Flora of Ziarat: Ethnobotanic and Medicinal Importance

Transcription

1 Flora of Ziarat: Ethnobotanic and Medicinal Importance

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3 Table of Content Preface.....v Acknowledgements... vi Acronyms... vii Summary Introduction The Area The Scenerio Methodology Sample areas Floristic list Qauantitative inference Detail floristic information Estimation of value of available resources Propogation methods Sexual propogation Vegetative propogation The results The Qualitative attributes Ephedra intrmedia Sophora mollis Berberis lyceum Thymus vulgaris Foeniculum vulgare Coriandrum sativum Onosma hispida Convuluvulus arvensis Marrubium vulgare Artimisia maritime Mentha longifolia Plantago lanceolata Polygonum aviculare Malva neglecta The Quantitative attributes Khoski Ziarat north Ziarat south Chautair north Chautair south Batatair Nishpa The Discussions The vegetation Trade of herbal medicine The recomendations Tea Preprations Shelter belt/ ethenobotanic importance Other ethnobotanic importance Trees The ABS concept iii

4 6. References Anexuture iv

5 Preface: This report details on identifying the potentials of flora in Ziarat as a source of ethnobotanic and medicinal purposes and the availability of opportunities for supporting livelihood. This document could be a supportive tool for policy makers, conservationist, and developmental sector to identify the need for managing the resource by adopting sustainable practices. The information gathered in this document is assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively and would definatly help all the stakeholders to recognize the importance of ecologically vulnerable floral resource. This write up is a result of gathering information from the secondary source, field visits and number of consultative meetings with the stake holders. The recommendation of this report is the clear reflection of serious approach of the implementers of the project towards recognition of the wise use of resources for their future. v

6 Acknowledgements: The author is indebted to the team of the Mainstreaming Biodiversity into Production System in Juniper Ecosystem, particularly the field staff, and would like to express gratitude to the members of Ziarat, Chautair and Nishpa communities, for their hospitality and their readiness to reply to our questions. The author especially appreciates the help of Mr. Muhamad Akhtar Baazai (Deputy Conservator Forest at Ziarat), Mr. Hashim Khan Tareen (Range Forest Officer Ziarat), Mr. Noorul Haq Khan Kakar (Retired Forest Guard Ziarat), Mr. Raza Khan (Forest Guard Ziarat), Haji Usman (Forest Guard Batatair) Mr. Hasan Khan of Batatair, Hakim Niazi of Sanjavi and the people of Ziarat valley. The role of IUCN Quetta team under the leadership of Mr. Zabardast Khan Bangash is appreciable. Special thanks to Syed Ghulam Muhammad (Project Manager IUCNP Ziarat), for providing me dedicated time, valuable inputs very useful images. Dr. Mufakhra Jan Durrani from Department of Botany, University of Balochistan with her students support in the field and identification support from Karachi University Herberium are greatly acknowledged. vi

7 Acronyms: ABS CBD CCAs CMPAs EVM GEF GOP IUCN NTFPs Unani UNDP WHO ZJFC Access on Benfit Sharing Convention on Biological Diversity Community Managed Areas Co-managed Protected Areas Ethnovetnary medicine Global Environmental Facility Government of Pakistan International Union for the Conservation of Nature Non Timber Forest Products Eastern Medicine United Nations Development Programme World Health Organization Ziarat Juniper Forest Complex vii

8 Summary: Flora contributes the main ingredients of medicines in traditional systems of healing and has been the source of inspiration for several major pharmaceutical drugs. Roughly about 1 in 6 of all species has been used medicinally. The WHO estimates that a minimum of plant taxa has recorded medicinal uses. It is estimated that up to plant species are used in folk medicine and a majority of these species are found in the Asia-Pacific region. More than 80 % of Asia s population (WHO) cannot afford or access formal health care systems and are dependent on these culturally familiar, technically simple, financially affordable and effective traditional medicines. In developing countries it is estimated that traditional birth attendants assist in up to 95 % of rural and 70 % of urban births and mainly relies on traditional medicines as pre and post maternity care. It has been estimated that around 95 % of the medicinal plants are harvested and collected in wild. In this practice wild collection exceed the quantity available from natural resources and ultimately over time it is threatening to some plant species. A focus on medicinal plants raises some major questions of conservation. Conservation and livelihoods are closely linked with medicinal plants. If conserved, medicinal plants will continue to be available to provide continuing benefits for healthcare, income and support of cultural heritage. They can also be seen as an opportunity to restrict the overexploitation of habitat interms of farm conversions. The role of flora in ethnoveterinary" practices offer viable alternatives or complement to conventional, western style veterinary medicine - especially where the latter is unavailable or inappropriate. The use of medicinal plants constitutes major part of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) in Pakistan. Challenges of conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources still exist in Pakistan. Degradation in natural resources is visible, caused by increased human activities related to the growing population coupled with, human destruction of natural habitats, migration of human population resulting in the change of land use pattern, invasive species, the growing demand for natural resources and its inappropriate management. In addition, no systematic work has been carried out on the status and threats to ecosystems, and also the effects of global climate change are poorly understood. Balochistan, with an area of 347, 200 square kilometres, makes up 44% of Pakistan with its variation deserts, a coastal zone, uplands, plains, diverse plants and wildlife, and climatic extremes. It is often inhospitable, constrains settlement patterns and limits the growth of economic sectors, such as agriculture and forestry. The natural landscape dictates the movement of people and livestock. The mountains divide the province into distinctive cultural, socio-economic and ecological regions. Ziarat one of the smallest districts in Balochistan lies at an altitude of almost 8000 feet above sea level. The climate is extremely cold in winters while summers are pleasant. It is rich in biodiversity with a large variety of fauna and indigenous medicinally important flora. The evergreen Juniperus excelsa forest here is the second largest forest of the world. The forests in Ziarat are under stress from a range of factors, both natural and human induced. Local people are dependent on these forests to fulfil their livelihood demands posing pressure on various other forest products. Applications of the indigenous knowledge of mountain people in relation to biodiversity resource management remain a key issue. The information about the vegetation of Ziarat is very scanty and not much of the published data was available; either there were no information available or it would be too superficial and old. Generating primary information requires tremendous resources in terms of time, effort and cost. The data gathered as a result of this study was comprised of two sets, i.e post (Early Fall 07) and pre (Late Spring) rain situations. The first study was conducted in the end of July 2007refered here as Fall 07; whereas the second study was conducted in

9 May 2008 reffered as Spring 08. The studies were conducted in Khoski, Batatair, Nishpa, North and South of Ziarat and North and South of Chautair. A floristic list of the area was prepared. The quantitative data were collected using plotless sampling method of random pairs. The data sets were then classified on the basis of spatial and temporal distribution of the vegetation (ground strata). The data set was then subject to a series of calculations resulting in defining the IVI (Importance value index) and Y3 (Importance value) of the species present in the particular habitat. The abundance value of the species was estimated using IVI (Importance Value Index) as a variable. The Ziarat Juniper Forest not singly caters the natural needs of the communities living in the area but also offers a condusive situation for the growth of a wide variety of herbs and shrubs, which are medicinally and ethno botanically important. The available qualitative data set revealed the presence of some 54 species belonging to some 25 families more than half of them are known for their medicinal/ ethnobotanic importance. The Ziarat juniper ecosystem has evolved in an unusual combination of soil and climate, highly calcareous, stony and shallow soil, receiving very low precipitation Along with tree form Juniperus excelsa, most of the short stature shrubs are co-dominant in these areas including Sophora mollis, Artemisia sp., Perviskia abrotanoides and Thymus linearis as ground cover. The set of extreem conditions pushes the vegetation to develop mechanisms for their survival; these stress responses are usually benifited the mankind in the form of variety of products used in medicine. This has been observed that the plants adepted in specific habitat alowed to grow under optimal conditions (Greenhouse) grow healthy; but loose their ethnobotnic value. The approximate length of the strech of landscape that constitute Ziarat and Chautair valley falls around Kms. The flora present in the strech gives a unique pattern. The pre rain (Spring 08) set of ground vegetation was dominated by Andracnae, Bromis, Convolvulus, Artimisia, Stachys and Sophora on the northern side of the valley; whereas Hertia, Perviskia, Thymus and Artimisia, Sacchrum, Sophora on the southern part of the valley. The post rain (Early Fall) composition of the flora for northern part was represented by Artimisia, Polygonum, Perviskia and Stachys, Artimisia, Caragna. The southern part was dominated by Juniperus, Perviskia, Polygonum and Perviskia, Sophora and Artimisia in the order of dominance. The pre rain (Late Spring) floristic composition in Khoski, Bataytair and Nishpa is represented by Sophora, Olea, Taraxicum, Perviskia,Stachys,Caragna, Hertia, Sophora and Stachys respectively; whereas the post rain (Early Fall) composition for the same was Sophora, Juniperus,Caragna, Perviskia, Berberis, Caragna and Sophora, Juniperus, Phlomis respectively. Species listed in view of the suitability of habitat and handeling and can be subjected to carry forward to acertain the opportunities for improving the livelihoods of the communities and help them in adopting diversified trade to minimize the burden on Juniper ecosystem. This would be helpful in reducing the change in landuse pattern by providing the enhanced value of the existing farm. The set of flora recomended below are significantly represented in the central asian part of the continent and in common ethnobotnic uses. Ziziphora teniour, Thymus lineris, Thymus vulgaris, Nepeta glomerulosa Prposed as potential herbal tea. Whereas; Berberis lyceum, Berberis callobotrys, Berberis balochistanicus Caragna ambigua.peroviskia abrotaniodies. Could be used for potential 2

10 shelter belts and other ethnobotanic purpose in medium term. Erumurus stynophyllus, Rosa sp.prunus sp. Pegnum hermala, Artimisia maritime, Onosma hispid,.onosma baractiatum, Mentha logifolia, Foeniculum vulgare, Plantago ovata are already known for their uses in Ziarat but need attention to be exploited as potential supporting crops.pistacia Khinjuk, Juniperus excelsa polycarpos (Berry harvest) also have prospects of commercial value. Ziarat has all good conditions to offer a good model for ABS concept. The community would be benefited by having additional income from the resources which are Ziarat specifics. The other good aspect of doing this would reduce the change in land use pattern of the area; since the medicinal plants can be easily grown and harvested in the existing farmlands; thus enabling the community to use common resource for their income support. It has been observed that the recent introduction of apiculture in the area would also attract people to have medicinal honey besides having cross pollinating their orchids. 3

11 1.0 Introduction: Flora contributes the main ingredients of medicines in traditional systems of healing and has been the source of inspiration for several major pharmaceutical drugs. Roughly about 1 in 6 of all species has been used medicinally. This represents by far the biggest use of the natural world in terms of number of species. The WHO estimates that a minimum of plant taxa has recorded medicinal uses. It is estimated that up to plant species are used in folk medicine and a majority of these species are found in the Asia-Pacific region. However, the use of medicinal plants is faced with many constraints. Some of these constraints include: plants with medicinal values not fully identified, inventoried and characterized, information and knowledge not being adequately documented and disseminated, many issues are not addressed and resolved (i.e. equity and sustainability), and the alarming commercial over-exploitation and consequent genetic erosion of medicinal plants. There are more than 8,000 plants species in South Asia with known medicinal uses and are an essential part of traditional health care systems. More than 80 % of Asia s population (WHO) cannot afford or access formal health care systems and are dependent on these culturally familiar, technically simple, financially affordable and effective traditional medicines. In developing countries it is estimated that traditional birth attendants assist in up to 95 % of rural and 70 % of urban births and mainly relies on traditional medicines as pre and post maternity care. The medicinal plants have been used by humans from the pre-historical times. Studies have pointed out that many drugs that are used in commerce have come from folk-use and use of plants by indigenous cultures (Anon 1994). About 50 drugs have been discovered from ethnobotanical leads by translating folk knowledge into new pharmaceuticals. Some examples of medicinal plant from the Asia-Pacific region are of species such as Rauvolfia, Hyoscyamus, Cassia, Atropa, Podophyllum, Psoralea, Catharanthus, and Papaver. However, relatively few medicinal and aromatic plant species have been brought into cultivation worldwide and most of these species continue to be harvested from their native habitats (Gupta and Chadha 1995; Salleh et al. 1997; Gautam et al. 1998). Very little work has been undertaken on their selection and improvement, for developing suitable varieties. Around 100 plant species have contributed significantly to modern drugs. The use of medicinal plants is increasing worldwide, related to the persistence and sometimes expansion of traditional medicine and a growing interest in herbal treatments. Traditional Greek (Unani) medicine is quite a popular practice here. It originated in Greece, founded by old ancient Greeks, and was developed and documented by Muslims during the glorious period of Islamic civilization. This trade of medicine was introduced to the subcontinent by Muslim scholars and practiced successfully for centuries. In subcontinent it gets benefited from the Ayurvedic system of medicine, which was an important component of Hindu civilization and all these system of healing greatly depend on wild plant collections. It has been estimated that around 95 % of the medicinal plants are harvested and collected in wild. In this practice wild collection exceed the quantity available from natural resources and 4

12 ultimately over time it is threatening to some plant species. The alarming levels of deforestation and ecosystem degradation have severely reduced the availability of medicinal plant and the overall environmental sustainability of the region. The market and community demand has been so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today, face either extinction or loss of genetic assortment (Lucy and DaSilva 1999, Personal communication Dean of Eastern Medicine at Hamdard University). Most of these plants have remarkable medicinal and economic value, often only known to indigenous communities. Unfortunately, very little attention has been paid to the ethnobotanical aspect of plants as hakims are only concerned with the floral and vegetative parts of medicinal plants without any regard to their botanical characteristics, or distribution in the various ecological zones of Pakistan. Herbs are not only used in the ayurvedic system of treatment but in the preparation of many allopathic and homeopathic drugs: no wonder these herbs are now being commercially exploited for the extraction of various ingredients. A focus on medicinal plants raises some major questions of conservation. Conservation and livelihoods are closely linked with medicinal plants. If conserved, medicinal plants will continue to be available to provide continuing benefits for healthcare, income and support of cultural heritage. They can also be seen as an opportunity to restrict the overexploitation of habitat interms of farm conversions. There is a growing trend of widespread interest in promotion of traditional health care systems and there is a strong and sustained public support for it. The collection and cultivation of medicinal plants besides health benefits also provides a vital livelihood options for millions in rural communities, especially landless and low-income farmers. In India, it is estimated that the collection and processing of medicinal plants contributes to at least 35 million workdays of employment per annum (Karki, 2002). Priority in the sustainable management of medicinal flora includes the conservation of this biological diversity at the level of ecosystem, species and genetic sources. It is only possible through the involvement of all stakeholders and interested parties to take it of utmost importance. Pakistan is among the moderately diverse countries in biological resources, where people's reliance on natural sources for sustenance and well-being is immensely strong. The country has rich and unbroken tradition of the use of medicinal plants and other natural resources for healthcare needs. (Siddiqui, B.S and M.I. Chaudhary 2001). It has been observed that livestock raisers and healers everywhere have traditional ways of classifying, diagnosing, preventing and treating common animal diseases. Many of these "ethnoveterinary" practices offer viable alternatives or complement to conventional, western style veterinary medicine - especially where the latter is unavailable or inappropriate. The use of medicinal plants constitutes major part of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) in Pakistan.Use of medicinal plants as an anthelmintic (de-wormer) has been given as an example. (Zafar Iqbal etal 2005) Pakistan has almost half of its listed flora recognised as ethnobotanically important. Around 300 species are reported be used in traditional medicine (Haq, 1998; Perveen & Hussain, 2007); However, 1010 species have been identified for their medicinal properties, which makes around 16.8% of the total listed flora (Shinwari 2005). There are 86 registered organizations involved in preparing herbal/ eastern medicine; offering around products. There is a growing demand of raw material majority of which is imported (around 90%) (Aslam, M 2008). The system of eastern medicines caters around 50% of the population. The parctioners of traditional medicines in Pakistan are around 50,000. The importance of medicinal herbs and spices have not been given due attention besides having great economic value and a great potential to support the ecosystem in which they are growing, by conserving soil, water and providing a habitat for other species. In addition, have considerable value in social terms as well. 5

13 Pakistan, though, not among the biodiversity hot spots of the world, still faces immense challenges of conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources. Degradation in natural resources is visible, caused by increased human activities related to the growing population coupled with, human destruction of natural habitats, migration of human population resulting in the change of land use pattern, invasive species, the growing demand for natural resources and its inappropriate management. In addition, no systematic work has been carried out on the status and threats to ecosystems, and also the effects of global climate change are poorly understood. The management of an appropriate combination of resources, in various locations and under diverse conditions would be one of the efficient ways to conserve ecosystem that offers the medicinal wealth. 1.1 The area: The total area of Pakistan is mh, out of which 88% is classified as arid and semiarid and only 12% is humid and sub-humid, mainly located in the Himalayas and Karakoram ranges. The area covered by forest is mh (5%) out of which mh is classified as temperate conifer forest and mh as sub-tropical forest. Fig.1 Agroecological zones of Pakistan. Balochistan is a land of striking contrasts and contradictions that defies easy description. It has deserts, a coastal zone, uplands, plains, diverse plants and wildlife, and climatic extremes. This semi-arid land provides for all the needs of the people. The soils on which to grow crops and the natural vegetation on which to graze animals. The land provides for a broad diversity to serve many human needs. It influences climate, and in turn, the rivers and groundwater resources. It also provides a source of raw materials that underpin economic growth. But has its limits. It is often inhospitable, constrains settlement patterns and limits the growth of economic sectors, such as agriculture and forestry. The natural landscape dictates the movement of people and livestock. The mountains divide the province into distinctive cultural, socio-economic and ecological regions and limit communication. Balochistan, with an area of 347, 200 square kilometres, makes up 44% of Pakistan. It is the largest province. 6

14 Ziarat Fig.2. Major ecological divisions in Balochistan. Ziarat in Balochistan lies at an altitude of almost 8000 feet above sea level. The climate is extremely cold in winters while summers are pleasant. It is rich in biodiversity with a large variety of fauna and indigenous medicinally important flora. The evergreen Juniperus excelsa forest here is the second largest forest of the world. These are the oldest living species on the planet and are also known as living fossils, their age is estimated as 2000 years. They have a slow growth rate and a low potential for regeneration. Its berries have long been in use in folk medicine for kidney disorderss and other diseases. From Qta Ziarat Koshki Chautair Fig. 3. Satellite image of Ziarat. According to Champion, Seth & Khattak (1965), the Juniper Tract falls within the dry temperate forest region. The average annual rainfall is 269 mm with a maximum of 74 mm in July and a minimum of 3 mmm in January. The hotest month is July (27.4 C) ), the coldest is January (7.9 C). Relative humidity ranges from 35 7

15 % in January to 60 % in September. Snow occurs between November and April with a maximum (68 cm) in February (data from Ziarat). The area supports tropical steppe flora (below 1,500 m) and open xeric woodlands (1,500 to 2,000 m). The vegetation consist of open woodlands of pistachio (Pistachia atlantica, P. khinjuk), almond (Prunus rosaceae, P. eburnea), barberry (Berberis), sage or wormwood (Artemesia spp.), and juniper (Juniperus macropoda, J. semiglobosa, and J. excelsa). The transitional woodland between the subtropical woodlands and the alpine vegetation of sclerophyllus forest supports the olive (Olea cuspidata). The ground layer that dominates areas within the woodlands south of the ecoregion is composed of perennial grasses, tropical shrubs, and Artemisia maritima, perennial grasses of Poa and Bromus spp., and bulbous plants such as Iris, Tulipa, and Allium spp. are also found on these slopes. 1.2 The Scenario The forests in Ziarat are under stress from a range of factors, both natural and human induced. Local people are dependent on these forests to fulfil their livelihood demands posing pressure on various other forest products. Applications of the indigenous knowledge of mountain people in relation to biodiversity resource management remain a key issue. The decline in biodiversity of the area due to number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors was alarming in the country. This has been reflected in the case of Ziarat valley as well. Fig.4.Subregional devide of ecological zones showing diversity hotspots and their relative percentage composition from Shinwari, Z. K Ziarat falls under Western Irano-Turanian subregion representing around 45% of the floral diversity as described by Shinwari The area is exposed to a number of stresses like continued spell of drought coupled with political instability in the vicinity which over burdened the habitat by the nomads and the marginalized communities to use it to subsidize impoverished incomes ultimately causing the indiscriminate and over-collection of plants material. 8

16 1800 Floral distribution in Pakistan # of species Threat en Medicinal Flora Locations Flora M edicinal Threat en Fig. 5: Total Flora and medicinal plants of the hotspots of Pakistan and their current status (from Shinwari, Z.K. 2009). Shinwari 2009 in his document listed a number natural resource on which the livelihood of the communities are directly or indirectly dependent. The case of wild pomegranate (Punica granatum) locally known as "anar dana found in Pakistan is among them to be presented. These anar dana are used in cooking as it has been used as taste enhancer for the dishes; besides having medicinal value. The tree of the wild pomegranate grows naturally in sub-mountainous tracts of the country from 900 to 1,800 m. Reported from Ziarat, and other parts of the Pakistan. Approximately 4,500 to 5,000 people are involved in the collection and processing of wild pomegranate and there were more than 100 dealers only in NWFP who purchase the fresh pomegranate fruit. Women were earning Rs. 300 to 500 for each 40 kg of seed extraction. The unit price of the wild pomegranate is 150 to 200 per kg. The total production of wild pomegranate was 69,000 tonnes in the country in (Agriculture Statistic of Pakistan, 99-00). This shows the livelihood dependence of the communities on one of the floral resource; one can imagine the cumulative effect of all such available resources. The rapid degradation of floral and cultural diversity, coupled with increasing rate of poverty make it imperative to find solutions to sustain the valuable resource; involvelment of indeginous experience making decisions to manage the resource. Studies offering solutions for managing the natural resources will help in providing food security, nutrition and health care to the indigenous population and to public in general. Also help transpire local ethnobotanical knowledge. 9

17 There is a huge crude drug (Pansara) market system that is almost entirely dependent on wild flora and caters the financial need of thousands of worker involved in the trade. Both human and animal ailments are treated through the use of medicinal herbs. A very little is documented and known about the associated flora of Ziarat Juniper Forest ecosystem and with the particular reference of its uses; it is imperative to have an updated document on the representative floristic list defining the ethno botanic and medicinal importance of the flora represented in Ziarat Juniper Forest. This study is an effort to address the need. 2.0 Methodology The information about the vegetation of Ziarat is very scanty and not much of the published data was available; either there were no information available or it would be too superficial and old. Generating primary information requires tremendous resources in terms of time, effort and cost. The data gathered as a result of this study was comprised of two sets, i.e post and pre rain situations. The first study was conducted in the end of July 2007refered here as Fall 07; whereas the second study was conducted in May 2008 reffered as Spring Sample areas: Koshki valley lies in the south of Ziarat town and is famous for the shrine of famous sufi saint Kharwari Baba. Koshki valley supports good patches of Juniper forests. This valley consists of 9 main villages. The main sources of livelihoods are agriculture and livestock. Both of these livelihood sources have suffered heavily in the drought in recent past. Population distribution # of individuals Koshki Ziarat Chautair Nishpa Valleys Fig.6. Population dispersion in different sub valleys of Ziarat. Main Ziarat valley stretches from the Ziarat Tangi to the divide between Ziarat and Chautair valleys. Besides the main Ziarat town there are 6 villages in this valley. In the main Ziarat valley unlike other valleys, livelihood sources show a mix including agriculture, livestock, government and private services, daily wage labour and business. 10

18 Agricultural land distribution Area in hectares Koshki Ziarat Chautair Nishpa Valleys Fig.7. Agriculture land distribution in different sub valleys of Ziarat. Main Chautair valley starts from the Ziarat Chautair divide and extends upto Thanda Wani village. It is a long valley with good forest cover. This valley consists of 9 main villages. In the main Chautair valley inhabitants like other valleys are dependent upon agriculture and livestock for their livelihoods. Nishpa valley is situated on the east of Koshki valley beyond the Malikat mountainous rugged hilly area and on the south of Chowtair valley. This valley consists of 7 main villages. Population has a migratory behaviour during winter to the low land area. Agriculture and livestock are the main sources of livelihoods and have suffered adversely during the recent drought. 2.2 Floristic list: The flora was listed based on identification keys and published information, alternatively taxon were collected with all relevant information recorded. The collected speciman were analysed and identified by phytotaxonmist of Karachi University herberium for the validation of their nomenclauture. 2.3 Qauantitaive inference: The quantitative data were collected using plotless sampling method of random pairs. The data sets were then classified on the basis of spatial and temporal distribution of the vegetation (ground strata). The area sampled were Khoski, Ziarat, Nishpa /Batytair and finally Chautair valley. Ziarat and Chautair valleys were relatively of larger size therefore were divided into strata of south and north facing sides. The data set was then subject to a series of calculations resulting in defining the IVI (Importance value index) and Y3 (Importance value) of the species present in the particular habitat. The abundance value of the species was estimated using IVI (Importance Value Index) as a variable. The density and cover per acre of a species were also estimated using different phytosociological formulae including Simpson and Shannon indices were also calculated with slight modifications to assess the degree of diversity in the area they can be calculated based on following relationship: Simpson s inedx D = (n i / N) 2 Shannon s index H = - n i / N log e n i / N 11

19 2.4 Detail floristic information: The qualitative information like morphology, phenology, ethnobotnic uses and medicinal value, conservation status etc were listed by holding individual and group meetings with the locals and the people engaged in the discipline. Information gathered locally has been traced and verified from the available published information and publications around the world. Based on collated information a relatively detail species information sheet were prepared for medicinally important selected species. 2.5 Estimation of the value of the available resource: The economic aspect of the herbal trade in Ziarat area was also assessed analysed and discussed. Based on the information gathered locally and from the markets of the nearby areas and major economic centers in the country, some of the recommendations were made to address the sustainability of the resources giving due consideration to the conservation status and livlihoods of the native people. 2.6 Propogation mechenism: Sexual propogation (Seed) Seeds produce many plants at once and they can be collected and transported very easily. The main problems that it may encounter with seed propagation are failure to germinate and loss through transplanting. Both of these problems can be reduced with careful nursery stock management. Many seeds are best-sown fresh and do not survive if they are allowed to dry-out. Always check that the seed is free from pests and disease. Even if an often a result of a) A natural chemical inhibitor in the seed or b) The having a physical inhibitor i.e. a hard seed coat.these inhibitors are designed to protect the seed from germinating in an unsuitable environment. To succeed with these kinds of seeds it may need to experiment to find out what kind of inhibitor the seed has, sometimes they have both. The main method of breaking down the chemical inhibitor is by soaking the seeds in water. This can wash away a chemical inhibitor. A physical inhibitor requires scarifying. This is the use of abrasion t break through the hard outer coat of the seed without damaging the seed itself. Hard-coated seeds may also respond to overnight soaking in water. The prepared seeds should be distributed uniformly over the seedbed. After sowing rake the soil over lightly to ensure good seed-soil contact. If the seeds are very large it may choose to plant them individually. The general rule is to plant a seed at a depth equal to the size of the seed itself. The seeded areas should be watered carefully. Avoid waterlogging and the displacement of seeds with careless watering. When planting seeds into polythene bags the soil in the bags should be moist. The seed should be planted at a depth of 2cm or so. If in doubt about which way up to plant the seed place the seed flat in the soil at a depth that is the same as the thickness of the seed. Alternatively, seeds can be planted by digging a hole and dropping 12

20 two seeds in with the pointed ends upwards. The holes are then covered up with soil. At the four-leaf stage, remove one seedling, leaving the stronger seedling to grow Vegetative propagation: This is when it takes a vegetative part of the plant, stem or piece of root and grows new plants from it directly i.e. not seed. By rooting cuttings on the nursery it is not necessary to rely on the parent plant producing seed and it can overcome many of the problems that it may have with trying to get seeds to germ innate successfully. Vegetative cutting mean that it can select plant that is best for the needs i.e. the individual plant that it know to be particularly potent and valuable for medicine rather than leaving this to be the chance with a random selection of seedlings Stem cuttings Commonly, the vegetative part of the plant used for propagation is the stem. Collect small branches of vigorous growth, which shows no sign of pest or disease, and make every effort to prevent this from wilting. When it collects the cutting materials avoid the heat of the day as this is when the plant is loosing a lot of its moisture. Do not keep the material in a polythene bag, as it will overheat very easily. Once in the nursery, find s shaded area and prepare the cuttings. It may like to have a bucket of cold water standing by to receive the trimmed cuttings. Take a moderately vigorous shoot and cut to a length of between cm long. The length of stem it required depends on the length of internodes (the space between the leaves). A node is the point at which the leaf meets the stem and a cutting is measured by the number of nodes it has. For example, a single node cutting is suitable from plants where the internodes space is no less than 1.5cm. In this case it should be cut just above the node and then insert that end into the compost. Two-node cuttings are taken from plants where there is a shorter distance between the nodes. Cut just under a node, as this is a good place for roots to be formed. Many node cuttings are for species that have very short internodes and lots of small leaves. These are best taken at 5-15cm long. If the stem is leafy this is usually known as a softwood cutting. Most tropical trees can be propagated from softwood cutting. Using a clean knife, remove all but the top two leaves of the cutting. Trim each leaf down by half. It is preferable to dip the stem base into a hormone solution or powder to encourage rooting. However, this is not absolutely necessary. Insert two thirds of the stem into the prepared cutting bed or polythene bags of compost and gently press the compost down to firm it in. Water and keep shaded. To avoid drying breezes make sure that the cuttings are sheltered by palm leaves or by some other kind of structure. It is important that the new cuttings are kept cool and do not dry our. The leaves of the cutting should never wilt. The best 13

21 way to stop the leafy soft woodcuttings drying-out is to build a small propagator. This can be as large or as small as it require. The purpose of the propagator is to maintain high air humidity. If it takes a cutting from a stem of a plant, which is leafless this is usually known as a hardwood cutting. If there are leaves still on the cutting these can be cut off using a sharp knife leaving a very few leaves at the tip. The wood is usually firmer and there is less danger of the cutting drying out. These cuttings are usually much larger than softwood cuttings (as much as 1-2 meters) and can usually be planted directly into the ground but will take longer to root. The cutting should have an inactive bud, as it is better for the new shoot growth to begin after rooting Root cuttings: These can be cut from the main plant without destroying it. A piece of stem be cut as long and as tick as the index finger. Do not use any growth hormone, as this will stop the root growing. Place the root cutting horizontally in a polythene bag full of compost or directly into the nursery beds. Cover with a light layer of soil and firm down. Watering is done as and when necessary. Roots develop between 4-8 weeks after planting Tubers: Take these cuttings when the plant is not actively growing i.e. when it is dormant. Cut small piece of the tuber, which should include a bud. Do not use any growth hormone. To allow it to harvest some of the plants tubers later without destroying the whole plant, it will be beneficial to plant this cutting into a raised bed or individual mound as for ginger Suckers: Suckers are the shoots that are produced from the roots. Treat these as either uprooted cuttings or separate them from the main plant keeping a piece of root attached. Avoid these suckers drying out by preparing the planting ground in advance and water them as soon as it have planted them Offsets: These are the little clumps of new shoots that form clumps or sets of buds at the base of some species e.g. banana and plantain. Separate these from the main plant and divide them into individual plants or small clumps. Do not allow these to dry out or be left in the sun. Plant these clumps into the nursery beds or into their final planting position and water them well Undercutting seedbeds: Drawing the blade of a machete at ground level, under a raised bed of cultivating plants, is known as undercutting. This is a useful technique when growing cultivating plants in 14

22 the nursery to help them to develop a very fibrous root system. This results in good plant establishment when they are transplanted to their final planting site. Undercutting promotes vigorous fibrous roots and prevents the roots from penetrating too far down into the nursery bed. Undercutting can only be done on a raised bed that is twice the width of a machete Post Planting care Potting-on is what it do when the seeds or cutting have established an adequate rooting system to sustain them and it need to move them into a bigger pot or to a larger site where they can grow on for a little while longer. It is the point at which they have developed roots and are ready to start growing into cultivating plants. The correct time for potting-on seedlings are when the first set of true leaves have grown. The correct time for cutting is when the roots are visible through the holes in the bottom of the pot or, if they are directly planted into beds, when they show signs of independent growth in the form of a new flush of leaves. Lifting these delicate cultivating plants and potting them into new pots or a new piece of ground is a most stressful time for the cultivating plant. Water the plants it intends to move the day before the operation. Handle the rooting ball compost rather than pulling them. Ensure that it loosen the soil around the plant using a stick or other small utensil before lifting it from the bed. Hold the cultivating seedling by the first two seed leaves not by the stem or roots. If it bruise the neck of the soft stem, the plant us likely to rot. If in pots, gently loosen the root ball in the pot before tapping the whole root ball into the upturned hand. Always carry out his operation in the cool of the day and in the shade. Do not handle the plant too often and try to keep the roots cool throughout the operation. Prepare the new planting area before initiating the transplanting. Have the compost ready mixed or the bed already dug over and raked level in expectation of the transplanting. Water the newly transplanted plants thoroughly to ensure that the roots are in close contact with the soil around them. The plants must not be allowed to dry out or the roots be unduly damaged or broken. All newly potted-on plants should be watered well and shaded for a few days after potting-on. 15

23 3.0 The Results: The Ziarat Juniper Forests are under considerable pressure from a range of threats including over use for fuel. wood, brush fencing, construction timber, roof thatching etc and natural threats such as Dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium oxycedri), fungal die-back, fire and the largely unknown impacts of climate change. Strengthened protection is therefore warranted. The Ziarat Juniper Forest not singly caters the natural needs of the communities living in the area but also offers a condusive situation for the growth of a wide variety of herbs and shrubs, which are medicinally and ethno botanically important. The available qualitative data set revealed the presence of some 54 species distributed as follows in Fig. and listed below in the table. Floral distribution in Ziarat # of species Listed Species Medicinally Imp Ethno Impo catagories Fig.8. Floral distribution in Ziarat. 16

24 Table 1: -A generalized floristic list of Ziarat valley. # Taxon Vernacular name Family 01 Pistacia Khinjuk Stocks. Buzgai Anacardiaceae 02 Coriandrum sativum Linn. Dhanya Apiaceae 03 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Kumala Apiaceae 04 Traychyspermum baluchistanicum E.Nasir. Apiaceae 05 Eremurus persicus (Jaub.& Spach) Boiss Asphodelaceae 06 Eremurus stenophyllus (Boiss.& Bushe) Baker Shezgi Asphodelaceae 07 Artemisia maritima Linn Tarkha sperah (Zeher) Asteraceae 08 Artemisia stricta Edgew Zhusane Turkha Asteraceae 09 Conyza bonariensis (Linn.) Cronquist Asteraceae 10 Lactuca orientalis (Boiss.)Boiss. Asteraceae 11 Lactuca sarriola Linn. Asteraceae 12 Sonchus asper (Linn) Hill. Asteraceae 13 Xanthium strumarium Linn Chota Asteraceae 14 Berberis baluchistanica Ahrendt. Tor zaralga Berberidaceae 15 Berberis calliobotrys Aitch.& Koehne Shin zaralga Berberidaceae 16 Berberis densiflora Boiss.& Bushe Soor zaralga Berberidaceae 17 Onosma hispida Wall.ex G.Don. Yarilang Boraginaceae 18 Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieb. Campanulaceae 19 Chenopodium foilosum Aschers. Goosefoot Chenopodiaceae 20 Salsola paulsenii Litv. Jaghun Chenopodiaceae 21 Hertia intermedia (Boiss) O.Ktze. Munglian Companulaceae 22 Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Bachki Convolvulaceae 23 Convolvulus spinosus Brum.f. Vatke Convolvulaceae 24 Ephedra intermedia Schrenk. Uman Ephedraceae 25 Ephedra procera Fisch. & May Uman Ephedraceae 26 Andrachne telephioides Linn Ghuazarpara Euphorbiaceae 27 Astragulus tribuloides Del. Fabaceae 28 Caragna ambigua Stocks. Makhi Fabaceae 29 Medicago sativa Linn Spishta Fabaceae 30 Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker Zagherah Fabaceae 31 Marrubium vulgare Linn. Lamiaceae 32 Mentha longifolia (Linn) Lamiaceae 33 Nepeta glomerulosa Boiss Chingan buti Lamiaceae 34 Peroviskia abrotanoides Karel. Shinshobay Lamiaceae 35 Phlomis spectabilis Falc.ex Benth Kundulay Lamiaceae 36 Phlomis stewartii Hook.f. Lamiaceae 37 Stachys parviflora Benth. Randukay Lamiaceae 38 Teucrium stocksianum Boiss Kerpola Lamiaceae 39 Thymus linearis Benth Lamiaceae 40 Ziziphora clinopodiodes Lam. Purchink Maurai Lamiaceae 41 Malva neglecta Wallr Kukra Malvaceae 42 Mimosa pudica Linn Sarma buti Mimosaceae 43 Olea ferruginea Royle Zaitoon (kahu) Oleaceae 44 Plantago erosa Wall. Bartang Plantaginaceae 45 Plantago lanceolata Linn. Bartang Plantaginaceae 46 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss Poaceae 47 Polygonum aviculare Linn Polygonaceae 48 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam Ber Rhamnaceae 49 Rhamnus persica Boiss Rhamnaceae 50 Rosa lacerans Boiss & Bushe Suraya Rosaceae 51 Solanum nigrum Linn Karezgi (Mako) Solanaceae 52 Daphne oleoides Schreb. Leghunae Thymeleaceae 53 Fagonia bruguieri DC Zygophyllaceae 54 Peganum hermala Linn. Ispanda Zygophyllaceae 17

25 View of the dominant ground flora of the Ziarat. Peroviskia abrotanoides Karel Hertia intermedia (Boiss) O.Ktze. Malva neglecta Wallr Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker 18

26 Herb: Zhong Ma Huang, Local Name: Uman Family: Ephedraceae Medicinal use: Members of this genus contain various medicinally active alkaloids (but notably ephedrine) and they are widely used in preparations for the treatment of asthma and catarrh. Ephedrine has a similar effect to adrenaline in the body. It acts promptly to reduce swellings of the mucous membranes and has antispasmodic properties, thus making it valuable in the treatment of asthma. This species contains between 0.7 and 2.33% alkaloids, of which 10% is ephedrine. The whole plant can be used at much lower concentrations than the isolated constituents - unlike using the isolated ephedrine, using the whole plant rarely gives rise to side-effects. The plant also has antiviral effects, particularly against influenza. The stems are a pungent, bitter, warm herb that dilates the bronchial vessels whilst stimulating the heart and central nervous system. The stems are also antidote, diaphoretic. diuretic, vasoconstrictor and vasodilator. They are used internally in the treatment of asthma, hay fever and allergic complaints. They are also combined with a number of other herbs and used in treating a wide range of complaints. This herb should be used with great caution, preferably under the supervision of a qualified practitioner. It should not be prescribed to patients who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors, or suffering from high blood pressure, hyperthyroidism or glaucoma. Ephedrine is seen as a performance-boosting herb and, as such, is a forbidden substance in many sporting events such as athletics. The stems can be harvested at any time of the year and are dried for later use. The root is antihydrotic; it lowers blood pressure and dilates the peripheral blood vessels. It is used in the treatment of night sweating and spontaneous sweating. Description of the plant: Plant Height Evergreen Shrub 100 cm (3 1 / 4 foot) Habitat of the herb: Mountain slopes at low elevations. Grasslands, deserts, river valleys, floodlands, cliffs, other dry, sandy or rocky places, metres. Edible parts: Fruit - raw or cooked. The fruit is about 7mm in diameter. Ephedra intermedia Schrenk Propagation of the herb: Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a greenhouse. It can also be sown in spring in a greenhouse in sandy compost. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle and grow them on for at least their first winter in a greenhouse. Plant out in the spring or early summer after the last expected frosts and give some protection in their first winter. Division in spring or autumn. Layering. 19

27 Cultivation: Mountain slopes at low elevations. Grasslands, deserts, river valleys, floodlands, sandy beaches, cliffs, other dry, sandy or rocky places, metres. Known hazards of Ephedra intermedia: None known 20

28 Sophora mollis (Royel) Baker Synonyms: Edwardsia mollis Local Name: Zagherah Family: Leguminosae Edible parts of Sophora mollis: There are reports saying that the plant has edible qualities but does not say what part of the plant is eaten. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Deciduous Shrub 2 m (6 1 / 2 foot) April-May Habitat of the herb: Rocks in dry valleys, metres. Often gregarious on hillsides. Other uses of Sophora mollis: The seed is considered useful for destroying vermin. Wood - hard. Mainly used as a fuel. Propagation of the herb: Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in a greenhouse. Pre-soak stored seed for 12 hours in hot (not boiling) water and sow in late winter in a greenhouse. Prick out the seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle into individual pots in the greenhouse, and grow them on for 2 years under protected conditions. Plant them out into their permanent positions in early summer of their third year. Cuttings of young shoots with a heel, July/August in a frame. Air-layering. Cultivation: Rocks in dry valleys, metres. Often gregarious on hillsides. Medicinal use of the herb: None known Known hazards of Sophora mollis: The plant contains cytosine, which resembles nicotine and is similarly toxic. 21

29 Berberis lycium Royle. Local name: Soor Zaralg Family: Berberidaceae (Barberry Family) Medicinal use of Berberis lycium: The roots are aperient, carminative, febrifuge and ophthalmic. They are used in the treatment of eye complaints, menorrhagia, chronic diarrhoea and piles. The leaves have been used in the treatment of jaundice. Berberine, universally present in rhizomes of Berberis species, has marked antibacterial effects. Since it is not appreciably absorbed by the body, it is used orally in the treatment of various enteric infections, especially bacterial dysentery. It should not be used with Glycyrrhiza pecies (Liquorice) because this nullifies the effects of the berberine. Berberine has also shown antitumour activity. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Evergreen Shrub 3 m (9 3 / 4 foot) May to June Habitat of the herb: Open hillsides, usually on hot dry slopes, to 3000 metres. Edible parts of Berberis lycium: Fruit - raw or cooked and made into preserves. Fairly juicy with a nice slightly acid flavour. The fruits are about 8mm long. Leaves and young shoots - cooked. Sometimes leaves are used as tea substitute. Other uses of the herb: A yellow dye is obtained from the root. Propagation of Berberis lycium: Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in a cold frame, when it should germinate in late winter or early spring. Seed from over-ripe fruit will take longer to germinate, whilst stored seed may require cold stratification and should be sown in a cold frame as early in the year as possible. The seedlings are subject to damping off, should be kept well ventilated. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, pick them out and grow them on in a cold frame. If growth is sufficient, it can be possible to plant them out into their permanent positions in the autumn, but generally it is best to leave them in the cold frame for the winter and plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following year. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame. Cuttings of mature wood of the current season's growth, preferably with a heel, October/November in a frame. Cultivation: Shrubberies and open hillsides, usually on hot dry slopes, to 3000 metres. 22

30 Herb: Common Thyme Local Name: Shin Moray Family: Lamiaceae Medicinal use of Common Thyme: Common thyme has a very long history of folk use for a wide range of ailments. It is very rich in essential oils and these are the active ingredients responsible for most of the medicinal properties. In particular, thyme is valued for its antiseptic and antioxidant properties, it is an excellent tonic and is used in treating respiratory diseases and a variety of other ailments. The flowering tops are anthelmintic, strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, deodorant, diaphoretic, disinfectant, expectorant, sedative and tonic. The plant is used internally in the treatment of dry coughs, whooping cough, bronchitis, bronchial catarrh, asthma, laryngitis, indigestion, gastritis and diarrhoea and enuresis in children. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women. Externally, it is used in the treatment of tonsillitis, gum diseases, rheumatism, arthritis and fungal infections. The plant can be used fresh at any time of the year, or it can be harvested as it comes into flower and either be distilled for the oil or dried for later use. Thyme has an antioxidant effect, thus regular use of this herb improves the health and longevity of individual body cells and therefore prolongs the life of the body. The essential oil is strongly antiseptic. The whole herb is used in the treatment of digestive disorders, sore throats, fevers etc. The essential oil is one of the most important oils used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is "Bacterial". It is used especially in cases of exhaustion, depression, upper respiratory tract infections, skin and scalp complaints etc. The oil can cause allergic reactions and irritation to the skin and mucous membranes. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Evergreen Shrub 20 cm (7 3 / 4 inch) June to August Scented Shrub Habitat of the herb: Dry slopes, rocks. Always found on clay or limestone soils. Thymus vulgaris Linn. Edible parts of Common Thyme: Leaves and flowering tops - raw in salads, used as a garnish or added as flavouring to cooked foods, going especially well with mushrooms and courgettes. It is an essential ingredient of the herb mix "bouquet garni". It retains its flavour well in long slow cooking. The leaves can be used either fresh or dried. If the leaves are to be dried, the plants should be harvested in early and late summer just before the flowers open and the leaves should be dried quickly. A nutritional analysis is available. An aromatic tea is made from the fresh or dried leaves. Pungent and spicy. Other uses of the herb: An essential oil from the leaves is frequently used in perfumery, soaps, toothpastes, mouthwashes, medicinally etc. It has fungicidal properties and is also used to prevent mildew. The leaves are dried and used in pot-pourri. The plant makes an attractive ground cover for a sunny position. Plants are best spaced about 30cm apart each way. The dried flowers are used to repel moths from clothing whilst the growing plant is said to repel cabbage root fly. 23

31 Propagation of Common Thyme: Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. Seed can also be sown in autumn in a greenhouse. Surface sow or barely cover the seed. Germination can be erratic. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. The seed can keep for three years in normal storage. Division in spring or autumn. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them out in the summer or the following spring. Cuttings of young shoots, 5-8cm with a heel, May/June in a frame. Cuttings of halfripe wood, 5-8cm with a heel, July/August in a frame. Layering. Cultivation of the herb: Dry slopes, rocks. Always found on clay or limestone soils. Known hazards of Thymus vulgaris: A comment has been made in one report on medicinal uses that the plant should be used with caution. No explanation was given. It quite possibly refers to overuse of the essential oil. All essential oils, since they are so concentrated, can be harmful in large doses. 24

32 Foenicum vulgare Mill. Herb: Local name: Synonyms: Family: Fennel Kmala Foeniculum officinale Umbelliferae Medicinal use of Fennel: Fennel has a long history of herbal use and is a commonly used household remedy, being useful in the treatment of a variety of complaints, especially those of the digestive system. The seeds, leaves and roots can be used, but the seeds are most active medicinally and are the part normally used. An essential oil is often extracted from the fully ripened and dried seed for medicinal use, though it should not be given to pregnant women. The plant is analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactogogue, hallucinogenic, laxative, stimulant and stomachic. An infusion is used in the treatment of indigestion, abdominal distension, stomach pains etc. It helps in the treatment of kidney stones and, when combined with a urinary disinfectant like Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, makes an effective treatment for cystitis. It can also be used as a gargle for sore throats and as an eyewash for sore eyes and conjunctivitis. Fennel is often added to purgatives in order to allay their tendency to cause gripe, and also to improve the flavour. An infusion of the seeds is a safe and effective cure for wind in babies. An infusion of the root is used to treat urinary disorders. An essential oil obtained from the seed is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is "Normalising". The essential oil is bactericidal, carminative and stimulant. Some caution is advised, see notes above on toxicity. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Evergreen Perennial 150 cm (5 feet) August to October Scented Perennial Habitat of the herb: Found most often in dry stony calcareous soils. Edible parts of Fennel: Leaves - raw or cooked. A delicious aniseed flavour, the young leaves are best since older ones soon become tough. They are often used as a garnish on raw or cooked dishes and make a very pleasant addition to salads. They help to improve digestion and so are particularly useful with oily foods. The leaves are difficult to store dried, though this does not really matter since they can often be harvested all year round, especially if the plants are in a warm, sheltered position. Leaf stalks and flower heads - raw or cooked. A similar aniseed flavour to the leaves. The aromatic seeds are used as flavouring in cakes, bread, stuffings etc. They have a similar flavour to the leaves and also improve the digestion. The sprouted seeds can be added to salads. An essential oil from the fully ripened and dried seed is used as food flavouring in similar ways to the whole seed. Root - cooked. Somewhat parsnip-like. The leaves or the seeds can be used to make a pleasant-tasting herbal tea. Other uses of the herb: The seed yields up to 5% of an essential oil. This is used medicinally, as a food flavouring, in toothpastes, soaps, perfumery, air fresheners etc. The flavour of fennel oil 25

33 depends upon its two main constituents. "Fenchone" is a bitter tasting element whilst "anethole" has a sweet anise-like flavour. The proportions of these two ingredients vary according to strain and region. Plants growing in the Mediterranean and southern Europe usually have sweet oil whilst plants growing in central and northern Europe usually produce more bitter oil. The quality of the oil also depends upon how well the seed has been dried - the oil from fully ripened and dried seeds being much sweeter and more fragrant. The dried plant is an insect repellent; the crushed leaves are effective for keeping dogs free of fleas. The plant was formerly used as a strewing herb. Yellow and brown dyes are obtained from the flowers and leaves combined. Propagation of Fennel: Seed - best sown in early spring in situ. The seed can also be sown in situ in the autumn. In many gardens it self sows freely. Division in March as the new growth appears. The plants are very tolerant of disturbance; we have found divisions to take well at any time of the year, though these divisions are never as good as seed-sown plants. Cultivation of the herb: Found most often in dry stony calcareous soils near the sea. Known hazards of Foeniculum vulgare: Skin contact with the sap or essential oil is said to cause photo-sensitivity and/or dermatitis in some people. Ingestion of the oil can cause vomiting, seizures and pulmonary oedema. 26

34 Coriandrum sativum Linn. Local Name: Dhania; Coriander Family: Umbelliferae Medicinal use of Coriander: Coriander is a commonly used domestic remedy, valued especially for its effect on the digestive system, treating flatulence, diarrhoea and colic. It settles spasms in the gut and counters the effects of nervous tension. The seed is aromatic, carminative, expectorant, narcotic, stimulant and stomachic. It is most often used with active purgatives in order to disguise their flavour and combat their tendency to cause gripe. The raw seed is chewed to stimulate the flow of gastric juices and to cure foul breath and will sweeten the breath after garlic has been eaten. Some caution is advised, however, because if used too freely the seeds become narcotic. Externally the seeds have been used as a lotion or have been bruised and used as a poultice to treat rheumatic pains. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is "Appetite stimulant". Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Annual 45 cm (1 foot) June to July Scented Annual Habitat of the herb: Waste places and arable land, often by the sides of rivers. Edible parts of Coriander: Leaves - raw or cooked. They are used as flavouring in salads, soups etc and the fresh leaves are probably the most widely used flavouring herb in the world. The leaves have an aromatic flavour. It is foetid according to another report, whilst another says that the fresh leaves have a strong bedbug-like smell. The leaves should not be eaten in large quantities. The fresh leaves contain about 0.012% oxalic acid and 0.172% calcium. Seed - cooked. It is used as a flavouring in many dishes including cakes, bread and curries, it is also widely used to flavour certain alcoholic liquors. The fresh seed has a disagreeable and nauseous smell, but when dried it becomes fragrant, the longer it is kept the more fragrant it becomes. Plants yield about 1 tonnes per acre of seed. The root is powdered and used as a condiment. An essential oil from the seed is used as a food flavouring Other uses of the herb: An essential oil from the seed is used as a food flavouring, in perfumery, soap making etc. It is also fungicidal and bactericidal. The growing plant repels aphids. A spray made by boiling of one part coriander leaves and one part anise seeds in two parts of water is very effective against red spider mites and woolly aphids. An oil from the seed is used for making soap. The report does not make it clear if the essential oil or the fixed oil is used. The seed contains about 20% fixed oil, this has potential for industrial use in Britain, it could become an alternative to oilseed rape though the oil content is a bit on the low side at present (1995). The oil can be split into two basic types, one is used in making soaps etc, whilst the other can be used in making plastics. The dried stems are used as a fuel. 27

35 Propagation of Coriander: Seed - sow April in situ. The seed is slow to germinate and so on a garden scale it can also be sown in March in a cold frame. Sow a few seeds in each pot and then plant them out when they are growing away strongly in May. The seed can also be sown in situ in the autumn. Autumn sown plants will grow bigger and produce more seed. Cultivation of the herb: Waste places and arable land, often by the sides of rivers. Known hazards of Coriandrum sativum: The plant can have a narcotic effect if it is eaten in very large quantities. 28

36 Onosma hispida Wall.ex.G.Don. Local Name: Yarilang Family: Boraginaceae (Borage Family) Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Perennial 40 cm (1 foot) Sept-Oct Medicinal use of Onosma hispida: One report says that the plant has medicinal properties but gives no details. It has been reported as a precursor of one of the vital preprations of eastern medicine (Unani). Habitat of the herb: Dry, rocky and savannah slopes, metres also reported in Kashmir. Found at elevations up to 4000 metres. Edible parts of Onosma hispida: Root. Used as a flavouring. Propagation of the herb: Seed - we have no information on this species but suggest sowing the seed in a greenhouse in early spring. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least their first winter. Plant them out in early summer. Cuttings in a frame in the summer. Shade them for the first days. Cultivation of Onosma hispida: Dry, rocky and savannah slopes, metres in Kashmir. Found at elevations up to 4000 metres. Known hazards of Onosma hispida: There are no reports of toxicity for this species, but the following report for O. echioides should be borne in mind. The bristly stems and leaves can cause a good deal of irritation to the skin. Convolvulus arvensis Linn. 29

37 Field Bindweed Family: Convolvulaceae (Morning-glory Family) Medicinal use of Field Bindweed: The root, and also a resin made from the root, is cholagogue, diuretic, laxative and strongly purgative. The dried root contains 4.9% resin. The juice of the root is used in the treatment of fevers. A tea made from the floers is laxative and is also used in the treatment of fevers and wounds. A cold tea made from the leaves is laxative and is also used as a wash for spider bites or taken internally to reduce excessive menstrual flow. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Perennial Climber 2 m (6 1 / 2 foot) June to September Scented Perennial Climber Habitat of the herb: Hedgerows, fields, waste places, fences etc, it can be a troublesome weed of agriculture. Edible parts of Field Bindweed: The plant has been used as a flavouring in a liqueur called "Noyeau". No details are given as to which part of the plant is used. Other uses of the herb: The stem is used as a twine for tying up plants etc. It is fairly flexible and strong but not longlasting. A green dye is obtained from the whole plant. Propagation of Field Bindweed: Seed - best sown in situ as soon as it is ripe, it germinates in the autumn. This species can become a real pest in the garden so it is unwise to encourage it. Cultivation of the herb: Hedgerows, fields, waste places, fences etc, it can be a troublesome weed of agriculture. Known hazards of Convolvulus arvensis: None known. Marrubium vulgare Linn Herb: White Horehound 30

38 Family: Lamiaceae Medicinal use of White Horehound: White horehound is a well-known and popular herbal medicine that is often used as a domestic remedy for coughs, colds, wheeziness etc. The herb apparently causes the secretion of a more fluid mucous, readily cleared by coughing. The leaves and young flowering stems are antiseptic, antispasmodic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, strongly expectorant, hepatic, stimulant and tonic. Horehound is a very valuable pectoral, expectorant and tonic that can be safely used by children as well as adults. It is often made into a syrup or candy in order to disguise its very bitter flavour, though it can also be taken as a tea. As a bitter tonic, it increases the appetite and supports the function of the stomach. It can also act to normalize heart rhythm. The plant is harvested as it comes into flower and can be used fresh or dried. The root is a remedy for the bite of rattlesnakes; it is used in equal portions with Plantago lanceolata or P. major. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Perennial 50 cm (1 foot) June to November Scented Perennial Habitat of the herb: Downs, waste places and roadsides probably introduced during the colonial time as it is native to south coast of England. Edible parts of White Horehound: The leaves are used as a seasoning. Bitter and pungent, they are sometimes used to flavour herb beer or liqueurs. Horehound ale is a fairly well-known drink made from the leaves. A mild pleasantly flavoured tea is made from the fresh or dried leaves, it is a favourite cough remedy. Other uses of the herb: An essential oil is obtained from the plant and used as a flavouring in liqueurs. The plant has been used as a cure for cankerworm in trees. No more details are given but it is probably a strong infusion of the flowering shoots, or the essential oil, that is used. The growing plant repels flies. Propagation of White Horehound: Seed - sow April/May or August/September in a cold frame. Germination can be slow and erratic. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in the following spring. Basal cuttings in late spring. Harvest the shoots with plenty of underground stem when they are about 8-10cm above the ground. Pot them up into individual pots and keep them in light shade in a cold frame or greenhouse until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the summer. Division in spring. Larger clumps can be replanted direct into their permanent positions, though it is best to pot up smaller clumps and grow them on in a cold frame until they are rooting well. Plant them out in the spring. Cultivation of the herb: Downs, waste places and roadsides Known hazards of Marrubium vulgare: Not known. 31

39 32

40 Artemisia maritime Linn Herb: Sea Wormwood Synonyms: Seriphidium maritimum Family: Asteraceae Medicinal use of Sea Wormwood: Sea wormwood is not much used in herbal medicine, though it is often used domestically. Its medicinal virtues are similar to wormwood, A. absinthum, though milder in their action. It is used mainly as a tonic to the digestive system, in treating intermittent fevers and as a vermifuge. The leaves and flowering shoots are anthelmintic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, emmenagogue, febrifuge, stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vermifuge. The plant is harvested as it comes into flower and is dried for later use. The unexpanded floral heads contain the vermicide "santonin". Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Deciduous Shrub 60 cm (2 feet) August to September Scented Shrub Habitat of the herb: Drier parts of salt marshes in sand and shingle. Edible parts of Sea Wormwood: The leaves are occasionally used as flavouring. Some caution is advised; see the notes above on toxicity. Other uses of the herb: The growing shoots are said to repel insects and mice, they have also been used as a strewing herb. An infusion is said to discourage slugs and insects. Propagation of Sea Wormwood: Seed - surface sow from late winter to early summer in a greenhouse, making sure that the compost does not dry out. When large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for their first winter. Plant out in late spring or early summer. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame. Division in spring or autumn. Cultivation of the herb: Drier parts of salt marshes in sand and shingle. 33

41 Known hazards of Artemisia maritima: The following notes are from a report on the closely related A. absinthum, they quite possibly also apply to this species. The plant is poisonous if used in large quantities. Even small quantities have been known to cause nervous disorders, convulsions, insomnia etc. Just the scent of the plant has been known to cause headaches and nervousness in some people. 34

42 Mentha longifolia (Linn) Herb: Horsemint Synonyms: Mentha incana, Mentha sylvestris Family: Lamiaceae Medicinal use of Horsemint: Horsemint, like many other members of this genus, is often used as a domestic herbal remedy, being valued especially for its antiseptic properties and its beneficial effect on the digestion. Like other members of the genus, it is best not used by pregnant women because large doses can cause an abortion. The leaves and flowering stems are antiasthmatic, antispasmodic, carminative and stimulant. A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, digestive disorders and various minor ailments. The leaves are harvested as the plant comes into flower and can be dried for later use. The essential oil in the leaves is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Scent Perennial 100 cm (3 1 / 4 foot) August to September Scented Perennial Habitat of the herb: Waste places and damp roadsides. Edible parts of Horsemint: Leaves - raw or cooked. Peppermint-scented, they are used as flavouring in salads, chutneys and cooked foods. A herb tea is made from the leaves. An essential oil obtained from the leaves and flowering tops is used as a food flavouring in sweets etc. A peppermint-like taste. Other uses of the herb: The leaves contain about 0.57% essential oil. It is sometimes used as a substitute for peppermint oil in confectionery. Rats and mice intensely dislike the smell of mint. The plant was therefore used in homes as a strewing herb and has also been spread in granaries to keep the rodents off the grain. Propagation of Horsemint: Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. Germination is usually fairly quick. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in the summer. Mentha species are very prone to hybridisation and so the seed cannot be relied on to breed true. Even without hybridisation, seedlings will not be uniform and so the content of medicinal oils etc will vary. When growing plants with a particular aroma it is best to propagate them by division. Division can be easily carried out at almost any time of the year, though it is probably best done in the spring or autumn to allow the plant to establish more quickly. Virtually any part of the root is capable of growing into a new plant. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. However, for maximum increase it is possible to divide the roots up into sections no more than 3cm long and pot these up in light shade in a cold frame. They will quickly become established and can be planted out in the summer. 35

43 Cultivation of the herb: Waste places and damp roadsides. Known hazards of Mentha longifolia: Although no records of toxicity have been seen for this species, large quantities of some members of this genus, especially when taken in the form of the extracted essential oil, can cause abortions so some caution is advised. 36

44 Plantago lanceolata Linn Herb: Ribwort Plantain Family: Plantaginaceae (Plantain Family) Medicinal use of Ribwort Plantain: Ribwort plantain is a safe and effective treatment for bleeding; it quickly staunches blood flow and encourages the repair of damaged tissue. The leaves contain mucilage, tannin and silic acid. An extract of them has antibacterial properties. They have a bitter flavour and are astringent, demulcent, mildly expectorant, haemostatic and ophthalmic. Internally, they are used in the treatment of a wide range of complaints including diarrhoea, gastritis, peptic ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, haemorrhage, haemorrhoids, cystitis, bronchitis, catarrh, sinusitis, asthma and hay fever. They are used externally in treating skin inflammations, malignant ulcers, cuts, stings etc. The heated leaves are used as a wet dressing for wounds, swellings etc. The root is a remedy for the bite of rattlesnakes; it is used in equal portions with Marrubium vulgare. The seeds are used in the treatment of parasitic worms. Plantain seeds contain up to 30% mucilage which swells up in the gut, acting as a bulk laxative and soothing irritated membranes. Sometimes the seed husks are used without the seeds. A distilled water made from the plant makes an excellent eye lotion. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Perennial 45 cm (1 foot) April to August Habitat of the herb: Grassland, roadsides etc, a common weed of lawns and cultivated ground, on neutral and basic soils. Edible parts of Ribwort Plantain: Young leaves - raw or cooked. They are rather bitter and very tedious to prepare, the fibrous strands are best removed prior to eating. The very young leaves are somewhat better and are less fibrous. Seed - cooked. Used like sago. The seed can be ground into a powder and added to flours when making bread, cakes or whatever. Other uses of the herb: A good fibre is obtained from the leaves, it is said to be suitable for textiles. Mucilage from the seed coats is used as a fabric stiffener. It is obtained by macerating the seed in hot water. Gold and brown dyes are obtained from the whole plant. Propagation of Ribwort Plantain: Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in early summer. A sowing can be made outdoors in situ in mid to late spring if you have enough seeds. 37

45 Cultivation of the herb: Grassland, roadsides etc, a common weed of lawns and cultivated ground, on neutral and basic soils. Known hazards of Plantago lanceolata: Not known. 38

46 Polygonum aviculare Linn Herb: Knotweed Synonyms: Polygonum heterophyllum, Polygonum littorale Family: Polygonaceae (Buckwheat Family) Medicinal use of Knotweed: Knotweed is a safe and effective astringent and diuretic herb that is used mainly in the treatment of complaints such as dysentery and haemorrhoids. It is also taken in the treatment of pulmonary complaints because the silicic acid it contains strengthens connective tissue in the lungs. The whole plant is anthelmintic, astringent, cardiotonic, cholagogue, diuretic, febrifuge, haemostatic, lithontripic and vulnerary. It was formerly widely used as an astringent both internally and externally in the treatment of wounds, bleeding, piles and diarrhoea. Its diuretic properties make it useful in removing stones. An alcohol-based preparation has been used with success to treat varicose veins of recent origin. The plant is harvested in the summer and early autumn and is dried for later use. The leaves are anthelmintic, diuretic and emollient. The whole plant is anthelmintic, antiphlogistic and diuretic. The juice of the plant is weakly diuretic, expectorant and vasoconstrictor. Applied externally, it is an excellent remedy to stay bleeding of the nose and to treat sores. The seeds are emetic and purgative. Recent research has shown that the plant is a useful medicine for bacterial dysentery. Of 108 people with this disease, 104 recovered within 5 days when treated internally with a paste of knotweed. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Annual 30 cm (11 3 / 4 inch) June to October Habitat of the herb: Waste places, roadsides. A common garden weed. Edible parts of Knotweed: Young leaves and plants - raw or cooked. Used as a potherb, they are very rich in zinc. A nutritional analysis is available. Seed - raw or cooked. Rather small and fiddly to utilize, they can be used in all the ways that buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is used, either whole or dried and ground into a powder for use in pancakes, biscuits and piäole. The leaves are a tea substitute. Other uses of the herb: Yields a blue dye that is not much inferior to indigo. The part used is not specified, but it is likely to be the leaves. Yellow and green dyes are obtained from the whole plant. The roots contain tannins, but the quantity was not given. 39

47 Propagation of Knotweed: Seed - sow spring in a cold frame. Germination is usually free and easy. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in the summer if they have reached sufficient size. If not, leave them in winter in a cold frame and plant them out the following spring after the last expected frosts. Division in spring or autumn. Very easy, larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is better to pot up the smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a cold frame until they are well established before planting them out in late spring or early summer. Known hazards of Polygonum aviculare: Although no specific mention has been made for this species, there have been reports that some members of this genus can cause photosensitivity in susceptible people. Many species also contain oxalic acid (the distinctive lemony flavour of sorrel) - whilst not toxic this substance can bind up other minerals making them unavailable to the body and leading to mineral deficiency. Having said that, a number of common foods such as sorrel and rhubarb contain oxalic acid and the leaves of most members of this genus are nutritious and beneficial to eat in moderate quantities. Cooking the leaves will reduce their content of oxalic acid. People with a tendency to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or hyperacidity should take especial caution if including this plant in their diet since it can aggravate their condition. 40

48 Malva neglecta Wallr. Herb: Dwarf Mallow Family: Malvaceae (Mallow Family) Medicinal use of Dwarf Mallow: All parts of the plant are antiphlogistic, astringent, demulcent, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, laxative, salve. The leaves and flowers can be eaten as part of the diet, or a tea can be made from the leaves, flowers or roots. The leaves and flowers are the main part used, their demulcent properties making them valuable as a poultice for bruise, inflammations, insect bites etc, or taken internally in the treatment of respiratory system diseases or inflammation of the digestive or urinary systems. They have similar properties, but are considered to be inferior to the marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis), though they are stronger acting than the common mallow (M. sylvestris). They are seldom used internally. The plant is an excellent laxative for young children. Description of the plant: Plant Height Flowering Annual 60 cm (2 feet) June to September Habitat of the herb: Waste and cultivated ground, usually on dry soils, frequently in coastal habitats, on dry walls or as a weed of cultivated ground. Edible parts of Dwarf Mallow: Leaves and young shoots - raw or cooked. A mild pleasant flavour, they are said to be highly nutritious. They can be added in quantity to salads, and make an excellent lettuce substitute, they can also be cooked as greens. The leaves are mucilaginous, when cooked in soups etc they tend to thicken it in much the same way as okra (Abelmoschatus esculenta). Some people find this mucilaginous texture unpleasant, especially if the leaves are cooked. Immature seeds - raw or cooked. A pleasant nutty flavour, they are nice as a nibble but too small for most people to want to collect in quantity. A decoction of the roots is used as an egg-white substitute for making meringue. The roots are brought to the boil in water and then simmered until the water becomes quite thick. This liquid can then be whisked in much the same way as egg whites. A tea can be made from the dried leaves. Other uses of the herb: Cream, yellow and green dyes can be obtained from the plant and the seed heads. The root is used as a toothbrush. Propagation of Dwarf Mallow: Seed - sow early spring or autumn in situ. Germination should take place within 2 weeks. The seed germinates in the autumn in the wild. 41

49 Cultivation of the herb: Waste and cultivated ground, usually on dry soils, on dry walls or as a weed of cultivated ground. Known hazards of Malva neglecta: When grown on nitrogen rich soils (and particularly when these are inorganic), the plant tends to concentrate high levels of nitrates in its leaves. The leaves are perfectly wholesome at all other times. 42

50 4.2 The Quantitative analysis: The spatial distribution of species showed a distinct pattern. Ziarat north exhibited highest rate of plant diversity; probably due to the reason that it included some protected patches of conserved landscape. Chautair north and Chautair south had almost similar value of plant diversity. Batatair being the smallest among all others showed the lowest value for floristic diversity. Fig. 9. The interpretation in the figure below is based on cumulative data of fall 07 and spring 08. Over all floral diversity in Ziarat valley # of species Locations Fig.9. Overall floral diversity in sub valleys of Ziarat. The comparative data of same locations but in different seasons followed almost the similar pattern. The only change is the intensity of floral diversity which appeared diluted. Ziarat north showed almost consistantly the highest value for floral diversity for both seasons. In fall 07 the lowest contributor in floral diversity was Ziarat south; whereas Khoski was the lowest in Spring 08. Fig.10. Comparative floral diversity in Ziarat valley 25 # of Species Khoski Ziarat North Ziarat South Chautair North Chautair South Batatair Nishpa Spring 08 Fall 07 Locations Fig.10. Temporal comparative floral diversity in sub valleys of Ziarat. 43

51 Khoski: This represents a small area with a limited water resource; the temporal distribution of flora is quite evident of the fact that once the area receive rain allowing variety of species to grow and compete for the resources, Sophora mollis use to be consistently represented species in pre and post rain scenario. The difference in intensity and resilence are evident while comparing the data set (Fig 11and 12) and their analysis. Sophora mollis is considered to be a supportive species for ethnovetnery purpose; thus reflecting well on the findings that 95% livestock of the valley survives on open field grazing. (Assessment report) Importance value index Species abundance in Koshki (Fall 07) Fig.11. Species abundance in Koshki (Fall 07). The diversity pattern shows a clear trend in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August showed more diverse representation with a diluted intensity of IVI. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Importance value index Sophora mollis Fig.12. Species abundance in Koshki (Spring 08). Sophora mollis Juniperus excelsa Caragna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Andarchnae aspera Peroveskia abrotanoides Mentha longifolia Sp3 Prunus persica Cardius sp Erumurus stenophyllus Sp4 Sp5 Astarglus tribulides Vitex agnus castus Polygonum patulum Species Species abundance in Koshki (Spring 08) Olea sp Taraxicum officinale Erumurus stenophyllus Stachys perviflora Species Prunus persicus Thymus vulgaris Carigna ambigua 44

52 The statistics of density/ acre for any species was calculated and Sophora mollis which was estimated as around 301 individuals of Sophora mollis and cover/ acre came out to be 43 ft 2 which is a smaller value reflecting on the size of the life form; whereas Juniperus excelsa showed an elevated value as 405 ft 2 with only 8 individuals in an acre, simply reflects the size and phenology of the life form. Table.2. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Koshki. # Species Density/acre (Fall 07) Density/acre (Spring 08) Cover/ acre (Fall 07) Cover/ acre (Spring 08) 1 Sophora mollis Juniperus excelsa Caragna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Andarchnae aspera Peroveskia abrotanoides Mentha longifolia Sp Prunus persica Cardius sp Erumurus stenophyllus Sp Sp Astarglus tribulides Vitex agnus castus Polygonum patulum Taraxicum officinale Stachys perviflora Thymus vulgaris Olea sp

53 Ziarat North: This represents northern side of the vally facing south; the temporal distribution of flora is quite evident of the fact that once the area receive rain allowing variety of species to grow and compete for the resources, Artimisia quentensis use to be represented but with varying intensity in pre and post rain scenarios. Artimisia quentensis was replaced by Andrachnae aspera The difference in intensity and resilence are evident while comparing the data set (Fig 13 and14) and their analysis. Species abundance in Ziarat North (Fall 07) Importance value index Artimesia quentensis Polygonum aviculare Pervisakia abrotanoides sp10 Andracnae aspera sp6 Hertia intermedia Prunus sp sp8 Convolvulus aervensis Sophora mollis Malva neglecta Astraglus tribulides Species Fig. 13. Species abundance in Ziarat north (Fall 07). Bromis sp sp7 Eremurus stenophyllus Carthamus sp sp12 Marrubium vulgare sp9 Astraglus sp sp11 Polygonum afghanicum The diversity pattern shows a clear trend in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August showed more diverse representation however the intensity of IVI does not follow the expected pattern. It is observed that IVI max for August reaches above 100; whereas the in case of May did not exceed to more than 45. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Species abundance in Ziarat North (Spring 08) Importance value index Andrachnae sp Bromis sp Convulvulus sp. Taraxicum officinale Erumurus persicus Perviskia abrotenoides Artimisia maritima Erumurus stenophyllus Thymus sp Sp1 Prunus Sp2 Ephedra Malva neglecta Tulipa sp. Species Fig.14. Species abundance in Ziarat north (Spring 08). The density/ acre for the species was calculated and which was estimated as around 138 individuals of Artimesia quentensis top the list and cover/ acre came out to be 110 ft 2 which is a smaller value reflecting on the size of the life form; whereas 46

54 Andracnae sp dominated the flora with the density/ acre as over 2761 individuals and cover value as 312 ft 2 in an acre in pre rain setup. Table.3. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Ziarat North # Species Density/acre (Fall 07) Density/acre (Spring 08) Cover/acre (Fall 07) Cover/acre (Spring 08) 1 Artimesia quentensis Polygonum aviculare Pervisakia abrotanoides sp Andracnae aspera sp Hertia intermedia Prunus sp sp Convolvulus aervensis Sophora mollis Malva neglecta Astraglus tribulides Bromis sp sp Eremurus stenophyllus Carthamus sp sp Marrubium vulgare sp Astraglus sp sp Polygonum afghanicum Eremurus persicus Ephedra sp Tulipa sp Taraxicum officinale Thymus sp Sp Sp

55 Ziarat South: This represents southern side of the valley facing north; the temporal distribution of flora is quite evident of the fact that once the area receives rain allowing variety of species to grow and compete for the resources, Juniperus excelsa with a very slight difference of IVI with Perviskia abrotanoides. Dominated the floral list in post rain scenario Hertia intermedia replaced the dominanace of the above two and took the lead in pre rain situation The difference in intensity and resilence are evident while comparing the data set (Fig 15 and 16). Importance value index Juniperus excelsa Species abundance in Ziarat South (Fall 07) Polygonum aviculare Perviskia abrotanoides Hertia intermedia Thymus linearis Andracnae aspera sp9 Bromis sp Species Astragulus tribulides Malva neglecta Amaranthus viridis Convolvulus aervenses Fig.15. Species abundance in Ziarat south (Fall 07). The diversity pattern shows an unexpectedly deviated result in the sence of high diversity before rain and low diversity after rain, this could be due to topgraphic variations in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August showed less diverse representation with an intense value of IVI. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Species abundance in Ziarat South (Spring 08) Importance value index Hertia intermedia Perviskia abrotenoides Thymus linearis Erumurus stenophyllus Convolvulus aervensis Zizyphora tenior Taraxicum officinales Erumurus persicus Bromis sp Andrachnae sp Convolvulus sp Sp1 Polygonum aviculare Sp5 Sp3 Sp4 Species Fig.16. Species abundance in Ziarat south (Spring 08). The density/ acre for the species was calculated and Perviskia abrotanoides which was estimated as around 189 individuals in post rain condition and anround 2848 individuals in pre rain condition top the list in density/ acre with almost equal value i.e. 91ft 2 / acre of cover for both conditions. 48

56 Table.4. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Ziarat South # Species Density/acre (Fall 07) Density/acre (Spring 08) Cover/acre (Fall 07) Cover/acre (Spring 08) 1 Juniperus excelsa Perviskia abrotanoides Polygonum aviculare Hertia intermedia Thymus linearis Andracnae aspera sp Bromis sp Astragulus tribulides Malva neglecta Amaranthus viridis Convolvulus aervenses Erumurus stenophyllus Taraxicum officinale Erumurus persicus Ziziphora teniour Sp Sp Sp Sp Convolvulus sp

57 4. Chautair North: This represents northern side of the Chautair vally facing south; the temporal distribution of flora is quite evident of the fact that once the area receive rain allowing variety of species to grow and compete for the resources, Artimisia quentensis and Stachys perviflora use to dominate the pre and post rain floristic list but with varying intensity in two different scenarios. The two species occupy the second position in cris cross fachion. (Fig 17 and 18). Importance value index Species abundance in Chautair North (Fall 07) Stachys parviflora Artimisia quatensis Caragna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Sophora mollis Prunus brahuica Bromis danthoniae Astargalus tribulides Convolvulus aervensis Heloxylon griffithii Eremurus stenophyllus Andracnae sp Peroviskia abrotanoides Species Fig.17. Species abundance in Chautair north (Fall 07). Pegnum hermala Berbaris sp Sp8 Cardius sp Thymus linearis sp16 Nepeta glomerulosa Amaranthus triclor The diversity pattern shows a clear trend in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August showed more diverse representation with a diluted intensity of IVI. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Species abundance in Chautair north (Spring 08) Importance value index Artimisia quantense Stachys perviflora Sophora mollis Erumurus persicus Carthemus Sp1 Ziziphora tenior Medicago sativa Sp2 Perviskia abrotenoides Pegnum hermala Nepeta glomerulosa Species Fig.18. Species abundance in Chautair north (Spring 08). The density/ acre for the species was calculated and Artimisia quantensis which was estimated as around 81 individuals in post rain and 3120 individuals in pre rain condition top the list cover/ acre came out to be 29 ft 2 in post rain and 287 ft 2 in pre rain condition. 50

58 Table.5. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Chautair north # Species Density/acre (Fall 07) Density/acre (Spring 08) Cover/acre (Fall 07) Cover/acre (Spring 08) 1 Stachys parviflora Artimisia quatensis Caragna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Sophora mollis Prunus brahuica Bromis danthoniae Astargalus tribulides Convolvulus aervensis Heloxylon griffithii Eremurus stenophyllus Andracnae sp Peroviskia abrotanoides Pegnum hermala Berbaris sp Sp Cardius sp Thymus linearis sp Nepeta glomerulosa Amaranthus triclor Erumurus persicus Carthemus sp Ziziphora teniour Sp Sp Medicago sativa

59 4. Chautair South: This represents southern side of the Chautair vally facing north; the temporal distribution of flora is quite evident of the fact that once the area receive rain allowing variety of species to grow and compete for the resources, Perviskia abrotanoides with Sophora mollis dominated the post rain; whereas Artimisia quentensis use to be represented in pre rain. The varying intensities of IVI in pre and post rain scenarios are quite identical. (Fig 19 and 20) Species abundance in Chautair South (Fall 07) Importance value index Perviskia abrotanoides Sopohora mollis Artimisia quatensis Caragna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Saccharum griffithii Stachys parviflora Malva neglecta Sp6 Prunus brahuica sp15 sp14 Berbaris sp Species Fig.19. Species abundance in Chautair south (Fall 07). Nepta sp Andrachnae sp Amaranthus sp Thymus linearis Stypa sp Pegenum hermala Bromis sp Erumerus stenophyllus Hyloxylon griffithii Hertia intermedia Lactuca sp The diversity pattern shows a clear trend in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August showed more diverse representation with a diluted intensity of IVI. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Importance value index Species abundence in Chautair south (Spring 08) Artimisia quantense Sacchrum Sophora mollis Polygonum aviculare Nepeta glomerulosa Pegnum hermala Carthemus Perviskia abrotenoides Astragulus tribuloides Hertia intermedia Stachys perviflora Agzai Sp2 Amaranthus tricolor Species Fig.20. Species abundance in Chautair south (Spring 08). The density/ acre for the species was calculated and Artimisia quentensis which was estimated as around 56 individuals in post rain has gone high in pre rain situation with a value of 1222 individuals/ acre, the cover/ acre came out to be 16 ft 2 and 302 ft 2 in post and pre rain conditions. 52

60 Table.6. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Chautair south. # Species Density/ acre (Fall 07) Density/ acre (Spring 08) Cover/acre (Fall 07) Cover/acre (Spring 08) 1 Perviskia abrotanoides Sopohora mollis Artimisia quatensis Caragna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Saccharum griffithii Stachys parviflora Malva neglecta Sp Prunus brahuica sp sp Berbaris sp Nepeta sp Andrachnae sp Amaranthus sp Thymus linearis Stypa sp Pegenum hermala Bromis sp Erumerus stenophyllus Hyloxylon griffithii Hertia intermedia Lactuca sp Carthemus sp (Aghzai) Sp Astragulus tribuliodes

61 5. Batatair: This represents a sub valley having mountainous ridges on north and south. On the southern side is the Uch Ghairga of Loay Ghar and on northern part is Choutair mountain ridge. Soil was eroded and denuded on northern aspect while on southern aspect soil is deep and vegetation cover is dense the temporal distribution of flora followed the identical pattern. Perviskia abrotenoides dominated both set of vegetation with assistance of Berberis and Stachys respectively for post and pre rain set of conditions. (Fig 21and 22) Importance value index Perviskia abrotanoides Species abundance in Batatair (Fall 07) Berberis sp Carigna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Hertia intermedia Zizyphus sp. Malva neglecta Bromis sp Species Nepeta sp Sp19 Astragulus tribulides Thymus balochistanicus Cympopogon sp Convolvulus aervensis Fig.21. Species abundance in Batatair (Fall 07). The diversity pattern shows a clear trend in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August showed more diverse representation with a diluted intensity of IVI. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Importance value index Perviskia abrotenoides Species abundance in Batatair(Spring 08) Stachys perviflora Carigna ambigua Sophora mollis Berberis lycium Hertia intermedia Species Thymus linearis Polygonum aviculare Convulvulus sp Conyza Fig.22. Species abundance in Batatair (Spring 08). The density/ acre for the species was calculated and Polygonum aviculaer dominated the post rain density/ acre with value 1720 and Perviskia abrotenoides with individuals in pre rain setup. Perviskia abrotenoides dominated both pre and post rain cases with highest cover value in both ft 2 and 399 ft 2 respectively in post and pre rain conditions. 54

62 Table7. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Batatair # Species Density/acre (Fall 07) Density/acre (Spring 08) Cover/acre (Fall 07) Cover/acre (Spring 08) 1 Perviskia abrotanoides Berberis sp Carigna ambigua Polygonum aviculare Hertia intermedia Zizyphus sp Malva neglecta Bromis sp Nepeta sp Sp Astragulus tribulides Thymus lineris Cympopogon sp Convolvulus aervensis Stachys perviflora Sophora mollis Conyza

63 6. Nishpa: The Nishpa is located between two mountain ridges; Loay Ghar on south and Shawanzai on north. On west is Ghuza and on east is Gherga area. Foothills have bluish to green shale sometimes exposed due to erosion. On the north side of the valley the rocks were layered making a wall like formation. The dominated life form is represented by Sophora mollis in post rain and Hertia intermedia in pre rain conditions intensity of the vegetation in two different cases remain equal in pre and post rain scenarios. (Fig 23 and 24) Importance value index Species abundance in Nishpa (Fall 07) Sophora mollis Juniperus excelsa Plumis stewertii Berberis sp Perviskia abrotanoides Polygonum aviculare Hertia intermedia Carigna ambigua Cympopogon sp Fagonia sp Pegnum hermala Prunus sp Thymus balochistanicus Astragulus tribuloides Amaranthus viroides Species Fig.23. Species abundance in Nishpa (Fall 07). The diversity pattern shows simmilar trend in pre and post rain scenarios. The vegetation in August represented by a set of 15 species whereas representation in May was contributed by some 13 species with a almost equal intensity of IVI. The abundance pattern can be simply regarded as low equitability and high dominance model. Importance value index Species abundance in Nishpa (Spring 08) Hertia intermedia Sophora mollis Stachys perviflora Perviskia abrotenoides Carigna ambigua Berberis lycium Thymus linearis Prunus Sp1 Pegnum hermala Malva neglecta Polygonum aviculare Conyza Species Ephedra Fig.24. Species abundance in Nishpa (Spring 08). The density/ acre for the species was calculated and Sophora mollis which was estimated as around 4976 individuals in post rain conditions and 20 individuals in pre rain condition. The cover/ acre came out to be 3659 ft 2 by Perviskia abrotenoides in post rain conditions replaced by Hertia intermedia with a value of 1287 ft 2 in pre rain secnerio. 56

64 Table.8. Major dominant species with comparative density and cover/ acre in Nishpa. # Species Density/acre (Fall 07) Density/acre (Spring 08) Cover/acre (Fall 07) Cover/acre (Spring 08) 1 Sophora mollis Juniperus excelsa Plumis stewertii Berberis sp Perviskia abrotanoides Polygonum aviculare Hertia intermedia Carigna ambigua Cympopogon sp Fagonia sp Pegnum hermala Prunus sp Thymus balochistanicus Astragulus tribuloides Amaranthus viroides Stachys perviflora Ephedra Conyza Malva neglecta Sp

65 4.0 The Discussions: 4.1 The vegetation: The Ziarat juniper ecosystem has evolved in an unusual combination of soil and climate, highly calcareous, stony and shallow soil, receiving very low precipitation ( mm per annum) mainly dominated by xerophytes. Snow has been seen as the major contributer of precipitation in such ecosystem. The altitude of 2449 meters above sea level seems another driving factor of xeric conditions. The survival of land plants in such areas relies on the availability of water and their adaptation to stress (Kramer, 1984). Along with tree form Juniperus excelsa, most of the short stature shrubs are co-dominant in these areas including Sophora mollis, Artemisia sp., Perviskia abrotanoides and Thymus linearis as ground cover. The presence of such arid communities depends upon soil moisture condition which strongly correlates with plant cover (Branson et al., 1976). Plants grow sparsely leaving a wide area of bare soil (Hussain, 1989) that is the characteristic feature of arid environments (Burke & Mennheimer, 2003). The set of extreem conditions pushes the vegetation to develop mechanisms for their survival; sometimes they produce shiny flowers to attract insect which would help them in pollination, produce osmotica to maintain their internal osmotic potential, reduce leaf area to minimize the loss of water; in some cases they produce strong aroma. These stress responses are usually benifited the mankind in the form of variety of products used in medicine. This has been observed that the plants adepted in specific habitat alowed to grow under optimal conditions (Greenhouse) grow healthy; but loose their ethnobotnic value. The approximate length of the strech of landscape that constitute Ziarat and Chautair valley falls around Kms. The flora present in the strech gives a unique pattern. The pre rain set of ground vegetation was dominated by Andracnae, Bromis, Convolvulus, Artimisia, Stachys and Sophora on the northern side of the valley; whereas Hertia, Perviskia, Thymus and Artimisia, Sacchrum, Sophora on the southern part of the valley. The post rain (Early Fall) composition of the flora for northern part was represented by Artimisia, Polygonum, Perviskia and Stachys, Artimisia, Caragna. The southern part was dominated by Juniperus, Perviskia, Polygonum and Perviskia, Sophora and Artimisia in the order of dominance. The pre rain (Late Spring) floristic composition in Khoski, Bataytair and Nishpa is represented by Sophora, Olea, Taraxicum, Perviskia,Stachys,Caragna, Hertia, Sophora and Stachys respectively; whereas the post rain composition for the same was Sophora, Juniperus,Caragna, Perviskia, Berberis, Caragna and Sophora, Juniperus, Phlomis respectively. The temporal variation was dominating the phenology of the vegetation, the pre rain conditions promoted the yellow set of flowers to bloom; whereas the post rain conditions allow the blue pigment to dominate. That is why one can recall the ziarat valley as the valley of changing colours. This temporal and spatial variability also determines the specific time for the harvest of medicinal wealth in the area. 58

66 4.2 Trade of Herbal Medicine International Scenario: The trade volume of medicinal plants at global level is estimated arojund US$ 60.0 billion and expected to reach 5.0 trillion by the year 2050 (Karki 2002). The US market itself has a huge size of around $500 million; France and Germany have considered as substantial markets. The estimated import of herbal products from Africa and Asia to Europe, annually, land around US$ 1 billion. UK has relatively a smaller share in the import bill of Europe for herbal products. M. Rafiq. International tarde of medicinal flora in Pakistan Rs. in millions Years Export Import Fig. 25. Trade volume of medicinal resources in Pakistan. Plants that have proved beneficial as pain killers are the herbs which are likely to play a prominent part in the market. It was stated that a plant called (Hydrastis canadensis L.) goldenseal, which has healing properties, is grown for its roots and can fetch a price of UK 150 per kg. Harvested from the wild Status of Medicinal Plant Resources in Pakistan: Around 400 plant species are used extensively traditional practitioner in Pakistan (N.I.H.), Tibbi Pharmacopoeia of Pakistan (Pharmacopoeia of Traditional Drugs compiled by the Tibbi Board) has listed around 900 single drugs and about 500 compound preparations made out of medicinal plants. There are nearly 86 registered manufacturers of herbal medicines of which 27 are relatively large manufacturers in Pakistan, which produce Unani medicines on commercial scale. The annual turnover of some large herbal manufacturers is comparable to multinational companies in Pakistan. The large manufacturers are able to produce as many as products. 59