Abstract

Introduction

The Ilam province is situated on the west of Iran. This province known as “Thyme land or locally as Sarzamin-e-Avishan” and it is principally a mountainous region with plains following the direction of West Zagros range. It borders Khuzestan province in the south, Lurestan province in the east, Kermanshah province in the north and Iraq in the west with 425 kms of common border (Figure 1). Ilam is located between latitude 31° 58′ to 34° 15′ N and longitude 45° 24′ to 48° 10′ E. It occupies an area of 19,086 km². The elevation range is between 50 m above sea level in the south to 3060 m above sea level in the west province (Kabirkooh Mountain).

Open in a separate window

Figure 1

Frequency of plant families used in Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, Iran

The climate of the region is influenced with its varied elevation. Annually, it generally rains 200 mm in the south and 500 mm in the north and the period of winter, the minimum temperature can reach −15°C in north and summer is day with maximum temperature between 45°C in south. Humidity is generally high especially in the winter (Dec–Mar) months (Ilam Meteorology Office, 2010).

The natural vegetation is rangeland and oak forest. Flora of Ilam province is extremely rich with about 1000 species of plant (Mozaffarian, 2008). The present study focused on the current status of knowledge of folk medicine in Abdanan and Dehloran districts. These districts are situated on the west and southwest of Ilam province. The Ilam population is predominantly Feyli Kurdish. The province total population was 545,787 in 2006. The population of Abdanan and Dehloran was 47,370 and 62,256 in 2006, respectively. The northern part of the province is mostly inhabited by Kurdish tribes who speak with two dialects: Kalhuri and Feyli. The majority are Feyli Kurds, such as Kurdish tribes of Khezel, Arkawâzi, Beyrey (Ali Sherwan), Malekshahi and Shuhan. Lurs live in the southern and eastern parts of the province; for example: Abdanan, Dareh Shahr, Dehloran and Mehran. Most are Shi'a Muslims. The Kurds are traditionally nomadic people. The people's main source of living in this region is farming, agriculture, sheepherding and husbandry (MPOI, 2003).

Plants have always had an important role to play in medicine and public health. The knowledge on the use of medicinal plants was acquired by trial and error and handed on from generation to generation (Ghorbani, 2005). Nevertheless, handing down of this knowledge is in danger due to bad contacts between older and younger generations. Iran has a long medical tradition and traditional learning of medicinal plants (Ghorbani, 2005). Some authors have investigated the traditional pharmacopeia and medicinal plants in different areas of Iran (Afshar, 1990; Amin, 1991; Ayiineh Chii, 1989; Ghasemi Pirbalouti, 2009; Ghorbani, 2005; Hovayzeh et al., 2001; Miraldi et al., 2001; Mir-Heidari, 1993; Salehi Surmaghi et al., 1992; Zargari, 1989–1992). However, no information is available on the medicinal plants of the Ilam communities. In order to record all these medicinal knowledge, new or rare uses of medicinal plants and to record any use of plants in the region, the ethnobotanical survey of Ilam communities is undertaken.

The aims of this paper are:

• The documentation of indigenous medicinal plants used in Ilam, Iran

• The assessment of uses of the native species

• The description of the most common preparations made from herbal drugs used in Ilam ethnomedicine.

Results

Medicinal plants reported

The present study revealed that a total of 122 plants belonging to 106 genera and 49 families have been documented for their therapeutic use against different diseases (Table 1 and Figure 1). Most of the medicinal plants are collected from wild (~93%) and only nine species (7%) are cultivated in an area, either in gardens or fields (Trifolium repens, Sesamum indicum, Nicotiana tabacum, Salix alba, Rosa damascena, Pimpinella anisum, Medicago sativa, Cannabis sativa and Crocus sativus). Among them 84 were herbs (68%), 21 were shrubs (17%) and 18 were trees (15%) (Figure 2). The most commonly represented families were Asteraceae (37.5%), Lamiaceae (22.92%), Rosaceae (18.75%), Fabaceae (16.67%) and Apiaceae (14.58%), Brassicaceae (10.42%) and Chenopodiaceae (8.33%) (Figure 1). The most abundant genus was Centaurea, three species; Allium, Amygdalus, Artemisia, Astragalus, Cerasus, Crocus, Ferula, Pisachia, Rosa, Scrophularia, Salvia, Xanthium and Ziziphus had two species (Table 1).

Table 1

Medicinal plants used by Kurdish community in Dehloran and Abdanan districts, Elam province, Iran

Row	Scientific Name	Family name	Elam Kurdish name	Persian name	English name	Habit	Life cycle	Parts used	Way of application	Uses/Ailments treated
1	Achillea biebersteinii Afan.	Asteraceae	Boomaro, Berenj daz, Gol Zard	Boomadaran-e-Zard	Yarrow	H	Perennial	Flowers, Leaves	External/Internal	Indigestion, rheumatism, sedative (toothache), anti-septic and hemagglutinate
2	Adianthum capillus-veneris L.	Polypodiaceae	Kamar Avizeh, Bareh za	Parsiavoushan	Southern maidenhair, Venus's hair	H	Perennial	Flowers, Leaves	Internal	Anti-septic, kidney pain, anti-calculus, analgesia and hair color
3	Adonis dentate Delile.	Ranunculaceae	Gol Zarde	Cheshme Khorous, Gol Khorousak	Adonis, bird's eye	H	Annual	Flower	Internal	digestive discords and indigestion, Joundice
4	Alhagi persarum Boiss. & Buhse.	Fabaceae	Agoul, Aghol	Kharshootor, Toranjabin	Camel's thorn	H	Perennial	Stems, Leaves	Internal	Anti-calculus, anti-septic, kidney problems, urine tube infection and laxative (for baby)
5	Allium akaka Gmelin.	Aliaceae or Liliaceae	Aneshk, Anesh, Valk	Valk	Ramsons broad, bear's garlic	H	Perennial	Leaves, Bulbs	Internal	Appetizer, anti-septic, anti-calculus, anti-parasite and good digestive system
6	Allium ampeloprasum L. subsp. iranicum Wendelbo	Aliaceae or Liliaceae	Tareg	Tareh Koohi, Piaz Kalagh	Perennial sweet leek, great round-headed garlic	H	Perennial	Leaves, Bulbs	Internal	Anti-septic, kidney infection, urine infection, anti-calculus, gastric pain, intestinal problem and culinary
7	Alcea angulata (Freyn & Sint) Freyn & Sint. Ex Iljin	Malvaceae	Gole hirou	Khatmi	Mallow	H	Perennial	Roots	External/Internal	Burn, cut wound and emollient
8	Alyssum minus (L.) Rothm.	Brassicaceae	Ghedameh	Ghodomeh	Alyssum	H	Annual	Fruits	Internal	Emollient, cough, sore throat and eyes discords
9	Amygdalus arabica Olivier.	Rosaceae	Bayem, Vayem	Badam-e-Koohi	Almond	T	Perennial	Fruits	Internal/External	Child ear pain, body pain (for animal) and analgesic, bronchitis, anti-calculus and digestive discords
10	Amygdalus lycioides Spach.	Rosaceae	Taneges	Tangras	Almond	T	Perennial	Fruits	External	Good hair condition
11	Rhamnus pallasii Fisch. & C. A. Mey	Rhamnaceae	Arjan	Siah tangress	Buckthorn	S	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Cold, emollient, cough and sore throat
12	Anthemis altissima L.	Asteraceae	Babineh	Babooneh	Chamomile	H	Annual	Flower	External/Internal	Indigestion and skin whiting
13	Aristolochia olivieri Collegno in Boiss.	Aristolochiaceae	Zaravand	Chopoghak	Dutchman'spipe	H	Perennial	Leaves, Stem	External	Dermal discords and wound
14	Calendula persica C. A. Mey.	Asteraceae	Golzardeh	Hamisheh Bahar-e-Irani	Iranian marigold	H	Annual	Flower	External	Dermal discords, wound and eczema
15	Artemisia sieberi Besser.	Asteraceae	Bookhoshkeleh	Dermaneh-e-Zagrosi	Wormwood	H	Annual	Stems, Leaves	Internal	Anti-parasite, anti-diarrheal and stomachic
16	Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.	Asteraceae	Salmaneh	Jaroy-e-Mashhadi	Oriental worm wood	H	Annual/biennial	Inflorescence	Internal	Indigestion, emollient and sore throat
17	Astaragalus glaucacanthus Fisch.	Fabaceae	Miveh badkonaki	Asbi gavan	Astragal	S	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Used in food and confectionery, tonic, gastric pain, headache and wild fruit
18	Astragalus gossypinus Fisch.	Fabaceae	Gavan	Gavan-e-panbehi	Astragal	S	Perennial	Resin	External/Internal	Good hair condition and cold
19	Cotoneaster lurestanica Klotz.	Rosaceae	Shir khesht	Shirkhesht-e-lorestani	Cotoneaster	S	Perennial	Resin	Internal	Laxative for baby
20	Atriplex leucoclada (Boiss.) Aellen.	Chenopodiaceae	Ramt	Salmaki saghe safid	Saltbush	H	Perennial	Leaves	Internal	Emollient, cough and sore throat
21	Avena wiestii Steud.	Poaceae	Ganem giah	Youlaf	Wild oat	H	Annual	Seed	Internal	Gastric pain, indigestion, rheumatism and tonic
22	Cannabis sativa L.	Canabinaceae	Shadone	Shahdoneh	Hemp	H	Annual	Fruits	Internal	Seed use for nut, laxative, anti-parasite, tonic, cough and nerve system discords
23	Capparis spinosa L.	Capparidaceae	Kelkam, Shafileh, Shafalk	Kavar	Caper	H/S	Perennial	Leaves, Roots, Bark and Fruits	Internal	Root bark: hepato-protective, Stem bark:toothache, Leaves and Fruits:Regulation of blood sugar
24	Cardaria draba (L.) Desv.	Brassicaceae	Tof veh sereh	Ozmak	Hoary cress	H	Perennial	Young leaves	Internal	Culinary and tonic
25	Carthamus oxyacantha M.B.	Asteraceae	Khar kharon, Zardeh siri, Zardeh drag	Golerang-e-zard	Safflower	H	Annual	Flowers	Internal	For women period discords and menorrhagia
26	Centaurea iberica Trev. Ex Spreng.	Asteraceae	Asan darag	Gole Gandom-e-chaman zar	Centaurea	H	Annual	Flowers	Internal	Gastric pain
27	Centaurea intricate Boiss.	Asteraceae	Benjek dargi	Gole Gandom-e-darham barham	Centaurea	H	Perennial	Flowers	Internal	Indigestion and gastric pain
28	Centaurea ovina Pall. Ex Willd.	Asteraceae	Tilage	Gole Gandom	Centaurea	H	Annual	Flowers	Internal	Indigestion and gastric pain
29	Cerasus mahaleb (L.) Miller.	Rosaceae	Beralik, Heloneh, Mahloo	Mahlab	Mahaleb cherry	T	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Laxative, anti-calculus, culinary and spice and wild fruit: stomachic
30	Cerasus microcarpa (C.A. Mey) Boiss. subsp. microcarpa	Rosaceae	Beralik, Helaneh	Albaloy-e-vahshi	Sour cherry	T	Perennial	Bark, Resin	Internal	Sedative, anti-calculus and anti-fever
31	Cichorium intybus L.	Asteraceae	Kasni	Kasni	Chicory	H	Perennial	Root, Stem, Leaves	Internal/External	Laxative, diuretic, gastric pain and dermal discords
32	Cirsium congestum Fisch. & C. A. mey. Ex DC.	Asteraceae	Kangar darag	Kagar-e-anboh	Bull thistle	H	Biannual	Stem	Internal	Anti-septic for gastric
33	Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.	Cucurbitaceae	Shoomi sheytoneh, Shomi tilaneh	Hanzal, Hendevaneh Abougahl	Citrul/Citrule	H	Perennial	Fruits	External/Internal	Diabetes and wound
34	Colchicum kotschyi Boiss.	Iridaceae	Kirgeh keh ran	Gol-e-hasrat	Autumn saffron	H	Perennial	Flowers	External	Rheumatism
35	Crataegus pontica C. Koch.	Rosaceae	Gich	Zalzalak	Azarole	T	Perennial	Fruits, Leaves	Internal	Edible as wild fruit, heart tonic, antihypertensive and headache
36	Crocus haussknechtii Boiss.	Iridaceae	Pishog	Joo ghasem	Crocus	H	Perennial	Flowers	Internal	Anti-septic for gastric and stomachic
37	Crocus sativus L.	Iridaceae	Kal mas	Zaferan	Saffron	H	Perennial	Stigma, Style	Internal	Breezy, tonic for heart and culinary use
38	Daphne mucronata Royle.	Thymelaeaceae	Toye, alef	Khoshak	Daphne	S	Perennial	Wood	External	Cleaning eyes and eye pain (Surmeh)
39	Datura innoxia Miller.	Solanaceae	Tatureh	Datureh-e-goldorosht	Hindu datura	H	Annual	Latex	External	Anti-wart
40	Consolida orientalis (Gey) Schrood.	Ranunculaceae	Zaban ghafa	Zaban pas ghafa-e-denae	Larkspur	H	Annual	Flowers	Internal	Laxative and anti-parasite
41	Dianthus orientalis Adam.	Caryophylaceae	Gole Mikhak	Mikhak	Pink	H	Perennial	Flowers, Fruits	External/Internal	Toothache and anti-spasm
42	Echinops viscidulus Mozaff.	Asteraceae	Ghane shakrook	Shekar Tighal	Globe thistle	H	Perennial	Bulb	Internal	Cough, cold, sore throat and edible as vegetable
43	Echium italicum L.	Boraginaceae	Gole gazou	Gavzaban	Viper's bugloss	H	Biannual	Flower	Internal	Nervous system relaxant, carminative, cold, sore throat, wound and soporific
44	Elaeagnus angustifolia L.	Elaeagnaceae	Ardegon	Sanjed, Pestanak	Oleaster	T	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Anti-diarrheal, gastric pain and hepatoprotective
45	Ephedra ciliata Fisch. ex C. A. Mey	Ephedraceae	Rish boz, Kori feri	Ormak, rish boz	Joint fir	S	Perennial	Root, Stem	Internal	Anti-bacterial and anti-fever
46	Euphorbia macroclada Boiss.	Ephurbiaceae	Shirghoteghan	Farfiun	Milkwort	H	Perennial	Latex	External	Anti-wart
47	Ferula haussknechtii Wolff ex Rech. f.	Apiaceae	Komeh, Komieh	Koma	Giant fennel	H	Perennial	Stem, Leaves, Inflorescence	External	Anti-septic (smoking)
48	Ferula behboudiana (Rech. f. & Esfand) Chamberlain.	Apiaceae	Anio	Koma-e-lorestani	Giant fennel	H	Perennial	Stem, Leaves, Inflorescence	External	Anti-septic (smoking)
49	Ferulago angulata (Schlecht.) Boiss.	Apiaceae	Chavir	Chavil-e-shevidi	Ferulago	H	Perennial	Leaves	Internal	Anti-septic, spice and air fresher
50	Ficus carica L.	Moraceae	Anjir	Anjir	Fig	T	Perennial	Fruits, Latex	Internal/External	Laxative, cough and anti-wart
51	Fritillaria imperialis L.	Liliaceae	Sosan gol	Ashke maryam, Laleh vajhgon	Crown imperial	H	Perennial	Bulb	External	Rheumatism and sciatica
52	Fumaria parviflora Lam.	Fumariaceae	Shatareh	Shahtareh-e-irani	Fumitory	H	Annual	Flowers, Stem, Leaves	External	Dermal discords, wound and eczema
53	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. var. glabra	Fabaceae	Balik	Shirin bayan	Licorice	H	Perennial	Roots, Flowers	Internal	Gastric ulcer, digestive discords, duodenal pain, stomach stranger, diabetes, intestinal pain and culinary
54	Gundelia tournefortii L.	Asteraceae	Kenyer	Kangar	-	H	Perennial	Leaves, Stem	Internal	Edible as vegetable, indigestion, tonic, laxative, anti-calculus, diabetes and culinary
55	Hypericum scabrum L.	Hypericaceae	Siveh ran	Gol-e-raye	St. John's wort	H	Perennial	Inflorescence	Internal	Green tea, sedative, headache and nerve system relaxant
56	Isatis raphanifolia Boiss.	Brassicaceae	Vasmeh	Vasmeh	Dyer's woad	H	Annual	Root, Leaves, Seed	External	Coloring for hair
57	Lonicera nummulariifolia Jaub. & Spach.	Caprifoliaceae	Pela khor, Shan	Pelakhor	Lonicera	S	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Anti-fever, anti-diarrheal, sedative and cough
58	Lycium depressum Stocks.	Solanaceae	Khoshk	Gorg tigh	Wolf berry	S	Perennial	Leaves, Fruits	Internal/External	Kidney problems
59	Malva neglecta Wallr.	Malvaceae	Toli, Tole	Panirak	Mallow	H	Annual, biennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Interstitial infection, laxative, sore throat and asthma
60	Medicago sativa L.	Fabaceae	Vinjeh	Younjeh	alfalfa	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Tonic and fattening
61	Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson.	Lamiaceae	Pineh	Pooneh, Podneh	Horsemint	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Carminative, edible as vegetable and flavoring
62	Myrtus communis L.	Myrtaceae	Moort	Mord	Myrtle	T	Perennial	Leaves	External/Internal	Anti-septic (smoking), women diseases, wound (antimicrobial) and air freshener
63	Narcissus tazetta L.	Amaryllidaceae	Gole Narges	Narges	Polyanthus narcissus	H	Perennial	Flowers and Bulb	Internal/External	Flowers: Aromatic or aromatherapy (sedative, headache and cold), anti-parasite and abortion
64	Nasturtium officinale (L.) R. Br.	Brassicaceae	Koleh shak, Balmak	Alaf-e-cheshmeh	Water cress	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers, Roots	Internal	Stomachic, anti-parasite
65	Nepeta persica Boiss.	Lamiaceae	Poneh say	Poneh say-e-Irani	Catmint	H	Perennial	Leaves,Flowers	Internal/External	Carminative and anti-urticarial
66	Nerium oleander L.	Apocynaceae	Hortil, Jeleh, Gharjalak	Kharzahreh, Kish	Oleander	S	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers, Latex	External/Internal	External: Burn, wound healing and eczema, Internal: diuretic and heart tonic
67	Nicotiana tabacum L.	Solanaceae	Tanbakoo	Toton	Tobacco	H	Annual	Leaves	External	Anti-leech (Limnatis nilotica), anti-dermatophytosis and used veterinary (health animal)
68	Noaea mucronata (Forssk.) Asch &Schweinf.	Chenopodiaceae	Khargo	Nakhon-e-aroos	-	S	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Anti-calculus
69	Onobrychis elymaitica Boiss. & Hausskn. ex Boiss.	Fabaceae	Pieh kol	Speres-e-elami	Sainfoin	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Anti-calculus, kidney problems
70	Opoponex hispidus (Friv.) Griseb.	Apiaceae	Alaf shir	Koma	Opopnax	H	Annual	Stem, Leaves, Inflorescence	External	Anti-septic (smoking)
71	Paliurus spina-christi Miller.	Rhamnaceae	Dereg dar	Siyah telo	Christ's thorn	S	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Anti-hypertensive and reduced cholesterol
72	Papaver dubium L.	Papaveraceae	Gole soreh	Khashkash-e-tannaz	Great scarlet poppy	H	Annual	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Nerve system relaxant, sedative
73	Peganum harmala L.	Zygophyllaceae	Span	Spand, Sphand	Harmel peganum	H	Perennial	Fruits, Seeds	External	Anti-septic for air, scorpion bite, snake bite, toothache and soporific
74	Periploca aphylla Decne.	Asclepiadaceae	Kholf	Gishder	Silk vine	S	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	External	Anti-inflammatory
75	Phlomis olivieri Benth.	Lamiaceae	Labeh goshak, Giveh balkeh	Goshbareh, Bareh Gosh, Chalmah	Phlomis	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Carminative
76	Physalis divaricata D. Don.	Solanaceae	Arosak postheh pardeh	Arosak postheh pardeh	Winter cherry	H	Annual	Fruits	Internal	Kidney discords
77	Picnomon acarna (L.) Cass.	Asteraceae	Gemal diom	Zard khar	Yellow plume thistle	H	Annual	Leaves	Internal	Indigestion, gastric discords and stomachic
78	Pimpinella anisum L.	Apiaceae	Vaveh shing	Badian romi	Anise	H	Annual	Fruits	Internal	Carminative and culinary use
79	Pistachia atlantica Desf.	Anacardiacea	Banak, Kalang Kaleh, Kaleh van	Pesteh Koohi/Baneh	Pistache	T	Perennial	Fruits, Resin	Internal	Mind stranger, anti-hemorrhoid, laxative, stomach stranger and bone pain
80	Pistachia khinjuk Stocks.	Anacardiacea	Koleng Narmeh, Narmeh van	Khenjuk	Pistache	T	Perennial	Fruits, Resin	Internal	Digestive discords, diuretic, asthma, stomach stranger and fragrant mouth
81	Portulaca oleracea L.	Portulacaceae	Perpelik, Denan tizkarak	Khorfeh	Purslane	H	Annual	Roots, Stem, Leaves, Latex	Internal	Edible as vegetable, anti-parasite
82	Prangos ferulacea (L.) Lindl.	Apiaceae	Bale har, Ginoo	Jooshir	Prangos	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	External/Internal	Laxative
83	Prosopis farcta (Banks & Soland) Macbr.	Mimosaceae	Belaveri, Broweri, Khosh khah shak	Kahoorak	Syrian mesquite	S	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Blood thinner and anti-diabetic (Reduction of blood glucose)
84	Quercus brantii Lindl. var persica (Jaub. & Spach) Zohary	Fagaceae	Bali, Bero	Baloot	Oak	T	Perennial	Fruits, Seed bark	Internal	Gastric ulcer, stringent, sore throat and anti-diabetes
85	Rheum ribes L.	Polygonaceae	Ribas	Rivas	Rhubarb	H	Perennial	Stem	Internal	Edible as vegetable, anti-hypertensive and decrease triglyceride
86	Rhus coriaria L.	Anacardiaceae	Sumakh	Sumagh	Sicilian sumac	S	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Stomachic, anti-diarrheal, tonic, digestive discords and culinary use
87	Rosa canina L.	Rosaceae	Goltieureg	Nastaran-e-vahshi	Dog rose	S	Perennial	Flowers	Internal	Indigestion
88	Rosa damascena Mill.	Rosaceae	Gol bakhi	Gol-e-mohammadi	Persian rose	S	Perennial	Flowers	Internal	Indigestion
89	Rubus anatolicus (Focke.) Focke ex Hausskn.	Rosaceae	Tiyarak	Tameshk barg narvani	Elm-leaved blackberry	S	Perennial	Fruits	Internal	Stomachic, anti-parasite
90	Rumex ephedroides Bornm.	Polygonaceae	Torsheh mast	Torshak-e-rishbozi	Dock	H	Annual	Leaves	External	Anti-inflammatory
91	Salix alba L.	Salicaceae	Vi, Bi	Bid-e-sephid	White willow	T	Perennial	Bark, Leaves	Internal/External	Anti-fever
92	Salsola vermiculata L.	Chenopodiaceae	Shoor	Alaf shoor-e-sharghi	Saltwort, R	S	Perennial	Stem, Leaves	Internal	Laxative, anti-ascorbic
93	Salvia palaestina Benth.	Lamiaceae	Cherogi	Maryam goli falestini	Annual clary	H	Annual	Leaves, Inflorescence	Internal	Women fertility and women infections
94	Scrophularia deserti Del.	Scrophulariaceae	Benjek mashin,	Gol-e-maymoni	Figwort	H	Perennial	Stem, Leaves	External	Wound and burn healing and antimicrobial
95	Salvia sclarea L.	Lamiaceae	Maryam goli	Maryam goli	Clary	H	Perennial	Leaves, Seed, Inflorescence	Internal	Cold and anti-fever
96	Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad.	Lamiaceae	Jatareh	Marzeh	Summer savory	H	Annual	Leaves, Stem, Flowers	Internal	Indigestion, headache, gastric pain, women infections, diuretic and spice
97	Scrophularia striata Boiss.	Scrophulariaceae	Teshneh dari	Gol-e-maymoni	Figwort	H	Perennial	Stem, Leaves	External	Wound and burn healing and antimicrobial
98	Seidlitzia rosmarinus (Ehrh.) Bge.	Chenopodiaceae	Benjak shenan, Hejhedan	Eshnan	Seidlitzia	S	Perennial	Leaves	External	Used as washing, good hair condition and plant shampoo
99	Sesamum indicum L.	Pedaliaceae	Konjed	Konjed	Sesame	H	Annual	Seed	External	Burn healing
100	Sinapis arvensis L.	Brassicaceae	Khartal, Terpeki	Khardal-e-zagrosi	Mustard	H	Annual	Stem, Flowers	Internal	Laxative and stomachic
101	Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss.	Apaiacea	Pinomeh, Vangi	Avandol	Alexanders	H	Biannual	Stem	Internal	Indigestion and stomachic
102	Solanum nigrum L.	Solanaceae	Roarazak, tamato kivi leh	Sag angor, Tajrizi-e-siyah	Black nightshade	H	Annual	Fruits	External	Skin diseases, wound healing and eczema
103	Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.	Poaceae	Helit	Ghiagh, Chaeer	Johnson grass	H	Perennial	Leaves, Stem, Flowers	Internal	Abortion for human and animals
104	Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl.	Lamiaceae	Colpar	Sonbolehei	Stachys	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Carminative, rheumatism, indigestion, headache, sedative, cardio tonic and anti-anxiety
105	Stipa capensis Thunb.	Poaceae	Gol koo, Bahmah giah	Chaman sozani	Needle grass	H	Annual	Flowers	Internal	Nerve system problems and gastric discords
106	Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb. saltcedar	Tamaricaceae	Shoor gaz	Gaz-e-shahi	Tamarisk	T	Perennial	Leaves and Resin	Internal/External	Dermal discords, wound healing and sputum
107	Tanacetum polycephalum Schultz.	Asteraceae	Samsa	Minay-e-porkopeh	Tansy	H	Perennial	Leaves	External	Anti-hemorrhoid, anti-inflammatory and sting
108	Teucrium polium L.	Lamiaceae	Miyere nekhe	Maryam nokhodi	Germander	H	Perennial	Leaves, Flowers	Internal	Anti-septic for gastric and fragrant mouth
109	Thymbra spicata L.	Lamiaceae	Azboh, Hazboh	Avishan-e-zophaye	Thyme	H	Perennial	Leaves and Inflorescence	Internal	Spice, cough, antibacterial and carminative
110	Tragopogon graminifolius DC.	Asteraceae	Haplook	Shang	Salsify	H	Annual	Root, Flowers	Internal/External	Emollient, sore throat and wound healing
111	Trifolium repens L.	Fabaceae	She pareh	Shabdar-e-sephid	White clover	H	Biannual	Leaves and Inflorescence	Internal/External	Analgesia and dermal discords
112	Typha domingensis Pers.	Typhaceae	Lovan	Loei	Cat's tail	H	Perennial	Pollen, Rhizome	Internal	Anti-fever
113	Ulmus glabra Hudson.	Ulmaceae	Vazam	Narvan-e-barg riz	Elm	T	Perennial	Leaves	Internal	Heart discords and fertility discords
114	Verbascum alepense Benth.	Scrophulariaceae	Gol zardeh	Gol-e-mahour	Mullein	H	Perennial	Leaves and Flowers	Internal/External	Anti-fever, dermal discords and wound healing
115	Vicia angustifolia L.	Fabaceae	Masheh maran	Mashak-e-barg pahn	Narbonne vetch	H	Annual	Fruits	Internal	Cough
116	Viscum album L.	Loranthaceae	Darpechanak	Darvash	White mistletoe	T	Perennial	Leaves, Stem, Flowers	External/Internal	Body pain, knew joint pain and abscess
117	Vitex pseudo-negundo (Hausskn.) Hand-mzt.	Verbenaceae	Keref, Kerof	Bangaro	Chaste tree	S	Perennial	Leaves	Internal	Increased milk
118	Xanthium spinosum L.	Asteraceae	Chazanak	Zardineh	Cocklebur	H	Annual	Leaves and Fruits	External	Dermal discords, diuretic
119	Xanthium strumarium L.	Asteraceae	Chazanak	Zardineh	Cocklebur	H	Annual	Leaves and Fruits	Internal	Laxative, stomach, tonic
120	Ziziphora capitata L.	Lamiaceae	Kakooti	Moshk taramoshk	Ziziphora	H	Annual	Leaves and Inflorescence	Internal	Spice and culinary
121	Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. F.) Wighth & Arn.	Ramnaceae	Darak, Konar	Ramlik	Camel thorn	T	Perennial	Leaves and Fruits	External	Gastric pain and stomachic
122	Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd.	Rhamnaceae	Sedr, Azakonar	Konar	Christ's thorn	T	Perennial	Leaves and Fruits	External	Anti-dandruff and anti-hair loss

Open in a separate window

Habit: T: Tree, S: Shrub, H: Herb

Open in a separate window

Figure 2

Frequency of habit plants used in Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, Iran

Plant parts used, preparation and administration

Leaves (30%) are the most widely used plant parts even solely or mixed with other parts, followed by flowers (22%), fruits (13%) and stem (10%) in some cases the whole plant (Figure 3).

Open in a separate window

Figure 3

Frequency of plant parts used in Dehloran and Abdanan district, Ilam province, Iran

Culinary and spice uses

At present, 14 plants are collected in the study area for their use in culinary, spice and food. Among them, 10 species are reported also for therapeutic use (see Table 1); 3 are used only as food. The villagers employ Crocus sativus, Cerasus mahaleb, Ferulago angulata, Mentha longifolia, Pimpinella anisum, Satureja khuzistanica, Thymbra spicata, Ziziphora capitata and Rhus coriaria as flavoring agents. The leaves and stem of Mentha longifolia, Portulaca oleracea, Rheum ribes, Allium ampeloprasum subsp. iranicum and bulbs of Echinops viscidulus are used as wild vegetables. The fruits of Crataegus azarolus, Cerasus mahaleb, Ficus carica, Pistachia atlantica, Pistachia khinjuk, Prosopis farcta, Rubus anatolicus, Ziziphus nummularia, Ziziphus spina-christi, Amygdalus arabica, Amygdalus lycioides and Elaeagnus angustifolia are used as wild fruit. Astaragalus glaucacanthus are used as culinary and confectionery, tonic, gastric pain, headache and or as wild fruit. They boil tender leaves of Cardaria draba to prepare soups and Gundelia tournefortii to prepare pickled.

Ailments treated

The 122 medicinal plant species were used in treating 79 different types of ailments (Table 2). The highest number of plant species (17 species) was used for the treatment of gastric disorders followed by antiseptic, indigestion, laxative and wound healing (14 species).

Table 2

Major ailments treated by the local inhabitants of the Dehloran and Abdanan regions, Ilam Province, Iran using medicinal plants species

S. no.	Ailments	No. of plants	Percentage
1	Gastric pain	17	5.69
2	Anti-septic	14	4.68
3	Indigestion	14	4.68
4	Laxative	14	4.68
5	Wound Healing	14	4.68
6	Anti-calculus	10	3.34
7	Stomachic	10	3.34
8	Cough	9	3.01
9	Sore throat	9	3.01
10	Anti-parasite	8	2.68
11	Dermal discords	8	2.68
12	Tonic	8	2.68
13	Anti-fever	7	2.34
14	Carminative	7	2.34
15	Cold	6	2.01
16	Digestive	6	2.01
17	Emollient	6	2.01
18	Headache	6	2.01
19	Kidney pain	6	2.01
20	Regulation Blood sugar	6	2.01
21	Sedative	6	2.01
22	Burn healing	5	1.67
23	Diuretic	5	1.67
24	Hair treatment	5	1.67
25	Rheumatism	5	1.67
26	Anti-diarrheal	4	1.34
27	Anti-Inflammatory	4	1.34
28	Eczema	4	1.34
29	Heart tonic	4	1.34
30	Nerve System Discords	4	1.34
31	Toothache	4	1.34
32	Anti-microbial	3	1.00
33	Anti-wart	3	1.00
34	Stomach stranger	3	1.00
35	Ethno-Veterinary	3	1.00
36	Abortion	2	0.67
37	Analgesia	2	0.67
38	Anti-hemorrhoid	2	0.67
39	Anti-hypertensive	2	0.67
40	Body pain	2	0.67
41	Fragrant mouth	2	0.67
42	Soporific	2	0.67
43	Women infections	2	0.67
44	Abscess	1	0.33
45	Anti-anxiety	1	0.33
46	Anti-ascorbic	1	0.33
47	Anti-bacterial	1	0.33
48	Anti-dandruff	1	0.33
49	Anti-hair loss	1	0.33
50	Anti-leech	1	0.33
51	Anti-Tumor	1	0.33
52	Anti-urticarial	1	0.33
53	Appetizer	1	0.33
54	Blood thinner	1	0.33
55	Bone pain	1	0.33
56	Bronchits	1	0.33
57	Child ear pain	1	0.33
58	Decrease triglyceride	1	0.33
59	Duodenal pain	1	0.33
60	Eyes discords	1	0.33
61	Fattening	1	0.33
62	Fertility discords	1	0.33
63	Heart discords	1	0.33
64	Hemagglutinate	1	0.33
65	Hepatoprotective	1	0.33
66	Increased milk	1	0.33
67	Intestinal Problem	1	0.33
68	Joundice	1	0.33
69	Knew joint pain	1	0.33
70	Menorrhagia	1	0.33
71	Mind stranger	1	0.33
72	sputum	1	0.33
73	Reduced Cholesterol	1	0.33
74	Sciatica	1	0.33
75	Scorpion bite	1	0.33
76	Snake bit	1	0.33
77	Sting	1	0.33
78	Urine Tube	1	0.33
79	Women Period disords	1	0.33

Open in a separate window

Veterinary uses

Interviewees have mentioned few species for treatment of animals. Nicotina tabacum (reported by the 10% of informants) is only used in veterinary medicine, as anti-parasitic (Anti-leech for example: Limnatis nilotica) and antifungal (antidermatophytosis) for external use. Sorghum halepense and Amygdalus arabica, used commonly for humans (see Table 1), are employed as remedies for domestic animals. The leaf and stem of Sorghum halepense is administered externally to animals for abortion. The oil seed of Amygdalus arabica is used externally for body pain.

Discussions and conclusions

In present study, we have compared our ethnobotanical data with the data present in Iranian Medicinal plant literatures (Afshar, 1990; Amin, 1991; Ayiineh Chii, 1989; Ghasemi Pirbalouti, 2009a,b; Ghorbani, 2005; Hovayzeh et al., 2001; Miraldi et al., 2001; Mir-Heidari, 1993; Rojhan, 1991; Salehi Surmaghi et al., 1992; Zargari, 1989–1992). Most of the plants indicated by the interviewees are reported in Iranian literature, but not in every occasion were the actions attributed to a plant the same. For example, there are not reports in the official Iranian phytotherapy of the use of Atriplex leucoclada and Echinops viscidulus as an emollient, cough and sore throat; Avena wiestii as treatment of gastric pain and rheumatism; Centaurea iberica, Centaurea ovina, Centaurea intricate and Picnomon acarna as treatment of gastric pain; Cerasus microcarpa subsp. microcarpa as sedative, anti-calculus and anti-fever; Cirsium congestum and Crocus haussknechtii as anti-septic for gastric; Colchicum kotschyi as treatment of rheumatism; Consolida orientalis as laxative and anti-parasite, Ephedra ciliata as anti-bacterial and anti-fever, Euphorbia macroclada as treatment of wart; Lonicera nummulariifolia as anti-fever, anti-diarrheal and sedative; Nepeta persica as carminative and anti-urticarial; Noaea mucronata and Onobrychis elymaitica as anti-calculus and kidney problems; Opoponex hispidus as antiseptic; Prangos ferulacea as laxative; Periploca aphylla as anti-inflammatory; Prosopis farcta as blood thinner and anti-diabetic (reduction of blood glucose); Salvia palaestina as women fertility and women infections; Satureja khuzistanica as indigestion; headache, women infections and diuretic; Scrophularia deserti and Scrophularia striata as wound and burn healing; Stipa capensis as treatment of nerve system problems and gastric discords; Tamarix ramosissima as treatment of dermal discords, wound healing and sputum ; Thymbra spicata as treatment of cough, antibacterial and carminative; Ulmus glabra as treatment of heart discords and fertility discords; Verbascum alepense as anti-fever, dermal discords and wound healing; Vitex pseudo-negundo as increased milk; Nicotiana tabacum as treatment animal (Anti-leech and anti-dermatophytosis).

Our study contributed confirmed the ethnobotanical knowledge of Abdanan and Dehloran districts, filling a long overlooked gap. It once more remarked the relationship existing between plant diversity and the degree of ethnobotanical knowledge recorded. The former has been retained thanks to a long history of nature preservation in the study area. It is worth highlighting that we found some young people who still retain ethnobotanical knowledge or at least express interest towards traditional uses, so that they performed well as key informants. This clearly derives from the cultural and professional opportunities offered by living in a famous protected area where nature is still an important issue for local communities. However, even under these circumstances many uses have disappeared and some forgotten by otherwise experienced informants. We believe that cultural diversity should be seen in a broader sense as part of biodiversity of a region, especially where disentangling human influence and nature is virtually impossible. Traditional knowledge should therefore feature more often in the agendas of nature reserves besides biological richness as a value to preserve for the future. In general, the people of the study area still have a strong belief in the efficiency and success of medicinal plants. The results of our study reveal that some of the plant species do play an important role in the primary healthcare system of this tribal community.

Acknowledgment

Appendix 1

1. Date

2. Village

3. Informant name and surname

4. Age

5. Degree of education

6. Family origins

7. Which wild plants do you use to treat the different ailments?

8. How you have learned to recognize them?

9. Which plant parts do you use?

10. What is the vernacular name of these plants/part plants?

11. Can you describe the preparation of remedy in detail?

12. When should the medicine be taken and for how long?

13. Internal or external administration?

14. Where does this knowledge arrive from?

References