus (Start and Marshall, 1976). Studies were also conducted on Eonycteris spelaea that inhabited caves in Batu Caves and found plant parts from 55 plant species including Bauhinia strychnoidea, Artocarpus heterophyllus, and Musa spp. (Lim et al., 2018). The most common bat species, Cynopterus brachyotis has been reported to feed on 16 plant species in primary forests, 66 species in secondary forests, and 38 species in urban areas. From the faecal analysis conducted by Lim et al. (2017) on Cynopterus brachyotis in urban areas, agricultural areas, and secondary forests, fig trees of the species Ficus fistulosa have been identified as the most widely consumed plant by this species in all three sampling areas. This indicates that Cynopterus brachyotis plays a crucial role as a seed dispersal agent for various plants including pioneer plant species such as Ficus spp., which facilitates the initial succession process of an area. Photo: Lesser dog-faced fruit bat (cyneropterus brachyotis) with juvenile CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 11

Table 1.1 List of bat species from the family Pteropodidae found in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Pteropodidae Aethalops alecto Grey Fruit Bat Cecadu Bukit LC VU Balionycteris maculata Spotted-Winged Fruit Bat Cecadu Sayap Bertitik LC LC Chironax melanocephalus Black-Capped Fruit Bat Cecadu Kepala Hitam LC NT Cynopterus brachyotis Lesser Dog-Faced Fruit Bat Cecadu Pisang LC LC Cynopterus horsfieldii Horsefield’s Fruit Bat Cecadu Pisang Besar LC LC Cynopterus sphinx Short-Nosed Fruit Bat Cecadu Siam LC LC Dyacopterus spadiceus Dayak Fruit Bat Cecadu Dayak NT NT Eonycteris spelaea Cave Fruit Bat Cecadu Gua LC NT Macroglossus minimus Common LongTongued Fruit Bat Cecadu Madu Bakau LC DD Macroglossus sobrinus Hill LongTongued Fruit Bat Cecadu Madu Bukit LC LC Megaerops ecaudatus Tailless Fruit Bat Cecadu Tiada Berekor LC LC Megaerops wetmorei Wetmore’s Tailless Fruit Bat Cecadu Wetmore VU DD Penthetor lucasi Dusky Fruit Bat Cecadu Hitam Pudar LC LC Pteropus hypomelanus* Small Flying Fox Keluang Kecil LC EN Pteropus vampyrus* Large Flying Fox Keluang Besar NT EN Rousettus amplexicaudatus Geoffroy’s Rousette Cecadu Besar LC NT Rousettus leschenaultii Leschenault’s Rousette Cecadu LC DD * Protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] 12

Order Rodentia The order Rodentia in Malaysia is represented by porcupine, rat, and squirrel species. The animals under the order Rodentia have a varied diet where some are herbivorous and some are omnivorous that also help in the dispersal of pollen and seeds. All three species of porcupines under the family Hystricidae are herbivores. Malayan Porcupines (Hystric brachyura), which are considered as minor pests in oil palm plantations, rubber plantations, and orchards, like to eat fruits such as pineapple and durian, as well as the roots and tubers of plants. The Brush-tailed Porcupines (Atherurus macrourus), which can also be found in farms and orchards, are also fond of roots, tubers and fruits. However, the Long-tailed Porcupine species (Trichys fasciculata) is slightly different, where in addition to fruits, this species also likes to feed on large seeds as well as the shoots of certain plants such as bamboo (Lim, 2016). Species under the Muridae family inhabiting our tropical rainforest are also known to eat fruits along with the seeds. In general, these rat species are also known as granivores or seed predators where they feed on seeds, and as such, do not play an important role as seed dispersal agents. Most of the seeds found in the stomachs of some rat species are degraded, demonstrating their nature as seed predators. However, smallsized seeds found in the stomachs of these mice remain intact and have been successfully germinated (Nago et al., 2019). This implies that the Muridae family also serves as a seed dispersal agent for plant species with small seed size. Fruits are also the main food source for some species of squirrels such as Ratufa spp., Callosciurus spp., and Sundasciurus spp. Smallsized flying squirrels from the genus Iomys sp., Hylopetes spp., and Petaurillus sp. are also dependent on fruits as their main food source. This is in contrast with large flying squirrels such as Petaurista spp., which prefer to eat leaves even though fruits are still part of their diet. From a study conducted in Merapoh, Pahang, Petaurista petaurista were seen eating fruit from Hairy Figs (Ficus hispida) and Ketapang (Terminalia catappa) (Miard et al., 2020). However, similar to the rat species under the Muridae family, the role of squirrels as seed dispersal agents is less clear because squirrels are also known to be seed predators. Even so, the nature of squirrels who love to collect and store fruit can contribute to seed dispersal when the fruit falls on the way to their nests (Lee et al., 2002). Figure 1.1: Brown Spiny Rat (Maxomys rajah) (Photo credit: Mohd Shahfiz Azman) CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 13

Table 1.2 List of animal species from the order Rodentia found in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Hystricidae Atherurus macrourus* Asiatic Brush-Tailed Porcupine Landak Nibong LC NT Hystric brachyura* Common Porcupine Landak Raya LC NT Trichys fasciculata* Long-Tailed Porcupine Landak Padi LC VU Muridae Bandicota indica Large Bandicoot Rat Wirok Hitam LC LC Bandicota bengalensis Lesser Bandicoot Rat Wirok Ekor Pendek LC LC Berlymys bowersii Bower’s Rat Tikus Bulu Kasar DD DD Chiropodomys gliroides Tree Mouse Tikus Buluh LC DD Hapalomys longicaudatus Marmoset Rat Tikus Monyet EN DD Lenothrix canus Grey Tree Rat Tikus Legong LC DD Leopoldamys ciliatus Mountain Giant Rat Tikus Bukit Besar LC DD Leopoldamys sabanus Long-Tailed Giant Rat Tikus Perah LC LC Maxomys inas Mountain Spiny Rat Tikus Bukit LC DD Maxomys rajah Brown Spiny Rat Tikus Duri Hitam Pudar VU LC Maxomys surifer Red Spiny Rat Tikus Duri Merah LC LC Maxomys whiteheadi White-Headed Rat Tikus Bangkung VU LC Mus caroli Ricefield Mouse Tikus Sawah Terkecil LC LC Mus musculus House Mouse Tikus Rumah Kecil LC LC Niniventer cameroni Long-Tailed Mountain Rat Tikus Bukit Ekor Panjang VU EN Niniventer cremoriventer Dark-Tailed Tree Rat Tikus Akar VU LC Niniventer fulvescens White-Bellied Rat Tikus Dada Putih LC VU Pithecheir parvus Monkey-Footed Rat Tikus Merah DD LC Rattus annandalei Annandale’s Rat Tikus Tunggal LC LC Rattus argentiventer Ricefield Rat Tikus Sawah LC LC Rattus exulans Little Burmese Rat Tikus Kecil LC LC Rattus norvegicus Norway Rat Tikus Mondok LC LC Rattus diardii House Rat Tikus Rumah LC LC Rattus tiomanicus Wood Rat Tikus Belukar LC LC Rhizomys sumtrensis Large Bamboo Rat Dekan Besar LC NT Rhizomys pruinosus Hoary Bamboo Rat Dekan Kecil LC DD Sundamys muelleri Grey Giant Rat Tikus Lembah LC LC 14

Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Pteromyidae Aeromys tephromelas Large Black Giant Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Hitam DD DD Hylopetes lepidus# Grey Cheeked Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Pipi Kelabu DD DD Hylopetes spadiceus# Red-Cheeked Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Pipi Merah LC DD Iomys horsfieldii# Horsefield’s Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Ekor Merah LC LC Petaurillus kinlonchii# Selangor Pigmy Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Terkecil DD DD Petaurista elegans# Spotted Giant Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Bintang LC DD Petaurista petaurista# Red Giant Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Merah LC NT Petinomys genibarbis# Whiskered Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Berjambang VU DD Petinomys setosus# White Bellied Flying Squirrel Tupai Terband Dada Putih VU DD Petinomys vordermanni# Vordermann’s Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Kecil VU DD Pteromyscus pulverulentus# Smoky Flying Squirrel Tupai Terbang Kotor EN DD Sciuridae Callosciurus nigrovittatus Black-Banded Squirrel Tupai Tompok NT LC Callosciurus notatus Plantain Squirrel Tupai Merah LC LC Callosciurus caniceps Grey-Bellied Squirrel Tupai Perut Kelabu LC LC Callosciurus prevostii Prevost’s Squirrel Tupai Gading LC NT Dremomys rufigenis Red-Cheeked Ground Squirrel Tupai Pipi Merah LC VU Lariscus insignis Three-Striped Ground Squirrel Tupai Belang Tiga LC LC Ratufa affinis# Cream-Coloured Giant Squirrel Tupai Kerawak Putih-Kuning NT VU Ratufa bicolor# Black Giant Squirrel Tupai Kerawak Hitam NT NT Rhinosciurus laticaudatus Shrew-Faced Ground Squirrel Tupai Naning NT LC Sundasciurus hippurus Horse-Tail Squirrel Tupai Ekor Kuda NT NT Sundasciurus tenuis Slender Squirrel Tupai Cerleh LC LC Sundasciurus lowii Low’s Squirrel Tupai Ekor Pendek LC LC Sundasciurus tahan Upland Squirrel DD Tamiops macclellandi Mountain Striped Squirrel Tupai Bunga LC LC * Protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] #Totally protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 15

Order Scandentia There are only three species from the Tupaiidae family that can be found in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Pen-tailed Treeshrew, Common Treeshrew, and Lesser Treeshrew. All these squirrels are omnivores where their diet consists of insects, earthworms, fruits as well as seeds. Squirrels of the genus Tupaia were once considered a mere insect eater. However, from previous studies, fruits have also been recorded as part of their diet. Previously, the role of the order Scandentia as seed dispersal agents was less clear and considered insignificant since the members of this order are also known to feed on seeds. However, a laboratory study conducted by Shanahan and Compton (2000) found that almost 100% of replanted Ficus spp. seeds excreted by Tupaia spp. successfully germinated. This proves that members from the order Scandentia are significant seed dispersal agents. Table 1.3 List of animal species from the order Scandentia found in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Tupaiidae Ptilocercus lowii* Pen-Tailed Treeshrew Tupai Akar Malam LC DD Tupaia glis* Common Treeshrew Tupai Muncung Besar LC LC Tupaia minor* Lesser Treeshrew Tupai Kecil LC DD * Protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] Order Insectivora In Malaysia, the order Insectivora consists of 10 species of animals under three different families. In general, all members of the order Insectivora feed on insects. However, several studies have found that both species from the Erinaceidae family also feed on plants. Apart from captive Moonrats (Echinosorex gymnura) (Figure 1.2), which have been observed eating a wide variety of fruits, wild moonrats have also been recorded feeding on plant parts such as oil palm seeds (Whittow et al., 1977). In addition, Hylomys suillus has also been observed to consume fruits in the wild (Chiozza, 2016). Figure 1.2: Moonrat (Echinosorex gymnura) (Photo credit: Mohd Shahfiz Azman) 16

Table 1.4 List of animal species from the order Insectivora in Peninsular Malaysia that eat plants Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Erinaceidae Echinosorex gymnura Moonrat Tikus Ambang Bulan LC VU Hylomys suillus* Lesser Gymnure Tikus Babi LC DD * Protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] Order Dermoptera In Malaysia, the order Dermoptera is represented by only one species which is Flying Lemur (Galeopterus variegatus). Although the IUCN status of the flying lemur is least concern (LC), this species is a fully protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716]. The main habitat for flying lemur is tropical rainforests, although it has been reported to be found in orchards and plantation areas. Flying lemurs can be classified as folivores where their main diet consists of leaf parts of various types of plant with high tannin content as well as low potassium and nitrogen content (Agoramoorthy et al., 2006; Sulistiowati, 2019). In addition to leaves, flying lemurs have also been recorded feeding on the fruits, shoots, flowers, and sap of trees. Among the plant species known to be consumed by flying lemur in Malaysia are Otak Udang (Buchanania arborescens), Jejawi (Ficus microcarpa), Kelat (Syzygium spp.) and Bintangor (Calophyllum soulattri) (Dzulhelmi and Abdullah, 2009). Flying lemurs have also been observed eating Rambai fruit (Baccaurea motleyana) in Sarawak (Ketol et al., 2006). Order Primate There are 11 species of primates in Peninsular Malaysia, consisting of three families (Table 1.5). Primates play an equally important role in seed dispersal as they consume enormous quantities of fruits from a variety of plant species before spitting or excreting the seeds through faeces (Lambert, 1999). Macaca spp. has a very wide distribution especially in Asian countries. In Malaysia, Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascularis) can be found in a variety of habitats such as in primary and secondary forests, mangrove swamp forests, and areas close to human settlements. Naturally, long-tailed macaques are frugivorous animals that eat fruits as their primary source of nutrition apart from leaves, seeds, and flowers. However, due to their high tolerance to disturbances and changes in the environment, long-tailed macaques have easily adapted to various types of environments and are better known as omnivorous animals that feed on insects, CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 17

bird eggs, crabs, shrimps, and frogs. A total of 113 plant species have been recorded as food for long-tailed macaques. Among the plant species eaten by the monkeys are Elaeis guineensis, Ficus variegata, Ficus microcarpa, Terminalia catappa, Areca catechu, and Musa spp. (Kassim et al., 2017; Ruslin et al., 2019). As for the Pig-tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) (Figure 1.3), it is categorised as vulnerable (VU) where the population is declining due to several factors, especially the conversion of forest oil palm plantations (Ruppert et al, 2018). Although pig-tailed macaques consume oil palm fruits, they still need forest areas as their main habitat. Pig-tailed macaques have also been recorded as the main seed dispersal agents for two rattan species, namely Calamus castaneus and Daemonorops callicarpa (Ruppert et al., 2014). The last Macaca species in Malaysia, the Stump-tailed Macaque (Macaca arctoides) is also categorised as vulnerable (VU) according to IUCN and can only be found in Perlis State Park. Not much is known about the diet of stump-tailed macaques due to the lack of studies on this species. However, a study conducted by Osman et al. (2020) found that a total of 145 plant species were recorded as part of the diet for stump-tailed macaques including Saraca thaipingensis and Ficus superba. There are four species of langurs (lotong) in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Banded Leaf Monkey (Presbytis femoralis), Black-thighed Leaf Monkey (Presbytis siamensis), Silvered Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus), and Dusky Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus obscurus), all grouped as colobine monkeys. Leaves are the primary diet for colobine monkeys, although these primates are also known to feed on fruits in large quantities. A study conducted by Ruslin et al. (2018) recorded a total of 130 plant species consumed by Dusky Leaf Monkey (Trachypythecus obscurus), which mostly consist of leaves (51%) and fruits (49%). However, colobine monkeys were assumed to be seed predators as they devour large seeds. Nevertheless, small seeds have been reported to be excreted through faeces and therefore, colobine monkeys may play a role as seed dispersal agent for plants with small seeds (Matsuda, 2013). All species under the family Hylobatidae are categorised as endangered species according to IUCN. Nevertheless, these primate species from the Hylobatidae family are considered to be the most effective seed dispersal agents among mammals as they consume various species of fruits in large quantities and deposit the seeds throughout their home range (McConkey and Chivers, 2007). Ficus spp. are one of the main species consumed by gibbons and siamangs. Among other plant species recorded to be eaten by Hylobates agilis and Symphalangus syndactylus are Baccaurea spp., Dialium platysepalum, and Garcinia atroviridis (Nongkaew, 2010). As for Hylobates lar, among the 35 species of plants recorded to serve as their food source are Sarcotheca griffithii, Syzygium spp., and Garcinia parvifolia (Subramaniam, 1981; Ungar, 1995). The last primate species, the Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang) has been categorised as vulnerable by the IUCN. The diet of the slow loris is different from that of other primates. Slow loris is an omnivorous animal that eats sap, nectar, flowers, fruit, leaves, and insects. Through a study conducted by Wiens (2002), slow loris is recorded to spend more time feeding on sap and nectar than other parts of the tree. Among the plant species that produce sap and are consumed by slow loris are Buchanania arborescens, Chisocheton macrophyllus, Mangifera griffithii, and Buchanania sessilifolia. 18

Table 1.5 List of animal species from the order Primate found in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Cercopithecidae Macaca arctoides# Stump Tailed Macaque Berok Kentoi VU VU Macaca fascularis* Long-Tailed Macaque Kera LC LC Macaca nemestrina* Pig-Tailed Macaque Berok VU LC Presbytis femoralis* Banded Leaf Monkey Lotong Ceneka NT NT Presbytis siamensis* Black-Thighed Leaf Monkey Lotong Ceneka Siam NT NT Trachypithecus cristatus* Silvered Leaf Monkey Lotong Kelabu NT VU Trachypithecus obscurus* Dusky Leaf Monkey Lotong Cengkong NT NT Hylobatidae Hylobates agilis# Agile Gibbon Ungka Tangan Hitam EN VU Hylobates lar# White-Handed Gibbon Ungka Tangan Putih EN EN Symphalangus syndactylus# Siamang Siamang EN EN Lorisidae Nycticebus coucang# Slow Loris Kongkang VU NT * Protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] #Totally protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] Figure 1.3: Pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) (Photo credit: Mohd Shahfiz Azman) CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 19

Order Proboscidae Elephants (Elephas maximus) are the only animals under the order Proboscidae found in Malaysia and are categorised as an endangered species (EN) according to the IUCN list and fully protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716]. To sustain their massive body size, elephants need to consume approximately 150 kg of food in a day (Vancuylenberg, 1977) and from studies that have been conducted, more than 100 species of wild plants have been identified as food sources to elephants (English, 2014). In general, the food reported to be preferred by elephants in the wild are leaves of monocotyledonous plants consisting of the palm family, ginger, bamboo, wild banana, and others. The parts of plant that elephants prefer are shoots and young stems that are rich in nutrients (Sukumar, 1992). However, based on microhistological analyses on elephant dungs in Belum–Temengor forest complex, the types of plants eaten by elephants differ according to habitat (Yamamoto-Ebina et al., 2016). The main composition of elephant faeces inhabiting primary and secondary forests consists of the leaves of monocotyledonous plants (mainly from ginger and palm family), wood chips, and fibres from woody plants. This is in stark contrast to elephants inhabiting areas close to roads where almost half of the faecal content is dominated by grass (47%) followed by banana stems, wood chips, and fibre from woody plants which each contribute 10%–15% of the excrement content. This shows that elephants can eat many different types of plants to adapt to their environment. Elephants have also been recorded eating several types of fruits from the species Sandoricum koetjape, Lepisanthes fruticosa, and Garcinia parvifolia (English et al., 2014; Kitamura et al., 2007) Order Perissodactyla After the death of the last Sumatran rhino in Malaysia in 2019 at the Borneo Rhino Sanctuary, Sabah, the Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus), also known as badak cipan or tenuk, became the only animal under the order Perissodactyla that can still be found in our country. However, the IUCN status of critically endangered tapirs is of great concern. Tapirs are herbivorous with 217 species of plants have been recorded as food sources for tapirs in semi-wild environments (Simpson et al., 2013). Tapirs are mainly folivores where they browse on leaves especially the young leaves and the shoot. However, as a generalist eater, tapirs are also known to eat fruits, flower buds, and parts of tree trunks or twigs. Among the plant species that have been recorded by Simpson et al. (2013) as preferred food sources for tapirs are Xerospermum noronhianum, Aporosa prainiana, Baccaurea parviflora, and Syzygium pycnanthum. 20

Table 1.6 List of animal species from the order Perissodactyla in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Rhinocerotidae Dicerorhinus sumatrensis# Sumatran Rhinoceros Badak kerbau CR CR Rhinoceros sundaicus# Javan rhinoceros Badak raya CR EX Tapiridae Tapirus indicus# Malayan tapir Tapir / Badak Cipan EN EN #Totally protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] Order Artiodactyla In Malaysia, the order Artiodactyla consists of four different families (Table 1.7). The first family, which is Bovidae, includes banteng, gaur, and serow. Banteng in Peninsular Malaysia were once considered extinct in the 1950s. However, thanks to DWNP’s efforts to reintroduce banteng to Taman Negara, they are no longer considered extinct and are now classified as critically endangered (CR). All members under the family Bovidae not only love to graze, but also feed on other plants that are not categorised as grass. For example, a study conducted in Malaysia found that gaur feeds on 89 species of plants, of which only 38 species are grass species (Weigum, 1972). Serow are also reported to consume more diverse plants when compared to goral in the Himalayan region (Himalayan goats), which are more selective (Suraprasit et al., 2020). Apart from grazing grass, Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor) also eat shrubs, leaves, and fruits. From a study conducted at a wildlife sanctuary in Thailand, sambar deer were observed to feed on 18 plant species out of 84 plants found in the area. Among the plants favoured by sambar deer are from the genus Bauhinia sp., Jasminum sp., Terminalia sp. as well as Dioscorea sp., all of which can also be found in Malaysia (Suksawat et al., 2018). Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak) also have the same feeding habits as unicolor deer. Even so, it prefers the bud of tall grass species such as weeds compared to grasses in the vegetative phase. One of the fruits eaten by barking deer is Pauh Kijang (Irvingia malayana), where they are reported to serve as seed dispersal agents for this plant species (Kassim, 1987). Both species from the Tragulidae family, Large Mouse Deer (Tragulus napu) and Lesser Mouse Deer (Tragulus kanchil), are important fruit eaters which usually feed on fallen fruits on the forest floor. The reduction of fruit trees due to logging has caused these species to decrease in Sabah (Heydon and Bulloh, 1997). However, both mouse-deer also feed on the buds and leaves of shrubs and creepers (Farida et al., 2004). Unlike lesser mouse deer, large mouse deer is less dependent on fruits and prefers to eat leaves. Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) and Bearded Pig (Sus barbatus) from the Suidae family are omnivores, whose food consists of various types of fruits, parts of leaves and roots of plants, mushrooms, CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 21

and insects. Sus barbatus also eats animals such as lizards, rodents, and snakes. Although both species will destroy the seed portion of the fruit eaten (seed predator), there are also still intact seeds that are excreted through the process of defecation. Attempts to propagate seeds found in Sus scrofa faeces were successful where over 50% of the propagated seeds were successfully grown (O’Connon and Kelly, 2012). This indicates that both species of pigs also play a role as seed dispersal agents. Table 1.7 List of animal species from the order Artiodactyla found in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Bovidae Bos gaurus# Gaur Seladang VU EN Bos javanicus# Banteng Banteng EN CR Capricornis sumatraensis# Serow Kambing Gurun VU EN Cervidae Rusa unicolor* Sambar Deer Rusa Sambar VU EN Muntiacus muntjak* Barking Deer Kijang LC NT Suidae Sus scrofa* Common Wild Pig Babi Hutan LC LC Sus barbatus# Bearded Pig Babi Bodoh VU DD Tragulidae Tragulus napu* Large Mouse Deer Napuh LC NT Tragulus kanchil Lesser Mouse Deer Kancil LC LC * Protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] #Totally protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] Order Carnivora In general, members of the order Carnivora are carnivorous. However, there are also omnivorous species that can be found within this order, such as yellow-throated marten, bears, and almost all species from the family Viverridae. Malayan Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus) eats a wide range of food in the forest such as small animals, termites, beehives (honey), and even fruits. Among the fruits that have been recorded to be eaten by bears are durian, kedondong, and Ficus spp. Due to the frugivorous nature of these animals, bears are also reported to play a role as seed dispersal agents depending on the species of fruit eaten, the amount of seeds ingested as well as the area where faeces is excreted (McConkey and Galetti, 1999). 22

The diet for Yellow-throated Marten (Martes flavigula) consists of fruits, nectar, honey, and various types of small vertebrates and invertebrates. In Peninsular Malaysia, this species has also been recorded in oil palm plantations (Azlan, 2003). Members of the family Viverridae play various important roles in the tropical rainforest including preys, predators as well as seed dispersers. Among the species consumed by Viverridae are birds, frogs, fish, rodents, and insects. In addition, the species under this family such as binturong and civets also feed on fruits as part of the diet and play a role as an important seed disperser, especially binturong. A study conducted on binturong found that 30% of the total seeds of some types of fruit given to binturong were excreted in good condition. All the seeds were then sown and 19%–35% were successfully germinated depending on the species of fruit (Colon and Campos-Arceiz, 2013). In Borneo, binturongs were also recorded to consume more Ficus fruit compared to Gibbons and Capped Hornbills and recorded the highest seed germination of all seeds excreted (Nakabayashi et al., 2019). Tree-stripped Palm Civet (Arctogalidia trivirgata) is also considered to have potential as a seed dispersal agent because its feeding and habits and excretion process are very similar to binturong. Apart from fruits, tree-stripped palm civet also feeds on nectar and sap from tree bark. Although it is under the order Carnivora, Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) is predominantly frugivorous that feeds on Ficus spp., a wide variety of forest fruits (depending on the season), and oil palm for those inhabiting areas near oil palm plantations. Common palm civet prefers fruits that have a high sugar content and a soft fruit filling. Table 1.8 List of omnivore animal species under the Order Carnivora found in Peninsular Malaysia Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status Local Conservation Status Mustelidae Martes flavigula Yellow-Throated Marten Mengkira LC NT Ursidae Helarctos malayanus# Malayan Sun Bear Beruang VU VU Viverridae Arctictis binturong# Binturong Binturong VU LC Arctogallidia trivirgata# Tree-Stripped Palm Civet Musang Akar LC LC Cynogale bennettii# Otter Civet Musang Memerang EN EN Hemigalus derbyanus# Banded Palm Civet Musang Belang NT LC Paguma larvata# Masked Palm Civet Musang Lamri LC NT Paradoxurus hermaphroditus* Common Plam Civet Musang Pulut LC LC Viverra megaspila Large Spotted Civet Musang Titik Besar EN NT Viverra tangalunga* Malay Civet Musang Tenggalung LC LC Viverra zibetha# Large Indian Civet Musang Jebat LC DD Viverricula indica* Little Civet Musang Kecil India LC NT * Protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] #Totally protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 23

AVES Malaysia has a high diversity of avifauna species amounting to more than 800 species. However, deforestation caused by anthropogenic activities has resulted in forest fragmentation, which has a negative impact on bird communities that depend on forest areas for survival. The opening of oil palm plantations and paddy fields has led to a reduction in bird diversity and changes in the feeding patterns of certain bird species. Birds of woodpecker species, barbets, babblers, and leafbirds are among the birds that are sensitive to habitat changes and adapt poorly to disturbed environments. Birds have a wide range of diet from plants such as fruits, nectar, and seeds, to small animals such as insects and earthworms. In addition to bats from the Pteropodidae family, birds also play a very important role as seed dispersers for pioneer tree species in tropical rainforests. Several species of birds also play a role as important pollinating agents. One of the factors that makes some birds as major seed dispersers is its relatively long daily movement that can reach tens of kilometres from the nest to the foraging area. This allows the seeds to spread evenly over the area traversed by the birds throughout the day. In contrast to primates that generally prefer fruits with high sucrose content, birds prefer fruits with high fructose and glucose content (Wehncke and Reyes-Amaya, 2019). Other factors that influence fruit selection among bird species are fruit colour, fruit size, nutrient content, and the level of fruit damage caused by insects. Birds that inhabit forest areas are usually insect eaters, fruit eaters, or both. This is due to the high density of trees in the forest, which is a habitat to many types of insects and also the existence of various species of fruit trees (Azman et al., 2011). Table 1.9 shows some of the bird species that are known to eat plants in the forests of Peninsular Malaysia by consuming fruits or nectar and therefore may potentially play important roles as seed dispersal and pollination agents. Photo: Yellow-Vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier) 24

Table 1.9 List of frugivorous and omnivorous bird species that can be found in the tropical rainforests of Peninsular Malaysia Order Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status BUCEROTIFORMES Bucerotidae Annorhinus galeritus# Bushy-Crested Hornbill Enggang Belukar NT Anthracoceros albirostris# Oriental Pied Hornbill Enggang Kelingking LC Anthracoceros malayanus# Black Hornbill Enggang Gatal Birah VU Berenicornis comatus# White-Crowned Hornbill Enggang Jambul Putih EN Buceros bicornis# Great Hornbill Enggang Papan VU Buceros rhinoceros# Rhinoceros Hornbill Enggang Badak VU Buceros vigil# Helmeted Hornbill Enggang Bertopi CR Rhabdotorrhinus corrugatus# Wrinkled Hornbill Enggang Berkedut EN Rhythiceros subruficollis# Plain-Pouched Hornbill Enggang Rimba VU Rhythiceros undulatus# Wreathed Hornbill Enggang Gunung VU COLUMBIFORMES Collumbidae Chalcophaps indica* Emerald Dove Punai Tanah LC Ptilinopus jambu# Jambu Fruit- Dove Punai Jambu NT Treron curvirostra# Thick-Billed Green Pigeon Burung Punai Lengguak LC Ducula aenea# Green Imperial Pigeon Pergam Besar LC Ducula badia# Mountain Imperial Pigeon Pergam Bukit LC Treron vernans* Pink-Necked Green Pigeon Punai Gading LC Treron capellei# Large Green Pigeon Punai Bakok VU Treron olax* Little Green Pigeon Punai Daun LC Treron bicinctus# Orange-Breasted Green Pigeon Punai Siam LC CUCULIFORMES Cuculidae Cacomantis merulinus# Plaintive Cuckoo Burung Mati Anak LC Cacomantis sonneratii# Banded Bay Cuckoo Sewah Takuweh LC Phaenicophaeus curvirostris# Chestnut-Breasted Malkoha Cenuk Birah LC Surniculus lugubris# Square-Tailed DrongoCuckoo Hamba Kera LC CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 25

Order Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status GALLIFORMES Phasianidae Arborophila charltonii# Scaly-Breasted Partridge Siul Onak VU Argusianus argus Great Argus Kuang Raya VU Gallus gallus* Red Junglefowl Ayam Hutan LC Lopihura erythrophthalma# Crestless Fireback Ayam Pegar Mata Merah NT Lophura ignita# Crested Fireback Ayam Pegar NT Polyplectron malacense# Malay Peacock-Pheasant Kuang Pongsu VU Rollulus rouloul# Crested Partridge Siul Berjambul NT GRUIFORMES Rallidae Amaurornis cinerea# White-Browed Crake Sintar Dahi Putih LC Amaurornis phoenicurus* White-Breasted Waterhen Ruak-Ruak LC PICIFORMES Megalaimidae Calorhamphus fuliginosus# Brown Barbet Takur Dahan LC Megalaima australis# Blue-Eared Barbet Takur Akar LC Megalaima chrysopogon# Gold-Whiskered Barbet Takur Jambang Emas LC Megalaima henricii# Yellow-Crowned Barbet Takur Mahkota Kuning NT Megalaima mystacophanos# Red-Throated Barbet Takur Raya NT Picidae Yungipicus moluccensis# Sunda Pygmy Woodpecker Belatuk Belacan Kecil LC PSITTACIFORMES Psittaculidae Loriculus galgulus* Blue-Crowned HangingParrot Bayan Serindit LC Psittinus cyanurus* Blue-Rumped Parrot Bayan Tanau NT 26

Order Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status PASSERIFORMES Aegithinidae Aegithina viridissima# Green Iora Kunyit Hijau NT Campephagidae Pericrocotus divaricatus# Ashy Minivet Matahari Kelabu LC Pericrocotus flammeus# Scarlet Minivet Matahari Besar LC Chloropseidae Chloropsis cochinchinensis# Blue-Winged Leafbird Daun Sayap Biru EN Chloropsis sonnerati# Greater Green Leafbird Daun Hijau Besar EN Cisticolidae Orthotomus sericeus# Rufous-Tailed Tailorbird Perenjak Rimba LC Corvidae Corvus enca Slender-Billed Crow Gagak Paruh Lampai LC Corvus macrorhynchos Large-Billed Crow Gagak Paruh Besar LC Platylophus galericulatus# Crested Jay Gagak Berjambul NT Platysmurus leucopterus# Black Magpie Gagak Kambing LC Dicaeidae Dicaeum chrysorrheum# Yellow-vented Flowerpecker Sepah Puteri Rimba LC Dicaeum ignipectus# Fire-Breasted Flowerpecker Sepah Bunga Dada Api LC Dicaeum maculatus Yellow-Breasted Flowerpecker Sepah Putih LC Dicaeum percussus Crimson-Breasted Flowerpecker Sepah Puteri Pelangi LC Dicaeum trigonostigma# Orange-Bellied Flowerpecker Sepah Puteri Dada Oren LC Estrildidae Lonchura leucogastra* White-Bellied Munia Pipit Padi LC Eurylaimidae Calyptomena viridis# Green Broadbill Takau Selawit NT Cymbirhynchus Macrorhynchos# Black-And-Red Broadbill Takau Rakit LC Eurylaimus javanicus# Banded Broadbill Takau Belang NT Irenidae Irena puella# Asian Fairy-Bluebird Murai Gajah LC Chloropsis cochinchinensis# Blue-Winged Leafbird Daun Sayap Biru EN Chloropsis cyanopogon# Lesser Green Leafbird Daun Kecil NT Chloropsis sonnerati# Greater Green Leafbird Daun Hijau Besar EN Leiothrichidae Alcippe brunneicauda# Brown Fulvetta Rimba Murai Coklat NT CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 27

Order Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status PASSERIFORMES Nectariniidae Arachnothera affinis# Grey-Breasted Spiderhunter Kelicap Jantung Bukit LC Arachnothera flavigaster# Spectacled Spiderhunter Kelicap Jantung Besar LC Arachnothera longirostra# Little Spiderhunter Kelicap Jantung Kecil VU Hypogramma hypogrammicum# Purple-Naped Spiderhunter Burung Kelicap Rimba LC Prionochilus maculatus# Yellow-Breasted Flowerpecker Sepah Bunga Dada Kuning LC Prionochilus percussus# Crimson-Breasted Flowerpecker Sepah Bunga Pelangi LC Prionochilus thoracicus# Scarlet-Breasted Flowerpecker Sepah Putri NT Dicaeum trigonostigma# Orange-Bellied Flowerpecker Sepah Puteri Dada Oren LC Anthreptes singalensis# Ruby-Cheeked Sunbird Kelicap Belukar LC Anthreptes simplex# Plain Sunbird Kelicap Kelabu LC Nectarinia sperata# Purple-Throated Sunbird Kelicap Nibong LC Arachnothera crassirostris# Thick-Billed Spiderhunter Kelicap Jantung Paruh Tebal LC Arachnothera robusta# Long-Billed Spiderhunter Kelicap Jantung Paruh LC Arachnothera chrysogenys# Yellow-Eared Spiderhunter Kelicap Jantung Telinga Kuning LC Oriolidae Oriolus xanthonotus# Dark-Throated Oriole Kunyit Leher Hitam NT Passeridae Passer montanus Eurasian Tree-Sparrow Ciak Urasia LC Ploceidae Ploceus philippinus* Baya Weaver Ciak Tempua LC 28

Order Family Scientific name Common name Local name IUCN Status PASSERIFORMES Pycnonotidae Alophoixus bres# Scrub Bulbul Merbah Pipi-Kelabu EN Alophoixus finschii# Finsch’s Bulbul Merbah Tekak Kuning NT Alophoixus ochraceus# Ochraceous Bulbul Merbah Beringin LC Alophoixus phaeocephalus# Puff-Throated Bulbul Merbah Perut Kuning LC Brachypodius melanoleucos Black-And-White Bulbul Merbah Tanduk LC Hemixos flavala# Ashy Bulbul Burung Merbah Abu NT Iole olivacea# Buff-Vented Bulbul Merbah Riang LC Ixos malaccensis# Streaked Bulbul Barau Bukit NT Pycnonotus atriceps# Black-Headed Bulbul Merbah Siam NT Pycnonotus brunneus# Red-Eyed Bulbul Merbah Mata Merah LC Pycnonotus cyaniventris# Grey-Bellied Bulbul Merbah Kelabu LC Pycnonotus erythrophthalmos# Spectacled Bulbul Merbah Kecil NT Pycnonotus eutilotus# Puff-Backed Bulbul Merbah Coklat Berjambul LC Pycnonotus finlaysoni# Stripe-Throated Bulbul Merbah Leher Berjalur NT Pycnonotus plumosus# Olive-Winged Bulbul Merbah Belukar LC Pycnonotus simplex# Cream-Vented Bulbul Merbah Mata Putih LC Pycnonotus goiavier Yellow-Vented Bulbul Merbah Kapur LC Pycnonotus zeylanicus# Straw-Headed Bulbul Barau-Barau LC Rubigula melanicterus# Black-Crested Bulbul Merbah Jambul Hitam CR Tricholestes criniger# Hairy-Backed Bulbul Merbah Bulu Tengkuk LC Sturnidae Gracula religiosa* Common Hill Myna Tiong Emas LC Timaliidae Pomatorhinus montanus# Chestnut-Backed Scimitar Babbler Kekicau Paruh Sabit Kecil LC Zosteropidae Zosterops everetti# Everett’s White-Eye Mata Putih Belukar LC Source: (Kaur et al., 2011; Moore et al., 2016; Payne, 1980; Saad et al., 2012; Yong et al., 2011; Norsham Suhaina, 2005; Azman et al., 2011) * Protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] #Totally protected wildlife under the Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 [Act 716] CHAPTER 1 Plant-Eating Wildlife In Malaysia 29

Photo: Salak fruits (Salacca glabrescens) 30

Chapter 2: Food Plants for Wildlife CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 31

Malaysia has one of the most complex tropical rainforest ecosystems in the world. These forests serve to stabilise water supply sources, soil fertility, and environmental quality; reduce flood damage; and act as buffers to reduce the effects of erosion and flood. In addition, the main function of forests is the habitat for conservation and preservation of biological diversity, including plants and wildlife. Forests in Malaysia are reported to be rich in various plants, including 2500 flowering plants that are habitats and food sources for 200 species of mammals, 600 species of birds, 110 species of snakes, 80 species of lizards, and thousands of insects ( Jabatan Perhutanan Semenanjung Malaysia, 2021). Forests in Malaysia are divided into several strata, where each stratum supports different species of flora and fauna. Photo: Ara tree (Ficus auriculata ) 32

FLOWERING PLANTS AS FOOD FOR WILDLIFE Malaysia has an ideal climate for the growth of various types of plants, in addition to being rich in a variety of genetic resources. There are two main groups of plants classified as angiosperm (flowering) and gymnosperm (non-flowering) plants. In the angiosperm group, it is estimated that about 370 species of fruiting plants with 16 species are classified as primary fruits, while the rest are classified as rare fruits (Rukayah, 2001). The flower is a specialised reproductive structure (gametophyte) in which it will grow into fruits and seeds for the purpose of reproduction. Compared to gymnosperm plants, this group is the most successful class of plant with high species diversity. The majority of flowering plants are pollinated by animals such as insects, spiders, bats, and birds. Flowering plants play an important role as food sources for herbivorous and omnivorous wildlife. There are several groups of wildlife that feed on flowering plants such as large mammals (such as tapirs, elephants, gaur, binturong), small mammals (such as bats, squirrels, flying lemur, civets, porcupines, mice), primates (including orangutans, long-tailed macaques, apes, langurs, gibbons), ungulates (such as deer, even-toed ungulate, mouse-deer, yellow-throated martens), and birds. A list of wildlife that makes flowering plants a food source is shown in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. Most flowering plants produce fruit and can be divided into two categories, namely non-seasonal (fruiting throughout the year) and seasonal (fruiting only at certain times). Flowering plants that bear fruit throughout the year are figs, bananas, papayas, sugarcane, Terengganu cherries, and kedondong. These non-seasonal plants provide a constant supply of food especially to wildlife. Examples of flowering plants that bear fruit according to the season are langsat, rambutan, durian, rambai, sapodilla, mangosteen, jackfruit, asam kumbang, horse mango, kwini, marian plum, sepam, and sentol. Under the group of flowering plants, there are two major groups, namely monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous plants. Among the distinguishing features of these two groups are the number of cotyledons, as well as the type of vein, root and stem. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS Monocotyledonous plants have one cotyledon, parallel-veined leaves, fibrous roots, and a soft, non-woody stem. Among the examples of monocotyledonous plants that serve as source of food for various wildlife are grass, sugarcane, corn, ginger, banana and yam (Table 2.1). Photo: Rattan fruits (Calamus spp.) CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 33

Table 2.1 List of monocotyledonous plants in Malaysia and the plant-eating wildlife No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 1 AMARYLLIDACEAE Crinum asiaticum Bakong Crinum Lily Elephant 2 ARACEAE Aglaonema nitidum Daun Lidah Chinese Evergreen Bird 3 Aglaonema simplex Sumpuh Bulan, Sagut Bird, mammal 4 Alocasia longiloba Keladi Rimau, Keladi Ular, Birah Kijang, Birah Hitam Arrow-Leaf Bird, small mammal 5 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Keladi Lekir, Lokai Elephant Yam, Stink Lily Bird, tapir, squirrel 6 Amorphophallus prainii Bunga Bangkai Corpse plant, Snake Plant Tapir 7 Amydrium medium Sarkat Gajah Arum Lilies Bird, mammal 8 Colocasia esculenta Keladi Elephant’s Ear Mammal 9 Epipremnum aureum Sirih Gading Devil’s Ivy Insect 10 Epipremnum giganteum Akar Resdung, Rengut Greater Epipremnum Bird 11 Hyptis suaveolens Selasih Hutan, Sepulut Pignut Elephant 12 Homalomena deltoidea Keladi Hutan Wild Yam Elephant 13 Rhaphidophora lobbii Akar Asam Tebing Paya, Akar Kelumpayang The Root of Kelumpayang Bat, arboreal mammal 14 Syngonium podophyllum Tapak Angsa Arrow-head, Goose Foot Plant Bird 15 ASPARAGACEAE Dracaena elliptica Kaki Ayam, Pecah kelambu, Sabang Ensluai Sabang Ensluai Bird, small mammal 16 BROMELIACEAE Ananas comosus Nanas Pineapple Bird, primates, insect, rat, squirrel 17 COMMELINACEAE Amischotolype griffithii Setawar Hutan, Setawar Jantan, Tebu Gogok Wild Setawar Elephant 18 Amischotolype gracilis Setawar Betina, Tebu Primat, Buah Anku Wild Setawar Elephant 19 COSTACEAE Costus speciosus Penawar Padang, Sedingin, Setawar Halia Crepe Ginger, Malay Ginger Bird, elephant, insect 20 CYPERACEAE Mapania cuspidata Serapat, Pandan Tikus Serapat Small mammals 21 HYPOXIDACEAE Molineria latifolia Lemba Lemba Elephant, tapir 22 MARANTACEAE Donax canniformis Bemban Donax Elephant 23 Donax grandis Bumban Donax Elephant 24 Phrynium pubinerve Lirek Packing Leaf Elephant 25 Stachyphrynium latifolium Lirek Lirek Elephant 34

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 26 MUSACEAE Musa acuminata Pisang Banana Bird, elephant, bat 27 Musa acuminata ssp. Pisang Siamang/ Pisang Liar Wild Banana Bat, squirrel 28 Musa balbisiana Pisang Liar Wild Banana Elephant, squirrel, bat, primates, bird, deer, rat 29 Musa malaccensis Pisang Liar Wild Banana Bat, squirrel 30 Musa truncata Pisang Liar Wild Banana Elephant, squirrel, bat, primates, bird, deer, rat 31 Musa violascens Pisang Liar Wild Banana Bat, squirrel 32 PALMAE (ARECACEAE) Areca catechu Pinang Sirih Areca Nut, Betel Nut Palm Elephant, primates 33 Arenga caudata Tukas Palm Bat, elephant, primates 34 Arenga pinnata Kabong Hooker’s Fishtail Palm Elephant 36 Arenga westerhoutii Kerjim, Pokok Sagu Westerhout’s Sugar Palm Elephant, primates 37 Calamus angustifolius Rotan Getah Water Rattan Palm Elephant 39 Calamus caesius Rotan Sega Sega Rattan Elephant 40 Calamus castaneus Cucor, Rotan Cucor, Atap Cucor Mountain Rattan Elephant, primates 41 Calamus draco Rotan Jernang Rattan Elephant 42 Calamus erinaceus Rotan Bakau Hedgehog Rattan, Mangrove Rattan Elephant 43 Calamus geniculatus Rotan Jahaca Rattan Elephant 44 Calamus hirsutus Rotan Sabut Rattan Elephant 45 Calamus insignis Rotan Batu Remakable Rattan Elephant 46 Calamus javensis Rotan Lilin Javanese Rattan Elephant 47 Calamus longipes Rotan Duduk Rattan Elephant 48 Calamus luridus Rotan Kerai Rattan Elephant 49 Calamus manan Rotan Manau Manau Palm Primates, bird 50 Calamus micracanthus Rotan Jernang Paper Rattan Elephant 51 Calamus ornatus Rotan Manau Rattan Primates 52 Calamus penicillatus Rotan Batu Rattan Elephant 53 Calamus radulosus Rotan Kikir Rattan Elephant 54 Calamus scipionum Rotan Semambu Semambu Bird, elephant, primates, civet, squirrel 55 Calamus pycnocarpus Rotan Kong Rattan Elephant 56 Calamus georgei Rotan Senik Rattan Elephant CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 35

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 57 PALMAE (ARECACEAE) Caryota mitis Kabong Hutan Clustered Fishtail Palm Elephant 58 Ceratolobus subangulatus Rotan Tunggal Rattan Elephant 59 Chrysalidocarpus lutescens Pinang Kuning Yellow Palm Bat, Elephant 60 Cocos nucifera Kelapa Coconut Elephant 61 Corypha utan Gebang, Gembong Buri palm Elephant 62 Daemonorops callicarpa Rotan Lumpit Rattan Primates 63 Elaeis guineensis Kelapa Sawit Oil Palm Elephant, primates 64 Eleiodoxa conferta Asam Paya/Kelubi Marsh Sour Relish Elephant 65 Eugeissona tristis Bertam Dull Bertam Palm Elephant 66 Iguanura geonomiformis Palas Tikus, Pinang Burung Palm Elephant 67 Iguanura wallichiana Pinang, Terunok Dwarft Palm Bird, Elephant 68 Johannesteijsmannia altifrons Daun Koh, Daun Payang, Daun Sar Joey Palm, Umbrella Palm Elephant 69 Korthalsia flagellaris Rotan Udang Rattan Elephant 70 Korthalsia laciniosa Rotan Dahan Led beth Elephant 71 Korthalsia tenuissima Rotan Dahan Tikus Rattan Elephant 72 Licuala grandis Palas Kapas Fan Palm Elephant 74 Licuala mirabilis Palas Palas Bat 75 Livistona chinensis Serdang Cina Chinese Fan Palm Bird, bat 76 Livistona rotundifolia Serdang Daun Bulat Footstool Palm Bird, bat 77 Livistona saribus Serdang, Pokok Sah Taraw Palm Elephant 78 Metroxylon sagu Pokok Sagu Sago Palm Elephant 79 Myrialepis paradoxa Rotan Kertong Kertong Rattan Elephant 80 Nenga gajah Pinang Gajah Pinang Palm Elephant 81 Nenga grandiflora Pinang Pinang Palm Elephant 82 Nenga macrocarpa Pinang Large-fruited Nenga Palm Elephant 83 Nenga pumila Pinang Dwarf Nenga Palm Elephant 84 Nypa fruticans Nipah Nipa Palm Crab 85 Oncosperma horridum Bayas, Nibung Mountain Nibung Palm, Thorny Palm Elephant, primates 86 Oncosperma tigillarium Nibong Nibong Palm, Palmae Bird, elephant 87 Orania sylvicola Ibul, Kayu Baluhur Forest Palm, Ibul palm Elephant 88 Pholidocarpus macrocarpus Kepau Kepang Palm Elephant 89 Pinanga disticha Pinang Pinang Primates 36

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 90 PALMAE (ARECACEAE) Pinanga malaiana Pinang, Lagong Pinang Elephant 91 Pinanga polymorpha Pinang Pinang Elephant 92 Plectocomia elongata Rotan Badak Giant Rattan Palm Elephant 93 Plectocomiopsis geminiflora Rotan Gilang Rattan Elephant, bat 94 Ptychosperma macarthurii Palma Macarthurii Macarthur Palm Bat 95 Roystonea regia Sawit Diraja Florida Royal Palm Bat 96 Salacca glabrescens Salak Salak Palm Bird, primates 97 PANDANACEAE Freycinetia ciliaris Pandan Pandan Elephant 98 Freycinetia malaccensis Rancang Besi Pandan Elephant 99 Pandanus artocarpus Mengkuang Pandan Elephant 100 Pandanus amaryllifolius Daun Pandan, Pandan Wangi Pandan Insect 101 POACEAE (GRAMINEAE) Bambusa vulgaris Buluh Bamboo Primates, elephant, mouse, wild boar, sun bear 102 Brachiaria decumbens Rumput Ceylon Ceylon Grass Elephant, wild boar, deer, napoh, sambar deer, tapir 103 Brachiaria humidicola Rumput Koronivia Koronivia Grass Elephant, wild boar, deer, napoh, sambar deer, tapir 104 Brachiaria mutica Rumput Para Para Grass Deer 105 Brachiaria ruziziensis Rumput Ruzi Congo Grass, Ruzi Grass Deer 106 Centotheca lappacea Rumput Darah, Rumput Silat Kain, Rumput Lilit Kain Barbed Grass Elephant 107 Dendrocalamus asper Buluh Betung Giant Bamboo Elephant 108 Dinochloa scabrida Buluh Pemanjat Bamboo Elephant 109 Hymenachne amplexicaulis Rumput Kumpai West Indian Marsh Grass Elephant 110 Oryza sativa Padi Paddy Elephant 111 Oryza ridleyi Padi Liar Wild Paddy Elephant 112 Panicum maximum Rumput Guinea Guinea Grass Elephant, wild boar, primates, deer, gaur, squirrel 113 Paspalum conjugatum Rumput Kerbau Buffalo Grass, Carabao Grass Gaur 114 Pennisetum purpureum Rumput Gajah, Rumput Napier Napier Grass, Elephant Grass Elephant, wild boar, deer, slow loris, napoh, gaur, sambar deer, tapir CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 37

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 115 POACEAE (GRAMINEAE) Phragmites karka Perumpung Common Reed Elephant 116 Phyllostachys sp. Buluh Asia Asian Bamboo Primates, elephant 117 Saccharum officinarum Tebu Sugarcane Elephant 118 Schizostachyum grande Buluh Semeliang Clumping Bamboo, Malaysian WeedBamboo Elephant 119 Schizostachyum zollingeri Buluh Dinding Slender Bamboo Elephant 120 Setaria sphacelata Rumput Setaria African Bristlegrass Elephant, wild boar, deer, napoh, sambar deer, tapir 121 Thysanolaena latifolia Buluh Tebrau, Rumput Buluh Tiger Grass Gaur, elephant 122 Triticum aestivum Rumput Wheat Grass Elephant, rodents, squirrel, porcupine 123 Zea mays Jagung Corn Elephant, bird, deer, civet, squirrel, insect 124 SMILACACEAE Smilax setosa Akar Banar, Akar Gadong Bearded Smilax Primates 125 ZINGIBERACEAE Alpinia aquatica Meroyan Siamang, Munkanang Aquatic Ginger Bird 126 Alpinia galanga Lengkuas Siamese Ginger Elephant 127 Alpinia javanica Lengkuas Hutan, Tepus Ginger Lily Elephant 128 Alpinia ligulata Timbang Ginger Elephant 129 Curcuma longa Kunyit Turmeric Elephant 130 Elettaria cardamomum Pelaga Cardamomum Elephant 131 Etlingera elatior Kantan Torch Ginger Bird, small mammals, elephant 132 Etlingera littoralis Tepus Ginger Small mammals, squirrel, rodents, porcupine 133 Etlingera punicea Halia Hutan, Tepus Ginger Small mammals, squirrel 134 Globba patens Meroyan Berok Ginger Elephant, wild boar, squirrel, primates, insect 135 Globba pendula Meroyan Jarum, Meroyan Tinggal Ginger Elephant, wild boar, squirrel, primates, insect 136 Hornstedtia spp. Halia Ginger Elephant, wild boar, squirrel, primates, insect 137 Hornstedtia scyphifera Senggang Great Spindle Ginger Primates 38

Family Poaceae Poaceae is a family of large monocotyledonous flowering plants. It is also known as grasses and has evolved successfully to occur in almost all ecosystems. It includes grain grasses, bamboos, and natural pasture grasses and species grown in backyards and meadows. Grass is one of the most common elements of the herbivorous diet especially for ruminant groups. Among the grass-eating wildlife are elephants, squirrels, slow loris, deer, pigs, gaur, and various types of insects. Among the types of grass that are widely eaten are Napier, Guinea, Ruzi, and Signal grass. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) or elephant grass is a type of grass grown for animal feed. This grass is reported to be very suitable to grow in various places from the ground-level altitude of 0–3,000 ft above the sea level in areas that are open to full sunlight (Mohd Anim, 2017). Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) or also known as horse grass is a type of vertical grass, deep rooted, and has long leaves and flower stalks, with its height ranging between 1.5 and 2 m (Mohd Anim, 2017). This grass is resistant to long dry seasons but needs a humid climate to thrive. It is also able to live in the shade and is suitable to be integrated under coconut plantation areas. Ruzi grass or its scientific name Brachiaria ruziziensis is a creeping grass that is less than Photo: Elephant Grass (Pennisetum purpureum) No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 138 ZINGIBERACEAE Languas cannifolia Puar Minyak Ginger Elephant 139 Plagiostachys crocydocalyx Halia Ginger Small mammals, squirrel, mouse 140 Zingiber spp. Halia Ginger Elephant CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 39

1.5 m tall and filled with fine-grained flowers. Grass germination is faster through seeds or stem cuttings. This grass is often used as a permanent or semi-permanent pasture for grazing, mowing, and green food or straw. Meanwhile, Signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens) is a tropical grass having a wide distribution throughout South America, Australia, Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Malaysia due to its adaptation to various soil types and environments (Low, 2015). This grass grows upright, clumped, and creeping. Signal grasses reproduce year-round, have bright green and medium hairy leaves, with 7–20 mm width and 5–25 mm length (Jabatan Perkhidmatan dan Perusahaan Ternak Sabah, 2007). Like other types of grass, among the animals that feed on this grass are elephants, squirrels, slow loris, deer, pigs, and gaur. Sugarcane is also included in the grass family (Poaceae) and is a plant that has an erect stem without branches and grows on clumps of fertile soil. Its height is in the range of 1.8–3.0 m with a segment diameter of about 5–10 cm (Mohd Anim, 2011). Among the wildlife that eats sugarcane are elephants, orangutans, monkeys, pigs, and sun bears. In the monocotyledon class, corn also belongs to the family Poaceae. Corn has a round, hollow stem, and the corn leaves form a sheath around it. The corn flowers are not prominent and do not bloom, only droop. Corn seeds grow as small grains with a hard, uncovered outer coating to encourage dispersal by animals. Among the animals identified to eat corn are elephants, birds, deer, civets, squirrels, and various types of insects. Family Zingiberaceae The Zingiberaceae family is a herbaceous plant that does not have hard stems and is also known as a tuberous plant. Ginger belongs to this group, and it is the largest order in the family Zingiberaceae with about 56 genera and about 1,300 species (Britannica, 2020). This aromatic herb usually grows in moist areas in the tropics, which makes the forest ecosystem in Malaysia a suitable habitat for its growth. Wildlife such as elephants, pigs, squirrels, and groups of primates such as long-tailed macaques and various types of insects make its leaves as their diet. Family Musaceae Musaceae is the banana family. There are approximately 91 species that have been successfully identified under this family (Christenhusz and Byng, 2016). Wild banana species that are often found in Malaysian forests are Musa balbisiana, M. acuminata, M. acuminata ssp. malaccensis, M. gracilis, and M. violescens. They are found growing in clusters, originating from the same parent with a high population distribution in any locality. They have flowers or “male buds” that grow in various colours from red to dark red, purple, or yellow, while the fruit colour is green or bluish. The fruit is full of seeds found and has an astringent taste. These banana species are not consumed by humans; however, among the animals that have been recorded to feed on wild species of bananas are groups of primates, deer, birds, squirrels, pigs, bats, and elephants. While most animals feed mainly on the fruits, elephants on the other hand also like to eat banana stems. 40

Family Arecaceae Arecaceae is a family of perennial flowering plants (plants that live more than two years) in the order Arecales. Plants in this family are better known as palms and have growth characteristics as climbers, shrubs, and large stemless plants. The plants that are widely eaten under this family are from the rattan species. Among the wildlife that make the Arecaceae a source of food are elephants, birds, small mammals, tapirs, squirrels, bats, and insects. DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS Dicotyledonous plants have two cotyledons, veined leaves, a taproot system, and hard and woody stem. Most fruit trees in Malaysia fall under the dicotyledonous group. For the fruiting trees, they are categorised into main fruit trees and rare fruit trees (Rukayah, 2001). This grouping is made based on the cultivation status, potential use, and popularity of the trees. The main fruit trees are trees that have commercial value and are widely grown in our country. Among the fruits that are widely commercialised are durian, rambutan, langsat, mangosteen, and mango. However, the group of dicotyledonous plants that are widely eaten by wildlife are rare trees which can be found in our tropical rainforest. Rare trees Rare trees are defined as trees that are rarely found in urban landscape and rarely commercialised. Usually, these trees grow naturally in forest areas or are planted in villages as ornamental plants, for personal use, or even as a side income generation. There are more than 140 types of rare trees that can be found in Malaysia, including Canistel (Pouteria campechiana) (Figure 2.1), Asam Gelugor (Garcinia atroviridis) (Figure 2.2), Rambai (Baccaurea motleyana) (Figure 2.3), and Terengganu Cherry (Lepisanthes alata) (Figure 2.4). Rare fruit trees are one of the important food sources for wildlife, given their distribution and habitat in the forest (Table 2.2). Most rare trees produce fruits; however, not all of them are edible as they might contain toxins that can cause intoxication, dizziness, or even death. Due to this factor as well as the lack of scientific research, most of the rare tree species are often overlooked and this can lead to their extinction, if no appropriate attention is given. Rare trees are present in several vegetative forms such as shrubs, epiphytes, root trees, and strangler trees. Among all rare fruit trees, some grow all year round while some species are seasonal and produce low quality of fruit, sensitive to microclimate changes, and take a long time to bear fruit. Furthermore, some species have strong and unpleasant odour, aroma, and pungency. CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 41

Figure 2.1: Canistel (Pouteria campechiana) Figure 2.2: Asam Gelugor (Garcinia atroviridis) Figure 2.3: Rambai (Baccaurea motleyana) Figure 2.4: Terengganu Cherry (Lepisanthes alata) 42

Table 2.2 List of rare and wild trees in Malaysia and the plant-eating wildlife that feed on them No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 1 ACHARIACEAE Pangium edule Kepayang Rowal Fruit/Sis Nut Primates 2 ANACARDIACEAE Anacardium occidentale Gajus Cashew Bird 3 Bouea macrophylla Kundang Daun Besar Gandaria/Plum Mango Primates, squirrel 4 Bouea oppositifolia Remia Plum Mango/ Marian Plum/ Rumenia Bird, squirrel 5 Bouea microphylla Kundang Daun Kecil/ Rumenia Gandaria/Plum Mango Primates 6 Buchanania arborescens Otak Udang Sparow’s mango Primates, lemur 7 Buchanania sessilifolia Otak Udang Daun Tajam Primates 8 Mangifera caesia Binjai Mango Primates 9 Mangifera foetida Macang/Bacang Horse Mango/Gray Mango/Indian Mango Primates, gaur 10 Mangifera griffithii Rawa Rawa Primates, squirrel, bird 11 Mangifera indica Mempelam Telor/Padi Mango Primates 12 Mangifera lagenifera Lanjut/Machang Common Mango Bat, primates, squirrel, bird 13 Mangifera odorata Kuini Kuwini/Saipan Mango Primates, elephant 14 Mangifera pajang Bambangan Bambangan Bat, primates, squirrel, bird 15 Mangifera pentandra Pauh Pauh Primates 16 Mangifera quadrifida Asam Kumbang Asam Kumbang Primates, squirrel, bird 17 Spondias cytherea Kedondong Golden Apple/ Ambarella Tapir, squirrel, primates CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 43

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 18 ANNONACEAE Alphonsea elliptica Mempisang Mempisang Tapir, primates, bird, bat, squirrel 19 Annona muricata Durian Belanda Soursop Insect, squirrel 20 Annona reticulata Nona Custard Apple Insect, squirrel 21 Annona squamosa Nona Sri Kaya Sugar Apple/ Sweetsop/Custard Apple Bat, bird 22 Polyalthia beccarii Larak/Mempisang Larak Bird 23 BURSERACEAE Canarium odontophyllum Dabai/Kedondong Sarawak Olive Primates 24 CLUSIACEAE Scutinanthe brunnea Kedondong Sengkuang Kedondong Sengkuang Primates, bat, bird, insect 25 Calophyllum soulattri Bitangor Bitangor Bunut/ Malang-Malang/ Nicobar Canoetree Primates 26 Garcinia atroviridis Asam Gelugor Garcinia Primates, elephant, squirrel, insect 27 Garcinia dulcis Mundu Yellow Mangosteen Elephant, primates 28 Garcinia hombroniana Beruas Seashore Mangosteen Elephant, primates, squirrel 29 Garcinia mangostana Manggis Mangosteen Elephant, primates 30 Garcinia griffithii Kandis/Kandis Gajah Apple-Kandis Elephant, primates 31 Garcinia nervosa Manggis Beruang Pear Mangosteen Porcupine 32 Garcinia prainiana Kecupu/Mencupu/ Cerapu Button Mangosteen Primates, squirrel 33 Garcinia parvifolia Kandis/Kundong Brunei Cherry/ Wild Yellow Kandis/Kandis/ Assam Kandis Primates, elephant 34 DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea alata Ubi Badak Water Yam Boar, Sambar deer 35 EBENACEAE Diospyros discolor Buah Mentega Butter Fruit/Velvet Persimmon/Velvet Apple Primates 36 Diospyros malabarica Bisbul/Epal Baldu Malabar Ebony Primates 44

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 37 EUPHORBIACEAE Elateriospermum tapos Perah Pogoh Nut Primates, squirrel 38 Macaranga hypoleuca Mahang Mahang Putih Tapir, bird, gaur 39 Sapium baccatum Ludai Ludai Deer, mouse deer, lesser mouse deer 40 SALICACEAE Flacourtia inermis Rukam Masam Plum Of Martinique/ Thornless Rukam Bird 41 Flacourtia rukam Rukam Rukam Bird 42 GNETACEAE Gnetum gnemon Melinjau/Belinjau Gnemon Tree/ Spanish Joint Fir Squirrel 43 L E G U M I NO S A E / FABACEAE Archidendron bubalinum Kerdas Kerdas Primates, squirrel, insect 44 Bauhinia strychnoidea Bat 45 Cynometra cauliflora Katak Puru Nam Nam Bird, insect 46 Dialium indum Keranji Velvet Tamarind Primates 47 Dialium platysepalum Keranji Kuning Besar Primates 48 Parkia speciosa Petai Bead Bean/ Malayan Stink Bean Bat, primates, squirrel, bird, elephant, insect 49 Pithecellobium jiringa Jering Jering Bat, primates, squirrel, bird, elephant, insect 50 Tamarindus indica Asam Jawa Tamarind Elephant, bird 51 Saraca thaipingensis Gapis/Golak/Saraca Kuning/Bunga Asoka Yellow Saraca Primates 52 LECYTHIDACEAE Barringtonia acutangula Putat/Gajah Beranak Indian Putat/ Freshwater Mangrove/Red Barringtonia/ Stream Barringtonia/ Indian Oak/Itchy Tree/Wild Almond Elephant 53 Barringtonia racemosa Putat Cassowary-pine/ China-pine/ Brackwater Mangrove/Powderpuff Tree Elephant, bat, primates CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 45

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 54 PHYLLANTHACEAE Antidesma bunius Berunai Chinese Laurel/ Currantwood Primates, squirrel, bird 55 Aporosa prainiana Sebasah King ex Gage Tapir 56 Baccaurea motleyana Rambai Common Rambai Primates, squirrel, bird, lemur 57 Baccaurea parviflora Setambun Wild Rambai Primates, tapir 58 Baccaurea polyneura Jentik-Jentik Jentik-Jentik Bird, primates 59 Baccaurea ramiflora Anggur Burma Burmese Grape Bird, squirrel, primates 60 Baccaurea reticulata Tampoi Tampoi Primates, tapir 61 Phyllanthus acidus Cermai Star Gooseberry/ Gooseberry Tree/ Malay Gooseberry Bird 62 Phyllanthus emblica Buah Melaka Indian Gooseberry/ Amla Bird 63 MALPIGHIACEAE Malpighia glabra Barbados Cherry Acerola/Barbados Cherry/Wild Crape Myrtle/Manzanita Bat, primates, squirrel, bird 64 MALVACEAE Durio zibethinus Durian Durian Primates, squirrel, fox, bird, tiger, bat 65 Sterculia foetida Kelumpang Bastard Poon Tree/ Java Olive Tree/ Hazel Sterculia// Wild Almond Tree/ Skunk Tree Bird 66 MELIACEAE Aglaia korthalsii Keriat/Sekiat Keriat/Sekiat Squirrel, bird 67 Chisocheton macrophyllus Bekak Primates 68 Lansium domesticum Langsat Langsat Bird, primates 69 Lansium parasiticum Duku Langsat/Lanzones/ Longkong Bird, primates 70 Sandoricum koetjape Sentul Kechapi/Sentol/ Red Santol/Wild Mangosteen Bird, primates, elephants 71 MORACEAE Artocarpus communis Sukun Breadfruit Primates, slow loris, tapir 46

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 72 MORACEAE Artocarpus odoratissimus Terap Marang/Green Pedalai/Johey Oak Tapir, gaur, primates 73 Artocarpus rigidus Temponek Monkey Jackfruit Primates 74 Artocarpus heterophyllus Nangka Jackfruit Bat 75 Ficus aurantiacea Ara Roxburgh Fig Bird, tapir 76 Ficus auriculata Ara Climbing Fig Bird 77 Ficus benjamina Beringin Weeping Fig/ Benjamin Fig Bird, tapir 78 Ficus cucurbitina Ara Ara Bird 79 Ficus deltoidea Mas Cotek Mistletoe Fig Bird, primates, squirrel 80 Ficus dubia Bayas Bayas Bird 81 Ficus fistulosa Ara Serapat Common Yellow Stem-Fig Bat, bird 82 Ficus francisci Ara Ara Bird 83 Ficus globosa Ara Paya Ara Paya Bird 84 Ficus hispida Ara Senial Ara Senial Squirrel 85 Ficus microcarpa Jejawi Chinese Banyan/ Malayan Banyan/ Indian Laurel/ Curtain Fig Bird, primates, tapir 86 Ficus racemosa Ara Gugup Cluster Fig/Red River Fig/Gular Bird 87 Ficus scortechinii Ara Melukut Ara Melukut Tapir, bird 88 Ficus sinuata Ara Ara Bird 89 Ficus superba Ara Sea Fig Primates CHAPTER 2 Food Plants For Wildlife 47

No. Family Scientific Name Local Name Common Name Wildlife 90 MORACEAE Ficus tinctoria Ara Bonggol Dye Fig/Humped Fig Bird, primates, tapir 91 Ficus variegata Ara Kelepong Common Red Stem Fig Primates 92 MYRISTICACEAE Myristica fragrans Buah Pala Nutmeg Porcupine, bird, squirrel 93 MYRTACEAE Eugenia uniflora Cermai Belanda Surinam Cherry/ Red Brazil Cherry Bird 94 Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Kemunting Rose Myrtle Bird 95 Syzygium aqueum Jambu Air Watery Rose Apple/ Water Apple/Bell Fruit Insect, bird, primates, squirrel 96 Syzygium cinereum Keriang Keriang Bird 97 Syzygium cumini Keriang Dot Jambolan/Java Plum Bird, squirrel 98 Syzygium densiflorum Jambu Mawar Jambu Mawar Bird, squirrel 99 Syzygium gratum Gelam Tikus Eugenia Squirrel, mousedeer 100 Syzygium jambos Jambu Mawar Rose Apple Bird 101 Syzygium malaccense Jambu Bol Malay Apple/ Malaysian Apple/ Mountain Apple Bird, primates 102 Syzygium polyanthum Salam Indian Bay Leaf/ Indonesian Bay Leaf Bird 103 Syzygium pycnanthum Kelat Wild Rose Apple Tapir, bird, primates 104 Syzygium samarangense Jambu Mawar Wax Apple/Java Apple/Semarang Rose-Apple/Wax Jambu Bat, bird, primates, squirrel 105 OPILIACEAE Champereia griffithii Cemperai False Olive Bird 48