Status and consolidated list of threatened medicinal plants of India.
Review
Free full text in Europe PMC
Abstract
Free full text
Status and consolidated list of threatened medicinal plants of India
Abstract
A wide array of medicinal plants in India, primarily used by locals for health care, have found wide acceptance and adoption globally (either directly or processed) due to distinct advantages of good results, low or no side-effects and ease of access to general public. Indigenous and traditional systems of medicine in practice since historical times have shown potential (direct or indirect as immune-boosters) against many dreaded ailments including the recent global pandemic of COVID-19. With prediction of sixth mass extinction, there is worldwide concern as majority of these plants, collected from natural stands, are also facing threat of extinction. Since 1990s concerted efforts have been directed towards assessment of threat status, the basic requirement for prioritizing conservation activity to various species of plants and animals. In literature there is staggered information regarding list of threatened plants, including medicinal plants of India, compiled at either state level or national or international level. Analysis of these publications led to collation of a consolidated list of 84 species and the same is presented here. A brief account of conservation efforts in India at national level and supportive policy framework is also included. This compilation is aimed to serve as a comprehensive reference especially for beginners, researchers, conservationists, foresters, pharmaceutical professionals as well as policy makers.
Introduction
Biodiversity conservation is a demanding task that includes scientific, social, and political challenges (Pelletier et al. 2018). Given the enormous diversity of species and limited resources available to undertake these conservation programs, prioritization of species for conservation, assessment of threat status and the most suitable strategy to be adopted become the basic pre-requisites. To serve this objective, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a membership union composed of both government and civil society organizations, was established. An IUCN ‘Red List of Threatened Species’ was developed, which provides extinction risk and species distribution (Pollock et al. 2003; Brooks et al. 2004). As per IUCN classification, species are assigned a ranked threat category, such as extinct (EX), extinct in wild (EW), critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), vulnerable (VU), near threatened (NT), least concern (LC) and data deficient (DD) (Fig. (Fig.1)1) through assessment against quantitative criteria based on indicators of extinction risk (Collen et al. 2016; Hammer and Khoshbakht 2005). As the threat categories itself are basic keys to prioritize conservation this list is the globally accepted method of assessing species extinction risk (Collar 1996). Countries around the world are adapting these criteria to prioritize species for conservation, to determine the conservation approaches and to frame regulatory and policy decisions for conservation, and multilateral agreements (Maxted et al. 1997; Rodrigues et al. 2006). Figure 2 depicts the estimated number of threatened species (till date) in Kingdom Animalia, Plantae, Chromista and Fungi, globally and in India as per the IUCN assessment (IUCN 2020). Because of ever increasing human population and anthropogenic activities, species extinction rate has increased to hundred or thousand-fold compared to background extinctions, bringing to forefront the ‘sixth mass extinction’ crisis (Shivanna 2020).
Total number of threatened species of Kingdom Plantae, Animalia, Chromista and Fungi at global and national level as per IUCN estimation. Numerical values mentioned on the arrows indicate the number of threatened species
(Source: IUCN 2020)
IUCN Red List threat categories and their risk level
India has 2.4% of world’s area with 8% of global biodiversity and is one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world (Myers et al. 2000; Bapat et al. 2008). Among the world’s 35 global biodiversity hotspots (GBH), four (Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland and Western Ghats) fall in the Indian geo-political territory (Jaisankar et al. 2018). This richness of phyto-diversity in India is owing to existence of 15 agro-climatic zones with varied ecological habitats. India has
~10.45% of global floral diversity. More than 50% of the world’s plant species are endemic to 35 GBH, which once covered 15.9% of the earth’s land surface and are now reduced to 2.3% (Mittermeier et al. 2011). These hotspots harbor a large number of endemic species, which are facing an increasing threat of extinction (Hazarika et al. 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants, first published in 1998, lists more than 8,000 species under threat (Walter and Gillett 1998).
On a global basis, IUCN has estimated that about 13.49% of the world’s vascular plants (3,00,000 species), totaling about 40,468 species are under varying degrees of threat. Many plant species are becoming extinct (123 are extinct and 37 are extinct in wild) and under threatened categories CR (3,325), EN (6,063), VU (7,072) (Fig. (Fig.3)3) or vulnerable to extinction due to various reasons like population loss, loss of pollinators, loss of reproduction and/or seed germination capacity, habitat destruction (both natural and human-induced), over exploitation and loss of genetic variability (IUCN, 2020; Kala 2000, 2005). In India about 11.53% of vascular plants (18,532), totaling about 2,142 species are red listed. Out of these 8 are extinct, 432 species are threatened (CR, EN and VU) and nearly 54 species are grouped under near threatened (Fig. (Fig.3)3) (IUCN 2020).
Number of plant species threatened at (a) global (b) national level as per IUCN estimation (EX: Extinct; EW- Extinct in the Wild; CR-Critically Endangered; EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; LR/cd: Lower Risk-Conservation Dependent; NT: Near threatened; LC: Least concern; DD; Data deficient
(Source: IUCN 2020)
Nature has bestowed India with an enormous wealth of medicinal plants, due to which the country is often referred as ‘Medicinal Garden’ or ‘Botanical Garden’ of the world (Ahmadullah and Nayar 1999). Of 48,655 plant species documented (including virus, bacteria, algae, fungi and lichens) 9,500 species have ethno-botanical importance and 7,500 species are in medicinal use for indigenous health practices as well as modern system of medicines (Kumar et al. 2013; Sharma and Pandey 2013). From ancient period medicinal plants have been used in all cultures as a source of medicine and its use as herbal medicine is described in numerous ancient texts. Besides being a major source of raw material for the traditional healthcare practices (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Homeopathy, Naturopathy, Sowa-Rigpa and diverse area- and community-specific folk medicine) and pharmaceutical industry, also provide livelihood to a large Indian population (Kumar et al. 2015). Indigenous and traditional systems of medicine using plants have shown potential (direct or indirect as immune-boosters) against many dreaded ailments including the recent global pandemic of COVID-19. For example Ayurveda preparations (‘rasayana’) with ‘Ashwagandha’ (Withania somnifera Dunal) can be a potential candidate for management of COVID-19, as also ‘Shatavari’ (Asparagus racemosus Willd.), ‘Amala’ (Phyllanthus emblica L. syn Embelica officinalis), ‘Guduchi’ [Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers], as these have immunomodulatory properties, and may have the potential to boost health and immunity to fight against SARS-CoV-2 infection (Patwardhan et al. 2020).
In India more than 90% of medicinal plants are facing threat due to excessive and unsustainable collection, utilization, overexploitation or un-skilled harvesting (Kumari et al. 2011). Based on global rates of plant species threatened with extinction, it is estimated that around 1,000 medicinal plant species may be under threat in different eco-systems across India (FRLHTENVIS 2016a). As per the IUCN Red List, a total of 457 species out of 2,143 species are listed under medicine for human and veterinary group (Table (Table1).1). Of these, 73 are threatened (CR, EN, VU), 8 (NT), 1 (DD) and 366 (LC). Although there are publications enlisting threatened plants of medicinal value at state, region, national and global levels prepared by Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritization (CAMP), Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and IUCN, etc., there is no consolidated compilation at one place, to get an accurate assessment. Therefore, in this paper an attempt has been made to review the existing information and compile an exhaustive list of threatened medicinal plants of India. This easy, one-stop-shop ready reckoner for information related to Indian threatened medicinal plant species will be beneficial especially for young researchers to strategize conservation, repatriation and use of such species. It will help not only the researchers but also policy makers in developing strategies for efficient conservation/cultivation to ensure availability of these precious resources for utilization by future generations.
Table 1
Updated list of medicinal plants under the category (medicine: plants and animals) in different threat categories as per IUCN (
Source: IUCN 2020)
| Critically Endangered (CR) Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf ex Holmes, Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. =A. agalocha Roxb.ex DC., Ceropegia odorata Nimmo ex J. Graham, Chlorophytum borivilianum Sant., Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, Gentiana kurroo Royle., Gymnocladus assamicus Kanjilal, Lilium polyphyllum Don., Nardostachys jatamansi DC., Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein., Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch., Tribulus rajasthanensis Bhandari & Sharma, Utleria salicifolia Bedd., Valeriana leschenaultia DC. |
|---|
Endangered (EN) Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., Angelica glauca Edgew., Cinnamomum wightii C.F.W.Meissn, Coffea arabica L., Commiphora stocksiana Engl., Coptis teeta Wall., Curcuma caulina J. Graham, Cycas beddomei Dyer., Cycas circinalis L., Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn., Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd., Gymnema khandalense Santapau, Humboldtia vahliana Wight, Illicium griffithii Hook. F. & Th., Iphigenia stellata Blatter, Lamprachaenium microcephalum Benth., Nepenthes khasiana Hook.f., Pimpinella tirupatiensis Bal. & Sub., Piper barberi Gamble., Pterocarpus indicus Willd., Shorea tumbuggaia Roxb., Syzygium alternifolium (Wt.) Wall., Taxus contorta Griff., Taxus wallichiana Zucc. |
Vulnerable (VU) Aconitum violaceum Jacq. EX Stapf, Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag., Boesenbergia siphonantha (King ex Baker) M.Sabu, Prasanthk. & Škornick., Boswellia ovalifoliolata Bal & Henry., Calophyllum apetalum Willd., Cayratia pedata Juss. ex Gagnepain, Cephalotaxus mannii Hook. f., Cinnamomum macrocarpum Hook., Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees., Curcuma pseudomontana J. Graham, Cycas nathorstii J. Schust., Diospyros candolleana Wight, Diospyros paniculata Dalz., Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. & G. Don, Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertn. f., Dipterocarpus gracilis Blume, Etlingera fenzlii (Kurz) Škorničk. & M.Sabu, Garcinia indica (Dup.) Choisy, Hopea odorata Roxb., Hydnocarpus pentandrus (Buch.-Ham.) Oken, Ilex embelioides Hook. f., Jatropha nana Dalzell & A. Gibson, Magnolia nilagirica (Zenker) Figlar, Malaxis muscifera (Lindley) Kuntze, Myristica dactyloides Gaertn., Nilgirianthus ciliates (Nees) Bremek., Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall.ex G.Don) Ridsdale, Phyllanthus indofischeri Bennet., Piper pedicellatum C. DC., Rhynchosia heynei Wight & Arn. |
Near Threatened (NT) Albizia thompsonii Brandis, Allium roylei Stearn, Cupressus cashmeriana Royle ex Carriere, Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f., Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Gaertn. f., Mangifera andamanica King, Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. |
Least Concern (LC) Abelmoschus crinitus Wall., Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn. ex Wight, Acacia aneura F. Muell ex Benth., Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth., Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile, Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl, Acanthus ilicifolius L., Acanthus volubilis Wall., Acer caesium (Reinw. Ex Blume) Kosterm, Acer laevigatum Wall., Acer pseudoplatanus L., Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K.Jansen, Acorus calamus L., Acorus gramineus Aiton, Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr., Adenostemma viscosum J.R.Forst. & G. Forst., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco, Aeschynomene indica L., Alangium salviifolium (L. f.) Wangerin, Alchornea rugosa (Lour.) Müll.Arg., Alisma plantago-aquatica L., Alnus nepalensis D.Don, Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl., Alocasia fornicate (Roxb.) Schott, Alocasia odora (Lindl.) K.Koch, Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) Burtt, Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC., Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC., Ammannia auriculata Willd., Ammannia baccifera L., Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson, Andira fraxinifolia Benth., Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.Parker, Archidendron ellipticum (Blanco) I.C.Nielsen, Artocarpus hirsutus Lam., Arundo donax L., Astragalus tribuloides Delile, Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Azolla pinnata R. Br., Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Baphia nitida Lodd., Barringtonia acutangula L. Gaertn., Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng., Bauhinia acuminata L., Bauhinia purpurea L., Beilschmiedia roxburghiana Nees., Berberis aristata DC., Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Betula utilis D.Don, Biancaea decapetala (Roth) Alston |
Data Deficient (DD) Abrus fruticulosus Wight & Arn., Amomum sericeum Roxb., Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don., Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr., Dioscorea wightii Hook.f., Ephedra khurikensis P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal, Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsh., Limnophila pulcherrima Hook.f., Millettia fruticosa (DC.) Baker, Platanus orientalis L., Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. |
Authority and appropriate synonyms as per The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org), International Plant Names Index (IPNI; www.ipni.org) and India Biodiversity Portal (indiabiodiversity.org)
Threat assessment
At national level several institutes have assessed the threat status of medicinal plants in India (Jain and Rao 1983; Nayar and Shastry 1987–1990). During 1987–1990, a total of 602 vascular plants were listed as threatened in Red Data Book of Indian Plants, which increased to 1,255 in 2003 (Rao et al. 2003), and 2,152 in 2020 (IUCN 2020). Over the past two decades, 14 CAMP workshops covering 17 states of India were conducted for rapid assessment of prioritized medicinal plant species of conservation concern in different states/regions of India by the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG), India, in collaboration with Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) (Fig. (Fig.4).4). CAMP workshop also uses IUCN threat categories of the respective period for assigning threat status. State-wise CAMP list of threatened medicinal plants is presented in Fig. Fig.5a-c.5a-c. We compared IUCN and CAMP list of medicinal plants and observed inconsistencies in threat status reported, and also few species missing (Table (Table22).
State-wise proportion of medicinal plants of India in different threat categories (except LC and DD) based on CAMP exercise (EX: Extinct; CR-Critically endangered; EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; NT: Near threatened) (
Source: Ved and Tandon 1998; Jadhav et al. 2001; Ved et al. 2003a, b; Ved et al. 2005; Goraya et al. 2013; Ved et al. 2016a, b)
State-wise list of threatened medicinal plants of India based on CAMP exercise represented from state with highest number of species to state with lowest number of species under different threat categories (a) Critically endangered (b) Endangered (c) Vulnerable. Same colour represents the state on the map. (
Source: Ved and Tandon 1998; Jadhav et al. 2001; Ved et al. 2003a, b; Ved et al. 2005; Goraya et al. 2013; Ved et al. 2016a, b)
Table 2
Consolidated list of threatened medicinal plants represented in both IUCN (India region) and CAMP exercise (India region)
| Species | Threat Status | |
|---|---|---|
| IUCN threat category | CAMP exercise threat category [State (threat category and year of CAMP exercise)] | |
| Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf ex Holmes | CR | Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003) |
| Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003), Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, CR 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Sikkim (EN 2003), Uttarakhand (CR 2003) |
| Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf. | VU | Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003, VU 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Acorus calamus L. | LC | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Chhattisgarh (EN 2003), Kerala (EN 1999), Madhya Pradesh (EN 2003), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998), Tripura (VU 2016) |
| Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson | LC | Kerala (NT 1999), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Angelica glauca Edgew. | EN | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Uttarakhand (EN 2003) |
| Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.Parker | LC | Karnataka (VU 1997), Kerala (VU 1997), Orissa (VU 2007) |
| Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.=A. agalocha Roxb.ex DC | CR | Arunachal Pradesh (CR 2003), Assam (EN 2003), Meghalaya (EN 2003), Tripura (DD 2016) |
| Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. | LC | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
| Berberis aristata DC. | LC | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2010), Sikkim (DD 2014), West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Betula utilis D. Don | LC | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Sikkim (NT 2014), Uttarakhand (NT 2003) |
| Boswellia ovalifoliolata Bal & Henry | VU | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001) |
| Calophyllum apetalum Willd. | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Cayratia pedata Juss. ex Gagnepain | VU | Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.=Hydrocotyle asiatica L. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
| Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R.Fern. | CR | Madhya Pradesh (EN 2006), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Rajasthan (CR 2007) |
| Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker | LC | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Cinnamomum macrocarpum Hook. | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm | LC | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003, VU 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Cinnamomum wightii C.F.W.Meissn | EN | Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari | CR | Madhya Pradesh (CR 2003), Rajasthan (CR 2007) |
| Coptis teeta Wall. | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003) |
| Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. | DD | Karnataka (CR 1999), Kerala (CR 1999) |
| Curcuma pseudomontana Graham | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (EN1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Cycas beddomei Dyer | EN | Andhra Pradesh (CR 2001) |
| Cycas circinalis L. | EN | Karnataka (CR 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Orissa (VU 2007), Tamil Nadu (CR 1998) |
| Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn. | EN | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Dendrobium devosianum J.J.Sm. | DD | Nagaland (EN 2015) |
| Dichrostachys cinerea Wight & Arn. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
| Diospyros candolleana Wight | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999) |
| Diospyros paniculata Dalz. | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999) |
| Drosera burmanni Vahl | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Drosera indica L. | LC | Karnataka (EN 1999), Madhya Pradesh (EN 2006) |
| Drosera peltata Thunb. | LC | Arunachal Pradesh (NT 2003), Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. | EN | Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Euryale ferox Salisb. | LC | Tripura (VU 2016) |
| Fraxinus floribunda Wall. | LC | Sikkim (EN 2014) |
| Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Maharashtra (NT 2001) |
| Gentiana kurroo Royle | CR | Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, CR 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Uttarakhand (CR 2003) |
| Gloriosa superb L. | LC | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001), Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Orissa (EN 2007), Rajasthan (VU 2007), Uttarakhand (VU 2003), West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Gmelina arborea Roxb. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
| Gnetum montanum Markgr. | LC | Tripura (DD 2016) |
| Gnetum ula Brongn.=G. pyrifolium Miq. Ex Parl. | LC | Orissa (VU 2007) |
| Grewia asiatica L. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (CR 2006) |
| Gymnema khandalense Santapau | EN | Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Gymnocladus assamicus Kanjilal | CR | Arunachal Pradesh (CR 2003) |
| Humboldtia vahliana Wight | EN | Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Illicium griffithii Hook. F. & Th. | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (NT 2003), Meghalaya (CR 2003) |
| Iphigenia stellata Blatter | EN | Maharashtra (EN 2001) |
| Juniperus communis L. | LC | Himachal Pradesh (VU 2010) |
| Lamprachaenium microcephalum Benth. | EN | Maharashtra (EN 2001) |
| Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites | LC | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001) |
| Lilium polyphyllum Don | CR | Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, CR 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Uttarakhand (CR 2003) |
| Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze | VU | Arunachal Pradesh (CR 2003), Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, CR 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (NT 2003), Sikkim (EN 2003, VU 2014), Uttarakhand (EN 2003) |
| Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999) |
| Nardostachys jatamansi DC. | CR | Sikkim (VU 2014) |
| Nepenthes khasiana Hook.f. | EN | Meghalaya (EN 2003) |
| Nilgirianthus ciliates (Nees) Bremek | VU | Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall.ex G.Don) Ridsdale | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999) |
| Osmunda regalis L. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (CR 2006) |
| Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein | CR | Karnataka (CR 1999), Kerala (CR 1999), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Phyllanthus indofischeri Bennet | VU | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001) |
| Pimpinella tirupatiensis Bal. & Sub. | EN | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001) |
| Piper barberi Gamble | EN | Kerala (CR 1999), Tamil Nadu (CR 1998) |
| Piper pedicellatum C. DC. | VU | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Sikkim (VU 2003) |
| Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. | NT | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Orissa (EN 2007), Rajasthan (CR 2007), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. | NT | Andhra Pradesh (CR 2001), Tamil Nadu (CR 1998) |
| Salacia oblonga Wall. | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999) Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Santalum album L. | VU | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. | CR | Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003) |
| Spatholobus parviflorus (L.) Engl. | LC | Tripura (DD 2016) |
| Syzygium alternifolium (Wt.) Wall. | EN | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001) |
| Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze | LC | Andhra Pradesh (NT 2001), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2006) |
| Taxus wallichiana Zucc. | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003), Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Meghalaya (CR 2003), Sikkim (EN 2003), Uttarakhand (EN 2003), West Bengal (CR 2007) |
| Terminalia pallida Brandis | VU | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001) |
| Toona ciliate M. Roem=Cedrela toona Roxb. ex Rottler | LC | West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Tribulus rajasthanensis Bhandari & Sharma | CR | Rajasthan (CR 2007) |
| Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. | LC | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (NE 2010), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Orissa (EN 2007) |
| Utleria salicifolia Bedd. | CR | Kerala (CR 1999) |
| Valeriana leschenaultia DC. | CR | Karnataka (CR1997), Kerala (CR1997), Tamil Nadu (CR1997) |
| Zanthoxylum armatum DC. | LC | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Orissa (VU 2007), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
EX: Extinct; CR: Critically Endangered; EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; LR: Lower Risk; LR: Lower Risk; NT: Near threatened; LC: Least concern; DD: Data deficient
IUCN Red list under medicine for human and veterinary group is used
(Source: Ved and Tandon 1998; Jadhav et al. 2001; Ved et al. 2003a, b, 2016a; Ved et al. 2005; Goraya et al. 2013IUCN 2020)
Authority and appropriate synonyms as per The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org), International Plant Names Index (IPNI; www.ipni.org) and India Biodiversity Portal (indiabiodiversity.org)
It is estimated that about 7,500 plants are used in local health traditions in most rural and tribal villages in India (Shakya 2016). Herbal treatments are the most popular form of traditional medical system (Sarker and Nahar 2007). The various codified Indian systems of medicine are complemented by a strong inheritance of non-codified and non-commercial living folk healthcare traditions. These folk healthcare traditions, carried from generation to generation and practiced by around one million folk practitioners are spread across 29 states, 7 union territories, 497 cities, 7,935 towns and 6,49,481 villages and nearly 140 million rural households in the country. The first effort to assess the demand and supply of medicinal plants of selected 162 species in the country was made by the National Medicinal Plant Board (NMPB) during 2001–02, through Centre for Research, Planning and Action (CERPA) (Goraya and Ved 2017). In 2003, export potential of medicinal plants was assessed by the FRLHT through Export Import (EXIM) Bank (Goraya and Ved 2017). Under this study, a total of 880 medicinal plant species were found traded. NMPB also assigned to the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) with FRLHT to re-assess the demand and supply of medicinal plants in the country and developed a comprehensive database pertaining to the medicinal plants (NMPB 2020a). Thereafter in 2006–07 and 2015, NMPB commissioned the nation-wide study through the ICFRE in strategic partnership with FRLHT with the major objective to assess the status of demand and supply of medicinal plants in India for the said period (Goraya and Ved 2017).
In a span of ten years (2005–14) tremendous increase in demand and supply of the medicinal plants is recorded (Goraya and Ved 2017). A 62% increase in annual demand of herbal raw drugs was observed for the year 2014–15 over the demand estimated for the year 2005–06 (Ved and Goraya 2008). The volume of botanical drugs exported increased from 56,500 Metric Tonne (MT) in 2005–06 to 1,34,500 MT in 2014–15. About seven times higher (10,680 million in 2005–06 to 70,000 million in 2014–15) estimated trade value of herbal drugs was registered in 10 years. The trade value of herbal raw drugs consumed by the domestic herbal industry has also registered more than two fold increase as per the latest estimates during 2014–15. A total of 242 species are enlisted as high commercial demand (>100 MT/year) during 2014–15 (Table (Table3)3) in contrast to 178 species in 2005–06 (Ved and Goraya 2008). Out of 242 species 114 (47%) are collected from forests, 59 species (25%) are wild and collected from landscapes outside forests, 54 species (22%) are obtained from cultivation and 15 species (6%) are imported. A total of 1,389 botanical entities corresponding to 960 plant species were enlisted under trade in the study conducted by NMPB (Goraya and Ved 2017). India’s domestic herbal industry is represented by 8,610 licensed herbal units (Ayurveda-7,494, Unani-421, Siddha-328 and Homeopathy-367) spread across different states in the country. Uttar Pradesh has the highest units of 2,247 followed by Kerala (905), Maharashtra (705), Tamil Nadu (662), Madhya Pradesh (633), Andhra Pradesh (610), Gujarat (495), Haryana (300), Punjab (284), Bihar (281), West Bengal (277), Rajasthan (268), Uttarakhand (240), Karnataka (177), Orissa (160), Himachal Pradesh (138), Delhi (63), Assam (53), Pondicherry (41), Nagaland (34), Chhattisgarh (31), Jammu and Kashmir (15), Daman and Diu (10), Goa (7), Dadra and Nagar Haveli (5), Chandigarh (1), Meghalaya (1) and Sikkim (1) (Goraya and Ved 2017).
Table 3
Threat status of 242 plant species with high commercial demand (>100 MT/year) in India
| Species | Threat status | |
|---|---|---|
| IUCN threat category | CAMP exercise threat category [State (threat category and year of CAMP exercise)] | |
| Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. * | – | – |
| Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. | – | – |
| Abrus precatorius L. | Chhatisgarh (NT 2003), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003) | |
| Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet | – | – |
| Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. | – | – |
| Acacia nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenan | – | – |
| Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. | – | – |
| Acacia seyal Delile | – | – |
| Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. | – | – |
| Acalypha indica L. | – | – |
| Achillea millefolium L. | – | – |
| Achyranthes aspera L. | – | – |
| Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003), Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, CR 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Sikkim (EN 2003), Uttarakhand (CR 2003) |
| Acorus calamus L.* | LC | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Chhattisgarh (EN 2003), Kerala (EN 1999), Madhya Pradesh (EN 2003), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998), Tripura (VU 2016) |
| Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa | – | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001), Karnataka (VU 1999), Maharashtra (VU2001), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. | – | – |
| Albizia amara (Roxb.)B. Boivin | – | – |
| Alhagi pseudalhagi (M.Bieb.) Desv. Ex B.Keller & Shap.=Alhagi maurorum Medik | – | – |
| Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.* | – | – |
| Alpinia calcarata (Haw.) Roscoe* | – | West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.* | – | – |
| Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson | LC | Kerala (NT 1999), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. | VU | – |
| Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | – | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Argyreia elliptica Arn. ex Choisy | – | – |
| Arnebia benthamii (Wall. Ex G.Don) Johnston | – | Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Uttarakhand (CR 2003) |
| Artemisia annua L.* | – | – |
| Asparagus adscendens Roxb. | – | – |
| Asparagus racemosus Willd. | – | Chhattisgarh (NT 2003), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Atropa belladonna L. | – | – |
| Azadirachta indica A.Juss.* | LC | – |
| Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench | – | – |
| Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Müll.Arg
| – | Chhattisgarh (NT 2003), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003) |
| Barleria prionitis L. | – | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
| Bauhinia variegata L. | – | – |
| Berberis aristata DC. | LC | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2010), Sikkim (DD 2014), West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Berberis lycium Royle | – | – |
| Bergenia ciliata (How.) Sternb. | – | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Nagaland (NT 2015), Sikkim (VU 2003) |
| Betula utilis D. Don | LC | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Sikkim (NT 2014), Uttarakhand (NT 2003) |
| Boerhavia diffusa L. | – | – |
| Bombax ceiba L. | – | – |
| Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. | – | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Rajasthan (EN 2007) |
| Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) M.R.Almeida | – | – |
| Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. | – | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Rajasthan (VU 2007) |
| Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. | – | – |
| Calendula officinalis L.* | – | – |
| Capparis spinosa L. | LC | – |
| Cardiospermum halicacabum L. | – | – |
| Cassia fistula L. | – | – |
| Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don* | – | – |
| Cedrus deodara (Roxb. Ex D.Don) G.Don | – | – |
| Celastrus paniculatus Willd. | – | Andhra Pradesh (NT 2001), Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Karnataka (NT 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Orissa (VU 2007), Rajasthan (VU 2007), Tamil Nadu (NT 1998), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.=Hydrocotyle asiatica L. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
Chamaecrista absus (L.) H.S Irwin & Barneby | LC | – |
| Chlorophytum borivilianum Sant.* | CR | Madhya Pradesh (EN 2006), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Rajasthan (CR 2007) |
| Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker | LC | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty* | – | – |
| Cichorium intybus L.* | – | – |
| Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J.Presl | – | – |
| Cinnamomum sulphuratum Nees | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm | LC | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003, VU 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Cinnamomum verum J.Presl * | – | – |
| Cissus quadrangularis L. | – | – |
| Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. | – | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f. | – | – |
| Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon=Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb | – | Chhattisgarh (EN 2003), Madhya Pradesh (EN 2003) |
| Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq.* | – | – |
| Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari | CR | Madhya Pradesh (CR 2003), Rajasthan (CR 2007) |
| Convolvulus prostratus Forskk. | – | – |
| Coptis teeta Wall. | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003) |
| Crateva religiosa G.Forst. | – | – |
| Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. | – | – |
| Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. | – | – |
Curcuma zerumbet Roxb
| – | – |
| Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. * | – | – |
| Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.)W.Watson* | – | – |
| Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. | – | – |
| Cyperus rotundus L. | – | – |
| Cyperus scariosus R.Br. | – | – |
| Datura metel L. | – | – |
| Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn. | EN | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Karnataka (EN 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Tamil Nadu (EN 1998) |
| Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. | – | Himachal Pradesh (NE 2010) |
| Didymocarpus pedicellatus R.Br. | – | Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003, NT 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Dioscorea bulbifera L. | – | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. | LC | – |
| Embelia ribes Burm.f. | – | Andhra Pradesh (CR 2001), Arunachal Pradesh (NT 2003), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (NT 1999), Nagaland (VU 2015), Orissa (VU 2007), Sikkim (VU 2003) |
| Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC. | – | Chhattisgarh (NT 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (NT 1999), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Orissa (VU 2007), Tamil Nadu (VU 1997), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Ephedra gerardiana Wall. Ex Stapf | – | Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003, VU 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Sikkim (VU 2014), Uttarakhand (EN 2003) |
| Erythrina variegata L. | LC | – |
| Eucalyptus globolus Labill. * | – | – |
| Ferula assa-foetida L. | – | – |
| Ficus benghalensis L. | – | – |
| Ficus religiosa L.* | – | – |
| Flickingeria macraei (Lindl.) Seidenf.=Dendrobium macraei Lindl. | – | – |
| Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley | – | Maharashtra (EN 2001) |
| Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Roxb. | – | Karnataka (NT 1999), Kerala (NT 1999), Tamil Nadu (NT 1998) |
| Garcinia indica (Thouars) Choisy | VU | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Maharashtra (NT 2001) |
| Gloriosa superb L.* | LC | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001), Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Orissa (EN 2007), Rajasthan (VU 2007), Uttarakhand (VU 2003), West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Glycyrrhiza glabra L. | – | – |
| Gmelina arborea Roxb. | LC | Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006) |
| Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. | – | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001), Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (NT 2001), Rajasthan (EN 2007), West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Hedychium spicatum Sm. | – | Nagaland (LC 2015), Sikkim (LC 2014) |
| Helicteres isora L | – | – |
| Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. ex Schult. | – | – |
| Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. | – | – |
| Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don | – | – |
| Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. | – | – |
| Homalomena aromatica (Spreng.) Schott* | – | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Assam (EN 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Tripura (EN 2016) |
| Hygrophila schulli M. R. Almeida & S.M. Almeida=Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine | LC | – |
| Hyoscyamus niger L. | – | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, NT 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Indigofera tinctoria L.* | – | – |
| Inula racemosa Hook.f.* | – | – |
| Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. | – | West Bengal (NT 2007) |
| Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth | – | – |
| Jasminum officinale L.* | – | – |
| Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton* | – | – |
| Juniperus communis L. | LC | Himachal Pradesh (VU 2010) |
| Justicia adhatoda L.* | – | – |
| Justicia beddomei (C.B.Clarke) Bennet * | – | – |
| Kaempferia galanga L.* | – | Tripura (DD 2016) |
| Lactuca sativa L. | – | – |
| Lawsonia inermis L.* | – | – |
| Lepidium sativum L.* | – | – |
| Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wight & Arn. | – | Rajasthan (EN 2007) |
| Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob. | – | Andhra Pradesh (CR 2001), Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003, VU2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Orissa (VU 2007), Tripura (VU 2016), Uttarakhand (NT 2003) |
| Madhuca indica J.F.Gmel.=Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia (Roxb.) A.Chev | – | – |
| Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. | – | Karnataka (VU 1999) |
| Martynia annua L. | – | – |
| Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. | – | – |
| Melia azedarach L.* | LC | – |
| Mentha longifolia (L.) L. | – | – |
| Mesua ferrea L. | – | Orissa (EN 2007), Tripura (NT 2016), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Mimusops elengi L. | LC | – |
| Morinda citrifolia L.* | – | West Bengal (VU 2007) |
| Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. | – | – |
| Moringa oleifera Lam.* | – | – |
| Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (Wall. ex Wight) L.H.Bailey | – | Chhattisgarh (NT 2003), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.* | – | – |
| Myristica fragrans Houtt.* | – | – |
| Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC. | CR | Sikkim (VU 2014) |
| Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.* | – | – |
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong | – | Sikkim (VU 2014) |
| Ocimum americanum L. | – | – |
| Ocimum basilicum L.* | – | – |
| Ocimum gratissimum L.* | – | Rajasthan (VU 2007) |
| Ocimum tenuiflorum L.* | – | – |
| Onosma bracteata Wall. | – | – |
| Onosma hispida Wall. ex G.Don | – | – |
| Operculina turpethum (L.) Silva Manso | – | Chhattisgarh (NT 2003), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Orissa (VU 2007), Tamil Nadu (NT 1998) |
| Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz | – | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001), Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Assam (VU 2003), Chhatisgarh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (NE 2010), Karnataka (VU 1996), Kerala (EN 1996), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Orissa (EN 2007), Rajasthan (EN 2007), Sikkim (VU 2003, NT 2014), Tripura (NT 2016) |
| Paederia foetida L. | – | Andhra Pradesh (NT 2001), Orissa (VU 2007) |
| Parmelia perlata (Huds.) Ach | – | – |
| Pedalium murex L. | – | – |
| Peganum harmala L. | – | Rajasthan (VU 2007) |
| Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. | – | – |
| Phyllanthus emblica L. | – | Chhatisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. | – | |
| Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. | – | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003), Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Sikkim (VU 2003), Uttarakhand (VU 2003), West Bengal (CR 2007) |
| Pinus roxburghii Sarg. | – | – |
| Piper chaba Hunter=Piper retrofractum Vahl | – | – |
| Piper longum L.* | – | Chhatisgarh (VU 2003), Kerala (NT1995), Orissa (EN 2007), Tamil Nadu (EN 1995) |
| Pistacia integerrima J.L. Stewart ex Brandis=Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima (J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f. | – | – |
| Plantago ovata Forssk.* | – | – |
| Pluchea lanceolata (DC.) C.B.Clarke | – | Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003) |
| Plumbago indica L.* | – | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), |
| Plumbago zeylanica L. | – | Chhatisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Rajasthan (VU 2007) |
| Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle | – | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Sikkim (VU 2014), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre* | LC | – |
| Premna corymbosa Rottler & Willd. | – | – |
| Premna serratifolia L. | – | – |
| Prunus armeniaca L.* | – | – |
| Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don | – | – |
| Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Tamil Nadu (NT 1998) | |
| Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. | NT | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Orissa (EN 2007), Rajasthan (CR 2007), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Pterocarpus santalinus L.f | NT | Andhra Pradesh (CR 2001), Tamil Nadu (CR 1998) |
| Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. | – | Andhra Pradesh (NT 2001), Karnataka (CR 1999), Kerala (VU 1999), Madhya Pradesh (EN 2006), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Orissa (VU 2007), Rajasthan (VU 2007), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Punica granatum L. | – | – |
| Quercus infectoria G. Olivier | – | – |
| Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz | – | Andhra Pradesh (CR 2001), Arunachal Pradesh (CR 2003), Assam (VU 2003), Chhatisgarh (CR 2003), Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Karnataka (EN 1995), Kerala (EN 1995), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (CR 2001), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Nagaland (DD 2015), Orissa (EN 2007), Tamil Nadu (VU 1995), Tripura (VU 2016), Uttarakhand (VU 2003), West Bengal (EN 2007) |
| Rheum australe D.Don | – | – |
| Rhododendron arboretum Sm. | – | – |
| Rubia cordifolia L. | – | Andhra Pradesh (VU 2001), Chhatisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Maharashtra (VU 2001) |
| Salacia reticulata Wight | – | Karnataka (EN 1999) |
| Salix caprea L. | – | – |
| Santalum album L. | VU | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (EN 1999), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Tamil Nadu (VU 1998) |
| Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.* | – | Nagaland (VU 2015) |
| Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. | – | Andhra Pradesh (EN 2001), Karnataka (EN 1995), Maharashtra (EN 2001), Orissa (CR 2007), Tripura (CR 2016) |
| Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.* | CR | Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003) |
| Scindapsus officinalis (Roxb.) Schott | – | Orissa (VU 2007) |
| Semecarpus anacardium L.f. | – | – |
| Senna alexandrina Mill.* | – | – |
| Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. | – | – |
| Senna occidentalis (L.) Link | – | – |
| Senna tora (L.) Roxb. | – | – |
| Shorea robusta Gaertn. | LR/lc | Andhra Pradesh (NT 2001) |
| Sida acuta Burm.f. | – | – |
| Sida cordifolia L. | – | – |
| Sida rhombifolia L. | – | – |
| Smilax china L. | – | – |
| Solanum anguivi Lam. | – | – |
| Solanum nigrum L.=Solanum americanum Mill. | – | – |
| Solanum virginianum L. | – | – |
| Spermacoce hispida L. | – | – |
| Sphaeranthus indicus L. | LC | – |
| Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. | – | Chhatisgarh (NT 2003), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003) |
| Stereospermum tetargonum DC. | – | – |
| Strobilanthes ciliata Nees | – | – |
| Strychnos nux-vomica A.W.Hill | – | Chhatisgarh (VU 2003) |
| Strychnos potatorum L.f. | – | Orissa (VU 2007) |
| Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C.B.Clarke | – | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (CR 2003, CR 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (CR 2003), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Sikkim (VU 2003, EN 2014), Uttarakhand (EN 2003), West Bengal (CR 2007) |
| Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore | – | |
| Symplocos racemosa Roxb. | – | Karnataka (VU 1996), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2006), Maharashtra (VU 2001), Nagaland (NT 2015), Orissa (CR 2007), Tamil Nadu (NT 1996) |
| Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels* | – | – |
| Tamarix gallica L. | – | – |
| Tamarix indica Willd | – | – |
| Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip.* | – | – |
| Taxus wallichiana Zucc. | EN | Arunachal Pradesh (EN 2003), Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (EN 2003), Meghalaya (CR 2003), Sikkim (EN 2003), Uttarakhand (EN 2003), West Bengal (CR 2007) |
| Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem. | – | Rajasthan (EN 2007) |
| Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. | – | – |
| Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng. | – | – |
| Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. Ex DC.) Wight & Arn. | – | Chhatisgarh (NT 2003), Karnataka (NT 1997), Kerala (NT 1997), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2003), Maharashtra (NT 2001), Rajasthan (VU 2007) |
| Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. | – | – |
| Terminalia chebula Retz. | – | Chhatisgarh (VU 2003), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003) |
| Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers | – | – |
| Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. | – | Karnataka (VU 1999), Kerala (NT 1999), Maharashtra (NT 2001) |
| Tragia involucrata L. | – | – |
| Trianthema decandra L. | – | – |
| Tribulus lanuginosus L. | – | – |
| Tribulus terrestris L. | – | – |
| Trichosanthes cucumerina L. | – | Andhra Pradesh (NT 2001), Madhya Pradesh (NT 2006) |
| Trillidium govanianum Wall. ex D.Don | – | Sikkim (DD 2015) |
| Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. | LC | Chhattisgarh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (NE 2010), Madhya Pradesh (VU 2003), Orissa (EN 2007) |
| Valeriana jatamansi Jones | – | Arunachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Himachal Pradesh (VU 2003), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Meghalaya (VU 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Sikkim (VU 2003, VU 2014), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Viola pilosa Blume | – | – |
| Vitex negundo L.* | – | – |
| Withania somnifera Dunal * | – | – |
| Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz | – | – |
| Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. | – | – |
| Zanthoxylum armatum DC. | LC | Himachal Pradesh (EN 2003, EN 2010), Jammu and Kashmir (VU 2003), Nagaland (VU 2015), Orissa (VU 2007), Uttarakhand (VU 2003) |
| Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. | DD | – |
| Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. | – | – |
EX: Extinct; CR: Critically Endangered; EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; LR: Lower Risk; LR: Lower Risk; NT: Near threatened; LC: Least concern; DD: Data deficient
IUCN Red list under medicine for human and veterinary group is used
(Source: Goraya and Ved 2017)
*species which are in cultivation
National efforts towards conservation of medicinal plants
The Government of India (GoI) took due cognizance for medicinal plants since early 1990s and several activities have been undertaken to protect and conserve these species both in situ (biosphere reserves, national parks, wild life sanctuaries, sacred groves etc.) and ex situ (botanical gardens, field gene banks, seed gene banks, in vitro gene banks and cryogenebanks). For in situ conservation, of the total geographical area of India about 16.5 million ha (5.02%) is under protected areas and 70.8 million ha (21.54%) is under forests. In India, a total of 870 protected areas are earmarked which include 104 national parks, 551 wildlife sanctuaries, 127 community reserves, 88 conservation reserves (WIIENVIS 2019). Further, an estimated 100,000 – 150,000 sacred groves are present in India (Kandari et al. 2014). For ex situ conservation several institutes/organizations have been established by GoI, especially to undertake research on medicinal plants viz., Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS), Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH), Central Council for Research in Siddha (CCRS) and Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM) under Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and its regional circles and experimental gardens at different geographic regions of India, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE)-Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (KSCSTE – JNTBGRI, formerly TBGRI), Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) institutes i.e., Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) and the Regional Research Laboratories (RRLs), Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology; Institutes under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) namely ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Research (ICAR-NBPGR), ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ICAR-DMAPR) and ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (ICAR-IIHR), ICAR-All India Network Research Project on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (AINRP MAPs). In addition, several other government and non-government organizations, industries, ayurvedic practitioners are also involved in conservation and cultivation of these medicinal plants (Bhattacharyya et al. 2006).
A network of four National Gene Banks for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (GEBMAP) were set up in 1993 at (1) ICAR-NBPGR (2) KSCSTE – JNTBGRI, (3) CSIR-CIMAP, and (4) Regional Research Laboratory (RRL) Jammu (added later) under the G-15 GEBMAP program with Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology, GoI, as nodal agency. This has not only given better focus and thrust especially on collection and conservation of medicinally important threatened species but also helped in consolidating the ongoing efforts in the country (Sharma and Pandey 2013; Sharma et al. 2019, 2020). JNTBGRI herbal garden has a collection of 1,200 taxa herbals in an area of 10 acres (KSCSTE-JNTBGRI 2019). At CSIR-CIMAP, a total of 3,334 accessions in seed bank (2,476 accessions) and field genebank (868 accessions) are being maintained (Rajpurohit and Jhang 2015).
ICAR-NBPGR is the nodal agency for all the activities introduction, collection, conservation, documentation, evaluation and distribution of plant genetic resources (PGR) in the country. It has 10 regional stations located in different agro-climatic zones of the country and the 59 National Active Germplasm Sites (NAGS) which are based at ICAR institutes (specific crops groups) and are assigned with multiplication, evaluation, conservation of active collections of germplasm and their distribution to users both at the national and international levels. In addition, several ICAR institutes, State Agricultural Universities and other stakeholders are also linked to the network (Singh et al. 2016). The National Gene Bank of ICAR-NBPGR has four types of conservation facilities i.e., seed gene bank, cryogenebank, in vitro gene bank and field genebank. At ICAR-NBPGR, 8,071 accessions of MAPs in seed genebank, 178 accessions in in vitro genebank and 1,041 accessions in cryogenebank are being conserved (Singh and Pandey 2019; Sharma et al. 2020).
The GoI has also established NMPB in 2000 under Ministry of AYUSH, and provided funds for research on medicinal plants. In addition to NMPB, DBT and Department of Science and Technology (DST) have also supported researchers to undertake research on medicinal plants. Recently (2019) NMPB prioritized 32 medicinal plants for conservation (Aconitum ferox Wall ex Ser., Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Andrographis paniculata, Asparagus racemosus (Burm.) Nees, Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Berberis aristata DC., Cassia angustifolia M Vahl.=Senna alexandrina Mill., Chlorophytum borivillianum Sant., Coleus barbatus Benth., Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, Crocus sativus L., Embelia ribes Burm.f., Emblica officinalis Gaertn.=Phyllanthus emblica L, Garcinia indica Choisy, Gloriosa superb L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br., Nardostachys jatamansi (Retz.) R. Br., Ocimum sanctum L., Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn., Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth., Piper longum L, Plantago ovate Forsk., Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz., Santalum album L., Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde, Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch, Solanum nigrum L., Swertia chirata Roxb. ex Flem., Tinospora cordifolia Miers., Withania somnifera Dunal (NMPB 2020b). NMPB has also taken initiatives for in situ conservation of medicinal plants through establishment of 72 Medicinal Plants Conservation and Development Areas (MPCDAs) across 13 states of the country, covering an area of 10,935 ha in forest areas (Biswas et al. 2017) and 36 State Medicinal Plant Boards in State/UT. FRLHT in collaboration with the State Forest Departments and with financial support of Danish International Development Aid (DANIDA), Netherlands, and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has established 108 Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs) across 13 states and 18 Medicinal Plants Conservation Parks (MPCPs) in southern India for focusing on conservation of prioritized wild medicinal plants occurring in different regions of the country (FRLHTENVIS 2016b). In 2012, DBT initiated a mega-network programme on ‘Preventing extinction and improving the conservation status of threatened plants through application of biotechnological tools and conserved 100 threatened species of India (Barik et al. 2018). Under this project 115 species were reintroduced, macropropagation protocols were standardized for 106 species and micropropagation protocols were standardized for 76 species (Barik et al. 2018).
Regulatory and policy framework in India
The medicinal plant species in trade (both domestic and international) are sourced from many different agro-climatic zones in the country from the wild, and only a very small number of species are cultivated (Pareek et al. 2005; Sharma and Pandey 2013). Besides these, there is no data documented regarding the consumption levels of botanicals by the non-codified and non-commercial folk healthcare traditions, based primarily on ecosystem and region-specific plant material practiced by around one million folk practitioners and~140 millions of rural households in the country. It is important to note that of 242 species in high commercial demand (>100 MT per year), 72% of these species is sourced largely from wild plants as roots, bark, wood stem or the whole plant. This poses a major concern as it affects the survival of these species. Unsustainable collecting activities coupled with limited or no efforts of replenishment/cultivation, long duration life cycle of plants, climate change and developmental activities have led to rapid decline in the availability of many medicinal plant species in the country during the last three decades. This has culminated into a large number of species falling in to threatened group at country as well as global level. In order to minimize this, the GoI has developed few regulatory frameworks and policies viz.,
Indian Forest Act, 1927;
Panchayat Raj Act, 1933;
The West Bengal Forest Produce Transit Rules, 1955;
Andaman and Nicobar Island Forest Produce Transit Rules, 1966;
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Amended 2003) Also 2006;
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1975;
Kerala Forest Produce Transit Rules, 1975;
The Forest (Conservation) Act (Amended), 1980;
Environment Protection Act, 1986;
National Forest Policy, 1988;
Negative list of Plants for Exports and Imports (Revised), 1994;
Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas)(PESA) Act, 1996;
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2002;
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002;
Biological Diversity Rules, 2004;
Negative list of MAP Collection from Wild, 2004;
Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act (FRA), 2006;
Maharashtra Forests Rules, 2014, The HP Forest Produce Transit (Land Route) Rules, 2013;
Export Import Policy, 2015–20;
National Wildlife Action Plan 2017–31;
As per Sect. 38 of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, the Central Government, in consultation with the Government of states, notifies the plants which are on the verge of extinction (Table (Table4).4). The NMPB has developed several policies, strategies and programs for conservation, proper harvesting, cost-effective cultivation, research and development, processing, marketing of raw material to promote and develop medicinal plants sector. Recently a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) has been signed between ICAR-NBPGR and NMPB on July 6, 2020 for safe conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Genetic Resources for long-term storage at the National Gene Bank of ICAR-NBPGR (ICAR-NBPGR 2020).
Table 4
List of plants notified by the Central Government, in consultation with the State Government under Sect. 38 of India’s Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (
Source: The Gazette of India: Extraordinary, Ministry of Environment and Forests of each state)
| State/Union Territory | Listed species | Notification date in Gazette of India |
|---|---|---|
| Assam | Cycas pectinata Buch.-Ham., Magnolia cathcartii (Hook.f. & Thomson) Noot., Magnolia manni (King) Figlar, Mesua assamica (King & Prain) Kosterm., Paphiopedilium spicerianum (Rchb.f.) Pfitzer, Vatica lanceaefolia (Roxburgh) Blume | August 3, 2018 |
| Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Artabotrys nicobarianus D.Das, Calamus nicobaricus Becc., Korthalsia rogersii Becc., Mangifera andamanica King, Ophioglossum pendulum L. | October 26, 2012 |
| Bihar | Chrysopogon hamiltonii (Hook.f.) Haines | February 8, 2011 |
| Goa | Ceropegia fantastica Sedgw., Phyllanthus talbotii Sedgw. | March 31, 2010 |
| Himachal Pradesh | Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf., Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle., Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf, Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó, Eremostachys superba Royle ex Benth., Jasminum parkeri Dunn., Nardostachys grandiflora DC, Taxus wallichiana Zucc. | March 19, 2009 |
| Jammu & Kashmir | Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf. ex Holmes, Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf., Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle., Aconitum kasmiricum Stapf Ex. Coventry., Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf,, Betula utilis D. Don, Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó., Eremostachys superba Royle ex Benth., Gentiana ornata Wall. Ex. Griseb., Gentiana kurroo Royle, Lagotis cashmeriana (Royle) Rupr., Meconopsis latifolia (Prain) Prain., Meconopsis aculeata Royle, Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, Picrorrhiza kurroa Royle Ex. Benth., Taxus wallichiana Zucc., Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch., Saussurea medusa Maxim., Saussurea simpsoniana (Fielding & Gardner) Lipsch., Sophora moorcroftiana Benth. Ex. Baker | August 3, 2018 |
| Kerala | Adenosma malabaricum Hook.f., Agasthiyamalaia pauciflora (Bedd.) S.Rajkumar & Janarth. (=Poeciloneuron pauciflorum Bedd.), Aglaia malabarica Sasidh. Anacolosa densiflora Bedd., Atuna indica (Bedd.) Kosterm., Calliandra cynometroides Bedd., Cinnamomum travancoricum Gamble, Dialium travancoricum Bourd., Dimorphocalyx beddomei (Benth.) Airy Shaw, Dipterocarpus bourdillonii Brandis, Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd., Garcinia imbertii Bourd., Haplothismia exannulata Airy Shaw, Humboldtia bourdillonii Prain, Humboldtia trijuga (Bedd.) M. Mohanan, Janakia arayalpathra J. Joseph & Chandras., Madhuca bourdillonii (Gamble) H.J.Lam, Memecylon sisparense Gamble, Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein, Salacia malabarica Gamble, Syzygium palghatense Gamble, Syzygium periyarensis Augustine & Sasidh., Toxocarpus beddomei Gamble, Toxocarpus palghatensis Gamble, Vanda thwaitesii Hook.f., Vanda wightii Rchb.f | April 23, 2009 |
| Karnataka | Barleria grandiflora Dalzell., Beaumontia jerdoniana Wight, Ceropegia decaisneana Wight, Cinnamomum goaense Kosterm., Holigarna beddomei Hook.f., Hopea canarensis Hole, Impatiens mysorensis Roth, Impatiens raziana Bhaskar & Razi, Justicia nilgherrensis (Nees) Wall. ex C.B.Clarke, Madhuca insignis (Radlk.) H.J.Lam, Phyllanthus talbotii Sedgw., Salacia malabarica Gamble, Toxocarpus concanensis Hook.f., Toxocarpus palghatensis Gamble, Vanda thwaitesii Hook.f., Vanda wightii Rchb.f | November 4, 2020 |
| Manipur | Kalanchoe rosea Clarke, Lilium davidii Duch. ex Elwes, Malus baccata (L.) Borkh., Rhododendron macabeanum Watt ex Balf.f., Rhododendron wattii Cowan | October 29, 2012 |
| Madhya Pradesh | Alsophila balakrishnanii (Dixit & Tripathi) Dixit=Cyathea gigantea (Wall.ex Hook.) Holtt., Ficus cupulata Haines, Jasminum brevipetiolatum Duthie | June 7, 2010 |
| Meghalaya | Aquilaria khasiana Hallier f., Gymnocladus assamicus P.C.Kanjilal, Ilex khasiana Purkay., Jasminum adenophyllum Wall. ex C.B.Clarke, Nepenthes khasiana Hook.f., Nymphaea tetragona Georgi | September 30, 2009 |
| Mizoram | Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.,Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees=C. cassia (L.) J.Presl., Dalbergia pinnata var. acaciifolia (Dalzell) Thoth., Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb., Jasminum wengeri C.E.C.Fisch., Mantisia wengeri C.E.C.Fisch., Paphiopedilum spicerianum (Rchb.f.) Pfitzer, Paphiopedilum villosum (Lindl.) Stein | October 5, 2009 |
| Orissa | Lasiococca comberi Haines | September 30, 2009 |
| Punjab | Alysicarpus bupleurifolius var. hybridus DC., Ceropegia bulbosa var.lushii (Graham) Hook.f.=Ceropegia lushii Graham), Hibiscus hoshiarpurensis T.K.Paul & M.P.Nayar, Ophioglossum gramineum Willd., Ophioglossum polyphyllum A. Braun ex Schub., Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem., Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal, Anogeissus sericea var. nummularia King ex Duthie | February 4, 2014 |
| Tamil Nadu | Belosynapsis kewensis Hassk, Byrosphyllum tetrandrum (Bedd.) J.Hk. ex Bedd., Cinnamomum walaiwarense Kosterm., Didymocarpus missionis Wall. ex R.Br., Dimorphocalyx beddomei (Benth.) Airy Shaw, Diospyros barberi Ramaswami, Diospyros humilis (R.Br.) F.Muell., Drypetes porteri (Gamble) Pax & K.Hoffm., Elaeocarpus blascoi Weibel, Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd., Hoya kanyakumariana A.N.Henry & Swamin., Impatiens auriculata Wight, Janakia arayalpathra J. Joseph & Chandras., Memecylon sisparense Gamble, Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein, Phyllanthus anamalayanus (Gamble) G.L.Webster (=Pseudoglochidion anamalayapum Gamble), Popowia beddomeana Hook.f. & Thomson, Sonerila pulneyensis Gamble, Symplocos oligandra Bedd., Syzygium beddomei (Duthie) Chithra, Syzygium courtallense (Gamble) Alston, Syzygium gambleanum Rathakr. & V. Chithra, Toxocarpus beddomei Gamble | March 3, 2011 |
| Tripura | Stichoneuron membranaceum Hook.f | February 3, 2011 |
| Uttarakhand | Aconitum balfourii Stapf, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf, Butea pellita Prain, Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook., Diplomeris hirsuta (Lindl.) Lindl., Eremostachys superba Royle ex Benth., Gentiana kurroo Royle, Indopiptadenia oudhensis (Brandis) Brenan, Nardostachys grandiflora DC., Pinguicula alpina L., Schrebera swietenioides Roxb., Trachycarpus takil Becc., Turpinia nepalensis Wall | April 15,, 2019 |
| West Bengal | Hibiscus fragrans Roxburgh, Streptocaulon sylvestre Wight | April 7, 2010 |
Authority and appropriate synonyms as per The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org), International Plant Names Index (IPNI; www.ipni.org) and India Biodiversity Portal (indiabiodiversity.org)
In addition to national policy framework, India has also signed few international agreements:
(i) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), an international agreement between governments which aims to ensure that international trade of wild animals and plants does not lead to any threat on their survival. There are about 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants that are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, GoI, has notified a list of 113 species (CITES 2017), the export of which requires 'Certificate of Cultivation' or 'Legal Procurement Certificate' from the designated authorities of the Forest Departments. At present twelve of the Indian medicinal plants are included in the appendices of CITES viz., Appendix I (Saussurea costus), Appendix II (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.=A. agalocha Roxb.ex DC., Cycas bedomii Dyer., Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Ex Kunth, Rauvolfia serpentina, Cibotium barometz Link., Podophyllum hexandrum Royle, Pterocarpus santalinus L.F., Nardostachys grandiflora DC., Nepenthes khasiana Hook. f., Picrorhiza kurrooa, Taxus wallichiana Zucc.).
(ii) The EXIM Policy—Plants Prohibited for Exports. Under this export of 29 plants (Aconitum species, Aquilaria malaccensis, Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Coleb., Coptis teeta Wall., Cyatheaceae species, Cycas beddomei, Cycadaceae species, Dioscorea deltoidea, Dactylorhiza hatagirea (DON.) SOO, Euphorbia species, Frerea indica Dalz, Gentiana kurroo Royle., Gnetum species, Podophyllum hexandrum, Kaempferia galanga L., Nardostachys grandiflora, Nepenthes khasiana, Orchidaceae species, Panax pseudoginseng Wall., Paphiopedilium species, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Pterocarpus santalinus, Rauvolfia serpentina, Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe., Saussurea costus, Swertia chirata, Taxus wallichiana, Vanda coerulea Griff. Ex Lindl.), plant portions and their derivatives and extracts as such obtained from the wild except the formulations made there from, is prohibited.
(iii) Foreign Trade under ITC (HS) Codes and its Limitations.
Reintroduction of threatened plants in natural habitat
Reintroduction of threatened plants is the approach of re-establishment into an area suitable for its growth or from where it has become threatened. Through micro- or macropropagation, such plants have to be produced in large numbers to reintroduce in nature especially. The basic idea of this approach is to establish a self-sustaining population for conservation purposes. A species is said to be ‘recovered’, once the factors that initially led to its listing in threatened species are remedied and protection is no longer required. This approach has been successfully applied in India as a part of conservation efforts of threatened plants i.e., Vanda coerulea Griff ex. Lindl. (Seeni and Latha 2000), Syzygium travancorium Gamble (Anand 2003), Decalpis arayalpathra J. Joseph & V. Chandrasekaran, Mahonia leschenaultia (Wallich ex Wight & Arnott) Takeda=Berberis napaulensis, Heracleum candolleanum (WT. & ARN.) GAMBLE, Calophyllum apetalum Willd. and Blepharistemma serratum (Densst.) Suresh=Blepharistemma membranifolia (Krishnan et al. 2011), Ceropegia fantastica Sedgtvick (Ravikanth et al. 2018). In recent years, the DBT has initiated a several species-specific recovery programmes targeting 156 highly threatened species of the country during the past three decades. These species belong to 101 genera and 64 families, and comprise herbs (50), trees (42), orchids (24), shrubs (14), climbers (14), bamboos (3), palms (3), rattans (3), cycads (2), and tree fern (1) (DBT 2019).
Way Forward
Every plant on this planet is known to possess one or the medicinal properties, but all these plants can’t be classified as medicinal plants. For example, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench., Allium cepa L., A. sativum L., Amaranthus spinosus L., A. tricolor L., Brassica juncea (L.) Czern., Carica papaya L., Citrus acida Roxb., C. limon (L.) Burm. etc. are listed in Indian traded medicinal plants list, Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. in CAMP, Psidium guajava L. and Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & H. Ohashi in IUCN. Hence, it is urgently required to regroup and clearly demarcate the medicinal plants.
As many projects have been completed in the past two decades, a database should be prepared at national level, with significant outcomes of the projects. Duplication of work may be avoided and it would help to identify research gap.
Instead of several projects in parts, a mega-network project needs to be carried out for ex situ conservation of medicinal plants. As many botanical gardens are being established, but maintaining in botanical gardens/field gene banks is a risky approach, costly affair and more chances of loss of crops due to climate change, pests, diseases and natural calamities. Hence, seed conservation/ in vitro conservation/ cryopreservation may be used for long-term safe conservation.
Large diversity of any crop is essential for crop improvement, so emphasis may be given that entire genetic diversity of priority medicinal plants are conserved.
Though India has taken extensive activities to conserve medicinal plants, the collections remain fragmented. There is need for establishment of long-term conservation strategies which are both sustainable and accessible. The ICAR- NBPGR has been conserving all diversity in agri-horticultural crops, where it is mandatory to obtain a national identity- indigenous collection (IC) number before release of any varieties. Similarly for medicinal plants, there is need to follow similar system by all Institutes across India. Recent MOU between ICAR-NBPGR is one such step to enhance focus on conservation of this important group of plants.
All germplasm with relevant passport information must be conserved in National Gene Bank (seed genebank/in vitro/field genebanks) with a back up duplicate set at regional/Institute level, to not only ensure sustainable availability of diversity for use but also safeguarding threatened medicinal plants for future generations and future unforeseeable diseases/pandemics.
Conclusion
This paper provides, an easy, updated, ready-to-use guide for information for Indian threatened medicinal plant species, as designated by Indian and global agencies and conservation efforts. Further, online access to data is subject to availability of internet access. Consolidated offline information, as provided in this paper, is often required by students, teachers, policy makers etc., as a ready reckoner. This will help not only the researchers but also policy makers in developing strategies for efficient conservation/cultivation to ensure availability of these precious resources for utilization by future generations.
Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to Director, ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, for encouragement.
Author contributions
Gowthami R and Neelam Sharma conceived the idea, gathered information and wrote the draft. Ruchira Pandey and Anuradha Agrawal provided constructive feedback and editorial inputs. All authors have reviewed, edited and approved the manuscript.
Funding
No funding.
Declaration
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Contributor Information
R. Gowthami, Email: ni.vog.raci@r.imahtwog.
Neelam Sharma, Email: ni.vog.raci@1amrahs.maleen, Email: moc.liamg@95.leen.amrahs.
Ruchira Pandey, Email: ni.vog.raci@yednap.arihcur.
Anuradha Agrawal, Email: ni.vog.raci@lawarga.ahdaruna.
References
- Ahmadullah M, Nayar MP. Red data book of Indian Plants (Peninsular India): Botanical Survey of India. 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Anand A. Studies on genetic stability of micropropagated plants and reintroduction in an endemic and endangered taxon: Syzygium travancorium Gamble. J Plant Biotechnol. 2003;5:201–207. [Google Scholar]
- Bapat VA, Yadav SR, Dixit GB. Rescue of endangered plants through biotechnological applications. Nat Acad Sci Lett. 2008;31:201–210. [Google Scholar]
- Barik SK, Tiwari ON, Adhikari D, Singh PP, Tiwary R, Barua S. Geographic distribution pattern of threatened plants of India and steps taken for their conservation. Curr Sci. 2018;114:470–503. 10.18520/cs/v114/i03/470-503. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Bhattacharyya R, Bhattacharya S, Chaudhuri S (2006) Conservation and documentation of the medicinal plant resources of India. In: Hawksworth DL, Bull AT (eds) Human Exploitation and Biodiversity Conservation, Springer, Dordrecht, pp 365–377. 10.1007/978-1-4020-5283-5.
- Biswas S, Rawat MS, Tantray FA, Sharma S. Medicinal plants conservation and development areas (MPCDAs) - An initiative towards conservation of medicinal plants. Medicinal Plants. Int J Phytomedicines Related Industries. 2017;9:143–149. 10.5958/0975-6892.2017.00022.3. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Brooks TM, Bakarr MI, Boucher T, Da Fonseca GA, Hilton-Taylor C, Hoekstra JM, Moritz T, Olivieri S, Parrish J, Pressey RL, Rodrigues AS. Coverage provided by the global protected-area system: is it enough? Bioscience. 2004;54:1081–1091. 10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[1081:CPBTGP]2.0.CO;2. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- CITES (2017) CITES listed species. https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/species.php. Accessed on 3.1.2020.
- Collar NJ. The reasons for Red Data Books. Oryx. 1996;30:121–130. 10.1017/S0030605300021505. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Collen B, Dulvy NK, Gaston KJ, Gärdenfors U, Keith DA, Punt AE, Regan HM, Böhm M, Hedges S, Seddon M, Butchart SH. Clarifying misconceptions of extinction risk assessment with the IUCN Red List. Biol Let. 2016;12:20150843. 10.1098/rsbl.2015.0843. [Europe PMC free article] [Abstract] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- DBT (2019) Department of Biotechnology. Conservation of Threatened Plants of India. http://www.dbtindia.gov.in/conservation-threatened-plants-india. Accessed on 4.5.2020.
- FRLHTENVIS (2016a) Centre on Medicinal Plants. Medicinal plants under threat. http://envis.frlht.org/overview.html. Accessed on 6.4.2020.
- FRLHTENVIS (2016b) Centre on Medicinal Plants. Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas http://envis.frlht.org/mpca.php. Accessed on 6.4.2020.
- Goraya GS, Jishtu V, Rawat GS, Ved DK. Wild medicinal plants of Himachal Pradesh: An assessment of their conservation status and managementprioritization. Shimla: Himachal Pradesh Forest Department; 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Goraya GS, Ved DK. Medicinal plants in India: an assessment of their demand and supply. National Medicinal Plants Board, Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India. Dehradun: New Delhi and Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education; 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Hammer K, Khoshbakht K. Towards a ‘red list’ for crop plant species. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2005;52:249–265. 10.1007/s10722-004-7550-6. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Hazarika TK, Marak S, Mandal D, Shukla AC. Underutilized and unexploited fruits of Indo-Burma hot spot, Meghalaya, north-east India: ethno-medicinal evaluation, socio-economic importance and conservation strategies. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2016;63:289–304. 10.1007/s10722-015-0248-0. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- ICAR-NBPGR (2020) Memorandum of Undertaking signed between National Medicinal Plants Board and ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources on 06–07–2020. http://www.nbpgr.ernet.in/News_Details/aid/249.aspx. Accessed on 23.07.2020.
- IUCN (2020) The IUCN red list of threatened species. Version 2020–1. https://www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed on 4.04.2020.
- Jadhav SN, Ved DK, Ghate U, Reddy KN, Reddy CS. Proceedings of the workshop on Conservation Assessment and Management Planning for Medicinal Plants of Andhra Pradesh. Bangalore: FRLHT; 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Jain SK, Rao RR. An assessment of threatened plants of India. Howrah: Botanical Survey of India; 1983. [Google Scholar]
- Jaisankar I, Velmurugan A, Swarnam TP, Singh AK (2018) Hotspots: an introduction and role in conservation. In: Sivaperuman C, Venkataraman K (eds) Indian Hotspots. Springer, Singapore, pp 1–21. 10.1007/978-981-10-6983-3_1.
- Kala CP. Status and conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants of Indian trans-Himalaya. Biol Conserv. 2000;93:371–379. 10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00128-7. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Kala CP. Indigenous uses, population density, and conservation of threatened medicinal plants in protected areas of the Indian Himalayas. Conserv Biol. 2005;19:368–378. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00602.x. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Kandari LS, Bisht VK, Bhardwaj M, Thakur AK. Conservation and management of sacred groves, myths and beliefs of tribal communities: a case study from north-India. Environmental Systems Research. 2014;3:16. 10.1186/s40068-014-0016-8. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Krishnan PN, Decruse SW, Radha RK. Conservation of medicinal plants of Western Ghats, India and its sustainable utilization through in vitro technology. Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant. 2011;47:110–122. 10.1007/s11627-011-9344-9. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Kumar A, Pandey VC, Singh AG, Tewari DD. Traditional uses of medicinal plants for dermatological healthcare management practices by the Tharu tribal community of Uttar Pradesh, India. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2013;60:203–224. 10.1007/s10722-012-9826-6. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- KSCSTE-JNTBGRI (2019) Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute. Herbal garden. https://jntbgri.res.in/index.php/research/plant-genetic-resources/medicinal-aromatic-and-spice-plants-unit. Accessed on 15.4.2020.
- Kumar G, Srivastava A, Sharma SK, Rao TD, Gupta YK. Efficacy and safety evaluation of Ayurvedic treatment (Ashwagandha powder and Sidh Makardhwaj) in rheumatoid arthritis patients: a pilot prospective study. Indian J Med Res. 2015;141:100–106. 10.4103/0971-5916.154510. [Europe PMC free article] [Abstract] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Kumari GP, Joshi C, Tewari LM. Diversity and status of ethno-medicinal plants of Almora district in Uttarakhand India. Int J Biodvers Conserv. 2011;3:298–326. [Google Scholar]
- Maxted N, Hawkes JG, Guarino L, Sawkins M. Towards the selection of taxa for plant genetic conservation. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 1997;44:337–348. 10.1023/A:1008643206054. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Mittermeier RA, Turner WR, Larsen FW, Brooks TM and Gascon C (2011) Global biodiversity conservation: the critical role of hotspots. In Zachos F, Habel J (eds) Biodiversity hotspots. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 3–22. 10.1007/978-3-642-20992-5_1.
- Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, Da Fonseca GA, Kent J. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature. 2000;403:853–858. 10.1038/35002501. [Abstract] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Nayar MP and Sastry ARK (1987–1990) Red Data Book of Indian Plants, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, vols 3:15.
- NBA (2020) National Biodiversity Authority. Species of Plants and animals which are on the verge of extinction in different states of India. http://nbaindia.org/content/500/55/1/biodiversityrelatedi.html. Accessed on 25.01.2020.
- NMPB (2020a) Demand and supply of medicinal plants. National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB). https://nmpb.nic.in/medicinal_list. Accessed on 27.07.2020.
- NMPB (2020b) National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB). https://www.nmpb.nic.in/ (accessed on 31.1.2020).
- Pareek SK, Gupta V, Bhatt KC, Negi KS, Sharma N. Medicinal and aromatic plants. In: Dhillon BS, Tyagi RK, Saxena S, Randhawa GJ, editors. Plant genetic resources: horticultural crops. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing House; 2005. pp. 279–308. [Google Scholar]
- Patwardhan B, Chavan-Gautam P, Gautam M, Tillu G, Chopra A, Gairola S, Jadhav S. Ayurveda rasayana in prophylaxis of covid-19. Curr Sci. 2020;118:1158–1160. [Google Scholar]
- Pelletier TA, Carstens BC, Tank DC, Sullivan J, Espíndola A. Predicting plant conservation priorities on a global scale. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2018;115:13027–13032. 10.1073/pnas.1804098115. [Europe PMC free article] [Abstract] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Pollock C, Mace GM, Hilton-Taylor C (2003) The revised IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, Version 3.1. In: de Iongh HH, Bánki OS, Bergmans W, van der Werff ten Bosch, MJ (eds) The Harmonization of Red Lists for Threatened Species in Europe. Leiden (The Netherlands): The Netherlands Commission for International Nature Protection, pp 33–48.
- Rajpurohit D, Jhang T. In situ and ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources and traditional knowledge. In: Salgotra RK, Gupta BB, editors. Plant Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge for Food Security. Berlin: Springer; 2015. pp. 137–162. [Google Scholar]
- Rao CK, Geetha BL, Suresh G. Red List of Threatened Vascular Plant Species in India. Howrah: Botanical Survey of India; 2003. pp. ix–144. [Google Scholar]
- Ravikanth G, Jagadish MR, Vasudeva R, Shaanker RU, Aravind NA. Recovery of critically endangered plant species in India: need for a comprehensive approach. Curr Sci. 2018;114:504. 10.18520/cs/v114/i03/504-511. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Rodrigues AS, Pilgrim JD, Lamoreux JF, Hoffmann M, Brooks TM. The value of the IUCN Red List for conservation. Trends Ecol Evol. 2006;21:71–76. 10.1016/j.tree.2005.10.010. [Abstract] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Sarker SD, Nahar L. Chemistry for Pharmacy Students General. England: Organic and Natural Product Chemistry. Wiley; 2007. pp. 283–359. [Google Scholar]
- Seeni S, Latha PG. In vitro multiplication and eco-rehabilitation of the endangered Blue Vanda. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2000;61:1–8. 10.1023/A:1006444614657. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Shakya AK. Medicinal plants: future source of new drugs. Int J Herb Med. 2016;4:59–64. [Google Scholar]
- Sharma N, Gowthami R, Pandey R (2019) Synthetic Seeds: A Valuable Adjunct for Conservation of Medicinal Plants. In: Faisal M, Alatar AA (eds) Synthetic Seeds – Germplasm Regeneration, Preservation and Prospects. Springer Nature, Switzerland, pp 181–216. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24631-0_7.
- Sharma N, Pandey R (2013) Conservation of medicinal plants in Tropics. In: Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM (eds), Conservation of tropical plant species. Springer, New York, pp 437–487. 10.1007/978-1-4614-3776-5.
- Sharma N, Pandey R, Gowthami R (2020) In vitro conservation and cryopreservation of threatened medicinal plants of India. In: Rajasekharan PE, Wani SH (eds) Conservation and utilization of threatened medicinal plants. Springer, India, pp 181–228. 10.1007/978-3-030-39793-7
- Shivanna KR. The Sixth Mass Extinction Crisis and its Impact on Biodiversity and Human Welfare. Resonance. 2020;25:93–109. 10.1007/s12045-019-0924-z. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Singh JP, Kumar S, Venkatesan K, Kulloli RN. Conservation status and utilization of Caralluma edulis: an important threatened medicinal plant species of the Thar Desert, India. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2016;63:721–732. 10.1007/s10722-016-0366-3. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
- Singh N, Pandey S. Conservation of plant genetic resources. In: Pandey CD, Koul AK, Vimala Devi S, Singh N, Radhamani J, Pandey S, Jacob SR, Aravind J, Gore PG, Gupta V, editors. International training programme on management of plant genetic resources for officers from directorate of seed testing and certification ministry of agriculture, Baghdad. ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi: Republic of Iraq; 2019. p. 27. [Google Scholar]
- Ved DK, Tandon V. CAMP report for high altitude medicinal plants of Jammu-Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Bangalore, India: FRLHT; 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Ved DK, Goraya GS. Demand and supply of medicinal plants in India. Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun and FRLHT, Bangalore, India: Bishen Singh; 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Ved DK, Kinhal GA, Haridasan K, Ravikumar K, Ghate U, Shankar RV, Indresha J H (2003a) Conservation assessment and management prioritization for the medicinal plants of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim- Proceedings of the workshop held at Guwahati during 27th February to 1st March 2003. FRLHT, Bangalore
- Ved DK, Kinhal GK, Ravikumar K, Prabhakaran V, Ghate U, Sankar RV, Indresha JH. Conservation assessment management prioritization for the Medicinal plants of Jammu and Kashmir. FRLHT, Bangalore: Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal; 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Ved DK, Kinhal GA, Ravikumar K, Sankar RV, Haridasan K. Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritisation (CAMP) for wild medicinal plants of North-East India. Medicinal Plant Conservation. 2005;11:40–44. [Google Scholar]
- Ved DK, Suma TS, Barve V, Srinivas V, Sangeetha S, Ravikumar K, Kartikeyan R, Kulkarni V, Kumar AS, Venugopal SN, Somashekhar BS, Sumanth MV, Begum N, Sugandhi Rani, Surekha KV, Desale N (2016a) State wise CAMP workshop details. (envis.frlht.org/frlhtenvis.nic.in) (http://envis.frlht.org/conservation-concern-species). FRLHT's ENVIS Centre on Medicinal Plants, Bengaluru. Copy Right: FRLHT, Bengaluru and MoEFCC, GoI. Accessed on 6.4.2020.
- Ved DK, Suma TS, Barve V, Srinivas V, Sangeetha S, Ravikumar K, Kartikeyan R, Kulkarni V, Kumar AS, Venugopal SN, Somashekhar BS, Sumanth MV, Begum N, Sugandhi Rani, Surekha KV, Desale N (2016b) State wise list of medicinal plants of conservation concern. (envis.frlht.org/frlhtenvis.nic.in) (http://envis.frlht.org/mpcc-species). FRLHT's ENVIS Centre on Medicinal Plants, Bengaluru. Copy Right: FRLHT, Bengaluru and MoEFCC, GoI. Accessed on 6.4.2020.
- Walter KS, Gillett HJ (1998) 1997 IUCN Red list of threatened plants. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
- WIIENVIS (2019) ENVIS Centre on Wildlife and Protected Areas. Protected Areas of India. http://wiienvis.nic.in/Database/Protected_Area_854.aspx. Accessed on 20.2.2020.
Full text links
Read article at publisher's site: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-021-01199-0
Read article for free, from open access legal sources, via Unpaywall:
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10722-021-01199-0.pdf
Citations & impact
Impact metrics
Citations of article over time
Alternative metrics
Discover the attention surrounding your research
https://www.altmetric.com/details/106771018
Smart citations by scite.ai
Explore citation contexts and check if this article has been
supported or disputed.
https://scite.ai/reports/10.1007/s10722-021-01199-0
Article citations
Mapping of soil suitability for medicinal plants using machine learning methods.
Sci Rep, 14(1):3741, 14 Feb 2024
Cited by: 0 articles | PMID: 38355896 | PMCID: PMC10866873
Estimation of genetic diversity and population genetic structure in Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schult. populations using DAMD and ISSR markers.
J Genet Eng Biotechnol, 21(1):42, 06 Apr 2023
Cited by: 3 articles | PMID: 37022506 | PMCID: PMC10079795
Lipid-based ayurvedic formulations of a single herb-Yashtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra): Pharmaceutical standardization, shelf-life estimation and comparative characterization.
J Ayurveda Integr Med, 14(2):100711, 01 Mar 2023
Cited by: 0 articles | PMID: 37104998 | PMCID: PMC10164906
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used in the Health Care System: Survey of the Mid Hills of Solan District, Himachal Pradesh, India.
Plants (Basel), 10(9):1842, 05 Sep 2021
Cited by: 6 articles | PMID: 34579373 | PMCID: PMC8467016
Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: Safeguarding Medical Practices and Traditional Uses of Kashmir Regions.
Biology (Basel), 10(9):851, 31 Aug 2021
Cited by: 9 articles | PMID: 34571728 | PMCID: PMC8465354
Similar Articles
To arrive at the top five similar articles we use a word-weighted algorithm to compare words from the Title and Abstract of each citation.
Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used by the Reang tribe of Tripura state of India.
J Ethnopharmacol, 152(1):135-141, 07 Jan 2014
Cited by: 13 articles | PMID: 24412549
A framework for evaluating the impact of the IUCN Red List of threatened species.
Conserv Biol, 34(3):632-643, 13 Jan 2020
Cited by: 15 articles | PMID: 31876054 | PMCID: PMC7318271
The medicinal plants of Myanmar.
PhytoKeys, (102):1-341, 28 Jun 2018
Cited by: 21 articles | PMID: 30002597 | PMCID: PMC6033956
Plants on the IUCN Red List: setting priorities to inform conservation.
Trends Plant Sci, 14(11):638-642, 19 Sep 2009
Cited by: 15 articles | PMID: 19773196
Review
A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal plant use.
J Ethnopharmacol, 155(2):925-986, 19 Jun 2014
Cited by: 54 articles | PMID: 24952280
Review