The pink gypsy moth (Lymantria mathura). Although related to the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, this species has not been introduced to North America.

Erebidae is a fairly new family composed of many species in the Noctuidae family, as well as well as the previous families of Arctiidae and Lymantriidae. Arctiidae and Lymantriidae have now been reduced to subfamily status under the names of Arctiinae and Lymantriinae. Since the classification is fairly recent, it is usually not widely accepted or only partially accepted.

The larval stage is the most destructive stage for native plants in North America by the gypsy moth, (Lymantria dispar).

Lymantriinae consists of moths which are very hairy in their larval stages. A moth in this subfamily which has gained nearly worldwide attention is Lymantria dispar, the Gypsy Moth. While native in Europe and Asia, the gypsy moth is considered to be a very invasive species in North America, primarily in the Northeast. This species was accidentally introduced in 1868 or 1869 by Etienne Leopold Trouvelot, an amateur lepidopterist who was interested in discovering another source of silk. However, we cannot fully blame Mr. Trouvelot, who warned entomologists of the accidental introduction, but no immediate action to subdue the introduction was taken. The need for control of this species in North America is considered of the “highest priority” according to the USDA Forest Service, State and Private forestry. The species is sexually dimorphic, which means the male and female of this species look different. The female is large, and white with grayish-black zigzags on the forewing. Near the outside of each forewing is a dark, crescent-shaped marking in the middle of the costa. The costa is the outer edge of the forewing in a moth. The female is designed solely for egg-laying, and the wings are too weak to support its body in flight. The male is smaller and brown, however it does have a similar zigzag patterning. The caterpillar is partially hairy, with six pairs of red “warts” followed by five pairs of blue “warts.” The fifth blue “wart” is sometimes hard to see as it is close to the head of the caterpillar. The larvae are known to defoliate whole trees, which kills the tree less than 20% of the time. They are detrimental to native forests, as they feed on hundreds of different plants, taking the food source of native species, in addition to defoliating forests. If you suspect you have seen a gypsy moth in North America, please verify the ID of the moth with an experienced moth-er, as many native species can appear superficially similar to Lymantria dispar. It is an arduous task to regulate invasive insects, as chemicals and biological controllers can negatively impact native species of well.

Lithosiinid tigermoth, a striking moth from the Arctiinae subfamily, in the genus Lycene.

Arctiinae is a huge subfamily mainly composed of brightly colored moths, a warning to predators that they may be distasteful. Some of these moths emit a liquid when they are threatened or handled to deter predators. In addition to this defense, tiger moths are also able to click high frequency sounds from a tympanum in their thorax to deter predators using echolocation. These tactics make them very advanced at evading predators. Some moths in the Arctiinae subfamily even appear to be wasps! There are two tribes which make up subfamily Arctiinae. Arctiini is composed of moths known as tiger moths, and Lithosiini contains moths known as lichen moths. Lichen moths are usually smaller in size, and as the name suggests, they feed exclusively on lichens. Larvae in both tribes can be quite hairy in appearance.

The yellow-banded underwing (Catocala cerogama), has striking underwings, perfect for surprising a predator

Erebinae is a extremely diverse subfamily including the spectacular genus Catocala, known as the underwings. The forewings of these moths are brownish grays, sometimes whites, which can camouflage very well with surrounding trees. The underwings are vibrant, and can be red, orange, yellow, black, and even blue! It is thought that moths in the Catocala genus have evolved such contrasting hindwings to shock a predator as it flies. In flight, the flash from the camouflaged hindwings and the striking hindwings signify as a warning to a predator.

The black witch moth (Ascalpha odorata), a moth shrouded in mystery and myth.

The subfamily Erebinae also contains a moth shrouded in myth and mystery, Ascalpha odorata, the black witch moth. Ascalpha odorata is known in Spanish as Mariposa de la Muerte, “The Butterfly of Death.” This moth is given such a daunting name due to the belief if the moth enters a home with a sick person, the sick person will die. A more specific version of this story explains the sick person will die only if the moth flies in all four corners of the house. Others believe the moth signifies a curse has been put upon someone, and even others believe you will lose your hair if the moth flies over your head! However, this moth does have some positive meaning in different places. In Hawaii, the moth is symbolized as the returning soul of a recent loved one to say, “Goodbye.” On Cat Island in the Bahamas, they are known as Money moths or Moneybats, and belief is that if they land on you, you will become rich!

Dark-banded owlet moth (Phalaenophana pyramusalis)

Herminiinae is family of small moths which are usually triangular and shape and have a snout-like appendage. They are known as litter moths, for their habits to hide in leaf litter during the day. They first may appear brown and patternless, but on closer inspection, they can have very intricate patterns!

Stigmatophora palmata, a very striking moth in the Erebidae family.

Moths in the Erebidae family are extremely diverse, with caterpillars of all hairdos, moths that mimic wasps, evade bats, and flash stunning hindwings! Moths in the Erebidae don’t only fool predators, their wide range of shapes and sizes can fool some people trying to identify them!

Jacob Gorneau

Sources and further reading 

Quin, Mike. “The Black Witch Moth: Its Natural & Cultural History.” Retrieved July 12, 2013.

Liebhold, Sandy. “Gypsy Moth In North America” 29 Oct. 2003. Retrieved July 11, 2013

Oriental orange-banded green geometer moth (Eucyclodes gavissim) from Bhutan, spotted by Jatishwor Singh Irungbam

The geometer moths or Geometridae (from Greek geo γη or γαια ‘the earth’ and metron μέτρων 'measure’ — refers to the larvae, or inchworms, which appear to “measure the earth” as they move in a looping fashion) are a family of the order Lepidoptera. A very large family, it has around 35,000 species of moths described, and over 1,400 species from 6 subclasses indigenous to North America.

Many geometrids have slender abdomens and broad wings which are usually held flat with the hindwings visible. As such they appear rather butterfly-like but in most respects they are typical moths: the majority fly at night, they possess a frenulum to link the wings and the antennae of the males are often feathered. They tend to blend into the background, often with intricate, wavy patterns on their wings. In some species, females have reduced wings (e.g. winter moth and fall cankerworm).

Most are of moderate size, about 3 centimeters (1.2 in) in wingspan, but a range of sizes occur from 10–50 mm (0.39–2.0 in), and a few species (e.g., Dysphania) reach an even larger size. They have distinctive paired tympanal organs at the base of the abdomen that are lacking in flightless females.

Currently nine subfamilies make up Geometridae. As science is an ongoing dynamic process, we are likely to see taxonomic changes as more genetic work tells us about the relationships between these animals. Here is a brief overview of each of the subfamilies:

Alsophilinae (2 genera, 19 species) Distribution: Europe and North America. The females of this sub-family have much reduced wings, so much so that they cannot fly.

From top: male fall cankerworm (Alsophila pometaria) spotted by Fyn Kynd; wingless female fall cankerworm moth spotted by Jakubko. Both spotted in the USA.

Archiearinae (8 genera, 13 species) Distribution: Holarctic (the majority of habitats found throughout the northern continents of the world), southern Andes and Tasmania.

The Infant (Archiearis infans) from the USA, spotted by Fyn Kynd

Desmobathrinae (20 genera, 74 species) Distribution: Pantropical (across all of the tropical regions of the world). 

Eumelea ludovicata from Sri Lanka, spotted by NuwanChathuranga

Derambila sp. from the Philippines, spotted by Leana Lahom-Cristobal

Ennominae (1,100 genera, 9,700 species) Distribution: Global.
The largest Geometridae subfamily.

False crocus geometer (Xanthotype urticaria) from the USA, spotted by TomElliott

Plutodes exquisita from China, spotted by Sinobug

Geometrinae (213 genera, 2,300 species) Distribution: Global.

Comostola emerald moth (Comostola laesaria)  from the Philippines, spotted by AgnesAdiqueTalavera

White-fringed emerald moth (Nemoria mimosaria) from the USA, spotted by CarolSnowMilne

Larentiinae (303 genera, 5,800 species) Distribution: Global.

Tawny eupithecia (Eupithecia ravocostaliata) from the USA, spotted by Fyn Kynd

Orange beggar (Eubaphe unicolor) from Mexico, spotted by JuanCarlosGarciaMorales

Oenochrominae (42 genera, 3,633 species) Distribution: Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia & Australia.

Triangular geometrid moth (Epidesmia sp.) from Australia, spotted by StephenSolomons

Orthostixinae (2 genera, 32 species) Distribution: Europe & Asia.

Sterrhinae (91 genera,13,955 species) Distribution: Global.

Sterrhinae sp. from Peru, spotted by Jonathan Guyot

Ptochophyle dipyramida from Bhutan, spotted by Jatishwor Singh Irungbam

Sweetfern geometer (Cyclophora pendulinaria) from the USA, spotted by Fyn Kynd

Feeling a bit confused now? Well don’t worry, the point of this blog is to simply show you some of the interesting, amazing and unique animals that belong to this very diverse family.

Fyn Kynd

Gaudy sphinx (Eumorpha labruscae) 

The family Sphingidae consists of about 1400 moths known as “sphinx” or “hawk” moths. Adults generally have an elaborate stature, holding their wings slightly above their abdomen. Sometimes, their abdomen is upcurved. Sphinx moths can usually be easily coaxed onto a gentle hand Their posture is commonly alluded to the shape of a large plane. Most, if not all adults feed using a proboscis.

White-lined sphinx moth (Hyles lineata) feeding on nectar, showing the lengthy proboscis.

Their larvae are commonly known as hornworms, although they are not members of the phylum Annelida, which consists of earthworms. They are called hornworms due to their caterpillar-like shape and many of these species have hornlike appendage at the end of their body. The horn is harmless, and is present to ward off predators. The horn varies within species and instars (instars are different stages the caterpillar goes through prior to pupation), and can be granulated (rough) or smooth. The horn also can be different colors, and can sometimes help with species diagnosis. Some horns are short, and some are longer and thin. Some caterpillars have a horn which is replaced by a glassy button-like structure in later instars.

Abbott’s sphinx moth caterpillar (Sphecodina abbottii), showing the glassy button-like structure in place of a horn.

The family Sphingidae was surprisingly not named for the unique wing posture of the imaginess (an imago is full-grown insect, imagines are many full-grown insects), but for the common resting position of the larvae. The larvae frequently hold their head and first few segments up in the air, resembling the dignified pose of the Ancient Egyptian statues. Moths in the Sphingidae family have been recorded to fly 53 km/h, equivalent to about 40 mph!

Sphinx moth caterpillar (Eumorpha sp.) in the popular “sphinx” posture.

Taxonomically, sphinx moths are divided into three main subfamilies, Macroglossinae, Smerinthinae and Sphingidae. The subfamily Macroglossinae consists of smaller, yet more ornate sphinx moths. The hummingbird moths, of the genera Macroglossum and Hemaris can be found in this subfamily. Hummingbird moths sometimes have clear wings, and long proboscides for feeding on nectar. An uncommon habit of many moths, hummingbird moths are diurnal (active during the day).

African hummingbird moth (Macroglossum trochilius)

The subfamily Smerinthinae consists mostly of moths known as eyed hawkmoths. Of these eyed hawkmoths, genus Smerinthus is very widespread. These moths are called eyed sphinxes or eyed hawkmoths because they have a colorful hindwings with an eyespot. The eyespots are shown when the moth feels threatened to fool predators. Other moths in this subfamily do not have such elaborate hindwings, but the hindwings are uniquely placed so that they can be seen poking from the outside edge of the forewing.

One-eyed sphinx (Smerinthus cerisyi) displaying eyespots.

The subfamily Sphinginae consists of the larger sphinx moths, which tend to be grayish in color. However, some can be very colorful. They tend to have lines going across both forewings which form a wavy pattern. Sphinginae in the genus Agrius and Manduca have spots on either side of the abdomen which are vibrant colors.

Carolina Sphinx (Manduca sexta) showing the colorful abdominal spots. 

Sphinx moths must warm their bodies by vibrating their wings in order to fly. This adaptation also enables them to survive in slightly cooler weather than other moths. Gilbert Waldbauer describes this activity in his book, The Handy Bug Answer Book. He explains that sphinx moths “warm themselves by increasing muscular activity. Although sphinx moths cannot fly unless their body temperature is between 95 degrees Fahrenheit and 100 degrees Fahrenheit, they can fly when the air temperature is as low as 50 degrees Fahrenheit. A pre-flight warm-up raises their bodies to the requisite temperature as their wing muscles generate heat by vigorously vibrating the wings. This is not unlike the shivering of the body that people experience when they are chilled.”

Modest sphinx (Pachysphinx modesta) vibrating wings to “warm up.” Don’t forget to check out the video in the spotting, too!

Sphinx moths are large-bodied insects which until recently were thought to be nearly helpless when it comes to evading bats. However, research by Akito Kawahara and Jesse Barber suggests at least three species of hawk moths use their genitals to interfere with the echolocation bats use to locate their prey. The hawkmoths emit high frequency clicks from their genitals. Tiger moths from the Erebidae subfamily of Arctiinae were previously the only moths known to emit high frequency clicks. However, tiger moths emit these clicks from structures known as tymbals in their thorax, not their genitals. This recent research is a reminder we still have much to learn about moths and their nighttime allies. Akito Kawahara best explains this: “So much work has been focused on animals that are active during the day, but there are a lot of really interesting things happening at night, and we just don’t know a lot about what is actually going on — because we can’t hear or see it… The fascinating part is that there are a lot of new discoveries to be made. It’s a totally unknown, unexplored system.”

Yam hawk moth (Theretra nessus), one of the species of moths used in the study, along with Cechenena lineosa and Theretra boisduvalii

It is amazing that scientists are still discovering more about these large and fascinating insects. Studies like those done by Akito Kawahara and Jesse Barber raise the questions, “What else is out there to discover?” and “What can I discover?”

Jacob Gorneau

Further reading

“The Sphinx” by Edgar Allan Poe 

Citizen scientists around the world will hang white sheets and lights in backyards, woods and fields July 20 through July 28 for the second annual National Moth Week, a global project begun last year to encourage the public to observe and document one of nature’s most diverse – and under-appreciated – creatures.

As of July 15, participants in 39 countries (including all 50 US States) registered nearly 400 events for this year’s National Moth Week. See locations of international and U.S. events.

Public moth-spotting and educational events are planned in museums, parks, nature centers, wildlife refuges and libraries, and at universities, colleges and summer camps. Individuals and families are having “moth slumber parties,” moth nights for home-schooled children, or just checking the lights on their porches.  Moths are part of the Lepidoptera insect order, but don’t get the same respect or admiration that their colorful daytime cousins – butterflies – do. Yet, there are hundreds of thousands of moth species, many as beautiful as butterflies, and just as important or more to the ecosystem. Moths also can tell us a lot about our changing environment by their geographical and seasonal distribution.

National Moth Week literally shines a much-needed spotlight on moths and their ecological importance as well as their biodiversity. The event allows people of all ages to become “citizen scientists” and contribute scientific data about moths they observe in their own communities.

Participating in National Moth Week can be as simple as turning on a porch light at night and watching what happens, or going outside in daylight to find caterpillars and diurnal moths, often mistaken for butterflies. At night, participants can use ordinary light bulbs, UV lights, or mercury vapor lights to draw moths. And, they can also mix up a batch of sweet moth bait to brush on tree barks for an even bigger response.

National Moth Week grew out of local summer “Moth Nights” organized since 2005 by the Friends of the East Brunswick (New Jersey, USA) Environmental Commission, a nonprofit organization dedicated to local environmental education and conservation. The events typically attract 30 to 50 persons, some with scientific backgrounds, but mostly local residents and their children who want to experience a unique nighttime nature activity.

In its first year, National Moth Week became an international phenomenon, attracting participants from 30 countries, who registered more than 300 event locations. Numerous organizations around the world have partnered with National Moth Week and are supporting the event. Through partnerships with major online biological data depositories, National Moth Week participants can help map moth distribution and provide needed information on other life history aspects around the globe.

For more information about National Moth Week or to register an event, visit nationalmothweek.org.

National Moth Week also is on Facebook and Twitter.

Tiger moth (Idalus herois) spotted by Andreas Kay

Pandora sphinx moth (Eumorpha pandorus)

Unfortunately for troubled mothers throughout the world, you won’t find any tips here on how to change a diaper or quell a bad attitude, though you’ll certainly learn about moths and how to observe them!

Moths are primarily nocturnal insects, with a few exceptions. If one has heard the Shakespearean expression, “Like a moth to a flame,” you know all about moths and their sometimes fatal attractions. What causes moths to appear as if they willingly fly to their deaths? The term for this is known as positive phototaxis. There can be a number of reasons why an organism is positively phototactic. For example, algae and other similar photosynthetic microorganisms can be positively phototactic, as the light is also the source of their food. However, most moth larvae are primary heterotrophs, which means they depend on plants for their food, and are unable to carry out photosynthesis.  If moths can’t get food from light, why do they seem attracted to it? Mike Saunders, a professor of Entomology at Penn State describes the reason for such behavior: “Moths often use the moon to orient themselves during night flight…Using the moon as a reference, moths can sustain linear flight in a given direction.” Most moths aren’t really attracted to light, but are fooled that it is the moon. As the moth flies closer to a light, it becomes disoriented. This explains the “clumsy” appearance some moths have when they are flying near a light. Moths aren’t clumsy at all, many are actually expert navigators!

There are also other theories for why moths appear to be attracted to light. Some species of moths with mouthparts pollinate flowers at night. Quite few flowers reflect light in the ultraviolet spectrum, a form of light humans are unable to see. Many pollinator insects such as moths can see ultraviolet light, and some think moths fly to lights because they are fooled that they are flying toward a source of food. Moths are thought by some to congregate at lights because it is so bright they think it is daytime and fall asleep, while others think it may be due to warmth. A more scientific theory is that moths have trouble readjusting back to the darkness of the night, and stay at the light because they risk being blinded and eaten by predators if they fly away from the light. Many theories behind the positive phototaxis of moths need more research to be proven true.

Giant silkmoth (Eudaemonia argus)

Now that we know the science behind moths, we can figure out various ways to observe the species in an area. One of the most effective methods of observing moths is to turn an outside light on. Whether the setup is ambitious or simple, one can sure to find some moths around it! This spring, my father and I built quite an elaborate mothing setup. Mothing, though not an official verb, is one of my favorite activities. One who participates in mothing is known as a moth-er, or a moth’er. In my setup below, I’ve taken a bedsheet, and sewn loops on both the top and the bottom of the sheet. In this way, I was able to bend two pipes, one for the bottom and one for the top, to make the sheet in a cylindrical shape. I connected the open side where the left and right sides of the sheets connect with safety pins and clothespins. On the top, I took another sheet, and used safety pins to pin a circular top to prevent the moths from flying into the light and possibly burning themselves.

I use a halogen lamp, although some other lamps such as mercury vapor lamps can work even better. If I had to add one thing to my setup, it would an ultraviolet black light as well. I put a heavy rock on every quadrant of bottom of the sheet to keep the sheet tight to the ground, so no insects would crawl under the sheet and into the light. This setup has been quite effective, and I’ve found moths on this sheet from various families. Even once, I was treated with an early morning visit by a cecropia moth (Hyalophora cecropia), a moth with the largest wingspan of native moths in North America! 

Some species of moths, notably the Saturniidae family, do not have mouthparts, and live off of fat reserves stored in their larval stages. However, for moths with mouthparts, one can go sugaring for moths. This method is also known as baiting. There are various recipes for sugaring, but a majority of them contain stale beer or rum, along with brown sugar, and rotten fruit. There must be enough brown sugar and rotten fruit in order for the mixture to be syrupy. If the mixture is too liquid, it will be difficult to “paint” onto the trees. A syrupy mixture is usually sticky enough to stay on the tree for moths to “drink.” A twist to this method is to dip a rope in the mixture and hang it. Moths in the genus Catocala with magnificent hindwings are very common visitors while sugaring.

Moon-lined moth (Spiloloma lunilinea) on a baited rope.

Since one observes moths sugaring at night, it is important to keep in mind to avoid shining a bright flashlight on them. Moths, like other insects, have a hard time seeing light in the red spectrum. Many people just place a piece of red cellophane over a flashlight and are able to avoid disturbing the feeding moths. To photograph them, a quick burst of camera flash should be okay and not disturb them too much.

Polyphemus moth (Antheraea polyphemus) showing bipectinate antennae.

If you’re not much of a night owl, you can try looking for moths and their larvae in the day. While a bit more difficult, you might be able to find a few on the sides of buildings and the trunks of trees. Some moths will pollinate in the day, and you can find them on various flowers.

Beautiful wood nymph (Eudryas grata).

Caterpillars are usually found feeding voraciously on leaves, like the wattle moth caterpillar (Neola semiaurata), below.

These various tactics can prove to make one a very successful moth-er, observing the spectacular creatures moths are. As people open themselves to moths, more people can realize they aren’t drab, disgusting creatures.

Jacob Gorneau, aka Jakubko

Further reading

Primack, Richard. “Ultraviolet Patterns in Flowers, or Flowers as Viewed by Insects.” Arnoldia. Retrieved 7 Jul. 2013.

Let me begin with a confession: like thousands of other people around the world, I have visited an entertainment venue that displays sea mammals – seals, sea lions, dolphins, whales – and has them “perform” for an audience. At the time, I thought that this reflected my love for wildlife, going to see animals so unlike humans yet known to have amazing intelligence and social lives. I felt reassured by the venues’ assertions that the animals only performed because they chose to do so and that they were being treated humanely.

Nevertheless, over the past couple decades, my knowledge about marine mammals has increased and I’ve come to understand that using pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, walruses) and cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises) in entertainment shows  is simply a form of animal exploitation designed to satisfy our yearning for amusement, while bringing in money for those who own the venues.

Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus)

According to historical records, walruses were held captive as early as 1608 and a monk seal (Monachus monachus) was caught for viewing in 1760. People began capturing cetaceans around the 1860s. Sea mammals are now found in zoos and aquaria around the world, with many facilities scheduling “feeding hours” so that zoo-goers can see the animals out of the water.  Most of the time, however, the animals are left alone in zoos, so that people can see and observe them swimming, interacting and resting, albeit not in natural conditions. Zoos often also offer marine mammals “enrichment” to help relieve the boredom they suffer in their restricted living areas. Such boredom results from the fact that the mammals are deprived of the normal stimuli that govern their natural lives, such as the dynamics of marine waters (tides, waves, varying weather conditions), finding and tracking prey species, foraging for food, meeting new individuals with whom to form social bonds, and navigating large bodies of water using their specialized anatomical navigation organs (sonar). Some types of enrichment try to approximate the absent stimuli, such as the creation of wave patterns in aquaria and devices that release food when the animals move them around. Other types of enrichment are meant to stimulate the animals’ curiosity and interest, such as balls and other toys for play, or large ice cubes that contain fish. Some – but not all – aquaria also do research using the sea mammals they hold.

California sea lions (Zalophus californianus)

Dolphin pod in Baja California; photo kindly provided by the Oceanic Preservation Society

Pinnipeds and cetaceans, who normally live in family groups, are deprived of normal social lives

Pinnipeds and cetaceans are highly social animals. Whales and dolphins live in pods and extended family groups, in which they can maintain relationships with specific individuals for many years or even their whole lifetimes. Some whale species have specific “dialects” or types of vocalizations just for their own pods. Seals and sea lions also live in groups called colonies. Yet the numbers of sea mammals that live together in facilities of the animal entertainment industry are small; in some cases, animals are even kept as solitary individuals.

Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) spotted by Daniele Pralong in Oman 

Captive sea mammals are deprived of the space they need for healthy, normal lives

Whales and dolphins swim long distances (up to 100 miles) every day in the wild, often diving to depths of several hundred meters/feet. They spend only 10-20% of their time at the water’s surface, which is what makes sighting them in the wild so exciting. The entertainment industry pools and tanks in which the mammals are kept range in size from very small (2 by 3 meters) to somewhat larger (50 meters in length and 2-3 meters deep) but they do not approximate the area that their natural environment encompasses. 

Orca whales (Orcinus orca) spotted by Leslie F in Alaska

The animals are unable to carry out their normal behaviors and resort to unnatural activities

Public display pools lack the varied vegetation and other sea life that make up the pinnipeds’ and cetaceans’ natural environment. Instead, they are kept in barren, concrete enclosures or small circumscribed areas. Cetaceans cannot drink salt water and obtain their fresh water from the fish they eat; however, when they are fed frozen or thawed dead fish, they need to receive fresh water through artificial alternative methods. They also cannot seek food when hungry but become dependent on humans to dole out their meals, often in return for doing “tricks” or allowing their keepers to ride on their backs.

Deprived of their natural behavioral repertoire (hunting for food, seeking out mates, creating social bonds of their choosing), marine mammals may end up simply showing stereotypical, unnatural behaviors such as constant head bobbing. The whales’ and dolphins’ innate drive to swim long distances is blocked and they resort to patterned swimming in circles, similar to the pacing seen in captive large cats that are kept in small enclosures.  

The cetaceans normally rely on echolocation to navigate their environment by bouncing sonar waves off objects so as to determine their shape, density, distance, and location. In pools and tanks, the reverberations from their sonar clicks bounce off the walls; this has been shown to impair the animals’ mental health. Some dolphins and orcas have been observed to chew on concrete, and dolphins have engaged in self-harm by hitting their heads on the sides of pools or refusing to surface in order to breathe.

Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) spotted by student during the Arctic Watch Youth Expedition 2012

The stress and conditions of captivity endangers their health and shorten their lives

The unnatural conditions in which the animals are kept negatively affect their health and longevity. Because their pools and tanks are so small, the cetaceans spend much more than 20% of their time near the water’s surface; this behavior, as well as contaminants in water, can lead to skin problems. Drifting at the surface has also exposed orcas to mosquitoes and subsequent infection with St. Louis encephalitis and West Nile viruses, causing the first deaths from these causes in killer whales. Lack of shade and chlorine in water have damaged sea lions’ and dolphins’ eyes; animals have died from swimming in contaminated water.  The enclosures for pinnipeds may not be maintained so that walruses, sea lions and seals end up sleeping in their own excrement or being exposed to dangerous situations such as drains in which their heads can be caught.

Captive orcas show a high rate of dorsal fin collapse, because gravity pulls these appendages over when they are not supported by water. Sea mammals used in “swim with” encounters cannot choose what kind of interaction they wish with humans and their constant use in human-oriented encounters affects their social interactions within their own species group. Dolphins and belugas used for tourist photo shoots, in petting pools or for giving rides to spectators may be poked, prodded, and exposed to bacteria carried by humans They may be fed continuously by visitors and become obese; these mammals are also at risk of injury by ingesting foreign objects, with some having died, for example, after swallowing coins. Marine mammals may also develop stress-related conditions such as bleeding ulcers and abnormal aggression towards one another or humans who interact with them.

In the wild, dolphins can live up to 50 years, beluga whales 35-50 years, and orcas up to 50-80 years. However, documentation has shown that more than 80% of captive dolphins in some facilities died before reaching 20 years, while orcas often do not survive for more than 10 years in entertainment facilities. Research on orca survival from 1988 to 1992 showed that the annual mortality rate was more than 2½ times higher for captive killer whales than for wild orcas (6.2 versus 2.4%). At one US marine park, 22 orcas died between 1986 and 2010 from conditions including severe trauma, intestinal gangrene, acute hemorrhagic pneumonia, pulmonary abscesses, chronic kidney disease, chronic cardiovascular failure, septicemia, and influenza; none died of old age. At six US marine entertainment venues with beluga whales that are currently seeking the importation of 18 wild-caught belugas, 34 of the 71 whales that they already held captive suffered premature deaths.

Photo kindly provided by the Oceanic Preservation Society

What you can do to end sea mammal exploitation

As difficult as it might seem, you can resolve to no longer visit entertainment venues that have captive marine mammals perform for the public (unless you are helping monitor the animals as part of a campaign). When you educate your friends and family members about the reasons for your decision, you can point out that it is not necessary to display these animals in order to garner support for their conservation; people are also interested in seeing humpback whales survive even if they can’t visit them in an entertainment venue. Consumer boycotts led to the closing of dolphinaria in the United Kingdom. Brazil, Costa Rica and Croatia have prohibited such venues as well.

You can encourage your local aquarium or zoo to stop breeding animals so that they have more space for rehabilitating (and possibly releasing) injured wildlife.

You can talk about the plight of captive marine mammal “performers” at school, for local conservation and civic groups and in letters to the editors of local publications.

You can support legislation that prohibits the capture or restricts the display of marine mammals, publicly thank parliamentarians who support such laws, and lobby government officials to not use taxpayer money to subsidize the marine mammal entertainment industry. For example, the Minister of Environment and Forests in India, Jayanthi Natarajan, is now considering a nationwide ban on captivity and expressions of support could encourage her to enact such a policy.

Maria de Bruyn

For further reading

http://www.pinnipeds.org/seal-information/rehabilitation-and-captivity/pinnipeds-in-captivity

http://www.wspa-international.org/Images/159_the_case_against_marine_mammals_in_captivity_english_2009_tcm25-8409.pdf

http://www.opsociety.org/projects/campaigns

http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/aquariums-and-marine-parks.aspx

For the last twenty years, we have coordinated experiential learning programs in the Peruvian Amazon for US educators and students.  Over the course of two decades, participants in our Amazon Rainforest Workshops have snapped amazing photos of rainforest biodiversity. Unfortunately, most of these photos have only been seen by a handful of friends and family via laptop computers – or worse they are in print form in a shoebox under the bed!

One has to wonder…what could we learn about rainforest biodiversity if we had access to all the photos taken by our participants over the last two decades?  What if we could take all those photos and sort them by location and date and species? Would we be able to see patterns of distribution? Discern subtle changes in populations? Stumble upon something new and undiscovered?

What if we could share these photos with the world and inspire wonder and curiosity and knowledge in the next generation of explorers who sit in our classrooms? Exactly one year ago we stumbled upon Project Noah and we immediately knew we had an answer. Finally the multitudes of photos that are taken each year in the Amazon could have a larger purpose!

Last summer, we worked with Project Noah Chief Leaf, Yasser Ansari, to launch a pilot of Project Noah during our Educator Workshop in the Peruvian Amazon. The images in this post are from that expedition. Our initial goal was to shine a light on Amazon biodiversity and begin to construct a virtual field guide to the region we visit each summer. We created a “mission” on Project Noah and called it Peruvian Amazon:  Species Spotlight

Many of our participants uploaded their photos to our mission and created field notes for their observations. Project Noah experts from around the world took notice and helped with some of the species identifications. Even today these photos are viewed and commented on as we continue to fill in the details for each spotting.

For 2013, we are incorporating Project Noah more fully into our Educator Academy in the Amazon.   Thirty K-12 educators from across the US will join us in Peru for an exciting cross-curricular professional development adventure.  Together we will explore one of the world’s most important natural resources – the Amazon!  We will engage in hands-on investigations, citizen science research projects, and inquiry-based learning activities designed to deepen understanding of the rainforest ecosystem and its global importance. In addition, we will explore how rainforest concepts relate to 21st century instructional models such as 5E lesson design, inquiry-based exploration, STEM education using innovative instructional tools such as Project Noah.  

This year, in addition to simply capturing images of what we see, we will also use our Project Noah spottings to explore the themes of plant and animal adaptations, biomimicry, moth diversity, and nocturnal wildlife in the Amazon.  We will return with photos AND curriculum connections, activities, and lessons that use Project Noah to educate the next generation and build Amazon awareness! 

Please join us on Project Noah for Amazon Awareness Week, July 15-19, 2013.  To learn how you can get involved in our 2014 Educator Academy, please contact Christa Dillabaugh, Education Director, Amazon Rainforest workshops.  christa@amazonworkshops.com

As a biologist, I sometimes get to do some really cool things. This spring, I was invited to help out with the longest ongoing Eastern box turtle study being conducted in the United States. I eagerly accepted and even altered my vacation plans a bit so I could participate.

This study has been ongoing for more than 7 years and is being conducted by the Clinch River Environmental Studies Organization out of Clinton, Tennessee. This organization is run by a friend of mine who saw the importance of involving young people in science and hands-on research.

John Byrd and his students have taken a unique approach by documenting and creating brochures and websites on the plants and animals specific to Anderson County, TN. They also have ongoing projects concerning wetlands, kingsnakes, galls, and small mammals. It is amazing what he and his students have accomplished! If you are a teacher, it is certainly inspirational. You can find out more at the CRESO website.  

John Byrd and his students at the Clinch River Environmental Studies Organization (CRESO) have been studying Eastern box turtles at this site since 2006.

The study site for the Eastern box turtle project was originally chosen to help determine how things like development and deforestation were taking a toll, if any on the box turtle population in the area. Several sites were chosen, one nearby a newly erected housing development, one along an undeveloped, steep wooded ridge and one in a clear cut. The clear cut was also sampled before any logging began.

I had seen presentations by John’s students about the box turtle study at previous Tennessee Herpetological Society meetings and was very excited to be involved. This project is unique in so many ways, not the least of which is the ‘turtle’ dogs. Yes, I said turtle dogs! 

These dogs are specially trained Boykin Spaniels that will locate and gently retrieve turtles. It was a pleasure to get to meet the 7-dog turtle team and their handler/trainer John Rucker. 

Thursday morning found us at the study site at 9:00 am. The team consisted of John Byrd and 3 CRESO student assistants, a graduate student from UT-Knoxville, John Rucker and the turtle dogs, veterinarian Dr. Matt Allender from the University of Illinois with his two student assistants, and myself.

The turtle dogs are excited to be released and allowed to go out on the hunt for box turtles.

Once found, the spot where each turtle is located is marked with survey tape, and the gps coordinates are taken. Temperature, weather conditions and notes on the turtles position and location are also noted. Each box turtle is wrapped with masking tape and labeled with a unique ID for the day. The box turtles are kept separate from one another and placed in individually labeled vinyl bags.

So once an area has been searched, the box turtles are brought back to the staging area for basic measurements (shell length, height and width, weight, estimated age and sex) and data collection. If they are re-captures that is noted, if they are new captures then they get assigned a number that is gently engraved into their plastron (lower shell) with a special tool.

Blood samples are collected to help determine the health of the turtle and to check for diseases.

Once all the turtles have been worked up, the vet team returns to the lab to conduct some preliminary tests and preserve the samples for some in-depth tests back at the research hospital. Some of the turtle team remains to return each box turtle to the exact location where found. This is very important as box turtles are extremely loyal to their home ranges.

On day three at the clearcut site, 3 box turtles were collected to be taken back to the lab for the attachment of transmitters. One of the CRESO students is working on a radio telemetry project tracking box turtles at that site. While it is termed a clearcut, there is much debris and tree limbs left on the ground that may act as barriers preventing decreased movement of the box turtles. With the data collected, CRESO researchers are developing a set of recommendations that may enhance turtle survival under regeneration timber harvest conditions.

John Byrd measures the shell height and adds that to the data sheet before gluing a transmitter on the shell of this handsome box turtle.  

The lightweight transmitter is glued to the turtle’s shell using superglue. Once the glue dries the masking tape is removed and the turtle is released back to the location where it it was found.

In recent years, like many taxa, we have seen the emergence of new diseases in box turtles. One of the goals of this study is to determine what diseases are present and how human induced pressures are affecting the spread and incidence of disease. One infectious agent that has been increasingly reported to affect turtles is Ranavirus. Ranavirus has been found to infect turtles worldwide and is also severely affecting amphibians. 

A species of Mycoplasma is another concern as it often causes upper respiratory tract disease. Another disease that is causing problems in turtles is herpesvirus. Dr. Allender and his team will be testing the valuable collection of 50 box turtle blood samples collected during the study for all of these diseases and an additional disease. He is also testing for the bacteria Samonella. This disease in a turtle population can be an indicator that all is not well in the environment for humans too. If the turtles are contracting this disease, then it is likely from the local water sources. And what affects the turtles, can also affect people living in the same area.

It will be a little while before we know the results from the lab tests, but it was obvious to me that this is one project where young students, dogs and researchers are working together to make a difference for an animal and the humans that love them! It was a privilege to work with all of these people and the amazing, lovable turtle dogs. I look forward to the next time. Well done turtle team!

Lisa Powers

The beauty and behavior of birds has fascinated people throughout mankind’s history. The earliest known artistic depiction of a bird can be found in the Lascaux Caves of France: a picture of a bird-headed man dating back to 15,000-10,000 BC. Horus, a deity worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, was shown either as a falcon or a man with a falcon’s head. Chinese painters used birds as a favored subject; the Chinese emperor Zhao Ji specialized in painting realistic portraits of birds.

Native Americans often pictured ravens and eagles in their art. Birds are frequently featured in countries’ postage stamps and they have been the subject of cartoons (for example, the roadrunner, crow and woodpecker) and children’s TV shows (Big Bird on Sesame Street). Modern countries use birds as symbols of national power or unity, such as the Bald Eagle in the United States.

From left clockwise, bird stamps from the Faroe Islands, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Kyrgyzstan and Romania

Today, humans’ love of birds is often expressed through bird watching; groups devoted to this past-time exist in countries around the world. Unfortunately, BirdLife International, which conducted the research for the IUCN Red List, found that currently 1,313 bird species (13% of 9,934 still existing species) are classified as globally threatened with extinction. They include: habitat degradation and deforestation; conversion of habitats, for example, for construction, plantations and agriculture; human-induced climate change; environmental pollution; widespread use of pesticides; predation and sickness by non-native species; trapping for the bird trade; and bycatch of seabirds in fishery operations.

On a brighter note, as more birds come under threat of extinction, there are also groups working to rescue endangered populations. The BirdLife Preventing Extinctions Programme operates through a global network of independent nature conservation organizations in over 100 countries. They are appointing individuals and organizations to act as Species Guardians for each threatened species.

The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus), also known as the black-footed and Jackass penguin, lives only near the ocean in Namibia and South Africa. It was one of the bird species that Linnaeus described in 1758. These birds have a black stripe and black spots on the chest; their spot patterns are unique, as is the case for human fingerprints. Pink glands above their eyes aid in thermoregulation. As the bird becomes warmer, more blood is sent to these glands so it may be cooled by the surrounding air; this makes the glands pinker in color.

These penguins established two colonies near Cape Town, South Africa, and one of them has become a tourist attraction. The birds will allow people to approach as close as a meter but touching the penguins is prohibited.

This species is classified by the IUCN as endangered because of very rapid population declines, which are likely related to commercial fishing and shifts in their prey populations. Other threats include oil pollution, degradation of breeding habitats, and predation by cats on Robben Island and Cape fur seals.

The Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation is collaborating with South African and international partners to establish new penguin colonies closer to fish stocks. The program includes research on breeding habits and hand-rearing of abandoned chicks by the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB). Another organization involved in conservation efforts is the Penguin Conservation Centre, which is known for its success in rescuing and rehabilitating birds affected by oil spills.

The Bahia Tapaculo (Eleoscytalopus psychopompus) is a critically endangered species found in the lowland Atlantic forests of Bahia, Brazil. It was feared to be extinct, but was recently discovered anew in several municipalities. It inhabits the undergrowth of mature lowland forests, often being found in thickets near small streams. This small bird has a variety of calls, one of which is similar to a frog-like sound. It is a very shy bird and difficult to find in surveys. However, since the species’ song has been recognized, playback has enabled people to discover it at various sites.

Conservation efforts are underway in the Michelin Ecological Reserve. The employment of four forest guards has helped reduce hunting pressure significantly, stop forest clearing and aided in documentation of the species. Research begun in 2011 is focusing on the birds’ distribution and ecology within and around the reserve.

New Caledonia is home to the kagu (Rhynochetos jubatus), a nearly flightless bird. It has pale gray plumage, bright red legs and hunts its prey, including worms, insect, snails and lizards, on or near the ground. Both parents share incubation of single egg in a nest on the forest floor, as both participate in rearing the chick. When safe from threats, this endangered bird can live up to 20 years in the wild, as shown by radio-tracking. 

Threats to the kagu include predation by dogs; newborn chicks fall prey to rats and cats. They are also losing habitat through mining, logging and fires. Conservation efforts include controlling hunting dogs. Some birds have been bred in captivity and reintroduced into protected areas. In 2008, the Société Calédonienne d'Ornithologie (Caledonian Ornithological Society) developed a Kagu Species Action Plan for the period 2009-2020. Scientists are planning to monitor populations and conservation projects are planned where important sub-populations can be protected. Calls have also been made to intensify public awareness programs and education about kagu conservation as well as on responsible dog ownership.

The greater prairie chicken, also known as the pinnated grouse, is a medium-sized, stocky bird that lives in prairie lands of North America. There were three sub-species; the heath hen (Tympanuchus cupido cupido) became extinct in 1932. The endangered Attwater’s prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwater) is now only found in small areas of Texas. The greater prairie chicken sub-species Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus is largely found in the central United States; the species was declared extinct in Canada in 2000.

These birds’ short dark tails are typically rounded. Adult males have orange comb-like feathers over their eyes and dark, elongated head feathers that can be raised. They also have a circular neck patch which they can inflate when trying to attract females at breeding grounds, which are known as leks or booming grounds after the sound the males make at this time. Their spectacular displays led to a Native American Crow tribe legend that Old Man Coyote made the prairie chicken show the other animals how to dance; today, prairie chicken festivals during breeding season are held in several states so that people can bird watch at the leks. 

The male prairie-chickens stay on the booming grounds to display from late March throughout April each year. The one or two most dominant males enjoy about 90% of the mating. After mating, females move about a mile away to build their nests. Research has shown that hens avoid nesting or rearing broods near rural farms, communication towers, power lines and improved roads.

At one time, millions of these birds were widespread across the oak savanna and tall grass prairie ecosystems of Canada and the United States, but by the 1930s, they had become almost extinct due to hunting and habitat loss. The pinnatus sub-species is threatened in many areas, although hunting of this bird is still allowed in four states. Another threat to their survival is loss of genetic variance because populations are isolated with no natural corridors between groups. 

The Missouri Department of Conservation has issued guidance to farmers on how they can manage grasslands to attract the prairie chicken. The Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR) reintroduced prairie chickens to Iowa twice in the 1980s; one program failed but a wild-nesting population was established in another area, which later was designated as the Kellerton Grasslands Bird Conservation Area. The DNR is also involving the public in recording spotting of the birds to monitor their distribution. Another major conservation effort to preserve the greater prairie chicken is being undertaken at the Attwater Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge in Texas. The program includes captive breeding by several zoos for reintroduction to the wild, habitat management that includes planting of small food plots, and management of mammalian predators during the nesting season.

The Mauritius Fody (Foudia rubra) is an endangered bird that resides on the island of Mauritius. A member of the weaver bird family, males and females cooperate in building nests. However, the Fody’s nests are raided by predators, including the black rat, crab-eating macaque and the common mynah (Acridotheres tristis).  In the 1970s, these birds lost much of their habitat due to land clearing for plantations and by 2001, it was estimated that only about 108-122 breeding pairs remained.

Conservation efforts have included control of rats and, to some extent, macaques. The Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Sanctuary and National Parks and Conservation Service initiated a captive breeding program, which includes supplementary feeding and control of nest parasites. Surveys are being conducted for new translocation sites, in addition to a small island where a recovery and release program is showing success. The IUCN reclassified this species from critically endangered to endangered in 2009.

Males and females of the Asian green peafowl (Pavo muticus) are similar in appearance, with both having long upper tail coverts that cover their actual tails. These coverts in males, which are decorated with eyespots, can extend up to two meters during breeding season. Their neck and breast feathers are iridescent green in color.  

This bird species was uplisted by the IUCN from vulnerable to endangered in 2009.  Degradation of habitat, reduced habitat areas and hunting for their feathers are their major threats and these birds are now no longer found in some areas. Hybridization with the Indian peafowl also constitutes a threat to the species. Sub-populations of green peafowl are surviving in protected areas such as Thailand’s Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, the Cat Tien National Park in Vietnam, and the Baluran National Park in Java, Indonesia.

This species is protected in China and also has refuge in the Xe Pian National Protected Area of Laos. In both countries, public awareness campaigns have been carried out on preserving these birds. The World Pheasant Association has worked with the Wildlife Department of Peninsular Malaysia to reintroduce the green peafowl, which had become extinct there as a result of extensive forest clearing for oil palm plantations and hunting of the birds for food.

Dedicated birders who live in areas where endangered birds are still found could contact local conservation groups to see if there are opportunities to contribute to projects and efforts to document and preserve species. It would be both a fun and worthwhile use of your time!

Maria de Bruyn

Sweat Bee (Halictus ligatus)

June 17 – 23, 2013 is National Pollinator Week - - A week to celebrate the pollinating animals that sustain our ecosystems and put many foods and beverages on our table.

Pollinators are animals which transport pollen from one plant to another aiding in the plant’s reproduction – creating seeds and fruits. Approximately 75 percent of all flowering plants rely on animal pollinators for fertilization. Not only is this vital to a healthy ecosystem, but also to our food supply since almost all fruit and grain crops require pollination for crop production. 

Often the term pollinator, brings bees and butterflies to mind, but many other animals are also important to pollination. Possibly as many as 200,000 animal species serve as pollinators. Common pollinators include bees, butterflies, moths, flies, wasps, beetles, birds, bats and small mammals. Even some reptile species are known to contribute to pollination, particularly on islands. 

Many flowers have evolved with specialized characteristics, such as time of bloom, size, shape, color and smell, so that only certain animal species with their own evolved specialized characteristics are able to pollinate the flower. This is called coevolution.

Pollination by Birds

Ornithophily is pollination by birds. Nearly 2,000 bird species worldwide feed on flowering plants and trees, contributing to pollination. Hummingbirds, honeycreepers and sunbirds are some of the most recognized nectar feeding birds. These birds have specialized beaks and tongues allowing them to probe deep within the flower for nectar and insects. The red-headed honeyeater (Myzomela erythrocephala) is the major pollinator of the rib-fruited mangrove tree in Australia. 

Many flowers pollinated by birds are brightly colored, tubular shaped and have no odor because birds have a poor sense of smell. 

Pollination by Bats

Chiropterophily is pollination by bats. Bats feed on insects on flowers as well as the nectar and flower parts. Fruit bats are frugivores, feeding on fruit, but many also feed on the flowers prior to fruiting and are important pollinators of fruit trees. Over 300 species of fruit depend on bats for pollination including mangoes, bananas and guavas. The agave plant, used to make tequila, is also dependent on bats for pollination. 

Old World fruit bat (Pteropodidae)

The flowers often visited by bats are white or pale nocturnal flowers that are large and bell shaped. Many of these flowers have large amounts of nectar, and emit a musky smell that attracts bats.

Pollination by Non-flying Mammals

Many species of mammals, particularly rodents, marsupials and primates feed on the nectar of plants. Other small mammals often inadvertently transport pollen from one plant to another simply through foraging or nesting in close proximity to flowering plants. Certain species of trees and plants have become dependent on mammals for pollination. The endangered black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata) endemic to Madagascar, pollinates the Traveler’s palm by feeding on its nectar and is essential in ensuring this tree’s future generations. 

The honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus)is entirely nectarivorous, feeding only on nectar. It has a long pointy snout and specialized tongue, similar to a hummingbird, that collects nectar and pollen deep within the flower. The honey possum is an important pollinator of Banksia and Eucalyptus flowers. 

The flowers pollinated by mammals are typically dull in color, are rich in sugary nectar and have a pungent odor. Flowers pollinated by rodents are often low to the ground and inconspicuous. 

Pollination by Insects

Entomophily is pollination by insects - the largest and most diverse group of pollinators. Primary pollinating insects are bees, butterflies, moths, flies, wasps and beetles. Many species have evolved to pollinate a specific species of plant and are specialized pollinators, while others visit a wide variety of flowering plants and are generalist pollinators. 

A few rather surprising pollinating insects include: 

Forcipomyia flies pollinate cocoa trees. Our beloved chocolate would not be possible without the help of these very tiny midge flies. The small, complex flower of the cocoa tree requires the abilities of this tiny fly to work its way through the flower in order to pollinate it. Forcipomyia flies are also responsible for pollinating  avocados, mangoes and celery. Pollination by flies that feed on nectar and pollen as adults is myophily.

Cocoa flower (Theobroma cacao)

Hawk moths have specialized long tongues like hummingbirds to take nectar from flowers, but unlike birds, many are nocturnal and pollinate flowers that only open at night, such as Datura, Four O’clocks and night blooming cacti. Orchids are also frequently pollinated by hawk moths. Phalaenophily is pollination by moths. Many flowers visited by moths are highly fragrant which helps the moths to find the flowers from great distances.

White-lined Sphinx Moth (Hyles lineata)

The tiny fig wasp is the sole pollinator of fig trees and in turn, the fig wasp can breed nowhere else but inside figs -  a strong example of obligate symbiosis  – without each other neither would exist. This relationship is so specialized that each species of fig tree has its own species of fig wasp.

Fig wasp (Platyscapa sp.)

Beetles are the earliest known pollinators and are still among the top pollinating insects. In fact they are responsible for pollinating a large percentage of the 240,000 flowering plants globally. Beetles are known for pollinating  primitive flowers such as waterlilies, magnolias and spicebush. Cantharophily is pollination by beetles. Beetles typically visit large, white or greenish, dull colored flowers with a strong spicy or fruity odor.

Beetle (Ochresthes sigmoideus)

Bees – Our Pollinating Super Heroes

It goes without saying that a large majority of pollination would not be complete without bees. Melittophily is pollination by bees. There are approximately 20,000 known species of bees, 4,000 species alone in the U.S., and these bees are the major pollinators in most ecosystems with flowering plants. Bees are adapted for collecting and feeding on nectar and pollen. Most bees are covered with setae or finely branched hairs that have an electrostatic charge which is literally a pollen magnet. Types of bees are quite diverse in size, color, foraging behavior and social behavior. Some are oligoleges, pollen specialists, and will only visit plants within a certain family, genera or species. The squash bee (Peponapis pruinosa) is a specialty pollinator of Cucurbits which include cucumbers, squash, pumpkins and watermelons.

Bees that specifically collect pollen are considered to be the most efficient of all pollinators. These pollen collecting bees have a thick mass of long hairs called the scopa which is located on the hind tibia (sometimes onto the femur) or on the ventral surface of the abdomen. Honey bees and bumble bees have highly specialized scopa that are called corbicula or commonly, pollen baskets. These ‘baskets’ are cavities where the pollen is placed before being carried back to the nest or hive. Some bees pollinate flowers simply by grabbing onto the flower and vibrating their wings which knocks the pollen from the anthers onto the stigma. This is called buzz pollination and is very efficient for certain plants such as tomatoes, potatoes and blueberries.

Leaf-cutting bee (Megachile mendica)

Pollinator decline due to habitat loss, pesticides and disease has become a growing concern in recent years. Continued declines in pollinator activity could result in the loss off pollinator dependent fruits, vegetables & grains and the disruption of entire ecological systems. 

There are many small steps that we all can take that will have a positive impact on the future of our pollinators:

• Reading this blog post… Congratulations! You have already made a positive impact. Learning about and understanding the vital need for pollinators is an important step towards their conservation.

• Growing native flowering plants in the garden and/or landscape will help provide habitat for native bees, butterflies and other important pollinators.

• Eliminating and/or taking responsible measures to reduce pesticide use. This is not only essential to the health of pollinators, but to other beneficial insects and wildlife, our water and air quality and ourselves.

• Buying and supporting non-GMO crops. While the health risks of consuming GMO crops are still controversial, there is strong scientific research that shows these monocultures created by GMO crops are destructive to native flowering plants that provide essential habitat to pollinators, beneficial insects and other native wildlife.

National Pollinator Week is an international celebration of the valuable ecosystem services provided by bees, birds, butterflies, bats and beetles and other pollinating animals.

For more information on National Pollinator Week visit: Pollinator Partnership  

Kim Phillips aka Small Wonders